[BHSRATIyA VASTU-ISASTRA series, VOL.

VIII]

VASTII-JASTBA
VOL I

HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE

(Engineering, Town-Planning, Civil Architecture, Palace-

Architecture, Temple-Architecture and an anthology
of Vistu-laksanas)

,
D. N. SHUKLA M.A., Ph.D., DXitt.
pn^SflSSOR AND HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SANSKRIT
PUNJAB UNIVERSITY
CHANPIQARH
 PtMishm
'^Htii-Vftnmaya-PrakSiana-^Slj
Shukla Kuti
Faizabad Road
Luckncfw,

PRICE R9, 36

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Whose monumental temples in Indian

architectural heritage have formed the
most inspiring fascination to the writer
and whose towering edifices at Ellura,
Bhuvancivara, Khajuraho and other
renowned temple-sites are the crown-
ing achievements of the Indian artisans
and their gurus“the Sthapatis and
the Sthapakas.
 iNtRObUCTiON
This VastU'l^Sstra Vol. I—Hindu Canons of Engineering and
Architecture, though first in the series of my research publications
in English is seeing the light of the day after the Vastu Sastra Vol. II.

—Hindu Canons of Iconography and Painting, had already been presen-

ted to the scholarly world more than a year back. Both these Volumes
have for their liuclei my Doctoral Theses — Ph. D. (Vol. I) and D.Litt.
(Vol. II). In this way this Volume may be said to have come out after
a long interval.

A study of Bhoja’s Samarangana-Sutradhara — a treatise on the

science of architecture was submitted as my Ph. D. thesis some six
years back. I was very much encouraged by the glowing tributes to
this thesis, being acclaimed as a pioneer work —
vide the reports of the
examiners, appended at the end of this introduction, I therefore, set
for myself to extend the study from a single text to at least half a
dozen representative texts like Vi£vakarma-praka$a, Aparajlta-prccha,
Manasara, Mayamata and Silparatna. Naturally this very ambitious
undertaking needed some more concentrated time, the availability of
which has been a very distant hope for the last so many years as I
have been busy not only with my D. Litt. researches, but also with ray
research publications in Hindi as well, with the subsidies received
from the U. P. Government, Meanwhile that illustrious sociologist
economist and indologist Dr. R. K. Mukerjec, the then (1954-56)
Vice-Ghanceller of Lucknow University, took great fancy in my theses
on account of their high merit and higher tributes and recommended
their publications to the U. G. G. which sanctioned a grant of Rs.6000
for the publication of my theses. Prof. Iyer the next Vice-Ghancellor
also agreed torecommend for some more help towards the completion
of work. Hence a farther subsidy of Rs. 4000 enabled me to under-
take the publication of this Volume also. Both these Volumes in
a way may be said to complete the grand edifice of Vastu-Sastra, which
isnot only the science of architecture, engineering but also that of sculp-
ture and painting. Accordingly all these three broad divisions of Vastu
dastra, namely Vastu, Silpa and Gitra, have been surveyed in both these
Volumes. The Vastu i.e. architecture being the subject matter of the
first Volume and 6ilpa and Gitra that of the second. Further again
Vastu in its wider application has at least five principal branches namely
Engineering, Town-planning, Secular or Civil architecture (residential
6 INTRODUCTION

houses for common middle class people), Palace*architccturc and

Temple-architecture. It is in accordance with these broad topics of
Vastu Ȥastra and connotation) that this
(injts narrower denotation
Volume has been divided namely Introductory,
into five principal parts
Town-planning, HousC' architecture, Palace Architecture and Temple-
architecture,

It is needless to say any thing in detail in regard to these parts as

every part has been preceded by some introductory remarks and the
readers are referred to the introductory chapters of these parts. Here
I am more concerned to introduce the broad subject of this Volume.

As already pointed out, this Volume is an extended study of my Ph D.

Thesis-A Study of Bhoja*s Samarahgana’s Sutradhara. I am really happy
to say that this very elaborate, complete and authoritative medieval
manual of Vastu-^astra has-now become a household name among
the students of architecture— vide my so many publications centering
round this magnificent work written by that illustrious king whose
name is a household name among Indians, This work really fascinated i

me so much that I simply overdid it and it is under duress that I am

writing this introduction —vide my prolonged ailments consequent upon
too much exhausting myself during the last ten years of my researches
centering round the SarnarahganaSutradhara of king Bhojadeva of Dhara.
It is really very difificult to study such a technical work and to present a
scientific and systeinctic exposition of such a technical subject, more
so when there was no previous guidance. A good many scholars, notably
Indians (vide the presidential addresses of technical-sciences-section of
A. I. O. Conference particularly of Dr. Moti Ghand) have talked very
lightly of these ancient manuals of Hindu Science of Architecture. This
gave me a great impetus to refute this very low estimation by the Indian
scholars themselves. I cannot claim to be the first interpreter of this
ancient wisdom. Ramraz and Dr. P. K. Acharya, Dr, Bhattacharya,
Prof. Kramrisch and others have preceded me no doubt, but without
any I must say that my approach is altogether a new
self-praise,
approach to this hitherto uninvestigated branch of Indology. Ramraz
only summarized the contents of Manasara, Dr Acharya’s contribution
confine to the edition, translation and dictionary of Manasara and Dr.
Bhattacharya’s prc^occupation with the historical genesis made him too
much absorbed in non-scientific matters. Nevertheless his approach to
some of the architectural problems may be said to be pioneering.
The domain of Prof. Kramrisch and Dr. Mallaya were limited in the
'

sense that both these scholars have expounded the canons of Templc-
architccturc only, though Prof. Kramrisch* s Hindu Temple is a
land mark in contemporary studies in Tcmple^architecturc and wc
 INTRODUCTION 7

all owe a debt of gratitude to this gifted and eminent writer who
had the credit to open an altogether new vista of vision in explaining
the depth of the Hindu Temple. As regards myself my means
and resources have been too meagre to cope with very highly ambitious
and zealous undertaking and despite these shortcomings my diety has
enabled me to complete the high ediftce of my Vastu-^Istra Research
many as six
in as (four Hindi and two English) Volumes. I simply do not
know how could I do it. In my youthful zeal and magnetic pursuit I
simply could not foresee the very hard undertaking. I had to pursue this
undertaking in a dedicated manner and the hard labour of these full
six years has simply crippled me and I feel exhausted and thus my
research project of ten to fourteen volumes seems to be a distant hope.
Situated as we are we have no encouragement, nor are there avenues
for our labour to be fully recognised. We have not yet developed
detached tradition where personal ambition must be put down in
the consideration of merit and scholarship.

With this little digression let me now come to my introduction

to this As already indicated that my Ph.D.
volume, in broad outlines.
thesis. ‘A Study of Bhoja’s Samarangana-Sutradhara’— a treatise on
Hindu Science of Architecture has formed the nucleus of this Volume.
I really wanted to extend my presentation in the light of at least six
representative texts but due to paucity of space and patience and necess-
ary resources, I could extend only the first part to my satisfaction. To
some extent a good deal has been added in practically all parts. The
antiquity of town-planning, the rise of Indian towns, villages etc. (vide
part II), recast of palace architecture along with its accessory buildings
and pleasure-devices and the cognate, state buildings are altogether
a new introduction. Similarly an outline history of Hindu Temple in

its different styles is also a fulfilment of characteristic design to co-

rdate the manuals and the monuments both.

This is so far as the extension of the previous work is concerned.

An altogether new approach in the contemporary studies on Hindu Ar-
chitecture is the preparation of Vastulaksana having culled the material
from the representative text books. This is a poineering attempt. We
did have Pratimalaksana, but so far we never had Vastulaksana. It is a
parallel and corresponding approach between the study and sources.
Like my PratimSlaksana-vide Vastu-§astra Volume II Hindu Gannons —
of Iconography and Painting, this Vastulaksana has also been prepared
under suitable scientific headings and it now reads like an independent
tirentise on the Vastu-SSstra. My only disappointment is l^hatlcould not
 a INTRODtJCTION

continue the Vastulaksanain the way had started

found it was
I as I

getting too wield^. Naturally had tocur^il them; otherwise the whole
I

of it might have been a work of alleast 7Q0 pages. This curtailpent had
not resulted in any harm to my presentation of the study, it really
harmed the variety. It has not vitiated the quality of the work.

Now with this general introduction to the general character of

the work let me proceed with some of the most important features of
the treatment where the findings and the studies of the contemporary
writers have also been given their due importance. P. V. Mankad,
himself an engineer, has ably worked out some of the working prin-
< iples of VastuSastra, along with some very illuminating side-lights on
he origin of the principles of Hindu architecture and the contribu-
tions ot the founder architects like ViSvakarma —vide his introduction
to the ‘Aparajita-Prcchl’. 1 have tried to incorporate it in my own
way, cf. Fundamental Canons of Hindu Architecture Part I chapters
IV and VI. In my Ph. D. Thesis I did not bother with the rise of
Indian towns in their manifold categories but this has been added as
an important treatment in a comprehensive survey like this, cf.
Part II ‘Canons of Town-planning*.

A and systematic code of ancient Indian architecture in

scientific

main branches, the civil, the aristocratic and the

relation to its three
religious has been a long-felt desideratum., The present writer
has therefore taken a pioneering lead to rehabilitate this Hindu
contribution in the realm of architecture which for many a generation
was misunderstood as confined mainly to the domain of 'either Palace
architecture Temple architecture, more, characteristically the
or
latter. For this the monumental treatise, the SamaranganaSutradhara

of king Bhoj Deva has been ray single guide. Though written by an
aristocrat, this manual presents the first systematic demarcation
between these aforesaid three branches of Hindu architecture—House
architecture, Palace architecture and Temple architecture Accordingly .

the 3id, 4th and 5th parts of this work are devoted to the exposition
of this genius of Hindu science of architecture where in all the three
principal categories of houses— residential houses of prdinary men (civil
architecture), the palaces of kings (palace architecture), and the abodes
of gods (temple architecture)—are deliniatedi
upon* In the end of
5th part, I have tried to give an outline history of Hindu Temple in
all its styles of both the canons and monuments of art.

This is a broa4 otttline of this vyork. A Rerus^l of

,
its contents and
the presentation thereof will convince my readers that
this kind qf
 INTRODUCTION 9

systematised and scientific presentation of our ancient lore —the Vastu*

iastra was a long-fdt desideratum and I must frankly admit that
though much of the exposition is a pioneering attempt of mine, never-
theless a good deal of it has come from the renowned predecessors to
whom I owe a debt of gratitude and but for whose works serving as
guides this eminent exposition of work could not have been forth-
coming. I therefore, recall some of these savants for my reverence and
heartfelt gratitude. These are Dr. P. K. Acharya, Dr. Stella Kram«
risch. Dr. Bhattacharya, Sri B. B. Dutta, P. V. Mankad, Dr. Mallaya
and lastly thoug-h not least in importance that very illuminating
writer Percy Brown whose ‘Indian Architecture* has been my best

source in treating, an outline history of Hindu Temple.

In the end I must take this opportunity to pay my heart-felt grati-

tude to those who have helped me in this very difficult under-taking of

getting such a technical work printed and seeing it through the press.
My former pupil of the University of Lucknow, Sri Virabhadra Misra,
M, A. and my son Sri Lalit Kumar Shukla M.A. have taken immense
pains to correct the proof. Bjing ill during the printing of the work I

could not take upon myself the three or four readings. I could see only
the last proof. Despite am doubtful if the correct printing has
all this I

emerged. I crave the indulgence of my readers for the printi ig errors

which in Indian Presses is very difficult to avoid. Lucknow, though a
capital city, can not take pride in its presses. I owe a debt of
gratitude to the proprietor of Shukla Printing Press Pt. Behari Lai
Shukla for his very helpful and friendly treatment.

Lastly though not least in importance, I recall the real patrons

of this work. They are the Uttar Pradesh Govt, and the University
Grants Commission, but for their benevolent patronage vide their

subsidies and grants, my Vastu-iastra publications would not

have seen the light of the day. I know my limitations, but the
performance was worth of an institute, n Uurally the blemishes there
must be and the avoidance of which, though a constant vigilence,

could not be fully accomplished.

ASvina Navaraira D. N. SHUKLA

2017 Sam. 1960 A.D, University Campus, Chandigarh,
 CONTENTS
Paob
Dedication — 3
Sutrls^akam ••• ^
Preface ... 4{a&b)
Introduction ... S-Q
Contents ... 10-19
Bharatiya VSstu-Sastra Series ... 20
Opinions of the Experts ... 21-24
PART I

THE FUNDAMENTAL CANONS

CHAPTER I—Introductory. ... 25-33
(i) General Introduction ... 25-31
(ii) The Method of treatment ... 31-32
(iii) The Method of study ... 32-33
CHAPTER II—The Scope and Subject Matter of Architecture 34-43
(i) Scope
(a) Philosophical and Cosmological ... 33-36
(b) Metaphysical ... 36
(c) Astronomical—Astrological ... 36-37
(d) Geographical and Geological ... 37-38
(c) Architectural proper ... 38-39
(ii) Subject Matter ... 39-43
CHAPTER III—The Architect and Architecture ... 44-49
The Sthapati and his equipment ... 44-45
1. Knowledge of the Science—Sastra ... 45-46
2. Practical Experience Karma ... 46-47
3. The personal insight, Prajna ... 47
4.The Character, Sila ... 47-48
The eight-fold Sthipatya ... 48-49
CHAPTER IV— An Outline History of Hindu Architecture
—both as Science and Art ... 50-88
Origin of Indian Architecture ... 50-56
Rise of dsstra and the place of VUvakarmS ... 56-60
Maya ... 61-62
Other Acharyas ... 62-63
 —

CbNtENTi ll

As per the different authorities:

(i) Matsyapurana »*• 63
(ii) Agnipurana ... 63
(iii) Bfhatsaiphita ... 63
(iv) M3nasara ... 64
(v) Sanatkumara V3stu-iastra ... 64
(vi) ViSvakarma-Vastu-Sastra ... 64
A. Names associated with the treatises ... 65
fi. Names cited as authorities in: ... 65-66
C. Names, the passages from whose works arc quoted 66-67
Acharyas of the Dravidian or Southern School ••» 67
Acharyas of Nagara or Northern School • •ft 67
Vastu Literature ... 67-68
Vedic Literature •• • 68
Architectural tradition in the Rgveda 68-69
Later Vedas and Brahmanas • ft. 70-71
Sutras • •• 71-72
Epics «•• 72-73
Buddhist literature —Jatakas and Canons • •• 73-75
PSH Canons 75-76
Kautilya’s Artha iastra 76-77
Puran&s • •• 76-80
Agamas 80
Tantras • 1* 81
Bfhat-samhita • •• 81
Pratistha class of works • ft* 81-82
Miscellaneous works • •• 82
Silpa Texts • •• 82-84
Rise of Art «•• 84-88
CHAPTER V Study of Hindu Science of Architecture 89-178
(A study of representative or principal texts)
Vifvakarma’s works • •« 90
ViSvakarma^Vastu-Sastra ftftft 90-97
Samarahgana-sutradhara 98
Re-arrangements of its chapters 98-102
Contents chapter-wise (If* 102-144
/ AparSjita-pcccha 144-147
Its subject matter « *» 147-154
MSnasara 154-163
Mayamata 163-170
Silparatna . 170-177
Its re-arrangement 177-178
12 CON^HtS
1.
CHAPTER VI — Fundamental Canons of Hindu
Architecjure .. 179-224
Dinnirnaya or PrScisIdhana .. 180-185
II. Vastu-pada-vinyasa —The plan ., 185-205
A general introduction 185-194
Site-plans .. 194
The plot of 81 squares ... 195
The internal and external deities . 195-202
The Nighantus ,. 202-205
III. Mana—^Hastalaksana . . 205-211
Angula .. 208-209
Hasta ... 209-211
IV. Ayadi Sadvarga ... 211-217
ManasSra formula ... 215
Formula of the other texts ... 215-217
V. PatSkadi Sat-chandas ... . 217-224
Meru ..- 220
Khanda Meru ... 221
Pataka ... 221
Sucl ... 221-222
Uddista ... 222
NaSta ... 222-223
The so-called Bathos of Dravidian Temples ... 223-224
PART II
CANONS OF TOWN PLANNING ... 225-300
Introductory ... 227-228
CHAPTER I— Antiquity of Town Planning in India and
Origin and Growth of Indian Towns, ... 229-242
Antiquity ... 229-236
Origin and growth of Indian Towns ... 236-242
CHAPTER Il—Villages, Towns and 'Forts in genefai ... 243-260
Villages ... 243-250
Village as a unit of town planning ... 244-246
ViSvakarma-v5stu-lastra ... 246-247
MSnasara ... 247-248
Mayamata and dilparatna ... 248-25C
Towns or Cities ... 250-256
ViSvakarma-v5stu-S3stra ... 250
Samarihgana-su tradhara ... 231-52
Aparajitapfccha ... 252-253
Manasara ... 253
Mayamata ... 253-256
 —

GONTENTS is

Forts or Durgas 256-

256-260
257-
Vi5vakarma*vastu-^astra
258-257
Manasara and Mayamata 261- 258
Kaujilya’s Artha^astra 260
III — Preliminaries of town-planning
262-
CHAPTER 267
263-
(a) Regional Planning 261-262
(b) Land and Landscape suited to an ideal town 263
(c) Geological Survey 268-267
CHAPTER IV— Road Planning 268-274
269-
Three-fold function of the roads 268
Road planning and Site planning 269
S. S.’s 34 roads in modern town and their characteris-
tic features 271
275-
Broad elements of road planning 271-273
276-
Evidence of Mayamata and ManasSra 273-274
CHAPTER V Jati-varnadhivasa (Folk Planning) 275-281
What is folk-planning 275
F’olk-planning and site-planning
282-
276
283-
According to the S. S. 284- 280
According to other authorities—Sukr a etc. 280-281
CHAPTER VI— Deification and Beautification of Towns 282-285
(A) Temples 282
1. External location of deities 283
2. Internal location 284
(B) Gardens etc. 285
CHAPTER VII— Fortification 286-291
CPIAPTER VIII— Inauspicious Towns 292-294
CHAPTER IX— Conclusion-Modern town-planning and what
it can learn from the S. S. 295-300
PART III
CIVIL OR SECULAR ARCHITECTURE ... 301-354
318-
Introductory 319-
303-304
CHAPTER I— Preliminaries 305-306
CHAPTER II—Buildings in general 307-309
CHAPTER III— Origin and development of human houses ... 310-312
(The story of the first house on the earth)
CHAPTER IV— 6alg Houses 313-320
General 313-316
Meaning and classification of §ala houses 316-318
The Varieties 319
A Critical Estimate 320
 ——
—

14 CONTENfs

CHAPTER -
V—Planning of Salas—The House plans and buiU -
ding byelaws 321-326
House plans 321-324
Ekasalas 324
Dvilalas 324
Building byclaws 324 325
Time etc. 325 326
-
Secular regulation 326-
CHAPTER VI The constructfoo of the Salas 327-331
The masonary 327-329
Ttic material —The wood 329-331
CHAPTER VII~The Principal Components— The door 332-337
General Dimensions 332-335
Qjaalities 335
Defects 335-336
Decoration 336
Dvara-vedha 337
CHAPTER VIII— The Pillar and other members 338-344
The Pillar 338 339
The Component parts and mouldings 339 342
The other component parts and moulding of the house... 339-342
The Bhavanangas 342-344
CHAPTER IX Honse Decoration and other Eqaipments ... 345-348
A. House decoration 345-347
B. Other Equipments 347-348

CHAPTER X The Defect of Houses and Varieties of

Defectire Houses 349-350
General Defects 350

CHAPTER XI Concluding Remarks 351-354

Modern House-Planning and what it can gain from
the SamarShgana Sutradhara 351-354
PART IV
PALACE ARCHITECTURE & PALACE PLEASURES 355-392
Introductory 357-358
CHAPTER I— Palace Architecture 359-366
Raja VeSma »•« 359-361
Names of Establishments 361-362
Qjtcstion of courts and other criteria 363-366
CHAPTER II —Accessory Sttnetures 367-371
The Sabha 367-368
 —

CONTENTS 15

The Aivajlla ... 368-371

1. Planning of the stable proper ... 368
2. The equipment of the stable ... 369 ..

3. The Shed ... 370

4. Medical house ... 371
The Gajalala ... 371

CHAPTER III Palace Pleasures— ^The Mechanical

Contrivances, the Yantras ... 372-388
Introductory ... 372-374
Yantra and its elements ... 374-376
The Earthly ... 376
The Allies ... 376-377
The Qualities of a Yantra and its Functions ... 377-379

(A) Qualities (Yantra-gunas) ... 377-379

(B) Functions — (Karmas) ... 379
The Varieties of Yantras ... 380-386
(i) Yantras for Amusements ... 380-381
(ii) Domestic and defensive yantras ... 381
(iii) Machines for warfare ... 381-382
Conveyance machines (The yana-yantras)
(iv) ... 382
Water machines Dhara* yantra
(v) ... 382
DharSgfha and its types ... 382-384
Dolagrha, the Ratha*dola and its types ... 384-385
The Aeroplane — Vimanay antra ... 385-386
Conclusion ... 387-388
CHAPTER IV State or public buildings ... 389-392
Natya-Sala ... 389-390
Pustaka-sala ... 390
Vidyabhavana ... 390
Nataka>saag{ta*Sala ... 390-391
Mirga-iala ... 391-392
10 Varieties of Kupa ... 392
4 Types of Vapls ... 392
4 Types of Kundas ... 392
6 Types of Tadagas ... 392
PART V
TEMPLE—ARCHITECTURE ... 393-576
Introductory ... 395-396

CHAPTER I—The Denotation and the connotation of the term

PrSsada—the Hindu Temple ... 397-404

Worde denoting; devotional places 397-399

J6 CONTENTS

Vimana ... 399-400

PrJtsSda ... 400-402
Organic Theory ... 402-404
CHAPTER II— The origin of the Prasada VastQ ... 405-414
—
Vimana the model of the Prasada ... 404-406
The testimony of the Samarahgana ... 406
The Testimony from Dr. Ramaniya ... 407
The 3rd evidence in relation to the evolution of
stone-architecture ... 407
The different origins—-Citi etc. ... 408-414
1. Giti, the Vedic Altar
2. The Dolmen
3. The Shed of the Initiation
4. The Tabernacle
5. The Image of the Mountain
6. The Image of Cavern
7. Philosophical background

CHAPTER III—The Development of the Prasada Vastn 415-424

General enunciation 429-
415-417
430-
1 . Pyramidal superstructure the Vimanas 417-421
432-
2. Curvilinear superstructure —the ^ikharottama 433-
Prasadas 421-424
CHAPTER IV— Prasada Styles 425-334
Nagara 425-429
437-
Dravida 438- 430
Vesara 432
VSvata 433
Bhumija and Lata 434
444-
CHAPTER V— Pre S. S. Classification of Temple 435-441
445-
General introduction 446-
435-436
447-
(A) Southern 438
(B) Northern 440
Concluding estimate 440-441
CHAPTER VI—Classification of temples as given in the S.S. 442-453
General remarks 442
Group A—Early Lata temples 448
I. Type—Rucaka 64 temples
etc. 446
II. Type dikharottamas 447
III. Type Storeyed edifices 448
Group B—Later LS^a style 449-451
I. Type —Meru etc. Ifi varicti?? 449
 qONTENTS 17

IL Type—Mcru etc. 20 Prasadas

III. —
Type iSridhara etc. 40 Prasadas of
Pure varieties
IV. Type—Nanda etc. 10 mixed varieties

Group C—Nagara Prasadas 450-451

I. —
Type The 20 temples, the traditional Nagara
Prasadas
II. Type— ^rikuta etc. 36 temples 450-451
Group D— Dravida Prasadas
Fiv Id ith
Five fold Talacchandas

Group E —Regional styles: the mixed ones 452

Vavata Prasadas 454-
1. 452
455-
2. Bhumija Prasadas 452-453
456-
CHAPTER VII — Planning of PrSsada — The Hindu 457-
Temple 454-461
459-
(a) Significance 455
(b) Purpose 460- 456
(c) Sthapati and Sthapaka 457
(d) Vastu-mandala and Vastupurusa 459
(c) The Material and the measurements 459-460
(i) Material 460
(ii)Measurements 460
)
Ornamentation and Moulding 461
^ y) The consecration of the temple and installation of
the image.

CHAPTER VIII—Prasada Mandapa 462-465

General introduction 462-463
1st Group —Bhadrat etc. 8 mandapas 464
2nd Group— Puspaka etc. 27 mandapas 464
Other details 464-465
CHAPTER IX— Prasada Jagatls 466-470
—
Meaning of Jagati not a socle alone ... 466-467
The planning of Jagati in accordance to the ilia
upon it ... 467
Group A 39 square —
Jagatis ... 467
B--18 rectangular ... 468
C— 5 circular „ ... 468
D— 6 elliptical „ ... 468
>1 E— 9 octagonal „ ... 468
V Jagatl$ in the S, S. are an innovation ... 468-470
18 COKTENTS

CHAPTER X-Vimana Vastu 471-473

Vimana ... 471-472
Prakaras and Gopuras ... 472-473
CHAPTER XI —The Correspoodence of the PrIsSdas of the 474-481
S. S. with monuments.
Scope of the correspondence • • 474-476
The word for the Prasada 476-477
Substances of the PrSsada 477-478
Proportionate measurments of the Prasadas 478-479
Superstructure of the Prasada 479-481
Conclusion 481
CHAPTER XII— An outline History of Hindu Temple • •• 482-575
Layanas etc* 482-495
Layanas 482-. 85
Guhadharas (Ajanta) • •• 485-489
Guharajas • •• 489-495
Ellora 491-494
Elephanta 494
Mamallapuram • •• 494-495
Stupas f •« 495-499
Ghadya Prasadas and Sabha Mandapas 499-502
Gupta temples 500
Chalukyan temples 500-502
Bhaumika Vimanas 502-521
General Canons • •• 50^-512
Pal lava Phase • •• 512-513
KailaSa Natha and Vaikuntha Perumal 513-514
Cola temples • •• 514-515
Paijdya Prakarams and Gopurams 515-516
Vijaya Nagar Style 516-517
Madura —the final phase 5)7-519
Minaksi — SundareSvara f 519
Sri-Rangam 520
JambukeSvara 520
RameSvaram 520
Chidambaram • t# 520-521
Sikharottama Prasadas 521-546
General Canons 521-524
The 6
Cluster of a 524-525
dikhara enmeshed in Gav&ksas 525-527
Orissa 527-533
1* Bbuvanejvara 527-531
 tiONTBNrS - 19
531-
532-
2. turi” 532
533-
3, Konarak 533
Khajuraho 536
Rajasthan and Central India 536 5^5
1. Eran in Saugor district of Central India 537
2. Pathari 537-
537
3. Gyaspura 538-
537
4. Udayapur 537
5. Osia 538
Gujarat and the west 541
Surya temple at Modhera 541-
540
Temple of Viraal 542-
541
Rudra Mai 543-
541
Soma Natha 543-
541
Temples of Deccan 543
Ambar Natha 544- 543
The temples at Gwalior & Brindavari 546
546-
Gwalior temples 547- 544
Teli-ka-Mandira 543
Sas Bahu 543"“544
Brindavana 546
Vavata and Bhumija Prasadas 546*^553

Vavata Prasadas—Hoysal style 550

Mysore state 553-549
554-
549
Belur temples
Hoysaleivara temple 549-550
Bhumija 551
Mayurbhanja 551-553
559-
Temple Architecture in Border lands 560-
553-562
561-
Kashmir 553-557
562-
Buddhist remains 554
Brahmanical remains 557
570-
Nepal 557-559
571-
Burma 559-560
573-
Early Phase 574-
559
Classical Art and Pagan 560
575-
Ceylon 562
Anuradhapur remains 562
Hindu Temple Architecture in Greater India 575
Cambodia 562-566
Siam 566-570
Champa 571
Java and Bali 572
Boro Budur 574
Prambanan 675
Hindu Architecture in Outer India 575
Appendices 590
VSstu-laksariam^An anthology culled from 591-848
Original Sanskrit Texis
20

EXPERT OPINIONS
Ph.D. Ihesis:
f

Extracts from the report of Dr. J. N. Banerjea, M. A., Ph. D.,

F.A.S., Charmichael Professor of Ancient Indian History and Culture,
Calcutta University, Calcutta.

Scholars intending to go in for advanced studies should be

encouraged to take up such subjects as require not only the basic
equipment of a good knowledge of Sanskrit, but also a sound idea
about the technicalities of the artistic and architectural remains
of ancient India. Shri Shukla is an eminent Sanskritist, and he
possesses a thorough idea about the nature and quality of the
architecture of the ancient Indian people. He is thus eminently fit

for scientific appraisal of such a highly technical work like the

Samarangana-Sutradhara of king Bhoja. The treatise is a very
elaborate work on the lata school of Indian Architecture. It has
not so far been systematically and scientifically studied, though
some Purvacharyas had made occasional use of it. Shri Shukla’s work
is, thus, a sort of pioneer work, and it deserves full appreciation and

praise for breaking new grounds,

Bhoja’s monumental treatise, though dealing pre-eminently
with the science of Indian architecture, does not fail to treat such
allied topics as sculpture (iconography) and painting. The former
technically known as, Vastuvidya comprises within it the other two
branches of the Silpasastras, which can in a way be regarded as its
adjuncts. Many of the recognized and authoritative works on the
Silpasastra seldom omit treatment of these allied topics while mainly
dealing with the architectural science. This work also deals with
various other topics like ^Town-planning’, *The Construction of
Machines’ (Yantra^g katana), *The Construction of Household Furniture
•—Cots and Couches’ (Saganasana), etc.
It is thus a much more comprehensive work than ntany others of
a similar nature, and a critical and scientific study of it has long been
a desideratum.
Shri Shukla’s thesis is divided into eight parts, the last two
of which deal with iconography as associated with sculpture and
painting* The first six parts of it treat of such highly interesting
topics as ‘Town Planning’, ‘House Architecture*, ‘Temple Architecture^
*Thc Construction of Machines’, ‘The A^rticles of Household Furniture’
etc., with the usual introductory chapters in the beginning and the

Appendices in the end. In the last part (VIII)—Appendices), the

author includes charts on site plans, road plans and plan of a palace
 : —

21

as Well as extensive quotations from the text of Samarangauu-Sutra-

dhara, subjectwise. In page 14 of his introductory chapter, he has tried
to rearrange the chapters of the text (first 48 ones) in a coherent
manner, the arrangement of which in the edited text seems to have
been faulty. In all this task he has seldom failed to make full use of
the contributions of previous authors on Indian architecture and
allied subjects in a critical manner, and to substantiate his own
eonclusions on the basis of proper evaluation of comprehensive data.
The author’s own contribution has thus been of a very high order,
and the award of the Ph.D. degree is the least credit that can be given
to him for this type of scientific and conscientious labour.

D.Litt. Thesis
Extracts from the Reports of Dr. Shukla’s D. Litt, Thesis
“Foundations and Canons of Hindu Iconography.”
Mahamahopadhyaya— iJr. V. V. Mirashi : This brief account of the
contents of the four books submitted by the author will show how
comprehensively he has dealt with the subjects of iconography and
painting. Ihese subjects have, indeed, already attracted some eminent
scholars who have made notable contributions to our knowledge about
them. The merit of Shri Shukla's work lies in this that he has tapped
Sanskrit sources exhaustively. This will be seen from the list of fifty-

five works which he has appended at the end ofhis Pratima-Lakshanam.

He has also drawn upon the previous works of several authors such as
R. C. Bhandarkar, P. V. Kane, Stella Kramrisch, P. G. Brown,
Raghavan, Sivaramamurti etc. He has analysed his material
thoroughly and has collected all available information under several
heads. We have thus in one place available
material bearing on
all

iconography and pointing in the existing Silpasastras Many of the

works which treat of iconography and painting have come down to
us in a corrupt form. Again, they abound in technical terms, the
meaning of some of which is now far from certain. Dr. Shukla^s
good knowledge of Sanskrit has enabled him to restore original readings
in some cases. He has also succeeded in giving plausible explanations of
several judicious uses of the words of previous writers and has exercised
independent judgment in several places. All these books testify to the
immense labour which he has spent in collecting material and the inge-
nuity he has displayed in interpreting it. The author has taken infinite
pains in writing these works which are packed with information
about iconography and painting. He has considerably advanced our
knowledge of these subjects by his devoted labours. 1 heartily
recommend him for the award of the D.Litt. degree of the Lucknow
University, without further examination.
 —

22

Dr. J,N. BanerJea—lJr. D. N. Shukla, M. A,, Ph. D., at present

of theGorakhpur University, earned the Ph. D. Degree of the
University of Lucknow sometime ago by his welhwritten thesis on
Bhoja’s Samarangana-Sutradhara, a mediaeval Sanskrit Anthology
throwing a flood of light on architecture (Vastuvidya and other
allied arts of ancient India).The works now submitted by him for
the D. Litt degree of the same University are on Hindu Iconography^
Hindu Canons of Painting, Pratima Vijnana and Pratima Lakshanam,
the hrst two being in English and the last two being written in Hindi,
riiese works, all printed, contain valuable information about the
iconographic and pictorial art as practised by the Silpis of ancient
India. Numerous are the source materials which have been culled
by him from a wide range of Sanskrit texts of a varied character
Vedic, Epic and Puranic, technical literature like the Silpasastras,
and works, in verse and prose of eminent authors like Kalidasa and
others. Relevant text in Prakrit and Pali have also been utilised by
him in throwing light on different aspects oftheme in question. Pie
tlie

has also made sparing use of the iconographic and pictorial remains
of ancient and mediaeval India to illustrate his point, and it would
have been better if such use had been more exhaustive. Some wcll-
chosen and well reproduced illustrations of relevent specimens would
have enhanced the quality of his researches. It should be observed,
however, to his credit, that he has seldom failed to refer to the many
authoritative works on ancient and mediaeval Indian painting and
iconography which contain numerous illustrations. His appraisal
of the views of respective scholars about the different problems raised
by him has been critical and scholarly. Attention may only be drawn
to p.20l of his Hindi book on Pratima Vijnana, where he rightly point-
ed out that my comment on the list of different materials for image-
making as given in the Samarangana-Sutradhara was based on a
faulty reading of the text,and the word lekhya in the passage should
really be lepya. He numeious iconographic texts
has collected
containing the descriptions of different images from a large number of
authoritative original works in his Hindi work on Pratimalakshanam,
which will be of great use to research scholars in this field of Indology.
His two works on Hindu Canons of Painting and Iconography
(Introductory and Part I portions only) in English also contain much
useful matter, and I wish he will be able to complete the latter work
in no distant future, I should like to suggest that he makes full use

of the representative icons belonging to the different creeds which

have been found in the Uttar Pradesh, and their number, variety and
workmanship are certainly great. I need not prolong my report any
 23

further, I hereby recommend the award of the D* Lilt. Degree of

the University of Lucknow to Dr. D- N, Shukla for his meritorious

publications. His works in the Rashtrabhasha have enriched tUe

technical branch of the Hindi literature.
Prof C. D. Chatterji —-Although eminent scholars like Sri Gopi
Nath Rao, Dr. J. N* Banerjea, Sri N. K. Bhattasali, Dr. B. T.
Bhattacharyya, and Sri B. Bhattacharyya> have made valuable
contributions to the study of Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jaina Icono-
graphy, a critical and scientific study of the subject as a whole,
particularly on the basis of available literary data as contained in
different Agamas^ Puranas and Silpa’-Sastras, was a long-felt desideratum.
Again, the study of Hindu Iconography in the light of the canons
of paintings was never attempted before by any scholar, whether
Indian or foreign. It was, therefore, felt by me as well as by the

supplicant that a detailed study of the canons as preserved in Sanskrit

literature, should also be made so as to make the dissertation as
thorough, comprehensive, and useful as possible. Keeping all these
facts in view and bearing in mind the furture needs of Indian
Archaeology, I suggested to the supplicant the scheme on the basis
of which his thesis has been written.
I am glad to find that Dr. Shukla has admirably executed his task.
His thesis is indeed a valuable contribution to the study of Hindu
Iconography, which has considerably advanced our knowledge of that
subject in some of its aspects. One may differ from him in respect
of a few minor points; but it should be remembered that he has
strictly followed the orthodox iconic traditions as preserved in Sanskrit
literature, and has substantiated them as far as possible by referring
to their best and typical examples, whether executed by sculptors or
by painters.
Dr, Shukla’ s works on
Pratima’-vijnan, Pratma^lakshana^ and (JUtra

(Hindu Canons of Painting), which comprise his D.Litt. thesis

Lalcshana
and which form parts of the Series entitled Bharatiya-Vastusastta, which
has been instituted by him, will be, as I do believe, welcomed by all
Indologist, since the treatment of these subjects is unprecedented,
scientific, and scholarly. I, therefore, recommend that the
strongly
Degree of the Doctor of Literature be awarded to him on the basis of
these published works on Hindu Iconography, which I sincerely believe,
will not only bring credit to him but also to the University associated
with his researches.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The credit of the publication of both these Volumes goes to the
U.G,G. un er the renowned chairmanship of Sri C, D, Deshmukb-^
vide its grant of Rs, 10,000^
 BHARATIYA VASTU-SASTRA SERIES

Vol. I Bharatiya Vastu-Sastra— Vastu-vidya evatn Pura-niveSa,

,, II Bhavana-niveia.

„ III Prasada-nivcia.

„ IV Pratim3*Vijnana (Pt. I).

Pratima-laksana (Pt. II).

„ V Yantra evam Citra.

„ VI Translation of the SamarShgana Sutradhara (Pt, I & II).

„ VII Samarahgana*V3stukosa.

„ VIII VastU'^astra Vol. I.

Hindu Science of Architecture.

,, IX VastuSastra Vol. II.

Hindu Canons of I conography and Painting.

,, X VSstU'^Sstra Vol. Ill —Glossary and Illustrations.

N. 5.—Vols. I, IV (two pts.), VIII & IX arc completed. Vol. V. con-
tributed in Hindu canons ot Painting or Citralaksanam
& Vol. VIII —vide Palace-architecture and Palace-pleasures,
the Yantras. Vol. III. has been partially presented—vide
‘Hindu Prasada—Gaturmukhf Pys^habhumi ’
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY

(i) General Introduction to (he work.

King Bhoja of Dhara, one of the greatest rulers of India, ruled

from 1018 to 1060 A. D. He was great in the art of Government and
war, but still greater in the art of peace. He had earned immortal
fame as a great patron of poets and men of letters and a mass of
legends has grown about his name. He is reported to be the author
of more than three dozen works. These works, published and unpub-
lished, show a wide range of subjects. Poetics, grammar, philoso-
phy, medicine, astronomy, lexicography, architecture and archery,
to mention only a few of the subjects, distinct in nature and
definite in their respective domains, had an equal fascination for the
illustrious king.

Sri Visvesvara Natha Reu has laboured very hard in his treatise
on ^Raja Bhoja’ (published by Hindustani Academy) in collecting all
the available material on the subject to give an account of the life and
works of Bhoja. He has given a list of the following thirty four books
ascribed to Raja Bhoja of DhSra :

1. Astronomy 1. Rajamrgahka 2. Rajaamartanda 3.

Vidyujjana - vallabha - prasnajnana 4.

Adityapratapa-siddhanta and 5. Bhuja-

balanibandha.

2. Poetics 6. Sarasvati-kanthabharana and 7. Srn-

gara-prakasa,

3. Yoga*philosophy 8. Rajamartanda-Yoga-sutra-vrtti ( com-

mentary on P5tanjala-Yoga-Sutra).
4. Politics and
Dbarma-Sastra 9. Purtamartanda 10. Canakya-Rajanfti-
§astra 11. Vyavahara-sammuccaya
12. Garucarya 13. Vividha-vidya-
vicara-catura and 14. Siddhanta-sara-
paddhati.

5, Architecture : 15. Samarangana-sutradhara & 16. Yukti-

(dilpaj kalpataru.
 —

26 INTRODUCTORY

6. Poetry & Drama : 17. Gampu-Ramayana (or Bhoja-Campu)

18. Mahakali-vijaya 19. Vidya-vinoda
20. Sfngara-mafijari (prose) and 21.
Kurmaiataks (in Prakrta).

7. Grammar : 22. Prakrta-Vyakarana and 23. Sarasvati-

kanthabhara^ia.

8. Medicine : 24. ViSranta-vidya-vinoda 25. Ayurveda*

sarvasva 26, RSjamartanda-sarasam-
graha.
9. ^aivism : 27. Sivatattva-prakasa 28. Sivatattva-ratna-
kalika and 29. SiddhSnta-samgraha.

10. Lexicons : 30. Namamalika and 31. Sabdanusasana.

11. Miscellaneous : 32. ^alihoira 33. Subhasita-prabandha and
34. RSjamartanda (Vedanta).
'fhe question of authorship of these works is worthy of an indepen-
dent investigation. Nothing can be said authoritatively — what books
were his own and what were produced under his patronage by the talen-
ted Pandits of his Scibha. Tradition, however, warrants us to remark
that king Bhoja did win the laurels as versatile, talented and autho-
ritative an author, as per the evidence which has come down from the
writings of his successor writers who have acclaimed his authorship
of the different works on the different subjects.

Aufrccht (vide his Gatalogus Gatalogrum) says that there are

references to the authorship of Bhoja in the following post-Bhoja
writers and works ;

1. 6ulapani (cf. PrayaScitta-viveka);

2. Daiabala — the Buddhist writer;
3. Allildanatha and 4, Raghunandana.

N. B. — All these writers have acclaimed Bhoja’s authority on

Dharma§astra,
5. Bhava-prakaSa and Rugviniscaya of Madhava attribute to
him the authorship of the works on Ayurveda.

6. Kesavarka acclaims him a writer on Astronomy,

7. Ksira-swamijSayana and Mahipa acclaim him as a grammarian
and lexicographer.
Similarly the following quotations also prove the place of Bhoja
among the reputed Sanskrit-authors •

wiiOgt i
 .

INTRODUCTORY 27

(cf. KS^yavcma’s commentary on Abhijnana-Salainialam ref. in

Government Mss. Litrary Madras Sanskrit books Pt?!. Sec. I (A) — — p.
—
405 Kuppuswami)

e’lfT g?:T?!l: n
rrqi=3^ II

(ibid 646)

^mR^sfq ||

(cf. Kandarpa-cudamani of King Virabhadra).

We know that Bhoja’s works like Srngara-prakasa, 6arasvati-kan-
thabharana and Raja-martandaandhis contribution in these works were
quite well known. His contribution to the science of architecture was
very little known or practically unknown till the Late Mahamahopadh-
yaya T. Ganapati Sastri, edited this work in the G. O. S. in two
volumes. Naturally, therefore, the and works of such a gifted and
life

talented author, such a versatile genius must fascinate any research-

scholar. my good fortune that my revered teacher Prof. K.A.S.
It was
Iyer prescribed for me the subject ‘‘THE LIFE AND WORKS OF
RAJA. BPIOJA” for my Ph. D. dissertation after I had taken my
M. A. in Sanskrit from the University of Lucknow in 1940.

Though the subject originally chosen was ‘Life and Works of

Raja Bhoja’ as lime passed and I glanced over the material and the
extensiveness of the subject-matter, I found the topic worth several
theses. Dr. Raghvan of the University of Madras had already written
his dissertation on Srngara-prakasa. I was, therefore, allow^ed to
concentrate on one single text of that voluminous literature ascribed
to Bhoja, the SamarShgaua-Sutradhara, a treatise on the science of
Architecture. I was expected to elucidate its contents and give a
factual presentation, I have spent several years on this *work (writing
its summary, translation, study, glossary and still grappling with the
illustrations of the architectural and sculptural objects) and I am now
happy to present a part of the results of my study in the following
pages.

The SamaraAgana-sStradhara is a remarkable legacy of Bhoja whose

rule was noted for splendour and grandeur together with liberality

It is on the nucleus of this study of Bhoja's Samarangana-Sutradhara ih t 1

have instituted an extensive research under the general caption ‘Bharatiya Va^iuSastra
or VastuSastra and have attempted a comprehensive survey of the whole branch of this
technical lore—vide the series of my publications already refered to, in the Introduction.
2B INTRODXJCTORY

and catholocity. It is also a brilliant testimony to his grand and

eloquent style not only in the field of the literature he produced but
in every walk of life, the life of a benevolent king — >his court, his admi-
nistration, his patronage of art and literature, his ideal of social con-

duct and religious dedication.

We are familiar with the treatment of this subject of architec-

ture, the ^ilpa-Sastra or Vastu-aastra in the pre- Samar angana- works
both architectural-proper like Mayamata, M^nasara, etc. and non-
architect ural class of works like Brhatsamhita, Matsya-purana, Agni-
purana and so many other Puranas as well and Agamas like Kamika,
Suprabheda and a host of others together with so many other mis-
cellaneous treatises like Arthasastra of Kautilya, 6ukra-nltisara and a
good number of religious treatises as well. Their scope of treatment is

limited to what may be termed as architectural and sculptural topics.

Take for instance the Manasara and it will be noticed that of the
seventy chapters of the book the first eight are introductory, the next
forty-two deal with architectural matters, and the last twenty are
devoted to sculpture (see for details H. A. I. A. pp. 157-8)

A brief notice of the contents of the chapters of the S. S. (vide

the tabulations of the re-arranged chapters subject-wise in a chapter
ahead) however, will give us an impression that it does not only treat
the architectural subjects like Town-Planning, House-architecture,
Temple-architecture, and sculptural subjects like Pratima-laksanas
iconography iconometry and iconoplastic art together with the
Madras, the different hand poses, the poses of the body as well as the

postures of legs, but it also deals with the canons of Painting and
devotes a big chapter to the art of mechanical construction, the
Yantras, Yantras and Citras are the two special features which it has
introduced in the body of &lpa-sastra consistent with its very broad
scope of architecture (cf. the chapter ahead).

Thus it suffices here to say in this general introduction to the S. S.

that out of its eighty- three chapters, in its first forty-eight chapters,
it treats three principal subjects. Firstly in the first seven chapters
together with the fortyfourth and fortyfifth, the introductory subjects
like need, origin, schools, scope and subject-matter of architecture and
qualifications of an architect are dealt with.Next follow the regional
planning, the surveying of the land, the examination of the soil-condi-
tions (BhSpariksa 8) and the system of measurements (Hasta-

Lakfa^ia 9) and the detailed canons of town-planning (PuraniveSa 10)

together with the site-plans (II to 14 as well as 38), of the different
 iNTRODtJCTORY 29

categories of the Vastu-padas fit to be employed in towns and temples

as well as the houses residential and the palaces of kings. Thirdly,
it deals with the house- architecture (civil arcitecture or popular archi-
tecture or more appropriately the secular architecture as opposed to
religious or devotional architecture, the temple-architecture) in the
subsequent thirty chapters.
This house-architecture can be conveniently split up in two
broad divisions of popular residential houses suited to the middle-
class people both high and low according to the castes and professions
(jativarnadhivasa) and the Royal palaces best suited to the nobles and
kings. To the former are devoted about twenty chapters in details of
preliminaries like Ayadinirnaya, Kilaka-sutrapata, the first operations,
foundation-laying ceremony (^ilanyasa-vidhi) and offerings etc. (see

for the detailed designations in the tabulation referred to, above); the
categories and classifications of the residential houses, the iSala-houses;
the architectural details of planning and constructions, like the
material, the masonry, the door, the pillar and decorations etc,,
and lastly, the mystic ideas associated with Hindu architecture like
Vedha, Bhanga and defects (ibid).
To the latter it devotes six chapters, out of which the fifteenth
(RajaniveSa) and thirtieth (Rajagfha), all exclusively arc devoted to
the exposition of Palace-architecture, the planning of the Royal
Palace (15) and different varieties of the palaces (30), both residential
palaces (Nivasa-bhavanani) and pleasure-palaces (vilasa-bhavanani)
together with their characteristics of architectural details of floors,
pillars, storeys and ornamentation.
The other remaining chapters may be taken to deal with the
accessory buildings and the establishments of the royal palace, the
Asva-Sala (33), the gaja-salS (32), the Sabha (27), the assembly hall
or council-chamber as well as the princely shrines and the palaces of
the royal relatives and the other dignitories like commanders, priests
and ministers, the Ayatana-nivesa (51).

It gives an honoured place to the topic of Yantra-ghatana, the art

of mechanical construction (cf. the 31st chap.) delineating upon the
definition of the yantra, its elements, qualities and manifold varieties
of pleasure-machines, toy-machines, the machines of warfare as well
as the domestic machines like DvSrapIla-yantra, the door-keeper-
machine, Yodha-yantra, the soldier-machine, etc, and Vimana-yantras
(the aeroplanes) like Vyoma-cari-vihafigama-yantra, wooden-bird-
machine travelling in the sky and AkaSagami-darumayavimlna^
ymi^tra, wooden-vimana, machine flying in the air together with a good
30 ikTfeODUGTORY

many varieties of Vari-yantra, water-machines, DhSra-yantras tKe

shower machii^es and the Ratha-dola-yantras —the swinging machines.
Further next it has also devoted a full chapter to the art of the
construction of the articles of household furniture like cots and
couches (^ayanasana 29).

Thus closes the general introduction to the subject-matter of

architecture as treated in the first forty-eight (and 51st) chapters, in
which canons of three principal topics of architecture namely, town-
planning, house-architecture and construction of machines and articles
of household furniture are delineated upon.

In the next twenty chapters, it deals with temple-architccture,

the most favourite theme of the author of the S. S. devoting about
half of the work to the exposition of this most fascinating topic,
the crown of Indian architecture, both in the monuments and the
manuals alike, in all the details of the origin and development of the
Prasiidas, the Hindu Temples, their manifold classifications, lay-outs,
measurements, superstructure and the finial as well as the decorative
motifs both of the central shrine, the Prasada, and the accessory
buildings like Maudapas, the pavilions, the places of piety and religi-
ous with the Jagatis, the raised platforms for congrega-
rites together

tional gatherings and social festivities, the basements of the temples,

(cf. ahead for the detailed division of the subject chapter-wise —vide
the tabulation of the re-arranged chapters).

As regards the different styles of temple architecture, it has

added two more to the ternary of Nagara, Dravida and Vavata (or
Vairata, Vesara, being conspicious by its absence in this manual)
the Bhumija and Lata (though it docs not use this last term), besides
dwelling upon at length on the manifold temple-types, the jatis of the
Prasadas. All this will be dealt with in detail in its proper place
(Pt. V.).

In the last fourteen chapters (70 to 83) is treated Iconography

both sculptural and pictorial. To the sculpture proper are devoted
as many as eight chapters in details of the Pratima-laksana of the
Lingas and their pedestals as well as of other principal gods and
goddesses together with the standard measurements, mudras and
defects of the icons sculptured or painted.

To
the Canons of Painting this text devotes six chapters (71 to
75 and 82 cf. the tabulation ahead). As already pointed out, the
treatment of painting in this manual is its special feature and a full
 INTRODUCTORY 31

notice of its contribution is critically examined in the writer’s inde-

pendent work ‘Hindu Canons of Painting or Citralaksa^am’.

(ii) The Method of Treatment.

Now with this general introduction to the work, I may proceed

with the method of treatment to be attempted. While acquainting
myself with the contents of the work and the objects found in the mo-
numents representing all phases of evolution and development of Indian
architecture with the help of the contemporary writings on architec-
ture, I began to feel that perhaps all is not well. The subject of
architecture being of a very technical nature, it is difficult to do full

justice to it unless one has a body of scholars specialists in their own

respective branches. History, Archaeology, Engineering, Drafting,
Painting, Sculpture, Iconometry, etc. etc. This co-operative and
co-ordinated venture is essential for a synthetic outlook in the archi-
tectural researches on this most fascinating branch of Indology, A
merely textual treatment of the subject or one based on the study of
the actual monuments can not give the full results. Both need to be
correlated. I began to feel that for a scholar doing research on a
work like this, a merely textual treatment of the subject will not do.
That is, the study of a treatise on the science of architecture would be
neither complete nor very much beneficial,
unless we take into account
the existingmonuments and other specimens of buildings (such as are
found in ancient paintings, and base-reliefs etc.) and make an attempt
to evaluate how far these treatises were followed by the architects
and and the Sthipakas of the day that is, again
their gurus, sthapatis —
how works on Vastu-sastra were the standard^ compendiums
far these
and guide-books on architecture of the monumental buildings the —
stupendous work of art-craftmanship. And conversely how far the
contents — the innumerable varieties of classifications of buildings,
their elaborate treatments, ornamental super-structures and different
layouts and proportionate measurements of the temples and other
buildings as depicted in them actually correspond to the facts. This
treatment of the subject may be termed as the objective approach to
Indian architecture as the true import of the term implies. It is both
a science and art. I, therefore, may be permitted to remark that
this synthetic point of view in the treatment of Indian architecture
has been hardly followed by scholars. Though it is a fact that the
traditional lore and practical guidance handed down from generation
to generation in the families of the mason-architects scattered
throughout this great land were a problem to tackle. The texts were
distorted, the custodians illiterate^ hence any grappling with this
 32 INtRODUCTOI^Y

field of inquiry was beset with insurmountable difficulties. The result

has been th^ft Indian architecture as treated in the contemporary
works, does not show its indigenous character. The avoiding of the
and pursuing the royal path of actually studying the existing
dfficulty
monuments, little caring about the architectural traditions behind them,
the Gastric injunctions guiding them, are, in my opinion, only doing
half the work. The no doubt are obvious. The architectural
limitations
survey by the Indologists in both the fields of textual and objective
investigations of the subject suffered from this limitation. The monu-
mental works of Havell, Smith, Coomarswamy, Furgussen and
Burgess and other savants in the field, while investigating minutely
the character, style and other allied details of the composition of the
ancient and medieval monuments, have hardly given their serious
thoughts to the manuals of architecture and their correspondence to
the actual monuments. Dr. Acharya, while pioneering the investiga-
tion of a standard manual on architectural science, the Manasara, in

as many as seven volumes, has hardly shown the correspondence of

the Manasara mansions to the actual monuments. The intensive
study of an architectural text like the S. S. and its commentary in the
light of the existing monuments is the real approach to this difficult

subject. Though it is very difficult to follow a middle path, the path

of the synthetic treatment of the subject, in which the manuals and
monuments both should receive due attention, I have set this ideal

for myself, the following of which will be my life’s task.

This isone aspect of the new investigation. The other aspect,

which is equally essential, is the unfolding of the culture of which it
is a representative, and I have never lost sight of the fundamental
angle in my studies. We know that some of the basic conct*ptions of

architecture are religious in character and the religious origin of

Indian Architecture is well-known. This religious background of

Indian architecture represents the broad cultural view of Hindu life.

This point can be expanded very much, but our aim is only to hint at
it as one of the important points of view in our study of these techni-

cal sciences.

(Ui) Method of Stody and the Re-arrangement of the S. S.

Lastly in this introductory chapter, I ought to have indicated

the method of study I have followed in this work but this topic has

been dealt with in the ^‘Introduction” of this work.

A special mention, in this connection, has to be made of the
re-arrangement of the contents (chapter-wise) of the S. S. which I
have made. It was necessitated, because the author being a king,
 INTRODUCTORY 33

the compilation and the arrangement might have been left to some
of his assistants, or it might be a later mishap that the j)resent arrange-
ment is faulty and gives an impression that the work, especially the
first 48 chapters of it, lack coherence, logical sequence and order
(vide Dr. Acharya’s notice of the S. S.—H. A. I, A. pp. 178-81). Hence
an attempt at the re-arrangement of the chapters is made to rectify

this defect —vide the chapter ‘

The study
Hindu Science of Archi-
of
tecture.’ hus in brief is indicated my humble attempt towards the
I

great task of studying a technical work, making known to the public,

its contributions in the realm of architecture. Whether I have been
successful in interpretating the data faithfully and correctly or not, is

for the scholars to judge. Fortunately many of them are living, and
to them owe a debt of gratitude, because, but for their pioneering
I

work in this field, a scholar like myself with meagre resources could
never have attempted the humble study of a great work. I am really
very happy to remark that this study of Bhoja’s Samarangana-sitra-
dhara has been acclaimed a pioneer work —vide the report of the
examiners (extracts given in the Introduction),
 CHAPTER II

THE SCOPE & THE SUBJECT MATFER OF ARCHITECTURE

(1) Scope.

Samarangana reads like a Parana of VSs(u-sSstra. The first

seven chapters, the preliminary chapters which deal with the advent
of the Earth ;
the dialogue between Visvakarma and his sons ; the
Qjaery (the questions regarding the science and art of architecture
in its broadest sense of the term) —the Creation, the earth with its

continents, oceans, rivers and countries ;

the origin of the first house
and the division of the society into the Varnas and Asramas — all these
preliminary chapters though apparently dealing with ‘‘entirely non-
architectural matters” are really not so. In them we find the term

Vastu not only fully explained but its scope and its relation with
sciences like Cosmology, Geology, Astronomy, Geography and
Architecture itself is fully indicated as a study of the contents of these
chapters will show,

(a) Philosophical and Cosmological.

We are familiar with the philosophy of the Vastu-Brahma-Vada.

The philosophical or religious background commonly attributed to
these treatises, represent their truly Indian character. In India we
can not draw a line of demarcation between Science and Philosophy.
The truth is, a science without a philosophy or religious background
is not a complete science, according to Hindu view of life. It is in

keeping with the fundamental background of the Indian science that

even such a practical or matter of fact science as the science of archi-
tecture is, has such a lofty philosophical theory as ‘Vastu-Brahma-
V5da’ or ‘Vastu-Puriisa-Vada’ as its background. The growth and
evolution of the temple, the chief feature of Indian architecture both
in the ancient and medieval periods of Indian History, represents this
ideal of the architectural science from the bottom to the top (vide
Part V. the Prasada- Vastu). The temple as a divine image according
to our SSstric injunctions, has divinc-ness all round, below and above,
within and without, all aglow with the divine presence. The archi-
tectural motif of the temple super-structure from the bottom to the
finial represents the divinity in both its aspects —the one with form and
the other formless (Sahara and Nirakara).
 AkciilTECfuRB ^5

What is its implication in relation to the scope of the science ?

The essence of the Sanskrit word Vastu is planning. Creation and
Planning must go together. Creation of the world and its planning
are twin The author of the Samarahgana must be having
sisters.

this fundamental truth in mind when he says (cf. 2iid Chapter, 4th
verse) that Brahma, before creating this world, created Vastu.
Gosmologically, therefore, all this creation is a planned unit. This
is a universal aspect and it corroborates the fundamental truths of
life and conduct forming the first essence of civilisation, in which the
ordered society and lawful, peaceful, beautiful way of life is to be
evolved. Hence the planning of such a part of the Universe viz.

the Earth, requires concentrated effort of the trinity or triad, i. e. the

architect-planner, the patron king and the substratum, the earth.
This trio is represented by Visvakarma, the heavenly architect,
appointed by Brahma himself, to build places of habitation on earth;
the king Prthu, the patron king who was primarily entrusted .with
the work of levelling the earth and making it fit for growth and

habitation and the Earth itself also must co-operate in order to

accomplish the planning. This is the sum and substance of the first
chapter (see Vastulaksana also.) This character of the planning — the
'planning, the essence of architecture, its pre-requisites —indicates that
the stand-point from which an architect has to start his work, the
unbroken traditional mission of Visvakarma, as entrusted by that
Primordial Creator Brahma Himself, can not be a limited one. It is

in keeping with the broad principle of life and conduct that some
philosophical background has been provided in practically all the
so-called material sciences and arts. This cosmological background of
the scope of architecture is in keeping with the Indian vievy of life.

We know that an ideal planning of a house, of necessity, takes

into its account the planning of its surroundings. Similarly the ideal
planning of a town or city or a village or fort must, of necessity,
take into account the region in which it is located* Again the regional
planning in its turn must take into account the character of the
country, the Janapada, Rastra, Deia, as a whole with its rivers,

mountains, seas, forests and the like. But a country, however well-
planned, if it remains isolated and does not take care of the well-being
of other countries, discord, dispute, unhappy quarrels, fights, wars
and all that will be the result and this result is an abiding misery
and unhappiness. Hence, for its own happiness, safety and peade
a country must, of necessity, take into account the planning of all

other countries. Thus the planning of the whole world on earth ,

egnerges. The thing docs not end here* In the solar system, thq,
^6 AkokiTEc^URia

relative size of the earth is known to us and there are so many other
such systems comprising this vast universe. The life on earth is
very much influenced by, and rather dependent on, other planets.
In one word the different planets are interdependent. When such
arc the natural truths showing the interdependence of the planets^
should the truths not be brought home to man and should there be
no interdependence and inter-cooperation, in one
inter-association
Word inter-planning between nation and nation, man and man ?
Surely it should be, rather it must be, otherwise the results would be
simply bad. This is the import of the cosmological aspect of the s

scope of architecture as hinted in the preliminary chapters of the

S, S. (I to 7).

(b) Meta«physical,

Now as to the metaphysical implication of the scope of archi-

tecture, we know that the drawing of the square-plan technically
called Vastu-Purusa-Mandala, is imperative before any building-
activity can be undertaken. According to the S. S. (45*2) the
knowledge of itsmeaning and execution is the first limb of the
Sthiipatya, the first discipline which the architect must master. This
physical drawing is symbolic of the metaphysical doctrine of all-pervad-
ing cosmic principle, according to Harivafisa (chapter 1-7): ‘‘The
Purusa is the Universal Essence, the Principle of all things, the Prime
Person whence all originates”. Again ‘Vastii’ here, is the extent of
existence inits ordered state and is beheld in the likeness of the

Purusa. The image of the Supernal or Cosmic Man, the PuruSa is

congruous and identical to the planned site”. This is what the S S.
in its very opening benedictory verse unfolds in the conception of
Lord Siva—'the architect of all the three worlds.

(c) Astronomical-Astrological.

Architecture really is very intimately related to Astronomy and

Mathematics. Ayadi-nirpaya is an important chapter in the S. S.
full of astronomical details. This Ayadi is technically kxiawn as
Sad-varga, a group of six, six formulas, ‘with which the perimeter of
structure should conform’. These formulas, however, are treated
differently in different texts, nevertheless, all arc unanimous to accord
an important place to this astronomical chapter in their treatises.
These formulas may be taken as six canons of Indian architecture
V. K. R. Menon’s pamphlet ^Six Canons of Indian Architecture*).
(cf.

The celebrated astronomer, Varlhamirhira’s work B^hat-samhiia is

one of the authoritative manuals on the Vistu-lS^istra (Architecture
A Sculpture both). Vlistu-Sistra may be called applied- Astronomy.
 AkcklTECTliRB 57

Varakamihira while introducing the chapter on architecture (52nd)

in his Brhat-Samhita, says ‘‘Vastujnana, architecture, \/ill be explained
by me for the pleasure of the astronomers and astrologers as has been
transmitted from Brahm^ to our own day through an unbroken line

of sages’’.

Building operation can commence only under favourable stars.

The Ayadisadvarga, treated here in the book, and invariably treated

in every manual is a fact to bear out the testimony of Astronomy.
We have already noticed the metaphysical implication of the VSstu-
Purusa-Mandala. Its cosmological and magical implications in the

field of Astronomy-astrology are derived from the same. This

astronomical and astrological implication has been very ably established
by Prof. Stella Kramisch (cf. H. T. P. 37). The S. S. devotes a consi-
derable portion to the heavenly bodies as the constellations (vide
chapters 5. 85-104 ;
and 11 to 14) who do exercise their influence on
the creative activities of mankind*

The intimate relation between astronomy-astrology (also Mathe-

matics) and architecture is established in more than one ways.
While describing the qualifications that go to make an expert archi-
tect, the S. S. mentions the knowledge of astronomy-astrology and

mathematics as an indispensible equipment of an architect and thereby

the essential constituents of the science of architecture (chapter 44-
4-4). The work also hints at the ancient tradition of the intimate
relation between the science of architecture and the science of stars
as handed down from BrahmS (whose abode is the lotus) (10-77).
Again a knowledge of form (rupa), number and proportion was an
indispensible equipment (cf. Sthapati-Laksana Ch. 44), Mathematics
and architecture had their root in the Vedic altar. The iSulba-SStra
contained in the Kalpa-sutras prescribe proportionate measurements
for laying out and setting up the Vedic Altar. A learned Mathe-
matician Mahavira, of the early medieval period speaks of the use of the
science of number (ganita) in architecture (cf. his ‘Ga^ita-sara-

sangraha (1. 9-19).

(4) Geographical & Geological.

one of the unique features of the work that the Samarangana
It is

considers, for the well-ordered planning of a town, a region or a

country or a building (Chapter I. 4-5 cf. V. L. p. 4), as an essential
knowledge of the topography of the land and
pre-requisite, not only a
the surroundisngs in which the planning is to be commenced, but also

such a knowledge of the whole world rather —

the whole universe with
all its stars, planets, continents, rivers, mountains, seas, varsas, etc.
38 ARCHITECTURE

This is why it has devoted a full-fledged chapter of a hundred

lines to the exposition of the physical geography of the world in
which the dimensions of the earth, its shape etc., the sevenfold
continents beginning with Jambu-Dvipe, together with their respec-
tive peoples, mountians, rivers and seas, lokalokacals and lastly, the

movements of the heavenly bodies are described. The survey of the

land and the site, the examination of the soil conditions, the testing
of the soils—these are the first fundamentals of the architectural
planning. Samarangana gives first place to the geological or physio-
graphical survey in any undertaking of architectural planning. Jaya,
the spokesman of his brothers, puts the query to his celebrated father,
ViSvakarma regarding these subjects in one of these pielirninary
chapters of the work ( 3rd Chapter vide V. L. also ), Thus the
architecture may also be said to be applied Geology, where the exa-
mination of the soils having different varieties of sound, touch, smell,
colour and taste and the testing thereof to ascertain whether a soil is

fit for building of a town, a village, or a house or not, are prescribed.

Both porous and loose soils are avoided and deemed unfit for the
construction of a building (S. S. Chapter 8).

Again the story of Prthu and Prthivi, as related in the very first
chapter of theS. S. and also the 7th Chapter, the last number of the

Preliminary Chapters is re-counted with the one aim of giving the

stability of the site on the unstable and moving earth. The accounts
of ^atapatha-Brahmaua and Sankhyayana-Grhya-Sutra, if examined
and related with this story, and the Pauranika story found in Puni^ias
like Visnu and others, represent the geological implication in the
profoundest manner. King Prthu whose proto-type is Yama, the
Dharamraja, has not only made the earth yield corn for the benefit
o. mankind, but has also levelled her in order to establish human

habitations. She becomes then fit for the laying out of the habita-
tions both of mortals and immortals.

(e) Architectural.

Lastly, in unfolding the very broad scope of architecture, the

implication of the term Vastu, as understood by the ancient Acharyas
of the Science, is very helpful. According to Manasara, the term
Vastu in its broadest sense implies dhara (the earth), harmya (build-
ing) Yiaa (conveyance) and Paryanka (bedstead). Amplifying the
four-fold implication of architecture, Dr. Acharya says (vide Encyclo.
456) ^‘Thc building or Harmya includes PrSsada, Mandapa, Sabha,
Sala, Praps and (a) Ranga. The conveyance or Yana includes
A.dika> Syandana, ^ibika and Ratha. The bedstead or Paryanka
 —— — — —

ARCHITECTURE 39

includes Panjara, MaBcali, Manca Kakastha, Phalakasana and

B51a-paryanka (ibid 7-12). The term denotes also villages, towns,
forts, commercial cities, etc , a dwelling house, a group of houses

(cf. Pastya), a site ( R. V. IV, 37, 2 I, 2; A. V. II, 12, I, etc. ).

Sculpture is the handmaid of architecture and is secondarily implied

by the term ‘Vastu’.” Puraiias like Agni (ch. GVI, V. I) and Garuda
(Chapter XLVI) corroborate this implication. Kautilya’s Artha-
^aStra (chapter LXV. page 166) also corroborates this broad scope
of architecture. The S. S. while introducing the need of architecture
and benedictory institution illustrates the subject
as an auspicious
by enumeration of some of these implications in the 4th and 5th
verses of the first chapter constituting the scope of architecture
cf. V. L. — Desa, the country (
cf. the different varieties of
the desa and the manifold varieties of desa-bhumis, thus is indi-

cated the Regional planning constituting the first step towards

any group planning); Pura, the town (cf. the different varieties
of towns ;
the capital cities, the commercial towns etc. ) ;

Nivasa— the habitations, like villages and hamlets, scattered in

the country side; Sabha, the assembly hall or the council chamber
(forming one of the accessory structures in a royal palace); Vesnia,
the three broad divisions of house architecture, the residential houses,
the palaces of kings, and the temples, the abodes of gods and
goddesses and the >Asaaa, the seats, thrones, the cots and couches,
etc. A more detailed presentation of the S. S. ‘s treatment of the
Scope of architecture will follow (vide the Pra§na, the Query),
ahead.

According to Mayarnata, Bhumi, Prasadas, Yana and iSayana

constitute the Vastu and these form the principal topics of the
contents of the S. S. Yana, in the S. S. is aeroplane (cf. Chapter 31).

However this is not enough. Architecture is both a science

and an art. Therefore, the business of the architecture is not only
to lay down the norms for the guidance of architectural creations
but also to evolve these creations in such a manner as to give an
aesthetic experience, the apperception of which makes an individual
forget himself and experience such a blissful state as to plunge
himself into another world —the world of Beauty. When we sec
Kailash at Ellora, the monumental caves, the painting of Ajanta, and
the like, the sublime architectural remains in our land, we feel we
have seen not the work of man but of an angel. The Creator Brahma
had created this world. It was left to ViSvakarma, the .first archi-
tect of the world to plan it| and to plan it beautifully. The story
 :

40 AftCHiTMGTUWE

goes that after creation Brahma entrusted the work of maintenance

to Prthu, the first king on earth from whom the earth, among other
names, is called Prthivi. A warricr king could not accomplish the
task of an artist. A Bhupati and Sthapati are two different men.
Naturally Pinhu failed and so he went to Brahma to relate his woeful
story. The goddess Earth away went to Brahma. The
too straight
king and the mother Earth when both approached Brahma, He called
in ViSvakarma and entrusted the task of this planning to him.
Visvakarma took counsels from his four sons who were as skilled as
the father and narrated his mission and asked them to cooperate in
the great mission of the planning of the world. This brings us to the
subject matter proper.From high heavens we come down on earth. In
the Third Chapter (Pra§na, The Query), Jaya, the eldest son of
Visvakarma, assumes the role of the spokesman of his brothers and
put the questions to his father relating to the different subject-
matters of the science. This is the traditional way ofPurva and
Uttara Paksas, the literary technique of the Sastras. The whole l)ook
is nothing but an exposition of these different questions as archi-
tectural canons relating to the different matters, forming the very
structure of the whole science. These questions relate to the follow-
ing subject-matters of the science and art of Architecture and arranged
on selfsame procedure of preliminary, town-planning, house-archi-
tecture, mechanical construction, temple-architecture and iconography
(see also V. L.)
i Preltminary

A. Cosmological (4, 7 & 8);

(i) —Mahabhutas, Amarapuri and the luminaries

Creation ;

(ii) The movements of the planets — solar-system and other cons-

tellations and the relative distances among each other,
together with their Substratum and the Instrumental cause ;

(iii) The existence above the earth, above and below the
MahSbh&tas,
B. Ciiltiiral (9) :

The land-marks in the human culture in the different phases of

its existence^thc Yuga and its Dharma— the first species of creation,
the first king, the first planet, the first Varna,
C. Geographll^al (5 & 9):
(i) Earth, its shape, size, base, measure — ^length, breadth, circum-
ference, diametre and area ;

(ii) Mountains, their height and length and breadth ;

 ARCHITECTURE 41

(iii) Cantincnts and varsas (countries) with their rivers, oceans

and peoples and other characteristics,

D, Geological (10, 11 & 38):

Re-surveying of the land, the Desa and the examination of the

manifold varieties of the DcSa-bhtLmis as well as the different soils

having variety in sound, touch, smell, colour and taste and their
examinations to ascertain their suitability in planning of the different
classes of habitations in accordance to castes and professions.

E. Architectural (34, 39 aud 40 etc).

Scope, subject-matter and the schools of architecture, the architect

and architecture, the preliminaries like offerings and foundations,
Sutrana, Adhivasana, Orientation by means of a gnoman, the
^alyodharavidhi, the Istika-karma, the brick-work and the process
of their finish.

II, Town-planning (11-18 and 29-31),

(i) The land-survey in connection with plannig of towns in all

their categories like capital cities, forts, villages, khetas, etc,

with approaches, frontiers and boundaries, fortification con-
sisting of the ramparts, parapets, as well as doors (gates and
gopuras) together with towers and turcsts, etc, and other
devices to make it look more beautiful;

(ii) Street-planning;

(iii) Site-planning;

iv) The installation of the Indra’s Flag and foundation and dedica-
tion of temples and shrines etc;

(v) The folk-planning, castewisc and profession-wise (jativarjjiSdhi-

vasa),

IIU Hous^Arcbltecture (21-28, 32, 33, 35-37 and 4U59),

(i) The palace-architecture — the palace with all its appurtenances

and other establishments, viz, pleasure-gardens, kitchens,
treasury, arsenals, stores, gymnasium, dancing and music
halls,bath-rooms with showers and fountains, bed-chambers,
theatre, glass-rooms, queens* chambers with swing-rooms
and lying-in-chamber, the ASoka-lines, creeper-sheds, orch-
ards, pavillions, all well decorated; Vapis, wooden hills,
flower-beds, as well as the residences of princes, priests,
prime minister, commander and other royal personages.
42 architecture

(ii) The House-Architecture — the varieties of the houses in general,

their ^component parts like salas and alindas, with their
mouldings, the special varieties of houses, the material, the
masonry, the decorations as well as other architectural details
of the timber-work, brick-work, door-work, pillar-work, the
roofing (the canopies etc.), and so on so forth;

(iii) Measurements, the site-planning of nine plots, sixty four plots,

eighty one ones etc. as well as Bhahgas and Vedhas etc ;

IV. Yantras etc.

Mechanical construction and the construction of the articles
of furniture inferred from (cf. DIrukriya 55), though not
specially mentioned.

V. Temple Architecture (ibid).

Prasadas, their proportions of measurements, layouts, storeys,

likharas and other elements of structure and superstructure
and the finial together with mouldings, etc. etc.

VI. Iconography (Sculpture) (20)

Gods and goddesses in their conveyances, seats, in accompa-
niment of the Parivara Devatas, colours, forms, ornaments,
drapery, decorations, weapons, the age and other emblems.

VII* The Painting (55).

Ghitra-kriya and Lepya-kriy3.

Dr. Acharya in his Tndian Architecture, according to Mansira

§ilpa-§3stra* has very ably and aptly brought out an all-pervading
and all-embracing scope of the science of Architecture. We know
that many treatises on the science of architecture in India have been
titled as Silpa-sastras. “The term Silpa’’ Dr. Archarya says “means
an art, fine and mechanical. It covers some sixty four such arts’*. But
the Silpa-sastra in these treatises is used in the sense of the Vastu-
Sastra, and the Vastu-vidya is enumerated as one of the sixty four
kalas or silpas*. This in my opinion must be an old tradition when
VSstu-vidya had not come to its own. In the First Century A. D,
however (the age of iSukra) the scope of Vastu-vidya had assumed
such an enormous, all-absorbing and all-embracing character that it
became synonymous with all arts. It is why as per Dr. Acharya’s treat-
ment referred to, above, the literal meaning of Vastu-§3stra would
be science of architecture. But a complete Vastu-^astra deals with
more than what is generally understood by architecture. In the
VSstu-Sastra, as we have seen in the preceding pages of the study
together with the broad ^cope pf architecture as just hinted by
 ARCHITECTURE 43

the Samarahgana itself, the term architecture is taken in its broadest

sense and implies what is built or constructed. I hus in the first

place it denotes all kinds of buildings, religious, residential, military

and auxiliary members and component mouldings. Secondly, it covers
town-planning, laying out gardens, constructing market places inclu-
ding ports and harbours; making roads, Inddges, gateways, triumphal
arches; digging wells, tanks, trenches, drains, towers, moats; building

enclosure-walls, embankments, railings, landing places, flight of steps

for hill and bathing ghats and ladders. Thirdly it covers articles of fur-
niture such as bedstead, ward-robes, baskets, cages, nests, mats, conve-

yances, lamps and lamp-posts for streets. It also includes the making of

dresses and ornaments, such as chains, crowns, headgear and footwear

and arm-wear. Architecture also includes sculpture and deals with
carving of phalli, idols of deities, statues of great personages, images
of animals and birds. It is also concerned with such preliminary
matters as the selection of site, testing of soil, planning, designing,

and finding out cardinal points by means of a giiotnan, dialling and

astronomical and astrological calculations” — (vide ‘‘Indian Architec-

ture acc. to Manasara Silpa-sastra” page 1-2).

This is a bird’s eye-view of the treatment of the scope of Vaslu-

Sastra as given in the two most representative texts of Indian Art,

the Samarafigana-sutradhara (N3gara School) and the Manasara
(DrSvida School); as regards the treatment by other texts like the
Aparajita-praccha, Mayamata etc., it should be studied in the Vastu-
laksana.
 CHAPTER III

THE ARCHITECT AND ARCHITECTURE

The Sthapati.
Much
has been written on the Indian Architect both in the
criticalcontemporary literature and. the Gastric compendiums, but
the account which we get in the Samarahgana (vide Chapters 44 & 45
Sthapati-Laksana and Astahga-laksana) is unique in the respect that
it is not only more detailed but is more systematic and scientific from
the modern point of view. We know that in India the science of
architecture by the time of the S. S. had reached its fullest develop-
ment. Some of the noblest and largest Prasadas were set up about the
tenth Century A. D. Naturally, therefore, in a building construction
like the large Prasadas where hundred thousands of men, masons,
labourers, artisans, and artists were working in complete cooperation
and uniformity of purpose with devotion and dedicated life, the
water-tight divisions of the builders, the traditional fourfold division
of the artists into Sthapati, SiitragrShin, Vardhaki and Taksaka had
lost its importance. According to the S. S. there were only two broad
classifications of these servants of God and humanity at large —-the
Sthapati, the master-architect and the Sthapaka, the architect-priest,
'
he Guru, the AchSrya. This latter personality had importance only
in the planning and setting up of religious structures namely the
PrasSdas, the temples; otherwise the master architect, the Sthapati
was the sole authority in any building activity — civil or royal.
We know that it is the architect who makes what the Architec-
ture is (Sthapatya —• W All the Gastric rules, all the

materials, rich and varied, are useless, unless the architect so combines
them, so moulds and shapes them —in one word— so reorientates them
that (tuite a new thing emerges, a new creation springs up. Like a
poet, the weaver of dreams, he weaves the poetry of buildings, like a
musician he produces the rhythm of the structure, and like a creator,
he creates a new was the genius or the superb artistic
creation. It

craftmanship which has been responsible in producing monumental

buildings like Kailash at Ellora. Mr. Percy Brown (Indian Architec-
ture page 90) speaking of Kailash at Ellora pays a glowing tribute to
the master-mason whose dream had taken a concrete manifestation.
«

The specimens of architectural achievements in monuments, our

great heritage and pride, are equally aglow with the glowing tribute
Mr. P. Brown has paid to liailash.
 THE AkOHITEGT AND ARCHITECTURE 4S

'the architect (the Sthapati) and architecture (Slhapatya), from

the point of view of pure art, are an integrated wholt!. The S. S. in
the very opening lines of the Chapter 44th — Sthapati-laksaua—Quali-
fications that go to make a Sthapati —says, “I am now going to
describe the Sthapatya as handed down to us from generation to
generation, by the knowing of which the values and defects of the
architects are known**. The Sthapatya is fourfold —the traditional
lore (Sastra), the practical experience (Karma), intuitive insight
(Prajna) and the righteous conduct and character, (Sila) (ibid 2).

These four elements comprised of the science of architecture arc

tobe taken from the standpoint of an architect. These are really the
qualities, the qualifications constituting the fundamental equipment
which goes to make a Sthapati, an architect.

A Sthapati is not only adept in the iSastra, i. c. the science of

architecture, the traditional lore ashanded down from generation to
generation and expounded by the ancient Acharyas like ViSvakarma,
Maya, Garga, Agastya, Kasyapa, Manasara, etc. etc. he should also ;

have the practical knowledge of the ^astra. He should be an adept

builder —'a skilled artcraftsman. Again only the knowledge of the
practical experience and the artistic perfection thereof will not do, if
he lacks the personal Insight, the genius of an architect (cf. the
example of Kailash at EUora). This is very important, because at
times the Gastric canons and the practical experience are all of no

avail and it is his personal intuition, the immediate perception which

comes to his rescue. Apart from these three qualifications, an
architect must be a man of character above reproach both in the
precepts and in example. Only such an equipped person can be
a real Sthapati#

This is the general exposition of the equipment of a Sthapati.

Let us go on with the text (vide Chapter 44) and take these one by
one in detail (see V. L. also).

1. The knowledge of the Science— Vastn Sastra.

It is the first qualification which an architect must possess to
start with. This Vastu-sastra, it may be pointed out, consists of the
knowledge of the canons of the site-pianning and its layout, the
planning of the buildings, the laying out of gardens, parks, town-
planning and regional planning and all that constitutes the traditional
iubjcct-matter of architecture (as already expounded). All this
comes under dilpa. Apart from 6ilpa, his intellectual equipment
should be broadened with the knowledge of carpentery, engineering,
machine-making (Yantra-karma-vidhi) etc. Not only this^ he should
46 AftCUlTEGT AMD ARCHITEGTOR^

be a skilled mathematician, an astronomer and astrologer and profi-

cient in the knovvledge of the ^iras, the conditions of different places
(ill order to avoid the Marma-vcdha or any Vedha so meticulously en-
joined by the ^astra). The mental make-up needs not only the balance
of mind and body, a subjective attitude in the architect, but this
balancing should be mirrored in his art too. what is meant by This is

the knowledge of the Ghandas —

the rhythm spoken of, by the text in
combination with the knowledge of astronomy, astrology and mathc-
—
matics (chapter 44 verses 3 and 4).

On this iSastric equipment of an architect the text is very explicit*

It says (ibid 6-8) if an architect is ignorant of the sastras and, not
having done any labour in their acquisition, adopts the profession of
an architect, and is proud of his false knowledge, he must be done to
death by the king himself. Such a self-conceited fellow is Raja-hirh-
saka. He is bound to bring death in this world if allowed to practice
his false knowledge. In India, an architectural action, regarded
as a religious action, a ritual, like a Vedic sacrifice, pre-supposes cent
per cent perfection. Any imperfection was beset with evil consequen-
ces so much elaborated in these texts.

2. Practical Experience.

An architect, howsoever well-versed in the traditional science, if

he is not a master builder, unskilled in the work, must become nervous

in actual operations. Like a timid man on the battle-field he must
faint at the time of action. Conversely, an architect skilled in action
but ignorant of the Sastra is also not a happy type. He is like a
helpless blind fellow to be helped by others in his movements (walk-
ing and building). Such a helpless fellow must, always be an
apprentice to others and can never assume the role of a master-
builder. He is compelled to rely on others. Hence adeptness in

action is one of the essential constituents in making up an architect

(ibid 8-10). What is the Karma ? The text gives the first priority
to site-planning, then come the measurements, proportions in all
rcspects-^mana, unmana, etc. After this follows the soil-examination
with practical prescribed tests to ascertain whether a site is fit for an
architectural undertaking. All this is related to the ground-plan.
There is masonry, there are the component parts of building, their
mouldings and roofings, etc. They require an expeft^ hand in their
delineation with profusion of architecturaT devices tike 14 Luma-
lekhas, and the seven»-fold Vrtta-chedas
four-fold GandikS-chedas »

together with the correct joinery in the wooden beams and other
wooden material used in the house-construction (ibid 1()-12). Beside^
 THE ARCHITECT ANI> ARCHITECTURE 47

this practical experience^ the mastery of another eight-fold skill

beginning with Alekhya (painting), Lepyajata (clayAnoulding etc.))

Daru-karma (timber-work), Gaya, the masonry and the art of sculpture

and metallurgy are also enjoined by the text (idid 20-21).

3. The personal insight, PrajSa*

Again whatever degree of mastery and perfection an architect has

attained both in the science and art, he is not yet a perfect
architect^ if he lacks the personal insight, the immediate intuition,
readiness of judgment in contingencies, he is like an ichorless (nirmada)
elephant who has lost his worth (ibid 13 & 14). Therefore, personal
insight equipped with immediate intuition and the ability to proceed
with the work even in dire contingencies is like an anchor in the
fathomless ocean of the science of architecture. “This ocean of the
science of architecture is very vast, difficult to fathom, devoid of light
and pervaded with darkness allround, and having many regions still

unexplored, can be crossed only when a wise man has an intuitive

knowledge as his vessel. Only a wise captain can steer the ship of
architecture (ibid 15).” This Prajria equipment is really a great
distinction of a true Sthapati (cf. the builder of the Kailash at Ellora
• who himself was struck with wonder saying, ‘Oh ! How was it that
I built it’ —Dr. R. G. Bhandarker —Indian Anti-quary Ved* XII
page 228).

4, The Character.
Over and above all these qualifications, the cream of the qualifi-
cations is the character above reproach which an architect must possess
(ibid 16-18), The sacred task of architecture can be entrusted only
to an architect of high moral character. In its absence he is suscepti-
ble to anger, envy, jealousy and greed, attachment and confusion
which are great hurdles in the evolution of a true and auspicious
art, the only aim of the science of architecture (S, S, 44). Therefore,

the S. S. IS very vocal on this essential qualification of a Sthapati and

says, “an architect must strive at all cost to maintain his character

and conduct. It isonly then that the actions bear fruit and they in
their turn become the harbingers of goodness on earch” (ibid).

This is the Samarangaua’s treatment of the Sthapati. The treat-

ment of Sthapati, Gilpin, Achs^rya, Sutradhara, etc. by other works
may be purviewed in the Vastulaksana. Other details regarding
the traditional origin of the architect-guilds, etc. may not be repeated
here and they can be seen in works like Dr, Acharya’s Encylopaedia
of Hindu Architecture, . .
- -
 :

48 THE architect AND AROHITEOTDRE

Incidently a few words may be added on the fall of architccti

and architecturb which coathed in legendary accounts of the Puranai
neverthclss betoken an implied truth that the sacred lore must not
be possessed of and cultivated by those who have committed a blasphe-
my cither social or religious.

Sthapati is ViSvakarma and is described as a desciplc (anufiisya)

of the Sthapaka, while the other three Sutragrahin, Vardhaki and
Taksaka also are said to be desciples of themselves in turn. In the
Brahma-vaivarta-puraija (I-X. 20-23) is told the descent and fall of
the Hindu architect and the craftsmen, from their celestial origin
(see for details H.T. p. 9).

Sth^patya.

The subject matter of the science of architecture from the stand-

point of an architect, Sthapati has already been elucidated in the pre-
vious pages, but in continuation of the chapter, 44 of the S.S. chapter
45th entitled ^Astahga-laksana’ (sec also V.L.) gives the following cons-
titution of the Vustu-Sartra from the standpoint of an art of Sthapati,
the Sthapatya (w?t; and the Sthapatya is synonymous
with the science of architecture^ Architecture is what the architect
makes

^^This four-foldSthapatya— (as described in the previous chapter)

—^3stra, Karma, Prajna and 6ila—is now being described with its
eightfold limbs” (45-1). Among them the first and foremost is the
settling and forming (VikalpanS) of the V^stu-purusa. This is the
first limb of the body of Hindu Architecture. It is pre-requisite

of all architectural work, sacred and domestic, religious and civil.

The second limb consists of the planning of town, door-work, laying
out of the roads, the planning pf fortification, the enclosure, the
Prakara, etc., the attalaka together with the layout of the lanes,
bylancs and the plotting out the whole area of the habitation of men
and dedication to gods. The third limb is represented by only one
subject—the architecture of Hindu-temple— the Prasada, being the
foremost planning of Hindu Architecture. The 4th, 5th and 6th
arc the raising of the Indra’s flag, the Royal palace with its para-*
phernalia of kingly establishments, the planning of the residential
houses castewise and professionwisc respectively. The seventh Umb,
Spoken of, is the measurement of a sacrificer’s shed, the sacrificial

alt^ and the procedure of the Kojfihoma. The eighth, the last one,

represents the planning of the forts and camps of kings, the encamp**
menta (ibid 2-9).
 —

the architect and architecture 49

This is the S.S.’s conception of a Sthapati and the .Sihapatya, his

art* It is in keeping with the etymological meaning of the word
sthapati — master of what stands or abides. This again is the, impli-

cation as to why the science of architecture —Vasiu-sastra is also called

the Sthapatya-sastra. Both are complementary to each other.

In the end, I may just make a few remarks regarding its place in
the ancient sacred lore of India. Vastu-sastra, the science of archi-
tecture, does not find a place in the traditional list of sacred lore, the
Vidya-sthanani. It does not, therefore, mean that it was not a
Vidya in the traditionally accepted sense of the term. It was part of
the Veda^ the primordial knowledge. We are all familiar that the
Vedas had their Upavedas too. Sthapatya-sastra is one of the
Upavedas, the auxiliary parts of the Veda. It was recounted as an
applied knowledge subordinated to Atharava Veda just as Ayur-
Veda is attached to Rg-Veda, Dhanur-Veda attached to Yajur-Veda
and Gandharva-Veda attached to SSma-veda. Prof. Stella

Kramrisch has very aptly brought out this ancient character of the
science (see H. Temple p. 11): “Vastu-iastra in its fullest exposition

belongs to Tantra which is the applied knowledge of the Atharva-

veda. As a ritual, architecture is moreover doubly linked with the

primordial knowledge, i. e. the Veda and is included in two of the six
Vedangas. These are appendices which are auxiliary to Veda. The
fifth Vedanga — astronomy-astrology, Jyotisa and the sixth Vedanga,
Kalpa, in which are laid down the rules of the sacrificial acts, the
ritual, are both in parts, essential constituents of the science of Indian

architecture. The ^ulba-sutras contained in the Kalpa-satras, represent

the rules and give proportionate measurements for laying out and
piling up the Vedic altar. On them basically rests the building of
the Hindu Temple”. The Samarangana was fully conscious of this
traditional character of the Sthapatya. Accordingly it, in its chapter
tenth entitled, ‘Puranivesa’, (cf. 77th verse), enumerates the fourfold
Sthapatya by the side of the other Upavedas like eightfold medicine
the Ayurveda; seven-fold Military Science— the Dhanur^veda and the
science of luminaries —the Jyotisa Upaveda (the astronomy-astro-
logy), and it also hints at the common founder of all these— the
Creator Brahma^ the lotus-housed one.
 CHAPTER IV
AN OUTLINE inSTOUY OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE
(Both as Science and Art)

It is a difficult subject to be treated in a single chapter. Master

writers have expounded this subject involuminous works. Pens of the
renowned Indologists like Havcll, Furgussen and Coomarswamy have
simply marvelled in unravelling the mysteries of Indian art. Dr. Achai^
.ya’s monumental works have presented the literary side of the subject.
Dr. Bhattacharya’s ‘A study on Vastuvidya’ is a notable dissertation.
This is only a very short notice of the previous writers on the subject*
My attempt therefore here in this chapter is not to take notice of all

these previous writers to make any advancement on the subject, but to

co-ordinate their results in the context of my studies on the Vastusastra
to present the systematized canons of Indian architecture in a limited
space so that the whole study may become a compact whole. This is

rather very ambitious. Nevertheless an attempt is worth-making.

Origin of Indian architecture. Previous writers have posed ques-
tions on antiquity and origin of Indian architecture. But, I think, it

is a needless attempt. Indian culture being historic rather than

historical must bafllle the attempt. Architecture, being one of the
hall-marks of civilization, must have begun with the rise of civilization
itselfand the history of Indian civilization, its origin etc. still baffles
us, I'he finds at Mohenjo-daro and Harrapa cannot be regarded as
non- Indian, A very advanced state of architectural objects unearthed
there consequently cannot be disregarded of their historical value.
Bgvedic allusions and references to a very advanced state of
architecture also cannot be called imaginary. Therefore how
to surmise the origin is not only a problem but also a
mystery, and modern rationalism is all against a mysterious
approach. A scientific approach in relation to an architectural study
must not be based solely on archaeological evidences. The literary
evidences must have an equal importance in reconstructing our past
history despite the absence of any archaeological evidence. Architec-
ture as mirrored in the hymns of the Rgveda is a pointer. There arc
innumerable references in Rgveda which indicate a very advanced
architecture of the day. A few hymns may be referred:
Rig.(Wilson)—IV. 148. 200; 11. 313; IL 41.5; IV. 179; V. 62.6
etc etc.
Ill the first Vasis^ha desired to have a three-storeyed dwelling
(tridhatu-Saranam); in the second is the reference to a sovereign who
 1

HISTORY OF HINDU ARCIIXTECTURK 5

sits down in his substantial and elegant hall built with a thousand-
pillars and the third alludes to residential houses with such pillars
and said to be vast comprehensive, and thousand-doored and lastly
in the fifth Mitra and Varuna arc represented as occupying a great

palace with a thousand pillars and a thousand gales. These arc

evidently spacious hails, the chief characteristic of which is abundant
pillars. There are several expressions (cf the one in the above quota-
tions — ‘tridhatu’ ) in the Rgveda which have been explained by
Sayaua as referring to many-storeyed houses, ^aranam’s is ‘Tridhatub
Puras or towns and their foitihcation \iz. words like ‘Durgani’
‘Asmayasi’ ‘i^atbhuji’ in the folhAving quotations would give you a
picture ol the strong cities or forts. Similarly there arc good many
references and allusions to so many other objects, a detailed notice of
which will follow soon— cf. Rg. I. 58.8; H4.1; II. 20'8; IV. 27.1; 30.20
VIII. 3.7; 15T4; 89.8; 95.1 and cf. also “^Some aspects of earliest
history of India” by S. C. Sarkar p, 19.
Let us now peep into the finds especially connected with build-
ings as discovered in the excavations at Mohenjodaro xincl Harappa»
‘The buildings discovered at the different strata at Mohenjo-daro may
be classified under the following heads : ( 1 )
dwelling-houses,
(2) public baths of religious or secular character, (3) temples of some
kind, and (4) raised platforms, possibly tombs’. I am particularly
interested in storeyed buildingsand those serving as shrines or tem-
ples and I may take liberty to quote Dr. Acharya and Sir John
Marshall in this context. Dr. Acharya says, “With regard to the
existence of a temple, private or public, and of emblems for worship,
Sir John Marshall cippears to have been in fix. He can neither deny
the implications of his own finds nor can he get rid of some kind of
prejudice. Thus in tlie following quotation he appears to deny the

very thing which he seems to believe: ‘All this, however, is sheer

conjecture. Like the Minoans, the Indus people may have had no
public shrines at all, or if they had them, the shrines may have been
wholly unlike their ordinary residences. Among the buildings of
Mohenjo-daro are several whose purpose we have not yet succeeded
in discovering, and any one of these might have been a shrine as well
as anything else.’ Then he refers to two buildings which bear all the
essential features of a Hindu temple: ‘There is the little building
containing two chambers, one much larger than the other with a

corridor at the side, and there is the larger structure, which comp-
rises a large central chamber with a corridor on its western and
souths sides, a well and two other small chambers as its southern
52 HISTORY Ot HINDU ARCHITECTURE

end, and a group of somewhat larger chambers at its northern, the

original plan of which is obscured beneath latter accretions. Little,
unfortunately, is left of this interesting ruin except its foundations,
but these are unusually massive, nearly 10 feet deep with a solid
infilling of crude brick, and presuppose a correspondingly high
superstructure, which might very well have taken the form of a
corbelled Sikhara over the central apartment’’. ‘One without a pre-
conceived idea, but familiar with the common features of a Hindu
temple, would feel no difficulty in identifying the cibove buildings as
ordinary shrines, with a central room where a deity or an emblem is

installed, with necessary side rooms and corridors, and finally,

surmounted with a sikhara’.

‘The inhabitants of Harappa appear also to have been in the
hab’t of offering in their temples crra-cotta cones, with or without
figures of animals, of which several specimen have been recovered.’
Rai Bahadur Day a Ram Sahni is inclined to think that ‘a large cone
of dark stone, 11 inches high resembling the f§iva-linga of modern
times, must have been used for worship* Concerning the existence
of the temples at Harappa, Sir John Marshall does not seem to have
any doubt. Summarizing the account of Sahni, Marshall declares
that the temples stand on elevated ground and are distinguished by
the relative smallness of their chambers and the exceptional thickness
—
of their walls which suggest that they were several storeys in height.
To a temple, also, doubtless belongs the spacious courtyard with
chapels or other apartments on its four sides.

In the context of these observations tlierc arc several ‘scholars

notably Marshall, Chanda and others who surmise that inhabitants of
Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were really the pre-Aryan, probably
Drvidian people of India, known in the Vedas as Dasyus or Asurs,
whose culture was largely destroyed by the invading Aryans. In
corroboration of this surmise the onslaughts and exploits of Indra as
described in the Rgveda are said to bring this surmise to a contention.
It is said (Rg. 4. 30, 20) that Indra overthrew a hundred puras for
his worshipper Divodas. Rgvedic Aryans do not show any cultural
If
influence of these pre-Vedic people on their mode of living and
thought it was only natural because the animosity between the
invading Aryans and the original inhabitants of India, including those
of the Indus valley and farther south and the extreme east was of such
a nature that the former destroyed all the towns, cities (pur, pura)
and forts (durga) of the latter. There arc some other scholars (cf. J.
Ghosh, Indian culturc*--‘Vol. VI) who consider Vedic architecture
^ referred to, from many allusions in the hymns and the Yajus, al
 HISTORY OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 53

fairly advanced and the strong cities or forts described in them,

refer to those of the Asuras who may be identified with Assyrians
who were certainly more advanced in their architectural traditions
than the Vedic Aryans who were more foresters and villagers
than citizens of big cities with ditches and rampart allround.
Who knows these Assyrians or Asuras were really the inhabitants
of Indus valley ? This is what Brown rightly says,
the one hand the inhabitants of the Indus region, as already
shown, were mainly traders and town-dwellers, while on the other
hand the Vedic people were of the country, wresting their living from
the fields and forests. As far as is known the latter were originally
nomads, an offshoot of an immense and obscure migration, who, on
settling down in the plains of India, became partly pastoral and
partly agricultural, having as their habitations rudimentary structures
of reeds and bamboo thatched with leaves. It was not therefore from
the fine houses forming the towns of the Indus civilization but from
such temporary erections s these, and the various simple expedients
;

devised meet the needs of the forest dwellers that Indian

to
architecture had its beginnings. Its foundations were in the soil itself
and from these aboriginal condition it took its development/’

And wc shall have an occasion to trace the rise and development

of Indian architecture from these beginnings which culminated in
what is called the Visvakarma school or Northern school of Indian
architecture*

These Asuras were phallic worshippers and the allusions to the

‘^isna-devas’ or 'Mura-devas’ in the Rgveda also support the
aforesaid hypothesis in view of the abundant material evidences found
in the finds of Harappa end Mohenjo-daro. Rai Bahadur Day a Ram
Sahni supports this conclusion - vide Archaeological Survey of India
Report, 1924-25 p.74 (as already quoted cf. terra-cotta cones).

These Asuras or non-Aryans or Dravidians gave birth to what may

be called Maya school of architecture and therefore the texts like the
MSnasara and the Mayamata particularly the former may be taken
to mirror and epitomise this school. The elaborations and advanced
state of buildings, like Vimanas and Gopurams may be later
interpolations as is usual in India with practically all classes of ancient
literature, the Epics (especially the greater one) the Puranas and other
allied classes of literatureand therefore the ancient ^ilpa texts, com-
had got a foot-hold, could not
piled long after the artistic traditions
remain isolated* They also grew and developed to mirror in them
all the later phases of the evolution and development of art. And if
54 HISTORY OF HINDU ARCHITEGTltRE

the Asura architecture is earlier than the Vedic art, we have n6

alternative but to recognize the earlier aniiquity of Dravidian style.
The paucity of hnds and specimens of Vimana-buildings as described in
these texts cannot stand in our way to fo mulate a working hypothesis.
I shall have occassion to dwell at length on this problem in my
treatment of the styles of Temple-architecture cf. pt. V.

Modern writers begin the history of Indian art from the Mauryan
period. But the recent discoveries and other evidences have righly
influenced writers like Dr. Fabri (a Hungarian scholar) to divide
Art Movements in India in three chronological zones, 1st about 2600
B. G. when one encounters Indian Art during the period of Mohenjo-
daro and Harappa, 2Tid 18oo B. G , nothing is known of the period
between 2600 and 1800 B. G. , owing to thousands of unexplored sites
in Sind and Baluchistan, and the 3rd period beginning from 1800 B. G.
starts the Aryan period and from 300 B. G. starts the period of Asoka
when Indian art manifests itself at its highest form of expression
The paucity of architectural remains in pro-historic times may be
explained as being of secular character and therel^y devoid of great
durability. People live and die. Similarly buildings are raised and
they also are buried in oblivion. The historic art, on the other hand,
got a great impetus, for its development from the religious upsurge. In
India, from the time of Asoka, religion supplied the motive power for
^ilpa, If the Indian Silipin had not obtained religion
as the vehicle of Indian ^ilpa, the marvellous development of Indian
Art would have become quite impossible. Both Buddhism and Hinduism
as well as Jainism were instrumental in the evolution and development
of Indian Art. The famous lion-pillar of Sarnatha, the railings of
Bharhut and pillars and gates of show what Buddhism has
Saiichi,

contributed to the development of Indian art and sculpture. The

Gandhara School or Gupta School only gave expression to the
Buddhist and Hindu religious ideals.
This is one way we have attempted a general introduction to the
subject-matter in hand. There is yet another way, characteris*
tic of Indian mode of treating the subject. Brahma before creating
this world, creited Vastu, and as I have already remarked elsewhere,

Creation and Planning are twin sisters between whom planning may
be deemed as the elder one. Any creation must proceed with
planning before-hand, other-wise it is no creation. And what is the
motive force to plan out first? It is essence of culture and civilization
of mankind to raise itself from savagery to full manhood and if possible
to godhood. Mankind, to evolve its perfection is given three
principles- the Truth, the Beauty and the Good what may be tcchnU
 HISTORY OF HINDU ARCHTTECTLmR 55

cally termed the Satya* the Sundara and the 6iva. Th^y are all inter-
linked to one another. Rise of art is due to the expression of innate
ideas inherent in man and even from the most primitive times he has
been trying to express them by different media and they have given
rise to what we call arts like architecture and painting. If art is

made to give expression only of the idea of Beauty, it cannot stand

the test of ages. It must st^ind wdth truth. Truth and Beauty thus
arc both woven together. It is, therefore rightly said that Beauty is
truth and Truth is Beauty. And a thing which is beautiful and also
true must be good as well. This third element of goodness should
not be viewed in the light of material happiness alone, its spiritual
content is its real genesis. A mere glance at a beautiful object
Immediately transforms our self and plunges it in another world, the
world which in the context of fine arts like painting and
of bliss
sculpture, is ParamlTnand which ennobles us and also refines us but
in case of poetry and music it simply so overwhelms us that we forget

our petty selves and free ourselves from the petty cares of poultry
life and get plunged into a blissful state what we call Brahnriananda-
svada-sahodara. This is the aesthetic standpoint from whicli the
origin and development of art can be viewed.

There is yet another standpoint which is also helpful in recons-

tructing the artistic history of India. It is tlie rise of cities and
citizenships.Arts and crafts, pleasures and pastimes arc best suited
to an advanced corporate life where diflcrent professionals of art
cater to the needs of citizens of rank. Royal courts and palaces
have been equally rather more significant to patronise these artists
and encourage tlicrn for Ijetter elforts and nobler creations. This is
what Vatsyayana teaches us in his Kamasutra. The traditional sixty-
four arts, their rise and cultivation could be possible only in such an
environment where youth and beauty have their full play. In
Kamasutra, youth and beauty is the main theme. Youth and beauty
are an embodiment of Kama, the sensual love and this love is the
real life which is the source of all activities and of all arts. Dr. Acha-
rya also supports this: ‘‘Although the arts like architecture, sculpture,

poetry and music had their origin in the religion of the Christians
and the Hindus in connexion with the form of worship, which is
based on love, these arts, along with the others (the catussasthi-k das)
became later entirely secular, and developed in various ways. In
the K5ma*sutra the arts have nothing to do with religion. Their
object is neither salvation (moksa) nor ritualistic observances (dharma),
but merely the gratification of material desires and sensual love.
Cookery or perfumery, dancing or singing, painting or powdering,
56 HISTORY OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE

jugglery or physical exercise, gardening or weaving is undertaken to

earn money or to enjoy onselL This fact, as noticed above, has been
repeatedly pointed out by the commentator Ya§ ara. In fact,
material desires and sensual love can be nourished only by those who
consider themselves ever young and immortal, in oilier words, no
artistic matter can be cultivated by those who are in the grasp of
death and decay”. This is the 'secular origin of Art, and I have
given to it its due place in my ‘Bharatiya Vastusastra’-Turanivesa’—
Uttarapithika Ch. I. The story as related in Citralaksaua in the
context of the rise of painting also supports this hypothesis. But later
on in India the development of the arts like architecture (especially
the temple architecture) and iconography (both sculptural and picto?
rial) had their inspiration from the womb of religion as we shall

presently show this.

Now resuming our lost thread— the planning and creation this —
planning was entrusted to Visvakarma by no lesser an authority than
the Pita naha, the Primordicil creator Brahma Himself. A patron
king was required and there he was king Prthu. The Story of Prthu
and Pf thvi as related in our scriptures all depict this truth and bring
out the rise of architecture in its proper perspective. We have
already dwelt at it — the last chapter.
• This Visvakarma is our first

A charya and the first Architect. Architectural lore as propounded

by him formed the nucleus of the subsequent treatises, the Visvakar-
ma- Vastusastra or 6ilpa-sastra, the Puianas, the works like
Bjrhatsamhita of Varahamihira and the Vastu-texts like the S. S. and
the A. P. We have already said something about another equally
ancient and important architectural tradition of our land, the Maya
school of which the Muni Maya, was the first Acharya
the Asura,
and the first Architect. Let us therefore say a few words on Visva-
karma and Maya who represent the duality of ancient acharyaship of
the Vastu-lore in India.

Rise of the ^astra and the place of Vigyakarma: All our §astras are
associated primarily with one of our great gods ^iva, and Vis^u, but
VastuSastra lias a unique position to have been transmitted equally
by all the three supreme gods. We know that one of the aspects of
Siva is the Daksinamurti, This aspcct*of !§iva is always envoked by
students of Arts and Sciences. Accordingly in the majority of the
Vastusastras, 6iva, who has also taught the traditional catussasthi-
kalas, the 64 arts to Garga, is the source whence VSstuvidya, the
science of Architecture is revealed (cf. V. P. 1.3-4; A. P. XCIX;
Maya, Kasyapa, Manasara, etc. etc.) to
the treatises of 6vakarma.
In another tradition (cf. V, P. XIII, 108; Br. S. and ISanaSivaguru*
 HISTORY OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 57

paddhati) it is Brahma who is the source of the scierce and who

revealed it to ViSvakarma. In the third tradition (cf. Matsya Purana)
Visnu in his Matsya Avatara, imparted the science to Manu who
passed it to the world through 18 preceptors like Bhrgu, Atri, Va^istha,
Maya, Narada, iSukra and Vilvakarma etc# etc. vide Vastu-Laks. —
There is yet another tradition very interesting as brought out in
the Vis^udharmottaram. In the V. D. 111. LXXXVl-VIll, it is

Markandeya, who instructs king Vajra in the science of architecture.

Markandeya, according to the ‘Haya^irsapancaratra I. 1-7, had

received the science from Bhrgu to whom it had been transmitted by

MaheJvara (l§iva). Mahe^vara had received it from Brahma, and
Brahma from Visnu as Haya^irsa.
We are more concerned here with Vi^vakarma and in these accounts
the position of Visvakarma is really not very sound. ViSvakarma, as
per our earlier tradition of Vedas and Brahmanas, really represents
the working aspect of the Supreme principle as Braluna does the thin-
king aspect. Creator Brahma could evolve only a manasi srsti. To
give it shape and to lay it properly, in one word, to plan it beautifully
was the work of an architect-acharya and Visvakarma was there to
fulfil the mission. Thus Visvakarma is a proper name, not only of a
great architect, but every Sthapati is descended from Visvakarma.
Correspondingly, the other three classes of craftsmen are born of Maya,
Tvastr and Manu respectively, these four archetypal workers having
originated from the four faces of Vilvakarma, (Manasara II) whose
descendents are respectively —Sthapati, Sutra«grahin, Vardhaki and
Taksaka. This is the ontology of the science in the context of its

origin and the primordial preceptors.

The Ramayana, IV. 51. 11 however takes Visvakarma, the

what Maya is to the Asuras, as having revealed the
architect of the gods
Sthapatya Veda and the rise of this Veda in the context of the
traditional knowledge Vidyasthanani —
has alrady been referred —
to — vide the last chapter.

We have already remarked that in the Matsya-Purana, as many

as eighteen Professors of Vastu^astra have been enumerated among
whom ViSvakarma is rightly included. Visvakarma-Prakasa on
the other hand enumerates some more Professors who arc not common
to the list given in the Matsya. It is stated that Garga expounded

the Vastuaastra to Parasara, who in turn expounded it to Brhadratha

and it was from the latter that Visvakarma learnt all the principles
of this Sastra. Sanat-kumara-VastuSastra aho adds some other names
like Yama, Bhargava, Gautama, Vyasa etc. There "are some other
important references to ViSvakarma especially to his geneology. P. A*
58 HISTORY OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE

Mankad has very ably and labouriously attempted this geneology of

ViSvakarma and I am tempted some of his more interes-
to reproduce
ting observations here. AccordingMankad, ViSvakarma’s
to
geneology as culled from the Puranic tradition takes him back to
king Vena otherwise known in Sumerian Civilization as Cannes of
Berossus, As per the different and divergent hypotheses of V. R,
Karandikar and Rev. H, Heras, the former holding Narmada valley
?is the cradle of the human civilization and the latter, on the contrary

regarding Indus valley as the most ancient civilization of Asia, Sri

Mankad takes his clue to formulate a theory that ViSvakarma formed,
so to say, a connecting link between the Sumerian Civilization on the
one hand and the Narmada valley culture on the other. The 53rd
chapter of iSivapurana —
Dharma-Sarphita gives an interesting and
a lengthy account of the geneology of ViSvakarma (vide P. A.
Mankad’s Introduction to Aparajita-prachha (p. LXXXIX) where it
is related that Daksa Prajapati had sixty daughters ten of these were

given in marriage to Dharma. Among these ten the 2nd one, Vasu gave
birth to 8 Vasus —
Dhara, Dhruva etc. Prabhasa, the last of these 8
Vasus was the father of Vilvakarma and the SamarShgana also
testifies to it;

gci; |

‘The Vasus were mostly workers in different branches of art, as

has been described under Vasu. ViSvakarma naturally had imbibed

skill in craftsmanship from his father’s side. It may be mentioned

that he was connected with the Bhrgu family by his mother’ side, as
Prabhasa Vasu had married the sister of Bhrgu.
E. Sieg in the Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics explains the
word Bhrgu as a term for craftsman. According to Dr. Hermann
Weller, Bhrgus represented originally the craftsmen working with
fire among whom were included primarily the blacksmiths and
chariot-builders.The silver war-chariot of the heroic Bhisma is
ascribed to them.

ViSvakarmS’s connection with Bhrgu was thus no less responsible

for the high state of excellence in craftsmanship peculiar to the
family of Bhrgus. Both his parental and maternal relationships con-
tributed in equipping him with a rich heritage. It was his skill
as an artificer that made him an outstanding personality among the
Vasus.
 kisTORY OF HINDU AkCHITECTURfi 59

Now this PrabhSsa (eminently shining) Vasu had married the

sister of Bhrgu and through her a son named ViSvakarma was born
to him. This ViSvakarmS was endowed with consummate skill in
fine arts, architecture, sculpture, painting, including both their
constructive as well as decorative aspects. He was an excellent
craftsman as he had constructed conveyances moving on land, sea
and air. He was an expert in designing weapons of various kinds to
minister to the comforts, convenience and safety of men. These and
other qualities have rightly won for him the epithet commonly attri-

buted to him-viz. the architect of gods, and naturally it would not,

on that score, be absurd at all, if an inference is held out that it was
his parentage that was responsible for the rich heritage which he came
to inherit. Most of these Vasus, as might be inferred from the
above, were the artificers in ancient times. They occupied a very
respectable position in the society in ancient India.
“From the Vcdic times, Indian civilization had at its disposal
the services not only of the carpenter, the wheelwright and the black-
smith, of the potter, the weaver and the fabricators of objects of
prime necessity but also of those whom we call art-workers, painters,
goldsmiths, carvers in ivory or wood etc.*' (Beginning of Buddhistic
Art by M. Foucher). It was the family of these Vasus or their
progeny who applied themselves to these various crafts-branches of
art and, so naturally, these art-workers-artificers in a wide range
of arts, were brought under the category of the term Vasu, It must
be admitted that it is difficult to differentiate the functions of these
8 Vasus individually. The information regarding them is too meagre
to base sound deduction upon. Some names of these Vasus, for
example, UW: (water) SITO (fire) (wind) might obviously suggest
that the one had to deal with hydraulic works, another with such arts
as required the handling of fire etc., a third with air transport and so
on, but it must be admitted frankly that nothing definite could be
ascertained regarding all of them, son of was one of the
law-givers in India and- also a recognised referee in matters of
(vide
The inference as regards the function of these Vasus based on the
Constructive genius of VisvakarmS,—that the Vasus were artificers in
different spheres of life is not without a further corroborative evidence.

The term irOTklt> in Gujarati, derived of course from Vasu is not only
suggestive but offers a clue as to the function of these Vasus. The
term as it is understood to connote, even $it the present day^
in Gujarati, includes a few artificers and art-workers, in Its contracted
sense, such as potters, carpenters, masons, blacksmiths, etc. A closet
60 HISTORY OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE

Study, moreover, reveals that the term had a very broad significance,
as embraced a wide range of workers-fabricators of objects of prime
it

necessities required in the ceremonials of the Hindu society. It may

be added that the marriage ceremonials of the at least, in

Kathiawar, even upto the present day have upheld tne respectable
part played by tliesc art-workers

This long digression on ViJvakarma was necessitated to refute

Dr, Bhattacharya’s lengthy surmises that there were two ViJvakarrnas
one of the North and the other of the South (see detailed discussion
in his book)' Visvakarma by this account represents both the tradi-
tions or schools of Art and Architecture not only of India but of the
whole Asia. And we have to guard ourselves in our studies on
Vi^vakarma to clearly distinguish between the writers Vi^vakarma
and the Founder Architect Acharya Visvakarma. Confounding both
and making an attempt to trace several Vi^vakarmas is not a happy
dissertatioiu Indian writers never cared for their glory of the self,

they very much cared for the glory of the race or more properly that
of the nation. Visvakarma is our National Architect and as our
nation-hood was evolved oh the bedrock of the admixture of two great
cultures, one purely material and the other grandly spiritual, what
we call Asuil sampadii and Daivi sampada, it was but natural that the
Foundei Acliarya had imbibed in himself those requisite features
which were characteristic of both the great races, the Aryan and non-
Aryan. You could not have a better cosmopolitan culture as this.
Our,>5astras and Puranas surely had this mission, the single purpose,
in their view. Hence these allegorical accounts what you call myths,
jicvertheicss, are expounding the true history. Accordingly the latter
compilers of the different Sastras and Itihasas and Puranas, never
cared. to reveal their authorship, they
pcxssed it to those famous as

Tounder Acharyas like Vyasa, ViSvakarma and Maya. Moreover,

transmission of knowledge in India or in any other part of the world
in those hoary days could not be done regularly and methodically
through writings was an oral transmission which was perfectly pro*
It

^rved and carried through a long line of gurus, and their Sisyas. It
was more characteristic in India. Hence any grappling with identify*
ing a particular book with a particular name is always beset with
insurmountable difficulties. Sometimes these attempts become pre*
posterous and non-sense. The evershining (Prabhasa) culture is oui^

true guide# Naturally therefore a host qfbooks (as many as seventeen-***

vide Dr. T. Aufrecht^s catalogus catalogorum) ascribed to Visvakarma
if understandable,
 HISTORY OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 61

Let us now pass on to Maya, the Founder Architect Acha-

IViaya.

rya of the so called Dravidian Vastuvidya or school of Architecture. He

isone of the eighteen professors of Architecture as mentioned in the
Matsyapurana. His position in the tradition is second only to ViSvakar-
ma. The Maiiasara, the most representative text of Dravidian architec-
ture recounts the origin of Maya from one of the faces of the four-faced
ViSvakarma, which in the context of the accounts of Vi^vakarma
representing both the cultures is perfectly in keeping with the tra-
ditions. That Maya school of Architecture was certainly different and
distinct a tradition is proved by the earliest datable (550 A.D.) work

on Vastu^astra, the Brhatsaiphita of Varahamihira where Maya and

ViSvakarma are quoted as authors whose seemingly different statements
have the same meaning. The many names of eighteen chief preceptors
(acaryas), seem to indicate an equal number of branches, or schools of
Indian architecture prior to the sixth century A. D. and subsequently
in KiskindhS Kanda of Rarnayana (chap, 51) there is an interesting
reference to Maya. It is told there how Maya acquired the knowledge
of SilpaSastra, the Science of architecture, treasure USanas (AuSanasam
dhanam) from Brahma. This shows that the treatises of Maya and
USanas i. e. ^ukra were alike in character. And as both belong to
Asuras they represented a school of their own. In the Manasara
ViSvakarma is described as the son of Brahma and husband of
Indra’s daughter. This is really something very confounding and how
to reconcile this description with the one in which Visvakarma is

regarded as the son of Prabhasa Vasu ? It seems that Visvakarma

ofManasara also belonged to a very distant epoch in history.
Brahma was the foremost invader and settler in India and the
ViSvakarma, referred to in the Manasara was the architect who
helped his (Brahma’s) colonists propogating his lore and acquiring
theirs as well. ViSvakarma’s advent on earth to plan out habitation of
men in the Samara hgana-Sutradhara also supports the above genesis
and this throws a flood of light on the amalgamation of the Aryan and
non-Aryan elements of culture in such a distant past as we Have
already adduced it from the geneology of ViSvakarma with especial
reference to Vasus.
In the MahSbhfirata, ViSvakarmI andMaya are mentioned, not as
writers but as master-masons of the Gods and the Danavas respectively,
VUvakarml is said to have been the “master of thousand artSj the
V2rdhak{ (carpenter) of the gods and superior to all architects.'’
Me also constructed the chariots of the gods. Men earned their
livelihood by practising the arts invented by him an^ .offered worship

to ViSvakarmI (I. 66. 29-31). VijVakarmfi constructed the Satha of

62 History ot HiKdu arcHitectOrR

Vaivasvata (II. 8.1) and a town, for the gods, besides a statue, a
necklace and wheels of the chariots, for them. Maya calls himself
the ViSvakarma of the Danavas. He constructed the magnificent
assembly hall of the Pandavas from the materials collected by him
from the kingdom of the Danava king Vrsaparva, situated to the
north of KailSia near the Vindu-lake and to the north-east of
Indraprastha (11. 1.5.). We have already said that Maya is known
as Danava and to have learnt the science of architecture from ^ukra,
the preceptor of Danavas. Viivakarma and Maya represent the
two schools of Indian architecture, known as Nagara and Dravida.
Dr. Bhattacharya has elucidated this subject very elaborately
and the readers are referred to, to read that book for details.
Want of space forbids me to go in those details not very
essential from my standpoint. So far the central thesis round which
we have been labouring in the foregoing pages is now not difficult to
establish that in the rise of Vastusastra, as the science and art, two
traditions have contributed to its evolution and growth. These are
ViSvakarma and Maya traditions. Now the question is what are the
distinctive points which differentiate these two traditions? This ques-
tion need not be dwelt upon at length here as we shall get occasion
to do that — —
vide Pt. V styles of Temple architecture. Here, in brief,
itmay be said that these two and others maybe taken to represent
as many variations as lay within the fundamental purpose of the
temple which has been chief creation of Hindu science of art and
architecture. Dr. Kramrisch supports this thesis: ‘The merit, of the
works of the schools which made it seem worth while to record the
names of theirmost eminent preceptors lay in the manifold and
ever varying solutions of their central purpose. This was the setting
up of the Prasada as Vimana, proportionate in its parts and directing
the form and measure of all other buildings which accrued in the
service of the Prasada.’ And I have already remarked that the
Vimanas, characteristic of Asura architecture were really the precur-
sors of the Prasada, the Nagara temples. The characteristic planning
and laying out the super- structure, the Bhumis etc. and the ornamcn-
tative motifs like Amalaka and Stupika etc. are some of the broad
features in respect of which these two traditions have laid down their
rules for the guidance of the architects in their respective domains of
the styles of temple-architecture along with its component struc*^
tures like colunms, roofing^ superstructure and its crowning part.
Other Archarya : There is a long line of the preceptors of
Vastufiastra as referred to in the different sources like Matsya-
Purai[ia, Agni-Pui3f^a, Bfhatsaqfihita, Manasara, Sanatkumara-
 : —

HISTORY OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 63

VastuSSstra and Visvakarma-Vaistusastra. My predecessor Dr.

Bhattacharya has discussed this subject in great details And I have no
inclination to enter into the details as most of the matters discussed
by the learned author of study of Vastu Vidya or canons of Indian
architecture’ are very much disputable, especially the identity of two
Viivakarmas, two Mayas and the late date of the Manasara, Kasyapa-
Silpa etc. etc. The controversy is not very much desirable either,
here in this context of my presentation of an outline history of the
science. For the sake of completeness, however some remarks arc
called for. Let us first take the names of these ancient Acharyas as
per the authority of the different texts;

(i) Matsyapurana
1. Blfgu 7. Nagnajit 14. Garga
2. Atri 8. ViSalaksa 15. Vasudeva
3. VaSis|ha 9. Purandara or ^akra 16. Aniruddha
4. Vi^vakarma 10. Brahma 17. 6ukra
5# Maya 11. Kumara 18. Bfhaspatiand
6. NSrada 12. NandlSa (^ambhu) 19. Manu
13. Saunaka
(ii) Agnipuraigia:

N, B, Here are enlisted not the preceptors but their works,

the Tantras passing by their names; hence these names as authorized
by the Agnipurana itself are to be reckoned as the preceptors of the
Sastra in its better and more fuller connotation (ie. Tantra is Science
specially the science of the Philosophy of the ritual and the meta-

physics connected with Arc5, Arcya, Arcaka and Arca-grha):

1. Hayaflrsa 13. ^aunaka

2. Trailokyamohan 14, VaSistha (cf, Vai5s|ha T.)
3. Vibhava (Vaibhava Tantra) 15, Jnanasagara
4. Puskara (Pauskara T.) 16. Svayambhu (SvSyambhava T.'
5. Prahllda Vrahlada T.)
(cf. 17. Kapila (Kapila T.)
6. Garga (cf. Gargya T.) 18. Tarksya
7. Galava 19. Narayana (NarayanikaT.)
8. Nsirada (Naradlya T.) 20. Atri (Atreya TO
9. SampraSna 21. Narasiriiha (Narasimha T.)
10, l§§ndilya 22. Ananda
11. Viivaka (VaiSvaka T.) 23, Aru^a (Aru^a T.)
12* Satya (Satya T.) 24. Bauddhayana
25. ]Rsi (irsa).

N#B. Six of these names (nos. 6, 8, 13, 14, 16 and 20) may be said

to be common to those mentioned in the text of tbe Matsyapurai^a,

64 HISTORY OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE

(HI) Bfhatsamhita:

t. ParaSara, 2, Kasyapa and 3. Bharadvaja etc.

(IV) Manasara; (cf. LXVIII)

1 ViSvakarmS 12. ManasSra 23. PSraJariyaka

2. ViJvcSa 13. Praslj* 24, K'alayupa
3. Vilvasara 14. Manabodha 25, Caitya
4. Prabodhaka 15. ViJvabodha 26. Citraka
5‘.
Vfta 16. Naya 27. Avarya
6. Maya 17. Adisara 28. SSdhakasSrasamhita
7. Tvastr 18. ViSala 29. Bhanu
8. Manu 19. Vi^vakaiyapa 30. Indra
9. Nala 20. Vastubodha 31. LokajSa and
10. Manavit 21. Mahatantra 32. Saura
11. Manakalpa 22. Vastu-vidyapati

(V) Sanat^kumara-Vastusastra:

1. BrahmS 5. Angirasa 9. Vyasa

2. Indra 6. Gautama 10. Bhrgu
3. Yama 7. Gargya 11. ViSvakarma
4. Bhargava 8. Manu etc. etc.

(VI) Vi§?akarma-Vastasastra: — It refers to the ancient authori-

tic3> the Parva-Siiris at several places. In the first list fin the context
of Mana) they are Guru (Brhaspali), Maghava (Indra), Nandi
and Narada. The second list is more informative and here are listed

as many as the following fifteen Vastuiustra-Pravaktas; some of whom

arc not very familiar names:

!• Agastya 6. KaSyapa 11. Palakapya

2. Nandi 7. Lokadarsaka 12. Pun^arika
3. Narada 8. KatySyana 13. DirghadarSi
4. Brhaspati 9. Marici 14. Punarvasu and
5. Timyaloka 10* Citraloyaka 15. Yogas ara

There is yet another list of the ancient preceptors in this text,

though not in connection with the Vastu-lore, but with the weapons
and their allied Mantra-iaktis etc. They include such names as Atri,
VaSisJha, Pulaha, KaSyapa, Bhrgunandana^ Marici, Cyavana, Kaijva',
Viivamitra, Narada, VUlakhilya-branda, LokadarSaka, Dirghadarst
Kundaroma, GSlava, PancavSraka, Bharadvaja, Ksatrapala, KeSika
Madhmfldana, Sudarfiana and Pinga. These are the great images
*Svara*Sakti-kriya*ko|idhtTmi-t5dyupade§inah%
 .

HISTORY OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 65

All these great teachers cannot be said to be legendry.

Para and
Apara, both the Vidyas used to be propagated in ancient India. No
nation can flourish witliout its care for its material prosperity.
All this technique and training and their systematic and successful
teaching and transmission were of equal importance. Most of the
treatises of VastuSastra carry many of these namer, yet a good many
of them are quoted as authorities, yet still others are honoured with
actual passages being quoted from their works. The following
tabulation may help us in our estimation of these authorities:

A. Names associated with the treatises :

1. Atri: Samurtarcanadhikarana or Atreya-tantra.

2. ViSvakarrnan: associated with several treatises (see ahead)
3. Maya — Mayamatam
4. Nixrada —Narada-Vastu-vidhana and Naradaailpasatra
5. Sukra— ^ukranitisara
6. Bhrgu —Vaikhanasagama
7. Nagnajit —^Gitralaksana
8. Ka^yapa —Kasyapa-ftlpa
9. Agastya SakalMhikara
10. Prahlada — Prahlada-tantra
11. Markandeya — Purana, Tantra & VastuSastra
1 2 . Mar ici — V aikhSnasagama

B. Names cited as authorities in:

1. Bhrgu— ^ilparatna, ViSva. v§ilpa, Atrisamhita & Vasturatnavali

2. Atri— Brhatsarnhita of Var ahamihira and Agnipurana
3. —
Maya Br. Sam. and ISanaSivagurudevapaddhati
4. VisMaksa ArthaSastra, Manasara, Agni & Devi Puranas
5. Purandara— or 6akra —Br. Sam,, Manasara and ^ilparatna
6. Kumara—‘^ilparatna
7. ^aunaka— Agnipurana & Rajamartanda-sarhgraha of Varaha-
mihira,
8. Garga—Br, Sam., ViSvakarma Pr. and Sanatkumara-VastuSastra
9. Vasudeva —ViSvakarmaprakaia
10. Sukra —^ilparatna, ViSvakarmaSilpa and Br. Sam.
1 1 Sam. and Manasara
Brhaspatl—* Br .

12, Manu—'Br. Sam, Manasara and ViSvakarma-prakaSa

13. —
Para$ara ViSvakarmaprakaSa, Manasara & Silparatna
14, Kasyapa —Manasara, ^ilparatna & Atri-Samhita
15, Agastya — 6ilparatna & Manasara
16- Markandeya—HayaSirsapancaratra and Visaudharmottaraoi
 — :

66 HISTORY OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE

17. NSradft—Agni P. and Manasara

18. Naganjit— Br. Sam and Gitralaksana
19. Nandlla— Br. Sam. (commentary)
20. ^ukra— Br. Sam. Commentary and NaradaSilpSastra
21. Bi'haspati —
Br. Sam. Commentary, Naradasilpaeastra, Devf*
purana and MSnasara
C. NameSi the passages front whose works are quoted
1. Bhfgu —Vasturatnavair, ^ilpasamgraha and Hayasirsapanca-
rStra
2. VaSisJha —Raghunandap’s Vastuyajnatattva and VasturatnS-
vall
3. Vilvakarma—Bhattotpala’s commentary on Sam. Br.
4. Maya—Bhattotpala, I^anaSivaguradevapaddhati and Silparatna
5. —
Narada Raghunandana’s Mathapralistha and Vasturatnavali
6. Nagnijit — Bhattotpala’ s commentary on Br. Sam.
7. Purandara — „ ,, „ „
8. BrahmS—BrahmaSilpa quoted in Silpasamgraha, Brahma-
Yamala (ibid) and Pitamaha in ISana.
9. NandlSa — (^ambhu) Vasturatnavali
10, daunaka Raghunandana’s JalaJayotsarga
11. Garga — Bhattotpala* s commentary
12, Brhaspat! —Bhattotpala’s
13. Para^ara —Bhattotpala’s & ISana
14, KaSyapa— Bhattotpala’s
15. Bharadvaja —Bhattotpala’s
This tabulation is very interesting at least from one point of view;
it gives you to understand the unique place of Birhatsanihita’s celebrated
commentator in reconstructing our art history. Brhatsaiphita is the
earliest datable work and its commentary by Bhattotpala is a land-

mark in our architectural history. Unless these anqient authorities

were very popular and a flourishing tradition how could they have got
a place in an early commentary on a standard text on the subject ?

Secondly to determine their respective chronology is very difficult

of solution and a concentrated research is called for. Most of the
manuals of VastuSaslra, the science of Architecture, are records of
oral traditions which go back to undefined past. Some of them like
BrhatsaiphitS, Vispudharmottaram are datable works and the references
to these authorities in such works are very valuable for reconstructing
may be deemed
the relative chronology. Similarly Vilvakarma-prakaSa
as a datable work. Dr. Kramrisch conjectures, (H.T. p. 425) “If the
name of Brhadratha, in the Viivakarmapraka$a could be taken to
 HISTORY OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 67

refer to the last Maurya king of that name, the ViSvakarma-Prakasa

would thereby show its teaching established in Eastern India before
184 B. G”. As regards other treatises, the dates of which are
approximately certain, are later works e.g. ^ilparatna, Tantrasamucc-
aya, Aparajita-praccha, Samarangana SiitradhSra etc.

Dr. Bhattacharya has also taken pains to make an attempt to

locate these early authorities of Vastu^astra to their respective
schools, the Dravida or the southern and the Nagara or the Northern.
But as per the above thesis (cf. ViSvakarma’s role in both the
traditions) this watertight allocation is diflicult for establishment.
More concentrated, critical and objective study is needed to formulate
any workable hypothesis. For information’s sake however, his

conclusions regarding the allocation of these acharyas to the principal

schools of Indian architecture may
10.
be noted in brief:

Acharyas of the Dravidian or Southern School:

1. Brahma 6. KaSyapa 11. Narada
2. Tvastr 7. Agastya 12. Prahlada
3. Maya
1) 8. Sukra 13. Sakra(Purandara)
4. Matahga 9. Paralara 14. Bfliaspati &
5. Bhrgu Nagnajit 15. Manasara
Acharyas of the Nagara or Northern school:

1. ^ambhu (NandiJa) 4. Vafistha

2. Garga 5. Prhadratha
3. Atri 6. Vi$vakarma and
7. Vasudeva
X.B. The details may be seen in Dr. Tarapada's work*

Vastu literature:

Incidently some remarks are now needed to deal with the VSstu
literature and tabulate their names and contents only as a detailed
review and the presentation there of, of the Principal or the most
representative texts have been reserved for the subsequent chapter.
This Vastu literature may be conveniently classified into as many as
the following classes of literature :

(I) Vedic literature— SamhitSs, BrShma^as and Stltras

(II) Epic literature
(III) Buddhist literature — Jatakas and Plli canons
(IV) Arthafiastra
(V) Pura^as
(VI) Agamas
(VI Tantras
6B HISTORY OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE

(VIII) Brhatsaiphita
(IX) Pitatistha works
(X) Miscellaneous works and
(XI) ^ilpa works.

Dr. Acharya divides this whole Vanmaya, into only two broad
sub-divisions, the architectural proper and non-architectural adjuncts,
in the latter will fall all the lore that is expounded in Puranas,
Agamas, Tantras and the Pratistha works etc. For the conveni nee
however,this seems to be more systematic and workable as most of the

Puranas like Visaudharmottararn almost exclusively deal with

VastuSastra (in its broadest connotation the Vastu, the ^ilpa and the
Chitra). Similarly Agamas like Kamika devotes almost all its

main Pd^alas to the exposition of the V<»stu as we presently see.

Incidently it may be remarked that miscellaneous works like Epics,
Jatakas and classical Sanskrit works like Bana’s Kadambarf do
not deal (and cannot be expected to deal) with any set of principles
of the science, rather they embody artistic culture and the current
traditions behind them which give an idea of the condition of the art
and its science. Hence these works are also helpful in our study of
this subject.

Vedic literature : This is a vast literature comprising Samhitas,

Bruhmanas, Aranyakas, Upanisads and Vedahgas (the Sutra works)
etc. etc. Among the Saiphitas, Rgveda comes first and it is the

earliest literary document in world history. Hence any clue to

architectural traditions of the past in this Veda is very helpful for
our present study.

Architectural traditions in the Rgveda : Rgveda hymns (VIL 54-55)

invoke V3stospati as the special deity supposed to preside
Over building sites. Different explanations ot Vastospati have
been offered by different commentators. According to Dcyaraja
Yajva, VSstu means the Antariksa and Vastospati indicates
all heavenly deities which rightly fits in the later development of
VSstu-purusa whose different limbs constituted the abodes of the
different deities as many as forty five (cf, the next chapter *‘Pundamen-
tal principles of Hindu science of Architecture^*). Architecture in India
came to be intimately associated with religion. Naturg^lly its
ritualistic origin and evolution may be taken as an established
canon. Vastofpati is identified with Indra, He is also identi-
fied with Tvas|f, the carpenter of the gods. Vifivakarma is

invoked as the Creator of the universe as a whole (X* 6 and 13-14)

 —

HISTORY OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 69

which very well fits in our concept of ViSvakarma as the primordial

planner and architect-creator. Similar references to Rijhus (disciples
of Tvastr) and Vasus (the givers of dwellings) are also important —vide
the geneology of Visvakarma, treated in the foregoing pages. In
another hymn fl. 32. 2)Tvasta is said to have sharpened (Taksa) the
thunderbolt of Indra. This gave rise to what we know of Taksaka as
carpenter in later times. Yet in another hymn (vii, 33. 13) the
birth of ‘Mana’ is and ‘Mana’ according to no lesser an
referred to,
authority than Sayana himself was another name of Agastya. This
‘Mana’ may be said to have given rise to two important traditions of
Indian architeeture—Manavid, the Sutragrahin and Manacarya Agastya
one of the earliest authorities of Vastu-vidyS.

References to Tvasta, the carpenter and his craftmanship in

wooden and metallic crafts (X. 48) are sufficient proof of early
architecture as wooden architecture, when wood was the chief
material for constructing a building. The words like ‘Harmyas’
occurring frequently in the Rgveda (V. 32. s3, VII. 55. 6, 56. 16, 76. 2,
IX, 71.4, 78. 3) give you a clue for special kinds of buildings. The
references to Puras and their fortification are already taken into
consideration. The references to gorgeous and pillared halls and
mansions (whether in the context of the gods and Rsis or the Asuras)
have also been hinted at. References to pillars and their shapes
(1,59.1,111.31,12, IV. 5. abound through: Sthuna, Stambha,
1)

Skambha or Viskambha names of pillars referring to both

are several
free standing pillars and supports. We are familiar with the Yupa,
the sacrificial post.

Burial mounds have also been referred to —Mrnmayain Grham

(VIP89). Articles of furniture Halpas’ (VII. 55. 8.) and ‘prastaras*
etc, arc also mentioned. All these details pertaining to buildings—
towns, halls and storeyed mansions and the articles of furniture
have been ably worked out by Dr. Acharya and Dr. Bhattacharya
vide their works H. A, I. & A., and A study of Vastu-viclya or
Canons of Indian architecture respectively.
Thus from the standpoint of the architectural history of our
land, the Rgvedic references are helpful in our surmise that the
Non- Aryan or Asura school of Indian architecture was well established
and even the Aryan school had already passed the primitive stages
Mana and Tvagtr in later periods were regarded as master architects
particularly associated with the Dravlda school, Nagnajit, an architect
and the Asura king of GandhSra is said to have lived in Rgvcdic period
J, C, Ghosa’s article in Indian culture Voh VI.
70 HISTORY OF HINDU ARGHITECTURB

Later Vedhus and Brahmanas: The later Vedas and Brahmanas

present a picture of more a religious architecture than the civil one
a glimpse of which was found in the Rgveda. The ^ukla-Yajurveda’s
(cf chap. 35) description of the Smasana (funeral mound) gives an
idea of the prototype of the Indian stupas so popular in later art.
The Kriiia Yajurveda contains numerous hymns relating to the Yupa
( 1 . 3., and in these descriptions symbolic expressions and pre-
VI. 3 etc.)
sentations thereof abound. Dr. Bhattacharya rightly says (tbid. p. 25):
Tf Yupa be taken as the prototype of Indian pillars, we must try to show
howfar the decoration carved on the pillar conformed to this description
in the Veda The shafts of many extant pillars from the base up to the
girdle contain human figures, and girdles are generally decorated with
leaves. The top of the Yupa might have contained the figure of the
god worshipped (in the Vedic period, perhaps a figure of Indra, the
greatest of the gods). Later on this part of the Stambhas or Dhvajas
set up in front of a temple contained a figure of the Vahana or the
vehicle of the god as for example, Garuda, the Vahana of Visnu, the
Bull of i^iva and so on The parts above the top, the entablure,
belonged to the Sadhyas and we find the entablures generally
decorated with flying figures, the Sadhyas of the Vedic texts.

The Atharvaveda is more informative in the subject. The

Slila Sukta is very helpful in reconstructing our history of
residential houses It also contains many architectural terms. ‘Vania*
(beam) above the Sthuna (post) and the ‘upamit’ the, ‘pramit’ of aial^.
This Veda further refers to houses, of varying shapes and sides, some
being two sided, others four- sided, six-sided, eight-sided and ten-sided.
The Rgveda refers to ‘a lord of the house,* (Vastospati); whereas the
Atharvaveda refers to a “Mistress of building*’,

A
peep into the house-hold furniture furnishes us the then condi-
and architecture also. The ‘asandl and paryanka* the
tion of civil art

two words (Vaj. Samh, of Yajurveda XIX. 86; XX. I) are typical
of Our surmise.

The BrShmanas preoccupy themselves with the elaborate

descriptions of various religious structures the Yupa, the Vedi and
the SmaSana. The word ‘Silpa’ and its traditional knowledge occurs
in the Aitareya Brahma^ia (VI. 5. 27) which in theKaulitaki Brahmana
(XXlX. 5) is said to be threefold, dancing, music and singing.
Sculpture can also be inferred to, from the Brahmanas fsee my
VastuSastra Vol II). Sacrifices are the main topics of Brahmanas, in
which the construction of sacrificial altar what is called *Citi’ is an
 HISTORY OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE /I

important item. Hence we can very well conjecture th§t the use of
Brahmana period
bricks in ancient India especially in later Vedic and
could not have been limited to sun-dried bricks. The bricks used in
the Giti got burnt in the sacrificial fire and must have taught
Indians the technique of burnt-bricks. Dr. Bhattacharya supports
this: ‘‘The construction of the ^maJana (Burial mound over the ashes
or the bones of a dead man) is described in detail in the ^atapatha
Brahmana (XIII. 8. 1. 4 )
which, supplemented by the Rgvedic
and Yajurvedic verses already referred to, gives us a clear idea of the
earliest form of the Indian Stupa. The Aryan Stupas were four-sided;
the non-Aryan ones were round. Square Hindu Stupas have been
found in India, The Hindu Stupa rested on earth, whereas the Asura
Stiipa was erected on a base. 1 he mound was then enclosed by a
stone which perhaps indicates the stone casing or the round the
rails

Stupas. Pegs were fixed on the four sides, which might have given
rise to the custom of erecting a pillar on each of the four cardinal
points around the Stupa, (Vide “Origin of Indian Architecture*’).
The description occurring in the iSatapatha Brahmana further indicates
the influence of Asura architecture on Aryan or later Indian
architecture,’

Sutras: The Sutra literature contains a treasure house for Indian Art,
They are our earliest VastufiSstras. The Sutra works like thel§iirpkhayana
Grhya Sutra and the ‘ASvalayan Grhya Sutra devote as many as
three chapters each on house building rules. Though they deal with
elaborate ceremonials pertaining particularly to the central post, they
do embody several principles of Indian architecture. The S. G. S,
(III) in its symbolic language describes the different parts of the
central pillar and the ceremonials attached to them. These
ceremonials furnish important data for the proper understanding of
Indian architectural principles. It is to be noted that the centre of
ground was held in high reverence. It was there that the first

necessary rites were to be performed and the chief post fixed. The
existence of the central post and the importance ascribed to it in the
Sutras indicate that the earliest house of the Aryans, of a time when
these ceremonials came into vogue, was one with a pillar in centre, on
which the stability of the house depended.

In the Sfitras of the Gobhila and the Khadira other principles

of the site-selection viz. the shape (quadrangular or circular) etc,

as well as the position of the door and trees to be fixed in the house
and around it respectively are also elaborated. These are the
lystematic subject-matters of the VSstu-texts, The offerings (balis)
72 HISTORY OF HINDU ARGHITECTURK

and auspicioue moments of house-operations are also dealt with.

^ulba'Sutras are still more important. Foundation of correct and

proportionate mcasurments of the architecture of sacrificial altars
was an established and meticulously adhered canon. Dr. Acharya
rightly observes: ‘The construc*^ion of these altars, which were required
for the great Soma sacrifice, seems to have been based on sound
scientific principles and was probably the precursor of the temple

which later became the chief feature of Hindu architecture* H. A, I. —

& A. p, 63. “These altars could be constructed in different shapes,
the earliest enumeration of which is found in the Taittiriya-Sanihita.
Following this enumeration, Baudhayana and Apastamba furnish
us with full particulars about the shape of all these different
citis (
altars )
and the bricks which were employed for their
construction. Everyone of these altars was constructed of five layers
of bricks, which together came up to the height of the knee, in some
cases ten or fifteen layers, and proportionate increase in the height of
the altar, were prescribed. Every layer in its turn was to consist of
two hundred bricks, so that the whole agni (altar) contained a
thousand; the first, third, and fifth layers were divided into two
hundred parts in exactly the same manner, a different division was
adopted for the second and the fourth, so that one brick was never
laid upon another of the same size and form/

comes the period of Itihasas, the Rama-

Epics: After Sutra period
yana and the Mahabharata, bothof which mirror a very advanced state
of Indian architecture. Descriptions of town palace sabhas, forts, ,

simply abound. Experts in the Sthapatya were highly honoured.

ViSvakarma and Maya are repeatedly alluded as master-architects
of Devas and Asuras. Technical words, like ‘Sthapati”, ‘Vardhaki’
‘Taksaka’ and Sutradhara’ occur in the Ramayana as also the storeyed
buildings ‘ariekabhauma (R. IV, 33), ‘Saptabhauma’ V. 2. 49),

Dr. Bhattacharya (ibid) observes: ‘Houses and palaces had already

been classified with their appropriate technical names according
to their different characteristics, c.g. the GatuJ^ala, the Padma, the
Vardhamana houses, and
Svastika, the the Vimana (palace) called the
Puspahvaya. All these names occur in later 6ilpa-Sastras and will be
explained later on. Forts were also divided into four classes such as
river-fort (Nadeya), the hill fort (Parvatya), the forest-fort (Vanya)
and theartificial fort (Krtrima) (VI. 3). Fortification of towns and
Inner-chambers of queens with ditches and ramparts adorned with
Gopuras and Toranas are a stereotyped description of the capital
cities like Ayodhya, Kiskindha and Palaces or ostentatiotn
 HISTORY OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 73

buildings were known as Harmyas and Saudhas

PrSsSdas, Vinaanas,
and Prasadas are described as Saptabhauma, Astabhauma, Anekabhau-
ma and the like These palaces were also crowned with domes or
pinnacles (Sikhara, $rhga etc.). Over the tops of houses, besides the
Sikharas and srihgas (pinnacles) were constructed the caiidralalns.
Vitahkas and balabhis the technical members of houses are also
mentioned. Decoration of houses with paintings and sculptures was
also a current tradition. Palace-architecture has found an eloquent
description in the Ramayaua,
Religious edihees like sacrificial halls, sabhas, fire-altars and
temples of gods (devatayatana) also found a place. The mention of
numerous pillars inside the structure of a caitya hall suggests affinity
with Buddhist chaityas of later times found at Karle and Ajanta.
Similar cognate details abound in every page of these monumental
poetic works couthed in poetic language full of similes and metaphors.

Similar identical descriptions with more profoundity in some

cases like the descriptions of forts and towns are met in the greater
Epic, the Mahabharata and Dr. Bhattacharya has gathered together
all these details in his learned dessertation ‘A study of Vastu-VidyS
or Canons of Indian architecture/ I do not want to repeat them here
for want of space. A brief notice of the Ramayana testifies to the
highly advanced state of architecture in Epic Age. The greater Epic
•contains short but comprehensive accounts of the cities of Dvaraka
(III, 15), Indraprastha(T, 207, 30ff.), a floating city (III, 173, 3),

Mithila (III, 207, 7), and others’. Tn the Sabha-parva there are
interesting descriptions of some assembly halls. Maya built an
assembly hall P'ndavas (Chapter 1). A description is given
for the

also of the assembly halls of Indra (Chapter VII), of Yama (Chapter

VIII), of Variuia (Chapter IX), of Kubera (Chapter X), and of
Brahma (Chapter XI)’.

Now before takingup Pur an as, a natural sequence after Itihasa

let us pause a and have a glimpse of the Buddhist India as
little

mirrored in —
the Jatakas the Buddhist Folklore and the Pali Canons.

Buddhist Literature —the Jgtakas and the Canons.

Jataka age has been surmized by the scholars not later than 3rd
or 2nd century B. C, The architectural traditions appear to have
been well-established. The references to • Vatthuvijjacaryas’
(Jataka nos. 257 and 489) clearly indicate that the science af architec-
ture had already been enunciated in the teachings of a number of
sages. It also supports our conteption that the ancient awthocritsi
 •

74 HISTORY Of HINDU ARCHITECTURE

like Viivakarma (nos. 483, Maya, Bhrgu and Agastya were

489 etc.)
early authorities contemporary even of the Vedic and prc-Vedic age.
Technical words like 'Bhumi' and the technical designations of the
rasadas (nos. 541 and 358) also occur. J§taka no. 489 describes a
PamiasalS from which we can visualise a very early tradition of
Sal5-houses, as described in the Puranas (M3rk:) and the ^ilpa-texts
like the S. S. Town-planning as envisaged in the epics has been a
stereotyped tradition —
walls, ramparts and ditches fortifying them.
Royal residences like ‘Prasada* and ‘Vimina’ were also there. More
technical structures like an underground tunnel is copiously described
under an ‘ummaga’ in jataka no. 546, Devakulas and Cityas or
Chaityas have also found a place of honour in them. The chief
material being wood continues here also. Wood-carving, wood-
painting and paintings on wall, appear to have been fairly in vogue,
as is evident from the ‘Ummaga’ jataka. Stone-architecture, a
Naga-element in Indian architecture, also appears to have been
—‘Pasada ettha Silamaya’ —jataka no. 545; udukhala
introduced
Pasanam —no. 514; throne of yellow marble—no 519, Giri-durga or
—no. 516 and stone-cutter (PasSnakot^ka) and stone-pillar
hill-fort

(Siliithambam) in J. No. 476 are clear indications. In one story (479)

the Bodhisattva himself is said to have been a stone-cutter by birth.
‘References to crystal palaces (Phalika Pasada — Sphatika-Prasada—
cf. no, 378) also occur. The Piprawa casket was a finished article in
crystal. Its perfection of construction evidently indicates extraordi-
nary constructive skill which must have been the result of age-long
practice. In the Vinaya rules, we find that the Buddha allowed his
disciples to make use of stone not only in the basements of their halls,
and walls but also
stairs, flooring in the roofing of their houses,
(CuUavagga VI. 3. 1 1). This is an interesting literary proof of the
fact that stone buildings existed in the age prior to that of Afoka.
Jarasandhakf-Vaithaka at Rajgrha, the approximate date of which was
the sixth century B. C. if not earlier, and which was “built wholly
of stone neatly fitted together without mortar” supplies an instructive
archaeological proof.’ —Bhattacharya.
Adherence to standard measurements seems to have been in vogue
from the earliest times. The words like kikku (kisku) and Vidathi
(Vitasti) technical terms of Vastu-measure occur in jatakas. Needless
to multiply numerous references in this great folk-lore of India. We
may put in brief that different classes of palaces of varying shapes,
with abundant application of pillars (sahasthainba Pasada— 553); and
with many pinnacles and storeys (cf* 541); curved wooden rafters—
Gopinasfya (
cf. 396 ) j
watch-towers with (Quarters for watchihcn
 iilSTORY OF HINbu ARCHITECTURE 74

Attalaka (534 & 458); pillars of various shapes Atthamsa ‘Astasra* —

(541 & 543); and doors, windows including latticed ones with perfora-
ted screens, lintels, stairs and cornices etc. have all found eloquent

mention. The descriptions of towns tally very much to those found

in epics — jataka no. 518.
Pali Canons. Like jatakas these canons also yield abundant
information on the most flourishing architectural condition of the
day, betokening the well-established canons of the art. The Mahl-
vagga and the Gullavagga arc the two texts which provide a
fascinating state of architecture. They deal not so much of town-
planning, references to which are also not wanting—‘vide the mention
of the cities like Ayodhya, Varanasi, Kampilya, KoSambI, Mathura,
Mithila. Mahismati, Ujjaini, etc. etc. — as with detached buildings.
At places it appears as if the Lord is giving sermons on the science of
Architecture itself. In Gullavagga (VI. 17.1), He appears to enjoin
upon his devotees the supervision of building-construction as one of
the duties of the Order (i.e. the Saihgha). In Mahavagga (1. 30, 4,

and also Gullavagga VI. 1. 2) the Blessed One is stated to have said,
*‘I allow you, O, Bhikkhus, abodes of five kinds—Vihara, Ardhayoga,
Prasada, Harmya and Guh5. This is the earliest classification of
religious buildings very much elaborated in later l§ilpa-tcxts like the
Samarangana-Sutradhara. Houses were called Lenas (Sansk. Layana)
on tnountains and such other
itnplying thereby the secluded places
places of solitude and tranquility. Hence the secular implication in
the context of royal mansions is beyond any comprehension to us.
All these buildings have been, as referred to above, very much
discussed by scholars like Acharya and Bhattacharya on the clues
provided by the commentator BuddhaghoSa. My surmize however,
tak^es me to think that they arc more associated with religious abodes
rather than their secular or civil counterparts. Vihara is well known
term. Similarly Prasada, Harmya and GuhS arc also well known. The
difficulty lies with Addayoga or Ardhayoga. BuddhaghoSa explains it

by saying ‘Suvarria-vangagcha* and Dr. Bhattacharya conjectures—

‘which may mean either a house made of gold, or tin or a peculiar kind
of building prevalent in a country then known SuvarnavaAga\
as,

Oldenbcrg and Rhys Davids render it, *gold-colourcd bungalow \

Dr. B. G. Law would interpret it as Garuda** shaped house. Dr.
Acharya does not make any serious attempt to explain these diver*
gences. This category comes after Vihara, welbknown Buddhist
raonastry—the living abode of the monks and Ardhayoga may mean
a separate abode for the living of nuns in which half the portion is kept
reserved for the abodes of nuns and the other half for ceremonial and
 —

HISTORY OF HINDU ARcklTRCttlkii

prayerful purposes. This is only a tentative explanation. More

research is wanted. Prasadas and Harmyas in this context really mean
the storeyed buildings like those found in the ancient Univ. rsitics of
Nalanda and Taxila and not the royal houses. Guha building may
represent the cave-dwellings of Ajanta. The S. S. echoes this ancient
tradition by calling some of the temple-types as Layana-Prasadas
(viz Guhadhara or Guharaja). It may be remarked that Buddha-
ghola himself, collectively calls all these five layanas—'panca-
lenlni*. Paucity of space forbids me to undertake any extensive study
of the store-house of architecture as is depicted in these sacred books
of India. A brief mention of Ararnas, a gift of Buddhists of the times,
presupposes a very pleasant planning of suburbs of the famous towns,
cities and capitals of those days perhaps to serve both the purposes
to keep aloof from the din and dust of city life as well as to practice
the conduct in a peaceful, elegant and beautiful atmosphere. Maso-
nary and material alongwith the component parts of a building,
residential or devotional are all described. The threefold windows—
Vedika-vaiayana, Jlfla-vatayana, ^alaka-vatayana, manifold
stairs and various kinds of plasters mentioned in these canons simply
epitomize the flourishing state of architecture of the time. Dr.
Bhattacharya rightly observes *The many-storeyed dwellings, the
:

under ground chambers and the stone roofs indicate the developed
engineering skill of the Indians. The painted chambers, the latticed
windows and the stair-balustrades attest to their aesthetic culture.
The drains, the dams and the baths, described by Rhys Davids, are
turthcr proof of the developed state of Indian architecture.*

Kat!{ilya*s ArtbaiSastra.

From the chronological consideration the next land-mark in the

history of Hindu Science of architecture as revealed in the preceding
pages, is Kautilya’s ArthalTstra the date and authorship of
which have been unnecessarily desputed by the contemporary
writers. Its style and contents, however, presuppose its early
antiquity and it cannot be later than 1st century B. G. It is equally
an early work and might have been compiled by the desciples of the
famous Kaufilya, the Prime-Minister of Chandragupta Maurya.
This work may be regarded as the first datable work on civil
architecture. Besides the numerous references scattered through
out the work, thii monumental treatise by the pen of the renowned
author, contains scientific definition of V3stu (Book III chap. 8)
which mcludes buildings and their engineering both: ‘Houses (or
the sites of hou^:s\ picas. .rc-gtirdens (Ararnas), Stetubandhas (ernba*
 HISTORY OF HINDU ARCH1Te6tURE

nkrnents and bridges) and lakes etc. arc called Vastu*. If we compare
this definition to those given in iSukra^s or Maya’s, works, we find
resemblance between them. The technical words like ‘Vastuhrdaya’
^Navabhaga’ the central plot of nine-plot sites etc. and the different
kinds of roads with appropriate names for each one are the proofs
of the existence of a developed science of architecture in that time.
Durga-nivela —Book II chap. 4 is a most systematic presentation of
royal palaces and forts. As regards the dedication of temples in the

centre of a city, our author remarks that in the ‘Kosthakalayas, the

Vastudevatas should also be set up according to their allotted positions.
This gives us to conclude (as Dr. B. B, Dutta also concludes cf.

‘Town-planning in ancient India) that Pada-vinyasa, a very developed

canon of town-planning was a stereotyped canon in Kautilya’s age.
Road-planning, planning of forts and palaces along with folk-plan-
ning and that connected with professionals were all well established.
The word ‘PratolP occurs for the first time here in the extant works
on .VastuSastra both architectural proper and non-architectural
adjuncts. Popular residential houses like l&alS-buildings and reli-

gious types like Caityas and Stupas are also delineated upon. But
the most copious descriptions and the presentations thereof, pertain to
forts and the palace-architecture. If we make a comparative and
critical study of Mayamatam and the Artha^astra, we may find a very

valuable clue in reconstructing our past history of Architecture.

Dr. Bhattacharya has made a detailed presentation of this treatise and
I may be excused not to have taken up the further details here for

want of space. Readers are referred to, to read these details in Bhatta-

—
charya’s book A study of Vastu-Vidya chap. IX.

All this literary evidence is a pre-christain datable record. A

very brief notice of this literature has now enabled us to evolve a
tangible shape of the arhitecturcal canons of pre-Christian period,
so elaborately treated in later works, like Pura^ias, Agamas and
Silpa texts. I therefore, pause for a moment to do this needful and
present those principles of VSstuSastra — the Hindu Science of architec*
turc in a tabular form as may be said to have been described or
referred td in these early works*— Hy mns, Sfltras, Jatakas, Epics and
the ArthaiSstrai

Principles Explanations References

I * Vastu Rituals Rg* Gr. Satras, Pall

Works and EpicS-
2. Bh3*parikp and Selection of Site and It

Bhftmi-saihgraha examination of soils« o

 HIstofeV OF HINDU AftCHli-i^aTyRft

Principles Explanations References

3. Dvaras and Position of doors and Rg. Gr. Sutra, Pali

Stambhas pillaras. works & epics & Arth.
4. Daru-aharana and Collection of wood
Vyksaropana from the forests and ,, „
plantation of trees
5. Pada*VinyI!sa Site-plans „ „
6. Ayadi-nirnaya Vastu-vidya and „ & Epics.
Astrology —auspicious
moments for

house operation.

7. Symbolism in Ar- „ & Arth,

chitccture
8. Vastu-iilpa-citra- Arth. jStakas &
sastras and their Epics,
inter-relation.

9. Prasada-vimana-harmya-sabha-mandapa-sala-bhavananani”
10. Bhavanangas Structures and
component parts. Epics & Jatakas
11. ^ahkusthapana Calculation of car- „ „
dinal points.
12. Hastalaksacia Units of measurements. „ „

Piiranas^

Let us now take up PurSnas most of which have detailed expatia-

tions on architectural matters. Pauranika chronology is a matter of
great dispute. The Matsyapurana is regarded an early Parana,
while Agni and others as later ones. I therefore, need not deal
My own contention, however, is :
with this controversial matter.
Recorded Puranas may be not very early^ but Pui?anic tradition must
be very very early indeed. In Indian tradition Puranas und Itihasas

Puranic lore on Vastu (architecture), Silpa (sculpture and

Iconography) and Citra (Painting) is simply vast and a casual refer-
ence like the one, I am going to make, is not sufficient to bring home
to the readers, their full cohtributioii. For completeness’ sake how-
ever only broad headings of contents may be tabulated here.
Casiial references to architecture are met in practically all the 18
Mahapuranas, but the following ten PurSfnas treaVthe subjeect mort
some of which more copiously and elaborately:
systematically,
 .

HISTORY OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 79

1. Matsya. The accounts of eighteen preceptors of the science of

Architecture —
vide ch. 255, are very important purporting a very
early antiquity of this lore. In the chapter entitled Stambha-mana-
nirnaya (ibid) five-fold columns are described and the SStra-tradition
of the central post as regulator of the whole composition of a build-
ing is continued. Prasadalaksana (269) and Ma^idapalaksana (270)
constitute the details of Temple-architecture, plans, measures,
storeyes, cupolas, steeples. Building materials under DarvShararia
(257) arc also discussed. The remaining three chapters (259, 263
and 292) are devoted to sculpure under the headings of 'Navatala-^
lak§ana’ (proportionate measures of an image); Linga-laksana, and
'Pi thikSlaksana’

2. Skanda. It is also an early Purana. It devotes three

chapters to the subject, Its expatiations on the laying of a large
city are of particular interest. Golden hall, chariots and Kalyana-
mandapa form the principal subjects of other two chapters. Like
Visriudharmottaram this Pura^a also treats painting, though in a
summary manner.
3. Garuda. It adds more valuable contributions to Hindu
architecture. All the principal topics like Prasadas, forts, pleasure-
gardens, temples, mathas, all the three classes of buildings—
residential, military and religious have deen described — chaps.
46-47. Its two chapters on sculpture are very important, ^ala-
grama images are its chief contribution.

4. Agni. Among all the Puranas AgnPs place is unique. It has

dilated on the subject at greater length.There are sixteen chapters
devoted to the topics of VastuSasira* Only three chapters dealing
with 'NagaradiwVastu (106), the canons of town-planning and those
related to Temple-planning the ‘Prasada-laksana-Kathanara’ (42)
and Prii’sada-laksana (104) are more important for our present study.
The remaining thirteen chapters deal with iconography and sculpture
a notice of which has already been taken in my Vastu4astra Vol. 11.

It may be remarked here that Agni-Purana’s and Garuda-PurSna’s

chapters on Vastu-vidya are identical. One may be a copy of the
other. Further there is a good deal of afiSnity between the Agni and
the HayaJirsa-pancarStra. Hayagrfva is the Pravakta of the Agni’s
chapters (39 & 42) dealing with temples. Dr. Bhattacharya, therefore,
conjectures that the fountain head of both these PurSnas might be
the HayaSirsa-pan carat ra which is itself one of 25 Tantras enumera-
ted in the Agnipura^a.
 80 HISTORY OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE

5-9. The Purai^as like Narada, VSyu, Bhavisya, Brahma-

Vaivarta and*Brahmanda also deal with this subject in their own
manner^ Needless to multiply their contents. Readers may see their
contribution in Acharya’s and Bhattacharya's works.

10. Visnadharmottarani. This Purana forming an appendix of

the great Visnu- Purana is a store-house on the arts of architecture,
sculpture and painting. The Pt. third on painting is a unique
contribution and a detailed comparative and critical account of this
matter has been presented by the writer in his work VastuSSstra
Vol. II. The same part, chapters LXXXVI-VIII, gives a geneologi-
cal account of about a hundred temples, a detailed notice of which
has been taken by the learned author of Hindu Temple, Dr.
Kramrisch.

Xgamas. These are more technical than Puranas in the matters

of architectural and sculptural presentations. Agamas and Tantras in
one tradition are the same and deal with mystical worship of l§iva

and f^akti. In another tradition they form two classes of separate

literature though allied in their devotion to iSaivism and iSaktism
equally. Agama contribution to ^ilpaiastra more extensive and
is

technical than that of the Puranas. Some of the Agamas, as already

remarked, to all intents and purposes are but architectural treatises.

The Kamika for instance, devotes 60 chapters out of a total of 75 to

architecture and sculpture and Dr. Acharya remarks : ‘its treatment
of the subjects can hardly be surpassed by that of an avowedly
architectural treatise’. Preliminary matters are common to Agamas
and Puranas alike. ‘But, unlike the Puranas, there is in the Kami-
kagama a discussion of architectural matters under some very highly
technical classifications, snch as the styles, Nagara, Dravida, and
Vesara; shapes, masculine, feminine, and neuter; Buddha, MiSra,
and Sankirna, depending respectively on a single material, mixture
of two materials, and the amalgamation of many materials; SaSchita,
Asanchita, and Apasanchita, otherwise known as Sthanaka, Asana,
and Dayana, which, in case of temples, depend on the erect, sitting
and reclining postures of the image. Another very technical matter
referred to is ayadi formulas, so very important in selecting the right
proportions,*

Like Kamikagama, other Agamas like the Karnagama, the Sup-

rabhedagama the Vaikhfinasagama and so many others also deal
with this side-branch of religious Tiiual, the foundation apd dedication
of towns and temples,
 HISTORY OF HINDU ARCHITEOTURB

Tantras.
This class of ancient literature is not studied yet. it is, neverthe-
less, a very vast subject promising far-reaching results. The list of
25 Tantras as referred to, in the Agni are already enlisted in the
foregoing pages. HayaJtrSa-pancaratra and Atrisaihhita arc some of
the notable works oh Tantr a- culture intimately associated with
religious architecture, the construction of the temples and the making
of images etc Dipta-tantra, Mahanirvana-tantra, SSrada-tantra and
a host of others are a tantric exposition on the matters intimately
related to 6ilpa.

Brbatsamhita.

Though an astronomical work written by a leading astronomer

of the Gupta period, it deals with architecture also. It is

remarkable work on Hindu Science of architecture and is also a

datable work. Its treatment of the subject is methodical, succint
and scicnlific. Its contribution, therefore, to the evolution and
developmont of Indian architecture is simply superb. It is, like
Puranas (being a semi-purana itself), an encyclopaedia of manifold
information.
‘In this treatise there arc but five chapters devoted to both
architecture and sculpture. But the subjects have been treated with
a master hand. The chapters open with a definition of the science of
architecture, and the author goes on to describe briefly but succinctly
and to the point, the suitable building sites, testing of soil, general
plan, comparative measures of storeys and doors, and carvings
thereon, and other important parts of a building. The preliminary
subjects are described in the opening chapter. Then follows the
description of the buildings proper, under thesame twenty types as
in the Matsya and the Bhavisya-PurSnas, the names and details
being identical. The preparation of cement is discussed in a separate
chapter. One whole chapter is devoted to the construction of the
necessary articles of house-furniture, such as bedsteads, couches, and
seats. Qjiite consistently with his sense of proportion VarShamihira
devotes only one chapter to sculpture, where, too, the details of
images arc described in a scientific manner which is missing in other
ancient literature. He is, however, accused of being ‘ in the habit of

uncritically copying his authorities’ and misappropriating their

materials. But in his treatise seven architectural authorities arc
mentioned distinctly.*

Pratistha class of works* There are several standard manuals on

Pratis^ha. Among them Ilanaiivagurudcva-paddhati, HaribhaktivilSsa
82 History of hindu architecture

and Ma^lia-pratis^ha of Raghunandana and Hemadri’s Catiirvarga-

cintamani are ^cry important. Their contribution to this side-branch
of religious ritual is remarkable. They not only mirror the flourish-
ing condition of Indian architecture of the time, but also lay down
the rules with their distinct and definite contribution in the special

rea’m of temple-architecture and iconography. A detailed notice is

precluded here for want of space. Ifanaiiva-gurudeva’s work and other

important manuals will be referred to on many places of this study.

Miscellaneous Works.

Among the miscellaneous works, Niti-works like ^ukra^s Nlti-sara,

poetical works like Bana’s Kadambarl and Harsacarita, Kallhana’s
Riijatarafigini, works of other poets like Magha and Bhavabhuti and
Dramas like Mrcchakatika are very valuable to reconstruct the
history of Indian architecture and a notice of these works is reserved
in the respective parts devoted to subjects like Town-Planning and
Palace-architecture,

diipa-texts.
Lastly though never least in importance, let us take up the
architectural-proper treatises on the subject— the VastuSastras and
SilpaSSstras. Why have I reserved them in the last is not very
difficult to understand. So far we have been dealing with that class

of literature which is only indirectly related to architectural subjects.

They, therefore, as it were, formed the Purvapaksa. The ^ilpaJastras,
the systematised manuals of the science are the canonical books of
art. Moreover, it is to inter-link this chapter to the subsequent one
‘Principal texts of Hindu science of Architecture’ that some notice
of this class of literature is being taken here forming the highest
peak of the edifice of the evolution and development of the history of
Hindu Science of Architecture,
We have already said something of the VSstu-acaryas. They
had their works, most of which are lost to us. Nevertheless, there is
a formidable list of this class of literature also which is our proudest
possession and a study of some of them was a long dcsside-
scientific

ratum. The present writer accordingly started his study of Vastu

ffistra with ‘A study of Bhoja’s Samar adgana-Sutradhara* the results

of which were presented in his Ph.D, Thesis, acclaimed as a poinecr-

ing attempt—vide the introductuion to this work. In this extended
study I have tried to study some of the most representative text

books belonging to both the schools of Hindu Science of Architecture

--i»Vide the subsquent chapter ‘Representative or Principal texts of
the Hindu Science of Architecture*, They arc, besides the S. S., th^
 Hl&TORY OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 83

ViSvakarm-Vastuiastra (recently published from Tanjore), the Apa-

rajitapracchS, the Manasara> the Mayamata and the i^ilparatna.
In the compilation of the Vastu-laksanas- —a systematic presentation
of the original material under scientific heading of art drawn from
some leading and more popular texts however, I have tried to study
practically all the easily available texts. Thus a kind of presentation
of all these texts, is already there. A casual review of all these texts

however, is called for, for more informative an anlysis.

Let us first tabulate the more popular and important works of

Vastu or ^ilpa Sastra. Let us take those belonging to the Visvakarma

or Nagara school of Hindu architecture :

1. ViSvakarma-^ilpa 12. Bhuvana-pradipa

2. ViSvakarma-PrakaJa 13. Brhacchilp.i-SSstra
3. ViSvakarma-VastuSastra. 14. Manasollasa
4. Sanat-Kumara-VastuSastra 15. Manusylilaya-candrika
5. Samarangana-sutradhara 16. Vastu-Vidya
6. Yukti-kalpataru 17. Vastu-ratnavall
7. Aparajita-praccha 18. Pauranika-VastuSanti-
8. Vasturaja-vallabha prayoga
9. Prasada-mandana 19. Vastu-muktavall
10. Rupa-mandana 20. Vastusamgraha
11. Rajasimha-VastuSastra 21. Vastusara (in Prakf ta)

^*^.~The following 14 books are also attributed to ViSvakarma

in the catalogus catalogorum of Dr. T. Aufrecht:

1 . Aparajita-praccha by Bhuvanadeva 8. JnSna-ratna-kosa

2 . Kslraniava-Silpa of ViSvakarman 9. Vastu-prakaSa
3. Jaya-praccha 10. Vastu-vidhi
4. VastuSfiistra 11. VSstuiastra
5. ViJvakarma-mata 12. VSstusamgraha
6 . Aparajita-prabha or Visvakarma* 13. Vastu-samuccaya
saihhita 14. Viivakarmiya
7. Ayatattva

Acharya has, iiowever, presented a catalogue of about

150 Vastu-texts in his Encyclopaedia, most of which are partial

treatises dealing with one or two subjects of architecture or sculpture

and hence they may be left out. As regards the Maya school or
Dravida school these are the, principal ^ilpa-texts:
 «

84 HIStORY OF HINDU ARCkltEC'tURift

1. Manas5ra 7. Prayoga-manjari
2. Mayamata' 8. Prayoga-parijata
3. Nagnajit-Citralaksana 9. Silparatna
4. KaSyapa f^ilpa 10. 6ilpa-sangraha
5. Agastya-Sakaladhikara 11. ^ukranitisara
6. Vastu-purusa-vidhana (Narada) 12. Tantra-samuccaya
It is not desirable to review all these works. A few remarks,
however, are necessary. Some of these texts are very important for
the mention of early authorities. In this respect Vasturatnavall
though a later work, is very informative. At first sight the names of
18 preceptors mentioned in the Matsya-pur^na seem mythical but ;

the truth is otherwise. While the ViSvakarma-praka^a and Mayamata

only refer to ^ambhu as a great authority, the Vasturatnavali actually

quotes a passage from Sambhu’s works. A book named Brahma-

iilpa is quoted in Silpasangraha, Bhattotpala quotes a verse from
the work of ^ukra and Nagnajit. Vasturatnavali again quotes verses
from the writings of so many Acaryas enumerated in the Matsya-
purana—Bhrgu, VaSistha etc. Garga's work was available to Varaha-
mihira. Similarly so many other examples can be multiplied.

Secondly some of these books are mainly copies of the more

standard books. For example, ^ilparatna freely takes from Mayamata
and Mandana’s works are repetitions of the Aparajita-praccha at
many places.
RISE OF ART
After a general introductibn to the subject as a whole, we first took
the rise of the science, let us say a few words on the rise of the art. Crea-
tions of arthave always preceeded with the formulation of their rules.
Grammar came only after the language was fully evolved. Hence art
of architecture has preceeded the science of architecture. Naturally
art ought to have been dealt with first. But as the main aim of this
work is not the history of the art but its science, therefore, we consi-
dered the rise of science first and are taking the art afterwards —
‘Pridhanycna vyapadeiah bhavanti*.
Early Periods

Early period may be sub-divided into prc-Vcdic,

Vedic and Epic
periods. The Vedic period again found treated in several of its
is

sub-periods like Rgvcdic, later Vedic, and Sutra periods Again I have
guarded myself in taking Indus valley civilization as pre- Vedic otherwise
the natural division of the periods would have been pre- Vedic, Vedic and
E;lc as already referred to above. Something has already been said of the
|lgvcdic culture and Indus valley culture in the context of the origin
 kistokY OF lilNDU ARGHITECTORE 8^

bt Indian architecture, want of space forbids me to treat this subject

with any detailed expatiations. So long as the contro>Tersy of Indus
culture whether it is interior or exterior or more properly contempo-
rary of the Vedic culture is not settled, any detailed treatment of
Indus art is not very helpful in this outline history of Indian art. We
may therefore, leave this valley as it was so done by its makers. As
regards the later periods, the Epic epoch, the Buddhist and the
Pauranika ages, some remarks have already been made. Here therefore,
we may concentrate on the architectural history of our land as may
be followed to, before the Golden Guptas rose to their alround power,
magnificence and artistic exhuberance characteristic of the evolution
and development of Indian art. It is from this period that the rise of
Prasadas and the Vimanas, the Hindu Temples the specimens of which
reserved in the monuments, had begun. And the subsequent are pre-
history of Indian art chiefly centres round our Temples in the different
styles of art-craft-manship in both the parts of this sub-continent. I
have, therefore, reserved this outline history of Indian temples in a
subsequent part —V ‘Temple-architecture*. The principles of
Temple-architecture and its allied models and representations should
go together. Temple-building is very much associated with temple-
sculpture and this sclupturc is more related to iconography in India,
hence an attempt will be made to treat this subject in only very brief
outlines, Iconographical sculpture and painting is the subject matter
of the second volume of these studies VastuSSstra Vol. II Hindu — —
canons of Iconography and Painting (already published— the subject of
my D. Litt. Thesis, cf. the general introduction to this volume) where
this subject is fully treated both in its background and the canons of
art along with literary and archaeological evidences. Thus our pur-
view of this chapter gets very much delimited. All this related to

religious art and architecture. What about the secular or popular or

more correctly the civil architecture ? Xbis is related not only to the
house-building art but also to the canons of Town-planning, founda-
tion of villages and towns in their manifold aspects. Again these
may be conveniently divided as per genesis of the land into popular
residential houses and the palaces of kings. All these three principal
topics of civil OF royal architecture need be dealt with in the respec-
tive parts allotted to each of these subjects where the scientific canons
have been elaborated. Unfortunately in India the history of ar chi tec*
ture revolving round civil or royal buildings is very very meagre
indeed; nevertheless an attempt will be made to reconstruct this

history if not from the very meagre archaeological evidences at least

from the references abound in literature especially the poetical works.

86 HISTORY ,OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE

Again the prc-Gupta history of Indian art, may not be dwelt

upon at any great length as this treatise is not directly related to
that subject. It is only to provide a connecting link between the
manuals on the one hand and the monuments on the other that this
outline history is called for. Accordidgly this artistic history is

comprised by three main developments of art--^art of architecture,

art of sculpture, and that of painting as well. Sculptural notice has
been reserved at elsewhere-—vide Pt. V Temple-architecture of this
volume (see sculpture). Vastulastra Vol. II and also my ‘Hindu
Canons of Painting’ published separately are my works where both
these subjects —
Sculpture (Iconography) and Painting have been
treated.

Historical beginning of Indian architecture is traced from the

rule of the early Mauryan Dynasty ( C, 400 B. C.) and these are
regarded as wooden origins, which are keeping with our thesis that
early Indian art was wooden grounded in the Vedic buildings which
were characteristically Aryan institution. The later buildings as
alluded in Epics may be said to mirror the influence of Asura
or Naga stone-architecture* The chief features of the early and
later Mauryan architecture are the foundations of cities and cons-
truction of the royal palaces* The famous capital city of the
Mauryas, the Patalfputra, and the capital of the PaScala country,
the Ahicchatra, may be said to illustrate the town-planning system
of ancient India in a characteristic manner. It was a stereotyped
canon for the then town-planning to lay out the fortification consisting
of moats, ramparts, gates and towers. The palace-architecture is
illustrated by the Mauryan palace at PStaliputra, a detailed notice of

which is reserved in the part devoted to Pal icc-architccturc. All

this is secular or civil architecture.

The other notable buildings of the period mainly consist of

Stupas, Ghaityahalls and Sanghar3mas which may be classed as

religious architecture. We know that Indian art is the handmaid of

religion and accordingly Indian atchitccture owes its origin from
Vedic Rituals and the construction of ‘citis’ is the precursor of Hindu*
Temple. The Hindu Temple is a growth of ages and multiple
origiops have contributed its formation. Stupas, domed structures
of brick or stone m isonary, Chaitya halls the chapels and VihSras
the monastrics formed important monuments of this period. After
Vedic sacrifice Devapuja, the Bhakti-cult gave rise to a great impetus
to the construction of images, devagrhas or devatSyatanani and
columns bearing the emblems of the gods in front of such saneturies,
 HISTORY OF HINOU ARCHITECTURE 87

the dhvajastambhas viz. Besnagar (old Gwalior state) Pillar. The

origin of Stupas may be traced from the hemi-spheric^l structures
emerged out of the earthen funeral mounds (sma^anas) under which
according to Vedic ritual, the ashes of the dead were buried. The ‘

earliest of the stupas now extant represent a plain and simple

structure consisting of a hemispherical dome (and a), placed on a
low circular base and surmounted by a square box (harmika), which
is further crowned by the parasol or umbrella (chatra), the symbol
of universal paramountacy. The dome was the principal element of
the stupa and was surrounded by a pradaksinapatha, or passage for
circum-ambulation occasionally fenced off by a railing or wall/ This
original form of the stSpa may be recognised in the Great Stupa at
Sanchi which represents one of the earliest specimens now extant*
Other notable example is illustrated at Bharhut The structure
which obtained the greatest celebrity in Asia was the relic tower or
pagoda which RaniSka erected at Purushpur (Peshawar) over the
relics of Buddha. Stupas were also erected in southern India from a
fairly early period, and the Andhra region seems to have been lit*?

erally studded with them. The most important of these monuments

were situated at Amaravatl, Jaggayyapeta, Ghantaasala, Nagarjun*
konda etc.
Chaityas may be regarded Buddhist shrines inwhich the votive
chaitya occupied the place of the altar. Such sancturics appear to
have existed from very early times and the ruined foundations of
chaitya halls traced at Sanchi, Sarnath, Sonari etc. may be said to
belong to the period of A^oka. The Chaitya halls, now extant arc
hewn out of a living
rock. They copy of wooden structural
are a
buildings sculptured replicas of which are found in abundance in
early Indian art. These chaityas may be said to represent the
Addayoga, one of fivelfold abodes, the Blessed One had sanctioned to
Bhikkhus. I have already remarked that it is shrine-cum-monastcry

and its) resemblance to the Christian Church not only in shape but
also to some extent in use is not quite correct. In the Christian
church the place of central altar is the chief architectural building,
of course with its superstructure etc. but here in Indian chaityas,
the places of the residence of the devoteesand the object of devotion,
both occupy architect’s attention. The centre no doubt bears a remark-
able resemblance to a Christian church. The earliest specimens
of these chaityas arc in the rock cut caves at Barabar near Gaya
in Bihar and the Sudama cave excavated by Aioka for the
ijivikas. The most important of th^ Bayabar 0toup is the Lomasa
Rsi cave,
 88 HISTORY OF HINDU ARCHITECTUR]&

The next stage of evolution, after the Barabar group is found in

a cave at Bhzqa, near Poona, in the Western Ghats. Of approximately
the same style ard pattern are the Chaitya halls at Kondana, the
dclapidated Chaitya cave, Pitalkhora in Khandesh and also one of
the early chaitya halls at Ajanta. All these three may be taken as
contemporary to the Bhaja chaitya and all the four represent the
oldest specimens. The movement continued at Ajanta, Nasik and
Karlc. The chaitya at Karle is the largest and may also be regarded
the finest product. It may also be regarded the culmination of the
early phase of this class of architecture.

The third off-shoot of early Indian architecture is illustrated in

the Sangharamas or Viharas, what are called monastries. Originally
they were built on the pattern of a secular private house the Sala-
house with wooden materials, but later on as the monastic organisa-
tion developed, they become elaborate brick structures with many
adjuncts, Often they consisted of several storcyes, and along each
side of the inner court-yard there usually ran a long corridor suppor-
ted on pillars. This building may fairly correspond to Harmyas and
PrasSdas the two of the five-fold religious residence sanctioned by
the Lord. Both chaityas and Viharas go together. This is Buddhist
institution and the early specimens are found at caves just enumerated
above in connection with chaityas. Jainism also contributed to the
evolution and development of ancient Viharas. The Jain caves at
Udayagiri and Khandagiri near BhuvaneJvara in Orissa, are remark-
able; the most elaborate, among these 35 excavations, being the
GaneJa and the Raul gumphas. The earliest of the Vihara, caves
in Western India, are those at Bhaja and Bedsa. Of the other pre-
christian Viharas, mentioned may be made of those at Ajanta,
Kondanc, Pitalkhora, Nasika (early group) and the Ganesalena at
Junnar. The storeyed Vihara is illustrated at Karle. It is simply

grand and magnificent.

Asokanpillars in the history of early Indian art are a land-mark.

But they should be treated in the context of Indian sculpture rather

Similar is the case with Sunga-Ka^va art
in that of architecture.
(MadhyadeSa and Eastern India) as represented at Sanchi, Bharhut,
Bodh Gaya etc. etc. and at Bhaja and Karle ( Western India )
and the reputed centre of art like Vengi, Mathura and Gandhar.
 CHAPTER V
STUDY OF HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE
(A Study of RepresentatWe or Principal Texts)

In the foregoing pages we have already taken notice of the mani-

fold types of Vastu Works. We have also had a birds’s eye view on
the vast mass of the literature and the different traditions, that are
incorporated in it. We have also tried to evaluate this lore on the
basis of two broad and distinct traditions or schools of Indian archi-
tecture. Here in this chapter, a somewhat detailed notice of some
of the most representative and renowned texts on Hindu architecture
is necessary to complete the introductory part of this treatise and to

justify the title ‘Hindu Science of Architecture* with especial reference

to Bhoja’s Samarangana-Siitradhara. Accordingly the following six

texts in two each belonging to the two famous schools of

sets of three
Indian architecture, the Aryan and the Dravidian, may be purvicwcd:

J: Northern or Ari/an or Nagara. B: Southern or non^^ Aryan or Dravidian,

1. ViSvakarma’s Works 1* Manasara

2. Samarahgana-SutradhSra 2. Maya-mata
3. Aparijita-praccha 3. Silparatna

Before proceeding with these individual texts, some remarks arc

necessary to bring home to my readers as to why only these six texts

have been chosen. Are all these works equally representative ? Any
affirmative answer may not be fully correct* We
have already taken
notice of the scope of the Vastu-^lastra. Accordingly these are the
principal texts which are not only broad-based but also they delineate
upon almost all the principal subjects of Hindu Science of Architecture,
town planning, buildings (both secular and religious), icons and icono-
graphy, (both sculptural and pictorial). The works like KaSyapa-filpa
or Agastyasakalidhikara though very large treatises, are limited in
scope of treating mainly sculpture. Narada-Silpa undoubtedly is a
very important work, but under investigation and has not
it is still

attained the status of a populai: treatise as these works have done,

Moreover, it is only a broad indication. Nothing is water-tight
treatment. Our architectural heritage is really very sublime and its
lore very vast and therefore in a critical work like this a review of only
limited number of texts can be attempted. Let us begin with
Vifvakarml*s works*
60 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE

Vijvakarma’s Works: — The text-books of VastuSasira, the science

and transmissions which
of architecture, arc records of oral traditions
go back to an undefined past and ViSvakarma’s works fall in this
category. There are certain known texts such as Varaha-mihira’s
Brhat-saiphitH which was compiled not later than the sixth century
A. D. and which avowedly refers to the works of the old masters and
truly admits was but a brief account of the treatises by the
that it

master-architects likeMaya, ViSvakarmS, Garga and Manu. We have

already said something on ancient Acaryas. We have also remarked
that there are several works going by the name of ViSvakarmS.
Viivakarma-prakaSa and ViJvakarma-iilpa are such works and a notice
has already been taken of them—vide Dr. Acharya’s work (H.A.I.A.).
My surmise is : both these make up a complete treatise, the former
dealing with mainly architecture and the latter with sculpture. Here a
particular notice of a recently published work of Vi^vakarma, the ViSva-
karma-Vastu^astra is called for. But before we take a detailed notice
of the work, a note of warning may be sounded. The authentic date can
not be warranted. Very few Sanskrit works can be regarded as datable
works. Perhaps we never cared for historical chronology or sequence,
A historical truth or a historic truth was all for us. Accordingly we are
unable to fix its date. Every Sthapati could call himself a ViSvakarma.
An accredited mission of an accredited master becomes the property
of the desciplcs as well. This is really very sublime. But in this age

of rational and scientific approach, this is a great draw-back and we

should admit it. It is nevertheless, a fact that all these treatises are
but an authentic, unbroken and faithful transmission of our ancient
lore. Hence these works arc our hand-books and guide-books to
reconstruct our architectural and artistic traditions and to study and
appreciate better our architectural heritage.

ViSvakarma- VSstuSastra : —^As already remarked that it is a recently

published work, its recension is based on a manuscript available
from the Sarasvati Mahal Library at Tanjorc and its credit of bringing
to light goes to a team of savants and engineers of repute. My friend
and colleague, at the Experts Gommitcc for Engineering Terms,
Government of India, Ministry of Education, New Delhi, Major N. B,
Gadre, has the credit of preparing a synopsis of its convents and pub-
lishing it in his ‘^ilpasaihsara*. I am therefore taking this opportunity
to use his synopsis in my own way after having gone through the text
and prepared my own study.
The whole yrork consists of eighty seven chapters in about 1800
verses i, e. more than three thovisand five hundred lines. The
following tabulation of the chapters and their subjects will give %
 .

HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE 91

bird’s eye view of the subject treated in this manual.

1. Advent of Indra and other gods at KailMa*and his prayer

to Lord ^iva and Nandi's call of Vi^vakarina
2. ViSvakarma comes and prays to the Lord for the light of
Architectural Lore, the VastuSastraprakaSaand the Lord’s
Benediction and Blessing. Thus obtained the science from the Lord,
ViSvakarma praises and unfolds the scope of the Silpa.

f?. It deals with orientation of the sites explaining the East-West

-line and the extent of shadow on different seasons for different
latitudes.

4, It deals with men and materials to be employed in Vastu.

The chief material being wood, it is going to the forests and bringing
the timber for buildings from them. So the main topics of interest
are undesirable timber trees, curing of trees felled for timber and
lightning blast etc. Further useless timbers, due to milky sap such
as Madhuka, TiniSa etc. are also not suitable for horizontals or for
carvings.

5 and 6, They deal with the Examination of the diflerent kinds

of lands, regions and soils and their selection. In the Second chapter
(ie. the 6th one) levelling of site, placing of foundation box and
details of articles in that box are also described apart from the
traditional treatment of this topic as we find in the texts like
the Samarahgana and the ManasHra.
1^10, The subject-matter of chapters 7 to 10 is very interesting
from the standpoint of community planning the planning of the —
villages and town-planning as well as the planning of forts and roads,
streets, lanes and bylanes in all of them together with their measure-
ments etc. Here as many as 12 types of villages, 5 types of ‘Khepcli’
the special rural habitations, 7 types of ‘Nigamadi’ nagaris (ie. cities),

20 kinds of ‘Padmakadi’ nagaras (ie. towns) and 12 types of Durgas

(the forts) have been described (cf. the 2nd part ‘Town-planning’ and
the Vastulaksanas, the second ,patala’ where -
all these individual
types have been noticed).
Some remarks on the town-planning and the village-planning as
prescribed by this text, however, may be made. It prescribes

restrictions of population on village-site for avoiding spread ot diseases

due to over-crowding. It also suggests that the cost of a new town

can not be wholly met by the king. The king is only to order and
and distribute the sites. Is it not a community-planning of these
days? Similarly the treatments like the gradation of towns and
rampart arrangements, the location of government houses, the
92 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE

approaches and communications, inter-relation of roads, proportion

between thcm/*their width etc. arc also interesting. It also prescribes
easy water facility on all roads The treatment of professionals
residing in towns is also very interesting. Village-planning is very
grand — cf. cosmopolitan population.

11. This chapter entitled *Deva-prasadabhumana-kathana' deals

with the planning of Prasada, the Hindu temple with its garbhagrha,
the sacred chambe: and other accessory and adjacent buildings
together with the Prakara etc.

12^1S, Similar treatment is accorded to the palaces of kings (12),

the latter is specilically dealing with the fortification of Royal
Palaces. A particular notice is that regional variation of structural
types arc rcommended and planning of the Palace with all the
required establishments and accessory buildings for residential and
pleasure purposes is dwelt with at length.
14, The chapter is entitled ‘Bhavanalaksananirupana* and it

deals with ‘Bhavana’ in the sense of a gorgeous mansion, incidcntly

referring to the different salient features of a Vimana type, a (Malika
type and a Harmya type.

15^ Expatiations of this chapter on ‘Purvabhavana’ is of special

interest. It is a modern portico or Pratoli (‘Pauri’ in Bhasa) of the
Samarangana with the difference that it is to take a shape of a
pavilion or a Jala with a good number main purpose
of pillars. Its

is to add to the beauty of the building of a Prasada or Harmya and

is also useful for parking of conveyances like 6ibika etc. Different
varieties of Purvabhavana take different number of pillars —from
four to sixteen.
16. This chapter with the heading ‘NySyaJSlalaksana* deals
with Palace court, the Asthanika which is twofold, NyayaJala
and Sabha. The former again is twofold ‘DeJya’ and ‘Paura* which
may be explained as rural and urban law courts respectively. Details
arc to be seen in the body of the book ahead (cf. Palace-architecture),
Particular mention may be made of the pillars which arc the main
architectural elements together with decorations and the seats,
the SimhSsana, the royal seat and the seats for other degnitaries
in them.
17. This is in continuation to the 16th, dwelling at length on
the two mains types of courts, the urban and the rural— ‘Paura-
dcjyasabhadi-kathana’ — law courts.
18^ This chapter on Hreasury^—‘bhapdagSra* may also be taken
in cQntinuation to the Palace- accessories. In the opening lines of the
 . HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE 93

chapter, however, incidental expatiation on the VastuSastrScaryas

is worthy of our attention. Here
mentioned a list rf)f as many as
is

Nandi, Narada, Brhaspati,

eleven early authorities such as Agastya,
Tiinyaloka, Kaiyapa, LokadarSaka Katyayana, Marica, Cilratoyaka,
Palakapya, Pundarika, DirghadarSi, Punarvasu and Yogasara, in
which the names like and Gitratoyaka are not familiar
I imyaloka
and perhaps are not to be found in other sources
like Matsyapurana.

Treasury! again, in the context of this treatise, is twofold DeSya

and Paura like the rural and the urban law courts,
19 . The Inner Chamber, the Anta^-pura in a Royal Palace has
found a separate treatment in this work. Side by side with this topic of
the chapter a detailed expatiation on the manifold types of Gavaksas'
is attempted. These are to be laid in the pleasure pavilion of the
inner chamber. The varieties of gavaksas are taken up in the 3rd
part—vide also the Vastulaksanas under the term.
20 . Then follows the Arsenal, AyudhaSala, wherein the opening
lines the presiding deities of the weapons
Brahma, — Para !^iva, Hari,
Varuna, Marut, Gaiidharva-pati, Arka, Candrama, Gitrakarmuka
Vainateya, Nagaraja, Kctumali, VaiSvSnara and Yama arc referred —
to. Further are mentioned the great sages like VaJistha, Pulaha,
KaSyapa, Bhfgunandana, Marica, Cyavana, Kanva, ViSvamitra,
Narada, Valakhilya-group ( of Rsis ), Lokadar^aka, Dirghadar^f,
Kundaroma, Galava, PancavSraka, Bharadvaja, Ksatrapala, KcSika,
Madhusudana, SudarSana and Pihga, who obtained technique and
training of the science of warfare from these gods and transmitted the
same to the kings on the earth for their good and for the good of the
humanity at large. This is an echo of the greater epic, the Maha-
bharata (cf. by Munis).
Teaching of Yudhisthira Further next arc
described the names of the manifold weapons and their daily worship
by the king. Then arc taken up the architectural details.

In the latter half of the chapter, Royal library—PustakaSala is

taken up because for a king the Sastra-Sravana is as essential as Khad-
gadharapa. In the planning of an ancient Indian Library a structure
like pavilion was essential for reciting the book.

21 . It deals with the necessity of an inner-room or inner-chamber

in practically all the superior types of residential houses,

22 * A separate treatment to the Dining Hall has been accorded

in this chapter in which the allotments of separate scats and the
direction thereof, to the Yatis (begging food), the Pitrs, the children^
the ladies etc. are very interesting and it mirrors the prosperous and
pious homes of the then India*
94 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE

In this chapter the bed-room is described.

24. Thh chapter deals with ‘Vasantagrha’ —a pleasure-house

specially suited to the Spring Season.

25. It deals with 12 types of doors. It also expatiates on their

de corations.
20, It may be taken in continuation with the former as Torana,
the arch is intimately connected with the door and has been a very
important architectural motif in Indian doors. The text however
goes a good many and enjoins its decoration on so many
steps further
other articles of house-hold furniture and the component members of
the house itself. Its varieties to be seen in the body of the book — cf.

also Vastulaksana.

27, Herein are described the various types of pedestals or socles

of a structure.

28-32. Gopuras of one to nine

In these chapters storeys are
described, a detailed notice of which has been taken in the Part
dealing with Temple-architecture.
33-^34. They deal with Vapis and Tadagas — the water reservoirs.
35-36. These chapters deal with ^Mandapa*—-a family shrine in
a royal palace (cf. the S, S. ‘Ayatanadhyaya’).
37. This chapter on ‘MrgaSala’ is a unique contribution of this
text on zoological gardens wherein wire-netting is prescribed for cages
in these gardens.

38-39. These two chapters expatiate on A^vaSalas and Gaja^alas

-—the accessory structures of a Royal palace. We will see that the
treatment of ASvaSala in the S. S. is unique but uniqueness of this

text is also there in one respect that it prescribes race-courses with

sand-blindage and that the junctions of Provincial ELi^^hways are to be
laid in the vicinity of such Race-courses and gardens.
40. This chapter on ‘VidyaSall’ is also unique that it gives a
detailed account of school-architectiire rarely to be found in other
^ilpa-texts. Village-school building or city-school-cdifice or one to be
located in residential house itself—all are referred to, but there is an
explicit reference to only one style of school-architecture —the details
will follow—vide Public buildings.
41. ‘SaAklrnabhavana*, a special type of structure in the differ-
ent styles— Palace-like gorgeous and simple one— both are described
in this chapter.

42-43. The former expatiates on bunting-like ornamentations of

buildings and other structures like stairs, lamp-posts, coaches, doors,
 HINDU SCIENCE OF APCHITEGTURE 95

seats, etc. etc, under the technical term of Pataka, the latter dwells
at length on the technique of iron-work, the nails etc, whdt is termed
Taribhadra’,
44-45. These chapters deal with the Assembly halls or more
fittingly with the sitting halls, the modern Drawing rooms or Varan-
dabs, which in a particular context of a palacial building will take a
good many Slas interwoven to one another under the two separate
headings of the MahaJala and Vifcsaiala, the latter being prescribed
to be constructed in storeys also.

46-4S. These deal with three types of marriage-pavilions (Ka-

lyanaJiTla)— Minus!, GSndharvi and Daivi, along with their Vimanas
and Gopuras in the different styles of architecture like Magadlia,
Pancala, Kalihga etc.

49. It is a treat on Theatre, the RangaJala in which both Music-

Hall and Dancing-Hall are to be laid in conjunction or otherwise.
At the end of the chapter is a beautiful delineation upon the decora-
tions like Mani-darpanas and Toranas and the images of gods and
goddesses presiding over th'' fine arts.

50-52. The former deals with the palaces of ministers and

princes, and the latter two expatiate on the residential houses of the
four varnas —Brahman as etc,
5S. It describes doors with details of their joinery and decorations,
the special feature being glazed doors,

54. It deals with the different types of stairs and their landings.
Both straight and winding stair-cases are prescribed.
55-57. They are unique in describing the public places in a
village (EkaSala), in a mandala (DviSala) and in the capital (BahuSSla)
to be established by ruling chief for the tests in various arts and
sciences. These may be called darbar-halls, where debates, Kavisam-
melanas, plays etc. etc. may be conveniently held.
58. It treats the pedestals— ‘Vedika, divine and human both i.e.

those fit to be constructed in temples and those worthy of a human

dwelling. As many as 13 kinds are enumerated* In the end Plthikas
the scats or legs of the pedestals, are taken up.

59. It is a treatment of the lamp-pot under its technical name

of ‘Potikft* in great details of its various shapes and ornamentations.

60. It expatiates on Gatvara—the raised up platforms to be used

as a,sitting structure in sunshine, in moonlight or even in rains, in
details of their planning, moulding-decorations and other allied

matters like drainage etc. and devices for avoidance of rat-nuisance,

 96 MIKDU SCIENCE OF ARGHITEaTOltfc

61, It deals with joinery, the Sandhikarma both in carpentry

and masonr'jf, to be noticed in its proper place,
62-68, The former deals with roofings of various sorts and their
drainage etc. under its technical name of ‘Avarana’ and the latter with
‘Lupa’ a technique of mouldings and decorations (including ivory
decorations) on the various members of buildings and articles of
furniture. It is explained as ‘ksudra-kriya-pattika*.

64. It is a masterpiece on pillars-—as many as 12 kinds with

their components, mouldings and decorations etc. the details may be
looked in the body of the book.
65-66, The former is an expatiation on granary and the latter
on the cow-shed, the goSIla. It enjoins not more than two doors in
granaries and also prescribes loading and unloading platforms to some
granaries.

67, It deals with the main entrance gates of the villages, towns
and forts.

68-70. They are unique in describing the roads and the public
places on them, the Margaialas with the fullest paraphernalia of
equipment. For hill-roads it prescribes inclined carriage-ways for
hill-stations along with the provision of resting places and safe para-
pets, Other details may be looked in the book.
71, Special buildings, the Vi^esabhaumas, arc the subject-matter
of this chapter. These are grand edifices in capital city.

72-76, Now begin Temples and their architecture*— the main

shrine and the accessories — the Prisada, the Garbhagrha and the
MandapaSjVimSnas and Prakaras etc. to be noticed in details in the
body of the book—vide Pt* V.
77, It is on ‘Upapithas’ to be constructed under all important
members of a building — Vedika, door, arch, pillar, wall— for
giving strength to them,

78-84, These seven chapters are devoted to Iconography and a

detailed notice may be avoided here as this volume restricts its

treatment to only architectural matters. Iconography and sculpture

is the subject-matter of Vot. II. For the sake of completeness,
however, the following tabulation of the chapters will do:

Chaptm Subject-matter

{^^) On Pedestals
(79) On Images in general
(SO) On ^ ai va icons
(81 ) On Vaisaava icons
 iUnDU SCtENdE OF AUCHlTEOTURE 97

Chapters Mthj^ct-matter

(B2) On Devi icons

(83) On Bhaktas
(84) On Divine Vehicles
S5^87. In end an expaliation on our ancient Doctrine ot‘
the
Pfirta-— the Foundation and Dedication oF Temples and the Installation
of divine images in them is made in order to justify all this lore and
training. After all Architecture and Iconography are only a means
not an end in themselves, the end being Devapuja.

Thus, ‘‘The whole treatise deals with “ planning ”, as such.

Details of designs are usually excluded from the text although the
commentator has added them in many places to explain the meaning.
The general idea in the text is to deal with lay-outs, proportions and
groupings, in genferal. Town-planning, Palaces, Assembly halls, and
Temples, structures for special purposes, and roads with accessory
buildings and bridges have been dealt with. Drainage of surface and
sullage water, as well as water supply for habitation is also included.
Some chapters deal with selection of site and fixation of the northline
as well as with the collection and testing of materials; the different
kinds of idols required in temples have also been dealt with at
some length, but the main purpose of the book appears to be
^‘planning^* as mentioned above, and not to go into the details of
designs at any great length. Theory of structures, or strength of
materials, or specifications to guide dimension-details or workmanship,
appear in many other treatises at greater length than here, but as
far as planning is concerned, the present work appears to be of some
specific authority.

A special feature which differentiates this work from many other

J^ilpa treatises in the Sanskrit language is the fact that the Pauranika,
priestly, and astrological details have been reduced to the absolute
rainimun. Thus excepting the first two chapters and the last three
chapters the all other chapters namely 3 to 84 deal with the theory
and practice of Engineer- Planning ais such. There are almost no
priestly or astrological interpolations as are usually found in other
oilpa Treatises”.

Thus it is a masterpiece of planning

evident that this text is

habitations and houscs^community planning from ‘smallest hamlets

to the biggest me tropolis% state buildings especially palaces which
were practica-Uv the modern secretariats, embassies and assembly
halls all together, and residential houses and religious buildings,

the temples all have fouhtf an eloquent treatment,

98 HINDtJ SCIENCE OF RCHITECIURS

Samarangana-SutradhSra

An Introdu-otion to this monumental perfect and complete manual

of VastuSJstra has already been made in the ‘Introductory’ Chapter,
And as promised there, let us first begin with its Re-arrangement of
the chapters;

Re-arrangement of the S. S.

Broad division of the Nos. and English rendering of *0

eo
JGO V
subject. Re-arranged Chapters O’u $
zod
1
2 3
I

I. Preliminary matters 1 The Advent of the Earth. 1

— origin, scope and

subject-matter. 2 The dialogue between VifvakarmS
and his sons. 2
3 The query (the scope of the
6astra). 3
4 Creation. 4
5 The Geography, 5
6 The mortals in the company of
the immortals and the rise of
houses in models of a tree. 6
7 The division of the society accord-
ing to Varpas and ASramas and
the need of manifold habitations. 7
8 The qualification of an Architect. 44
9 The eight-fold limbs of the body
of architecture. 45
II Town-Planning. 10 Regional survey and the selection
of the site and the soil-tests. 8
11 The measurements. 9
12 The Pada-Viny2sa (Site-plans). 11

13 >> 12
14 >> 13
15 14

16 The secular varieties of the VSstu-

plots. 38
17 Towns and their categories. 18
18 Canons of tQwn*plannin^. 10
 1

Ill House Architecture, 19 The determining of the auspicious-

dates and stars. 26
(a) Preliminaries 20 Offerings. 36
21 The Vedi-erections. 47
22 The rising of the flag- staff of 17
Indra.
23 Foundation laying ceremony. 35
24 The First Operations (Kllaka-Su-
trapata). 37
25 Pedestals. 40
(b) The Palace Archi- 26 The Planning of the Royal house. 15
tecturcw 27 The varieties of palaces. 30
28 Assembly Halls. 27
29 The stables for elephants. 32
30 The stables for horses. 33
31 The Princely shrines. 51
(c) Residential Houses* 32 EkaSalas. 23
33 DviSSlas. 22
34 TriSalas. 21
35 Catu$$alas. 19
36 Panca^alas and other classificar
tions upto dafaSalas. 25

37 Some special varieties. 20

38 >> 24
(d) House-Architecture 39 Wood from the forest. 16
ill details of the 40 Pillars and other components. 28
materials, masonry 41 Doors. 39
and decorations. 42 Masonry. 41
etc. 43 Decorations, 34
(e) Other Miscellane- 44 Bhahga in relation to doors and
ous matters —defects, other component parts of the
Bhahgas, and Ve- house. 43
dhas, etc., etc., 45 Bhahga in relation to the Toratia,
etc. 46
46 The defects of the house. 48
47 The §antika (propitiatory measured) 42
IV-—The mechanical 48 The machines. 31
construction and 49 The couches and cots. 29
the construction of
the household fur-
niture.
 — .

lOo HINDU SCmNGC; OF AEOHlTECtURE

1 3

V—The Prasada Archi- 50

tecture.

A. Prasadas Proper.
Group (a) i First T^pe>

Pillared halls and tem- The origin of the Prasada and Ru-
ples with ^lat roofs. caka, etc. 64 temples 49
(Chadya- Prasadas) 51 Vairaja, the First Proto-type. 52
52 f Other details regarding the 54
53^ component parts and qualities 53
54 ^^and defects of the Prasadas. 50
(il) Second T y pc •

Super-structure of 55 Auothei variety of Rucaka etc.

khara and the most cha- 64 Prasadas:— 56

racteristic feature being 25 Lalita Prasadas
the Andakas, the min- 9 Mixed Prasadas
nerets from I to 100. 25 SSndhara PrSsadas
5 Nigudha Prasadas
(ill) Third Type,
Super-structure with 56 Prasada-Dedication. 5B
storeys specifically de- 57 Vimana etc. 64 Prasadas. 59
dicated to the following
Deities, each one of them
having 8 Prasadas:—
1. I§iva Visnu 3.2.
Brahma Surya 5.4.
Candika 6. Vinayaka
7. Laksmi and B. All
other gods.
N. J5. Some of these
PrSsadas are most re-
presentative of the mo-
nurtients and indicative
of the varieties of the
materials.

(^oup (b) Ornamental 58 Meru etc. 16 Prajadas. 55

Style :

Xhe ^tylc with 59 Mertt etc. 20 PrSsIdas. 57(a)

and storeys, hav-
figas i. e. 57 (b).
utg great religious me- 60 The Pure (iSridhara etc. 57
rit-*Thc noblest and —40 Pr3s5das, >>

the grandest of the The mixed (Nandaiia etc. 10 PrS-

PrIsSdas. sldas.
 HINDU SGIENCK OP ARCHITECTURE 101

1 2 3
... •

Group (c) Nagara Pra- 61 Meru etc. 20 Nagara Prasadas. 63

sadas. 62 Srikuta etc. 36 Minor Nagara Pra-
sadas. 60
Group (d) Dravidian 63 Terraces. 61
Style 12 storeyed tern-
: 64 Dravida Prasadas. 62
pies with five-fold
terraces and tala-
chhandas.
Group (e) Vavata (Vai- 65 Digbhadra etc, 12 Prasadas. 64
rata.

Group (f )
Bhumija Pra- 66 Bhumija Prasadas. 65
sadas.
(a) 4 GaturaSra temples.
(b) 7 Vrksa*jati tem-
ples.

(c) 5 AstaSala temples.

B. Mandapas. 67 Maud ipas — Eight-fold 66
Pavilions attached to 68 Varieties of Mandapas 27 kinds. 67
temples: (cf, Gopurams
of South Indian tem-
ples).

G. Jagatis and Jagatl- 69 The Jagaiis 68

Prasadas.
N. B. This should, as a 70 The 39 varieties of Jagatis. 69
matter of fact, be one of
the preliminary topics
of the Prasad a-archi-
tccture but as the jaga-
tls are not only the
Pithas of the Prasad as
but a class of buildings
aswell(cf,Pt.V.ch.X.),
they are here.
VI— Iconography.
Sculpture^

^a) Sculpture Proper. 71 Phalli and their pedastals 70

72 Other deities and demons and
Yaksas etc. with their symbolic
—
form, weapons etc. the PratimS-
laksapa. 77
73 Iconography —materials together
with the sculpturing of the image
—
from head to feet Iconoplastic art
and proportions of measurements. 76
74 The defects and the virtues of the
images. 78
iO^ HINDU SCIENCE OE ARCHITECTURE

1 2 3
*1 1

(b)The standard mea- 75 The five types of measures in rela-

-
surements. tion to males and females both. 81
(c) Mudras 76 Rjvagata etc. Bodily poses. 79
77 Vaisnvadi Sthanaka i. e. standing
postures. 80
78 Patakadi 64 hand-poses. 83
Vil— Iconography (con- 79 The painting—its canvas and the
tinued) necessary implements. 71
Painting*
80 Bhumibandhas and the brushes. 72
81 The paints. 73
82 The measurements of the Andakas. 74
83 The standard measurements of
painting in relation to gods, de-
mons, men and animals and birds
and other allied matters. 75
8i The Aesthetics (Rasas and Rasa-
dfstis). 82
Let US now take up its contents— chapter-wise as (rearranged),

L Preliminaries.
CHAPTER I,

The Advent Of Karth-Mahasamagamana.

After salutation (a benedictory verse) to the Architect of all

the three worlds — the Lord 6iva, the Author hints at the scope of
Architecture— countries, towns, dwellings, Sabha, the assembly
halls, th^.' temples and the furniture as well as the mechanical
wooden implements together with the images etc,, as some of the
broad divisions of the subject matter or the scope of Architecture and
—
hence the necessity of the triad the Universal Planner, the great
heavenly Architect ViSvakarma, the Universal monarch, Pythu,
the patron of the Planning and the Earth itself on which the planning
to be performed. These three are brought before the Universal
Creator, Brahma and respective duties assigned to each of them;
The chapter is named after the Earth, who had gone to Brahma
trembling with fear as the first king Pfthu was disturbing her. No
sooner did Earth reach the Lord, the king Pfthu also arrived and be
too narrated his lot. The Lord pacifies both of them and assigns the
planning to the heavenly architect ViSvakarma. The chapter closes
with the advent ofVilvakarma in the Himalaya. This is indicative
of the Ottarapatha and its style, the Northern or the NSgara or
the Aryan and it is from here that he shall commence his mission*
 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE 103

N. B. The story of the advent of the Earth to BrahinS also

suggests that Brahma is the founder of the North Indiafi Architecture
according to the S. S.

CflAPTER 11.
—
The Dialogue Between Father & Sons ^(ViSvakarmana^i Putra-Samvadah)
ViSvakarma now remembers all his four Manasa sons, Jaya, Vijaya,
Siddhartha and Aparajita to be his comrades in this great task of the
Planning. He, therefore, distributed the planning of the human
habitation —^the towns, Khetas (small towns), villages, houses, public
places, the gardens etc. together with the forts in between the
mountains and rivers for security reasons, on all the four quarters
of the Earth to his sons to each one quarter, and himself leserved
the planning of the capital of the Universal monarch, the king Pf thu.
CHAPTER III.
The Query — (Prainodhyaya.)
Father’s assignment of the respective duties to the sons is done.
Now it is the turn of the sons to make query about the details of this
great task and hence it is after the query that the chapter is named
PraJnodhyaya. The questions are simply great and worthy of the
great sons of the great Architect. All the cosmological, physical,
geographical, astronomical questions together with their bearing
on architectural subjects having so many ramifications themselves are
put to the father by the eldest son Jaya, In these questions from
the mouth of Jaya, the author has indicated the full scope of the Vastu-
vidy3, a detailed notice of which has already been taken in the
Study (Part I Chapter II).

CHAPTER IV.
Creation (Mahadadisarga).
After the questions, the answers arise from the mouth of the
great Architect ViSvakarma, the father of Architecture, which he
got from Brahma, In this chapter the answers of the cosmological
and physical queries are given, how creation followed (in the light
of Saakhya Philosophy) is very nicely dealt with in verses 4-19;
how the oceans, the mountains, rivers, islands, came into existence-—
all are elaborated. The physical features of the Earth are also described.
Lastly the biological kingdom is explained —the fourfold Bhutagrama
consisting of Jarayuja, Andaja, Udbhijja and Svedaja with their
respective varieties arc described.
CHAPTER V.
The Geagraphy (Bbuvanakofo)
This chapter describes the earth with all its dimensions, area,
t;ircui|ifcrcpce^ the length and breadth^ etc. together with tlic relatiyc
104 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHlTECtURE

dimensions of the four oceans, the Bhutas etc. and the Mahat. Then
follow the descriptions of the seven continents — the Dvfpas, Jambii,
Saka, Ku^a, Kraunca, {^alinali, Gonieda and Puskara with their moun-
tains, peoples and countries. The Jambudvipa (where India forms
one of the countries) has been described in full detail. After this, on
the four quarters of the earth, the existence of the four lokacalas is

described. Thus a complete picture of the plan of the earth having

been described, the chapter closes with the description of the move-
ment of the heavenly bodies with their number and relative distances,
especially of the solar circle.
CHAPTER VI
Men in the Company of Gods. (SahadevSdhikIra)
Here in this chapter we find an account of how mankind felt the
necessity of dwellings and its first efforts towards the planning of a
house. The origin of the first house on earth in the model of a ^ala-
bhavan with the help of branches of trees (cf. the wooden origin of
Indian Architecture) is described in a mythological manner : First
men and gods, Once lived together, in the Krtayuga ;
secondly
in the course of time men lost their covetable status (living and
enjoying with gods under the renowned Kalpavrksa); and thirdly
developing the characteristic traits of mortality and so many corres-
ponding codes of attachments, greed, etc.— all this led to the formation
of the couples and thence feeling of shelter both for the privacy of
copulation and the warding of the inclemencies of weather as well.
CHAPTER VII
The DiYisfon of the Society According to Varna & A^rama (Varna^rama-
Pravibhsga)
The subject-matter of this chapter, as the very name indicates
is the fourfold division of the society. A well-knit social structure
needs a well-ordered government established by the Law of the Lord
to be promulgated and enforced by the Paramount authority of the
first king on earth, the celebrated Prthu. The Caturvargya-system
requires the CaturaSramya also and hence the respective duties and
Varnas and the stages of the manhood, the
responsibilities of all the
student, the house-holder, the forcsteer and the SannySsi together
with duties and responsibilities of the women-folk, the teacher and
the taught all are described. So far all this description is of non-
architectural interest, but the community life, the essence of the
social structure needs a suitable planning of the towns, villagcsi and
the houses wherein to evolve the means of Hvelihood and satisfy the
wants for the preservation of the society and its good government*
Hence the maintenance and safety of man|&ind is entrusted to the
 —

HIKDU SOXBi^qE OF AROHITECrtJRE IQS

r\iler of the land. King Prthu did discharge his duties by milking
the earth and planning the human habitation on it. • Milking the
earth may stand here for surveying the vast lands and finding out cha-
racteristic wealth of the regions.
GHAPTEH VIII
Stbapati-Laksaiia—(The QualiQcatlo» of an Architect).
A full notice of this Chapter has been taken in the Introductory
Part of the Study— vide Ch. Ill ‘‘The Architect Si the Architecture”.
It suffices to say that the text while laying down the mental and
moral as well as practical equipment of an architect prescribes
^Sstra, Karma, PrajnS and Sila, the fourfold primary qualifications
of an architect. The details may be seen in the Chapter referred
to above.
CHAPTER IX
Asfanga-Laksana — (The Eightfold limbs of the boily of the Vastu-6a??tra
i.e. Sthapatya).
This chapter elaborates the fourfold Sthapatya with its eightfold
limbs. They are examined in the Introductory Part of this Study
(ibid) with the exception of the seventh limb, namely —The Sacrifi-

ccr*s i.e. Yajamana's shed. The iSlla for sacrifice has been very much
elaborated together with its proportions and the paraphernalia of the
Kotihoma in the major part of this chapter. This Chapter also
elaborates the planning of the J§ibira, the Royal Camps, as well as
incidently describes briefly the sixfold forts (see for details Pt. II
Town Planning).
CHAPTER X
The Selection of the Site — (Bhumiparlksa).
From this chapter the treatment of the purely architectural
subjects starts. The first thing in any architectural planning being
the surveying of the region (the regional planning) and ascertaining
the different points of the region or deSa into which the planning of
the towns, capitals, forts, Khptas, villages, and other human habita-
tions and establishments i^ to be done. This survey consisted of the
examination of the different soils and soil conditions and their suitabi-
lity or fitness for the constructions, thereupon, of human dwellings, as
the selection of the sites forms the first pre-requisite in any planning.
The text distingvushes between three broad divisions of the lands and
the soils thereof Jaiigala, Anupa, Sadhara^ia with the sixteen-fold
varieties of the different kinds of the lands. After this examination,
a vivid and beantiful, simply charming poetical description of the
BJiunais fit to be selected for the planning of the Janapadas, towns,
khe|as, an4 i* paadc* After this, fpur hinds of lan,d.§
106 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE

suited to the building of four varieties of the forts is described. For

the planning of the towns the lands of special qualities arc again
delineated upon (40-47). In ancient India the towns and villages
were planned caste-wise (cf. Banas’ description of BrahmnadhivSsa^i),
the text, therefore, describes the different soils — fit for all castes and
fit only for the Brahmanas, Ksatriyas or Vai^yas and l^udras. There-
after the unfit lands are enumerated* The end of the chapter prescribes
certain tests for the examination of the soil for the ascertainment of
the suitability of the ground.
Chapter Xl. The Measurement (Hastalaksana) and chap-
ters XII to XVI, (on Pada-Vinyasa) will be dealt with in a subsequent
study*—vide the next chapter— The Five Fundamental Canons of
Hindu Architecture,
II. Town-planning
CHAPTER XVII
Nagaradisamjnya (Towns and their Categories).

This chapter is of encyclopaedic nature and as its very name

indicates, it docs not deal with any particular topic but rather enu-
merates and defines the various and manifold architectural terms in
relation to House Architecture and the Palace Architecture together
with the more popular terms in relation to the town planning,
CHAPTER XVIII
Pumniveia (The Town Planning)
The scheme of planning of the town (of all categories) with all the
common components like Prakara, Parikha, Attala, gates, Gopuras,
roads, and streets together with the site-planning, residential quarters
of the towns-men belonging to different castes and professions and the
temples has been elaborated here in this chapter, the notice of which
has been taken in detail in a separate part of this Study (vide Part II,

Town Planning).
HI House Architecture
A. Preliininaries

Chapter XIX entitled ‘Ay adinirnaya* deals with one of the five

fundamental canons of Architecture and therefore is reserved for

detailed notice in the chapter ahead.
CHAPTER XX
BalidSna (Offerings)
This chapter is also related to the theology of architectural plan-
ning. A
good part of the offering consists of the most delicious
edibles like milk, honey, curd, etc. etc, and is prescribed for all the
deities connected with the site-plans and also to the Founder architect,
the celebrated heavenly architect ViSvakarmE, All are to be con*
ccived in a central circle of the site with a KalaJa full of flowers and
 iilNDtj SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE 107

gold. From the architectural point of view it may be noted here as

enjoined in the end of the chapter that any architectur^fl undertaking
must proceed with the Vastupdja. The details arc of non-architec-
tural interest,
CHAPTER XXL
Vedi-Laksana (The Altar)
The seventh limb of the Astanga architecture (cf. S. S. 45.) is

the knowledge of the planning of the Yajamana*^alx, its altar and the
architectural process of the Kotihoma. Its utility in the civil archi-

tecture is not very much but in the performance of the rituals,

sacrifices, ceremonies (marriage etc.) in connection with installation
of the deities, Nirajanas, Homas, coronations of kings and the rising

of Indra’s flag the construction of the altars is obligatory. The Altar

admits of four classifications and their names and properties are laid
down hereunder :

Name Dimensio?is Shape Use

1. CaturaSra 9 Hastas Square Sacrifice

2. Subhadra 8 „ Octagonal (Deco- Installation of a
rated on all sides deity,
or corners).
3. ^ridhari 7 „ With 2 corners Marriage
4. Padmini 6 ,, As name indicates Nirajana, Homa, &
in the shape of a coronation of kings,
lotus.

Then follow their building elaborations. We know that the Vedic

altar was the precursor of Temple-architecture in India. The laying
of the brick (cf. citi-altar) and its attendant paraphernalia gave rise
to what is called the religious architecture, the Puja-Vastu— the
temples and shrines (especially the sanctuary, the Garbhagrha).
Isfika-cayana, reminiscent of the Vedic altar, is prescribed here with
the chants of hymns. Therefore, the building of sheds upon these
altars on the columns specially built and well decorated is a rule.
Stairs arc also to be made.
CHAPTER XXII.
Indradhvaja-Nirupi^a (Indra’s Flag)
This chapter is not altogether of non architetcural interest. IndraS
Flag is deemed to be an auspicious thing in a town, fort, residential
house or in any other auspicious event or celebration. It is constructed
on the model of a machine-yantra. It shows craftsmanship of very
high order and it is not away from the domain of the architect, who

is not only a master mason but also a sculptor (Murii-nirmata) and

i08 HINDU SCIENCE OE AUGHITEGTUHE

carpenter as well. It is a big chapter, as big as the chapter on the

Machine (cf. *^3
1 St Chapter). It coiwists of 212 verses (424 lines).
Details may be avoided,
CHAPTER XXIII.
Sllanyasa (The Foundation Laying Ceremony).
The foundation is one of the most important architectural items
in any building. Works like ManasSra have given a detailed account of
the excavations of the foundations, their different kinds with depths
etc. But this chapter of the Samaraiigana-Sutradhara lacks those
details and it is more of a theological nature and, therefore, limited
in its architectural prescription. Thus this chapter deals at greater
length with the foundation ceremony than the foundation itself. This
ceremony is performed on an auspicious date. The text after giving
details of dates and stars of good omen, proceeds with the character-
istic qualifications of the foundation-stone (Prathamestika), Then
follow the details of the prohibited or unfit stones like which
those
are bad in shape, bad in length, full of gravels, uneven, contaminated
by birds and animals. After this the four principal varieties of stones
with their presiding deities are described ;

Presiding deity

1, Nanda Vaiistha
2* Bhadra Kaiyapa
3, Jay a Bhargava
5, Purna Ahgiras.
Before the actual operation of the foundation laying with the
stones begins, ritual altar should be constructed and fulfledged wor-
ship to be offered to all these stones and the rewards distributed
among the BrShmanas, reciters of Svastika chants, with respects. The
offerings arc, then made, to the lords of the land, the Vastu-purusa
and other Spirits. It is after this ritual that the laying begins of all

the prineipal stones as also their sub-varieties (UpaSil3s) having the

symbols of PrSkSra, Svastika, Srfvatsa and Nandyavarta in the pres-
cribed dhrcctions and corners Viz. Nanda in the South East of the
siteplan and so on. Then are given the Pauranic hymns of the
Foundation laying with their Vedic counter-parts. In the end it is
indicated, that well-laid foundation stories and pillars should in no
Gilte be disturbed otherwise misfortunes may befall man. A well-laid
foUtidation is an augury of the completion of building, be it a temple
or a palace or a residential quarter.
CHAPTER XXIV
Kllaka-Stitrifpata (the FlratOperatlotis).
This chapter too is full of theological details of offering and
 4ClMN€i£ OF ARGHXTECT0IIE 109

worship in the laym]g of the nails, the kilakas, the characteristics as

hinted in the Foundation are almost similar, with the eddition that
herein, a very interesting light is thrown on the siatus of the masons
and labourers engaged in the building of the house. The architect’s
position was in no way inferior to that of the Acharya— the Purohita
and his companion astrologer Samvatsarika~the triad representing
Brahma, Brhaspaii and Tvasta (Vastospati or ViSvakarma). Hence
they too are offered worship with their companions and the labourers.
After the ritualistic ceremonies are attended in the laying of the nails,
it may
be said that the architectural details regarding the nails
however, are not wanting. In the employment of the wood for the
construction of the nails, the trees deemed fit are the trees having
names in masculine gender, such as Khadira, Udumbara, ASvattha,
Sala, 6dka, Dhava, Arjuna, Afinjana, Kadara, ASoka, TiniSa, Arupa,
Gandana, Sirisa, Sarja, Nyagrodha, and Venn etc. Among these a
a classification is made caste-wiseand profession-wise. As regards the
dimensions of the nails, it is stated that those belonging to Brahmanas,
should measure thirty two augulas in length, those to Ksatriyas
28, Vailyas 24, and Sudras 20; the width however, should be common
i.e. six angulas.As regards the shape of these columns, it should be
square in case of Brahmanas, octagonal in case of Ksatriyas, hexagonal
in case of both the VaiJyas and iSudras. Then follow the quality and
material of the ropes to be tied down in nails in their laying opera-
tions. It should be Darbha (made of Darbha (made of
grass) Mauiija
Munja grass) Aurna (made of wool) and KarpUsa (made of cotton)
respectively, as they belong to Brahmanas, Ksatriyas, Vaiiyas and

Sudras.
Another interesting item of this chapter is the process of laying
the nail-pillar as brought out by the Ȥahkutadana. As many as eight

blows should be given on the head of the nail-pillar and in this process

if the pillar sits well in the pit, it is considered auspicious, otherwise

inauspicious and in later case Santika is enjoined. Again if during
these blows, it gives way and the blow giving hands themselves give
way, it is considered inauspicious,
CHAPTER XXV
Pithamaaa (The Measurement of the Pedestal)
The Pithas are classified as Uttama, Madhyaraa and Kanislha i.e,
superior, middle aui inferior types. The height of the Pitha
(Pedestal) of the Uttama type should be twice the height of the base;
of the middle li and of the inferior only 1 part. It is to be noted
that only the triad-^^Brahma, Visriu and MaheSa can have the Uttama
typo of the Pitha. The Pl^has of the other gods should be of the middle
no HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE.

type. The Pithas in the residential houses of men may be equal to

those of the gods but they should in no case be higher than them. It is

interesting to note that in the RajaveSma, the Pithas should be as high

as Deva-pltlias rather it may be still higher, because the text eulogises
king as the fifth of the lokapalas. The Pithas of the four castes are
then enumerated. The height of the Brahmana 36 ahgulas, of the
others less by 4 ahgulas successively.

(B) The Palace Architecture

CHAPTER XXVI.
Rajanive^a ( The Planning of a Royal Palace)
After the town is planned in all its broad outlines—fortification,
roads, street i, gates etc. together with the assignment of the places ol
both the classes of deities, the internal and the external ones, the first

priority must be given to the construction of the palace of the king

in the town. Herein arc given the details of the site plan and the
categories of the Palace as well as its fortification all round. With
these preliminary remarks the text describes in details the different
chambers of the palace suited to the different members of the family
of the king and paraphernalia of his establishment, a detailed notice
of which has been taken in this study—vide Pt. IV.
CHAPTER XXVII.
Rajagrha (The Various types of Palaces)
In the two chapters (XV and XXX) devoted to the Palace
Architecture, the subject matter differs, while in the former the
palace described is the type which is fit to be the abode of a ruling
monarch with all his establishments and sets up, domestic, recreational
and administrative. It is prescribed to be planned on the model of Sala
architecture — no storeys, only court-yards and rooms, in the latter
as m iny as ftteen type of palaces have been described and, therefore,
both differ fundamentally in the architectural details and the use
thereof. To the capitals, the former is the most suited type. The latter
variety with its characteristics of mansion-like super-structures is

fit only to be occupied occasionally and perhaps built not in the

capital but scattered here and there on the places forming the
secondary residences.

The most characteristic features of the architecture of these

palaces is their excessive use of the Pillars. These palaces give an
impression of pillared-hall structures, though the employment of the
storeys have made them ostentatious buildings. The fifteen varieties
of the Rajagrha with the number of their pillars and storeys together
with other characteristics arc tabulated in part IV*
 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE 111

CHAPTER XXVIIL
Sabha (The Assembly Hall).
Sablia here means a public hall or a council-chainljcr. The
Special features of the Sabha in Vedic times were their pillars and
fire-altars. This characteristic of pillars is retained in the planning
of Sabha in the Samarangana-Sutradhara. Nanda, Bhadra, Jaya,
Purna, BhSvita, Daksa, Pravara and VidurS—these are the eight varieties
of the Sabha, special features of the first five varieties is the excessive

application of the pillars as many as thirty-six in each of them,

together with terraces, all round. The sixth, seventh and eighth
varieties however, it seems that apart from the architectural details,

may have corridors also.

CHAPTER XXIX.
Gaja^ala —(Stables for Elephants).
Theses are the six varieties of the l§§la of
1. Subhadra the Elephants. The special architectural

characteristics of the first five GajaSalas is an

2. Nandbl
application of the Pragrfvas, the windows,
3. Subhogada Alindas, the corridors and the Nirvyuhas the
-

towers on than in different modes and direc-

4. Bhadrika
tions thereof, while the last viz. Pramarika
5. Varsanl is devoid of any such application and is deemed

unfit for use, being inauspicious. Therefore,

6. Pramarika
the text recommends the use of only first five

varieties.
CHAPTER XXX.
ASvallla— (The Stables for the Horses).
Nowhere in any other extant work on the Vastu-Sastra are such
brilliant, beautiful and detailed accounts of the ASvaJala given.

ASvaJala being one of the most important accessory buildings in the

royal compound (and the horse being the most dignified royal vehicle)
when described by an author, who was himself a king and that king
was Bhoja of DhSra, it is natural that the description should be co-
pious and most upto date. Such is the case in the present chapter.
Every detail is charming and hence it is tempting to translate the
whole chapter rather than to summarise it.

An ACvaSala should be planned in the very compound of the owner

viz. royal compound on the site of Gandharva or Puspadanta. Its

dimensions vary in its respective varieties of the superior, the middle

and the inferior types from 100 Aratnis to 80 andto 60 respectively.
Then follow the auspicious places where this structure is to be made
oiian auspious date with the auspicious wood. A stable for horses
 •

112 HINDU 8CIBNQB OF ABOHITBGTURE

should in no case be built on the prohibited sitea, nor should prohi^

bited wood be employed, it should be selected with great care.
In the planning of an ASva^ala special care is to be taken regard-
ing its placing in such a manner in the vicinity of the royal palace, that
at the time of coming out of the stable, the horses should occupy the
left side of the king. It should be in the South of the Qjieen’s
chamber and when the king enters there, neighing should be heard
on the right. ASvaJalas should be built architecturally beautiful
with the application of the corridors, windows, arches, Kudyas and
NSgadantas. Its gates should be placed cither towards, the East or
towards the North. AivaJalS, according to the Samarlngana-Sutra-
dhSra, is a beautiful specimen of wooden architecture, in which all

its component parts, beams, windows, arches, shutters, pillars, etc.,

etc. are all made of wood in superior craftmanship.

Then the author proceeds with the details of the several estab-
lishments of the shed, such as Yavasthana (grass-pot) Khadana-kostha
(what we call NSnda). Details of the probing of the horses arc also
given. It is enjoined that every season the stable for horses need be
cleaned, the storage and collection of the implements in a horse-stable
and other necessary articles arc also enumerated.
Then follow the detailed rules of the bathing, clothing, worship
and other daily routine of the horses. Again the rules regarding the
fastening of the horses in the quarters of the respective directions are
given. Particular rules arc also given of the ailing horses and their
housing etc, quite separately from the healthy ones for fear of the
infection. At the end of the chapter the necessary buildings of the
ASvaSSla are described and they are:—

1. Store House,
2. Laying-in-Gharabcr for she-horses.
3. Dispensary.
4. Veterinary hospital.

The particular directions regarding the placing of these four

auxiliary members of the establishment are; they should not con-
tain any SalS, though decorated with Kuzyas, Pragrivas and arches.
CHAPTER XXXI.
Ayataiia-NiFi^$a~(T|ie Shrlpe?).
This chapter reqiurcs a special notice, The Ayatana is a bit
confusing, it should he taken here in the sense of a shrine the accep-
ted meaning irithe literature* though its earlier denotation of a
house also was in voguo^. By the time of Bhoja, iyatana, I am sure,
must have acquired a a shrine or temple as is evident
 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE 113

from the last verse of this. chapter (cf ‘Surabheivanani*). My inter-

pretation of the word Ayatana in the sense of a shrine is* necessitated

by a confusing impression created by the contents as prepared by the
learned editor Ft. T. Ganapati Sastri who takes tills word in both the
senses. If the word Ayatana is indicative of the royal houses or the
accessory royal mansions, the separate treatment of the Palace archi-
tecture finclusive of the accessory buildings and establishments like
the queen’s chambers and the residences of the princesses and
princes* etc.) must not have been done in two separate chapters (cf.
15th and 30th). According to my interpretation of t le term, Ayatana
this chapter deals with the shrine as got built by the devoted servants
of the king and belovedmembers of his family in the same enclosure
or compound which the temples, the Prastidas have been built by
in
the king himself. This is evident from the very arrangement of this
c.haptel^ in continuation to the Templc-Architecture,
(C) ResideDtial Mouses.

CHAPTERS XXXII to XXXVI.

1 . Eka^alas
2. DviSalas
3. TriJalas
4. CatuSlalas

5. PancaSalas and other classifications upto DaSaSalas.

The contents of all these five chapters have been extensively utili-
sed in the study of house-architecture the ^llil-houses and other build-
ings. Hence for brevity’s sake T will not repeat them here. It is enough
to indicate here that the planning of human dwellings — the residential
houses of the middle class people, the poor and the rich cannot be of
the same quality, size, dimensions, and richness of material and orna-
mentation, as the means and purposes of the people belonging to
Again the house of
differents trata of society differ in planning a house.
an ordinary man, a king and a god must also differ. In all the texts this
distinction between residential quarters of men of ordinary means and
the ostentatious buildings like Harmya, Vimana or Prasada are not
maintained. Hence
one of the chief contributions of the author
it is

of this work to present a very big variety of the 5ala-houses from

one-roomed accommodation to ten-roomed one, suited to the needs
and means of all classes of residents. In these chapters not only the
broad classifications of the ten types of ^SlS-houses, one-roomed to
ten-roomed, are made, but their manifold varieties and sub-varieties
arc also described in detail, together with some of the allied topics
relating to the court-yards apd other component parts of the rcsiden-
114 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE

tial houses. It is enough here to indicate in brief the number of eacVi

type of Sala-houses;

1. Eka^ala 108 50 As given in the

2. DivSala 52 500 Astanga.

3, TriSala 72 100
4. CatuSSala 256 841
5. PancaSala 1025
6. SatJala 4096
7. SaptaSala 18176
8. AstaS2la 65536
9. NavaSala 262144
10. Da^aSala 1048576
CHAPTER XXXVII,
Nimnoccadi-Phala (The Declivity etc- as well as miscellaneous Varieties
of the houses).
This chapter has got a miscellaneous character where in
specifications of the ground plot together with its declivity and other
physiographical features are taken into account. This chapter also
is informative in regard to the placing of the corridors in a particular
direction and its merits and demerits are unfolded. The four-fold
varieties of houses like Sacchatra, Sakaksa, Saparikrama and Saprabha
are defined. It has also enumerated the gerneral auspicious and
inauspicious varieties of the 6a la houses,
CHAPTER XXXVIII
Dvarapithabhittimaoidi.
Like the previous one this chapter too is of miscellaneous nature,
a special enumeration of the Sala-class of houses 15 in number, begin*
ning with the Hvara etc. is to be particularly noticed here. Again it

has described the five-fold Vargadhipas group-numbers 16, 20, 24,

28 and 32. It has also described the measurements relating to the walls,
courtyards, pedestals, doors and their height etc. In the end it has
described the four special varieties, the very auspicious houses
namely, Bhadra, Nandapijha, Saurabha and Puskara. They result
from a particular planning of the 6 iias along with the entrances etc.
(D) House Architecture in Details of the Material, Masonry and
Decorations, etc.
CHAPTER XXXIX.
Vana-Praveia (Entry into the Forest).
Wood was the earliest material employed not only in the
architectural construction but in the fashioning of the sculptural
objects like images of the gods and goddesses also. In VarShmihira’s
Bfhatsaihhita, the VanasampraveSadhySya is written in relation to
 HINDIS SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE 115

the employment of wood in the art of image-making. Herein this

aim of this chapter is to bring material from the forest for the
text, tlie
construction of the houses. Hence the selection of the material, the
litness of certain trees, together with other allied details, though
identical in both the texts, have different purposes in hand.
The chapter opens with the auspicious dates and
days when the entry into the forest for bringing wood for house-
construction should be made; then lays down details regarding the
ceremonies and rituals in connection with the selection of the trees.
Then a list of trees which are to be avoided in the search for proper
wood is given. Trees, which grow in towns, on cremation ground,
villages,by the side of the roads, on the tanks, in the vicinity of
temples and hermitages, fields, gardens, interiors of the frontirs, on
unfit soils, like those having a taste bitter, saltish, etc. etc. and those
covered with ant-hills, are not to be selected by the architect.
Now the treeshaving been selected, the operation of cutting with
an axe consists of certain rites and rituals of the Santika, and offering
(Bali) together with the worship of gods in the night, is also enjoined
upon before cutting. The made to propitiate the trees and
offerings are
their presiding spirits with the mantras quoted in the text. In the
cutting operation some if unfavourable signs, such as flowing of
blood honey, milk and clarified butter are noticed, the trees should
be deemed unfit for employment in construction and they bring
misfortune. On the other hand, if during the operation a profusion
of the blackish, sweetish, fragrant or kasaya liquid comes out, it is

deemed fit. Similarly the falling of a tree in a particular direction

say East, or North or its falling at a distance making sounds and
producing air, is considered good, otherwise it is abandoned after
offering Santika. Similarly the infant and old (Bala and Vrddha)
trees are also to be avoided. The colour, the oil and the bark arc
the criteria by which the age of the trees is ascertaind. For example,
the age of the 5ala tree hundred years. It can be used only
is three
when it attains the age of sixteen and upto one hundred fifty. Hence
trees of unfit age should be abandoned and also those which are fit
in age but otherwise unfit, should be abandoned. Next is given
another list of fit and unfit trees. In the end, certain technicalities
called the mandalas observed during the cutting operations and indi*
cativc of the animals and insects underneath the trees arc described.

CHAPTER XL.
GrhadraTya-PratnInE (The proportions and the component parts of the
house)
116 HlNDtr SCIENCE OlP ARdHITECtORft

the component parts of a house. The principal parts of the house are
the doors and«- their constituent parts like Pedya-pinda, Udumbara
Dv^r^akhas, the door frames ; the pillars with their bases,
(lintel),

emtablature, and mouldings and the Tala (storeys and floors), tHe
6ala, the rooms and the Ghhadyas (the roofs).

All these have been described in detail and the proportionate

measurement given thereof.The length of the house in Hast a form
the length of the door in Angulas. In Manas^ra it is stated that
the height of the door should be twice its width. If this proportion
is adopted, the residential house would be inconvenient for entry
and exit, as generally the width of the door is 3 feet in modern
terms of measurement. The Sardarahgana-Sutradhara, however,
modifies this by prescribing the height of 7 Hastas and the width the
half of it. An alternative measurement of the door is also given.
Then follows the dimensions of the constituent parts of the door
above mentioned. The different door frames such as Sakha,
Rupa^akh'j, KhalvaSakha, Baiiyamaudala and Bhinna^akhli with
their proportions are described. The five varieties of auspicious
Vakhas are given names as Devi, Nandini, Sundari, Priyanana and
Bhadra. Then the details of dimensions of the courts and storeys
arc given* The height superior, middle and
of the storey varies in
inferior types of the houses as- 7, 6 and 5 hastas respectively.
—
The dimensions of the SalS the rooms also vary with the types of
the houses. The floors are described and then follows the description
of four varieties of pillars with their bases, entablatures and the
—
mouldings and these are 1. Padmaka 2. Ghata-pallavaka 3. Kubera
and 4. ^ridhara. In the end are given the details of the four types
of roofs, the Ghhadya 1. : —
Bhuta 2. Tilaka 3. Maridala and
4. Kumuda, Lastly it is directed that the mouldings like Siipha-
karna etc. (cf. 55-56 Vs.) are not fit to be employed in secular archi-

tecture— the residential houses.

CHAPTER XLI.
Dvarago^adosa (The door and its Merits and Demerits.)

This chapter is encyclopaedic in nature. The door has formed

a separate chapter in the Study (Part HI). There all the details are
examined. Here it is enough to say that though avowedly it deals
with the doors, their varieties, their placing in a particular direction
and on a particular site presided over by a particular deity, it also
throws side-lights on some of the elements of architecture, such as the
number of the storeys that houses belonging to different castes and
communities can have. Another important topic of description in
this chapter is the doctrine of Vedha. Vedha of the door with street
 —

tilNbtJ SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE 117

(Rathya), platform etc. etc. must be avoided (see details in the Study
Proper.) ^

Then follow the qualities of the doors. Other details like build-
ing byelaws can also be seen in the Study (cf. Part HI.)
CHAPTER XLIL
Caya?idhi (The Masonry.)
This chapter is Masonry has not formed a topic in
also unique.
any of the extant works. The Manasara treats only the Sandhi-karma
(joinery of the timbers). Skill in masonry work represents the real
ability of a mason. It should be so done in proportion and material

that becomes an art by itself. This is the essence of this chapter.

it

As many as tw mty qualities and twenty defects of masonry are

enumerated in the text, A special point that is made out is that
walls in the masonry should never go astray, nor should they fall
down, nor again should they break down. The chapter has given
five-fold varieties of ill-worked masonry which indicates the height
of the development of the art of masonry. All these show that
masonry should be neither too deep nor too shallow. At the close
of the chapter are described the implements, rules and the procedure
in the art of masonry very much similar to those prevalent today.
CHAPTER XLIII
Aprayojyaprayojya (With what not to decorate and with what to decorate)
One of the most characteristic features of the ancient architec-
ture was the institution of excessive ornamentation in the buildings
and household furniture. In keeping with this architectural tradition
of old, the Samaraiigana has devoted a full chapter under this heading
to describe what things are to be decorated and v/liat not in the
buildings like houses, palaces, temples, assembly halls and the huose-
hold furniture, cots, coaches, pots, etc., as well as implements,
ornaments, umbrellas, the flags and flag staffs, etc. etc.

A. The text first enumerates the following objects not fit to be

employed for decoration in the secular buildings:
1. All gods (only selected gods are fit to be decorated with)
demons, planets, gandharvas, raksasas, piiacas,
stars, yaksas,

pitrs, pretas, siddhas, vidyadharas, nagas, caranas, bhuta*

saip ghas with their wives and sons.
2. The Pratiharas, Pratiharinis (gate-keepers— males and
females) with their weapons.
3. The nymphs and their ganas,

4. Diksitas, vow-keepers, pakhandis, nastikas,. the hungry, the

suffering humanity (from illness), captivity, weapon-wounds,
fire-burns; etc. etc., impotents, nudcs> blinds, deafs, the mads
and idiots*
118 HINDU SCIENCE OE ARCHITECTURE

5. Swinging sports, elephant-catch, wars between gods and

dempns, the quarrels among the kings, animal fights and
hunting and the Rasas like Raudra, Vibhatsa and Karuiia.
G. Conveyances like— Gajay ana, A^vayana, Rathayana, aero-
planes, the sanctuaries as well as forests, and houses on fire.

7. rhe devoid of fruits and flowers, contaminated with

trees
the dwellings of the birds, having one or two branches, or
those devoid of liquidity, dried up, having holes and those in
the vicinity of dwellings of the spirits such as Kadarnba,
Salmali, Selu, Tara, Ksara, Lukaete. and also thorny and
those full of bitterness.

8. Among the birds the vultures, owls, doves, hawks, crows and
among the animals, elephants, horses, buffaloes, camels,
eats, asses, monkeys, lions, tigers, ant Hopes and jackals— the
flesh eating animals and birds both.

B. As regards the decorative objects, a detailed notice has been

done ill the Study (see Part III). Here it is enough to indicate that
things and objects as well as men, animals, birds, denizens of heaven
famous for their auspicious nature an character only can provide the
1

motifs for decoration, such as Sri, Astamahgala, calf, cow, etc.,

birds like swans, the gardens, lotus beds^ etc. etc. To summarize,
the Istadevata on the house top (in length of only one hasta) and on
the doors the image of the Pratiharini, well decorated, together with
treasures and goddess Laksmi ate common properties of usual
decorations. The walls (both internal and external) of the living
chambers and the chambers of dance, drama are also to be decorated
with paintings.
(E) Other Miscellaoeous Matters (Defects, Shapes and Vedhas etc. etc
CHAPTER XLIV
Dvarabhaugaphala (The effects of the Door break)
The Bhauga theme of this chapter is already hinted at in the
preceding chapter oA the Door. New work in relation to the building

of houses holds good also in case of the performances of sacrifices,

the planning of villages, towns (and tbeir varieties). It is said that
the sites, shapes, measurements, fall and increase, in all are identical,
VVhat holds goods in connection with a pillar, holds good with other
wooden parts of the house. Again it is said that any building or
construction which after its completion, gives an impression of being
not good or beautiful or devoid of lustre, is regarded as inauspicious.
The ‘Beautiful* the ‘Sundara’ must be the criterion of judgment and
its effects are always beneficial and ominous not only to the family
but also to society as well as the State at lar^e. Therefore, any
 tiINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE 119

SubhSiubha-laksana (auspicious sign) in relation to construction and

completion of temple, gate and gopura of the townsf surrounding
wall (Prakara), Atutlaka, stable for the elephants and horses, sheds of
chariots, store-house, arsenals, etc* should be duly observed. Of the
new buildings, if any of their compon nt parts or the members of the
wooden joinery, give way or are broken, the inauspicious results
follow. A detailed tabulation of all these parts (in relation to Bhaiiga)
will be found in the study.
CHAPTER XLV
Toranabhanga-Santika (^antika to be attended to, If Torana is broken)

The same Bliauga theme (as proposed in the last chapter) is con-
tinued here. Its relation is with Torana which is one of the most
auspicious member of the house architecture in India. Toranabhahga
means some calamity, some misfortune. A Torana in a building, a
temple or a palace, if falls down, or is broken into pieces, or is burnt
down, or is bent down or it is spoilt or disfigured by natural agencies
like thunder, lightning or forest-fire etc. etc., then misfortunes and

calamities are the result. If the whole of its head falls down, it is
indeed an augury of great calamity to the king and commander,
—
Pratiharas and the Purohita the priest and the Brahmanas and the
citizens alike. Therefore, Santika is enjoined and it should be rebuilt
in perfection.

Another interesting notice of (his chapter is the entry of a dove

and its consequent evils. The entry of a dove in a house or a temple
(old or new) is a great curse. He is described as the incarnate death,
repository of sin, the low bird. He has four varieties: fi^veta, Vicitra-
kan^ha, Vicitra and Krsnaka and they are all harbingers of misfortunes
in ascending order

CHAPTER XLVI
Gi'hadosa-nirupana (The defects of the house).
' This chapter, encyclopaedic in nature in about three hundred
lines, throws side-lights on every important item of house architec-
ture otherwise, unknown in other works. Here in this chapter some
of the details regarding the door, its placing and its Vedha arc
repeated together with the prohibited trees. Let us have a brief
notice of the contents,

^‘The choice of a healthy situation is of the first importance in

any planning. It should be on high ground, neither subject to fog
nor rains; its aspects should be neither violently hot nor intensely
cold, but temperate in both respects. The neighbourhood of marshy
place must be avoided”. This prescription of Vitruvious (vide Ency.
120 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE

H.A. p. 457) tallies with the Samaraiigaua’s prescription regarding the

ideal situation of a house. what it means by its doctrine of
This is

Bhuplavana (T4). Similarly land which is barren, gravelish and full

of bones, the karpara etc. and loose, is to be avoided. The month
when the works should not be undertaken are Gaitra, Jyestha,
Asadha, Bhadrapada, ASvina, Kartika and Magha, Orientation of the
buildings is equally important, absence of it, is technically called
Dinmudha planning and it Therefore, a temple
should be avoided.
or a house should always be planned having a correct orientation.
Then follow the four-fold varieties of a bad house technically called
Valita etc., and their evil effects enumerated. Next follow the details
of the bad ground (see Study). The 6ala varieties of residential
house must have Miisas and Alindas, the temples arc exception. The
inauspicious houses like Khadaka etc., the entrances like Utsahga
etc., the inauspicious doors like Nimnonnata,
Karala etc., the five
bad houses, consequent upon the inadequate (on some
varieties of the
place) or excessive employment (at other places) of the material,
the avoidance of the wood of imperishable variety, the prohibition of
the placing of the door in the middle, the Vedha of any of these
component parts either among themselves or with any other object
outside together with the Bhanga etc. all these are well developed.—
In the end are enumerated the common defects of the houses and the
avoidance of which is inculcated at all cost.
CHAPTER XLVII
l$antika-Vidhi

Though apparently this chapter gives a ritualistic impression,

the fact is otherwise. It is simply a masterpiece on house architecture.
It contains innumerable varieties of the architectural terms forming
the component parts and elements of a house. An effort has been
made appendix (Glossary). 'Fhe l§antika is
to tabulate these in the
enjoined if any of these parts is disturbed, spoiled, contaminated or it
gives way. The procedure of ^antika consists of the laying of a
Karnika and its worship is attended by all the upacaras The Karnika
is a fruit stock and it is brought for its plantation on the plot
where the house is to be built. After it is laid down in the ground,
the omens are observed (good or otherwise) and the results ascertained
accordingly more particularlyif any of the birds enumerated come

and sit on deemed inauspicious. After this ^antika is enjoined

it, it is

in connection with the Bhanga of any of the wooden joinery. Special

mention may be made of the new houses (i. e. those which are not
older than a year) and if anything there gives way, it must be
observed and reported and -^Sntika is to be performed.
 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE 12 \

IV, The Mechanical Contrivances and the Construction of the Household

Furniture.

CHAPTER XLVIll.
Yantradhyaya (The Machines)
This chapter is of unique importance as no other extent manual
of Silpa-Sastra, describes machines, though the construction of the
machines is not beyond tlie scope of Architecture as wc understood it

(see Part I ‘Scope’). The study of this chapter has formed a separate
part of this Study, therefore, here only a brief notice may be taken,
Yantra deftned— ‘the device by which the Mahabhiitas like
is

earth, water,fire, air and ether are controlled viz. when the
free and natural activities of these Bhutas, the primary elements
made to act in a particular manner by means of some device, it is
Yantra. Its fundcimental Bijas are the four Bhutas, earth, water, fire

and air and the ether being the substratum of all these, naturally
becomes Bija itself also. After this, the author describes in detail
the manifold varieties of all these principal Bijas, then follow the
qualities and the actions of Yantra.

Yantras consist firstly of the recreational type, such as Sayya-

prasarpana from the first floor to upper floors; dolls* Nadlprabodhana,
the display of the wonders —'Such as fire in water etc ;
inicroscopc-
likc Golakabiiramana machine, showing the movements of the heavenly
bodies; wooden-man going a distance of as many as eight miles (one
yojana); the dancing doll pouring oil in the lamps; wooden elephant
drinking water in profusion; the wooden parrots, singing dancing etc.;
Jalayantras bringing water from the vapis, wells, etc. and depositing
the same, so on and so forth; secondly those service-machines like
wooden bird machine travelling in the sky, wooden vimana-machine,
i.c. the aeroplane, door-keeper machine, soldier machine, servant
machines and maid servant m ichines; thirdly the machines of warfare
like Sataghni (100 killer) and Gapayantras are also described.
Fourthly, the most characteristic of the medieval yantras, the water
machines are described. Fhe Variyantras have four varieties (sec
Study). Another variety of water machines is the five-fold Dharagrha.
Lastly the five Rathadolas, the swinging machines (see ibid) are also
enumerated.
With this brief notice of the chapter, it may be noted that in the
construction of some of the aeroplane machine, the application of
Parada (the quick-silver) and the fire in them are some of the modern
equipments of the aeroplanes and hence it is indicative of the fact
(though disputed) of the existence of aeroplanes in ancient India. A
 •

122 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE

more careful examination of this question and other details of the

chapter have been attempted in the Study Proper,
CHAPTER XLIX
v^ayanasana (The Couches and the Cots)
Whatever is planned, made, measured or constructed is Vastu.
A complete Vastu-Sastra deals not only with the towns and temples
and the residintial houses, but also with sculpture, painting, Yantra
and furniture etc. This chapter, therefore, is an illustration of the
very broad scope of Indian Architecture. The contents of this chapter
arc unique in the respect that nowhere is such a beautiful account
with all the details in connection with the construction of the sleeping
couches to be found. The operations on the sleeping couches should
be started in an auspicious moment. The wood employed mast be of
the good and auspicious variety of trees like Gandana, Tini^a, Arjiina,
Tinduka, Sala, Saka, Sirisa, Asaua, Dhanvana, Haridru, Devadaru,
Syandana, Oka, Padmaka, Sriparni, Dadhiparni, J^irh^ipa, and other
auspicious ones. The inauspicious trees as referred to in the house
construction are also prohibited here. The cots which are knotted
or interwoven with gold, silver, ivory or brass are deemed more
auspicious. Then follows the dimensions of the cots in relation to
those who would use them. The superior quality of cots of a king
should measure 108 Augulas, the middle 104, the inferior 100, the
cots of princes 90, ministers 81, commander-in-chief 78 and the
the
Purohita 72. Twice the width shmld be the length of a cot in
every variety. The cots of Brahmanas arc 70 Augulas in length and
less by 2 Augulas of other castes viz. Ksatriyas 68, Vaiiyas 65 and
J^lclras 64. Then follow the dilferent parts of the cots. They are
Utpala, lildaiida, Kusya and Padas etc. All these parts should be
carved out beautifully in leaves, birds, etc. Particular consideration
need be given employment of only one kind of wood material.
to the
Two dilfcient varieties of wood are not auspicious and the cot cons-
tructed in three different varieties of wood leads to instantaneous
death of the occupant. After these, details of the construction follow.
A cot should be free from knots and holes and should not be loose
enough and weak enough to be shaken while occupying it. It should
be SuSlisti-— well laid, strong and stationary. The knots and
holes must be avoided at all costs. The six varieties of holes are : —
1. Nisku^a 4 . Vatsanabhaka
2. Koladrk 5. Kalaka and
3. Krodanayana 6 . Bandhana
After this the details of Asana, the seats and their parts arc
described. The wood is thq same. The parts of an Asana viz.
 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE 123

Puskara, Suda-hasta, Phalaka, Bhulaka etc. are then described. In

the end are described certain other articles of household furniture
like, Kankata, Darvi and Padukas.
V. The Prasilda Architecture (Temples).
A. Prasadas Proper.
Group (a) ^l) Type.

CHAPTER L.
Rucaka etc. 64 Prasadas
Here in this initial chapter on IVasada architecture the origin of
the Prasadas has been indicated. It is said that the Creator Brahma,

the founder Lord of the Vastu-Vidya, created five big and beautiful
Vimanas, movable in the path of the sky, made of gold and
decorated with jewels —-they were Vairlija, Kailasa, Piispaka, Manika
and Trivistapa to be used by Himself, the Trident-bearer Siva, Lord
of wealth Kubera, Noose-holder Vanina and the Lord of the Universe
the great Visnu respectively Similarly he also created other Vimanas
„

for the gods like Sun and others. From the selfsame five Vimanas,
he then created five Prasadas, to be built of stone or burnt brick for
the adoration of the towns. 'Pheir names being the same and in slia[)c

Vairlifja is square, Kaild^a circular or oval, Piispaka rectangular,

Manika elliptical and Trivistapa octagona].
Then follow the 24 varieties of square Vairilja, ten varieties of
circular Kailala, ten varieties of rectangular Puspaka, ten varieties
of elliptical Manika and lastly the ten varieties of octagonal
Trivistapaka, thus making the total 61 and each variety described
in detail.

Special characteristics of these Temples are firstly their super-

structures being devoid of Sikheiras, (the most common characteristics
of the later phases of temple architecture) and their roofs being of the
Ghhadya variety, and secondly, these are hall temples with excessive
application of the pillars, built in the material of wood with so many
other wooden joineries. Tlie temples arc an illustration of the initial
stage of development of temple architecture in India when the
employment of wood was the rule of the day (cf. the wooden origin
of the Indian Architecture).

CHAPTER LI.
Prasadajati (Geneology of the Prasadas)
Brahma, the first Lord, Vairaja the first chariot and so V^iraja
was the first Prasada.
The sublimest praise of this primordial type connected with the
Primordial Creator Himself hints at the Brahmanic conception of the
 >

124 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE

Hindu Temple in unmistakable sense, a notice of which is taken iii

the Study Proper (vide Denotation and Connotation of the Prasada

and Planning of the Prasada (chap. II and X). The text has bes-
towed upon this first type of the Hindu temple all the ornamentation
and decorative elements of Hindu Architecture (S. S. 52. 79).

Next follow the scries of temple-types springing from the Vairaja,

the primordial type in the following succession

1st Series 2nd Series

1. Svastika 1. Svastika
2. CatuSSala 2. iSrftaru

3. Tri^ala 3. Ksitibhusana
4. Hiranyaka 4. Bhujaya
5. Siddhartha 5, Vijaya
6. Dviiala 6. Bhadra
7. Ekasala 7. ^rfkuta
8. Kumbhaka 8. Usnisa
9. Vimana 9, Nandyavarta
10. Vana 10. Vimana
11. Vlra 11. Sarvatobhadra
12. Caturmukha 12. Vimuktakona.
3rd Series

1. Svastika gave
1
rise to Rucaka
2. Sritaru >> >> ,, Sirahapanjara
3. Ksitibhusana » >> ,, l§ala

4. Bhujaya >> ,, Gajayuthapa

5. Vijaya >> >> ,, AvatarhSa
6. Bhadra » ,, Nandi
7. ^rikuta >> 99 ,, Citrakuta
8. Us^lsa >> 99 ,, Pramadapriya
9. Nandyavarta 9t ,, VyamiSra
10. Vimana yf 99 ,, Hastijatika
11. Sarvatobhadra yf 99 „ Kubera
12. Muktakona S9 9» ,, Dharadhara
or (Vimuktakona)

All these varieties can be multiplied in the superior, middle and

inferior types. Another special variety born of the VairSja is the
eightfold Sikharottama Prasadas (having the super-structure of
the ^ikhara, the characteristic feature of the Nagara temples in monU'
ments, the specimen of which are found in Khajuraho, Bhuvane^vara
and in so many other parts of Northern India). They are Rucaka,
 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE 125

Vardhamanaka, Avatarhsa, Bhadra, Sarvatobhadra, Muktakonaka,

Meru and Mandara. These are all Brahniajatikas and belonging to
one and the same family and are highly extolle d the superior most —
types of the temple types. They should be planned likewise. From
these are born their sons and grand sons keeping their blood unmixed,
multiplying their names and these temples are very auspicious best-
owers of prosperity and fulfillcrs of desires. They should not be
contaminated with the mixture of other family and if it is done, it is
an augury of bad days.
CFIAPTER LII Prasada-Dvaramanadi
CHAPTER LIIl Jaglianya-VaJtu-Dvara.
CHAPTER LIV Prasada-^ubhaiubha-Lakshana.
The first chapter deals with the different and manifold elements
of the temple architecture along with the component parts of a temple,
a detailed tabulation of all these will be found in the study proper.
The second chapter has the similar theme. It gives the propor-
tionate measurements of the principal parts of a Nirandhara Prasada
having Jaghanya-Vastu (Tirgayata) more especially of the door.
The third chapter in this series enumerates structural merits
and demerits of the Prasada a tabulation of which can be seen
elsewhere,
II, Second Type.
CHAPTER LV.
Rucakadi-Prasadas — Rucaka etc. 65 Temples.
‘‘From now onward, I shall be describing the sixty-four temples,
Rucaka etc. having the super-structure of Sikhara, with the details
of names and designations in succession. From the five Vimanas
formerly described, all the twenty-four Prasadas took their shapes.
The ^ikharas of manifold shapes are their principal characteristic
features. Another feature is that some arc decorated with only one
Anda, some with three and others with five with the slight difference,
all ihe^e varieties are virtuous and bestowers of all desires. When
made in gold or silver and studded with jewels —mani, mukta, prabala
etc.and decorated with ornaments, they are the favourite ones to the
gods and they are free to move anywhere they like, when
they arc otherwise good but made of brass, copper, etc. they belong
to PiSacas, Nagas and Raksasas. Both these varieties are called
‘Devalokas*. When they arc otherwise good but made of stone (obtai-
ned from Sphatika iSila), they are appropriate to denizens of the
Patala; but when made in burnt brick, wood and stone, they please and
bestow happiness both on the architect, the builder and the Yajamana,
—
the patron they are the ornaments of the town and bestowers of
 —

126 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE

prosperity, earthly and spiritual and these in their designation and

other details ure now being described’*.
These 64 Prasadas arc described in detail under the three classi-
fications:

1. Lalita-Prasadas 25 All these are tabulated with

2. Saudliara Prasadas 25 -s names and shapes and other char-
3. Mi^raka Prasadas 14 acteristics in a chart (see Part V).
(including Nigudha)

Total 64

A special feature of these temples is their Andaka-vartana, the

employment of spires from one to one hundred one the latter being —
bestowed upon the Prasadaraja Meru“So much eulogised in both these
chapters (55, 56). Another architectural characteristic is the excessive
employment of the Rathikas, the buttresses, in snper-structure. An-
other point to note in connection with the construction of this temple
Mem is that the canons of its and the builder,
architect, the Stliapati
the Yajamana are assigned Only a Ksairiya can be its
caste wise.
builder, only a Vaiiya its master arcliitect and if this rule is violated,
misfortunes may befall them (see lines 36-43/56). In the end, the Pari-
varadevatas in these temples and the gods so enumerated have an
iconographical interest.
III. Type.
CHAPTER LVE
Prasada-Stavana —The Dedication of the Temples.

The dedication of 8 Prasadas to each of the principal members of

Hindu Pantheon —Siva, Visnu,
Brahma, Surya, Durga, Ganefe, and
Laks ni together with the common mass of divinity— Sarvadevas, is
made. The opening lines hint at the origin of these temples as having
come down from Brahma through ViSvakarma.
CHAPTER EVIL
Vimana etc, 65 Prasadas.

The dedicated Prasadas are described in detail here. Some of

these varieties are illustrative of some of the fundamental factors of
the origin of the temple from the points of view of materials, shapes
and Super-structures. Among them the Prasada, Layana and Guha-
dliara are most rcspresentative of the Prasadas in the monuments.
Similarly the Prasada PattiSa^ the temple made of cloth, Prasada
Vibhava made of clay or wood; and others made of brick or stone, arc
also remarkable*
 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE 127

Again as regards the architectural characteristics, it may be

noted that superstructure, the pyramidal shape of Sik?hara, though
retained, has been modified by the storeys, Similary the measure-
ments of some of the crowning parts like Vepukoli havc^ also undergone
modification.

CHAPTER LVIII.

lVIerva{li^i)d iSa Prasada— Meru and others (16 Prasadas).

This chapter gives a glowing account of a group of sixteen

Prasadas beginning with Meru (sec others in the Study proper). The
temple Meru heads the list and is given a special treatment eulogised
as Prasadaraja — ^king of Prasadas. I am, therefore, compelled to take a
detailed notice of it as gathered from this and other chapters on Meru,

Meru: —The number cf hastas in the measurement of the plot of

Meru shonld be neither less than 33 nor more than 50. It should be
then divided in 10 equal parts. The Garbha, the innermost sanctuary
is to be laid in the middle with a water channel for drain), then
follow the details of J^rngas (domes) and other mouldings and com-
ponent parts required in the pyramidal super«structure in the
likeness of the Mnmt M.cru itself. It has as many as sixteen storeys.

The crowning members are pitcher, Anda (egg i. e. Cupola), Venukoia

Griva or neck. Thus the temple has a pyramidal structure with as
many as sixteen storeys, four spires, four doors made of brick and
stone. The builder of this temple earns the greater virtue than he
could have got from distributing the gold in measure of Meru Mount
itself, rhe mountains have provided the choicest of the origins for

the Prasadas and Meru, the Parvataraja is also the Pras ulnraja. Other
details regarding the Prasadaraja are: Karna-prasadakas to V)e

placed in all tlie directions having their faces to each direction in

the measure of one-third of the Prasada site; the Mandapa should

be planned on the double the dimension of Prasada and the Jagatf
doable the dimension of the Mandapa. Thus planned in the external

establishments together with its own components, the temple emerges

in the fullest of picture, well dressed and well decorated like a king
with his ornaments Keyura and armlets etc. Then are given the
details of Parivara-devatas to be placed in their particular directions

in the temple and the measurements of the door. In end are given
the details of the mouldings and other ornamentation of the component
parts of the building of the temple.

A special point regarding these temples is that while KailaSa,

Garuda, Padma, Dvipa are reserved for Mahe§v ara, Visnu, Brahma,
128 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE

and Ganesa respectively and cannot be dedicated to the other godS|

the other temples are the common property of all the gods.

Mervadi-Vim^ika (S. S. 57th Chapter).

N. B. The name of this chapter belies its contents, It is the

longest chapter not only in the Samarahgana, but in the whole of
literature dealing with Architecture. In the former part are dealt
with the superior variety of fifty Prasadas beginning with Sridhara
etc. and, therefore, should form contents of a separate chapter and in
the latter are dealt with these Meru and others (numbering twenty).
Another thing to note in thisis that a good number of
connection
verses are missingand hence description of some of the varieties in
the former group are wanting, I split this long chapter into two
equal chapters as 57 (a) and 57 (b) which in the reconstructed
scheme are chapters LIX and LX.
CHAPTER LIX.
dridhara-etc. 40 Temples of the pure type together with Nandanas etc.
10 temples of mixed, type.

Here in this chapter first the superior variety of 40 PrasSdas

beginning with §rldhara is very eloquently described. We find in
them not only the marvel of the architectural crafsmanship, but also
the depth and eloquence of religious teacher giving sermons on
^Ht^purta’ (more particularly the Purta), the holy mission of human
life and construction of the temples as the noblest and best means of

its fulfilment. The author of the Samarafigana-Sutradhara is here at

his best. It is in these varieties that we can put into the ornamental

style of the Lata Architecture, the most characteristic ornamentativc

feature of the temple architecture in medieval period of Indian
History. It was this period that produced some of the greatest and
grandest temples in India, the specimens of which in the monuments
are our great architectural heritage. I touched on this architecture,

its styles and other points of importance in Part V, Temple Architec-

ture. Here it is enough to say that the crowning part of the Nagara
temples, the Amalaka is the chief ornamentation of these temples. The
other manifold decorative motives are Sukanasa, Kalaia, Kuta-
muada, Bija-puraka etc. etc. together with paintings of VidySdharas,
Hamsas, leaves, etc. etc. all taken notice in the proper place. Again
the perusal of the individual temples and the dedication to some deity
or other and the virtue in different degree and kind — obtained
by their construction are illustrative not only of the zenith to which
the PaurSnika Dharma, inculcating the image-worship and founding
Tirthas, and building temples had obtained but also the development
of the Hindu pantheon (vide more than two dozens of gods whp have
 HINDU SCIENCB OF ARCHITECTURE 129

been described as the presiding lords of these temples) which it had

reached. ^
All these types in their profound details arc being worked out
to be presented in the last volume —the architecture and sculpture of
the Samarahgana.

CHAPTER LX.
Meru etc. 20. Prasadas.

Let the reader be not tired with the repetition of the type of the
temple, the Prasadaraja Meru as it has already formed fascination to
not only of the gods who reside in it but also of the author who dwells
at length upon it. Let this fascination be sustained to the reader and
the writer also.

Meru heads the list of twenty temples. Let us have a glimpse

of the paintings and mouldings of Meru in the ornamental style, the
Lata Style. Many names though repeated several times really belong
to dissimilar types and groups forming the subject matter of the
respective chapters and therefore they should not be taken as pure
repetition. It is the Karma, the architecture, the style and the super-
structure, dedication and size etc. which varies in various groups and
types of temples. These twenty temples are really master-piece of
Hindu Temple architecture at its zenith. A glowing dedication and
glorious representation of the very developed temple institution both
in its architectural as well as devotional aspects would not be found
elsewhere. The reader is particularly referred to the quotations in the
Vastulaksaaa regarding the ornamental motifs of the class of types.

All these varieties (Meru'and others) as described in this chapter

with their curvilinear superstructure, the iSikhara, are the most parti-
cularly Indian amongst the monumental shapes of the temple.
This is the pre-eminent shape of Hindu Temple, It formed the nu-
cleus of many developments.

CHAPTER LXt.
Mervadi-VIm^iki-NJgara-Prasada (The twenty Nagara Temples).

These twenty varieties of the Nagara temples are the ‘twenty

temples* as described in the earliest of the treatises on Architecture
as ViSvakarma-PrakaSa, Brhatsamhita, Matsya-Purana, and Bhavisya-
PurSna. It is these which formed a nucleus of the later development
of so many styles and types of temples within Nagara school culmina-
ting in their most profound development in the Samar3hgana-Sutra-
^berc ^n chapter 57 th as noticed before these varieties represent
130 HINDU SCIENCE OT ARCBtlffecfakE

a architectural development. Though, as it would be evident

tall

from the pefusal of these varieties, they are of various shapes, a

selection was made and five basic shapes were to ramify in the several
schools of medieval architecture, cf. 45 varieties of Agnipurana and
also sixtyfour varieties of the SamaraAgana-Sutradhltra. Thus the
Samarahgana-Sutradhara, the most authoritative compendium of
medieval architecture, while dealing with all this ramification and
off-shoots of the Nagara style into so many temple types and the
manifold varieties thereof, has not forgotten these progentitors
(fathers) of the temples representing a liberal assortment of architec-
tural shapes. There too Meru, the PrasSdaraja, so much glorified
in this text heads the
list. The most characteristic feature of these
temples: is not only the cluster l^ikhara but also super-structure so
developed as to form one to 16 storeys; Prasadaraja Meru having as
many as 16 storeys, 100 iSfngas and four doors.

CHAPTER LXII.
Srikuti(disattrirp$at Pr^Sdas (36 PrSsadas begiiinliig with i^rlkuta).

Here in this chapter the text in the very first line indicates the
style of the temple architecture to which they belong. Though
from the point of view of style an exhaustive survey has been
done in chapter VI Part V, and all these Prasadas described
in this text are so arranged but it is helpful to allocate these
Prasadas at least for which the text itself offers the designation. All
these varieties are technically arranged in six Sa^kas each an aggregate
of six, viz.,

1. ^rikutadisa|ka 4, Sarvatobhadrasatka
2. Antariksa-satka 5, Citrakutasa^ka
3. Saubhajna-satka 6. Ujjayantasatka.

It may be noted that in the last satka i. c. Ujjayanta from

which Meru, Mandara, KailaSa and Kumbha are said to have been
born are only so hinted and not described perhaps for the simple reason
that these Prasidas (Meru heading the list) are so many times described.
Another point to note is that all these 36 principal varieties of
N3gara temples (with l§rfigas, Andakas, Sikharas etc.) characterised
by ChSdya etc., with their sub-divisions into superior, middle and
inferior types assume the total one hundred and eight. The criterion
however, of these superior, middle or inferior types being a ilight
difference hither and thither in the architectural planning. Lastly
a particular mention which may be made of these temples as
enumerated here in this list is that their proportions, as enjoined by
 SCIENCE OF architecture 131

the text are too small to fit with great temples of the towns. The
down that these
text further lays are abodes of yaksas Nagas
fit

and Raksasas. Thus in my opinion these are little shrines fit to be

built in hamlets and other small human settlements (the specimens
of which abound everywhere in the country side).

K, B, Another equally notable temple style is Dravida style (the

second member of the triad, Vesara, the third member conspicuous

by its absence and substituted by Vavata), The ternary has been
developed into Pancayatana here— Negara, Lata, Dravida, Vavaia
and Bhumija with so many other sub-styles and types of temples.

CHAPTER LXIII.
Pitbapancaka (The fi?e-fold terraces).

CHAPTER LXIV.
Dravida Pr^ada*

In the former chapter is indicated the subject matter of both the

chapters —namely (a) the five-fold Pithas suited to the Dravida
temples, (b) the five Talacchandas and (c) the 12 varieties of Dravida
Prasadas, having one to 12 storeys* These Dravida Prasadas have no
specific names, they arc called by Ekabhau-
their generic varieties as
mika to DvadaSabhaumika. The distinguishing features of the
Nagara and Dravida temples is that while in the former the crowning
piece of the temples is Amalaka, or its varieties (cf. S. S.) in the
latter its counterpart is Sthupika with KalaSa together wiih the
surmounting Sikhara divided into compartments like storeys, on the
top of which as indicated just now are two kinds of crowning pieces,
one like that on the ‘shore temple’, at Mammalapuram and the other
like the one on the GarieSa-ratha of that place.

The SamarSrigana, well acquainted with these distinguishing

features of the Dravidian temples, curiously enough at the very outset,
says that Dravida temple may consist of storeys upto 12 in number
and then the temples are classified according to their number of
storeys. This is what exactly we find in all the South Indian Vastu
Texts. Again the Southern tradition of Pithas or the terraces of the
temples so lavishly found described in the Southern texts is retained
in the SamarShgapa also which introduces this Drayida style by
devoting its description first to the terraces. These terraces arc
manifold and five principal ones^ so selected are technically called
here Padaban4hana> ^fbandh^a* Vedibandhana> Pr^tikrama and
Churakabandhana. T^liaccba^ in the Dr^vjidian
 i3^ HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITftGtURE

Style are also five according to this text relating the architectural
genius They are as Padmatala, Mahapadma, Vardhaman ,
Svastika,
and Sarvatobhadra. These represent both the two broad divisions,
namely Nirandhara — (having no circumambulatory passage all round)
and Sandhara (having circumambulatory passage all round).

These Talacchandas are accessory buildings which may take as

many —
storeys as the central shrine from one to twelve. These, in
my opinion, are the proto-types of the later Gopurams characterised
by storeys and huge super-structure.

CHAPTER LXV.
Digbhadra Prasada (The Vavata Style).

The very first line of this chapter designates these Prasadas as

Vavata Prasadas and they are as many as twelve in number (see
Part V). The word Vavata or more correctly Vaira^ is of controver-
sial nature among contemporary works on Hindu I’emple. I have

tried to critically examine their views and a4ding my own, under the
chapter 'Styles’. Here it is enough to indiodte that this is one of the
regional styles developed somewhere in the vicinity of the modern
Rajaputana andGujarata and it might be a mixed style. But Samaraii-
gana Sutradhara epitomising all the prevalent styles with various
ramifications into the manifold temple types, might be coining the
terminology of some of the architectural evolutions as “Vairat has no
place in the Sanskrit accounts of ancient Indian Geography” and Raja
Bhoja must have coined this word to complete the triad by Vairata
(in place of Vesara) as the name of style called Vasara (so much talked

in thecontemporary discussions) docs not occur in the Samaraugana-

Sutradhara. The Samaraiigana Sutradhara describes these Vavata
temples similar in plan to Nagara temples. The component parts
together with the super structure do not fit in with the existing monu-
ments of the Nigara temples. Hence they represent a mixed style,

CHAPTER LXVL
Bhumija PrSsada

These arc the pompous buildings, rich in architecurgtl crafst man-

ship and representing an amalgamation of both NSgara and Dravida
architecture (sec Study, ‘The Styles and Classifications’.) They arc
described in three groups of fourfold Square styles ;
seven-fold
Vyksajatikas and fivefold AsfaSala varieties (sec Glassification Part V).

The important element in the construction of these is the cxhubc-

Tance of RekhSs, as many as twenty five (see Glossary) of the decora-
 ttmbtr SCIENCE of architecture 133

live motifs (imitated from the Nagara and the Lata Styles). The
Aparajita-pracchS develops this fascinating elements of Temple
Architecture into still further varieties.

B. Mandapas : Pavilions attached to the temples.

CHAPTER LXVIL
Mandapalaksana —^The Pavilions.
CHAPTER LXVIII.
Saptaviih^atimandapa — 27 Pavilions.

The import of the word, its different and divergent uses together
with their architectural features, layouts, proportionate measurements
and other details have been examined in a separate chapter (see Part
V, Mainlapa). Here in these two chapters two broad types of
Mandapas have been described quite distinctly. In the former one
are described the eight-fold varieties of Mandapas, viz. Bhadra,
Mandana, Mahendra, Vardhamana, Svastika, Sarvatobhadraka,
Mahapadma and Grharaja. These are characteristics of the varieties
of proportions, otherwise they go after the Prasadas. the main temples.
The traditions still remind us that in some of the illustrations found
in the monuments (Bhuvaneivar) it is diflicult to account for the
distinguishing features of Mandapas on the one side and the temples
proper on the other. These eight Mandapas are the representative
proto-types of this traditional type in the art.

The second variety of the 27 Mandapas, however, is not so

unhelpful. The distinctive features of the Mandapa architecture here
is the abundant application of the columns and it is as if turning them
into HalMike structures (vide Hall-temples of 49 chapter). In the
Matsya-Puraijia, the 27 Mandapas are distinguished according to the
number of the columns, they are furnished with, the largest number
being 64. The names and the chief features of these 27 Mandapas
though retained and maintained in the Samarahgana-Sutradhara (a
work of Eleventh Century A. D.), it has added some of the ornamenta-
tive features characteristic of the Medieval architecture of which it
was the most representative, a detailed notice of which is taken in the
Study proper (see Part V, Chapter X). The Mandapas* as exhibited
in the monuments, are not furnished with walls ; the roofing is formed
of large slabs of granite supported by monolethic pillars; but here in the
Samaraagana-Sutradhira the pillars are the main support, and roofing
is excessively decorated as such with the predominent wooden motifs

as Well as different sets of mouldings characteristic of the ornamental

ta|a Style* Again it may be pointed out that the author of
134 HINDU SCIBNGE OF ARGHlTEGrCuiB

Samarangana-SutradhSra (vide the former chapter) classifies all the

Mandapas un^ler the broad divisions Sarhvrta and Vivfta or attached,
i. e. enclosed and detached within temples proper.

C- Jagatls and Jagati-prisldaa.

CHAPTER LXIX.
Jagatynga^Samudaya (The congregation or collection of the component
parts of the Jagati class of temple-buildings)

CHAPTER X LXX.
Jagatl-Lakasana-— ihe Jagatis defined.

Jagatis are terraces of raised up platform-like structures and

form a class of temple buildings in themselves. In the Samarahgana-
Sutradhara there is an innovation regarding these structures. They
are not exactly the pedestals or socles of the temples, they arc rather
independent structures, undoubtedly linked with the Prasada, the
central shrine.

All possible shapes and the measurements together with their

types as many as thirty nine arc described in detail, a detailed notice
of which has been taken notice of in the study proper (Part V under
Jagati).

B, Thus so far we have summarised the contents relating to

the House-architecture ( 47 Chapters ); Temple - architecture ( 21
chapters ) together with the mechanical architecture, Yantra-
construction (one chapter) and the construction of the cots and
couches (one chapter). Now follow the descriptions of Sculpture
and Painting.

VI. Iconography (Sculpture)

(a) Sculpture proper

CHAPTER LXXI.
Liaga-plthapratimllaksana (Iconography of the phalli and their pedestals)

The chapter is very corrupt. The opening lines indicate the

proportions of the Phallus in relation to the Prasada and the material
cf which it is made, viz. wooden phallus would be double the
size of the iron ones. The principal materials of which the phalli
are made, are iron, wood, stone and clay. Different materials
bestow different rewards# Then follow the detailed descriptions of
Lokapala-lihgas to be established in the respective quarters.
Then follow the details regarding the PI Jjias. The pedestals of thf
 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE 135

Phalli and their varieties are indicated and then they are given
their designation and dedication. Then follow the •technicalities
regarding the distinguishing features of the respective phalli more
particularly in connection with plaster, ointment and other elements
—Mekhala, Pranala, Brahma-iila etc- — the constituent parts of tlie

Phallus and its Pitha arc also told. In the vicinity of Phallus the
installation of the images of gods like BrahmS, Visiiu and other
deities, is described. Iconographical proportions of both Phallus
and the Pi^ha in relation to the proportion of the door of the temple
are also indicated.

CHAPTER LXXIL
Devadirupa-praharana-samyogalaksana.

The Gods and Goddesses and their forms and Madras (weapons etc.)

The chapter is fully studied line by line in the study proper

—vide
’
Vol 11. Here it is enough to indicate that out of a very
large number of gods and goddesses only a representative selection
has been made by the author of the Samar^^ngana-Sutradhara.
Accordingly Brahma, ^tva, KIrtikeya, Balabhadra and Visi;iu among
the famous gods and Laksmf and Kausikf among the goddesses
together with the ASvins and some of the Dikpalas like Indi a and
Yama as well as PiSacas, Gandharvas etc. etc, have been described,

CHAPTER LXXIII.
Pratima^-Laksana (Iconography),

Like the material of the Phallus, here in this chapter

materials to be used in the images of the gods and goddesses in
general are enumerated. They are seven — gold, silver, copper, stone,
wood, Icpya (clay-moulding) and citra and their respective virtues arc
extolled. Then follows the discipline to be undergone before under-
taking this sacred task of image-making, keeping fast, offering
oblations in the fire and practising japa and sleeping on ground, etc.

After this general introduction, the author now describes in

detail the proportions of the image of a male figure beginning from
eyes, cars, nose, chin, lips, forehead, cheeks, neck, chest,
nevel, phallus, thighs, knees, feet fingers, and ending into
nails,

the hands and their fingers with their other component members. In
the end arc given the similar proportions of the Umbs of the different
parts bf the fcthalc figures,
 —

136 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE

CHAPTER LXXIV.
Dosaguaa-Mrlipana(rhe demerits and merits of images).

An image which looks beautiful, but does not conform to the

rules of the Sixstra, having been moulded by a sculptor ignorant of
the Sastric injunction, is not worthy of possession. This is the open
declaration and this tradition has been religiously maintained by the
artists of India (See the list of the merits and demerits in the study
proper),

(b) The Standard Measurements.

CHAPTER LXXV,
(Pancapurusa-strilaksana ( The Standard models of proportions of the
0ve-fold men and five-fold women ).

As per the dictum of Varahamihira, the ornamentation and dresses

are to be provided for or employed in the images of gods and
goddesses in the fashion of the country ;
the local characteristic
and decorations are the standards in which the gods
styles of dresses

and goddesses are decorated and dressed. Similarly there has been
an unbroken art tradition in India from Varahamihira regarding the
five principal heights and lengths having been recognised as standard
types of male figures. It is in conformity to these five-fold propor-
tions that the sculptors have been moulding their icons and images
accordingly. The author of the Samarangaua-Sutradhara, not only
maintains this tradition but also adds one more, namely five types of
proportions in case of females also This is the import of the chapter.
Here the five male types described in detail are:— Hamsa, Saia,
Rucaka, Bhadra and Malavya and their manas being 88, 90, 92, 94 and
96 aiigulas respectively. These figures do not tally with those given by
the Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira. I have discussed all these points
in Vol 11. Then follow the detailed descriptions of ail the limbs of all
these types of men with full proportions In the end are given (though
the chapter is very corrupt) the description of the five-fold women
Daadinl, Vrtta, Paurusi and Balaki (and the fifth one is missing).

(c) Madras
CHAPTER LXXVI, LXXVII Rnd LXXVIII.
Rjvagata Etc -Sthanas
Vaisnava Etc -^-Standing postures.
Pataka Etc:— Handposes.

A detailed notice of the contents of these chapters has already been

made in the Study— vide Vol. II (published first). Herc^ in bricf| it 4
 —

HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE 137

indicated that these three chapters describe the three broad ( alegorie ;

of poses and postures in which the images of blindu# ciiviTiities are

shown — hand poses (cf. Pataka etc. 78lh Chapter), the postures of

leg (cf, the Vaisnava etc. 77th Chapter) and tiic composite p(»scs of
the body itself (cf. the Rjvagata etc. the different attittidcs the nine
principal attitudes —-chapter 76th).

VI The Painting.
CHAPTER LXXIX.
Citrodde$a (The painting, its scope and the essential elements and
implements).

This initial chapter on Painting opens with a fine eulogy to the

pictorial art —the Citra as the month of all the arts and having a
popular appeal. It then describes the three types of painting in
relation to three types of background, Pata, Piitta and Kudya. It then
indicates the accessories like Vartikas, Plasters, colours and the
Vartanl as well as measurements etc. etc. Then follows a detailed
enumeration of the scope of the painting in relation to the divine,

the mortals, animals and other beings. In the end are given eight
essential constituents of the painting like Variika, Bhumibandhan,
Lekliya, Rckha, Vartana, colouring, etc. etc.

CHAPTER LXXX.
Bhrimibandtia (The Vartika and the backgrounds)

First are enumerated the places from where clay to be used in

Vartika may be procured. Then follow the details of the procedure
of moulding it into a ball in which a quantity of cooked rice is to be

mixed according to the time of seasons. Then arc given its respective
dimensions for the respective uses i. e. whether it is used in apprentice^

ship or in tl/e finished delineations.

Then follows the process of the preparations of all the three types
of background according to the three types of painting, namely the
mural, the board and the cloth (Kudyabhuinibandhana, Pattabhumi-
bandhana and the Patabhumi-bandhana), For details see the Study
(Vol. II).

CHAPTER LXXXI.
Lepyakarmadikam — The paints and the plasters and Brushes.

Lepya— the paints and the Lekha, the Brushes — these are the two
topics of this chapter. It opens with the process of collection of clay.
The places from which the clay should be procured are enumerated.
Tlien follow its colours having respective suitabilities for therespcctivc
13a HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHlTECTd^E

castes. This is the general characteristic of these manuals. After

this ru e given tfie process of clearing it and grinding it into a levigated
pov/der ('kalka) after the liquids obtained from trees like ^alniali,
Masa, Kakubha etc. are also mixed with it along with the hair of
horses or bullocks or. the fibers of the coconut and the husks of corn.
Other ingredients prescribed for the mixture are the equal quantity
of sand to that of the clay and a certain amount of the cotton and
KadiSarkara, the powder of limestone. All these then are to be pressed
through cloth to make it fit for the ointment to be painted by the
Kurcaka, the brush (1*1 1^).

Then follows the second topic — the brushes ( cf 12-22J ). The

brushes according to this text are of five-fold variety, like
Kurcanaka, Hastakurcaka, etc. Then follow the substances of which
they are made and their various shapes also indicated (see details in
Study proper). In the end are given the instructions regarding the
use of these brushes along with their sticks.

CHAPTER LXXXII.
Andaka-pramana: — The Measiurements of Andakas.
Andaka is a symbolism or sketch of painting. It has principally
three varieties in general, Mukhandaka, Vrttandaka and Alasandaka.
All these are applicable in various paintings of various individuals,
men, women, children, and gods, derrli-gods and other celetial beings

and even birds and animals not excluded. A detailed notice of all

these has been taken in the study (Vol. II).

CHAPTER LXXXIII.
Manotpatti:*— The Standard measurements and other measurements and
forms.

The chapter opens with the absolute measurements like 8

Paramanus being equal to one Raja etc. (cf. Chapter on Hasta, the
13th and for details see also the table in the Study, Vol. II). Then
follow the proportions of the bodies of the gods and demi-gods etc.
After this are given the interesting details regarding various ferms
of gods, demons, men, together with birds and animals like elephants,
Gods have three forms—‘Cakara,
lions, tigers, seipents, etc. etc. viz.

Mut and Tir^aka; RSksasas, Durdara, iSakata, Kiirma etc; Kinnaras,

Mayura, Kurbata, Ka$a etc. the five-fold men, Hamsa etc.; the
five-fold women, Valaka, Paurusl etc.; the elephants Bhadra, Manda,

Mfga, MiSra etc. etc All these forms are characteristic of the
exhuberance of pictorial art in early mcdicyal times,
 HINDU SOIENG& OF ARCHITECTURB 139

CHAPTER LXXXIV.
RasadrstiiaksaQa:-—-The Rasas and Kasa-drstis •

This chapter is unique in the respect that it: represents the

intimate relationship between the science of painting and that of
dancing or more correctly the aeslheiic.s. The mute ligurcs iu
sculpture and painting with different symbolisms of pr)scs and

postures, are macie to convey their message and sublimest of

sentiments. This is what is called Abhinaya in the Dramatics.
Similarly when delineated upon as showing aestheticity of manifold
varieties —the emotions, sentiments of various kinds, these images
simply begin to speak. This is tlie real achievement of the master-
painter.

Accordingly here in this Chapter, tirst as many as eleven Rasas

beginning with ^rhgara are described and then follow the eighteen
Rasa-drstis as accessories of all these principal Rasas. Both these
sets have been tabulated with their characteristic physical and
mental manifestations in Vol 11. In the end the text (33 and 34th
verses) has brought out very beautifully the implication of the
aesthetics in relation to the pictorial art.

The Schools of Architecture and the Allocation of the Samarahgaua.

In the history of Indian Architecture it is not the schools but the

orders or the styles that are most talked of. But when we study the
works of architecture both architectural like Manasara, Mayamata,
Vi^vakarmiya-Silpa, Agastya-Sakaladhikara, KaSyapa’s ArhSumad-
bheda, Varahamihira’s Brhatsawihita, Bhoja’s Samarahgana Sutra-
dhara and others; and non-architectural like Agamas —Kamika,
Suprabheda an 1 a host of others; Puranas, |)articularly Mastya,
Agiii, Brahraanda, etc. and Pratistha Granthas, and Puja-Paddhatis
like ISana^ivagurudcva’s, Raghunandaria^'s, and miscellaneous other
works, like Haribhakti-vilasa, Hemadri’s Gaturvarga-cintamani etc.,

we are bound to come to the conclusion that there were at least two
distinct and different architectural traditions in our land.

These two streams of architectural traditions represent the two

which were the precursors of the composite culture of
civilizations
India as we have evolved in these two thousand ^cars. The rudimeti-
tary norms of Indian architecture go as far back as Yedic and
pre-Vedic times of Indus Valley and Mesopotamian civilisations.
One of the component parts of story of civilisation of mankind is tin*

story of architecture that man had evolved in order to satisfy one ol

140 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE

tlie three fundamental necessities of life, the habitation; the other two
being clothing and food.

Resuming the lost thread, from the study of architectural iite-

raturc, there appear to be two different and distinct schools of

architecture. This suitcnicnt needs be elaborated. The system of
classiftcation of the temples or the palaces, differ in the two sets of
works. In one the crowning part of the temple is Amalaka, it is
absent in tlic other. Ihe names of pillars and their component
mouldings also differ. In works like Manasara the names of most of
the Prasadas end in the suffix ^‘kanta*’. It is not so in works like the
S.S., the Matsyapur'eina, BrhaLsamhita and others of group. TheVesara
so much talked of as ojie of the triad — Nagara, Dravida and Vesara is —
completely absent in the works like Matsyapur^na, Brhat-samhita and
Sarnarangana. Similarly names of residential houses and Mandapas
also dilTer. The Gopurams attached to temples are mentioned only
in works like the Manasara and are completely absent in otlicr treatises

like the SamarSiigana.

All these differences, I may point out, revolve round the orbit
ol the temple, the chief feature of Indian architecture coming within
the devotional architecture containing in it the Prasadas, Cave-tern-
ples, Gaityas, Viharas, Stupas, Column-halls, the Maiidapas and
the towery Gopurams and the like. And as a matter of fact these are
really the ancient monuments in the field of Indian architecture of
which we can be proud of and by which the Indian architecture is

worth the name. I he devotional architecture is the outcome of the

Bhakli-cult founded by the Puranas and Agamas. The Pauranic
Dharma, more popular in this part of the land—-the Uttrapatha,
enjoined the consecration of the images of gods and goddesses in the

Devalayas, with Vapi, Kupa, Tadagas as the most virtuous act. Natu-
rally, therefore, under the patronage of the devoted kings, religious
minded wealthy people and the common men (not excluded) all
contributed their mite in the construction of temples and the
enshrinements of the deities therein, in all parts of the land, afterwards
known as Tfrthas. Similiarly, what the Puranas did for the North,
the Agamas did for the South. These two religious traditions are
recorded and incorporated in the Puranas and Agamas. There were
correspondingly two architectural traditions in the works on the
Vastu-vidya. This is one way in which we can explain the
difference.
 HlNDtr SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE 141

We know that in India the origin of a Sastra is invariably con-

nected with some God or great personage— Rsi or Muni. 3rahma and
k^iva have the largest share of founding so many systems of sciences and
arts. The science of architecturehad a number of gods and
too
sages and other heavenly beings as originators, propounders and
its

writer- Acaryas. Two foremost names among them are ViSvakarma

and Maya. Visvakarma, the heavenly architect is alluded to in many
places in the literature, to have built capitals of kings, Maya the
demon-architect is siinilariy alluded to in many places in the litera-

ture, to have built assembly halls, etc. Visvakarma and Maya are
respectively called the originators of architecture on earth who in
their turn got this sacred lore from the Creator-God Brahma.

Dr. Bhattacharya, in his zeal for establishing the two principal

schools of Indian Architecture, has tried to locate the mythical and
real personages to two branches of the art (vide “Canons of
Indian Architecture'*. Chapter XX). Of the twenty five

preceptors of the Vastu-vidya whom he has taken notice of, on the

authority of the Matsya Furana, Brhatsihhita and Manasara, most
of them are allocated to the Dravidian School and some to the Northern
School. Fills list consists of names such as Bhrgu, Atri, Vai§istha,
Visvakarma, Maya, Narada, Nagnajit, ViSalaksa, Anirudha, ^ukra
and Brhasapti. These are all the great sages of the past, in some way
or other related to sacred scriptures of India. The other personages
are,Manu, Parulara, Kasyapa, Bharadvaja ;
Prahlada, Agastya, and
Markaudeya etc.

On the authority of the scattered references in the literature;

Dr. Bhattacharya takes all these teachers to be historical personages
and not mythical personalities. I am not concerned with this con-
troversial matter, my aim being the ascertainment of the place of the
S S., the most authoritative medieval compendium on architecture.
I have therefore to take into my acconnt only this point of the learned

doctor, namely, that he has mentioned Brahma in the list of Acaryas

belonging to the pl^Sixth Century Dravida Vastu-vidya, along with
6akra, ^ukra, Maya, Bhi’gu, Brhaspati, Narada, Nagnajit and Agastya
(see page 206). Among the Acharyas of the Nagara school, the first

and foremost place he allotts to Garga and then follow ParaSara,

Vrhadratha and Visvakarma.

As regards the available works dealing with the canons of archie

tecturc, Dr, Bhattacharya’ s allocation of the different treatises may be
 1

142 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE

tabulated as hereunder •

NortliAn School Southern School

J. Matsya-Purana 1. 6aiva-Agamas
Agni 2. Vaisiiava Pancaratras
3. Bhavisya ,, 3. Atri'Samhita
4. V i^v a k ar m a- pr ak a s a 4. Vaikhanasagamas
5. Brhat-Sainhita 5. May am at am
6. Tantras like Kiranatantra 6. ^ilpa«ratnam
7. FI a y a s i i sa- 1 fi c ar a i r a 7. Ka^yapas’s ArhSumadbheda
8. S a ni a r li 1 g a n a - s u t r a d h a r a 8. Visvakarmlya-^ilpa
9. Visnu-dharmattara 9. Dipta-Tantra
10. Works of Mandana 10. Agastya-Sakaladhikara
12. Praiistha-works like Hcmadri’ s 11. Manasara
12. Vastu-ratnavali 12. Sanat-Kumilr-VastuSastra
3. Va.siu-pradipa 13. ^ilpa-sahgraha
4. Haribhakti-vilasa. 14. HanaSivagurudevapaddhati
15. Tantra-samuccaya
16. Citra-laksana

The account of the traditional schools and their works as

brought forth by Dr. Bhattacaryainhisbook ‘A Study of Vastu-Vidya,’
a pioneering work indeed, may not be taken for granted. It however,
throws suflicient light, to enlighten some of the darker corners of the
Hindu arcitectural traditions, handed down from generation to gene-
ration. Though these accounts may appear legendary, there is always
some historical truth enshrined in them. The S. S. represents that
period of history, the First Part of the Eleventh Century A. D. by the
time of which a composite culture had been evolved by the admixture
of the Aryan, Non-Aryan, Southern and Northren, Nagas and Asuras
cultures. Naturally, therefore, its accounts regardindg the architec-
tural tradition of the past, give impression that these water-tight
divisions of the two schools had lost their importance. Brahma, the
chief Progenitor of the Dravida School is hailed here as the Founder
of the Sastra, Creator of the Vastu (vide First Chapter of the S. S.).
The self-same Creator Lord, Brahma is the harliihger of the PrSsadas
on the earth from the celestial Vimanas. Brahma, the Creator Lord,
entrusts the task of the planning of the world to ViSvakarmS.
Creation in its primordial aspect of the evolution being done, it was
left to two great personages, the first king Pi’thu and the heavenly
architect, Visvakarma, to establish the order and law, the work of a
king and habitations, villages, houses, forts, gardens, and places of

manifold varieties to serve the needs of inankind, the work of

 )

HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE 143

founder architect. After creation, the levelling of the earth with all

itsmountains, rivers, rocks* seas and forests was the iask*of a patron
king. Creator Brahma installed Prthu (irom whom the earth has
assumed one of its names Prlhvi), the lord of the world to supervise
the planning and to fulfil the task of the right government, right
society, right living, the fundamental pre-requisite of any cultural
advancement. This is what is meant by Varha5rama-samsth3.na-
vibhaga and Mahasamagamana (Chapters VIII & 1). It was the
coordinated and co-relatcd planning in which the trinity of Prthu,
Prthvi and ViSvakarma played the primordial role.

This ViSvak as the appointed missionary for the Universal

Planning by the Lord Brahma Plimself, became the founder Architect
on earth, the originator and the First Acarya of the Aryan School,
Nagara School or Northern School, This is what the S< S. says to us.
In Samarangana Vi^vakarma is made to transmit the architectural
knowledge to his sons, the representative proto-types of the architec-
on the earth. He is the Pravakta of the f^astra. It is
tural tradition
from his mouth that the canons of architectural science as propounded
in the S. S. are laid down.

No one having even a cursory acquaintance with the contents of

the S. S. will dispute its allocation to the Northern VSstu-Vidya as it

is understood by the scholars like Dr. Bhattacharya wlio himself as-

signed this work to this branch. But apart from the regional and
social considerations, I am inclined to say that the S. S. is the repre-
sentative of the composite architecture of our land in which both the
schools, though distinct and different in some respects in the beginning
got themselves integrated to evolve neo-architecture. My conten-
tion regarding this fundamental aspect of the vvork will be amplified
in the subsequent chapter of the Study (vide Prasida Part V).

In the end, I may touch on the pertinent problem of the sources

from which it has drawn and the originality it can claim. I am of
the definite view that the whole work is a master-piece of original
contribution. Even sbme of the preliminary chapters (i. e. Maha-
d3disarga, BhuvanakoJa and SahadevSdhikixra, etc. etc though
drawn from the Puranas, are independent and original in sense that
they arc not reproductions. The Yantra, and the Citra machines and —
paititings all these portion of the work are quite original. The House
architecture is its special contribution. The S. S may be deemed as
the founder of the civil architecture among the ancient classics of this
l^ranch of lore. AJ^bng the rnanifold varieties of the PrSsada^ dealt
 —

144 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE

with in this work, though some of the types represent the Pauranic
classificatioit of the PrasiTdas, their ramifications into so many classi-
ficationions of the Prasaclas with their ai^chitectural details are Sama-
raiigaiia’s original contril)utions. Even in matters of the proportions,
more particularly of the finial the geometrical progressions which do
not tally with the earlier works like the Agni-purana, are the original
workings of the S. S. I shall say more on all this in the concluding
chapter of this study.

Aparlijita-pracchl.

Aparajita-praccha is another manual on the science of architec-

ture which may be regaided as one of the most representative texts
of Indian architecture, sculpture and painting, fully representing the
wide scope of VastuSastra. Its dessertations on practically all the
branches (VastuSstra are not only copious and full but also unique
f

in some respects as they add to our knowledge on many new topics

like Prosody, Astrology and Music etc. intimately connected with the
broader scope of Indian architecture and the fundamental elements of
Art, where rythm (Prosody and Music) and mystic ideas of Hindus
(Astrology) are fullest of significance and perfectest of implication.
The title is significant. It literally means the questionnair framed
by Aparajita, the youngest of the four manasa sons (the other 3 being
Jaya, Vijaya and Siddhifrtha) of ViSvakarma, And where there is a
questionnair there must be a reply. Questions and their answers formed
the traditional exposition of the Sastras in Indian lore and learning.
The questions are worthy of a great son and the answers coming
from the mouth of the greatest of the architects, ViSvakarma, him-
self must be simply sublime and superb in their fullest of connotation
and denotation. This is the significance of the first title. This work
is also known as Sutra-santana-guna-kirti-praka^a’ or succinctly as
Sutrasantana. At the end of every chapter or Sutra is an epilogue

supports this second title of this book and incidently hints at the
founder of the SSstra, Sri BhuvanadevaeSrya, who appears to be none
else than ViSvakarma. Sri P. A. Mankad, who has laboured hard to
edit this text and write out an interesting introduction, however,
attempts not a happy interpretation of this phrase
— ‘Sutrasantana-
guRa-klrtiprakaSa*. He says, ‘The very nature of composition of
goes to show that the (characteristics) and
(functions) of the (progeny) of (lay out of structures by
means of a string or in clear terms, a variety of structural arrange-
itients having diffpreqt cssenti;^! features and functions) necessarily
 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE 145

imply that the matter contained in the work has been so compressed
that it forms ‘‘succinct and scrappy indications” (and ijot clear and
trustworthy definitions) of structures of innumerable kinds/

In my interpretation Sfitra here means string, the first pre-requisite

in any architectural planning and construction and by its constant
application (continuity) in each and every architectural function, an
architect must invariably get name (for craftsmanship) and fame and
therefore the title under this heading is also very significant—

(f^RanO ara ^fan^ra: ?Ttsfta

jpjr^arvat a: Hence
its interpretation implying, ‘succinct and scrappy indications* in the
opinion of Sri Mankad does not hold good. The case is quite otherwise.
The treatment of every topic is more elaborate than required as
chapterwise notice (which follows soon) will convince us

Now as regards its age, it may be said that unlike Vi^vakarma’s

works-Vastuiastraor Silpaiastra,itis adatable treatise. It is definitely

post-Samarangana as many of its verses may be regarded as verbatim

reproductions from the S. S., as majority of verses in Sutradhara-
mandana’s works arc verbatim reproductions from the Aparajita-pra-
ccha. ^ilparatna also falls in this category which has copiously
borrowed from the Mayamatam. A perusal of the Vastulaksanas
appended with this work will support this conclusion. The name of
the treatise and its author are a bit mystical and puniiy in the sense
that Aparajita may also stand for some ruling Indian chief on whose
behest this treatise was compiled and Bhuvanadevacharya, the great
ViSvakarman, may name. Let us take
also signify the author of that
up the former point. Four kings with the names of Aparajita appear
to have flourished between 661 and 1161 A. D in different parts of
India. They were, the Guhila king Aparajita (vide Epi, Indica IV.
29); Aparajita as one of the contemporaries of RajaSekhara (cir A, D.
900), who mentions him as the author of a story called MrgSnkalekha
(cf. Kavyamala of 1900 p.9); Aparajita, theSilahara king of Northern
India (Epi Indi. Vol. III. 267)—^vidc the copper plate of 997 A. D.
and Aparajita (whose another name is Devapala) as the son of
Muladeva of 1161 (vide Indian Antiquary Vol. XV p. 202). Thus it

seems might have been compiled at the

probable that this treatise
behest of some one of these four kings. This is an external evidence.
Now if we take the internal evidence into our consideration the upper
limit of Aparajita can be dated aftei* 200 A. D. as the author
quotes Bharata, the celebrated writer of Na|yaSastra vide Sutra 34
y. 14) and. Scholars Jiave fixed Bharat a's date as 200 A. P. We know
146 HINDU SCmNCE OF AROHITECTURB

Bharata describes only eight Rasas while this work, as is usual with
other later works, describes nine* This work is also post- Kalidasa as
it imitates the renownedpoet—vide Sutra 38 v. 19, in the style of his
famous poem Kumarasambhava — etc. Thus its upper
lliuit coines down to the 6th century A, D, Further again there are
copious quotations and reproductions from the later Pura^as like
Skanda, Vayu, ^rlmadbhagavatam and Visnu etc. etc. Still further
the author has reproduced verses composed by SahkarScarya on
Gahga and §iva —vide Sutras 1. v, \Z and 204 cf. ‘PaScavaktra-
dhyanam’ respectively. Thus the upper limitcomps down tp the
9th Century A. D.

A critical comparison with the Samarahgana-Sutradhara (to be

atteiupted soon) may convince us that the book in purview is definite-
ly post-Samarangana. And the date of the author of the Samarafi-
gand, king Bhojadeva of Dhara is practically settled 11th century —
A.D. Thus the Aparajita-praccha may safely be placed in 12th century
4^, D. and may be associated with the fourth king Aparajita; the son
of Muladeva (1161 A. D.)

P. A. Mankad has attempted a comparative estimate of both

these treatises, the S. S. and the A. P. He has come to the same
conclusion that the S. S. is decidedly anterior in its compilation to
the A, P# A pertinent point in support of this estimation is that
while Jainism and Jain deities arc completely ignored in the S.S.,
A. P. shows equal adoration to the Jain deities and to the foundation
and dedication of these deities in temples and construction of their
images. The S. S, on the other hand envinces a rather unpleasant
tendency towards Jainism and Buddhism as is apparent from his
appellation for these sects In the S. S. their divinities
have not obtained an honourable seat in the various types of temples

dealt with, P. A, Mankad, accordingly observes 'It is evident the :

preachings of Safikaracarya had secured a firm foothold in the country

and though Jainism was trying its level best to achieve ascendency in
the State, it had not succeeded in its object upto to latter half of the
llth century in DhSra, Malava etc. It was in the time of KumarapSla
Solanki (1 143-1174 A.D.) that Jain preachers secured their objective
and one finds that the A P. depicts a picture of this sect in a far more
tolerant spirit as a result of a pious attitude towards Jainism } its

divinities arc found raised to a level as high as, though not higher
than the Trimurti of the HirMu Pantheon. In the temples of different
typcflf they have come to occupy a position as exalted as Brahml,

MaheJa, SSrya etc; they were admitted in temples of superior

 IllNDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE 147

types and arc assigned scats along with Brahma, Visnu, etc. The
Vesara had completely lost its ground when the
style of Architecture
S. S. came to be composed. Even its academic significance was
ignored as it were, by Bhojadeva. The A. P. on the other hand has
not discarded the past history of Architecture as revealed in works
gone before* It has enumerated in detail the several constituent
features of different styles. It has shown in this comparative classifi-

cation that Vesara had an individuality of its own upto a certain

stage in the history of Architecture, and it was about, say between the
8th and 1th centuries that it merged into the other styles with the
1

result that new styles or sub-styles came into existence. Bommaji, a

Dravidian architect, who flourished in the 9th century A. D. had
acquired a mastery in four, instead of three main divisions of Archi-
tecture.

The S. S. has got a classification wherein Vesara has, it is evident,

split itself into different new styles not known P* on before. The A.
the contrary has maintained the traditional knowledge df the Vastil-
Jastra and enriched the S. S. by an intense study of comparative
essentials of styles. King Bhojadeva of DharSnagari had not analysed
his subjectby comparisons so valuably attempted by the A* P. It
may, however, be emphasized that the author of the S. S, has tried to
describe very vividly and in detail the details of PrasSdas in their
general plan as well as in their elevation. Nighantu of Vastupada-
devatas is laid down by him alone; neither the Mayamatam nor the
Silparatnam has touched this question of Nighantu at alh A close
study of the S. S. and the A. P, with respect to the subject matter in

its manifold aspects leads me to conclude that the S, S. is decidedly

anterior in its composition to the A* P. which may safely be taken to
the 12th century A. D.’

With this general introduction to the work let us tabulate its

contents in a very brief summary to bring home to the readers its

unique place among the l^ilpa-trealiscs conveniently to be styled as an

Encyclopaedia of Mythology, Philosophy and Science of the arts of

architecture, sculpture arid painting along with a peep into aheient
Indian engineering and ovcrsecririg.

Subjeet-metter. Origin of the I^Sstra and its scope*--^Hcre a graphic

description of the mountain Gandhamtdana follows where 81 fsis
were practising penances and it was dHpious place that god
this

ViSvakarma had founded bis hermitage, AparSjita, his fourth manasa

son, after offering his salutation to bis father begs of his pei mission for
148 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHlTfiCTUkti

the questionnair related to the SutraSustra (I). Thus obtained th6

mandate, the worthy son Aparajita faces his father with a volley of
questions intimately related to the lore of an architect, the Sutradhara
akin to the Jaya-praccha in the S. S. a detailed notice of which has
already been taken in the preceeding pages. Thus in this 2nd Sutra
(chap.) a very broad scope of the science —vide Vastulaksana — has
been hinted at.

N, B, — Now is the turn of Vi^vakarma to take all these querrics

one by one in which all the knowable subjects were put up by the
great seeker. These relate to the creation in general as well human
and divine, indirectly related to human-planning and also to all those
.subjects which directly fall in the domain of an architect. Aparajita
does not sit idle, he puts so many inter-questions in the middle of the
discourse. It is in this way that the complete VastuSastra is evolved
in the following pages.

Creation. Brahmanda (3): A. Patalalokas: Tala-vitala-sutalas;

(4)
B. Martyalokas Jambu-plaksa-kuSa-kraunca-ialmali-$jka-puskaras
: 7

Dvipas; k§ara-ksira-dadhi-sarpi-madhu-iksu-udakas, 7 oceans; Meru-

mand^ra-gandhymadana-himavad-himakuta-nisadha-nila-Sveta-^riiga-
vats, 9 kulacalas; mahendfa-malaya-sahya-vindhya-hemanta-parijata-
(5)
iriiailaarbuda - udayadri ^ trikuta - devipafaila - vindhy acala - mainaka
bhuparisa-kankata-prantakodbhavas 16 (or only 15 as vindhya seems to
be repeated) KulaJaila-vanani (Forests attached to Kula-mountains)
,G. Svargalokas: Seve.n uppermost lokas
;
^bhuva svar-mahas-jana- — —
tapas-satya-jnanas as abodes of gods—also
Kan- seven-fold Malikas —
canasabha -sphatikanirmala-indranila- vaidurya- padmaraga- vajraka-
sarvaratnadhyas— above which resides Brahma-Tejas, The Primordial
Prakrti, whose qualities being Sattva, Rajas, Tamas and their Powers

;
Rise of the eightfold Powers: —Diti, Asuri, Gandharvi, Yaksl,
Vidyadharf, Narcndrl, Nagarajendrl, and Aditi and the rise of crea-

tion from these Powers (6).

,
Now is* taken up the creation bf the world, under the title

:*Sfs|isamsarSvataranam* and herein is introduced K3$yapa and his

Five Daughters from whom sevenfold Nether land-regional kingdoms,
their people and respective kings, sevenfold continents their countries,
people and Wttgs etc etc. have been elaborated. Incidently the
abodes of G'andharvas, VidySdharas; Yaksas etc. the denizens of
heaven have also been hinfed at. Then follows the description of
sevenfold lokas and above all the great Meru where Mahadeva resides
and from there (and from whom) the whole creation springs (7-9),
 HINDU SCIEISICE OF ARCHITECTURE 149

Further next is taken up this mortal world with

Bhutagramas its

inwhich the Agamic accounts inter-mingled with Tanttric philosophy

based on *§ambhavadarSana are very much elaborated to give an
impression that the author of the Aparajita is follower of both the
Agamas and Puranas alike. This is one unique feature of this text
and is quite in keeping with the genius and the spirit of the times
when this work was compiled. It was great epoch of Indian unity
and brotherhood culminating in all India composite culture where
petty sectarian dessensions and differences had lost their ignoble value
and a more tolerant and catholic out-look was being cultivated to f cc
the alien upsurge which was destroying the very roots of the culture
and the art of the land. Wc are familiar with the tenets of ^ambhava-
philosophy where the supremacy of the Lord 6iva and the Universal
Energy, the Devi, the Sakti is equally adorable and it is from their
conjugated Principles that this Universe is taken to have been evolved.
All these accounts of creations, accordingly, of this text, are coloured
on every page and with
fundamental background of
in every line this

Metaphysics and Mythology. Hence these borrowings from Agamas

and Tantras on the one one hand and Puranas like Skanda and §iva
(Vidyelvarasamhita) etc. on the other can be understood and appre-
ciated.

The question is: What is the significance of these mythologies

and philosophies m a text on Vastu, architecture, sculpture and the
fine arts of Painting etc. Here broad Hindu view of the art and still
broader and loftier principle of planning, which is the elder sister of
creation, as per the following doctrine of the S. S. : Sl^lT

—
Brahma, before creating this world, first
i. e.

created Vastu the essence of which is planning, come to our rescue.

Naturally in any human planning—-be it a town or a residential
hou 5 C, not only
its surrounding regions or environments are worthy of

consideration but also the country at large, the whole world at larger
and the planets (under whose sway this vast world of ours wotks) at
the largest, are to be taken into consideration and this brings us to
the domain ot the whole creation. Human life is not isolated. It Is
.guided by the stars who reside in different planets. Hence the
knowledge of the different planets and the lokas is a great requirement
of the planner who is nobody else than the architect of the land,
.ViSvakarma is our national architect. His sons are the prototypes of the
architect-guilds This is the sum and substance of these elaborations
in a technical work —
wrongly discarded as non-architectural matters.
Accordingly in the text—-vide Sfitra 11-21 all these planets and
their systems have been described. It is they who have evolved the
130 HINDU SCIENaE OF ARCHITEOTURB

time and its various ramifications into tithis, kalas, black and white
fortnights, months, seasons, years, yugas, manvantaras and lastly the
kalpas etc. etc. At the end of the Kalpa, gods get absorbed in them-
selves or in the Five liiigas or in the spirits of all the Bhutas, Naturally
even in kalpaata, Five lihgas exist as they are eternal and it is from
them that Creation again follows :

f^TJR^nTTJ I

II

IwJt 3rraT ii

Accordingly in the Sutra no. 22 this whole creation as rising from

the Five Eternal Lihgas has been described. Then from 23rd to 29th
all the Ten Incarnations .of Viinu have been taken up meaning thereby
the Evolution of the world. Creation itself is not sufficient unless it

gets evolved into different chanels of lifeand matter. These Incar-

nations therefore, may be regarded as open books of Evolution

With this very meaningful introduction of the creation and evolu-

tion etc.now Aparajita^ the great seeker asks the Lord Visnu (who
had come to the Mountain Gandhamadana on his own accord) that he
had learnt the secrets of His Incarnations alright but how and when
was Tvastr born ? At this Visnu replied—vide 30th Sutra and his
cxpatiations intermingled with the middle querries related to the
advent of Vilvakarma w th his four manasa sons on the stage (31-32);
and here then comes up the regular subject matter of the planning of
the earth, the Vastu, which planned out becomes Vastu. This subject-
matter may be conveniently sub-divided into the following heads 5

I. Scope of the l^astra:

Mission of Planning and its Trinity—Earth the substratum, king

jPj'thu, the patron-lord and the planner-architect ViSvakarma (cf. the
S. St I)—vide 33rd Sutra. Then is expounded th? domain of the
Planner in the respective querries of all the four sons, Jay a, Vijaya,
Siddhartjia and Aparajita-^vide Sutra 34th.

Earth, Nethcrland, Continents, Oceans, Lokas, Mountains etc*-—

their dimensions, locations, characteristics of peoples and countries
etc. etc, (35-36).

The opening verse of the 35th chapter gives you a clear

idea of the aerial survey of the world by ViSvakarma :
 HINPU 801BNQB OF ARCHITBGTURB

—which is modern device of surveying the land and land-

the most
scape for foundation of a big metropolis or large industrial town. Our
ancient masters must have some unique devices of measurements as
the minutest of details of the dimensions etc. of the earth with its

mountains, oceans, and countries could not have been forthcoming.

Thus surveying ViSvakarma saw as many as nine Khandas of the

earth (37) and as the treatise is directly concerned with the sacred
land of ours the following chapter (38) describes in detail the Bharata-
varsa, its kingdoms and kings. Next
area, settlements (villages etc.)
follow the mahavanas, upavanas and the kananas (the differences
being : Mahavanas the great forests are the Mountain-beds; the Upa-
vanas small forerts, just in the vicinity of the habitations of men and
Kananas man-made gardens). ,

II. Preliminaries to actual operations —-going to the forest for

wood. This gives you to attack an architectural mission— Daruaha-
rana— visit to the forests for bringing wood worthy of use in the house-
construction (39). The 40th chapter incidently takes up the topic of
the collection of stone for the sculptural purposes lihga-icons etc,

III. Code of Measurements : The 41st Sutra deal with this code,

IV. Sutras 42-47 relate to the astronomical- astrological and

mathematical problems.

V. Examination of the soil and selection of the site and other

accessory rites and operations like Vastupuja and acaryapuja etc. (48).

—Incidently here in the 49tn and the 0th Sutras the

iV. 2? .

selection of an architect and his qualification are taken up.

Next follow Bhuparigraha i. e. digging the whole and ascertaining

its and the Plavavicara i,e. declivity or procli-
suitability or otherwise
vity (extension to a particular direction) of the plot along with the
vegetation in the environment —‘the trees etc. (particular trees being
deemed as auspicious) and testing of the different soils in respect of
the colour, taste and smell etc. All these tests undertaken the Kila-
r

karopa^a and Kurmapratistha are delineated upon (51-52).

VI. Site-planning (53-62)

^.B.-«*Thesc chapters have been noticed in the body of the work

-r^ide TowmPianning ahead and hence no repetition here.

V|I. Determining of the auspicious dates etc. Ayldivicara,

($3-66) the topic jreserv^jd for the subseejuent Chapter of tfai^ part,
 152 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE

VIII. Determioing the aspect and prospect of the building —Chanda-

nirnaya (67-68)^ the Meru, Khaadameru, Pataka etc. six Chandas
(also to be dwelt at length in the subsequent chapter),

IX. (A) Buildings (in general) — origin, types etc. Harrnyas and
SSlas (along with their total number of varieties)

(B) Royal palaces with their types of MiTda, Mauda etc. the six
and the Malika-varieties for the different orders of the royalties (69).
Both these topics of buildings in general and particular to be taken
into account ahead in Pt. IV ‘Palace-architecture*.

X. Town-Planning. Defence arrangements (Fortification etc,),

laying out of the town-deities and residential houses —folk-planning
etc. installation of Yantras like Surya-yantra and Bhairava-yantra on
the Prakara-wall of the town, 20 types of the town and their shapes
etc. seven inauspicious towns, gradations of towns and villages like
Kuta and Khct i etc. along with the water-reservoirs — ten types of
wells, four types of v5pis, six types of Tanks etc. etc. (70-75).

XI. Palaee architecture and accessory structures. ( 76-90 )—*in

details of general planning (76), Sabhas and Vedls, Nanda etc. the

eightfold sabhas and Svastika etc. fourfold vedis; the royal scats in
the Assembly (77-78); Gajalala dandni etc. and six types of elephants
and their jatis, the bhadra etc„ the eightfold forests where elephants
arc found, the fourfold dimensions cf the elephants (79); Horses
and their sheds —the ASvaSala etc. (80); Palaces of kings belonging to
the different strata of royalty and their royal seats (81), royal palace
in its site-plans and gates, the pratoli, ekapoli, tripoU, pancapoli etc.
(82-83) along with their beautification (84-85).

Now follow the different styles of Palace-architecture and the

varieties thereof (86-88), be taken notice of, ahead, Incidently
to
separate expatiations are made on some of the important equipments
of a royal palace such as Dharagiri, Udyana, Jalayantra, VadyaSala
etc. (88-90). This Palace architecture in its accessory structures is

resumed again in Sutra no. 102— Ayatana-niveSa.

XII. House-architecture. Common middle class residential houses

—from ekaSalas to daSaSalas (91-101).
Xin. Temple-architecture, the Prasadakbanda (Sdtras 103-19S).
Rise of Pris^das, the temples, has been accounted from the Dai^di**
diruvana, where Yoge^vara ^iva was residing and the ceremonies and
festivities performed by gods like Brahma and Visnu and host of

others made it easy to beg of the Lord to perpetuate them (i. c. the
 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTCRE 152

ceremonies) in the shape of a ^ivalaya, the projeriitor of Prasada, the

Hindu Temple. This being granted, rise of the five principal varieties

of the Nagara temples, the Vairaja, Puspaka, Kailafa, Manika and

Trivistapa was the consequence which in their turn gave rise to an
innumerable variety of the Prasadas, in details of their manifold styles,
lay-outs, measurements, super-structures, ornamentations like Viianas
and accessory establishments and structures like Jagatis and Mandapas
etc. etc. The main details are to be purviewed in the book de —
Pt. V. Here a brief indication may be done avoiding the thousand-
fold varieties and sub-varieties of the PrasSdas, wliich may be tabula-
ted at their proper places. Sutras 104-106 deal with the general
classification of Prasadas main varieties—Nagara, Dravida,
and their
Vimana, Bhumija etc etc. as many as ten principal classes of temples.
Sutra 107 takes up the respective measurements and incidently hints
at the distinguishing features of a Prasada and a Harmya along with
the intimate relationship of the Jagatis, doors, the temple gates, the
pratoli etc. Then follow the details of the Jirna-Prasada (108-ir.
In Sutras 112-14 other details also crop up and then in 114-120 Sutras
elaborations of Jagatis are made and in the end are taken up the
Pithas. The 121st chapter is interesting from the standpoint of the
temples dedicated to the principal deities among which Jina-devata-
yatanam is also included, In Sutra 122 Valanaka is delineated upon
and in the following chapters 123-25 the socle in respect of the different
classes of Prasadas is again taken up. In ihe subsequent chapters i. e.

126-130 the height of walls and the inner-shrine, the garbhagrha along
with the principal ’ parts of the temple-superstrneturc and their
measurements and those of the door etc. are dealt with.
Now follows the Rckhd- architecture, the chief characteristic of
temple-architecture avS presented by this text from ekakhanda rckha
to pancavirhiati rekhas—-vide Sutras 131-40. In the following sutras
details of Skandha, Dhvaj&, Pataka, Pratlstha, Nyasa and
Kala^a,
miscellaneous rites and ceremonies are dwelt at length (141-53).
Sutras 154-183 expatiate on the manifold varieties of Prasadas belong-
ing to the different ord.ers, styles and types. Sutras 184-88 deal
with Mandapas and the subsequent ones 189-92 deal with Viianas.
Then follow the details of 25 Saihvaranas (193), Pafica-torana-pan-
ca-hindolakas (194) and saptamatha-navaratbas (195). Thus end the
portion dealing with Architecture.

Now up the sculpture (iconography), and its canons,

arc taken
descriptions of icons and iconology behind them (196-223) to be
followed by the canons of painting (224-236) and ends with some
useful details on Music and Dancings
 m HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE

As these^ portions of the text fall in the domain of sculpture

(iconograpy) and painting and as they have been noticed in the
writer’s VSstu^asira Vol, II —Hindu
Canons of Iconography and
Painting, they are not elaborated here and the readers may see
them in the book referred to.

After we have noticed these principal texts of Northern school

of Architecture, us take up the Southern texts. Manasara, Maya-
let

mata and ^ilparatna have been chosen by me as three representative-

manuals on Dravic'ian architecture. Let us begin with Manasura,

Manasara. It is the most popular and very widely talked of text

among these. It has not only been ressurrected from unintelligible
barbarous Sanskrit but it has simply been immortalised by the pen of the
celebrated scholar of the Manasara, Dr. P. K. Acharya, whose monu-
mental series on this work— the summary, the translation,
edition, the
the Dictionary i,c. Encyclopaedia etc. have opened a new vista of
vision in India’s past. Zealous work of an enthusiastic and partisan
scholar must evoke either great applaud or bitter attack. Dr. Acharya
has been recepient of both the awards. Dr. Acharya, the father of
modern canoncial architectural studies in India, in his great enthu-
siasm for the Manasara, has made certain pronouncements regarding
its character, date and other allied matters that are now open to

critisism and bitter attacks. For example the learned doctor’s

conclusions that all the texts architectural like Mayamata, ViJvakar-
ma’s works, Agastya’s work and non-architectural like Matsya-
Purana, Brhatsamhita and Agamas like Kamika etc. have all drawn
from the MSnasiira and therefore the MSnasara is the fountain
head of all the architectural lore which has flown into the different
channels as is seen in other available texts dealing with architecture
proper or expatiating on it indirectly. Thus the ManasSra is the
only standard work on Architecture ;
secondly his taking this
manual as an early text earlier than even Brhat amhita and the
Matsyapurana and* placing it in the Gupta period—these are the
two principal assertions made by the learned doctor which have been
very much discussed in the contemporary writings by scholars like
Bhattacharya and Mallaya. The present writer being primarily a
student of the Sastra which is an unbroken culture of the past, does
not want to enter into any lengthy controversy which is not very
important from the standpoint of the study of the canons of architec-
ture. Indian culture, being a very very old culture, is not at all
affected if a text is some centuries earlier or later. After making a
study of the sculptural portion of this renowned text, I have come to
some conclusions of my own and the reader is referred to them—^vidc
 HikbU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE 1^5

nly ‘Vastulastra Vol, II—Hindu Canons of Iconography and Painting,

Pt. I. p. 58* have to say something on its architectural
Here I
portion which have a direct bearing on the subject^-matter of the
volume.

Dr. Bhattacharya is very critical of Dr. Acharya’s assertion that

the Manasara is an early work and may be safely placed in Gupta
period. His attack mainly centres round the description of many-
storyed Gopuras (from one to sixteen or seventeen storeys)which belie
the actual practice of the age in which it is said to have been written.
Early Gopuras could never extend their superstructures to more
than five or six storeys. These excessive storeyed structures are later
medieval exuberance. A perusal of the text (Chap. XXXIII Gopu-
ravidhana) however must moderate Dr. Bhattacharya. The text
describes the details of Gopuras and it only
built in five or six storeys
suggests that the fifteen kinds of Gopuras or gatehouses may have
one to sixteen or seventeen storeys. This is only a normative princi-
ple of architecture and has nothing to do with a positive practical
application of the day. VastuSastra or ^ilpaSastra is both a science
and an art. It is normative scienc in the first place because it is a
Sastra. Accordingly if it suggests that particular structure can be built
in such a varied and excessive super-structure, it does not mean that
that may also be epitomizing the buildings of the day. This is the
fundamental point which Dr. Bhattacharya has missed. I am, there-
fore, inclined to think that the Manasara is not so late a work as may
be placed in the later medieval period as Dr. Bhattacharya contends.
The Manasara sculpture really represents an early phase of art. I
have made a comparative estimation of the four renowned texts on
sculpture belonging so the southern school of Architecture in the
second volume of these studies and it is worth reproducing here :

‘Mayamata, Manasara, AmSumadbheda and Silparatna, all these

four texts of the Dravida Vastu-vidya epitomise the four stages of
development of the art. In its infancy the art was symbolic, the
worship, for which the service of the art was employed, too was
symbolic. Naturally therefore the worship of the phallic emblem and
the manufacturing of the lihga and its pedestals were the initial stage
of development. This is what Mayamata portrays. Now apart from
the lifiga-puja and ling-icons, the worship of other deities, particularly
the Triad, Brahma, Visnu and MaheSa and the icons of this famous
Trinity, along with their yehiclqs Haihsa^ Garuda, and Vfsabha, were
in vogue. This was the second stage of development, as is manifest
in the pages of the Manasara. The third stage was a bit fanatic and
its adhcrance only to a particular god, viz. Siva became an estab^
 :

156 HINDU science of AftCHITECTuife

lished canon, both in art and religion. This is what we understand

by the perused of Agastya’s or KaSyapa’s works. This anti-thesis
brought a synthesis as a natural course, as is evident from ^ilparatna,
a work of broad and tolerance, depicting the Universal
catholicity
reverence not to one-class but to all the classes of deities and their

icons*. Moreover the treatment of the Buddhist images and Jain

images too may be takentheearly phase of Buddhist iconography. There
is no reference to Vajrayana deities—a rich development of the later

medieval period —nor to miscellaneous Jain-Devatas in the MSnasara

treatment of Baudha and Jain laksanas.

This is one point which may help us in rehabilitating the early

character of the text. Another point helpful in the reconsideration of
its proper historical place is its implied association with ‘Mana’ which
name stands in the Rgveda for Agastya and Agastya has been referred
to as a very early Acharya of ^ilpaSastra and the Manasara text refers
to a good many artists or treatises of art going after the name of
Mana — with the Mana, Mana-Bodha, Mana-Vid etc. It,
prefix of
therefore, may besurmised that the present work is in the line of the
very early §astra as associated with Agastya and his desciples.
Manaslra may be regarded as One such desciple. In the context of
Southerh culture — colonisation or Aryanisation, expansion of Aryan
^supremacy or the like Agastya*s contributions are well known and as
the treatise is the most representative manual on the South Indian
{Architecture, its indebtedness to Agastya’s work may be taken for
granted. Another more important point to which the attention of the
scholars may be drawn is the detailed treatment of Vimana-architcc-
tUrc and its accessory Gopura-architecture with complete absence of
PrSsSda architecture and its accessory Jagati and Pratolli archi ecture,
a characteristic of North Indian texts like the Puranas, the Matsya
and Aghi, BfhatsamhitS and the Ǥilpa teNts like the SamarSfigana and
the ApAtajita. This Vimana architecture in the opinion of the present
writer is the precursor Of PrSsada-afchitecture, a detailed exposition
of this thesis is to follow ahead-^-vide Pt. V. Tempfe Architecturc-«<>h
the authority of the S, S, itself cf. the following statement

ftwfsfw Twmt uiwnf

If the Manasara were a late work like Silparatna it must have not
Completely ignored the Prasadas which have found a glorious treat*
ment in the Purlijas and other North Indian texts on Architecture.
 iiiNDu ^ci^:nce oi? AKcmtlictuRE 157

Its expatiation oil the Vimanasand Harmyas alone are to be taken not
only a South Indian character, but it also hints at a very flourishing ar-
chitecture of the by gone ages, the Asux^a architecture, references to which
abound in practically all the early literature, both Vedic and Epic»
Hence to damn the learned doctor for placing it in Gupta period is
uncalled for. To me the Manasara represents a very early arNtradi-
tion which may go back as early as pre-Christian. Its compilation

or standarization might belong to golden Guptas or flourishing Cholas

and Pandyas (for its eulogy to Vai§navism). This is only a broad
indication of its character and antiquity and the present writer does
not want to enter into any lengthy controversy about it. Others may
take this study and finalise it which is not difficult of solution.

New let us take another assertion of Dr. Acharyathat the Manasara

is the only standard work and other ^ilpas have simply drawn from it.

This is really very bold assertion and as I have remarked that it

makes the learned doctor very partisan. Very important subject-
matters of architecture are completely absent in the Manasara. The
Manasara represents an aristocratic architecture. Its detailed deline-
ations on Indian royalties and royal palaces supports this contention.
Its Buildings (cf. 98 types from one to 12 storeys) are really gorgeous
mansions. They, at the most, can be taken as Southern Vimanas.
Vimanas and Harmyas have been long associated with palaces of
kings. Valmiki has a glowing descriptions of these in the context of
the capital cities of India like Ayodhya or Lanka. Naturally there-
fore as already contended, there is a complete absence cf Prasada
architecture. Even the 6alas of the Manasara are palaces for all

.practical purposes, ^alas, as our tradition depicts, are residential

houses for the common mass of humanity or the middle class people.
This subject would be discussed in detail ahead — Vide Pt. Ill House
architecture. Thus the civil architecture or the popular architecture
with especial reference to buildings is not to be found in this text.
The S. S. and the A. P. have got a credit t6 rehabilitate the civil
architecture of India and a detailed discussion of this topic will
follow (ibid.)

Secondly M3nasara*8 treatment of Silpa-Sastra or VSstuiSstra is

delimited to architecture and sculpture alone. Its sculptural topics

also arc very limited-—the different classes of images in relation of
Vaisriava, ^laiva, Ganapatya, Saura, Ǥakta etc. etc. are not to be
found here as we see in the texts like KSSyapa-Jilpa or Agastyas’s
Sakaladhikara. According to writcr^s thesis, the principal subject-
matters of Indian ViistuSlstra arc: Town-planning, Secular architec-
ture (^aias and HSjaharmyas), Religious architecture (Temple archi-
158 riltotj SCIENCE dF ARGHItECTtilifi;

tccture), Sculpture (Iconography) and Painting. Manasara deals with

only three «ut of these five (popular architecture and pictorial canons
are absent). Dr. Acharya’s attempts to compare 98 types of Manasara
mansions with the temples as describedinlhe Agnipurana, theGaruda-
Purana, the Matsya-Purana, the Bhavisya-Purana, the Brhatsariihiia,
the Kamikagama and Suprabhedagama (cf. Hindu architecture
the
India and abroad Chap. V. pp. 186-208) and his coming to the conclu-
sion : it seems to me impossible to resists the following conclusion.
There appears to have been a relation of indebtedness between the
Manasara and the other works both architectural and non-architec-
tural (i. e. the above mentioned works —
writer)” both are open to —
objection and Dr. Bhattacharya (vide his book ‘A study of Vastu-
vidya or Canons of Indian architecture’) has ably shown it and has
proved that these buildings as described in the above texts do not at
all tally with those depicted in the ManasWra (cf* Ch. XII pp. 148-

191)* The Manasara really, as I have already remarked, represents a

remarkably quite a new tradition Its unique character is the stan-

dardization of the Measurements and is therefore very faithful to this

side of architectural technique Manasara may be a rsi or a treatise
by the name, but surely its essence is ‘Mana* the measurement. More-

over, its leaning to aristocratic architecture gives us to surmize that

the compilor must be a royal architect and therefore his leaning to the
Temporal authority rather than to the Spiritual one is more pronounced.
This is only a brief indication. There are so many other equally
important topics of popular interest which too have not found a place
in the treatment of the text and so to regard it as the fountain
head of all architectural lore is simply prepostrous. A critical and
comparative look at the contents of these representative texts itself

will convince the reader of the soundness of this judgement.

Now taking leave of the controversy let us now concentrate

on its contents in a very brief notice (the detailed treatment may be
seen in Dr. Acharya*s works).

There are seventy chapters in Manasara of with first fifty

deal with architecture and the last twenty with sculpture.

Preliminaries. The first chapter entitled Safigraha deals in the

first place with the origin of VastuSastra (from ^iva, Brahma and
ViShu, through Indra, Bfhaspati, Narada and all others sages, to the
Seer MHnas??ra who systematized it) atid secondly with the scope (the
Sangraha) of the science — vide Vastulaksana.
The second chapter ^Manopakarai^a-vidhana’ takes up the system
of Measurement, a detailed notice of which is taken in the next
 HINDU 8G1BNGB OF ARGHlTBGTURB 159

chapter and also vide VSstulaksana. Incidently the first part of this
chapter traces a geneology of the artists. ‘Trom the /our faces of
Brahma, the Creator of the Universe, originated, in order, the
heavenly ViSvakarman, Maya, Tvastr and Manu. 1 heir four sons
are called respectively Sthapati, Sutragrahin, Vardhaki and Taksaka.
These four evidently represent the progenitors of the four classes of
terristrial artists. The Sthapati is highest in rank; he is the master-
builder. The Sutragrahin is the guru of Vardhaki and Taksaka;
while the Vardhaki' is instructor of the Taksaka”. As regards their
qualifications and other equipments, enough has been said in one of
the last chapters.

With this introduction to the subject-matter, the origin and scope

of architecture and the grades of the architect, the next six chapters
are devoted to the preliminary matters like the selection of site,

testing of soil, planning, designing, dialling, finding out cardinal points,

and astronomical and astrological calculations. Accordingly in the
former part of the third chapter Vastu (dwelling or habitation,
construction or any creation) is defined —-vide Vastu-Laks. ; and in the
latter one so also in 4th and 5th chapters it deals with examination
of soils (BhupaJiksa) and selection of site (Bhumi-sahgraha), the topics
fully discussed else where. The
chapter— ^anku-sthapana-
sixth
—
vidhana deals with dialling and finding out the cardinal point by
means of a gnomon, ^ankusthapana is an ancient device to find out
the orientation of the buildings and as regards the principles of dialling,
each of the 12 months is divided into 3 parts 10 days each and the
increase and decrease of shadow are calculated for these several parts
of the different months. The object of the seventh chapter ‘Pada-
vinyasa’ is to lay down rules for the site-plans. When a site is selected
for laying out a village, town or building (residential or devotional)
there on the ground devided into differents numbers of squares-—
it is

the padas. The Manasara recognises thirty two kinds of such site-
plans and they are distinguished by as many different designations,
according to the number of squares into which the whole area is
partitioned out. The whole scheme has been arranged in such a
manner that each case the number of partitions represent the
in
square of the serial number. The details are to follow in the subsequent
chapter. The last of the preliminary chapters, the eighth ‘Balikarma-

vidh5na^ is an ancient practise of offering ball to the deities of the

site. Different kinds of offerings arc described to various deities.

Towa-plaiming : Now follows architecture proper. Ninth and tenth

chapters arc 4evotcd to the canons of village-planning, town-planning
and the planning of forts.
 160 HINDU SCIENCE OF AROHITECTURR

According to the Manasara, there is not mi^ch difference between

a village, a town, and a fort All are fortified places intended for the
residence of people. A
town is the extension of a village. A fort is
in many cases nothing more than a fortified town, with this difference,
that fort is principally meant for purposes of defence, while a village
or a town is mainly intended for habitation. The details are not to
be repeated here. They are to be used in the following part—-Town^
Planning. The only remark in connection with the folk-planning

(
JSti-varnldhivasa in the terminalogy of the S. S.) is the partiality
Brahmanas and the architects. The best quarters are
of this text for
generally reserved for them. Such partiality, in the opinion of Dr,
Acharya to the artists is not met elsewhere in Sanskrit literature.

Buildings in general : the storeyed mansions. The XI chapter on

‘Bhfimilamba-vidhana’ literally meaning the height of the storey,
really deals with the measurement of length, breadht, and height of
buildings of one to twelve storeys. The various shapes of buildings,
their classifications along with their respective dimensions have been
dwelt at greater length. The next chapter is on the foundation in
great details and incidently in the end it expatiates, on the bricks and
the ceremonies connected with Prathamestika, the laying of the foun«
dation stone etc.

The next five chapters are on Pedestals, the Upa-pftha,

pillar, the Stambha, Entablature, the Pr^stara and Joinery the
Sandhikarma, respectively and their details may not be followed here.
The XVIII chapter ^VimSna-vidhana* is devoted the general descrip-
tion of buildings. The contents of the chapter are divided into the
following headings; the classification of the Vimgnas of one to twelve
storeys; the three styles of architecture; the characteristic features
of the stupika or pinnacle, the stupi-klla or pinnacle staff, the lupa
or looping roof, and the mukhabhadra or front portico^ jand the cere-
monies of fixing the pinnacle staff. The XIX deals with ‘Eka-bunai-
vidhana—one storeyed buildings and tfie following ones XX-XXX are
exclusively devoted to buildings of two to twelve storpys, a critical

notice of which will follow in the subsequent parts *-r- House-archi-

tecture and Temple-architecture.

BuiMings in Particular. The XXXl chapter dc^ls with the courts

PrSk^lra-vidhana. Fivefold prSkiratS announced in opn|icction
with baU (offerings), parivgra (attendant deities), iobha (beauty) and
raksa (defence). 0r. Acharya however remark? (B* A- I* A- p. 166)j
‘But the main object of the chapter is evidently to dcscrihc thc various
 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARGHITEGFURE 161

courts into which the whole compound is divided. The descrijptibn

of five such courts is given The first or innermost Qourt is called
antar-man^ala. The second is known as antar-hara, and the third
as madhya-hara. The fourth court is technically named as Prakara,
The fifth and last one is known as MahSmarylidi! or ti e extreme
boundary. As the title of the chapter indicates^ the greater part of

it describes only the fourth court. Here it may be briefly observed

that this prSkara is also divided into the jati, chanda, vikalpa,
abhasa and kamya classes. Under each class a number of buildings
(tela) is exhaustively described*. This observation of the learned
doctor supports my contention that these 98 types of buildings arc
really gorgeous structural palaces rather than temples proper. Palaces
of old had many prakaras or courts. It was a stereo-typed canon
of Palace-architecture in India. These courts had edifices of imposing
grandeur which comprise both attached and detached buildings along
with compartments, halls and chambers etc. etc. Further more this
chapter itself concludes with the shrines of attendant deities (parivara*
vidhana) and the gate-houses, the gopuras are treated in detail in the
next two chapters and thus this fact also is a step forward in my previ-
ous thesis. Ill a palace-planning, the place of a royal chapel was also
reserved and the gopuras were not only an architectural beauty but
also the entrance-door to the royal deity. As already remarked
chapters XXXII and XXXI 1 1 are devoted to Parivara and Gopura,
the details of the latter being reserved for its proper place —vide
Temple-architecture. Similarly the next two chapters Mandapa-
vidhana and Sala- vidhana XXXIV-XXXV will also be noticed in
their proper places Salas in the Manasara, as already brought out,
are storeyed mansions.

Moose-architecture. Some four chapters (XXXVI-IX) arc a

and lay-outs
brief exposition of residential houses, their dimensions
along with the component parts etc. Accordingly the Grha-mana-
sthana-vinySsa, the XXXVI gives us the arrangement and situation of
the different apartments of the house. ‘The Brahraa-sthana, or the
central square, is stated to be unfit for a residential building. The
temple of the family god is generally built in this part. Round this
are constructed the dwelling-houses for the master of the family, his
wife and children and servants, sheds for cows, horses, pou' try, etc^
the kitchen and dining hall, etc., rooms for guests, for reading or
study, for the daily sacrifices of the upper caste people, for amusements
and music, for the dancing girls, and for all other domestic purposes.
The arrangement of these different structures is, however, slightly
162 HINDU SCIENCE OF AfeCHITECTuks

diflfer^nt according to the caste and social position of the family.

But the general plan of the dwelling-houses for a family is the same
in all cases*, ^fhe next chapter ‘Grhapravesa-vidhana’, the XXXVIl
is, ceremonial in character and is a usual practice differing only in
minor details in different manuals. The subsequent two chapters,
the XXXV 1 11- IX are devoted to doors DvarasthSna and Dvaramana-

vidhana. Here the principal topics relate to the arrangement, loca-

tion, measurement, and ornamentation of the doors to be used in all
kinds of buildings# Windows are also described. Incidently drains
underneath the house are also described. In the end are given the
rnatcrials (timber) with which the doors are to be constructed^ As
regards the measurements, the common rule is that the height of a
door should be twice its breadth. But various alternative ineasure-
rnents arc also given. Then follow the door-parts and in the end are
given their ornamentations.

Palace Architectare, It is expounded in some ten chapters both

in principal topics of layouts and accessory articles of furniture etc
Iti ‘Rajagrha-vidhana* the Royal Palaces, (XLl palaces are divided
into nine classes with regard to their size, according as they belong to
a king of nine classes enumerated in the next chapter. It may be poin-
ted out here that the Manasara*s palace-plans arc the most standard
and a comparative study of the planning of the palace and its allied
architecture of the main buildings and the accessories is reserved for the
body of the thesis vide Pt. IV* Palace architecture. The next two chap-
ters Rajangnlaksana and BhSpSla-laksana deal with the royal courts,
the classification of kings, the qualities which arc required in a good
ruler and so forth, the matters not very important from archicetural
point of view. The subsequent chapters on house-hold (especially in
the royal houses) furniture are taken up. *Rathalaksana-vidhana*, the
XVIII is on cars and chariots.
Cars and chariots are constructed for
the ceremonial and ordinary use of gods, Brahmanas and kings, as
well as for war and other purposes. The wheels and other parts of
cars, their shapes, their measurements, their ornamentations and
mouldings arc described in order. *5ayana-vidhana’ the couches
(XLIV) treats both balaparyafikas and the paryahkas proper. Special
mention may be made of the swings suspended from four chains in the
couches. In the end Asanas (seats) are also introduced, a special
variety, the ‘Thrones* ‘SimhSsana-laksapa-yidhSna,* is the subject
matter of the following chapter (XLV), a detailed notice of which is

to be taken in ‘Palace architecture'. The next chapter ‘Torapa-

vidhSna* on arches is complementary to thrones* Arches arc taken as
priiEmcnt of the thrones of gods and kings which are supported on
 iiiNbtJ SCIENClk ARCHltECTtrkE l63

dwarf pillars. The XLVII chapter is on Theatre ‘^|adhya~rahga~-

vidhana* not a very standard prescription on the subject as we find in
ViSvakarmS’s VastuSastra. Now the XLVII I chapter ‘Kalpa-Vrksa-
vidhana’ on ‘The Ornamental Trees’ is a decorative device in the
context of palace-architecture; literally it means a mythical tree
granting all wishes or in other words, an all-producing tree. The tree
is beautifully decorated with creepers, leaves and flowers of various
colours and forms. Jewels and garlands of pearls are inserted in
suitable places. The figures of dieties, siddhas, vidyadharas, monkeys
etc., are placed in the intervals between the branches. The next
‘Abhiseka-laksana-vidhana’ on Crowns and Coronation is divided
intotwo parts: the first part describes the crowns of gods and kings,
and the second deals with the ceremonies of the coronation of kings.
The chapter is of sculptural interest and a notice of the various head
dresses used by gods and kings namely Jat5, Mauli, Kirfta, Karanda,
Mukuta etc. (as many as nine such varieties), has already been taken
in my book —VastuSastra Vol. II —^Hindu Canons of Iconography and
Painting —and therefore they may be passed over here. As regards
the royal coronation it may not be reproduced here as being of non-
architectural interest. Now the last chapter (L) of the architectural
portion of this text on the ornaments of the body and articles of
is

furniture, the former forming a topic of my Iconography-book—-vide

ViistuSastra Vol. II, the latter is reserved for the body of the thesis
ahead —-vide House-architecture, A notice of sculptural portion is

already taken —vide Vol. II.

Thus the whole treatise is a masterpiece of systemic presentation

of an advanced Vastu-work and Dr. Acharya’s claim for it as a
standard work on architecture in the widest sense of the term, per*
fectly complete and methodical in all respects, is certainly right.

Mayamatam. As the very title indicates, it is ascribed to the

Muni Maya. It is an authoritative and comprehensive treatise on
Architecture. Its treatment of sculpture represents the most ancient
phase of the art, when phallic emblem was the most popular object of
worship and accordingly its iconographical details arc limited to
linga-icons and they arc very rich.

We have already discussed something about Maya in the prececd^

ing chapter# Here we are more concerned; with the treatise going by
his name. Dr. Acharya in his natice of the different iSilpa-lexts,
(H. A. I, & A, pp. 159—1 185) apart from the MSnaslra, takes up the
M^y^Etmata Silpa-lgstra just after the detailed notice of his text, and
says that it should be noticed that in respect of the titles of chapters)
164 HlkuU SCIENCE Ot ARCHITECTtJR^

their sequence, except in one instance, contents,and method of treat-

ment, the Ma^amata runs exactly like the ManasSra step by step. It
is hardly necessary to point out that in Chapter XXII of the former,

the Chapters XXII-XXX of the latter are abridged, to the great

relief of readers. So also Chapter XXX of the former is an abridge-
ment of Chapters XXXVIII, XXXIX of the latter. Chapters XLI
(royal courts) and XLI I (characteristics of kings) of the Manasara,
which have only an indirect use an architectural treatise, have been
in

prudently omitted in the Mayamata, Chapters XLV to L of the

Manasara which deal respectively with thrones, arches, theatres,
ornamental trees, crowns, ornaments, and articles of the house furni-
ture, are left out in the Mayamata, apparently as matters of detail.
He further says, ‘‘It does not, therefore, seem unreasonable to say that
in the compilation of the treatise named Mayamata, whether by
Gannamacarya, as stated in the colophon ( cf. MS. no. 13038,
Oriental Manuscripts Library, Madras, Catalogue, Volume XXII,
page 8763) or by somebody else, the MSnasara has been largely drawn
upon/* He further says, ‘^In consideration of the fact that with the
Mayamata (MS. no. 13037, fol. 2l3a), the Manasara (la) has became
mixed, I am further led to believe that the manuscripts of the Maya-
mata in the Madras Oriental Library seems to be an abridgement of
the Manasara/’

These observations of the learned doctor deserve respect and it is

not very easy to present quite a new thesis about this text as has been
ventured by some scholars like Bhattacharya about the Manasara.
But some observations about his conclusions may be made to open a
new door for comparative and critical studies of both these texts,
rather of all the three texts, the Manasara, Mayamata and 6ilparatna
which have taken as the most representative and standard works on
I

Hindu architecture belonging to the most flourishing school of South

India, what is called Dravida-Vastu-Vidya or Maya school of Archi-
tecture representing three stages of development, the early, the early
medieval, and medievaheum-modern periods of architectural history.

I consider all these three texts in their historical antiquity* The

present Mayamata is certainly later than the Manasara. Even a
very early treatise, the Mayaiastra, though fragmentally, mentioned
by Dr. P. Bose, refers to the Manasara along with Girgya and
Dipti, Maiici and Atreya Tantras. The only difficulty about this
historical sequence is the absence of sculptural development in relation
to icouographical details which contrary to ManasSra’s expatiations
are very limited-^confined to the treatment, as already remarkedi to
 SCIENCE OF aechitectcre 165

linga-icons alone. My surmise therefore is : the further texts may be

missing. Otherwise from the standpoint of the language in varied
metres, rich vacabulary and much more chaste, flowerish and idioma-
tic Sanskrit in opposition to the so called barbarous sanskiit of the
Manasara, the Mayamatam is decidedly exterior to the ManasSra.
The avoidance of certain topics as rightly said by Dr. Acharya, is a
prudence on the part of the compilor and as regards the omission of
sculptural details, they may have been economically avoided in a
treatise which is concerned with all sorts of buildings —religious, resi-
dential and military and therefore undue space and preference for
sculpture was uncalled for.

Secondly Mayamatam also represents that period of Indian

history when rise of the Prasadas along with their elaborate architec-
ture, and their foundation and dedication, along with the installation
of images in them, with religious ferver as promulgated by the
Puranas, was a great upsurge in our land. In the Manasara, Prasadas
a characteristic of Hindu architecture as developed in the northern
part of this penunsula are significantly altogether absent betokening
an earlier antiquity of this text. In the Mayamata, on the other
hand, the word ‘Prasada* has been used as a synonym of Vimana. A
very interesting reference to the denotion of the word in this text
(cf. my observation in the chapter belonging to the part on Temple-

architecture), corroborates the above statement. It (11. 6-7) enume-

rates the following buildings as Prasadas: Sabha, l§ala, Prapa, Rahga-
maudapa andMandira which give the characteristics of a South Indian
temple as the parts of the whole establishment. Thus the denotation
of the Prasada is extended here from the temple itself to the various
halls and sheds attached to it.

Thirdly take the contention of Dr. Acharya that the Manasara and
Mayamata are indcntical to all intents and purposes. This identity
is superfluous. The chapters and in them are surely
topics dealt
identical, but the details of architecture— the towns and temples,
buildings and so many
other architectural objects can hardly be said
to This again supports my contention that the Maya-
be identical.
mata represents a more developed architectural exposition than the
Manasara which is also natural from the standpoint of the historical
development of the In the context of this third observation some
art.

remarks may be necessary while we arc noticing the contents of the

text. Here let me .reproduce Dr. Bhattacharya’s observation (A. S.
V. V. p. 171): ‘TJhcn arose the general system of classification of the
South Indian temples, according to number of storeys, which (98 in the
MSnasSra) again is not Irhc same In the other texts. The names of the
166 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE

temples differ in different texts, though they might have the same
number of storeys. The ^ilparatnam classification agrees with that of
the Mayamatam, which two again differ from that found in the
Manasara (See Table I D). The Manasara, therefore, appears to
have been unknown to the Mayamatam; and Acharya’s contention
that the Mayamatam was indebted to the Manasara, therefore, cannot
be accepted. Either the Mayamatam was following a different tradi-
tion or the Manasara was a much later work. This later date of the
Manasara (which will be discussed in detail below) is further suspec-
ted from the fact that whereas the Mayamatam definitely says that
the number of storeys in the Gopurams could be only upto seven, the
Manasara and other works described Gopurams upto seventeen
storeyed ones. The ^ilparatnam and the Hana^iva-gurudeva-P.
also say that Gopurams could have only seven storeys and not more.
The Mayamatam, l^iilparatnam etc. were therefore following an earlier
tradition ( though ^ilparatnam was really a late work ) than that
followed by the Manasara which was a later book on architecture.
So did the KaSyapa-lSilpa refer to sixteen-storeyed temples, unknown
even to the Manasara*.

Further again it is also remarkable that the Mayamatam is the

only South Indian work in which it is stated that the i^ikhara can be a
in a shape like a ripe Amalaka (18.16) which is a North Indian element
of temple-architccture as is referred to in North-Indtan texts like
Puranas and the Silpa works like the S, S. and the A. P.

This third observation raises a pertinent problem: how to recon-

cile the earlier architectural traditions with the later age of this text
as Dr. Acharya contends and is supported by me in the previous
discussions. The fact is that this ancient writer on Vastuvidya has
been referred to, in the Matsya-Purana (cf. 18 authorities on Vastu-
<astra-“vide Vastu-laksana) and Bfhatsamhita (which clearly refers to
him as astronomer and an architect, and that in such a way as to
indicate that he belonged to a different school) both of which arc
regarded as 6th century works. Bliattotpala’s commentary on Bfhat-
samhita also gives a quotation from the Mayamatam. These facts
prove the early antiquity of Mayamatam* Dr* Bhattacharya rightly
surmises that works like Mayamatam have under-gone many additions*
The original Mayamata must be a very old treatise and the present
mayamatam may be a later compilation by Gatiamtfi acharya. This
is true of practically all old literature-*? ur anas, Agamas,* Epics (esp,
the Greater one) and Tantras. The system of classification of temples
in the putlishcd text of the Mayamatam therefore indicates that thi?
 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE 167

work is a later recension of the original work of Maya which was

very old, and the new recension was done to fit the archisectural style
which prevailed in the Deccan after the 6th century A. D. Needless to
enter into these controversial points. I have already paved the ground
for further studies on this fascinating lore. A critical and comparative
study of the representative South-jndian works has been a long felt

dessidaratum.

Let us iiow peep into its contents. There arc only thirty-four
chapters in this text. The first is on* the table of contents (cf. Mana-
sara Gh. I) —vide Vastu-laksanas. The second chapter deals with the
definition ofVastu and expatiates on the general scope of the science
— the ground, the Bhumi being the primary Vastu and others the
temples etc. being its creation are VSstu, The definition of Vastu as
Bhumi, Prasada, Yana and 6ayana in the Mayamatain is an
improved edition of that of the Manasara—dhara, harmya, ySna and
paryanka. The third and fourth chapters, the Bhupariksa and Bhu-
parigraha (cf. M. IV and V) deal with testing of soil and its selection
in a traditional manner concentrating more on the unfit soils and their
characteristics. The fifth chapter, MSnopakaranam, gives traditional
system of measurements (cf. the first half) and deals with the fourfold
orders of the architects—-Sthapati, Sutragrahin, Taksaka and Vardhaki
and the equipment of their qualification along with the relative
position of each. The sixth chapter, Dik-pariccheda is on Dialling to
ascertain the orientation of the buildings, the cardinal points (cf.

M. VI ), referring also to manifold Sutras—-Pramana, Paryanta,

Garbha, and Vinyasa, to be employed in these first operations. The
next two chapters, Pada-devatavinyasa and Balikarma-vidhana (M.
VII & VIII) elaborate the site-plans, (as many as 32 as in the
Manasara) and the presiding deities (as many as forty five of them)
(VII) and offerings to be made to them (VIII).

Town-planning. The subsequent two chapters (IX & X) (M. X&

IX) take up different categories of villages, towns and forts and their
planning in details of respective dimensions, layouts, roads (manifold
vlthis), folk-plannipg and the planning of the shrines of the different
deities on the allotted padas along with the planning of the shops and
—
markets laid on the alloted plots a unique feature of the town-
planning as enunciated in these very detailed, graphic and glorious
descriptions of this text. The Mayamata makes an exhaustive treat-

ment of the proper distribution of the residential quarters interspersed

with market-stalls (antarSpanikam)* It deals exhaustively with the
articled sold in thendt. The different types of villages ^nd towns may
 168 HINDU SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE

be left here to be treated elsewhere —vide also V. Laks. Mayamata’s

fort-planning^is the richest prescription on the subject.

Temple-Buildings — the general principles and the particular edifices.

The XI chapter ‘Bhumi-larnba’ prescribes the dimensions of storeys,
their types and employment in the edifices like Vimana etc, to be
occupied by gods and men (kings and princes etc.). The Garbha*
vinyasa, the XII chapter is a very detailed and rich treatment on
•Foundations’ betokening a very advanced and flourishing condition
of the life and culture of the time. The perfection of the foundation
laying consists of a rich hoardage in the pit;

»nif

In the end of this chapter is also described the First Brick-laying,

their qualities and dimension etc.

The subsequent six chapters (XIII-XVIII) deal with the essential

equipments of a building-construction, pedestals, bases, columns, entab-
latures, joinery and making the finials and finishing the building The
details may not be followed here as they need be taken in the sections
alloted to these topics.

The next four chapters (XIX-XXII) are devoted to the treatment

of storeyed buildings, one-storeyed to four-storeyedand many-storeyed
buildings— Ekabhumi-dvibhumi-tribhumi-caturbhumyadi-vidhana
'

These arc evidently Vimanas, the characteristic edifices of South-

Indian temples, a detailed notice of which may be reserved for the
part devoted to temple-architecture. It may be remarked here that
the text deals exhaustively with the Vimanas varying from one to
four storeys with their respective varieties (making up only, 44 in
contrast to 98 types exhaustively described in the ManasSra) and those
taking from five to 12 storeys are only just briefly mentioned.

It is however very interesting to note that our text while concluding

this portion (cf. 22.93) echoes the style of North-India Vastu^texts;

The next chapter the XXIII is on the Temple courts, the

Prakara-vidhana and the Parivara-Vidhana (M. XXXI-XXXII) the
letter part is of iconographical interest, the details to be followed in
its proper place*
The subsequent cbaptcrs-^Gopura^vidhlna, Map^apa-laksa^a and
^alS^vidhin5! (XXIV toXXVl) doal^ highly imports topics
 HINDU SGIENGE OF ARGHlTECTUftE 169

related to temple-architecture and they arc to be purvicwcd in the chapter

reserved for them. iSalas in thcMayamatam are not common residential
houses as we have seen in the North Indian texts like the ^amarahgana-
sItradharaand the Aparajita-praccha. Salas here, to all intents and pur-
poses are storeyed mansions— grand edifices fit to be occupied only by
an aristocracy of the clan or that of the mind. I do not think if these
iila-buildings as are portrayed in the Mayamatam or Mlnasaram
represent in any way a very advanced development of Sala-planning
and its allied architecture from a bird’s nest to the white HalU They
really represent altogether quite a new style of building under the
popular garb of ^ala-buildings.

House-architec ure. The XXVII chapter entitled ‘Gaturgrha-

vidhana’ deals with the location of the houses and their measurements
in details of the inter-planning of the accessory structures necessary in

a living house. This chapter of the Mayamatam is very important

from the standpoint of the canons of the civil architecture in India.
The following chapter(XXVIII) Gcha»pravcia is ceremonial in cha*
racter and expatiates on the detailed ritual and allied ceremonial
paraphernalia of house-entry. Its opening verse directs us that unless
the house is fully finished, we should not make entry into it and if

finished alright it should not be left vacant for long otherwise spirits

come to dwell in it.

Palace^archkecture. It is expounded in details of the planning of

a royal palace. The chapter entitled RajaveSma-vidhana is really a
masterpiece on palace-planning and its brief notice is reserved for the
Part devoted to Palace-architecture. It may be pointed out here that
the details of palace-planning tally with those of the Manasara with
the difference that the present text does not worry with the different types
of palaces. It is more concerned with its planning — the huge establish-
ment and a large paraphernalia of a king’s not only house hold neces-
sities and , Measures, but also stately requirements. The following
chapter elaborates on the door, both gates of the towns and entrance
of the buildings of different kinds and incidcntly deals with compo-
nents of adjacent structures windows, toranas, stairs cts. etc.

The two chapters (XXXI-XXXII) on architectural portion

last

of this text are details on conveyances and couches completing the —

—
fourfold scope of Vastu Bhiimi, Prisida, Yana and iSayana. Conve-
yances in the Mayamata mainly consist of SibikS and Ratha. The for-
mer is taken up in the first 48 verses in details of its measurements,
component parts and ornamentations etc., the latter is briefly treated
in the remaining six to ten verses. Firstly it taks up the occasions of
170 HINDU SCIENCE OP ARCHITECTURE

the Rathlroharia like coronation, wars, auspicious festivals, worship

and sacrifice gtc. It may be constructed as a storeyed structure with
m iaifold mouths ^eka-dvi-tritalopetamekam vapi caturmukham* and
its shape cither follows a payilion (mandapa) or
a iala (storeyed man-
sion) (XXI). The next chapter on the subject takes up couches, the
liyana in the details of dimensons, component parts and decorations.
The details may be left out to be purviewed somewhere else.
The last two chapters of this valuable text (Linga-laksana and
Plfhadaksana) deal with sculpture and they have been referred to as
noticed in my V2l>tu$astra Vol. ll— Hindu Canons of Iconography
and Painting (cf Pratiinalaks \nas) and the very rich details on these
topics do not fall in the scope of this volume.
§nparatna; This last representative manual may be regarded as
the consummation of the architectural and sculptural traditions of
Dravida-deli with the exuberance of a very rich heritage as evolved
and developed in that part of our great country both in the domain of
the scientific exposition and artistic creations. I have elsewhere

remarked that all these three texts— Mlnasart, Miyamati and

Silparatna epitomise one and same tradition. Differences lie with the
characteristics of the time and evolutions of the art.

This work is more exhaustive and elaborate than Mayamata

though both follow one and the same tradition. he Silparatna agrees
I

more with the M

lyamita than with the Mfnasara. Dr. Acharya*s
contention that the most of the chapters of this text are a literal abridg-
ment of the M^nasara may be only partially true. The Silparatna
does not refer to the ManasSra and Doctor Acha ya is angry with it
author, I may however submit to the learned Doctor that the author
of this text has taken material from the Mayamata and he does re-
cognize his indebtedness to this manual by making the second saluta-
tion to Muni Maya (The first being made to ViSvakarma). He also
remembers a good many other Acharyas like Mataiiga, Bhfgu,
KiSyapa, and Agastya, etc.
It may be remarked that though Silparatna owes a good deal
of indebtedness to Mayamata, its chief source, however, lies in the
fountain head of the Agamas which like Purauas in the North, were
harbingers of devotional upsurge in the South. They gave rise to
devotional places, the temples and devotional objects, the images of gods
and goddesses, the chief subject-matter of the Silpa-texts in India* This
is evident from the prologue of the author of Silparatna, Srikumara :
 kXNPlur SCIENCE OF ARCHtTECTUHE I?!

This iSrIkumSra was a Kerala Brahmin and it seems that he lived

at the court of De^^anarlyaaa (cf. the reference in the above prologue),
who is said to have ruled over a territory with a capital at Ambalap-
puaha now within the state of Travancore, He was a great patron of
learning and entertained in his court the famous Narayana Bhatta, a
great poet and Vaiyakarana and author of Narayanlya and many other
works, and is known to haVe flourished in the latter part of the Kith
century A.D. It is therefore certain, as surmized by the learned editor
ofSilparatna, T. Ganapati Shastri that the author of the Silparatna, a
protigee of his, also lived in the same period,

Sri K. Saiubasiva Sastri, the editor of the second part of this text,
thinks that the determination of the date of SrikumSra need of is in
further evidences in the light of the fact that the word,‘Devanarayana’
in the above quoted verse is known to be a title of the rulers of Am-^
balappuzha, and the reference of the word in the salutory
to Sadinana, indicating the scat of Srikumara*3 family deity or Ista-
devata which seems to be the Sanskritization of the Malayala DeSa
Ghiramelkkatu which DeSa is noW found in Talapalli Taluk in cochin,
state. Any way Sri Kumara is a later medieval author on the Silpa
and his work shows fullest of acquaintances with the later develop-
ments of Indian architecture especially the different traditions of tem-
ple building art. Dr. Bhattacharya’s observations also support this-—
vide *A study on Vastuvidya’ chapts. XllI-XVI.

The complete text is divided into two parts, the first dealing with
architecture and the second with sculpture —iconography. Painting
is treated in the last chapter of the first part, avowdedly in relation to
the Vimanas and Gopuras to be decorated with painting of all kinds :

fi^o II Similarly there are some five chapters arranged at the end
of the second part of the text which seem to be a continuation of the
first part dealing with human-dwellings, Manusyalaya (31), water
reservoirs (32), house-hold furniture and useful machines, Asanadi-
paricchada (33), wages to the labourers, Karraa-k3ra-vctana and
weapons etc. iSSstra-laksapa.

Let us now concentrate on the contents of the first part which deals
with architecture and painting (cf. the last chapter—Citra-laksa^iam
the 46th). The first chapter covers as many as three preliminary topics.
The first is the MaugalScarapa in which after paying his homage to
yiraSoSdhipa, the preatorLord (1), hesalutcs the two primordial arebi-
 —

172 HINDU sGiteNGE bF AkQHitBcrirt;k&

tectsViSvakarma and Maya (2-3) and continues his homage to the an-
cientAcharyds of dilpaiastra— Bhfgu etc, (a notice of which has already
been taken) (4-3) and then remembers his father who was himself a
pandita of Silpa (6) and concludes with his patron, Sri Devanarayana
already referred to. The second is the catalogue of contents, the
‘Anukramanl* (the scope and the subject-matter of the Sastra as dealt
with in the book). The third topic concerns with the qualifications
equipment and relative positions of the Acharya, the Sthapaka and the
fourfold guilds of Architects— Sthapati and Sfltragrahin, Taksaka and
Vardhaki i.c. Acaryalaksana* and Ԥilpi-laksana*.

The second chapter is a traditional treatment of measurements

‘Manasadhana* — (M. 2 Maya. 5j. The third deals with Bhumilaksaaa
in respect of the relative superiority and inferiority of a land to be
selected for building, its first fourfold types — Purna, Supadma, Bhadra
and Dhumra from the standpoint of the tapography of the land and
the second Varunf, Aindri, etc. etc. from that of the easy access of
the reservoirs of water and fertility of the ground for exhuberance of
vegetation. In the selection of building plot, trees also play an impor-
tant role. Only auspicious trees like, Nyagrodha, Udumbara, Plaksa,
Aivattha etc. can be accommodated. In the end an important topic of
the declivity or proclivity of the ground, what is technically called
Plavavicara is also briefly hinted at (M. 4, 5; Maya 4).

N. B, Dr. Acharya contends (perhaps on the superfluous identic

tity of the titles of both the works) that the Silparatna is a verbatim

rendering of the MUnasara which is completely devoid of truth.

Take for instance the present chapter and the classification of the
different types of Bhumis in it and you will find these types with
their details agree neither with those in the Manasara nor even
the Mayamata. It follows quite a different tradition, I mean the
Agamas, and its classification of Supadma etc. tallies with that of
the Tantrasamuccaya which is also a follower of A am as.
The 4th chapter deals with two topics, the iSankusthapana and
Halakarsai;ia under its technical title of ‘Sudra-parigraha-prakara* both
of which are very prudently very economically dealt with. Now
without taking up the most important of the preliminary topics, the
•Pada-VinySsa* our text starts with ^GrSmadilaksanam’ which ought
to have been followed afterwards. This chapter is of unique importance
as it explicitly deals with the planning of gardens, orchards etc. as
an essential equipinent of an Indian village-plan or town-plan. The
details of this chapter on villages and towns first consist in giving the
different types of human habitations like KSkinI, Vartana, KhSta,
 ttiNDb SblfeNCiE bF ARCmTEGTUltft 17^

Kutita (or ckabhoga), mangala, grama, pura, matha and then enu-
merates 14 kinds of theses settlements a notice of which «may be taken
in its proper place. Then follow the details of their planning, the
vinyasa-bheda, in details of measurements and roads and in accordance
with the latter criterion as many as eight types of villages
emerge, the Dandika, Svastika etc. Then follow the equipment of
gardens, parks, flower-orchards and reservoirs of water, the vapls etc.
Further next it briefly deals with the partitioning of the respective
var^Lxs and professionals— the folk-planning. In the end it expatiates
on the capital.

The sixth chapter is devoted to ‘Pada-vinyasa*, all those 32 types

already noticed in the preceding manuals. The seventh is related to
Vastu-puja incidently bringing the origin of Vastu, a legendary
account of Ghagasiira etc. cf. also the Aparajita-praccha where this
topic has been more elaborately brought out.

In the 8th chapter again d'^tails of village-planning are continued

especially the planning of village-gates. The next chapter takes the
foundation and dedication of the village shrines and the subsequent
chapter takes up Foundation and its allied accessories of AdharaSila,
Kurmas and Kumbhas (nidhikumbha etc.) Next in the 11th chapter
and ascertaining the cardinal points
the Indian technique of dialling
by means a gnomxn along with levelling of the ground what is
technically sailed ^GaturaSrfkaranam* is elaborated. The subse-
quent chapter (12) again takes up the foundation details what is
technically termed as ‘Garbhanyasa’ in all kinds of plannings and
buildings and incidently brings, in the traditional topic of brick-laying
of the PrathameStika etc. The 1 3th chapter again takes up the topic
of Vastupadas, especially the different and manifold limbs of Vastu-
purusa what are called liras and nadis etc. under a peculiar designa-
nation (coined by this text) ‘Avastukarmana-jn2nam* and expatiates
also on their vedhas and the resultant miseries.

Temple-architectore. Now follows a detailed treatement of

temple-architecture. The 14th chapter is devoted to the different
substances of which a temple is made, stone, bricks, lime, wood or
timber, clay, and metals. This chapter is of unique importance and
the presentation is most systematic and methodical, hardly to be
found in any other Silpa-text.

The subsequent chapter (15) is again a preliminary chapter

wrongly placed here. Ayidilaksaria is one of the fundamentals of
an Indian building-construction. It ought to have been so arranged,
 —

174 HiNOtl SCIENCE OF AltCHirEOTUEE

So is the case with so maay other chap ters^Re-arrangcmcnt of the chap-

ters, therefot»e is called for and an attempt in that direction will be made

—
Resuming the lost thread the contents of this chapter
in the last.
first it up the three primary Sitras, the Mina, the Vinyasa and
takes
the Avasana and then takes up the top e inhmd which is usual
exposition in practically all the texts. Then follow temples proper
under the heading of ‘Prasa lalaksana’ which is a new element alto-
gether in the treatment of temples as treated by the previous two
treatises of Southern architecture.
This text deals with temples in
two places, the present chapter and those which follow it and the 37th. In
the latter are treated the Dravidian Vimanas, the chief characteristics
of which are the storeys from one to many (12 or 16). This is in
quite keeping with the evolution and develompcnt of temple-architcc-
turc by the time this text was compiled. Both the styles of temple-
archiiecture had become a universal composite style of Hindu
architecture in India. The medieval and later medieval texts like
the S. S,, the A. P- and the S. R. show this composite character of
our architectural history. Let us now proceed with the details of
temple-architecture as presented by this text.

The first verse of the present chapter (16th) defines ‘Prasada, in

a quite new manner. Prasada, the Hindu temple is the child of
Vedic altar and therefore the formation of the word — 5T + ’STT 4* 53T?
ST^J!r^HIT'?ri^^(?TT?5T47)5TT|:(^ffe5rTrDT-:?r’i:) STTHTITs— literally
bears out this ancient tradition. Silparatna, however, gives altogether
a new definition from the standpoint of artistic sensibility, or more
correctly from the aesthetic point of view;

In the second verse he defines Vimdna, the chief characteristic of

which is the manifold technique of measurements. This I consider to
be an original contributions of this text, so far not brought out in
prominence elsewhere. It is curious to see that Dr. Acharya takes
this chapter on palaces—»/ide his notice of the text H. A. T. A. p. 176,

which is countrary to facts. It treats not palaces but temples (deva-

vimana) following the Agamas. The subsequent detail^ of this
chapter relate to the measurements of heights, the number of storeys
(I to 12) and the difTerent classes or varieties (NagarSdi), Alpa-

PrSsada, MahSprasada (along with their names). It is remarkable

that the different Prasadas which have been divided here into 20 and
30 classes arc similar to the classifications found in Northern texts*
Some of the Agamas like Karqilgama also follow this method. An
 HINDU SOIBNGB OF ARGHITBCTURB 175

interesting notice of the contents is the allotment of tVie different

storeyed buildings to the different ranks of deities and rcfValties. The
twelve-storeyed buildings can be occupied by only the superior gods
like Brahma, Visnu and Siva. This chapter also defines in its own
manner the three main styles of temple-archiiccturc, Nagara etc.

Next follow the details of the component parts of temple, the

pillar, base, pedestal etc. etc. The 1 7th chapter deals with Adhis-
thana. the base of the temple and is very aptly defined (cf. the open-
ing first three lines) It also deals with its soc le, the upapftha and the
details of pillar also accompany them. The next chapter delineates
upon the different limbs of upa-pitha in its manifold varieties of
Vedi-bhadra, Prati-bhadra etc. Then is taken up the adhisthana
proper (19) which is of fourteen types There arc other details as well
intermixed with some foreign details like grharambha which may be
a rnisarrangeinent ot the topics by the scribe. Base and column — both
these topic having been dealt with —also require a companion mem-
ber, the N71a 20) channels through which water has to pass. The
following chapter is very important It (21) dea’s with walls, vedikas,
and columns. Fivefold W ills those made of stone, J^llamaya, bricks,
IstikTrniya Jllakamiya (i.e.) stud ied with windows, Phalakamaya i.c.

wooden and Mramaya (made of clay) along with their mortar and
mouldings have been elaborated. Then are tak<^ n up the vedikns—
Pusp ikhan It, Git'^at-khait la, J^aivtlt, Gitra-liivala and their deco-
rative mitifs. Further details comprise the treatment on pillars
B ahma-kanta, V>snukanta, Skandakanta, GandrakjTnta, Ilikanta,
Ru Irakanta, their shapes, mouldings and other decoratives along
with their K imbhas (the pichers), Sslk ira, Gandrakanta, Saumukhya
and PriyadwirSana (of \ varieties). Further details relate to the com-
ponent parts of a pillar.

The next chapter (22) is on doors in details of relative dimensions

and onaponent parts like K ivt'a (of fourfold varieties yuga, ayuga, —
sarhh^ra and dhtvana etc.) along with their manifold accessories,
decorations etc. In the end the stairs (Sopana) in relation to the
doors have been delineated upon.

Now the following fourteen chapters arc devoted to decorative

structures and mouldings and apartments, both of the superstructure
roof and topmost part of a Vimilna-^ temple. The 23rd chapter deals
with arches-*^3 types, Patra-torana, Makara*torana and Gitra-torana.
Column-arches are also hinted at and in the end is given an cnumcra*^
tion eff the auspicious decorations to be employed on buildings espe*.
cially the doors* These arc called astamaugalas like mirror, full
176 HINDU SOIBNGE OF ARGHITEQTURB

picher, bull, pair of camaraSi l§r[v|*ksa, Svastika, Sankha, Lamp ete.

etc, Then follow details of Jalaka, the screened windows (21r); Kuta-
kos|hadi, the top-rooms (25) Panjara, cages (26) in great details;
Vrttasphutita, an ornament (27), Kumbhalata another ornament
(28), Uttara (29) another decorative motif in relation to the pillars ,

Prastara (30), the entablature of the pillars, Gala (31) the neck (of the
tne Vimana proper); iSikhara (32), the spherical roof, the topmost
superstructure, in manifold varieties of Panc3la, Vaideha, Magadha
Kaurava, Kauialya, Saurasena, Gandhara and Avantika and their
heights in sevenfold varieties of Kalihga, Ka4ya, Varata, Kaulaka,
Sauniika, Kaimira and Gaiigeya; Lupa (34), the slopping roof (in rich
details'^; Murdhnestaka (34), the topmost ornament; Nasika (35,' the
Vistibulc, along with the ^Murtinyasa, the installation of images on the
body of the Prasada or Vimana and Stupika, (36) the dome along
with its pitcher, the Kalasa.

As already remarked the text deals with the temples at two

places. Another characteristics treatment of storeys now follows
under a peculiar title ‘Santikadi-niyama*. We have already com-
mented on this character of classification of Vimana-buildings as
associated with this work in the light of Dr. Bhattacharya’s observa-
tion. Evidently this chapter describes Santika, Paustlka, Jayada,
Adbhuta and Sarvakamika classes—a division of buildings according
to hcight"onc storeyed structure to twelve- storeyed ones. The next
chapter (38) again uses the word ‘Prasada’ which is all very confusing
intermixture of two traditions, the Prasada-architecture and the
Vimana-architecturc under the title ‘
Vftta-sada^radi-prasada-lak-
sanam’ or we can make another surmise that the 6antikadi buildings
and theJr height etc. arc related to Vimana-architecturc and the
present chapter, likc-wise, refers to the details of shape and pro-
portions of measurements etc. in relation to Prasada-architccture.

The next chapter is devoted to Mai>dapas, their characteristic

architecture, their different classes —-Mukha-Mandapa. The subsequent
chapter (40) takes up Prakaras in the style of the Manasara the
Antar-mandala, Antarhlra, Madhyahara, VShyahara
fivefold types
and Maryada or Maha-maryadd and their varied and rich details.
In the concluding portion Dipa-mala is also characteristically des-
cribed. Thb was the light- arrangement of those days Now 4 1st
chapter is occupied in the delineation of Gopura-architecturc, their
types, dvaraiobhEctc. five varicticsi their employment in thcrcspcctive
PrJkSras with respective storeys (from six to eighteen). The next
chapter is reserved as is usual with sister texts like MSnasSraand
 , 1

HINDU SOIBNOE OF AaOHlTEOTURB m

Mayamata, for ‘Parivara-vidhina’ fron| 8 to 32 parivara-deities
their locations etc* The chapter is of iconographical interest. The
subsequent two chapters are on Bali-p{|ha and Dhvaja respectively.
Then follows a chapter on ‘Sandhi* which again is not wanted here.
It is a big chapter on ‘Joinery*, The last chapter is on ‘Painting* a
notice of which is already attempted.

This brief notice of this manual, as already remarked, shows

that the arrangement of the chapters is faulty, more faulty titan that
of the S, S,, an attempt therefore at its re- arrangement is called for.
The following table will give the required systematisatbn

The §IIpanitna, Re-arrafiged

Broad Division J £
of the subject "o , ^
matter 6 ^^ i

%
I I Maiigala, Anukramani, Acaryalaksana
Preliminaries and Silpi-laksa^a \

2 M2na 2
3 Bhumilaksapa 3
4 Sudra-parigraha and Halakarsapa 4
5 Pada-vinyasa 6
6 VSstu-marma 13
VSstupuja 7
Dik-pariccheda 1

Ayadi-laksana and KSsyapaksa 15

Garbha-nyasa, the Foundation 12
II Gramadi-laksapa — villages, towns, capi-
Town-plan- tals, garden-cities including the tanks
ning and Vapis therein 5

Gramadlh^lm dvaravidhili 8
GSrmSdisu dev3layaiiiyam-vrdhi~ihc
foundation and dedication of temples 9
G|»h5rambha (vs. 112-15) 21
III ManusySlaya-laksanam — in details of
Civil planning Vedfs, Vfthls, manifbld variries iSila-
(Residential bhavanas, doors etc.( etc, 31 (Pt.Il)
Houses and Asanadwpricchada^laksapam Hou«b-
their archi- hold fumiture like oonctics, femt

tecture) brolas, cots, conwyances, fa^mmpalmh

chariots, boats,
u<Qfchala,^ tuia,>

ik|u-yaf«tra hSd^yamrt etc. etc. 3® (Ft, 11)

 178 HINDU SCIBNQB OF ARCHITROTURE

AT, As regards Temple-architecture— this text expounds this

subject according to both the famous schools of Indian Architecture
viz. th^ Negara and Dravida. The Silpratna, as already remarked is
cdmparatively a modern manual, hence by its time both the styles of
terriple-architccture were fully developed. Naturally this subject is not

very haphazardly treated. The treatement of the subjet in chapters 14-43

is alright The two ebapters in the end of the 1st pt. i e. Sandhikarma
andjGitralaksaria though apparently ill-arranged, nevertheless justify
their grouping in the context of temple-architecture where Sandhikarm
with esp. ref. to timber and the painting on the walls are justified.

We have thus trodden a very long path noticing (though very

r-briefly indeed) as many as six standard manuals of Hindu architecture.
What have we gained? Firstly our architectural traditions have
retained a character, A changeless back-ground, the Adhara and
allowed a changing edifice, the Adheya, This is truely Indian.
Secondly all these texts owe their origin to a common fountain, a
neo-religiotis upsurge as propogated by the PurSnas and Agamas in
both the parts of our land, the North and the South. Consequently
our architectural traditions are not only religious in their origin but
also mystic in their evolution. This mysticism is the philosophy of
architecture what is the martix of Indian architecture and its perfec-
tion as well. This is a general estimation of our architectural lore as
is presented by these representative texts.
The next question which was put in the beginning, still remains
to be attempted, namely arc all these texts equally representative?
Yes they are all equally represntative in the context of the different
evolutions of the art. The MSnasSra. to my mind, is the earliest
representative text on Dravlda-Vastu-vidya when lofty palaces served
to all intents and purposes, the abodes of gods and god-like kings.
This is really a very daring proposition, but it is my own thesis as
per my theory that Dravidian architecture is earlier than NSgarar
architcctutre or the Northern PrasSda-architccture. Archaeological
evidences may not prove this contention of mine, but cultural history
of our very ancient land as per the recent finds at very ancient sites
like Moberypdaro and Harappa have proved it cf the previous chap-
(
’fer outline history of Hindu Architecture* (both as a science and
art). The Mayamata represents a later pha^e when admixture of
Aryan and Dop- Aryan; traditions of the art had begun. The iSilparatna
may be .regarded as the consummation of this tendency when all-
India-Hindu composite architecture had tkken its emergence. Similar
is the story pf the Northern texts, the ViJyaVarmS’s works, the S. S.

the A. P. and a detailed disens^ipn may not be attempted as

much has been said in the preceeding pages*
 : :

^HAPtER Vl

FUNDAMENFAL CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE

In the preceding pages we have already covered a sufficient

ground to enable us to proceed now with the foundation of the edifice
of the Science. The question is; What are the fundamental pillars on
which this great edifice of Hindu Science of Architecture stands? We

shall see (vide Pt. Ill House-Architecture) that the central post was
the prime regulator of house-construction in India. It was as funda-
mental as the trunk of a tree. Tree-modcl was the primordial model
of a house-plan (cf. the story of the birth of human home— t^e SalSi^

house Pt. Ill) and the abundant application of pillars was‘ one of the
chief features of an Indian building whether a residential house or a
palace, a sabha or a temple (or more cotrectly a temple^paviUion,
Prasada-mandapa). Naturally you cannot say which pillar or pillars
are more basic than others. But if you ponder over the problem and
visualise the basic importance of the structure, you must come to the
conclusion that as many as five pillars carry cardinal worth witla them.
These are the four cordinal and one central posts. Similarly sustain-*
ing the analogy, to my mind, there are the following five fundanaental
pillars of the stable edifice of our science and we can call th^m the
fundamental canons

1 . Dhinirnaya, Doctrine of Orientation.

'

2 . Vastu-pada-vinyasa, the Site-planning.

3. Mana, (Hastalaksaaa), the proportionate incaiurcinents of a'

structure.
Ayadi-Sadvarga, the Six Canons of Hindu Architecture.
5. Patakadi-3a|-Chandas—-the character of the building (iu,
aspect and prospect etc.)
^

The standard manuals of Hindu Science of Architecture expound

a large number of canons of architecture. This we have already seen. -

But a selection has to be made to bring home to the readers, thc>

unique character of our V5siu-4astra, which, though on par with many
an ancient cognate treatises like the one attributed to Vitruviusirthe
great Greek-architcctTwriteC^ has its own Character which gives to it a
unique importance in the context of cultural content of Hindu civilly

zation which has always been glorified (or fiaorcMCorrcctiy damndd) as ^

a spiritual civilization and hence devoid of any civil sense, in the

 :

i§0 6Ai40NS OF HINt>U ARcklTECtUftll

matters of house-planning. We are misrepresented that we could only

build great temples and there was no civil or popular or secular
architecture in India. A brief exposition of all these fundamentals
must dispell the darkness shrouding our vision. Let us take these one
by one.

I— DINMRNAYA OR PRACI-SADHANA
©mniriiayaiOT Praefsadhana is done through a technical device
called dahkusih&pana. l^ahkuds the gnomon by means of which the
cardinal points arc ascertained for the orientation of building, Hindu
on the science of architecture deal with the rules as laid
treatises
down on the principles of dialling under this title of l^aukusthapana.
Astronomical treatises like Surya-siddhanta, Siddhanta-Siromani,
liilSvatt, BrahmatsiddhSnta-sphota Brahmagupta and Pancasid- of
dhSnta of Varaha^mihira and architectural treatises like MSnasara
(Ch.VI),Mayamata(VI),^llparatna(XI),Kaiyapa*Silpa(l),Vastu-vidy5
ManusySlaya-CandrihS (II) and Tantrasammuccaya, ISanaSiva-
(III),
gurudevapaddhati etc. etc. have all dealt with this cardinal principle
of architecture.

It has two principal aspects the technical device and the scientific-
cum-philosophical import. Let us take up the first.

The Manasara’s technique (vide V. L.) consists of the device as

laid down hereunder

**Thc gnomon is made of the wood of certain trees. It may be

24, 18 or 12 angulas in lengthj and the width at the base should be
respectively 6, 5 and 4 angulas. It tapers from the bottom towards
the top.

For the purpose of ascertaing the cardinal points, a gnomon of 12,

18 or 24 angulas is erected from the centre of a watered place (salila-

Sthala) and a circle is described with the bottom of the gnomon as its
C0ntre;«md with aimdiut^^ its length.markedTwo points are
Where tile shadow and before noon meets the
(bf the gnomoB)^after
ciit;umfet«imc oLthecirole. The dine joining these two points is the
eatt^weit^inei Wmmemki of these east and west points a circle is
drawn; with their distance as nadiust The two interesting points*
which ate called ifae head and tail oP tketfish (timi), are the north and
theisonth^points^ Therinleimediate regions are found in the same
Ihimsgh the fidiiforn^ ^the points of the determined
c|iiinefs.,
 GANOm OF HINDU ARCHiTECTUItB 181

As regards the principles of dialling, each of the twelve months is

divided into three parts of ten days each and the increase^nd decrease
of shadow (avachchhSya) (cf. Vitruvius, Book IX, Ghap. VIII, ^..the
principles of dialling and the increase and decrease of the days in the
different months’ —^translatedby Gwilt ), are calculated for these
several parts of the different months”.

The Tantra-samuccaya (vide Mallaya) on the other hand pres-

cribes the technique with some difference :

'*Thc direction contained in the text is simple. It is with refer-

ence to the land Which is situated cither to the north or south of the
equator (Aksa). Level the ground (in a SaksadeSa) and plant a
gnomon at the centre, the gnomon being of 12 angulas of length.
Describe a circle round it with a radius more than its length (say
double the length). During the course of the sun from morning till
evening three points vvill be secured, two touching the circumference
and one in the centre, the interval in the course of their marking being
equal. The three points are obtained by marking the end of the
shadow projected during three different times, the interval between
them being equal. With these three points as the centre, draw three
circles of the same radius. Two figures in the form of two fish will
be produced where the circles cut. The head and tail of each fish
will lie in the North-South direction. Strike two nails at the points
(i.e. head and tail) of each fish and then extend two threads cutting
through the central cord of the two fishes. At a certain point in the
North (when the sun is in the South of rhe Equator) these two threads
extended will meet. From this meeting point in the north extend
another thread southwards till it joins the central point at the base of
the gnomon. This thread which joins the northern point with the
point at the base of the gnomon will give the North-South line.
Having found the due North and South as described above, wi h the
two points (i.e. meeting-points northern as well as southern) as centres
two circles should be described. A figure in the form of a fish lying
in the direction East-West will be obtained. Hold a thread joining
the head and tail of this fish, and tiie due East and West will
he bnawn'*.

The method that is described in other texts like the ManasSra is

a According to the MahasSra only two circles are to

little dififerent.

be drawn and^ consequently one fish wiU be secured while determining

the ^NbrthfSouthiinek The author of T. S. describes in the wake of
Gumdeva^ who after having laid down the usual procedure (cf.
III, T. S. S. Edition^ Pafala XXlV,
182" CANONS OF HINDU AioHlTBCTURi

stanzas 1 it is good so far as the land lying on the

to 13) remarks that
equator is As regards land lying to the North or South of
cojicerncd.
the Equator, the method is different, and in this context he prescribes
the method that vye have observed just now. Gurudeva (vide V. L.)
has prescribed two alternatives in respect of the land lying whether on
the Equator or to the Nort or South of the Equator and the author of
Tantrasammuccaya has followed the latter alternative. Both these
devices may be ilistrated in the diagrams appended in the appendices.

It may be interesting to note that this device of dialling and

ascertaining the cardinal points of heaven was also popular in other
ancient countries like Greece and Rome. Vitruvius, the celebrated
Greek writer-architect has similar prescriptions and the following
quotation from G wilt’s translation would bring home to the reaJers
the universal importance of the technique adopted in ancient time:
‘^Let a marble slab be fi<ed level in the centre of tne space enclosed
by the ground be smoothed or levelled, so that the
walls, or let the
slab may not be necessary. In the centre of this plane, for purpose of
marking the shadow correctly, a brazen gnomon must be erected.

The Greeks call this gnomon skiatheras.

The shadow cast by the gnomon is to be marked about the fifth

anti-meridional hour and the extreme point of the space whereon the
gnomon stands, as a centre, with a distance equal to the length of the
meridian, watch the shadow which the gnomon continues to cast till

themoment when its extremity again touches the circle which has
been described. From the two points, thus obtained in the circumfe-
r^pce of the circle, describe two arcs intersocting each other and
through their intersection and the centre of the circle first described
di:aw a line to its extremity; this line will indicate the north and
j^QWth poiints/*

Needless to quote further as Vitruvius has much more elabora-

tions to complete the whole technique full of diagrams.

With this brief out tine of the device, let us come to its significance*
in the context of an architectural planning from a stand-point 6f
scientific implication.

^ “With th'S Hindus, orientation played a very ipaRortant part in

the scheme pf their daily life, as to them the Sun was the giver of all

life. Even, a witness had to face the East during ithe process of
examination. (Vide Institutes of Manu); orientation
had permeated their ideas of design The full significance of thiil
 CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE IBS

aspect of the Hindu mind would be appreciated as the underlying

theory is grasped.

The theory of the orientation of buildings, secular as well as

ecclesiastical, as laid down by Indian designers of structures consists

in setting them in plan in such a way that they may secure the

maximum of from the solar radiation automatically and

benefit
irresf ective of the fact whether occupants will it or not. Temples,
living places, assembly halls, audience rooms and a host of structures

to meet the needs of men of all grades, are, thus, so adjusted in plan
as to secure an eastern frontage. The minutest rules are prescribed

for the most advantageous setting of structures with this end in view.
When once the site of premises is selected, the next step consists in
the determination of true East, for which elaborate rules arc laid
down and e\^en as the construction progresses from the base upwards
to that top, several independent checks are imposed with a view that
no deviation could be made by workers, during different stages of
construction so that the finished structure would have a truly eastern
frontage.

Fixation of cardinal points, thus, occupied a prominent place in

the preliminary operations of building construction, just after the
selection of site and before the actual construction starts.

Kh3ta and ^ilanyasa, it may be pointed out, have an ulterior

significance constructively as welTas ritualistically. This later aspect
regarding ritualistic process will be dealt with in detail later on.

The eastern facet ofstructurcs, both in plan and elevation, when

truly set in direction, according to the rules laid down as shown
above, gets a full and direct exposure to the field of action of solar
radiation. As soon as the early dawn breaks, the eastern varandah
is

flooded, so to say, by the early invisible ultra-violet radiation which is

the first in order to be felt; as the dawn advance into Usa, Arupa and
Rctual sunrise, the different luminous visible rays go on impinging
that facet. They can thus be utilized as the exigencies of life demand,
as towards sunrise all the radiations from ultra-violet on the extreme
nofthern end of the eastern facet to the whole tange of visible radia-
ending in Infra-red on the extreme Southern end of the’ same
tion,*

have their full pay. It has been observed that ultra-violet radiation
has* recleved more attention than the visible and Infra-red radiatiori,

bWiing to the fact that it produces fluorescence, photographic action

 184 CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTt/RB

It is very significant in this phase of Indian thought that both the

extremes of^ this eastern belt are denoted by Ha (N. E. portion) and
Agni (S, E. portion) the counterparts of, so to say, ultra-violet or
violet and Red or Infra-red radiation of the Solar spectrum of the
Western science. The very names Ha and Agni and their individual
laksanas, which ate given to these quarters from earliest times in the
Indian History go to suggest that the phenomenon of refraction and
diffraction .dispersion) were well known to Indian Aryans.

Indian architects were not slow in availing themselves of the co-

operation of the priestly class wherever necessary. In order that struc-
tures may not be marred by the slightest deviation so for as their true
East and West were concerned, the Sthapatis had devised means where,
with the principles of orientation was rigidly maintained throughout
the actual construction starting from the Khata (laying a foundation)
right upto the extreme top.

It was for this security that they had requisitioned the aid of
ritualism.

At every distinctive stage of a structure where the possibillity of

disturbance was foreseen, there were enjoined ritualistic ceremonials
in order that they may serve as checks to the work of construction*’
Mankad.

Lastly as regards the philosophical import, this technique of the

orientation of buildings is very intimately related with another equally
significant and important canon, the Vastu-purusa-mandala, the
metaphysical plan of a Hindu building, a temple-diagram or a site-

plan of a residential house,The surface of earth, in traditional Indian

‘

Cosmology, is regarded as demarcated by sunrise and sunset, by the

points where the sun apparently emerges above and sinks below the
horizon; by the East and West and also by the North and South points.
represented by the ideogram or mandala of a square.
It is therefore

(The square does not refer to the outline of the earth. It connects the
4 points established by the primary pairs of opposites, the apparent
sunrise and sunset points, Ea^t and West; and South and North. The
earth is therefore called ‘caturbhfstl*, four-cornered (R.V. X 58.3) and
is symb olically shown as Pfthivi-maridala, whereas considered in itself,

the shape of the earth is(RV. X. 89.1; S.B. VII. I. I.

circular,
The identification of the square with the Vodi is in shape only and
not in size and belongs to the symbolism of the Hindu temple. The
Vedi represents and is the levelled earth, a place of sacrifice or wor^
sWp: *‘No part of the ground should rise ubovo for it vfM from
 CANONS OF HINDU ARGHITBGTORE 185

there that the gods ascended to heaven’* (S B. III. 1. 1. 1 — 2)» The

site, the earth, should be even and firm, for it is the starting place of
the ascent B VIII 5. 2. 16). The link between the earth atid ihe
(S.

end of ascent stretches upward into space, the intermediate region (anta-
riksa). From it also it leads downward and rests on earth. In it the
temple has its elevation. The Vastupurujamandala, the temple-dia-
gram and metaphysical plan is laid out on the firm and level ground,
it is the intellectual foundation of the building, a forecast of its ascent,
and its projection on earth H.T. (pp. 17.)

II— VASTU.PADA.VINYASA--THE PLAN

A general introduction: —Vastu is primarily the planned site of the
building. As a rule its shape is square which is the fundamental form
of Hindu architecture. Its full name is Vastu-Purusa-mandala. Vastu,
Piirusa and Mandala are eqully important and significant. The
identity of Vastu with Purusa is symbolic of metaphysical import. It

is more significant in case of temple^architecture where the image of

the supernal or Cosmic Man, the Purusa is congruous and identical to
the planned site. ‘Mandala denotes any closed polygon. The form of
the Vastu-purusamandala is a square. This is its essential form. It

can be converted into a triangle, hexagon, octagon and circle of equal

area and retain its symbolism (Bfhatsamhita, Ch. LII. 56, Comm.).
These forms — —
the square and circle have Vedic origins, Baudhayana’s
prescription of ‘GaturaSrIkarana’ (vide iSulva-sutra 7 22-28) is a testi-

mony, It is in accordance with this ancient tradition that Silpa-texts

like Mayamatam
(III. I) and Vastu-vidhana (Ms. Adyar library) of

Nardada, emphasis the shape of the Vastu as square. The Vedic

origins relate to the shapes of Fire Altars the Maha V’^edic and Ultara
Vedi etc. which are square Kramrisch rightly inter-
as a rule. Prof.
prets this second tradition: “The square, as fundamental figure of
sacrificial symbolism and temple architecture, lends itself to many
variations. Baudhayana prescribes the construction of the Sararaiha-
cakracit and the commentator explains how to form at first a small
square with 4 bricks in the middle of the Agniksetra, then to enlarge
this square, to This method has become known in the
one of 16, etc.
West, through Aristotle, as the Pythagorean ‘gnomon’. It is in this
way toQ, that the various types of the VSstuinapdala are enumerated
in VSstuSastra in a progressive scries of I, 2, 3, 4 units square, etc ,

the most sacred being the plan of 64 squares, preserving the meaning
of 64 which is exemplified in “64 bricks form the spokes of the wheel,
64f the Vedi”,
The Vastu-purusa-mandala of Indian architecture takes
it symbo-

^nd significance from the Square Matidala of the Earth and pf

186 CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITEGTURB

the Ecliptic. Prof. Kramrisch has made a very lucid and brilliant
exposition of this clcmeiU of the Vastu-puriisa-mandala on the autho-
Vastu-vidhana ofNITrada, very important ancient text on
rity of the

Hindu Science o4' architecture and readers arc referred to read this
exposition —vide H. T. P. 29-39. A more relevant portion of this

exposition may
be reproduced: ‘‘The square ‘cakra* or mandala is a
chased polygon symbolical of recurrent cycles of time. Prthivi-mandala
and Vastu-mandala arc both squares; the one connotes the earth ruled
by the apparent movement of the sun and filled in its extent
in its life
by the equilibrium of the pairs of the opposites on which this order is
established. In its whole extent it is a Vedi, and this is also true of
the Vastumandala into which it is incorporated. In the form in which
the Vastumandala is the ‘plan* of the temple and regulates the rhy-
thms of its groundplan (adhaSchanda, talacchanda) a further accentu-
tion of its squareness is the rule. In the sub-division of its sides or
borders from four to eight and up to thirty-two, the original geometri-
cal progression, fixing positions, can be seen at work. The 32 positions,
four times eight in space, are held by divinities identified with those
of the mansions of the moon, by some schools. The border in its
continuity is associated with the course of the moon, and inasmuch
as it faces the eight directions it is associated with the stations of
the sun”.

“The Vastu had come to be the place of the adjustment of solar

<Tirid lunar cycles. The number 32 of the divinities residing in the
squares of the border of the Vastumandala is also the sum of 4 and 28,
the number of the regents of the four planets who rule over the
cquinoxial and solstitial points referred to the cardinal points, and of
the reagents of the 28 Naksatras. Their location in the Vastumandala
shows a reconciliation of the motions of the Sun and the Moon, and
they have their nature in their number which is 32; the single divini-
ties who make up this sum act each as a locum tenens
In Vastu- .

Sastra they are nearly unanimously identified with the

divinities whose
names shown in the border of the Figure appended in the end
arc
«~vide Appendix A, following the ‘Brhatsamhita, LII.
43f. The
would be just following. It
evidence of the S. S. and the MSnasara
(H.T. that
may be remarked in the words of Prof. Kramrisch 37)

the form of the square is the stage on which is drawn, while it is

being acted, the movement of sun and moon and that of their years in

their unequal course, their meeting, reconciliation and the fresh

beginning towards one more coincidence. Such inequality, such

imperfection arc the cause of existence; the seasons similarly arc

plane of
brought about by the axis of the earth being inclined to the
 CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 187

its orbit. The obliquity of the axis of the earth, the inequality of the
motions of sun and inoon, produce the cycles in which wc live. Were
it not so, were all coincidence, life would be reabsorbed into perfec-
tion, into tiie iiiiiaitc vvuicii is ojyoad aiaaiiestaLion.

On this V^'astu dial of cosmic movement where obliquity and

discripencies appear straight and square, care must be taken not to
interfere with the movements and the ways in which they are laid
out, for on their courses depend the order in the universe and the
destinies of human lives. The science of architecture is part of the
science of the luminaries; the time for setting up a building, its place
and the direction it has to face, are ascertained on the magic diagram
of the Vasturnandala.

The very imperfection which is the cause of the existence of the

world serves as the basis of ail astrological forecasts and astronomical
calculations. There is always a remainder. For nothing could conti-
nue if nothing were to remain. The place occupied by anything in
the present, is in the residue of the past. The name of Vastu, derived
from Vastu, a really existing thing, signified residence as well as
residue (S. B. I. 7.3. 18-19}.”

Other symbolism of the square, the form of Martanda>

details like
Vastu, the Rcmandcr may be left here for want of space
etc. etc.

as they arc well expounded in Dr. KramrisclTs book ‘The Hindu

Temple*.

In the preceeding paragraphs some idea has been brought out of

this fundamental canon of Hindu architecture from the stand point of
the applied knowledge, the ritual, the Jyotisa, and the meta-physics.
Now before we take up its exposition from the standpoint of the
implied practice, the engineering of the site-plans as is enshrined in
the text books of architecture, a few words may be added on the
organism of the plan which is the bed rock of the origin of Hindu
Temple Architecture (cf. the Organic Theoiyby Pt. V). ‘The lines
which the square plan is divided into smstll squares, the two diagonals
of the plan and the “lesser diagonals”, 4 or 8 in number, and drawn
parallel to^thc former have a definite width, proportionate to the size
of the plan. The width of the main diagonals in a plan of 81 squares
measures as many finger breadths (ahgula) as the side length of the
small square measures in cubits (hasta. Br. S, LII. 62-63); and the
straight lines haveone and a half times this width. Their intersection
(marma; a vital, or vulnerable spot) measures one eighth part of one
square in the plan of 81 squares, (The Marmas are of special impor-
t88 CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE

tance in the site*plan. Where the Viistamandala is co-extcnsivc with

the Pt-asada, they affect the position of pillars in temples as described
in the ‘
Samarai'iganasutradhara, ch. XLIX. In brick and stone
temples such as are preserved, the Mannas affect the positions of
windows, buttresses, etc* of the wall of Prasiida). The division of the
square and also the divisional lines themselves are measured in pro-
portion to its total extent. No building, or part of the temple must
be placed on these vital points”. ‘^Further the lines are not mere
geometrical connections; their prototype has the measure of Breath;
they have direction and width; while they form a net cast over the
plot, they also share in its extent, represent it in an aliquot ratio and
their points of intersection are the vital parts and tender spots (marina)
of the site. These must not be hurt or interfered with by setting up
pillars, doors, or walls, on them.’ The places which must not be encro-
ached upon by doors, walls or pillars, V^eams, etc. and windows (gava-
ksa, vatayana; Br.S. Comm.; Lll. 57, ‘Samarahganasutradhara’, Xlll.
10-16), at the concurrence of the lines (sutra) are listed on p. 55.
(Fhe ‘Bfhat-Samhita’ enumerates 9 specially vulnerable spots (atim-
arma) and gives the proportionate size of the tender spots (Marma).
These are grouped according to their importance and specified in the
later texts according to the lines which meet, diagonals and orthogo-
nals, and their number, at each respective crossing. The size of a
vulnerable spot is given in the ^Bj*hat-Sanihita’ as l/8th of a square

(the whole plot being divided into 81 squares). The ‘Samarahgana-

sutradhara’ however gives to the conjunction of 8 vam§as (~ 8 sturas,
at their meeting point) the extent of the lip of a hair (balflgra) ; that
is, the concurrence is just a point. The l/8th of a small square of

the ‘Bfhat Samhita’ does not correspond to the actual extent of

*marma*; it appears more as a parcelled plot with the concurrence
of the lines in its centre and agreed upon to be l/8th of that of the

small square. In the ‘Samarahgnasutradhara’, the ‘sandhi* or

eonjection of lines has no magnitude. It is a point to be avoided when
determining, the position of the middle of door openings, pillars etc.)

They are avoided by shifting for example the position of the respective
parts of the building, to the right of the vulnerable points. Similarly
also nothing (no dravya*) may be placed on the border or middle lines
and the consequences are seriours too, though not fatal, if the other
orthogonaU and the 2 diagonals arc infringed (ib. XII. 23-36). The
earlkr texts however limit the tender spots to the concurrences of
lines: (Br.S. LII. 57 ; ‘Visnudharmottara*, Pt. II. ch. XXlX- 45-46). The
spots which arc the most vulnerable and which must be avoided with
great care, arc in and around the BrabmasthSna, the centre of the square.
 CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 169

The connections of the Vastupurusamandala and the buildings to

be setup on it arc manifold They comprise the positiop of temples
sacred to distinct divinities; of definite buildings in definite parts of
the mai[idilas and the position of the images at their definete places*
In addition to these inconographic considerations, the slight deviation
of doors, pillars, etc. from a uniform and mechanical symmetry
contributes, as in the forms of life, towards a fuller consonance, of

the proportions of the architecture. The living breath of Vastu-

purusa would thus be seen to permeate the total structure”.

N. B. The three charts (A., B. and GJ of the lines (sutra) their

intersections and proportionate width may be purviewed in the

appendix at the end.

This organism of the plan leads to take up the most vital clement
of Vastupada-Vin\ asa, the Supernal Man. The Vastu-vidhana (VIII
23-32) of Narada says that the Vastupurusamandala is the niagic dia-
gram (y antra) and the form (riipa) of the Vastupurusa It is his body :

(Sarira) and a bodily device (Sarira-yantra) by which those who have

the requisite knowledge attain the best results in temple building.

It is laid out in tabular notation as man and site (naraprastara)
Vastuprastara ;
ib, 29).

In the Purusa, Supernal man, the Supreme Principle is beheld.

Beyond form and non-contingent, it is beyond description. It is
know by intellectual intuition as residing in man, the microcosm,
and in the universe, the macrocosm, Either is its place of manifesta-
tion. Man and Universe are equivalent in this, their indwelling centre.
Of this equivalence, the Purusa is an image. In the Purusa, the
relation of the Supreme Principle (Brahman) and of manifestation is
seen as coterminous. The Supreme Principle in this aspect is called
Purusa because it reposes or dwells in Integral or Supernal man as
if in a city (Purusah s=purMaya^^ or puri-sada^ I Yaska, *Niru 1.13;
11.3). The is drawn as a yantra, a device in which is bound and
city
situated the Supreme Principle. It is a plan of its manifestation and
as such it is also the body of the Purusa, itself without substance.
It is the site indwelt, and pervaded by the Purusa. Any place where
this body lies down, where this plan is laid out by those who know it

exemplifies the presence of the Purusa and is its ‘bhumi^ the ground
on which it rests. By its impress that piece of land, freed of all
associations acts as primordial, undifferentiated substance (Prakfti).*

The symbolism of the Vedic altar, Agni, is continued in the

l^indu temple, in its plan* The VSstupuru?a of this map<jala itf
l90 CANONS OF HINDU ARGititECTURfe

indeed Agni-Prajapati. drawn on the ground and not piled up.

It is

No fire burn$ on it; is set up on it.

the temple The image ol the
Vastupurusa coterminous and one with the rnandala is drawn in the
likeness of man. His liead lies in the East, in the mandala of 64
squares, the legs opposite; body and limbs fill the square. No bricks
are laid dpwn which had been identified with the several parts of his
body. The bricks were square; now squares are drawn, lines separate
and connect those parts and limbs and are their joints and vital parts.
These must not be hurt. The lines too (uadi) belong to the anatomy
of the subtle body of the Vastupurusa, they are channels of energy as
the nerves are and the arteries in the grooss body. Their prototypes
are Prana and Vayu. The spine (varhia) of this Purusa of 64 squares,
is the raid lie line of the plan of the temple, as it is of the altar.’

Further details like subtle body of the Purusa and its pictures,
the descent of the VSstupurusa, the nature and names of the Vastu-
purusa may be seen in Prof. Kramrsich’s work, the Hindu Temple.
A special mention may be made here and now that forty five gods
are constituents of the body of the Vastupurusa; they cover his extent,
they are his limbs and vital parts aud their sum total is the Vastu-
purusa with whom it is co-extensive. Their number necessarily is the
same in the Vastupurusamandala of 64 or 81 or any of the other
numbers of squares; only the extent allotted to each differs, but not
their relative position in the plan. A detailed exposition of these gods
and their significance in the architectural symbolism have been ably
worked out by Kramrisch and it may be purviewedin her Hindu
lemple.
This is the cosmological or metaphysical background on which the
most fundamental Doctrine of Vastu-purusa-mandala rests and from
this we can very well understand and appreciate the very advanced
state of architectural planning in ancient India. Now as.prornised
we have to say something on this canon from the stand point of im-
plied practise, the engineering of the site plans preferably from the
evidences culled from the two texts, the S. S. and the Manasara. Let
US begin with the evidence furnished by the S.S. The S,S. devotes four
chapters on it viz. V5stu-traya-Vibhaga, Nadyadi-Siradi-Vikalpa,
Marma-Vedha, and PuruSangadevatanighantu and all these four
chapters form one theme namely the site-plans and presiding dieties
of the squares together with the
conception and elaboration of the
VSstupurusa, the Supreme Lord of the site.

When a site is selected for constructing a village, town or build*

lug, the ground is divided into different numbers of squares. Mina-
 —

GAKONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURB 191

s3ra distinguishes designations, according to the number of squares

into which the whole area is partitioned out. The whofe scheme is
arranged in such a manner that in each case the number of partitions
repiescnt the square of the serial number.

The Samarahgana-Sutradhara however, describes only tj rce such

site plans, that is, of eighty-nine squares, hundred squares and sixty

four squares in the first of these chapters (cf. VSstulraya also Vasiu-
Laksana). These are really the principal site plans fit to be employed
in towns and temples, the most important subjects of planning. In
the next chapter however, it describes some other site plans too— of
sixteen squares and of one thousand squares. Its special contribution
however, is that in this chapter it describes circular plans together
with three-sided, six-sided, eight-sided and sixteen-sided as well as so
many extraordinary plans like VrttSyata, Ardhacandra etc. (ibid).

It may be noted again that each of these squares is assigned to

its presiding diety — some deities however, are lords of more than one
square The Lord of the Central square is always Brahma. These pre-
siding deities Pada-devat2s are of two classes— Internal and Exteranh

Again another important thing as elaborated in the second of

these four chapters as well as in the last one, is that the presiding
diety of the whole site is (He is described as
called Vastu-Purusa.
hump-backed and of crooked shape. He is said to occupy the planned
area in such a manner as to occupy the whole plot and thus the
presiding deities of the squares became presiding deities of the diffe-
rent limbs of the body of the Vastu-Purusa. All this is indicative
of the metaphysical doctrine of Vastubrahma, Ekam sad Viprah
Vahudha Va lanti). In this connection special mention may be
made of the laying of the VSstu-purusa with all its limbs together
with their interior components of Nadi, VarhSas, Anuvaih^a, etc. that
there should not occur any Vedha, otherwise results are effected (cf.
3rd of these 4 chapters). The advoidance of the Vedha is one of the
most. important points of planning in Indian architecture. A unique
thing in this book is that; sixteen-fold alphabets indicative of the
whole body of the Vastu-purusa arc mentioned at the close of the
Chapter.

So far thesd arc details of non-architcctural interest from the

modern point of view. Architecturally these site plans are enjoined
by the text to be employed in the following constructions;

\. In the residential bouses of the Brahmapas and the people of

 —

192 CANONS OF HINDU ARGHITBCTURB

Other castes together with the palaces, of the kings and temples of
Indra should be employed the plan of eighty one square,

2. The different varieties of temples, pavilions, all laid out in

§atapada Vastu.

3 The sixty four square site plan is fit to be employed in the

planning of the camps of the kings, the village, khefas and the towns.

Apart from these 4 Chapters there is one chapter more in the

S. S. which has a special importance of its. It is called Vastusarhsth^na-
Matfk5-^(the Secular varieties of the Vdstu-Plots),

We have already taken notice of certain site-plans (Ch. 12 to 15).

This chapter on sites of the different varieties of Vastu is unique in

this respect that such varieties of VSstu have nowhere been dealt
with. The chief characteristic of these sites as would be evident from
their description just below, is that they aim at the secular i. e. civil

planning in contrast to the religious planning of the site plans des-

cribed in chapters 12 to 15. I have already pointed out that this
work on architecture is the father of secular or popular planning
in India.

The forty sites with their worthy occupants are tabulated here-
under:

The PloU The Dwellers

1. Catura^ra 1. King
2. Sama 2. Ciueens* Chamber
3. SSci or SayyakSra 3. Purohita
4. Dirgha 4. Princess
r.
Vfttayata 5. Commander
6. ^ambukakara 6. Vehicles (horses & elephants),

7. 6akat3kyti 7. Vai^yas
?
8. AksSkpti 8.

9. BhagakSra 9. The prostitutes.

10. idarSSkfli 10. Goldsmith. Nagaragosjhika

11. KanthSkrti 11.

12. Chnniakarna 12. MahSmatyas

13. Vikarna n. Hunters
14. Sankhabha 14. One-eyed persons.
15. Ksurasannibha 15. Gapacarya
16. Saktyanana 16. Vrajadhyaksa
17. KurmapfS^ha 17. Malikas
Sadaiii$3kfti IS* Tailors
 —

CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 19S

The Plots The Dn) filers

19. Vyajanakrti 19. Horsemen ^
20. ^aravakrti 20. Carpenters—Taksakas
21. Sahkha-sarhsthana 21. —
22. Svastikakara 22. Bards, Vandis & Magadhas,
23. M|*dahgopama 23. Players on Verm and Turya
Panavopama musical instruments.
24. Vi^arkara 24. Charioteers
25. Kabandhabha 25. Nicas and l^vapakas —the outcastc
26. Yava-madhyasamakrti 26. Dhanya-jivis
27. Utsangabha 27. Sramanas
28. GajadantSbha 28. Mahavatas (Elephent’s riders)
29. Paraiusannibha 29. Captives
30. Vi^ravita 30. Vine-makers
31. ^vabhra 31. Labourers
32. Pralamba or yugala 32. Barbers
33. Vivahika 33. Cashiers
84. Trikusta 34. VahnijivTs
35. PaScakusta 35. }>

36. Paricchinna 36. MSnopajIvIs

37. Diksvastikabha 37. Caityani
38. Srivfksa 38. Trees (Sacrificial)
39. Vardhamanasamanana 39. Ditto
40. Enipada 40. Ganikas
41. Narapada 41. Thieves
It is the tradition that practically all the manuals on the science
of architecture have devoted some chapters to this time-honoured

tradition of Vastu— its different categories, its presiding deity, the

Purusa, its different gods inhabiting the different directions, corners,
centres and so on, and their worship and other propitiatory
performances.

After the survey of the Region and the selection of the site, the
first thing for a town-planner is to plan out the roads and streets,
lanes and by-lanes together with the orientation of the place so as to
.make it a fit place for human habitation with ease and comforts,
health and longivity, peace and prosperity. Laying out the roads
and streets is inter-connected with the plotting out of the whole area.
There are fixed rules as to how a piece of land under planning should
be plotted out. These rules are what we understand by the terra,
*Padavinyasa’. The S. S. prescribes the arrangement of the Vastu-
pada-viny3sa as the preliminary to all the building activities. TWs
subject is also treated in the earlier works.
194 CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE

When a site is selected for constructing a village, town or building

the ground is divided into a number of squares. As already stated
the MSnasara (chapter VII) distinguishes thirty two kinds of such
schemes by as many different designations, according to the number of
squares into which the whole area is partitioned out. The whole
scheme is arranged in such a manner that in each case the nutnber of
partitions represents the square of the serial number*.

The evidence in the S. S. is presented in Chapters 11 to 14 and 38

(vide tabulation —Re-arrangement of the S. S, pp. 14-18).

Thus the S. S. devotes five full chapters — 11 to 14 and 38th

Chapter. While the first four chapters are traditional in nature with
one innovation, namely, that it has added an interesting account of
sixteen-fold alphabetical symbol sm technically called Nighantu
representing the different limbs of the body of the Vastu-Purusa — the
Presiding Lord of the Site. The 38th Chapter entitled “Vastu-Sams-
th5ua-Mat|*ka*’, however, is a novel departure from the tradition as
herewe find the conception of the secular sites and they number as
many as forty and their scheme of plotting etc. is not based on the
theological or religious considerations (the deities etc.) but purely on
physical ones. This is also one of the side developments of the science
of architecture towards the civil or secular planning —a definite land-
mark in this connection is seen in the plans of the 6ala houses (vide
Part III, House Architecture, where this point is developed).

It suffices here to say that the S. S. has described only three oi

the traditional site-plans, that is of eighty-one squares, one hundred

squares and sixty four squares (vide Vastu-traya-Vibhaga, the 11th
chapter). These are really the principal site-plans most commonly
accepted and fit to be employed in towns and temples. Its special

contribution in this scheme is that it describes (vide 12th Chapter)

circular, semi-circular, triangular, hexagonal, octagonal and sixteen-
sided site-plans, also. The principal topics, in all these schemes, arc
the allotment of the different plots to the different deities, the laying
out of the Vastu-Purusa and the folk-planning, that is allotment of
the different plots for the residences of the different people belonging
to different castes and professions.

Site Plans.

Let us now take the notice of a typical site-plan, one of the prin-
ciple site-plans (cf. 81 squares) in a bit dct^^il;
 CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 1 95

The Plot of 81 Squares (Cka§Iti-pada*vastu).

This, as already indicated, consists of eighty one divisions of the

plot of the land —a
site earmarked for the building as shown on the

chart appended. Each of these divisions is called a Pada and has a

presiding deity associated with it- The arrangement is shown in
the chart.

In this connection it should be noted that the Pada-vinyasa is a

very convenient method more or less like a modern graph divided into
uniform squares for the purpose of making a plan according to pro-
portionate measurements e.g. when it is said that the centre of the
building should be located on the Brix/ima- Pada or Brahmet’-Sth^nay it

means in simple language that particular portion of the land comp-

rising the central nine squares (Nava-pada Gh. I LI) is to be built
upon. Similarly, the whole site-plan becomes so clear with reference
to each square named after that particular deity. By this device, the
Indian writers are able to refer theoretically to any particular spot of
the site in the four cardinal and four intermediate directions within
the bounds of the site in the most convenient manner. The S. S.

uses, in this connection some significant terminology e. g. Padika or

Pada^Bhuja which refers to the deity of one square; Dvipadika or
dvipada^dhlia to the presiding deity of two squares, Satpada to a
deity of six squares.

There are mainly two broad divisions of these deities, namely the
internal d^iiiGs (Antahji-samirayah-Dev^h Gh. 11.6) and the external
ones (Vahisthaij^ Devaij, — ibid).

The loterual Deities.

A. Central Lord 1. Brahma Navapadika #.*.9

B. Those Adjoining 2. Aryama (East) Each of these (2 to 5)

the Centres 3. VivaSvan (South) occupy 6 Padas-Sa^-
4. Mitra (West) bhuja and thus they
5. Pfthvidhara (North) occupy 24
C. Pada^Konastha 6. Savitf N.B . — Each of these are
(of the central 7. Savitra allotted to only one
corners). 8. Jay a Pada according to the
9. Indra S. S. The other texts
10 . YaksmS however, make them
11 . Rudra the lords of two Padas
12. Apa 8
13. Apavatsa.
 — ——

196 dANONS OF HINDU ARCHITEGTURi

The External Deities.

Thirty two deities are assigned to the outer-most boundary of

this Site-plan, eight of whom have the double share being external
and internal both, the rest i.e. 21: deities occupy each a single plot.
The Dvipadadhi^a (lords of the two squares) are marked with a flower
as tabulated under:

14. Agni 22. Anila 30. Pitrgana 38. Roga

15. Parjanya 23. Pusa 31. Dauviirika 39. Naga
*16. Jayanta *24. Vitatha *32. Sugriva *40. Mukhya
17. Indra 25, Grhaksata 33. Puspadanta 41. Bhallata
18. Ravi 26. Yama 34. Varuna 42. Soma
19. Salya 27. Gandharva 35. Asura 43. Caraka
*20. BhfSa *28. Bhrhgaraja *36. 6oSa *44. Aditi
21. iNabha 29. Mrga 37. Papayaksma 45. Diti,

Thus in all these deities are 45

and the plots are: 81

It is called ParamaSayika Plan, and the S. S* prescribes (Ch. 13,3) its

employment in the residential houses of the four castes as well as the

palaces of the kings and the temple of Indra. Indra being the symbol
of Indian Royalty, is also dedicated akin to kings to this plot of 81
squares, otherwise the different temples for the enshrinement of the
different deities are said (13.4) to be constructed on the site-plan of
100 squares ^ata'-pada-V^stu —appended in the end. The site-plan of
100 squares holds good also in the planning of the Mandapas, pavi-
lions, attached cr detached to the central shrine — the Prasada.
For the planning of the towns and their other categories like
Khe|a and Grama as well as for the planning of the royal camps
(hlarendra4ibira), the site plan of sixty four squares is recomended
(S. S. Oh. 13-5). The Manasara (ibid) calls it ‘Canditak It compri-
ses \^ithin It the sixty-four squares, as per the di^grametic representa-
tiott appended in the end.

Now after these principal plans have been taken into consideratiohj
anqtl^f important notice is the formation of the Vastu-Purusa, the
fi^ St discipline to be mastered by an expert Sthapati (vide the eight*
fold Architecture, the 45th Chapter). The V. P. is the presiding
Lford of the whole plot. He is described as hump-backed and of
crooked shape. He is said to occupy the^ planned area in such a
manner as to occupy the whole plot and thus the presiding deities of
 CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 197

the Squares become presiding deities of the different limbs of the

body of the Vastu-Purusa* (n this connection special mention may
be made of the laying of the Vastu-purusa with all its limbs together
with their interior components of Nadi, Varh^a, Anuvarh^a, Marma,
etc. that there should not occur any Vedha, otherwise the adverse
results are effected (cf. 3rd of these 4 chapters i. e. S. S. 13th). The
avoidence of the Vedha is one of the most important points of plann-
ing in Indian Architecture. A unique thing in this book is that
sixtccnfold alphabets indicative of the whole body of Vastu-purusa
are mentioned at the close of the Chapter.

Again it may be pointed out that the S. S. is the only work in the
extant Vastu-Sastra works that gives the Nighantu of the Pada-
devatas, appended herewith.
Further again most of these Pada-devatas stand for their
connection with solar system and the atmospheric regions.
The scientists have discovered the manifold segments of the Solar
light. P. A. Mankad, m his Introduction to Aparajita-pfccha
has very ably worked out this symbolism of these Pada-dcvatDs
to the afore said solar system and atmospheric regions (XIII-XX).
The theory of Orientation of Structures is nothing but the
practical application of the Vastu-pada-vinyasa, and we have already
seen its implication in the preceeding section —Dihnirnaya. Some
more observations of the learned editor of the Aparajita-prccha need
be reproduced to bring the fuller significance of this Hindu tradition
in architecture and also to popularize Sri Mankad’ s theory which be
has so lucidly expounded:
^‘Within a couple of centuries European scientists have discovered
that the Solar light (white) could be split up under suitable conditions
into three segments; first, a visible spectrum of coloured rays ranging
from the deepest blue to red with their wave lengths varying from
3900 to 7700 Angstroem Units. This visible spectrum
is flanked on

each side by two invisible zones known as ultra-violet and infra-red.

The segment comprises that part of the spectrum with
ultra violet
wave lengths approximately between 136 and 3900 A Units, and is
next to the violet zone; while the infra-red segment has wave lengths
varying between 7700 and 4000000 A Units, and is next to the red of
the visible spectrum. The invisible spectrum on the violet end is

called the actinic or chemical spectrum.

Cosmic rays •003 to *006 A. U.
Gamma rays *02 to. *01 A. U.
Rontgen rays •01 to 5 A, U.
and Uultra Violet 200 to 3900 A. U. form this region.
198 dANONS OF HINDU ARGHlTEdTUltE

The invisible region on the red end is called the thermic or heat
spectrum. This section is divided into 3 sub-regions according to the
views of Luckiest), while Saidman divides it into 9 octaves out of
which the hrst 3 are used in therapeutics. As far as the promulgation
of the principles of Indian VastuSastra in old Vedic times is concerned
we have Aryan Brahmanas of over 40 centuries who were
to look to
divided into two distinct camps. One was purely orthodox and was
headed by Atri and his colleagues, while the other belonged to the refor-
mists’ school and was headed by Bhygu and his colleagues. The latter
school, it appears, has brought about a fusion of some of the Dravidian
elements into the principles which were purely Aryan. The mytho-
logical disquisition regarding the origin of Vastupadadevata is not
touched here. Only the location and the intensity of iiiQuence of the
deities involved are discussed. It may be added in this connection

that Indian Vastu^astra takes cognizance of as many as 45, perhaps

49 or 53 deities. These are shown in the chart attached hereto.

The Indian sages who promulgated this theory were not equipped
with the present day appliances of the Western Science such as New-
ton’s Colour card. Solarium with a spectroscope, Q,uartz lamp,
Rheostat, and other appliances, or the remarkable instrument the
Spectroheliograph which was invented by Professor Hale in America
and M. Deslandres in Paris and which enables one to get pictures of
the hydrogen Sun, the calcium Sun or the iron Sun, portraying only
those formations upon it that were composed of the particular vapours
selected and which could further photograph the Sun’s atmosphere at
—
various levels etc. and yet they were able to discern many natural
phenomena in a marvellous manner. They had no equipped labora-
tory except nature and all the same they could distinguish between
primary, secondary and tertiary colours. They had the knowledge of
the decomposition of Solar white light into the visible spectral regions.
Their discoveries did not end there.

The visible spectrum had distinctive names with specific functions;

the present day science has the seven divisions which are distinguished
by colours only. Western Science has no parallel with the changes
which these seven rays undergo during the diurnal motion of the Sun
at its Several periods as detailed atlength below. Scholars have tried to
interpret the Vedic gods from various viewpoints, but they have been
found conflicting in a variety of ways. I am, on my part led to
approach the subject from a different angle altogether. V3stuS3stra
has reference to Vastudevatapadavinyasa i.e. the disposition or appor-
tionment 6f (padas) divirions in the general plan allotted to different
 CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 199

deities. This Vastupadavinyasa, it may be observed, forms a funda-

mental principle for the design of various structures adminstrating to
*
the needs of men of a variety of grades.
In order to bring home to readers this view point, I append a
chart of the deities who direct and control the animate and inanimate
world. The North«east corner
of the chart starts with ^ which stand
for which corresponds to the ultra-violet segment of the Solar
spectrum. Its rupa (the mystical occult form) has the following attri-
butes: (l)sfto?R:,(2)f^5rasT {4)g®^, (5)
(7) (8) (9) (10) njTW, (11)

(12) n’WJrra:, (13) (n) (15) etc.

If these characteristic are rationally studied a host of properties

and phenomena would be revealed. A chart showing the appointment
of padas assigned to various deities in general plan of structures as
worked out by Mankad is appended (in the Appendix No. A.).

Similarly, the South-east comer of the chart represents which

stands for Agni and corresponds to the infro-red segment of the solar
spectrum. If the riipa of Agni as known to Indian savants is minutely
studied it would be a real revelation to Western scientists, as it is cal-
culated to unfold a variety of mysterious scientific problems:

5 <TT^ ^

Now to the portion corresponding to the visible spectrum of the

Solar white light. Jayanta, Parjanya Mahendra to BhrSa and Aka^a
these seven correspond to the VIBGYOR,
(Westen Science). It may
be added that the Western Scientists have as yet no specific names
except the colours; while Jayanta, Parjanya etc. signify by themselves
certain distinguishing properties besides the colour of the visible

spectrum.

In Western Science the visible spectrum of Solar white light con-

sists —
of seven colours VIBGYOR, as stated above. According to
Indian VSstuSastra the Vedic deities corresponding (in nuinber only)
 — :

200 CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE

to these are Parjanya, KaSyapa, Mahendra, Surya, Satya, Bhria and

Nabhas. Their characteristic functions are described seperately. They
have reference to the radiant energy of the Sun. The seven horses of
Surya are represented by these deities. Indian sages have further
seven more ASvas from a phonetic or acoustic consideration. They
are : Gayatri Usnik (seven), Anustup (eight) Brhati (nine)
(six)

Pahkti (ten), Tristup (eleven) and Jagatl (twelve) meters with 6, 7, 8,

9, 10, 1 1 and 12 syllables in a quarter:

as one proceeds from Gayatri to Jagati the number of syl-

Here
lables go on increasing just as the wave lengths of VIBGYOR go on
increasing from V to R. These seven horses of Chandas would be ex-
plained in terms of phonetics later on. Agnipurana's 93rd Adhyaya
prescribes as many as 12 Marmas (vital parts) in a Vastu (site of buil-
dings); they are as under:

(1) ?TfTJn?, (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

(7) (8) (9) flwa:, (10) wftr ^vr, (1 1) and (12) q^(!).

These Marmas in a Vastu (ground plan of buildings) indicate

that the places marked therein should not be built upon. They go to
determine that not only a certain percentage in the plan should
remain unbuilt upon, but they show where the open spaces should have
their location, in the general scheme of the plan. Further the theory
of orientation of structures is nothing but the practical application of
the general principle of Vastudevatapadavinyasa. The study of the
latter principle will thus makes the theory of orientation of buildings
more clear. etc. are technical

terms refering to the diurnal course of the Sun, long before its rise on
the horizon in the east to Sunset in the West.

When the Sun appears on the horizon in the morning (STr^^ri^FToT)

he is accompanied by seven deities (including himself). What are
described as seven steeds arc nothing but seven rays— I

from % to take away, extract. (Vide Nighan^ (T Ya^ka). Pandit Ganga

Prashad m.a ,
m r.a.s ,
Retired Chief Judge Tehri State has discussed
this question of steeds at some length in his (1.50,8,9.).
As the Sun has risen above the horizon and advanced a few degrees in
in its onward march towards the meridian i e. in the the func-
lional duties of the seven deities have come to an end and they have
to retire in favour of five (?) or three deities among whom occu-
pies the presidential chair. The portfolios of the sevcii defies of thfp
 CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 201

5TT^;^ra! are reshuffled among the new members of the

with Apa and Ap ivatsa oa the North and Savitr and .S'lvitra on the
South The Su I’s further course towards ihe meridian terminates the
duties of Aryain in and his colleagues and Brahma steps in to direct

and control the heavens in the It is not to be supposed that

several other deities on the Southern and Northern sides as shown on

the chart are not functioning at all, all the while. Tlie Sun being the
central figure during the day is the sovereign lord domineering over
all other deities.

The reverse process takes place during the STTCT® course of the
Sun. Brahma then hands over his charge to three or five (?) deities of
the namely Mitra and his colleagues Rudra, Rtidradasa on the
North and Indra and ludrajaya on the South. The distintive func-
tional effects of these luminous bodies are different from those of
Ayarman an I his colleagues though light and lieat aspects remain un-
affected. It is only in the course of the Sun that these five
deities retire in favour of seven one!; wherein Varuna occupies the place
which Siirya had to do in the morning. Varuna thus is a ray aspect
of the Sun. The functions of the deities of the evening are different
from those of the morning members, Indra in the morning has Asura
as his evening counterpart, so also Jayanta and Parjanya have Sosa
uurn) and Papayaksma and so on for the right hand colleagues of
Varuna It will be apparent that the functions of the evening deiulss
are evidenely not the same as those of the morn ng ones. The rea-
son is evident. As the Sun advances from sunrise to midday, his
course in the first quadrant is marked by gradually increasing tempe-
rature and decreasing atmospheric humidity. ‘In the same way his
career from the meridian towards the horizon on the West or his pro-
gress in the second quadrant is characterized by diminishing tempera-
ture combined with increasing humidity. The function of the lumi-
naries under such opposing influences can never be one and the same.

Wilkins (Hindu Mythology) says that in the Vedic literature

Varuria was not represented chiefly as the god of the ocean; rather
Vedic hymns show him as one of the gods of liglu . This interpreta-
tion quite fits in the reading of the chart, as Vanina in the evening is

the same as Surya in the morning. Varuna from br to cover, to encom-

pass means, atmosphere or the deity presiding over the atmosphere.
This atmosphere is, thanks to the discoveries of Astral physics during
the last fifty years, divided into several spheres on account of their
varying physical characteristics. These divisions of the aerial envelope
^re roughly Troposphere, Tropopouse,. Stratosphere^ Qzono«phcre|
 ; —

^02 CANONS OF HtNbU ARGHITECTURt

Ethcrosphere etc.; but several centuries before this discovery, the

atmosphere over which Varuna held its sway was divided into
^9 ^ and the distintive colours which they
presented arc summed up in the idea of 5 of Aparajita-
pj-ccha. The rays, which each of the so called atmosphere is capable
of emitting, assume the following colours in order: (1)

(2) (3j (4) (5) (6) and (7)

with V on the top.

The abbreviation in the chart represent the intial letter of the

Vedic deities as under;-—

1. The deities on the Eastern periphery are

Name(l)|TT (2)ir^ (3)gnnw (4)ip^ (5)^ (6) (7)^
(8)lirT^ (9)wfl?

2. Deities on the Southern periphery

Names ^10
ftnW
11 12 13 14
^JJRTSI
15
^
16

3. Deities on the Western periphery—

Names
17' 18 19 20
Nw
21
vgr
22
^
23
'iTmjn(v)
24
^
25

4* Deities on the Northern periphery

Names wm (Ar) {\) (»)

i6 27 28 29 30 31 32

5, Internal deities—

Names ^ 33
mTCRTW
34
wflTT
85 36 37 38
>WT
39 40

^ qjnrq pir
41 42 43 44 45
They are 45 in all.

The thesis as propounded and presented by Mankad is corrobora-

ted by the Nigha^i^us of the VSstU'pada-devatas in the S, S. and it is

tabulated here under

Th# Nighanfus.
U BrahmS Abjasambhava SahasrSnana Acintyavibhava
2. Vahni Sarvabhutahara, Hara
3# Parjanya VfftimSn, Ambudadhipa
4s Jayanta KSIyapabhagavin
 GAKONS or HINDU ARCHITECTURE 203

5. Mahendra Suradhiia, the Subduer of the Danujas, the

demons *

6. Vivasvan Ahaskara
7. Satya Dharma
Bhutahita,
8. BhfSa Kama, Manmatha
9. Antariksa Nabhas
10. Maruts Vayu
11. Pusan Motfgana
2. Vitatha Adharma, Kalerapratimah Sutah — (the extra-or-
dinary son of Kali).
13. Gfhaksata Budha, ihe son of Moon.
14. Yama Vivasvan, the Lord of the Departed ones (Pretas)
15. Gandharva N^rada
16. Bhfiigaraja Son of Nirfti
17. Mrga Ananta, Svayambhu, Dharma
18. Pitfs The deities residing in the Pit|*loka
19. Dauvarika Nandi, the lord of the Pramathas
20. Sugriva Primordial Prajapati, Manu
21. Puspadanta Son of Vinata, Mahajava
22. Varuna Lord of waters and a guardian of quarters
23. Asura Rahu, the son of Simhika, the suppresser of Sun
and Moon.
24. ^osa The son of Sun, i§anai$cara
25. PapayaksmS Ksaya
26. Roga —
Jvara the fever
27. Naga Vasuki
28. Mukhya Tvasta, Vilvakarma
29. Bhalla(a Candra
30. Soma Kubera
31. Garaka Vyavasaya
32. Aditi Sri
33. Dili ?

34. Sulabhj^t Vrsabhadhvaja

35. Apa HimavSn
36. Apavatsa UmS
37. „
Aryam3 Aditya
38. S3vitra VcdamaiS
39. Savitf DevI GahgS
40. VivaivSn Mftyu, dariraharta
41. Jayabhidha Vajrl
42. Indra Balavin Had
43. Mitra Haladhara> Mall
204 GANOMS of HINDU AACHITEOTURK

44. Ruclra MaheSvara

45. Rajayaksma Guha
46. Ksitidhara Ananta
47. Garaki ‘Raksoyoni-bhava Devatanucaryah*
Vidaii born of RSksas, these are maids of gods
Put ana,
Paparaksasi.

As regards the evidence furnished by other texts notably the

Manasara, the Mayamata, the Silparatna and the Aparajitapraccha,
the details may be avoided. Some particular notices, however,
demand our attention. The thirty two types of Vastupadas as pres-
cribed by the Manasara are tabulated as here under for an interesting
reading :

Natnes of Padas. Nos. of Plots Names of Padas. Kos. of Plot

i. Sakala 1 17. Tiiyuta 289

2. PaiSaca 4 18. Karnastaka 324
3. Pftha 9 19. Ganita 379
4. Mahapit’ia 16 20. Surya-viJalaka 400
5. Upa-i Itha 25 21. Susarhhita 451
6. Ugra-pitha 36 22. Supratikanta 484
7. Sthandila 49 23. ViSalaka 529
8. Candita 64 24. Vipra-garbha 576
9. Paramalayika 81 25. Viivcsa 625
10. A. ana 100 26. Vipula 676
11. SthSniya 121 27, Vipra-kanta 729
12. ? 144 28. Vi^aiaksa 781
13. Ubhaya-candita 169 29 Vipra-bhakti 841
14. Bhadra 196 30. Vi5veSa-sara 900
15. Mahasana 225 31. ISvarakanta 961
16. Padmagarbha 276 32. Candrakanta 1024

Similar prescriptions abound in all other Southern texts.

The Aparajitapraccha, however, has some innovation both in the

genesis of the VSstu and its terminology of the different types of the
Padas. In the former the interesting details (cf. A. P. Sutrlts ; 53-55)
are the origin of the Vastu from ‘DcvastirasangrSma’ as well as from
the Dialogue between MaheSvara And Sukra and its constituents
16 sandhis, 8 limbs, 16 sutras and 5 ksetra's Are beautifully summarized:

i
 CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 205

And in which the augas, the limbs are elaborated as followes :

cnrJT ^ i

srf^rr^f^^^iTu II

.'^OW the terminology of the Vastupadas is tabulated as here

under ;

Name Plots Service

1. Svastika 1 Catuski— the vedi etc.

2. Puspaka 4 Marriage etc. and the ceremonials

3. Nanda 9 Entry into the forests etc.
4. Sod iltksa 16 Pavilions and jagattis
5. Kulatilaka 25 Worshipful initiations
6. Subhadra 36 Auspicious operations and actions
7. Marlci-gana 49 All jirnoddharas
8. Bhadraka 6i Hemlets, villages, towns and capitals
9. Kamada 81 Residential houses
10. Bhadra and ICO Temples and pavillions and palaces
11. Sarvatobhadra 1000 Other extraordinary temple struc-
tures like Meru etc.

These in the terminology of A P, are the Vastu-sthanani. It has

.

some farther innovations to make. It recognises six-fold Vastu-ksetras

akin to what we have noticed in the evidence furnished by th.^* S. S.,
the vrtta ; vi'tiayata etc. etc.*^ Vastu-padas. In A.P. (cf. Sutra 57 18-25)
they are termed as GaturaJra, Ayata, Vrtta, Vrttayata, Astafra and
Ardhacandra, It further enjoins their af)plication. The square,
CaturaJra ksetra is fit for temples, towns and residences. For vapis
and wells the Vrtta is suitable and the tanks and the like are to be
dug on the ardhacandra,
III— MANA (HASTALAKSANA)
The third fundamental canon of Hindu architecture is Mana,
the proportionate measurements. Vimana is measured out Creation.
MQrtis are what when they are correctly and proportionately
measured out— WftfWT ^T: 1 hus adherance
to the measurements is imperative in all creative activities whether
it is architecture or sculpture. Unless a building is proportionately
and perfectly measured out, it can not give an auspicious result.
Mayamata says : ITTtT vniT^a; If the
measurement of the Temple is in every way perfect, there will be
206 QANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE

perfection in the universe as well. The S. S. has also to contribute its

ova to thu thesis. According to it any creative activity-
architectural or aculptural —
must be ‘Meya’ ‘complete in me*isures*
Our iconographic traditions arc so
strict thathowsoever a beautiful image is carved out, but if it lacks
the correct proportions of measurements, it is deemed and
defective
unworthy of possession. That is why it has been proclaimed by
Acharyas of the Science, — * H STTWJ fc’'.
Strict adherence to Measure or Mina has a fundamental metaphysical
implication. Prof. Kramresch rightly echoes that implication in
her Hindu Temple p. 43 (cf. also foot-notes): ‘Measure implies
limi s and limits mean end and death. It is by man’s own mortal

frame that this knowledge of the universe is confirmed. The square,

form of finality, is at the same time that of the pairs of opposites,
manifestation is only through the pairs contraries. The square
throne of divinity rests on the iollowing pairs of contraries: Order
and its negation (dharma and adharma); knowledge and ignorai^cc
(j^nana and ajnana), dispassion and its opposite (vaiiagy and
avairagya), and sovereignly and its negation (ai^varya and anaiivarya).
The positive values support the throne, as its legs, in the corners, in
the intermediate directions. Their negations are situated at the
shafts, in the cardinal directions (cf. Isana. Pt 1 1 1 ch XIII. 25)
and in their balance lies the perfection of the square. Its proportion
embodies, and thus resolves, the finality of limitation into a symbol
of perfection. Proportion and balance are the form of the subtle
(suksma) nature of the square, their residue is the order which

belongs to the city of the Dharmaraja, who is Death and a son of

the Sun. (Similarly, the finality of architectural form houses, the
life man and is a seat of living God.) The other son is Manu, the
of
prototype of man who gives its law to each cycle of cxistene.”
It may be recalled that the adherences to Mana is as old as
architecture. Brahmapda-Purana (Chap. YII) gives a very apt
origin of Mana, of which Ahgula or Hasta is the standard of
measurement (to be fully kept alive in the Vastu or Silpa texts—
vide their expatiations on Measure under the caption ‘Hastakaksana*).
It is stated in the Parana that people at first used to live in caves,
mountains, rivers, etc. They began to build houses in order to
protect themselves from cold and heat (Sftosna-varanata). Then
they built khejas (towns), puras (houses), gramas (villages) and
nagaras (cities). And to measure their length, breadth, and the
intermediate distance between two settlements (sanniveSa) the
people instinctively (yatha-j33nam) employed their own fingers.
,

Thence forward the ailgulas arc used as standards of measurement.

 CANONS OF HINDU ARGHITBCTURB 207

The ancient sacred literature like Brahman as and Sutras also

corroborate this antiquity of the angula or hasta measure as the
standard of mcasurem nt. Thus Pradefe frequently occurs in the
Brahrnanas (Ait. VIII. 5; Satapatha, 111, 5, 4, 5 etc.) as a measure
of length, 6ulba sutra of Baudhyana does use a technical
a span.
unit of Aratni, but explains it in terms of ahgulas: Aratni is equal
to 24 ahgulas. We shall see more on angula later, let us first
introduce this subject in regard to its more important elements.

The word M3na has a twofold connotation. It is general

designation Measurement as such; but more technically it is
of
height as measurement from the foot to the top of the head (whether
it is a building or an image) which is in fact nothing but height.

Accordingly the line or measurement is devided in the following

six kinds;

Mana, (also called Ayama, Ayata, Dirgha); 2, Pramlna;

1.

3 Parimana (also called Vistara, Tara, Striti, Vistriti, Vistrita, Vyisa,

VisSrita, Tata, Viskamba, Viiala); 4. Lamba-mana (Sutra, unmita);
5, UnmSna (Bahala, Ghana, Miti, UchchhrSya, Tunga, Unnata,
Udaya, Utsedha, Ucca, Nlskrama, Nisk|‘ti, Nirgama, Niigati,
Udgama) and 6. Upamana (Nivra, Vivara, Antara).

We have already seen the meaning of mStna under MSna.

Primaia is the measurement of breadth (Vistrita). Parimana is
the measurement of width or circumference (paritah). Lamba-
mana is the measurement along the plumb lines or the lines drawn
perpendicularly through different parts of the body, Mana, or the
measurement of height being determined by the surface of the body.
Unmana is the measurement of thickness (nimna) or diameter.
And Upamana is the measurement of interspace (antara), such as
the distance between the two feet of an image* this measurement
is apparently taken from one plumb line to another. These terms
are more sculptural than architectural.

There is yet another system called AdimSna primary

measurement, which is but the comparative mcasuement and chiefly
useful in sculpture and iconography. It is also divided and subdivi-
ded in nine kinds —vide Encyllopadia of Hindu architecture p. 418-19.
Similarly as angula was the chief measure in Architecture, so Tala in
Sculpture. The details of the TalarnSna may not be reproduced here
(cf. my VastuiSstra Vol. 11). Like TilamSna in sculpture, it is

called Gaiayamana in architecture which is the comparative height

of the component membep of an archiuctural structure,
208 GANOIDS OF HINDU ARCHiTECtURE

Five proportions of the height^ as compared with the breadth

of an architey:tural object, are given under technical terms, namely,
Santiki, Paustik i, Jayada, Sarva-kfimlka or Dlianada, and Adbhuta*.
These terms are very interesting from the, stand-point of iheir
implied aestliecity or durability of the buildipg. Dr. Acharya says:
‘
The t chnical names of the proportions of the height arc
significant. The firs^ one is called ‘^antika’ or peaceful. In this

proportion the height is equal to the breadth (M., XXXV line 22);
and this is aesthetically a graceful proportion. The second one is

called ‘Paustika* which might be rendered as strong, eminent, rich,

complete, or perfect. In this proprotion the height is Ij of the

breadth (ibid., line 22); and this would give the building good
stability. The third one is called ‘Jayada* or joy-giving. In this
proporation the heighis J of the breadth (ibid line 22), and this
1 ,

gives a pleasantappearance to the building. The fourth one has

two names, ‘sarva-k5mika, or good in every way, and ‘dhanada* or
wealth-giving In this proportion the height is Ij of the breadth
(ibid., line 23)’ and according to the literal meaning of the term
*s2rvak5mika* this would make the building strong as well as
beautiful. The fifth or last one is called ‘adbhuta* or marvellous.
In this proportion the height is twice the breadth (ibid,, line 22);
and this would givea wonderful loftiness and gorgeous look to the
building.*'

With this general introduction let us treat this subject in more

details from the evidences of the principal texts like the ^liinaslra
and the Saraarauganasutradhara. Let us first begin with that
culled from the Manasara.

Ant’ula, the standard of measurement, is a measure of about

threc-fouths of an inch as the hasta may be taken for easy
computation which gives f inch as the value of the
at exactly 18 inches
angula. Three kinds of angulas are: Uttama, the longest, madhyama,
the intermediate and kanistha, the smallest, and the Suprabheda*
gama has an interesting list of synonyms of number of afigulas and
the following tabulation from Acharya, s Encyclopaedia may be
pur vie wed:

One angula is called bindu, moksa.

Two aftgulas are called kala (elsewhere it is the name of one aftgula ji
kplaka, padma, ak^i, aivipl.
Tl^ree n » » rudrSksi, agni, gupa, S 61 a (and) IVidyiS*

Foqr ,,, „ yoga (and) bhaga, Veda, and turfya.

 —

CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 209

Five >> >> 99 rudranana, indriya, bhiita, and vana.

Six 5 J >> 99 karman, ahga, ayana, and ras^a.
Seven V 99
patala, muni, dhatu and abdhi.
Eight >> 99 vasu, lokeSa, and murti.
Nine >> 99 dvara, sutra, graha, and Sakti.
Ten 99 99 dik, nadi, ayudha, and priidurbhava.
Twenty >5 99 99 trishu (and) vishku.
Thirty >5 99 99 gati.

Forty 5> 99 99 trijagat (?)

Fifty >> 99 99 Sakvari.
Sixty 99 99 atisakvari.
Seventy >> 99 99
yasli.

Eighty 99 99 atyasti.

Ninety 99 99
dhrti.

Hundred 99 J1 atidhfti.

Hasta, the bigger standard is constituted by the ahgiilas. Hence

avoiding the details of Ahgula as are started in the Mausara, let

us concentrate on the evidence of the S, S.

Proportionate measurements being the very essence of the archi-

tectural planning, the author of the S. S. devotes a separate chapter to
this. The unit of the measurement in architecture is Hasta. It is

defined as the instrument of all Vastus, the only basis of all the actions
(pertaining of course to the constructions, etc.); the only medium
through which all the proportions of measurements can be ascertained.
It is of three kinds — superior, ordinary and inferior.
The units of absolute measurements being .*

8 Renus = 1 Balagra
8 Balagras =1 Liksa
8 Liks3s «1 Yuka
8 Yukas = I Yava-madhya

8 Yava-madhyas =a I Ahgula called Praiaya

1 ,, called Sadharana
=» 1 ,, called Matra^aya

24 Ahgulas « I Hasta i,e. the modern foot.

This Hasta consists of 8 parts (Parvas), the middle half should be

indicated and the remaining portion to be divided into divisions
of Ahgulas. All the Ahgulas should be indicated by lim$, only
three of which arc to be decorated with flowers and others left undeco-
r^tedv
 — —

210 CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURS

After this, certain trees of which this rod should be made are
enumerated together with the trees unfit to be employed in its cons-
truction. The Parva-rekhas (the lines) of this yard-stick are said to
have the presiding deities beginning from the centre, the place of
Brahma.
Directions are given with regard to the use of these different kinds
of yard-sticks:
The superior yard stick called PraSaya is to be employed in the
measurement of Prasada, temples, Ve^ma, the large buildings,
drenches, moats, gates, Rathyl, Sabha, etc. The middle type called
SadhSrana is employedmeasuring talocchrayas, mulapadas, sub-
in

terranean water reservoirs, dolas, rock-cut temples and suraiigas etc.,

while the inferior one called Matra^aya is fit to measure the
weapons, the rod of the bow, conveyances, cots and couches, wells,
vapjs elephants, horses, araghatteksu-yantras, chatra, dhvaja etc. etc.
Other units of measurements are now described :

1 Angula a=l MatrS 12 Angulas make one Vitasti

2 >>
= 1 Kaia 14 99 make one Pffda
3 =1 Parva 21 99 make one Ratni
4 >>
= 1 Musti 24 99 make one Aratni
5 = 1 Tala* 42 99 make one Kisku
6 9>
= 1 Hasta 84 99 make one Vyama or purusa
7 »1 Disfi
8 >9
= 1 Tuni 96 99 make one Capa or Nadl-
9 99
= 1 PradeSa yuga
10 99 = 1 Sayatala 106 99 make one Danda
11 = 1 Gokarna 30 Dhanusas make one Nalva
1000 99 make one KroSa
2000 99 make one Gavyuti
4 Gavyutis make one Yojana
Another interesting item of the description (of Arithmetic) is the
20 numbers.
1. One 1 11, Kharva 10000000000
2. Ten 10 12. Nikharva 100000000000
3. Hundred 100 13, Sankha 1000000000000
4. Thousand 1000 14. Padma 10000000000000
5. Ayuta 10000 15. AmburaSi 100000000000000
6. Nivuta 100000 16. Madhya 1000000000000000
7. Prayuta 1000000 17. Antya 10000000000000000
8.Arbuda 10000000 18* Para 100000000000000000
9. Nyarbuda 100000000 19, Apara 1000000000000000000
)0. Bf'nda lOOOOOOOOQ 20. Parardha lOOOOOOOOOQQOOOOQOOO
 6ANONS 6F HINDU ARCHITECTURE 2tl

In the end are given the details of ten units— the time numbers
( Kala-sankhya) :
— •

1 Eye-twinkling ... 1 Nimesa

15 Nimesas ... Kas^ha
30 Kasthas ... Kala
30 Kalas ... ... Muhurta
30 Muhurtas ... Day and night

15 Ahoratras i.e, days and nights... ... Paksa

2 Paksas ... ... One month

2 Masas ... ... ... One Rtu
3 Rtus ... ... ... One Ayana
2 Ayanas ... One year

AYADl-SAD-VARGA
• •

According to theAyadi is a group

S. S. the of six,

namely Aya, Vyaya, Arpia, Rksa, Yoni, and Vara-tithi. It is said

these are the six formulas, ‘‘with which the perimeter of structure should
conform”. They are in a way “six proportions, six main component
parts of a building comprising Adhisthana (base), Pada or Stambh
(column), Prastara (entablature), Karna (ear i.e. wings), iSikhara (roof)
and Stupi (dome)”— Ency. PI. A. p. 500.

These formulae in different texts are not the same. According to

the S. S. they are Aya, Vyaya, Yoni, Tara, BhavanarhSaka and Grba-
nama. Aya represents the group of eight beginning with Dhvaja,
Dhuma, Siihha, 6va, V|;sa, Khara, Kunjara and Dhvankja. It also
lays down the respective efficacy of these Ayas in the respective
planning together with their virtues and defects (vv. 21-24).

The Vyaya represents the group of three —PiSica, RSksasa and

Yaksa. Similarly the Arhsas are also three— Indra, Yama and Raja.
As regards the l^ksa, Tara, they are distributed in three groups of
nine each—Sura-Gana, Raksasa-Gana and MSnusa-Gapa. These
27 T3ras are of common knowledge.

This Chapter gives a detailed information on the application of

these sixfold Karana in the house operations. It says, “With the
group of three in favour, the operations are auspicious, with two ot
one, inauspicious and on the other hand, with four it is very much
auspicious”*
212 CANONS OF HINDU ARCttlTEOTUR^

In the end this Chapter also takes up another set of six technically

called Ghandas. They are Meru> Khanda Meru, Pataka, Suci, Uddista
and Nas^a, a detailed notice of which forms the subject-matter of the
last section.

Canons are inter-related: Whether the orientation of a

All these
building is correct and whether the measurements as laid down in
regard to the different structures are correct, auspicious and conform
to the orientation, are further tested by this very fundamental canon
of the Ayadi six-forrnulas. Sadvarga, accordingly is a group of six,
six formulas, with which the perimeter of a structure should confirm,

six proportions, six main component parts of a building comprising

adhisthana (base), pITda or stambha (column), prastara (entablature),
(Karna ear, wings), ^ikliara (roof) and stupi (dome). This is only a
According to the Manasara the
general definition of the Sadvarga.
Ayadi sad-varga, however, represents a set of six formulas with
which any particular measurement must confoim before it can be
accepted. Thus our previous thesis that this canon is a step forward
towards the correct orientation and the proportions of measurements
of a structure is supported. ‘The invention of Ayiidivarga is an
architectural device, the intention of which is to find out a proper
orientation to the and a proper dimension
structure Among the
architectural conventions of India, Ayadivarga occupies an important
place. Every measurement before it is accepted is required to satisfy
these six fundamental requisites. Every architectural treatise pres-
cribes a variety of dimensions, but these have to Le further subjected
to an examination in view of the fact that Hindu structures have to
and orientation.
satisfy the considerations of auspiciousness, propriety

Itwas with a view to enabling the builder to select the auspicious and
proper measurement that these traditional architectural formulas
known as Ayadisadvarga are described in Indian architectural
literature.*

How the correct orientation of a building particularly of a temple

is dependent on these formulas, can be understood with especial
reference to Yoni, one of the six members of this ^varga* (the others
being Ayai, Vyaya, Rksa, Tithi and V5ra). According to our tradition,
orientation according to its location on iSa is a pre-requisite of plann-
ing. Thus temples possess either the Dhv^ja or the V^^sa Yoni (the
—
Yoni is eightfold the other six are Vayas, Dhuma, Simha, Sva,
Vanara and Gaja, which also determine the eight Vastupurusas as we
shall soon sec). Mallaya rightly interprets this tradition when he
'ijays~**trcmples located in any of the quarters beginning with ifo anjl
 CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 213

ending with Yama in a village, capital or city will have Dhvaja Yoni
(i.e. Yoni No, 1). In the remaining quarters, the Yoni* will be Vrsa,
(i.e. No. 5). The image that is to be installed will possess the Yoni
of the temples. Thus an image enshrined in a temple which faces
the west will have Yoni No. 1, because the Yoni of the temple which
faces the west is Yoni No, 1. The idea in brief is that the sanctum
and the image will possess similar Yoni and facii g*'. Thus of all the
A yadi-vargas, Yoni is regarded as the most important. Accordingly it

has claimed the greatest attention at the hands of every authority on

architecture. As already referred to, Yonis arc eight in number
which correspond to the eight quarters and hence their importance in
the determination of the exact orientation is understandable. They
are sometimes refered to by numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. Dhvaja
Yoni is 1 and
accordingly called Yoiii No. is positioned in the due
East. Dhuma Yoni No.
Yoni,2 and is
is located in the South-East.
Simha Yoni is Yoni No. 3 and is located in due South and so on. Dr.
Krararisch completes this thesis of imperative importance of Yoni
formula in relation to the orientation of a building (vide her Hindu
Temple pp. 37-9) and her learned observations are worth ctuoting:
“The position and orientation of a temple and of any building are deter-
mined analogous to the method according to which the place of sun
or moon or one of the planets is found in the circle of Naksatras.
According to the ‘Suryaprajnapti’ the longitude of the heavenly body
expressed in minutes is to be divided by 800, the quotient shows the

number of Naksatras through which the planet has already passed

and the remainder, the traversed part of the NakSastra in which it is
at the time. In a similar way is ascertained the position of a building
in the cosmos; that is the direction which it is to face: the measure-
ment of the building is to be divided by 8. The remainder indicates
the particular direction which will be its own out of the 8 directions.
This particular direction is the Yoni, its birthplace in the cosmos,
where it is marked by its Vastupurusas. The Vastupurusas, and the
respective remainders are given by Utpala commenting on the *Bfhat-^
SamhitS* Ch. LII. 73, according to the teaching of other Acaryas,
and not of Varahamihira

“If the remainder is 1, then the yoni is Dhvaja, and the building
faces East, the remainder
if the yoni is the S E and so forth. If
is 2,

there is no remainder the building would have to face North-East.

This is to be avoided by all means; it would be of evil portent were the
building to face any of the corners of the square; similarly also the
remainder should not be 2, 4 or 6, it must be uneven, so that the
entrance of the building faces the East, preferably or also the West
2l4 CANONS OF HINDU ARGHITEGTUlt^

and less readily the North and still permissibly, the South The
remainder isrfound in different texts by taking account of various
measures of the building to be set up. The perimeter, for instance is
multiplied by 3 and divided by 8. The remainder is that of yoni; should
there be no remainder, the perimeter and proportions of the intended
structure have to be altered. Death, destruction and varied ills result
from a wrong orientation. If the building were to obstruct the course
and order of cosmos it would provoke disorder in the kingdom, and in
the body of the builder. Yoni is an architectural formula, the re-
mainder gained through it, assures the fitness of the structure in order
of things and the well being of the builder and his surroundings The
remainder, particularly, is however, the Vastu, itself.”

‘Yoni constitutes the life and breath of the structure, particularly

of a house. A proper and auspicious yoni is therefore required to be
chosen for the same. Thus the Manusyalayacandrika observes :

sirmr ^ i

Considering the fruits thereof, the general rule is that all odd
yonis are good and even ones bad. Accordingly, ‘Dhvaja* ‘Siihha’
‘Vfsa* and Gaja are auspicious and ‘Dhuma’, ‘Kukkura’, ‘Khara'
and ‘Vayasa’ are inauspicicus. The iSilparatna furnishes the details

concerning the fruits that particular Yonis are supposed to yield.

There is a consensus of opinion that Dhvaja is the best of all the
auspicious yonis (cf. Mallaya).

With this general introduction and the utility of these formulas

especially the yoni one in regard to the orietation of a building let us
expound this canon in further details. It may be remarked that the
different texts take different criterion of multiplication to obtain the
yoni or the gain or loss as would be evident below: Utpala’s commen-
tary, ‘B{*hat-Samhita’ ch. LII. 73 multiplies the interior length and
breadth of the building and divides it by 8. The remainder is the
Yoni. Similarly ‘Vastu-rajavaUabha’,ch. III. 8 enjoins. In other texts,
the height of the temple is taken into account (Vaikhanasagama*, ch.
VI) while the ‘Tantra-SammucCaya’, Part I. Ch. II. 3, considers the
perimeter, and the Manasara, ch. IX. 68-74, the breadth of the
building. Perimeter or breadth arc multiplied by 3; this indicates
an area equalling that of a circle with the breadth or the perimeter of
the building as its diamctcr’\

So much about the Yoni formula The yoni is but one of the
 : —
CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 215

six formulae, the Ayadi-sad-varga — Aya, Vyaya, Rksa, Yoni, Tithi and
Vara —and to this group, of six is also added the formula^f Vayas.

In the Sadvarga,the remainder determines, the gain or loss which

will accrue to the builder, the Naksatra (rksa), the lunar day (tithi)

and the solar day (vara) on which good it is to build that particular
building. Though these formulae have their special domain of
astrology in general, they are applied to building as though it is a
living entity whose destiny is to be determined.

Now avoiding other details let us reproduce these formulae. As

already remarked, different texts treat this canon differently.
There are however principally two traditions, one represented by the
Manasara and the other by the texts like, Ka5yapa-$ilpa, l^ilparatna,
Vastuvidya, Manusyalaya-Candrika and the S. S. In the former the
length or breadth or circumference is to be multiplied and then divi-
ded while in the latter it is the perimeter which is to be so multiplied
and then divided. The following reproductions from Mallaya (cf.
Studies in Sanskrit texts on Temple Architecture) will make the whole
position clear

Manasara Formula:

(1)

(2) -R=. Vyaya.

(3) R = Rksa.

(4)
O
— R=.Yoni.
(5) R=Vara.

(6) _9Ai_ _ R=Tithi.

Here L™Length; B=Breadth; C=«Circumferencc.

Formate of the other texts:

(1) — R-Yoni.
(2) -^^?--R-Vyaya.

if
 ^

216 CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE

(3)
'*
P^L__R = Aya.
IZ,

(4) — — R=:RKsa.
1. T)1

(5) - R=='IiUu.

(6) R==Vara.

(7) Cl=Vayas.
Here P= Permimeter; R =» Remainder; Q^=Qjuotient,

‘‘Each formula a v^astrika technicality and is known after the

is

divisor in each case which is a figure corresponding to the number

that forms each well-known group. Yoni thus represents the group
of eight, viz., Dhvaja, Dhuma, Sirhha, Kukkura, Vrsa, Khara, Gaja
and Vliyasa. Aya stands for the group of twelve commencing with
Siddhi and Vyaya for the group of twelve beginning with
‘Sikhara*. ‘Rksa’ represents the group of 27 Naksatras beginning
with Aivini, ‘Tithi’ the group of 30 lunar days starting with Prathama
(of both the Full and the New Moon) and Vara the group of 7 days of
the week, beginning with Arka (Sunday). Thus the figures employed
as divisor are clear enough, but concerning the muUiplicatory num-
bers as 3, 8, etc., nothing is known.’

The application of the different formulae may be illustrated with

reference to 3 cubits measure type as follows (cf. Mallaya):

The perimeter of a structure having 25 cubits breadth is 11

cubits. Here yoni is No. I,

(1) Yoni = R=J1^—

O
—R is 1,

i.e., Yoni is Dhvaja (yoni No, 1)

(2) Vyaya =-1]^-.- is 5, i.e., Vyaya is 5.

Px9 —R Vyaya
or=_T3-^ R=: lO
is 9, i.e., is 9*.

(3) Aya = - R=_Llil^-— R is 4, i.e., Aya is 4,

(4) Rksa =--^7— — R==Jlil^ R is 7, i e., Rksa is 7.

(5) Tithx R=_iyi?_—Ris28,i.c., Tithiis 28.

(6) Vara R= R is 4, i.e., Vara is 4.

(7) Vayas Q=._L! —Q,is 3, i.e., Vayas is 3.

 CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 217
'mi

Much has been said on the importance of these formulas in rela-

tion to the correct orientation of the building. Thgy arc equally
important in relation to the correct and apt measurement to which a
particular building should conform. They are applied in measuring
both the architectural and the sculptural objects. According to the
MSnasara the measurement of length is tested by the formulas under
Aya and Rksa, of breadth under Vyaya and Yoni and of circumsfer-
ence or height under Viira and Tithi. Dr. Acharya^ therefore, rightly
observes on the importance of these formulas in helping to arrive at
correct measurements : ‘The necessity of these Sad-varga formulas
seems due to the fact that in most instances where the measurement
of any object is concerned, the Agamas, the Bimbamana, the Mana-
sara and the other works on architecture quoted more dimensions
than one. Thus for the length that an object is to be of, they instead
of giving a single figure would quote, say, nine different measures.
The Manasara in fact invariably gives nine different lengths, nine
different breadths, and five heights concerning a building or image.
Out of these different and varying measures which is to be selected
would be determined by the application of the six formulas. Any of
the different measures prescribed is open to be accepted only when it
satisfies the tests of the Sad-varga. By a verification of the measure-

ments with the respective formulas it would eliminate the risk of

dimensions being selected that would be disproportionate among
themselves and improper. This might have been the purpose that
the authorities had in contemplation in prescriV)ing the rules of the
Ayadi Sad-varga in all the architectural treatises, 'fhe testing of
measurements by the Sad-varga thus formed one of the most
important points to be followed in architecture and sculpture, and we
find a reference to it in these ancient works so many times and
almost without exception wherever there are any specifications pres-
cribed’.

Mr. V. K. R. Menon has worked these formulas to their most

logical conclusions, though all his conclusions cannot be accepted
without some modifications—vide his pamphlet ‘Six Canons of Indian
Architecture’ —
the details of which may be avoided here and the
reader is referred to Dr. Acharya’s Encyclopaedia for some of his
conclusions with comments of the learned author of the Encyclopae-
dia (see page 509)

V. PATAKADI-SAT-CHANDAS
Chanda is the aspect of the building. It is its rythmical dis-
position. It is rhythm of th^c structure like that of poetry. It is
218 CiANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE

poetry of building. The Science of metres or rhythms chandas

( )
extends to the rhythmical disposition of the ground*plan of the build-
ing and their vertical section (urdhvachanda) “The ground plan of the
temple, whatever may be its variations, is analogous to the VSstu-
puriisarnandala and retains in its rhythmic order proceeding from
the centre and in the modulations of its perimeter, the
knowledge of the Vastupurusa in all his parts. The rhythm
(chandas) of the ground-plan is derived from the order in the
Vastumandala. The telation of sacred architecture to the Vastu-
purusa-mandala is reflected more over in the sculptures on its

walls; their iconography is essentially an iconometry ( talamana )*'.

This chanda of building has come down from the Vedic Altar ( Agni ).

‘Thus it is said in the ‘f^atapatha Brahmana’ ( VIII. 3. 3 5) ; “The

metre measure ( ma ) is this terrestrial world, for this world is

measured; the metre forth-mcasurc (pra-ma ), is the air world, for this
is me asured from this world ;
the metre counter measure ( Pratima )

is that heavenly world; for that world is counter measured in the air.’’

The rhythmic formulae for the Brhati and Valakhilya bricks, are ( ‘Tait.
Samh.’ lVj3. 7. 1): Thou art Earth metre (ma), Air metre (prama) Heaven
metre ( pratima ) The Season metre, the Star metre, the Mind
metre, the Speech metre ” The inner rhythms of man and
the worlds, and their presiding divinities Agni, Vata 6urya, the
impelling and regulating agents in and of the special metre, are
invoked in these mantras or rhythmic formulae which are addressed
each to one brick, identifled with the deity. Mahfdhara, comm,
‘Vaj. S.’ XIV, 18 explains Chandas,
metres, as derived from the
foot ‘chad’ to cover. Each brick, each building unit is imbued with
rhythm. It is a charged and compelling weight and shape, in the
hands of the builder. ( cf. Ap. S. S,, XVI, 28. 1. cfl, the 12 mantras
when laying the bricks in conformity with the golden Purusa, )
With this rhythmic formula ( mantra ) are laid down three layers of
the altar (Agni); the fourth layer is the Brahman (S. B. VI 11. 4. 1. 3).

‘Rhythm evokes a reality and measure builds it up. Whatever

is produced is called ‘Mcya’ (‘Samarahganasutra-dhara’, IX. 28 ).
It is measurable, capable of being known, a quantity ( gana ;
‘
Ganitasarasahgraha ’ 1. 10-15). ( Ganita, the science of
quaniilies and their computation, mathematics, is applied to
architecture, Vastuvidya to Chandas, the science of rhythms, etc.,
;

to the dimensions of this earth, to the space world ( the interspace,

‘antariksa* and to the world of light and the gods ; and to the
)

configuration and destinies of the beings therein ) Proportionate

measurement (pra-mana ) is essential to the temple ( vi-mana and
 ANONS of HINDU AROUITECTURE 219

to the image ( pratima )

alike. They are ^made’ by it to the same
extent as the Vedic altar and also the Vedi. When *lhe Vedi is

outlined on the ground, with the tip of the wooden sacrificial sword,
this rhythmic formula (mantra) is recited : ‘‘With the sacrifice’s

forth-measure pra-ma ), peri-metre ( abhi-ma ), counter-measure

(

( prati-ma
)
and upward measure ( un-mT ), I comprise thee*'

(A.pastamba l^rauta Sutra’, IV. 5. 4.). Three-fold and fourfold measure

is here meted out; it has direction and building power. It is the object,
its energy and form. To h ive me isured the measure, “so that one
may not measure further; in a hundred autumn', not before”
(AV. XVIII. 2 38) means, that life has been lived consciously,
adequately in every direction. “ This measure ( of life )
man
measures forth (pra), off (apa), apart (vi), out (nir), up (ut) together
( sam ), so that when he has measured it, it is said of him that he has
gone to heaven” (AV XVIII. 2. 39-45).

“Whereas temple arc built in differing styles, the Fire- Altar

is subject to n:) such variation; its shape is independent of time and
place, in le pendent even of extensiveness, so much so that one of
the types of the Vedic Altar is prescribed to be made of rhythms
only (charidasciti) and not of bricks which are their representatives,
(Baudhayana Sulba “In the case of the Ghanda^citi,
Sutra’, II. 62-85;
the Agiiicit, the builder of the Fire-Altar, draws on the ground the
Agni of prescribed shape. He then goes through the whole
prescribed process of construction imagining all the while that he is

placing every brick in its proper place with the rhythmic formula
(mantra) that belongs to it. The mantras - re recited but the brick it

are not actually laid. The cliandciti thus is the Citi or altar made
up of Ghandas rhythms or mantras instead of bricks or loose mud
pieces (B. B. Dutt, ‘The science of the Sulba, p. 3, note) — ‘of the 36,000

Fire-altars made of mind, speech, breath etc. ; ‘Vedanta Sutra’,

III 3. 44 ^ahkaracarya’s comm).

The rhythmic formulae, the mantras however, even mentally

recited, are extended in time. This time is not the dated time of
history. It has its architectural analogy and notation in the
Talacchand, the ground- plan of the temple.

Chanda a characteristic of Nagara school of Indian Architecture

is

and accordingly this canon has found an important place in the

Canons of architecture as expounded by the two principal texts of
Nagara Vastu-vidya, the Samar^ugana-Sutradhara and the Aparajita-
pfccha. Ghandas as described in the VastuSastra are sixfold—-Meru,
220 CANOris OF HINDU ARCHlTEGTUItE

Khandameru, Pataka, Suci, Uddista andNaSJa ('—Vide V.L.). Chanda

of Vastu means disposition of a structure or view of a structure as
presented in its contour against the sky. In one word it is perspective
view. In this respect Rhetoric, Music and Architecture stand
upon a common platform, as they have each six primary Chandas as
unitary basis. Tlicse 6 primary chandas give rise, in the first

instance, to as may as 3 3 secondary Chandas just as six Ragas of

Music produce thirty six Raginis by a process of combination of
one with the other. Mankad (who has very ably worked out this
canon in a critical and comparative manner vide his Introduction —
to the Aparajita-pfccha) accordingly says : out of these 36 secondary
ones, there ari^c tertiary, quarternary etc. Chandas and their
number reaches eventually to a figure with 6 dots or even more; and
naturally so, as structures ministering to the needs of occupants of
ditferent grades in society, fr6m ^udra, VaiSya etc. to kings and
even gods and goddesses assume a variety of forms, and so do
their contours present a corresponding variety of views. This
will account for a large number of Chandas as described above.

This Was our ancient tradition. Even today any building and
every building structure does not present an identical view.
Contours of structure assume multifarious forms as structures vary
to suit the different classes of buildings and to satisfy different
functions. Let us now take these six chandas one by one:

Meru: Chandas, we have seen are sixfold heading Meru. What

is Meru ? It has the form of the earth; it is in likeness of the Meru
Mountain and has its shape like a ‘Sarava\ Mankad interprets ‘^Such
a view is presented by a mountain, a Central pinnacle rising

conisderably above the ground surface, and having sides sloping

step by step in easy gradations all round, till eventually it reaches
the general ground surface. lam
prompted to quote
irresistably
the description of Boro Budour in Java, which unknowingly defines the
view as Merucchanda. ‘^From the square basic platform to the
topmost of the circular platforms, is but 118 ft. in perpendicular
height while the periinetere of the whole pyramid standing on that
lowest platform is 2080 ft, so that the entire complexity of galleries
with the bewildering wealth of ornamtation makes a much flattened
half globe whose contour against the sky is a perfect curve in
fact,one writer has unpoetically said that the work has been carried
out so skilfully that from far away the structure looks not unlike a
highly ornate dish-over.*'
 1 a

CjANONS Of HlkDU AlfeGHltEGTUR^ 22

The A. P. (Vide Vastalaksanas) enumerates about eighteen forms

alongwith their illustrations of component parts of a strufturc tabula-
ted by Mankad (ibid) some of which may be tal)ulatcd as hcreundfer:

6 Ghandas of royal mansion;

'

1 and
2- and qpr^-^6 Ghandas of ordinary residen-
tial quarters;
3. One, three, five, seven and nine i^TP^T’s of door ways.
4. 5rf^, ^ffpr -Prasadas.
5. qrar, sttRt, ^mTUTjf, 6 kiudi of Vitanas.

(see 13 more —vide A .P. introduction),

Khanda-Meru: The Meruchanda’ as we have seen, presents a

view which a mountain does, it has a central vertical rise with
surface gradually slopingdownwards as one recedes from the central
axis and reaching eventually the ground surface. When, however,
the outward peripheral circular ends do not form a complete circle
but arc only a part of it, the view is called a Khanda-meru when a
portion of the Merit has been cut off vertically, leaving the exposed
surface a precipitous cliff. (Vide, illustration c. d. a vertical plan
cuts off the merit a. b. into two parts a and b-see Appendix in the end).
Pataka-Clianda. This is a view assumed by a flagstaff with the
flag unfurled. The best illustration of this Ghanda is supplied by the
throne pillar in the Hall of private audience at Fatclipur Sikri. The
exterior of this building gives an idea that is a double storeye d buil-
ding while in fact it is a single storeyed one. There is one single
apartment inside. Dr. Vincent A. Smith graphically describes it as
under — ‘*A massive octagonal column elaborately carved rises from
the centre of the tesselated pavement, as high as the sills of the upper

windows. It is surmounted by an enormous circular capital composed

of three tiers of radiating brackets, each tier projecting above and in
front of that below. The top of the pillar 10 ft. long radiates to the
corners of the building where the quadrant shaped ends of the beams
aie received on corbelling, similar in structure to the brackets of the
capital. The summit of pillar and the gaderies radiating from it
were guarded by parapets of pierced stone lattice work about 15

inches high.
SachChanda. Though music, rhetoric and architecture are
represented as having a common platform in the six primary Ghandas

vii. Meru, Khanda-Meru, Pataka, Suci, Uddista and Nasta, it is

appartent that the number of Ghandas really speaking, reduces to four
only, asUddista and Nasta are not independent Ghandas at all. In
a PrastSra of 4 Gurus, only 16 rupas are formed and similarly in.

Prastara of 8 gurus, 256 rupas arc derived. These rupas may in

 :

222 CANONS OP HINDU ARCHITECTUttft

either case, assume a view which may be cither a Meru, Kharida-meru,

Pataka or SucL If Meru, it is like a mountain; of Khanda-Meru,

only a section of it. If Pataka, it is like a banner and if Suci,

it has the appearance of needle. But Uddista and Naj^a have no per-
spective view of their own. They are not things like Meru etc. and
hence they cannot be termed as Ghandas. Structure of various kinds
which have their contours against the sky in some shape or another
determine these Ghandas. Uddista and Nasta are the indicators of
methods or contrivances, by means of which, the number and details
of a rupa in a Prastara of various gurus are arrived at. Given a
certain Prastara say 1111, then Uddista enables one to find out that
it is the 16th rupa in a Prastara of 4 gurus. If. however, the ques-

tion is reversed i. e. ‘‘what are the details for the 16th rupa in a
Prastara of 4 gurus, it is Nasta that supplies the method and says
that the 16th rupa is 1111#

Only these four chandas as fndepeodeot and Primary chandas» The

Uddista and Nasja chandas are not independent ones. Mankad there-*

fore rightly observes

Uddista, The method of finding the number of a rupa in a

Prastara is as follows: —
Take any rupa, and put over each sign from
the left to right
2S 2*, 2% 2*,
2*^, to 2'^ where n represents the
number of gurus minus 1. Then sum up the numerals over (1)
iaghu and add 1 to it This will be the required number.
:

Illustration —Take one rupa SSSS 11 in a Prastara of 6 gurus for

example. Now SSSS 11 put 2® «« 1, 2^ 2, 2- = 4, 2^ « 8^ 2^ =* 16

an 2® =» 32 over these signs. we have S^ S^S^S® l^-; add together

the numerals on laghu i. e, 164-32 48 and add 1 and we get 49# =

#•# SSSS 11 representt the 49th rupa in a Prastara of 6 gurus.

Na$(a. What is the 49th rflpa in a Prastara of 6 gurus. A Pras*

tSra of 6 gurus will have evidently 6 signs (guru and laghu).

Put as under

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

59 is odd for (1) put S.

As 49 cannot be exactly divided by 2, add I to it and the

divide it by 2.

If the qustlent is odd, put S} if even, put 1. Now 49 + 1 — 50*

50/2 *=25; 25 is odd **. fot (2) put S*

 CANONS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 223

Similarly 25 being odd, cannot be exactly divided by 2, repeat

the above process and we have 25-hl = 26 and 26/2 » 13.

Ihis 13 is odd .‘,for (3) put S.

Similarly 13+1=» 1 and 14/2 =» 7 for (4) put S.

Proceeding in the same way 74-1=8 and 8/2 = 4, put 1 for (5)
and as 4 is still divisible by 2, 4/2=2. This being an even number
put for (6) 1 and get the details SSSS.

S S S S 1 1

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

For the Uddista and Nas^a Mankad*s working has been repro-
duced.

N, B, (i) This PrastSra-Techinque would be more elaborated

in its proper place — the G f ha- Sarny oj ana (Vide Pt. Ill House-archi-
tecture).

B. (ii) Mankad has entered into a lengthy discusion on the

so-called Bathos of Dravidian temples (cf. Mr. Ananthalwair Indian
Architecture Book II Chap. Ill) which as matter of fact resolve into
Chandas of Nagara canons of Indian architecture. Dravidian bathos in
the language of Chanda ultimately resolves itself into one phase of
Khandamcru. As it is, it is nothing more nor less than two Khanda
merus placed with their bases in such a way that their vertical sides

are away from each other as giving rise to the outline

ACB E and W, and similarly of two more Khanda-

in the direction
merus placed same position and in the direction S and N, thus
in the
eventually giving rise to a hollow through or valley formed by four
Khandamerus in four cardinal directions arranged in the particular
manner described above. If these Chandaswith all their concommitants
are once appreciated in all their bearings, the Egyptian temple wherein
there no Vimana or turrett of any description, over the sanctum, but
is

there are at the outer entrance, two pylons, the prototypes of Dra-
vidian Gopuras, and wherein the section decreases and becomes
simpler and more modest, as one approaches the holiest spot in the
temple, will at once be realized as an example of Khandamcru, one
of ^hc si:j^ main pcrspcctivc-yiews. The temple of Tanjoro
tCWllK as i[(
 PART II

CANONS
OF
TOWN-PLANNING
 f»AR+ II
TOWN PLANNING
lotrodoctory
About Forty years ago when Sri B, B. Datta wrote his masterly
treatise ‘Town Planning in Ancient India’ he had practically exhaus-
ted all the evidence on the canons of town-planning as was available
in the ancient texts of Puran^as and Vastu-Sastra texts like Miinasara
and Mayamata as well as treatises like Artha-Sastra of Kaiitilya and
J^ukra’s Nitisara, It is proposed to correlate here on the new evidence
furnished principally by the S. S, and secondarily by so many other
treatises of Vastuiastra. These have provided some vistas of additional
value, the opening of which will illuminate the development of their
civic art by the time of Raja Bhoja, the 1st part of the Eleventh
century A, D,
Accordingly after we have sufficiently covered the background of
our subject matter, let us now expound the J^astra in a bit more
technical and practical manner. Hindu science of architecture, as we
have seen, not only formulates fundamental canons of the planning
what may be termed as the engineering of architecture, but also
exhaustively deals with the principal types of architectural planning-^
the towns, the temples and the residential houses. This part is
reserved for the exposition of town-planning in anciept India.
Naturally, therefore, we have to pen this subject in its manifold
aspects, the region or country, the sites and soils, thus determining the
selection of the site for the planning of the various and manifold types
of towns, villages and Towns in ancient times rose not in hapha-
forts.
zard manner. Every town bad its own history. Accordingly towns grew
with a distinct and definite socio-political and religio-cultural need.
There were capital cities, the RajadhanI towns and there were the
commercial towns, harbours, the ports etc., the Pattana. Similarly
the temple-cities, garden-cities, health-resorts, riparine towns etc ,
etc. also came to their existence as per the above dictum. But before
we proceed with this pre-requiste of the site-planning or its selection
we have to give an account, not only of the rise and development of
manifold types of towns and their special categories, the different
and manifold varieties of villages and forts, but also of some of the basic
factors which contributed towards this evolution and which, in the
context of human civilization and the humanity at large are really most
fundamental. Thus this forms the subject matter of the first two
chapters*
228 TOWt» PLA^NINd

The 3rd chapter will be devoted to the subject, as already hinted

above; where *we will proceed with the region, the DeSa and the DeSa-
Bhumis i.e. the regional planning and the selection of the site along
with 80 many architectural matters like the orientation, the Vastu-
Pada-vinyasa (already dealt with in the 1st part) and Kilaka-Sutra-
pSta etc., etc. and non-architectural ones like the Sodhana, Karsana,

Balis etc., etc. In the 4th chapter we may take up the subject of

Road-Planning and the 5th may be devoted to the Folk-planning.

The sixth Chapter would be devoted to the planning of

the sites of Nagara devatas. the deification of the town and laying out

of the temples therein along with its most intimate planning of public
—
parks, gardens, orchards, ponds, VSpis, Kupas the natural reservoirs
not only for the beautification of the towns but also supplying the
need of the temples, the flowers for worship. In the seventh chapter
we may take up the fortification of the towns so meticulously adhered

to, both by practice and precepts. In the eighth chapter we would be

competent enough to dwell at some length on the defective towns,
the inauspicious ones, after we have grasped a little the norms of good
town-planning. In the last chapter we have to philosophise the system

in the broader context of Indian culture and the culture of the huma-
nity at large, where the city no more remains a static structure but a
dynamo of citizenship which in its turn, in the opinion of the ancient
writers like VatsySyana, is the fittest place for the cultivation of arts.

This is one concluding aspect of our estimate. Yet another very

important aspect being the review of the ancient ideals in the context
of the modern system and to evaluate how far the ancients can still

help us in our present day National Reconstruction especially in our

town-planning policy. What are our present requirements ? What
arc the gifts of our heritage? How can we so combine them, so synthe-

sise them that our living gets evolved good, beautiful and benevolent
so that the mission of the art can be fully obtained and perfectly
cherished.
 CHAPTER I

ANTIQUITY OF TOWN PLANNING IN INDIA

AND
ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF INDIAN TOWNS
A. Antiquity of Town Planning.

We have already written something on the antiquity of the

founders of the VSstuSasira which in its turn pre-supposes the anti-
quity of Town-Planning in ancient India, as Town-planning has invari-
ably formed a principal topic of practically every important treatise of
Vastuiastra. Moreover some of the most renowned excavations of
ancient Indian sites like Harappa, Mohenjodaro etc., etc., have
thrown a flood of light on this ancient Indian civic art and the most
refined civic sense of our ancestors whether they were purely Aryan or
purely non- Aryan or an admixture of both. Further again the earliest
literary documents of the World,—our Vedas and especially the Rgveda
also corroborates, as we presently see, this archaeological evidence.
It is therefore not very difficult to surmize that the town-planning in
ancient India is of a hoary antiquity. Our primordial architects like,
ViSvakarman and Maya are alluded to in the earliest datable litera-
ture like Mahabharata and Ramayana, not as builders of houses but
builders of towns. Town-planning presupposes the building of the
houses no doubt, but the first pre-requisite of any planning in
relation to the habitations of men must start with the planning of
town, in its broadest sense rather than with that of the houses in its

most haphazard fashion as we find today in most of the existing

Indian towns.

Town-planning is a civic art and civil architecture, hence any

mis-givinings in relation to our secular architectural traditions and
tendencies in our civilization must not stand. Rise of cities is
synchronous with the rise of a civilization. Forest-hermitages and
caves in the mountains so much made prominent in our ancient living
modes must not give an impression that we were a race of forestcers or
caverns. Itwas love of nature and love of the spiritual realization or
tooi:*c properly the self-denial that some of the greatest leaders, and of

men thought, in ancient India, our j^sisused to live in forests. The soli-
tude, the pert&nnial communion with nature, the purity and solemnity
of the atomosphere were some of the considerations which must have
’Weighed with our ancestors to Ohoosc these so called unostensious sites,
230 TOWN PLANNING IN INDIA

Otherwise side by side there were, the rise and growth of some of th6
most well-plnaned and perfectly laid out cities, for the Nagarikas to live
and cultivate the arts and refinements as Vatsyayana would have them.
Thus our had recognised botli the ways of life, the
civilization clearly

spiritual realization and the material cultivation. It is in this way

that the perfection of culture was laid down. Here it must be frankly
admitted that they never gave lift to materialism on the spirit, their
non-attachment to the material pursuits, their detached out-look really
helped tliem to keep the banner of the spirit aloft, otherwise we would
have lost in oblivion as others have lost

Town-planning presupposes not only the regional planning but also

site-planning, the latter of which is not only a partitioning of different
plots of the towns but also a systemic graph, meticulously adhering to
the correct orientation of thesite. This syslematised and scientific
knowledge of the earliest Indian Aryans is corroborated with their
sacrificial symbolism and Vedi-construction. ‘The close connection
of the geometrical system (denoted by the mystic figures Parama-
jiayika, Svastika, Sarvatobhadra etc.) with the Vcdic sacrificial fore,

and the position of the master-builder as a high priest or sacrificial

expert, are indirect proofs of the great antiquity of the Indian
Science of town-planning; for geometry as a science was an Indo-
Aryau invention and had its origin in the complicated system of Vedic
sacrifices in which it became necessary to resolve geometrical problems

such as constructing a circle equal in area to a square or I'ice verm^

The laying out of the ludo-Aryan village is treated in the ^ilpa
^astras as the preparation of Sacrificial ground’— Havell. He further
remarks confirming his foregoing observation: ‘Tf it be true — as the
Russian scholar, Sheftdovich, asserts— that the Kassites, who took
Babylon in 1766 B. G
and established a dynasty there, which lasted
for 600 years, were Aryans speaking Vedic Sanskrit whose chief god
was Surya; Babylon must be regarded as a halfway house of the
Aryan race march towards the Indus valley and some at least
in its

of the early Atyan tribes must have acquired, before they entered
India, not only the high spiritual culture which is reached in the Rg
Veda, but also a prolonged experience of the civic arts, including
architecture.**

Tlie plans of towns and their denominations based on or identical

with those of the geometrical figures of the Vedic altars, have survived
through out our history of town-planning in ancident India as is
corroborated by the ^ilpaSastras which to some extent arc based
an the SutrA works (especially the $aJiba). In our review of
 T"OWN PLANNING IN INDIA 231

antiquity of the Vastu lore, as represented by the various literary

compositions like Saihhitas, Brahmanas and Sutras etc. etc. we
have already seen so many words suggestive of our architectural
knowledge in that distant past. Certainly the people, who could
construct iron forts, plan colonade edifices, lay out laige villages,
can certainly be credited with sound knowledge of civic arts. The
observations of Macdonnel and Keith (vide Vedic Index. Pur, pp.
538-39) on the Vcdic towns: “On the whole it is hardly likely that in
early Vedic towns city life was much developed. ” are really not
only now untenable but are based on their pre-conceived view that
was more a primitive than the advanced
early Indo-Aryan civilization
civilization. The contemporary Indus valley civilization and so
many other notable archaeological evidences which have been
established in the recent times, also prove the unteiiability of this
proposition. Further, there are innumberable words (already referred
to and taken notice of) in the Rgveda itself which suggest that the
there were towns of different grades esp. pura, grama, nagara and durga;
they were spacious (cf. such epithets as Urvi and Prthvi) and they
were fortified ( cf. Ayasi etc.). S. C. Sarkar (Some Aspects of
the Earliest Social History of India p. 19) also supports this
conclusion. ^‘The view of Zimmer and others after him (Vedic
Index 1.538 to 540) that the Vedic India knew of nothing
more and complex than the hamlet,
solid Germanslike the early
and Slavs who had no castle structures and town-life, is an extreme
one; for it now being realized more and more as a basic fact that
the Vedic Indians, like the Iranians, Hellenes, and Italians,
were superimposed upon an earlier civilization Thus it
becomes quite reasonable to find in prthvi, urvi, Satabhuji, aSmamayi
oi ayasi purs, or the massive, extensive, hundred-walied stone-built,
or iron-protected forts, the vivid descriptions of new and wonderful
things the Vedic heroes actually saw; and rather forced explanations
discovering in them mysteries of myths and fancies of metaphor
become unneccessary”— Sarkar (ibid). The archselogical remains dis-
covered at Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and other places in Sind fully
corroborate this view.

The excavations at Harappa, and Mohenjodaro further prove

the antiquity of ancient Indian Town planning — cf, Marshall,

It may be remarked that it would not be justified to view the

antiquity of ancient Indian town-planning in regard to Indo-Aryan

or the Vedic Indians alone. What about the bulk of the population
of this great sub-continent, the aboriginals, who W£;rc definitely

the founders of great cities and fortified towns as is fully evident

23^ TOWN PLANNINO IN INDIA

from the excavations at Harappa, Mohenjodaro and at other ports

in Sind. It may also be born in mind that according to our 6ilpa-
testras or VasturSastras the planning of a village or town does not make
much difference. The canons are indentical, only the size may be
varying. A town is a large village. Similar is the case with the
forts. According to the Matiasara as we have already seen, there is
not mucii difference between a village, a town and a fort—^all arc
fortified places intended for the residence of people. A town is the
extension of a village. A fort is in many cases nothing more than a
fortified town, with this difference, that a fort is principally meant
for purpose of defence, while a village or town is mainly intended for

habitation. This canon of the earliest of the VastuSastras is only a

and the deniers of
tradition of the earliest of the literature, the Vedas,
the Vedic Macdonell and Keith), themselves prove
city-life (cf.

our proposition— vide Vedic Index under Pur pp. 338-39 and grama
pp. 241-5 as is evident from their own observations, ‘‘Pur is a word of
frequent occurrence in the Rig Veda and later, meaning ‘rampart,’
‘fort’ or ‘stronghold*. Such fortifications must have been occasionally
of considerable size, one is called broad (prthvi) and wide (urvvi).
Elsewhere a fort made of stone (aSmamayf) is mentioned. Sometimes
strongholds of iron (SyasI) are referred to, but these are probably only
metaphorical. A fort ‘full of kinc (gomati) mentioned showing that
is

strongholds were used to hold cattle. ‘Autumnal’ forts (Saradi) are

named, apparently as belonging to the DSsas; this may refer to the
forts in that season being occupied against Aryan attack or against
inundations caused by overflowing rivers. Forts ‘with a hundred
walls’ (Satabhuji) are spoken of. It would probably be a mistake
to regard these forts as permanently occupied fortified places like the

fortresses of themedieval barony. They were probaly mere places

of refuge against attack, ramparts of hardened earth with palisades
and a dich (cf. dehi). Pischel and Geldner, however, think that they
were towns with wooden walls and ditches like the Indian town of
Pataliputra known to Megasthenese and the Pali Texts”.

“The word ‘gr^ma* which occurs frequently

primitive use of this
from the Rig Veda onwards, appears to have been ‘village*. The
Vedic Indians must have dwelt in villages which were scatterd over
the country, some close together, some far apart, and were connected by
roads. The village is regularly contrasted with the forest (ara^ya)
and its animals and plants with those that lived or grew wild in
the woods. The villages contained cattle, horses and other domestic
animals as well as men. Grain was also stored in them. In the
evening the cattle regularly returned thither from the fore^t^ The
 TOWN PLANNING IN INDIA 233

villages were probably open, though perhaps a fort (pur) might on

occasions be built inside. Presumably they consisted ^of detached
houses with enclosures, but no details are to be found in Vedic
literature. Large villages (Mahagramas) were known. The griinia

may be regarded as an aggregate of several families, not necessarily

forming a clan but only part of a clan (vU), as is often the case at the
present day.” Dr. Bhattacharya —.Vide A study on Vastu-Vidya or
‘

Ganonsof In iian Architecture’ p. 15-16, had very profoundly adduced,

the existence of planned towns and laid out cities in the Rg vedic

times. Indra is said to have destroyed 99 cities of Asura Sambara

One single reference to the hundred cities made of stone (ASmayasfi)

occurs in Rg. VI 3 .20 Similarly cities with hundred enclosures or

fortifications (Satabhuji) are also referred to — I. 166 8.

The common, element of fortification in practically all the pricin-

ple habitations of men, the grama, the nagara and the durga in that
early epoch of Aryan life is further supoprted from such early words
as ‘gotra’ (where cows where protected in an enclosure) or gopura
(the grainadviiras).
Later Samhitlis, Brahraanas and Sutras have ample evidence to
our theory of an early civic sense and civic planning there of, among
the early Aryans in this land. The Epics, the Ramayana and the
Mahiibhirata contain abundant references and glorious descriptions
thereof, from which it is safely said that the town-planning in ancient
India had attained a stereotyped canon lasting for full thousand years
as is evident from the description of any town or city, Nagara or
Nagari, in practically all the representative writers of the

classicial age, Kalidasa, AJvaghosa, Kumaradasa, Magha, Bana

(^riharsa rs well as the archaeological remains, from the earliest
period to later medieval Indian history, when the Mughal forts and

palaces were built on the same stereotyped canon— the palaces having
several courts and towns fortified. In regard to the planning of the

former (the palaces) we shall see, afterwards vide Pt. IV palace-archi- —

tecture. Hare let us dwell a little more
on the towns.

In the RSmayana, towns and forts and even antatpuras were

protected by strong walls and ramparts. Ditches were dug around
elaborate gate-ways (gopurams)
to afford additional protection. “Four
were erected for entrance and each was approached by
into the city
and supported by many pillars
crossing a bridge erected over a ditch
and platforms,, The entrance was protected by strong doors and
bolts. Watch towers (attllaka) from which the movements of the
enemies outside the city walls were watched, were also raised. These
were the usual essential features of a town. This is apparent from the
 L

234 TOWN PLANNING IN INDIA

fact that they were not confined to Ayodhya alone but arc also
noticcale in the descripron of Sugrlva’s capital in KiskindhS and of
Rav aria’s at Lanka”
The references to m iny-storeyed buildings,
as we have seen and
the fortification referred to above, and the well-planned high road
(suvibhaktamahapatha) of the town hold before us a vivid picture
of tlic very advanced town-planning in ancient India and it just
be said to that high sense of civic sense and citizenship which must
have devclopped at that time. In consonance with the great
attention devoted to the science and its diffusion among the people,
the ancient Hindus developed a high tone of civic consciousness.
Every poet seems to take pride in his beloved city and in glorifying
it. Sister Nivedita says (vide ‘Civic and National Ideals’ p. 6-7)*

^*It is more than likely, indeed, that Valmiki’s poem sprang out of a
deliberate wish to glorify the beloved city of Ayodhya by painting the
mythic history of its earliest sovereigns. The city, and every thing in
it, fill the poet with delight. He spends himself in descriptions
of its beauty on great festivals. He loses himself in the thought of
its palaces, its arches, and its towers. But it is when he comes to
paint Lanka, that we reap the finest fruit of that civic sense which
Ayodhya has developed in him. There is noting in all Indian
literature, of greater significance for the modern Indian mind than
the scene in which Hanumln contends in the darkness with the
woman who gaurds the gates saying in muffled tones: T am the
city of Lanka”:

As regards the Greater Epic, the ^anti Parva contains several

chapters dealing with fortification of the cities at the time of danger
(XlI-62). The Classification of forts into six varieties found in the
Mahabhitrata (XII. 5), (XII. 86) is akin to those of the SilpaSastras.
This cla'^sification of six-fold Durga is similar to those we find in

Maiiu and Puranas, Other elaborations in regard to the forts may

be seen in Bhattacharyas book p. 45—46* The Mahabharata refers
to a city having six walls, (satpadam) forming as it were, concentric
circles round it (XV. 5; 16). Mention of Gopuras of the town is a
usual description. ‘Maharathy5’, ‘ Mahapatha ’
and 'Rajiimargas*
indicate how the towns were divided and planned out on a sound
scheme. ^‘Thc streets ran in various directions and crossed one

another, the place of junction being an object af woirship by the

people (V. 194. 58). The epithet ^‘Devatavadha-varjitam”
applied to streets, reminds one of the injunction found in the
§Upaia§tras. On two sides of the MahSpathas were the shops (II
 town planning in INDIA 235

206. 8) and sheds for supplying drinking water (Prapa). The Prasldas,
Toranas, Yupas, Gaityas and gardens further beautihed the
cities. All these details of a town enable us to form an idea of the
town-planning of the time. Besides the town, mention is also
”
made of Grama, GhoSa, ^akhanagara, Janapada and so on

After the Epic Age, comes the Budhliisl Age which also gives

fullest of details in regard to the Town-planning in ancient India,

For the Buddhists the two most important sources arc Jatakas and Pali
canons. Rhys Devids (Buddhist India pp. 61-65) writes: ‘AVe are told
of lofty walls, ramparts with buttresses and watch towers and great
gates, the whole surrounded by a moat or even a double moat one
of water and one of mud.” This is corroborated by a story no, 518,
where we find a description of a city wiih ditches and moats around.
The streets were lined with houses and shops. Such descriptions of
towns in the Jatakas arc very similar of those found in the Epics
cf. the original quotations appended in the end.

It is also said that the hill fortress girivraja four and a half
miles in circumsferene, is said to have been built by Maha Govind,
architect. The stonewalls of Girivajra are the oldest extant stone build-
ing in India. Percy Brown however keeping in view the early character
of Indian architecture says: “Cities largely of wooden construction,
therefore, began to appear in various parts of the country, and
according to Dhammapala, the great Buddhist commentator, they
were planned by an architect of the name of Maha-Govinda who is
stated to have been responsible for the lay-out of several of the
capitals of Northern India in the fifth centruy B. G. This is the
first mention of an architect in the annals of the country. In
principle, these cities were rectangular in plan and divided into four
quarters by two main thoroughfares intersecting at right angles,
each leading to a city gate. One of these quarters contained the
citadel and royal apartments another resolved itself into the
residences of the upper classes, a third was for the less pretentous
buildings of the middle class, and the fourth was for accommodation of
traders with their workshops open to view as in the modern bazaar.”

This perhaps is based on Diggha-Nikaya XIX, 36 —vide

tabulations in the Appendix. Mention is also made of Ayodhya,
Varanasi, Kampilla, KosambT, Mathura, Mithila, Sagala, Saketa,
Savatthi. Ujjeni, Vesali and other cities of which, however, few
architectural details are given (Vimana-Vatthu, Commentary, p. 82\

After the Buddhist period of our history^ it no more remains the

Ahtiqtfity of Town-pltinning in ancient India After this perioJ it be*
 —

236 TOWN PLANNING IN INDIA

comes a stereotyped canon in Indian Civic life, a most scientific plctute

is the gift of ^he great Kautilya (cf. his ArthaSastra) and the later.works
belonging to the classical Sanskrit literature including some of the
later Puriinas and Agnnas which abound in town-planning-technique
in its fullest of details. The poetical campositions like those of
Kalidasa and A^voghosa, Dandi and Bana, Kalhana and iSriharsa and
a host of others also accord to this heritage and a tabulation of these
glorious descriptions are appended in the end. Hence this little

introduction to this subject of the antiquity of town-planning in

may do for our purpose. Now let us lake up the other
ancient India
—
complementary topic of this chapter the origin and growth of Indian
Towns afso.

B. Origin and Growth of Indian Towns.

The story of the origin and growth of towns is really very fascina-
ting. The natural laws governing it are Sometimes a
universal.
village develops into a great town and sometimes simple shrine dedi-
cated to a deity becomes not only the renowned centre of pilgrimage
but also gets converted into a big temple city. An awkward fortress
or citadel sometimes has resulted into a capital city and a market
place into a big commercial town. Some of the biggest Indian towns
had their beginning in a group of villages. Great cities like Bombay
and Madras, Chittogong and Kaveripum-pattinam rose out of a
The sacred banks of the
necessity for a trading post through the sea.
Yamuna, Kaveri, Godavari, Ravi, Sindhu,
sacred rivers like Gaiiga,
Brahmaputra, to mention only the sacred-most, gave rise to many a
city in ancient India. The Pauranic, the Epic and the Buddliisl
all the the three ancient traditions glorify the Sacred Seven Cities of
India—-Ayodhya, Mathura, Maya, Kanchi, Avanti etc. etc.

Thus it is evident that the rise of towns in India or elsewhere is

the fulfilment of the ideas as well as the necessities of life. It is a

concrete expression of the motive forces governing the civilization and
culture of man. It is the noblest monument
of human art and
concepts. Dutta unrapped upto a great measure
says: ‘In its genesis is

the evolution of ihe civilization which built it. In Europe this is

more true where cities were the making of civilization and history.”

In India the evolution of towns presupposes two fundamental

factors namely; whether they evolved consciously or unconciously,
what may be termed as Svatah-pravftta or Para-pravrtta. It is
only a broadway characterization, and represents two extremes
which is more true in Modern India rather than in its foreruimct*
 :

TOWN planning IN INDIA 237

The truth however lies midway between these two extreams. Accor-
dingly in case of Svatah-pravrtta category of towns^the natural
advantages and easy communications must be viewed as the contribu-
tory factors. A market or temple, facilities of easy access and con-
veyance, especially by water, that is, prominent trade routes, navig-
able rivers or seas, a satrapy or fortress, the sacred bank of a sacred
river etc. may be deemed as some of the natural advantages which
contributed to the growth of the towns.

In the S. S. XVin entitled ‘Nagaradisanjna the following nine

synomyms have been given which to my mind unfold in a way the
origin and growth of towns

Nagara Puskara Sadana

Mandira Samparayika Sadma
Durga Nivasa Ksaya & Ksitilaya.

The Sadana, Sadma, Ksaya, etc. are synonyms of houses which

also indicate that a group of houses develops into a village and with
the aforesaid advantages
it consequently emerges into a fulUledged
town. Similarly Puskara indicates to the evolution of those towns
which on the bank of rivers or develop on the sea-shore. Durga,
rise

as already indicated is nothing but a fortified town, the origin of

which may be traced from a citedal or fortress and Mandira, the
temple, as we shall see, in India, they have been the nucleus of the
development of great towns —the temple-cities of India.
This is by the following synonyms of Pura or
also supported

town in the '‘^abda-kalpadruraa” the famous lexicon:-—

1, Geham 2. HatladiviSis^-stlianam 3. Vahiigramfyavyavahara-

sthanam 4. Puri 5. Nagara 6. Pattanam 7. Sthanlyam 8. Katakam
9. Pattara 10. Nigama and ll. Pu^bheianam.

A brief notice of these synonyms may be taken to bring home

the implications of these words as to why they arc all called towns
or pura :

1. Gqham — a house, rather a patriarchal family is the nucleus

round which developed villages of the type of ‘Eka-bhoga’ in the
definition of Manusyalaya-candrika appended in the end where a
single patriarch with his family and retinue lives. Such types of
villages are still found in Bengal, the Paras of Duttas, Ghosas, Baner-
and Mukherjees. In ancient India such paras were called gotras.
jees
Such petty villages combined themselves and rose to great towns.
 238 TOWN PLANNING IN INDIA

2. . HattadiviSista^thanam and 1 i- 1.1 1 «

^ ^ s signi y
3, Val^ugrimiya-vyavaharasthanain J
that an Indo-Aryan city was a market-village grown to greatness. In
the states like U, P* and Piinjal), a village is only a hamlet round
about which is the vast expanse of paddy fields. There must be a
market to serve the needs. It is this, the market place, surrounded by
so many hamlets that were the Indian towns in embryo. This is the
significance of both these synonyms. B. B. Dutta’s observation on the
significance of the hattadi-vi^istaslhanam, may be quoted : ‘bMore-
over, the sites of great have often been indicated by some
cities
nascent industry — viz,, a mine, a bed of flint, a layer of clay
useful for household utensils. In cases like these it is quite possible
that villages which have specialised in any art, working upon local
materials, have grown into towns. Who can say that the importance
of the localities which once developed into the famous towns, of
Dacca noted for its finest muslin, of Krshnanagar renowned for
clay modelling, of Murshidabad distinguished for its silk-clothings,

of Golkunda famous for its dimonds, of Agra known for its perfumery
and marble works, was not partially derived from their excellent
local manufactures which commanded a respectable market beyond
the limits of the manufactories and that they were not the market
-places where the artisans brought their articles for sale? There
can also be cited here many modern instances of such factory towns,
to wit, Jheria and Jamshedpur.”

4 Pattanam & —
Putabhedana The former is also a commercial
5.

town. It is a sort of emporium. Phe S. S. however takes it differently

as we shall see. Datta observes: ‘‘The necessity of a trading post led to
the growth of many commercial towns in India, as also in other coun-
tries. From ^he very earliest times it has been customary for several
tribes to share a common trysting place where they held their councils,
and bartered their goods in the common markets.” The definition
of Pattanam (see ahead) as given in Mayamatam testifies to this
nature. Mr. Venkatarama Ayyar, furnished us with an instance
of such a commercial town: “Kaveripumpattinam is a very ancient
city which was once a flourishing sea-port and a great centre of
commerce. It is the Khabiros Emporion of the Greeks* It is also
known as Pukar or the city at the mouth of the Kaveri. It had a
splendid harbour and a light-house. This ancient sea-port which
had an expensive commerce has ceased to be of importance owing to
”
the silting up of the Kaveri

Moreover “River sites, Sea-coasts, especially, the mouths of rivers

offer the best facilities for the origin and growth of cities, because a river
 TOWN PLANNING IN INDIA 239

is not only a means of communication with the interior of the country,

a way of transport and locomotion, but it also offers an •outlet unto
the outer world, thus fostering and encouraging commerce. Rivers
arc national assets of no mean importance. Even in times of antiquity
when the intinerant Aryans were spreading their civilisation and
modern commercialism was out of the question, the great rivers of
India offered the best routes for their spread and advance. Hence
the first Indo- Aryan colonies were planted on the valleys of the Indus
and the Ganges. Aryavarta was the country where Aryan civilisation
was promulgated first and this is the part of India which was watered
by the above two great river systems, viz., the Indus and the Ganges.
Besides, a coast belt, a river side, or a mountain valley is as easy
defence in times of war as of access in times of peace These have
also a never-failing sanitary importance. To these reasons combined
with local advantages we owe the evolution of a great many Indo-
Aryan settlements in the shape of riparian towns. It should be
observed here that the orthodox treatises make it a rule to establish
towns on the right bank of a river. Consequently all Hindu towns
in India that are situated on the river lie on its right side. — Dutta.**
Accordingly such, riparian towns illustrate the type of Putabhedanam.

6. Nigama: is also a commercial centre as well as a variety of

fort as we shall see.

7. and 8, Puri and Nagara : These need not be dwelt at length.

They are too familiar to be expatiated upon. The seven ancient
Indian sacred Puris are on every body’s These were not only lips.

hallowed by their greatness but also famous for renowned imperial

seats having beautiful palaces and other specialities of great town.
The copious description of Ayodhya in Viilmiki’s Rlimayana may be
purviewed.

As regards Nagara, though it has become too common and

jI)opoular a word, it signifies a very fascinating origin. We know
that there is a very advanced architecuiel style, the Nagara style

with especial reference to temple-architecture. Sanskrit ‘Nagara’

in this connection may be studied with Tamil Nakar. It is used
variously in ancient Tamil literature to mean a house, a temple, a
palace or a castle and a city. It is thus in a nutshell the chief
dynamic principle of ancient town-planning that these separate
items should be so co-ordinated and each assigned such an important
place, in the city that that the arrangement conduces to the efficiency
pf tpwn fifp,
240 TOWN PLANNING IN INDIA

The word ‘mandira’ in Sanskrit also means a house and a town,

as we have already seen. Accordingly lookir.g through the hazes of the
long-gone past, we shall find a holy shrine or temple in lieu of
a good many Indian cities of today. In India it is a truism to say
that a temple was a city in the making. Salubrious surrounding ,

perennial source of water like a large lake or tank leafy trees, plants
full of flowers luxuriant vegetation, all connoting the fertility of
the soil in the vicinity of temple ensure a rise of dwellings around it.

Its sacredness, its renown, its priests and pandit as famous for their
scholarship and leadership of men, all taken together constitute
the maxim that the temple was a city in making. Such temple-
cities abound in India.

Again in very many instances, a temple in ancient India

constituted a university in miniature. Datta says. ‘‘In process of
time the importance and reputation of the temple, its deity, and
its sage extended beyond the local limits, Hindus, in their old
age orwhen they renounce the world generally love to raise their
humble cottages in places of pilgrimage and some pilgrims would
therefore take their permanent abode there. With the increasing
population shops were started; resting houses were erected. It may be,
the place grew and grew until a king selected the site for establishing
his castle. What was before a secluded place with a solitary shrine was
at cnce made into a ful-fledged city.*’ Farther more it is significant
to note that the plan of temples especially in Southern India
correspond to that of an Indo-Aryan village or town in its salient

features.

9, 10 and 11 : — Sthanlyam, Ka^akam and Pa^Um; All denote

defence. It was an ancient custom both in India and elsewhere to
plan fortresses for efficiency of administration and government in
the midst of villages which were grouped under their jurisdiction

and supervision. The celebrated author of ArthaSastra, the great

Kautilya prescribes such a canon of political planning: “There shall

be a ‘Sthaniya’ (a fortress of that name) in the centre of eight

hundred a ‘Dronamukha’ in the centre of four hundred
villages,

villages, a ‘Kharvatik^’ in the centre of two hundred villages, and

a ‘Saugrahana’ in the midst of a collection of ten villages.'*

These out-posts favoured the growth of towns and sometimes capital

cities about them. A good many old cities show this genesis. The
names of Cuttack (Kanaka), Sialkot, Nagarkot, Mangalakot, justify
this genesis in as much as ‘Kafaka* or means a fort. The word
‘Gotra’ is full of geneological and defcncive implication. It originally
 TOWN PLANNING IN INDIA 241

meant an enclosure for kine the respective property

and possession, the cows of a particular family of our okl patriarchs,
the Rsis and therefore it applied to denote a family descended from
one of the several patriarchs. This is what Max iller also points out M
as the connection between the etymological and secondary meanings of
Gotra. ‘In ancient limes, when most wars were carried on, not to
maintain the balance of power of Asia or Europe, but to take posse-
ssion of good pasture, or to appropriate large herds of cattle; the
hurdles grew naturally into the walls of fortresses, the hedges became
strongholds; an Anglo-Saxon tun, a close German a town ;
and
those who lived behind the same walls were called a ‘Gotra’, a family,
a tribe, a race” —Chips from a German Workshop,

Thus the implication of Sthaniyam and ‘Katakam’ is clear. As

regards ‘Pattam’, it is derived from ‘patta’ a slab which denotes a hill-

fortress and hill-forts giving rise to towns is well known in history.

Some of the towns in Rajasthana e. g. Chittorgarh is a very good
example illustrative of this truth, B. B. Datta, however, takes it as a
crossing of highways which also illustrates the same implication*
These highways mean the highways on the out-skirts of mountains.

Some notice is taken of practically all the ‘paryayas’ having a

considerable sense to formulate our theory that the origin and growth
of Indian town is not only illustrative of them, but also revolves
round them.

Now remain two more questions. How these individually explain

the dictum of svatah and para pravrtta categories and how villages

have contributed to the growth of Indian towns.

The pattam types of towns explain the para-

sthaniya, kataka,
pfvratta type and the rest of the svatah-pravrtta one. The grouping of
villages tantamount to the evolution of a big city or great town
as is illlustrated in an ancient city, the famous Pataliputra. Havell
rightly remarks : “The wonderful organisation of the Ghandragupta’s
empire, of which Megasthenes gives us glimpses, was not the creation
of the Mauryan statesmen, but the centralisation of the social and
economic Indo-Aryan village commu-
activities of the self-governing
nities. Pataliputra itself was only an aggregation of Indian villages
joined together by spacious parks (the sacred groves) and stately
avenues”.

Finally in ancient India or for the matter of any other country the
military camps were also contributory to the rise of great towns or
242 TOWN PLANNING IN INDIA

capital cities. This is the implication why ‘Sibira’ which is also a variety
of Nagara ami Durga. The un-settled condition of the political power
in especially the early medievaland later medieval history of India
fully speakes of this development. Datta also supports it, that is to
say a king had to change his royal seat from place to place and where
he settled some years, there was built up the royal palace and the
for

quarters of his entourage including the army and the military officers.
The same circumstances operated to cause wealth and commerce, arts
and literature, to follow thither and thus to develop the royal citadel
into a magnificent metropolis. We all know how Udaya Singh, th^
Rana of Ghitore, father of the great Pratap, defeated by Mohammadan
arms under Akbar, took refuge in a sequestered mountain Vcilley where
he had already excavated a magnificent lake. Now he had his royal
palace built on the embankment of this lake. The subjecis followed
their king and what followed was the gradual evolution of the noble
town of Udayapur, extolled by all travellers for its splendid plan,
architectural beauty, natural setting, and imposing grandeur,
 CHAI^tER II

VILLAGES, TOWNS AND FORTS IN GENERAL

With this very brief dessertation on the antiquity of town-plann-
ing in India and the origin and growth of Indian towns, we are now
better equipped to treat this topic of the different and manifold types
of towns including villages and forts. But before we do so, we may
point out the discrepency and the non-correspondence of the section
in this part with its companion in the Vastulaksanas These first two
chapters being introductory to start with canons, have been taken up,
first though their counter-parts i.e. ‘Grama-laksana’, ‘Nagara-laksana*

and 'Durga-lakjana’ are introduced in the middle. Now let us begin

with villages first.

VILLAGES
Village is a town in miniature and hence in India from the stand-
point of planning there is no difference between a village and a town.
A group of villages gives rise to a big town. Pataliputra is already
cited as the most illustrious example.

There is however a great gulf between the canons of village-

planning as given in the ancient texts of architecture and town-plann-
ing like M lyamata, Manasara etc, and the universal practice in India
in regard to the most fundamental of the canons of town-planning
namely the fortification. All the !^ilpa texts unanimously suggest the
fortification of villages as well. This is a bit over-doing. Some of the
most selected villages may have some kind of fortification around
them, otherwise the general practice, as the history also bears to the
testimony, is that the villages never had fortification. When M. M.
Dr. Ganga Nath Jha wrote — ‘‘The points of difference between a
town
and a village were that the town was protected by a ditch and a wall
while the village was not so protected, the town was inhabited mostly
by trades-peoplc, in addition to the king and his appertenances, while
the village was inhabited by agricultural people*’—•House-building
and Sanitation in Ancient India, J. B, O. R. S. Volume I—he was not
only simply echoing the practical and historical truth; but also
Bharata’s definition of a village which is an abode of many pedple
such as Brahrnanas and others without any wall or ditch.

Now the question is: How to reconcile the precepts of the ancient
masters with the practice of the ages. These ancient masters do not
244 FORTS IN GENERAt

take any vital difference between the planning of villages or towti^.

Naturally what holds good of a town just holds good of a village so far
as the scientific and systematic planning goes, otherwise the law-givers
have nothing to do with the haphazard growth when there is no body
to guide the growth, supervise the plan or control the mal-planning.

Secondly though we maintain that the village is a natural unit

and had a natural growth; but we have a tradition —vide Kautilya’s
Artha-lSastra, that as per the administrative efficiency and the control
thereof, he (Kautilya) advises the establishment of villages throughout
the kingdom : “Either by inducing foreigners to immigrate (parades^r
pavahanena) or by causing the thickly populated centres of his own
kingdom to send forth the excessive population (svadeSilbhisyanda-
vamanena va) the kingdom may construct villages either on new sites
or on old ruins (bhutapurvarn abhutapurvam va)”.

“Villages consisting each of not less than a hundred families and

not more than five hundred families of agricultural people or 6udra
caste,with boundries extending as far as a kroSa (2250yds.) or two and
capable of protecting each other shall be formed. Boundaries shall be
denoted by a river, a mountain, forests, bulbous plants (grsti), caves,

artificial buildings (setubandha) or by trees such as l^almali (silk

cotton tree), ^aini (acacia suma) and Ksira vrksa (milky trees)”

Thirdly the villages were also sometimes founded for military

purposes—vide Uinmagga Jataka translated by Yatawara p. 187, where
we find that the Raja, previous to his starting on a military expedition
gave orders to his ministers to build villages perhaps for the convini-
ence of the routes of the expedition constituting the great highways of
the country and also for trade and communication as well as for resting
places of caravans.

Fourthly, we see, Bhoja, the celebrated author of the Samaran-

gaua-SiitradhSra, though, silent about the grama-laksaiia in any
details, does give us a great canon of national town-planning policy
which echoes to some extent the ancient tradition of the Imperial
Mauryas when Kautilya, the renowned Prime-minister was also doing
the same thing. Bhoja from the stand point of National Planning in
particular context to the laying out of the villages, towns etc. devides
as we presently see, the whole country into Nagara and Janapada and
taiccs the village as the Unit of National-planning.

The village as a unit of Town Planning in National Planning in ancient

India.

This simple classification of the S. S, also hints at a very Broad

 ^Okts IN general ^45

fact of the then outlook on the planning character of the town as a

whole. It is in relation to the National Planning of a country and
a big country like India—which as a large continent —has so many
diversities, but happily so integreted on account of its cultural and
religious background that it always was one unit to both the sove-
reigns like Prthu and the Sthapatis, like ViSvakarma. From the point
of view of the national planning of a country like India—a sub-conti-
nent, the whole country was divided into three Rastras — the the large,
middle and the small.

The unit of the national planning, according to this text is a

village (the smallest category of a town). The territory of a larger
unit of the country called the Superior RSs la consisted of nine
thousand one hundred and fifty four villages, while that of the
middle Rastra contained in its dominion five thousond three hundred
and eighty four villages and lastly, the small type of the Rastra had
only one thousand five hundred forty eight villages of its territory.
Thus the whole land consisting of these three sizes of Rastras having
been laid out in villages; the town planning starts with the division
of only the half the number of the villages into nine equal parts in
all these types of the Rastras. This being done — in every part seven
towns should be established (10. 83-87). This, in my opinion, was
the selection of some large villages having all the qualifications for
the natural development into a town. In this way (as per rough cal-
culation) the superior Rastra would be having five hundred towns,
the middle one having three hundred and the inferior one, eighty six
only. This points out to one of the basic origins of towns^the large
majority of the Indian towns had their origin in villages.

What is the idea underlying this canon of establishing towns

only among half the number of each of the three types of Rastras ?

Perhaps it was in order to keep in tact the life going on

agricultural
and not to disturb the rural character of the country the main —
characteristic of this ancient land. The urban civilisation has its
virtues ahd drawbacks too; perhaps the town-planner of the S.S. does
not want to get those evil characteristic of the city life penetrated
among the simple folks of villages. Nothing can be said authori^-
tatively, it is only my surmise. The text is not very specific. It

gives only a broad hint.

Here two pointsemerge which need critical exmination. Firstly, has

thiskind of planning any remnant in modern India ? Secondly, is

there any other treatise in which such canons of town planning arc
equally laid down? The first problem is upto the sociologists to work
246 PORTS IN GENERAL

out. We may only point out that but for the Railway lines intro-*
duced modern times, the country was consisted predominantly
in the
of villages and it is not dilTicult to find a parralel to the large number
of villages which' emerge in these three types of Rastras. We do find
larger number of villages in existence even upto this time.

Now regards the second problem, in Kautilya^s Artha-

as
Sxlra,though we can not strictly speaking find a corroboration of
the above principle; yet it gives a hint which is important in this
respect. For defensive purposes, Artha-Sa^tra inculcates the necessity
of laying out fortresses scattered among the villages, viz, the SthSniya
in the centre of eight hundred villages, a Dronamukha, in the centre
of four hundred villages, a Kharvatika in the centre of two hundred
villages and a Sarhgrahana in the midst of a group of ten villages.
This, in my opinion, is a military planning in contrast to the civic
planning as advocated by the S. S. Kautilya, the powerful Prime-
minister of Emperor Chandra Gupta Maurya, being more absorbed
in his imperialistic views, did propound the germs of the civic
planning, because in ancient India in the character of planning, there
was not much difference between a village, a town or a fort. All were
fortified residences.

With this general introduction to the gramas, it is not difficult to

surmize that the villages were rc.illy the detached human habitations
principally occupied by the agriculturists. The upper class people
especially the Brahmaaas also used to live in villages —vide Blina’sdes*
criptionof the Pritikuta village, the ‘Br hm.inadhivasa”. Accordingly in
the Mayamata — vide VastmLaksana, there is a detailed classification
of the Brahmana villages in accordance with the numerical strength of
their population. Similarly villages are classified on so many other
bases— a village of learned Brahmanas is called ‘Maiigala’ while
that of noble ones ‘Agraharam* There are detailed descriptions
etc.
of villages of various sorts in the Mayamata and MSnas'ara vide —
V. Laksana. Their planning is the scientific planning of a town, having
all the salient feaiurcs like shape, size, site-planning, street-plannings
laying of highways, folk-planning, the planning of the centre, the
chalking out the plots for temples, tanks etc. etc. and laying the rules of
fortification as well as all other requirements. It is therefore needless
to go into their details as the chapters ahead alloted to all these topics,

conviniently may be taken to be applicable to the villages also.

Let us therefore tabulate the different varieties of the villages as per
the different authorities —vide the Vastu-laksana.
Vijfakarma-Vastoiastra, It describes as many as 12 types of
 FORTS IN GENERAL 247

villages;

1. Mandaka 5. Gaturmukha 9. Devarii \

2. Prastara 6. Purva-mukha 10 . Vi§ve5a
3. Bahulika 7. Mangala 11. KailMa and
4. Paraka 8. ViSvakarmaka 12. Nitya-Maiigala

Avoiding the details of these villages, a few remarks may be

made. There is no hard and fast prescription about the fortification
of the first three types. The streets are more important features
which provide the laying out of the habitations. The next four are
surrounded by ramparts and may be deemd as special habitations
according to ancient canons of folk-planning. The Vi^vakarma-
grama is a very large village and may be called a town. Its site is
laid on the bank of a river. Here there is a provision for a palace of
the king. The ninth variety is a temple-village as the name indi*
cates. Tlie tenth types is the comm^Tcial
and the eleventh
village
is directed to be laid out on the ica-coast or on the slopes of a hill and

it is also protected by ramparts. Lastly the Nityamahgala is as

good as a big town having a population of about 6000 people.

Like the ^arparangana, the AparSjitapfCcha also does not treat

the villages in any details. Both these texts being contemporary
show the medieval tendencies of urbanisation when big cities especi-
ally the capital cities were more prominent in the minds of the
authors who were mostly courtiers and naturally were biased with the
imperial set ups.

Manasara. According to Dr. Acharya’s notice there is not much

difference between a village, a town and a fort. All are fortified
places intended for the residence of people. A town is the extension
of a village. A fort is in many cases nothing more than a fortified
town, with this difference, that a fort is principally meant for
purposes of defence, while a village or a town is mainly intended for

habitation.

“Villages arc divided according to their shapes into eight classes,

called da^idaka, sarvato-bhadra, nandyavarta, padmaka, svastika,
prastara, karmuka, and catur-mukha.

^ach surrounded by a wall made of brick or stone;

village is

beyond this wall there is a ditch broad and deep enough to cause
serious obstruction in the event of an attack on the village. There
are generally four main gates at the middle of the four sides, and as
tpany at the four corners. Inside the wall there is a large street
248 FORTS IN GENERAL

running alround the village. Besides, there are two other large
streets, each of which connects two opposite main gates. They
intersect each other at the centre of the village where a temple or a
hall is generally built for the meeting of the villagers. The village is

thus divided into four main blocks, cack of which is again subdivided
into may blocks, by-streets which are always straight and run from
one end to the other of a main block. The two main streets crossing
at the centre have houses and footpaths on one side of the street.

The ground-floor of these houses on the main streets consists of shops.

The which runs round the village, has also houses and foot-
street,
paths only on one side. These are mainly public buildings, such as
libraries, guest-houses, etc. All other streets generally have residen-
tial buildings on both sides. The houses, high or low, are always
uniform in make. Drains (jaladvara, lit. waterpassage) follow the
slope of ground. Tanks and ponds are dug in all the inhabited parts,
and located where they can conveniently be reached by a large number
of inhabitants. The temples of public worship, as well as the public
commons, gardens, and parks are similarly located. People of the same
caste or profession arc generally housed in the same quarter.

The partition of the quarters among the various sects cannot be

said to be quite impartial. The best quarters are generally reserved
for the Brahmanas and the architects. Such partiality to the artists
is not met elsewhere in Sanskrit literature. The quarters of the
Buddhist and the Jains are described in a few lines. The habitations
of the Candalas, as well as the place for cremation, are located out-
side the village wall, in the north-west in praticular. The temples
of fearful deities such as Gamunda, are also placed outside the wall*’.

Mayamata and Silparatna. The above description of villages in

the Manasara is based on the respective shapes, the method of street
planning, folk- planning and temple-dedication which, as we shall see,
is the stereo-typed canon of town planning in ancient India. Hence
our previous statement that according to the Manasara there is not
much difference between a village, a town and a fort, gets supported.
The detailed description of the Nandyavarta, as reproduced in the
Vastulaksanas is evidently very copious.

The author of the Mayamata and ^ilparatna however, base their

classification of the villages mainly upon planning of streets into:-—

1. Dandaka 5. Nandyavarta
2. Svastika 6. Paraga
3. Prastara 7. Padma, and
4, Prakfr^aka ? SrlpatiflbUsi,
 FORTS IN GENERAL 249

N. /?.— Karnikagain.x divides villages into fifteen classe and after

enumerating all the verieties named by the Manasara and Mayamuni

cites four more, to wit, Sampatkara, Kumbhaka, ^rivatsa and

Vaidika. Thus as many as 15 types emerge.

Z>andrtyf*rt. means a village that resemble a phalanx or

Litcrarlly
a staff. Its streets and cross each other at right angles
are straigh
at the centre, running west to east, and south to north. Sarnuobhadjo
is oblong or square and may be divided into inter-lineal chambers after

Mauduka or Sthandila. is just like sarvatobhadra and

is very auspicious. It is abode of bliss and is best suited to Brah-
manas. The makes so many other alternatives with folk-plan-
text
ning like Mahgala^ Pura and Agrah^ram, needless to be dilated upon
(see Datta^s book). Padma or Padmaka according to the text has five
varieties. Its shape is just like lotus —vide illustrations in the end.
Svasdlca has got a special feature that its streets should be planned in
conformity with the figure Svastika, Piaskva etymologically means —
a village resumbling a couch. The Mayatamata directs that it is
interesected by three streets running from east and west by several
transverse roads numbering from three to seven. K^nuuka, is bow-
—
shapped vide illustration in the appendix and hence its shape is
either semi-circular or semi-elliptical. Types of town like Pattana,
Kheta or Karvata are planned after this shape which as we shall sec
are predominantly inhabited by VaiJyas, traders-curn-laboureres and
lower class people respectively. The plan is suited generally
to a reparian site or a sea-shore. Catunniilcha is square or oblong
lying east-to-west-wise so that its walls are also of similar shape.
PraLirnafea has five varieties according to the Maya text. It really

means a ‘camara’ a fan made with big chowries (hairy tails) of yaks
fastened to a handle. Par^ga, as its nomenclature implies is of cob-
webbed shape and has a such large number of streets that facilitates
the traffic and locomotion of the village. ^n-prati^tJiita has a radical
significance in as much
Goddess of Fortune, iSri is enshrined
as the
and secured here. SainpatLara as its etymology connotes, is a very
auspicious village and secures wealth and property Kumbhaka has
its shape like a pitcher as the word denotes. It is cither circular or

polygonal. The streets run parallel to the centre. Lastly

and Vadika are also of the auspicious varieties, have the common plan-
ning but denoting some trait or the other as their names indicate.

This is only a very meagre account of these villages, the details

may be seen in the Vastulaksana, appended in the end. It may hoW-
fjYOr be rcmarl^ed that one feature of special significance in all of
250 ^
FORTS IN GENERAL

them is that the number of northerly streets in all types far exceed that
of the easterly streets which means that the villages were alcngated
east to west and east to we^t streets were longer so that winds could
not blow up clouds of dust while the buildings were open to pure and
ventilation which in India generally runs from North to South, and
South to North. Further in all these types the principal requirement,
assurmized by the detailed accounts of these villages, is that they used
to be laid out round a village shrine adjoining a bank and a flower
garden thus making them all more or less garden tillages as abound
in the South. Sri Vankatarama Ayyar furnishes these details in

his work.
TOWN OR CITIES

Vi$vakarnia«Va$tiiiastra, as we have already taken its notice vide

chap. VI, describes as many as twenty types of cities. These may be
tabulated as hereunder —vide also V. Laksana.
1. Padma 7. Gaturmukha 14. Jala-nagara
2. Sarvatobhadra 8. ^ripratis^hita 15. Guhanagara
3. ViSveSabhadra 9. Balideva 16. Astamukha
4. Karmuka 10. Pur a 17. NandySvarta
5. Prastara 11. Devanagra 18. Rajadhani
6. Svastika 12. Vaijayanta 19. Manusanagara
13. Putabhedana 20. Girinagara

These names as is evident, include also those eight type-designs

like Padma, Svastika etc. which were taken notice of in the previous
section on villages. The other types are quite familiar. The Vaijayanta
Nagarct is said to be situated at the sea-coast, on the bank of a river
or at the edge of the forest, Puiahhedana in V. P. is described as
having sites found naturally formed with the contour of a concha
which are chosen for this city. The Girinagara as its name signifies,

must be budt on the top of a hill and similarly the Jalanagara is in

the midst of a lake or in the midst of a big river. Gtih'^ is constructed
within a cave, leading upward, downward or horizontally or in inter-
mediate directions. We cannot expect any large number of dwellings
there except a king’s palace or an arsenal or a treasury or at the most
a cantonment. The a^\amuklia may be deemed a special variety because
its shape is circular with eight entrance-gates As regards the last
variety, the Majadhani town, it is a capital citywhere tributory
princes, ministers and commanders have all their residences and the
nucleus must be the Imperial Palace, with all its appretunanccs
yadt paraphernalia of establishments.
 FORTS IN GENERAI. 251

S^blararigana-sutradhara.

After a brief survey of the site of a town, the text takes up the
different varieties of the towns, and the scheme of the The
layout.

principal catagories of a town arc three Pura, Khe^ and Grama

(Gli, 10, 79-80). The other works like Manasara and Mayamata s{)eak
of as many as eight varieties of towns and villages, but the difference
is not in kind but in quality —the particular shape or form in which a
village or a town is planned. But the general description of these
given in the Manasara text is applicable more or less to all these
classes of towns— Nagara, Pura, KlnU, Kharvata, Kubjaka and
Pattana etc. (M. Chapter 9 and 10). The position is that the S. S.
knows dll the classes of towns but has adhered to the convenient
classilication of Pura, Kheta and Grama.

The text lays down that the distinguishing criterion between these
different varieties of towns is the relative measurement of the Vis*
kambha and the SimS distances. Half the Viskambha of the town is
Kheta and half of that of the Kheta is Grama. Kheta can be laid
out on a distance of one yojana from the town proper, the pura.
Similar is of Grama from the Kheta. Between two
the distance
villages there must be a distance of two kronas (gavyuti). We know
that the lirst pre-requisite in any town planning is regional planning
the planning of the region, the Visaya or Janapada (see its meaning
ahead). Naturally, therefore, all the varieties of towns came under
a visayra or janapada. Pura or Nagara, originally was the capital
town and janapada, the rest of the visaya. It may be said that in the
time of the S S. there were more than one Nagaras in several of the
Janapadas. Hence the Sima-distance of visaya is two Krofas, half
of it IS of a town, half of that of the town is of a Kheta and half of
that of the Kheta is of a grama.

Now Town (Pura) is of three classes, large, medium and small.

The criterion of the classification is their relative size.

The large one has a length of four thousand capas. (4000 sq. yds,)

The medium one of two thousands chapas, (4000 sq yds.)

The smaller town has only a length of one thousand

capas. (2000 sq. yds )

As regards the breadth of a town the text says (ch, 10-3) that
onc-eighth, one-fourth or half of the length should be the breadth in

practically all the categories of the towns.

 —

252 FORTS IN general

The other town not well brought out but otily

categories of the
hinted at in enumerative form in the chapter entitled ^Nagaradi-
Sahjna’ arc as follows:

1. Rajadhanl —The Capital of the king.

It is only a big town with the qualification that it is a seat of the
government or more fittingly the abode of a king,

2. f^iikhanagara.

All other categories of towns besides the Pura, the town proper
and the capital according to the S. S. are Sakhanagaras and their
sub-varieties. Among them a brief enumeration of the following types
arc made,

(i) Karvata— smaller town.

(ii) Nigama— smaller than Karvata.
(iii) —
Grama smaller than Nigama.
3. Special towns.
(i) Pattana— the second residence of the king.
(ii) Pujabhedana — a Pattana, in addition to
it is being a com-
mercial centre.

Apart from these, the land and the country being vast, there
are so many other human habitations, some of these being in the
forests or on the outskirts of villages and towns and they are Pallis

and Pallikas,

and uninhabited land may be classified into

All the inhabited
only two broad divisions, namely Janapada and Nagara.

The word Nagara should not be taken in its individual capacity,

but of a group formation. Hence a particular country from the
Stand-point of architectural planning (of course — political, economical,
commercial and cultural and religious considerations do crop up and
influence it) may be divided into Nagara and Janapada, and we have
already taken due notice of the national policy of town-planning as
enunciated by the gifted author of the most standard compendium of
architecture, the Samarahgana-Sutradhara, where village forms the
unit of National Planning-—the planning of the country as a whole.

Aparajita-pf^cchE, The text has got some innovations. Like the

V* T, it also describes the following twenty types of puras or towns or
cities having their peculiar shapes.
 PORTS lli general 253

1. Mahendra 8. Svastika 15. Uttara

2. Sarvatobhadra 9. ParSvadanda 16. Dharjna
3. Siihhavaloka 10. Jayanta 17. Kamalada
4. Varuna 11. Tripura 18. ^akrada
5. Nandyavarta 12. RQpamardana 19. Mahajaya
6. Nanda 13. Snaha 20. Paurusa
7. Puspaka 14. Ditya

N. i>\ Their shapes vary with monifold shapes square etc. etc.

Manasara. ‘‘
According to the Manasara, it appears that the
dimensions of the smallest town-unit are 100x200 dandas; the largest
town- unit is 73200x14,400 dandas. A town may be situated from east
to west or from north to south according to the position it occupies.
There should be one to twelve large streets in a town. It should be
and should have facilities fof trade
built near a river or a mountain,
and commerce with the foreigners (dvipantara-vartin). Like a village,
it should have walls, ditches and gates, drains, parks, commons,

shops, exchanges, temples, guest-houses, colleges, etc. For purposes

of military defence, towns are generally well fortified.

‘‘Towns are divided into eight classes: rajadhani-nagara, kevala-

nagara, pura, nagarf, kheta, karvata, kubjaka, and pattana. The
distinction between them is slight, the general description given above
being applicable to all. But it may be noted that the city called

pattana is a big commercial port. It is situated on the banks of the

sea or a river and is always engaged in exchange and commerce with
foreigners who deal specially in jewels, silk clothes, perfumes, etc.,
imported from other countries (dvipantara).’*

Mayamata. As regards the classifications given in the Mayamata

and iSilparatna, there is not much difference with what we have
noticed in the one adduced from the Manasara. All these three texts
belonging to the same school of Indian Architecture prescribe practi-
cally the same types. All these taken together (including Kamika*
gama and iSanaSiva-gurudeva-paddhati), may be tabulated as here-
under and a brief notice is also called for:

1. Nagara 5. Kheta 9. Dronamukha

2. Rajadhanl 6. Kharvata 10. Kotya-kolaka
3. Pattana 7. ^ibira(senamukha>SkandhavSra)ll. Nigama and
4. Durga 8# Sthanlya 12. Ma|ha or Vih5ra

Nagara. Pura and Nagara may be taken synonymous. Nagara

is surely a fortified town as its etymology signifies immovable, imp* —
2fi4 FOUTS IN general

lying permanence and strength with reference to stone walls etc. The
Vedic puraSiWere mere forts, while pura as in Tripura and Mahapura
was much bigger (Tait. Sam. VI 2, 3, 4, : Kath, Sam. XXIV, 10;
Sat. Bra. VI, 3, 3, 35; Ait. Bra., II, ll; Malt Sam. III. 8, 1). Thus
pura might have been the prototype of pura, the developed city, and
Nagara the full-fledged capital city. The dimensions and other
layouts in regard to gates, towers, buildings, markets, temples,
military defence etc. etc. may be purviewed in the Vastulaksana.

Rajadhani. Mayamata vide V. L. gives a glorious description of

the royal capital with its imperial castle. It is a modern meterpolis.
^ukracharya*b description has something more to add. It must have

the sabha or Council Hall in the centre.

Pattana. It is a large commercial port, situated on the bank of a

river or sea. It is frequented by traders from distant lands (divlpan-
taragata, de^Sntaragata) coming on commercial mission, VaiSyaS
predominate the population and it is replete with jewels, wealth, silk
prcfumery and other articles,

Darga. It is a fortified town and we shall see its details in its

proper place.
Khe^a. It is a small town situated on the plain near a river or in
the forest by the side of hillocks and is girt with a mud-wall. Its

main population consists of Sudras or labouring class. According to

the ^ilparatna, if such a town is thrown out by local industries, such
as mining, it is known as Sakha-nagara.

Kharavata. It is exactly similar to a kheta and is alsodefended

with a girdle of wall and is located in the country side. According
to Kaujily it is situated in the centre of two hundred villages.

It is a military encampent
Sibira. vide Bana-bha|ta’s descrip* —
tion of Skandhavara of Harsa Vardhana. It is also laid out when a

king was out on an expendidon of fresh conquest and annexation.

It has two more sub-varieties Seri^mulcha and SLandli&v^a. The
former is like a military base, rear station where the military staff
cirry on their duties away from the
battle-field. According to Maya-
mata (Vf Laksa^a) it may also be suburban town a little away froin the
main city guarding the latter at is main approach and this commands
a strategic situation. It is like our contonments in the modern times.
The latter variety is of the same category with the diffcrcnc<^ that
rivers, mountains and woods form its defence According to the
dUparatna it is nothing but a camp of the soldiers not very remote
ftotn the Actual battle-field#
 FORTS IN GBNSRAL 255

Stbanlya. According to Kautilya, there shall be set up a

sthSniya fortress in the centre of 800 villages. It is like*commissio-
naries or muffasl towns and head-quarters of the districts or the di*

visional officers. 6Uparatna*s definion supports this deduction.

Dronamukha. is a market town frequented by traders, lying

on ^ river bank or sea-shore, generally at their confluence, known
also as Dronlmukha. It is a harbour. If it were populous place in
the midst of villages it is termed as Vidamba.

Katmakolaka. It is a popular settlement in a hilly or wild tract.

Nigama. It is a market mainly of artisans though other castes

also live.

Matha or Vihara. The ^ilparatna has a vivid description of this

last but not least importance type of twon. It is a univcrsity*town.

called Vidyasthana, Matha or Vihara. Literally it means students

quarters or college. Hence it is a residential university where not
only the learners board and lodge but religious intinerants (ParivrS*
jakas) or monks also reside. Savants from foreign lands also repair
to the place, where there is provision for (free?) supply of food and
water. It is defended against hostile attack. The student celibates
who preferred religious pursuits and philosophical lore to a worldly
life used to put up at this university town, it may be, in the capacity
of professors. ‘‘And as the Brahmanas became the custodians of
Aryan traditions and culture, the ASrama or Brahmana village deve-
loped in to the university town to which Aryan youth of the twice*
born classes went for instruction —Havcll.
Thus closes the catalogue of all principal types of towns as are
more notable for their plans in the renowned iSilpatexts like the
Manasara and Mayamata. But some notice of the templc-cites
already taken before may be prolonged. They are our proud glory
and represent our national culture embodiment of the age-long
heritage, both in the traditions of art and religion. Temple-cities are
generally those whic^ had their origin in and evolved out of holy
shrines with the spread of their fame and influence.

Their peculiarities consist in the several successive rings of

circumambulatory paths that writhe round and round their central
plotswhereupon the temples, their nuclii, arc generally situated.
These attest the successive stages of their growth and develop nent.
Angther pftculiar characteristic of the temple-cities lies in a good
Ituinber of minor shripes set up in them. For msmy saints ai^che4
 FORTS IN GENERAL

to the old temples set up their revered memory. It should also be

noted that followers and preachers of creeds other than that repre-
^

sented by the original temple repair to the place either to measure

their religious strength or from inconoclastic motives. A city like

Benares offers the best forum for proselytization. Whatever may be

the outcome of this trial of strength, the city in consequence, soon
outgrows its temple aud develops a distinct corporate life. The
new immigrants and raise their own monasteries/*
also settle here
Similarly some remaiks on Garden-cities are also needed to
complete this picture of our temples and towns. Garden-cities
constituted a compromise between a city and a village and represen-
ted a harmonious combination of human art and soul-vivifying
nature. In ancient
India tanks and lakes used to be the nucleus of
this development. The triple companionship plants, animals and —
men is our very ancient tradition. The herd of cow, the temple
orchards coupled with tanks overgrowth of shady trees and the
mighty banyan or the sacerd ASvatha and men and women sitting
under their shed enjaying the cool breezes and tending their cattle
what India had left to our memory in her most glorious days. No
town is complete unless it is trimmed with sheds for drinking water,
shrines and halls, tanks, gardens and the like—-vide Yukti-Kalpataru
of Bhoja— ‘Prapa-mandapa-kasara-kananadyupSobhitam*. In these
garden-cities there symmetric distribution and allocation of parks,
is

gardens and tanks; trees are reared in rows along both sides of the
streets, sometimes in the middle, sometimes in two or three rows on

the streets thus segregating the different currents of traffic. Again

every house has its own garden in the front. Some longitudinal
portion of the street is sometimes kept evergreen with grass and
installation of factories in large number is prohibited or discouraged.

FORTS OR DURGA
As fortified cities, the eight-fold varieties of the Mana-
sara text Sibira ctc« have already been taken notice of. For purely
military purpose their classification varies with the various texts.

Viivakarma-VastuSastra. It describes the following twelve

types :~
1. Giridurga 5. Daivadurga 9. Kurmadurga
2. Vanagurga 6. Ekamukhadurga 10. Paravata
3. Jaladurga 7* Dvimukhadurga 11. Prabhu and
4. Iriijiadurga 8. Gaturmukhadurga 12. Yuddha
‘•Forts arc of 12 kinds according to the site chosen. The first is Hill
fqrt. The sccon4 is protected by forests^ Underground passage aye
 FORTS IN GENERAL 257

provided for this class of forts. The third type is either in the midst
of the sea or large rivers. The fourth
the fort in the desert country.
is

Fifth is a natural fort i. e., a place in which formations like ramparts

have been formed by nature. It is called Daivata fort. The next
three types are built on the banks of rivers or at the sea- coast. They
are provided either with a single gate, two gates or four gates as safety
will allow. The ninth is called the tortoise fort. It is generally
intended as a trap for the enemy. The site is either the middle of
a forest or the foot of a hill. It is provided with concealed appro-
aches and spring traps work by concealed machinery. Five or six
ramparts protect the place and it is studded with concealed marshes
and mire. This type of fort is generally constructed at short notice
to entrap the enemy and is demolished soon after. The tenth is a
well-defended place of safety for temporary rest in the midst of a
fierce battle. The eleventh
a well-provided fort with strong dc*
is

fence in unapproachable ground either in the midst of a forest, a hill

or other place with natural defence. It has but a single gate and is

protected by a series of a dozen Prakaras (walled enclosures). There

are structures in the walls for sounding the alarm when necessary.
Such structures are known as Karanas (the ears of the fort). Gates
within gates with double latches protect the place and the fort is

well provided with all provisions for a long scige. The twelfth type
is called War fort. It is especially intended as a place of safety from
which to attack the enemy and it has all structures for offence and

defence with various weapons. Hidden pathways, and underground

passages with stair cases abound. It is sometimes allowed to be used
by citizens for residence or cleared of them at the king’s pleasure’*—
cf. Int. to V.V.S.

The expatiations on Durgaby the S. S. have already been noticed

vide the representative Vastu texts. But Bhoja in his Yukti-kalpa-
taru,however has a better classifieation. He divides the forts under
two main heads: (1) Natural (akftrima-— literally not artificial) and
(2) Artificial. The natural fort is one which is rendered inaccessible
to hostile encroaches by its very situation. Secondly, the advantages
of its natural defences are such as deserts, rivers and the like. A
kingdom which lacks such defensive qualifications should make pro-
vision for artificial forts i. e. those which are protected by ramparts,
surmounted by embattled parapets and girt round by large ditches.

Practically all the ^ilpa- texts do not adhere to this more rational
classification. They classify Durga in a mixed way.
MlnasEra & Mayamata. ^^Forts are first divided into eight classesi
e^llcdfibira, vShinf-mukha, sthSnIyai dronaka, sarhviddha or vardha-^
258 PORTS IN OENBRAL

ka, kolaka, nigama and skandhivara. There is a further division of

these forts according to their position. They are known as mountain-
fort (giridurga), chariot-fort (ratha-durga), divine-fort, (deva-durga),
marsh fort (pahka-durga)> and mixed fort (miSra-durga). 1 he moun-
tain fort it subdivided into three classes, according as it is built on the
top of the mountain, in the valley, or on the mountain slope. All
these forts are surrounded with strong walls and ditches. The wall
is made of brick, stone and similar materials. It is at least 12 cubits

in height and its thickness at the base is at least 6 cubits. It is pro-

vided with watch-towers.”— A. H. I. & A. p. 104. Mayamata's list

corresponds to this as given in the Manasara.

Kau|ilya’s Artbaiatra and Sokranitisara. The accounts of fort-

laying given in the two renowned treatises, is also worthy of notice-
In the former, chapter XXIV. para 1, p. 51, lays down the indictment
on establishing forts in the kingdom and of the contents of chaps.

XXIV, XXV and XVII taken together can give you a very good
account of fort-planning remincscent of the then State-policy under
Imperial Mauryas, They provide a very interesting description of the
plan and other architectural details. There are nine principal varie-

ties of forts and if we add all the sub-varieties they come to as many
as nineteen varieties acccording to the ^ilpasastras. Let us dwell
a little more on these varieties:

L Mountain fort. Its three sub-varieties are already refered to,

they are called according to the Mayamata —Girimadhya, Giri-parSvaka
and Giri-Sikharaka, the last is also called Prantara and is most auspi-
cious. The forts of Ghitorc and Lanka illustrate this type. The
town of Bundi may be cited as an example of the second type, the
GiriparSvaka and the first is really a Guh5 and Jaipur and Udaipur
may be said to be its examples as Guha type of mountain fort is
situated in a valley secluded and made inapproachable by an encir-
cling range of mountains with natural passes like a defile.

2. Water fort. It is rendered difficult of access by natural cir-

cumfluent water. It has also two sub-varieties —antar-dvfpa (island

fort) which in the words of is §ukrachary is a nadf-durga as on its both
sides river flows. It may be built in the midst of a sea also. It is in

a way an insular town or fort of which, in the opinion of Sri B, B.

Uuttai modern Bombay, ancient Ccylone, Srirangamand Kaveripum—
pattinam may serve as the best e^tacciplei. The other variety is called
 FORtS IN GENERAL 259

ithala-durga which is situated on a high land girt round stagnant

(as opposed to flowing) fathomless water. It may be laid out in the
midst of a lake or a vast tank.

3. OeSert fort. (Dhanvana) is in the midst of a desert devoid

of any water. ‘Nirudaka* and ‘Airana* are its principal varitics.
The former is characterized by barren tract, latter made barren by
and saturated with salt or brine water. In both the cases an oasis is

turned into a fortified town. In the opinion of Sri Datta many

principalities in Rajasthana will fall under these heads.

4. Forest fort, (Vana-durga) has also two sub-varieties ‘Khan*

jana’ and ‘Stamba-gahana* the latter termed by Manu as V5rksa.
Khanjana is hemmed in by fens variegated with thickets and thorny
shrubs while its companion is environed by a dense jungle of lofty trees.

5. Earth fort. (Mahl-durga). It has three species— ‘p5righa%

‘panka* and ‘mpd-durga* and they arc quite celar cf. details—vide V.L.

6. Man-fort. (Nrdurga). Its defence lies in the strength of

man-power. It is also sub-divided into ‘Sainya-durga^ and ‘Sahaya-
durga’, which are quite clear.

7. Mixed forte. (Miira-durga) is a combination of Girndurga

and Vana-durga.

8. God’s fort. (Daiva-durga) may be defined as a fort unapproa-

chable on account of its vary natural circumstances like Mt. Everest.
Others take it as a fort whose entrance and guarded by gods,
exit are

Raksasas, Vaitalas, ghosts etc. and which has been made inacce-
ssible by hail-storm, constant typhons and frequent showers and which
is protected by spells, charms and incantations. According to the
l^ilparatna vide V. L. however that fort is called daiva-durga, upon
whose walls are installed the gods Indra, VSsudeva, Guha, Jayanta,
Vaiiravatia, the Twin Aivinis, Srimadira (not ^rimandira as Datta
takes it —
as Srimadira is another name of Parvati— vide my H. C.
Ico. and Painting) and 6iva, Durga, Sarasvati.

9. Krtaka. Lastly the Kptaka is the artificial fort as distinguished

from the foregoing varieties.

Of all the forts the Mountain fort is the best.—‘‘

iSukracarya also* arranges the forts in order of merit as
follows: Giri, Jala, Dhanu, Vana, PSrikha, Airana and PSrigba.
With all these special characteristics of each of these the general
characteristics in the words of the author of the Silparatna ‘all strong*
260 FORTS IN OfeNERAi

holds worth the name must be invariably protected by walls and

according to Muni Maya all forts must have unfailing stores, provisions,

arms, water arrangements, to be girt round by lofty gigantic trees,

secured by walls and furnished with many guarded gates. The
absence of bulwarks suggest that the Aryan town-planners were not
slow to appreciate the local circumstances, and they took advantage of
the natural barniers and, with slight manipulation and modification,
turned them into best fortifications where rivers and oceans, mountains
and rocks, trees and bushes, deserts and swamps were made to play

important parts of their own.

 II! CHAPTEFi
PRELIMINARIES OF TOWN PLANNING
This subject of the preliminaries is principally consisted of sur-
veying of the region or regional planning, the site-planning including
the examination of the land, testing of the soils and the selection of
the site thereof, the levelling of the ground or Bhukarsana along
with the germination on the plot and offerings, the Balidana etc, etc.
Accordingly let us begin with the regional planning, the first pre-
requisite of the town-planning.

(a) Regional Planning The planning of a town, a habitation, villages,

:

fort, city or any other variety of group-residences, should take into

account its location first — situation and surroundings, climate and
soils, vicinity and frontiers. To put
it in one word, the Town Planning

pre-supposes the planning of the country, the DeSa or more correctly

—
the regional planning (the deiabhumis) i. e. surveying the region
on which the town is to be planned out.

The first essential of town-planning, according to the S. S., is the

survey of the soil conditions and their examination. In its chapter
entitled ‘Bhu-Pariksa’, the 8th, the S. S. divides the land (deSa) into
three varieties:— (1) Jangal (2) Anupa and (3) Sadharana (S.S. 8.2),
“The land almost barren, where well water is too far to be accessible,
the wind is dry, hot and violent, and the soil is black in colour is

called Jangala. The region, opposite to the one described, full of

water easily accessible from the wells, with beautiful landscape
and cool climate, fish and meat in abundance, with rivers all round,
plentiful trees, lofty and full of verdure is called Anupa.

A combination of these two characteristics, viz, climate moderate*—

neither too hot nor too cold, is called Sadharana, or i,e., having
‘common qualities of both of them.

The above classification is with reference to climate and geolo-

gical formation. The S. S. further classifies the land (DeSa-bhumis)
into as many as sixteen varieties based more or less on human and
cultural as well as natural factors, ’
They are as follows

1. BaliSasvaminI Easy tp be administered ahd inhabited

by good pcoplc~bhadrajana.
262 TOWN PLANNING

2. Bhogya Fit for all worldly enjoyments, everything

in plenty and people glowing wiih riches.
3. Sitagocararaksinl With adequate natural resources like

rivers, lakes and mountains and well-knit

frontiers.

4. ApaSrayavatl With fearful surroundings and devoid of

human habitations.
5. Kanta With charming and beautiful landscape
alround.
6. Khanimati Abundant in mineral resources.
7. Atmadharipf With abundance of freedom and hard to
be administered.
8. Vanikprasadhita With commercial centres and trades in
full swing.
9. Dravyasampanna Rich in trees of superior quality.
10. Amitraghatinf With people in complete accord to each
other, living in well divided Janapadas.
11. ASrenipurusS With no captives and inhabited by gentle
folk*

12. SakyasSmanta Where Samantas arc lethargic and re-

luctant towards the statecraft (Mantra
and Utsaha etc*).
13. Devamat^ka With agriculture blooming, the rivers in
plenty; not depending on the rain water*
14. Dhlnya With easy, excessive and plentiful har-
vests, and where ploughing is not necess-
ary.
15. Hastivanopeta Where mountains are on all sides, and
where the forests are full of elephants.
16. Surak§a Unconquerable by the enemies on account
of the natural barriers,

(b) Lttod Lindscttpe sotted to m Ideal toint.

A very beautiful delineation (vide the text Ch.8.27-35and V.L,cf»

the Desa etc* the Land and Landscape), upon the natural surroundings
and situations, the lahd and the landscape suitable for the laying out
of a town, or khc|a or a village etc, is found in this teMt. The suiU and
substance of this prescription of the land and the landscape is that
for an ideal town the surroundings and situation, land and landscape
ihust consist, in the first place, of hills and mountains serving as
natural frontier not easily to be crossed. B^rom the security point of
view, this is ah Invaluable asset* But it may be pointed out that on
 TOWN PLANNXNO 263

the plains —and the plains abound in our land — this rule can not be
adhered to everywhere and hence was needed. Practically
fortification

all the ancient towns and cities on the plains were fortified towns.
That is why strictly speaking, there was not much difference in the
views of ancient manuals like Manasara and Mayamata on the layout
of the towns and the forts.

The second requirement is that an ideal town must have a green

belt of forests where tall trees and plants full of verdure and flowers
are found in abundance. This is necessary, not only from the point
of view of healthy climate but is also conducive to the growth and
maintenance of the population requiring fruits, fuel and fodder.
Moreover, the natural scenery of this green verdure must add to the
beauty and the grandeur of the town for which in the laying out of the
modern garden cities so much money is spent*

Thirdly, for water is a fundamental necessity. No life can

life,

subsist without a good natural supply of water and hence the rivers,
lakes, ponds and tanks are indispensable pre-requisites for the laying
out of a town* It may be noted here, that the most potent factor
giving rise to the towns in ancient India, was this natural factor— the
presence of water in abundance. Therefore, practically all the impor-
tant towns and cities of ancient India rose cither on the bank of a
river or on the sea shore. Moreover, in India rivers like Ganga and
others have always been regarded as sacred and, therefore, the
places on such sacred rivers, primarily a hermitage or a temple, gave
rise to big towns. That is why we have all our famous Tirthas,
sacred places of pilgrimage situated on the banks of the rivers or on
the sea shore.

The abundance of water and trees and forests presupposes a

fertile soil condition which is suited for a good harvest. Thus these
are the prime considerations according to Samarangana for the laying

out of an ideal town. We know that life on this earth is an inter-

connected and inter-dependent natural process, where plants, cattle
and water play their most vital role.

(c) Geolpgical Survey*

So far wp have been surveying the land to be selected for the town-
planning from the geographical stand-point. The ancient texts on V3stu-
^iaStra arc full of details aiming at the physipgraphical or more correctly

an4 more characteristically the geological survey of the land too. In

these day« of advanced stage of the Geological science, this may sound
simply astounding, but the fact is otherwise* The different varieties of
264 TOWN PtANNINQ

th« soilshaving different different colows, smells^ sounds, touches aiid tastes
could not have been ascertained unless the physiographical and geologi-
cal surveying and investigations had been carried out. The S.S. allots
the four soils of white, red, yellow and black colours to the four castqs
respectively (8.48). This allotment may be symbolic, the colours of the
ground answering the colours of the respective castes— the Sanskrit term
for caste being ‘Varna’ literally colour. Similarly, from the point of
view of thetaste of the soil, sweet, astringent, pungent and bitter tastes

have been allotted to the respective four castes. But it may be noted
here that these prescriptions are not mandatory or obligatory they
are only recommendatory (8,49).

Again in every text on Vastu-Sastra, some account of the unfit

found (8. 52-62). The S. S. directs that the soil having the
soils is

following characteristics should be avoided for the planning of any

town: one, which is full of ashes, charcoal, skulls, bones, husks of
corns, hair, poison, abounding in rats, rubbish
stones; similarly one
ant-hills, and gravels. Again lands which are hollow, dry, zig-zag,
having decayed wood, and subterranean pits, barren, with water cur-
rents tnoving to the left, devoid of rains, where trees are bitter, thorny,
useless, dry, devoid of fruits, abounding in birds eating raw flesh and
where worms are also found, are not to be selected; where any religious
piety or food, drink, vanish like the sounds of a turya (musical instru-
ments); where the river flows tovvards the East; which smell like Oil or a
dead body; which have a smoky colour, mixed colour or no colour, dry
—
colour all these also must be rejected. From the point of view of taste,
bitter, saltish must be avoided. Land which is sharp and dry, too hot
or too cold to the touch, should be rejected. Land that has the snmd of
a jackal, camel, dog or donkey or the torrent or a cruel sound like that
of a breaking jar must also be avoided (these sounds are simply symbolic
of the sound of the soil). The import of all these directions regard-
ing the selection of the ground for town-planning is that impurity,
insanitation, sterility or barrenness, hollowness, irregularity of sites
and plots must be avoided at all cost, so that laying out of the build-
ings and the planning of the roads are not affected and the stability
them
of the structures erected on is ensured. All this is possible
when well-planned soU tests and geological surveys are carried out.
Again this shows that not only the fertility and the solidity of the
ground are ascertained, but also the mineral resources were tapped
and the building materials explored. Again this is also necessary
frorti the point of view of the stability of a town, situated on the bank
of a river, in order to ward Off any possible flood or erosion. This
brings us to another point of consideration in the selection of the site,
 TOWN PLANNING 265

namely, the proclivity of the ground. The S, S. (8.66; directs that the
ground should have its proclivity either to the North or to the North-
East or to the East proper and it should resemble a mirror (in its

elevation in the middle). The S. S. in two other places also takes

this topic of proclivity and declivity of the ground. In its chapter en-
titled ‘‘Gvhadosa’* (the 48th)it opens with the direction that the

ground slanting towards the direction presided over by Varuna,

Yama, Marut, Fire or if depressed in the middle, is unfit and brings
poverty, disease and death. More pointedly, it says that a ground
having its declivity towards the quarter of Fire, suffers from the fear
of fire, towards the south from death, towards South-West from ail-

ments, towards the West from the destruction of the grains and
wealth, towards North-West from foreign residence, quarrels and
ailments and the one sloping in the middle is the worst of all and is
instrumental in bringing total destruction. Again in its 20th Chapter
in connection with the raised or low grounds in the vicinity of the

house, it has laid down that a house having a low ground on the left
and raised on the right, is beset with many ills (cf. wrong orientation—
it will be insanitary). Similarly, if it is low on the right and raised
on the left that too is unfit. Further, hollowness and a low ground
at the back are also bad. Only the ground with westward slope and
frontal projection (as much as it can be) is the fittest one. In his
Yukti-Kalpataru (vide Nagara-racana-^astra verse 136-7), Bhoja is

more specific. He says that the ground should be elevated in the

middle and slanting towards the East and North-East, A Southern
declivity is responsible for all insanitation and brings diseases ; a
declivity towards North is conducive to wealth, while a westward
slope destroys peace and prosperity ;
a depression of the ground in
the middle conveys poverty, while a depression on the border brings
in happiness.

Practically all the Silpa-Sastras are unanimous in extrolling an

easterly declivity of the ground. It offers the full benefit of the
morning sun. After the site was chosen, the four points of the com-
pass were fixed by means of a gnomon (J^anku).

The and consecration of the ground, though much

purification
elaborated in manuals like the MSnasara and the Mayamata, are cons-
picuous by their absence in the S. S. and some remarks may be made
in the end of this chapter.

These elaborate precautions in the selection of the site for the

town-planning as we fin(J in these texts point out that in ancient and
266 TOWN PLANNIO
medieval India, town-planning was probably the concern of the State.
Such a wide range of the prescriptive directions could not have been
within easy reach of individual resources. Town-planning seems to
have been a social function in which the society as a whole took part.

Havel (vide A
Study of Indian Civilization pp. 7.8) simply relates
the truth when he “It will probably be revelation to modern
says :

architects to know, how scientifically the problems of town-planning

are treated in these ancient India’s architectural treatises. Beneath
a great deal of mysticism which may be scoffed at as pure supersti-
tions, there is a foundation of sound common sense and scientific know-
ledge which should appeal to the mind of the European expert

So far we have been busy with the architectural preliminaries,

there are however certain important injunctions in the ^ilpa-texts for
some of which like Halakarsana may be
ritualistic preliminaries,

deemed as helpful in the context of the architectural preliminaries as

well. Hence some remarks may be made in the words of Sri B. B,
Dutta. T. P. in A. I.-pP* 60-^2 :

“ The ground over the Sthapati (the civic archi-

selection of the
tect) now its purification and consecration. The
turns his attention to
rites to this end prescribed both by the Manasara and the Mayamata
are almost identical and they arc these :
—
“ In an auspicious moment
the Sthapati after pious ablutions, clad in fresh garments, and
adorned with garlands of flowers, in the presence of the assembled
people, makes an offering of fried paddy and white flowers to the
deities and with invocations for the welfare and prosperity of the
builder (or of the architectural enterprise he is going to undertake),
he sprinkles consecrated waters in all quarters, and drives away the
evil spirits that may haunt the place. Then he, guiding the oxen,
draws furrows across the ground towards the east or the west, the
grass and the weeds having been plucked out in the first instance.
Usually he turns the first furrow and thereafter the ^iudras hired for
the purpose complete the ploughing of the ground A new plough
was specially made for the occasion. The fourth chapter of the
MSnasara deals with the construction of a plough and with ploughing.
The newly made plough was yoked to a pair of oxen, strong and
without blemish, with gold and silver rings on their horns and hoofs.
When the ploughing was finished, the oxen and the plough were pre-
sented to him as his prequisites, the people reverencing him as their
guru. Then all kinds of seeds (generally sesasum seeds, pulse and
kidney beans, i.c„ sacrificial grains) mixed With cow dung arc sown
 town planning 26 )

with incantations pronounced over them, When the crops have

matured and flowers are in bloom, the cows, generally the cattle of
the com nanity, together with oxen and calves, are put to graze on
them and they are allowed to remain there for one or two nights ;

for the ground is by the grazing of the cattle, consecrated by

purified
their exhalations, purged of impurity by the hilarious bellowing of
the oxen, cleansed and sanctified by froth flowing from the mouths of
the calves, laved by bovine urine, besmeared with their ordure and
chequered with slipped cud and their foot-marks. The foregoing
procedures of selecting and sanctifying the ground were followed in
all cases of a village, a ward, a fortress, and the like

As regards other ritualistic details, they are reserved for the

part V—Temple- architecture.

N,B. (i)— Among the other notable architectural preliminaries like,

Site-'planning or Vastupada-vinyasa including the orientation, the
ascertaining of the cardinal points by means of a gnoman, etc., etc.,
and marking out the area, etc., i.e., marking off* the perepheries of the
town, with especial reference to the dimensionsetc., the former

has already been dwelt at length in the previous part and the latter
is reserved for the chapter ahead— vide Folk-planning.

(ii)—‘This chapter is principally based on the S.S. and details

of other texts— vide V. L., have not been delineated upon as these
may be purviewed there.
 CHAPTER IV
ROAD PLANNING
Streets and their planning form one of the most important canons
of town-planning and our ancient sthapatis were wide awake to this
vital principle. R(yads have a threefold function : they are high ways
for traffic ;
secondly they demarcate the plots for buildings and cons-
titute a vital limb in the site-planning and thirdly they have sanitary
value, providing arteries of free ventilation. riiough as per the
details of some of the 6dpa-texts it seems that the roads were not so
spacious as wc have today but some of the ancient works have com-
pensated in regard to adjusting the width of streets to the volume of
traffic. Thus we read in the Devi Parana ch. 72.78-9 “The royal — —
street or high way should be made as wide as ten dhanus i.e. forty

cubits, so that men, horses, elephants, and vehicles can have free
movement without interference and congestion/* Sukracarya, prohibits
construction of small lanes such as Vithis* (small lanes) and ^padyas*
(foot-ways) in the metropolis or large cities. In Kautilya*s Artha-
Sastra (Book II ch. IV) we find mention of roads for chariots, roads
for cattle, roads for elephants and roads for minor quadrupeds as well

as for men, which tradition is also fully followed in the HarivaihSa,

Visnuparva ch. 38 — “Vehicular avenues (vlthi) and
streets (rathya),
men’s roads (n|*nam margal^) were constructed separately in the city.”
Further in the Devi andBrahmandaPuranas, thedeSa-marga^L or diSam-
margah i.e. country roads are stated to be as wide as 30 dhanus,
Grama-margas 20 dhanus and Sima-margas only 10 dhanus which
clearly shows the grasp of the several roads of towns conforming to the
different traffic circulations.

With on the evidence

this general introduction, let us concentrate

as furnished by the Samarahgana-sutradhara, the principal text of our

pursuit~vide my thesis on the subject.

Now before proceeding with the planning of the roads a relevant

point for consideration crops up; namely, whether road-planning
should come first or the Pada VinySsa is to be given priority. Street
planning, as a matter of fact, is upon the lines of the
generally based
divisions of the plots under Pada Vinyasa scheme. The wards so
marked offby principal streets are exactly identical with the blocks
lined off in the Pada VinySsa. According to all ^ilpa-^astras includ-
ing the SamarShgana, distribution of professions and castes as well as
 ROAD PLANNING 269

allotment of sites are made entirely with reference to Pada Vinyasa, a

pada or a block being set apart for a particular caste or profession, I
have already referred to the thirtytwo such schemes of Pada Vinyasa
(vide Munasara). Thus the mode of division into Padas is drawing as
many a rectilinear parallel lines as the scheme in question warrants,
together with the similar number of the transverse parallel lines, \iz,

the sketch of the Gandita, noted above and illustrated in the Appendix
where there are equal number of rectilinear as well as transverse
parallel lines.
Another notice, before the canons of the street-planning are taken
into account, is that the preliminary procedure of the division of the

whole area into the rough partitioning of the plot in order that the
principal component parts of the town-plan namely, the fortification
consisting of the surrounding walls and ditches, Attalakas, gates and
Gopuras and the requirements of the principal currents of traffic
circulation, may become of easy handling. This scheme as pointed
out consists firstly of the measurements of towns, respective standards
of measurements of length and breadth in the three varieties of the
towns, namely superior, medium and the inferior are already noticed ;

secondly, the whole area is to be partitioned out in sixteen blocks, six

highways and nine Gatvaras ; thirdly, the whole plot should have six
artery lines (Vam§as) in two groups of three belonging to the fourfold
pada and these should run from East to West. This rough partition-
ing is a common procedure in all the categories of towns —‘Superior,
middle and inferior, according to S. S. (10, 1-5).

This, it seems to me, was the initial stage in the planning of a

town. This is what we understand to be the layout of the whole area
under planning. We can infer that the town-site was demarcated, to
begin with, by three moats, rampart wall, towers and gateways. This
marked the initial step in the planning of a city {Nagara^-M^pana),
The Parikheyi-bhumi determined the configuration of the site.

Samarahgana prescribes as many as thirty four roads in a model

town running both from East to West as well from South to North,
These roads are so planned as to cover both the interior and exterior
planning in the most healthy orientation giving not only the benefit of
the sun-shine and ventilation but also comfortable residences.

The first priority is given to the central path called R3ja-marga

to be located on the central or the middle varii^a. Its dimension of
breadth varies with the three varieties of the towns “Jyestha,
Madhya and Kanis|ha as 24, 20 & 16 hastas (i.c. 36, 30, 24 ft.) respec-
tively. It should be wide enough for free traffic circulation more
270 ROAD PLANNING

especially for the four- fold army (Caturahga-Bala), the king i.e. princely
procession, a/id also the townsmen (the mass of humanity). It should
be made firm with gravel (KaSmaSarkara). This is the principal path.

Again two highways technically called Maharathya, the large

chariot or vehicular roads should be placed on the Upantastha VaipSa,
the dimensions being 12, 10 and 8 (18, 15, 12 ft.) in the three varieties.

In addition to these paths, a set of four ways called Y^na-marga —

vehicle-streets are to be laid and their dimension of four hastas
(i.e. 6 feet) is fixed in all the sizes of the towns. Their location how-
ever, is enjoined in the middle of the Pada. Again it is directed that all

these four Yana-rnargas should each have two Jaiigh^-pathas —the

foot-paths and these are to be located on both sides of the Yanamarga,
and their respective dimensions being 3, and 2 hastas (i.e,4i, 3f
and 3 ft.).

Besides these fifteen roads, so far enumerated to be laid out in a

town, there remain two more roads
still They
called G/uintd-marr/tcs*.
should run along the boundary wall and have all the qualities and
specifications of the Raja-marga. The laying out of all these seventeen
roads, as already hinted at, is concerned only with two directions,
namely from the East to West. Similarly, the same number of these
clifTerent categories of roads and streets and foot-paths having the
iudentical dimenuons, etc. are to be so laid out as running from the
South to the North. This reaches the number thirtyfour. It docs
not end here. The text further enjoins that in order to provide space,
ventilation and passage circulation, a number of lanes and byelanes
should also be provided in any scheme of road-planning. This is

more necessitated as per the site-planning, the folk-planning, the

demarcation of the respective blocks done with the help of these
lanes and byelanes. It is the fundamental constituent of an Indian
town plan.

This is only a rough statement of the road

plans. There are
certain statementswhich need elaboration and critical examination.
Firstly the main streets, namely the RSja-marga, MahSrathyS and
Yana-margas (chariot roads)— all run from East to West or from the
orth to South in a rectangular chess-board system. That is, they
are laid out in rows cutting one another at right angles*
parallel
This is the recognised method even in the present times. A remark*
able extant illustration of the ancient system m Jayapore, the city
founded by Mahirija Jai Singhs the great astronomer.. We know that
principle of orientation was meticulously adhered to by the Indian
 ROAD PLANNING 271

Towa Planners. All the manuals of Vastu-Sastras are

emphatic
against any structure or Vastu pointing towards the diagpnal corners
of the heavens. It is in keeping with this that the city was laid out

axially to the cardinal directions, and all its streets ran straight from
East to West and North to South. In ancient Vastu terminology
(cf. Manasara Gh. IX), this plan is known technically as F}astara, It
is similar to what we understand by the chess-board plan these days.

Secondly, what are the VariiSas on which all these roads are said
to be laid out ? We are all familiar with the settling down and
forming thereof (though only diagramatically and mystically) the body
of the Vastu-Purusa, the Presiding Lord of the whole plot of land in
such a manner that the whole piece of the plot is covered by the
different limbs of his body. He is described as hump-backed and of
crooked shape. Therefore, it is made possible for Him to cover the
entire land. The S. S. in its I2th Chapter describes the MahavlimSas
together with ^iras, Vam^as, Sandhis, Anusandhis and Marmas in
relation to the formation of the mystic body of the Vastu-Purusa.
Their architectural concoinmittants in the site-plans would be the
Siras or Nadis taking for their convergence the sixteenth part of the
Pada, the MahavamSas are two in number, located in the centre run-
ning both from East to West as well as from South to North
and take for their convergence the fifth part of the Pada similarly,
;

Vaih^as, AnuvamSas, Sampatas, Marmas all running in the middle take

the eighth, the tenth, the twelfth and the sixteenth part of the Pada
respectively for their respective convergences. Thus, leaving aside all

MahavamSas are the central arteries in the body

other technicalities the
of the town commonly so drawn as to serve as the prototype of the
rectangular roads converging in all the directions in a town.

Thus planning as described in the S.S.

this is the picture of street

For its fuller presentation, the appended sketch of the road-plan,

would be more helpful. Here, in this sketch, arc drawn not only the
principal thirty four streets, but also a number of lanes, byelanes and
and side streets connecting the central road and going through the
different localities to give full space to the different localities and
providing them with necessary light, air and good and healthy orienta-
tion as well as allocating places to the necessary articles of daily use.
It may bepointed out here that the subject of street planning in works
like Manasarai Mayamata, Artha-I§astra of Kautilya, Nitisara of ^ukra,

PutSnas like Devi and Brahmapda is exhaustively treated and their

elaborate notice taken by Sri B, B, Dutta in his *Town Planning in
is

Ancient India** But for the sake of completeness, the broad principlci
272 ROAD PLANNING

of the Street planning which are found in them may be noticed.

Firstly, it was according to the number and directions of the streets

and the arrangement of houses along them that most of the classifica-
tions of towns like Dandaka and its further categories were denomi-
nated (Mayarnata, tne 9th Chapter). Similarly, MSnasara classified
the towns, according to street planning and site-planning under
eight heads, like Dandaka and Nandyavarta etc. (Chapters IX & X).
Secondly, diagonal streets (very common these days) were not
advocated by these Silpa-Sastras of old. The two princpal roads of
every town continued upto the main National Highways and thus
serving the main purpose. There was however, an exception. The
diagonal streets were inevitable when exigencies of the situation such
as hilly tracts, were the natural factors for laying out such streets.
Thirdly, it can not be said that in ancient India or in the early
Medieval India the roads of the towns did not have the foot-paths
lined parallel to them, (Sri Datta is doubtful in this respect, ibid.
133 page). The S. S., as we have already noticed, does provide for
Janghapathas (space for pedestrians) on both sides of the vehicular
streets — the Yana-Margas (S. S. X. 12). Fourthly, special attention
in the ancient system of the street planning was devoted to the trim-
ming of the outer-sections of roads. It served manifold purposes such
as beautifying the intervals of the long roads with some architectural
objects, like temples, towers or tall trees and also serving the cultural
life, the socio-political not excluded, by allotting these central projec-
tions on the cross roads to some public building like the Sabha, the
Assembly hall (cf. the modern town hall) or a shrine or monastry.
Thus these junctions of the roads were so planned and finished as also
to satisfy a psychological need—-the monotony of the hazy vacuity of
long straight streets wearing the eye sight if there is nothing in front to
fix the eyes upon. Again we have noticed that the centres of the town
(the junctions of the roads included) were reserved for imperial palaces
with their picturesque plants and the flower gardens presenting a delight-
ful panorama to the pedestrians winding their way along the streets#
Again it was with this broad aesthetic principle that buildings cons-
tructed on the roads were not done so in an irregular fashion. There
was cooperation in alignment and structure (vide description of
Ayodhya in Ramayana). Lastly, the streets were elevated in the
middle looking like the back of a tortoise and they were made firm
with gravels and the like i* e, KSSma-Sarkara (vide S. S.X. 8). There
were drains also on both sides of the roads (vide ^Fortificatiop* of

this Part)^
 '

ROAD PLANNING 273

All this amply justifies that principles of advanced street planning

were not unknown to this work.
— As regards the details of other books like the Mayamata
and Manasara, I take the liberty to reproduce them as Sri B. B. Dutta
has done.
Mayamata :
“ That town is called Dandaka which has only one
easterly street resembling a phalanx or a staff (dauda) with houses
arranged along it. If the town possesses, also, only one northerly street
intersecting the other at the centre it is called Kartari-dandakam. It

it further contains two building alleys running east to west (pracinan

kuttimau) at the extremities of the northerly street, then the town is

known Vahudaudakam having four gates in the four cardinal directions.

If there are several sets of houses along the two sides of northeily

many houselanes intervening between, it is called ku^ika*

street with
mukhadandakam. If the town is planned with three east-to-west streets
and three other north-to-south streets, it is termed Kalakabandha-
dandakam.” The last four rural towns — these rather resemble
modern India—are clearly the four varieties
the subdivisional town in
of the dandaka towns. “Noted among other towns is Vedfbhadrakam.
It has three streets directed north and south and three vithis or
streets running to the east. These streets are separated by many
residential lanes (kuttimamarga), one lane intervening between every
two streets. The Svastika town does not differ in pl.an from a Svastika
village. The Svastika is also a town which has six streets facing
north and six others facing east, all encircled by another road and
these dividing the city into residential plots (viihlpadam). The town-
plan is known as Bhadrakam, if it consists of four streets running east-
wise. In it there are one street going round the quarters of Brahma
and three lanes to the east intervening between the rows of houses If

the number of similarly directed streets be five and five and there be
many building plots, the name of the town is Bhadramukham.
Another type is Bhadrakalyanam ; the number of streets in it facing

north is six, dividing it into many building plots. The plan is known
as Mahibhadram, if the number of such streets be seven and the rest
as before. The town plan of Subhadra has eight streets facing the
cast and eight more transverse to them. The lanes which divide the
building plots of this town-plan are furnished with gates and cross-
bars. The Jayanga is the name of the town containing the imperial
head-quarters. This town has a net-work of nine streets lying cast to
west with nine others transverse to them. It has four main gates in
the four cardinal directions and four other subsidiary gates in the four
corners. The lanes between the building plots are provided with
274 ROAD PLANNING

portals which open out on the main streets. The experts designate
the town as Yijaya in case it is divided into many building-plots by
lanes fitted up with gates and cross-bars to bolt them with. The
number of main streets in it is ten versus ten. The imperial castle is

installed in the town. Another town called Sarvatobhadra has eleven

streets crossed by another set of eleven. The royal mansions are
situated on any site barring the central quarters dedicated to Brahma,
In the front of the royal castle is a vast courtyard where is situated
the harem. The rest should be planted according to necessity and
exigencies of the situation. Its street running towards the cast
(tatprag-diggata-marga) is called Rajavithi. The buildings of the
rich range on both sides of it. Adjoining them are the quarters of the
merchants. To their south are settled the weavers and to their north
arc established the wheel-wrights (cakrinah, carriage-drivers ? )• In
their neighbourhood are quartered kindred professions,’* The pres-
criptions of the ManasSra are almost identical.
On the evidence as deduced by Ramraz’s ‘Essay on Hindu
Architecture’ and that furnished by the celebrated Mayamatam, deno-
minations of the various kinds of streets in a town have been elaborated
by Datta as follows :
*‘A street that goes round the village or town is called Mangala-
vlthl which should be one to five dandas wide. That which runs
from east to west is called Rajapatha; that which had gates at both
extremities is termed Rajavithi; that which has ‘sandhis’ (literally
junction) is Sandhivlthl; and that which lies in a southerly direction,
is named Mahakala or Vamana”. According to Mayamuni, the
streets that run straight like a staff from east to west are called
Mahapathas (broad highways). Of them the street passing through
the centre (that is, the plot presided over by Brahma) is called
BrahraavithI and this forms the navel of the network of streets. On
both sides of this street and comparatively smaller than it are those
streets (rest of the Mahapathas?) called Rajavithfs and these are
fitted with gates (at the extremites). The MangalavithI and the
RathamSrgas (car-streets) all arc kuttimakas (because they seem to
have been paved with slabs of stone). These roads if furnished with
transverse doors go by the name of NSrSca-pathas. The comparative-
ly narrower streets facing towards the north and equipped with gates
and bolts are called VSmanapathas. The street that goes round the
village is called Mangalavlthik3 and the corresponding street in a
capital is called Janavfthikl. But in ancient authorities and in other
towns, this street is technically termed as rathyS or the road along
which the processional chariot (ratha) is dragged. The streets arc
one to five dhanuf wide”.
 CHAPTER V
JATI-VARNADHIVA.SA
(Folk-planning)

A* Z?, Folk-planning here means not only the planning of the

residential houses but also the market-places, the shops etc. along with
other essentials which constitute the residences and establishments of
the and Furnas’. Again it may be remarked that Road-plann-
ing and Folk-planning, being essentially based on the site-planning
(what has been termed as Vastu-pada-vinyasa —vide ^Fundamental
Canons’ Pt. I), both these canons may be deemed as simply the gra-
dual development of the site-planning according to Hindu Texts of
Architecture.

After the planning of the roads, the next important topic is the
planning of the boundary wall, ditches, ramparts, etc. of the town.
To put it in one word— the subject of fortification is taken in hand
after the roads are prescribed or laid out. But as per the discussion
already made in previous pages, I have in my own way suggested that
the question of residential houses be taken up first and then that of
the fortification. This goes well with the arrangement of the Town-
Planning. After all, a town is not an individual business. It is a
business of society. It is a corporate business in which the indivi-
duals, the society and the government take part in evolving a
all

model town. Once the"roads are planned out, the plots carved out, the
individuals and the societies start their work of building residential
houses and Public Works Department take up the neccessary planning
of fortification, water reservoirs, gates, Gopuras, parks, gardens, tanks
and so on so forth. Thus the civil planning and the individual plan-
ning go simultaneously in order to speed up the work. Moreover,
if the fortification is laid out first, the building operations necessita-
ting the delivery of the materials would be obstructed to a great
extent. Hence in order toavo.J congestion and inconvenience, in

the passage of the transport and traffic as well as providing the fullest
freedom in the circulation, the priority should go to the folk-planm
ing first an 1 the fortification should come afterwards. The S. S.
docs support this procedure (Ch. X).

It may be
pointed out at the very outset before taking up the
site-planning or folk-planning as prescribed by the S. S. that folk-*
 —

il6 FOLK PLANNING

planning and site-planning though materially indentical, have their

respective injiportauce in the respective angles from whith the plann-
ing starts. There were principally five kinds of towns in ancient and
the early medieval period —temple-cities, capital-cities and commercial
towns, forts, and big villages, like Kheta, Nigamas, etc. corresponding
to five principal needs of the civilised namely worship, state-craft,
life,

commerce, defence and agriculture. They had their especial charac-

each as per the special requirements in each case. It may
teristics

however, be noted that in accordance with the previous thesis that

the S. S. prescribes only three principal categories of towns — Pura,
Kheta and Grama; the Pattana (the secondry capital) and Putabhe-
dana, the commercial town are really the especial categories of Pura.
It may, however, be permitted to remark that this might be the

evolutionary period of the growth of towns. But, as time passed, all

these specialities like temples, fortification, market places, council
halls, and scats of government, were amalgamated into one unit, if
not wholly atleast partially. According to the S S., a town of
superior variety used to serve all these necessities. Accordingly, the
norms of the town-planning especially the folk-planning of the S. S.
substantially differ from both the groups of this class of earlier lite-

rature, namely the 4ilpa-l§astras like Mayamata, ManasSra, etc. and

works like ArthaSastra and ^ukranitisara. In the former, the folk
planning hinges upon Pada-Vinyasa, whereas in the latter, there is

no importance to it. Samaraiigana combines both these and has

evolved a composite planning in which on the one hand, the purpose
of the padas presided over by the different divinities was served by
the construction of the temples and shrines in the interior, as well as
the exterior part of the town, on the other, the arrangement of the
corporate and the co-operative, the public and the State buildings
together with segragation of the residential houses castewise and
profession-wise also was made.

Now in relation to the directions the following eight-fold divi-

sion of the residential quarters representing eight-fold circle of the
directions presided over by the respective deities may be very briefly
tabulated as under

Jf. B. The folk-planning begins from the South-East and the

East is fully reserved for imperial quarters, a special consideration
for the aristrocacy of those days and it was natural also in the poli-
tical structure of those days:—
South* Goldsmiths and those earning their livelihood by fire and
Ewi$f other such artisans together with the fourfold army*
 .

folk planning 277

South. VaiSyaSj potters, or cart-wheelers (Cakrikas), dice-players,

and the professionals in the dance and drama together with
the ^resthis and DeSa-Mahattaras.

South- The hdggers, the shepherds, the hunters, the fishermen

West. and those belonging to the department of punishment
(Damanadhikr s) t

West. Charioteers, soldiers, all those skilled at weapons together

with the head of the treasury, the Mahamatya, the Adf^ika
and the artists and Niyamakas.

North- People belonging to the Public Works Department and the

West. labourers, and sellers of wine together with the
distillers

chief of the Police (Dandanatha) along with other officers.

North. The hermitages of ascetics, the Brahman as the Assembly

hall, water-shed, the dwellings of the Priest, the Astronomer,
and Brahmavadins,

North- Sellers in commodities like clarified butter and fruits.

East.

B. It means their number was very large, as a separate

quarter is reserved for only these two classes of profes-

sionals.

East. The Royal diguitories like the Priest, the Prime minister,
Commander-in-Ghief,

A. B. The king himself; with all his establishments (vide

S. S. ch. 15th.)

So far this is only the profession-wise allotment of the residences.

As regards the castewise allocation in a town, the text recommends
the following procedure:—

1. The Brahma^as. The North.

2. The Ksatriyas. The South-East,
3. The VaiSyas. The South.
4. The §udras. The West

i\^. The VaiSyas (the merchant class, sellers in articles of

daily use) and the physicians should be '^distributed in all the quarters
along with the Police and the Army.

This is the scheme of the settlement of various castes and

professionals in a city, i. c. planned habitation of the city population
278 FOtK PtANKiNd

according to the S. S. A special notice in this connection are the iroyal

dignitories or St ate- functionaries like Niyamakas and AdeSikas which
throws a lighl on the composition of the government of those days
and persons like Deia-mahattaras etc. composing the then society.

One point needs a bit of clarification here. It is strictly speaking

literally the folk-planning, the Jativarnadhivasa-^the planning of the
residential houses castewise and profession-wise on the eight blocks,
on the eight quarters. Here in this scheme, we do not find any
mention of the residence of the king (also cf. Agnipurag^a where too
the Riija-VeSma is conspicuous by its absence). The planning of
the palace, the S. S. does not include in folk-planning or site-planning
It is a separate unit of planning altogether. Therefore, in this scheme
of town-planning the central parts of the town arc reserved for the
roads and the palace in all its establishments, domestic, like the
chambers for the queens, the palaces of the princes and the
princesses as well as those for the queen-mother, ministers, comman-
der-in chief and other dignitories of the kingdom, and the pleasure
gardens, ponds, lakes, flower beds, and all contributory to a vast
paraphernalia of an Indian king. The
a standard manual S. S. as

on palace-architecture, has devoted a separate chapter to the planning

of a palace as a component part of town-planning which reads like
another plan altogether with all the characteristics of a big town.
As temples of old grew into cities, similarly the palaces of old also
grew into great towns. To put it more succinctly, let us draw a
graph to show the place of a palace in a capital town:-—

NE 1
N 1
NE
W 1
Raja-VeSma ]
E

sw 1
S 1
SE

It is this nine square scheme of habitation with the king in the

centre.

It may be remarked here that this scheme of the town plan of

the S. S. in connection with the Jati-Vargadhivasa and the royal
palace is strikingly similar to one given in the AgnipurSria, (the
detailed accounts of the AgnipuranaS scheme and those of other
texts may be seen in Datta*s book T, P* in Ancient India).

Bhoja has dealt with this subject also in his Yukti-Kalpataru.

Tiie accounts however, arc fundamentally similar. It may be noted
 FOLK PLANNING 279

as sri Datta has also concluded that the general feature that is

conspicuous in all the prescribed plans, as advocated by#the differmt

autliorities on the subject, is, that generally in the central part of

the town all the public buildings of importance, such as the royal
palace, the court, the town-hall, the temple, the council house and
the like are to be located. This was an ideal arrangement both for
the healthy and efficient functioning of the corporate life of the
citizens as well, as from the point of view of the architectural
appearance and grandeur of the metropolis.

Thus this is the evidence of the S. S. A brief notice of the folk-

planning as prescribed by other notable texts like the Mayamata etc.,
may also be taken —^vide also V. Laksana. ‘‘The Mayamata makes
an exhaustive treatment of the proper distribution of the residential
quarters interspersed with market stalls (antarapanakam). It parti-
cularly deals with these inter-residential stalls and the articles sold
in them It lays down “ Whether in small towns
; or large cities,

I shall now deal with residential sites and the shops situated in their
midst. Within the processional boulevard, circumscribing the city
are situated in rows the houses of the merchants. To the south but
a little removed to the sides arc given sites to the weavers ; to the
north arc the residential plots of the whecl-wrights (carters ? cak-
ripam). Along the processional street arc settled the various artisans
and mechanics, e.g , blacksmiths, or even day-labourers. Inter resi-
dential market-stalls may be set up along the roads encircling the
chambers of Brahma and those stalls should be reserved for fruits and
betel-leaves. In the quarters held sacred for the deities from ISa
toMahendra should be erected the stall for fish and meat, dry
articles, and vegetables. The stalls for staple foods and edibles are
fixed in sites from Mahendra to Agni and from Agni to Gfhaksata
;

are raised sheds for basins and pottery. From Gphaksata to Niryti
should be allocated the shops for brass and bronze. The cloth shops
are set up in the quarters from Pitfs to Puspadanta ;
and from the
latter to Vayu should be mart for rice and paddy. From
laid out the
V2yu meant for the drapers (tailors and
to BhallSta quarters arc
cutters) and those who deal in salt and oils. From that to lia arc
situated the shops for perfumeries and flowers. The above are the
nine intervening shopping sheds in the outer-most sites. But along
the roads that arc laid out within the boulevard are stationed the
stalls and shops of jewels and precious stones, gold, clothes, drugs
and candiments such as maSjisthS, pepper, pipal, ginger, honey,
ghee, oil and the like, medicines and these in all directions. Then
he makes allocation of the sites for divine edifices consecrated tp
280 ROAD PLANNING

various deit’es. In all directions arc allowed all sorts of habitants*

About two |iundred dandas to the east or to the north-east of the
town the cottages for the chlnclalas and the washermen should be
raised as in the settlement of a village. The above is the scheme of
site-planning of an ordinary town. But in a port or commercial
emporium such inter-residential shopping stalls are not desirable ;

but on the other hand to secure economic efficiency, they should be

concentrated, being set up in continuous rows on either sides of the
highways. In the other types of cities, every thing should be arrang-
ed with regard to the peculiar needs and interest of them

This is the typical folk-planning in relation more to the profess-

ions than to the caster, which in that hoary age may be taken as a
very advanced folk-planning akin to one in modern- times. As regards
the other authorities, the relative tabulations will do but some words
on Kautilya’s and ^ukra's folk-planning may also be said. Without
going into details it may be said that in Kautilya’s scheme, it is the
streets and not the Pada-vinyasa that divide out the city, unlike the
plans of Silpa-SEstra, hence our thesis that in ancient India there was
no dearth of civil planning or civil architecture gets supported.

Similarly according to the dictates of 6ukra and the advice of

the AgnipurSna, the folk-planning docs not hinge upon Pada-vinyasa,
though the site-planning of the former a bit different from that of
is

Kautilya’s. Unlike Kautilya, Sukra provides for the Sabhl or the

Council house in the centre of the capital (sabhamadhyam rSja-
dhaiiim) and the royal palace in the midst of the council buildings
(rajag|-ham sabhamadhyam). The court and the 6ilpa-^ala or the
museum both are to be stationed to the north
(literally, hall of arts),

of the palace. Leaving a space of hundred cubits from the palace

(probably towards its north) the ministers, the clerks, the councillors,
and officers should be located in detached lodges. Two hundred
cubits away from the palace, either to the north or to the cast, arc
allowed sites for the military cantonments. Sukra observes a certain
order in the allocation of different classes oi military barracks. First,
the important personages (prakrtayah), then the ordinary people,
next the officers, then the commanders of the army, then the infantry,
then the cavalry, the attendants of horses or elephants, next the guns
and ordnances, the mares, the constabulary and sentry thereafter,
lastly foresters; this is the order to be followed in the location of these
sites or quarters. Wealth and birth were the determining factors in
the distribution of sites for dwellings of the citizens round about the
royal palace. The inns and restaurants should be well protected and
provided with ample supply of waterf The cognate housesi their
 FOLK PLANNING 281

relation being determined by similarity of business or identity of

castes, shallbe congregated together in a row. In the to^yns or villages
ihc buildings should face either the north or the east. In the market
place, the stalls or shops are to be placed according to the classes of
commodities. The best plots along the side of the higli ways should be
distributed with regard the wealth and power of the residents.
to
In this way the king should plan both the town and the grdma.” To
sum up the basic canons of town-planning in ancient India, we may
conclude in the words of B. B. Datta —T.P.A.I, pp, 147-8 :

In India, considerations of efficiency in corporate life, and the

principle of the VarnaSrama Dharma developing a social stratification

of the people in general and of the functionaries of the state, led to a
segregation of the classes following different pursuits
and the same ;

caste or people of thesame profession were congregated in the same

ward so that a uniformity of life and consequent economic effu iency
and progress were secured. Every ward was set apart for a caste or
trade guilt of note which enjoyed an autonomy of its own. Thus if
the iSudra class was numerically very large, a separate block or even
a separate site was alloted to it. The goldsmiths, the artisans, the
perfume-dealers, the Brahmanas, or the soldiers would have distinct
muhalla or a detached group or block of their own. Even today
in the town or village of Southern India tlie Brahmana quarter is
separate and goes by the name of Agrahlram.
In large cities any of
the sites into which the whole city was divided by the main highways,
was so large that no particular class was impoitant and big enough
to inhabit it to the full. Again in large cities such
detachment cf
classes or castesneither conducive to the integrity of civic life nor
is

good for the class itself, because corporate life connotes manifold
needs and responsibilities and consequently necessitates intcr-depend-
ence and inter-communication. Hence every site was divided into
meant for each class. In a word,
different blocks or plots, one being
a Was the prototype of the whole city on a smaller scale. This
site

admixture and congregation of classes came as a remedial measure

against possible accentuation of class differences
 CHAPTER VI

DEIFICATION AND BEAUriFICATION OF TOWNS

(Public Places—Temples & Gardens etc.)

(A) Temples

The gods played a very important role in the life of the citizens
of those days and naturally, therefore, there was a good number of
temples and shrines even in a single city or town. The background
on which the institution of tlie temple dedication in the town has
been kep: going is not dillicult to understand. Every inch of the town-
ground is to be sanctified, hence so many temples both in the
interior as well as in the exterior part of the town, are prescribed. A
general recommendation, however, in this connection, is that every
house should have the images of goddess Laksmi and the god of
wealth, the Kubera, on its main door and they should both face the
East (S. S, Chap. X. 104; also Agni Parana, Gh. 108). The S. S. says
(ibid 105-6) Thus set up they bring prosperity, peace and happiness
:

to the ^own, otherwise misery would be the result. Again a general

direction for the exterior and outskirts of the town is, that the phallic-
emblems should be dedicated in the west of the exterior of the town.
As regards the cemetries and the 6iva-lingas thereon, they arc to be
placed in the southern quarter of the town (X. 102),

I— External location of the Deities.

1. Temples of Visnu, Surya, Indra and Dharma to be located in

the Eastern direction of the town.

2. Temples and shrines of Sanat-Kumara, the physician-god,

Savitri, Maruts, Maruta (the modern Ilanum3n) to be located in the
South-East.

3. Temples of GaneSa, the Matrs, the Bhutas, and the lord of

Pretas —Yama in the South.
4. Shrines of Bhadrakali and the mounds of Pitfs in the South-
West.

5. Shrines of oceans and their lord Varuna, rivers (such as

Ganga), Prajapati-ViSvakarma to be located in the West.

6. The shrines of serpents, Saturn and Katyayani to be located

in the North-West.
 BEAUTIFICATION OF TOWNS 283

7. The temple of Vi^akha, Skanda, the Moon and the lord ol the

Yaksas, Kuber, to be located separately in the northern quarter

presided over by Mercury.
8. The temples of the Lord of the world, Mahe^a, goddess
Laksrni and of Fire to be located in the East,
II —Internal location.
(i) In the middle of the town, the temple of Brahma, should be
located. Shrines of Krsiri and Balarixrna are also to be
located here.
(ii) This is the only special spechication for the location of the
temples in the interior of the towiq otliervvise the general
rules laid down in the external iocatio!i of the different
deities in their particular quarters hold good in the internal
location also (Chapter 10- 12^0-
Another special location, talked of in the text, is that of the
Matrs, Yaksagana, Sivakas, and Bhiita-Saughas. They may be loca-
ted without a temple, or a shrine specially built for them, i.e. statues
on the raised platforms called catvaras specially Iniilt on the cross
roads suffice (ibid. 131).
A very special recommendation— rather prohibitory order, enunci-
ated by the S.S. is that it is against erecting too many temples dedica-
ted to a particular deity. Violation of this brings curse to tliebui[dcr—
the patron and the society at large (Chapter X. 133 and onwards).
Another point in connection with the dedication of the temples
of the gods and goddesses is that they sliould be so established as
always facing towards the town — those placed in the East should face
the West and vice-versa. If perchance this rule is violated, a propi-
tiatory rite is enjoined consisting also of carving out the image of the
god in question on the temple wall facing towards the town. All this
indicates that no departure from tradition is sanctioned and the rule
of dimensions together with the layouts arc to be strictly followed in
order to have the desired effect. The S.S in another place (chapter
40.l3i) says, “The gods when set up with correct proportions (then
only) become fit to be worshiped’\
Sinlilar details arc dictated by Puran is like Agni and the ^ilpa
texts like the Mayamatam and Silparatnam. This is the evidence as
furnished by the principal text of our study. As regards the other
texts — the Aparajita-prccha and Silparatn — vide Vastulaksarta, the
details may be left out here to be purviewed there for want of space.
The details of the A. P. are peculiar in as much as they are limited to
thetcmple of the townrather than to its temples. Silparatna’s dedica- —
tion of the town deities is similar to what we have studied— vide the S S.
 beautification of towns

The dedication of too many temples on the town plan, to put it

in a nut-shell, is indicative of idealisation or deification of the abode

f

where a constant communion with the spirit may be secured. Spri-

tuality, the fountain-head of the life currents and the temples, its

embodiment, takes a tangible shape at these religious centres and the

culture and education fostered, promulgated and propounded here
are dessiminated alround.
The question is why our ^ilpaSastras bestowed so much attention
on the deification of the town ? It was perhaps a secret of Hindu
character to subordinate materialism to spiritualism. The spirituality
and the purity of the race were of paramount importance to them.
Sister Nivedita’s (cf. Civic and National iderds) observation that ‘the
ground on which a city stands is in truth, a great hearth —place of
human love, a veritable altar of spiritual fire,’ is very apt, indeed. In
wordsof Datta “spirituality is the fountain head from which flowed the
national currents. Hence the temple —embodiments of spirituality, were
the centres where culture and education w^ere fostered and prouuilga-
led. Again he same sages who were the custodians of sacred lore and
expounders of Hindu theology holding holy communion in meditation
wdth God, were also the professors and propounders of Hindu
sociology. Generally the wise and sagacious hermits, belonging
to the sacredotal class were also the persons who directed
the legislation of society, A sequestered cloister away from
the and bustle of the city was the one most suited to their
hustle
contemplative life and to the training of the young hopefuls of the

race. And their hermitages took the place of modern colleges where
students congregated from all parts of the country. The temple
hermitages or monasteries of ancient India formed the nucleuses of
the university towns of later ages, such as Taxila or Nalanda, Naimi-
sSranya or Benares.”
After the location of the temples and dedication of them to the
different deities together with the grown town in
emergence of a full

difierent localities inhabited by the different classes of society some —

consideration must be given to adding beauty and comforts by plann-
ing the beutiful gardens full of flowers and plants, orchards, lotus-
ponds and pools and tanks together with childrens* pjrks and public
places like Prapa, Punyasala, Purajana-vihara and also jala-bhramas
(vide S. S X. 52).
(B) Gardens etc.
There are only two or three stray references regarding this topic in
the text which fully give hint that the towns of old, and more especially
those belonging to the medieval period when Malava King, Raja
Bhoja, was ruling, were full of gardens, parks, pools, tanks
 BEAUTIFICATION OF TOWNS 285

and public places. The directions as given in the text for the plann-
ing of Temples expressedly mention the laying out of the gardens
(Chapter X. 110). These towns were so planned out as *^to allot suit-
able places, more especially in the intervals of the different localities,
to open places for fresh air and plenty of sun-shine. The modern
gardens, parks, open fields and plantations, characteristic of garden-
cities used to revolve round the temple, the centre of the communal

life in those days, with magnificent mandapas, serving as common halls

for debates, discourses, religious sermons and the like and there were
rest-houses within the temple compound where all sorts of people
could freely congregate together. The temple platforms adjoinining
some tank or pond and flower orchards were the common public
places where the towns-men of old used to sit and discuss the things
and evolve state-craft.
Again the S S., in its delineation puon the fortification of the town
and the planning out of the gates and gopnras, has specifically men-
tioned a beautiful belt of gardens surrounding the entire town. This
points to the ideal of a garden-city for those days. We have seen
that gardens were an essential constituent of a temple establishment
in ancient India, but the large parks and gardens were also laid out,
in the centre of the town. The green belt of beautiful shrubs along
with the moats full of water served the rows of plantation, (S. S. 10.

22-24) so highly extolled these days.

But apart from these common establishments, the fundamental

philosophy in the minds of the Indians which guided them to plant
was their conception of sanctity and sacredness attached to a
trees

number of trees apart from their aesthetic property and sanitary

potentialities. The holy Bilva, the shady Bata (Banyan), the sublime
Kadamba, the Neem, the sacred Alvattha, the flowering Campaka
or Baku la and a host of others, satisfied not only the aesthetic sense of
the people but their religious sense also as some of them were regar-
ded as sacred as to be offered worship. The trees were indispensible.
They had their sway in every walk of life. The shady Bata situated in
the centre of a village or a town served asthe Council hall Bhoja in his
Yukti-Kalpataru directs that a town should be adorned not only with
sheds for drinking water (Prapa) tanks (Kasara— artificial lotus lakes),
shrines and halls but also with gardens and the alike (ibid). It

appears that cities in ancient India somewhat partook of the charac-

ter of our modern garden-cities. The hill surroundings, the rivers,
tanks and lakes together with profusion of trees (the gardens) were
considered to be an ideal situation for the establishment of a city
(S, S, X. 51).
 —

CHAPTER VII

FORTIFICATION

The most distinguishing features of the canons of Town-Planning

in ancient and medieval India were elaborate rules on the fortification

of the towns. The scheme of a fortified town according to the S. S.

(Chapter X. 1-2) comprised the following five principal elements of

of defence:

1. PraklTra — the surmounting parapets, i.c. the surrounding walls.

2. Parikha— moats, ramparts girt by large, wide and deepditches.

3. Dvara — the gates and gopuraras,
4. Attalakas — towers and the turrets.

5. Ratliyil— chariot-roads connecting the town with the country.

It may be noted that there were so many other architectural

components like /ui/>/§i/Saca.s, Kanchi-rar/ni.'?, Cariha witli IVy/In, Sn/^Unns,

ami Nirfi\\h(i<^, etc. (10. 30-34) together with the beautiful belts of
plantations all round the moat, full of lotuses and laid with a host
of flowers bearing trees towards the interior of the town; while the
ejcteriors were laid with thorny bushes to protect them from the
easy spoils (ch. 10. 22-24), to add to the beauty of the town and
make it at the same time comfortable and health giving with the
provision of free air and profusion of sun-shine, plantation, and the like.

This topic of fortification is common, both to the towns and the

forts. Ancient cities were fortified towns. There was not much
difference between the laying out of a town and a fort. There are
two broad classifications of forts —the natural and artificial. The
S.S. in its 45th Chapter entitled ‘The eigtfold Architecture’ — Astauga
-laksma, (also vide the Yuktikalpataru) divides the first category of
the forts, i. e, natural ones as sixfold, water fort, mud fort, forest
fort, desert fort, mountain fort (on the top)andcavefort(Guhadurga—
cf. F. N That is, a natural fort is one which is rendered
verse 39).
encroachments by its advantageous situation
inaccessible to hostile
secured by natural defences, like mountains, rivers, marshy lands,
deserts and forests. The use of Natural forts is evidence of the skill
of the ancient town planners in utillising local natural barriers and in
turning them into best fortifications by slight manipulations and
modifications. As per the second classification, forts like Sibira,
 FORTIFICATION 287

Vahlnftnukha, Sthanlya, Dronaka, Samviddha or Vardhaka, Kolaka,

Nigama and Skandh'avara form the varieties of the iiji'tiiicial forts

described by ManasSra (Ch. X) and also by Mayainata (Gh. X),

This ^ibira variety of forts, which includes Skandh'avara is, according
to the S So a different architectural object altogether, (vide eight
limbs of the body of architecture, Ch. 45.6) where the construction
of the forts and the planning of the royal camps (Sibira) are two
distinct things.

The S. S. (VIII-36 and onwards) while recommending the

four-fold sites for the laying out of forts shows a clear cognizance of
this fact with the provision of these natural defences --the mountain
(top level), the forest (a belt of dense trees round water reservior),

the river-islands,and the artificial make up with the parapets and

and ramparts, etc. Here the first three serve as natural forts, the
last is the constituent of the artiheial one.

The point to which attention is drawn is that, generally speaking

these details of fortiheation in these texts give an impression that the
towns of old were militarily planned, and the civic art of those days,
in this field of architecture, was subservient to military requirements
or the defensive character of the capital cities of those days. The
fact, however is, that in the past in India as well as in Europe
(cf. Greek or Roman towns, e. g. Florance and Sparta) ramparts
and trenches constituted an integral part of town planning. To
quote B. B. Dutta, ^‘They formed the nine qua lun of Aryan
habitation” — ^T, P. in Ancient India, page 70.

When a town is planned, with all its accompaniments such

as healthy residences, devotional places, public halls and common
pools and wells as reservoirs of water, and public parks, garden belts,
scattered orchards and flower lines and lotus beds, it becomes
the supreme consideration of the master town-planner to have
'security considerations.

Let us now proceed with the canons of fortification of a town as laid

down in the S.S. These canons centre round the five parts of the fortifica-
tion as described in the very opening lines of the chapter. The first place
in this technique goes to the formation of the mound of the rampart,
i. e. the Vapra. ‘'The mound, the proto-type of the skilled Vapra
or rampart is the first mile-stone, the indelible landmark towards
the various gradations of Aryan progress and civilisation” in the
evolution; of the ordered living,
288 FORTIFICATION

The process of the formation of the Vapra is a joint operation

with that of the moats— the Parilch^s. It first consists in the layout
of the ground, the round the town parallel to the Gha\,1a-
V'dpra-‘hhu.

vmrffa, running round the town (S. S, 10. 16) and its dimension too
should follow the dimension of the Ghanta-marga, i. c. 24, 20, or
16 hastas of width (according to the three categories of the town— large,
intermediate and the small ( — ibid, 17). This layout being done and
the site plan accomplished, three moats in the dimension of the
Maharathya (12, 10, 8 hastas as the case may be — vide three sizes of

the town), should be dug out, round this selected site of the Vapra
and then all the earth so dug having been pressed by the trampling
of the bulls is to be utilised, three-fourth or half of the whole lot in

the raising of the mound in the size of an elephant. Now the

remaining earth is to be utilised in levelling up the unlevellcd
grounds in the town. Thus cleared and cleaned all the three moats ate to
be made pucca cither with stones or bricks. Again, these then should
be filled up with water drawn through the pipe laid, connecting the
water reservoirs, like rivers, tanks or deep broad wells and some mecha-
nism up for the periodical clearance of the stagnant
also to be laid
water. “Here are to be nurtured the lotus and lily plants in the
water to add to the beauty and the crocodiles to be let off in them,
so that no enemy could swim across them with safety”. On their
sides towards the town, a good many plantations — orchards, gardens,
flower-beds are to be laid. As regards the external sides, they
should be planted with thorny plants for strengthening the
fortification. The number of moats, their formation and other
details as given in the text tally more with Kautilya’s Arthaiastra than
any other extant work. He too prescribes three moats round the
fort “fourteen, twelve and ten dandas respectively in width with
depth by one quarter or by one-half of the width, square at their
less

bottom, one-third as wide as their top” (Book 11, Ch. 111). The
moats of Pataliputra, the Imperial city of the renowned Chandra
Gupta Maurya were constructed in confirmity to the rules laid
down in the ArthaJastra. It is corroborated by the accounts of
Magasthenese also.

These moats, apart from their utility as fortification of the town,

had manifold uses. Firstly, they were an important part of the
complex drainage system of the city. Secondly, they supplied the
quantity of mud necessary for the erection of the city walls and
filling up the low bogs and marshes of the city ground and also make
it towards one direction so necessary according to the time*
slant
honoured tradition of the Vastu-Jastra. A^ain, in case of cincrgcncy,
 FORTIFICATION 289

as these moats were connected with rivers, they cold be used to

inundate the city.

of the Vapra and the

After taking notice of the joint formation
Parikha, we now come to the third member of the fortification,
namely the Prakara wall— the parapets raised on the ramparts. It
is to be made pucca by filling it up with the massive stone to make it

look a grand gigantic structure. Its width is prescribed as 12, 10, 8

hastas as the town is, and the height recommended is 17, 15, and
13 hastas.

The maximum height of the parapet was to be 17 hastas, and

minimum 13 hastas. The Prakara was 12 hastas (18 ft.) in width
at its bottom. These parapets were decorated with the battlements
like the Kapiifrsakas —
Kaiigooras. Their height should be one hasta.
Another element of beautification and defence was Kandavarinf,
the GhaldivarL

It may be noted here that the number of parapets, the Prakara

walls upon the rampart (Vapra) was generally one. But Pataliputra
is reported to have three such walls. In the Artha-Sastra mention is

made Kautilya advises odd or even number of

of several parapets.
these walls with an intermediate space between them. Again one
pertinent point regarding these parapets is their height. Too much
of height as advocated by some of the texts (cf. Brahmanda-Purana,Gh.
103) is a great hindrance to the proper ventilation of the city,
particularly the adjoining area. The S. S., therefore, moderates
its specification and prescribes the limit of seventeen hastas. SukrS-
carya’s remarks are more helpful (Ch. IJ — ‘’The wall of the
town is to be made too high to be jumped across by robbers or
’enemies."

The fourth element in the fortification is the raising of the towers

on these parapets in all the four directions. These parapets were
thus interspersed at regular intervals (100 hastas i, c, 150 ft.) with
towers (Attalakas) and they were provided with moveable stair-cases,
so constructed as to provide the comfortable ascent and descent. On the
Prakara wall were also laid the KapiSirsakas (Kangooras) the battlements
and there were also Kandavarihls (the ChaladivSral), the small wall
on
In between them, thus was created a Gariki
this thick wall of Priikara.
the passage on the Prakara wall with all kinds of mouldings and
projections like Vedikas and Niryuhas. It was also provided with

stair-cases and the doors in between for the comfortable ascent and
desent (10» 34). Papini and Kautilya call this Carika’—Devapatha
290 FORTinOATIbN

and the following observation of Df. V. S, Agarwal ( vide—India

as known to^Panini p. 130), is worth quoting:-—

“ tie mentions clevapatha at the head of the Gaijia-Devapathadi,

(V. 3-100 » which again can be explained only in the light of Kautilya.
This corroborative testimony from the Artha^astra is rather singular
since no other work throws on the meaning of the Paninian
light
word. According to Panini the ‘Passage’ which resembles a ‘celes-
tial passage” (devapatha) is called devapatha (V. 3.100), What
can such a passage or road possibly be, so as to observe the comparison
involved ? According to Kautilya, the wide road on the top of the
parapet built along the line of battlements (indrakosas) was called
devapatha (Arth. Text, p 52; Trans, p. 51). The height of
II. 3,

the brick fort- wall (Prakara) above the mud-rampart (vapra) there is
stated to be thirty six feet rising from the ground level and the
battlements were built above it. The Devapatha extending along
the city wall should be understood with reference to its great height
resembling the celestial passage (devapatha) in the heavens, justifying
the comparison of the former with the latter

The fifth member of the fortilication is the gateways of the town.

They were in the form of pyramidal towers of imposing aspect. They
were called Gopurams literally the defensive structure of the town
and thus fittingly adding to the fortification of the town. The
Gopura of Prakara was the same as Dvara-attalaka of much older
literature (see ArthaSastra). It was the principal gateway in the wall
of the fort. They formed a characteristic feature of the Indo- Aryan
architecture. Put, in my opinion, their employment was more
common in religious architecture than the secular one. The South
Indian temples and the temple-cities are the best illustrations.

The S S. as the founder of the secular architecture refrains from their

application to towns and residential These Gopurams have
houses.
formed the fascinating architectural theme works like Mayai*
in the

mata (24ih Chapter), Manasara (33rd Chap ) and others of their group
belonging to Dravidian Vastu-Vidyl. Their towers consisted of
varying storeys, their number ranging from one to seventeen, “ The
splendid art displayed in the gopurams is indeed wonderful and is a
living monumental tribute to the high level of aesthetic culture and
to the religious spirit of the Hindus ” (T. P In Ancient India lOl).
These gopurams were the gateways of the splendid edifices of the
temples or temple cicies. The S.S., in the laying out of the principal
entrances of the town recommends as many as twelve principal gates
on the terminii of the RIja-mSrga and the MahSrathyl in all tlie
 FORTIFICATION 291

directions. Their width was nine, eight or seven hastas on the Raja-
marga and and four hastas on the Maharaihylt. The Artha-
six, five

$astra of Kautilya mentions four principal gates on the four principal

quarters and designates them as Brahma, Ainclra, Yamya and Saina-
patya, according as they are laid on the Norib, East, South and West
respectively (Book II, Chapter 111).

Apart from these principal gates, the S S. recommends other

minor gates also technically termed as Vtiltianr'^ra and Pak^adv'^rci,
The former variety is to be placed in the vicinity of the gates of the
Raja -marga and Maharathya the Paksadvaras are the side doors
;

for the use of towns-men at odd hours when the main gate was closed.

Again these great gateways are to be provided with Pratoll, the

gateway in the city wall. The word Pratoli in the S.S. has an
imposing architecture, like that of the Gopura. Amarakosa (11.11-3)
takes it synonym of Rathya, a street
as a and Dr. Acharya in his
Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture (page 321) writes under Pratoli,
A gate-way sometimes provided with a lliglit of steps, a small
turret, the main road of a town According to the S.S., it is a
storeyed building, of course adjoining the gate- way and having a
super-structure of two storeys in which there are compartments (Salas)
and porticos (Musas) and so many other wooden components and
the mouldings thereof, to present an edifice of imposing beauty and
lustre. It is laid secure with the broad and high flanks of doors—

Kapapi, (cf. Phalakas) with door bolts called Parigha. The Hindi,
Rajasthani and Gujarati word ‘Pauri’ is derived from Pratoli.

Lastly another point in this fortification is that these gates were

guarded by the sentinels patrolling and there was a sufficient equip-

ment of the defensive arms and weapons such as a and

Sata<7 ^nis (100 Killer) (cf. Ch, 10. 46).
 :

Chaf>ter viii

INAUSPICIOUS TOWNS
As in the laying out a residential house or planning a temple and
building them, utmost care is to be taken by an expert architect,
similarly, supreme care is to be bestowed by a town planner upon the
planning of the town and housing the different localities both secular
and religious, so that auspicious results are achieved, The S. S*
lays down

The word ‘Caru', beautiful, is significant. After all, architecture

is only one of the fine arts. And hence unless an aesthetic experience
like that of poetry or painting is produced, it is no art at all.

Moreover, the injunctions as laid down in the scriptures — the

ancient manuals of the science, if violated, bad results befall the towns-
men, they never flourish to the fullest extent of health and longevity,
peace and prosperity, wealth and progeny— the bad results of the bad
planning of the town not only affect the town itself, but the whole
Nation, of which the town is only a unit— cf. S. S. X-67 and onwards,
vide also V. L.

The inauspiciousness or unsuitability or imperfection of a town-

plan mostly rests on the occurrence of a variation in the shape
contrary to the one deemed fit and auspicious. While the authorita-
tive sources like Mayamata (Ch. X) and Devi Purana (Ch. 72)
recommend a variety of good many shapes — square, rectangular or
oblong, circular, elliptical, triangular, etc. the S. S. restricts its

prescription to only one shape — the square one. The accounts of Agni
(Ch. 106) and Matsya (Ch. 217) to some extent are not very different
from those of the Samarahgana. Apart from the square shape the
S. S. can admit of no other shape. It recommends square plan in

relation to the towns. The square is the fundamental form of Indian

architecture. It is the mark of order, of finality to expanding life,
itsform and of perfection beyond life and death. It has its sanctity
from the Vedic altar. From square as fundamental sacrificial symbo-
lism, the temple architecture was evolved in its likeness. Hence
*‘Bhoja (vide his Yukti Kalpataru) cites with approval, the opinion
of Bhavisyottara PurBna that hardly ever should towns be shaped
triangular or circular, while longitudinal or square towns arc the
 — —

INAUSPICIOUS TOWNS 293

best”. “Both concur in the view that long-shaped towns make for
permanence, peace and prosperity: while a square capital yields to
the sovereign all the four fruitions (catur-varga), piety, means, desire
and salvation. Triangular towns annihilate the three powers whereas
circular ones are hot beds of many endemic pestilences”. Again “it
is clear that the rectangular or square shapes were the most favour-
able with the Indo- Aryan town-planners and were generally adopted
in practice. The circular, triangular, multi-triangular or any irregu-
lar civic contours were denounced, because such shapes would react
upon the planning of sites, and buildings and their orientation” (T.P.
In Ancient India — 103 & 101).

It is in keeping with this broad outlook of Indian architecture

that the S. S. recommends the square shape as the best shape and its

corresponding square plan of 64 square, as the site-plan for towns and

its other ratogeries (S.S, 13-5).

These inauspicious towns as enumerated by the text arc:

1 . Chinnakarna 4, Suchnukha 7. Capakara

2. Vikarna 5. Vartula 8. iSaka^dvisama
3. Vajrakfti 6. Vyajanakara 9. Vidik-stha
10. Bhujahgcikutila,

All these forms after which these different varieties have taken
their names are not auspicious or at least inconsistent with the stan-
dard measurement of a Town-plan. The S S. as we have seen,
considers the square plan as the most perfect plan. Let us now take
them one by one:

1. Chinna-karna — A town whose ears as it were, are cut down, i.e.

not in square shape— fear of theft, breaking out of epidemics, rising

of the enemies, these are the consequences of this inauspicious shape
of the town.

2. Vikarna —People living in this category of the inauspicious

town suffer from jealously, cncmity, the absence of progeny, the most
univer sal curse, and the loss of longevity*

3. Vajrakara — Octogonal town brings about servile attitude of

men towards their womcn-folk. The illnesses of poisons consequent
upon too many conspiracies are most common. Agnipurapa also
condemns this shape (Gh. 106).

4. Sucimukha-*-Needle-shaped town is devoid of any prosperity.

People living there die of starvation and epidemics.
 —

294 INAUSPICIOUS TOWNS

5. Vartula — Circular towns augar ills —*thc townsmen living

there get poor and arc deprived of their savings and do not live
long and get misery along with their king. But the accounts of
Piuanas like Matsya (Oh. 72), Brahinanda (Ch. 8) and Kalika (Gh 84)
favour this shape.
6. Vyajiinakara — Fan-shaped town abound in
and people are liars

short-lived; Ijccraisc of illness arising from Vata and of unsteady

minds, Kalikapurana (ibid) also condemns it and it says, that re-
doubtable monarch Bali had a nujst formidable capital 6onitapura
and yet was forsaken by fortune; because of its shape like a fan,
7. —
Capaklra A bow-shaped town. It is a bit curious to note
that the bow-shape is reckoned as an inauspicious shape by the S. S.;
whereas Agni (Ch. 72) eulogizes it as the best variety and the ancient
city of Varanasi presents a semi-lunar aspect. Kalikapurai a says,
‘thetown of Ayodhya of the Iksvaku-lamily, Ijccause of
its shape

bow, had c.irncd many victories. Bui the S, S. has it otherwise’.

like a
According to it, those living in this town have conupt wives, and
themselves are impotent.
8. J^akaU-dvi-saraaklira — Resembling two carts, it is altogether
an innovation. Here the fear of thief, sufferings, sorrows, fires, are
always there. It is also called Dvigunayatasahslliana,
parallel and
longitudinal two towns having the middle belt joined to one another.
Such a town is bad from the very beginning actions devoid of fruiti-
ons, Brahmins, are in constant fear, the relatives are always quarreling
among themselves, the townsmen along with king arc suffering from
the loss ofclephuiits, horses, and are least susceptible to the attacks
of the enemies.
9. Diiimudha — Wrongly oriented, a town brings about the loss
of men, outbreaks of fire, fctirs from women and constant misery.
And lastly
10. Bhujanga kutila —A town of crooked shape, resembling to

a serpent, is also inauspicious —

people living there never grow and
are in constant fear of the weapons (symbolic of fights), demons, fires,
storms and spiiits, demi-gods together with bodily ailments.
Now in the end some other varieties of the inauspicious towns arc
cited. We find that triangular or drum-shaped (Yava-madhya) towns
are also reckoned as inauspicious and Kalika-Purana is more empha*
tic in saying that this variety of the shape (Mrdaugakfti) anihilatcs
the dynasty of reigning king, as Lanka, the Capital of Havana, the
king of Rakjasas, being drum-shaped was conquered and left in debris.
 CHAPTER IX
CONCLUSION
This brief dessertation on the town planning nrl as pro nulgaled
by the ancient Acharyas and practised by the master architects — the
town-planners especially as it is hinted in the succ int but brief expo-
sition by the Samarahgana Sutradliara, a medieval treatise on the
science of architecture, is evidence of the cultural life of the age in
which these norms were propounded. A town or a city is the embo-
diment of tlie culture of the townsmen and citizens who shape it,
build it and beautify it (or make it ugly as the case these days is).
Hence a study of the past is an asset for the present. No doubt the
present is an outcome of the past, nevertheless the spirit of the age,
the inOuenccs of the times together with the political, social, religious
and spiritual transformations representing the broad cultural waves
fostered in a particular age, all these have their deep and abiding
influence on any activity, be it an artistic activity or a literary activity.

If the literature is the mirror of society, the art can not remain
aloof. Tiiis is a general dictum and exceptions prove the rule.
Because sometimes a Valiniki or a Vya’^a or a Tulsidas, instead of
mirroring the society presents a mirror to norms of it. The basic
the Art as founded by the ancient Acharyas of great renown ha\e
this characteristic. They arc never swayed by the petty urges and
petty patterns of new situation alTcctmg the society. What of the
measurements, shapes, mouldings, decorations, (paintings) ( tc. in the
art of town-planning all these indicate that a town or a city is not
only a symbolic expression of the National culture, a gigantic canvas
on which the comunity life is portrayed, but also one of the finest
methods of inculcating and propagating culture. The stupendous
ostentatious and ornamental buildings with their inspiring arches,
ennobling domes, rellgiousity and spirituality, nationality all round,
in the shape of pictorial representations and illustrations of the great
soul-inspiring achievements of the heroes of old, the mythology, the
poetry and the aesthetics imbued with harmonising and enobling
all

sentiments. All these have intrinsic value and we can not bid good-
bye to them. It is our sublime heritage. To put it in a nut-shell
the three words- — city, citizen and citizenship are a trinity round which
the rising of the cities, there planning and construction and liousing
habitation should revolve. Therefore, any national planning-scheme
sponsored by the State must have these basic considerations for a
296 CONCLUSION

true synthesis of the cultural background on the one hand- the spirit
of the age with its manifold demands on the other, together with
the purpose the evolving of a beautiful, truthful and beneficial life*

With all round development in science and art, there is no dearth

of the scientific and systematic canons of the town-planning in the
present day world. Though, the fundamental canons of town-plann-
ing have not changed, some of the elaborations as per the characteris-
tic requirements of the modern age —
the Commerce, the Industry, and
the Transport, the means of communication and the like, have revolu-
tionised the very character of town-planning, as we had in ancient
India, or for the matter of that in any ancient country of the world.
The fortification so elaborately dealt with as a principal feature of
the ancient and medieval town-plans has been bidden a goodbye* the
temples, the dedication of the plots or wards to the different deities
of the Hindu pantheon forming the very back-bone of the sitc-planm
ing and the folk-planning, have become obsolete and they arc only
a matter of solitary ritual with no intrinsic value attached to them.
In matters of town-planning in India today, the knowledge of the
ancient town-planning canons must form an integral and indispcnsiblc
discipline of a town-plannncr. Copying the West is not only bad but
injurious also. It can not give us the desired result.

In a country, like India, where the texture of living and conduct,

thought and belief, food and drink, clothes and comforts, privacy
and family traditions all these are vitally different from those of the
West, a universal standard of the building and amenities of the
accommodation thereof can not be visualised, because the climate
differs, the soil conditions are divergent and the pattern of living poles
apart. Hence the genius of the town-planner is tested in taking basic
factors into full account, while constructing a new township in an
ancient country like India.

Now before proceeding with the question how the ancient town-
planning system can afford some guidance and contribute some canons
in themodern town-plans of India, let me have a bird’s eye view on
the modern requirements of a town.
We know that character of the modern been
civilization has
revolutionised on acccount of the scientific inventions and thereby
affecting the human life in every walk of life. The Railway lines
have necessitated the planning of the railway stations; the introduction
of the automobiles conveyances like motor-cars, buses, trams, etc. have
necessitated the planning of roads in a manner best suited to the
traffic circulation and avoidence of accidents and congestion. The
Industrial developments, the Inter-State and International commer**
 CONCLUSION 297

cial transportation have necessitated the establishment of factories

and mills with the consequent evil of slums etc. The complex
modern structures and functions of the government running into
inmifold channels requiring the Secretariats, employing thousands of
people to carry on the work, together with the modern institutions ot

Banking and Insurance as well as so many other public departments

and olliccs and lastly (though not least in importance) the rise of
educational institutions lyingin every part
scattered and
locality and street of the enormous demands for the
town, have
suitable buildings and spaces. These are some of the charac-
teristics of a modern town life. Hence in planning of a town all
these manifold currents of civilization require major adaptations in
the town-plans which we have evolved in the past.

Hence the modern town-planning is not so much concerned

with founding new towns as with the improvement and the
extension of the existing ones in order to provide, not only the
symmetrical, systematic and comfortable residential houses, the
wide roads for transport and traffic, the open spaces for play,
recreation, and plantation, parks, gardens, orchards, etc.
fresh air
as well as the pipe-lines, drainage and air landings,
railway lines,
etc,, but also to improve the living conditions of the labourers the —
mass of humanity working in factories and mills, by slum-clearance
and providing better houses. To cope with the increasing population
it has to extend the town by creating muhallas all round the town
and thus laying out a new city altogether. Many cities in India
have been transformed beyond recognition in altogether new cities.
The modern town-planning has also a responsibility to provide the
expert guidance for the site-planning of the new public buildings
like educational institutions, laboratories, banks, secretariats,
market-places, the town- halls and so on and so forth.

For all modern town-planning canons suggest the

this the
planning of new towns and the improvement of the existing ones by
what is called the zoning method. All the respective zones as per
requirement of the different and divergent necessities of buildings
should be separated and zoned out in separate wards in order to
avoid congestion and haphazard look of the town.
Thus with all the elaborations of the manifold technique of the
modern town-planning we find that it fundamentally does not differ
from its ancient counter-part. Now the problem as already anticipated
as to how these ancient norms of the town-planning can be
far
adopted by our national town-planning departments to evolve a
technic^ue of town-planning characteristic of our genius and alsp
298 CONCLUSION

characteristic of our age, the culture and climatic conditions together

with the complex currents of life as they exist today.
«

1, therefore, suggest that the beginning should be made with

villages. The town-planning departments these days are more
conceined with the existing cities or establishing new ones. This
is not enough. Let the villages form the unit of the national planning
of New India. From the point of finances, the greatest hurdle in
translating any master-plan, so much talked of in the contemporary
India in relation to many cities, the beginning with the villages not
only obviates this difficulty but also provides a suitable channel
through which the increasing population of the bigcities and noted

towns may pass out with case and comfort. It will, therefore,

require a Town-Planning Act in which an adequate provision would

have to be made for restricting the population cf the town. To
begin with, no one, having no connection with the town — service,
let

education or alike, be allowed to occupy the town proper (cf. Rule

of the Matsya Purana). The elite, the wealthy, the princes, the
retired, all should be asked to occupy the suburbs on the out-skirts
of the big cities. Thus in the evolution of the modern towns two
norms emerge —planning of the suburbs, as branch-towns, the
fekha-nagaras in the terminology of the Samaraiigana Sutradliara
(cf. S. S.’s Kheta, Kharvata, Nigama), and the planning of the
village as a unit of National Planning (vide S. S. Chapter X. 82-^' 7).

Another important thing in connection with the remodelling of

the existing towns is that the available accommodation in the town
should be allotted not to individuals but to groups. what the This is

ancient texts on town-planning mean by site-planning and folk-

planning. Let the rcligiouslly and the VarnaSrama-dharma be not
adhered to, but the fundamental background of this site-planning
and the folk-planning, namely, the housing together with a group of
people belonging to a common way of life and conduct, must be
there. This will not only evolve the greater brotherhood in people,
but also usher a new consciousness of organisation, co-operation,
association, the essentials of Democracy which has become the
modern slogan as the be all and end all of life.

What about the centre and the central places? Let the town-
hall — the temple of modern Democracy be central scene around which
all the movements of the town revolve. Let a big banyan tree or
a Pcepal or Neem or a shed i. c. Mandapa, the Sabha the —
assembly hall, be substituted for the town-hall in the village-planning
for the emergence of new towns in India. Thus two more canons
emerge— the. folk^-planning and the planning of the centre. But the
 GONOLUSION 299

question is that the modern life with such a vast socio-economic

patterns like banks, insurance oflices, municipal-boards, •educational
institutions, police outposts, and so many other public departments
and establishments, can not be well attended to and accommodated
unless some bifurcation of the entire town-plan is re-adjusted to
provide the dltfercnl baiidings, for serving these institutions. For this,

modern system of zoning should be incorporated in our town-planning

canons. They must give good results. Ihcy arc to some extent a
—
modern edition of our ancient site-planning housing a particular
community or corporation, profession, or institution on a particular site.
A very pertinent question regarding the location of the railway
stations, mills, factories, the cincma-lialls and the business centres,
the line of shops, stalls, the markets, etc. still remains to be solved.
As regards the Railways, they form an essential constituent of any
modern town for the transport, the mills and factories however,
must not be distributed in every town. For tiie industrial centres,
a separate category of town called Pattana or Putibhedana by the
ancient masters, should serve as business centres and industrial
development. As regards the daily needs, the co-operatives in each
and every block of a town should organise these daily necessities of
life with an active co-operation from these special towns scattered on

a relatively small distance in every part of the zone. This brings us

to the zoning plans and regional planning — the fundamental criterion
of the ancient town-planning system So much is regarding the laying
out of the new townships, but the problem is not yet solved. What
about the existing towns with their clumsy growth, over-population,
shims, insanitation, absence of ventilation hnd congestion etc.?
How to improve the town by way of extension?
fn ancient times every king had his own permanent civic
architect and city superintendent in his capital with many sub-
ordinates and assistants who were well versed in the art of
planning and upkeep of cities. The civic architect, besides his
Other duties, looked after the improvement of the town according to
its requirements. ‘‘Phough we do not meet with any written
records about the existence of an organised board like the modern
Improvement Trust and the like, yet we may, without largely
drawing upon imagination, fairly presume that the permanent
officials of the king such as the civic architect, the city superintendent,
together with their assistants constituted the proto-type and served
the purpose of the modern institutions organised with cognate
objects. The elaborate way in which the treatises on Indo Aryan
Town-Planning allot sites and determine the areas and orientation
of roads, wards, residential buildings, the royal palace, the council
300 CONCLUSION

hall, parks and reservoirs and secure proper lighting and ventilations
by fixing thef space intervening between two houses or ascertain the
number of storeys and the respcbtive heights in case of particular
building and edifice, conclusively establishes that the master builder
possessed and exercised substantial control over all building-
operations in the city. So elaborate and intensive indeed was the
control that even absolute private-ownership of land in the city was
not allowed to some extent. There seems to have been several
departments or divisions of function: one was entrusted with the
construction of roads, another with tanks, gardens, artificial
forests and palaces; the third with fortification and the fourth with
buildings. All these departments had. also engineers, to wit, the
Sthapati and others were under the charge of a minister called the
Grhadyadhipati (litt rallv the lord of house and the like), who held
the portfolio of Superintendence and Planning of the city. iSukrS-
carya says (S. Nitisara Chapter 11) that he must attend to palaces,
moats, forts, parapets, statues, weapons, tanks, wells and icservoirs,
pipes and other engineering works. Surely the foregoing arc exactly
those functions with which the modern Municipalities and Improve-
ment Trusts are concerned'' (vide page 169-170, T.P. In x\ncient India).
The peculiar defensive character(walls and ditches all round)
of the ancient towns in India stood as a hurdle in its extension.
One of the methods of meeting the over-congestion and over-crowding
of the population was by expelling the low-class people out of the
city. Another way as suggested before, was the Matsya Puraua
formulae (Ch. 217): No person should be allowed to remain in
the city without any necessity or purpose. The rule of the Devi
Purana (Ch. 72 j is —
‘The low-class people (Prakrti) should be
quartered outside the city.” Another method (as per tlie account
of the HarivamSa (Vishnuparva chapter 58) is the reconstruction of
the town as well as its expansion on the outskirts of the city. This
leads to a very sound canon of the improvement. It is laying out the
—
suburb to put in the terminology of the Samarangan a Sutradhara 'the —
K^akhanagaras (branch-towns) as already spoken of.The §abda-
Kalpadruma gives the following definition of the Sskhanagara— the
subsidiary town: “The town which is constructed in the vicinity
or on the outskirts of the main city, to accommodate its overflowing
population is termed branch town (SakhSnagara) from analogy
with the branch of a tree.” Instances of its expansion arc not
unknown in History, and we can adopt this method for the good
of our land. We are doing no doubt in cities, but our bold policy
should be to make villages as our Sakha-nagaras. These ultimately
will result into the garden-villages or garden-cities, so mucl|
preferred in the modern world.
 )

PART III

CIVIL OR SECULAR
ARCHITECTURE

( Residential Houses for Middle Class People

 PART 111

HOUSE ARCHITECTURE
Introductory

House-architecture really has four distinct branches according to

ancient Indian tradition. Houses principally may be classified firstly
into residential houses for —
middle class people vide the folk-planning
in which houses in ancient India in a village or town were planned
according to the castes and professions; secondly into those gorgeous
mansions suited to the nobles and princes — the palaces, the Harmyas
and tlie Raja-prSsadas; thirdly into what are called abodes of gods,
the temples, the PiS^Sdas and Vimanas and fourthly into the public
buildings which are planned and constructed for the common use,
like the ViSrlimaJillas, the libraries, the theatres, the picture gallaries
etc ,
The common public pools, ponds, tanks, Vapis and wells, etc.,

will also fall in this last category.

Now as the genius of architecture in relation to these four classes

of buildings has been distinct in nature and definite in its contribu-
tions especially in case of the secular architecture, the aristocratic
architecture and the devotional architecture, the Janabhavanas, the
Raja-bhavanas and the Deva-bhavanas, it is, therefore, necessary
to treat these three classes of buildings separately. Accordingly
these three parts are devoted to the exposition of this genius of the
Hindu architect. Public buildings being the concern of the state will
be included in the part devoted to palace-architecture.

It has been wrongly srumized and commented upon that India

did not evolve secular planning or the civil architecture. A study
of the Samaraiigana-Sutradhara; a medieval treatise on the science
and art of architecture is a definite repudiation of this misconceived
opinion. This text though written by a king in the atmosphere of
palace-court is really the landmark in the civic-planning in India
and harbinger of the residential houses most suited to the middle
class people what are designated as l§ala-bhavanas ? The story of the
SalSs is fascinating indeed and their antiquity goes to the socalled
primitive age when man evolved the first house on earth.

Accordingly this part is devoted to the exposition of the Sala-

J?havanas^ the residential houses suited to the buljc of the population
304 HOUSE ARCHITECTURE

or the middle class people. It is, therefore, required to briefly

indicate the treatment of this part. In the first place it may be
remarked that any building operation whether secular or religious
was precceded by some important preliminaries like the examination
and selection of the site, its plotting, etc. what is called Vastupada-
vinyasa, the determining of the sites, the Vastu-pujana, the foundation
ceremony the formal digging, the BalidSna, Halakarsana, Ankuraro-
pariadi and the placing the Kilakas and the SutrapSta-vidhi etc,,
along with the festive celebration to honour the architect-mason and
the labourers etc., etc,, though may be deemed as non-architectural
matters in these days, are really having the fullest of architectural

import as the human destinies are always guided by the

superhuman agencies and naturally this truth was never lost sight
of by architects of old. All these matters will find some treatment in
the first chapter of this part entitle ‘Preliminaries*. The second
chapter will deal with buildings in general, their different categories
etc , and from the 3rd chapter the proper subject matter of this

part namely the 6ala-buildings will be taken up which may again be

viewed as the exposition of the four principal topics namely the origin
and development of the houses of manifold varieties and the general
characteristics of the residential houses for the common people the
ialas— meaning classification and Grhasamyojana etc. (Chap. Ill and
IV) ;
the planning of the houses along with the house-plans and build-
ing bye-laws and its construction—-the material and masonry etc.,

(Chap. V, and VI) ;

the principal architectural components like the
door, the pillar, the roof and so many other accessories like Alindas,
Bhadras, Musas, etc., et.c., (Chap. VII, VIll), the^decorations and
the equipment, the bhavana-bhusa and bhavana-sajja. (IX) and lastly
the deffects of the houses, the bhvana-dosas (X).

This is the broad indication of the subject-matter to be attemp-

ted on this part end however we may conclude with a pur-
;
in the
poseful motive namely how far these Salas can be accomodoted in our
National-house-planning in India today and how far the ancient
Indian contributions in the realm of this most vital field of our
life can be appreciated by us even now.
 :

CHAPTER I

PRELIMINARIES
Preliminaries in house- construction may be divided into two
groups: (a) Non-architectural and (b) architectural. Both may be tabu'»
lated as hereunder

(a) Non-architectural, (5) Architectural

1. Vastu- pujana 1, Orientation— iSankusthapana.
2. Balidana 2. The site-plans—Vastu-pada-vinyasa
3. Halakarsana 3, Measurements-— the Hastalaksana.
4. Ankurarop’ana 4, Ayadisadvarga,
5. f^ilSnyasa 5. Patakadisatchandas.

Let us first take up the socallcd non-architectural preliminaries,

which according to fundamental genius of Hindu science of archi*
tecture are all equally important. The Vastupujana and Balidana,
though ritualistic in performance, are primarily concerned with the
philosophy of architecture, where the site is no more a bare earth,
but a transformed entity, the Life Divine— this we have already seen—
vide Fundamental Canons of Hindu Architecture (VSstupada-vii>
yasa), Chapter VI Pt. 1. The practical application of Vastu is
yantric in nature. The Vastu-purusamandala, the sitc-plan-diagram
of a building according to Narada (the V3stu-Vidhana VIII 26) is a
yantra. It is, therefore, an artifice in which the ground (bhumi)
“ The name-
is converted into the extent of the manifested universe,
less, formless entity which bound in this case to the spot within
is

the square majadala is henceforth known as VSstupurusa. The com-

ponents of the artifice are the ground on which the Mapdala i^
:

drawn, the form of the Mandala, and its name together with the

names compressed in its form. The details of Balidana-vidhi may

be avoided as an indication of it is given in the summary of the
Samarangana-Chap. V Pt. I. The imports is: “With offerings gods,
spirits and demons are bid to leave. This gracious gesture releases their

forces and sets the site free from all particular associations. In this way

too, it is steadied and expurgated. Emptied of its former contents, it

retains its receptivencss and the power new ones to assimilate *

be levelled—vide Halakarsana to betaken

finally it will have to
up ahead. of the Kilakasutrapatavidhi arc also
Similar details
given in the summary referred to, where an interesting feature
architect masons
is the presents enjoined to be made to the
and labourers, as in ,
their happiness and satisfaction lies

ihe completion of an architectural

undertaking. We will have an
306 PRELIMINARIES

occasion to sec that in the templc^building, the Kartf-karaka-vyavas-

tha is very important. The Kartr, the architect of a temple has a
unique position which may be as good as hereditary, therefore, it
is no more a wage-earning, it is a dedication from the father to the
son and so on and the details of Halakarsapa and Ahkuraropana are
more eloquently found in the texts belonging to the Dravidian School of
Indian architecture like the Manasara and Mayamata. In the former
the concluding part of the fifth chapter gives a minute description
of the oxen and the plough to be used in ploughing the selected
site. Now when the ground is tilled it is purged of the past
and under auspicious stars new life is entrusted to the soil and an-
other cycle of production begins, an assurance that rhythm of nature
has not been interfered with. The sowing of the grain—- the An-
kurSrop^na i^ a final offering to the memory of the spirits who have
left the place and gone elsewhere in peace. It is also the first offer-

ing in the newly acquired land where the germination of the seed§
leads to the fulfilment of the undertaking.
The ^ilanyasa has got two aspects —architectural and non-archi-
tectural. may be understood as ritualistic,
The latter the details of
which may be purviewed in the summary and the S.S. already
referred to. In the Manasara however, ^ilanyasa has been treated in
its better and more architectural aspects and readers may read its datails

in Dr, Acharya*s summary of the MSnasara vide H. A. I. and A. —

pp. 106-8. It would suffice here to say that in the Manasara the
foundation, the Garbha-nyasa is classed under three heads — for build-
ings, for villages etc and for tanks, etc.
,
The last named foundation
meant for tank, well or pool, is said to be as high as the joint palm of
man. As regards the foundation of buildings it is first divided into
two classes, as it belongs to temples or to human dwellings. Of the
human dwellings, there are four classes according to the four castes,
The depth of the foundation- pit is stated to be equal to the base-
ment# The best ground selected for foundations is excavated to the
depth of a man’s height with uplifted arms, The bottom of the
excavated should be rocky or water and the pit is filled with
pit thus '

sand and water which arc closely pressed and haruened by means of
wooden hammers shaped like the elephant’s feet. Upon such founda-
tions, the strength whereof varies according to the weight of the cons*
traction, various structures arc cons ructed.
The details in other works like Mayamata, iSilparatna an<| Tan-
trasamuccaya and iisnalivagurudcva-paddhati to all intents and
purposes arc identical.
Architectural preliminaries have already been fully dealt
with*— vid^ Fundamental Gapon$ of AvCh# VJ Pt, U
 CMAPTEFi it

BUILDINGS IN GENERAL

The very title, the Samaraiigana-sutradhara is an index to

its distinct place among the extant manuals of the science of archi-
tecture, All the manuals go by the name of the subject or the
author* The grand and eloquent title of the book ‘Sainarahgana —
Siitradhara*, literally means an ‘‘architect of human dwellings”: —

(Hsn ^cTT^r) (q^Tre^fTTfiT

!(fT^35TT^??iaT), ?fg?Erf!T ^Tq! cTlf^T,

1 hus the house architecture, the secular architecture as opposed

to the devotional architecture has got a distinct place in this manual
of architecture. A perusal of the extant ^ilpa works like Manasara,
and Mayamata, will convince the reader that buildings in general
are described in one category alone. If there are some additional
delineations, they are just like appendices to them differing only in
degree and not in kind. Let us take for instance either Manasara or
Mayamata (as the arrangement of the chapters and the subjects
treated therein are more or less similar); we find that in Manasara
all the 98 types of mansions, either may be taken as the residences
of gods (the Manasara temples) or of men or the gorgeous mansions
or princely palaces. Similar is the case of Mayamata or any treatise
on the Vastu ^jstra. In my opinion there is a complete absence of
fundamental distinction to be made in the two realms of architectural
planning belonging to two different and divergent sets of buildings—
Manava-Vasa and Deva-Vasa. In India, or for the matter of that,
in any country, the shape, super-structure, decoration and ornamental
mouldings and the like, together with the specific materials used and
the planning of the accommodation etc* in buildings, like temples,
churches, cathedrals, mosques or mausoleums are
fundamentally
different from the buildings to be used as residential houses.^ Natu-
rally, therefore, while we have the grandest and largest of the Pra-
sadas in the monuments, the specimens of the secular buildings— the
residences of the common run of men (barring of course the royal
palaces) are hardly found. The thatched houses made of mud,
baniboos and easily available materials from the local surroundings
 —

308 iBUILDlNOS IN dENERAL

which have been our typical residential quarters from times immemo-
should gdso have some architectural traditions.
rial,

The S. S.'s classifications of the buildings are in keeping with

the needs of not only the different strata of men but also the different

orders of gods and goddesses. The residential houses for the ordinary
run of men as well as those belonging to the middle classes and the
higher classes of Brahmaiias, Ksatriyas, VaiSyas, and the piiests, the
commander and the like, all comprising both the nobility of the clan
and the aristocracy of mind and spirit, are a distinct feature of Bhoja's
contribution to the science of architecture. Samarahgana’s classifica-

tion of the houses may be grouped into the following three catego-
ries:

1. Popular residential houses —^ala-bhavanas.

2. Palaces of the kings - Raja- Veimas.
3. 'Pemples —residences of gods, Prasadas.
All the manuals other than Samarahgana have confused the resi-

dences of men and the gods alike, this point needs elaboration. This
kind of enumeration or classification of the buildings is not only un-
scientific but against the tradition. We know that in India for a long
time the stone architecture was a taboo for the residential houses of
men. It was only for the gods that the stone could be used. That
is why the earliest civil architecture is wooden architecture. Later on,
as time passed, stonewas permitted in the Prasadas of kings and the
other higher people and gradually it was adopted in the secular archi-
tecture also.

Moreover the science of architecture is a social science and it

must take into account the needs of society as a whole. Everyone

its

can not be expected to build a lofty Harmya or high-domed PrasSda*

There must be ordinary houses, secular or popular houses, fit to be the
residences of the great populace having ordinary means. Moreover,
apart from its economic point, the point of position or station in life
£|lso is important. In the S.S. these different sets of buildings with their
different locations arc characteristic also of the materials to be used
in them. The Sala houses represent the wooden architecture. The
time-honoured building material from hoary past has been the wood,
hence its nomenclature ^alS (Sakha, branch of the tree) is after
the names of the parts of tree (cf. Kanda etc.). The ostentatious buil-
dings of the PrSsadas represent the stone architecture in its zenith in
the S* S* All these will be fully dealt with in their respective parts.
 BUILt>INOS IN GENERAL 309

tiere it is enough to say that this demarcation of the buildings

and their categories is a distinct original contribution of Ihis work.

Out of its 83 chapters, there are about a dozen chapters exclusively

devoted to House Architecture (see ‘The Reconstruction of the S. S.
Chap. V). It also devotes two separate chapters to the exposition of
palace-architecture — the many-storeyed mansions and large edifices
without storeys, serving all kinds of needs of a ruling monarch, the
residential quarters (Nivasabhavanani, Ch. 30), the pleasure palaces
(Vilasa-bhavanani, ibid) together with a vast paraphernalia of estab-
lishments —
the court, the coronation-hall, the abodes of ministers, com-
manders, queens, princes, princesses and pleasure-gardens, orchards,
etc. etc. (vide Gh. 15). Other buildings not falling in these three broad

divisions of houses are: the assembly halls, the sheds and stables for
elephants and horses. They are also dealt with in separate chapters
(sec “The Reconstruction of the Samarahgana Sutradhara"’),

Thus the picture of the various varieties of houses dealt with in

this treatise emerges in the following tentative classification

1. Common residential houses— §ala houses.

2. Uncommon houses — the houses of kings.
3. Special houses—Assembly Halls and Council Chambers.
4- Houses of animals — sheds and stables for cows, horses and
elephants.

5. Prasadas or temples may be classed as extra-ordinary houses

as residences for Gods together with their accessory build-
ings for piety, ritual, shelter and the ceremonies of a religious

nature —the Mandapas and Jagatls.

All these five types of buildings may, however be, reduced to
only three broad classifications as treated ahead — ^vide Pt. IV:-—
1. Residential Houses,
2. Palaces and its accessory buildings and
3. The Public and State buildings.
 CHAPtER III

ORIGIN & DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN HOUSES

The story of the first House on Earth.

Houses, I have already pointed out, are of manifold denotation

and connotation, llarmyas^ ViniRinas and Pr^s'^das are also houses
where higher people, the rich people and the gods are housed. Their
origin shall be dealt with in a separate chapter (vide Part V on
Temple Architecture). Here in this chapter I have to delimit the
universe of discourse to the residential houses of men. And for this

latter category, the word ^ala (JITTOTt 5[rr^:) with its

characteristics of courts, chambers, rooms, porticos, etc, as opposed

to the storeys (cf. Vimanas and Prasadas) is used. The name 6ala
for a residential house has a very interesting story. It is also sugges-
tive of a great historical and anthropological truth. In the 6th
Chapter of the S. S. entitled ^‘Sahadevadhikara” Bhoja says that
in the hoary past, people living in Bharata-varsa, resided in forests,
on the banks of rivers, on the mountains, and underneath the shady
Nikunjas. Once they entered heaven and began to roam there and
enjoy themselves with the denizens of heaven— the Gods, under the
all-producing and all-giving shade of that renowned Heavenly Tree,
Kalpa-Vfksa. This went well for a good time. But men as they
were, they got arrogant and belittled the glory of the Gods. They,
therefore, were condemned to come down to the Earth. Thereupon
they were very sorry. For their sustenance, now there arose the Par-
pataka — a tree, giving tiny fruits. It however, got extinct. Hence their
condition was more pitiable than before. Now 5ali-ta^dulas appe-
ared on earth. They were very delicious to eat. Being afraid, lest

this might also get extinct like the Parpataka, they began to hoard it,

and hoarding we know is bad The

was that the
for all times. result

lust for hoarding gave birth to other evil consequences— greed, envy,
jealousy, and what not. In due course greed became instrumental
in giving birth to Manmatha (passion) which led them to have attach-
ment towards women, which in its turn led them to form themselves
into couples— This Dvandva— the abode of suffering and
misery, is well-knoWn. Misfortune again overtook them, and the

themain stay of their maintenance became full of Im^^lts and chaffs

which caused the Mala-pravytti due to the eating of the Tusa-dhanya.
Thus all their glory, all their PugiyaSlokatS, their immortality and
 DEVEtOPMENT OF HUMAN MOUSES 311

longivity were gone. Their bodies then became susceptible to

illness, Therefore, in order to ward off the inclemencies of weather

and to seek privacy and shelter, they then thought of cre<?tiiig refuges
in the shape of mainly through the branches,
SSlas, i. e. Sakhas.

This is the story of the origin of the first house on earth for the man
to live in and to be happy,

Sintil^^ accounts in the Markandeya (Gh. 49) and Vayu (Gli. 8)

Puranas also corroborate the truth that the primitive house, the first
house on earth had the tree as its model. Dr. Acharya in his “Lucy-
clopaedia of Hindu Arefiitecture*’ says: “Trees are stated (Matsya
PurSna VII, 83-120) to have supplied to the primitive men the model

of his future house, ^ala (house) is stated (VV. 117-120) to have

been derived from ^akha (branch) because originally branches were
arranged lengthwise, breadthwise, crosswise, up and dowji and
thatched to make the first house”.

Thus it is evident that 6al2 primarily means a thatch of straw

(Ghala) for shelter of men or their cattle and stores. Later on this

acquired more and longer denotation of such stalls and sheds. As

time passed and its use was in great vogue, it came to mean a house
in general (cf. Salapati^ — house-holder). Finally, as is even today, it

has come to mean a single section or a single room of a house as is

clear from words like Agni-Sala Patnf-Sala, GoSala, Vaji^ala, Gaja-

Sala, etc. etc.

The Sutra literature emb^odying the earliest Va* tu-Vidy a, fully

supports this tree-model of a primitive house. In the rituals the

central part of the site called y'S,sta has been an object of especial
veneration from the very earliest times. The existence of a central

post as directed by Sutra writers like ASvalayana (II. 8) at this point,

has served as a motif for the dwelling places. And “the idea ot a
central post inside the dwelling indicates that the primitive house was
a construction over and around this post. The shape of the construc-
tion seems to suggest a close resemblance of a shady tree which provided
shelter to the primitive man from sun and rain at a time when house
building was unknown” (T. P. Bhaitacharya Canons of Architecture,
page 4).

The account we find in the S. S,

of the origin of the house which
and corroborated by Markapdeya, Vayu and Matsya Puranas and the
importance attached to the central post as is evident from the rituals,
suggests that the primitive building, devised on the model ol a tree

was one with a central post as the trunk and the thatches in all ^ircc-

(lonij as the outstretched branches of a Uce,

 312 DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN HOUSES

Tree as the model of a house is further supported by the classi-

fication of the pillars and other different parts of a house having its

basis on the ^different parts of a tree. In the Mlnasara in its chapter

named Stambha (XV), main pillars are called Brahmak^nta,
the five
Fesaw/^ania, Rudiak^nta^ and Skandakinta. As suggested by
Dr. TarapadaBhattacharya, I also believe that the word KSnta points
to the trunk of the tree (called K3nda) being synonymous with the
shaft of the pi lar. The word Klnta, as is used in the nomenclature
of these pillars, is a later variation of the word ‘Kaada*. Similarly
the door jambs in practically all the manuals on the science of archi-
tecture (sec S* S. Gh. 28) arc called SSHas (the branches) from the
use of branches of trees in their construction. Again the lintel of the
doorway was similarly called as ^^Udumhara^* evidently from the use
of the fig wood in making these pieces. Thus earliest connections of
primitive dwellings with the tree appear all the more probable, as we
find that the vegetable kingdom was the first to be utilised for all

necessary materials of house building.

This is in brief the origin of the house and its later development,
from the humble cottages of leaves to ostentatious temples and palaces,
will form the story of the subsequent pages of the Study.
 CHAPTER IV

^ALA - HOUSES
(General characteristics— the meaning and classification etc.)

In the last chapters something has been said of these SSla-houses.

I have distinguished them as private houses, residential houses suit-

able abodes of the common man, the middle class people and the
humble people who according to the stratification of society belonged
to different castes and professions as opposed to the uncommon houses,
the ostentatious buildings and the extra-ordinary houses, the. great
edifices like temples —Prasadas, Vimanas, etc., best suited only to
kings, to the rich and to the divinity*

Though from the point of view of the ^astra, a fulfledged code

of house-architecture in relation to the common residential houses
did not attain its maturity by the time of the S.S., it nevertheless,
cannot be said that this class of buildings did not exist in India.
Numerous references in the Epics —RSmayana and Mahabharata (cf.

C.I.A. pp. 37.45), thejatakas (ibid 53) and Kau|ilya's Artha-Sastra

(ibid 81) illustrate the fact that these ordinary dwellings were un-
doubtedly similar to those which are found in the villages of India

even today —thatched houses with wooden construction of the roofs

and the masonry of mud-walls haying verandah (Alinda) in front and
the Kosthas (the (alas) all rbund the court. They were mostly the
.

CatuSSala variety, and abounded in the country. Although the plans

of these exhibited considerable variety, they were all based on the

same principle. According to the S.S., (18.18 — 19), the unit of their
design is the open quadrangle surrounded by chambers (ialSs) and
this unit is repeated two, three, four or more times according to the
needs of the accommodation of the occupants.

Again it be said that the §3la-architecturc is com-

also cannot
pletely absent from these works, but the iSla-buildings as described
in works like Manasara, Mayamata and KamikSgama, etc., arc at
par with the lofty harmya or vimana class of many-storeyed man-
sions and thus they represent a later phase of Indian architecture
when the use of stone was not taboo in private residential houses.
The KSmikSgama is helpful ifi supporting this view-point,' as will be
presently shown. Religious buildings must not and could not be
tnadc ^ the same fashion as the civil ones. AH ornaments, all pro-
 —

314 8ALA-HOUSES

fusion of decorative architectural motifs were reserved in the temple-

architecture. The Visnudharmottara clearly lays down that Sudha and
should be used in houses of gods: Sudha and ^lila should not be
^ilils

given in gfha (the residential house) (ibid 30). It is for this reason that
ostentatious PrSsadas survive, while no specimens of civil-architecture
in stone of the ancient Hindus have survived to our times. Indians did
not care to build their residential houses in the ostentatious fashion.
They lavished all energy and money in the building of temples, the
high edifices, the crowning achievement of Indian architecture » both
in the manuals and the monuments.

§ala class of buildings on which the S. S. has bestowed so much

attention means a residential house and differs not only in shape,
materials and construction but also in the use.

Now the question arises : how do we explain the characteristic

of stone architecture in Salas as works like Manasara attribute to
them ;
but before proceeding with the examination, let us take a
brief notice of the characteristics of Sala buildings as presented by
these works.

Take for instance iht M5nas3ra chapter ( XXXVI ) named

^311. In this chapter ^315 is used mostly in the sense of a house.
^Slls imply both temples and residential buildings for Brihmanas,
Ksatriyasi Vaiiyas and l^iidras. Their characteristic features as
single buildings may be seen :

Win I

six classes, namely Dandaka,

Like villages, Salas are divided into
Svastika, Maulika, Caturmukha, Sarvatobhadra, and Vardhamlna,
Some of these, with a certain numbers of halls are stated to be temples,
while others varying in number of rooms arc meant for the residences
of different Castes. A distinction is made with regard to the number
of storeys they should be furnished with. The maximum number of
stdreys a Sal5 has, is twelve as usual. All the storeys of all these
SSlts arc described in detail. Thus this is the picture in bare outline,

presented by the MSnasSra as summarised by Dr. P. K, Acharya

(vide finely, of Hindu Architecture, page 485). . It may be noted
that these iSSlSs — the matty-stofcycd mansions, consist of rows of
buildings from one to ten, and as pointed out they arc many’^storcyed
structures, the number of storeys varying upto tweWc. Rc^ardin|
their use, Dr, Aqharya adds, *^The huge buildings arc naturally
meant for kings, to the nine classes of whom they are assigned in
accordance with the importance of the mansion and the *rank of the
king” (Hindu Arch. In India & Abroad, page 121). In my opinion
this, is a very advanced stage of the evolution of the 6ala type of

structure. Its architectural affinity with temple-like super-structure

is beyond doubt. The underlying characteristic of the l&ala structure
•—the rows of buildings from one to ten, moreover, is preserved here.
Also their essential components like Alindas and Bhadras are also
there, but the application of the storeys in the Sala houses is against
the genius of this class of architecture, as primarily it was meant as
an abode of men with limited means and limited requirements.
The KSmikagama as referred to before, is more helpful. There
arc two important notices to be taken as is evident from the following
quotations (Gh. XXXV. I.l93a) :

(i) i

nr infqraT: ntwr «i»rT i

(ii) i

( cf. Ency. H. A. p. 485-6)

In the lirst quotation, the rows of the 6ala are termed as MSlikS
— the garland, and the Malika is a class of many-storeyed mansion.
Therefore, the previous thesis, that these indicate a very advanced
development of the Sala- architecture, is again illustrated here. But
Kamikagama does take Salas to be the residential houses for men ;

otherwise, tabooing and stone walls in the construc-

the stone pillars
tion of the Sala buildings must not have come forth (vide second
quotation). Because the use of stone in buildings for men was a very
late introduction (cf. G. I. A. ch. XXVIII), This contention that
S51S buildings were primarily meant to be human dwellings for men,
is further supported by the VSstu-Vldyi. It says

xi iwwt site i

it irarw ii

’51 »

fiwwTm ^ m RhKi fltgfsrrsrt sjwip ii

M4<lt5T ^ \

t«rT ii (Viti, 1*3).

SsiSsiin the PurSnas like Matsya iCh» CCLVI, V. 35) and Sk^pdat
Cy*ijip»va-KJMW4* XXy» vv. 3, 26) also favour this conclu*
316 8ALA»ttOUliES

si(Ki. I am, therefore, of opinion that these iSala structures in the

shape of storeyed mansions are a later phases of development, their
—
prototypes heing Mandapas the pavilions for piety, alms, rest,
sermons, education, amusement (cf. dancing halls and theatre etc,) and
so on. They, therefore, in their later phase of development, took the
Gopura-super-structure, the most common feature of the South Indian
temples. WorksManasara and Kamikagama representative
like —
corapendiums of South Indian architecture, must mirror this phase
of development. iSalli as a hall or pavilion architecture is corrobo-
rated by a number of inscriptions (vide Ency. Hindu Arch, page 487-
^89) wherein the word ^ala has been used for halls or pavilions like
NatyaSSla, Bhakta-^ala, Japaiala,Dana-SalS, Yajna-lal5, and Virupaksa-
Sala (temple). This is one way in which we can explain this character
of the Sala architecture quite divergent from that of the North
Indian works ViSvakarmiya Silpa, the PurSnas and the
like S.S., the
most representative works of this school.

The most distinctive feature of the residences of men, the 6ala-

houses as developed in the Samarahgana, is their courts as opposed to
the storeys, the latter commonly associated with Prasadas, Vimanas
and Harmyas which are lofty super^structures.

Meaning and classification of Sala-houses.

It may be noted here, that though there are as many as ten classi-

fications of theSsia buildings — fromEkaSalas to DaiaSalas, the text takes

up the fourth classification, namely the CatuKalas both for its defini-

tion and classification, This may be because the GatuSJala houses

are often mentioned in literature and this is the most characteristic
type of ancient Indian buildings as the bulk of the middle class people
used to live in this type of Sala-house.

As regards the definition of these lalS-houses, the text defines

Catuiiala, TriSala, DviSila and EkaSSla in the 18th Chapter, entitled
**Nagar5disanjna** (verses 18-19). That is, a CatuSSala occupies the
four sides of a quadrangle, whichan open space in the centre, the
is

Angana, the TriSSla the three sides, while DviSSla the two sides and
Ekafala only one side. These arc the principal types, the different
combinations of which, give as many as ten broad classifications as we
will presently see.

In the GatuSiSla buildings, there were four rooms arranged on the

four sides of a quadrangle which was the open space in the centre,
dsli, as we have seen,is a long structure of one span only. I have

remarked that this class of 01a house WiiS most common, Sir^ John
 3AtA-HbttJS£S 31/

Marshairs account of the ancient city of Sirkap corroborates this :

** The city of Sirkap (in the ruins of Taxila) shows sever^^l large blocks
of dwellings, separated one from the other by narrow side streets.
Although the plans of these houses exhibited considerable variety,
they were all based on the same principles. The unit of their design
is the open quadrangle surrounded by chambers (Catu$Sala) and this
unit is repeated two, three, four or more times, according to the
amount of accommodation, required by the occupants (A guide to
Taxila pages 70-1).
This leads us to the surmise that these buildings were planned
under a systematic code of town-planning and presented a facade
both symmetrical and pleasant-looking. “The TriSala and the
DviSala can be so adjusted as to accommodate an open space in their
front along the road which can be laid out as a flower garden. Thus
if all the houses on one or both sides of street recede in the middle as a
TriJSla or a DviSala contemplates, we get gardens by the roadside. We
have no definite materials at hand to inter that such gardens existed
in ancient India. Certainly there were open spaces; and the branching
blocks of the buildings abutting on the streets relieve the monotony of
a walHikc front of the thick-set structures or of the long rows of
gardens that otherwise would have been the result (T, P. In Ancient
India page 250),
Now coming to the classification proper, it has already been
pointed out that the iTla-buildings admit of ten broad classifications in
the S.S., (vide Ch, 19, 21, 22, 23, 25). Kamikligaina (already referred)
is right when it says that they can be classified into any number
(Yavadistam Pragfhyatam), The S.S. however, restricts it to only
ten, for the simple reason that the people of divergent means and needs,
from an humble dweller to his honoured and fortunate counter-part,
can all be accommodated in them. These ten broad divisions are :~
EkaSala Satiala
Dviiala Sapta^ala
TriSala AstaSala
CatuSSala NavaSSla
PaScaSala DaSa01a,

has also been pointed out that among these only the first four
It

are the principal types and the others are only different combinations
of them. They arc tabulated below to present at a glance their
combinations.
ConAinatiom*

PancafSlt : 1. DviSIla and TriSila.

2* CatuSSila and EkaS^Ia*
318 SAI^A^HOUSes

CowMnationa
Sa|^Ela : 1. Dvilala» £ka$3la and Triiala.
2. Triffila and TriSala,
3. Dviiala and Catu$$ala.

Saptajala : 1. Two TriiSias and one EkaSala.

2. One Bkalala, one DviSala and one calujSOa.
3. TriSala and Catui^Sla

Asta^ala : 1. Inner CatuiSal a and outer Catuiiala.

2. Two TriSalas and one Dvilala.
Na?a$ala : 1. Two identical Catu^Jalas and one EkaSala,
2, Two dissimilar CatuSSalas and one EkaSala.
3* TriS5la, TriSala and TriSala.
DaSSala : 1. Two identical CatuSSalas and one DviSala.
2. Three identical triSalas and one EkaSala.
3. Two identical TriSalas and one GatuSSala.
The Varieties.

This is only a broad indication of the classification. All these

buildings of one to ten Salas can be further divided into their principal
varieties together with their innumerable sub-varieties and their
tabulation is given in one of the appendices. This will give at a
glance the different varieties of the different Siill-houscs.

It may be remarked here that the principal criterion of these

sub-varieties numbering as many as fourteen lacs (vide Appendix^
Tabulation of SalS varieties) is the application of MusE or Bhadra*
Every Sala-house (including the TriSala also,where though the princi-
pal criterion of its classification is the absence of one Sala on one ot
the other direction, the Musa application makes it yield so many sub-
varieties) from CatuSSalas to DaSa-Salas have Bhadr'is^ as many
right
—
as eight to twenty -the CatuSSalas can have from one to eight, while
the DaSa-Salas from one to twenty and hence these BhadrSiB varieties
come to this incredible number.
Now the question is: what this Bhatha is ? The S.S. (19) calls it

Musa also :

Mdsa originally denoted a crucible for ^melting gold or silver*

It was cylindrical in shape with a round bottom and open at the other
end. The hole in the wall to admit light and air resembling exactly
the shape of such a crucible or Afusa, used to be laid horizontally
into the wall. From the original connotation of an apperture in the
wall to admit light and air was developed meaning of 3/usa, as a
the
fulflcdged ventilator or window. It 19 this meaning which applies in
9* S, The VSstu-sSia (vorse 67) id-so takes the same meaning.
 -itOUSES 319

Other criteria of these sub-varieties are the different and manifold

applications of the Alinda^ Fh^I PrS^rira Niryuhaka and Gat^Jc^aka which
ifworked out would result into a number beyond calculation (cf. S. S.
19* 38-40). Thus these varieties and sub-varieties may not be taken
very seriously. The principal varieties will be noticed in a subsequent
chapter (—vide House Plans and Building byelaws).
A Critical Estimate.

All these varieties and sub-varieties as we have seen, come to an

incredible total of about fourteen lacs. A natural querry is: Is it

actually possible to have such a vast number of architectural designs

translated into practical operations? 1 have already pointed out
that the science of architecture both a science and an art. As a
is

science it is a normative science which prescribes norms, the standards

to be worked out in the art. These norms, however, must have some
fundamental basis, the starting point from which we can work out.
This is what the ancient masters have formulated in what is technically
called the Prast3ra~the ramifications of the Guru and Laghu viz.
Alinda-prastSra, BhadrS-prastara, MiisS-prastara and so on.

Let us take a typical PrastSra of CatuSSala houses. We have

already noticed the different arrangements of the Musas or Bhadras
in one or several or all directions of the house as the distinguishing
criterion among —
and Alinda all these denote porticos or
these
corridors of a house placed in one or many directions of the house.
These in relation to a CatuSiala house are eight-fold. In the
Prastara, the first resultants or the former ones are deemed auspicious
and the latter ones inauspicious. The resultant varieties of an auspicious
and inauspicious nature take corresponding names literally good or —
bad. How to know it? It can be ascertained from the Prastara.
In the first place, place all the eight Gurus and then place Laghu
under the first guru and fill up the remaining places in the second line
as per those in the first. Go on doing it till all become Laghu, but

mind that the first beginning should be made with guru in all the cases
(S. S. 19. 35. b). The attached chart in the Appendix will illustrate
it more clearly.

The purpose of this Prastara is to find out the place of the

Musa in the house. Musa for the matter of that any other component
part (besides Sala) is to be placed in Laghu and the 6aia is to be
placed in Guru. The Musa varieties alone amount to as many as
two hundred fifty six (already tabulated). Similar ramifications can
be obtained from Alinda-PrastSra, Vlthf- Prastara and from many
pfhersi resulting in number beyond c^cplationf Thus this is al}
320 SALA-HOUSBS

mathematical gymnastic. Its practical value is only to avoid wrong

orientation and misplacement of any of the component parts in the
building of tfic Sala in order to provide the maximum of comfort and
the fullest of space together with conformity to the mystic ideas of
the doctrine of Orientation.

The second would like to draw attention here,

point to which I
is, the names of Most of these read like synonyms
these varieties.
of the principal variety (—videDviialas). Now what is its significance?
The architecture as I had an occasion to point out at several places,
has evolved and assimilated the regional and religious features and
the consequent adaptation of the nomenclature of different classes of
buildings was done either in consonance with the particular bias to
the adorable deities or the particular surroundings. But both these
things we do not find here in the naming of these buildings. What
then the basis is ? I, therefore, may suggest that these names arc in
accordance with the inauspicious or auspicious nature of the buildings.
Therefore, all the varieties of DivJalas except the first eleven are
naturally to be called by some terrible aspect of nature or deity.
The many places (vide S. S. 23. 2 3, 27). There
S. S. itself says it at

are certain exceptions too. The names of the principal CatuSSIla-

houses like Sarvatobhadra, Vardhamana and Nandyavarta, etc* arc
of traditional nature and also auspicious in character.
 CHAPTER V
PLANNING OF ^A.LAS
THE HOUSE PLANS AND BUILDING BYELAWS
House Plaus.
House plans and building byelaws are inter-connected. House
building in ancient India was never taken in a haphazard fashion.
What we call the building byelaws in modern times by which the
modern house plans of the individual citizens are scrutinized by the
city corporations, were in ancient times a code of sanctified religious
character, the violation of which was beyond contemplation. The
horror of death, destruction, disease and other misfortunes was
always shadowing them. This subject of building byelaws will be dealt
with in the latter part of this chapter.

The subject of house-plans can not be treated in isolation from

the essential qualities of a building. Character, stability ^nd beauty
are the essential qualities of a building. A house-plan must be true
to its purpose. It must conform, not only to the needs for which
it is being planned out, but its very appearance should indicate its

purpose, A devotional building, a temple, a shrine, a mosque or a

cathedral, must from its very appearance look like so. Similarly,
the military, memorial, civil and domestic buildings also should give
the same impression. In ancient India, as we have already seen, the
buildings were mainly residential or military. The civil buildings,

secretariats, banks, institutions, industrial buildings, railway

and picture palaces, etc. and a host of others, so essential in
stations
themodern set-up were not so in ancient times when life was not so
complex. Hence the function of architecture was to infuse and
develop the character, appropriate to a particular building. Stability
of the building must have been the prime consideration* The pride of
a house lasts for generation after generation. As regards beauty, this

is the soul of architecture as an art. Unless a piece of architecture

pleases, it is no architecture. This pleasure may be derived as a
result of size, form, colour and proportion between the various
components. Proportion, what the ancients termed it, the Ghjindas,
^(44. 3) the rhythm is one of the most important attributes in archi-
tecture. This leads us to cent percent exactitude in the measurements
of any construction, be it a Vedic altar, a temple edifice, an image
322 PLANNING OF SALAS

of a god, or a residential house. Conformity to proportionate

nicasurements was so much adhered to, in ancient India that some-
times it was over done (particularly in Iconograpliy). To them
Pramana was the life-breath of an art. The S. S. rightly says: —
(i) ^sriPriT ^T: ff I 40, 13i
(ii) I3 : I

55itOT«irsnn ^ 11

5r'?»ir 11 9. 1-3

It may be noted that dimensions of length, and breadth as well as

the height of the 6a^a-houses varied according to varied social status

in Indian society of the house-owner. In the 19th Ch, the S. S.
(cf. 15 to 25 verses) gives various alternative measurements in relation
to the different structures of the different occupants having different

positions in the social hierarchy. This has been the time-honoiired

tradition and practically all the texts on the Silpa-Sastra have adhered

to this rule.

The GatuSSala house of the Varnfs— Brahmanas etc. should have

the measurement of 32 hastas, that of the commander and the
priest 64 hastas, and that of the kings however, should take 108 hastas.
The textshows that like Temple Architecture, in Domestic Architec-
ture too, the buildings of Brahmanas are square or nearly square and, if

rectangular, the length exceeds by 1/lOih only. In the buildings of

Ksatriyas the excess is l/8th; in those of Vai^yas and J^udras l/6th and
l/4th respectively (ibid 19. 18-19). It shows that lower the caste the
further remote from the perfection of the square are the buildings
which are suitable for its members.

We know that the house has two principal parts — the interior

and the exterior one. All these relate to the interior. All that is not
covered by the interior idlas is to be deemed as exterior Alinda etc.

6lla and Alinda are two principal components of housf-architecture.

The S. S. (16.22) says:

WTgrT«TT«T4?ftsf^: II

‘Gfha-dravya-pramSna* (the 28th Gh.) is rich with similar pres-

criptions of other parts of the subsequent chapters (Door, Pillar etc.), rf

only a brief notice of them in the evolution of the House-Plans of the

S. S. is called for here.
 I^LANNING OF SALAS 323

Apart from the ^ala, the Alinda, the Bhadras or Musas, the Door,
along with its parts (the Sakhas, the frames, the udumbara, the lintel)

the Pillar with its manifold mouldings, the other subje^ns of a house
plan is the determiua’ion of its Tala, the floor. The text (vS. S. 28,16)
says, “Add four hastas in the sixteenth part of the Vistara, the height
of the Trt'a would be obtained from all the varieties of the houses”.
Next (ibid 17) the height of a Sila-house of a superior, middle and
inferior quality is 7, 6 and 5 hastas (i. e. lOj, 9 and 7| ft.) respectively.
Further next (ibid 18) the Vistara of a Sala should be 17, 10 and
5 hastas (25i, 15, 7i ft.) respectively. Again the should
conform to the Bahulya of the Udumbara, the lintel, and similar is

guidance for the beam, the Patta, the Alinda-parigraha.

The other important parts of the house are the Ninjnha (pinnacle)
to be decorated with Vedika-jala-rupa etc. and the Ahgana-vapika to
be laid with cover and the channel for water in the shape of a
crocodile. Again a very important subject of the house-plans is the
different varieties of the rooiing. Bh^la, TilaL'a, .Uandala iind Kimiu da
(S. S. 28.49) are the four classes of roofs. Their mutual distinguishing
criterion is the relative height— the last one being the highest.

All these relate to the external features of a house-plan. The

most important inner feature of a house plan is the grouping. It
should be so accomplished as to make a house a real home. It is a
synthesis of a house. A verandah, a drawing room, a bedroom, a
kitchen, a dining room, a store, place for worship, a bath, a staircase,
a guest room, a nursery or children’s room, a latrine and a garage-
all these so laid in a house-plan as ensure not only the maximum of

comfort but also freedom and privacy, the key-note of any house-*
planning, be it ancient or modern.

Other considerations prevailing in the mind of a house planner

are the aspect of a house, i.e. the arrangement of the doors [so much
emphasised in the prescription of the S. S. (vide the next chapter, the
Door)], its prospect, (cf. the character already noticed) roominess,
furniture requirements, sanitation, flexibility, circulation and practical
covenicnces. If in a house, the dining room is not close to the kitchen,
it is simply a curse both for the maids of the house and its inmates.
Similarly, if the minimum accomdation of a room does not conform to
its furniture requirements, it is a tragedy for all times to come.

It is said that Indian architecture is suitable only to religious build-*

ings. This may be true to the building canons as developed in the

ancient Indian Manuals, but the ^315 houses of the S. S. are really the
harbinger of the popular arhitccturc*
 —

324 PLANNlHO OF SALAS

With this general introduction to the House-plans, astheS.S.

envisages, let us take some of the principal varieties of the Sala-houscs
and illustrate them in sketches. But before doing so, let us first see
what the standard varieties, which when transformed into brick and
mortar, may serve over model houses.

The followings arc the model varieties:-—

Eakialas.

1. Dhruva 6. Manorama 12. Ramya

2. Dhanya 7. Sumukha 13. Sridhara
3. Jaya 8. Dhanada 14. Mudita
4. Nanda 9. Vipula 15. Vardhamana and
5. Kama 10. Vijaya 16. Samrddha.

Some of these are illustrated in one of the appendices. It may

be noted here that the special feature of these houses is the Alinda-
yoj milwhich is to be done— (Savyavarta) from the entrance of the
house.

DvKalas.

1. Vasudhara 7. Strida i\,B. The special fea-

2. Siddharthaka 8. Santa tures of these are Musas,
3. Kaly^naka 9. Niskalahka Alindas and Pragnva-
4. iSaivata 10. DhanadhiSa and kas.
5. §iva 11. Kuberaka (ibid-sketches).
6. Kamaprada

iV. B, Other varieties of the different classes of l&ala-houses like

Tri&las and CatuSSSlas etc. are left out to be worked out in detail in

the subsequent volume of this study— ^^Architecture and Sculpture of

the Samarihgana”. Their nomenclature however, may be interest-
ing and hence some of them are laid down here:

TrKila —HiranyanSbha.
Cataiiilla — Rucaka, Vardhamana, Nandyavarta, etc etc.

PaScafila —Hemakuta, etc.

Sa|lala«-Pahkaj3hkura etc.

Saptafela-— Sripada, iSrinikctana etc.

if. B. Hundreds of other names may be seen in the appendix-

Bailding Byelaws.
These building byelaws concern mostly the doors, the storeys, the
orientation, the proportion of measurements, layouts, the site-plans|
 —

I^LAMNING of SALAS 325

decorations, the auspicious dates, etc. etc. and they are scattered
throughout the book. Hence they need be collected at one place
to evolve a code of byelaws — a systematic presentation oT the ancient
canons in a modern garb.

The ancients had tlieir own way of presenting things -every

life-manifestation had a religious sanctity behind it and naturally,
therefore, all these rules of living, drinking, bathing, eating, sleeping,
mode of living —^building houses, conducting any business, secular or
religious, were formulated like religious sacraments. It was an article
of faith rather than a belief which prompted them to formulate such
a code of life.

Time,

(1) One shoidd start building a house only in the following

months of the Hindu Calendar.
1. Vaiffikha 4. Pausa
2. Sravana 5. Falguua.
3. MargaSfrsa (for details vide the S. S. 26).

One should choose only the following dates of these months.

1. Dvitiya 4. Navami
2. Pancaml 5. EkiidaSi
3. Saptami 6. TrayodaSl.

N, B* Also one should consult ones’s priest and astrologer for

the other details regarding theAy^, Vyaya, Am^aka, Tara, Naksatra,
etc. etc. for the auspicious moments on a particular date (cf. the
S. S. 26).

(3) Build houses on the proper Padas:

'*'’ P^^f^ssion^wke
(i) The 40 Secular plots for the Secular build’
(the S. S. 38).

(ii) Caste wise Padas (the S. S

^ Pada DvUta
Sim No. Caste
1 t> aa Bhallata. Ohanada, Caraka or
1. Brah*^"^ in
Pp^Kvidhara. Mahendra
^vlahendra, Arka, SItya, Aryaka,
2. Ksatriya Gfhaksata
Yamya, Vaivasvata, Gandharva
3. VaiSy?»
or Grhaksata.
Puspadanta,
Sudra Viruna, Pauspadanta, Maitra or
Asura.
Bhalla^a.
 •

326 i»LAN]^lNO OF SALAS

(4) Caste-wise placing of house doors and Vastu doors in th^

following [nauner (ibid): —
Ca$te Bhavanadvha Facini/ Vastu Ivara F acing
1 . Br^hmana to South to East

2. Ksatriya »>
“ West 99 „ South
3 . Vaiiya }9
“ North 99
‘‘
West
4 . iSudra >>
“ E«)st 99
“ North

There are some of the illustrations of the building b\elaws from

the point of religious consiieratioTi. A large number of other illus-
trations of the character are scattered throughout the text and most
of them have been taken into account in their respective chapters
There is no dearth of the secular code of building byelaws, a few
illustrations will serve this point.

Secular.

1. The following number of storeys is prescribed castewise:—

^iudras not more than 3 and half a storey.

Vai^yas not more than five and hatf a storey.

Ksatriya not more than six and half a storey.

BrShinananot more than seven and half a storey.

Kings of various religious merits— not more than eight and half a
storey.

2* Placing of the door —Never place a door in the middle of the

house (S. S. 48-58). No two doors should be exactly opposite to
each other.

3, Similarly the doors in the upper storeys must conform to the

- below (S. S. 41.44).

^ "sidential house must have Salt and Alinda both (S. S.

48 18). .

5. (S. S. 43.106)
together wit ^ ^ *'
/^ee the Aprayojyas—
r 7 j/ vide S. S. 34),
7 .

are not to be undertaken.

6. Rules regarding frontage 1. e. Marg..
1 - _ road, or an; ?na— The Vedha on 1

the way, cross ro^d or any

.
other builou*
”• ^
*««.-
«c. «c. i. to bo avoided.

7. Byclanes should not be on both the side..

in the
All these and several others are scattered
tc
.
xhesc feW
ate only by way of illustration.
 — -

CHAPTER VI
THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE !§ALAS

The Masonry & the Material

In its 41st. Chapter entitled Caya-vidhi the technique of
masonry — a most scientific code of brick laying is propounded

I word was Ceya and not Caya. Ceya is used

think the proper
in 41.4. Caya seems to be either an alternative form or
scribal error for Ceya. In Hindi it is called ‘CejS', which word can
be derived only from Ceya and not Gaya. Ceja is brick-laying i, c,
the Radda.

The following twenty good qualities of the masonry are enumera

ted:
1. Suvibhakta 11. Akubja
2. Sama 12. Apihita
3. Caru 13. Sama nda
4. GaturaSra 14. Rjvanta
5. Asambhranta 15. Antaraiiga
6. Asandigdha 16. SuparSva
7. Avina^l 17. Sandhi-suSIista
8. Anyavarjita 18. Supratistha
9. Anuttarna 19. Susandhi and
10. Anudvrtta 20. Ajihma.
—the presence or absence of which make the masonry good or
bad accordingly. The purport of all these qualities is that the mason-
ry work should be in the perfectest order, beauty, measurements and
strength (cf. Suvibhakta, Sama, Caru, AvinaSi etc. etc )

It may be noted that the S. S. has th? singular credit of giving

such a large number of good qualities of Masonry. Nowhere inany
extant Silpa-work, both ancient and modern, may be found this men-
tion (
f good qualities of the masonry. They repiesent the highest
water mark in the masonry work, the real ability of a mason.
If these attributes in masonry arc not well brought out, they
result in an equal number of defects. Our text (41-4) says : —
If these qualities of masonry arc not adhered to, they result in
the defects of the same number.”
These defects in the masonry in their turn bring about miseries;
misfortunes, incalculable calamities, e. g., if the southern wall goes
328 THE CONSTRUGTIOM OF THE SAtAS

out of its direction, it is indicative of some physical diseases to break

up and it may also indicate capital punishment to the house-owner.
Similarly, a western wall going oft its directions while the masonry
is going on, brings loss of wealth and fear from dacoits, and so on.

Not only is a disproportionate masonry work insuspicious, but a

weak one also. It brings bad results. The wrong mouldings in it
brings similar evil consequences. A similar fate befalls on one if the
wall falls down or breaks down on account of defective bricklaying.

Defective masonry has got some technical denominations and

they are a bit more interesting as they give us an ind cation as to
how advanced the masonry work in those times was

1. Mallikakfti (Karnikasamasthana) i.e., Vilala while operating

upon all the vahus i.e. —the corners.
2. Br2hma. i.e. too thin a masonry
3. Tanumadhya. i.e. haphazard
4. Nirnata. i.e. wrong on the corners
5. Kurmonnata. i.e. raised in the middle

These are all defective constructions and must be avoided, other-

wise evil consequences may follow. Hence the S. S. rightly advises
—Vide 41.21-26 sec V. L.

So far only general guidance in the art of brick-laying and wall

making is given. Now an interesting code of instructions is offered
to the m isons in the handling of the Sutra and the bricks in order to
reach the desired end of good and proportionate masonry.
The following verses (41.27-32) simply portray the picture of the
brick work indicative of the most scientific and advanced masonry of
the day in its different stages from plinth to the high wall.

firww: f ?IT: WffT: II

*raT 5T =5 5r«TT

^
i

=3 Orrra^ii

firwqr: ii

g fe%*rTmsr: i

?rsr fra finiratii

fic R ^ fpmfT fRi; qfWSrw I

qnfi gif ii

frwafrra fwiftra i

fmrg, irara: f%raifr;ii

 —

the construction of the SALAS 329

Let there be neither too much of A^cchadana, the mortar i. e.

(gar3) nor the bricks be laid loose or rcmaia open. Those uneven
should be made even by cutting them and thus levelling them by the
Kuthara, the axe and, the BasulL The mansonry should be such as
when examined through the Avalambaka (i.e Sahula, these days) one
of the eightfold Sutras (the full list of the Sutrastaka being drs^i, kara,
maunja, karpasa, avalambaka, kafthasrsti and vilekhya) it should be
found correct. After some progress is obtained it should be examined
in all its levels beginning, middle and the extremity by the Drsti-
sutra —*Kudye ca sadimadhyante drstimekam nipatayct
**
Now after
all the four walls have reached an appreciable level, say man’s shoul-
der, the masonry on all sides should be abandoned and they should be
taken up, one by one, otherwise the masonry may be very difficult
**Durvaham hi bhavet.” We know: higher the masonry, larger its
—
paraphernalia the Padha etc. In order that all the walls are set in
together all round leaving the D'^dhli— cf. Rucakacchinnah*— which
is an essential code.”

Material the wood.

There is only one chapter regarding the material, namely The

Vanaprareiulht/a^a, the 16th. In it are laid down the rules for
bringing wood from the forest at an auspicious time from auspicious
trees in an auspicius manner together with other allied matters of
examination of trees, their selection of trees, their selection with
certain rites and devices, the mode of cutting and suitability of
particular trees to particular castes and for specific operations.

Practically all important ancient treatises of architecture have

treated this topic of bringing timber from the forest for the use of
house construction. This they call ‘^collection of wood’ Daru-aharaua
vide ViSvakarma-PrakaSa XXIX.; Matsya-Purana 257 Byhat
;

Samhita 59).

For Entry into the forest for collection of the wood for construc-
tion of the building. The first thing to be considered is the auspicious
date on which the operation of this kind is to be made. For this an
auspicious constellation of stars is recommended.
Having entered into the forest, the trees should be offered food
and drink and the cutter is to keep fast. Thus, after the tree has
been offered the draught and food and a night has passed, the cutter
having laid down his are examines the trees from the point of their
age and those which are Bala or V^ddha i. e. young and old should be

abandoned and the criteria of examination arc (a) colour (b) taste and
(c) bark, and as with advance in age people become weak, powerless;
330 THE construction OF THE S^LAS

and impotent, similarly the trees become shorn of lives with signs of
decay in colour and oil-juice as well as in the bark. According to the
text, the l^ala tree’s age is 300 years and it is fit only after it has
crossed the age of C6.

The following kinds of trees arc deemed unfit for the collection
of wood or timber for the required purposes:*—

1. Grown on the cemetries of the town, the roads of the village,

on the bank of a tank, in the vicinity of a shrine or temple or grown
on soils not fit for the selection of any planning (vide T. P.).
2. Decayed, dried up, having holes, sharp-barked, crooked,
burnt up, shorn of branches, presided over by spirits, damaged by
the fall of lightening, inhabited by bees, snakes, or by meat-eating
birds, covered by the spiders’ nests (Luta-tantu) scratched by forest
beasts or wounded by elephants.

3. Those placed as land-marks on the ways and having a very

thick trunk.

4. Giving flowers and fruits out of season and those diseased.

5. Thorny trees, those giving delicious fruits,' milky trees, fragrant

ones, trees like Kar^ikara, Dhava, Plaksa, Kapittha, Visamacchada,

J^irisa, Udumbara, ASvattha, 6elu, Nyagrodha, Campaka, Nimba,
Amra, Kovidara, Aksa, etc.

The general criterion in the selection of fit trees is that only those
trees should be selected which have the potentiality for bearing the
load of the structures and the superstructures of the buildings as
most of the wooden architecture in those days was related to pillars,
beams and lintels. Door frames and roofing too, were done by
wood (cf. Saddaruka— so common in the §ala houses). The following
common trees on the basis of this criterion are recommended:—
1. Khadira 8. Arjuna
2. Bijaka 9. Anjana
3. Sala 10. AJoka
4. Madhuka 11. Kcdara
5. ^aka 12. RohinI
6. iSimSipS 13. Vikankata
7. Sarja 14. Deva-daru
15. ^rlparnl.

Now two preliminaries, i.c. starting in an auspicious

after these
and the examination of stars and the examin-
constellation of stars
ation of the trees for selection and coflection thereof, the actual
operation of cutting them down ?houl4 be atiepdcd tQ with Pal(
 THE construction OF THE SALAS 331

offerings with Svastika-patha in the early hours of the morning.

Particular attention to be bestowed upon this oper»tion is that
during the cutting operation if the following are observed, the tree
should be abandoned:-—

1. The coming out of blood.

2. Shaking or sounds made by the trees,
3. Fall of curd, honey, milk or butter.

On the other hand, if the following are observed, the tree should
be deemed fit:—
1. Black liquid spouts from the tree.
2. Falls at a distance after the roots are cut.
3. Makes excessive sound.
4. Produces excessive wind.
5. Falls in the East or in the North.

If however, it falls either in the South or in the West, the

Santika having performed, should be abandoned and deemed unfit
it

for employment. Similary, several other procedures both ritualistic

and non-ritualistic are prescribed and the import of all this is to
select the best wood to secure the best result. This only indicates
how meticulous our forefathers were even in matters mundane.
They could never have suffered the slightest departure from the ideal.

A very interesting procedure to find out the mandala, if the tree is

bored by insects is given in the text.

While cutting the tree, the
—
Colour of the tree should be observed these are called the Mandalas.
Mandalas are animal rings in the pith of the trees and they are ta-
bulated hereunder:—
Ciicle Animal
1, ManjisthSbha Bhcka
2. KapilSbha Rat
3. Pitabhasa (Yellowish) Godha
4. Dirgha-dtSyata (whitish) Serpent
5. Gudacch5ya Bees
6. Aruna Kfkalasa
7. Kapotabha GfhagodhS
8. Ghfta-mandabha Gaudheya
9. Rasanjanabha Water
10. Sastrabha >1

11. Kamalotpalabha >}

12. Dhautasi-yastivar^a
 :

CHAF^TER VIJ

THE PR1^CIPAL COMPONENTS

(The Door)

S. S. is very exhaustive on Door; as it has devoted as many as

the following six chapters to it; some of which mainly and others parti-

ally deal with this important topic of architecture: —28, 34, 39, 43, 48,
and 53.

The first p )int to note is the different limbs of the door space.
The door called Dvara, Prave^ana, Nirgamana, etc. is constituted of
—
the Udumbara the lintel under which the door is placed, this lintel
and the space between the two walls for the entrance is called Dehaliy
the other name being ATapataS/a^a, and the other components being
Kapil ta also called Dv^rapatsaj Kapaiapuiay Pa/5rt, Pidh^nay Farana,
Dvhaaamvarana and this is two-fold which is called Kapatayugala. The
Kdih^, the door-bolt also called Argal^y is for the purpose of Vaolting

them together. It is called Argalasuci. If it is big in size, it is called

Parigha in the great gales of the town and their Gopuras. The other
name is Phaliha, warder of the elephant.

The other elements of the door, though ornamental, are Phalaka —

S.S. I8.34, /a/a (a kind of window) T(frana and Simlmkwna arches and
mouldings The following parts constitute the door according to the text:

1. Four-fold—Fcdyapinda 5. Khalva-^akha
2. Udumbara 6. Bahya-mandala
3. Dvara- Sakha 7. BhSra-SSkha.
4. Rupa-Sakha
The Udumbara is lintel. The l^akhas are the side frames — the varie-
ties according to the position on the sides up and down are what the
S. S. terras them as Dvara-^Skhas, the sides frames etc.

Regarding these §akhas, the text mentions the following techni-

cal names after the look and the virtue thereof
1 . Devi 1 1
1 .

2. Nandini 1
Ventilator
3, Sundari 1
Proper entrance*
^
4. Priyanana I
4 5
5. Bhadra ^
I
^ iB*-^The five frames can be accommod ated like the above diagram^
 I

THE PRINCIPAL GOMPONENTS-DOOR 333

More than five of these Vakhas i.e. door frames are not allowed in
the composition of a door to be placed in a human dwelling (S. S.

28.15).

The doors are both main gates and the side ones. 1 hey are
placed on the different cardinal points. Their different varieties are
As town entrances weie
the result of the variations in their positions.
fortifiedby the enclosures of moats, ramparts and walls, they were
called Gopuras (cf. S.S. 18.52), the main gates and the side doors are
called Paksadvaras (cf. S.S. 18.52).

These principal topics, namely the dimensions of the doors, their

position and the Vedha together with decoration on the doors are
discussed in the following paragraphs.

Regarding the dimensions, the common rule is that the height of

the door should be twice the breadth. But this, I believe, is too low a
height. A height twice the width must make the door too low for
daily use unless, of course, the width itself is of a large dimension, say
not less than four feet. Therefore, the authoritative texts like
Vi^vakarma-praka^a and Brhat-sarhhita prescribe for doors of domestic
house, a height equal to three times the width. Perhaps a corrupt
tradition has crept into the texts, hence practically all the texts pres-
cribe a height twice the width in case ol temple doors. The correct
tradition however, is restored by that celebrated commentator
Bhattotpala, who accepts the reading in place of

The S.S. however, has improved the traditon by avoiding this

common rule of the ancient masters and has given some formulas as
laid down in the 28th Chapter (1-7).

( 5^)1
ii

g ii

(n»f? f

f^iiCfxjsg^iPT qs'anrqRTT*!^ i

qrr

g fxrffer; n
 —

534 TltE t»RINaiPAt, components-dooA

Various alternative measurements are also given in the text. The

verse no, 7 (cf. 39th Chapter) says :

Let the height of the house be distributed in the equal parts, the
two parts will give the height of the door. Its width however, should
be done half of its height. This is another alternative measurement of
the door. Samarahgana, keeping in view the higher and larger build-
ings together with the middle size and lower size buildings suggests
three alternative dimensions of the doors, as the doors are of large
size, middle size and low size.

Again in the chapter entitled ‘Dvara-pitha-bliittimanadikah the

24lh, the same thesis of the heiglit of the door as more than the double
of the width is corroborated

In the 24th chapter a four-fold special variety of auspicious

houses (already noticed in a previous chapter) is described wherein
the placing of the doors in all directions has been recommended. The
above regulation about the position of the door in four directions is
supported l^y the following quotation from 39th Chapter in a more
tangible manner:-—

m (cr?iR) i

This is the general position. NoW dehnite location of the doors casie-
wise and house-wise as expounded in this very part has already been
noticed of (vide Gh. below—Building Byelaws).

The S.S. (39. 11-17) gives the following four-fold categories of the
rcsidenees in which the location of the doors is a matter of special
importance. They arc:

1. Utsanga—‘Where doors of both the house and Vastu are in

one direction.

2. Hinablhtt— While entering into the Vastu, the house is on the

left.

3. Reverse of the
Purnabahu. (2) while entering into the Vastu
the house keeps on the right*

4. Pratyaksaya. VastudvSra, on the hind parts of the house. The

and third are auspicious and the second
first atid fourth inauspicious

and not conducive to happy living*

 THE PRINGIPAX. COMPONENTS-DOOR 335

Another very important rule regarding the location of the door

is that the door should never be located in the middle :

fca*rro:

Another direction is that the successive storeys should have their

doors located on the doors below (vide Chapters 39 and 48, verses
44-47 and 80 respectively).

Lasty the last four verses of the 39th Chapter “ Dvaragunadosa

the text concludes with the evil consequences attending on the wrong
position of the doors.

Now after the composition and the varieties of the doors indi-
cated, their dimensions and positions ascertained, their qualities and
defects must also be known.
Qualities.
Regarding the qualities, the text (39. 35-37) says that the door
should be well laid (Susthita—square, i. e. its frames), good looking,
made of the material specially suited to it, straight (Rju) in its direct
tion, neither too small nor too high, its frames should aho be neither
thin nor crooked and so on. The import of all these qualities is that
its material, its proportionate measurements, its finish and get-up,
all must be perfect and a product of artistic style. As a matter of
fact all these good qualities of a door centre round the absence of
defects of the door in relation to its parts, mouldings or position, etc,

Defects.
The information on the defects is exhaustive. The text (vide 48.91
and onwards) enumerates the following list of the defects.

1. KrSa 9. Uttana
2. Vikfta 10. Sthulagra
3. Atyucca 11. Hrasvakuksika
4. Karala 12. Svapada-calita
5, Sithila 13. Hrasva
6. Pfthu 14. Hlnakarna
7. Vakra 15. Mukhanata
8. ViSala 16. Parivaga
17. Sutramarga-bhrasta.
The import of all these defects is that the perfect joinery position
and proportionate measurements, the violation of which results in
and
relation to any of these broad principles of the door construction,
its placing thereof must be meticulously adhered to. The text fur-
ther says, that a door making noise while being shut up is bad and
it 19 also inauspicious if it shuts up and eloses by itself.
336 THE PRINCIPAL GOMPONENTS-DOOR

After the merits of the door have been mentioned and the dc»
fects pointed put, let the doors now be decorated in all their perfect-
ion, glory and grandeur.
Decoration of the doors is a very old tradition in India. This
tradition is still maintained in all parts of India. A plain door is

described as inauspicious and naturally, therefore, manifold objects

for decoration are prescribed in the texts, Brhat-samhita, Matsya-
Purana and practically all the authoritative compendiums of Archi-
tecture enjoin decorations. The chief door is especially enjoined by all

the authorities to be highly decorated with auspicious designs. The

S.S. has very beautifully kept up the tradition and added to the list.

But it may be pointed out here that the topic of decoration at present
is of a limited purview. Forming the complete picture as it does, of the
exposition of the House Architecture in opposition to the Temple ai cln^
tecture, the theme remains incomplete here, because the Temple doors
arc not taken into account and the material on the topic abounding in
the ancient manuals is more related to the decorations on the doors of
the devotional places. Samarahgana, therefore, in its 34th Chapter the
^‘Aprayojya-prayojya”, has itself delimited the scope according to this
point of view taken above. The subject of decoration from the archi-
tectural point of view is simply vast. Not only the doors, the house
walls, the Assembly halls, the caves, and the temples but also the bed-
coats, the seats, the conveyances, the pots, the ornaments, umbrellas,
Bags, and practically all objects are the objects of decoration (S, S.
34.1—2).
Decorations of the doors.

1. Kula-devata —the image not being more than one hasta of

length.

2. Two Pratihaiis, the Sentinels — Well decorated in variegated

and ornaments, bearing staff or Vetra, and swords, in their hands,
clothed, glowing with youth and beauty, along with lady Prailharinis
and placed on both the sides of the door.

3. A dwarfish nurse (Dhatrl) followed by her maid companions

the happy jesters (Vidusakas).

4. iScifikha and Padmanidhi—-emitting coins.

5. The AS^amangala — On the seat of lotus wearing a sacred

garland of eight auspicious symbols.

6. Laksml— Lotus-seated and well decorated and being bathed

by elephants.
7# Cow with her calf and well ornamented with flower gar-
lands 0tC*
 THE PRINCIPAL GOMPONENTS-DOOR 337

The Dyaia-Vedha*
The purpose of Vedha is the avoidance of obstnu lion to light and
air and this leads to a very highly developed technique of.ihe orienta-
tion of the buildings in ancient India,

These obstructions are known under the technical name of Vedha.

The Vedha may belong to any member of vast structural parts f a c

house or building with the neighbourhood. According to V2stu-sara,

there are as many as seven kinds of Vedhas —Tala-vedha, Kona-vedha,
Talu-vedha, Kapala-vedha, Stambha-vedha, Tula-vedha and Dvara^
vedha Here the theme is of the Dvara-vedha —obstructions of the
doors In case the, vedha happens in th- construction of a door, it

was believed to bring a calamity to the master of the house, either to

himself or to his sons or to his wife or to his wealth and property.
Some of these obstructions arc a road, a tree, a corner, a wall, a pillar,
a water channel, a temple and so on. Almost all the manuals deal
witli this topic and the list was more and more enlarged and has
assumed too great a bulk in the S. S., an enumeration of which is not
necessary (see text).

may, however, be pointed out that prescriptions propounded

It

in the texts can h irdly be adhered to, because it is indeed very

difficult to avoid these obstructions in crowded cities and towns.

Therefore, a little distance from the object of obstruction was recomm-

ended for the location of the door. The irreducible measurement
fixed is twice the height of the house, so that obstructions may not
occur. The rule says, (cf. Matsya-Purana, 2o5. IV, Agni. page 104.
^4, B. S. 53, 76, etc. etc. all the manuals are unanimous on this point):

*‘The distance of twice the height being left (from the door to the
Vedha) there occurs no Vedha.”
 CHAPTER VIII

THE PILLAR AND OTHER MEMBERS

The Pillar

The evidence on Pillar in the S.S. is confined to the 28th Chapter

entitled ^‘Gj’hadravya Pramana’*. The S.S. has described the four kinds
pf columns; the Padniakay the Ghata^pallaraka, the Kuhera and the
The chief distinguishing features of each of these are that the first two,
though resemble in shape, take the different motifs, the former of a lotus
and the latter of the leaves and garlands (cf. **the pot and foliage’* motif
of Indian columns). And but for the shape, the other two take the
model of the Padmaka. This designation of the pillars does not cor-
respond to those of the works like MSnasara and others for the simple
reason that basically these pillars are not temple pillars, and therefore,
in house architecture, their innovation is fully justified. The five-fold

division of ManasSra pillars into Brahma-kanta, Visnu-kanta, Rudra-

kiinta, ^livakanta and Skandakanta is based on the general shapes of
the columns. With respect to dimensions and ornaments, the five

orders are called Citrakarna, Padmakanta, Citra^Skambha, Palika-

Skambha, and Kumbha-Stambha—Vide “Hindu Architecture India
and abroad, page 201”, In this latter classification, the two designa-
tions Padmakanta and Kumbha-Stambha are nearer to Samrliagana’s
Padmaka and Ghata-Pallavaka. Matsya-purana, designates its pillars
by the names of Rucaka, Vajra, Dvivajra, Pralinaka and Vrtta,

Regarding the shape, the first two varieties

i. e. Padmaka,
and Ghata-pallavaka resemble each other —both them take the
of
famous octagonal shape. Kubera is sixteen sided and the ^ridhara
is oval,

Now coming to the different component parts of a column in the

S.S., wc find as many as ten of them. These are :

1. Stambhakoti 6* Uikalaka
2. Prai^Siinf 7. Kurnbhika
3. Pratipalana 8. Stambhapinda
4. Stambhamula 9. Patra
5. Masuraka 10. RasanS and JanghS

All these arc innovations, as the component parts of a column, as

described in works like Matsya, Bj-hat-samhUS and Kira^a Tantra are:
 —

OTHER Members 339

1 . Vahana 5. Bahulya
2* Ghata 6. Bhara
3, Padma 7. Tula
4. Uttaros|ha 8. Upatula

The S.S. further describes a large number of component projections,

entablatures and mouldings as follows:

1. Talapatta 13. Padma-patil

2. Bahulya 14. Pedra
3. Hiragfha 15. Tula
4. Pravasana 16. Jayanti
5. Trikanta 17. Sandhipala
G. Lambita 18. Jayantika
7. Ardhacandra 19. Pratimoka
8, Khalva 20. Niryuha
9. Tumbika 21. Vedika
10. Lambika 22. Jala
11. Kantaka 23. Rupa
12. Patrajati 24. Kantha

As regards the relative dimensions of the component parts and

mouldings of the pillar as well as the different and manifold allied
structures — the entamblatures, the projections, the beams and the side
decorations as tabulated above, a few may be indicated here.

Out of a dozen parts and mouldings of a typical pillar — Padmaka*

stambha (S. S. 28. 20-27) the text says that the dimension of the
Stambha-koti should conform to the volume, the width of the door,
should be a quarter of it. Similarly other dimensions can be
i.c. it

worked out.

The exposition of the Pillar-architecture in texts like Manasara,

Tantra-samuccaya, lianaSiva-gurudcva-paddhati etc. is very rich,
but I have refrained from a comparative cstimatimation for the
simple reason that these pillars of the S. S. are characteristic of House
Architecture (the Secular one) rather than of the Temple Architecture
which these texts deal with.

The other Component Parts and Mouldings of the House

In its chapter entitled *Nagaradi-saSjna, the 18th-^the S, S.

has described some of the component parts and the mouldings of the
house in a laxicographical manner and they should be noticed here.
But as they throw a good deal of light on the development of the
^40 OtHfeR MEMBERS

house architecture, some of them along with the other scattered

material regarding these component parts of the house, may be briefly
dealt with here

The first point to note in this connection is the hint which the
S,S. provides to the development of the secular and religious architec-
ture. While dividing the whole country into Janapada and the
Nagara and giving the various sub-divisions of the towns and villages,
it gives a list of twenty three synonyms of the house (see Fart V.
‘
Temple Architecture’).

The principal parts of a house were the ^ala (1 to 10), the Alinda,
ihe Garbhagrha, the entrance, the porch— all these had assumed
enormous side-developments in the evolution of a full-fledged house.
Sala, themodern room or ball (receiving-hall, sitting-hall, the bed
room, the study- room etc ) was the chief unit of the house. Though
the text, as we have seen, describes the 6ala houses of one to ten
rooms, the principal varieties however, were ouly four, CatuSSala,
TriSala, DviSala and Eka^ala.

Alinda, the frontal modern lawn with verandah was one of the
essential components of a house. The Gailhag^ha^ the interior chamber,
though the scacred-most in a temple, was the central compound with
a Vapi or Puskarini — the reservoir of water and laid with a cover over
it (vide S.S. 18-20) in the residential house. In a house plot whatever
was left after the planning of the corridor, the Alinda and the Salas was
called Garbhagi’ha (S. S. 19. 27). The entrance was a bit more com-
plicated structure, necessitated, by the defensive considerations. The
main door was placed on and two big planks called the dvSia-
the debali
paksa or Kapajaputa, Varana, Pidhana etc. had an Argali also called
Kalika, the door bolt. The main doors the gates of a fortified town
had assumed an enormous structure, an edifice by itself, the gopurams
with towers and turrets and even they invariably possessed the door-
bolt called in that case a Parigha, Phaliha or Gajavarana.

Again one of the characteristic features of the door-decoration

in those days was the architectural accomplishment of a very high
order— the Torana—the arch. The S. S. (vide 18. 37-39) distinguish^iil
one made of jewel (matrii-torana),
three classes of arches, the golden,
and the flowery (puspa torapa) and a moulding of these arches was
called Simhakarpa—‘a shape of Nagarl 'Thakara.*

So far the principal parts of the house in modern terminology,

the room, the interior and the entrance, have been tc.kcn into
 OtHER MEMBERS 341

Recount, Another very importam member of every SSla^house was

the (the application of which ranged from one# to twenty in
number), the Bhadr'^Sy the Parisaras, all may be rendered as porches
or porticos. The portico is described, as Miisa, the intermediatory
porch between a l&ala and Alinda vide S. S. 19-29). The interpreta-
tion of the term Musa has already been attempted (Ch. V).

According to V. S. (Page 38), the principal component parts of

a residential house are the 6ala, Alinda, the verandah or the corridor,
the wall, Patta, the beam, the pillars, the windows or shutters and
the Mandapa, the pavilions different modes of applications of which
produce different varieties of houses.

Pleasures of a house are its different establishments. A glimpse

of all this is obtained by the following side-establishments in a house.

1. Mahanasa 6. Jalodyana
2. Dvara-Kostha 7. Kridagara
3. Darpana-gfha 8 Viharabhumi
4. Dharagrha 9. Amedhyabhumi etc. etc.

5. Udyana (vide ibid Ch. 18).

Apart from these few principal parts of a house* structure, there

v/rre so many structures lending it beauty and making it comfortable
and providing it light and a free passage for the air. Every house had
stairs, which if made in brick work, were called Sopana, and if wooden

structure, it was called NiSreni. The windows in the walls were

called VStayana, Avalokanaka — literally the passage for light. A
special characteristic of the houses those days was that every roof of
every room was provided with a hole (cbidra) and it was called Uluka.

There were balconies made of timber called Fftah/a and there were
so many side-projections as Vitardik^y Mrj/^hay Vallka etc. etc Again
every house was provided with a drain passage of water called Jala-
nirgama or Udakabhrama. This in brief is a very modest enumeration
of the component parts of the house. The other details regarding
the door, the pillar and the roof have already been dealt with in
their respective chapters and the remaining details arc gathered
together in the Glossary below.

Lastly, the mouldings have to be attended to. As a matter of

fact, they arc specially associated with such parts of the House-Struc-
ture as the Pillar, the door frames, the walls and the crowning part, the
finial, the towers, and the turrets together with the different shapes of
the houses in general and their priiidi|)al parts in particular.
 342 other MEMfeERi

The have pointed out several timest dfaws a line

S, S., as I

popular residential houses and

of demarcatiQii between domestic,
the temple, the Prasadas. This distinction has been maintained also
in the allied respective architecture too. We have already noticed
musas and Salas as characteristic of these residential houses. But they
are conspicuous by their absence in temples. Similarly, so many moul-
dings like Siinhakarn K ipotali, Ghanta, Karna, Ardha-paksa,Dhvaja,
Chatra, Camara, Paksiraji, Samaralapalli, Patras, etc. together with
a very big list (see Glossary) so commonly employed in the Prasadas,
the temples are a taboo in the residential houses (S. S, 28.55-6).

For the completeness’ sake, the following component parts and

mouldings are tabulated (vide the 18th Chap. Nagaradi-SaRjna)

Bhavananga— the parts— the component and the auxiliary, to-

gether with somany other buildings and mouldings:

Harmya Roof
2. Sopana Stairs
3. NiSreni Wooden stairs (the ladder)
^ 4, Kasthavitahka Wooden structure (houses)
5. Saudha SudhHlipta (Harmya) and that should have a
basement too (Kuttima)
6 Kuttima
7. Abhigupli A shed on the roof
8. Vatayana Window shutters
Q. Avalokana Ventilators in walls
10. Avalokanaka Ditto (smaller)
11. Uloka Hole in t\ e roof for the passage of air and light

12. Harraya- It is defined as harmyatalakantha. Is it what

prakaraka we call mu^era or chajja alround the roof ?

13. VitardikS —
Astamala a row of pillars.
14. ihSmrga Moulding in shape of a deer on pillars of
vitardikS.
15. Niryuha Gross circle, a small tower (Ency. H.A ).

16. Valita
17. Gatu$lala A quadrangle having buildings on four sides

18. Trilaia lit three ,,

19. Dvi§ala >> >> i> 9> two ,,

20. EkaSala ,, ,, ,1 ,, one side

21. Sala One unit building

22. Vapior PuskarinI The middle compound of the SSla structure.

23. Oarbhagi'ha 99 99 If 99 99

(when covered)
 OTHBR MEMBERS 343

Trikudya or ^
UpasthUna or ^Mahajanasthana
Upasthanaka J
Prasadika ^
Dirghaprasadika > Balcony (see Ency. H. Arch.),
or Valabhl J
Alinda Balabhi in front of the Ȥala.
Valabha Balabhi without a Sala
Apavaraka or Small structure i.e. catuskudya
Catuskudya
^luddhanta Inner chamber.
Pratoli Building structure like that of a surahga
KaksS Courts
Upasthanaka
jKosthaka
Apavaraka )

Kantha, Kudya, Wall plinth etc.

Bhitti arid Caya Wall and Wall-Masonry
BhaktaSala or Kitchen.
Mahanasa n
Dvarakos^haka
Prave^ana ^ Entrances
DvSranirgamanaJ
Udakabhrama Water channel
BhavanSjira Courtyard or compound in House
Vanajira ,, ,, ,, in Forest
ASramiijira ,, „ ,, in Hermitage
Dehali or *1

Kapata^iaya J
Kapata or Dvara-*"
paksa or Kapata-
pSta or Paksa 'or 1

Pidhana or Va-
rana or Dvara-
samvarana. ^

Kaj^Stasampufa Both the doors,

or Kapatayugala Ditto
Kalikaor Argala Door bolt.
Argalasuci Door bolt, bigger in size.
Parigha orPhali-"] Door bolts in ttie lofty gates
ha or GajavaranaJ of the towns.
Phalaka or Jala Ventilators
Torana Arch
Suvar:[iatorai[ia Golden arch
Maipitora^a Jewelled arch
Puspatora^a Flowery arch
Simhakar^a Moulding in shape of Nagarl IhakSra
 .

344 OTHEa MEMBMI

51. Sarhyamana Open space for lawns etc.

' 52. Maralapali Wooden moulding.
53. Pranallt Water channel from the roofs.
54. Prakara KanthS of the court-yard
55. Pradvara Vicinity of the entrance
56. SthalaorSthalaka Pavement of the entrance
57. Mutrabhumi or 1
Amedhyaor Var- ^Urinal
caskaor AvaskaraJ
58. Parisara
59. AUa towers
60. Attalaka >>

61. Atnil 19

Attalika >y

62. Dhlragrha V. L. and Part IV).

(3. S. 18.47-50, sec also

63. Darpanagrha V. L. and Part IV)

(S. S. 18.51; also

64. Gopura Lofty gate in Prakara

65. Mahadvara Main gate
66. Paksadvara Side gate
67. Upakarya —
68. Ksauma Attalaka
69. Jalodyana or ^ 1 Water park
Jalave^ina j

70. Kr’digrhaor 1
Kridigara or S Play-ground
-

Vil.arabhumi J
71. De/adhisnya
Surabthana
Caitya 1
•-Temples and shrines.
Arcagrha
Devatkyatana
Vivudhagara •d

72. Sabha Council Hall

 4

CHAPTER IX

HOUSE-DECORATIONS AND OTHER EQUIPMENTS

A, Housc-Decorations, —^Without going into the details of this

subject which is really the most conspicuous element of our ancient
architecture, let me tabulate the objects as arc prescribed by our
principal text, the Samarahgana-Sutradhara

(i) Objects of Decorations—

Rajabhavana Sayana Chatra

Vastukaksa Asana Pataka
Sabha Bhajana Dhvaja and
Devakula Abh rana Other Upakaranas

(ii) Decorative motifs prohibited 19. Vratls

9, in secular architecture, 20. Pasandis

1. All the gods (i.e,, only some 21. Nastikas

gods can form decorations 22. Hungry persons

here). 23. Sick with ailments
2. Daityas 24. The captives and suflerers ol
3. Grahas pains (colic, etc.),
4. Taras 25. The wounded
5. Yaksas 26. The burnt
6. Gandharvas 27. Besmeared with oil, blood &
7. Raksasas dust.
3, PiS^cas 28. Mads
Pitfs 29. Intoxicated ones
10. Pretas 30. Impotents
11. Siddhas 31. Idiots

12. Vidyiidharas 32. Nudes

13. Nagas 33. The blinds
14. Caranas 34. The dwarfs
15. Bhuta-Sanghas 35. Swing-sports —Dolakrfdas
(with their females & sons). 36. Elephant-captures

16. Prat 'haras, PratihSrls and 37. Fights between the gods and
their Adhikfts and their wea- demons
pons. 38. The quarrels of the kings
17. All the nymphs, the Apsaras- 39. Animal fights and their crush-
gapas. ing or destruction
18* Dlksitas 40. Hunting
 .

346 OTHER EQUIPMENTS

41. The Rasas like Rauclra, Dina, by the jesters and Kancukis.
Adbhuta, Vibhatsa and Ka- 5. Treasures—Nidhis with l§an-
ruua. kha, lotus etc., pouring from
42. Gajayana, ASvayana and the mouths the heaps of jems and
RathaySna jewels.

43. Vimanas 6. Laksmi and VaiSrava^a

'

44. Ayatanas 7. l§ri

45. Houses on fire 8. The Bull

46. Forest fires 9. Cow with her calf

47. Trees devoid of flowers and 10. Patralata: leaves and creepers
fruits ;
those contaminated bending with fruits and flowers
with bad birds as well as those both in the internal and ex-
having one branch or two ternal wa
branches ;
those dried up,
broken down, rough and full of 11. The birds like swans, Karanda,
holes and those inhabited Cakra moving on the lotus
by the spirits, such as Ka- beds and playing with the
damba, Salmall, ^eiu, Tara, children.
Ksara and Luk5 and those 12. Well-dressed in variegated
which are full of thorns and garments, the women in

are bitter in taste. amorous sports.

48. Birds like vultures, owls, 13. The gardens-Udyana-bhumis
doves, hawks, crows and — blooming and glowing with
herons, those moving in the the beautiful trees like Gam-
night and those eating flesh. paka, Afoka, Punnaga, mango,
49. Animals like elephants, horses, Tilaka etc. where the cuckoos
buffaloes, camels, cats, don- rre singing,
keys, monkeys, lions, tigers, 14. The seasons with their cha-
hyenas, hogs, deers, jackals racteristics and re&pective
and other meat-eaters (both signs and manifestations.
beasts and birds) as well as 15. Long lakes (Dlrghikas)girdilcd
those living on mountains and by the water, birds like Ka-
in the forests. damba, Kurura, Kraufica,
(iii) Decorative motifs allowed in Hamsa, Sarasa; shinipg with
sccul ar architcc t ur e the arbours of Ke.taki flowers
1. Kuladevatft in midst of the cane thickets

2. Tvyfo well-decorated Pratf- grown on its banks j ^nd

haras. covered with the lotus beds
3. Crooked Dhatrl along with hiding the fishes in the water.
her companions. . 16. Caverns (Panabh3mis)'r—
4. The Pratjfharis (females) on where beverages of ttsu etc.

both the doors accompanied are kept in pQts and

 other equipments 347

those made of precious stones, music chambers.

placed on the leaves of the 18, Domesticated birds like Ga-
lotuses. kora, ^uka (partot) and Sa-
17. Singing, dancing ladies shown rika in cages.
on the stages of theatres and 19. Jolly cuckoos, peacocks and
hens etc.

B. Other equipments. —These mean house-hold furniture like cou-

ches, cots, and so many other articles of furniture. We have already
taken into our account the evidence of the S S ,
on this score—'vide
Pt. 1 Chapt. V — cf Sayanasana. Now without going inio details a
brief notice of the evidence as furnished by the Manasara— vide Dr.
Acharya’s notice —H. A. I, and A. —may be taken.
It may be pointed out at the very out-set that the Manasara has
devoted a good many chapters to this side-branch of house-architec-
ture. Apart from couches (Sayana-vidhana) it also deals with cars
and chariots, the latter belonging more to temple-decorations
than to the house-decora; ions. Similar is the case with Thrones
(Simhasana-laksana), Arches (Torana). Theatre (Madhyarauga)
etc., etc.Here we arc more concerned with the articles of house-
hold furniture which are treated, as already referred to (cf, Pt. 1
Ch. V), in its 50th chapter, the Bhusana-laksana-vidhana —The
Ornaments Body and Articles of Furniture, especially in the
of the
latter part. These articles in the terminology of the Manasara are
called ‘vahirbhusana’ and they include as many as the following
eight articles.

1. Dipa-danda (lamp post) 5. Dolli (swing or palanquin)

2. Vyajana (fan) 6, Tula (balance)
3. Darpana (mirror) 7. Pan jara (cage) and
4. Manjusa (basket chest or box)B. Nida (nest).

The lamp-posts are of two kinds, the stationary, placed in front

of the house and the moveable. The former are made of wood, iron
or stone, the latter of wood or iron. They may be square, octagonal
or circular in shape. The Vedik^i (platform) or the pedestal at the
bottom of these is generally shaped like a lotus.’

* The fan-post, as well as the fan itself, is described in like man-

ner. These posts are made of timber or iron, but the fans appear
to be made of leather

‘ Nine alternative measurements are prescribed for the mirror*

namely, from 5 (or 6) ahgtdas upta2l(or22) ahgulas* The mirror
 )

348 OTHER EQUII^MENfS

should be quite circular with the edge a little raised. T^hc

{siivTtta)^

surface must be perfectly bright, the rim being decorated with linear
ornaments {vekhk) and on the reverse with the figures of Laksmi and
others/

‘Three kinds of mafijusa are described in detail. They are

made and are square, rectangular, or circular
of either timber or iron
in shape. They generally consist of one, two or three compartments
or chambers (kostha). The Parna-jnanjus^ looks like a box or trunk.
The taila (oil) manjusa is apparently a receptacle for oil. It does not
differ from the other, except in its greater height. The third kind
is called Fa^’</'a-wanjusa and is easily identified with a ward-robe or
lincnchcst. Its breadth is said to vary from one to three cubits, the
height and length being proportionate to the breadth. As regards
dola, it is a swing and palanquin both. Its phalaka may be taken to
mean the swing board.
‘The balance consists of the horizontal balancing rod or beam,
the strings by which the scale pans are suspended, and the scale pans
themselves/
Lastly as regards panjara and nida, the text has bestowed a greater
attention to Panjara. ‘
A number of birds and other animals are enu-
merated and the size of the cage in which they are kept, the
measurements admitting in each instance of nine different varieties/
The following is a complete list of the birds and animals for whom
panjaras are prescribed (see the measurements etc., in H. A. I. and
Ab. p. 137):

1. Mcga-nabhi-bidala (Musk cat)

2. Suka (parrot)
3. Chataka (rains- cuckoo or cuculus melanoleucus).
4. Chakora (partridge or peniix rufa)
5. Marala (a crow-pheasant, a goose or duck)
6. Paravata (turtledove)
7. NUakantha (roller)

8. Kunjariya (ground-man)
9. Khanjarlta (wag-tail) ^

10. Kukkuta (cock)

1 1 . Kulala ( pi aaianus gallus

12. Nakula (mongoose, viverra ichnenmm)

13. Tittiri (froncolin partridge)

14. Godh3(ra) (alligator)

15. Vyaghra (tiger)
 chapter %
THE DEFECTS OF THE HOUSE AND SOME Vi^RIETIES
OF THE DEFECTIVE HOUSES.

The defects of the house are principally associated, not only with
the untraditional way of placing the doors etc., but also with breakage
i. c. Bhahga, in any component part. It is bad and deemed as

defective and is enjoined the ^antika^ a brief enumeration of which

will follow in the preceeding paragraphs. The most prominent orbit

of defects round which they revolve is the doctrine of Vedha— the

obstruction as a result of the non-conformity of the mystic ideas of
Hindus in the realm of architecture. We have already taken notice
of such obstructions in a previous chapter (vide Dvara-vedha) in
connection with the door. Another source of defects is the masonry
and material as well as the decorations and non-decorations and we
have also taken into account the defects associated with them. Here
in this chapter, we have, therefore, to confine ourselves to general

defects, the avoidance of which gives us a perfect code of architectural

canons, thereby furnishing us with a set of rules of House- Architecture,
to be adopted as building byelaws in modern terminology. These
building byelaws as they emerge from the complicated study of the
defects, have been tabulated in a previous chapter —vide House Plans
and Building Byelaws). Thus the universe of discourse of this chapter
becomes limited and easy to handle. The greatest share of the defects

in a house is associated with Bhahga — breakage (already referred to).

The S. S. has devoted as many as four chapters (42, 43, 46 and 47)
to the most exhaustive and copious description of this Bhahga in

relation to a big list of the manifold parts and mouldings of the house.
It also speaks of resultant evil-consequences such as death,

misery and misfortune. The list is too big to be dealt with

here. Among them the Torana-bhahga (the breakage of the arch)
is of special notice. The text says, that the breaking of an arch is

a bad omen indicative of the breaking up of the Nation (vide 46. 9).
Another bad omen is the entry of a dove— Kapota, into a house which
is said to bring the greatest calamity. The bird is described as

death incarnate, the abode of impurity and sins It is of four kinds-—

l&vcta, white; Vicitra-kaptha, of variegated neck; Vicitra, variegated all

over, and K^snaka^black. Their entry is regarded as a very bad omen

and not only is an expensive ^antika enjoined, but it is also directed
that the owner of the house has to part with one-fourth of his wealth
to the Brahmapas if the entry in question is of the first variety of the

devil dove— the white one, otherwise one-half, three-fourth or the

 —

350 THE DEFECTS OF THE HOUSE

whole of it is to be distributed respectively, if the entry in question is

ofrema ning varieties of the bird — the Vicitra-kantha, the Vicitra and
Krsna (S. S. 46, 32-33).
So far we have been busy with the non-architectural or mystic
defects, now let us come to the defects of the architecture proper.
This leads us to take up the defective houses resulting from the wrong
orientation, the absence of some essential component, the wrong
masonry and wrong material, etc. etc.

Among the big list of the lila varieties, a formidable list of

defective structures consequent on the improper placing of the Musa
etc, has already been hinted at in the preceeding pages. A few illus-

trations of the defective structures arc given as follows:

1. Grlia-Sahghatta— A house having two salas in one wall is

called technically Grha-SahgluiUa.

2. Valita, Galita, Bliranta, and Visutra the four-fold defective
houses (S. S. 48.11-13) are those, deemed very inauspicious.
3. Khudaka 7. Saparikrama ll. Bhinnadelia
4, Vikokila 8. SdvasyJya 12. Ghinnavastuka
5. Sacchatra 9, Hinavahu 13. Sahksipta
6. Sakaksa 10. Pratyaksaya 14. Mrdahgakfti
1 h M|*dumadhya.
There are however, so many other defective structures referred
to in the text as a consequence of the wrong application of the
Alindas:
(i) A house in which the Slia is lower than the Alinda is bad.
(ii) If only one Alinda is to be constructed in the house, it should
be done so, either on the front or on the right. If it is done
on the left or in its hind part, it is bad.
(iii) A variety of Alinda called Halakalinda if placed
special
wrongly, is bad and is instrumental of evil consequences.
In the end, without multiplying the illustrations, let us conclude
with the general defects of the house, as the S. S. itself concludes in
the concluding lines of the 48th Chapter, the concluding chapter of
the House Architecture (vide 48,130-139).
General defects of the house.
1. Uccachadya 12. Anyonyadravya-viddha
2. Ghidragarbha 1 3. Kupada-pravibha jita
3. Bhramita 14, Hina-bhittika
4. Vamitamukha 1 5. Hina-uttamahga
5. Hindmadhya 16. Vinasta
6. NaSja-sutra 17'. Stambha-bhittika
7. Salya-viddha 18, Bhinna-01a
8. Sirogunx 19. Tyakta-kaii^ha
9. Bhrastalinda 20. Niskanda
lO Visamastha 21. Mana-varjila
ll. Tulitala 22. Vikfta.
(Sec Gloiftairy)
 —

CHAPTER XI

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The over gratification in our spiritual civilization has done* a

great harm. In matters mundane or material, our planners have
always looked to the West for light and guidance. We have altogether
shut our eyes to our technical heritage. Though we have an impor-
tant section of the Technical Sciences, in the All India Oriental
Conference, what impact has it left on our National Reconstruction,
especially State-craft and the Engineering and Architectural policy is

not very difficult to see. Our Sthapatya was very scientific. It has lost
its tradition. The present writer has done some thing towards the
study of this most fascinating branch of Indology by his humble pur-
suits —vide VastuSastra-rescarch-publications in about six volumes
Canons of Hindu Architecture, Sculpture and Painting etc. etc. The
climatic conditions and so many other agelong modes and habits
woven in the very texture of Indian life demand that our houses
should be so planned as to give us cool shelter, in order to live camfort-
ably and enjoy longivity. Nine-feet ten-feet high houses are a curse
these days. Such low-roofed tenaments are basically wrong for this
hot climate of India. They may be good for cold countries. Accord-
ingly a few suggestions in a popular language are being put before
the lovers of Indian architecture, who may take up the question
with the Planning Commission for a re-orientation in our Engineering
and Architectural policy. My ‘Bharatiya Vastu0stra’ (Hindi work)
and VastuSastra Vol. I and II are pointer to advocate tliis reorienta-
tion in our national policy not only for the good of our cultural heri-
tage but also for the good of living and longivity.

Modern Hpufse-Pl^niuiig mi what it can gain from Samarai^gai^a

Sutradhara. From House
the previous pages a tangible picture of the
Architecture, as presented by Samarangana Sutradhara has already
emerged. This picture is one of the sublimest heritages of our fore-
fathers. It is upto us to appreciate its beauty and utility. We need a
discipline of our senses to make them a fit apparatus for the perfect
perception.

All the. y^al considerations necessary to majke a Jiving l^ealthy

mad .peaceful bes^towed ^pon the pl;^s. Jf material ecji^ip-
 —

352 C0:^CLUD1N0 REMARKS

merits such as furniture, mozaic floors, ingenious door- shutters, beau-

tifuldesigns 9 f windows, attached bath rooms, curtains and the like
are not included in them, we shall not allow that to deter us from
having a look at them. The fundamental basis of these plans is

purity. and lighting the

This purity includes sanitation, ventilation —
prime necessities of life. The modern spacious and open varandahas,
the sky-clear lawns and compounds, the gardens, the bed, the
reception room, the study-room, the worship-room, the store-room, the
kitchen and the bath-room, all these can be well provided in the
house plans as prescribed by the Samarahgana Sutradhara.

The planning of the house and building is one of the finest traits

of human civilisation. We know the story of a house — from iti

origin, the tree-branch structures to the fullest of development, the

ostentatious mansions —the palaces of kings and temples of Gods
together with the intermediary phases of evolutions, the manifold
structures along with their component parts and mouldings, decoration
and joinery, masonry and material in their successive stages. What
light docs it throw on the broad outlook of culture and the humanity
at large ? The human civilisation, though it has reached its zenith,
has not yet attained its crowning glory—the glory of self-realization.
It is still far far from its destination. The direction of the journey too,

has changed. The struggle, therefore, is keener. Where are we

going ? Should we our soul altogether in our material pursuits.
lose

The spirit of man needs to be rediscoverd. “Mortal in the company

or the Immortal** is a very old story ! How to regain that company ?

The answer is not far to seek. We have to get rid of the unnatural-
ncss about us. We
have to change our direction from the unnatural
parapherenalia of establishment to the simple environments of
life

Nature. For this, let the beginning be made in our living conditions.
We should now choose the natural surroundings for our habitation
employ the natural materials in our houses, lead a life of simplicity
and austerity. This is only possible when a new orientation is made in
our house-planning. 6ala-models as prescribed by the texts like the
S. S, can very well serve this end.

It does not mean that we should bid goodbye to all the advance-
ment that our fore-fathers and the modern engineers and the archi-
tects have made in the art of building. The outlook needs a change.
As the ancients reserved the superb art-craftmanship only to the build-
ings, devotional, and memorial, similar consideration should prevail
with us. The public buildings, the temples, the town-halls may
have edifices of large and sublime structures, but the dwelling houses,
 CONGLUmNQ REMARKS 353

unless simple and cheap and laid in the surrounding of Nature,

can neither be conducive to hcalh nor to the peace qjf mind—the
two essentials of good living.

House planning was never left to the caprice of the individuals

in India. was the responsibility of the state or the ruler to see
It
that a certain minimum standard was adhered to
by every house
holder in matters of building his house. The^ were so rigid that they
were codified and were given a sanctity of a religious character, so
that they may never be violated. What is the present state of affairs?
The building byelaws are there. Every house-builder has to get hi >

plan sanctioned by the Municipal Board or the similar other corpora-

tion. Despite all this, the results so far, have been simply monstrous.
The congestion, lack of sanitation, lack of symmetry and beauty as well
as of rcligiousity (purity) etc. arc every where to be seen abundantly.
It is amatter of gratification that in these days the town planning
departments are a bit more awakened, but the task facing them is
so enorm( us that, the absence of a clear-cut vision, must work havoc
to any fitting solution of the house problem. Now, people have begun
to talk of such materials as cost less. Nobody is, now, after the
aforesaid grandeur or beauty or comforts. A small place to meet
ordinary vital wants is enough. This consciousness, this awakening,
this realisation of the grim realities is the most suitable time when
we can turn our eyes to the past.

The Samarangana-Sutradhara’s Sala-houscs can solve our house

problem. The material to be used is within the easy reach of all
and the accommodation is just to satisfy the essential wants.
The Sala-bhavanas can serve any variety of tenement. They can be
built, also on a large Some of the modern materials like cement,
scale.

concrete, if employed, will make the houses last longer. They arc
best suited to the climate of India. The roofing should never be of
reinforced concrete slab, instead the saddaruka, tree timber planks
obtai!ted from such trees as mango, Mahuva or Neem abounding in
every corner of the land should be employed. Walls, for security
reasons may be made of brick and lime or brick, sand or cement.
If the new townships or suburbs, the branch towns, the 6akh5-nagaras
(vide the Town-Planning, the last part of the study) arc planned,
the houses therein should be plani cd in rows of S5la-houscs, consisting
of symmetrical, frontal varandahs, the Alindas together with porticos,
the BhadrSs and hind portions the Parisaras. The central spaces arc
open an4 arc large enough for plantatiop and vegetation ctC|
354 CONCLUDIN3 REMARKS

Any housing scheme on a large scale is a great burden on the

State Exchecyxer. How to raise the money in crorcs for a handful
of houses on the modern models? This problem can be solved if

coordinated and cooperative efforts are made in which the State

gives subsidy and the individuals and cooperative-societies also
contribute their mite with a zeal and enthusiasm worthy of a great
nation to build houses, establish new townsl ips, rejuvenate the
Vrlhgcs, reorientate the living and revolutionise the character of the
country. This is the essence of a planning, be it a house-planning,
town-planning or any other planning —the individual, the society
and the State, all contributing their shares
was submitted about six years ago when
iV./?.— This dessertation
in theNational Planning no sufficient vigour for building houses and
founding new towns was seen. Happily during the 2nd Planning
period there has been a marked tendency to encourage building ope-
rations and raising new townships. This phase as anticipated by the
writer does not however meet his advocacy wherein the National
Building Policy should be more in keeping with the past rather than
with the present foreign evolutions. Many a town in India today is
planned out entirely on foreign pattern. 1 he celebrated capital of
the newly emergent Panjab (after partition) Chandigaih is a pointer
to it. It is entirely against the genius of the land. Chandigaih has its

own architectural pattern which, to the students of Indian architec-

ture, does not appe 1. From the practical considerations it may be
ail right to bid good-bye to the ornamental style of the old, but fiom
the standpoint of cultural considerations we can not afford to forget
our past altogether.
 PART IV

Palace Architecture
AND
Palace-Pleasures

A— Palaces
B—Accessory Buildings

C—Accessory pleasure-devices & structures,

the yantras etc,

D— Other State buildings or public buildings.

Introductory.

We have already pointed out that the buildings in India had at

least three broad cakgories — the residential houses for common people
and the middle class people, the palaces and other gorgeous and magni-
ficent structures and the temples. Accordingly we have devoted three
sepai ate parts to these three distinct architectural traditions of our land.
We have already treated, howsoever meagrely, the common residential

houses, the Sala-bhavanas in the previous part. Let us now proceed with
the palaces and other gorgeous buildings. In Indicin tradition the king
was as high as a god. He was considered as the fifth Lokapala.
Accordingly the Vimana buildings or Prasadas as treated in the texts
like Maiiasara, Mayamata and iSilparatna do not make any distinc-
tion between the residences of tlie *Taitilas*, the gods and those of
the Bhudevas and N|-devas, the Brahmanas and the kings. This is

really a loop-hole in the treatment of House-architecture as has been

treated in the aforesaid texts. The North Indian texts like the
SamarSngana and the Aparajita however arc credited to rehabilitate

the tradition on proper lines by drawing a line of demarcation between

the secular buildings, the residential houses of men including the lords
of men, the kings and the gods. Even in the former category, both
these texts are univocal in bestowing the separate attention to both
the kinds of planning namely the popular residential houses and the
abodes of kings and nobles. In India or for the matter of any other
ancient country, the kings had very high previleges and positions, in
accordance to which, their abodes could never be conceived to be sim*
pie structures. The citcdals, the castles, the gorgeous mansions, the
fortified huge establishments — all these comprised the
making of a
king’s palace. Later on when times were more peaceful and pros-
perous, these palaces further ramified into two distinct establishments,
the residentiakcum-administrative set-ups, the Nivasa-bhavanani and
the pleasure-palaces, the Vilasa-bhavanani.

A very unique feature of the planning of palaces is its stereotyped

canon of courts, the Kaksyas, which has been in vogue from the times
of RSmByana, the Epic age and fully adhered even in such modern
palaces as those of Mughals in the medieval architectural history of
our land. This point would be more amplified in its proper place.
Further again, the palace-planning is a composite-planning which
consists not only of the residential quarters of the king and his retinue,
but a vast paraphernalia of huge establishments where the Council-
 —

358 INTRODUGTdRY

Chamber, the Sabha, the stables for housing the elephants and othei‘

royal animals along with the pleasure-gardens dharagfhas, etc., etc.,

are also given a proper attention. All this will be detaUcd ahead
vide Section B. These palaces of old were not only the residential
houses of ruling sovereigns and kings but also the national museums
and public places where manifold structures of imposing grandeur
were built to add to the beauty of the Capital. This was not enough
as there wa^ a very high tradition of Palace pleasures which the in
mechanical contrivances, the Yantrasin their manifold used varieties,
to be housed for not only the pleasures of the kings but also for
amusement of the public. Accordingly this side-branch of Palace-
accessories — the Yantras etc, will also be treated here and now—vide
the Section G.

This about the broad indication of Palace-architecture both

is —
in its main buildings and accessory components as well as the acces-
sory pleasures. We have however to give some attention to the pub-
lic buildings gorgeous and magnificent in character and useful from
the stand-point of civic amenities like library, picture-gallary, the
courts (rural and urban), the rest-houses, etc., etc., as provided by
the state, which in ancient India was centred in the ruling chief.

Hence a brief notice of these cognate buildings also forms the subject-
matter of this part — the Section D,
These buildings, therefore, all fall under the domain of Palace*
architecture as their genesis and character rest on the fine architec-
ture rather on popular architecture, the Salas.

Further, under the Public Buildings, according to the charcteristic

of the age, the public wells and tanks, the water reservoirs also are
worthy of notice. Hence some space would be allotted to these most
vital and useful establishments of the town, fully adhering to out
scheme of the Vastulaksana in the matter of Buildings as Jana-nive§a,
Kaja-nive^a and Nagara-niveia, the last of which illustrates this
category of buildings.

All these sections may be arranged in single chapter in

this part*
 CHAPTER I

PALACE- ARCHITECTUBE

Raja-ye$ina: The opening sentence of the fifteenth chapter—

‘Rajaniveia’, says, “that the planning of the RajaveSina was a component
part of the planning of a town”. Any town plan in ancient or medieval
India must bestow sufficient attention to the Rajavelma —the residen-
tial quarters of the kings and their kinsmen together wiih all the
establishments of a king those days. This what the S. S. says at
is

the very outset (cf. 15, 1*8). It says that after the town has been
planned on the famous site-plan of sixtyfour squares; all the roads
both highways, and the central ones together with the adjoining
MaliSrathyas, Uparathyas and their auxiliary ones, the streets,
lanes and bye^ lanes have also been planned out, the fortification in all
its rainfications and component parts of the surrounding ditches,
ramparts and walls and the AUaLikas thereupon has also been com-
pleted; the raised platforms, the Catvaras are also architecturally
built and finished, the temples and shrines —the places of worship
are allotted to the different deities allocated both in the interior of
the town and in its exterior; then a piece of land selected at the
western side of the centre, in orientation of the North, on the pada
presided over by Mitra, a square, even and auspicious (i. e. conform-
ing to the minutest details of the 6astra) and bestower of fame,
grandeur and victory, the palace of the king should be built”.

Every building activity has got two main functions to be attended

to, namely the engineering of the building — surveying the site,
testing the soil and selecting one to be pl .nned out, and the operating
upon it in accordance with the plan set out in the sketches. Naturally,
therefore, an important building work like that of a palace of a king
has to be attended to, properly. The S. S., therefore, has devoted
two chapters to this important piece of architecture of the RajaveSma.
The master architect first has to attend to
planning the laying
its —
out of the different parts of the palace on different sites. This it has
done in Chapter 15.

The site on which the palace should be erected is already pointed

out. The S. S. makes a limited classification of Palaces only into
three, namely, Jyestha, the superior type, Madhya, the intermediate
type and Kani$|ha the inferior type, and they arc to be located in
the respective town types (cf. Ch. XV). In MgnasSra, palaces 8r<“
360 PALACE ARCHITECTURE

divided into nine classes with regard to their size, according as they
may belong to a king of any of the nine-classes — Cakravartin, Maharaja,
Mahcndra efc. etc. Next, the site-plan, i. e, Parama^ayika of 81
squares, to be employed in the planning of a palace and the classificat-

ion of three types are indicated. The Samar aiigana bestows its atten-
tion upon its defence and good look-— the fortifications of the palace
and its beautification. Though situated in the interior of the town,
the Raja-niveSa must have a surrounding moat and a rampart to ward
off the insecurity of the palace. This fortification also consisted of so
many architectural designs as Aixgahhramay Nirynlia and strong towers
and turrets, the crowning parts of the parapets-— the surrounding
walls and they are so laid as to make the whole structure beautiful.

After fortification, the question of the planning of the gales and

doors is attended As many as three classes of doors arc prescribed.
to.

It may be remarked here that the Indian technique of plac ng

the doors is intimately related to the traditional site- planning.
Hence sometimes a confusion is created as to whether a particular
door is to be put in a particular direction or otherwise, because the
VSstudvSra and Bhavanadv3ra arc two different things. The text
recommends the VastudvSra in the north-side of Raja-marga
while the BhavanadvSra of the palace towards the East. Naturally,
therefore, the frontal gate— the main gate must be placed in the Ecist.
The main gate is technically called the Gopuradvara and to be laid
on the Pada presided over by Bhall5ta. The magnificence of these
Gopurams is our architectural heritage.

Another variety of doors to be placed in a palace may be termed as

the cardinal doors being placed on the respective four cardinal points
(S. S, 15. 11 (2nd line) to 13) i. e. Mahendra on Mahidhara; Puspa-
danta on Vaivasvataj Gphaksata on Aryama and so on. The text is
emphatic for laying out Gopurams on all principal directions perhaps
to add to the grandeur of the Palace, The third variety of doors is

technically known as Paksadvaras, the side doors, necessitated on odd

hours when the main gates are colosed.
The fortified and well defended palace with its gates and Gopuras
together with PaksadvSras and Bhramas, the enclosing cloisters has
emerged in its full glory facing towards the East. Its varieties how-
ever, though enumerated to be as many as four, have not been
explained. Perhaps these names were so common that the author did
not deem it necessary to point out their relative distinctions. They
arc as follows:*^
1. Silvfkfa 3. Sarvatobhadra
2. Pfthivijaya i*
 — —— — — —

PALACE ARCHITECTURE 3>1

These palaces should have a good number of Salas — courts scat-

tered all round to serve the purpose of the kingdom and house-hold
establishments. The attached chart (appended in the end) will show
at a glance the list of the following vast establishment of a princely
palace in those glorious days located in the different Padas presided
over by the different Pada-devatas.
Names of establishments.

1. Residence —the Gvho,

2. Seat of Justice—-
3. Store House Ko^ihagara
4. Pavilions of birds and animals.
5. Kitchen Mah^nasa
6. The pavilion of the public audience,
i,e. Kstlmna-mmAapa or Sabh'ajanairaya,
?• Dinning hall —Bhojanasthana
8. Vildya-Sala (Hall of the Instrumental Music),
9. The Bards.
10. The Arsenal Cartn^yudhas
11. The fashioning of the golden and silver ornaments.
12. The secret store-house—the Gupti.
13. Dance & drama—-Prp/:sa & Sangita
14. The sheds for the cnariots & the elephants.
15. The Vapi
16. —
The Interior chamber Antah^pura the Harem well fortified

Note — Its Gopura, the main gate should face towards the North
and the palaces of the queens should face towards the
West.
17. Pleasure and swinging and play pavilions— AVida - c/o/a-

^layas
18. Chambers of the Princesses KumAr’v bhavams
19. The alternative chambers of the queens
The secondary inner chamber however, is to be located on
Indr a.

20. The lying-in-chamber Arisi^grlia

21. The ASoka Orchard.

22. The Batha—
23. The shower DMrdig^hQ.
24. The Creeper pavilions Lat^^gvhas
25. Wooden hills-— Darugiri— the Vitpis imd the well-laid flower
lines—-Puspa-vithfs, and the flower pavilions Pmpa^-reima^
together with the machine room—
 —— —— —

362 PALACE ARCHITECTURE

26. Water sheds (both for drinking and other i\sts)-^P^nagrha

27. An<ither store house
28. The factory of armaments Kyudha^Mandira
29. The third variety of the store-house.
30. The chamber for the wooden* mortar {Ulnkhala) and flour-
mill (SilEyantra),
31. Timber work DUrukarm^nta
32. The gymnasium and the theatre and the picture palace—
Vya^ama^N^) a- Citra-gi^has
33. Medical stores
34. Stables for elephants
35. Cow-sheds and tlie milk reservoir KAra-gvha
36. The priest
37. Coronation pavilion and the one for alms, study and
^antika also.
38. The places where Camara and Chatra are kept together
with the Council House.
39. The stable for the horses Mandura.
40. The living chambers of the princes—The Rajaputra-^veima
41. The Study chambers of the princes— Vidyadhigama-iala
42. The queen mother
43. Pavilions for palanquine and the bed chamber and the
drawing room ^ibika-^ayya-Asana^grha
44. Pleasure ponds and lotus lakes.
45. Palaces of uncle and maternal uncle.
45. Palaces of the Samantas.
47. Devakula, the royal Chapel
48. The Astronomer’s place and also that of an Astrologer.
49. The Residence of the Comraander-in-Ghief.
50. The Assembly Hall the Sabha. —
In this big list, it is diflicult to draw a line of demarcation bet-
ween domestic establishments and those related to administration.
In those times, the palaces for all practical purposes served as seats
of government.
It may be remarked here that such a vast establishment of a
palace is no where to be found in any extant Silpa work. The author
Bhoja, being a king, it was but natural that he should present a grand
picture of palace-architecture. In the Manasara, the list of Palace*
establishment does not go beyond 42 (H. A. L A. p 124) while here
it is about 50.
It may be remarked here that the Palace Architecture, like
the Temple Architecture has got an unbroken tradition behind it,
 PALACE ARCHITECTURE 363

Dr V. S. Agarwala, (vide hisHarsacarita-Eka-Sarhskrtika Adhyayana,

Appendix 1) maintains that the planning of the Royal palaces has
had a code of stereotyped canons, meticulously adhered to, right
from the age of the Epics (vide the palaces of King DaSaratha and
Prince Rama as described in Valmlki’s Ramayana) down to the
palaces of Moghal Emperors like Akabar and Shahjalian (see Fort at
Delhi). It is in relation to Baaabhatla’s descriptions of the royal
palace of Emperor Harsa that the learned Doctor has propounded a
learned thesis with a ful-fledged background of the palace-architec-
ture in ancient India kept in tact in early and later medieval periods
of Indian History.

A special notice of the Royal palace is its distribution in several

courts. I'hese courts ranged from tiiree to seven. Harsa’s palace
liad three. Kadambari’s Tarapida had seven courts (kaksyas) in his
palace, while Da^aratha five and Rama only three.

Now the question is : how many courts can wc adduce from the
Samarahgana’s treatment of the Royal palace — Raja-Nive$a (cf. the
Gh. 15). The Royal establishment
S.S., does not distribute the vast
into courts as Manasara does into Antah-Sala and VahiJ-Sala. It alio*
cates the different places of the big royal paraphernalia — the residen*
tial palaces, pleasure-gardens and ponds etc., as well as the adminis*
trative set-ups to the different plots (and they^were as many as eighty
one, cf. the Pararna-Sayika plan) presided over by the different deities.
Now as there no explicit mention of the courts in the treatment of
is

Samarahgana’s palace architecture, the whole thing remains only a

conjectural analysis. As per the diagramtic representation appended
in the end as many as live principal courts —two in the exterior and
two in the interior parts together with the central one reserved for the
inauspicious and unhappy establishments (S S. 15. 47-8) on the Pada
of Brahma^ are a certainty. Again, what arc courts? The different
Sala-spans may be taken to be courts and the S. S. does make a hint at
this (cf. 15 18 i.e., ‘
Sala-parikrainopetam ’ which may be interpreted
as with courts alround.

After this plan of the palace in its minutest of requirements, we

are better fitted to go to the next chapter on the subject in which the
varieties of palaces have been dealt with. It may be pointed out here
that Palace Architecture and Temple Architecture, for all practical
purposes, are the same except that in a temple so and many pavilions
so much of fortifications are not needed otherwise the broad out-
;

lines are identical. The S.S. itself compares a palace to the scat of
gods— the temple in the following beautiful verse :
 —

M4 palace architecture

fRr gwisnfjr »4«rf^ ^ i

TOTflffig^n s. s, Ch. 51.

This RSjavcSma, akin to the abode of the gods, if built in

accordance with the injunction of the Sastra by the king, he becomes
Competent to sway his suzerainty on the whole earth whose girdle is

the seven oceans, after he has overcome his enemies by dint of his
prowess *’• We arc familiar with AmarakoSa’s diction
this statement echoes the structural correspondence between
temple and palace and reflects character common to both. The
splendour and grandeur of each makes it a thing of beauty and of
marvel. Upon places of highest eminence rises the Prasada (temple
or palace) in monumental calm and dignity. The subtleties of its
measurements, the relative proportions of its parts and graciousness
of its ornaments are of most delicate description. It is the supreme
expression of the noblest efforts and the best skill of artists. It exhi'*

bits the care by which the great builders obtain fine harmonies and
please the minds of men. In the world of men, King is looked upon

as the central figure and in ancient India, was supposed to represent

in his person the various divine elements. By virtue of such a posi-
tion, he commands dignitories and attendants and receives from his
people, willing tributes. With the aid of accumulated wealth and
the best skill available in the land, is constructed his palace. Round
the hall of the King are* constructed accessory structures to meet the
demand of royalty Mallaya.
The palaces as treated in the 30th Chapter of the text arc ex-
amples of an ornamental style, probably the Lata style, the most
characteristic features of this style being exuberance of ornamentation
and decorative motifs as well as the abundant application of pillars.
On styles 1 shall dwell at length in Part V — the Temple Architecture.
For the present, it suffices here to say that out of the fifteen types of
palaces as described in the 30th Chapter entitled Rajag^ha, (tabu-
lated ahead) the first ten varieties are residential houses, while the
last five are pleasure palaces (the former are called Niv^sa^bhavamni
and the latter, the VilEsa*hJiavan&m (vide S.S. 30th 120-21).
It may be
noted that the Rajavcima of the S.S. unlike that of
MSnasara docs not admit of any classification in kind but degree only.
The standard of measurement varies with its three varieties of the
superior, intermediate and inferior quality. The first one of the one
hundred eight hastas, the second of ninety hastas and the inferior
one of seventy hastas, are deemed as fit —a lower measurement than
this is prohibited.
 PALACE ARCHITECTURE 365

The appended chart will show at a glance the typical architec-

tural elements of these fifteen royal palaces as treated in the second
chapter on Royal houses in the text (cf. XXX).

A little more on the ornamental architecture of these palaces is

worth saying here. In the end of this chapter the author, while
dwelling at length upon the architectural characteristics of the orna-
mental super-structure of these palaces, has referred to seven kinds of
Lumas (or Lupas — cf. Manasara and other Southern texts) Luma
is a decorative flower-like motif forming an essential composition of
the Vitana the canopy. Ramraz defines Lupa as: “a sloping and
projecting member of the entablature etc., representing a continued
pent roof. It is made below the cupola and its ends are
placed as it
were suspended from the architraves and reaching the stalk of the
lotus below ’*• These Lumas, according to the S. S., are seven in
—
number TumbinI, Lambini, Hela, 6anta, Manorama, Kola and
Adhmata in Aparajitaprccha however, their number is nine-—
;

add to the first five (which aie common to both) of the Samarahgana—
Gandhari, Hasti-jihva, Naganga and Bhramaravall (the last being one
of the names of 25 Vitanas in the S.S.).

Lumas or Lupas are indissolubly connected with Vitana (Canopy)

owing to their forming an essential component. It is to the Lumas
that the Vitanas owe their charm and grace* The very name Vitana
is suggestive of the fact that the vault of the Vit5na assumes
forms of flowers of various kinds. According to observation of P. A.
Mankad ( vide introduction to Aparajitapi’ccha — pp. CXXXV )

Domes and vaults (the characteristics of the Moghul Architec-

ture in the later medieval period) did exist in India in multifarious
forms long before the advent of the Mohamedan rulers. *‘How far the

Indian constructive and decorative characteristics were contributory

to the development of the Saracenic domes etc., of the Moghul period
and whether the Indian influence came to be exhorted in the forma-
tion of the substratum and super- structure of these forms will remain
a moot question till whole literature on the Indian type of VitSna is

available*\

Now without entering into the further details of the architecture

of these Palaces (reserved for part V), it is necessary to introduce the
main elements of this class of Palace architecture. It is a composite
architecture in which house-architecture and temple architecture
together with Hall architecture (vide *Sabha', the Council Hall) have
all played their part. The most predominant of a Sala-house, as we
shall presently sec, is the abundant application of the corridors
 —

i566 PALACE ARCHITECTURE

(Alindas) and porticos (Bhadras) together with the Central halls — the
Salas, This characteristic has been fully preserved here. The tabula-
tion (appended) of these palaces with their main characteristics of
Alindas and Bhadras may be compared. We have indicated the un-
broken tradition of the courts in a palace. These Alindas, numbering
as many as four in practically all the types of the palaces treated by
tlie S. S, presuppose an open courtyard (vide Commentary on
Brhatsarhhila:
’I

By the word ‘Alinda’ is understood the lattice- covered path

beyond the wall of a hall and facing (or in iiont of) the courtyard.
This architectural planning of the houses like Sarvatobhadra, Nand-
yitvarta, Vardhamaiia, Svastika and Rucaka, the lila houses, as
described in the ancient sources like KamiklTgama, Agnipurana (vide
Rnc, H. Arch. p. ^17-8) corroborate this essential constituent of Alinda.
The S. S. too follows this ancient tradition in its treatment of the
Palace architecture (Ch 30). Again the chief characteristic of the
—
Hall architecture the abundant employment of Pillars is fully
a'isimilated here (vide Tabulation in the appendix). The super-struc-
ture of storeys with manifold mouldings and so many other decorative
elements, the chief characteristic of temple architecture, is fully
displayed here in the sublime architecture of the palace. It is a
controversial point whether temples owe their super-structure to the
lofty palaces or vice-versa. Scholars like Bhattacharya (vide G. T A.)
maintain the former position. In my opinion, however, the case is

otherwise. I have throughout maintained that it is the religious archi-

tecture that originatedand developed first on the sacred soil of India.
Hence beyond comprehension to admit that the Temple archi-
it is

tecture instead of becoming the model, should be a copy. In very

ancient times, the residential quarters of a king were for all practical
purposes, the citadel. The court, the treasury, the soldiers’ barracks,
the council house, and the ministers’ houses were grouped round
the royal castle and formed a part and parcel of it. Later on, though
many a new establishment was added to it, it did not undergo any
substantial modification (vide S. S. Ch. 15), Hence my contention is i

Later development of palace architecture resembling a lofty super-

structure with storeys, pinnacles and other ornamental mouldings and
decorative elements of a Prasada were copied from it.

Stone architecture, originally a taboo for residential houses of men

the Secular architecture, also gradually was relaxed. The kings
must have taken the first advantage from this relaxation and made
their houses in imitation of the Mandira, the stone structure
 CHAPTER II

ACCESSORY STRUCTURES
Special Houses, the Halls and the houses of animals,
the Vaji-$i[la atid Gaja4ala

Now that the planning of palaces has been discussed in brief, let
us take up the other two classes of houses, the special houses called
the Sabha and the houses for animals, stables for horses and elephants
in this fresh chapter. Though these structures formed a part of the
palace and could have been treated in one chapter, but I have not
done so in order to keep up their individual characteristics as a class
of architecture by itself. Being accessory to the Palace, they are
being dealt with in continuation with the Palace in this auxiliary
chapter.

The Sabha
Sabha as a building is an ancient institution. There are many
references to it in our sacred lore (A.V., XIX, 55,6; Taitt. Sara. III. 4,
8, 6, Paitt. Bra , Ghand. Upnisad, VIII-I4). Tlieir special
1.1, lU, 3;

features in the Vcdic times were their pillars and fire altars. It is a

pillared hall architecture and this characteristic of the Sabha has been
well-preserved in the S.S. as we will just sec.

In the epics we find an elaborate description of many Sabhas and

they give a clue to their use as an assembly hall or a council
chamber. The Mahabharata has a separate Parva called Sabha-
parva, wherein Sabhas like Indra-sabha^ Yama-sabha, Varupa-sabha,
Kubera-sabha, and Brahma-sabha are described.
In the Manasara (III, 7-8; XVIII, 200 ; XXXI V, 562-563) sabha
from an architectural point of view, has been described as a type of
building, an edifice and a public hall which indicate its varied uses
and Dr. Acharya, on the authority of Vedic India Vol. II, page 426-
427 (vide An
Ency. H. Arch. 515) writes ‘‘There must have been :

suitable structural arrangement for the transaction of judicial, com-

mercial and political business and for the reception of courtly, well-
born wecilthy persons and kings and for the performance of gambling,
merriment, social intercourse, debates and contests.

I have in my own way called these places as pulpits for religious

sermons and forums for discussions. Sabha in this context was the
Darbar Hall in the palace. It has beqn an invariable feature of all
 — —

368 ACCESSORY STRUCTURES

the royal palaces both in the East and the West. It may be remarked
that the modern spacious drawing rooms and reception halls as society
rooms in private dwelling houses had their proto-types in the Sabha
buildings. As per the S. S. also these Sabhas formed a part of the
1, (vide S.S.
Palace 15.49), its use is described as the protection of the
Royal palace.
The text describes the following eight-fold Sabhas in its Chapter
27th, the Sabha:

Nanda, 2. Bhadra, 3. Jaya, 4. Purna, 5. Bhavita, 6. Daksa,

7. Pravara and 8, Vidura.

As already pointed out, the most characteristic feature of the

planning of a Sabha building is the abundant use of Pillars. In the
first 5 buildings of the Sabha called Nanda, Bhadra, Jaya, Purna. and

Bhavita, pillars, as many as thirtysix, should be constructed in each

of them and make them look like pillared halls with corridors and
galleries all round supported by separate pillars. Thus the number
of pillars still goes higher up.

The distinguishing features of the remaining three Sabhas are the

absence of pillars in all, corridors in the sixth type called Daksa,

doors in the seventh, called Pravara and Pragrivas and doors both in
the eighth called Vidura.

The ASva-'^Sla.

The S.S. gives an elaborate description of the royal stable (Aiva-

^ala Gh. 33) and with its minutest of equipment most suited to horses
the hobby of the princes of those times and the only most convenient
royal conveyance of the period.

In this chapter we have to dwell upon the following four topics,

namely :

1. Planning of the stable proper, with its component parts.

2. The equipment of a stable.

3. The housing of horses.
4. The accessory chambers to the stable.

1. Planning of the Stable Proper.

It should be laid out on the site of G^nflharva or Pti^pa~danta in the

compound of one’s house. It admits ol three classes, the largest

type being in the measurement of one hundred Aratnis (an Aratni is

equal to one hasta) i.e. 150 ft.; the intermediate one the eighty aratnis

i.e. 120 ft. and the smallest type only sixty aratnis i.e. 90 ft. Again
it should be so placed that the horses boused in it keep to the left of
 ACGESSORY STRUCTURES 369

the owner, while he is passing out of it. The stable forming a compo-
nent part of a palace, should be laid to the south of the Inner Cham-
ber (Antahpura) so that while entering into it, their neighing should
be heard on the right and this is deemed as auspicious. The main
gate of the edifice should be laid either in the east or in the north and
it should be decorated with arches. It should have four compart-
ments— '^ialas) each having a ‘praggriva*. Its height should be ten
aratnis i.e. 15 ft. and its breadth eight aratnis i.e, 12 ft. and in the
wall the Naga-dantas are to be constructed.

The principal components of a horse-stable are

1. The YavamBth^na . — It may be called granaiy —the place where

grass was stored.

2. The KhManaJeo^ihaka . manger where horses were fed

with grass.

3. The KilakaB —the pegs, khuntas with which the horses were
fastened with ropes.

These were all finished architectural establishments. This Yava-

sasthana a wooden structure. It should be placed in the Brahma
is

corner. The wood employed in it should be of one of these trees-—

Dhataki, Arjuna, Punnaga, Kakubha and it should be examined and
approved by the attending physician. It should have a height of at
least three Kiskus (one Kisku is equal to 42 angulas). The length and
the breadth of the Khlidana-kostha should be equal to 3 hastas. For
the fastening of all the five-fold limbs (technically called the Pancangl)
several sets of these pegs should be placed on intervening spaces and
one principal wedge should be secretly laid out.

2. The equipment of a stable.

The list of the equipment of a stable is simply formidable. It

consists in the first instance of the place for fire keeping (South-
West corner), the water pot (North-East), the place for mortar,
Ulukhala (North-West) ; secondly it consisted of a number of imple-
ments like Ni^Srenl (stair-cases), Ku$a (sacred grass), wells covered with
planks, Kuddala, Uddala (spades etc ), Gudakas (balls), ^ukta-yogar
and Khuras (hoofs), hair-cutters, horns, hatchets, NadySs and the
—
lamps all these to be placed in the South-West, Again there should
be a good number of pots for storing water etc , to be used in the
event of outbreak of fire etc. Thirdly, the Hasta-vSsf, ^lila (the stone)
lamp, Darvl, Phala and shoes, manifold varieties of Pifakas and Vastis
should also form a part of the equipment, of a stable.
370 AGORSSQRY sn^UaTTjRESI

3. The Shed,

There is an interesting account of how the horses are to be housed

in a stable. The places where the horses were fastened, were called
Sthanas (modern thana — even today we call it thStna). Only the S.S.
has credit to mention it (Ch 33. 21-24). A series of Sthanas planned
in arow formed the Aiva-sala, which was always long (cf. Raghu-
vamJa V—
‘^Dlrghesvaml niyamitah pala-ma^dapesu”).

These were well decorated. Their dimensions (indicated in Ch.

33.22) are one Kisku in Ayama and three Kiskus in Vistara. These
Sthanas are always to be laid facing either to the East or to the North.
Again they arc so constructed that their urdhva-bhagas—the frontal
parts should have the higher levels than those of hinder ones. Further
again they should be quadrangular in shape.

Now as regards the fastening of the horses, the first direction

is that a space of four hastas in all the corners of Sala, the
chamber, should be left vacant before the fastening of the
horses is to be undertaken. The second direction insists that
comfortable position and enough space should be allotted to each
horse, so that they may not touch one another and feel congested.
This is only a general direction. Orientation of the directions has
always been a matter of supreme importance, not only to the
building-planning of India, but to any planning in ancient India.
Here in the stable, placing of the horses must have due regard to
this institution of orientation. Here it may be noted that the orient-
ation of the chamber and the orientation of the horses stationed in
it are two different things. For example, the orientation of the chamber

to the South while acclaimed good, is bad for the horses The horses
can be stationed facing the eastern direction. This being the most
auspicious in all matters—in giving bath, dressing and decorating,
worshipping and other auspicious performances of the horses. These
prescriptions arc not dogmatic. They relate to the hygiene of the
place, the morning rays of the rising sun would be a perennial source
of health and longivity to the horses. Similarly the southerly
orientation is also acclaimed as auspicious. The chamber facing
the South and the stable being placed on the pada presided over by Fire
God — the soul of the Horses (Atma vahniJea vajinam), were both
deemed as auspicious. The horses so placed never get old and feed
well (Ajaro bahu-bhokta ca). The Northerly orientat on is also
not bad, because in this position too, the rays of the sun make a
circulation as it were and so are beneficial from the point of longivity
and health. The iiontbcrn direction western direction of the
 -

ACCESSORY STRUCTURES 37l

stables are deemed inauspicious. Similarly the South-East, South-

West, North-West and North-East are also bad.
4. Medical Home.
The text is emphatic that even for a moment sick horses should
never remain with the healthy ones for the simple reason that they
may develop infection (vide verse 74). Iherefore, as many as four
accessory chambers are needed and are termed as:—

1. Bhesajagara— the Dispensary.

2. Aristamandira — the lying-in-chamber.
3. The Vyadhita-bhavana—the hospital or sick wards.
4. Sarva-sambhara-veJma—medical stores, where-in should be
stored all kinds of medicines-the s Its, the oils, vartis, etc.ctc.

All these structures (vcima-catustaya, 33, 78 are to be laid

adjoining the stable proper and constructed beautifully with wall
made strong with plaster ( and having high gate-
)

ways and porches (pr5ggrivakas). They need not have partitioned

rooms in them (vilalani) but be simple rooms (sugamani)
Gaja-$ala.

Like ASva-Sala the Gaja-55la, (Ch. 32) is not so elaborately treated.

The S. S. classifies stables for elephants into the following seven
varieties, the fiist six being auspicious and last inauspicious:

1. Subhadra 5. CaturaSra
2. Nandmi 6. Varsanl &
3. Su-bhogada 7, Pramarika ^thc killer).

4. Bhadrika
The text enjoins that these stables for elephants should be planned
very spacious and their relative measurements should be akin to
those of the [)alaces, the largest type, the intermediate one and the
smallest type. Their special architectural characteristics being the
employment of the iSlas, karna-prasldas and the praggrivas — the
distinguishing feature of each of them is the different application of
these motifs.
 a

Chapter hi

PALACE PLEASURES
The mechanical contriTances, the Yantras.

Introduction.
Tantra and Yantra arc familiar words in Sanskrit. In my opinion
Tantra is science and Yantra is an art. The former a knowledge—
S^stra, the latter a mechanical achievement, both are of hoary anti-
quity. While so many Taniras arc available, the Yanlras, as charts
which stored up within their confines spiritual power, are also there
in esoteric worship, but the Yantras —the mechanical contrivances are
extinct altogether. In the traditional list of sixtyfour arts (vide
commentary on KSmasutra by YaSodhara) there is mentioned also a
Kala, called Yantra-matrika on which the commentary says ‘‘Saji-
vanSm nirjlvSnSm yantranam, Yanodaka-sangramartham Sastram,
ViSvakarma-proktam”. Dr. Acharya (H. A. I. and A. page 15) says
(cf. 53. Yantra-matrika) ‘‘The art of making monograms, logo*
:

graphs and diagrams. Yafodhara attributes this to ViSvakarma and

calls Ghatana-sastra (science of accidents)

With due respect to the learned Doctor, I may submit my inter-

pretation The Yantras admit the three principal classes firstly, the
; —
Yana*yantras, conveyances like Vimanas and chariots, secondly, the
Udaka-yantra, water machines, pipes and showers technically called
Yari-yantra and Dhara-yantra and thirdly, the machines of warfare
(Sangramartha). This interpretation fully fits with the broad categories
of Yantras, the S.S. has described, as we shall presently see.

Yantra-vidya was applied art of Dhanur-vidya. Some of the

weapons could not have Deen used without some mechanism attached
to them. We know four classes of Sastras*—‘Mukta,Amukta, Mukta-
mukta and Yantra-mukta. In the S. weapons such as Capas etc.
S.

§ataghnfs etc. Usfra-grivas etc. are said to be operated upon by a

Yantra only (S.S. 31-108). The species of arrows like Nalika and
BfhannallkS were also used by some mechanism akin to that of the
modern guns. The science of Archery is full of such details.
In the MahabhSrata there are clear and vivid descriptions of a
good number of Yantras. c.g., iSastras (defending weapons), astras
(throwing weapons), bows and arrows equally terrible as the modern
weapons c.g.:—
 —

PAl/AGE PLEASURES 373

The Astras like :

1. Agneyastra-— (Fire-vomitter)
2. ludrastra— (Anti-Agneya—rain-producer).
3. Varunastra* — (Producing terrible & violent storms),

and iSastras like Bhusundi, ^ataghnl and Sahasraghni, akin to the

modern machine-guns, sten-guns and tanks, together with Yantras
like Gandramani by the help of which water could be produced on

the deserts— can not be under-estimated.

All this speaks of a great advancement in the science of warfare

as well as the general advanced condition of the scientific knowledge
in the times of Mahabharata.

The mechanical achievements of the Mahabharata, however, did

shadow the Indians for a long time. There are innumerable refer-
ences in the literature which speak of an unbroken chain of the mecha-
nical skill in this country. All these references to the different and
manifold varieties of Yantras have been ably worked out and pre-
sented in his ‘Yantras or Mechanical Contrivances in Ancient India’
by Dr. V. Raghavan.

When the recorded literature speaks of the glorious heritage of these

secular achievements, it must have undoubtedly formed the subject

matter of discourse and discussion as well as enunciation of the norms

and guiding principles for the artisans. Hence the ^astra and its
Practice both must have been flourishing in those bygone days.

A good many works and the references thereof have been found
and on some hypothesis of glorious scientific heritage can
their basis

be imagined. Moreover, some of the monuments, e.g., Iron

Pillar of ASoka near Kutub-Minar is a mystery even today. How
without an aid, mechanical operation and device thereof, such a huge
and weighty iron pillar could be made stand up and what was that
mechanism in that simple age that even after more than two thousand
years this has not contracted with rust.

Samarahgapa’s chapter on Yantra is remarkable, not only for its

treatment, but also for the help it gives, in formulating some opinion
about this branch of knowledge. It hints at the unbroken tradition
of the Yantra-ghal;ana—a traditional skill (cf, 31.87) and remarks

that the traditional training of this art is a matter not of record, but
of oral transmission from generation to generation through the un-
broken Chain of the masters and the disciples. Moreover, like the
spiritual Yantras, these Yantras should also be kept sCtret and
374 ipALACE pleasures

unfolded only to the real JijSasu, otherwise they do not bear fruition
(31.79-80).

Yantra and fts Elements (Yantra-Bijas;, What is a Yantra ? The

S S. opens with the definition of Yantra, that it is so called, because
it controls and directs, according to a plan, the motions of things that
act upon each other according to its own nature. That is a Yantra or
machine is one which controls the Bhutas and makes them serve a
specific purpose. The Mahabhutas, like the Earth, the Water, the
Fire, the Wind and the Ether, though independent in their operations
and movements, when brought to act in a particular way, that way
may be called a Yantra (vs. 3. 4).
Elements, the essential factors of a Yantra according to the S. S,

arc only four

The Esirth, the Water, the Fire and the Wind, these arc the
Bijas of a Yantra, but all these arc dependent for their movement
—
and operation only on the Ether this Ether or the sky, therefore,
by virtue of being the substratum i e. the basis and medium oi action
becomes an clement itself. Hence there are five Bfjasof a Yantra. Among
them the Earth is the main constituent. It is the ground of operation
and, therefore, the earthly constituent in a Yantra naturally becomes
more pronounced and more in quantity also and having earth as the
basis, all the other Bijas namely the water, the fire and the wind arc
operated upon.

The S. S. then discusses whether Suta or mercury, which is an

indispcniiblc ingredient in some Yantras like Vimana-Yantra is to be
held as one of the primary Bijas along with Earth, Water, etc. or not.

The S. S. hints at some earlier writers who have taken Mercury as an

independent primary Blja. In the opinion of the author of the S. S.,

however, the case is otherwise. He says that mercury is essentially

PSrthiva, and it is to be brought under Earth:—
fipsr: ( #?^ ) ^ I

Now if it is said that mercury being Parthiva, it is a substance

and is also generator of fire, it docs not even then lead opposition to
Eire, because even though fragrance— Gandha, the essence of Earth
and fire are opposite to each other, the dominant quality of the Earth
does romain the same.
 — :

PALACE PLBA8UEBS 375

fir *raw H

«r^fq?hqT'<ifi«raTqTf^?TTq¥T« II ^v^ii-*;

In order to avoid this controversial point raised regarding the true

nature of all these elements both as independent of one another and
also as dependent on one another, the author of the S S says
IRT^ srA^krtiLL^ik: II 5,1-5

The import of this statement is that the Yantra and its Bijas are
an inseparable entity. What is a Bija in one place becomes a Blji in
another and vice versa? And when the combined conglomeration
is in operation, it gives an innumerable variety of the Bija,

Thus so far the principal elements of the Yantras in their cosmic

aspect were taken into consideration, but these themselves which
are independent of each other must pre-suppose their own Bijas,
otherwise the material production can not take place. The primary
Bijas, therefore, in my opinion, are the Nimitta-kSrana i. c. the
instrumental cause as well as the Upadana-karana the efficient cause
both. This statement holds good only in relation to the five primary
Bijas.

The text further describes the general characteristics of the

Yantras (10-15). The following are four general characteristics of the
Yantras:

1. Svayam-vahaka Automatic —
2. Sakrtprerya—Requiring propelling only once.
3. —
Antaritavahya Operation of which is concealed i. e. the
principle of its action and its motor-mechanisrn are hidden
from public view.
4. Aduravahya— The apparatus of which is placed quite distant.

The meaning is that these Yantras are operated without any other
help, or helped only once or helped in the middle or helped in season
or out of season respectively. The first is the best. The most notable
Yantra being invisibleness (Alaksyata) and wonder
characteristics of a
(Vicitratva) and they arc produced only when it is Svayarpvahya,
But as the vast majority is the result of the combination of one
another, both in their totality and partiality, they give rise to innu-
merable varieties.

Thus so far we have been busy with the five-fold primary Bijas and
the general characteristics of the Yantras. It has also been pointed out
\h^t they do not fumftion independently. Ni^turally all th^sc princi-
 —

376 PAiACE PLEASURES

a

pal Bfjas for the production of their characteristic objects, the materials
(PadSrtha) take the other Bljas also in addition to their own, viz. the
earthly Bija,Mie Parthiva has:~l. PSrthiva, 2 Apya, 3. Anala and
4. Anila. The similar is the case with other three B’jas Apya, Anala
and Anila. Again while all the elements may be used in a single
Yantra, it is to be named after the dominant constituent.

For a Pd?thiia Tanttat the materials i.e. the secondary Bljas which
arc mentioned (25-27) arc the following :

1. The Earthly.
(a) Metals —Tin, iron, copper and silver etc. (AyastSmram ca
taram ca trapus),
(h) Other matenals —Wood (Kasjha) hide (Garma) textile (Vastra).
(c) The parts a^vi principles—Tht wheels and the rotation (Gak-
ram bhramarakixstatha) ; the suspenders and the hang-
ings ;
the rods, the shafts and the caps ;
the tools.
“Lambanam lambakare ca cakrani vividhanyapi”
**
^‘Urdakah kartaro yastii
(d) The Measuring, cutting etc. (Samvitpramardana).

2. The Allies.

(a) Fieiy ones application of the

on earthly fire- Bljas

machines comprise of heating and boiling (Tapa and

Uttejana).
(h) Watery ones —Mixing and dissolving, pouring of and filling

with water and providing a belt of water— (Dhara ca jala-

bharalca payaso bhramanam tatha).
(c) Spacial Height, size, closeness and motion towards a
higher plane are special features in a Parthiva-Yantra.
(Ucchraya, Adhikya, Nirandhrata urdhvagamitva).
(d) Airy ones — As regards the airy elements in a P. Yantra,
they may be applied through bellows, fans, and flaps.
(Drti, Vijana and Gaja-karna).

Similarly in Jala^Y antras, Kgneya-Yantias and V^yu*yantras^ the

secondary Bljas are enumerated (33-41). But it may be remarked, as
all these yantras have to take some shape and possess a body, th^
Parthiva is an important constituent. The text says:

fiPTT ^ ?if!anr i

wparpi ’eJWfW: irot

 —

PALACE PLEaIuRES 377

For a jala-//an'ra, the use of timber, hide and metals like iron etc.
form the Parthiva elements other water and its own water, the
;

watery elements heating etc. the fiery elements; and the air condi-
;

tioning like sahgrhita, datta, purita and pratinodita etc. form the
airy elements.

Again for an Agneya-yantra the use of earth, metals like copper,

iron, gold etc. form the Parthiva clement. Similarly the lire itself
and the water as well in their different conditionings form the Fiery
and Airy elements respectively. Similar equipments are laid down for
a Vayu-yantra and details may not be attended; because most of it is
a common paraphernalia.

With this delineation on the more important and tangible varieties

of the secondary Bijas as I have called them, the S.S. is very apt in
saying that no hard and fast enumeration of these multiples of Bijas is

possible. In some cases a particular Ihja is said to be of greater

proportion and in some case otherwise. Hence the same B ja can be
applied in so many degrees resulting in the corresponding varieties of
them. Thus there innumerable varieties are possible and who can
completely innumerate them ?

The text in this connection brings in a very fundamental principle

of physics. The Earth is regarded as Niskriya — actionless. The
action takes place in the three others on Earth as the earth possesses
the quality of Rupa, the form. Thus if it is said that Earth and ether
elements have Janya-Janakabhava —generated and generator— it would

not be far from the truth. Any production, the Sadhya, requiring as
it docs, the form, the Rupa for its tangible manifestation must take
Earth as its secondary substratum, the primary of course, the Ether is

always there (cf. S S. 31. 44-45). Hence as the varieties of Yantras

are incalculable, so are its forms.

The Qualities of a Yantra and its Functions. The most important

qualities of a Yantra in the eyes of the author of the S. S. are Sudtsia-^
f^^_perfection and Alaks^tiva invisiblencss and these I shall try to
explain. But let us first see what the other qualities are:

(A) Qualities (Yantra-gunas).

1. Proper combination of Bijas in proportion {Ta\h^vad^blja-

aartipogay

2 Attribute of being well-knit construction (^S'uufcistf'o).

3. Smoothness and fineness of appearance (i§^a/snata).

4. Invisiblencss or inscrutability ( AlakSpataJ

 —

378 PLSASttft^S

5* Functional efficiency (^iVroiapa).

6. Lightness ( Laghuti a ).
7. Absence of noise where not so desired (^ahdahinaA).
8. Loud noise if the production aimed at is sound.
9. Absence of looseness (AiaitJiilya).
10* Absence of stiffness (Ag^Ahaia).
1 1. Smooth and unhampered motion in all conveyances.
12. Fulfilling the desired endj i. c. production of the intended
effects (in eases where the ware is of the category of cuto^yYathMhl%\^
rtha <”a?7>rttip).

13 Following the beating in time, the rhythmic attribute in

motion (particularly in entertainment wares). It is called
Wa^anvg^mitv2L^
14. Going into action when required- /sta/ia/ar^Jada»JiYraw.
15. Resumption of the still state when so required ( Punah-^samya
ktra^aamriftih.

16. Beauty i. c. absence of an uncouth appearance (Anultar^aiva)»

17. Verisimilitude (in the case of bodies intended to represent
birds and animals) TMrnpya.
18. Firmness—-Z)ard%a
1 9. Softness—
20. Endurance-—C«Va/(:a/a«iA(Ura*
These arc the twenty qualities spoken of a good machine. Some
of them I suppose arc not general qualities but special ones bestsuited
to a particular machine.

Now, what does the writer mean when he says that invisibility is

the best quality? We know an unnatural and abnor-

that a Yantra, is

mal object and entity* Naturally, therefore, if its unnaturality and

abnormality are visualised by the spectators or onlookers, it loses all its
charm. And what arc the Yantras dcscsibcd? They are the elephant-
machine (Gaja- yantra), wooden bird machine travelling in the sky,
wooden Vimana flying in the air, doorkeeper machine, soldier machine,
etc. etc. In a machine like a doorkeeper machine in which the door-
keeper is not real and is made of wood, if it looks like a real door-keeper
—
and not an unreal one this constitutes the AlaksyatS, impcrecepti-
bility of the Yantra and its composition —
construction there of in every
part is so to the point and so proportionate that it becomes a real object
worthy of high craftsmanship. Thus the Alak§yata here does not mean
in the object^ but it aims at the subjective perception of its admirers.

The seconJ attribute, the Suii'Statva folllows from the first or

vice versa. Unless the joinery of the different parts pf a machine is in
 —

J>Al.ACB PLEASURES 3i^9

and the minutest of its details are well

perfect order laid the high
accomplishment desired can not follow,

B. Functions (The Karmas),

(i) Some arc operative yantras in which some action or Knya

is meant to be accomplished. These actions are:

a. Going (Garaana)-—in all directions —upward, downward back-

ward, forward, on cither side
h. Movement i. c. p..
^
Speeding {Sarana)~
c. Fall i. e. Crawling— Ditto.

(iij Some yantras aim at the indication of time, such as clocks

and watches (cf. water* clocks and timber-clocks).

(iii) Some yantras aim at the productin of the sound and its

qualities or factors as enumerated in the text are the variety, the

quality of pleasing or the capacity to terrify, but I surmise that one ol
their varieties should be the musical instrunments, others are those
which produce terrible sounds, others again may be those which
produce a queer sound.

A very important notice of this category or of this variety of yantra

isone acclaimed of the musical ternary the Vaditra— Gfta (the vocal
—
music songs), Vadya (the instrumental music) and Nytya, the dancing
along with their sub-varieties (like Pataha, VamSa, Vina, Karhsyatala,
Tfmila; Karata in musical instruments and NItaka, Tandava Lasya,
Rajamarga and Defi both in dance, the Nftya and Gita. Is it a
modern Radio?
Some yantras aim at the Uchraya. This is in relation to water
(iv)

and there are so many V3ri-yantras and Dhara-yantras, a notice of

which will be made later on.
(v) Some yantras aim at the Rupa and SparSc. As regards Rupa,
they arc innumerable and in this class for production of whole themes
in machinery, the S. S. instances the fight between the Devas and
Asuras, the Churning of the Ocean, Nrsimha killing Hira^yaksa,
elephant-fights, a mock army, the swing pastimes and pleasures,
i. c. the Dola-kelis, the swing chambers, i. e. the Rati-gfhas and the
different varieties of tne assemblies, the sabhas etc.

In a nut-shell, the principal varictes of this category of the functions

of the Yantras are those illustrated in movitones, pantomines the ma-
chines like aero-planes or the wooden bird-flylng-machine, the Dhara-
yantra the swinging machines, the Dola, servant machine, etc* etc*
3S0 PALACE PLEASURES

The varieties of Yantras. —Three categories of yantras or machines

as per my interpretation of the explanatory note on Yana-matrika
(one of the s^xtyfour kinds of Arts (Gaiussas},i-kalas) by YaSodhara,
the celebrated commentator of Vatsyayana’s Karna-sutra, have already
been indicated as the Yana-yantra, Udaka-yantra and Sahgrama
yantra. The descriptions of the yantras in the S.S. warrant us to
add the further categories viz the yantras for Vinoda (amusement
and recreation) and the domestic yantras. Yantras for amusement
by far exceed the number and the importance attached to them in
the text. Though there is no systematic classification given in
the text, all the yantras described in it can be arranged under five

categories.

(i) Yantras for Amusements.

1. Bhumika-^ayya-Prasarpana —Here five storeys could be

arranged and the bed placed on the ground floor made to go up each
higher floor at the end of each watch of the night.

2. Another pleasure-contrivance is the couch called Ksirlibdhi-

Sayya in which the serpent-like bed goes up and down by the soft

action of air, like that of the serpants breathing.

3. Putrika-Nadfprabodhana — It is a kind of chronometre. It has

a circular device in which, in a broad open vessel, there are three
hundred (or thirty ?) probably ivory figures (Dantah) or tooth-like
pieces lying flat all along the circumference. The whole thing is
revolving. A lady like figure is in the centre. She wakes up one
figure or piece for every Nadika.

4. There is yet another chronoraetre-like object in which there

is a rider on a chariot, an elephant or any other animal. The rider
on his mount goes round for a fixed time, say a Nadika and the
Chronometre strikes at the end of the Nadika.
5. Gola-bhrainatia yantra—It is an astronomical model. There
are needles showing the day and night movements of the heavenly
bodies like Sun, etc.

6. A dancing doll, pouring oil in the lamp keeps on circum-

ambulating to the beating of tunc (a musical instrument),
7. An elephant-machine drinking a great quantity of water.
8. Machine-parrots dancing, singing with the best of tune (by a
musical instrument).

9. Dolls, elephmts and h >rses (mechanical), dancing, singing

with the best of tunc (by a musical instrument).
 :

ipALACE PLEASURES m
10. Sound producing wooden bird machines.
11. Pataha, Muraja etc —rsound prodvicing machines.
,

The 10th and llth varieties of this class of Yantras call for a
special notice.

A wooden bird is made to create a pleasing sound. In its h )llow

body is placed a copper contrivance one inch long and one quarter
inch high. It is of slender cylindrical shape in two well joined halves
with a hole at the centre along which air passes when the bird
moves.

The next is a bed-room accessory. The mechanism is similar to

one noticed in the above except that here a drum-like piece is placed
in halves. As the bird oscillates, a highly pleasing sound is created
which reduces the auger of the ladies who are cross.

This is also indicative of the palace life of those days as absorbed

in amorous sports with the help of these mechanical contrivances.

(ii) Domestic and Defensive Yantras.

1. Wooden men machines serving as servants.

2. Wooden women machines serving as maid servants.
3. Door-keeper machines-— the palace guard with a button,
sword, iron rod, spear or other weapon to kill a thief entering at the
dead of night,
4. Soldier-machine — to clieck the undesired fellows from hav-
ing an entry into the house.
5. Lion-roaring machine to ward off a wicked elephant.

N,D .
— In this category of the Yantras, comprising male and female
figures designed for various kin Is of automatic service, it may be
noted that each part of their figures is made and fitted separately,
with holes and pins, so that thighs, eyes, neck, hands, wrists, forearms
and fingers can act according to the need. The material used is
main’y wood, but a leather-cover is given to complete the impression
of a human being. The movements are managed by the stream of
holes, pins and strings attached to rods controlling each limb. Some
of the acts performed by these figures are : looking into a mirror,
playing a lute, stretching out hands to touch, give pan, sprinkle
water and make obeisance.

(iii) Machines for Warfare

JT.i?.—-These arc only referred t and not treated in detail in the
teatf
382 PALACE PLEASURED

1. Capa, bows, etc.

2. i^ataglini, etc. (hur\dred-killcr),

3. Usta^griva etc,— Gam Vs neck (the modern cranes ?).

(iv) Conveyance Machines —The Yana-yantras.

Wooden vimana macbine. (Ambarcarf-vimana).
N.B — On this we will sec more in the next section.
.

(v) Water Machines-Vari-yantras.

1. Pata-yantra (for the purpose of watering the plants of a
garden).
2. U cchray a-sampata-yantra*
3. Patasamochraya Yantra.
4. Uchraya-Yantra —
(The modern pipe lines fixed in a tank or
well, cf . the modern borings having their proto-type in these).

It may be noted that the S.S. makes two broad classifications of

Vari-yantras e.g. Pleasure-giving {Krid^rtha) and Purposeful {K^rya-
sidhyartha). The second category is illustrated in the Pata-yantra and
the first in the three following (2.3. and 4). All the above four tabu-
lated Vari-yantras result in the manipulation of the movement of the
water. In the first, it is the downward flow from an overhead tank ;

in the second, release of water at a higher from tanks placed at level

the equal level in the third, is a contrivance using bored columns
;

for letting down water from a height and then taking it up through
columns placed aslant and lastly in the fourth, water from a well or
;

a canal on the ground is sent up by a device,

^.5.—There are yet two other Yantras falling in this category

of Vari-yantras. The first is the Woiden-dfiph^ru drinking water
placed in a vessel, any amount of it, and neither the intake nor
the
water taken in is perceivable. The other one is the underground
conduit (referred at other places also, cf. Gh. 18 in connection
with
the planning of cities and palaces) and is based on the Samuchhraya
principle of circulation of water on the same level. Here water is
brought to a tank from a distant source.
The
further important types of Yantras not so far
included in
above classification, though covered by the V5ri-yantra
and
%
swing-
machines are respectively the DhAr^gi(ha and the D^llg^ha.
Dharigfha.

Five varieties of DhStSgjfhas arc -

(i) DhaiSgfba.
(ii) Pravarsa^at
 PAtAGE PtBASURES 38 ^

(ill) Pra^jJIa,
(iv) Jalamagna and
(v) NandySvarta,

DhSLrZgxha is a shower-bower in a garden. It was very popular

in medieval times both in the East and West and formed an essential
constituent of a vast palace equipment.

Regarding their construction, the S.S., lays down that firstly,

they are to be in the proximity of big reservoirs secondly, they ;

should occupy a site with beautiful surroundings and thirdly, Pipes

have to be prepared to double and triple the height and other require-
ments, of the fountains. Again the pipes are said to be able to
carry water, free from pores and smooth inside (vss. 110-20).

The text gives an impression that they were the characteristic

of the age and were high super-structures with several storeys and
the water mechanism attached to them for Jala-kri^^
connection in
with the amorous sports of the kings and their queens, the most
talked of in the Kavyas (cf. Bharavi^ Magha, and other early medie-
val poets). These DhSrSgfhas were the most beautiful baths, well
furnished, well decorated and with the finest of flooring and piaster
and were specimens of pillar architecture. Here not only showers,
Ucharya-yantras were laid on, but a good many paintings of elephant-
couples, doll-women pouring out showers from their breasts and
navels etc. were also to be seen.
The text is full of such beautiful and poetic descriptions, a brief
notice is called for.

In the Wood work of these structures (i.c., carved pillars, plat-

forms, projections, windows, cornices etc.) fine and fragrant timber,
e«g«, DevadSru, sandal, Sala arc to be used. The manifold motifs
of decorations as already pointed out arc female-figures, and :
—
models of birds, animals like monkeys, manifold forms with gaping
mouths, N5gas and Kinnaras, etc., dancing peacocks, Kalpavfksas,
creepers and bowers, cuckoos, bees and swans. The main pipe is to
be laid in the centre of the fountain with its exterior made charming.
To the top of it is fitted the mechanism for taking up water, scatter-
ing and throwing it in a variety ol ways. The king’s seat is right in
the centre and he enjoys the bath and the play of water both. The
text is emphatic that these Dharagi’has arc not fit to be used by the
ordinary run of men. They arc only for the kings (S.S. 31-118).

More specific descriptions of %he four types of Dharagf-has now

follow.
384 PALAOB PLEASURBS

The main speciality of the first, the PravarsafK the shower,

is that it pours down water. Strong figures of threc*f5ur or seven

men should Uc up, with curved tubes
set the whole mechanism is ;

fitted with water which is poured out in different ways by these

figures (142-46). *‘Bhoj\ calls this shower-house a pseudo-cloud,

«Anukaranam ekam jalamucam* (148) (Somadeva Suri’s commentator —
gives it the name Krtrima-megha-mandira) a boon in summer and —
a feast to the eyes. Kalidasa’s reference to the Yantra-dhara-gi'ha
has already been noted but when he says in his Meghaduta— 1 61

(nesyanti tvam sura-yuvatayo yantra-dhara-grhatvam), that the

celestial damsels on the Himalayas would scratch the cloud with
their bangles and convert it into a Yantra-dhara-grha, he seems to
know the name of this type called after the cloud.”

The next variety called Pranala is two-storeyed structure with a

single pillar or four, eight or sixteen, built like a Puspaka-vimiTna
with decorative designs. At the centre below is a water-tank with a
big lotus,its pericarp fashioned as the seat of the King ; alround are

female fingurcs looking at the lotus ; when the overhead tank is filled
and closed, water is poured by the figures on the King sitting on the
lotus seat.

*‘Thc third, Jalamagna, is a chamber under water, the idea being

that of the submarine abode of Varu^a or Nagar^ja. A square
chamber is built at the bottom of a big and deep water-ieservoir, tht
approach to it being through a subterranean passage. A continuous
flow of water above, keeps the chamber completely cool and the whole
reservoir is full of mechanical lotuses, fishes, birds, etc. When rest-
ing in this chamber alone or in private company, the King can be
seen only by selected personal friends and urgent visitors of ranks, like
other Princes or Ambassadors. (157-66).”

‘‘The last type, Nandyavarta, has, in mid- tank, a big flower-like

structure ;
all around the central floral design, in mid-water, are
placed low walls in Svastika-designs, providing a sufficient screen
as well as a passage, the purpose being to permit playing in the water
the game of hide-and-seek (167-72).”

DoISgfha.
It is also called RathadolS and it has five main varieties called
1. Vasanta. 2. Madanotsava. 3. Vasaruatilaka 4. Vibhra*
maka and 5. Tripura,

Rathadoli —
is a swiiig or merry-go-round in which people ride in

scats and enjoy the pleasure of wheeling round. But in the dcscrip-
 ;

PALACE PLEASURES 385

tions that we find the same features and characteristic designs

of its ornamentation as noticed in Dharag|*has are a common property
of these as well.

In the Vasanta type, the yantra is planted in a dugout, 8 cubits

square and 4 cubits deep ; both metal and wood-work are mentioned
at the base of the yantra, where the rotation mechanism is fitted to
a platform. A storey is to be raised on twelve posts and on the whole
fivemachines are to be employed for the rotation, wheel acting upon
wheel and the whole moving the storey, designed like a lotus and
accommodating the whirling riders (175-87).

In the second, the Madanotsava, there is no dugout or under-

ground construction ;
main post provides only for
the storey on the
four scats and a man standing below operates the machine (188-94).

In the third, the Vasantatilaka, two storeys are to be constructed,

the second one with much decoration the mechanism is fitted in the
;

first floor and by the action of wheel upon wheel the top floor revolves
(195-200).

The fourth, Vibhramaka, provides for increased accommodation

and the variety of motion. At the base here, is a solid platform and a
square structure with mechanism ; over these is a floor with eight
seats, and above these another round of seats; spoked wheels link up
the whole erection the-spcciality here is that e^ch floor has its own
;

different movements, creating, as the name implies, a complex of

circular movements (201-8).

The last, Tripura, increases the tiers by one, justifying its name
of three cities in air, each higher floor being of smaller dimension
a large number of connecting links, small wheels and steps leading
from one tier to the other arc mentioned (209-18).

The Aeroplane —The Vlmaoa-Yaotra—- In the notice of the manifold

varieties of Yantra, the VimSna machine was reserved for this last sec-
tion as it is the most curious of the yantras described in the S S. The
S.S, is the only text which gives some details of its actual construction.
Numerous references to this class of Yantra, though found in many
places in the literature, the details of its actual construction and the
mechanism thereof, arc the contribution of this rare treatise on Yantra.

The wooden Vimana machine flying in the air, wobden bird

machine travelling in the sky — these are two yantras which illustrate

this class of VimSna-yantra. The S*S, says;-*

386 PALACE PLEASURES

58Rm’9: «|K<^W I W fsiwf^t mfir

fwfsT?3^ f)a«w«g ^fstirnn^^i
ftifvnTT

wfrRft ti

*‘Makc a huge bird-likc shape with a wing on each side fully carved
out of a light wood with a space in the bottom for fitting up a mecha-
nism full of fire and the Para in its proper (ihc middle) place. Now
the traveller on, (the switch also on) and with the air produced by the
two wings, the Para will be in action and with its power so generated,

the machine will go a great distance in the sky, giving amusement

both to the man on it and those below it-— the spectators’*.

*‘And just like this, make a heavier wooden aeroplane in imitation

of a vimSna-house, In it, place four strong jars full of Pa’ a and then
also place an iron pot full of fire underneath them. Thus heated these
jars generate power by means of the Mercury, Ras iraja, the Para, rnd
they will make the machine move and by the power of the Rasaraja,
Para, it will go up in the air and be the ormenament of the sky’**

Reading this passage we find only two elements in this mechanism

of an aeroplane as described by the Text, the Para and the Fire. '1
hey
are really most essential conductors in any machine performing a
similar job. The reader here in the description of these two passages
does not find any other mechanism. Apart from these two principal
things, nothing else is described for the full comprehension of the
mechanism. The mechanism of the whole structure however, must be
something of an advanced nature, otherwise the results as indicated in
the text could not have been obtained. The unfolding of the secret
of machine making is not done. The author for this makes an apology:
<riw4 4W i

If the art of the construction is not unfolded,

is not for the lack
it

of knowledge, but for the simple reason to keep a secret, otherwise

it

if made public, these yantras would not bring out the desired, result.
Mystery is the key-note of the ancient lore. It was never unfolded to
the uninitiated, uncultivated and unprepared and the author himself
lays:—
qKsrr sftw ii

^ wi'TT ^ I
 PALACE PLEASURES 387

Conclusion. Now the question, which naturally arises regarding

this portion of the work— the Yantra chapter of the S. S. is: Do we
find any connecting link between this work and othes works of this
type which have treated this theme of machines? No other 6ilpa
work any chapter on the Yantras, though
§0 far discovered, contains
Scope of the Vastu^astra)
in the broadest sense, as seen before, (vide the
the Indian Vastu-Sastra must include Yantras also in its scope. Ihe
paucity of the material however, stands in the way of arriving at any
definite conclusions.
By the time of the eleventh century, the time of Bhoja, the
science of machines in India was in a very degenerated condition.
Whatever Yantric knowledge was there, it was handed down
in a distorted and uncultivated state. Scienctific knowledge
was neve a matter of popular use. It never affected the life of the
1

people as a whole. Only the kings could use the aeroplanes. These
aeroplanes were conveyances either fit for celestial beings or kings
and
sovereigns like Rama Chandra.
Puspaka-vimana could be used only
by a Rama and and not by an ordinary citizen of Ayodhya. Naturally
therefore, mechanical craftsmanship, if there was any in this period
of medieval India, was more or less a thing of court-life a paraphern* —
alia of enjoyment to the kings and queens and the courtiers. Hence
all the varieties of the yantras which have been described here are

fit to be the ornaments of the then court life or a thing of exhibition

only in fairs and other such places where the masses used to assemble.
Even today in fairs in India some such things of indigenous Character
but reminiscent of the past arc exhibited in such gatherings, and
money is got owing to the sale of tickets, etc.

I have already hinted at a very significant point in relation to

the mysterious art of construction of these yantras, not to be unfolded
and if it is unfolded, it does not bear fruits. Again I have also pointed
out the decadance of the art as reflected in the exposition of the
yantras in this book. The author of this work points out at a number
of places that this mysterious lore, as it were, has been revived by
his own imagination and intellect. He does refer to the ancient
masters (31.6) of the art. He also speaks of those as having been
seen and described on first hand knowledge of them.
He however, offers an excuse of not unfolding the secret of
the construction of these yantras simply for the reason that they are
likely to lose their merit. The usual equipment of any art, the know-
ledge of the practical experience, etc. must be there, and no one can
deny their importance, but it is simply ridiculous to say that
‘
if the secret of art is unfolded, it loses its merit.
 388 PALACfe PLEASURfeS

I may however, conclude with Dr. V. Raghavan (vide Yantrai

or Mechanical Contrivances in Ancient India p. 31):

*‘The tradition pertaining to this lore was, however, neglected

and lost. The vogue that these mechanical contrivances ha^ over a
sufficiently long period was indeed enough to foster the development
and spread of mechanical technology on a national scale; but it was
just like the civilization of this country not to have taken to it on
such a scale. The reason is not far to seek; the religious and spiritual
preoccupation was such that machines, which in other countries
ushered in a civilisation that increasingly became materialistic in
outlook were useful in this country only to reinforce the idea of God
and Spirit.

If material yantras did not take root or multiply, spiritual

yantras, which took one to still higher regions, developed and
multiplied on a vast scale. And even writers who actually dealt
with the yantras, like Somadeva and Bhoja, saw
machine opera- in the

ted by an agent an appropriate analogy for the mundane body and

senses presided over by the Soul, and for the wonderful mechanism of
the universe, with its constituent elements and planetary systems,
requiring a divine master to keep it in constant revolution.

> *v.

f?«RnT II

TrtTI r *-.77775 P. t-f tj ri? p • rr. r • p i

And, as early as the Gita, the machine became an apt simile

for man
being but a tool in the hands of the Almighty that sits in
man’s heart and by His mystic power makes man not only move
but also delude himself into the notion of his being a free or compet-
ent agent;
 CHAPTER IV

STATE OR PUBLIC BUILDINGS

The cognate strnctures

Nyaja-Jala —Among the cognate buildings falling in the domain

of Palace-architccture Courts of Justice, the Nyaya-SSlas occupy the
first and foremost place. These were attached to the scats of Govern-
ment, Central or Provincial and theses eats were really the royal
palaces themselves. Side by side the NyayaSala was the sabha, a notice
of which has already been taken.

According to Viivakarma-vastu-iastra as studied by K, Vasudeva

Shastri— vide the Introduction : ^‘The court-house is looked upon as
the embodiment of all deities and of all powers and the promoter of

general prosperity. It is to be presided over by the king, possessed

of all noble qualities and shrewdness and stability of judgment ;
and
the minister and the preceptor also take part in the proceedings. The
building must have an even surface and it must have all the various
adjuncts and must also have the principal deities installed in it.

It must have scats for advocates and for state-guests. It may

be a hall with walls and doorways or it may be like a hall of audience
and the form may be cither a square or circular. The mofussil court
may h \vc a treasury attached to it and it must have special seats pro-
vided for the occasional visits of the emperor, the heir apparent and
neighbouring rulers. The metropolitan court-house shall be 12 dandas
in dimension and the hall in front and subsidiary halls may have half
the breadth. Its forms may also be like those of moffusil court, with
this difference that the metropolitan court may generally have three
floors. The basement shall be as grand as possible and the steps lead-
ing to the dais about 32 in number. The dais and the hall shall have
ornamented pillars so arranged as to enhance the grandeur and solem-
nity of the court of justice. The building shall have a canopy and the
arrangement of pillars may be In one of the forms consisting of 48, 32
or 24 detailed in the text. The frontage of the court-house must have
an ornamented arch ( a Torapa).*’

It may be remarked that in the ancient courts of justice prominent

structural grandeur used to go to the placing of thrones on the proper
place, the text describes seven types of such throncs-*“Sirahisana,
phadrEsina, feArmSsana, Vlr^sana^ Minisana, VijaySsana and Paryan*
3^0 PUBLIC BUILDINGS

kasana which really are more suitable to presiding deities rather than
to the presiding judges.

Court-house where Justice was administered by an assembly of

learned lawyers was really a sabha- “These sabhas” according to the
text “arc of three kinds: Sadharana Sabha, Mukhya Sabha and
Pradhana Sabha. In the SWharana Sabha a deity is supposed to
preside over the assembly. In the Mukhya sabha a portrait of the king
is installed at the presidential seat. In the third, the Pradhana Sabha,
the king personally presides over it. In other words, in villages, the
idol of the patron deity of the villagers adorns the presidential seat.
In towns the portrait of the king is used and in the capital the king
himself presides.*’

Piistaka Sala : — The next important state building is the Library

and the same text has elaborate expaliations on the construction of
libraries, “They shall consist of a number of enclosures with a central
platform for Vedic works and there shall be a scat for the preceptor.
The library may have a number of storeys and a reading hall shall be
attached to the library'*. There was a good number of Avaranas and
it is laid down that Avarana (i e. the storey) the Vedic
in the first

works arc to be apportioned ;

in the second the Sm^tis and in the third
the goddess Vani, Hayamukha, Sambhu, Uma along with their pari-
varas may be installed.

Vidyabhavana:—The third, more useful state-building was the

Vidyabhavana or a University or college, the building of which, as
prescribed by this text shall have a very big central hall with front
and back halls. On either side of the central hall shall be built wings
with vacant spaces. There may be a number of storeys also and there
shall be separate halls for discussion and for examination. The struc-
ture of the building must be grand and imposing. It shall be beauti-
fied by turrets and other ornamental structures.

Nataka-saugita^Sala:—-the next important state building to provide

for recreation and amusement, so necessary in the life of the sabhyas
the cultured people was this pavilion.

We know there is a very detailed and exhaustive treatment of the

theatre in Bharata’s NStyafestra. Avoiding the other details, this
ancient text of Bharata’s NStya-Sastra gives a very systematic account
of the stage wh^ch was divided into the three parts called Ranga-pitha,
Ranga-Sfrsa and Nepathya. Here in this text (V. V. S.) it is laid
down that the theatre and the concert balls are to be built by the side
 iPtTBtlQ BUILD! KOS 391

of each other. It contemplates three kinds of buildings —NSUka-iala,

NStya-Sala and Glti-S5la and these buildings are divided into three
parts—Daiva, Gandharva and Manusa. In the Daiva p(9rtioii which
is generally at the hind part of the building, the deities to be worship*
pcd as a preliminary to drama, dance or concert ar- said to be instal-
led. The stage proper is Gandharva portion where music and
the
dance are to be performed. The green room, which is behind, is to be
divided into two portions, one reserved for male actors and the other
for female actors.
Marga-lala— The rest houses really finds a very glorious and unique
description inthe newly discovered text of viSvakarma-Vastu-Sastra.
“Rest houses and armed out-posts shall generally be built for every
krofa. They are imperative in roads in forest areas. The rest house
may be a pillared hall with walled enclosures, platforms for takirg rest
and cooking rooms. These rest-houses shall be beautified by paintings
of scenes from the Epics and Puranas The frontage shall be orna-
mented by turrets. By the way it has to be observed that no mansion
or other construction for public use is mentioned in our Shilpa Sastra
without ornamentation by turrets, kalafas and toranas the arches etc.
By the side of the rest house shall be planted fruit-bearing and other
trees and head-load rests. Ponds and wells, cart stands and sheds for
bulls, horses and elephants with supply of provisions shall be arranged.”
This is only a brief enumeration of the state buildings of flourish-
ing capital town or a large metropolis in ancient and medieval India.
Taere are so many other public buildings owned by the state, construc-
ted by the ruling kings, like cow-sheds, the Go-Sala, the park for the
deer and other pets, the Mfga-S^la, and the catvaras— the resting places
etc. etc. Among them the Mrga-Sala, it may be brought home to the
readers, used to be enclosed by fences of iron and provided with
reserviors of water and grounds for ladies of the palace and nobility to
sport themselves with the pets.
In the end two topics need to be dwelt at some length. These arc
the entrance gates to the towns and the water-reservoirs. The former
topic is the subject matter of town-planning where under fortification
some remarks are already made on ‘Pratoli’ structure which was a
component part of fortification. According to the Aparajita-pfcchi
however these pratoU-structures have been made more conspicuous by
their varieties and sub-variedcs like Eka-poU to panca-poli which
need not be taken in greater details here for the want of space. They
arc described alright in the Vastu laksana and the more curious
readers may read them there. All these pratoll structures, it may be
again remarked as per my own thesis, arc really the imitating struc-
 — —

392 PU1SLIC BUltDINOS

turca of Gopura-architccturc in temples. Towns and temples of old

used to be laid out in some and complementary beautifi-
kind of allied
cation of thc^ own. These were to all intents and purposes, the orna-
inental structures. These pratoUs> accordingly, were the beauty of the
palace-gales and the town-gates of old especially in the Nagara or the
Northern school of architecture.
Now coming to the latter lopic, the water reservoirs, they are a
special treatment in Apar jita-pfccha and let us have a bird^s
the
eye-view on these different and manifold varieties of the water-
reservoirs, the Kupa, the VapI and the Tadaga. Without going into
details they are being tabulated as here under :

10 Varieties of Kilpa :

1. ^rimukha 5. Manohara 8. Jaya

2. Vijaya 6. Gudamani 9. Nanda
3. Pranta 7, Digbhadra 10. Sankara
4 Dundubhi
^.5.-—These varieties vary with their respective dimensions i.e.
Siimukha is said to be laid out in four hastas and the Sankara (the last
variety) to be laid out in thirteen hastas. All these should be laid
circular. The wells having inferior dimensions arc really not Kupas,
but Kupikas.
4 Types of Vapis :

1. Nand t Eka-vaktra and tri-kuja

2. Bhadra Dvivaktra ,, sat-kuta

3. Jaya Trivaktra ,, nava-kuta

4 VijayS Gaturvaktra ,, dvadaSa-kuta
iV.i?.-— Side by side with Vapis, Kupdas arc also described which
arc really religious structures, and the text has given a vivid descrip-
tion of these where there are so many side structures as well as provi-
sions for the enshrinement and installations of a host of deities and
therefore they are needless to be dwelt at greater length, only a
brief mention of these may be made.
4 Kundas :

Bhadraka, Subhadraka, Nanda and Parigha. Lastly:-—

6 Types of Tadagas :

1 . Sara like ardha-candra

2. Mahasara circular
3. Bhadraka square
4. Subhadra with excessive bhadrSs
5. Parigha Bakaikasthala
6. Yugma-parigha Bakas abounding on both the banks.
 )

PART V

TEMPLE-ARCHITECTURE
(
along with an outline history of

Hindu Temple in all its styles of

canons and monuments of art

introductory.

The main function of the science of architecture is to provide

norms for the buildings. The two broad classes of buildings, residen-
tial and religious —
Manavavasa and Devavasa according to the genius
of this work have already been indicated The religious buildings in
India centre round a shrine or a temple or a chapel, or a monastery
or a pavilion or a shed or the like — the chief among which is the
Hindu Temple— the place of worship. Many broad classifications of
architecture have been advanced by scholars, but in India the devo-
tional architecture had been the most favourite architectural acitivity
where the Indian genius of the architectural and craftsmanship
skill

culminated Into the profoundest of expression both from the point of

view of art and culture as well The pre-eminence given to devotional
architecture in India is characteristic of Indian culture. After all,

according to Lethaby, (cf. Architecture page 7 H.U.L ): ‘‘Architetturc

is the martix of civilization’’. The finest trait of human civilisation has
been the manifestation of the artistic evolution in its different climes
and times Sri P, Brown is very apt in his remarks— ‘‘In each of the
major historical developments of architecture, there is one basic prin-*
ciple underlying in its conception, and one which is supremely
distinctive With the Greeks this was refined perfection; Roman
buildings are rcmirkible for their scientific construction; French
Gothic reveals a condition of passionate energy, while Italians Renai*
ssauce reflects the scholarship of its time. In the same way the out*
standing quality of the architecture of India is its spiritual content.
It is evident that the fundamental purpose of the building art was to
represent in concrete form the prevailing religious consciousness of
the people. It is mind, materaliscd in terms of rock, bricks or stone”—
(Indian Architecture p. 1).

Again in the words of Dr. CotMnarswamy —vide Mr. Smith ‘A His-

tory of Fine Art in India and Geylone’: (page 5): “All that India can
offer to ibe world proceeds from her phi losophy-^a mental concentra-
tion (Yoga) on the part of the atHist and the enactment of a certain
amount of ritual being postulated as the source of spirituality of
Indian Art”. Temples and tirthas are indispensiblc companiens in
the life journey of the mass of humamty (though originaity Only for
those wha were uninitiated to the highest knowledge— the transcen-
dental knowledge, the Ajnyas, but later on no such distinction
persisted) in India. The institution of pilgrimage to the sacred places
3t)6 INTRODUCTORY

of worship, the temple and tirthas, was an outcome of the reoriented

Hindu Dharma of the Puranas and Agamas
to which I have drawn

attention several times. Dr. Kramrisch (vide H. T. p. 6) is simply

relating the truth: ‘‘Temples are built where Tirlhas are; their
towering shapes to the last point of their height teem with forms
which have the urge and fullness of Indian nature; step by step, level
by and mind of the devotee from this world to
level they lead the eye
the world above. The temples rise from a broad base: differently built
according to specific types, they have their variation in time and
place and their shapes were elaborated in many a school. As they arc
today in Southern India, their high super-structures ascend in pyra-
midal form, while in Northern India they fling their curvilinear faces

towards a meeting point above the sanctuary/’ From the point of

view of architecture, the temple architecture, does not offer us a fascina-
ting story like the one we had in a previous part of this Study (cf.

Part III — ’the Origin of the First House on Earth). Temple architec-
ture in India is symbolic of the spiritual outlook of its people. It is

the principal, visible and material record of the invisible and spiritual
evolution of our civilisation. It is a concrete manifestation, not only
of the aspirations of the people, but also a way of life. It was equally
true of those who built it — the long line of the Sthapatis and Stha-
pakas. To every one it was a religious dedication to evolve out a
spiritual way of life. Numerous noble monuments of this class of
devotional architecture are a testimony of our rich architectural
heritage, the parallel of which can not be found in other countries.

The temple-architecture as portrayed in the pages of this most

celebrated work represents the high strides, the temple architecture
had made by the eleventh century in India. The very developed
denotation and connotation of the word PrasSda, the Hindu temple,
its various origins from the different ancient institutions af worship
and manifold styles representing the local and regional
sacrifice; its

centres of art andtheir exuberance of building activities, together

with the temple types having so many ramifications betokening the

high water mark, of the evolution of the temple architecture together
with its planning and the accessory buildings— Mandapas, Jagatls,
PrSkIras etc* etc. — all these will be dealt with as side aids in our evalua-
tion of the temple architecture by the time of Raja Bhoja. Needless
to be specific about the contents of the chapters forming this Part.
This is only a broad indication.
 —

CHAPTER I

THE DENOTATION AND THE CONNOIATION OF

THE TERM PR^VSAD A THE HINDU TEMPI E.
‘

The wordsS denoting devotional places are numerous and abound

in literature. The words for temple which are more current and are
generally employed arc :

Devagrha Dcvalagara Kirtana

Devagara Mandira Ilarmya
Devatayatana Bhavana Vihara
Devil laya Sthana Caitya
Devakula Vtsma Ksetra.

—the references to which in the particular works or insciiptions

have been ably worked out by Dr* Kramrisch, in her Hindu Temple
(page 138). Perhaps this list has got a hoary tradition behind it,

and the tradition must not die. It is perhaps with this ouilook of
Indian culture that the authar of the S.S„ though denoting temple,
the house of God only by a single term Prasada and Prasada alone,
has in its 18th Chapter, ‘‘On the Nagaiadi-Safjna^’ — gl( ssary on the
towns and houses, etc ,
has kept this tradition afloat and says

Devadhisnya-surasthanara caityamarca gfham ca tat

Devatayatanam pr'ahurvibudhagarmityapi (18-57).

These names with the exception of Arcagfha and Caitya designate

a seat, an establishment, a residence and a house of God ; whereas
Arcagfha is the house of the consecreted image, and Caitya is a
sacred monument which is piled up like the Vedic Agni (etymolo-
gically Caitya is derived from Citi These synonyms,
as I will show later on (vide Chapter on the origin of the Prasada),
throw some light on the multiple origin of the Hindu Temple. The
names denoting a devotional place arc ancient names and practically
all the manuals on architecture have kept up this tradition of old.

The interesting lists of Mayamata and Manasara, the more popular

ancient treatises on the VastuSastra together with a list as given in

the SamaraAgana of the names denoting residence in general, would

not be out of place hete, as most of the names enumerated in the
above list for the residence of God are common to the names found
 a — a

S98 the tfhh-prasada

in the following list ;

Mai/amata M^nana^ra Samar&hffan%

{XIX. 10-12) (XIX. 108-12) (XVIII. 8-9).

1. Vimaua Vimana Avasa

2. Bhavan Samalayam Sadana
3. H army a Harmya Sadma
4. Safidha Alaya Niketa
5, Dhama Adhisnyaka Mandira
6 N ike ana
i Prasada Sansthana
7. Prasada Bhavan Nidhana
8. Sadanam Ksetra Dhisnya
9* Sadma Mandira Bhavana
10. Geha A yatana Vasati
11. Avilsaka Ve$ma Ksaya
12. Grha Grha Agara
13. A lay a Avasa Saip traya
14 Nilaya Ksaya Ni'da
15 Vasa Dhama Geha
I'i. Asp ad a Vasa i^arana
17. V'astu Geha Alaya
10. Vastuka A gar a Nilaya
19 Ksetra Sadana Layana
20. Ayatara Vasita VeSma
21 VAm\ Nilaya Grha
22, Mandira Tala Oka
23. Dhisayaka Kostha Pratifoaya
24. Pada S than a
25 Laya
2 ». Ksaya
27, Aglira
28. Udavasita and
29. Sthana.

It may be noted
here that but for ‘Tala’ and ‘Koslha’ the twenty
four synonyms of the Manasara arc common to those of the Maya-
mata. The names of residence such as ‘SarpSraya’, ‘NidhSnam’j
‘Nfdam’, ‘Saranam’, ‘Oka’, and ‘
PratiSraya ’
are found in Sama-
rSAga^a only. Again as I have already indicated elsewhere (Part III)
that these synonyms of house, especially those given in the list of the
SamarSugaria (cf. Nldam, ^arariam etc., and Bhavan, Mandira, etc.,
together with Nilaya etc.) may be taken as suggestive of the progress
 THE TBRM-PEASADA 399

of the human civilisation in relation to its habitation from structures

like bird’s nests to the ostentatious a stone man-
houses like Mandira,
sion together with advancement from Naturalism to the
its spiritual
Meditation-life of cave-living (cf. Nilaya or Layana type of cave-
temple, Part V).

ViniaDa. Thus this is the story names having

of these general
wide currency in the literature, for a house of man and that of God,
a temple or shrine. But when we come to the technical names as given
to the dwelling of God from an architectural point of view, the
common word denoting the temple is Vimana in practically all the

manuals on architecture e. g in the Manasara buildings of one to

twelve storeys are called Vimanas (cf. Gh» XVIII). A more frequent
name for a high edifice in the Epics —Ramayana and Mahabharata,
is Vimana and their commentaries on the anthority of Nighautu, and
MedinI (N. 121) the ancient lexicons, describe it as seven-storeyed
mansion. Abhidhanacintamani (89, 190; 3, 417), Halayudha (1, 83
etc.) the lexicons of repute are also unanimous on this denotation of

the word Vimana. But my own vicvv is that the word Vimiina is oniy
one of the two most generally accepted names which designate a temple.
The other word is Prasada, a critical exposition and estimation of
which will follow soon in the latter part of this chapter. First let

us see what is the implication attached to the word, Vimana There

is a great metaphysical or more correctly a cosmological truth
embedded in this word. The Vayu-purana (IV. 30-31) says:-— “lo
measure (ma) make a thing by giving shape to it and existence’*.
is to
The denotation and connotation of the word Mayii and the principle
underlying it expound the same truth, ‘Maya or manifestation means
division of the hitherto undivided principle; on itself it perforins this

operation and as Purusa it henceforth thinks of itself as composed of

parts.” And according to ^vetSSvtara Upanisad (111.19), and Visnu
Parana (Ch. 1. 1, 2) Purusa who is the first form of the supreme
Brahman, thus bears the measuring rod. He is the great architect of
the Universe and in this capacity his name is ViSvakarman* The
MSnasSra and the S. S. have hinted at this truth in their respective
ways (Mandsgra II. 2-5; S. S. the very first verse). VimSna, therefore,
measured in its parts, is the form of God, which is this Universe,
To
^^
the macrocosm, and the temple the microcosm. measure, as
the S. S. has aptly said (‘tW
t-^), iscreate— there is an identity between the measure and the
to
object. Whatever is produced is called Dr. Kramrisch has very
beautifully brought out the significance of tbe word denoting and
400 THE TERM-PRASADA

connoting temple both in its architectural and spiritul implications-^

'‘The temple as VimTna, proportionately measured throughout, is
the house and body of God. By temple is understood the main shrine
only in which is contained the Garbliagrha, the womb and house of
the Embryo, the small, innermost sanctuary with its generally square
plan. All other buildings within the sacred precinct, are accessory
and subservient to it: the hall, Mandapa, in front of the entrance,
is itself, as in Orissa, a semi-separate structure to which may be
added several more such buildings preparing the devotee for the entry
into the temple. These accessory buildings conform in each case with
the proportionate measure of the temple, the Vimanaj the Mandapa
generally coalesces with the Vimana’h

Prisada. Now in regard to Prasad •, the first thing to note is

that the Vimanas were the precursors of PrasMas, and this fact, has
been very well brought out though mythologically, by the following
lines of the S. S. (vide 49. 2. 6):

the hoary past, Brahma, the great Creator, created five

Vimanas for gods. They were for travelling in the air, beautiful to
look at, colossal in shape, made of gold and studded with gems.
Their names were Vairaja, Kailaia, Puspaka, Mcinika and Trivistapa.
They were to be used by Brahmi himself, the trident-holder iSiva,
the god of wealth, Kubera, the noosc-holdcr Varuna and the god of
gods, the lord Visnu respectively. Like these he created so many other
Vimanas meant for the use of other gods such as Surya, etc. —having
of course the shapes ete. in the likeness with those of the deitic>
using them. It is from the self-saine five shapes of Vimanas that
later on,Brahma created the Prasadas. They are to be built in towns
and are made of stone or burnt bricks.** VimSna, as we shall see
just now is the prototype of the the Prasada, according to the S. S.

The popular etymology for the meaning of the word Prasada is

accepted by the author of the ^iiparatnam (cf. XVI. I) and he says;—

“PrasMas please by their beauty, the minds of gods and men/*

Its more rccondlle but essential meaning, I shall explain in the
end on the basis of I. For the present a bird*s eye view of the
P.
antiquity of this word would be interesting. Prasada as a sacred
monument or sacred building is referred to in ancient texts and
inscriptons. 5. §. S. mentions PrasSdas on all sides of Ahavaniya
Fire (XVI. 18* 13-17); Patanjali’s Mahabhasya also mentions PrasSdas
ofDhanapati, Rami and Kelava. This latter testimony dates ai
far back as 3rd Gentry B. O. The use of Prasida in RiSmayaipa
and
 *

THE TEEM EEASADA 401

MahSbharata is very frequent and the reader is referred to Dr

P. K. Acharya’s Dictonary of Hindu Vrchitecture For the further
references to Prasada as found in the inscriptions the reader is

referred to Fncyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture (See under PrSsada).

Apart from these references, a very interesting reference to the

denotation of the word Prasada is to be found in Mayamata (vide
11. 6-7) which enumerates the following buildings as Prasadas:—

Sabha, §ala, Prapa, Rangamandapa and Mandira. They are

parts of the whole establishment of a south-Indian Temple. The
denotation of the Prasada is extended here from the temple itself to
the various halls and sheds attached to it*

Now resuming our lost thread, it can be said that the temple is

the scat and dwelling of God. The name Prasada has the widest
application. Ihewordis unique in this respect that it does not
mean a house or something that is built Devagara or Vimana
like

respectively. “It denotes a settling down (Pra-sad) and a seat made

of that which has settled down and aqcuired concrete form, the form
ot a dwelling, a residence, the seat of God” (vide H. T. p. 135-36).

The word ‘‘Prasada” has been used to denote temple througout

the work. This word “Prasitda” if we just take into our account the
different literary, epigraphic and other sources, we find, has been
used in different senses. The readci is referred to Dr. Acharya^s
monumental Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture. There the
learned Doctor has gathered a large number of quotations and re-
ferences in which this word has been used, denoting different species
of architecture from the platform to the palace.

Going through the representative texts like the S. S. and the

K3aalivagurudeva-paddhati, belonging to the Nagara and DrSvida
schools respectively, it may be remarked that the term ‘Prasada’ had
acquired a definite denotation to denote and connote the Hindu Temple.

By the tenth and eleventh century A. D. the time of the Hana.

and the S. S., there was not only a definite denotation of the word
‘PrasSda*, but also a very high conception of the ‘Prlsida’ having also
a corresponding architectural development as is evident from so many
accessory structures like the Maijdapas and the Jagaiis round the
central shrine, the Prasada.

Thus our ^ilpa4astras do not consider Prasada, the Hindu Tem-

ple as a congregational structure alone, but the house of the Spirit.
 —

402 THE TERM l*RA5ADA

Temple is the house of God. God is the Spirit immanent in the

Universe and^the temple His abode. The S, S. has put this very
is

truth in its own way having the symbolism of the Lihga and the
PithikS;--.
vuwri (fml)
mt ii

The ISana. too expounds the same truth:

^ ^ sr«nf ’^TfiT^jRrr « Iii.xii.i6

Moreover God and His temple correspond to soul and human

body. The temple building ceremonials and rituals arc akin to our
jataka-saipskSras.

Thus, Prasada, the Hindu Temple from this Brahmanic concep-

tionis the visible outer casement (body) of the Invisible Brahma

(gods and goddesses only an emblem of this Supreme Being), It is

according to this fundamental conception that in temple architec-
ture, the various parts of a temple are designated by names which
correspond to the names of the various parts of the human
1 . PSduka 9. Parva 17. Murdhan
2. Pada 10. Gala 18. Mas taka
3. Carana 11 . Griva 19. Mukha
4. Anghf 12. Kandhara 20. Vaktra
5. Jangha 13. Kantha 21. Ku^a
6. uru 14. ^ikhara 22. Kara a
7. Kati 15. Siras 23. Nasika
8. Kuksi 16. Sirsa 24. 6ikha etc.

We may take up any temple type described in the S. S.

and we find the usage of these terms as manifold parts of the temple-
structure and super-structure both.

It may be remarked that these terms should not be viewed

objectively, they are used in a subjective sense to suggest the organic
unity in architecture and to make temple breath life at every point.
The architectural canons like the Ghandas (the Rythm) and the
avoidance of Marma-vedha etc. so much emphasised in the texts,
also point to the same truth.

Again lavish display of decoration and ornamentation on the

outer parts of the body of the temple and their conspicuous
absence
in its interior^ the Garbhagfba^ also cprrobaratc the same fact,
 —

THE TERM t»RASAOA 403

tjonnotation of the word Prasada is very beautifully brought out in

the contents of AgnipurSna (61. 19. 27) and HayaSirsa ParicarStra in
the following lines corroborating the Organic Theory propounded
above :

31^ 'rrfqsf

»p«pg i

gsB^TrarfiRTT stirt ^
^ ^5riTF?r tft f5rrm% ii

tng«R^ *wrT% g
3rl^<«T sTfinn

fir ygqiwa n«ffs,^ ^fff^rssTgr g ii

ff?; RRjrrg srrm^?^ Rf^*Rr:i

sir^T ?aRg ^5^ «mrT «?srft*Rr:H

gasi«mt %r!ft g^*r fWBRFT f? ll Agni. 61. 19-27

«rwig, HTsrO *rt«rft gg; i

wqifil fswtgg I

qTggf«ft JWTT^ ^ I

ggr gn (? ••) 0i5ft#*iT r (g) ^ ii

^ *wfT g
3ftwmT
r«t?gT TOHT imri
g^Tsng g^trfiir fiwfg: ii

iw: f>«R^ g^ 5[t< R^froi

•writ «3iJt 9«ft sf?WT !rflgg««R^H

fgwggj %?(t «i%rT

qfti: grgig nm?3«hT i

5!iRft (M^»T W sitrt^ «rr?*Rgg: I Haya S.P. 39

Similarly the Silparatna also supports this sagarious truth:—

“sm< gw* wwT
fiTOTf^^T 1
404 THE TERM PRASADA

?pasn»Tf^:^ ti

g»aT f?Ere«l^sRft*r »iwt '»

^f^ref^rowTH

^wwi ?«IT^ 5ft5f St I Silpa R XVI.

t9«l^ fWfftTOfflWtTf aT«l% H?WT»si: II 121-23

Finally I may point out that this connotation of the word Prasada,
also throws a sufficient light on the origin of the temple architecture
as the basis of human organism, ably brought out by Dr. N. V.
Mallaya (vide Studies on S. Texts on Temple Arch see Intio.)
refuting so many conjectural origins like ‘Mound & Grave Thcoiy’;
the Theory of the ‘Evolution of Stupa’ and the ‘Uinbiella Theory.’
 CHAPTER i!

THE ORIGIN OF THE PRASADA-ViSI U

This topic of the origin of the Temple and its architecture has
been a knotty problem of Indian Architecture and a goed deal oi
controversy among the scholars has centred round As this is the it.

study of the S.S., a digression involving a long discussion would be out

of place here. I have, therefore, to delimit the scope of this topic
to the exposition of the oiigin of the temple as an iustilution of worship
and tlie abode of a deity — an architectural structure in the light of the
material available in the S. S,, though meagre it is.

Of the two points of view, the temple as an instiluiiou of

worship and the architectural scheme thereof, the struciure, within
which were enshrined sacred images of the immortals, so that the
whole structure resolved itself into a place of assembly of the Devas,
the shining ones, the first one has already been touched in the previous
chapter and a little more is called for here.

The temple as a sacred institution is of a hoary antiquity. It is

intimately connected with image- worship. Though it is contended

that in the Vedic age, the image worship was not in vogue, the
Vedic ritual was the be all and end all of all the religious activities of
man. The ritual was ail powerful, the gods only bubservknt. It
was a highly philosophised institution among the early Aryans of
this Sacred land. But what about the non-Aryans who formeil the
bulk of the population in that early Aryan age ? The scholars
consider the Indus Valley Civilisation as either pre-Vedic or as the
contemporary of the Vedas- The excavations at Mohenjodaro
unmistakably speak of the cult of the image worship, even in that
hoary past. Naturally, therefore, if the non-Aiyan may be
origin
attributed to this most powerful institution of image worship, many
vexing problems of the Indian Architecture and more especially the
stone-architecture — the temple, can be solved. The image worship
was fit only for the ignorant ;
the cultured and the refined ones never
resorted to it, in tliat sublime age of the Vedas and Vedaugas, All
this has been fully elaborated in another Volume (Iconography and
Painting). 1 have already said that temple as a sacred place is of hoary
antiquity and is intimately associated with this cult of image-worship
which was instrumental in bringing about its existence,
466 THE ORIGIN OF THE PRASADA VAstt)

I want to bring to the notice of the readci^

Another point which
is some of the statements in the S. S. give the impression that
that
the Dravidian school, the Maya school was earlier than the Nagara
school, the school founded by Vi^vakarma, the heavenly Architect
himself. Naturally, therefore, the Dravidian art supplied the model
to Indian Architecture. It was precursor of the Nagara style of
Architecture.

1. The testimony of theS. S. may be deduced from the following

passages:—

ii

wNt ^ i

ft* 55®

gfT awg flwHiwjfffjam 1

^ «
5t II

atwni: qiftist: 1

^ IWaifH aanFfmii
^fjqsinfsT ^ « fj*t!^!traarfaag[. 1

sifg^^ns^ii

ftt 3n<w%a^r^fVT: I

5tnna!TO 5fp^^?rl 11

tfra atfc^t ^5rtwfffty5mi

*
3fC 8tT«mw( 5t f«wt^ II

f^T«r«r >3 f«ng[

ag; ii

3t3Fr: imia^arfiT aiftr^m^ftranlNm^i

awstwtt ism^ 11

arfW fsromfn 1

wf aroncT: «rarf^«ftr; 11 ^4

The sum and substance of these passages is that the Vimana

building was the prototype of the PrSsSda. The five shapes of
Vimanas (Dravidian temples) Were the models after which the PrlsS*
das were created. Dr. Tarapada Bhattacharya, however, straight^
way condemns this most authentic tradition. He says (cf. Canons of
Vastu-vidyS 271) ‘‘This tradition must have originated in a late
 THS OKlOm OF THE FEASADA VASTU 407

period due to the confusion in the two meanings of VimSna on the

one hand, and the meaning of the words Pr^sada and Vimana on the
other. o reliance can, therefore, be placed on these later writers on
Vastu who could not distinguish between a Prasada, Harmya,
VimSna etc’*.
With all due humility I must say that the down right condem-
nation is uncalled for. Dr. Bhattacharya (cf. ibid 270) while explain-
ing that term, ‘Vimana*, has accepted the meaning of ‘Chariot*, on
the authority of the earliest known lexicographer, Amara Again the
learned Doctor while elaborating the two principal schools of Archi-
tecture— Dravida Vastu-vidya and the NSgara Vastu-vidya, has
himself located Brahma among the foremost earliest writers on the
Dravid x Architecture the complete list being Brahm x, iSakra, ^ukra,
Maya, Bhfgu, Bfhaspati, Narada, Nagnajit and Agastya (206). This
is what the S. S. says: that the building models of chariots i.e.

Vimana, very common in the early architecture as founded by

BrahmH and later expounded by Maya, were adopted as the models
for the temple architecture known as PrasSdas, The cent per cent
correctness of this simple truth should not be doubted on the premises
laid down before.

2. Another testimony with regard to this, comes from Dr.

Ramaniya (cf. his famous book ‘Origin of South Indian Temples*),
where the learned Doctor made a very fine case for the Vimanas as
the earliest buildings in the South as corroborated by the early
Southern Texts also and illustrated by the unbroken tradition of the
temples being made after the model of a chariot in that part of the
country (e. g. Mamallapuram). Moreover, in accordance to, as the
images were both Gala and Acala, and the carriers of the Gala
ones were chariots, therefore, the chariots in their movement arc
likened to Temples.

3. The third evidence to show that the Southern Vastu-vidya

and the architecture i. e. Kala thereof is earlier than its Northern
counterpart based on the origin and evolution of the Stone archi-
is

tecture, especially with relation to the temple architecture in Ind a.

Though Rg-Veda, the Epics, and the Jatakas
as per reference in the
(H. A. I. A.), the stone architecture was not unknown in India, it
was not associated with Aryans. Dr. T. P. Bhattacary (vide Ganons
of Indian Architecture Gh. XXVIII) maintains that it was the Asuras
(Dravidians or Danavas) and the Nagas (cf. also the view of the late
Dr. Jayaswala who attributed the origin of Nagara architecture-—
Stone architecture to BhSraSiva Nagas) who helped the development
of Stone Architecture in Indiat He further maintains that Stone
 —

408 tHB ORIGIN OP THE PRASADA VASTU

houses were in early days erected by the Asuras and NSgas, the Asuras
of the Rg*vedic period, the Nagns and Asuras of Taxila^ the capilcd
of Nagnajit And the A:uras and Nagas of Eastern India meiuioncd
in ihe Aatapatha Brahniana and Buddhist traditions The intro hic-
imxge worship among the Aryans was the harbinger
tion of the cult of
of the adoption of the stone architecture among them* It is c ur
comm )n knowledge that originally the Aryan houses were simple, built
of w )od and mud. Even when they adopted the cult of worship, the
places where they kept their deith s were no more than the houses, as
they themselves were living in. They called their temples the house
of the gods, Devagara, Devat lyatana, Dcvagrha, Deva\uia and a host
—
of others prevalent in literature ^all indicative ot lli s fat i. d hey
were nothing but the replicas of the residential houses. With the
introduction of he Stone Architecture, these temples got tlic name
I

ofMaudira, as ViJvakanna Prak^a (IV. 13), defines it as temples of

stone.

It may however, be remarked that these are only tentative pro-

positions, unless they are corroborated in the actual monuments, they
may not be acceptable. But my view is that it may not be incorrect
to say that temples in some form or other must have originated as
soon as image worship came into being Moreover, if image worship
in some form or other had existed among the non-Aryans, existence
of temples must also be regarded as a pre-Vedic fact and these houses
of gods must have been made in the likeness of human habitations.

Now coming to another topic in hand, the origin of the temple

architecture, a very learned exposition of it is found in the ‘Hindu
Temple' by Prof. Stella Kramrisch. Similarly a good many scholars
notably Fergusson, Havell, etc. have also treated this subject with a
master hand. But as this is a study of architectural treatise, it would
not be proper for me to enter into any lengthy digression on the
subject. I would, therefore, confine myself to each of those salient
points for which I can gather some material in the text.

The different architectural origins of the temple may be summed

up as:-

1. Citi, the Altar.

2. The Dolmen.
3. The shed of initiation.
4. The Tabernacle.
5. The Image of the mountain.
6* The Image of the cavern.
7# The Philosophical background*
 — •

Ttifi OklOIN OF THE PRASADA VASTU 409

These are the principal sources from which not only the origin
of the temple is traced, but they also provided the contributory
elements in the development of the temple supcrstruclflre as well as
the temple as an institution of worship.

The three most important structural limbs of the Prasadas are:—

1. The Base— Adhisthana, also called Pftha (S. S. 61). It is also
called Masuraka, Adyahga, Kuttima, Vastvadhara, as per evidence
of the I. G, P., another work of the same period.

2. The covered and enclosed chamber technically known as

Garbhagi’ha.

3. The superstructure thereof.

These principal architectural parts of the Prasadas refer to the

corresponding three dilTereiU sources oi origins.

The Adhis^hana, the socle or the base ot the Vedic altar, the

Citi, got itself incorporated in the structural genesis of the Prasada as

its Pijha and Upa-pltha, the pedestal. In these lower parts of the
temple — the pedestal, the Adhisthana, the socle, and the Vedika, is

embodied the memory of the sacred ground (Vedf) with its piled up
altar (Citi) where the sacrificial offerings were carried out by the
flaming fire. Further Prof. Stella has rightly remarked :

“The Vedic altar survives in the structure of the body of the

temple, in its lowest and highest part. In technique and name, the
Prasada, the Hindu Temple shares in the name of the Vedi and Citi.
Its total structure, moreover, when seen from outside, has the
appearance of a massive pile, and is more a monument than a building.
The thickness of the Wvills of the Garbhagrha and often nearly
compact superstructure, also reveal that the entire Prasada is a Citi.
This is confirmed by its very names, Prasada, Sadma, Sadanam,
derived from or identical to the word Sadanam itself which denotes
the piling of the Vedic altar.” These very names are full of meaning
and imply a tradition of a very long standing. A similar conclusion
is furnished by the meaning of Gaitya and Ayatana, as the Prasada has

done; etymologically and originally, these are all piled up seats or

altars, sancturies in the open and also within an enclosed space.

This is, in brief, the account of the origin of lowermost parts of

the PrasSda, the Hindu Temple. Now we come to the dolmen,

as a proto**type of the Prasada. Here in the dolmen, with its one

large flat slab of stone, supported by three upright slabs set on edge so
as to form a small chamber with one side open to serve as an entrance,
many an ancient shrine has got their proto-type. The flat-roofed
410 THE ORIGIN OF THE PRASADA VASTU

temple has the dolmen for iis prolopye. In the previous chapter,
I have already indicated that in the Samaradgana Sutradhara all

the temple types, evolved and integrated into what the Prasada is,

have been very elaborately described* In its 49th Chapter, entitled

^‘Rucakadi-prasada*', it exclusively treats of stone or brick built and
also wooden PrasSdas without ^ikharas. They are Ghadya Prasadas
—covered by chadyas of many varieties e, g. some arc double-roofed
and others are triple-roofed. Even today buildings of this class have
survived in many parts of India and especially in Bengal. These
Priisidas, as just mentioned, in my opionion, owe their origin to the
dolmen. That is, here the roof is flat and does not carry a superstruc-
ture. Some of the earliest examples, in the monuments preserved for
us, include the Ladh khan temple at Aiholc. It may be pointed out

that the flat roofed temples are found in two types:-—

1. The Dolmen type

2. The Pillarcd-hall type.

Prof. Stella Kramrisch remarks (H. T. page 154, F. N. 65) of

these aforesaid SamarShgana Prasadas “These Prasadas were not
:

dolmen temples ;
their interiors were rich in pillars.*^ I beg to submit
to differ with the learned Professor. The dolmen is a crude structure.
Its existence is corroborated by many a
even in prc-historic times
find. From Himalayas Comorin, the Linga within the dol-
to cape
men shrine constitutes the aboriginal temple to this day. Many
Saiva shrines of this type have been discovered by the Archaeolc gical
survey (see H.T. 153; F.N. 61 and 53 on p. 150). Naturally, therefore,
these types of the temples as described in the Samarangana, an autho-
medieval compendium on Architecture, belonging to the lith
ritative
Century, must be improved upon both from the practical i e. architect
and tradition and the Gastric norms so much
tural genesis of the art,
developed by that time. Moreover, the grand and eloquent style of
architecture which is the characteristic of this work can not rest
satisfied unless it has been raised from the status of the primitive and

aboriginal shrines into pillared hall temples.

Raised from the earth where it has stood in accordance with the
Megalithic practice, the flat roofed stone temple on its plinth of terrace,
is an established type having its proto-type in the dolmen and lavishly
and richly pillared and roofed, according to the Samaranga:pa Sutra-
dhSra.

We have recognised the dolmen shape raised on a socle or base:

^bat is, Adhis|h5na or Pftha (according to tbc S. S,) in the flat roofed
 THE ORIGIN OF THE PUASADA VASTU 411

temples so elaborately and exhaustively described by the Samarauagna

in its 49th Chapter. This shape has also formed nucleus, the
sanctuary of those temples having high superstructure and whose walls
arc rich in buttresses and manifold sculptured images. Such temples
enclose this small cubical inner space, unbroken by any opening except
the entrance. A perusal of the manuals of the Vastu™Sastra notably
the Samarahgana Sutradhara, however, shows such temples as hav-
ing entrances at the cardinal points. On the other hand, the temples
that are preserved, generally have only one door to the Garbhagflia,
the place of others on the other cardinal points) is taken by the
(i. e,

Ghaua-dvaras or massive doors- (cf. Tantra-Samuccaya T. 11-23)

Prof. Stella Kramrisch takes them as ^niches in the walls of Prasada
and the walls of inner chambers in the interior as a rule are plain.

I think that before the temple as an institution cainc into being,

there were two principal modes of worship which have contributed
towards the origin and the development of the Prasada-vastu, namely
the Vedic Sadas of the Aryans and the Tabernacle of the non- Aryans.

*‘While the primeval shape of the dolmen is, architecturally, the

proto-type of the sanctuary enshrined in the Hindu Temple, other
closed types of sacred buildings, also have preceded the Hindu Tem-
ple. They too have lent their meaning and added their shape to the
cube of the Garbhagfha. They are the Vedic shed of initiation and
undatable rabernacle’ made of bamboo or branches of a large palm
‘

leaves only, in which the divine presence is known to dwell while

being worshipped”.

While expounding the connotation of the Temple in the last

chapter, I have already said that the evolution of the 'femple, the
Prasada is a sum total of all the traits known as different institutions
of worship and the different architectural styles. The contribution
towards the evolution of the temple as made by the aboriginals in the
dolmen serving as a proto-type for the roofed and pillared temples
has already been explained. The other non-Aryan clement is the
Tabernacle. Even to this day wc have a proto- type of the hoary
institution in our Satyanarayana-kathS, in which without any image,
wc simply invoke the divine presence and in our glorification and vene-
ration thereof, we decorate it with leaves, especially with those of
Kadall, Amra, A5oka, etc. and give shape of a pavillion. These decora-
tions and ornamentation have served as the motif for the later decorations
and ornamentations in the Temple (S. S. the 34th chap). The other
ancient institution (Aryan one) which has contributed in its own wayi
 —

412 THE ORIGIN OF THE PRASADA VASTU

is the institution oi Sad,

has already been hinted above. Both thes6
have lent the architectural evolution to the internal and external parts
of the temple. These are the proto-types of the temples having curvi-
linear Sikhara and were to rise above the Garbhagj'ha on their
superstructure. Four bamboos etc. or branches fixed at the corners
of a square, their stems bended and tied horizontally by writbs or
strings at regular interval is its pristine shape.

Let us take first the internal part, the Garbhagfha. What is this

Garbhagfha ? Samarahgana Sutradhara in its 19th Chapter on 6ala-

architecturc in relation to a residence speaks of Garbhagrha as :

For this Garbhagfha, the precursor is the secluded interior of

the sadas on the Mahavcdl which has become the precursor also of
the Garbhagrha in the Prasada in its raised terrace, that is the Jrgati
(vide S. S. 68. 4). ‘The designation Tabernacle*, says Prof. Stella
Kramrisch ‘is used here as equivalent to house of god ‘Devagrha', —
which is the name given to this primeval form of the temple by the
people who set it even today*. Even to day in our Kir tanas and
Kathas we have not forgotten our past practice this hoary institu- —
tion of the by-gone ages of unrecorded history. These are some of
the most flourishing non-Aryan elements in our composite culture.
This tabernacle also accounts for the institution of the moveable and
immoveable idols stationed in temples. The immoveable, the Dhru-
va*bera permanently fixed in the Garbhagrha. The moveable the
is

Adhruva-bera, the Gala is carried out in procession (cf. Ratha-yatra as

an annual event in the Jagannatha Puri when His chariots are drawn
in procession). Similarly, the temple as Vimana or chariot is

neither a copy of the temple nor is it its model. The temple, the
Prasada, is the stationary form, the chariot is the moveable form of
the scat and house of God, the tabernacle. And Samarangana Sutra-
dhira corroborates this fact (S. S. 49, 56, 63, Chapters see Qs.).
Prof. Stella Kramrisch has rightly concluded fsee H. T. p. 159):

“Both these Tabernacle and the image express

varieties of the

the two-fold nature of divinity, who as a Pure Principle, iSiva, is

immovcalc and has an immoveable seat (Acalasana), and as §akti,
Energy, is movement itself and is, therefore, enthroned on a movable
scat (Calasana). This two-fold aspect of divinity has its corresponding
rites, images, and architectural forms such as the Prasada, its scat

and the Chariot (Yana) its vechiclc**. The mythological way of brin-
ing this truth home, the SamarSngapa Sutradhara has said at so many
 THE ORIGIN OF THE PRASADA VA3TU 413

places in its on the origin and development of temples

delineations
(see previous Qs. on origin of the Prasada —
the Hindu temple) and,
therefore, it should not be criticised as ‘co^ifused’ by Dr. fthattacharya
(vide G. I. A. ).

So far we have been considering the body, the principal units of

the constitution of the Prasada in itsdiflfeient architectural origins,
but this account would remain incomplete if we do not take into our
consideration the different sources whicii have contributed to the
origin of shape of the the Prasadas thereof. From the references both
literary and the epigraphic, the temple as a mountain has found an
eloquent and increasing praise from the time going as for back as
the times of Puranas and Epics Moreover, the very residences of the
gods, innumerable as they were, were described on the mountain
peaks, the higest and sublimest among them, the KailMa, is the abode
of the great God v^iva. Naturally, therefore, this has also been a
tradition of architectural manuals to designate some of the sublimest
varieties of the temples, the Prasidas after the names of the moun-
tains, This has been done by the Samarahgana too, in conformity
with other ancient manuals of the science.In Biphat-sarnhita, and
Matsyapurana, Meru, Mandara and KaiiaSa arc the first three names
amongst the twenty types of temples. These arc all the names of
mountains and they have a vision behind them to be visualised by the
architecture in the shape of the Prasada, It is in these names that
the Hindu Temple gets its image, aim and distination of this world
edifice. The mountain Meru is of the greatest importance in this
respect as it forms the very abode of gods. And in the geography of
the Puranas (cf. Visnu P. Ilnd Gh. 11-17) which says, Mandara is the
the mountain, east of Meru, it can be imagined as the Eastern
Ura%nga Meru.
of the abode
of 6iva is situated to the
KailaJa,
north of Mt. Meru, and Sidhanta ^iromani (II III-36) speaks of it as
one of the three peaks of Meru, so either of these peaks, Mandara
and Kailala is a part of Meru. Gosmologically, the Mountain is the
axis of the world. The temple
a microcosmic emblem of all-perva-
is

ding formless macrocosmic reality, the Brahman. Therefore, the

mountain motifs of the nomenculture of the temple has been a great
tradition in India, the analogy of which can not be found elsewhere.

Thus mountains have given the grandest models to the

these
architectural genesis of their shape. The Mt. Meru is higly extolled
in the SamarSngana. It is called the Prasada-raja, king of the Prasadas
(cf. S. S. 55.3) and I shall later on show how this type of the Temple

Meru as described in the Samarldga^ia SutradhSra served as a model

414 the origin of the PRASAD a VASFtJ

in the actual architecture of the day. Prabandha Cintamani says,

‘*King Karnaof Gujrat constructed Karna-Meru Praslda in Anhilwad,

the name of the king being linked with the temple type Mcru’*.

Another motif serving as the model for the evolution of the

temple in the architectural origin more particularly the shape, has
come from the caves. The image of the mountain and the cave is
known in nature and is given form by the architect. The caves as
the abodes both for retreat and meditation, have been a very hoary
inst tution in our land. It also throws light on the cult of caverns.

Even to this day the Himalayas arc full of natural caves, small or
large and sacred. Moreover, the caves are ancient residences of gods.
It was not only on the banks of rivers, that they loved to dwell but
also in the caves. This institution is symbolic of man’s return to
nature and when given a concreatc shape, the architectural treatises
like SarnarSagana SutradhSra call them as Layana, one of the types

of the PrSsada, Another type is Guhadhara, Layana, etymologi-

cally a place of rest, is the name for rock* cut temples and Samarnh-
gana Sutradhkra in its (59th Chapter 236-237) has given a vivid
description and more will be said in a later chapter. Here it is
enough to say that to the natural habitation, both of the gods and
men— a happy union characteristic of the Satya-yuga that primordial
age is remarkable for its revival and reconstruction for retreat and
congregation to experience the self-same union. The rock-cut cave,
for this purpose, is a comparatively modern institution. The Ajivikas,

a Jain sect and the Buddhists were the first to cut the rock for the
purpose ( f cave habitation in peace and solitude, meditation and
contemplation. Prof Stella Kramrisch rightly remarks 5‘within
Brahmanism, the substitution of excavated caves for natural ones
took time to evolve”.

With this very brief exposition of the architectural origins of

temple structure, we can not refrain from commenting that all these
arc representative of the philosophical idea behind the temple as a
spiritual institutionfrom the Orthodox Hindu point of view. The
Hindu Temple, the Pr^sida, is not only a symbolic representation oi
the supreme reality in both the manifested and un«manifested formsi
but also is the sum total of all the basic architectural origins, a brief
notice of which has been taken in the previous pages. The architec-
tural evolution of the Hindu Temple is synchronous with the philo-
sophical speculations of Hindus.
 CHAPTER 111

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRASiOA-VASTU

In the previous chapter an attempt has been made to trace the
origin of the temple as an institution of worship as well as an archi-
tectural edifice. Here in this chapter an attempt is to be made to
trace its development. We know that the chief development of the
Indian Architecture centres round the Hindu Temple, distributed
all over this vast land as specimens of different styles more particu-
larly the Northern and Dravidian ones is the two principal parts of this
country —the Aryavarta, the North and the Daksin5patha the Deccan,
Scholars have amply investigated this subject in their monumental
works. Savants like Havell, Fergusson, Brown and Coomarswamy
and Stella Kramrisch, to mention only a few of them, have in their
respective volumes, investigated into this branch of architectural
studies in relation to the monuments, as they arc preserved to us.
Naturally all these volumes are an attempt to evaluate the develop-
ment of the Temple, the most fascinating architectural activity of
the Indian architects and their patrons — the ruling dynasties of both
the ancient and medieval India— Ghalukyas, Pallavas, Cbolas,Pandyas,
rulers of Vijayanagaram and Hoysalas, all belonging to the southern
India, their northern counterparts being those belonging to Orissa,
Khajuraho, Rajputana, Central India, Gwalior and a host of others.
Religious fervour was at the root of this architectural renaissanc e both
in India and the West. Jainism and Buddhism and Brahmanism, all

three religious currents have contributed to the marvel of archi-

tecture, of which we can be proud. I have expounded the thesis
more than once that the Indian architecture got impetus for its

evolution and development from religion and under the patronage of

the kings, it made Not one, not two,
singular strides of development.
but dozens of temples, both rock-cut cave-temples and religious
edifices of Prisadas and VimSnas are stupendous in their craftsman-
ship and marvelous in the designs and supernatural in the accomp-
lishment This great achievement may fittingly c termed as the I

architectural renaissance of our land. The saying that literature is

the mirror of society, if it has got any truth behind, the Samarangana
Sutradhira, the standard compendium of the medieval architecture
has portrayed this mass activity of mankind in India when “as if the
whole population bad to a man been apprenticed to the stone mason“
otbffwise bow cm we explain %h^% in India every hamlet has its
416 PRASADA-VASTU

cluster of shrines and in every town the tall spires rose of temples
singly or in groups. Mr. P. Brown is very apt when he says, “It
should be realised that in all works of art, and particularly in the
temple architecture of the country, in the mind of the Indian > eople,
the religious, philosophical and meta-physical qualities of the produc-
tion takes first place, the artistic character being regarded as second-
ary. The intellect of the age, absorbed largely in divine contemplation,
is reflected in the temple ideal, where the spiritual dominated the
material*' (vide Indian Arch.).

This is, in very brief, only a hint at the colossal works of art
that the artisans have achieved to the glory of gods, having added
glory to themselves betokening the glorious past. Naturally, therefore,
in a work like the present one, in which a study of a manual of archi-
tecture is the main concern, the kind of investigation as has been
done by the Indologists mentioned above, is out of place. Here I am
concerned to see, on the basis of the material available in the texts,

how work mirrors the development of temple building in

far this
norms prescribed by the Texts of
India in relation to the different
the Vastu-Sastra and more especially the text under review, the
Samarihgana Sutradhara.

I have already said before, that Temples have formed special

fascination of the king, who as a great devotee himself has written
with devotion on the devotional architecture devoting more than
half of the work to the un-parallelcd delineation of the Prasada
Vastu. I, without any detailed introduction or digression
therefore,
therefrom, must point out the basic point of view, of the analysis of
this As a matter of fact, the greater part of this Part is an
topic.
analysis of the same topic —
the development of the Temple Architec-
ture. But the parts may be distinct so that the whole becomes
integrated, not a mere jumble. For example, the development in the
categories (i.e. jStis) and varieties, the divisions and classifications of
numerous temples as has been done in the work will form a separate
chapter. The development of the temple from the point of view of
—
styles Nagara and Dravida together with an additional list of several
others— a special contribution of this work, will form a separate
chapter. The development of the temple architecture in relation to
sculpture and ornamentation—*thc decorative art has formed a sub-
heading of another chapter. This is an outline of the development
in relation to the matter. The transcendental, or more correctly the
metaphysical and spiritual development forming the tt\xt genius of

the Hindu Temple as a great institution, must also he spoken of

 PRASADA-VASTU 417

somewhere and this forms a part of another chapter under the plann-
ing of the Prasada. Therefore, the delimitation of tlie topic is a
natural consequence. Here, in this chapter, I have to view the struc-
tural —
development the development of the body of Prasada, the
nucleus of which has already been found out in the diilcrcnt origins of
the Prasada, the Vedic altar, the Giti, the Sad, the shed of initiation,
the dolmen, the Tabernacle and the image of the mountain. Herein I
shallhave to occupy myselt with the two principal types of structural
—
development of the temple ^the pyramidal shape and the superstruc-
ture thereof and the curvilinear shape, the Sikhara and the super-
structure thereof.

The text of the SamarShgana Sutradhara is full of prescriptions

and the illustrations thereof in the different categories of the temples
enumerated therein, I may also point out here that as the Samaraii-
gana Sutradhara belongs to the eleventh century, the medieval
period of Indian history, many a new type of temple had arisen in
consonance with the rise of the temple as a sacred institution itself, a
notice of which has already been taken in a previous chapter of
this part.

Again, these introductory remarks in connection with this topic

of the development of Prasltda-vastu would remain incomplete, if I

do not touch upon another essential element iu the development,

namely the materials, the different categories of which will form a sub-
heading of another chapter. These are some of the broad currents
which had risen from the different sotirces culminating in the
Prasada mystically as deep as ocean and as higli as the mountain.

Now coming to the subject proper, I have already indicated that

this topic has got two angles, namely the development of thePrasada-
vastu as;

(1) The pyramidal super-structure and

(2) The curvilinear super-structure.

Let us first take the first angle and see how far the Samaraiigana
epitomises the different ramifications of the pyramidal super-structure
which has given birth to some of the stupendous specimens in the
monuments, the examples of which have survived to us in temples
like BfhadiSvara Temple at Tanjore.

Both in the pyramidal super-structure and the curvilinear one,

the devclppment of the Prasada- vastu is intimately concerned with
the philosophical background or transcendental aspect forming an
 —

418 PRASADA-VASTU

architectural content in consonance thereof. Dr, Kramrisch is very

apt in her remarks when she says: Works of architecture serve a
purpose; the Hindu Temple as much as a Gothic cathedral exceed
their function of being a house or seat of divinity. While their orien-
tation and expansion are in the four regions of space, their main
direction, in the vertical, is towards God, the supreme principle,
which is beyond form and above His seat or house of manifestation.
From all these regions of space, from its walls in the four directions
and their corners in the intermediate directions, the PrasSda, rises
bodily towards High point, tier on tier, until diminished in its bulk,
its

it forms the High Altar (vedl) on which is placed the crowning

High Temple or the Amalaka with its finial that ends in a point.’*
(H. T. 179).

This fundamental conception of the Prasada viewed in the light

of the architectural form can not have a proto-type in the residential
houses either of men or kings. The Hindu Temple, the Prasada
having its own characteristic of divine evolution and development,
can not be mistaken for, or derived from a palace or any dwelling of
man and the Samarahgana has fully realised this fact as would be
evident in further delineation,

According to the early manuals of the Vastu-Sastra and the Sama-

rShgana which keeps up to that tradition, though it has added to their
list, the super-structure is comprised of the following principal parts:

1. If it is a curvilinear and truncated body,

(a) Kantha (a neck), gala or griva;

(b) Amalaka (crowning part) or

2. If it is a pyramidal truncated body —a small High Temple

(call Vimlina or Harmya) whose walls form the neck (kantha, gala,
it

griva) of its massive dome-shape as the crowning part.

M. B, Sikhara in the present context is used to denote this

whole super-structure including the crown and upto the finial.

Again it may be pointed out here that in the South Indian Texts
(cf. ISanaSivaguru-deva-paddhanti, Part IV. Gh. XXXIl) the pyra-
midal super-structure is designated by the number of its storeys
(Bhumis), whereas Sikhara is the name of the dome-shaped massive
roof of the small crowning miniature temple only. This iSikhara or
massive dome-shaped roof is described as square or circular or si;?c-
sided or eight-sided.
 PRASADA-VASTU 419

Again I entirely agree with the leai'ned authoress of Hindu

Temple when she (Page 182), *‘i^ikhara thus particularly denotes
says,
a shape curvilinear in the vertical section whether ‘it is used to
designate the whole super*structure of North Indian Prasadas or the
cupola of the High Temple only which is placed on top of the
super-structure of South Indian Prasadas. This two-fold use of the
term ^ikhara in Indian Vastu-Sastra has led to wrong interpretations.
Its square or round etc. horizontal section on South Indian Temple

(iSiraschanda; Mayamata, XVIII-1) has mistakenly been considered

by modern scholars a criterion of the entire super-structure of a
Hindu Temple”.

Again it may be pointed out that various kinds of high roofs of

the Prasadas existand are prescribed in the texts and more particular-
ly in and triple together with so many other
the S.S. the 49th (double
super-impositions). These Prasadas of the Samarangana Sutradhara
are the examples of roofs having this variety of super-structure.

Again some of these types of Prasadas have:-—

(a) Barrel roof (aspidal temple). It is an adaptation of the
Buddhist Caitya hall — cf, Kapoteivara temple.
(b) Vaulted roof having a ridge (rectangular sanctuary)— cf. the
Rathas at Mammaliapurarn.
(c) Keel-vaul ted— typical of the top of the gate-towers of the
temples in South India.

(d) Domes —^belonging especially to huts of hermits, to chapels

and temples where round domes arc more frequent. These various
dome-shapes were transmuted, as extant examples show, from their
leaf covered proto-type (Parna-kuU or Parha-Sala with bamboo frame),
into brickand stone. They form the solid shape of the small High —
temples which crown the South Indian Prasadas with its pyramidal
super-structure.

Thus both the two main types of the super-structures of the fully
evolved Hindu Temple, have truncated bodies, their sides which
are cither straight or curved, are terminated by a platform (Skandha-
the shoulder course). Above rests the crowning portion (a miniature
Viinana or an Amalaka) whence rises the finial.

components and is illustrated in

This super-structure has several
several types of themonumental temple-buildings, a detailed notice
of which has been taken by Prof. Stella Kramrisch. For the sake of
completeness, however, they may be briefly noticed.
 — —

420 PRASADA-VASTU

The first type of the pyramidal super-structure is one formed of

slabs. This is represented in the dolmen type sliriucs scattered in
South India and the Himalayas. It is a pristine type of the pyramidal
super-structure surmounted by an Amalaka.

The second type consists of the straight trunk with round edged
slabs. Though this type had its proto-type in the first, the slabs in
diminishing size are placed on theflat roof to bring out an enormous

sizeboth in the super-structure and the projections thereof. Roofs

super-imposed on roofs — double-roofed, triple-roofed, Dvichadya and
Trichadya—-is the subject matter of the 49th Chapter of the S. S.

Thirdly, the pyramidal super-structure composed of storeys or

Bhuinis has three varieties:*—

(i) The stepped trunk of the Pyramid formed by single storey,

(ii) The High Temple (Ksudra-Alpa-Vimana) and
(iii) The enclosure of chapels.
N.B. See H.T. for details and also the chapter XI of the Study
^‘The Correspondence of the Prasadas of the S. S. into monumcnts’\

With this account of the development of the super-structure of

the temple as has been very ably done by Prof. Stella Kramrisch, we
are better equipped to take into account the different specimens of the
development of the Prasada-vastu as expounded in the Samarangana
SutradhSra which 1 have said at many places in this Study, mirrors
alround development of the temple architecture and the temple
types developed and evolved by this lime.

In accordance with the text, the principal types of temples,

embodying growth of super-structure may be broadly
this classified
in the following two varieties:

1. Pillared hall temples having double and triple roofs with the
Various super-structure, as illustrated in the 49th Chapter ‘Rucak3di
Prasadas*, the initial chapter on the Prlsada dedicated to the different
deities. This, in my opinion, is the initial stage of the development
when the Virnana type of ostentatious buildings, a characteristic of
thcDravidian architecture served the model for the temples to be typi-
fied in their proto*types. These were derived from the five shapes of
tbeVimlinas, and were enjoined to be constructed in the towns for their
beauty and grandeur. They were to take all the principal shapes-—
square, oval, etc. etc. (S. S. 49.1-10). We know that, Indian Architec-
ture in the begining of its evolution was a wooden architecture, natu^*
rally, therefore, in the construction of these temples, the direction
 —

PRASADA-VASTO 421

regarding the material to be used is given for the employment of

—
wood, and again the simplicity of the buildings namely predominence
of the pillars, the most ancient building model and the application cf
the ancient wooden beams and logs (cf. iSaddarukaj, on the line of
6ala houses is also surmised to support their initial evolution (cf. S.S*
Chapter 49 last verse):

l^fer §W3RRT

(?)

It

Here the words of special significance are — “Daravanam” and

*Surabhavarianam’ giving the genesis of the early wooden architecture
and its adoption in the temples being replicas of the popular !§ala

houses, as the second word of this verbc indicates.

2. Sikharottam Prasadas.

In number and wealth and distinction, these temples having the

curvilinear super-structure, are examples of wider development and of
higher connotation of the temple as an institution of Puja Vastu.
They are spread in the four-fifth of India. They have manifold types
and innumerable varieties forming a great galaxy of the temple-cons-
tellation in the firmament of Indian Architecture. Naturally,
therefore, the treatment of these Prasadas has occupied the greater
space of the manual in a grand and eloquent style, characteristic
only of a king, who is a god among men, Nrdeva, and when helped
by the gods on the earth, the Bhudevas, it is simply marvelous. The
Prasadas as described in Chapters 55, 56, 57, 59, 60 and 63 fall under
this head and it is to be noted that they arc the different varieties of
this broad heading having its manifold evolutions as per the different
and the regional traits together with the geographical influences
styles
and the broad religious beliefs. All this has been examined in a
separate chapter entitled ‘The Style of the Prasadas*.

We know that the curvilinear Sikhara is a characteristic of the

Nigara style and this Nagara style by the eleventh century, the time
of the Samarangana, had given rise to many sub-styles like Lata or
Latina, V2vaja (Vairata), Bhumija etc. These were the sub-styles
from the geographical point of view. LS|a, the ancient name of
Gujarati is the style which rose and culminated in the temples of

Gujarata. The SamarShga^a is the chief exponent of this style. The

author of this work living in the vicinity of this part of the country,
 :

422 PRASADA-VASTU

naturally, must influence and be influenced by, tliis region. Some of

the temple types (they may
be called styles also) arose out of the local
charactcristi!ts of the craftsmanship and the religious beliefs. Hence
the excessive display of ornamentation on some of the temples of
Gujarat, has given rise to a particular sub-style known as Lalita
Prasada, as described in this book under the 56th Chapter, 25 of them
are examples of this variety. Similarly, as influenced by the sacred-
ness of the temple institution and the tradition of Pradaksina, its
corre.^ponding evolution in the temple architecture gave rise to the
Saiidhara Prasadas, the temples having a circumambulatory passage
alrouud, meant for the devotees to pay their homage not only to the
deity enshrined in the temple, but to the temple itself, the body and
the concrete manifestation of God, who is formless. Similarly,
there are several other varieties which will be dealth with in three
subsequent chapters — -the classifications and the styles.

Here we have to take into our account the broad elements of the
development of the Prasada in regards to its curvilinear super-struc-
ture, the most common characteristic especially of the North Indian
temples, dedicated to Lord ^iva— the God whose abode is the highest
peak of the world— the KailaSa.

We see that when the buttresses make their apearance on the

otherwise plain wall of a temple, its roof too is no longer a flat one,
it carries the super-structure, the Sikhara. This is first stage of the
development. Later on, according to the complicated architectural
traditon,many complex and intricate processes were the result. In
works like H.P. XIII and Agni-Puraria XII, which preceded the
Samarangana Sutradhara by centuries, the construction of the
curvilinear Sikhara is prescribed by means of a division in geometrical
progression by four- fold division This is the underlying
principle of the buttressment of the curvilinear super-structure. By
the time of the S am arangan a Sutradhara, however, this process became
more developed. We have indicated that the Agni Parana speaks of
the four Sutras which are to be separately drawn from the base of the
l^ikhara upto the other end—-the Skandha. In the Samarahgana
Sutradhara, on the other hand (cf. the 57th Chapter) it is made clear
that this shoulder course of the Sikhara generally assumes 6 parts in
width, the base of the Sikhara, measuring 10 parts. Again the following
lines of Samarahgaigia Sutradhara are worth quoting, in which it is

prescribed that the height of the trunk of the iSikhara being given, it

should be divided by geometrical progression into a certain number of

parts, three, four, five or six
 PRASADA-VASTU 423

“'?rg^: qiTs^ ii n«/i

“?«r^ ii k'sklk ^<»

“?ftfr: <Tajpjt ?55t 5r5T Il

JV'.B.—The diagramtic representation in the apendix will make it

clear how PadmakoSa or VenukoSa can be formed with these

geometrical progressions three to four, (Triguna and Caturguna).

The Prasadas described in the Samarahgana SStradhara

as
under the heading “Mervadi Vimfika” (though under this heading
:

a variety of fitfy other Utkj*s^—-superior types of Prasadas are also

described) with their curvilinear superstructures are ‘‘the most parti-
cularly Indian amongst the monumental shapes of the temple. While
cube, prism, and pyramid belong to sacred architecture not only in
India, the monumental shape of the ‘Tabernacle’, originally of branches
etc. curving towards one point, is the pre-eminent shape of the Plindu
Temple, Rich in possiblity, they have been elaborated and massed
around the central dominent theme, accompanying its direction
towards the highest point (H. T. p, 209-10).”

This super-structure of the curvilinear type has got three main

varieties, namely.

(1) As the cluster of the ^ikharas.

(2) The ^ikhara enmeshed in Gavaksas and

(3) The composite Sikhara.
These varieties will be developed in subsequent chapters (vide chapter
XI—The Correspondence of the Prasadas of the S, S. in the monu-
ments and the ‘concluding* chapter —An outline history etc.)

Now, while concluding this treatment of the development of

the Prasada-vastu into the super-structure of various types and
manifold designs, a word on the underlying idea of the general
form or shape of the super-structure and its allied function is called
for to bring home to the readers the implication of the material
super-structure in relation to its transcendental background. Dr.
Kramrisch has very ably brought out this point (H. T. p. 220)

“The shapes of sacred architecture absorbed by the super-structure

itself or subsumed to it are many. With them the image of the Mountain

was given an indefinite number of variations. The purpose of the super-

structure is always one and the same. It is to lead from abroad base to a
single point where all fines converge* In it are gathered the multifar*
424 PRASADA-VASTU

ious movements, the figures and symbols which are their carriers, in

the successive strata of the ascending pyramidal or curvilinear form of

the superstructure body they partake each in its
Integrated in its

proper place in the ascent which reduces their numbers and leads
their diversity to the unity of the point*’*

The Prasada, the Hindu Temple has three parts:—

1. The soild base or socle, its altar,

2 The sanctuary with its vertical wall and

3. The crowning part—the highest part, the Amalaka or the
High Temple.

‘‘Byform the Prasada leads from the square at the base to

its

the point above; by its cxaulted position and by its form,

which leads to the peak, the super-structure is the Mountain; its

mass is the vesture (kosa) in which is clad the Axis of the temple.
This emerges, in its top-most portion only, as section of a mighty
pillar, as the ‘neck’ (griva)of the temple, above the shoulder (Skandha)
of the super-structure. The symbol of the Pillar of the Universe
inheres in the picture of the World-mountain”,

The fundamental form of the super-structure is in keeping with

its purpose which is always one and the same. It is in a way the
journey of the man to the man through the vicissitudes of life,

symbolic of ups and downs till —a vision is realised— the destination

is reached.
 CHAPTER IV

THE PRASADA STYLES

Indian Temple Architecture is classified into three broad
divisions of styles namely, Nagara, Dravida and Vcsara. Standard
norms of judgment of a particular branch of art Or literature, science
or philosophy arc evolved only after a good deal of progress in that
branch has been made, dtyles of Architecture, could only have been
evolved after a good deal of progress in the architecture itself. The
origin of Indian Architecture and development has formed another
chapter of this work and hence it is enough here to say that in its
initial stage of development Indian Architecture did not bother about
watertight classification of styles of Dravida etc. The iSulba-sutras
and the manifold injunctions found in theGfhya and Srauta Sutras
regarding the Puja-vastu — the altars and Sadas— their layouts,
proportionate measurements and materials etc. formed the guiding
code for the Sthapatis and the Sthapakas of the old. As time passed
and current of architecture which had flown from that fountain
head of the Kalpa, took an independent course on its journey, it
became an indepedent theme for producing independent manuals of
the ^astra and there was a great line of Acharyas forthcoming. The
whole code was Brahmanised, Brahma, the Creator of the Universe was
the first Acharya. He gave this lore to Vilvakarma the heavenly —
architect. No divine lore could remain unpassed to the Asuras hence
the two schools flourished side by side. Thus this course of Vastu-vidya,
gave rise to two distinct styles —
namely Dravida and Nagara, the
former belonging to the school of Maya flourishing in the South beyond
the Vindhyas and the latter rising from the school of ViSvakarma
having its foot-hold on the northern India.

Now between these two styles of architecture, the nomenclature

and characteristics of the first one, namely the Dravida Style are
clear inasmuch as it represents its geographical and cultural content
in an unmistakable term. It represents that part of the country
which we call South, beyond the Vindhyas and the culture of the
Drividas. Now the question is, can we draw the same conclusion
regarding the other term, the Nagara which I have said before, is a
product of the North. The word Nagara is of an ancient origin as
is evident from so many references in the literature (see Ency. of
H. A. under ‘NSgara*), but it ^ives nowhere an explicit geographical
 —

26 THE PRASADA-STYLES

limit so as to compare the whole of the Northern India# Dr-

Acharya^s conclusion in this respect is worth mentioning (see Ency#
Hindu Arch. £69)# ‘‘From all the literary and cpigraphical instances
given above, it appears certain that the expressions —Negara, Vesarai
and DrSvida are primarily geographical. But the precise boundaries
of Nagara like those of Dravida and Vesara, are not traceable. Th^
epigraphical quotations however, would tend to localise NSgarft
somewhere within the territory of modern Mysore. But the NagarA
script, the N5gara*khanda of the Skanda-PurSpa and the Nagara
BrShmana representing some way or other the Northern India from
the Himalaya to the Vindhya and from Gujrata to Magadha, would
justly give a wider boundary to NSgara**.

This is one way of tracing the import of this style of Indian Archi-
tecture and this subject has formed a learned discussion among the
scholars writing on this branch of Indology, notably Fergusson, Havcll
and Coomarswamy, to mention only a few among that body of scholars
who have discussed this question in their respective ways and the
reader is referred to their work? for a detailed delineation pf this
thorny problem of Indian Architecture.
But as I am studying the S. S.| the question is: ‘‘Docs this
work throw any light on this subject?’^ Directly we have no such
evidence. Indirectly ho^vcver, we can draw some conclusion. We
know that the Aryans primarily, were the dwellers of villages, the
small units of habitation. The Epic India and the Buddhist India
saw the rise of many cities. Any town-planning in ancient India
V^as incofnplete unless it had allotted a good portion of the town to
the localisation of the temples dedicated to the different deities.
VStsySyana, a contemporary of the Epic Age may be given the credit
of enunciating the code of the citizens in their daily life of culture ajid
refinement. Hence the rise of cities was synchronous with the rise
of the citizens and the citizenship, which in their turn influenced all

the arts of culture and more so the greatest of arts, the art of archi-
tecture, 1^0 art, unless it arouses an aesthetic feeling, is an art at all.

Hence a building, whether it is a residential house, or the palace of

a king or the abode of God—the temple, must be beautiful, other-
wise the builder, the Yajamana, the Sthapati and Guru, the gthSpaka
Acharya consider all their labour lost. Hence a new criterion of
house-building became as established norm. From this aesthetic
StAad-point the S. in many places has associated this eletpent of
NSgara style, as would be evident
“b??autitudc*' with this styplc, th<?
from thp following quotations from the text;
 THE PRASADA-STYLEg 427

(ii) g^WIT
(iii) See the fuller passages below (vide the Origin of the Prlslda)*

Thus the Prasadas of the S. S., classified under the separate chap-
ters^'are those to be built in the Nagara style and the chief characteristic
of this style is the high standard of beauty— the very art to be made g
perfect and unblemished as to arouse a high sense of aesthetic experience.
This also fits meaning of the word.
in with the ordinary etymological
The word Nagara, from Nagara, a city means ‘pertaining to
as derived
a city or town’, \gain the ‘Nagara* was the word for Pajaliputra,
the capital of th^ empire under the Guptas and their successors.
This is the generally accepted meaning also in the Samarangana*
“Prasadas of stone and burnt bricks should be built for the adornment
of towns, the Nagaras**. This is not SamarSngana’s injunction alone,
it has a tradition behind it. KSiyapa, quoted by Utpala, in his
commentary to the ‘Bi’hat-samhita* LV.16 similarly enjoins that
‘temples conforming with the prescriptions should be built according
to the towns (pura)

Thus, in my opinion, it is futile to locate the geographical

boundary of the word Nagara, some scholars have done according
as
to their theory that all these names are geographical in nature.

In Apar^jitd-prccha, however, Nagara is definitely ‘Northern*.

A good case for this been ably made out by P. A.
proposition has
Mankad (vide Introduction to Aparajita-pfccha of Bhuvanadeva).
The Aparajita-pfccha gives Nagarl Rckha as “Northern” curvilinear
line of ^ikhara,

Dravi^a is quite clear. The geographical denotation of the

word NSgara expounded on the authority of Dr. IP* K. Acharya*
is also
Vesara we will presently see. Let us dwell a bit more on Nagara#
The aforesaid connotation of the word Nagara (a word of doubtful
denotation) goes well with the enunciation propounded in the
previous paragraphs that a culture rcvblving round the four walls of
a city miisi be an ideal culture. Hence the standard of a good
building, temple or any other buildiitg, is set by the townsmen
theriis^lv^s i. e. the NSgarikas. The Sah^rdayas, thb Sabhyas, have
been the best judges of art at all times in all arts, be, it poetry or
painting. The art of architecture should, therefore, be not excluded,
*’)
(cf. K.aHda«a, SI «TS

•fhe ternary of Nfigara« Dravida and Vesara after aU is an

e*|^esston of the exuberance of the building activities of the most
428 THE l>RASADA‘-STYtEi

famous centres localised in the three more important regions of thi

iand. This triad further more is made up to imply not only the
wholeness of Irwdia but also the completeness of the three gunas,
like other ternaries as symbols of totality—three principles of
manifestations, three castes. IJanaSivagurudeva’s remarks as
contained in his Paddhati — III. XXX— 47, support this contention.

In some of the texts on the Vastu-k>astra the ternary is described

on the basis of the shapes of the buildings (vide Ency. H.A.). Nagara,
one of the three styles of Architecture is quadrangular in shape, the
other two Vesara and Dravida being respectively round and octagonal.
The Manasara supports this classification of styles having the basis of
the shape of buildings square or otherwise, which is a late innovation.
But the question is: When did it arire? To what period of history did it

belong? Nobody can decide. The paucity of data is simply formidable.

The S.S. along with so many other works (like V.P., Br S., M.P.,
A.P.) classify temples into various kinds (see ahead) of which some
are ractangular, some octagonal and others oval or circular. Again ail
these temples so classified are as examples of Nagara Style or Order.
Hence the contention of Dr, Bhattacharya, that the criterion of shape
is not a universal criterion and that it is a late innovation, seems to be

tenable. It is therefore, quite clear that according to ^ilpa texts only

square temples were not Nagara temples. Nagara temples, according
to SamarShgana, admit of all possible and prevalent shapes—rectan-
gular, oval, hexagonal, octagonal, etc. etc. Similarly it can be said
that the circular ones were not Vesara temples and the only six-sided
or octagonal temples were not the Dr^vida temples. Therefore, it

would not be incorrect to '•ay that this classification of Nagara etc,

do 8 not primarily take the shape of the buildings or temples as crite-
rion of classification. It was a cultural or geographical consideration

as hinted above. Perhaps Dr. Kramrisch is nearer the truth when

she says; **The early sources from the ‘Bj’hat-Samhita* onwards to
the earlier chapters of the ^Agnipurana* classify the temples neither
according to Nagara, Dravida and Vesara, nor according to their
regional distribution. They norms of proportio^^ate measure
give the
and list twenty possible shapes of the Prisada which conform with the
canons’^*— (H. T* 286),

But it may be pointed out here that the 20 temples of the early
Vastu-^lastra-Tcxts, having rio styiiatjic criterion either of shape or
region, only representing all the possible shapes of the PrasSda, when
treated in this book, the S.S. of the eleventh century A«D«— the
medieval period of Indian History, are called NSgara t^SsSdas
 tHE PRASACA-^STYtES 429

(vide Chapter 63rd). These twenty temples of the early manuals in

the eleventh century arc called Nagara. This is how they are dis*-
tinguished from the Dravida Prasada (vide S.S. 61-62) and the VavaU
Prasadas (64). Nagara as a style of temple-architecture was a later
criterion of classification. By the time of the S.S. however, it was an
established style, the style of universal recognition and having its sway
all over India as would be evident from the discussions on another
style of equal merit, the Dravida Style.

DrSfida.

As the S.S. belongs to the ViSvakarma school of Vastu-vidya

handed down from Brahmi, the Creator of Universe, and as the style
which originatea in this school is the Nagara style— the standard style
and the perfect style of universal value and recognition and having
its sway not only all over the North but also in the South, a detailed

discussion was necessary in this study of the S.S., but as regards the
Dravida, the paucity of space forbids me to go beyond a few pages.
Temples, characteristic of this style have been treated in two chapters
in the S.S« (vide Chapters 61 and 62). The main topic of both these
chapters (sec Summary also) are the five-fold Pithas and the same
number of the Talacchandas characteristic of the evolution of the
DrSvida temples by this time of the S.S., together with the twelve
classes of Dravida Prasadas having one to twelve storeys. We have
already taken notice of the criterion of the shape as the distinguishing
feature of the three styles —^Nagara, Dravida and Vesara (vide Dr.
Acharya, Ency. H.A.). From the perusal of the contents of the S.S
(already referred to) and other Silpa texts mostly those belonging to
the South Indian group, however, it follows, that if one were to verify
the texts with reference to the existing monuments, the Dravidian
temples arc not hexagonal or octagonal in ground plan. This supports
our contention made before and Mr. Sarswati (Indian Culture VIII.
188) also views it in the same way. The descriptions of the Dravida
temples according to him are *Too meagre altogether to fit the facts**.
Thus if we evaluate the Dravidian temples in the following account,
it far from the truth.
would not be going The main characteristics
of the Dravidian temples are the square temples surmounted by a
dikhara which arc divided into compartments like storeys, on the top
of which arc two kinds of crowning pieces, one like that on the ‘Shore*
temple at Mamallapuram, and the other like the one in GapeSa
Ratha of that place. All the manuals on Vastu-Sastra especially those
belonging to the Maya school or DrSvida school, describe temple
divisions on the basis of the storeys in the Sikharas which might be
twelve in number or upto seventeen (cf. iSilparatna). The crowning
430 THE PRASADA-STYLES

piece is called the ^Stupl' with the KalaSa. And one of the most
representative Northern texts, the S.S., knew these real characteristics
of the Soutjhern or Dravidian temples. As
stated above, this work
most curiously, at the very outset, says that the Dravidian temples may
consist of storeys upto 12 in number and then these temples are classic
fied according to their number of storeys. The Samarahgana in this
respect exactly follows ihe tradition of the Southern texts.

Another point to be noted in relation to these Dravidian temples

is Northern texts describe the crowning piece of the
that all the
temples as an Anialaka or Amalasara. The South Indian texts with
the exception of KLirn kSgama and perhaps also Mayamatam never refer
to the Amalaka but always to the ^Stupl** These are the two quite
distinctive features of the Northern and the Southern styles or orders

of the Indian temples*

Vesara
Though the term Vesara, as the technical name of an Indian
style of architecture does not occur in this manual, or for that
matter perhaps in any of the North Indian text, yet as the ternary
Nagara, Dravi^a, Vesara looms large in contemporary discussions on
Indian architecture among the Indologists working on this branch,
and as it has found more than one interpretation, it becomes necessary
for the sake of completeness to say something on this too. The main
styles which theS* S. elaborates are Nagara and Dravida and the

triad of names
completed by the term Vavata (Varau) vide Chap*
is —
64, DigbhadrSdlprasSdas, It may be noted that VavaJji or Vara|a

has no place in the Sanskrit accounts of ancient Indian geography,

and as regards its location, we shall presently see.

The Vesara has been interpreted by scholars in more than one

ways. In Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture, Vesara is a style of
architecture once prevailing in the ancient Vesara or Tclugu country,
**India between the Vindhyas and the Kysna corresponding to Tamil
India’* (S.K. Aiyangar J. 1. S. O. A. Volume II No. 1 page 23*27)4
As Nigara style is distinguished by its quadrangular shape, tht
Dravida by its octagonal or hexagonal, the Vesara is distinguished by
its round shape (vide MinasSra LIIL 53-54).

^ II

Dr. Acharyas' remarks regarding this style are worth quoting:

“If the identification of Vesara with Teluga or Tri-kalinga it accepted.
 THE PRASADA^&TYLES 431

and if the reading Andhra for Randhra is also accepted, the Kalihga
and the Andhra would be two branches of Vesara, And as the
Dravida style is stated to be of the hexagonal or octagonal shape, it
would appear that the Dravida proper is octagonal and the Andhra,
which is placed between DravidaandtheVesara,ishexagonar\-—
ibid p. 261.

Though the learned Doctor has thrown a good light on this term,
it must be admitted, ih it this style was the most confusing one. Like
DrSvida, it does not admit a geographical division of temples, at the
most it is a stylistic one as per Holai inscription, which shows that
these terms indicate four classes of Indian architecture. Dr. Bhatta*
charya (159) says: ^^The difficulty is about the word Vesara, which
I think was not a style but indicated really the shape of a structure
being round (similar to the ring like ornament ‘Vesara' of the nose).
This may and remove the difficulties about the location
also explain
of the Vesara style of building. If it was a style based on geogra*
phical division, it was of very late origin not fully developed before
the eleventh century.” Again in foot-note he says, “The terms,
NSgara, Dravida and Vesara, therefore, meant, to South Indian
architects, three varieties of buildings of South India built of different
shapes, not three separate styles, viz. of North India, of the Deccan,
and of South India. Vesara means also a ‘mule*. Docs the word
refer, therefore to a hybrid style** ?

Vesara as mule or nose-pearl is absurd. The best and correct

meaning was given in the Manasara at a period when the word was
just coined. It is derived from that is an apse
combined with rectangle like this. ( The style was culti- I.

vated in the Ghalukyan country, cf. Durga temple.

The interpretation of the word ‘Vesara* as mule, is however accep-

ablc to Dr. Krarnrisch (H T. p 291). Dr. Kramrisch says “ Vesara :

in contra-distinction to Varata, is not the name of a country (though

in I.P. III.XXX 41 b Vesara, appears to have become substituted for,

or identified with Varafa), It means ‘a mule*, an issue of hcterogepc-

ous parents; According to Kamikagama, in plan, it is Dravida, in the
shape of its details, it is Nagara. It, therefore, denotes a mixpd
style.” “Vesara temples*' according to Dr. Stella Kramrisch (vide
H^T. p. 291) “are generally assigned t the country between the Vindhya
:>

Agastya (Nasik) or from the Vindhyas to the river Kfsna as in the

I^SnjiikSgama, It thus seems that Varaja and Vesara denote types of
certain temples, particularly assigned to the Deccan. But these
tep9ples, of ‘mixed type* are preserved to the South of the region
^jlpcated to the Vesara. They were built by the later Calukyas in the
m THE l^RASADA-STYtE$

Kanarcsc and by the Hoysala Dynasty in Mysore. They

Districts,
represent a school which consolidated its particular style, later than,
the temples«having a curvdiriear ^ikhara of those of the Dravida coun-
try, Certain special features of these temples result from an admix*
tureof Nagara detail to Dravida buildings; this is natural in a
region betwixt two powerful schools of which Nagara, the first and
the foremost is centred in MadhyadeSa, according to the Apar§jita»
Pfccha,~m bounded by the river Sarasvati in Kuruk*
the country
fetra, Allahabad, the Himalayas and the Vindhya and Dravida in the
South India. The earlier Galukya temples (type I) arc DrSvi^a in
plan, the later are Nagara in plan.

V5v2ta (VSrata).

As indicated before, the S. S. has no place for Vesara Besides

Nagara, Dravida, it has described two more styles, VSva^a (Vairl^a)
and Bhumija. As regards the former as many as twelve types of temples
(vide S.S. Digbhadradi-prasada-laksana, the 64th) in this order have
been described in the text. This order of Vavata Prasidas is also referred
to in Aparajita-prccha. The Hayaiirsa Pancaratra also refers to it

(vide Chapter 18). Again VSrata temples having storeyed pyramidal

super-structure arc referred to in Kamikigama.

Unlike Vesara, this word VSvata (for Vairata) seems to be a

territorial division like Dravida, It being derived from Varada
Vidarbha
(Berar) designates (Berar), which in the opinion of Dr.
Kramrisch extended from the river KysnS to about the Narmadi.

It may be, however, pointed out that in the opinion of Dr.Kram*

risch “the extant temples in this region however, neither conform to
the description of Vara^ (Vavata) Prasadas in the S. S. Ch. LXIV*
nor with that in the ‘Kamikagama*. The descriptions would more
closely fit the temples known as Chalukyans.

With due respect, I would submit that the Chalukyan temples

had two phases, the early Chalukyan as represented in temples at
Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal and the later Chalukyan as represen*
ted in the most artistic super-structure of Hoysala temples at Mysore.
Some of the specimens of the first phase, I have already classed them
as to be the illustrations of the pillared hall-temples*— the Chldya Pri*
s&das having double or triple roofs. They belong
and 7th
to 6th
century A. D. The later temples, however, rose after 1050 A. D.
Naturally, therefore, it docs not fit in with this characteristic of the
architectural style. Moreover, the descriptions of these templet as
we meet in the text, proV^^ us with ample justification to say that
 a

THE PRASADA-STYLES 433

they more or less developed under the influence of the Universal style,
the Nagara. The S. S. shows the Varata temples as similar in plan
to Nagara temples. They have retained their pyramidal# characteris-
tic as their super-structure does not seem to have been curvilinear.
Hence it appears, like Vesara, Vavata is a mixed stylc—a regional

style developed with characteristics of two prominent styles Nagara —

and Dravida. More I will say on these, in the subsequent chapters—
VI and xi.
Bhumija.
Literally, it is which must have originated and got
a local style,
developed some
in renowned centres of art owing their allegi-
of the
ance neither to the styles of the South or the Deccan nor of the North
— the two most predominent styles, the Dravida and the Nagara.
Dr. Acharya (Eiicy. page 271) has rightly interpreted it: ‘It originated
on the land or the style of the land, where the document was written.*
lie further says. ‘In one of the epigraphical quotations (No. 15)
Bhurnija mentioned alongside Dravida and NIgara and this Bhttmija
is

is apparently the same as Vesara*. Can it refer to the Assam-Bengal

style where theBliauma kings ruled? Nothing however, can be said
authoritatively.
rheS. S. in its chapter entitled ‘Bhumija-prasada-laksana, the
65th; has described three classes of these Prasadas, (a detailed notice
of which will form a sub-section of the subsequent chapter )—
Nisadha etc. four types of quadrangular temples, Kumuda etc,

seven Vrksu’jatiya temples, and Svastika etc, five As|a$ala

temples. It further describes twenty-five varieties of RekhS —
characteristic ornamentation in the super-structure of the Nagara
temples. All this supports the proposition as already indicated that
this is a mixrd style like Vesara. The materia) however, stands in
the way of giving a definite location.
Lata Style
In the end something must be said about La^a style. It is curious
to note that the text does not mention this style at all. Scholars like
Bhattacharya, locate the S. S. as the exponent of this style. In
Agnipurana the forty-five temples are said to be the specimens of
this style. In the S. S. however, these forty-five varieties have been
ramified into sixty-four varieties, having the basis of those of the
Agnipurana.

A fact of special notice in relation to the medieval temple

architecture is this that the ancient 20 types of Nggara temples as
described in the Bfhat-saiphitS, ViJvakar||ia-prakIla and Matsya*
434 THE PRASADA-STYLES

purSna though retained in Samarahgana also but their architectural

details together with the decorations and ornamentations, layouts
and super-stnacture, have given rise to the subtle details which
cliaracterise them as a great development in their art of architecture
by this period, namely, eleventh century A, D. Thus not only these
20 types developed themselves but they gave rise to such a style known
as Lata style. L5ta is an ancient name of Gujrat. It is the country to
the west of Vidarbha —Berar, the rich soil which many a beautiful
temple in the eleventh century enriched. And these styles so much
talked about in the contemporary books are only local or regional
traits. That is, the characteristic features of the cultural contents
of the region in which the temple buildings developed and got
typified. The culture of the region — DeSa must influence and also
predominate both over the body and the soul, that is, the shape, the
super-structure and the deity of the Prasada. In this connection
Varahamiliira’s dictum regarding the dresses and the ornaments of
the images is equally applicable in the evolution and development of
the shape and super-structure of the temple. Thus the region and
its culture must play an important role in determining the style of a
particular temple. Thus the style to my mind is the sum total of
both the physical and spiritual traits of the region in which a parti-
cular type of building is situated, whether it be a residence of God
or that of a man together with the genius of the architect, the
Sthapati which does not play a less important role. Samarangans
very aptly says: —

cigr II

(g^T) i

I have already pointed out that the Samarangana has treated

practically all the styles but particular attention is invited to

the treatment of the types of PrSsadas, e. g. in the chapter XLIX or

more properly Chap. LII, it is not the style but the type that
in
has been glorified. Perhaps in those days some of the great tem-
ples had become types by themselves. This word ‘type’ I am using
in the sense of a jSti. The most conspicuous Jati goes after a great
temple of a great deity, such as, Vairaja and Meru Thus it isonly
in a very brief outline that I have hinted at the basis of the classi-
fication of the temples in the S. S.
 CHAPTER V
PRE^SAMARANGANA CLASSIFICATION OF TEMPLES

Tills subject of classification has received an expert treatment

in works like Dr. Acharva’s Encyclopaedia, Dr. Kramrisch’s Hindu
Temple and Dr. Bhattacharya’s Canons of Indian Architecture* The
last two scholars have also utilised the contents of the Samarangana
Siltradhara in their respective ways. This chapter on the classifi-

cation of temples as given in the pre-Samarahgana works is like an

epilogue to the classification of the Prasadas as we find in this text of
the Samarangana to be taken up in the next chapter. This comparat-
ive account can help us in determining the development of the Temple
Architecture by the time of the Sarnaraiigana. But the literature
on this subject being very vast, we have to choose only represent-
ative works from amongst the four classes of literature: —
A. Vastu texts; B. Purauas ;
C. Agamas and D. The PratisthS
and the Jyotisa works.

Again, according to our conclusions, that all the styles, schools

and orders of Indian Architecture can be resolved into only two
broad divisions of Nagara and Dravida, the others being only the
respective ramifications of these two, we will have to assign different
works to their respective schools. This has already been done in the
first Part of this Study (vide Schools of Architecture). For the sake
of brevity and concentration the following representative works of
these two schools arc being taken:

A' or them School. Southern School

A. &ilpa ^^stra G. Kgivnas.

ViSvakarma-prakaSa Suprabhedagama

B. Pursir^aa. D. Pratisih^^granthaa,

(1) Matsya and IsanaSivagurudcva-paddhatl.

(2) Agni.

Selection of only these works from amongst manifold trcastiTses

on the subject needs clarification. Works like Minasii^a and

Mayamata which are assigned to the southern school : of
V^stu-vidya (vide Part 1, Chapter V) in my opinion (also vide
4^6 THE CLASSIFICATION OF TEMPLES, PRE-S. S.

Partin classification of buildings), do not give exclusive classifications

of temples. The classifications of buildings as given in these texts

apply to all *kinds of buildings — ^religious, residential and military
(vide H. A. I* A. page 186). Hence I have left them out from my
purview of the subject. Again works like Silparatna have also been
left out for the simple reason that they are not pre-SamarSngana
works. They arc post-Samarangana ones. Agama works like Kamika
and Vaikhanasa together with the Atri-Samhita have also been left

out for the reason that these contain confused classifications. There
isno clear cut temple-classification in them. Like Manasara and
Mayamata they too do not draw a line of demarcation between the
two sets of quite distinct and different buildings, namely temples and
residential houses. Suprabhedagama however, in my opinion, may be
deemed to have preserved the primary norms of the temple classi-
fication in the southern part of the country. Hana^ivagurudeva-padd-
hati, being the contemporary of the Samarangana is a bit more helpful
in this respect. Hence it has been included in this list of the
representative works of the southern school of Vasiu-vidy a. It may
be noted, however, that it too like Alri-sanihita and others of the
class gives an impression of being unmethodical, but never the
less it has some of the development of the South Indian Temples,
as I shall presently show.

As regards the Northern School, the Nagara school, the accounts

of Garuda and Agni Puranas being similar, only one has been chosen,
and Agni in this respect is more helpful as we shall presently sec.
Similarly the accounts of Matsya and Bhavisya, as well as that of

that famous semi-Purana, B^hat-samhita, to all intents and purposes

arc identical and hence only one of them is chosen, i. e. the Matsya-

purS^a, the pioneering Parana to provide the Prasadas an honoured

place in the cultural history of this sacred land. The temples as they

arc classified in Viivakarma-prakaSa, though they are identical with

those of the Matsya, this work has been included in the list for the

sake of the accredited place of the author in the Nagara school of

VSstu-vidya to which the Samarangana belongs, and also for the early
nature of the work.

Now before proceeding with a critical estimate of the individual

and other allied topics on classification of these works, let us first

tabulate the temple types of the various classifications found in these

representative works.
 THE GLASSIFICATION OF TEMPLES, PFE-S. S. 437

A—Southern
Suprabhed^gama limaiivagurudevappddhati.
1st 2ud.

1 . Mcru Mcru
2. Mandara Mandara
3. Kaila$a KailaSa
4. Nandyavarta
5. Nalina Nalina
6. Pralina Pralina
7. Parvata Parvatakfti.
8. Himavan
9. Srikara ^rikara
10. Mahendra Mahendra
11. ^rlvarta
12. Nila Nila
13. Nisadha Nisadha
14. Vj'Sacchanda
15. Kumbha
16 . PadmakSnta
17. Garudacchanda
18. Harhsacchanda
19. Mcrukuta
20 . KailaSakanta Kail^acchanda
21 . Jayahga
22 . Vimala
23. Padmabhadra
24. Rudrakanta Rudracchanda
25. Skandakanta
26. Yogabhadra
27. Mahgala
28. Vindhyacchanda
29. Vimalahga
30. Bhogichanda
31 . Saumukhya
32. iSrimandana
33. Lalitak^nta Lalitabhadra
34. 6rlviSala
35. Vijaya
36. Sudariana
37. Jayamaiigala
38 . Citrakuta.
 438 THE glassification OF TEMPLES, PItB-S. S.

Suprabhedkgam i Uanaitvagurudevapaddhati.

1st. 2nd.
39. Sarvatobhadra
'10. Gaturmukha
41. Visnucchanda
42. HastipfStha
43. Sivabhadra
44. iSivacchanda
1 . V|*ttabhadra
16. Astahga
47. !§rfprAtis|hita
48. Srikanta
49. Sricchanda
50. Saubhadra
51. Svastika
52. Samujjvala*

B—Northern
Matsya and Viivakarma^PrakMa Agnh Purina
Group A {Vair^a)
{Square)
Mcru Meru
Mandara Mandara
Kailaia Vimana
Vimanacchandd Nandivardhana
Nandivardhana Nandana
Nandana Sarvatobhadra
Sarvatobhadra Bhadra
Vrsa Rucaka
Simha 6rivatsa
Gaja
Kumbha Group B (Puspaka)
Samudrakd {Rectangular),
—
Padma (Padmaka ^V,P,) Valabhf
Garuda (Suparna—V.P.) GfharSja
Harpsa Mandira
Vartula Brahma-mandira
Caturaira Bhuvana
As|E$ra Prabhava
SodaSaJra l^iviki

Mlga (MfgarSja—V.P.) Ssii

Viiaia.
 THE CLASSIFICATIOK OF TEMPLES, PftE-S.S. 439

Group C. (KallHa) Group D {Monika)

(Circular) (Oval)
Valaya Gaja
Dundubhi VfSabha
Padma Hamsa
MahSpadma Garuda
Vardhani RksanSyaka
Usnisa BhQsana
Sankha Bhudhara
KalaSa iSrijaya
Srivfksa. Pfthividhara.
Group E {Trivis\apa)
(Octagonal).
Vajara Cakrasvastika
Cakra Khadga
Svastika Gads
Vajrasvastika l^rikantha
Vijaya.
Suprabhed'gama’s classification, in my opinion represents the
earliest form of the classification of temples in the South Indian VSsiu-
jastras. In respect of brevity, explicitness, and precision, the Supra-
bhedigama, which contains the smallest number of types, surpasses
all; and it happens that smaller the types, better the descrip-
tion (vide H. A. I. & A —
Dr. Acharya), Again it may be remarked
that this Agama alsoknew such a kind of classification of storeys
which indicates the time when both the schools of Vastu-vidya were
coming nearer to each other and the traditions of both, though diffe r-
ent in the intial stage, were getting reconciled to evolve a composite
style ofIndian architecture. Dr. Bhattacharya surmises that this period
lay between the Gth Century and the 10th Century A. D. (the time of
the Samarangana), ‘The Dravidian architecture was growing and the
South Indian Vastu-vidyS was also assuming a new form, different
from the original texts of Maya, Nagnajit, Narada and ParaSara etc.,
the natures of which are still unknown to us (cf. C. I. A. 146)’ — and I

fully agree with this remark of Dr. Bhattacharya for it corroborates my

thesis that originally the building as described in the earlier works did
not take into account the two classes of buildings —religious, (the tem-
ples) and residential (the houses)* The ostentatious buildings called
Vimanas served the model for the PrSsadas, the temples of gods
ISanaSivagurudeva-paddhati’s classification is more important as
it is representative of three phases of tcmplc-dcvelopment in the
South. It has described two groups of classifications—-thirty-two
types and twenty types* The Pras5das like Mcru, Mandara, Kaillia,
etc. (cf. Tabulation) in the former type of 32 represent the earlier
classification, as some of them are identical with those described m
440 IHl OLASSIFIGATION OF TEMPLES, PRE-S. S,

the Suprabhcdagama which I have taken as the earliest classification

of two Dravida temples.
1 he latter type of twenty Prasftdas (Nalinadi group) represents
the latest phase of development before the time of the Samarangana
and the third type (see Group C, as tabulated by Dr. Bhattacharya
(—vide C. I, A. — 339) — the last group, in my opinion, represents the
confused tradition of the South when writers on the Vastu-vidya
overlooked the two distinct and different classes of buildings— temple-
buildings and the residential houses. In this respect it simply follows
the tradition of Mayamata, Manasara and Atri-sarphita, the works
belonging to Druvida Vastu-vidya in which the buildings in general
are classified.
Now before making any estimate of the classifications of the
temples as we have seen in these two representative works of the
Southern VastuvidyS, let us first give our thoughts to the two represen-
tativesof the Northern Vastu-vidya, the Matsya and the Agni Puranas.
Among the Matsya is an earlier authority. The classi-
these works
Twenty Temples found in it (and also in B. S. and V. P.)
fication of
represent the earliest classification of North Indian Vastu-vidya.
The accounts of the temple architecture as these temples portray it,

are indicative of high developments with super-structure of clusters of

^ikharas together with the abundance of storeys and cupolas (Bhumikas
and the Srngas). Meru has 100 cupolas and 18 storeys. This charac-
teristic of temple buildings in such an early age as first to sixth

century A D (the time of Puranas like Matsya) is reminiscent of the

ostentatious palaces as elaborately and profoundly described in the
Epics more specially in the Ramayana which arc pre-Christian.
These twenty temples described in earlier works of the Northern
Vastu-vidya form the nucleus of a development of each variety and
its ramifications into so many temple varieties as we will see in the

next chapter (vide classifications of temples in the S.S.).

I agree with Dr. Krarnrisch’s statement: ‘‘The twenty temples
represent a liberal assortment of architectural shapes. A selection
was made and five basic shapes were to ramify in several schools of
medieval architecture, in fortyfivc variations and also in different sets

of sixtyfour shapes each” —H. T, p. 276.

Of the two variations hinted at in the previous quotation from

Dr. Kramrisch, of these basic types of twenty temples, the former
leads us to the classification of forty-five temples of the Agni-purSna
(also see the similar list in Garuda-puraria). These temples represent
a later development of the classification which reached its zenith in
the clcychth century A, D., in the most representative work 9 f the
 THE CLASSIFICATION OF TEMPLES, PRE-S.S, 441

period, the Samarahgana Sutradhara (cf. the next chapter). According

to Agni-purana (CIV. II. b-21), Vairaja, Puspaka, Kailafo, MiTnika,
and Trivistapa, are the Primary shapes of the temple.* The first is
square, the secoiid rectangular, the third is round, the fourth
and the fifth is octagonal. Each of them has 9 sub-varieties.
eliptical
So there are altogether fortyfive varieties. These PrHbadas as we
have seen (vide Styles, chapter V of this Part) are the examples of the
LaU-style of architecture —a side development in the parent home of
the primary style, the Negara.

From these different classifications as found in these representative

works of both the schools of Indian architecture, we can form some
tentative conclusions as to the indebtness of one to another. I have
already propounded a thesis that Prasada Architecture o\ es its origin
to the Vimana class of buildings, most characteristic of the Dravida
Architecture. From the study of these classifications, besides the criterion
of the storeys from one to twelve or sixteen storeys, the most prcdoini-
nent characteristic criterion of the classification of Dravidian temples,
(which was a later tradition), there were certain other earlier methods
of classification in which thenames of temples and their number are
more similar to those found in the northern works than to those in the
other southern treatises (like Mayamata, Manasara
etc.). The supra-
bhedagama mentions twelve varieties of temples beginning with
Meru, Mandara and KailaSa etc.*—the names mostly given after the
the names of the mountains belonging to both the parts of the country
—the North and the South. Meru is also the foremost among
the twenty temples (cf. Matsya-Purana). It is also the foremost of
the thirty two types of JatUar temples of the Southern school as
represented in ISanaSivagurudeva-paddhati. Again here, besides Meru,
some of the twelve names of the Prasadas as described in the
Suprabhediigama are also included in this list of 32 Prasadas of
I. G. P. Again as already mentioned, there is another class of
temples, the twenty temples described in I. G. P. (vide Tabulation
II), in which some of the names are similar to those of the Suprabhe-
dagama and some types are akin to those of the North Indian Temples
as described in Matsya and Agni. 1 hus says Bhattacharya, ‘Uhese
works having three lists of South Indian Temples not only contain
many names of North Indian Temples, but in the process of nomencla-
ture also follow the north Indian method’*. As regards the dissimilar
varieties and their nomenclature, they also (vide I. G. P. (c) and
also those found in Atri Saiphita, M^nasara and others of the
group) indicate the later feature of the development of the Dravidian
Temples,
 CHAPTER VI

THE CLASSIFICATION OF TEMPLES AS GIVEN IN THE

SAMARANGANA SUTRADHARA.

The classifications always have some basic principles. Either we

classify PrasSdas according to the deities to be enshrined there in or
according to the styles of the buildings —their layouts, shapes, super-
structures and the crowns together with the decorations.

Thirdly, the classification may have for its basis, the materials of
the temple, tVhether it is made of wood or brick or stone slabs or

cloth. Similarly, it may be classified according to the situation,

whetlicr it is erected on a mountJiin or cut out of the rocks or is estab-

lished on the plains, the specimens ofwhich are all described together,
in thismonumental work. In chapter XLIX the work describes the
PrasSdas which are to be built in the towns. They are to be built of
stones and baked bricks. Again in chapter LIX details arc given of
the wood temple Harmya, the rock cut temple ‘layana* (specimens ot
which are the crowning achievements of the Indian architect m the
monumental cave temples at Ellora and Ajanta) and the cloth made
temples ^PattiSa’. Again a word on the criterion of the deities may
be added here. In the Samaraugana at more than one place this

criterion has been adhered to. At the very outset, in the beginning
of chapter XLIX we find the genesis of the temples, the Prasadas, from
the Vimanas has b en proclaimed in relation to the respective deities

and with their favourite shapt^>. Similaily, in the chapters

entitled, Trasadastavana’ and Vimanadicatussasthiprasada—the 58th

‘

and the 39th, we find this criterion more pronouncedly worked out.
k^iv i, Visnii, BralunT, Surya, C mdika, Vmayaka, LaksmI and
Saivadevas, i.e , the common mass of the divinity have each eight
PrTsadas, as their favourite ones making a total of 64.

Fourthly,it may be pointed out on the other hand that in the

works belonging to the southern school of Indian Architecture, specially

Ivlana^ara the most prominent criterion of the classification is the

number which a temple is made of. In the Samarah-
of the storeys,
gana also the same criterion is adhered to. It contains a chapter
entitled ‘P4hapancaka*laksana’ the 6 1st (cf. the 62nd also) and most
curiously enough at the very beginning it is said that the Dravida
temples may consist of storeys from I to 12 in number and then th^
 —

TEMPLE GLASSIFICATION OF S. b 443

temples are classified according to their number of storeys. This is

exactly what has been done by all the southern texts.

Though there is no clcar-cut criterion for the cl^issification of
temples in the text, itwould not be unwarranted to bring the follow-
ing categories of classificition of the temples with types and groups:—

Group A. Early Lata vStyle.

I Type Pillared Hall Temples Rucaka etc. 64 Prasadas

(The Ghltdya Prasadas). (XLIX Ghapter).
II Type Super-structure with ^ikhara Indicated first in Gh. 52
and the most character! air (Vairaj.njaii Prasadas-thc
feature being the Andakas eight- fold Sikliarottama
cupolas from I to lOO-Prabl- Prasadas) and developed in
daraja Merit having one Ch. 56 —Another variety of
hundred ones. Rucaka etc. 64 temples
III Type Super-structure with storeys Chapters 58 and 59.
having the specific dedication
to the deities — Visnu,
Brahma, Surya, GanddvS,
Laksini, and Sarvadevas — all

gods —each one of these

having eight Pra^adas.
Group B. Later Lata Style.
Ornamental Style having — (i) Meru etc,
^ragas and storeys and of 16 varieties.
great religious merit (vide (ii) Meru etc.
Appeadix-Q,s.)-the noblest 20 vaiieties.
and the grandest of the (iii) f^ridhara etc.
I’rasadas. 40 Prasadas of pure
variety.
(iv) Nandana etc.

10 variety of mixed type

(vide chs. 55 and 57).
Group C. Nagara Style.

The Traditional List. (i) Meru and others—the

traditional list of the
twenty PrasSdas found
in almost all early texts

of northern Vastu-vidya-
Matsya, Vi^va. P. etc.
(vide chapter 63).
(ii) iSrlkuta etc. 36Pras“das
in six Satkas (vide
chapter 60).
444 TEMPLE GLASSIFICATION OF S. S.

Group D. Dra^idian Style.

One to twelve storeyed tern- (chapters 6 1 and 62).

pics with five- fold terraces
and talacchandas.
Group E. Regional styles with charac-
teristics of both Nagara and
Dravida.
I Type Vavata (Vairata). (chapter 64).

II Type Bhunaija.

(a) Ciuadrangular
4 varieties (chapter 65).
(Mountain Varieties).
(b) Vfksajatis,
Kumuda etc. 7 varieties. Do-
(c) Svastlka etc. five
AstaSala varieties. Do.

With this much of introductory remarks and the grouping of the

PrSsadas at a glance, wc are now better fitted to take into account the
classification of temples as given in the Samararigana Sutradhara,

Group A. (Early Lata Temples).

The classification is based on a typical shape typified in a parti*

cular temple. Wehave already seen the classification of Agnipuraigia
having five classes of typical shapes with a number of varieties forming
that class. From the five VimSnas on which the Gods travel in the air
and from five temple shapes built in their likeness, Agnipurana
derived forty five varieties of temples — square, rectangular, circular,
elliptical and octangonal, nine of each kind.

The Saraarangana Sutradhara (ch. XLIX) from the self same five

shapes of Vimanas, derives sixtyfour kinds of temples, Vairaja the

square one, having twenty four varieties and KailaSa and others hav-
ing ten varieties each. They arc and made of
to be built in towns
stone or burnt brick and this indicates that they belong to Nagara
style; but as I have already enunciated that they belong to Lata style
which is a branch of the all-pervading and universal style the NSgara. —
As the text definitely mentions this style in connection with the
‘‘twenty temples^*, the traditional temple types of Nagara style, I
have grouped these under La^a (the early phase) style. Agni-purapa a
prc-Samarllhgana source, calls these Prisadas as specimens of theLS^a,
and they are fortyfive in number, but the Samarangapa Sutradhira
 a

TEMPLE GLASSiriGATION OF S. S 445

makes them sixty four as we can see them at a glance tabulated

hereunder:—

The Rucaka etc. 64 Temples.

1. Type. Vmidija — the Squat e III. Typ^"* T us pal a — thp Ohlong.

(Viinana of Brahma). (Vimana of Kubera).

1. Rucaka 1. Bhava
2. Siiphapanjara ViSala
3. Citrakuta 3. Sanmukhya
4. Bhadra 4. Prabhava
5. iSfikuta 5. Sibiragrha
6. Usnisa 6. MukhaSaia
7. iSalagrha 7. Dvisala
8. Gajayuthapa 8. Grharaja
9. Nandyavarta 9. Am ala
10. Avatamsaka 10. Vibhu.
11. Svastika
12. Ksiti-bhusarta IV. Type. MTiViil — The JulipttcaL

13. Bhujaya (Vimana of Vanina).

14. Vijaya
15. Nandi I A mod a
10.
16 ^ritaru 2. Raitika
17. Pramadapriya 3 Tuhga
18. VyamiSra 4. Caru
19. Tlastijatiya 5. Bhuti
20. Kubera 6 Nisevaka
21. Vasudhadhara 7. Nisedha
22. Sarvatobhadra 8. Simlia
23. Vimana 9. Suprabha
24. Vimukta-kona. Locanotsava.

II. Type. Kail^ia — The Ctuulw V. Type. Ttnisiapa — The Octagona,

(Vimana of 6iva) (Vimana of Indra or Visnu)

1. Valaya ]. Vajraka
2. Dundubhl 2. Nandana
3. Pranta 3. ^ahku
4. Padma 4. Mekhala
5. K5nta 5. Vamana
6. Caturmukha 6. Laya
7. Manduka 7. Mahapadma
8. Kurma 8. Harpsa
9. Tallgrha 9. Vyoma
10. Ulupi. 10. Candrodaya
44G TEMPLE GLASSIFICATION OF S S.

Now ifwe just compare the two lists — 15 tenples of Agnl and 64r

temples of Samarangana Siilradhara, we find that though the shape

of their horizontal sections together with their proto- types in heaven
remain the sam % the number and the arrangement, have undergone
a change riie Square varieties have increased beyond proportion

from nine to twentyfour, though others are stationary. Similarly

certain temples in the list of Agni have assumed another shape in the

list of Samarahgana Sutradhara, e g Hnrnsa elliptical is octagonal

here; Mahapadma circular is also octagonal here. Meru, the most
prominent temple typeis conspicuous by its absence here in this list;

though the author of Sainaraiigana Sutradhara has bestowed the

higest extoll ition on the Prasadaraja Mem in other li^s not once but
several times, as we shall presently see.

These remarks were necessitated for the reason that these temples
had their link in the literature (cf. Agnipurana, Garuda-piirana and
Hayailrsa-Pancaraira), Let us now proceed further.

11 Type.

I hive already indicated in the preceding pages that some of the

temple types were so much renowned tint they stood as proto-types
for others. Vairaja is such a type which gave rise not only to
the twen y four varieties of Hall Temples with the super-structure of
double or triple (even further that cf. 49th Chapter) roofs, but it
served as a proto type to the temples having curvilinear super-struc-
ture — the J^ikhara and the eight superior varieties of lids class of tem-
ple are Rucaka, Vardhamanaka, Avatamsa, Bhadra, Sarvatobhadra,
Muktakonaka, Meru and Mandara (vide S. S. Chapter 52. 21-22),
These eight pristine varieties of this type ra milled in my opinion in
another Rucaka etc. 64 temples as tabulated here under were as
many as of four clas’^es: twenty five varieties of Lnlita (is it for L^ta?).
nine varieties of MiSraka (the mixed); twenty live again of Sli dhara
Pra^adas and lastly, the five-fold Nigudha PrSsadas — vide chap. 56.
It is difficult to say what the Nigudha indicates.

/. Group. 25 Lolita PrOs^das.

1. Rucaka Square 8. Dharadhara Squar

2. Bhadraka 9. Vardhamana
3. Haipsa 10. Adrikuta
4. Harnsodbhava 11. Srivatsa
5 Pratiharnsa 12. Trikntaka
6. Nanda »> 13. Mukta-kona
7. NandySvarta »» 14. Gaja
 TEMPLE CLASSIFICATION OF S S. 147

15. Garuda 6. Man dir a

16. Si nib a 7, f^rivrksa
17. Bhava Rectangular 8. Amrlodbhava.
18. Vibhava ») 9, Himavan
19. Padma Circular 10 Hcmakuta
20. Maladliara 11. KailaSa
21. Vajraka Eight- sided 12. Prilhivijaya
22. Svastika 13. Indranila
23. 6auku 14. Mahanila
24. Malaya >> 15. •Bhudhara
25. Makaradhvaja j) 16. Ratnakutaka
//. Group Nine Mixed Varieties 17. Vaidurya
1. Subhadra 18. Padmarilga
2. Yokita 19. Vajraka
3. Sarvatobhadra 20. Mukutotkata
4. Simlia-kesari 21. Airavata
5. Gitra-kuta 22. Rajahamsa
6. Dharadiiara 23. Garuda
7. Tilaka 24. Vrsabha
8. Svatilaka 25. Meru (Prasadaraja)
9. Sarvaiiga-sundara. IV, Group 5 Nign^ha PrZ,s^da,
///. Group, 25 S^ndh^ra Prsissida
1 - Kesari 1 . Lata
2. Sarvatobhadra 2. Tripu§kara
3. Nandana 3. Pancavaktra
4. NandiSalaka 4. Caturmukha
5. Nandlsa 5. Nava tm aka

N. D, The chief characteristics of the twenty five varieties ol

temples, as already hinted at, arc the applications of abundant cupolas
in them from one to one hundred Meru the Prasada-raja has as
many as one hundred cupolas.

III. Type.
This group of sixty four Prasadas is so diverse in their individual

types (cf. Layana, PattiSa, etc.) that a definite location to them is

unwarranted. The text does not say anything regarding their style.

It only says that these are the Prasadas given by Brahma, the Primor-
dial Greator to the Primordial Architect, ViSvakarama, and lays down
a definite dedication; of these to the particular deities. Their early
origin, therefore, is beyond doubt and accordingly in my opinion, that

imay be regarded as representing a mixed style to which pravida and

 ,

448 TEMPLE OLASSfFICATION OF S. S.

Nagara both have contributed. More so of their varieties are similar

to those found in the Southern texts
like I. G, P. (cf. Nalina etc).
The reason, Why
have placed them under Lata Style is thei^ orna-
I

mental super- tructure together with some of these varieties being

common 45 varieties of Agni-purSna. More fittingly these
to the
Prasadas are SarvadeSika in nature (cf. Kamikagama).
I. Group"—*B of ^iva V. Group —8 Pr^s^das of
1. Vimana 1. Nandyavarta
2. Sarvatobhadra 2. Valabhya
3. Gajapps^haka 3. Suparna
4. Padmaka 4. Siipha
5. VfSabha 5 Vicitra
6. Mukta-kona 6. Yogapitha
7. Nalina 7. Ghantanlida
8. Dravida 8. Pataki.
II. Group—"8 P r^sivhxs of V i^xin VL Group)— 8 PrQ,s^dasofVin^yaka,
1. Garuda 1 . GuhSdhara
2. Vardhamina 2* Salaka
3. Sahkhavarta 3. Vcnubhadra
4. Puspaka 4. Kunjara
5. Gfharaja 5. Harsa
6. Svastika 6. Vijaya
7. Rucaka 7. Udakumbha
8. Pundra-vardhana. 8. Modaka
III. Group— 8 Pr^s^ilasof Bralwi^, VII. Group — 8 A asac/a«o/ Za/.Sml
1. Meru 1 Mahapadma
2. Mandara 2. Harmya
3. Kaila^a 3. Ujjayanta
4. Harpsa 4. GandhamSdana
5. Bhadfa 5. SataSrhga
6. Uttuhga 6. Anavadyaka
7. Miiraka 7. Suvibhranta
8. Maladhara, 8. Manohari
IV. Group— 8 Pi^S,daB of /Su7;va VIII. Grou p — 8 Pr3«a das common to
{Tie Sun), all deities,
1 . Gavaya 1. Vrtta
2. Citrakuta 2. Vrttayata
3. Kirana 3. Caitya
4. Sarvasundara 4. Kihkinl
5. ^irivatsa 5. Layana
6. Padmanabha 6. PalWa
7. Vairaja 7. Vibhava
8# Vftta. 8. TSrSgana.
 — .

TEMPLE QLAS3IFI0ATI0N OF S. S. 4t0

Group B. Later La^ Style.

I* Type—*3/^^ etc,f 16 Varieties* II. T ype u otc. 20 Pi a^Sc/a^.
1. ^Meru 1. Meiu
2. Kaila$a 2. Mandara
3. Sarvatobhadra 3. KailaSa
4. Vimanachhanda 4. Trivistapa
5. Nandana 5. Prithivijaya
6. Svastika 6 Ksitibhusana
7. Mukta-kona 7. Sarvatobhadra
8. orivatsa 8. Vimana
9. Haipsa 9. Nandana
10. Rucaka 10. Svastika
11. Vardhamana 11. Mukta-kona
12. Garuda 12. Orivatsa
13. Gaja‘ 13. Haipsa
14. Siipha 14. Rucaka
15. Padma 15. Vardhamana
16. Valabhi 16 Garuda
17. Gaja
18. Siipha
19. Padmaka
20 Nandivardhana.
III* Type •Srldhara etc, 40 Pr^s^daa of Pure Varieties*

Favourite to Bhagavatl, Favourite to Fisriw.

1. Sridhara 21. Laksmidhara

2. Hemaku^a 22. Mahavajra
3. Subhadra ^
23. Ratideha
4. Ripukesari 24. Siddhakama
5. Puspaka 25. Pafica-camara
6. Vijayabhadra 26. Nandighosa
7. Srinivasa 27. Anukirna’
8. SudarSana 28. Subhadra
9. KusumaSekhara. 29. Surananda
30. Harsana
Favourite to ^iva* 31. Durdhara
32. Durjaya
10. Surasundara 33. Trikuta
11, Nandyavarta 34. NavaSekhara
12. Pur^a 35. Pundarika
13. Siddhartha 3a. Sunabha
14. Sankhavardhana 37, Mahendra
15. Trailoky a-bhusana 38. SikhiSekhara
3'^ Varava
Favourite to Bfalivih* Suraukha.
40.

16, Padma IV. Type Nanda — etc, 10 Mixsd

17. PaksabShu Varieties,

18. Vi<51a 1* Nanda 6. Vf^hacchala

19. Kamalodbhava 2. Mahaghosa 7. Sudhadhara
20* Haipsadhvaja. 3. Vrddhirama 8. Saipvara
4, Vasundhara 9. Sukanibba
5. Mudgaka 10. Sarvahgasundara
450 TEMPLE CLASSIFICATION OF S. S.

iV. B, Tha 57th chapter is not only incomplete but seems to be

mis- arranged (vide reconstructed scheme of Samarahgana Sutradh'ra).

Group C. Nsgura Prasadas. Group (c) Sauhhagga etc^ d% aggre*

gate of six,

I. Type ^The twenty temples^ the 1. Saubhagya

Traditional Negara 2. Vibhangaka
Pr'^sadas, 3. Vibhava
1* Meru 4. Vibhatsa
2. Mandara 5. Srituhga
3. Kailaia 6. Manatuhga
4. Kumbha Group (d) Sarvatobhadra^ etc, an
5. Nagaraja aggregate of six,

6. Gaja 1. Sarvatobhadra
7. Vimanacchanda 2. Vahyodara
8. Gaturaira 3.
1. Niryuhodara
9. AstaSra 4* Bhadrakosa
10 Sodaiaira 5. Samodara
11. Vartula 6. Nandibhadra.
12.
2.
Sarvabhadraka
13 Si^ihasya N, B. The laksanas of last two
14. Nandana varieties are missing.
15. Nandi vardhana
16. Haipsaka Group (e)—CV^ra(uta etc, an aggregate
17. Vrsa 19. Padmaka of six,
18. Garuda 20. Samudra Citrakuta
II. —
Type l§ri/t:uta etc, the 86 2o Vimala
Temples, 3. Harsana
Group (a) SnXuta e'c, an aggregate 4. Bhadra-sahkinia
of six* 5. Bhadra-vi§alaka

1 • drfkuta 6. Bhadra-viskarabha
if^rimukha Group (f )--^Ujjai/anta etc, an aggregate
3 iSrIdhara of six,
4. Varada
5. PriyadarSana 1 . Ujjayanta
6. Kulananda. 2. Meru
Group (b) ^nfanVcSa etc, an 3. Mandara
aggregate of six* 4. KailaSa
1. Antariksa 5. Kumbha
2 . PuspSbhisa 6. Grharaja.
3. Vil^laka
4. Sankirpa
5. Mahanandl
6. Nandyavarts^t
 THMPLE CLASSIFICATION OF S. S. 451

All these varieties again having superior, medium and

inferior, the three qualities result in as many as one hundred and eight
(S. S. Chapter 60.91-92).

We have already taken notice of these twenty temples, common

to all ancient sources like Viivakarma-prakaSa, Matsyapurana, Brha-
tsaiphitaandBhavisya-purana. TheSamarahgapa-sutradhara, the most
representativework of the Hindu science of Architectuie, while
developing these PrasMas on the characteristic style of the age,
the Lata Style, does assign to these twenty temples, the traditional
types of tlie Nagara style, a separate place in its contents on
the Prasada-vastu. The second variety of these Nagara PrasSdas are*
in iny opinion, the minor types which grew in the country-side rather

than in the town, the shrines of the Pancayatana classes of temples.

Group D. Dravida Prasadas.

N,B. In this group no specific designation is made of the DrSvida

Prasadas, their classification is made acccording to the number of the

storeys they take, e. g.,

1. Ekabhnmika 7. Saptabhumika
2. Dvibhumika 8. As^bhumika
3. Tribhumika 9. Navabhumika
4. Caturbhumika 10. DaSabbumika
4. Pancabhumika 1 1. EkSdaSabhumika
6. Sadbhumika 12. DvadaSa-bh^mika

with the exception that their terraces and Talacchandas of the

PrSsSdas are classified in the following designations

Five-fold Five-fold Talacchandas.

1. Padabandha 1 . Padmatalacchanda
2. ^ribandha 2. MahSpadmacchanda
3. Vedibandha 3 . V ardhamlnacchanda
4. Pratikrama 4. Svastikacchanda
5. Ksurabandha 5. Sarvatobhadra*

N. B. They can be both Sandhara and Nirandhara i. e. having

circum^ambulatory passage alround and having no sucli passhgci
 .

452 tEMPLE GLASSIFICATION OF S. 8.

Group E. Regional Styles, The mixed ones

1. VSva^i Prisadas II. T y pe—Ff/saja/e
{Diffhhadrg. etc, 12 temples). (Kumuda etc, 7 tempts. ]

1. Digbhadra 1. Kumuda
2. iSrIvatsa 2. Kamala
3. Vardhamana 3. Kamalodbhava
4. NandySvarta 4. Kir an a
5. Nandi-vardhana 5. ^ataSrhga
6. ViraSna 6. Niravadya
7. Padma 7. Sarvahgasundara.
8. Mahapadma
9. Srivardhamana HI. Type—^staSa/a {Simstiha etc
10, Mahapadma five Temples),
11, Panca^ala
12, Pfthivijaya. 1. Svastika
2. Vajrasvastika
2. Bhumija, Prasadas. 3. Harmyatala
4. Udayacala
I. Type— etc, 5. Gandhamadana,
four temples (Square)
1. Nisadha
2. Malayadri
3. Malyavan
4# NavamalikS.

This classification of the temples is really a very fascinating

topic
of Indian architecture. Full justice can not
be done to it in the
limited space available. Each of these temples really
represents a
type by itself. Their evolution and development are
represented in
the different classes as we have seen above. The same names are
repeated several times. What
does it indicate? A temple
or a house
or any building an output of the architectural
is after all
craftsman
ship. A temple built in a particular region by a particular
architect
with a particular material must be different from
a temple built in
another region by another architect with different
material available
in that particular region. Hence in order to show the characteristic
trait of the these different centres of art, the nomenclature is tent
intact, so that when a particular type of temple is
viewed from the
standpoint of different stylistic specimens, it may show its different
evolution in the history of art. All these temple types,
therefore
need to be worked out, not only with their
characteristic evolution^
but also be distinctly drawn with sketches and
fully explained in
 TEMPLE CLASSiriCATION OP S. S.

their respective individual measurements, component parts, super-

structures, ornamentationsand dedication etc. I, therefore, intend to
bring out a subsequent volume in which, as indicaj:ed before (cf.

Classifications of Houses Part III) both the classes of buildings,

residential houses and temples will be dealt with from this point of
view.

Now let me look to the classification of temples of the Samaran-

gana. Though this classification shows as many as three hundred
and seventy five varieties of temples, nevertheless, if sorted out, all this
comes to a total of more than 500 Even then the Samaraiiganahas the
.

credit of providing the fullest, longest and the grandest classification

evermade in any manual of the Vastu-iastra. Thus while Suprabhe-
dSgama contains twelve names, the Silparatnam and the ISanaSiva-
gurudevapaddhati contain twenty in one list and thirty two in another.
The Mayamatain contains fortyfivc names and indicates existence of
many other not mentioned (it gives classification only upto four-
storeyed mansions). The Manasara contains names of ninetyeight
buildings (either they may be taken as temples or many storeyed
mansions for the princes or the wealty people). The Atrisarphita,
another valuable work on the South Indian Vastuvidya also does not
go beyond ninety six varieties. Samarangana, therefore, from this
point of view has classified practically all classes of temple types then
known and exhausted all the styles and all the specifications of dedica-
tion and other allied topics of the temple architecture. Thus viewed
from this angle, its unipue place in the literature goes without
saying.
 CHAPTER VII

PLANNING OF PRiSiDA, THE HINDU TEMPLfe.

In previous pages while dwelling at length upon the doctrine
of Pada-vinyasa in Hindu Architecture, the classification of buildings
in general, the classification of Prasadas in particular as well as the
origin and development of the Prasada-vastu, side-lights have already
been thrown on many of the topics of this chapter. It is however,
incumbent upon me to deal with the most important topic of the
Hindu Temple in detail in order that much that is still hidden, may
come to the surface.

(a) Significance.

It is from two points of view that we have to understand the

significance of Prasada, the Hindu Temple. From the purely
architectural point of view, it relates to the character of the building
of the Prasada. This character, however, is only an outeir mani-
festation of the real significance, a label, a trademark, as it were.
We have to go deeper to find out its real significance. It relates to
the religious background with meta-physical implication.

Man has never lived without some faith in the man ‘Supernal*,
Material and spiritual advancements of mankind have been going
on since the very birth of human civilisation. In India, this faith

in the man ‘ Supernal ’

has culminated in the towering
personality of the Hindu Temple, the Prasada. Each and every
detail, right from its layout to the finial speaks of the significance.
Popularly the Prasada is the scat and dwelling of God. But meta-
physically it is Supreme Reality.
the concrete manifestation of the
It is microcosmic representation of the macrocosmic Brahman Agni
Parana (LXl-25) says. “The body (Akfti) of the temple is Prakfti**.
The architectural motif of Amalaka, the crown of the Nagara temple,
the most representative shape of Hindu Temple, as well as the
finial (StupikS cf. DrSvida Temple) above KalaSa are all aglow with

the divine significance and full of metaphysical, the spiritual meaning.

3amaringa];ia SfitradhSra designates this term with AmalasSra
(chapter LVL 49, 154 etc., where AmalSsSraka is used as synonymous
with Amalaka). It means Pure essence. The Hindu Trinity-—
Brahma, ViSnu and ihefa, is M symbolised by the Amalaka. The
The Skanda pur5|;ia (V. K, XII. 9-23) says, ‘Visijiu is seated at its
 PtANNiNO OF PRA3ADA 455

bottom, Brahma above and ^iva still higher. The sun is in its
branches, the gods are in their ramifications and on its leaves,
flowers and fruits. It is thus the support of all gods. ‘/The Amalaka,
tree of manifested deity, redeeming, supernal tree, has contributed to
the temple the image of its fruit’* (H. T. 356). This is the significance
of the Hindu Temple, the Prasada as indicated by one motif; others
( cf. the manifold designations ,with similar implication, viz.
Venukosa, Apda etc. etc,) also tell the same story. The significance
of the Prasada will be clearer when we take the topic of the
Vastu-mandala and VSstu-purusa. We have already hinted at this
from the main parts of the temple the Pillar,
significance as inferred —
the Garbhagcha and the Jagati (vide Origin and Development of the
Prasada-vastu),

(b) Purpose.
The construction of a temple is a virtuous act. All virtuous acts
are fully rewarded.The four-fold purpose of human life —-the four
—
Purusarthas Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksa are attained only by
good deeds. Temple building is one of such good deeds. Before the
Pauranic Dharma had its sway, the performance of sacrifice was deemed
the most virtuous act. Every thing-progeny, cattle, wealth and even over-
lordship could be procured by the performance of sacrifices; the main
purpose however, was entering into heavens —the blissful and everlast-
ing life, beyond this ephemeral one, — “Svargakamo yajet’\ This
is what we understand by the doctrine of Isji. The Pauranic Dharma,
the later phase of Hinduism enunciated or rather added another doc-
trine as a complementary to the former one called Purta (cf. Hema-
Chandra’s definition). This doctrine of PSrta though it consists
in the construction of tanks, wells, lakes and houses of gods, the Tem-
ple-building over-shadowed them all. We can coin a new aphorism
in place of“Svarga-kamo yajet”-—“Svargakamo mandiram kSrayct”,
Indian architecture being essentially religious in nature, the acts and
rites in building the temple are sacrificial in nature. The builder of
a temple is called Yajamana, and the architect, the Sihapati, master
mason has to be assisted by the Sthapaka, the Acarya, the priest.

The Samaringana, reads like a Purina, especially on Temple Archi-

tecture. I have already hinted at its sayings of this nature to be
gathered in a separate appendix. In these sayings the purpose of not
only temple building in general but a temple type like Mcru etc. in
particular is fully brought out*
Throughout the Hindu Temple has been built with
ages, the

fervour of devutipn, the Sbahtii as a work of offering and pious liberality.

456 PLANNING OF PRASAD A

in order to secure for the builder a place in heaven. Hindu Temple

is a Tfrtha made by an. DarSana, the looking at the temple, the seat,

—
abode and bod^ of divinity and its workship puja,are the purposes of
temple which in their turn are amply rewarded (see Qs,).
visiting the

(c) Sthapati aod Sthapaka (Karlrkarakavyavastba).

A good deal has already been written on the Sthapati (vide

chapter 3rd, Part I). Here, therefore, only a bare mention of him
need be made in relation to the Sthapaka who too has been referred
to several times. Though I have said before that for the secular
planning the Sthapati is the sole authority, the temple building can
not start without a Sthapaka. The Sthapati, the foremost of the
craftsmen, carries out the instruction of the Sthapaka, the architect
priest, the Acarya. According to Apastamba ^rauta Sutra (XXII-7 6)
Sthapati designates the Yajamana, the sacrificer who is to be conse-
creted as priest. As builder of Hindu Temple, the Sthapiti, by his
special knowledge guided by SthSpaka, the Acarya, is competent to
act for his patron, the Yajamana. In SamarShga^ia (LVI. 303) the
patron or the donor of the temple is also designated as KSraka, who
makes the architect, the Kartf, do the work.

^iilpa-ratna (I. 29-42) describing in detail the qualifications of the

architect, the Sthapati,and the architect-priest, the Sthapaka, directs
that the temple, begun by these two, should be continued by them
only and by no other. In their absence the work should be done by
their competent sons or disciples.

In the building ofHindu Temple, the trinity of Sthapati, Sthapaka

and Yajamana, the patron is indispensiblc. The descent of the Vastu
Purusa, in which the patron, the Yajamana, is brought into communion
with the Vastu-purusa together with the VastuSanti so essential before
beginning the building activity, all these three collaborate to produce
the marvel on earth to evolve a concrete manifestation of what is

unmanifested.

This architectural trinity has its proto type, the real trinity of
Brahma, the Sthapati, Visnu, the Yajmana and Rudra the Sthapaka
(I. G. P. IV. Gh. XXXIV and Mayamata XVI.159-161).

As in the beginning, the descent, so also at the completion of the

temple building, the ascent, a symbolic rite, called Ankuriropana (I.
G. P. IV. Ch. XXXIV. 27; KSmikigama LXI. 3; Mayamata XVIIL
166) is performed, in, the end of which, the Sthapaka installs the
PrSsSda, in its concrete shape (Prasada^murti) on its altar or pedestal
 1»LANNIN0 OF fRASADA 457

(Dhisaya-murti) and places in it the seed (bfja) of the temple. After

the consecration of the Temple and the installation of the Image~
the Prasada-murti, by the Sthapaka the guru, the Yajamana, the sacri-

ficer, the patron, the donor of the temple presents gold, clothes, orna-
ments etc , to the Sthapaka and Sthapati according to his ability.

The Samarahgana Sutradhara also in its 37th Chapter (3„-37) hints at

this tradition of old. It says, Hhe Sthapati should be worshipped,

because his worship is the worship of Vi^vakarma himself — the pri-

- mordial Architect. Similarly, the Purohita, Saipvatsara and also the

Parikarmakaras, the other masons and the labourers should also get
honour and rewards so that they are fully pleased*.

With this traditional background of the Sthapati, the Sthapaka

and the Yajamana, let us come down to the Kartr-k3raka-vyavastha as
has been enjoined by the Samaraiigana in case of certain representative
temple types (S. S. LVI. 36-43).

The praise of the temple-type Meru, the Prasadaraja in the pages

of Samarahgana is simply supreme. It is in relation to this temple,

the common abode of all deities that the text says that only a

Ksatriya can be its patron —the donor and a VaiSya, an architect.

Thus built, both of them, enjoy the fruits of their work. If contrary

to this, a Ksatriya, however skilled in the knowledge of the Vastu-

iastra, assumes the role of its architect, he looses his virtue —moral and
physical both. Similarly, a Brahmana however competent he may be,

if he is the architect of the temple Meru, he and his patron both

suffer equally and such a production is not to be welcomed.

(d) Vastu-mandala and Vastu-purusa

Both these topics are inter-related and complimentary to each

other, and, therefore, a composite name Vastu-purusa-mandala would
be more appropriate. The drawing of the square plan, of the Vastu-

purusa-mandala is deemed imperative prior to building a temple. As

already mentioned (vide Chapter III, Part I), according to SamarSh-
gana, the knowledge of itsmeaning and execution is the first discip-

line which the architect must master (cf. S. S. 45-2).

At the height of the temple building activity in India about the

time of the Samar ahgani, drawing of the Vastu-purusa-mandala toge-
ther with so many other riles, seems to be the rule. Though the
temple building was an outcome of the Pauranic Dharma in relation
to the Bhakticult, the Veiic rites did not loose their importance. They
introduce and accompany the building of the temple. They were so

Stereotyped that tlte medieval text did not elaborate them. All these
458 PtANNtNQ OF FRASADA

rites viz. Purification etc. though forming the very fundamentals of

the temple building and its consecration and the installation of the
image therein^ however, had lost much of their charm. They were
simply rituals as is the case these days. This also suggests the begin-
ning of the secular architecture of which SamarShgana is the founder,
and the most representative work among the Indian Vastu texts.

All these topics have been dealt with in a masterly way in ‘Hindu
Temple’ by Dr. Kramrisch, where all the available material on the
subject, has been utilised and a most authoritative and traditional
exposition given. The special feature, however, of the treatment of
this topic in the Samarahgana is that the fortyfive gods as the consti-
tuents of the different limbs in the body of the VSstu-purusa (S. S.
chapter eleven 1-14) have found a slightly divergent exposition,
indicative of the fact that the star gods form one, and presumably the
more ancient series in the- border of the Vastumandala and the Pada-
devatSs invariably talked of in every manual, are but loosely connec-
ted with the stars. Their real significance has been propounded in
detail here in this text (vide S. S. Chap. XII).

The conception of the VSstu-purusa and the Square-plan as the

fundamental form of the Indian Architecture, both these topics have
been briefly expounded in a previous part ( Part 1. chap. VI).
Particular attention however, is again drawn to the fact that in this
treatise the ParamaSayika plan of cightyone squares or the Manduka
of the sixtyfour squares, the two traditional plans for temples, have not
been adhered to. The Samarahgana Sutradhara (vide chapter XII 1)
assigns to all kinds of Pra^adas and Ma^idapas, the VSstu of 100
squares and the VIstu of 61? squares to camp^ of kings (Sibiras)
villages, hamlets and cities (ibid 4-5), The Paramasayika plan of 81
squares is, in the Samarahgana Sutradhara (ibid 3),
opinion of the
reserved for the palaces of Rajas and for the Indrasthana, the temple

of Indra (Indra, symbolic of Indian Royalty).

Lastly, as already hinted at (vide Padavinyasa, Part I), special

credit goes to the author of this work in the respect that it speaks of
circular Vastu of 64 and 100 squares to be used in circular shrines
(XII. 13),

‘^Thc ground plan of the temple, whatever may be its variations,

is analogous to the VSstupurusamaridala and retains in its rhythmic
order proceeding from the centre and in the modulations of its peri-

meter, the knowledge of the Vastupurusa in all his parts. The

rhythm (chandas) of the ground plan is derived from the order in the
 PLANNING OF PRASADA 450

Vastuamandala. The relation of sacred architecture to the Vastu-

purusamaudala is reflected moreover in the sculptures on its walls; their
iconography is essentially an iconometry (Talimaria)” —H T. page 80.
(e) The material and the Measurements*
(i) — Materials.
This topic of the material has already been viewed in relation to
the House Architecture. Among the four principal categories of the
building material namely, wood, brick, stone and plaster; wood has
already been discussed (vide Part III, Chapter VI).
Brick is the most ancient material for a sacred building. Istika-
nyasa (the installation of the bricks) is performed as a part of the main
foundation rite of the temple ( cf. the Balidana, KalaSasthapana
Vastu-pujana etc.). Later on with the introduction of stone as
building material, the Istikauyasa was substituted for iSilanyasa in
both secular and religious buildings. Istika and li^ila became synony-
mous so far as the Foundation-laying-ceremony was concerned.
Istikas in the ancient sacrificial symbolism are the body of the
sacriflee —
yajna-tanu (Taitt. S. IV. 4.9) and this symbolism is equally
applicable here too. The very word PrasMa, (etymologically the piling
up -SIdanam) indicates it. The Prasada, the symbolic manifestation
of the formless Purusa, gets concrete manifestion (Murta) with the
help of the Istakls or Silas or any such material — all as Is|akas
pertaining to ritual. The Vedic Agni was a massive pile, the
Prasada, the main and integral part of the Hindu Temple is also nearly
a solid mjnumcnt (but for the small space of its sancturary and such
technical devices which lessen the weight of the mass piled above it).

The Samirahgana Sutradhara mentions about half a dozen subs-

tances of which the temples are made. In the 59th chapter (Vimana etc.
61 Prasadas) details are given of wooden temple Harmya (ibid 217),
the rock-cut temple Layana(ibid 236-7), the cloth made temple Pat|;i$a
(ibid 238-9) and earthen temple (m^nmaya) Vibhava (ibid 241).

The temples made of stone and baked bricks arc greater in number
and the special statement of the text is that such temple are charac-
teristic of the towns (S. S. XLIX. 6; LVI. 7 and 8). In hamlets
however, they can be built of ordinary mud and wood or bamboo also
(cf. Vibhava 59. 240-1).

Again temples are also made of metals and jewels; with the
difference that temples made of gold and silver and decorated with
gems are reserved for the gods in heaven; those made of brass and
copper etc. for the demons etc; and those built of stones arc chaita*
cteristic of the P5i3la, the lower world (LVL 4-8), It is only on earth
460 planning of PR as ad a

that temples can be built of any of these substances: stone, burnt

brick, wood, cloth, bamboo, and mud, (ibid 7 and LXIII.21)* It
maybe interesting to note that the Mahanirvana Tantra (XIII. 21,25)
says that it is 100 times more meritorious to give a brick temple
than a thatched temple (i. e, wooden temple-writer), 10,000 times
more meritorious to give a stone temple than a Drick temple.
Lastly, it may be indicated that IstakSnyasa, mentioned in the
previous paras, has got a detailed ritualistic procedure as Silanyasa in
the text — (i^ilanyasa-vidhi, the 35th Chapter—see Summary for details).
(it) Measurement.
Every temple type described in Samarahgana has distinct and
definite proportions of measurements. Full justice can not be done
in the limited space of this sub-section. I have left out this topic
here to keep it reserved for its elaborate exposition in another volume
— “The Architecture and Sculpture of Samaraiigana*’ under prepara-
tion. Here it is indicated that perfect measurements have been
viewed as of fundamental importance in connection with all buildings
and more so in the religious structures esp. the temples. Samara-
hgana’s injunction “pramane sthapita devah pujarhaica bhavanti
hi” XL. 13J) is already referred to (vide House Architecture Part
III ). Special attention however,
be invited to the fact
is to
that a comparative study of the earlier texts with this medieval text
reveals the modifications in the proportionate measurements of the
Prasada, by the early part of the eleventh century when the Samaran-
gana was written. Samarangana epitomises these modifications and
I propose to take a detailed notice of these modifications in the
subsequent volume, A brief outline of these modifications may be
seen in one of the subsequent chapters i. e. XL
(f) Ornamentation and Mouldings.
The mouldings of the Prasadas, I have described in tabular form
and they may be seen in the Glossary. As regards their architectural
position, they go with the ornamentation and the decoration of the
Prasadas. After all, the exuberance of the manifold mouldings in
any structure has a decorative value.
We have already seen that ornamentation in Temple Architecture
is characteristic of the Lata style. This ornamentation was associated
with the profusion of pillars and supcr-structuies together with
mouldings and the door. As in paintings, so in architecture, the
Patrajiti and the celestial beings—Yaksas, Gatidharvas and the
celestial nymphs together with the auspicious objects (vide door
decoration— the House Architecture), provided the greatest fascina*
%ion for decoration. Thus the natural world, the animal kingdomi
 —

PLANNING OF PRASADA 461

both of land and water, and also the mythological world —these
principally provided the largest number of various decorative elements.
All these aim at aesthetic experience and so are fundamental in an
artistic creation in India.

The Samarahgana-sutradhara draws a of demarcation

line

between the decorative elements of houses and those of temples.

Those prescribed one are proscribed for the other -vide Vastu-
for —
laksarias under ‘Prayojyaprayojya’ —
with what to decorate and with
what not to.

(g) The Consecration of the Temple and the Installation of the Image.

Lastly the planning of the temples can not be complete unlcSsS

it is consecrated and the image is installed. This topic is more
ritualistic than architectural, but as, according to the genesis of
Indian Architecture, architecture is a grand ritual, we have to
consider this topic. Samarahgana treats this topic in a modified
manner. It speaks of the dedication of the temples, a detailed
mention of which is made in VSsu-laksa^ia.

The following account from Dr. Kramrisch’s Hindu Temple

would not be out of place here:
‘At the end of Prakrti’ (‘Agnipuraua* Cl. 13) in the KalaSa, the
golden Praslda-Purusa is installed in the Empyrean below the Para-

mount Point 01 the finial. The temple as house and seat of God in
which dwells His Essence is also His body; the temple contains the
whole manifestation (‘Mayamata’ XVin.l93) in which He is beheld
as Purusa, Supernal Man. “The Prasada should be worshipped as
Purusa” ( ‘i^ilparatna’ XVL 114). It is both His house and
representation. The several parts of the temple communicate His
living presence and are likened to the body of man in the same way
as the square of the plan and its partitions are the ‘body’ of the
Vastupurusa*. The door is the mouth, the Amalaka or the High
Dome is the head; its Brahmarandhra or foramen is pierced so as to
receive the tenon (klla) of the finial (stupika). The image in the
Garbhagfha is the Life (jiva) of the temple concralcd in the darkness
of the cave, enclosed by the mountain of its walls. The outside of
the bulwark, teeming with ordered shapes and figures, is its explicit
form. The temple is conceived from inside and visualised from out-
side; the communication between inside and outside is brought about
by the radiating power from within which assigns its place to each
and every facet of the walls; the inner dark is extracted through
closed doors and windows (Ghanadvara and Gavaksa) as a chiaros-
curo which adheres to the Prasada extended in mid-space and facing
all the directions. Tier upon tier in a solidified ascent, its bulk is
reduced in the tapering super-structure and carried towards the
Paramount Point (page 359)t
 CHAPTER VIII

PR^SADA MANDAPA
PrSsada ia the imagery of the Samaraugana (68.47-8) (its author
being a king) is a king in grandeur and splendour both. The Pftha
of the Prasada is its throne, its decorative elements are its various
ornaments (like Keyura etc. of a king) and naturally, therefore, a
Prasltda, like a king must have some sort of a paraphernalia best suited
to it. The seat being in the Garbhagrha, the Prasada proper, the
main shrine, there must be some accessory buildings. All other
buildings (besides the main shrine, the Prasada, containing the Gar»
bhagrha) within the sacred precinct, are accessory and subservient to
the Prasada. The Mandapa in front of the entrance along with
other such accessory building in a huge set of some of the large
Prasidas (cf. Temples at Bhuvanesvara and Purl etc.) is, as it were,
preparing the devotee for the entry into the temple.

Thus the Mandapas have an architectural meaning in conformity

with the fundamental meaning of religious architecture as Prasada
is whose outer surface consists of sculpture.

^‘Thus when going to the temple (abhigamana) with speech body

and mind centred on the divinity whose presence is installed in the
image or symbol, the devotee becomes part of the archil ecture of the
Mandapa whose interior he traverses, in which he also may pause
and gaze at the images that confront him; images which are carved on
the pillars, the capitals and on the ceiling; guiding him onwards to
the main image or symbol in the Garbhagrha, or upward to the dome
and its central point**.

Again ‘Vhilc approaching (abhigamana) the innermost sanctuary

and passing through the halls in front of it, the Bhakta is within the
sacred architecture; together with the images he is enclosed in a dim,
soothing atmosphere caressing the eye after the fierce light of the day
outside. The atmosphere of the Mandapa is charged not only with
the scent of flowers, burning oil lamps, and the incense coming from
the sanctuary, but is tense with the impact of the pillars and carvings”
(H. T. p. 299).

With this background the purpose of the Mandapas, we may

now proceed with its characteristic architecture and the varieties into
which this text has classifled it.
 PRASADA MANDAPA 463

Maxvdapa, as an architectural institution, is, in my opinion, older

than the temple. It has proto type in Vedic Sad or post-Vedic
its

Sabha (see Epics). Dr. Acharya says (cf. Ency. H. A. 395), ‘‘DilTer-
ence between Mandapa and Sabh^ (M. XXXi V 559-562): the former
having a pent-roof, and the latter pinnacled (i.e. spherical roof)”.
This difference is kept in tact in the S. S. also, -the following des^ —
cription of the Bhadra Mandapa (cf. Ch. 66.10-11).

vn^tJWT i

fsnhrr ii

The description of the Mandapaswith reference to the mouldings,

shapes etc. is extremely rich in the S. S. (cf. the Ch. 67 verse 39,
where the Mandapa-pillars are provided with all possible sh; pes of
decoration like square, rectangular, oval, eight-sided and sixteen
sided). The roof of the Mandapas too is made so rich architecturally
with Diptika Torana (ibid v. 85), Gajatalu (ibid v. 86), Ghan(a and
Padmapatri etc. etc.

We
have already taken notice of the Sabha, its characteristic
architecture (abundant pillars) in a previous chapter (Part IV Chap,
on Sabha). A Mandapa in connection with the Hindu Temple is a
detached temple, a pavilion, an open hall. Its functions have already
been hinted at. But they are not exhaustive. We know that in
India some of the temples and monasteries of old grew into univer-
sities. The more famous among them had invariably attached to
them these detached buildings to serve as rest-houses, congregational
places and places for sermons, discourses and religious discussions
and other allied necessities both of the pilgrims and those perma-
nently stationed there ;
the hermits, the Yatis and tlie Vanis
(forest dwellers) along with their disciples and pupils. Mandapas,
besides serving this sacred purpose had, as detatched buildings
of Hindu Temple, been serving secular purpose also from times
immemoral. Dance, drama, music, gambling and so many other
sources of recreation and enjoyment took place in these Mandapas.
Rahgamandapara, the auditorium in a theatre, is a recognised
structure. Bharata’s Najya-sastra bears testimony to this secular use
and Dr. Acharya has taken a detailed notice of the Natya-g|*ha (-man*
—
dapa,-vcSma,-jala vide Ency. H.A. 273).

Now coming to the different types of Mandapas, Samarahgana in

its two chapters on Mal»dapa architecture, the 66th and 67th has
 —

464 PRASAD A MANDAPA

described as many as thirty-five Mandapas in two groups of 8 and 2“

8.
Both these groups are tabulated as follows:

1st Group.
Maxidapas.

1. Bhadra 5 Svastika
2. Nan dan a 6. Sarvatobhadra
3. Mahendra 7. Mahapadma and
4. VardhamSna 8. Grharaja

2nd Group.
27 Man&apas.

1. Puspaka 14. Vilala

2. Puspabhadra 15. Su41is|a
3. Suvrata 16. 6atru-mardana
4. Amrtanandana 17. Bhagapanca
5. Kaulalya IB. Dama
6. Buddhi-Samkiraa 19. Manava
7. Gajabhadra 20. Manabhadraka
8. Jayavaha 21. Sugriva
9. Srivatsa 22. Harsa
10. Vijaya 23. Karnikara
11. Vastuklrna 24. Padardliika
12. f^riitirjaya 25. Simha
13. Yajnabhadra 26. i^yamabhadra
27. Subhadra.

N,B . — It may be noted here that the text being corrupt, it is

with the help of the Matsya-purana (ch. 270) where almost identical
names and the number (27) of these Mandapas are given, that these
27 types have been reconstructed.

It may be noted that all these types of Mandapas can be

comprised within the two broad heads of the Sarpvfta
classification,

and Vivfta, they are attached to or detached from the temple

as
proper. Their specimens as pointed out in the introductory chapter
of the Study arc profoundly found in the monuments at Bhuva-
nesvara.

As regards the general shape and proportions of measurements,

Mandapa is either square or rectangular. The text prescribes two
alternative widths. Either it should have the width of the PrSsada
(LXVIl. 98) or its width is equal to the height or diagonal of the
Prasad a (LX VI. 8). These arc the most perfect proportions; or else
 .

PRASADA MANDAPA 465

itshould be double— it has tvy^ice the width of the Prasada in the

Udayapura Temple or its length is onc-three-fourtli of the width of
the Prasada, (various intermediate proportions are specified in the
S. S. LXVII. I'i) and in the smaller temples, the rnandapa increases
in size to 2i and 2i of that of the Prasada). Any of tlr sc proportions
may be chosen according to the available space (LXVII. 10) and
other considerations. “As is the Prasada, so is the Mandapa in
front of it” (ibid 24b). This applies to its walls and their theme.
“Walls however, are dispensible in the Maiidapa, it is then an
Akaia-mandapa (ibid 23) such as the Sabha-mandapa in Gujarat;
these are entirely separate from the temple which comprises within its

walls, the Gudha or “closed” Mandapa.

“The super-structure of the Mandapa must not exceed in height,

the !§ukanasa of the PrasSda (LXVH. 102; 110). The Sukanasa
however, itself varies at dilferent periods and in the various types of
temples from having half the height of the i^ikhara to a less ‘perfect*

proportion. While thus the height of the Maudapa depends upon the
height of the temple and its Sukanasa, its propotion is not a fixed
one in plan, however, the centre of the Mandapa is in a fixed
proportion to the Garbhagrha; its central square has the same area
(LXVII. 43). is marked as a rule by four pillars,
This central space
forming a CatiiSid, whose pillars, by underpinning, help to
a pavilion
support the roof or dome. The intcr-colurnnia of the central
square have the maximum measurement. The other pillars are
placed at equal distances from each other, in aliquot parts, and
originally, half of the inter-columnia in the centre: 64 pillars is their
maximum number in the Puspaka Mandapa (LXVII. 12). The signifi-

cance of number has

this its basis in the number of squares of the
Manduka-Mandala”
 CHAPTER IX

PRASADA JAGATiS
The term ‘JagatP in relation to the temple-architecture or any
sacred architecture denotes its Even today we say the
base or socle.
•Kuven kl jagata* thereby meaning the raised up platform of the
well. This ‘Jagata* is the corrupt form of ‘Jagatl as basement or
terrace of the temple and is keeping with the tradition. But the S. S.
has some innovation as explained ahead.

These Jagatls have been dealt with in the text in two chapters
(68 and 69), The very opening lines of the first chapter (68) give
the highest praise to them;— ‘‘Now I am going to describe in detail
the Jagatls. These Jagatls add to the grandeur and the magnificence
of the temple, to the beauty and ornamentation of the town. These
are the places of congregational gathering and the fittest abodes for
the celebrations of festivities and the only refuge for peace and
tranquility — Mukti and Bhukti are simply dancing
^both on them.
Aglow with the presence of and the constant communion with gods
(these being their very abodes) these are the places where the four
goals of life (caturvarga) are attained and fame, longivity and glory
are added to doners who built them” (S. S. 68, l*2i).

In the metaphysical symbolism the Jagatl is the Pithika —the

base of the temple, the very epitome of all the three worlds. Prasada
is the Linga—in the sense that the whole macrocosm of the three
worlds gets absorbed (layanat) in the microcosmic image of the
Temple. Therefore, Jagatf, the wide and raised terrace on which
the PrasSda, the main shrine of the Hindu Temple rests, becomes
the substratum, the Adhara. This imagery of iconographical import
is a magnificent testimony to some added virtues and the architectural
accompaniments of this class of buildings, introduced in the medieval
period of architectural history in this country.

All possibilc shapes of the temple proper have been provided

here also. The text says (ibid 12) that after the planning of the temple
with its ground* plan (Sansthana), vertical section (Unmana) and
its special architectural form (Laksan3ni), the Jagatl should be
devised correspondingly, i. e. it should carry the shape of the
Prasada (TadSkSravatim). Its width is given in proportion to that

of tbc Pr3sSdaf If the width of the Pr3s|da is 8 padas, Jagatls’

 — .

pkASADA JAOATlS 467

width would be 28 padas (S. S. LIX, 41-42) or in another instance

(ibid 52-53) 32 padas*

One of the chief characteristics of the Jagati structure, as already

indicated, is the planning of the Salas thereupon and they take as many
as six types technically called after the place on which they are
planned:

1. Karnodbhava 4. Oai*bha-sambhav3
2. Bhramottha 5. Madhyaja
3. Bhadraja 6. ParSvaja

that is, those placed on the karnas are called Karnaju, the first type;
on bhramas Bhramaja; onbhadras Bhadraja (the 2nd and 3rd types).
Now the Garbhaja Sala is one which is placed in between these three
(trayamadhye ca garbhaja) and that placed in the middle of all the
five is called Madhyaja, and ParSvaja as the name indicates is one,

placed on sides

As indicated, all the possible shapes: sqaure, rectangular, circular,

elliptical, octagonal, etc. are the shapes of the Jagatls too»
Accordingly they may be tabulated as here under

Group A-^-^The Square J agatle.

1. Vasudha 20. MSrabhavya
2. Vasudhara 21. Makaradhvaja
3. Vahantl 22# Nandyavarta
4. ridhara 23. Bhupala
3. Bhadrika 24. Parijataka-manjari
6. Ekabhadra 25. Cudamapi-prabha
7. Dvibhadrika 26. Sravana-manjarf
8. Tribhadrika 27. Viivarupa
9. Bhadramala 28. Adikamala
10, VaimanI 29. Trailokya- Sunday!
IL Bhramar avail 30. Gandharvabalika
12* Svastik^ 31. Vidyadharakumarika
13. Haramala 32, Subhadra
14. Kulaiila 33. SiiphapaSjara
15. Mahidhari 34. Gandharvanagarl
16. Mandaramalika 35* Amaravat!
17« AnangalekhS 36. Ratnadhuma
18. UtsavamalikS 37. TridafendrasabhS
19« NagirimI 38. Devayantrika
39 *
 .

468 i'RASADA JAOATIS

B —•Rectangular.
10.
Group

1. Yaina«^a Pallava
2. Payodhara lU Vidyadhari
3. Netra 12. Trikuta
4. Dordandla 13. Saranikuti

5. Akharidala 14. Upama

6. Sita 15. Citrakup
7. Vanml 16. Trivikrama
8. Mahendrf 17. Tripatha
9. Kulamodik^ 18. ^aivi

Group C~Circnla ) Group K — Ot tagojial .

1. Valaya 1. Matfka
2. KalaSa 2. k^ekhara

3. Kar^i'a 3. Padmagrha
4. Karavfra 4. Amsumatl
5. NalinI 5. Kamala
6. Pundarika
Group D—^Elliptical. 7. Alapatra

1. Matuliiigl 8. Cakravali
2. Ghati 9. Candramandala
3. Ayamatl
4. Kalingi
5* —
6. —
may be noled that for the enumeration of the first group
of 39 Jagatl types, the text is corrupt and chances are that some of the
types might have remained unenumerated,

I have indicated before that the Jagatl as treated in the S.S. arc
an innovation. Jagatl, strictly speaking, is not a pedestal alone here.
from Pitha. The verses 5-8 of 68lh chapter (Jagatyanga-
It is different

samudayadhikara) may be taken to support this thesis (cf. also T.

Ganapati Sastri’s interpretation vide Contents p. 9 under
%k 2nd line—
The import of this passage is that there are as many as
six factors based on purely architectural matters like the shapes and
measurement — Vlstara, Ayama and height; parts and sub-parts and
their mouldings; the expansion and deflection of the buttresses; the
water-reservoirs and drains; the planning of the Sails —the number,
layout and the measurements etc.; the doors and stair-cases with
 PR AS AD A JAGATIS 469

their mouldings and arches as well as some of the shrines of the gods
and goddcses (the Devadhisnya) on the Jagatl (a part of course of the
central shrine, the Pfasada), all these technically are (#allcd by the
text as the Aiiga^samudaya, which establish the Jagatl structure quite
different from the pedestal, the pltha of the temple.

The S. S (cf. 3)th verse ch, 68) says ‘^Briimotha jagati-pltham”.

According to the above thesis, thus its interpretation would be the
pedestal of the jagati and not the jagad-pedestal.

Dr, Kramrisch herself admits (cf. f.n.H.T. 148) : ‘In certain build-
ings the massively piled socle of the temple rests on a pedestal or sub-
socle (Upapitha) of considerable height and the walls of the temple
are set on a double sub-structure; the socle projects from the Miina-
sutra and gives a broad basis to the buildings'. And the S.S. does
assign pedestal of sub-socle to the Jagatis themselves (68.35). In a
very beautiful image (68.47) it further likens these jagati buildings,
raised up wide terraces to the throne of a king meant for Prasada as
a Purusa to sit upon as it were. An las the thrones are carved and
are studded with jewels, similarly these structures may also have the
projections and mouldings thereof, for their ornamentation and grand
look.

The manifold varieties of the jagatis tabulated above result from

the different devices of the aforesaid architectural
rnembers—theAnga-
samuday a— the principal ones among them being the ^ala-sheds to serve
as the rest houses for the pilgrims, devotees, the priests and the pundits
reciting the katha etc. The 69th chapter entitled ‘jagati -laksana’
describes all these jagatis in this light. A single illustration from the
text would suffice for the character of the jagati in the S.S.

%% i

II

^ SITOT^ VTJT: II

II

imr ^ snnft gf<?Tfwnii 69.9-13.

Again these $alas also used to serve the places of little shrines
for the installations of the images of the different gods and goddesses
 —

4'70 f-RASADA jAOATis

of the Hindu Pantheon. Further again these jagati-like Prasadas were

favourite and dedicated structures to particular deities as is evident
from the follovMing statements, cf. the 69th ch. of the text;

gftvrt n «<>

=51
t i w
spr^f »T?3[rr (?rT?wr) i

5T9[T ?IT5tT 5rgT II ««

vr^f^ srmft <7T5cftfsm i ir«ii

^qrif^cra: (Tr!rrT5rT»^r^5if^T ipfMf^r:)

^ gir 5TT5rT ^ ii kci

Thus the sum and substance of the thesis is that as the Sala-struc-
turc an essential component of these jagatls, their character more
is

than a socle or base may be taken to be established. They are no

doubt besements but basements with additional virtues and the
structures thereof.
 CHAPTER X
VIMANA-VASTU
Somethittg has already been said of Vimana — vide ‘Denotation
and Connotation of Prasada’ — chapter
!• Here for the sake of complete-

ness some remarks on ‘Vimana-Vastu’ need be made to complete,

however meagrely, the fullest of the scope of temple-architecture,
the subject of this concluding part. The Hindu Temple, as already
expounded, has developed into two main styles, the northern or
NSgara and the southern or Dravida. The S. S. is a north-Indian
text book on Hindu Science of Architecture. This study, being prima-
rily based on the S, S. is naturally limited in its scope of the treatment
of the temple-architecture taking primarily the northern evolutions of
temple-architecture ;
hence in its counter part, the southern evolution
as is found in such south-Indian Vastu-texts as Mayamata, Manasara,
{^ilparatna, Kalyapa-Silpa, Tantra-samuccaya, IJana-Jiva-gurudeva-
paddhati etc* etc., remains meagrely treated. Hence only a very
brief exposition in this direction is called for. Further, temple-evolu-
tion in India did not confine to the main shrine. Its accessory build-
ings, fortified structures including the towering Gopuras and manifold
Prakaras and Hundred-pillared or Thousand-pillared Halls or mandapas
assumed such an enormous and outstretching side-development that the
central shrine was relegated to the background and these accessory buil-
dings came more prominence. This is more characteristically true
into
of South Indian Temples, the Vimanas. In north India, Prasada, the
main temple kept its position quite intact. Accordingly let us dwell a
little at these ramifications.

Vimana: Dr. Mallaya has reviewed practically all the important

theories on ‘Vimana’ as advanced by contemporary writers on Indian
architecture — vide his dessertation—
^p. 273-274. Dr. Ananda Goomar-

swamy*s view, however, may be taken to represent the correct position

of our Vastu-texts. He applies the term ‘Vimana’ to refer to Dravi-
dian temples, as in view of the authors of the i^ilpa-Jastras the term
‘VimSna’ denotes the whole structure from the basement to the finial*
which is enshrined the image. Thus
It refers to the central shrine in

VimSna and Prasada both arc complete structures both representing

the two streams of temple-architecture of our land The Prasada is a
temple inclusive of main parts begining with the basement and
all its

ending with the finial, Gurudeva supports this interpretation

 ’

472 VIMANA-VASTU

(cf. Pa|ala XXVIII st. 2) : ‘

f%HT^ Wm: fW^’.
The special characteristic of Vimana is the variety of its measures —
—vide its ety^Aiiology *vi’ and ‘mana*.

The other special characteristics of ‘Vimana* have already been

hinted at—vide the Origin and Development of Prasada-vastu.
Dr, Kramrisch has elucidated its significance and it may not be repea-

ted here. But a special point in this connection is the ‘Car Theory’
in regard to the evolution of Vimana-architecture, It is ably pro-
pounded by Dr. Goomarswamy and Mallaya doubts its tenability.
The readers may make an interesting study of this discussion in Mall-
aya’s book, p. 276-7. My view, however
that ‘Gar Theory* canis,

not be rejected so easily. We

have already seen the implication of the
origin of Prasadas from the celestial Vimanas. The celestial Vimanas
were cars as such. Many a temple in India like Rathas of Mamma-
lapuram and the temples like Konark arc a pointer. ‘Car Theory*
may not be confused with the temple-ritual— the festive processions.
Indians have never conceived in little terms. They have always
talked in sublimest of terms and noblest and highest of symbolism.
Temples, the Prasadas are the mountains and the Vimanas are macro-
cosm and microcosm in one. This is Maya which
the significance of
pervades the world, the Creation and pervaded by Brahma, the Kvara,
is

the Creator. Savants like Havell rejecting the ‘Car Theory’ arc more
guided by medieval monuments— a historical bias. What about the
cultural contents of so many institutions which though propounded in
the hoary past, came to the surface only in the historical periods of
Christian era,

Prakaras and Gopnras : Vimanas and Gopuras arc intimately

related to each other. The towering Gopuras are the crowning achieve-

ment of the south Indian temple-architecture. These Gopuras, from the

stand point of architectural planning and arrangement thereof, are
characteristically associated with Prakaras— the manifold courts into
which the temples of South India arc distributed. The courts really
fall in the domain of Palace-architecture but as already elucidated
;

the palaces and temples have a marked affinity to each other ;

because temporal authority, the King and the spiritual authority, one’s
Kula-devata or the Rajya-devata were in India kept on par for some
of the most mundane purposes like the residence and rites, the festivi-
ties and the processions. Accordingly the tcmple^cstablishmcnts and
the palace-establishments were identical to all intents and purposes.
Their magnificence and the decorative elements too, were to some
extent on par. Indian genius howcvf?r| at last, surrendered to the feet
 VIMANA-VASTU 473

of the god and relegated the king to insignificance. The history

bears the testimony that the grandest of the Prasadas and the loftiest

of the Virnanas were built by kings who took pleasure in foundation

and dedication of temples and pouring all their wealth in the erection
of stupendous undertakings like the KailaSa at Ellora, MfuTiksi-
SundareSvara at Madura and so many illustrious temple monuments
scattered in every part of this land.

While reviewing the principal Vitstu-texts like the Manasara and

Mayarn ita, we have already seen the respective classifications of
Prakaras and the manifold types of Gopuras. It is, therefore, not
advisable to go into their details here. My point is that the Gopuras
were set in the Prakara walls of the temples.
Gopura originally was a town-gate vide the Amarakosa— ‘Purad-
varam ca gopurcim’, which tradition is based on the Vedic Gomali-
pur and Epic Gogrha, the fortified extensive cow-stalls. In the medieval
history these culminated into colossal buildings, over or near the gate,
giving entrance to a temple. The Arthaiastra also enjoins the erection
of aGopura on the prakara-wall. The Ramayana and MahabhSrata
abound in Gopura-glittering palaces and cities. In the M3nasara the
Gopuras are laid in front of each of the five courts into which the whole
compound of a temple-edifice is divided. The Gopura belonging to
the first (antar-mandala) is called the dvaraSobha ; that belonging to
the second court is known as dvara-iala. The gate house of the third
court is called dvaraprSsada and of the fourth dvara*harmya. Lastly
the gate house of the fifth court (mahlimarylvda) is known as maha-
gopura.

Like Vimanas, Gopuras are also said to be furnished with as many

as sixteen storeys. According to the Manasara, these Gopuras are
divided into ten classes in regard to the number of architectural
members. They are called Ȥribhoga, ^ri-viSala, Visnu-kanta, Indra-
kanta, Brahma-kanta, Skanda-kanta, iSikhara, Stupika and Saumya-
k^nta. As regards other elements of Vimana-vastu, the Mandapas
and Tadagas etc., they may not be dealt with at greater length here
for want of space.
 CHAPTER XI

THE CORRESPONDENCE OF THE PHASADAS OF S. S.

WITH MONUMENTS
While dealing with the Temple Architecture from the different
standpoints of origin, development, styles and classification in the
previous chapters, something has already been said on this topic.
Here in this chapter, I would like to dwell at length upon this topic.

Scholars in their treatment of Indian architecture and more

particularly of Temple Architecture have adopted the criterion of the
ruling dynasties to whose munificence temples owe their origin, for
the classification and other allied details of the temples. Naturally,
therefore, the glory of temple building has been attributed to the
patrons, the donors, the Karakas of the Prasadas, rather than to the
Sthapatis, the Sthapakas and the law-givers, the propounder- Acaryas
of the ^lastra. If the religious merit of building the temple is trans-
ferred into the Yajamana, the builder, nobody is going to question
it. But the merit of the artistic perfection of the temple and of the
devotion of the highest order with which the work has been
done must not be usurped. Itis they, who had evolved the
different styles of architecture. The propounder Acaryas only gave
them the norms of building types, the Sthapatis, in collaboration
with the genius of the Sthapakas, evolved different styles in which
these temple-types could be finished. Types go with the Sastraca-
rays, and the styles should go with the Master Architects — the
Sthapatis,

A pcrsual of these different classifications of the temples as

tabulated before us will convince any intelligent student that the
same type of temple, may it be Rucaka, Meru, Mandara, KailaSa
Nandyavarta or Sarvatobhadra, has been described several times in
several classifications in connection with different styles. Styles,
therefore, as I remarked before, are the sum total, not only of the re-
gional traits, but also of the architectural craftmanship which evolved
them, of course, with due regard to the local and cultural background
of the place, the centre of art, in a particular part of the country.

The principal art-centres, so far as the architectural evolution

and development are concerned, were Kalinga, Andhra, Gurjara,
Banga, MadhyadeSa, Rajasthan, Orissa and Braja. It is in these
 PR AS AD AS OF S. S. AND MONUxMENrs 475

Janapadas that the Prasadas of old, the ancient period, i. e. Gupta

Period, as well as early and later medieval periods, say from 350
A, D. to 1350 A. D. rose from the small shrines to the stupendous
super-structures, the main factors in giving rise to them were the
patronage of the ruling dynasties, and the religious currents of the
times —Buddhism, Jainism and Pauranic Hinduism. All of these
contributed to the creation of monuments of supreme beauty, our
richest and greatest architectural heritage.

As Samarahgana Sutradhara was written in the early part of the

eleventh century, it mirrors not only the then developed temple
architecture, but has also prescribed potential norms for producing
the later types of temples, characteristic of the later Chalukyan and
later Indo-Aryan styles at Gwalior, Gujerat and Brindaban.

Now without going into details, let us proceed with the multiple
classifications of temples one by one and show their correspondence
to the monuments. This classification will have to be based either
on the materials, or on the styles, or the shape and super-structure along
with the names, varieties and origins thereof. A very important point
to decide beforehand is that in what sense should we understand the
correspondence of the norms of the temple architecture as propoun*
ded in the texts to the monuments? This correspondence we have
to take only in a limited and general sense. It would be futile on
our part to seek to find out if the details of the differrnt canons of
the planning of the Priisadas, the Hindu Temple, as given in the
texts, correspond to those found in the composition of an existing
temple building, I have said several times, that this text is the most
representative manual on the Vafstu-Sastra, the Hindu Science of
Architecti^re, and as it was composed in the early eleventh century,
naturally it portrays all the then developments of the temple archi-
tecture and according to the genesis of the great work, it not only
epitomises the evolution of the temple upto its time but also, in its,

own way has added many innovations to the already existing canons
of the art. I will very soon show this characteristic
of the work
more particularly in the realm of the proportions of measurements
and the varieties of the temple types; as already hinted in previous

Proceeding with this topic with this background, the most out*
standing points which I have made in this study are* firstly, the
interpretation of the word ‘PrasEda* in the sense of Hindu TempleJ
secondly, the use of the various materials like brick, stone, wood,
bamboo, cloth, rock (cave temples) and earth itself, according to the
 i»KASADAS OF S. S. AND MONUWiENtS

situationand surroundings, location and localities such as town ot

a hamlet, a hill or forest and thirdly, the types of the structure and the

super-structure thereof. This last criterion brings us to the most

important subject, though controversial in nature, the styles of the
temple. Different styles of the temple revolve round the super-struc-
ture and more correctly the finial the crowning part of the super-
structure of the Prasada. These in my opinion are the broad angles
from wnich we can see the correspondence between the texts and the
monuments.
The word for the temple.

The denotation and connotation of the word Prasada has already

been taken into consideration. Here I am concerned with the archi-

tectural implication of the word. In my opinion Prasada architecture

and Vimana architecture had different origins from ihe two
their
different building traditions. These two epitomise, as it were, the
Very essence of the Aryan and non- Aryan elements of Indian archi-
tecture, more especially of the temple architecture, \imana archi-
tecture is the proto-type of the South Indian Prasadas having super-
structure with storeys (Bhumis) and the Prasadas the raised platforms
(cf* Vedic Altar) were the precursors of the Prasadas developing
i^ to the piled up super-structure having §ikharas, as we have them
in North India, viz. temples at BhuvaneSvara, Khajuraho etc.
The Samarangana-Sutradhara, being the most representative
compendium of the North Indian architectural traditions of the
past (i. e. Nagara School and its crown, the Lata Style) naturally has
patronised the word Prasada for temple and developed its architec-
tural potentialities, as is evident from its very ornamental and exu-
berent architectural motifs of all parts of the temple, i. c.Jagatf,
the super-structure and the finial. Thus the word Prasada for the
temple in the Samarafiagaua corroborates the implication of the
PrSsSda as a sacred monument and also corresponds to several such
mbhumcrits, both in the literature and architecture as well. For
the former, the ancient works like Sahkhyayana 6.S. ‘‘Prasadas on all
sides of the Ahavanfya Fire” and PataSjali’s Mahabhasya (II 2'34):
PrSsSdas of Dhanapati, Rama and Kesava (already referred to in a
previous chapter) can be cited and for the latter the following
references are enough by way of illustrations

1. Garuda Pillar (Bhilsa) has an inscription for Uttama PrasSdai

of BhSgavata, 2nd Century B. G.
2. The ‘Vaijayanta PrSsada* the Prasada of indra, represented
in a relief panel in Bharhut Cave Ist Century B. G.
 t>kASADAS OF S. S. AND MONUMENTS 47v^

3. ‘Prasada-devalaya’, occurs in the Nalanda stone inscription

(Vs. 4-6) of YaSovarmmadeva C. 530 A. D. ‘Ep. Ind.’, Vol. XX.
p. 43.
4. Among the other inscriptions referring to extant temples as
Prasadasj is the Lakshmana Temple Sirpur (G, 700 A. D.), Ep. Ind.
Vol, XI. p. 190).
5. Similar reference is found in the Gurji Inscriptions of
PrabodhSiva, Ep. Ind. Vol. XXII. page 127.

N, B. There are other numerous references in Inscriptions

and Praiastis as very ably gathered together (Ency. PI. Arch ) by
Dr. Acharya in which the word Prasada corresponds in monuments to
gorgeous temples as well as small pavilions where a deity or emble-
matic phallus of ^Iva is installed.

Substances of the Prasadas.

The substances of which the temples are built, as described in the
text have already been referred to in the previous chapter ‘The Plan*
ning of the Prasada’. Samaraugana Sutra-
These substances in the
dhara range from wood, bamboo, cloth, bricks and stone to precious
stones together with gold, silver, copper, brass and other metals as
well. Dr. Kramrisch on the authority of Utpala the commentator of
Bfhatsaiphita and Maya remarks “Utpala commenting in the tenth
:

century on the ‘Bfhat-Sarphita’ (Lll. 39-41) quotes Hiraijfyagarbha ;

according to him the range of substances used in definite types of

buildings was large. The building Mandira, was made of stone,
Vastubhavana of baked bricks, Sumanta of unbaked bricks, SudhFra of
mud, Manasya of wood, Nandana of bamboo, Vijaya and ^ilpivikalpita
of (tent) cloth, Katima of wattle and others of gold, silver, copper,
iron, lac and tin. According to Maya, there are only five kinds of
buildings of different substances (H. T. ft. note 2 on page 101).
The South Indian texts like Manasara, Mayamata and ISanaiiva-
gurudeva-paddhati, the last one being contemporary of the Samarangana,
however, treat this topic more technically. Manasara classifies the
buildings from the point of view of the materials of which they are
built under iSuddha, MiSra and Saiikirna i.c. (a) iSuddha, or pure,
made of one material (brick, iron or wood) j (b) MiSra, or mixed,
made of two materials ;
(c) Sanklrria or amalgamated, made of threq
or more materials, cf. Man., XVIII. 139—-12 (vide H. A. In. &
Ab. p. 187).
“In the I. O. P. (referred above) Part V, Cb. XXXlI. 86-89, about
theaimc time, the South Indian type of temples is said to be ‘saipcila^
‘asaipcita’and‘upasatpcita\ according toils ‘density’, and is considered
 —

4^8 PRASADAS OF S. S. AND MONDMENfs

male, female or neuter, respectively. In the first instance, it is built

of stone or brick, in the second of brick or wood, and lastly of brick
and wood combined”. (H T. p 101)

The following
2. tabulation will show at a glance the early specimens
of the temples built of the differeni substances :

S uhstanc eg S peemem A ge Ilemarls

1. Brick 1. Bhitargaon (U. P.) Gupta Pd. Mixed type

Uttarelvara and Kale^vara 5th Cen- brick and wood
temples at Ter (Tagara) in tury, A. D. brick and stone
Hyderabad Deccan,
2. Wood 1. At Brahmor, Ghaniba (J. 8th Cen-
Ph. Vogel 'Antiq. of Ch. tury.
Stale’ (p. 96).
2. Wooden temples as repre*
sen ted in the carvings of
Bharhut, about lOOB.G.and
as described in the S. S,
(Gh.49th) as Hall temples;
pillars support, their roofs
or ccillings.
3. Stone 1. ^ilaprasada. (Ref H.r.p.lO ))

2. ^ailamaya Prasada. Ditto

4. Rock Rock-cut temples at Ajanta,
Ellora, Elcphanta and so many
other places (cf. S. S. Layana
and GuhSdhara).

N B —These are only early references. The early medieval tem-

ples are numerous. The main material used in them is stone or brick

and they abound in literature and architectural monuments, taken

notice of, by practically all the modern works on Indian Architecture.

Proportionate Measarements of the Prasadas

PrSsada^ the Hindu Temple, in its full development, means a
huge settlement. Mandapas, Jagatis, small shrines housing the other
deities (beside the principal one) to mention only a few of them, cons^-

titute this setup. Therefore, here when I am talking of measure-

ments, a complete code of measurements not only of all the main parts
of the temple is out of question, but also the measurements of the
accessory buildings do not fall within my scope (cf, the measure-
ments of the Ma^dapas,-^vidc chapter VIII). A full picture of the pro*-
portiotial measurtments of SamarStigapa Sfliradhara PrSsadas is
'
 PRA8ADAS OF S. S. AND MONUMENTS 479

painted in the subsequent volume of this study *The Architecture and

Sculpture of the Samarahgana Sutradhara\ Here, therefore, my
main aim is to show that about 1000 A. D., the time of the Samarau-
gana Sutradhara, a good deal of modihcations in the* proportionate
measurements of the Prasadas can be seen which correspond and are
sustained in the living practice of the art. The Lakjmaria- temple in
Khajuraho and the NilakantheSvara temple in Udaipur may be cited
to show that the profiles of Adhisth^na and
as typical illustrations
Vedika tally with Prasadas described in the 57th Chapter of the
Samarahgana Sutradhara (cf. temple types like Rucaka, Nandiia,
Hemakuta, Ksitibhusana, etc.)-

The medieval developments in the temple architecture, the

ground plan (talacclianda or saipsthSna) the height and the super- struc-
ture etc. correspond fully to the temple types of the Samarahgana Sutra-
dhara. The Sandhara (having circum-ambulatory passage) varieties of
of Prasadas are represented in the Vaikuntha Peiumal and Ambarnath
temples. Similarly the measurements relating to the height and
super-structure too under-went a substantial change in the temples
belonging to the early medieval period of architectural history of India
as portrayed in the pages of the Samarahgana Sutradhara.
‘‘In the early texts in the 6th century etc. the total height of the
temple including the Amalaka was twice or else thrice its width. The
general rule half a millenium later, as given in the Samarahgana
Sutradhara, however, is, that the height of the temple to its shoulder
course (skandha) is two and a half times and 2 small parts
twice,
—
(kala) -or two times and a quarter, the width of Prasadas (S.S. LVII.

122; 329; 455; 492 etc.) Above the shoulder course of the curvilinear
i^ikhara are the neck (kantha, grfva) and the Amalakasara or Andaka,
which yet form the part of Sikhara. Above the Amalakasara i.c.
above the Sikhara, is the finial, which is composed of several parts ;

the Gandrika also called PadmaSIrsa* has the shape of an inverted

Hat bowl. It supports the jar, Kalala or Kumbha and on it is placed
the Bijapuraka, the shape of the citron or an Usnisa (S. S. LVI — LIX
passim).”
Again ^ukanasa which extended originally to half the height of
the 6ikhara is now given various commensurable heights in the different

temples (S. S. LV. 91-93). The Mandapa is now established as a

separate hall in front of the Prasada, preparatory and subservient to
th€ purpose of the Prasada (cf. Temples at BhuvaneSvara in Orissa).
Soper-structure of (he PrSssda.
The super-structure,crowned by the Amalaka is the third and
highest part of the body of the Prasada (the two other main parts of
480 PRASADAS OF S. S, AND MONUMENTS

PrasSda being the solid base or socle, its altar and the sanctuary the
Garbahg|‘ha with its vertical vsralls). No composite name could be
evolved for the superstructure of the PrasSda, the whole finial. Sama-
rShgana Sutradhara enumerates in many passages the several parts of
the finial, the Candrika or PadmaSirsa, the KalaSa or Kumbha and
on it the Bijaptiraka, BijeSvara etc, (LVI. 153-54. LVII. 136; 425;
719). I have already remarked (vide the “Development of the
Temple Architecture” the III Chapter) that the PrasSdas as described
in the S. S. with their curvilinear super-structures (^ikharas) corres-
pond mostly monumental shapes of the temple. The construc-
to the
tion of the curvilinear ^ikhara, by means of a division in geometrical
progression by fourfold division (Caturguna sutra) was the rule in
the canons as enunciated by pre-Samarangana works like Agni
Purana XLII. 15-17 and Hayaifrsa Pancaratra XIII. 32.4 This
canon no more held good by the time of the S. S. This height of
the trunk of the ^ikhara given should be divided by geometrical
progression into a certain number of parts — three, four, five or six

according to the S. S. (LVI. I37 and LVII. 817). The description

of such a ^ikhara fits in with the temples more profoundly at Bhu-
vaneSvara (and also at Khajuraho).

In a previous chapter (Development of the Temple Architecture)

I have already talked of the main varieties of the curvilinear
super-structure,namely the cluster of iSikharas, the 6ikhara enmeshed
in Gavaksas and the composite Sikhara. The first is represented
most perfectly in the temples of Central India, especially in
Khajuraho (cf. Kandriya Temple); in northern Gujarat and also in
Rajputana (cf. Jain Temple in Osia; SomeSvara temple in Kiradu);
the Rajarani temple in BhuvaneSvara, Orissa. The second variety
of the curvilinear Sikhara has been particularly perfected in Orissa
(cf. the Lihga-raja and BrahraaneSvara temples). Lastly the third
variety belongs to Ceniral India and Deccan (cf. the Nilaka^itheSvara
temple at Udayapura of the eleventh century and the temple
Jhodga, Nasika).

A word on the pyramidal superstructure still remains to be said.

It is mostly found in the Deccan as well as in Drivida country.

ChadyaPrasldasofthe S S, come to in as illustrations of the pyramid .1

superstructure (already referred to, in Chapter 111), but they are illus-
trations of earlier phase. The piling of one shape of temple upon the
other, forms the subject matter of the chapter LV. of the S.S. The
superimposed temples may be square in plan or circular, etc., their

vertical sections arc also different and every type has its namC| such
 PRASADAS OF S, S. AND MONUMENTS m
as Rucaka etc* The text (cf LV. 79) syas ‘‘Rucaka or Vardhamana or
l^rlvatsaor Harrtsa whichever one may like among them, one slioulc) set
up that on G:iru(la*\ The most perfect form with greatest height (190
ft ) is represented in the BrhadlSvara ‘Great Temple’ in Tanjore
about the year 1000 A. D.

The Pyramidal superstructure composed of storeys or Bliuinis

(as described in the text — chapter G2) have several varieties, a detailed
notice of which is not every much desirable here.

Conclusion.

Temple architecture in India is not purely an architectural

tradition. It is something supra-architcctural. It is, therefore,
difficult to conclude with it, as it is difficult to conclude with any
such supra subject. The transcendental background, metaphysical
motif and spiritual significance have made the Prasada, the Hindu
Temple, as high as the highest peak of the Himalayas, and as deep as
the deepest part of the oceans.

But I can surely form a conclusion of my humble attempt at

the interpretation of this great institution as it is expounded and
ramified into innumerable ranges and outlets in the pages of this
mangnificient book written by a magnificient king. If the temple is

a microcosmic representation of macrocosmic Brahman, the Uni-

verse, surely an ordinary sutradhara is incompetent to build it*

Only the Bhuvanatraya-Sutradhara (cf, the very first verse of this

work) can fashion it or can will some one to fashion it. So is the
case with me, it is only in an inspired moment of my life that I

could make an attempt to just peep into this vast ocean. I am fully

conscious of it. There is still room for another attempt (cf. “Archi-
lecture and Sculpture of the Samarangana Sutradhara”).
 CHAPTER XII

AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

( THE PRASADAS & VIMANAS )

Much has been written on Hindu Temples. Fergusson, Havell

Krararish, Brown and a host of noted savants have contributed
to this theme in their standard works on Indian architecture and
sculpture, ‘Hindu Temple* by Kramrisch is a remarkable exposition
of a specialised undertaking. The present writer therefore is

bound to be benefited, very much from these ‘Purva-suris*. As he

is primarily a student of the canons of Hindu architecture, sculpture
(iconography) and painting, what are termed as Vastu-Sastra,
and Citra-Sastra, naturally his angle therefore must be
5ilpa*5Istra
coloured more by manuals than monuments. Accordingly in the
previous chapters, an attempt has been made to study the canons
ofTemple Architecture, and the same theme may be continued in a
pronounced way in relation to the monuments, the representative
illustrations of the different types of temples that are described
in these treatises on Vastu-Sastra. Hence the presentation of this
dessertation is bound to be different from those that are found in
the text books of the subject by contemporary writers.

LAYANAS, GUHADHARAS AND GUHARAJAS

We have already seen that one of the types of Prasadas as
described in the S. S, is the Layana or Guharaja or Guhadhara.

We —
have also seen vide Origin of Temple-Architecture, that one of
the m ) 3 t remarkable motifs of this origin was the mountain and its
caves. Gave-dwelling has been a recognised institution for meditat-
ion and communion with God in India for times immemorial.
Mountains arc said to be the abodes of gods. In the celestial
geography of India, mountain Mcru is the abode of gods in general,
and Mount KailaSa, the abode of the Lord Siva in particular. It
is on this fascinating background of our mythology and implied
sagacity of the searchers after truth and the —
truth in this particular
context being the divine communion —Deva-milana, that a separation
from whom (i. c. the gods) was effected in Treta-yuga due to the
haughtiness and mis-deracanour of the mortals —vide ‘SahadevadhikSra*
the S. S. Chapter VI, that the abodes of denizens, the temples
were conceived, planned and executed on the models of mountains.
 HlSrOHY OF HINDU TEMPLES 4B3

This however is a history of the most developed motif of temple-

architeclure. What were the beginnings, the humble beginnings
in this direction? The answer to this may be sought in the early
caves like LomaJa Rsi, Khandagiri, UJaigiri, Hathigurapha, Bhaja,
Kondane, Karli, Ajanta, Ellora and Mainallapuram groups etc.,
which to all intents and purposes were not only primitive shrines and
abodes of worship but also the replicas of cave-dwelling, a very hoary
irstitut'on of India.The forests and mountains both have been
popular for such abodes and such dedicated devotion. The rise of
hermitages in secluded corners of the forests and the caverns in the
mountains are a testimony to testify to this ancient Hindu ideal of
meditation (which also included the search after Truth— cf. the
evolution of the AranyakasandUpanisads from the womb of the forest).
Life of a foresteer —vide VauaprasthaSrama, was a recognised and
equally important mode of living in ancient India. was one of the
It
fourfold iV^ramas, or the stages of life. Naturally any origin for
worship and places of worship must have been motivated from the
forests and mountains. These aforesaid places, our reputed
archaeological sites are all in the midst of forests and also in the lap
of the mountains. I therefore, take these caves to be the earliest
representations of temples and temple architecture and illustrating
fittingly our VastuSastra temple- types or the Prasada-jatis of Layana>
Guhadhara and GuharSja Prasadas or Vimanas.

All these three names illustrate also the gradual evolution of this
type. The primitive cave-shrines at places like Khandagiri, Udai-
giri etc. are illustrative of the Layana-Piasadas, the caves of
Ajanta may be taken to illustrate the Guhadhara Prasadas and the
cave-temples of Ellora and Mainainalapuram being the finest

specimens of rock-cut-architecturc illustrate the zenith of this

type, the Guharaja, like the PrSsadaraja Meru
which illustrates
the finest and the grandest representation of Sikharottama Prasadas
taking their motifs from the Mountains, the specimens of which
will be taken up in due course in this study. With this general intro-
duction let us take these momuments one by one.

LAYANAS—-Early Mauryan spccimens.—Kondane of the first

century, B. G. cut out of the cliff-face consisted of acahitya bailor tem-

ple and attached monasteries represent the two characteristic types
its

of structure, one arched over by means of a barrel-vault roof and the

other having a flat roof. The seven rock-cut sanctuaries in the hills

about nineteen miles north of Gaya— four on the Barbar hills adn
484 HISTORY Ot HINDU TEMPLES

more example called

three on the Nagarjuni hill in addition to one
the Sitamarhi situated some thirteen miles south of Rajgriha and
twenty five miles east of Gaya may be said to illustrate the first
monuments representing the Layana types of early Prasada-shrincs.
Among the Barbar groups the two most notable examples are the
LomaSa Rishi and the Sudani a. They are not only the earliest
examples of rock-cut method symbolizing the Layana, the retreat
but also they represent the early model of Sala-architecture, the
wood and thatch which, as already remarked, was the rise of first
house, the Saranam or Nldain on earth either to house human
beings or to dwell the divine. In the Nagarjuni group of sancturies
notably in Gopi or milk-maid cave, we find the temple-architecture
in making. The abundant application of pillars and motifs of the
capitals arc reminiscent of the later genesis of the 6ikhara or the
spires or more characteristically, to put in the VastuJastra termino-
logy, the Aiidas of the later temples and the Arnalaka or the Amala-
Sill of the finial in the later growth of the temple-superstructure.
All these eight early Layanas, found in Barhar
IlilU (Karna-Kaupar,
Suiaina, Lomas and Visvajhopari), Nagarjuni grouj* (Gopika
Rishi
Vahijaka and Vadalhika) and Simrnarhl are our earliest types of
Layaiia-Prasadas.

Tiie V. D. (IILXGIII 27, 28) like the S. S. also supports that

the caves arc the places where the denizens of the heaven are
present. Naturally the man in his quest for re-union with the gods,
his higher selves, makes an operation consummate with the high
mission of godlines for cutting the living rocks to make them for this
cornmir ion. VastuSaslra (S. S LIX— 238) designates these secret
(Guha) places as Layana. Dr. Kramrisch also supports this conclu-
sion—vide her observation in H. T. p. 114-15:, “These, (i. e. caves) in
their tr msformalion by art, are stations of a return to nature
symbolic of man’s return to his original state and higher self. The
devotee enters them as places of release equal to the structural temples
With their transubstantiated walls. The cutting and entry into the
living rock would thus re-instate man in that integrity from which
he had departed and fallen since the Kt*ta-yuga the perfect age, when
he lived in the hills at peace with himself”.

Now a word may be added in regard to the discrepancy as may

be noted from the laksanas as given in the S. S. (LIX, 236-37)
according to which, Layana ( place of rest )
is undoubtedly the
name for rock-cut temples and which have no ^reril, which means
no superstructure with its cluster groups in similar shape; they arc
 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 485

without buttresses (niryuhaka) while a circumambulatory (bhraina)

and window (gavaksa) should be carved on the rock in imitation of
structural temples. This laksana epitomizes the deweloprnent to
which the early sancturies, as referred to above, had undergone.
Further the Layana is also equipped with stairs, a gateway, (praloli),
roll cornice (vitaiika —
kapotapalika) on the facade and doors. This
description according to the learned authoress of Hindu Temple refers
only to cave-temples such as those in Badanii, The cave- temples, in
the earlier example (3rd century B, G.—6th century A. D.) are
interiors only, having a facade (which quite fits in with the eight
examples cited alovc); to these types were added (Mamalla-purain,
Ell lira, Kalugumalai which to —
my mind represent not l aiyanas
but Guharajas as we shall presently see ) complete replicas of
structural temples liewn out of the rock in their exterior and
excavated within (Kallash Nath Temple and Indra-sabha in Ellura),
She observes; “Although the last named temples are, one Hindu,
the other Jain, the majority of the rock cut temples and sacred
abodes are Buddhist. Out of a total of 1200 rock-cut temples 900
are Buddhist, 200 are Jain and 100 are Hindu. Some of the sanctua-
ries in Ellura (L)aJavatara, etc.) and the ^iva temple in Elephanta
are, though posterior to the sixth century, interior excavations only

with a facade.’*

“The square, dark, small Garbhagrha, is not transferred from

the cave temple to the structural temple. The flat roofed ‘Gupta’
temple is neither derived from Brahmanical excavated sanctuaries
contemporary witli it (Udayagiri in Bhopal, etc.), nor from earlier
excavated cells with a flat ceiling; the early rock cut sanctuaries have
domed or vaulted interiors, where as cells and halls in the rock cut
monasteries have a straight ceiling. There is no scope for a flat

roof in rock cut temples, the Gaitya hall prior to the Gupta age;
it belongs to the flat roofed porch only of the sanctuary piopcr. The
flat roof of the rock cut Kailasanatha Temple in Ellura of the eight
century is in imitation of a structural temple of that age. Any
shape can be cut into the rock, no structural form is born there,”
Vastu^astras (cf. the S. S. LIX) have codified the the individual
dedications of the respective temples (PrasSda-stavanam) to the
principal gods. Lxyanas in that context are the common abodes of
the gods in general which also fits in withitsun-sophisticated evolution.

GUHiDHARAS— Guhas and Layanas, for all intents and purposes

arc one and the same —the secret places where the denizens of heaven
are present, for the communion with whom, men have been medi-
4B6 HISTORY OF HINOU TEMPI, ES

tating for time immemorial. TheS.S.LlX 193'197 describes this type

of cave-temples. Its name however is derived from the division of the
door frame (dvaraSakha) into several compartments (guhas). It is
also enjoined in the text that it should resemble the temple —Sirhha
(e. g. Simhasya cf. the M. P. GGLXIX).
As already suggested it is
illustrated in the cave temples of Ajanta and a brief review is accor-
dingly called for. But before Ajanta is described a passing review of
earlier or contemporary specimens may also be made. Primitive
shrines like a rock-cut chamber at Guntupalle in the Kistna district of
Madras state and anotlier similarly rock-cut at Kondivte near Bom-
bay represent the earlier efforts towards this direction. Both these
illustrate one of the many sided currents of the building art under the
§uhgas and Andhras.

The more developed types of Guhadharas however may be attri-

buted to Buddhist rock-cut architecture, the early or Ilinayana phase,

as are represented in the monuments Kondane, Pitalkhora,
at Bhaja,
Ajanta, Bedsa, Nasika, Karli and Kanhcri. These Hinyana rock-cut
monasteries represent a definite regional development, as they are
limited to the western side of India, many of them lying within the
Bombay State. The South and the North (especially Orissa) also
did not lag behind in responding to this exuberance. We have al-

ready remarked that these Layanas and Guhadharas come to a total

of twelve hundred, majority of which arc attributed to Buddhism.
This rock-cut architecture, are not caves but cave-temples, the Layana,
the Guhadhara, the Guharaja Prasadas, in the terminology of our
VastuSastra and Prasadas or temples in the canons of Indian Art arc
architecture and sculpture both. Percy Brown also supports this
implication. “The fashioning of architectural forms out of the
living rock, or rock-architecture, occupies a very prominent place in
the development of creative art in India. Yet in spite of the admitt-
edly high aesthetic character of these productions they have never
been allowed that position in field of art to which they are fully en-
titled. Ever since these examples of rock-architecture became a
it has been the custom to refer to them as “caves**,
subject of study,
implying that they were natural grottoes in the mountain side, the
haunt of wild people, and still wilder animals. No word would be
more misleading to designate these wonderful records of
man’s
handwork, as many of them arc large and well planned temples,
skilfully wrought and chiselled out of the solid cliff, and to define

which the term rock-architecture if the only one which can ad<*qua-
tcly describe their workmanship. If, however, the usually accepted
definition of architecture as “good construction truthfully expressed**
 HtSTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 487

is applied, then on account of their technique alone they cannot be

classed as architecture in the strict sense of the word. These rock-
hewn forms are expert achievements but they involvefi no construc-
tional principles, nor do they display any functional properties their
columns no adjustment of support to load, the arches car^y no
signify
weight, nor do they counteract any thrust, in the whole operation no
structural intelligiblity is required, as no problems of this nature
arise. In a word rock-architecture to all intents and purposes is

not architecture, it is sculpture, but sculpture on a grand and magni-

ficent scale’*

‘^Rock-architecture appealed to the Indian mind for several rea-

sons. In the first place its stability, as it was as immoveable as the
mountain of which it formed a part, was undoubtedly an attraction
to a people living very largely in impermanent structures of wood and
wattle. Secondly, it was acceptable to the Buddhists because from
the earliest times natural caves and grottoes were the favourite abode
of hermits and anchorites, a custom which even now survives in
Nepal and parts of Tibet, where a Lamaistic form of Buddhism still
prevails Such habitations were therefore not only associated with
religion but had also the sanction of tradition. But the principal
reason was the great increase in the conventual life of the country at
this time. From the ancient practice of asceticism common in the
Vedic period, it was but a step to that of rnonasticism, a system
which all the world over has induced its fcUowers to retir into rocky
fastnesses, forest recesses, or lonely deserts, there to dedicate their
lives to the rare wor hip of the self-absorbed. Some such convic-
tions, perhaps, accentuated by the pressure of religious intolerance,
for the ruling powers belonged to the Brahmanical faith, were largely
responsible for extensive monastic establishments flourishing within
these secluded mountain retreats.”

With this general introduction to the rehabilitation of these cave-

temples of India in their proper perspective, it is not the business of
this dissertation to give a detailed architectural account of these
individual monuments, but for an idea of their characteristic features,
some remarks in the words of Percy Brown are called for. “This
architecture resolves itself into some ten separate groups of conven-
tual establishments, each group being seperate and self-contained,
and each originally consisting of a prayer-hall and its accompanying
monastery. The prayer-hall or Buddhist temple, and usually refe-
rred to as the chait;a hall, as it accommodated a chaitya or stupa,
took the form of a large vaulted hall having an apsidal end and
488 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

divided longitudinally by two colonades into a broad nave and two

aisles. In the apse stood the stupa, also carved out of the natural
rock, consisting of an elaborated representation of the structural
tumulus previously described/’ “The other architectural formation
in these rock-cut retreats was the monastery proper, an arrangement
of apartments for the accommodation of the monks, and known as a
vihara. A typical vihara consisted of a square central hall entered
by a doorway, in front of which was a vestible, verandah, or portico.
Out of the central hall, doorways opened into square cells carried

still further into the rock, each of which was the abode of one of the
brotherhood. The original plan was for one of these viharas to be
situated close to the chaitya hall, but as the priestly community
increased, more cells were required to be excavated along the cliff

side. These provided quarters for the ordinary members of the com-
munity, but there were others of a superior rank who felt it more
seemly to chambers separated from the main group, of
live in which
an example isnumber 4 at Karli. In addition there were
vihara
those rare individuals on a still higher plane who claimed to be
Arhats or Boddhisatvas, each of whom on account of his status
lived alone in a single cell by itself, examples of which may also
be seen at Karli. Communication between all these various forms
of abode was maintained, where necessary by flights of steps, but in
some of the larger monastic establishments, the cells are so numerous
that the cliff side is honey-combed with them, recalling the nesting
burrows of swifts in a disused quarry.'*'

Ajanta. Now coming to Ajanta it may be said that it is not properly

studied. A historical bias has been responsible for the lack of a
coherent and unified picture. There are twenty nine caves, majority
of which arc Viharas, the so called abodes of the monks and priests
of the Buddhist Order. Chaitya halls numbering about five are the
Buddhists shrines attached to the principal Viharas. Among these
29 caves caves III, IV, V, XIV, XXIV, XXV, XXVII, XXVIII
and XXIX are left incompleted. Ajanta is famous for its paintings;

but its contributions in the realm of building art, especially the vase
and formed the remarkable legacy of the Gupta Art.
foliage capital
Ajanta cave-temples represent many centuries of growth of art and
evolution of the Order. Both the schools of Buddhism, the Hinayana
and Mahay ‘na contributed to the Ajanta School of Indian Art, which
in its onslaughts, powerfully contributed to all the three principle
branches of Hindu Art~architccturc, sculpture (iconography) and
painting. It is said that at Ajanta a Hinayana order of priests had,
towards the beginning of Christian era, excavated a group of large
 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 489

halls and monastic abodes, after which a quiescent period of four

centuries intervened, when this Buddhist hierarchic settlement again
sprang into life. Thes^ caves as alrea ly remarked signify two types
of religious institutions established by convention, namely the Ghaitya
hall or temple and Vihara or monastery. In the later Mahayana
phase (A.D. 450 to A.D. 61-2) however some changes were introduced
especially in the excavations of Viharas,
Ghaitya retained the
to ail intents and purposes, the previous pattern of which the essen-
tial elements were the nave, aisles, apse, sutpa and vaulted roof.
GUHARAJAS. Something has already been said on the caves and
the mountains as providing the grandest of origins and evolutions of
Temple-architecture in India. The caves are the ancient residences
of the gods, Caves, like the banks of rivers, are our Tirthas. Pre-
sence of gods is so strongly felt there that cave The and god are one.
Vayu Purapa XXXIX. 55 speaks of cave-dwelling of Cuba, the Secret
One (Kartikeya) on the Visakha mountain. The god is very fond ol
living in caves. To these natural habitations of the gods have to be
added, as places of worship, retreat and congregation other natural caves
and also those cut into the rock for similar purposes. The Ajivikas,
Jain sect and the Buddhists were the first to do it. Within Brahma-
nism which was passing through the Vedic ritualism and the
solitarymonasticism in the natural caves, the substitution of excava-
ted caves for natural ones took time to evolve. ‘‘The heterodox
sects preceded the Hindus by many centuries in their interference
with and transformation of nature. They had already achieved
magnificent results in such large, aspidal vaulted ‘churches’ as the
cave-temple at Karli and in rock-cut monasteries like those
at Nasik or Ajanta”. The dated Ajivika caves in the Barbar hills,

Bih were excavated in the reign of Asoka, in the 3rd century B. C,

ir

The Brahmanical warship cut its entry into the rock near about
400 A. D. It has the shape of a small, flat roofed Garbhagrha which
was the most earliest ternplc^plan what is called the Chadya-Prasada.
Among the Gupta temples, a structural porch or mandapam
belonging to Udaigiri, Bhopal may be taken as the earliest Brahmani-
cal rock-cut temple. It dates from the reign of Chandragupta-II,
382-401 A. D.
These early temple-plans as described in the Vastu-Sastra like
the S. S. enjoining to be built against the back wall of the pillard
hall not only correspond to a Garbhagfha cut deep into the rock
and preceded by its mandapa, but to my mind, they also must
have given to the Jaipas and the Buddhists, the prototype for their
rock-cut cave- temples.
 490 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

“Garbha, Pali ‘gabbha’, is also the name of rock-cut cells of

the
Buddhist monks connected with their large monastic halls.
Such an
establishment i" called a'navagabha Mandapa’ (Karli
cave inscr., ‘Ep.
Ind.,XI, p. 119), if there are nine ‘gabha’ or cells; or also ‘paca-gabha
mandapa’ and ‘sattagabha mandapa’, when their number is only 5 or
7(Junnar cave inscriptions, pp. 131, 136). Any small room is finally
called ‘gabha’,in Pali texts and denotes various kinds of chambers
or
rooms (‘Cullavagga’, VI. 3-3.) which may be square or rectangular,
etc The use of terms such as ‘prasada’, or its equivalent ‘vimana’;
gabbha, and also ‘guha’, cave (Gullavagga’, VI. 1, 2) in civic architec-
ture is also current in the Epics.
“Dhatugarbha (dagabha) is the
stupa as receptacle or womb
of the relics (dhatu) of the Buddha.
The Buddhist rock-cut cells again had their equivalent in structural
cells; these in stone buildings, such as arc preserved in Gandhiira were
also used as shrines for a Buddhist image or a stupa (Takht-i-Bahai).
In this particular instance however they are not square, but rectan-
gular, etc. and they have not flat roofs”. H.T. p. 170 f. n. 102.

With this general introduction in the context of this last type of

the cave-temple, the Guharaja, let us deal with itin more details of
architecture and the crowning illustrations at renowned sites like
Ellora and Mamallapuram.

Guharaja, King of Caves, is a name as suggestive as it is unique

among the ever-increasing types or Jatis of temples enumerated and
described in the texts like the S. S and A.P. the medieval compendi-
ums of Indian Architecture. The name however occurs also as that
of actual temples, such as ‘Kuraja’ (Guharaja), Bir, Temple which is
situated betweenDeogarh andCanJpurin Central India. Kuhara
or cave is a synonym of Sala, or room in the Bhavisya-purana
(CXXX. 27) where the type of temple, called Meru, is described as
having Kuharas. The Anand Pagoda, in Pagon, Burma, being a,
(Ku) or cave has such Kuharas, ‘caves’ or halls in the four directions
radiating from a massive centre. The Burmese name for structural
brick temple is (Ku) which is only an imitation of our VastuSastra
tradition.

According to Utpala (comm., Br. S. LV. 25) this temple-type has

the shape of a cave. 32 cubits, follows the general rule, of
Its height,
being twice the width of the Prasada, and implies a superstructure as
high as the walls of the Garbhagfha.

Kramrisch however takes this temple-type represented in

Prof.
Bqrmcsc temples. She says ‘This King of caves, Guharaja, whatever
 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 491

Its actual shape was, shares part of its name with Burmese brick built

temples, ‘‘la Burma, brick-built temples with inner spaces are simply
called ‘Ku’ or cave. One of the temples at Pagan b«ars the name
Shwe Ku, Golden cave. The Burmese Glass Palace chronicle tells

about the erection of the Ananda temple of Pagan, how King Kyanzi-
tiha requested eight Arhats to produce by their concentrated thought
an image of the cave Nandamula in the Gandhamadana. This they
did and the King built a large Ku-Guha, a ‘cave’, or temple in the
likeness of the cave Nandamula and called it Nanda. The name of
the cave, which properly is the Garbhagrha, appears here as that of
the whole Prasada”. This may be one of the many frontier develop-
ment of Hindu Art. From the interior olT-shoots, however, the
Cave-temples at Ellora, Elephanta and Mamallapuram may be regar*
ded as the best representative monuments.

Ellora — It is a remarkable architecuiral site, perhaps uniciue in

whole of the country, where we find a confluence of all the three prin*
cipal religious creeds. Buddhism, Brahmanism and Jainism. Its

earlier Buddhist phase is contemporary to Ajanta, in a direct line

only some sixty miles distant. The slight difference in the Buddhist
rock-cut architecture at Ellora may be necessitated by not only the
later adaptation in the creed and the ritual, but also the difference in

the terrain of the two places. For instead of the almost vertical cliff

as at Ajanta, the halls of Ellora are excavated out of ridge of low hills,

pushed up from the vast plateau of the Deccan.

—
“At Ellora the Buddhists were the first of the three great
Pyiiddhist

religious communities to occupy this site, and as such their monaste-

ries arc in the most favourable position, being at the southern end of

a scarp of the plateau, where it throws out a horn to the west. Here
they practised their religion for some two centuries, from A.D. 450 to

650, during which period the group of twelve rock-cut halls belonging
to the Buddhist creed were produced”, (sec the tabulation of all
these 12 excavations in Brown).
“An architectural feature which emerges about this time is a
type of pillar and capital thoroughly distinctive of the rock*out tech-
nique, Of massive proportions, the lower half, which corresponds to
the shaft is is round in
a plain square prism, while the upper portion
and elaborated into a capital consisting of
section, vertically fluted,
the compressed “cushion” forms. This became the dominating type
of capital and pillar and together with the other type already referred
to as the “vase and foliage”, constituted the two “orders” in all
subsequent rock-cut architecture. So different in every aspect arc
492 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

lliese —
two capitals the '^cushion” and the ‘‘vase’*, that it is deaf
they are the outcome of two entirely different but parallel traditions.’*

The Mahanwada isand most remarkable and

by far the largest
owing to its uncommm by itself and resembles
design, is in a class
with the ‘Maharaja’ or the “Durbar-Hall” at Kanheri. Both these
prayer halls were the outcome of the Lamaistic services in the
Order.

The most notable production of the whole Buddhist series at

Ellora is chaitya Hall no. 10, commonly known as Vi^vakarma or
‘Lord of Arts’ as it lias the reputation of being specially frequented by
artisans. As a more orthodox type of Buddhist prayer-house and the
only one of its kind on the site, it resembles in many respects the two

almost contemporary Mahayan chaitya halls at Ajanta.

J>rahmanical — “It was early in the seventh century, when the

activities of the Mahay ana Buddhists on this site were drawing to a
close, that the Hindu hierarchy began in their turn to prepare a series
of columned halls in much the same architectural style as the Bud-
dhist, but adapted to suit their own ritualistic needs. The Brahrna-
nical group at Ellora extends along the west face of the hill for about
half H mile, and consists of sixteen excavations numbered i 3 to 29.
The principal examples are (No. 14) ‘Ravana-ki-Khai’ or Abode of
:

Kavana, the demon king of Lanka (Ceylon); (No. 15) Das Avaiara, or
the Ten Incarnations of Vishnu; (No. 16) the Kailasa or Siva's Para-
dise; (No. 21) Rameswara, or Lord of Ram; (No. 29) Dumar Lena,
sometimes called Sita’s Nani, or Bath of Sit a. These resolve them-
selves, as follows, into four different types, most of them apparently
taking their various shapes in order to conform to the changing
requirements of the creed” — cf- Brown p 86.

Dasavatara cave-tcrnple is the largest and the finest of the first

type and is in two storeys along with a detached shrine or mandapa,

intended perhaps for Nandi, J^iva’s bull or Dvarapala. The second

type though quite simple, represents the elaboration to which the

Hindu temple was subjected in the early medieval limes. The third
type, the Dumarlcna is one of the largest and most imposing temples
on Ellora site. It is a massive central shrine being made possible by
the shape of the hill in which it is cut. The final type of Brahma-
nical rock-cut architecture consists of one example only, the Kailasa,
!§ivas Paradise, and stands in a class by itself as it is unique. It is
the structure in rock —a new scheme altogether. Instead of the
underg’-ound halls which had hitherto been the practice, its creators
 HlsTOkY OF HINDU TJiMPLES 493

threw «'isidc all previous conventions and boldly undertook to repro-

duce in the virgin rock to very large scale and in full detail a struc-
*
tural temple of the period.

“Once the idea of the Kailasa was conceived, its production

became a matter of time, patience, and skilled labour, all of VNdiich
appear to have been readily forthcoming. That it was an expresdon
of exalted religious emotion is obvious but even this condition could
not luive made such a consummation possible, had it not also Imd the
patronage of a ruler with unlimited resources and who was at tlie
same time moved by the loftiest ideals. This monarch has been
identified as Krishna I (757-783) of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of
Malkhed.’’
Artistically judged, Kailafa is more closely allied to sculptiu e on
agrand scale than to architecture which is the real genius of klindu
Architecture which is not only a mechanical art, but also a fine art gi ami
and splendid. The temple- scheme is comprised of lour parts, the
body, the entrance, the Nandi and the cloisters surrounding the court
yard. Two free standing pillars or dhvajastambhas fifty one feet

high, one on each side of the Nandi shrine add to the grandeur of the
temple. The whole monument shows how both the orders the
Southern or Dravidian and Northern or Nagara have got assimilated
to evolve a composite All India Hindu architecture of the medieval
period. ‘Cushion* and ‘Vase and foliage’, both are before our eyes.

Percy Brown is very apt: “The temple of Kailasa at Ellora is not

only the most stupendous single work of art executed in India, but as
an example of rock-architecture it is unrivalled. Standing within its

precincts and surrounded by its grey and hoary pavilions, one seems
to be looking through into another world, not a world of time and
^pace, but one of intense spiritual devotion expressed by such an
amazing artistic creation hewn out of the earth itself. Gradually one
becomes conscious of the remarkable imagination which conceived it,
the unstinted labour which enabled it to be materialized (a work of a
hundred years), and, finally, the sculpture with which it is acloincd;
this plastic decoration is its crowning glory something more than a
record of artistic form, it is a great spiritual achievement, every
portion being a rich statement glowing with meaning. The Kailasa
is an one of those rare occasions when men’s minds,
illustration of
hearts, and hands work in unison towards the consummation of a
supreme ideal. It was under such conditions of religious and cultural
stability that this grand monolithic representation of Siva’s Paradise
was produced”. As regards the Jain monuments, they may be passed
over for want of space.
494 HISTORV OF HINDU TEMPLES

Ellora represents the final manifestation of rock-cut architecture

in India along with the other notable sites (i) the islands of Elephanta
and Salsette 5nd (ii) Marnaliapuram, a development under the Pallava
dynasty,

Elephanta-—resembles the Dumar Lena in general distribution;

but it is superior to all others of its kind in the character and quality
of its sculptures. For details see Percy Brown.

Maniinalapiiraai —Leaving other cave-temples illustrating guharajas,

let us now concentrate on Mamrnallapuran, the famous seat of Pallava
rock-architecture, Pallava-architecture has two phases, wholly rock-ciit
and wholly structural. The former illustrates Mahendra Group A.D,
610 to 640, pillared halls (mandapas) only together with Mamalla
Group A. D. 640 to 690, mandapas and rathas (monolithic temples)
and the latter Rajasimha-Nandivarman Groups. We are concerned here
with the first phase. Of the rock-cut examples of Pallava architecture
at Mammallapuram, the excavated halls or mandapas are ten in num-
ber some of which are unfinished:
Dharmaraja, Kotikal, Mahisasura,
Kfsna, Panca Pandava, Varaha, Ramanuja Five-celled Saivite and —
the last two unfinished.

As regards the series of monoletliic temples called rathas, popu-

larly known as the ‘Seven Pagodas’ they may be regarded a stupen-
dous artistic creation and an entirely novel form of expresuon.
“Solitary, unmeaning, and clearly never used, as none of their inte-
riors is finished, sphinx-like for centuries these monoliths have stood
sentinel over mere emptiness, the most enigmatical architectural
phenomenon of the sands. Each a lithic
in all India, truly a riddle
cryptogram as yet undcciphered, there is little doubt that the key
when found will disclose much of the story of early temple architec-
ture in Southern India,”

“As with all the rock productions of the Pallavas, the rathas are
of no great size, the largest measuring only 42 feet long, the widest
35 feet, and the tallest is but 40 feet high. They number eight in all,

and, with one exception, arc derived from the two types of structure
hitherto attributed to the Buddhists, the Vihara or monastery, and
the Ghaitya hall or temple. The exception is that known as Drau-
padi’s ratha, the smallest of the series, as well as being the simplest
and most finished. This example is merely a cell or pansala, and the
shape of the roof indicates plainly that it was copy of a thatched
structure, most probably a form of portable shrine belonging to a
village community, as shown by its substructure,”
 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 495

The other
rathas go after Arjun, Bhlma, Sahadcva, Dharmaraja,
Gaii?Sa etc. These monolithic shrines^ were of Saivitc attribution as
may be confirmed by the images carved in rock, of a lion, an elephant
and a bull.

STUPAS
After this brief treatment of Rock-cut Architecture from a synthe-
tic standpoint where manuals and monuments, both have been given
equal prominence, some remarks are called for here and now on the
Stupa Architecture as well. As already pointed out that the Indian
rcck-cut architecture is predominently Buddhist and Stupa-architcc-
ture is cent percent Buddhist it, therefore, has to be examined in alliance

with the rock-cut. Any sacred architecture of the post-Vedic period is

fundamentally influenced by the motif of mountains. Caves and

mountains have provided the shapes and the forms, to put it in one
word, the prototypes for the formative evolution of the Prasadas and
Vimanas. If Hindu Temple is the grand Icon of the Supernal Man
Buddhist Stupa is not lesser than it. It is a
sacred structure akin to a mountain-temple to enshrine not the deity
but the relics of that great Buddhist deity who was all against deifica-
tion. If caves go with mountains, the cave-temples should also go
with the Stupas, the mountain-temples and the Buddhist architecture
has a very rich heritage in this splendid side-branch of Indian Archi-
tecture. The Stupa monuments at the renowned sites of Sanchi
Barhut, Amaravati etc. are a superb legacy of Indian art and a brief
purview is called for.

The earlier structure of a stupa used to be formed by bricks

which in the Vedic symbolism were the body of the sacrifice, later on
the stone took the place of bricks. Thus the substances (the materials
etc.) and the symbolism of the Buddhist stupa and the Hindu temple
are identical. Both are sacred places, shrines for devotion accompa-
nied with respective rituals. Buddhist chaitya-halls invariably house a
stupa. Ghaitya is derived from citi-this we have already seen. A chaitya,

in the Buddhist application with reference to a man-made form is the

stupa. Chaitya in both the Epics is sacrificial altar. Ghaitya, Ayatana,
Prasada and Stupa, etymologically and originally are piled up seats or
altars, sanctuaries in the open and also within an enclosed space (which

in the present context is reserved to enshrine a relic). The principal

part of a Hindu temple is the garbhagpha and a Buddhist stupa too
has a garbhagfha as per no lesser an authoritative sacred book of
Buddhists than thcGullabagga VI. 33 where Dhatugarbha (dagabbha)
is the stupa as receptacle of the relics (dhatu) of the Buddha. Prof,
496 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

Kratnrisch has made some illuminating observations (H. T. p. 197-99)

where the plan of Hindu Temple and the Buddhist sanctuaries such
as in Gandhara, at Takht*i-Bahai are to all intents and purposes iden-
tical. This iss^about the lay out. As regards the component parts
bearing respective symbolisms we can have some identical manifesta-
tions and Prof. Kramisch*s observations in this respect are quote-
worthy : ‘‘An indispensible part of the Buddhist Stupa is the Harmika,
the railing which surrounds its shaft where it emerges from the dome-
shaped pile of the monument. This railing is square (caturaJra
kos^ha); it encloses moreover a small pavilion or chapel—similar
to that on the Ayakakhambhas and also to the High Temple of a
Dravida Prasada — where it is not represented in the shape of a solid
cube. The part where the shaft of the central pillar of the Stupa
emerges above the Harmika is called Devata Kotuva in Ceylon. It is

there that the 33 gods reside, in their heavenly world, above the
sphere guarded by the Regents of the directions of space. The hiera-
rchy of divine manifestation accommodated in the monument,
is thus
it is especially located within its vertical axis, the Cosmic Pillar. The
Harmika and Devata Kotuva are above the expanse of the Stupa, and
are part of as well as surrounding its axis ;
they exactly correspond in
place and function to the 5 Vimanas as High Temples’\

Further she observes : “The central shaft of the temple holds the
divine presence ;
it is specially manifested on the lowest level, in the
womb, the Garbhagrha, and on the highest level, above the body of
the temple. The vertical column of the temple is the cosmic trunk
and its quadruple ramifications are the four directions of space in
which the Prasada has its extension. The vertical column of Prasada
and Stupa alike has its prototype in that vertical shaft across the strata
of the Vedic altar formed by the naturally perforated ‘bricks’ the ,

Svayamat|*nna stones, which were placed in the vertical succession

above the Golden Purusa”.

Further again the closed body of the temple

is full of openings not

factually but symbolically e g. ghanadvaras and gavaksas. In its

largest form as exemplified on the Hindu temple, the GavSksa is an anti-
fix known as Sukanasa. It shields the structural opening of the l§ikhara
or superstructure. Such Nasas (Nasika ;
Kudu) are also repeated
horizontally on the kapotalis or cornices ; there they had their place,
originally, as attic which form they have figured since the
windows, in
days of Barhut. The so-called “caitya-hall window” of Buddhist
Gaitya-hall, the “sun window’^ which is the correct name of the caitya,
hall window, is of similar purpose with identical implication. It
 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 497

admits the light of the sun which reaches the Caitya or Stupa at the
far end of the hall. •

Still further Prof. Kramrisch is our greatest interpreter in

regard to the crowning part of a temple, the Amalaka and that of a
Stupa, the Harmika. Let us quote her fully :

‘*The Amalaka moreover in early VastuSastra is also called ‘Anda’,

the ^egg’ (see Parts VII p« 273). The interchange of these two images
has itsbackground in the ‘Ghandogya Upanisad’, TIL 19.1 *‘Tlie sun :

is Brahman. Such is the teaching and its exposition is this In the

; :

beginning, this was indeed non-existent ; came it became existent ;

it

into being became an egg

;
it it lay for the period of one year
; it ;

broke open then came

;
the two halves of the egg shell, one silver, one
gold” and Sahkaracharya’s commentary “What is emphasized is not
:

the negation of existence (but the absence of dilferentiaiicn of Name

and Form). As a matter of fact, the term ‘sat% ‘Existent', is found to
be used in the sense of ‘differentiated name and form' and this dffer-
entiation of name and form of the universe is mostly dependent upon
the sun.’* The BrahmSnda the ‘world egg* is the true ‘Dhatugarbha’
and is enshrined as such in the Harmika or casket above the stupa.
(In this connection it may be possible to see some light thrown also
on the corbels or bracket capitals of pillars, etc. where an inverted

pyramid composed of tiers (Hiragrahana) rises above the Amalaka.

Their symbolism might be referable to that of the spheres above the
sun, from Svarloka upwards. The successive increase in area of
the single ‘slabs’ serves a purpose akin to that of a bracket capital
on the pillars, where as no such purpose is served by the same
shape on top of the Stupa. The slabs of this inverted pyramid share
with the pyramid of slabs of the temple the function of a solid cover.’’

With this general introduction to the Stupa and its affinity with
the Hindu Temple let us deal with some more famous stiipasof
Indian architecture, our sublime architectural heritage. Emperor
Asoka is the founder of Buddhist art as beginnings of Buddhitst art
of which pillars and stupas were the first specimens are credited to
the Mauryan age. It was however left to 6uhgas and Andhras to

contribute to the exuberance of the artistic creations in the domain of

stupa-architecture, its many-sided architectural evolutions and
ornamentation with very rich sculptures. Asokan art was fundament-
ally religious. Under the l^uhgas and Andhras, it naturally followed

the same course as the religion, there being a static interval between
the cessation of the autocratic art of Ashoka and the beginning of
the new or hierarchic phase. Percy Brown has succinctly defined the
architecture of the period;
498 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

**Of the many places in his dominions that the Mauryan Emperor
had consecrated by the erection of stupas, a certain number from
various causes had been invested with special sanctity and import-
ance, Although through the imposing monolithic pillars raised in
the vicinity of several of these shrines their sacred character was
appreciably augmented, was to the stupa, as the symbol of the
it

Buddha, that the pious pilgrims paid their most fervent devotions.
At this early date it is fairly clear that these tumuli of brick, endowed
as they were with great spiritual significance, were in appearance
somewhat uninspiring. They consisted of a masonry hemisphere
some 70 feet in diameter and about 35 feet high, solidly constructed
of large unburnt bricks each of which averaged the large size of 16
ins. 10 ins. 3 ins. In the centre of this domical mound or anda (egg)
a small space was usually left for a receptacle containing a relic
of theBuddha and on the summit as a mark of dignity was raised
a wooden parasol (chhattrayashti). This honorific umbrella was in
some instances, as in the stupas at Sarnath and Sanchi, made of
polished stone fashioned by the sculptors of the Asokan school, as
fragments of these have been preserved. The brickwork surface of
the dome was finished off with a thick layer of plaster, in which at
intervals recesses were left for the reception of small lamps to be lit

on occasions.
festival Over all a certain amount of colour and
gilding was applied, and it was also the custom to furnish them with
festoons of flowers and drapery together with banners and flags.
As the Buddhist ritual consisted of circumambulating the stupa, a
processional passage (Pradakshina patha) was provided by enclosing
the monument within a wooden railing (vcdica) leaving a space for
promenading with an entrance at each of the cardinal points. At
least one of these stupas, very much in the state described above,
still survives, appearing as a rough white-washed mound rather
incongruously set amidst an aggregation of later and more finished
artistic accessories. Such is that at the shrine of Shwayambhu Nath
in Nepal, which has been continuously worshipped for over two
thousand years*’.

This definition fully corroborates our standpoint from which

we have viewed Stupa with the Hindu
the affinity of the Buddhists
Temple. It may be pointed out that many of the Asokan stfipas
were simply augmented with further elaborations as the case was
with those that are situated at Sanchi, Barhut, Buddha Gaya,
etc. Many an addition to the existing tumuli were a history of the
development of Stupa-architecture. Railings, Torapas or Gateways
are a subsequent cmblishment at Sanchi—* cf. the chart appended in
 illStOkY OF HINDU TEMPLES 499

Percy Bro wn’s book. p. 22 which gives a clear story of these augmenta-
tionsand enrichments at Sanchi, Barhut and Buddha Gaya in the
successive periods of Indian history. ,

This is a bird’s eye view on the northern stupas. The South

also contributed a good number, principally at Jaggayyapeta,
Amaravati, Nagarjuni-konda etc etc. cf. Brown p. 48,

CHADYA-PRASADAS AND SABHA-MANDAPAS

(Flat-roofed and Hall-temples).

The Hindu Temple, so far as the main shrine is concerned,

whether built in the Nagara style or in the Dravida style has three
—
principal parts the Adhisthana or Pitha ( the socle or base ),
the Garbhagrha (the enclosed chamber) and the ^ikhara or the
superstructure. Accordingly the evolution and development of the
various phases and styles of temples are manifested in the three main
types of temples as are represented and preserved to us thereof in
our architectural heritage.

These are: — 1, Chadya Prasadas and Pillared hall temples

2. §ikharottama Prasadas and
3. Bahubhaumika Vimanas.

We are concerned in this section with the first type. The

chadyas are pillared halls like SabhS-inandapas; though are not iden-*

tical both of them take a common architectiltal origin. The different

architectual origins of theHin u Temple really centreround the super-
structure, hence the evolution of the Hindu temple is the Cvolutioil
of the superstructure. The accessory buildings like mandapas (attached
or detached) gopurams, prakaras and so many other allied structures arfe
only the side-developments of that upsurge to which these devotional
places had given the motivating force consequent upon the devclopmfcnt
of the Bhakti cult to which the enormous temple-building activity and
magnetic religious fervour for undertaking a pilgrimage to these places,
really owed their impetus. All this was the out come of that Pauranic
Dharma in which the foundation and dedication ot temples and the
enshrinement of the cult-deities was the main inculcation.

The chadyas were the first begining in the domain of temple*

superstructure. The Samarangana-sutradhSra gives the first place to
these ch5dya-pr3sadas and pillard halls in its first formal chapter
on temple-architecture, the 49th. Gh3dya*superstucturc may have
either a single roof or multi-roof divichadya (double-roofed) or
trichady ( triple-roofed ) or malla-chSdya ( many-roofed ), This
500 HISTORY OF HINDU TFMRLES

gives US a clear iiidicatioa that these chadyas are really the

precursors of the later Bhumikayuklas (the storyed Vimanas of
the South). The chadya-prasada in Its preinstine shape is a flat-

roofed temple and the most predominent characterieslic of the

planning of this type is the application of the pillars. Hence, hall-
temples, the Sabha-mandapas and these so-called chadyaprasadas
go along with each other. Further this chudya is not necessarily
always flat* The most primitive and primordial shape of a sacred
place like the hut of an ascetic or shrine of a deified object was
the sloping one. Many a temple relief as exhibited on Sanchi
or Barhut illustrates these primitive types. The Central Indian
Gupta temples are flat roofed. Similarly some of the temples
in Aihole grdup arc hall-temples. Fort Kramr'sch also supports
this evaluation of mine vide H, T. p. 2B1- 3rd para and p. 284 f. n. 88.

With this general introduction to these types of chadyas and

halls let us switch over to their representation in the monuments.

Gupta-temples—The Gupta age, the 4th century heralded the

dawn of an epoch which eventually developed into what has
generally been accepted as time of India’s greatest intellectual
awakening. Several forces operating at the same time contributed
to produce this summit of attainment. These forces were the
established rule, the personal patronage and scholarly encourage*
ment, favourable atmosphere and universal spirit for revival of
Brahmanism and lastly the unification of the state under one
authority and consequently therefore there engendered a national
spirit to give birth to ideals which transformed every phase of
thought and every form of action. This fortuitious synchronisation
of circumstances produced a remarkable effect on the art of the
age notably that of xkrchitecture. Percy Borwn has made a lucid
estimation of this upsurge in a hlstrocial perspective and there
cannot be a better support of my thesis as elaborated before in
the context of the Chadya types —See Indian Architecture pp 57— 58.

Ciialilkyan Temples: — One of the brilliant and characteristic

phases of Indian Architecture is what is called the Chalukyan
architecture. The contemporary writers have not given a serious
thought to one of the most important contributions that this phase
is credited to. This phase may be regarded to have provided the
nucleus to the evolution of the Hindu Temple in both the styles of
its art, the Dravidian and the Northern or Nagara styles of archie

tecturc. Its beginnings at Aihole and Badami, the ancient Vitapi

450 A. D* to 650 arc remarkable for this characteristic which got
 HISTORY OF HINDU TRMFUES 501

developed in its clear cut norms in its early phase ai ail the tlirce
ancient Ghalukyan capitals—^Aihole, Badami and Paltadakal, during
its onslaughts in 600 to 750 A. D,, This thesis is corrol.)oraied by
Percy Brown’s estimation.— See Indian Architecluve p. 63 ist two
paras.

The temples known a^ the Ladli Khan, the Darga, the Iluchchi*
nallegudi, the Jain temple oF Meguti, and a series of the h;ur pillared
halls (three Brahmanical and one Jain) excavated in the scarp
of a hill Overlooking the soath-ear t side of Badaiiii, represent the
beginnings of Cimlukyan archilcclurc. Ladh Khan is notable for
a particular form of Dravidiau Order, the ‘‘Cushion’’ Capital
with an expanded floral abacus supporting the bracket. 1 lie Durga
temple though a Bralunauical shrine, may be regarded a Brahmanical
vcr>ion of the Buddhist Caitya iiall, adapted to suit the service of
the former creed. M'hc nncicuu lotA'nrhip of Ailiole in Dliarwar,
the capital of the early Chalukywi dynasty was one of the cradles of
Indian tcmple-architecturc. Most of the temples of this site arc of
the flat roofed order, and similar ihcrr.rore to those of the Gupta
style of the more noi tiicily lalitudo, displaying a characteristic
which implies an early stage in t!ic process of evolution of Hindu
temple towards its two powerful exubcrences, as already propounded
in the preceeding pages Other stages of development in the
Ghalukyan temples may be enumerated:

“For instance in tijc moM primitive of all, the shrine is in the

body of the building, with liotiiing on the exterior to mark its
position from outside. Afterwards a towxr was added over the shrine,
not only to give this central feature dignity, but also as a means of
distinguishing the temple from other buildings. Later, the rhrine,
or cella,was contained in a structure projected from the western
end of the temple and surmounted by a lower. This last develop-
ment caused the sanctuary to form a kind of annexe attached to the

body of the temple, the shrine and tower combined comprising that
portion of the struciurc known s the Vimana, thus laying the founda-*
c

tion of the Dravidian style to emerge in its great elegance.”

Together with these formative stages of chalukyan architecture

may be added a further stage where the beginning of that significant
feature, the K^ikhara is also observable e. g. Durg3 temple. At
Ailiole in addition to the series of Indo-Aryan or Nagara or
Northern, there are several examples of the contrasting or Dravidian
tpyle as well e. g, the Jain temple (No. 39) and the Meguti temple.
But these : re unpreserved structures.
502 HISTORY Ol? HlfiDU TEMPLiIs

For a very early complete example of Dravidian style in this

region we have to turn towards Badamithe later seat of theChalukyan

dynasty. Two
shrines— Mahakutesvara and the Malegitti-^ivalaya
arc the examples of this manifestation.

The next stage in the development of the temple architecture of

the period in these parts may be studied in the temples of Pattadakal,
the third of the Ghalukyan capital seats. It is remarkable for the
exuberance of both the styles exhibited side by side. There are ten
temples of consequence at this renowned site, four of which are in the
Isdo-Aryan or Northern or Nagara^style and the six in the Dravidian
or Southern as tabulated hereunder:—

Naffdra Draridkvi

1. Papanath temple 1. SangameSvara 5. SunmeSvara

2. Jarnbulinga 2. Virupaksa 6. Jain temple
3. Karsidhesvara 3. Malliliarjuna
4. Kojina tha (KHSivlivanliiha) 4. Galagnatha

Most of these temples were executed at the time when Ghalukyan

dynasty reached the height of its power under Vijayaditya (696-733)
and Vikramaditya II (733-46) and thus the actual meridian of the
style at Pattadakal was attained in the first half of the eighth century.
Some of these temples especially the Virupaksa is noted for the lavish
display of superb sculpture, the plastic ornamentation. For details
see Percy Brown p. 84.

Apart from this centre of the architectural movement associated

with the Early Ghalukyans as was confined in the triad of their capi-
tals, a minor development of somewhat similar character took place
in thesame region of Dharwer, at Alampur, a village on the west
bank of the Tungabhadra river in the Raichur district of the old
Nizam Dominions where there is a group of six temples almost iden-
tical with those listed above. They are situated inside a fortified
enclosure in the same manner as at Aihole. They arc however more
Papanath as they have Indo- Aryan Sikharas and may
in ‘the style of
accordingly be assigned to the same date of the later half of the
7th century.

BHAUMIKA VlMlNAS
(THE SOUTH INDIAN, THE DEGANESE AND THE
GREATER INDIA TEMPLES)
It has already been remarked that the piled up altar, the base>

the dolmen-cell, the Oarbhagrha and the superstructure are tht! •

 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPlES 503

architectural constituents of the whole image of the temple; it rises

like a mountain. Further in our accounts of the origin of temple-

architecture, the Giti, the altars, the dolmen (cf. th^ menhir), the
shed of Initiation and the Tabernacle along with and its structural
superstructural evolutions on the motif of the image of the ^‘Moun-
tain and the Cavern”, the superposition of the shapes along the verti-
cal Axis and its form (i* e. vertical axis) we have already got some
idea of the different factors that have contributed in the making of
Hindu temple in all its types. The chadyas and halls have their
prototype in dolmen and the Bhaumika Vimanas and the Sikharo-
ttamas have their prototypes in the image of the mountain. Their rich
ornamentation is a memory of the primitive Tabernacle, like the
temporary devagrhas with exuberance of forest verdure the leaves
for ornamentation, the Kadalfs for pillars and so many other allied
decorations. These manifold bhumis or miniature !§ikharas in the
fully evolved Hindu temple are replicas of the image of mountain. The
Vcdic seers have sung the analogy of world and the pillar and the
world-pillar inheres in the world-mountain and transcends it where

itbecomes visible above the highest stratum of the superstructure.

Prof, Kramrisch makes a metaphysics of the analogy (H. T. 175-6)
and it is worth quoting. *‘The mountain shape of the Prasada is the
sheath of its vertical axis. The vertical axis is clothed in it, from the
floor of the Garbhagi-ha to the shoulder course of the superstructure;
from there however it is seen to exceed the body of the superstruc-
ture (Sikhara, in Nagara temples; the series of Bhumis in Dravida
temples). Encased in the vertical shape of a pillar, which is circular,
as a rule, or polygonal (Parts VI and VII), it transcends the slopes of
the superstructure although for a short distance only. It is there-
fore called Grfva or Neck. It emerges from the body of the PrSsada
to be capped by a dome (Figs, f-h; Part VI) or clasped by an Amalaka
(Pis. I, XLIII, LXXl). These crowning shapes of the Pillar support
the finial of the temple. Its Highest Point, the end or beginning of
the axis of the temple, is in the centre of the hollow shaft above the
Lihga or image in the Garbhagfha, above the Womb and Centre of
the Cosmos and above the Navel of the Earth.”

“The finial isbeyond the body of the temple, which has its
extension in Antariksa, the mid-space. Above its High Temple
(harmya) cupola (Sikhara); (Figs, g-h, Pt. VI) above its being gathered
by the Imalaka (Fig. i) rises the finial, the Stupika, in the Empyrean
and up to the Bindu, its Highest Point, the limit between the untna-
jiifest and the manifest,”
m HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

III the Bhaumika Virnanas of the South, the pyramidal Super-

structure is the rule an 1 if there arc exceptions, they prove the rule.
Now Bhurnis and ^^ikhnras these* are tlic two important words in the

Indian texts of VastuSaslra which inu'^t be understood fully to com-

prehend the Hindu Temple. The
real genesis of the superstructure of
J^ikhara as its etymological meaning conveys, is the mountain or

peak“like super-structure above the perpendicular walls of the

Prasltda. It is curvilinear as a rule, as is represented in the fully
evolved Hindu temple, in the north where it is the indespcnsible part
of the exterior of the Prasada. The authoritative texts like the Sama-
rangana-sutradara speak of this l^ikhara in the terms of Manjari
which is its another name. Manjari is shoot and this synonym is

remarkable not only to connote the Hindu Temple as Purus i-murti

(vide the Org inie Theory) but also illustrates the vegetable decorations
which were exuberance of the tabernacles which had lent their
tiic

bit towards the ornamentation of this sacred place of Devas Accord-

ing to Kramrisch: ‘This refers to the form of the superstructure as
much as it follows logically by way of natural symbolism from the

rile of GarbhSdhSiia. The vivifying Germ (Garbha) and the Embryo

of Splendour (Hiranyagarblia) are within the walls of the Garbhargrha
and have their images in the construction of the temple*. The work-
manship of the superstructure of Hindu temple in both the styles,
the Dravlda and the Nagara, consists of arithmetical progression,
Prof. Kramrisch has some very lucid remarks on these progressions
belonging to both the types and I am tempted to reproduce them to
my readers here (H. T. ft. n. p, 166-7);

‘'The height of the storeys (bhumi) of the pyramidal superstruc-

ture diminishes, on certain temples, in an arithmetical progression;
each successive storey is l/-t or also l/d less than the lower. In tins
progression however is not included the ground floor (sarristhana) of

the temple. In order to moderate the abrupt superposition of the

pyramid with its miniature storeys on the relatively high wall of the
‘cubical* Garbhagfha, this wall frequently appears divided externally
in two each complete with its base, pillars, capitals and
storeys,

roof cornice. This architectural consideration belongs to the Cola

age (Temples at Tanjore, 1000 A. D; Gangaikonda, Colapiiram
about 1025 A. D ); and while later temples show an increase in the
number of simulated storeys on the walls on the Oarbhagrha (Temple
at Tiruvarur. about 1603 A. D.), Pallava temples are free from this
aesthetic deceit (Shore temple at Mamallapuaram, Kailasanatha
temple at Kancipuram (650-700 A. D. approximately). See Plates
LI-LllI: LVH-LIX in P, Brown, Indian Architeclure and Part VI.*’
 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 505

*Thc pyramidal, storeyed form on the

superposition of the
vertical walls of the
Garbhagrha, though generally is not necessarily
always observed. The pyramidal structure of the Vaik^ntha Perumal
Temple (ib. PL LIV) rises directly from its socle. Here too, the
the storeys are not simulated, miniature replicas;they house a Gar-
bhagfha on each floor. In the majority however, of the temples in
South India, including the Kanarese country, a complete structural
pyramid of this type, appears raised on the Sanisthana, the ground-
floor or one storeyed temple This development appears already comple-
ted in the seventh century rock cut temple models which an ingenious
king (Narasirrihavarman) was pleased to have cut out of the rocky
boulders near the shore of Mamallapuram.**

‘*The diminution of the height of the Bhumis of the superstruc-

ture of a South Indian temple is carried out according to more thai>

one consideration, such as the number of these ‘storeys*, etc, (sec

Part VII, Chap. 5).”

“In Northern India, the diminution of the Bhumis of a curvili-

near superstructure such as the Sikhara of an Orissan temple docs

not form a series ;
if, for example, there are ten Bhumis, of which
the lowermost has 5 units, the height of the following is: 4 7/16; 4; 3
15/16; 3i, 3 5/8; 3 9/16; 3 7/16; 3 5/12 and 2. (‘Canons of Orissan
Architecture,* op. cit. p. Ill) No diminution however in a geomet-
rical progression can be seen, as stated by M. M. Ganguli, ‘Orissa
and Her Remains’, p, 128 on the accompanying Plate II.”
This is one interpretation of the successive Bhumis in the Sou-
thern Viminas. Another interpretation is based, as already hinted at,
on the image of the cavern. It is the place of the Omphalos, in the
womb of earth and below its surface which also became integrated
into theHindu-temple. The cave, underground, the crypt is the main
Garbhagrha of several preserved temples. Kramrisch has made a
very brilliant case of this secret, according to one of the most funda-
mental elements of Indian culture namely the three Gunas, Sattva,
Rajas and Tamas, active in every form of manifestation which have in
the form of the temple a comprehensive visual symbol: ‘Tamas, dark-
ness, is the descending tendency, it is the quality proper of under-
ground crypt. Above it, the PrSsada arises, ascends in height accord-
ing to the Sattva Guna, and expands its perimeter as far as Rajas,
requires it. “Tamas, darkness, is the causal body, the ‘karana rupa.’
As it was in the beginning when out of primordial darkness evolved
all things that be, so also from the deep, central darkness of the Gar-

bhagrha the meaning of the temple shines forth on its walls and
 1^ist6rv of ftiNDu

reaches the high point of the finial. Thus in certain temples there
are two Garbhagrhasi above the crypt-Garbhagfha is the upper sane-
tury, accessible Or visible to all. The secret chamber of the SQrya
temple at Modhera,Gujerat, built in 1026-1027 A,D., is sunk to eleven
and a half feet below the and is underneath the floor of the Gar-
level
bhagi’ha of the temple.At Aundh, the principal Lihga is in the crypt
below; in the upper Garbhagyha is another Linga; steps lead down
into the crypt from an opening in the floor of the upper shrine.
The present-day temple of Somanatha Pattan, Kathiawar, also has
a lower shrine. It surrounds the Somanatha Linga, symbol of the
self existent Omphalos. A duplicate* for every day worship is in the
upper shrine. In the Jambukesvara temple, near Trichinopoly, in
South India, the Garbhagpha below the level of the ground enshrines
a Svayambhu Linga standing in water.**
^‘Sanctuary upon sanctuary, they are superposed in several sto-
reys, particularly and consistent with the total symbolism of the
respective temples, in South India There, the special application of
this principle is to those temples of Visnu where in seven superposed
storeys, the lowermost cell enshrines the standing (sthSnaka), the
next higher one the seated (asana), the one of the third floor recum-
bent (iayana) image of Visnu, as in the Vaikunlha Perumal Temple
at Kancipuram, and in the yet higher storey the images of BrahmS, '

Mahavisnu, Sadavispu and the four armed Narayana. *Like a hollow

cane of bamboo (venurandhravat) are the cells placed one above the
other in the vertical axis of the Prasada* 'Vaikhanasagama* VF^
With this introduction to the metapysical implication and the
implied ritual of image-worship, the different varieties of the architec-
tural superstructure may be dwelt at some length. As already indi-
cated the superstructure of Indian temples is principally of two
types— the pyramidal and the curvilinear which is ^ikhara. The
former is the topic of the present section in the context of the Bhau-
mika Vimanas of the South. It may be pointed out at the very outset
that in the South Indian text this pyramidal superstructure is desi-
gnated by the number of and accordingly the chief disting-
its storeys
uishing characteristic of the Dravida Prasaada (as we have already,
seen—vide the classification of PrSsadas) is Bhumis. Sikhara, in these
texts like Mayamata or liSnaiiva-gurudeva-paddhati is the name of
the dome shaped massive roof of the small miniature-temple (ksudra-
alpa-vimina)« The observation of Prof, Kramrisch therefore, is signi-
ficant (See hr book on page 182).
It may be however, pointed out that we cannot be dogmatic in our
that ail the temples belonging to the South are Bhanmijt^
 m&TOEY OF lilNDU TEMPLES 56t

VirnSnas. Architectural traditions in India from the very early

beginnings of the Christian era had got amalgamated —vide Pt. I. An
out-line history of Hindu Architecture both as scicnc® and art-—and
these traditions are very substantially illustrated in the early monu-
Chalukyan temple-architecture at Aiholc,
ments especially in the early
Badami and Pattadakal. Mahakutelvara and Papanath are the lead-
ing monuments where this observation can be amplified and corro-
borated. Further the corner stone of my thesis that Dravidian style

is earliear than the Nagara style has been laid out from these speci-
mens of the Chalukyan genesis.

But as in South Indian VastuJastra the entire super- structure is

discussed according to the number of storeys (Bhumis) and as it bears
no special name, I have termed the types of the South Indian
temples as Bhaumika Vimanas in which the pyramidal superstructure
is the most predominent elaboration in contrast to the Northern
counterparts where curvilinear (Sikhara) superstructure is of singular
interest.

Now this pyramidal superstructure, in its generally accepted

shape in South India is composed of three main factors of which (1)
the recessed tiers or storeys are the chief and supporting clement;
(2) above the last of these storeys rises the miniature Vimana ,or

Harrnya, the High Temple; (3) each storey is surrounded by a

rampart or enclosure composed of chapels, In this its complex
form, the pyramidal superstructure is an amalgam of several indepen-
dent types of buildings. Prof. Kramrisch has dwelt at length on
the successive evolutions of this type of structure and has also made
a brilliant presentation with its corroboration in the existing monu-
ments.

Pyramidal superstructure has many varieties based on the prin-

ciple of stratification in receding tiers. It has two main branches,
the one having a flat or sloped roof, its cornice or eaves, for its unit
and the other having a complete storey for its unit. The former has
already been dealt with in brief outline in preceding chapter—
Development of Teuptple Archjitecturc and the latter concerning
bhumis may be taltcn up here.

This pyramidal superstructure composed of storeys (bhumis)

again may be viewed from three angles namely the stepped trunk of
Ihc pyramid formed of single storeys, the high temple Ksudra-
Alpa-VimSna and enclosure of chapels. The first phase is rudimen*
tary manifestation as is illustrated in the temples like those of Bodh
 .

50h HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLE^

Gaya and Sarnath, The High Temple or Ksudra-Alpa-Vimana, 21 ft

the superstructures of the temples in the Kanarese districts and
through out t^at part of South India generally known as Dravida,
The reliefs of Barhut and Sanchi display the prototypes of those
superstructures especially the Naga or Fire Chapel. This is the
representation of the pre-Christian century (1st century B. C.), later
on aggrandised and consolidated in its architectural form as illustra-
ted in the Draupadi Ratha at Mamallapuram. The flat-roofed
sancturics of Pal lava and Chola age such as the temple at Enadi
examplify the *small* south Indian temple (Alpa-Prasada) without
the rampart of chapels. The great temple at Tanjore also illustra-
tes this evolution in the top of its many-storeyed super-structure.

Now coming to the third manifestation of this superstructure

namely the inclosure of chapels, I may reproduce Prof. Kramrisch’s
rendering: “In a fully evolved South Ind^n temple or Jati Vimana
of about 1000 A. D, the high pyramid of the Bliumis of the super-
structure rests upon upright walls in which is encased the Garbhagfha.
They are frequently given the appearance of two storeys, one perpen-
dicularly above the other as in a vast building with many niches
(ghanadvara), flanked by pilasters in each storey and heavy cornice
moulding, the caves, above each (fig, h). Both these storeys occupy
the same floor space and together they form the perpendicular walls
on which is placed the pyramidal superstructure. The storeys of the
pyramidal superstructure arc comparatively on a miniature scale but
they too have their niches and pilasters. In front of them, however,
on each floor on all the four sides, is a series of small chapels or cells,
oblong or square, and vaulted or domed, correspondingly (Figs. f-h).
These chapels are called Ku^a and Kostha, etc. placed close to the
cornice of each storey they fill the gap between the receding tiers
and give the outline of the superstructure the appearance of leading
straight and unbroken from its base to its shoulder course’'.—
H.T. p. 197.

The development of this variety of supcrstructue can be traced

from the ancient Buddhist monasteries of Gandhara, Ajanta and
Nasika. The open or hypaethral temples also contributed to this
exuberance e. g. Causafha-Yogini-templcs. Kramirsch corroborates:
'
“This type of open air temple appears to be the basic form of the
Court of the Stupa, at Takht-i-Bahai. But it is also preserved in the
surrounding wall of some of the great temples set up by the
cells of

. Pallavas in South India; the Shore Temple at Mamallapuram (Fig. g)

and the Vaikun^ha Pcrurnal Temple being the youngest (710 A. D.)*
Eachof these large temples with Us accessory buildings is surrounded
 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 5b§

by a wall of chapels. Apart from this enclosure of the whole pre-

cinct, another corresponding row of chapels surrounds the Prasada
itself. In the Shore Temple it has the form of a wall of ^elis separated
from the body of the temple by an open air passage. (Fig. g). In
the Kailasanatha Temple however, another great structural temple
of about 700 A. D., at Gonjeeveram, the single chapels of the enclo-
•urc, are attached to the walls of the Prasada from which they are
seen to project,—also in the rock-cut Kailasanatha temple at Elura
whereas in the Vaikuntha Perurnal Temple they are altogether em-
bodied in the temple of which they form part of the outermost but
covered ambulatory. These various solutions are stages in a process
of drawing towards the Prasada the enclosure wall of the chapels and
incorporating it. Nearest amongst south Indian temples to the
original open-air type is the ShoreTemple”.

“^Whilc the Dravida temples incorporate the theme of the hypae-

thral temple, the enclosure formed of chapels in the body itself of
the Prasada, the enclosure of cells around and the main temple,
belongs to some of the great shrines in distant parts of India, such as
the Virupaksa temple in Pattadakal, or the Navalinga temple at
Kukkanur (Gadag), in the Kanarese country, the Kesava temple at
Somanathapur in Mysore, and in Kashmir, the sun temple of Martand
and the Avantisvami temple in Avantipur. Amongst Jain temples
that of Vimala Shah, A, D. 1031, on Mt. Abu, the Nerainath Tem-
ple at Girnar, Kathiawar, or the Ghaumukh Temple at Ranpur,
Jodhpur, built by Sutradhara Depaka in 1440 A. D. are cloistered by
a range of cells, each of a shrine with an image.”

The Sandhara Prasada having an enclosed or open circum-

ambulatory passage round the Garbhagfha is also a contribution of
this side development.

*‘The surrounding wall however belongs particularly to Dravida

temples. Thus the enclosure made of chapels too, kept its indepen-
dent open-air existence while it also came to function as an essential
part in the large Pallava temples, the first structural temples built
of stone which were set up in the Dravida country. Finally it

becomes an adornment of the supersturcture of the Prasada.”

*‘This takes place not on one level only,but is repeated on the

floors of the many-storeyed superstructure (Fig. f ). In receding tiers,
a wall of cells forms the continuous parapet above which emerge the
walls of the Gafbhagrha of that floor, these again carry the parapet
of the floor above. An open air circumambulatory is thus provided
for each respective floor; it is hidden from view by the parapet of
510 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

cells (Fig. f; also Fig, g); this in addition to its ritual suggestiveness
has monumeatal effectiveness for the recess of each upper storey, the
step of the pyr^amul, is thus masked, the outline of the superstructure
appears unbroken, and enriched by the bold three-dimensional dis*

cipiine of the domed and vaulted chapel shapes of its parapets or

enclosures.” The theme of the by the pyramid as represented
Vaikuntha Perumal temple comprises entire Vimana and Kramrisch's
observation of the architectural paradoxes are worth quoting: “The
Vaikuntha Perumal temple, however, with its Garbhagfhas in the
centre of each of its four storeys, reveals the original purpose of
accommodating a sanctuary in each storey of the pyramidal super-
structure to the same extent as does the outer shell of this PrSsada,
from the ground level to its *^High Temple’. As a rule however and
seen from the outside the consolidated trunk of the pyramidal super-
structure simulates only a Garbhagrha in each of its storeys (Fig. h)”.
“The paradox is obvious in the history of this type of the superstruc-
ture of the temple. The hypaethral temple with nothing in the
centre or near to nothing is here amalgamated with a monumental
structure in its centre. It towers in each storeys above its surroun-
ding enclosure with its many small shrines”. “Further paradoxical
developments accompany the evolution of this type of the superstruc-
ture. The surrounding chapels, it has beend pointed out, of the
ground floor of the Kailasanath Temple at Kancipuram, were attach-
ed to the body of the building and drawn into the outer walls of
the temple circumambulatory. Similarly, from the Cola age
onward, the parapet of chapels on each floor of the superstructure is
attached to its walls; the open air circumambulatry itself a vestigial
part of the hyapethral temple, is pressed out of existence. The
enclosure of cells isnow an embclishinent of the wall of each Buhmi,
sculptural part of the monument (Fig, h).” “The fully evolved pyra-
midal superstructure having attained its perfect form and greatest height
(190 feet) about the year 1000 A. D in the Brhadfsvara, the ‘Great
Temple’ in Tanjorc(Fig. h), loses it in the following periods in propor-

tion to the increasing height of the gate towers, the Gopuras of its

enclosure walls. Taken as a whole, the South Indian temple irres-

pective of the flat roofs of its extensive pillared halls, in the centuries
of its (Temple of Srirangam, I3th-18th century;
greatest expansion
the temple of Tiruvaunamalai, Cola period and later) is a hypaethral
temple, an open air sacred enclosure, with high walls, be they m
many as seven, marked in the four directions by Gopuras whose
height decreases towards the centre, where the main temple is
piarkcd by its position. Its presence is inconspicuous, its diminutive
 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 511

superstructure barely noticeable as it emerges from the flat roof of a

covered court. With its many subservient buildings immersed in the
air space and fenced off by repeated high walls and t^ieir Gopuras,
the total South Indian temple-town covers the ground marked in
the four directions by the sequence of the Gopuras of successive walls,
within the outermost enclosing wall. The shrinkage of the superstruc-
ture of the centre, the diminution of the height of the main temple is
a paradox of which the meaning is adjusted by relating it to the en-
closure (paridhi, prakara) and its architectural form, the hypaethral
temple. Between the beginning and the end of this development
liesthe formation of the superstructure of the South Indian temple,
a pyramid of many storeys each with its enclosing parapet of chapels
and crowned by a small High Temple (Vimana)”. “The devolution
of the South Indian Prasada, the shrinkage of its height in compari-
son with the Gopuras, the gate surrounding walls,
towers of the
whose height increases with their distance from the temple in their
centre, appears a paradoxical development, but it may be understood
as a return to type. Few representations and no structural examples
of this type are preserved. The representations are of an early age
and from central and northern India, from Barhut and Mathura. A
high structure is seen there; it encloses and encases a small building
which is the main temple. The central sanctuary surrounded by
structures larger than itself shows here the principle of the Garbha-
grha extended to the building that holds The small central templeit.

with the image in the G irbliagrha is the Sanctum Sanctorum;

comparable in its position to the “Throne of Supreme Blessedness.’*

Now with this brief introduction to the main elements of the

temple-architecture, characteristic of the South Indian temples let us
have a bird’o eye view on the existing monuments characterised by
these superstuctures, the pyramidal. From the historical standpoint
there have been as many as four characteristic evolutions and
developments in the art of temple-building in this part of the
country— the Pallava, the Ghola, the Vijayanagaram and the Madura.
I have, elsewhere—vide my “Hindu Prasada, caturmukhl prsihabhu-
mi”— , in my own characteristic way treated the fourfold background
giving rise to this most stupendous, zealous,
painstaking and liberal
endeavour on the part of Indian people comprising not only the
common men and women at large but also the nobility of the clan
and that of the mind. Among these, the four foundations, the
remarkable impetus came from the ruling dynasties, the Pandayas, the
Cholas, the Vijayanagaram and thcNayakas of Madura, The building
is charactcjrised and design^-
^ft ^s flourished in their respective reigns
512 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

ted by their genius and their patronage. In the early medieval and the
later medieval periods of Indian history this remarkable sway
captivating the hearts, minds and money of the people was due to the
great landmark in religious history of India, the Pauranic Dharma
which centred round the Doctrine of Purta — the foundation and
dedication of temples and the enshrinement of the deities in them.
There was a time when the belief was paramount that the sacrifice
would lead us to heaven and prosperity Svargakamo yajet* Now—
another maxim replaced it— Svargakamo mandiram karayet. Hence
Karta, the Sthapti and Bharta, the Karaka, Yajamana, the patron
along with the Purohiia-acarya the trinity had the fullest outlet for the
exuberance of the play of their geneius, the liberality of their wealth
and the gospel of their Dharma — the Purta-dharma respectively.

Pallafa: Phase (C. 600 A. D. (o 900): Pallavas may be said to have

contributed to the genesis of the Dravidian style. Percy Brown rightly

remarks. “Of all the great powers that made the history of southern

India, none on the architecture of this region

had more marked effect

than the earliest of all, that of the Pallavas, whose production

provided the foundation of the Dravidian style.** This initial
Dravidian architecture, the Pallava phase is charactised by its varying
forms of architecture for some three centuries (600 — 900 A, D.)
and its productions resolve themselves into two phases. In the
former (i. e. 7th Century A. D.^the examples were entirely rock-cut,
and in the latter they were As there were four
entirely structural.
princiapl rulers, the works of each phase have been divided into two
groups in all, each of which is named after the reigning king of the
line. Accordingly the art historians like Brown have classified initial
development characteristic of high watermark of artistic creations
into two phases, first into Mahendra group (610-640) pillared
halls (mandapas) only and Mamalla group (640-690) mandapas and
rathas (monolithic temples) which arc wholly rock-cut and the second
into Rajasimha Group (690-800) and Nandi vardhana group (800-900)
which are characterised as wholly structural temples.

The maudapa and rock-cut monolithic temples of Mamallapuram

have already been refered to while we were busy with the chadyas
and mandapas, let us therefore concentrate on the second phase of
Pallava architecture where the reign of Rajasimha made a mark.
‘Of the Rajasimha mode there are some six examples, comprising
of the Shore, livara and Mukunda temples at Mamallapuram; a
temple at Papanath in the South Arcot district and two temples
of Conjee varam^ the Kaila^anatl^a apd the Vaikun^ha Poruipal. Jn
 ^

HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 513

the opinion of Percy Brown three of these are of major importance

as each illustrates a stage not only in the style as a whole, but in
the developing of the temple formation, as we ha'ie seen in the
contemporary art of the Ghalukyan^ which provided the nucleus of
evolution to that rich artistic heritage characteristic of Bhuvaneshwar,
Orissa and Khajuraho Bundelkhand-^cf. the curvilinear exuberance of
temple-architecture. These three are the Shore and two temples
at Gonjeevaram.
The shore temple, though designed on the monolithic rathas of
Marnallapuram, especially on the model of the Dharmraja, is
remarkable for a new technique of the rising genius of the Dravidian
builders when architecture of the day was contemplating to evolve a
sculpture of the period.

‘‘This is the appearance in the architectural scheme of a very

pronounced type of pilaster, a rampant lion in prominent relief, and
wiiicdi finds a place wherever such a structural form with an orna-
mental support is required. In the Shore temple this heraldic lion,
erect and holding up a Dravidian capital, projects from every angle,
and is around the lower part of the entire
also introduced at intervals
building. As the style progressed this leogriff motif became more
frequent and more characteristic so that it may be generally regarded
as the identifying symbol of the Pallava style.*

The learned author of “The Indian Architecture** (Mr. Percy Brown)

suspects and alludes to its mysterious origin which in my opinion may
be taken as a symbol of the patron king whose name was Narasirpha.

Kaila$a-natha and Vaikuntha Peramal— both these temples of Goa-

jeevaram are remarkable for the upsurge of intellectual life in this
leading city of Garnatic India, the house of Dlianapala, the great com-
mentator when its fine series of temples were giving proof for its

religious upsurge. For details see Brown.

As regards the Nandivardhana Group of temples, they may be

passed over, as by their lack of verility they connote the diminishing
power of the dynasty. Pallavas thus were the harbingers of that potential
architectural movement which not only gave the foundation to the
development of later phases of Gholas and the subsequent rulers, but
also to that Greater India phase as illustrated in the monuments of
Indonesia. Percy Brown’s observation in this respect is quoteworthy :

“For to the Pallavas is the credit of having kept burning brightly

the torch, which, kindled by the Buddhists in the early centuries of
the Christian era as seen at Amaravati^ was bequeathed to these
514 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

Simhavishnu ‘‘lion kings”. Later, its flame glowed with renewed

brilliance in the hands of the Gholas and subsequently in Southern
India, as their architectural undertakings eloquently But testify.

perhaps most potent influence was that which it transmitted

its

beyouud the seas, to Indonesia, where its effulgence, reflected in the

vast monuments of those civilizations, and shone with even greater
splendour than in the country of its origin.”
Chola Temples (Circa 900-1150 A.D.): The decline of Pallava supre-
macy brought about an unsettled state of Tamil Country. Conflict
ensued between the various dynasties — the Pallavas, Cholas Paadyas
and Rastfcikutas all striving for supremacy. The struggle for power
ultimately ended in the favour of the Cholas and in due course they
became paramount in the south. Their dynastic history began about
90U A,D. and their rule attained its meridian a century later. Naturally
the buildings attributed to the Cholas during the lOth century are not
many, iior are they large and they imply a local rather than an im-
perial development. The following more important local examples
may be cited.

(a) In and around the state of Pudukkottai.

1 . The SundareSvara temple at Tirukattalai
2. The Vijayalaya temple in Nartamalai
3. The triple temple, the Muvarkoil in Kodumbelur
4. Mucukundeivara in Kolattur-taluk
5. Kadambar in Kadambarmalai Nartmalai
6. Bala'Subrahmanya in Kannanur Tirumayam-taluk.
(b) Similar structures are found as far south as S. Arcot, such
as in Tiruppur, Visalur,Panangudi and Kaliyapatti in Kolathur, and
in Enadi, Tirumayam-taluk,
These Chola structures are characterised by a noticeable exube-
rance. Their productions are in the line of Chalukyan temples rather
than Pallava counterparts as is evident from the shape of the
domical fiuial Sikhara which has a double flexured contour
of the
similar to those in the temples of Badami and Pattadakal.
Among the more Chola temples reference maybe
distinctive early
made temple of Koranganatha at Srinivasanalur in the Tricho-
to the
nopoly district. Its pecuUer name is due to a local legend which
records that on completion it was defiled by a monkey (korangu) and
so was never consecrated, Another particular notice in the context
it

of the departure from Pallavas is illustrated from an altogether new

phase in the Drayidian order (see Brown p. 103 first and second paras).
These are the introductions of the abstract conventions in the mould-
ings in place of auimalized motifs (cf. lion motif). Another fca(ur^
 HiS'lORY OF lUNPU TEMPLES 515

is the emergence of a new animaiized motif (cf. a row of gryphoncd

heads) which continued throughout the subsequent periods.
The later phase of Ghola art culminated in ^iva terjiple of Tanjore,
the Bfhadisvara what is described as the largest, the highest and the
most ambitious production of its kind. It is a landmark in the evo-
lution of the building art in South India. Equally large, high and
ambitious an undertaking is illustrated in another great temple at
Gangaikonda Gholapuran. These Ghola monuments testify to the vast
power which is characteristically revealed in these two notable exam-
ples of Bhauniika Virnanas of the superlative type. The rise of Ghola
power synchronises with the rise of Ghola architecture. In comparison
with the temple of Korangunath they are as cathedrals to a parish
church. This latter example is notable for a new element of temple-
—
establishment, the pillared assembly halls Sahasra-mandapams or
.^hitarnandaparns. Yet another characteristic of these two temples is the
statuary in which Nataraja 6iva and his manifold manifestations like
Candike^auugraha-murti is of special interest. Other images are flying
apsaras sprowliiig gaha-devatas and contorted Yaksas, etc., etc.

Pandya Prakaranis and Gopurams. The Gholas were succeeded by

Pandyas who contributed not so much to the orthodox scheme of
temple-building, as to the outer schemes, thus laying the foundation to
that grandeur which became the glory of Madura, the great Gopu-
rams and splendid Prakarams. ‘‘Upto this point it had been the
practice of the builders to apply their finest craftsmanship to thebody
of the temple and specifically to its most sacred part, the Vimana,
itself,

which they made the most resplendent feature of the temples of the
Gholas. With the advent of the Pandyas this usage ceased, and instead
of the sancturary continuing to be the central architectural production
the builder’s skill was diverted in order to give prominence to some
of the supplementary or outlying portions of the temple scheme”*

Jiriioaddhara is as good a pious act as foundation or the dedica-

tion of the temples in the tenets of Purta-dharma. Accordingly the
scattered and distributed sacred shrines or sites of great religious
antiquity attracted the notice of these Pandya rulers who instead of
erecting quite a new superstructure on the original structures evolved
out a grand scheme of Prakarams and Gopurams which later came to
be so majestic and so grand that the later Dravidian architecture
(especially at Madura) could obtain a culminating point. I have

already written something on Gopurams and Prakarams —vide one of

the last chapters on the subject— Part V.

Some of the notable examples of Gopurams built under the Pandya

regime are Sunder Pancjya Gopuram, one on the eastern side of the
516 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLfiS

temple of Chidambaram, another, on the eastern side of the inner enclo-

sure of the temple at Tiruvannamalai and a Gopurain of the great
temple at Kun\bhakonain. There is however one txample of a com-
plete temple of the Pandya period. This is the temple of AiruvateSvara
at Darasuram in the Tanjore district. It is remarkable for that
richness, which later became the characteristic of the Vijayanagar.

Vijajanagara Style (1350 — 1565 A.D.) The Dravidian style under

the Vijayanagar dynasty is characterised by its greater fullness, in
which there marked freedom and fluency towards the expression of
is

aesthetic aspirations of the buildersand thus the building art no more

remains a mechanical art, it becomes as fine as sculpture and paint-
ing. The forceful power which dominated the Dravida country at
that crucial time of Indian history when the Mohammedans were over-
running the rest of India, was not only responsible for building up
a dominion of exceptional stability and strength but also was instru-
mental in introducing some very rich elements of Dravidian art of
architecture and sculpture both, Percy Brown says “Indian archi- :

tecture, at all times remarkable for the profuseness of its applied

decoration, at this stage of its development reached “tlic extreme
limit of florid magnificence*’. It is a record in stone of a range of
abnormalities, of forms and
ideals, sensations, emotions, prodigalities,
formlessness and even eccentricities, that only a super-imaginative
mind could concievc, and only an inspired artist could reproduce.
The sole parallel, but a relatively remote one, is the Baroque move-
ment in Furope, as it is expressive in a degree of the same political
and social conditions. And just as the J^aroque was the final issue of
the Renaissance, so the almost contemporary movement in Southern
India represent the supremely passionate flowering of the Dravidian
style.”
Rise and development in the temple-ceremonials brought about
new establishments in the temple scheme. This rise of ceremonials
was primarily due to the more pronounced anthropomorphic attribu-
tions of the deity. In addition to the main* temple, manifold shrines,
pillared halls or mandapams and other annexes may be attributed to
this side-development. Amman shrine and Kalyana Mandapam are
additions to the temple-scheme of the time. (For details sec Brown,)
Temples of the time arc distributed throughout the Dravida
country, but the finest and most characteristic group is the city of
Vijayanagar which was the capital of this great empire and for
itself,

a time one of the foremost cities of Asia, which occupying a strong

strategic position on the banks of the Tungabhadra river, stood like a
bulwark against the ever-present menace from the North. The
 lllSTORV OF HINDU TEMPLES 517

principal temples in the city of Vijayanagar are the Vitthal and

Hazara Ram. There are also several others of no mean interest. The
former is by most exquisitely ornate building, ^iegun by Raja
far the
Krishna Deva in 1513, it was continued by his successor, Acyuta Raja
(1529-42) but owing to its elaborate character was never entirely
firnished. There are atleast six main structures mostly in the form
of pillared halls. The central building is dedicated to Visnu Pandu-
ranga Vithova. Its lack of height is perhaps due to its unfinished
character. It is a long low structure of one storey averaging 25 ft. in

height and 230 ft. in length, alighted from east to west.

The Hazra Ram may be referred to be the Chapel Royal. It is

highly ornamental a temple. Other notable buildings of the city arc

secular, in character such a ‘Throne Platform’ or ‘House of Victory*.
Percy Brown makes a very brilliant picture of these (sec his work.)
Other notable examples are distributed at Vellore, Kumbhakonam,
Gonjeevaram, Tadpatri, Virinjipuram and Srirangam As regards the
monument at Viringipuram in the N. Arcot district, it is Margha
sakeSvara temple. At conejevaram there ar^. two temples, the
one Varadarajaswami famous for its^atamandapam and the other
Ekambara-nath famous for its Sahasramandapam Tadpatri
is famous

for its two gopurams belonging to the temple of Rame^vara and

finally w^rirangam for its Horse Court or ^esagiri-mandapam with its
colonnade of furiously fighting steeds each rearing upto a height of
nearly nine feet, the whole executed in a technique so emphatic as to
be not like stone but hardened steel which shows that the repetition
of the ‘horse’ motif in the pillars, of this period had attained a sort of
finality of extravagance, nevertheless betokening some implied spirit of
the time, something of the temper of the time, a feeling of exultant in-
vincibility translated into the cavaliers nonchalantly astride gigantic
rearing chargers, and engaged in furious combat with fabulous creatures.

Madura, the final phase (from 1600 A. D.) Even the brave Vijaya-
nagar succumbed to the confederacy of Mohammadan principalities
in the Deccan and so the Hindu element in the Tamil country, owing
to the pres^jure of Islamic aggression, was forced further south eventu-
ally to establish itself with the city of Madura as its capital seat.

Here and in certain other towns like Srirangum and Trichonopoly

under a dynasty known as the Nayakas, the Dravidian style assumed
its final form which has lasted almost until modern times. Trumalai
Nayaka (1623-1659) was the greatest patron of Madura style which
was in a way revival and continuation of the building procedure of
the Papdyas (1100-1350) which as we have seen, consisted in improv-*
ing and extending the existing shrines so that these attained much
Ms HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

greater magnificence. We have seen the Mayamata's dc6nition of

a Prasada denoting not only the central shrine but also the manifold
temple-establishments like Mandapa, Prapa, Prakara, Gopura etc.
Accordingly this Madura style is the greatest exponent of that ideal
where Gopurams, Prakarams and Ma^idapaais formed the principal
fascinations for the patrons like Nayakas to undertake the superb
creations of architecture, the majestic and soaring Gopurams strong
and fortitied Prakaram along with spacious pillared halls, the Sahasra-
mandapams and so on so forth. All this was necessiated on account
of the corresponding expansion in the temple ritual consequent upon
the instituion of worship which had attained by this time a powerful
upsurge where the pilgrimage to such sacred and sanctified sites was
one of the dominating ideals of Hindu life. The Doctrine of Purta-
Dharma had its full play now. Further, the royal patronage to the temple-
building art of the day also gave a new importance of the deity of the
temple. Wider powers were accredited to the deity who was envi-
saged in dual capacity both a spiritual head and temporal head.
Accordingly twofold planning of temple emerged, one inner covered
and most sacred part housing the deity in his cclla and another outer,
open and more public. The latter accordingly, was therefore utilised
for the processionaland festival occassions. Royal ideal of the mani-
fold courts and gateways was fully imparted to the temple-scheme of
the day. It was therefore, but a logical step to give more attention to
the grandeur and the splendour of the temple rather than to concentrate
on temple-cclla, the Vimana or Garbhagfha. The soaring structures
and superstructures of the Bhaumika Vimanas comprising of many
storeys from one to twelve now became of the Gateways, the Gopu-
rams which according to Silpaiastras like Ka^yapa and M>ina'3ra could
bemadeupto 16 or 17 storeys, and they did take a good number of them.
The Madura-Gopurams are remarkable architectural creations of this
aftermath. Further in addition to the munificent patronage of the
ruling kings, liberality and piety of the multitude of men also had their
full play towards the foundation and dedication of some additional
structure in the very enclosure of the temple, hence shrine of saints
and pillared hall mandapas of varying magnitude sometimes having
as may as 1000 pillars sometimes doing only with 100 pillars wctealso
liberally contributed. All this made a temple a city, and the evolution
of temple-cities and temple-towns has already been dwelt upon. Dra-
vidian temples of this period arc remarkable for two eminent elements
*-»-cxtcriorly the Gopurams and interiorly the pillars. As regards
though they do not have that florid elegance of the previous style>
pillars,

but nevertheless, do retain a vigirous ehaiTJ^ctci:. “As an example there

atleast l thousand pillars in the temple of Madura, in addition to
 —

HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 519

an equal number in the hypostyle hall, making a total in this one

temple alone of two thousand pillars in all. They are mainly of four
kinds, consisting of a square moulded and patterned' example, the
simplest of all; the rampant dragon; the figure, usually of a deity;
and the portrait, often of the donor or one of his family. All of these
support ponderous and complicated superstructures in which crouch-
ing dragons and foliated brackets predominate.”

The number of temples of the Madura class is nearly thirty, but

the following may be cited as more important ones:

1 . Madura-^Minaksi-SundareSvara
2. —
^rirangam Ananta-Sayi-Narayana (RanganStha)
3. JambukeSvara
4. Tiruvarur
5. R5me5varam
6. Chidambaram fNa^raja)
7. Tinnevelley,
8. Tiruvannamalai
9# Srivelliputur.
N. B. The details may be purviewed in Brown.

Mfnaksi-Sundare^rara: It is it has two separate

a double temple, as
sancturies, one dedicated to Siva and the other to his consort the goddess
Minaksl. These two shrines, which arc really temples within a temple,
occupy the largest space inside the main enclosure. The outer wall of
this surrounds an area which is nearly a square as it measures approxi-
mately 850 feet by 725 feet, with four large gateways one towards the
centre of each of its four sides”.

‘‘Large and small there are eleven gopurams to the Madura

temple, the four outer ones being of the first class as they are all over
150 feet high. There is one other important and spacious structure
in the temple scheme and that is the court of a thousand pillars,

added about the year 1560 by Arianayakam Mudali Minister of the

founder of the Nayak dynasty.”
“Outside the main enclosure, but in axial alignment with the
eastern gopuram from which it is separated by an intervening busy
thoroughfare of traders’ shops, is the large supplementary hall of the
Vasanta or Pudu Mandapam, commonly known as Tirumalai’s
Ghaultri. This is in the shape of a parrallelogram measuring 330
feet and is recorded to have taken seven years to build, from 1626 to
1633, being a contribution to the temple scheme by Tirumalai Nayak.
Its use is as a reception hall or temporary place of residence for the
presiding deity during a certain festival season of the year”.
526 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

Srlrangam. By far the largest of these southern Indian temples is

that of ^rirahgam near Trichonopoly which from the Madura

differs
temple in particulars as it is a single temple having only one
sanctuary. Its construction, instead of consisting of mainly one effort,
extended over a long period of time (see details in Brown).
Here in this temple main eastablishments being a of a hall
thousand pillars, a flatroofed structure occupying a recangle 500
feet to and a Horse court. The others of some note
160 feet
being Garudarnandapam and two tanks called Surya-puSkarini
(pool of the sun) and Gandrapu§karnl (pool of the moon).

JambukeSvara: This temple situated within a mile of the^rlrahgam

has the finest architectural interior. No Dravidian temple of this
period, in the opinion of Brown, gives a better idea of the style at its

best than the large and central court of Jambukeivara. Within this

arc four immense square piers one at each corner of a square,

leaving an open space or crossing in the centre for the four symbols
of the creed, the Lingam, Nandi, Dhvaja-stambha, and Bali-pitham,

Rameivaram. notable feature of the temple of Rameshvaram

of which the chief glory consists in its pillared corridors, which not
only completely surround but form avenues leading up to it, so
it,

that combined they are calculated to aggregate three thousand

feet in length. The breadth of these fine columned passages varies
from seventeen feet to twenty-one feet, and their height from floor
to roof is about twenty-five feet. Richly decorated pillars of good
proportions and closely set continue along the entire length, each
pillar being twelve feet in height and rising from a moulded stylobate
five feet high.”

Cliidambaraiii. ‘‘The Siva temple at Chidambaram consists of a

large group of buildings the construction of which has extended over
several hundred years, each century making its contribution until it has
attained its present form. As with most of these shrines it originally
rose on an ancient site, some of the inner parts being of legendary
antiquity, but there are definite records of its existence before the
tenth century, and some inscriptions of the eleventh. The east
gopuram was erected in the thirteenth century, the Parvati temple
added in the fourteenth century,* the north gopuram in the sixteenth
century and the hall of a thousand columns in the seventeenth
century”. “It is recorded however that the inner shrine is in the form
of a temple car mounted on wheels and drawn by horses, by no
means an unusual temple design, as may be seen at Konarak, and the
AUnkara mandapa at Qara^uram, to mention only two examples^.
 history of HINDU TEMPLES 521

One of the chief features of the Chidambaram sanctuary is its portico

which is composed of fifty-six pillars of intricate pattern.” Here are
two important annexes to the temple’s scheme, consisung of a large
tank called ^ivagahga and a thousand pillared mandapain called Raja-
sabha. The gopuram leading to the main shrine is of special interest
as it depicts one hundred and eight modes of the celebrated dances of
{^iva who isNataraja. Other examples may not be elaborated.
N,B. As regards the Greater Indian exuberance, it will be dealt
with in a subsequent section, their affinity with the Bhaumika Vimarias
was responsible for their co-heading.

SiKHAROTTAMA PRASADAS
(Nagara Temples)
This classification of Bhaumika Vimanas and Sikharottama
PrSsadas may not be taken as watertight. The predominent element
is our guide — Accordingly even the socal’ed
Bhaumika Vimanas of the South do show the evolution of ^^ikhara.
The most characteristic temples of this class are those designated as
Ghalukyan especially at Aihole. It may however be remarked that in
wealth and number these Sikharottamas are by far the greatest, gran-
dest; sublimcst and largest of the monuments that we possess in our
architectural heritage. These Sikharottama Prasadas are characteris-
tic of ihe Hindu-tcmple throughout four-fifths of India. Their fasci-

nation is found in even the south of the Kistna (which is generally

regarded as the southern boundry of its extent) and as far as
the Tuhgabhadra. The two shrines at Mahakuta and two
also
shrines belonging to the Ramaliiigelvara temple at Kurnool, and a
number of them in Alampur, Raichur, illustrate this southern upsurge.
Amongst the several types and stages of development, however, two
shapes arc fundamental one as represented at Aihole (Temple IX) and
the other fully manifested at Khajuraho. The former may be taken as
illustrative emergence and evolution of the ^ikhara which,
of the
except for the inward curve of its sides does not differ in detail from
the pyramidal type of the superstructure (i.e. the straight trunk with
round edged slabs) as represented in the Surya temple at Sutrapada.
The Amalaka, the most distinguishing feature of the ^ikharottamas
may be seen at Aihole Temple No. X, which shows this genesis where
they are seen supporting the topmost course or slab of the superstruc-
ture, This may represent an early stage of the employment of the
Amalaka on the trunk of the superstructure. ‘‘The A alakas’^ Prof.
Kramrisch remarks “are however, repeated most of the curvilinear
in
Sikhara in regular intervals re-inforcing the curved edge where they
mark the Bhumis, levels or storeys’*. Prof. KramriSch’s observation.
522 HISTORY OF HIMDU TEMPLES

therefore that “on the earlier temples from about the 6th century, the
distinction between the pyramidical and curvilinear superstructure of
this type is one of degree only'* is significant.

From the standpoint of the origin of temple architecture into its

manifold varieties it may be contended that while the pyramidal

superstructures, characteristic of southern Vimanas have tiieir proto-
types in dolmen or in the tabernacle of bended branches ;
the i^ikha-

rottama PrSsadas especially in the first type (i.e. Aihole) may be said
to have evolved out of the Vedic Sads from the prototypes, of which
the Ghadyas, the pillared halls had evolved and later on when the
superstructure was conceived, the walls were made to buttrresscs.
‘‘The buttresses do not form part of the fiat roofed dolmen temple.
They can be thought of as having originated in brick structures corres-
ponding to the augmentation of a central area, by adding bricks in the
four directions as in the piling of Vedic altars (Figs, in Part VII), not
only but also in pillared buildings whose halls are made spacious by an
analogous arrangement of the pillars. When the buttresses make their

appearance on otherwise plain walls of the Garbhagrha, its roof is no

longer flat but carries the superstructure, the Sikhara (Deogarh, etc.)”.

Now coming to the other shape of 6ikhara which as I have remar-

ked, was most perfectly manifested in Khajuraho temple is remark-
able for giving us a concrete outline history of the evolution and
development of ^ikharottama Prasadas. The style may be said to
have originated in the land of the Bhaumika Vimanas—'Vide Chalukyan
contributions. And the movement must have sprea north-wards as 1

is evident in some of the early illustrations at Buhvane^vara where the

identical ramifications with their counter-part at Khajuraho may be
seen. Both BhuvaneSvar (including Konarka) and Khajuraho seem
to have an identical back-ground of the temple-ideal which may be a
I c suit of Tan trie influence which had in a way, debased these splendid

sacred sites (the Konarka and Khajuraho groups of temples) on

account of the obscene sculpture on the buttresses depicting naked
Maithuna. Though the temple of Rajaranl is regarded as later pro-
duction than the Khajuraho temples but the affinity is remarkable.
Which has borrowed and which has not, is very difficult to surmize.
In a former part of this work I have traced the movement of the
Nagara style of temple architecture from the genesis of the Ghalukyan
temples spreading through Ganjam to the north of the Orissan strong-
holds of Kesari temples, the BuhvaneSvara, Jagannatha Puri and
Konarka and from there might have migrated to still north, the
it

heart of the Bundelkhand, at Khajuraho. BhuvaneSvara group of

 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 523

temples began as early as 500 A.D, and conlinued for full seven centu-
ries. Hence the influence of this upsurge spreading toivards extreme
north in the 9th century may not be un-underslandablc.

Now coming to the subject-matter in hand namely the second

and the perfectest type of ^ikhara as illustrated in the monuments of
Khajuraho, it may be said at the very outset that these ^Ikharas arc
reminiscent of our very hoary institution of worship done in the taber-
nacle ot leaves, bamboos or branches by those early inhabitants of this
land who were predominantly foresteers and naturally conceived and
evolved out a structure like the Satyanarayana-mandapa which we
practise even to day. This ^ikhara of our temples surges towards the
apex ;
other smaller sikharas cling to it in a massed competition of
ascent. Prof, Kramrisch has illuminating observation on this point:

^^Although each of them has its edges marked by Brihrnis of many

strata and by Amalakas, these horizontal elements, like llic nodules of

the stem of a plant, do not break its rising lines. Their curves belong
Banana plants, of
to forms of vegetation, the ribs of the large leaves of
palm trees or bamboo rods fixed in the corners of a square drawn on
the ground and bent towards a central point with their curves the
;

stone built Ȥikharas of the Khajuraho temples arise and reiterate in

their complex organisation the perennial meaning of the Tabernacle
of the forest It served and still serves the performance of worship

(puja) and vows (vrata). When these Pujas and Vratas are completed
the leaves and branches which had formed the Tabernacle, having
served their purpose, are thrown away, whereas the form of these tem-
porary and humble structures was clothed in brick and stone and raised
above the Garl hagrha, in the innumerable iSikharas known to exist
from the Gupta age and which to this day compete towards the
Highest Point. The Tabernacle of leaves, bamboo or branches is the
prototype of the curvilinear iSikhara. The arch of vegetation, the arch
of Nature surmounts and encloses the seat of God. In temple chariots
with a framework of bamboo, as much as in the temples themselves,
it is this ‘Form of Nature’ which remains one of the primeval and

sempiternal forms of sacred architecture in India. It is the most

sacred of all the forms of the superstructure, destined for the
Prasada only. It is never placed as superstructure on any Mandapa or
any accessory building of the temple proper. There the pyramidal
types are accommodated, and at times assimilated to its curves, with-
out however attaining to their unbroken ascent*\

VastuSastras like the Samarangana-sBtradhara, also establish the

origin and evolution of the templc-Sikharas from some of the most
524 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

fascinating prototypes of vegetable kingdom. The iSikhara in the

terminology of VastiiJastra is also called Manjarl —mula-manjari and
uromanjari, which is very significant. The manifold peaks of moun-
tain and manifold buds in a manjari are likened to Srhgas and andas
in the VastuSastras. Thus this two-fold denomination of this charac-

teristic supcrstucture of the Nagara-temple gives us two-fold meaning

one relating to its height, sacrcdness and metaphysical implication in
the mountain peak rising high towards the highest point, the ‘bindu’
the Nirakara Purusa and the other pointing to the rich' sculpture
adorning the outer super nructure on the central shrine, the Garbliagrha.

Formation of the Sikharas by means of a division in geometrical pro-

gression —by fourfold ‘caturguna-sutra cf. AgniP.; Hayarfrsa Panch’.
etc. or by sixfold sadgun i sutra— cf. the S.S. and the Brhacchilpa, has
already been referred to — vide one of the last chaps, and It may not be
elaborated here. A theme however, of particular interest, here is the
main varieties of the curvilinear superstructure, the Sikhara in the ortho-
dox Nagara school as are illustrated in the three main temple-sites of
India, the Khajuraho, the Bhuvanelvara and the Kannarese country;
and it may be taken in hand. These are, as already pointed out
elsewhere (ibid): 1. The cluster of Sikharas 2; The ^ikhara enmeshed
in Gavaksas; and 3. The composite Sikhara.

The cluster of 6 kharas: Before we undertake this type of Sikhara,

a working knowledge of the temple plan and its general formation
may be appreciated. The plan in the present context is cruci-form
which is the result of the central major projection of each side called
Bhadra, being flanked by more shallow lateral offsets, called
Ratha. This is in case of the Nirandhara Prasadas. In the Sandharas
(having circum-ambulatory passage) the Bhadras appear like trans-
pets in the plan. The Talacchanda is then accentuated in the four
directions, the temple stepping forth from the straight inner walls of
the GarbAagf-ha and the square of the Garbhagfha is transmuted into

the cross of the Prasada. Then follows the progressi n of the butt-
resses carrying up the ^ikharatcr minating at the shoulder-course
(skandha). Above the skandha the Amalaka, the distinguishing symbol
of Nagara temples held aloft by the round neck, supports the finial.

Now sustaining the symbolism of MaSjarl, this type of cluster of

Aikharas, as its very name indicates, consists of a central curvilinear
Sikhara surrounded by a cluster of similar Sikharas. Prof. Kramrisch
has very faithfully ihrerpreted our technical canons in this respect :

“These arc formed by one or several half Sikharas or iSrhgas leaning

 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 525

main Sikharas and of each successive

against the *chest’ (uras) of the
UromatijarL At the corners, narrow and high quarter-^ikharas fill
and round ofT the recesses between the Uromanjaris and the main
^ikhara (mula-Sikhara or Manjari), while smaller part or three-
quarter ^fiigas are grouped in the lower courses of the Sikhara each
in continuation of a buttress or offset of the perpendicular wall of the
Prasada, The many variations of the theme of Sikhara cluster are

brought by the number of Uromanjaris of the Sikhara, the number of

Rathas or offsets of the perpendicular wall and the number of hori-»
zontal rows in which are set the miniature ^ikharas called Til aka
(sesamum seed) at the base of the main Sikhara, the Mulamanjari.
These factors depend on the specific proportions of the particular type
of temple and also on its height and the curvature of the superstruc-
ture. All the subsidiary Sikharas and other shapes are always subor-
dinated to the main and dominant central Mulamanjari”,

The most faithful representation of this type of ^ikharottama

Prasadas is illustrated in the temples of Khajuraho, those in the
northern Gujrat and also in Rajputana such as Jain temple in Osia;
Someivara temple in Kiradu and (as already hinted at) the P ajararil
in BhuvaneSvara, Orissa,

The Sikhara enmeshed in Ga?aksas. As already remarked that

the evolution of Northern or Nagara iSikhara began in the South as has
been seen on the temples of Kanarese country of the seventh century
and prior to it. The same type prevails in Orissa culminating in the
Lihgaraja temple from the eighth century. This development may
be said to take this form of l§ikhara enmeshed in Gavaksas. The
Decanese temples like one at Anjaneri near Nasik, those in Rajputana,
central India and as far north as the western Himalayas, also represent
the ’ypc.

We have already remarked that the ^ikharottoma Prasadas as

described in the Samarahgana-sutradhara (LVII) are full of this
evolution and development. ^‘The temples in which the ascent is

continued in one theme from the wall of the Prasada to the shoulder
course of the Sikhara are called Latina in Vastu 6astra. The Lat5s
or single offsets of the l^ikhara each with its web of ^sunray windows^
or Gavaksas carry the vertical movement steadily upwards. Its urge
and also its assurance rest on the curved walls of thei§ikhara. Between
the several offsets are recessed chases (jalantara); their shadows out-
line the Verticality of this Sikhara while they also add tone and
enliven the many horizontal mouldings which arc carried in tiers
526 !KISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

accross the facets and the recessed chases. Between these horizontal
mouldings run narrow, but deep, horizontal bands of shadows. With
their dark lints they clasp the entire volume of the Sikhara. Over it
is cast the trellis of point like openings of the Gavaksas; light and
shade thus become part of the texture of this ^ikhara’*,

form of the curvilinear Ȥikhara has been particularly

‘‘This per-
fected in Orrissa. The various shapes which contributed to the
Orissan temples have their models carved on the walls of the
Lihgaraja and Brahmeshwara temples specially and also on the
GitragupteSvara and other of the latter temples in Orissa.

It may however, be brought home to the readers that side by

side with this type of l^ikhara as evolved very perfectly in Orissan
temples, the other type already described namely the cluster 6ikharas
are also remarkably adhered. Prof. Kramrisch in her celebrated
work H. T. supports this genesis: “The closed volume of an Orissan
temple consists of the Prasada and its Mandapa; the former is the
Rckha or Bara Deul and the later is the Pirha Deul; its superstructure
is pyramidal, it represents type lA. In its fully evolved shape it is

crowned by an Amalaka above a Ghanta (bell-shape). The two

shapes of the superstructure, the curvilinear 6ikhara 11. (B) and the
pyramidal Sikhara I. A here conjointly, each by the side of the other,

from the perfect shape of the Orissan temple, the lower Pirha Deul
being subordinated to the higher Bara Deul in proportionate measure-
ment of which the width of the Prasada is the module. The balance
of these two contrasted superstructures, a closely knit unity of
Prasada or Bara Deul and Mandapa or Pirha Deul, is peculiar to
Orissa. In the other provinces the superstructures of the Mandapas
prepare and defer the climax of the ^ikhara of the Prasada (PL.I)’\

Now remains the third type— the composite SIkhara. It, as its
very name indicates, is an amalgam of both the former types integra-
ted into one. Both the ‘overspun’ and
‘clustered’ elements make up
this composition. This type cannot therefore, be said to be represen-
ted in an entirely individualistic form; because while it combines ele-
ments of both it loses the cogency of either form. The central Indian
temples like NllakanthcJvara at Udaipur, and some of the Deccan
temples represent this composition in their characteristic style having
a good amount of regional bias.

With this general introduction to the ^ikharottamas, let us

illustrate them with
monumental temples in our possession. Let
the
us begin with Bhuvancivara as some of the temples in this group are
 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 527

earlierenough to justify the chronological sequence. Thus leaving

the Southwe now wander in the North. In treating the Northern or
Indo-Aryan or more correctly Nagara style in opposition to the Sou-
thern or Dravidian style, we cannot adhere here to *the dynastic
manifestations as we have been doing in case of the Dravidian Tem-
ples. Here we have to treat the Nagara temples in their geographical
distribution as this Indo-Aryan development was not confined to a
relatively restricted area such as the southern extremity of penin-
sula, but was characteristic of the fourfifths of India. Thus this
geographical distribution pre-supposes the regional developments
which are some six in number.

1. Kalinga or Orissa 4. Gujarat and Kathiawar

2. Khajuraho 5. Deccan; and
3. Rajputana 6. Gwalior and Brindaban.

ORISSA
1. Bhuvane$vara : —Among the orissan group there are three
principal sites —BhuvaneSwara, Puri aud Kouarka.
BhuvaneSvara
the capital seat of the Kesaris provides the most logical beginning for
a study of the Nagara style. There are over thirty (though the
legends would have them thousands) examples concentrated in the town
of BhuvaneSvara. It may be remarked here that this central develop-
ment in BhuvaneSvara group of temples in Orissa is not a sudden

development. It had its beginning as already pointed out, from its

southern extremity (cf. Ganjarn within the Madras Presidency) to
the northern offshoot in the state of Miyurabhanja having its ramifica-
tions as early as 6th century in the territory of the Ghalukyan and
Percy Brown’s conjecture in this respect supports my contention which

I have developed elsewhere (Styles of Temple Architecture Gh, IV

pt. V). The following observations of BroA^n are therefore very perti-
nent: “That there can have been any direct connection between the
eariy Ghalukyan structures on the south-west, and the temples of
Ganjarn on the east is somewhat improbable, but the fact remains
that certain architectural affinities are observable which suggest a
linking up of the temple design in these two divergent places. If
such a correlation is admitted, it may be traced to the political can-
tact which no doubt existed between the Ganga king of western India
on the one hand, and the Ganga dynasty of Kalinganara, now the
modern Mukhalingam, on the other. It was from their capital in
Ganjarn that the country of Kalinga, at present called Orissa, was
administered by the Eastern Gangas from about A.D. 600. By some
^uch means the ctiltural activities of the Early Ghalukyan^ may have
528 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLE^

been conveyed to this region on the cast where, beginning from the
eighth century certain architectural forms appear, which bear a
resemblance to those produced slightlly earlier at Aihole and Patta'*
dakal. (Chap. II and XVI)*\

Orissan temples comprising all the three main groups are charac^'
terised by independent evolution. Percy Brown says ‘‘Not only are :

the plans and general treatment of these religious structures of a

special character, but the building art has a separate and distinct
nomenclature of its own. The generic name for a temple is deul, but
as the building in the first instance consisted very often of a sanctuary
only, the same word was employed for this tower-like structure also.
In front of the deul is a square building of assembly hall correspond-
ing to the mandapa in other parts, but here known as the Jagrnohan,
These two combined constitute the essentials of the Orissan
edifices
temple type. As the style progressed and also as the temple ritual
was developed, other buildings were found necessary, and were added
to the front of the assembly hall, thus presenting in the larger exam-
ples a series of structures all in one axial alignment. The two buildi-
ngs usually supplemented were first the Naf-Mandir or Dancing Hall,
and secondly in front of this the Bhog Mandir or Hall of Offerings.
Standing on a basement or a plinth (pista), these halls were invari*
ably of one storey only, and the elevation of each consisted of two
parts, a cubical portion (bada) below, and a pyramidal roof (pida)
above. In the same way the lower and upright portion of the deul
or tower is called the bada, but above that it is resolved into three
parts, comprising the tall middle portion or chhapra, the flat fluted
disc at the summit known as the amla, and its finial or kalasa.**

Further he observes, “compared with the other regional develop-

ments in the Indo-Aryan style, the Orissan temples as a whole are of
the astylar order, pillars being notable by their absence. In
some of the earlier examples the pillar finds a place, suggested no
doubt by other modes, but as a rule it was not favoured. In a few
of the larger halls however some such support became a structural
necessity to sustain the heavy weight of the pyramidal roof, and
accordingly a group of four solid piers, one at each corner of a four-
square system ol roof beams was introduced. One of the most
remarkable characteristics of the Orissan temple is the plain and
featureless treatment of the interior contrasted with the profusely
ornament walls of the exterior, the surfaces of which are charged
with a superfluity of plastic patterns and forms. The difference
between the rich carving on the outside; and the simple unadorned
 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 529

places of the interior can only be accounted for by the existence of

some esoteric tradition which the builders either instinctively fob
lowed, or were compelled strictly to observe’\

Though from the standpoint of the region there are three sepa-
rate sites inOrissa—BhuvaneSvara, Puri and Konarka, but for a
study of a chronological development the more important examples
of Orissan temples may be resolved into the following three groups
according to their date and style (vide Percy Brown’s Indian Archi-
tecture p. 124).

Early Period cir. A. D. Middle Period cir. A. D.

750 to 900 (BhuvaneSvara) 900 to 1 100 (Bhuvane^vara and
Puri i, e. Jagannath.)
Pari)Suramesvara Mukteivara
Vaital Deul Lin ga raja
UttareSvara Brahinesvara
livareivara RameSvani
^atruganelvara Jagannatha.
BharateSvara
LaksmaneSvara.
Later Period cir. 1100 to 1250 BhuvaneSvara & Konarka
Ananta Vasudeva MegheSvara
Siddhe^vara Sarai Deul
KedixreSvara Some^vara
Jamelvara Rajaranl.

Temple of the Sun at Konarka,

Two of the early temples at BhuvaneSvara, the temple of Para-

Sura meSvara and Vaital Deul are of surpassing interest in the evolu-
tion and development of ^ikharottama Prasad as at BhuvaneSvara.
We have already remarked some aiTinity between the Chalukyan and
the Orissan style, rather the latter an independent development on
the genesis of the former. Percy Brown’s following observations
support my thesis :

^‘An interesting comparison may be instituted between this

temple, and the somewhat earlier temples of the Chalukyans at
Aihole. It will be seen that the tower of the ParaSurameSvara example,
although inclined to be heavy and crude, an improvement on the
is

Indo-Aryan type of sikhara subsequently added to the Aihole buil-

dings. Moreover the incipient form of clerestory introduced into
:|hehc Orissan temple is also an advance on double roof of the Durga
530 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

and Huchchimaligudi temples of the Chalukyan group, from which

however it may have been derived. It is the peculiar treatment of
such features, v’hich suggests that some communication of impre-
ssions may have been maintained between these two centres, thus
enabling the Orissan mason to benefit by the experiences of his
fellow craftsmen in the Deccan. On the other hand, there are
certain portions of the architectural ornamentation in the Parasra-
meswar temple, such as pilasters with vase and foliage capitals, a
motif usually associated with the Gupta mode, indicating, as already
mentioned, that there were also influences from the more northerly
source. Taking all these factors into consideration it may be in-

ferred that the approximate date of the ParaSurame^vara temple is

towards the end of the eight century, a date which also marks the
introduction of the Indo-Aryan style of architecture into the region,”

The Vaital Deul is remarkable for its different conception allied

more to the southern style as exemplified by the Dravidian Gopuram
and originally based on Buddhist chaitya halls The second group
comprising the middle period (900-1100) represents the movement
at its early maturity or prime. The earliest of the temples, the
Muktelvara may be regarded as a miniature gem of architecture of
Orissan style asit is not only a highly finished structure, ornamented

with fascinating carved patterns, but in addition is approached by

an arched gateway or torana of the most elegant design and execu-
tion. The element speak of considerable advancement
architectural
on the early phase as we see in the ParaSuramc^vara. Wc have al-
ready pointed out a characteristic element of these temples, absence
of interior decoration but in the MukteSvara it is an exception as it
is one of the few temples of the Orissan group which has sculptured
decoration in its interior.

The most representative examples of this middle period are two

temples of monumental proportions, the Lingaraja (1000 A. D.) at
Bhuvane^vara and the Jagannatha (1100 A. D.) at Puri, the former
being not only thefinest living example of Orissan group, but one

ranks as one of the foremost architectural productions of the country.

The planning of the temple recalls Buddhist pattern in congregating
their votive chrdtyasaround the large central stupa. The Lingaraja
or Great Temple of Bhuvanelvara occupies the centre of a large
quadrangular enclosure measuring 520 ft, by 465 ft. within which
many subsidiary chapels and shrines have been grouped around the
main temple, contributions by ardent devotees, acts of pity and merit^
the Putra performance.
 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 531

The Lhigaraja consists of four structures which comprise the

fully developed Orissau temple type namely the Deal, or 6ri Mandira
(corresponding to the Vimana), the Pillared Hall Jagamohana, w
(the Mandapami); the Dancing Hall or Nata Mandira, and the Bhoga
Mandira, the Hall of Offerings.

2 Puri
,
: —
The other notable example of the middle period is the
famous temple of Lord Jagannatha at Puri, an appreciably larger
building than the Lihgaraja, though inferior in architectural work-
manship. Its situation however on the shore of the sea, is remarkable
and gives it an eminence, characteristic of the legends that are house-
hold of Hindu devotees. Naturally it presents a singularly command-
ing appearance, its soaring deul providing an imposing landmark
accross the low-lying country for many miles around. This site has
many There are records that it was originally built as
associations.
pillar of victory by Ghora Ganga, the conqueror of Kalihga in 1030
A. D. There is yet another tradition which associates this site with
Buddhism. It is said that there was some still more ancient monu-
ment, not improbably the shrine of Buddha’s tooth at Dantapura,
before that precious relic was transported to Geylone. Though built
on the same principle as the Great Temple at Bhuvane^vara and con-
sisting of the same four edifices in one alignment, but for its impressive
proportions, the architectural effect of this temple is disappointing as
in its treatment it is merely an arid replica of its predecessor at
BhuvaneJvara. There are however some features in the Jagannatha
temple at Puri which have considerable significance and implying
alfinities of a widely separate kind (See Brown page 128, 3rd para).

A very remarkable feature of this temple is in regard to the enshri-

ned deity, Jagannatha who is accompanied by his brother Balaramaand
sister Subhadra. The enshrinement of the principal deity with his
consort in the principal shrine has been a time honoured tradition ;

but in this particular temple it is altogether new introduction which

might have been influenced by the Buddhist tradition of Trika.
Now as regards the third perlodor later style of Orissan architecture
Which flourished about 12C0 A. D., it is represented by a number of
temples, none of which is large but are remarkable for their rich and
finished appearance betokening the ornamental development.

The most graceful and elegant example of this period is however

the RajaranI temple whose affinity with the ^ikharottamas of Kajuraho
isanother landmark in our position that the Nagara style of temple
architecture as is illustrated in the temples of BhuvaneSvara and Kha-
juraho have a common fountain and are a manifestation of one mov<y^
532 itlSTORV OF HINDU tEMPLES

ment. This temple displays a refinement in its curves and contours

denoting not only an advance in the art of composition, but an appre-
ciation on the part of the craftsman of a more subtle feeling for form.
Much improved effect has been obtained in the composition of
of the
the Sikhara which is remarkable for its beauty and elegance. Its
affinity with Khajuraho art is simply bewildering and gives us a guess

that whole movement was a national exuberance of the day. R??ja-

ranl temple is not only a type by itself at BhuvaneSvara, so for as its

artistic execution is concerned there is yet another factor in its design
which is a further indication that this example is a departure from all

others of the group. It is the diognal treatment of the temple -plan.

3. Konarka The temple of the Sun at Konarka is the grandest

achievement of this Eastern School of architecture, standing entirely
by some twenty miles in a north-easterly direction along the
itself,

sea-coast from Puri a great mass of masonary and rising like a pyra-
midal mound above the sand-dunes and forming from the sea a promi-
nent landmark known as Black Pagoda, it had become a deserted ruin
resurrected in recent times. It was built in the reign of king Nara-
simha-deva (1233-64). Even its ruined structure is axi amazing
performance, Percy Brown remarks ‘‘The conception of this temple
:

was that of a genius, but its colossal grandeur out- stripped the means
of execution, for its materialization was beyond the capacity of its
builders, its scale was too great for their powers, and in the construc-
tional part they failed. It was, however, a magnificent failure, for
without unduly straining the imagination, it is possible to see even in
its was one of the
ruin, that it finest architectural efforts the Indian
master-mason ever made”.

In the history of devotional upsurge in India, Surya, the Sun God

had also occupied a prominent position. A good many sun-temples
were raised, the largest and most remarkable Saura-Prasadas being
Konarka in Orissa, Martanda in KaSmlra and Modhera in Gujarata.
In the planning and execution of this stupendous undertaking the
whole mythology and artistic canons coupled with the genius of the
land and superb artscraftsmanship of the region have played their
equal part. Firstly it represents the crystallised and accumulated
experience of several hundred years of this type of temple-buildings,
hence it shows the most reasoned and systematic co-ordination of its
parts into an architectural unity.

It therefore illustrates in every respect the fulfilment and finality

of the style. Secondly in its conception, it is supremely imaginative
in character. Thirdly it is based on the traditional representation of
 HISTORY OF Hindu tEMPLfeS 633

Sun God as conceived by the Rsis of the Rgveda (1.115. 4). Visuali-
zing the deity as time’s winged chariot urging on his team of seven
horses, with which he blazes his way through the heavens. Percy
Brown therefore remarks : ^This spirited allegory movdd the designers
to translate it into temple form to realize it as a great spectacle in
stone, the building to be fashioned like a ratha or wheeled car being
whirled along by the seven horses of the sun.* This is only a bare
outline of its architectural conception and the execution thereof. Its

sculpture however, is superbly rich and is a subject of an independent

investigation, as much of its plastic decorations and mural sculptures
arc grossly obscene. Though few buildings can boast of such an
unrestrained abundance of plastic decoration as this vast structure,
depicting conventional foliage, mythical animals, fabulous beings, half
human with half serpent coils, figures satanic and figures divine of
any conceivable motif and subject known to the Indian mind and in a
teciinique, which ranges from patterns cut with minute precison of a
cameo to powerfully modelled groups of colossal size, but nowhere
sexual perversion is so blantly exploited as on the walls of the temple
of the sun at Konarka,
KHAJURAHO
Khajuraho represents the most refined and finished manifes-
tation of the Northern or Indo- Aryan or the Nagara style of
Hindu Architecture. Its stability and elegance arc equally remark-
able. It is really a pity that the temple could have been deserted

for long and neglected for any temple-ritual for several centuries.

Situated in the region of Bundelkhand (State of Ghattarpur) a

hundred miles south-east of the town of Jhansi, these temples are over
thirty in number. Khajuraho temples seem to be a very matured
performance, as unlike Orissan temples they do not illustrate a
development over a long period of time. Epigraphical evidences show
that they were all erected within the relatively narrow interval of a
hundred years, from about A. D. 950 to 1050. Brown therefore very
aptly observes :

There is however another outstanding feature on this central

zone of the temple exterior, a decorative motif and one which fills in
the wall spaces between the openings mentioned above. This takes
the form of two and sometimes three, parallel friezes, conjoined and
following the alternate projections and recesses of the walls and
carried round the entire building. Peopled with groups of statuary
moulded in high relief, and in dimensions rather less than half life
size, these friezes present a moving pageant and never-ending
procession of lifelike forms, shapely in appearance, exquisite m
5^4 HISTORY OF HINDU Ti MFLEs

workmanship and of inexhaustible interest. One temple alone, that

of the Kandariya Mahadeo, the figures thus depicted are six hundred
and fifty in number, and each building accommodates a similar
community in proportion to its size. (Plate LXXIX). Some of the
iigures are apparently ideal human beings while others are divine
personages, but all are in elegant attitudes and some are posed with
a Hellenic grace recalling the rhythmic forms on a classic vase.
Unlike the sombre saints who look down from Gothic niches, those
on the walls of the Khajuraho temples are of a warm and gladsome
nature, living in a happy golden age, when time was one long
sequence of pleasureable experiences. With such an animated throng
ever present on these structures it is not remarkable that the
architecture pulsates with a human vitality not ordinarily found in
the building art.”

Khajuraho represents a land mark in rellgiovis history of

Northern India. As at Ellora so at this place, Saivisrn, Vaisnavisrn
and Jainism all have their monuments. These temples are the out-
come of the benevolent munificence of the Chandela Rnjas.

Temple Architecture of Khajuraho has a definitely individual

character. Its only aflinity if there is any, rests with that graceful
construction, the Rajariiii temple at Bhuvanel^vara. The Dravidian
influence on the Orissan temples is fairly perceptible not only in the
planning of the temple enclosure but also in raising the Vimana.
The Praklra walls and Dhvajastambhas are all full of this influence.
The Khajuraho temples on the other hand may be classed as Jagati-
Prasadas in the terminology of the Samarahgana Siitra-dhara as
instead of being contained within the customary enclosure wall each
stands on a high and solid masonary terrace. the broad platform On
thus produced each temple has been erected not as a number of
conjoined buildings, as is the case with Dravidian and Orissan
temples, but as a unified structure, all its parts so incorporated as to
form a compact architectural synthesis. Secondly none of them is of
any great size, the largest is only slightly over a hundred feet in
length, so that they are by no means imposing edifices, but they
rely for their appearanace in their elegant proportions, graceful
contours and rich surface treatment. Thirdly these temples are
notable for their simpler designs, the whole edifice is divided into
three main compartments namely the cell or garbhngfha, an assem-
bly hall or mandapa and an entrance portico or ardha-mandlipa.
Supplementing these, are the antarala or vestibule to the
cclla and in the more developed examples, the transcepts or maha*
 HISTORY OF HINDU TfiMPLlii 535

mandapas, together with a processional passage around the cella.

Fourthly unlike the Orissaii type which is pyramidal the Kliajuraho
roofs are domical in contour and therefore rightly reppeseiit the best
and the most faithful illustrations of the K^ikharottaina lhasadas qf
our VastuSastras. Further the touchstone of the ludo- Aryan or
Northern or more properly the Nagara type of temple is the design of
the spire and the examples of this dominating feature at Kliajuraho
are the most refined and elegant of their kind. The Vastu^astra
nomenclature of Sikhara as Manjarl is perfectly portrayed here. ^^The
graceful shape of these Sikharas has been effected in two ways, on the
one hand by the subtle iineaments of the main curves, and on llic

other by the rhytlimic disposal of the subsidiary members attached

to them. It is only necessary to compare the Kliajuraho form of
sikbara with the Orissan type to realize the beauty of the former
with its flowing profile. In the first place the contours at Kliajuraho
are more taut and tenuous, the tampo of the lines is accelerated
as they mount up in a more decided incline. But the principal
refinement is obtained by the design and di tribution of the
miniature turrets or urusringas, which it was the practice to
superimpose on the sides to break up the mass Fifthly con-
trasting with the excessively plain treatment of the Orissan
interiors, the halls, of the Kliajuraho temples are richly decorated
with sculpture. As regards the exterior decorations they have no
parallel. There at Khajuralio the Mythology has mingled with
Metaphysics and a good many symbolisms, if worked out, must
illustrate the back ground throwing side lights on the real significance
of PrasSda-murti according to our l^astras where the Prasada, the
Hindu Temple has been viewed as Purusa-murti.

With this general introduction to the general characteristics of

Khajuralio temples let us dwell a little more on their grouping and
individual craftinanship; ‘‘The main group of temples at Khajuralio,
consisting of at least a dozen buildings, is that to the north-west of
the site, where they are arranged in two lines, with both Vaishnavite
and Sivaite shrines standing side by side. In some instances the
dedication is a matter of doubt, while the designation of a few may
have been subsequently changed. Each of these two lines of structure
consists of one large temple, with others slightly smaller alongside,
and, for the purposes of the study, each has been given a serial num-
ber. ^The largest of the entire series is the l§iva temple of Kandariya
Mahadeo (No. 3) the first of the most westerly line, ^nd its dimensions
are 109 feet in length, 60 feet in width externally, with a height of
U6J feet above the ground or 88 feet above its own floor. Its plan
536 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

is that of a double-armed cross, as not only is it provided with tran-

scepts to the maudapa, but it has another pair with windows to give
light to the pr6cessional passage, while there is also a similar aperture
for illuminating this corridor in the rear. The compartments of the
interior are six in number consisting of the portico, main hall, tran-
septs, vestibule, sanctum, and ambulatory.” Other temples may be
passed over. There are two other temples at Khajaraho planned on
the same principle as the Kandariya, with double transcepts, but they
are both one sixth less in size. These are the Siva temple of Vishva-
nath (Mo. 7) and the Visnu temple of Gliaturbhuj. “The Jain temples
grouped together on the south-east of the site are some six in number,
in varying states of preservation, and as a whole their architectural
character differs but little from the Brahmanical examples.”

RAJASTHANA AND CENTRAL INDIA

This is the most unfortutate region which suffers most from the
invasions of the Muhammadans, in regard to its majority of temple-
architecture. This part was the direct successor of the building art
of the Gupta age which is remarkable for its exuberance of new motifs
in Indian art. The stray ruins of Rajasthana and central Indian
architecture and sculpture betoken a latter flowering of a singularly
rich and lovely nature of Gupta art. Demolitions of temples by the
Muhammadans completely effaced most stupendous undertakings and
naturally therefore examples arc comparatively rare and fragmentary.
Nevertheless a picture can be reconstructed with the help of the
temple parts especially the pillars being used in two famous Islamic
monuments, the Q,atub Mosque at Delhi and the Arhaidin-ka-Jhom-
para at Ajmer.

This artistic upsurge of the period is synchronous with the literary

upsurge of the early medieval period in which poets like Banabhatta,
and Bhavabhuti were creating the masterpieces. The post-Gupta
epoch was as classical and scholarly as the Gupta age itself. That
this scholarly movement influenced all forms of expression, is shown
by the architecture of this period, and it is clear that it was a time
when men’s minds were working in accordance with high aesthetic
ideals. —
Percy Brown masterly depics this age vide Indian Architec-
ture p. 138.

Now without going into details let us have a bird’s eye view on
the surviving specimens of this region, though most of them arc
unfortunately fragmentary owing to subsequent vicissitudes.
 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 537

1. Eran in the Saugor district of Central India. Here are architec-

tural remains extending over a period of some
(500 to six centuries
1100 A, D.), a series of shrines dedicated to Varaha, ^arasirpha and
Visnu.

2. Patbari. (10 miles away from Eran) where

a 7th century
monolithic column and 9th century Kothesvara temples are found.

3. Gyraspur. (Further south) It is famous for Athakambha or

Astastambha (eight pillars) and char-kambha or catuhstambha (four

pillars). These are column halls, fore-runners of Sabha-mandapas of
Gujarat. There are two other structures called Bagramatha and Mala
De temple.

4. Udayapur. It is famous for Udaye^vara (an eleventh century

temple) showing by its style an affinity to theKhajuraho temples.

5. Osia. It is a village thirty two miles north-west of Jodhpur. It

is a renowned templewhere some sixteen Brahmanical and Jain
site

temples are found among which the most complete example is a Jain
temple dedicated to Mahavira.

A word on the art of these creations may also be added here for
which Percy Brown seems to be at the best: “The significance of the
pillar and its capital in the temples at Osia has been already empha-
sised, but in some of the examples that distinctive motif the *‘vase and
foliage’* attained its supreme form. Although not universal, this type
of capital may be regarded as the ‘‘order** of the Indo- Aryan style,
and in the hands of some oT the sculptors it has been made into a
singularly graceful feature. One of the most elaborate examples
of the vase- and- foliage convention may be seen in the porch pillars of

the Mahavera temple of the eighth century. Not only is this element
introduced into the capital of the pillar, but, with a slight modifica-
tion, it also serves as the base. This enrichment however did not
satisfy the Indian artist, it was merely one incident in his design, for

over and above this he piled on other ornamental devices almost

smothering the pillar with the wealth of his inventiveness. There is
a feeling that he was endeavouring to express to outpourings of nature
in her most bounteous mood, that tumultuous fertility of tropical
growth, but on occasion his exuberance becomes strained so that
the palate cloys and the eye tires from such a display of sheer sensu-
ousness.’^

“No account of the temples of the Osia group would be complete

without a reference to the doorways, particularly those which form
538 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

the entrances to the shrine chamber. In most of the temple architec-

ture, these are the features on which the decorator concentrated all

his knowledge and skill, thus corresponding in their wealth of story to

the doorways of a Gothic cathedral in the West. The fact that the
shrine entrance led immediately into the divine presence seems to
have given wings to the artist’s imagination, so that here we find
portrayed, by symbol and image, whole volumes of folk lore and
mythology for those who can see but cannot read. On the lintel are
represented the nine planets or ?^a^’a^ra^a, while below are ornamental
niches each enshrining some well-known incident. Simulating a key-
stone is the dedicatory block, often depicting a figure or emblem
associated with the divinity within the cells, while in panels down
the jarnbs are figure- subjects of lively interest. Decorative mouldings
outline the doorway, among which is a motif of double spirals conti-
nuing right round the opening delineating the interwined coils of the
snake Sesha, the king of the Nagas or serpent race, signifying an
endless destiny or eternity. The river goddessesof the Ganges and the
Jumna figure at the base of the jamb, to which position they were
relegated after the Gupta era; one of the conventions of that period
was to include these deities at the upper angle of the doorway, the
sixth century marking the date of this change”
The post-Gupta development, as expressed in the west and central
region, was undeniably a rich aftermath of the intellectual regime of the
imperial Guptas, the earlier manifestion signifying that first creative
impulse which heralds the birth of a new era, the later, under the
steadying influence of time, producing the exquisite second flowering, as
exemplified by the remains at Osia,Eran and elsewhere. But in reality
these groups of buildings only represent one aspect of a much wider
cultural movement which extended most parts of the country. For
into
there is ampleevidcncethatduringthelatter half of the first millennium
the arts generally were approaching a very high level, and in several
instances had actually attained their golden prime. The great school
of rock architecture which was nearing its glorious end, and the
building art in its structural form which was beginning its grand
achievements, indicate that the spirit of progressiveness was a very
living force at this time”.
GDJRAT AND THE WEST
The tcmplc-architecture of this region is regarded to be
one of the richest and most prolific developments of the Indo-
Aryan style of architecture. Despite the devastations of the
iconoclast Muhammadans—vide Mahmud Ghazani’s expedition to
Somanatha in Kathiawara in 1025-26 A.D. and the conquest of this
 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 539

part of the m 1293 most of the

country by the Sultans of Delhi —
temples are effaced and are in ruins. Enough, however has survived
due to the stable rule of the Solanki dynany, a Saivite line whose
power extended over a large area centring round Gujrat and including
Kathiawar, Kach (Gutch) and much of what is now Rajputana, with
the capital at Anahila vada-Pattana, correspondhig to the compara-
tively modern tovvn of Patan, north west of Ahnicdabad, whose reign
was not only comparatively peaceful, but also was marked by material
prosperity. Its geographical position was very favourable as Gujarat
was to India, what Venice was to Europe, for the focus of commerce
of both east and the west. Naturally this state of general alilueuce
was instrumental ill giving rise to a form of religious architecture which
is noted for a new emergence of architectural pattern —the ornamental
style, what our Vastu^astra would have it, the Lata style within the

Nagara style of Indian architecture. Apart from the patronage of

the ruling chief, the bountiful contribution and dedication from people
at large were also there. Gujarata is credited to have developed a
remarkable art which was of a high watermark and this gives us a clue

that the Gujarati craftmen had inherited an artistic capacity, rich and
deep and their productions are ripe examples of this innate architec-

tural genius.

When such was the state of building ferver, the architect-ma^ions

also developed into flourishing guilds, and they had their own tradi-
tions and tradional learning and craft. The ^ilpins or §ilavais or
salate practised ^ilpas in a uimmer characteristic not only of the age
but also of the artistic heritage of India, I'he planning of the temple
and its design were also adopted with some modifications to produce
better results. In these temples only two notable formations were
more marked, the garbhagrha and the rnandapa or more correctly tiie
sabharnandapa, the latter being the most remarkable charactaristic of
lata architecture. Lata, as we have seen, is the ancient name of Guja-
rata. As regards the elevational aspect of the Solanki type of temple
the reader is referred to see Brown p. 43-44.

This is the general character, of Lata architecture as represented

in Solanki monuments. There are some other notable characteristics.
Firstly in this western development the architectural style is definitely
peristylar, as groups of elegantly carved pillars form an essential part
of its content. Secondly we have the f^astric injunctions for plastic
prohibitions in the interior of Hindu temples. Accordingly the
differenc regional styles depict this restraint in their characteristic
manner. Among the Orissan temples many liave almo:t entirely
540 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

plain interior. In Khajuraho, more freedom is discernible as a consi-

derable amount of carving is found in the interiors of the temples of
this group. The irresistible chisel of the Indian carver however could
not always be repressed by precept of the Sastras and his art therefore
did intrude into the forbidden areas also.

With this gen^^ral indroduction to the temple architecture of

Gujarat, let us describe in brief the temples themselves. The follow-
ing is the chronolorical list of more important temples:

Temples at Sunak^ Kanoda, Delmal and Kasara all in Gujrat

(10th Century).

The Navalakha temples at Ghumli and Sejakpur in Kathiawar;

Surva temple ai Mo Ihera in Gujrat; Virnala tempi j at Mount Abu
Rajputana, and the group at Karadu in Mewar (11th Century).

Rudra Mai (fragmentary) at Sidhapur, Gujarat, Somanatha

(several times restored) Kathiawar (12th Century).

Tejpala at Mount Abu Rajputana (13th Century).

There is no place to describe all these temples in their details.

But some examples must be purviewed in order to get the glorious
manifestation of Lata architecture. Among the them, Surya temple
at Modhera, Vimal temple at Mt. Abu and Rudra Mai and Soma-
natha in Kathiawar cannot be without some words on them,
left

Surya temple at Modhera : It is a ruined structure, neverthe-

less “in viewing the Modhera temple as a whole, the aesthetic sense

at once responds to the elegance of its proportions, the entire com-

position being lit with the living flame of inspiration. But apart from
its material beauty, its designer has succeeded in communicating to it

an atmosphere of spiritual grace. The temple faces the east so that

the rising sun at the equinoxes filters in a golden cadence through its

openings, from doorway to corridor, past columned vestibules finally to

fallen the image in its innermost chamber. In its passage the ray of the
heavenly body to which the shrine is consecrated, quiver and shimmer
on pillar and archway, giving life and movement to their graven

forms, the whole structure appearing radiant and clothed in glory.

To see this noble monument with its clustered columns not only
rising like an exhalation, but mirrored in the still waters below, is to
feel that its creator was more than a great artist, but a weaver of
dreams’*.
 —

History of Hindu temples 541

Temple of Viinala: It is a contemporary structure ofModhera

and although in much the same style, it dlflcrs in several material
particulars* It is constructed entirely of white marble, and designed
to conform to the usage of the Jain religion being one' of the oldest
and most complete examples belonging to that creed. Its interior
including the pillars, is elaborated with sculptured forms, Vidya-
dcvls form a prominent sculpture.

Kudra Mai: It is situated at Sidhapur in its ruinous condition

and was consecrated by Jayasimha Siddharaja, the hero king of
Gujarat (1094-1 142). It was one of the largest and most sumptuously
decorated religious monuments of India, Of its wondcrous beauty,
Percy Brown records the Gujarati Ballad-Singer —see Brown p 14B.

Somanatha: is a monument of legends and fascinating survival.

It is a history and story woven into our very texture of life and death.

THE TEMPLES OF DECCAN (11001300 A. D.)

This Decnani tract comprises an extensive area of the middle-west
of the peninsula, being contained between the river Topti on the north
andtheupper branch of the Kitsna on thesouth. It is this very part which
is noted for notable architectural tradition, the finest e xamples of rock-
cut mode such as Ajanta and Ellora. This tract from the standpoint
of temple-evolution sandwitched between two famous exuberances
is

namely the Lilta towards the north and Chalukyan on the south.
Despite the two divergent influences on its proximity on the north
and the south, these temples display certain notable features of an
independent and original order.

It has already been remarked in the previous introduction that

three types of ^ikharas were evolved — the cluster ^ikhara, the jSikhara
enmeshed Gavaksa and the composite Sikhara. These Deccanese
in

temples illustrate this last variety. Percy Brown also supports this:

‘‘One of the most prominent of the self-originated characteristics

in the Deccani type of temp'e is observable in the design of the
sikhara, which is decidedly different from that of any other region.
Instead of the turrets or urusringas being grouped around the lower
part of this structure, as in most examples, the Deccan sikhara has
a pronounced vertical band carried up each of its angles, taking the
form of a ‘‘spine’ ^ or quoin. This feature extends from che lower
cornice right up and displays functional qualities of a
to the ftnial,

high order, as it follows the main contours of the spire thus holding
the entire shape within its firm outline, (Plates LXXVI and XGV}.
Then the spaces between these quoins are filled in with rows of
 542 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

small reproductions of the sikhara itself, each supported on a pedestal

like an altar, the contrast ol this strongly marked repeating pattern
with the more delicate diaper on the quoins producing
an effect of
some emphasis'. The same principle was employed in the formation
of the other portion of the temple scheme, as the pyramidal roof of
inandapa is composed of diminishing rows of miniature multiples of
itscii, so that this singularly artistic system
is the keynote of the
composition as a whole. Deccancse temples are of not large size Even
the largest of these that at Sinnar one of the most spacious, is of a
very moderate size being barely 80 feet in entire length. It was
necessiated by a particular mode of their planning and construction.
The proportions of the building were determined by a unit, this
unit being the height of the monolith shaft of the pillar in interior
which was dependent in turn on the available stone from the quarry.
its

The number of these temples is not very large hardly fifty in all, of
which the ten are of some significance and they are enumerated in
their chronological order —vide Percy Brown.
i\Tiibariiatha. Phe finest and the earliest ol the group is the temple
of Ambarnatha in the Tiiana District of the Bombay Presidency; “In
a delightful situation by the side of a long deep pool, this temple,
when complete, was a model of rich perfection, typical of the style
when the architect had been given a free hand and unlimited time.
For there arc few buildings of the Indo-Aryan order, which display
more refined architectural perception combined at the same time
intricate decoration lavishly but tastefully applied. To the western
eye disciplined to the principle of ornammtal pa -sages being balanced
by plain spaces, such a tumult of sculptured forms distributed
over every surface of the structure, the piling of ornament upon
ornament, apparently defying all the accepted conventions of the build-
ing art, bewildering. But a study of this temple reveals the fact that,
is

although the plastic embellishment may lack restraint, and implies

occasional formlessness, the architectural and functional treatment
of the structure as a whole, is reasoned and logical”.

Another site containing buildings in this style in Khandesh

(within the Deccan) is that of Balsene where there is a group of nine
temples. Of these a triple-shrined structure the same is of much
design as that of Ambarnatha. Although of
and moderate lesser size
proportions it is a building of considerable beauty and among its
many ornate features, the shrine entrance is most striking a production.
At the base of this door way are the usual groups of divinities and
rising above these on each side is the decorative “nook-shaft” which
characterizes the shrines of this class.
 HISTOKY OF HINDU TEMPLES 543

Now leaving a detailed treatment of other temples, let us dwell a

little on Hemadpanti style in the words of Brown himself ; “During
the latter half of the thirteenth century, and also extending into the
early fourteenth century a considerable number of temples were
built, which are referred to all over the Deccan as in the Hemadpanti
style, their production being ascribed to a great patron of temple
architecture of the name of Hemadpant, This semi-legendary perso-
nage has been identified as most probably a famous prime minister of
Ramchandradeva, the last of the Devagiri rajas, who ascended the
throne in A. D. 1272. A high and influential official, Hemadpant had

a passion for temple building, and appears to have been responsible

for the erection of many religious edifices within this region. The
temples designated as Hemadpanti are distinguished by their heavy
proportions and bald and uninteresting architectural treatment, and,
what is particularly noticeable, the scarcity of figure sculpture on
their exteriors. Common though the temples of this type are in the
Deccan, some of the most representative examples being in the
Berars, they are uninspiring conceptions, apparently illustrating the
building art of these parts when the real spirit had gone out of it,

under the ominous shadow of the impending Islamic domination”.

THE TEMPLES AT GWALIOR & BRINDABANA

Gwalior temples. There are some eleven structures of a religious
character within the perimeter of this rock-bound fortress, five of
which take the form of temples. Tliree of them are important and
the largest of the three, known as the greater Sasbahu or Sahasrabahu
was finished in 1093 A D. The Teii-ka-mandira may be deemed as
an earlier construction.

Teli-ka-mandira. It is a rare type of Brahmanical sanctury having

a lelic of the distant Buddhist heritage for ^ikhara is remarkably noted
for its affinity with the Vaital Deul at BhuvaneSvara.

Sas-bahu. There are two templesboth designated Sas balm, literally

meaning the mother-in law and daugther-in-law’h “Both are in
much the same architectural mode, the smaller of the two, although
an elegant little building, in comparison with the larger example, of
which it is a reduced and simplified copy, is relatively unimportant.
For, apart from consideration of style and structure the large Sas-
Bahu temple is a most informative production, its Composition and
treatment generally adding not a little to our knowledge of architec-
tural development at this period, (Plate Cl). Dedicated to Vishii
in the last years of the eleventh century, although still a grand pile.
544 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

this t emple is but a portion of the original conception, as only the

main hall or raandapa remains, the vimana with its Sikhara which
was probably 150 feet in height having disappeared. On plan the
building is in the form of a cross, the entire length being 100 feet, the
width across the transepts 63 ft. while the height of the great hall was
originally about 80 ft.’*

‘‘As only the great hall is now the part in existence, it is from
this structure alone that the architectural style of the Sas-Bahu can
be judged, but it is quite sufficient for purpose. Externally this maha-
mandapa or assembly hall is in three stories, which take the form of
open galleries or loggias surrounding the building on all sides Each
story is defined by a massive architrave^ with the spaces between
occupied by pillars and piers, the effect of the facades being that of
large open arcades”.

Brindavana. This legendry place very fondly associated with

YogeSvara Krsna, famous for his lilas and kridas, is an important
temple site. Here is a group of five temples, all built of red sand-
stone and in the style of architecture different from any others of
their kind, these temples are:

1. Govind Devi 2. Radha Ballabha. 3. G opinath. 4. Yugala

Kisorc; and 5. Mad an Mohan.
These temples show a local development. They are relatively
late,belonging to the reign of Akbar, and are a result of the Great
Mughal’s notable toleration, they were built to the order of certain
H indu princes who had allied themselves to the Moghul power.
The reason of the selection of the site is due to a widespread revival
of the Krsna Cult, brought about by the preachings of the famous
Vaisnava reformer Gaitanya.

The largestand the most important of these temples, Govinda

Devi, is on the model of Sas-bahu as its elevation being formed
of several storeys containing open arcades. Percy Brown has a
very illuminating estimation of this temple: “But the manner
in which this arrangement has been treated, shows that
traditional
during the intervening period the builders had acquired an entirely
new orientation in the field of temple architecture. The Govind
Devi temple signifies as comprehensively as any building could
do, the change had taken place in the constitution of this
that
part of the country, owing to the conditions brought about by
the Islamic domination, a change, in the case of the building
 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 545

art, from the aesthetically natural to the ordered conventional,

from iirchitecture produced largely by rule of thumb, to that result-
ing from the application of certain well-defined structural principles.
One noticeable fact in this temple is the almost entire absence of
figure-carving, a circumstance not improbably due to the Islamic
usage prohibiting any display of imagery, and communicated to
the guildes of artizans by the Emperior Akbar, although that monarch
himself was no bigot in this respect. The consequence of these
various influences is that while Govind Devi temple is an architec-
tural composition of no little formal beauty, consisting as it does
of a combination of balconies and loggias, of bracketed archways
and moulded buttresses, wide eaves and ornamental parapets,
all carefully disposed so as to be in perfect accord with one another,
there is at the same time an almost complete absence of that quality

of humanism, together with a deficiency in that supreme spiritual

content which one has learned to expect incorporated in the design
of all Hindu temples of the more ortho lox type. In this building
more than in any other we see the effect of the imposition of Islamic
ideals on those of the Hindus, prepetuated in stone. Even more
pronounced is the outcome of this impact on the structural treat-

ment of the interior, which, except for the fact that the entire
conception appears to be an anamoly, is a very fine architectural
effort of or great dignity and excellent workmanship. For the roof
of the mandapa, instead of being the low curved ceiling usual in
the temple design, consists of a high vaulted dome formed of
interesecting pointed arches, in its structural procedure not unlike
what is known as the four-part pointed vaulting of the Gothic
style. This system of roofing
in the temple
an illustration of is

the influence contemporary construction of the Mughals

of the
being copied and adapted from that used in several of the mosques
of this period, as for instance in the aisles of the Jami Masjid
(c. 158)) at Fatehpur Sikri, the state capital of the Emperor Akbar.*'

Of the remaining temples, the temple of Jugal Kishore is the

most prominent. Its shrine is octagonal in plan and is attached by
one of its sites to a rectangular assembly hall. Around the main
eastern entrance there is a considerable amount of carving which has
a noticeable Islamic flavour. It may be remarked that the most dis-

tinctive portions of several of these temples are the ^ikharas which in

Style and shape are unique as they bear little or no resemblance to

any other kind of temple spire and hence they may be viewed as an
independent evolution, of course on the new later medieval pattern
which got impetus from the Mughal architecture. The Hindu Sikharas
 —

246 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

are adapted as minerets. They rise from an octagonal plan and taper

into a tall conical tower; for example that of Madan Mohan as much
as 63 ft. in height, with a broad band of mouldings outlining each
angle. Further, at intervals throughout their height are similar bands
of mouldings placed transversely, so that the surface effect is that of a
series of diminishing rectangular panels. Overhanging the whole at
the apex is a pondorous finial, the AmalaSila, a flat circular disc with its

outer edge ornamented with a boarder of massive knob-like petals or

flutes. In the opinion of Brown this unusual treatment of Sikhara of
Brindavan temple has not much to commend it.

VAVATA AND BHUMIJA PRASADAS

Something has already been told of these two styles in addition to
the ternary of the Dravida, Nagara and Vesara. Vesara being cons-
picuous by its absence in the Samrahgana-sulradhara as it is more an
admixture than an independent evolution, is also not given any pro-
minence by me. There are two more styles according to our text
and they are represented in the remains of the later Chalukyan or
Hoysal temples and Bihar-Bengal structures. Accordingly this sec-
tion will deal with these two manifestations.

Vava{a and later Chalukyaa or Hoysal style —the Va?5ta-Prasadas

The cradle of this style as already pointed out, is the capital seats of
early Ghalukyans — Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal. In the course of
time this later phase developed, Mysore, where the majority of the
later Chalukyan temples is situated, helped very considerably to the
development of this new phase. The Mysore has had a long artistic
tradition, an eminent aesthetic sensibility as stimulated by strong and
stable Ghalukya-Hoysala rule. Nevertheless there are fundamental
differences between earlier and later evolutions. Firstly a radical
change is perceptible ill the use of the material. It was a transition
from large emd unwieldy blocks of sandstone to a stone of much finer
grain a greenish or bluish block chloritic schist. Accordingly the
masonary was more refined.

Some scholars have classed these Chalukyan temples as represent-

ing the Vesara or mixed style; but in the opinion of Brown, evi-
dences of northern development arc almost negligible while the effect
is distinctly marked.
of the southern style Accordingly he divides the
Chalukyan temples into two developments. Firstly in the more
typical style as evolved within the state of Mysore and secondly in
those located outside this country and showing the influence of the
Dravidian overlapping and interpolation.
 —

History of Hindu temples 547

Mysore State —
Out of over a hundred temples enumerated in
:

Mysore state more than eighty are in Ghalukya-Hoysals mode. Their

architectural composition has been examined by writers like Percy
Brown under the following four headings :

1. The configuration of the building and flic shape of the plan.

2. The treatment of the wall surfaces.
3. The formation of the tower, or likhara and ;

4. The design of the pillars or the order.

1. ‘‘The central structure, or main building, in its simplest form

resolves itself into the customary three compartments, namely, the
cella, or garbha*griha attached to a vestibule known as the sukhanasi,
which connects with a pillared hall or navaranga in front of the last ;

isvery often an open pillared pavilion or mukha-mandapa. It is how-

ever in its actual conformation that the Hoysala temple is distinct
from all others In the first place m my of these structures, instead of
consisting of a single cella with its pillared hall, are multiples of this
system, in numerous instances, they are double temples having most
of their essential parts in duplicate, and quite frectuenlly they arc tri-

ple, quadruple and in some instances quintuple in their plan and gene-
ral arrangements” —
Brown. Another characteristic of the Ghaluky|ii
temple is the stellate orAstabhadra plan which is obtained by means of
an intricate geometrical proposition which consists of a combination of
equal squares each with a common centre but whose diagnols vary by
several degrees amount of difference in degrees being in accor*
;
the
dance with the number of points required to form the star. The typi*
cal Hoysala temple-structure is both Nirandhara-Prasldas and Jagati-
Prasadas as it stands on a high platform which is much wider and more
spacious, than appears necessary, thus leaving a broad flat surface or
terrace round the temple. It had a definite purpose. For, in none
all

of these temples is there an interior Pradakslnapatha. and this space

provides a suitable substitute for processions or circumambulations.

2. The general effect of the wall surfaces is one of horizontality

as most of the temples lack their towers and superstructure and con*
scqucntly, these, as pcviously made in regard to the earlier examples,

are more sabh5 mandapas than hall-temples. These are the Jagatl*
PrasSdas of the Samarafigana. This Jagatl terrace is a high and verti-
cal basement in some instances nine or ten feet in height, not formed
of mouldings but made up into a number of bands containing anima-
ted sculptured designs and running right round the building. Percy
Brown is very apt in his description —vide Indian Architecture, p. 168
4th para. The three horizontal divisions of the Vim5na wall are more
548 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMj^LE^

ornate than the two comprising pillared hall and coupled with the
Stellate plan of the structure where architecture simply turns into
plastic art of scjulpture as in this wide wall surface the Hoysala craft-
man placed within ornate niches and under foliated canopies the
images of his gods, so elaborately chiselled that they scarcely be
regarded as part of the architecture, because each appears as a dis-
tinct and independent example of plastic art.

3. The third element of the Hoysal temple is the design and the
treatment of the tower or Sikhara which is keynote of the style. Here
also the stellate system is carried through to produce a fluted effect.
The make up the horizontal and vertical pattern of ^ikliara
motifs that
consist of acomplex grouping of miniature shrines and niches, each
tier being separated either by a sunk moulding or a fretted string-

course. In mass this type of tower has no effective height and its
contours, being a section of a parabola are not strong outline. There
is a certain plastic beauty in its rich sculptured texture, but architec-
turally it is formless, and lacks structural strength.
4. The fourth and the last element refers to the particular shape
of the pillar and word the ‘order’. It is distinguished
its capital in a
by a ‘four-square' bracket above. The pillar shaft is monolithic as
u^tjal characterised by square pedestal and bell-shaped member
towards the lower half of the shaft. Further the strut-like brackets
were carved of one state into images enshrined within leafy aureoles
and are known as Mandakini figures. So elaborately are they sculp-
tured as to reveal in execution and high finish those in the niches on
the vimana walls.

To put in the nutshell the whole composition is more than an

architecture. The mode is not that of a builder, but that of artcrafts-
man such as the s tndal-wood carver, the ivory-worker, the metal-
caster and also of the gold-smith. What he produced was in reality
not architecture, but applied art. In veiwing this art some designate
it ‘architect’s architecture’ or ‘artist’s architecture’ which really is

‘sculptor’s architecture’. The Mysore temples owe their character

more to the sculptor than to the mason. Further running through
the entire composition of the temple, are the long bands of the narra-
tive art, illustrating with the utmost detail and in a singularly
dramatic fashion, extracts from the nation’s mythology and folklore
with which even the humbliest would be familier. Percy Brown
therefore, rightly remarks that under these conditions it is not surpris-
ing that the temple-builder became a story teller in stone, so that his
productions appertain more to an illumined missal transmuted into
sculpturei than to a full scale architectural composition.
 HISTORY OF HINDU tEMPLES 519

—
Examples: The larger and more important are incomplete,
hence they can not represent the temple in its full expression. Hence
we have to look to smaller buildings. Among these the followings arc
more mention- worthy: —
*
•

1 . The Laksmidevi (quarduple) at Dodda-guddavali A,D. 1113.

2. The Ke§ava (triple) at Nagamangala A. D. 1117.
3. The Buchesvara (”) at Goramangala 1173.
4. The Hvara (double) at Arshikeri 1220.
5. The Harihara temple (”) at Harihara 1224.
6. The KeSava (triple) at Honnahalli 1234.
7. The Laksiiii-Narasimha (triple) at Nuggihalli 1249.
8. The KeSava (triple) at Somanathapura 1268.

Most typical and complete is the Kelava temple of Somanathapur.

It is a triple shrine called trikutacala. The Sarnaraiigana-sutradhara
as we have seen describes in one of its chapters the ‘Sadtriip^ati-Nagara
Prasadas, and it appears these temples illustrate this VastuJastra variety
of Nagara or North Indian style of temple-architecture. It illustrates
the Ghalukyan style in its late maturity. Owing to its triple combi-
nation, the plan of the temple forms the shape of a cross and the
towers being in the stellate design. The whole structure stands on a
raised Jagati and its plan is fairly simple as it consists of a main
pillared hall in the centre at the western end of which are the three
shrines, one in axial alignmant with the hail, the others projecting
literally, like transcepts, thus producing its cruciform effect.

Belur temples: — A group of temples at B^lur illustrates the earlier

and larger examples. All temples are within one enclosure and few
sights could be more richly picturesque than this assemblage. The
temple of KeSava in this group is more interesting though it has lost

its superstructure. A unique feature of this temples is its sculptured

figure-subjects on the perforated screens between the exterior halls
of the hypo-style hall. They are 20 in number, 10 of which are
treated geometrically and the rest illustrating the Puranas, The
sculpture of the temple especially of the pillars is really master piece
and Percy Brown has very vividly described it-*-vide page 171, 3rd para.

HoysaleSvara temple at Halebid. The highest achievement of the Cha*

lukya-»Hoysala school of architecture is the HoysaleSvara temple at
Halebid. Unfortunately it is also a truncated structure. It is the supreme

climax of Indian architecture in its most prodigal plastic manifesta-f

tion It illustrates a phenorqienal concentration, superb technical
skill, ingenuity, imagination and profound religious consciousness of
S50 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

both the Karaka, the donor and the Karta, the architect, Sthi^pati.
Percy Brown views it as a monument having no peer in regard to
these above mentioned charecteristics. Even despite of the truncated
superstructure this temples in the opinion of Brown, chieliy on account
of the emphatic prodigality of its sculptural embellishment, is without
exaggeration, one of the most remarkable monuments ever produced by
the hand of man. It was the principal temple within the walls of ancient
city ofDarasamudra, which for three centuries flourishing as the royal
capital of the Hoysal empire. It is now relegated into a hamlet called
Halebid some 50 miles norlh-west of Mysore ‘^of the temporal power of
this one-time great capital city of its palaces and citadels fortification
and civic buildings, there remain now only grass-grown mounds. Yet
of the spiritual life of its people this fine temple is still a standing mo-
nument when all that was material has faded into oblion. HoysaleSvara
was designed and erected as an inscription slates by one I'Lcdaroja the
master builder of Narasinha (1141-82) the Iloysal king under the
supervision of Kctamalla chief officer of Public Works’’.

On the entrances too the sculpture is very beautiful. The statues

of Dvarapalas in tribhanga or three-flexed attitude and lata torana or
archway supported by Yali (those water-unicorns shaped like huge
pachydermatous quadrupeds, spouting foliage on either side) and
the central figure of TandaveSvara wildly dancing, are more remark-
able. The mandakini bracket over the capitals of the pillars are as
usual and arc in the line with the order of this style of later Chalukyan
architecture.

N, B, This is one phase of the later Chalukyan or Hoysala

style, there is yet another phase which for its consummation had its

origin and evolution in the earlier mode. Paucity of space forbids me

to review this phase in detail, nevertheless a bare mention of the
temples may serve the purpose. There are about fifty temples built
in thisphase located in the northern boarder of Mysore state astride
the upper beaches of the Tungabhadra river.

The are located at Kukkanur like Navalinga

earlier buildings
shrine and Kalelvara. Not very far off this place, a Jain temple was
built at Lakkunadi. MukteSvara at Ghaudadampur, a hamlet on the
banks of the TungabhadrS river towards the eastern boundry of the
Dharwar district may be illustrated as representing a fuller consum-
mation of this style. This consummation, again is exemplified in
several other temples of which the three finest are the KSiiviiveSvara
at Lakunadi the MahSdeva at Ittagi and the Mallikarjuna at Kutu-
vatti.
 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 551

Bhoniija: The climate and culprit are both responsible for scanty
remains in this part of the country. The and the
nature of the soil

climate both encourage the rapid growth of jungle vegetation, and once
a building ceases to be cared for, the creeping shrubs and trees rapidly
take charge, soon to tear it long it becomes
to pieces so that before
merely an unrecognizable moundAs regards the culprit (the
of ruin.
Mohammedans) the Adina Masjid, built by Sikander Shah was cons-
tructed almost entirely of the materials taken from the demolished city
of Lukhnauti, the capital of the Hindu dynasty of Senas. In spite of
the destruction brought about by the climate and the culprit, it is
possible to discern from the remains three separate movements illus-
trating the coursv^^ of architectural movement in this region :

1. It has two sub-branches one greater Bengal akin to Orissa, the

other, an indigenous style of building, appertaining to a form of folk-
architecture, notable on account of its sectarian and sociological aspects.

2. That powerful Hindu Buddhist movement which flourished

in Bihar and the Gauge tic plains giving rise to monastic establish-
ments.

3. Outcome of the ‘^Eastern Schoor* of art and architecture

under Palas and Senas, the greater India.

Mayiirbhanja : It reprerests the first movement where at an

ancient temple- site of Khiching a good piece of architecture and
sculpture has been unearthed to rank it as one of the noblest monu-
ments of Indian architecture and sculpture. The districts of Burdwim
and Bankura illustrate the Southern Bengal development of art. It
also resolves itself into two distinctive types, one allied to Orissan
movement, the other by self-originated mode, expressive of the people
and their invironment. The former arc built mainly of stone mason-
ary and as in Khiching pattern, are isolated towers or Sikharas
enclosing a cella for the image or symbol, the linga. They are
designed on the same principle as those of BhuvaneSvara. A striking
illustration is a group of shrines at Barkar in the Burdwan district
locally known as Begania group owing to a fancied resemblance to
the fruit of egg-plant “Begana’% they are probably of the Pala period
and therefore of 9th or 10th centuries. Among the other example of
this clase is the temple of Telkupi in the Manbhum district. The
most ornate is the SidheSvara temple at Behulara in the Bankura
district of the 10th century. Numerous other temples of the order are
found distributed throughout south-western Bengal and Manbhum
district all apparently built while Pala dynasty was in power and

hence dating between 8ih to 11th centuries,

552 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

The Other phase of this movement as already referred to is an

indiginous form of building adopted on the soil and moulded into
some ornamental pattern. Though cabin-like structure it gradually
evolved into a system derived from the Sala houses i.e. the wooden
houses and bamboo thatched huts of ancestral forest dwellers. Brown
remarks that this mode of building, although superior to what may
be termed folk-architecture, never rose to classical heights. It

nevertheless speaks of freshness and spontaneity.

As regards the second phase (Hindu-Buddhist phase), Paharpur in

the Rajshahi district reveals amonumental edifice of stupendous pro-
portions after excavation. Founded by the Pala ruler Dharmapala
towards the end of the 8th century it was known as the great Vihlra
of Dharmpala. Each of the cells presumably contained a large statue
of metal, one of which may have been that fine figure, a product of
the famous Varendra foundry, discovered at Sultangunj and now
deposited in the Birmingham Art Gallery.

Now remains the last of the great movements which brought to

Bengal a phase of building art noted for considerable elegance and
consequence. Percy Brown describes it as an extension of the
“Eastern School” of architecture and art which due to the incentive
of the Pala and Sena dynasties to have flourished with great vigour at
Lakhnauti, the capital of the Senas now almost a lost site near Malda
but originally comprising a large complex of basalt buildings of a
particularly substantial and ornate description. It was however
completely despoiled by the Mohammedans after its capture in 1197
in order to provide the materials for their capital at Gaur. The
lost temple type of pre-Islaraic Bengal may be studied from the
materials employed in the great congregational Mosque at Adina in
Pandua.

A particular interest lies in a moulding formed of the ropilike

convolutions of §esa, the endless serpent surrounding the jambs with
a close and realistic cluster of the same coils comprising the ‘keystone*.
Outside this, is a series of trefoil niches and wherever required are
scrolls of foliage, enclosing various symbolic forms among which
interpretation of ‘vase and foliage’ of the Guptas may be identified.

The high lights of the secular architecture can also be corrobora-

ted from the materials taken from the palace of Ballala Sena and
built into Muslim edifices, Triveni and Saptagrama were noted for
their exuberance of characteristic architecture. The Mazar of
Zafar Khan Ghasi illustrates this. Now as regards the influences of
 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 553

these two powerful movements in giving rise to the monuments of

Greater India, we shall see them in proper place —vide Greater India
Hindu temples.

TEMPLE-ARCHITECTURE IN BOARDER LANDS

Kashmir. Kashmir has been famous for many developments.
Kashmir Saivism is one of the most fascinating philosophy. Kashmir is
accredited with many writers of repute. Rajatarahgini of Kalhana,
Vikramahkadeva-carita of Vilhana and a host of works from pens of
renowned writers like Anandavardhana, Abhinavagupta, Mammata,
Kaiyyata, BhattaLolla^ etc. etc. are well known. Thus, not only in the
realm of literature and philosophy, but also in art, Kashmir has its
distinct contributions. Through-out its history Kashmir has experi-
enced an art-life of its own. The natural position of the country
coupled with its isolation could maintain its aloofness from its

succeptibility to central Asiatic upsurges, cross-currents — ebb and

flow on its boarders. It could therefore continue consistently to
maintain a certain indigenous and independent type of culture. The
Kashmir’s bountiful scenery, the lake, the river, the meadow, the
forest, the mountain, the snow-clad peaks, its clouds and sunshine, its

light and shade, its dawns and sunsets, its changes of seasons, its

pegantry of colour, and what not, has produced a wonderful stimula^

tion on the artistic creations of the land.

So far as the art of architecture is concerned, three phases of its

movement are discernible:

L The early or primitive, from 200 A, D. (merely foundational

remains).

2. & 3. The classical epoch 700-1400 A. D. (A. Buddhist; and

Brahmatiical).

Buddhist remains: —Without going into the details of the first,

let us concentrate on the second. The latter phase is characterised

by
two phases— the earlier and later, the former being represented by main-
ly Buddhist attribution, while the latter was entirely Brahmanical,
The first phase or early Buddhist period is represented by bare
foundation as result of excavations at the two sites, one at Harwan
near Srinagar and the other at Ushkar near Baramula. Harwan
occupies an ideal situation on the slopes of high ground overlooking
the crystal waters of the Dal Lake, with a glorious range of mountains
in the distance. Here in the early centuries of the Christian era there
grew a prosperous Buddhist settlement which included the usual
554 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

monastic establishment —a stupa accommodation for the resident

monks, several chapels and a chaitya hall or temple. The Gandhara
afUnity is perceptible in every arrangement. There also appears to
have been a free standing pillar of the Afokan type.

Brabmanical Remains: —The early phase was entirely Buddhist

but the mcdievel movement is characterised by both the religious
upsurges. was the beginning of a grand classical development of
It
architecture of which the first records emerge in the eighth century.
The difference in both the phases is remarkable, Percy Brown
makes a very apt estimation of it—vide Indian Architecture page 186.

It was due to the catholicity and toleration of that forceful

personality, one of the greatest rulers, Lalitaditya (727-760)
that this sudden progress in the architectural evolution of the country
was possible. He encouraged both Buddhism and Brahmanism by
foundations and dedications — in true religious merit of purta-dharma,
of imposing monuments to both the creeds. Writers like Percy
Brown are at their wit’s end to surmize this out-burst of architectural

acumen in Lalitaditya’s mason-architects who have shown such a

high-skilled and masterly dexterity in the execution of architecture,
I may however suggest that artistic creations arc only the outcome
of the thought pattern of the thinking aspect — the architect-acharyas,
the sthapatis and the sthapakas, who have a very ancient geneology
of their own, as already referred to, and the Kashmir the rich
store-house of ancient learning and lore can rise to these hights
without any external influence of either Gupta artistic renaissance or

any other similar upsurge.

As regards the details of the style and the technique of the

perfection a very fresh field is waiting any student who could prove
that the style is indigenous. Modern scholars like Brown see in the
style of Kashmir a making from many sources and I take the
liberty to reproduce his mind:

*^fn its design the Kashmir temple is a conception which may

be best described as of a classical order, one may go so far as to
say that it recalls distant memories of the productions of the Graeco-
Roman schools. Such a generalization is emphasised by the
peripteral treatment of the composition, with its pillared porticos
and peristylar arcades, thus by association of ideas bringing to mind
the colonnades and columned perspective of the Parthenon, and
other Hellenic buildings. The source of some of this classical
character is fairly obvious, as it was most certainly derived from
 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 555

contact with the monastic buildings of Gandbara, for in a manner

the Kashmir style was a continuation the Grxco-Buddhist
of
movement, which as already shown, penetrated into I^ashmir in the
early centuries of the first millennium. In addition to this attribution,
however, there are distinct evidcnc :s of influences from a more
distant origin, as is shown by the particular kind of capital, or
order, employed almost exclusively in the temple architecture of the
country.” Needless to go into further details.

With this general introduction to the character of the style now

as regards the monuments it may be said that earliest monuments
produced in this classical mode were Buddhist. The principal sites
being at Parihaspura, 14 miles north-west of Srinagar and at
Puranadhislhana now the modern village of Pandrethan. Leaving
this Buddhist aftermath, let us concentrate on the Brahmanical
temples. The Brahmanical buildings are also considerably ruined.
Their remains show that the creed of that region differed in its

ceremonial, from that of most parts of India. Percy Brown says,

‘‘The temple of the valley included in scheme no assembly hall but
its

consisted of a main central shrine, or sanctuary, and to this, with the

divinity in its cella, the devout paid theii homage. This central
building was isolated within a rectangular courtyard surrounded by a
cellular peristyle, with a large gateway giving admission to the sacred
enclosure on its front side. It will be seen therefore that the
composition, as a whole, appertains more to a central tabernacle, or
sanctuary for the accomodation of the deity, than a place for
congregational worship. In this respect and also in others, the
conception of the Brahmanical temple in Kashmir seems to
have taken some of its character and arrangements from the
stupa-courts of the Buddhist monasteries of Gandhara. Moreover, in
its architectural treatment, it appears to have derived little from
that important development of temple building which at this time
was taking place in Hindustan. There is no sign of the Indo-Aryan
mode in its structure, nothing of the sikhara nor of the columned
hall; the Kashmir temple, to all intents and purposes, is a
manifestation of an independent ideal.” He further remarks in the
conception of the architectural style, “there are three structural
formations of such a prominent nature that they go a long way
towards shaping its character. These are, (a) a recess or niche
composed of a trefoil arch within a high-pitched triangular pediment,
{b) the pyramidal roof, and (c) the employment throughout of a varie-
and entablature complete, resembling
ty of fluted pillar, with capital
in some respects the Doric order of the classical mode.” The other
556 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

notable factor of the Kashmir style is the practice of placing some of

the temples in the the centre of a shallow tank of water as may be
seen at Ludov, Fandrethan and elsewhere, thus denoting the
prevalence of a form of Naga or serpent-worship, water being a
symbol of the cult, masonry being executed of abnormally large
blocks of stone almost megalithic in appearance and an interesting
feature being the constructional principle applied in tlie production
of the ceiling i. e. a semi- circular dome of great proportion as is

evident from the remains of the RudreSa in the village of Ludov.

The medieval development of Brahmanical temples
is represented by

two golden periods, or words of Brown, to be more precise it

in the
rose to its greater heights under two prominent building rulers,
Lalitaditya (8th century) and Avantivarman (later half of ninth
century). The oldest example is Rudre^a at Ludov and in the
opinion of Brown, resembles the vihara of Giiniyar in the Swat valley
of the frontier Province. In the 6ahkarac'arya temple on the
Takht-i-Sulaiman, the style is seen to be approaching its final

form. Its position is uniqe overlooking the city of Srinagar the great
loop of the Jhelum river being at its feet. The completed form of
the style was attained with magnificent effect in the great temple of
the Sun at Martand which became the model for all subsequent
Brahmanical temples in Kashmir.

The temple of Martand illustrates very vividly the Prajna of the

Sthapatis, where the works of man and those of nature are coordinated.
At Martand, a site encircled by majestic ranges of mountains demands
composition having features of a special order for it to be formed in
harmony with conditions of such exceptional grandeur. The temple
of Martand was the supreme effort of Lalitaditya’s builders. The
other temples of note, built in the same grand style, are collection of
buildings at VVangnaih some thirty miles north-west of Srinagar.
Here was an important halting place on the pilgrim’s way to the
sacred waters of Gangabal, a solitary tarn among the mountain
peaks. Among the three groups of buildings one is identified as
dedicated to Jycsjha Devi which shows the goddess was not the
monopoly of the south. The second golden age, as already remarked
was brought about by Avantivarman (854-883) and his immediate sue*
cessors the notable temple being that of Avantiswami; the details may
be purviewed in Brown’s book.

After Martanda and Avantiswami, it seems that the style has done
its job. Nevertheless there Eire several manifestations, a notice of which
 — —

laiSTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 357

may be very cursarily taken in the following temples:

1. Temple at Bunior and Dhathamaiidira near uri both in the

Jheluin valley road.

2. Two important Siva temples — Sahkaragaurisvara and

Sugandheia built by Sahkarvaman (883-92) successor of Avantivarman,
the latter named after the queen.

3. The miniature l^iva temple at Purandhisthan tliree miles from

Srinagar shows the progress of the style, another stage.

4. Other shrines monolithic in character such as those at Payar,

Marnal, Kother and Bumazu illustrate the decline for the style.

5. Privincial Offshoots in Northern Panjab and the North- West-

Frontier may be classified in three sub-groups:

(a) those at Amli, Katus, Malot and Nandna.

(b) several at Bilot; and
(c) others at Kafir Kot both the last inuncd being on the river
Indus in the North-West Frontier Province.
Nepal. The building art of Nepal displays inony original features.
These Nepal structures provide a number of provocative factors
relating to the evolution of tiic building art in Asia as a whole.
Brown makes a very vivid observation: “In the sphere of architecture
Nepal illustrates, with marked significance, the impact of two of the
most forceful civilizations in the East, that of India on the one hand,
and of China on the other, the two meeting within the region of Nepal’s
mountainous borders. For geographically, historically and politically,
the country occupies a position between these two great empires,
and during its course has drunk deeply from the cultural springs
issuing from each, drawing its inspiration first from one and then
from the other, alternatively, as the political currents ebbed or flowed.
The influence of these powerful streams of racial ideals is envisaged
clearly in the building art of Nepal, while in addition there is the
effect, religious and graphic, of that great tide of Buddhism which
swept through the continent of Asia before and after the beginning
of the Christian era, inspiriting every people and every activity in
its progress.”

The main tenor of life in Nepal is almost entirely concentrated

in a localised areaknown as Nepal Valley within which are closely
grouped the three capitals of the kingdom, Kathmandu, Patan and
Bhatgaon. The inhabitants of the country, originally immigrants
from Tibet, are known as Newars, Their production in the field of
Architecture as the capitals of Nepal amply testify, that they
558 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

possessed an artistic sensiblity of a particular exuberant nature. This

indigenous aesthetic tendency was stimulated and influenced at inter-
vals by currents^ from sources exterior to the country. Further the
early under-currents of Buddhism are corroborated by the pilgrimage
of ASoka himself who founded innumerable stupas commemorating
this event.

The two of these stupas have been identified as Svayambhu Natha

and Boddha Natha. Brown’s description conveys their architecture
very well — see Indian Architecture page 196.
This is about of the early architecture of Nepal. Now of the
subsequent onslaughts in domain of art, the Eastern School of Bengal
and Bihar dominated it which produced secular buildings, the
palaces etc. needless to be viewed here in the context of temple
architecture.

This Mulla regime, when the three capitals rose with all their

characteristic shapes is characterized by more civic architecture

than the religious or temple architecture. The town-planning, the
palace architecture, the Durbar squares etc, played the prominent
role in the subsequent character of architecture. In the words of
Brown, regarded whole the structures of Nepal, notably those of a
as a
sectarian ascription fall into two categories, those of ‘Sikhara’ variety
clearly derived from the style of the temple favoured in India and those
of the multiple roof design associated with the pagodas of China, the
former being mainly constructed of masonry while the latter are
largely composed of wood. The Nepali temples, whether of the
Sikhara or pagoda kind were not designed for cogregational worship,
but were really shrines enclosing a cella or chamber for the divinity
or symbol and therefore were objects of devotion in themselves.

The secular or civil architecture may be left out here for its

details do not come in our purview. But a reference may be made

to an interesting architectural feature of the civic art which is of
striking originality. It is the monumental pillars as these exist in
considerable number in Durbar Squares. “The free-standing pillar

of the Newars is a monolithic moulded and ornamented

erection,

with patterns of historical derivation and crowned with a capital of

lotus petals, expanded so as to form a circular basis for the metal
superstructure. Apart from groups of divinities, mystic symbols, and
other emblems, the most ideal use of these pillars was for the display
of portrait statuary, so that several of the most illustrious rulers of
the Mulla dynasty arc commemorated in this elevated and dignified
manner. Of these one of the finest that of Bhupatindra (cir* 1750) is
 HISIORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 559

therefore a relatively recent production*’. Similarly the Lion Throne

and Door of Gold represent the consummation of the Nepalese
artificers* handicrafts, a work of art of the most splcndi^l order,

Burma. The Burmese art falls into the following three periods:—

1 . Early phase (200-800 A. D.)

2. Classical phase (900-1300 A. D-) and
3. Pagoda phase in which folk-art is executed chiefly in wood in
a very distinctive style.

Early Phase:—The representation of the first phase lasted at the

historical centres of Pegu the capital of the Mangolian
Thaton in
tribe known as the Mons or Talaings and at Prome, the capital of
another tribe the Pyu. A religio-cultural approach from Buddhist
India gave impetus for the erection of Buddhist monasteries.

The
earlier structures consist of three examples at Honawaza
(old Prome) dating about the 10th century A. D. and two other of
llth Century. The former group comprises of a stupa, Baw, Lawgyi
and the two temples of Bebe and Lymethne. The two temples at
Pegan are those of Patathyma and Nanpaya in the village of
Myinpagan both comparatively early examples of temple building in
Burma. It is interesting to see in the interior the pillars ornamented
in low with figures of Brahma from which god the
relief name of
Burma (Brahma) perhaps is designated. Another structure at Patpan
is a stupa, that of Shivasandan. All these early examples of Burmese
architecture show Indo-Buddhist influence.

Classical art Pagon:— There was a remarkable display of

at
religious building inMiddle Burma, having its cenrle at Pagon, The
two most notable elements, any architectural out-burst is accom-
panied by, are Repose and Energy, In India the former is illus-
trated in Buddhist stupa and the latter in Hindu temple. In the
vast expanse of stupas and temples spread out over the plain
at Pagon, these appear to illustrate that stage in the process of
architectural development when the two forces were silently contend-
ing for supremacy, to culminate finally in the emergence of energy in
the form of modern soaring pagoda. This phase of Burmese achit*
ccture at Pagon may be resolved into two clases of structure (a)
stupas and (b) temple, Percy Brown however shows two exceptions to
this classification the Mahabodhi (in imitation of the original Bodhi
Gaya) and the Ordinating Hall. It is surmized that the mason-
architects were brought from Bihar and Bengal and accordingly in

fbort the buildings at Pagon may be nearly define^ funda-

 560 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

mentally of Indian extraction but designed and adapted to conform

to Burmese conception. Percy Brown rightly remarks : “In the
whole of the architecture of this great region lying between India and
China, exemplified particularly in the buildings of Burma, there
appears to have been a continual struggle for supremacy between the
bulbous mass of the orthodox stupa combined with the outward curve
of the Indo-Aryan sikhara oji the one hand, and the ascending attenu*
ated outlines of what is ordinarily known as the Chinese pagoda on the
other. In an effort to bring about an agreement between these two
somewhat conflicting architectural formations, the Burmese master
masons were helped very considerably by adopting a form of elongated
finial as a summit to their pagoda “spires’*, instead of the lateral

harmilca of the Indian stupa, ( r the short thick-set amalaka of the

Hindu temple. This finial or 7<n*, as it is called, is an adaptation of
the multiform umbrella, and makes an appropriate finish to the
tenuous shape of the Burmese superstructure. In spite therefore of
the fact that although “Burma is surrounded by India, Tibet,
China, Siam and the Malaya States” and “the culture of its people,
their art and monuments are almost exclusively derived from India”
a glance at the elevational effect of the architecture of the country
will show that it owes not a little of its character, or at lenst its ex-
ternal appearance, to Far Eastern sources”

The typical example of the most glorious stupas is the Mangala-

zedi erected in 1274. As regards the temples, there are numerous
examples such as the Gawdawplin (throne of the Ancestral Hall built
in 1200) the Jhatpyinnu, the Shwegugyi and the Sulemani, but the
largest and by most imposing of all, besides being the noblest
far the

monument whole of Burma, is the Anand Pagoda founded and

in the

dedicated by King Kyanzeth (1084-1112) in 1990 A. D. This build-

ing illustrates the finest period of Burmese architecture. In size
alone the grand building, across its width including its porticos
measures 300 feet, while the four-entranced enclosure within which
it stands in a square of 570 feet. Its height too, is impressive as
from the g^round level to the finial of its main spire it is over 160 feet.

Ceylon. Apart from the ruins of ancient cities, the remains of

stupas or Dagobas some of iramen^ size, in certain instances of
<:olossal proportions, all Constructed of solid brickwork, but with
approaches and appertenanccs of granite in which pillars predomi-*
nate, are the characteristic architectural manifestations of the earlier
period. As regards the historical productions as the aboriginal
people of the island were a primitive racc^ the Veddafis who woy-
 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 561

shipped among their deities the *god of rock’ (Gale Debiya) gives us
impression that the early simhalese were adepts at rock architecture.
They were also great sculptors as is proved by the high quality of
a colossal statue, of King Parakrama Bahu at Weligs^nia carved out
of the living rocki

Anuradhapura Remains. The structures are composed entirely

brick and are dissimilar in character from those in other Buddhist
countries: An interesting example of Ruwanwaeli this class is the
Dagoba at Anuradhapura of which the foundations were laid by King
Duttagamini in the 2nd century B. G. Its grand ceremonial is vividly
described in the Mahavarala, the ancient chronicle of Ceylon.
Percy Brown has reproduced it and the reader is advised to read it

there for his information.

Ceylon has also a tradition of Vapi-kupa-tadagas and its abula-

tion tanks (jmkam) or bathing places along with innumerable exam-
ples of style-bathswere some of the side-currents of architecture. As
regards the order of the pillars, they are characteristic of the emphati-
cally peristylar character of the building art as is evident \n their
capital. In the words of Brown: *‘Thc shafts of the columns were
invariably monolithic, without bases, generally square or octagonal
in section and carved out of gneiss. Socketed into the upper surface
was the puhul, or capital, of a design which has no counterpart out-
side Ceylon. The central portion of this feature
is a double flex-

ured vase-shaped element hexagonal in section and usually left plain.

Contrasting with the simplicity of this unadorned member is the
richly carvedand substantial abacus which it supports, and the deep
necking below with ornamental mouldings between (Plate CXXVII).
There is no mistaking this “order”, as it is expressive of the style,
and although in some instances it varies in detail, the principle of its

design in this early period is as indicated above. In a later phase of

the art occasionally amore exuberant type was devised in the form
of lotus pillars, as in the Nissanka Malia Mandapaya, but this was a
development of the twelfth century, when the style was becoming
more florid (Plate GXXVIll).” Further the stair way- approaches
to the principal monastic building are indicative of the most remark *

able architectural genius of sirphalcse artists. The later phase of the

simhalese art is very much influenced by the architectural style of the
Tamil country. The Andhras, the Pallavas and Gholas, all exerted
their influence over the island. In the eleventh century the country
came under the ruthless subjugation of Gholas. Accordingly tlie

“Examples of this architectural importation from the mainland may

be ^eep at Polonuaruwa in the two temples of Siva Devale of the
562 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

eleventh century, related clearly to a somewhat earlier Chola tern*

pie at Srinivasanalur in the Trichinnopoly District,”

Another bi:^ilding of note is the Watadage or ‘‘Hall of the Relic”

The same high standard of handiwork may be seen in other and lesser
structures at Polonnaruwa, such as some of the “pokanas”, including
the famous ^‘Lotus Bath”, and the architectural gem known as the
“Floral Altar” all of which serve to prove that in the twelfth century
under enthusiastic patronage, the arts of Ceylon attained their consum-
mation”. Political conditions brought an end to this high maturity
as Polonnaruwa was abandoned at the close of 13th Century. The
arts suffered only to be revived when Kandy became the seat of
Simhalese monarch from 1592 to 1815. It did not produce any great
art.

HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITEGTUCE IN GREATER INDIA

Greater India may be sub-divided into “Insulindia” comprising
of Burma, Siam, Champa, Cambodia, Sumatra, Celebese, Bali, Borneo
and Java and “Outer India” comprising China, Japan and central
America, Burma. We have already taken notice of the Burmese
evolution, let us now take up Cambodia first.

Cambodia. Sir John Marshall Le May’s Bud-

in the foreword to

dhist Art inSiam remarks “to know Indian art in India alone is to
know but half the story”. Buddhism and Hindusim equally provided
an impulse to spread the Indian civilization and culture together with
the arts that they inspired in the several of the great countries of
Asia. “One other notable example of the later phase of Burmese
architecture, and of a very comprehensive order, is the city and palace
of Mandalaya”.
Cambodia’s monuments are a supreme achievement of Khmers
and they testify not only to their style of outstanding character but
also to their civilization of marked intellectuality and to refinement.
Fergusson pays a glowing tribute to this race by complimenting as
“one of the greatest building races of the world”. The cosummation
of their art lasted till I2th century. In the thirteenth century came their
declineand in the fourteenth century they were over-run by the Siamese
(Thais) and thus they had to desert their temples, palaces, cities to be
swallowed up and obliterated by the tropical vegetation and other
devastating forces of nature. It was only after some 600 years that
the temple of Angkor Vat one of the greatest, if not the greatest work
of man standing, was discovered by a French Naturalist in 1858.
Racially the Khmers derived there name from the Hindu Kombu, the
 J

HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLFS 163

Founder of their race, hence kambiya with its European form cam-
bodia,
“There is a well-established tradition, which has been recognized
by European authorities also, that in 443 B.C., Preathong, a Hindu
prince, son of the king of Indraprastha (the modern Delhi), emigrated
with a large number of his followers and settled at Ghoukan, north of
Angar. Tn 125 B.C. the Chinese are said to have conquered the
G imbodians- There is also a record that, in the first centuries of the
GhrisLian era, emigrants from Madras made their way into Cambodia,
introducing the Brahman faith, the Sanskrit alphabet, and Indian
rites and customs. The Khmer and Sanskrit epigraphic texts give
details of a dynasty of seven kings who reigned from A. D. 435 to 680.
From the death of the last king Jayavarman to the commencement
of the ninth century there are no records. In A. D. 802 Jayavarman
II,who may have been connected with the earlier dynast formed a ,

new dynasty of eighteen sovereigns who ruled till A.D. 1201. To this
monarch is attributed the foundation of the Cambodian kingdom,
with its capital Angkor Thom. He is credited to have laid the foun-
dations of the great city of Angkor Thom, the royal palace in its
centre, the pyramid temples of Phimeanakas, the great temple of
Bayon, and other structures,”—II.A.I. A. pp. 338-39. The architec-
tural history of Cimbodia according to Percy Brown may be classified
in the following 8 periods or sub-periods

1. Upto A.D. 500 Pre-historic Phase I Early

2* A*D. 500 to 800 Primitive Phase ) Period

3. A D. BOO to 1000 Formative Phase J

4. A.D. 1000 to 1 100 Foundations of Classical Phase Classical 1

5. A.D. 1 100 to 1200 Culmination of Classical Phase } Period

6. A-D. 1200 to 1250 Flamboyant or Baroque Phase
7. A.D. 1350 Decline
8. A.D. i43l E ld, conquered by Thias (Siamese)

We are more concerned with Cambodian meridian reached in the

12th century, a century of marked architectural activity, distinguished
by numerous notable undertakings particularly the erection of the
temple of Angkor vat, the grandest achievement of the Khmer builders.
But a few remarks are necessary to the early phases also. The early
phase is characterised by the rudimentary timber-bull t-dwellings
raised above theloW-lying delta of the Mekong which veiy nearly
approach our primitive Sala-houses with the Indianisiaiion of the
Khmers in about 5th or 6th century A. D., the so-called Primitive Phase
(vide Brown) comes into view when in place of wooden abodes brick
tonstr action was favoured which is as much true of India as well.
564 HISTORY OF HtNDU TEMPLES

Among the remains of this period the temple of Tat Pavon on the
Mekong may be illustrated. Brown dates this phase between 500-200
A.D. Intervening two centuries 800-1000 may be said to belong to the
marking the first stage of classical period, the Formative. King Jaya-
varman II transferred the centre of this rapidly expanding dominion
to Angkor near the lake of Toule Sap.

Without making any detailed expatiations on the intervening

periods, let us concentrate on theconsummation of the Camdodian arts.
Thus comes meridian of Building art of Khmers referred to as ^'culmi-
nation of the classical phase'* and therefore a chronological and
dynastical review is called for which may be done in a tabular form to
avoid details

Temples Builders Dynasty llemains

and age etc,

1 . The pyramidal temples of Jayavarman II Il-King

Phimeanakes.
2. The great temple of Bayon

3. The temple of Baku Indravarmam III also completed

the temple of
Bayon.
4. The temple of Bakong >> 99

5. The temple of Lolei Yafovarman IV also completed

the temple of
Phimeanakes.
6. The great temple of Ta- Prom Rajendravar- IX
(Brahraanical). man
7. The Great temple of Banteai
8. The Pyramidal temple of X
Bapoum.
9. The temples of Phnom chisor, Suryavarman IX
Vat Ek, Phnom Baset, Prah,
Vihar and Prah. Khan.
Id. Baneai T. Kean, Prc. Perp. ?

etc.

11. VatPhu. ?

12. Angkor Vat. Suryavarman II IGth and I2th

Century.

Dr. Acharya (H A. I. A. pp. 340) has summarized a brief account

of these temples from Fergusson^s illuminating accounts and they may
be purviewed there.
 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 565

This account must

prove that the temple architecture of
Cambodia is primarily based on the Indian genius and we have to
account this remarkable affinity both in architectural planning and
details as well as the sculptural out-bursts. My contention is that
our Silpa^astras record fusion of two great races, as per our
geniological accounts of VilvakarmS himself, one the Aryan and the
other Non-Aryan, or Dravidian. The 6ikhara and the pyramid
illustrate this in nut-shell. In India the fusion is not so remark-
able as in Cambodia. It is really remarkable that the confluence
should have taken place in Indian Archipelago. The practice is in
keeping with theory. I have already written something on the
background of temple architecture.

The and the Puranic Dharma, the doctrine

Institution of worship
of pulra as is my work Hindu Prasada the
enunciated in
Gaturmukid Prsthabhumi which amply illustrate these temples esp.
the Angkor Vat which was originally dedicated to God Visnu, Its
detached shrines in the open parts the terrace on each side of the
entrance hall, recall the Pancayatana or five-shrine planning of the
temples of India which depict in the characteristic manner an equal
homage to all the principal deities. The affinity in the Sikhara
construction and pyramidal disposition, no doubt is remarkable,
yet Cambodia can claim its own elements which in their turn speak of
outer Indian influences like Chinese and Egyptian.

This architectural renaissance in the medieval period is charact-

eristic of all nations and civilizations. In Asia this has been the Eastern
school and Percy Brown also elaborates similar thesis.: ‘^Apart
from het and architecture of two of the
intrinsic quality of the art
movements described above, namely that which expressed itself in the
great Hindu-Buddhist monastic monuments on the one hand, and that
which produced the temples and palaces of the Palas and Senas on
the other, in a word the Eastern School, these two movements
together were destined to affect profoundly the advancing tide of
Indo-Buddhist civilization which was already beginning to overflow
into the wide range of countries Comprising Greater India. While the
medium by which this Indian religio-culture was conveyed eastward was
fundamentally the dynamic power of Hindu- Buddhism, which carried
all before it towards the later centuries of the first millennium, the

form it eventually assumed took its source from the movements which
grew up and were so firmly founded in the holy land of Buddhism on
the Gangetic plain. Changed in outward appearance by their change
of environment and other influences, the architeciural achievements of
566 HISTORY OP HINDU TEMPLES

such countries as Burma> Cambodia, Java, and to a certain extent

Ceylon, in the mediaeval period, were basically of Indian extraction.
So much so that^ the building art of the various civilizations which
comprise Greater India may be regarded as belonging to one broad
school, each of the races concerned working out its architectural
conceptions according to its own ideals, but with the whole evolution
created and unified by an intellectual, religious and material awaken-
ing which originally proceeded from India”.

**An analaysis of some of the decorative effects found in these

more distant architectural productions reveals similarities which can-
not be coincidences but are actual facts. There are reproductions, both
in design and in relief, of patterns which might be the identical handi-
work of the stone carvers of Lakhnauti in Bengal. The same applies
to some of the constructional features, as for instance in Java where
the arch motifs and pilasters appear to be derived from the
same source. But it was in the aims and intentions of these architect-
ural achievements in Burma, Cambodia and Java, that the growth
of the Indian conceptions is most significantly expressed. While the
stupa still held its place as the premier Buddhist symbol, it was too
abstract in its nature to appeal to the physical senses. Something
was required endowed with more humanistic qualities, and such
qualities were represented by the great monastic monuments of
mediaeval India, of which the Dharmapala Vihara at Paharpur
previously described was a notable example. In all the countries
therefore which drew inspiration from this movement there evolved,
in addition to the stupa, magnificent architectural creations in the
form of temples, or similar chambers or
religious edifices, enclosing
cells which were enshrined images, often colossal in size, in
in
invested with halos and aureols, emblazoned with gold, glorifying the
creed to which they gave concrete form. Through the spiritual power
thus generated, man’s imaginative faculties were so stimulated that
he felt impelled to express himself in some substantial manner, worthy
of himself and his belief. By some such means the grand monuments
of Greater India were conceived, such as Angkor Vat and Borobudur*
In these immense works of architecture we sec the spirit of the monastic
movement in India further materialized, taking its shape from the
‘‘Eastern School’* of India, and not a little from the building art of
Bengal”.
Siam; “The ancient ^yama-deSa was the north-western one of
the six states forming the peninsula east of India and South of China.
It th n included Burma proper and the northern part of modern Siam

east of the Sadwin, of which Haripupya-pura, now Lamphum, on the

 :

HISTORY OP Hindu temples 567

Me*ping, was probably the capital. It was thus bounded on the west

by Indian Ocean, on the north by China, on the east by the Champa-

desa, and on the south by the Kambhoja-de§a, the sea(^yarna-Sagara)
and the Malaya- desa”.

The building Siam can not be said to be sufficiently

art of
pronounced. Siam is ^ySma-dela of the RSmiyana in connection
with the search lor Sita, stolen by Ravana. Avoiding the details of
Siam-history its different races and the Indian penetration the
settelements thereof: ‘‘Essentially Buddhistic, the architecture of
Siam, owing to the geographical accessibility of the count y, shows
perceptably in its characteristics the influences of the Buddhist coun-
tries with which in the course of its history it came into contact. A
few references may suffice to explain the extent and diversity of these
external currents on the Siamese style of building at different periods.
For instance in the temple of Maha-Tat, presumably of the twelfth
century, at Sawank’alok, the tower, or Sikhara, shows an affinity to
those erected in the tenth and eleventh centuries by the Palas of
Bengal, and in its detailed treatment to those of Angkor in Cambodia,
or the Bhubaneswar temples of Orissa in Eastern India. The temple
of Na Pra Tat (c. eleventh century?) fis akin to the Javanese style of
the seventh or eighth century’, while in the temple of Chat Yot near
Chiengmai there is a distinct resemblance to the shrine of Budh Gaya
in Behar; it should be explained however that this great Indian monu-
ment* owing to its special sanctity on account of its personal associa-

tions with the Buddha, has been the original model for a number of
buildings in Buddhists Asia. At Lamp’un the temple or P*ra Yun is
reminiscent of the That-Byin-Nyu at Pagan, and from a more distant
source, the shrine of the temple at Shri-Sarap’et in Ayudhya there is
an approach to that of the Lankatilaka (Jetawanarama) of the
twelfth century at Polonnaruwa in Ceylon. The list might be c?t-
tended, the resemblance of some of these examples being more con-
vincing than others, but they provide evidences that the master-
builders of Siam not only received the impact of these external
Currents but were also sufficiently impressionable, as well as skilful,

as to be able to make use of them in giving variety to the style of their

own architectural conceptions”.

The various types of structures peculiar to the architecture of

SySnaadeia are the

1. Vat or Wat a stupa or temple

2. Pra a stupa
3t Vihara monastry
568 HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES

4. Bot consecration hall

5. Prakeo imperial places of worship, or Chapel Royal
6. Chailamukh (caumukha or Gaturmukha) or shrine of four
images,
7. Mandab or Mandapa, Tavillian or a large open hall.

Percy Brown remarks that : ^‘These are apparently derived

from two separate traditions, the P^ra-jedi being circular in plan, and
the p’ra-prang being rectangular, and accordingly the former has its

origin attributed to the Indian stupa, while the latter has been traced
to the spire or sikhara of the Indian temple in the Indo-Aryan style.
That the p’ra-jedi is a Siamese development of the stupa is quite
clear, as the circular plan, and the bell-shaped element in its super-
structure are ample proof, but its tapering elongation and finial have
removed it far from the original tumulus or mound. Yet as with the
stupa, the p'ra-jedi is a solid structure with no interior compartments,
and is venerated, like the Crucifix in Christendom, as the most sacred
symbol of the Buddhist faith. The derivation of the P’ra-prang is

not so certain, but it has much the same significance and sanctity as
the p’ra-jedi, although it differs structurally inasmuch as it may
include an alcove or cella within its interior. Of the same tall aspi-

ring shape, yet instead of the tapering finialit terminates at its apex

in arounded or domical form, thus recalling in this respect the

amala-sila crowning the sikharas of the Brahrnanical temple type”.

We can resolve the architectural development of Siam into three

periods. The first phase is designated as the Dvaravatl the name of
an ancient Kingdom situated between the two countries corresponding
at present to Burma on the one hand and Cambodia on the other.
Among the remains a few sculptures are interesting otherwise the
buildings are rare. The discoveries however prove that they illus-

trate the combined influences from the south India, Mammallapura,

The second period or Khmer period was initiated in the 10th

century which lasted for three centuries. Mainly being influenced by
Burmese ideals the period is called Non-Khmer School as Khmers too
were initiated into the Eastern-ideals. The surviving examples of the
period are found in such old regions as Sawank alok, Suk’ot’ai and
Pits-anulok. The two typical temples are found in the historical
town of Lopburi, the ancient Lavo, eighty miles due north of Bangkok.
‘Of the two principal buildings here having Cambodian affinities
that of the temple of Wat Mahadhatu, and ascribed to the twelfth
century, is the most distinctive. Within a walled enclosure, and
consisting of a sanctuary tower with its attached portico or mandapai
 HISTORY OF HINDU TBMPLB3 569

its general appearance conforms to that of certain mediaeval temples

in India. And although the architectural treatment combines ele*
ments recalling both the Indo-Aryan and Khmer styles, it is no
slavish cepy of either of these modes, but a definite original effort. It
is true that the tower or fikhara, in the main, follows the outlines and

mcc of Angkor type, and to a lesser degree those of the

also the subst
temples of India, but there any similarity to cither of these styles
ends.”

The other temple of Khmer attribution at Lopuri i.e. that of P’ra

Prang-som Yot is of quite a different character, not associated with
Buddhism, nor with the Brahmanical faith. It is a triple temple each
surrounded by its tower. These are more closely affiliated in style to
the laterCambodian type. The Sikharas display their affinity with
south Indian Gopurams though terminating in the amalaiilS, as in the
blunted finial of p’ra-prang. Another temple in old suk’ot’ai is that
of Wat Sisawai which is also composed of triple towers.

"Several other significant examples of the effect of the Khmer

domination may be referred to, such as a temple at Pimai, built
towards the end of the tenth century, another at Panom Wan possibly
dating from the eleventh century, and that at Panom Rung of the
twelfth, which, if these dates are confirmed, will give a scries of
examples showing the progressive development of the style.”

The 13th century marks the beginning of the Tai period of build-
ing art on Siam which shows and Ceylon. The
influence of Java

background being the vital of Buddha worship,

period is famous
this

for a colossal size of the Great Teacher notably in bronze, housed in

monda-like structures as represented and illustrated in the temples
of Maha-Tat at Sawank, alok and another having: “the same dedi-
cation at of Suk-ot’ai, where also is situated that of Cri Chum of a
similar type, all found in the more northerly region of the country,
while at Ayudhya towards the south, nearer Bangkok, is the temple

of Cri Sarap’ct (cir. 1490). This class of temple appears to have

emerged during the earlier centuries of the Tai period, and in their
architectural character as well as in their ritualistic aspect, they
recall in some respects the planning and perceptions of the Sinhalese
in their temple of Lankatilaka at Polonnaruwa”.

In the 14th century the city of Ayudhya became the capital

which was destroyed by the Burmese in the 18ih century. With the
establishment of the capital at Bangkok in 1782 shortly after the
destruction of Ayudhya, Siam entered in its modern phase “of the
570 history of HINDU TBMPtES

Tai period, when the arts of all kinds received encouragement from
the throne. Many important buildings have been erected in Bangkok
within the last century, comprising palaces, temples, stupas and
shrines, which although they maintain the general character oi the
historical examples, such as the p’ra-jedi and the p’ra prang, it has
become the custom to overlay these traditional forms with so much
ornamentation that the simple dignity of the originals is obscured
by a superfluity of mouldings and string courses, rich in themselves,
but made more so by each being embellished with lesser patterns
until the whole presents an appearance of meretriciousness significant
of a decline in taste”—Brown.

This is the bare outline of the Siamese architecture, there are yet
some other important manifestations but they need not be taken up.

Champa. ‘‘The earliest mention of Champa-deSa is in that passage of

theRarnayana where it is stated that king Sugriva sent out emissaries
in search of Sha, stolen by Ravana. The king ASoka’s messengers also
may h'^.ve visited the country of Champa, According to the Araka-
ncse traditions, the first king of Champa was the son of a king of
Benaras, who settled at Ramavati the present Rambyi or Ramri.
According to another tradition, the first Indian kings of Champa
were known as the Kaundinya of the lunar race. Mainly on the
basis of the Vo-chanh inscription in Sanskrit of the second or third
century of the Christian era, it is clear that Champa had already
been under a Hindu or Dr. R. C. Majumdar
‘Hinduized dynasty*.
takes Sri Mara as the Hindu king of Champa, The
first historical
Cham temples have been found in groups at Myson, Dong Duong,
Po-Nagar, and Pho Hai areas, and individually at Binh Lam Khuong
My, and Beng An’*— Acharya.

Percy Brown says that these structures indicate, by their architec-

tural treatment that the building art of the Chams was an indepen-
dent regional movement but evidently of Indian ancestory. ^*M.
Parmentier has made a technical classification of all these monuments
under five headings. What he calls the ‘primitive art' is represented
by the Myson and the Po Nagar temples of the seventh and the first
quarter of ninth centuries respectively. The ‘cubic art*, deriving its
name from the cube-shaped roof of the temples, is represented by the
Myson temples of the eighth century, Po Nagar temple of the late
ninth century, and the Dong Duong temple of the same period. The
‘mixed art,* deriving its title from a combination of ‘primitive' pro-
portions and ‘cubic' roof, is represented by theDong Duong temple
of the late ninth century. The ‘classic art’ is so called because pf
 iilSTOItV OF ttiNbU TEMt>L£s 671

the architectural formula followed in the representation of the Myson

temple of rnid-elevcnth century. The ‘pyramidal art’ derives its

title from pyramidal form, as represented by the B^ng An temple

its

of the earliest tenth century, Po Nagar temple of the late twelfth

century, and the Yan Pron temple of the fourteenth century. Lastly,
what is called the ‘derived art,’ has departed from the recognized
canons of the classical art and is represented by the Myson temples
of the twelfth century, the Po Khaun Garai of the fourteenth century,
and Po Rome of the mid-seventeenth century — Acharya”.
The Myson temples have been divided into some ten groups —vide
Dr. Acharya’s Summary H.A.I.A. p. 331-32. The deities installed
in these temples include besides the phallus of Siva, Gane^a, Skanda,
Brahma, Surya, Tndra and other gods and goddesses also.

Java & Bali. The earliest reference to Java is in Raniayana, accord-

ing to which the King Sugrlva, the friend and ally of Ramacandra, is

stated to have sent out search-parties in quest of Slta, among other places
to the island ofJava (Yavadvipa). The Indian colonization of Java
was completed A. D. when an extensive commerce was
in fifth century
carried with Gujarat. This island is in Malava Archipelago and
received the same form of religio- cultural upsurge as other countries
of greater India by means of progressive movements which inhltera-
ted into it during the courses of the first millennium. Owing to the
longitudinal shape and orientation of the island as a whole, it has been
found expendient to resolve the country politically into three regions,
referred to as West- Middle, Middle and East and accordingly Percy
Brown has described the building art of Java.

The western region docs not possess architectural records. The

central division, termed
Mid-Java is famous for a site known as
as

the D. Jung Plateau where a group of Visnuite temple was erected

about the 8th century A. D. These Hindu temples represent the
earliest phase of the building art in Java. A century later Mahayatt
Buddhism also began to make its appeal and for some consi-
derable time as shown by their monuments, the two religions flouri-
shed side by side.

“This combined movement led to the consummation of the

architectural effort in the island, referred to as the Golded Age,
where in Mid-Java, in an area, not far removed from the more

recent capital of Jokyakarta, the finest examples were created, culmi-

nating in the grandest of all Buddhist buildings the stupa of Borobudur
(C. 850 A* D.)— Brown/"
5^2 HlSxbRV OF kiNDtj TEUptRS

The Golden Age of Javanese architecture abruptly ended early

in the tenth century. In the eleventh century, a fre&h move was
initiated whicl^ lasted till 15th century when the people accepted
Islam, Thus a newly oriented another movement on the part of the
Indonesians, brought forth a reversion to a form of folk-art. Finally
the occupation of the island by the Dutch in the 18th century A. D.
brought in European forms which are the main features in the modern
style. Percy Brown has presented a very informative tabulation in
his book ‘Indian Architecture* on page 232.

This tabulation makes an interesting reading for us when we see that

in the golden age of Mid Java the temples of Bhima, Arjuna and other

hindu temples also found a remarkable impetus for their foundation

and dedication along with so many religious buildings of Buddhist
attribution.
The Djeng temples have been designated by the naihes of the
heroes of the MahSbharata, such as Bhima and Arjuna, but they were
originally dedicated to Visnu. The Bhima resembles with the brick
temple at Bhitagaon near Kanpur. After this initial Brahmanical
phase as illustrated by the shrines at Djeng; a period of Buddhism
intervened when a number of large and important buildings were
erected on a separate site in Mid-Java, which were inspired by the
advent in the island by the Sailendra of Sumatra (760-850) a powerful
Buddhist dynasty “whose influence extended over a very large portion
of south-east Asia towards the 8th century A. D. Their domination
over a great part of Java stimulated the architectural aspirations of
the people to a remarkable degree, so much so that the productions
of the Sailendra- Sumatra period in Mid-java were of such a high
order as to entitle this movement to be designated as already men-
tioned the Golden Age in Java’s architectural history.”

A large number of temples were built of which the most notable ones
arc thcKalason (778), the Sari, the Memdul (880)and the Pawn, which
represent a phase in the building art ofJava of great significance. “But con-
trasting with the relatively moderate dimensions of the above, and in-
cluded with this group, as it was built about the same time, is the stupa of
Borobudur, the largest and most remarkable monument erected to the
Buddhist faith, and therefore in every way standing in a class by itself”.
The Kalaian is dedicated to the Buddhist Mahayan goddess Tara
and is planned in shape of a Great Gross. In the opinion of Percy
Brown, the general character of the work on the Kalsan temple and
other examples of this group, seems most neatly allied to the art of
Bengal of the Pala period (8th century A. t).). On the upper hand
the temple of Mandat is the most expressive of the Javanese art.
 jiistOry of iiiNbu temples 5^3

ftoro Budur: The most acceptable intrepretation would be the shriue

of the Many Buddhas: “The fundamental formative idea of Boro
Budur monument is that of a dagobawith five procession paths. These,
however, have become square in plan instead of circular* and, instead
of one great domical building in the centre, we have here seventy-two
smaller ones, each containing the statue of a Buddha; and one large
one in the centre, which was quite solid externally but had a cell in
its centre, which might have contained a relic or some precious object.

With the idea of dagoda, however, Boro Budur also combines that of
a vihara. The monument may be described either as a seven or a
nine»storcyed vihara, according as we reckon the platform on which
the seventy-two small dagobas stand as one or three storeys. It is,

however, either for its dimensions or the beauty of its architectural

design that Boro Budur is so remarkable, as for the sculptures that
line its galleries. These extend to nearly 5,000 feet, almost a mile,
and as there are sculptures on both faces, we have nearly 10,000 lineal
feet of bas-reliefs; or, if we like to add those which are in two storeys,
we have a series of sculptures, which, if arranged consecutively in a
row, would extend over nearly three miles of ground.** “These galleries
run continuously around the Tjandi, broken only by a stone stairway
at the middle of each side. Their walls are adorned with over a
thousand sculptured bas-reliefs depicting scences from the life cf
Gautama Buddha in his various incarnations, groups of Buddhas,
angels, and saints. Above these sculptures, on the parapets of the
walls, are small recessed shrines, in all over 400, each containing a
Buddha image a couple of feet high.*’ “Above the four sculptured
galleries rise three tiers of circular terraces, bearing, altogether, 72
bell-shaped, latticed dagobas, each about 5 feet in height and con-
taining a lotus-enthroned Buddha, which may be seen through
the lozenge-shaped openings in the sides. From the centre of the
upper circular terraces rises what is left of the former apex of
the shrine, a ruined dagoba about 30 feet high, containing in an
interior chamber a large and apparently unfinished image though
to represent the Buddha yet to come. The cone-orparasol-shaped
spire, which doubtless once covered this highest dagoda, has wholly
disappeared. The stairways of Boro Budur formerly had gate-houses
at each landing and their arches are ornamented with great heads
with bulging eyes. At the sides are the heads of nagas wdth upper lips
prolonged into short trunks. The shrine, however, owes its fame
more to its artistic details than its purely architectural features. Its wall
sculptures arc remarkable. The subjects are almost beyond enumeration
and include practically every phase of life and action. The scenes port*
rayed may still be seen in the Java of today. Kings and nobles,
 a

574 lilSTORY OF HINDtJ TEMPtis

dancing girls and palace women, peasants and fishermen, bearded

strangers from foreign lands, elephants and monkeys, deer andhors s,

birds and fish, fruit-trees and shade-trees, native houses, ships, war
chariots, plouf(hs, musical instruments, state umbrellas, and hundreds
of other things typical of the country are depicted here in away that is

wonderfully life-like and truthful. The representations of the scenes

from the Jatakas (tales of Buddha’s life in his earlier incarnations) are
particularly interesting, for each one has its own story, and some of
these are very entertaining.” —•Fergussion.
Percy Brown therefore rightly remarks:
‘‘Regarded in all its aspects therefore the Borobudur represents
not only the high water marks of Javanese creative genious, but stands
forth as one of the world’s greatest constructional and artistic mas-
terpieces. Here it may be noted that this immense stupa corresponds
and sculptured magnificence to the other stupendous
in its vast bulk
building undertaking rising somewhat later also in Greater India, the
temple Angkor Vat in Cambodia. Both these grand architectural .

productions were an expression in material form of Hindu-Buddhist

ideals emanating from an Indian source.”

Prambanam:— • In this very period (the golden age of Java as

enunciated by Sailendra of Sumatra), Restoration also took place —
reveresion to the creed of Hinduism. It began about A. D. 860 and
continued until the middle of the succeeding century when several
important temples dedicated to the Hindu deity i^iva were built.
Representing the Restoration phase in a complex of shrines known as
the prambanan which in view of its size and importance, was probably
conceived and constructed as a Hindu rival to the Buddhist Boro-
budur,
“ This great Brahmanical temple-scheme in Mid*Java was comple-
ted about A. D. 900 and was clearly designed with the object of
reviving the practice of Hinduism throughout the country. And just
as the Borobudur made its appeal mainly on account of its colossal
size, , so the Hindu hierarchy realizing that in this respect it could not
be surpassed proceeded in an attempt to rival it by a numerical
effort foe the Prambanam consists of an expansive composition
aggregating over one hundred and fifty individual shrinei arranged
in rows on a commodious terrace, and, so that its infiueixce should
be as wide as possible, the main buildings were consecrated
respectively to Vishnu, Shiva^ and Brahma,* thus pro-*
the deities
viding an all-embracing dispensation. Further^ in order to be abroail
With the sculptured reliefs proving so effective at Boirobud Ur, a lonf
 —

HISTORY OF HINDU TEMPLES 575

frieze was carved on the walls illustrating the myihology of these

age-old Indian divinities'*.

This 3rd or the last period began about 950 A. D? and continued
until the later half of the fifteenth Century when it was gradually
submerged by the approach of Islam. This phase is charact-
erised as Silver Age. Through-out its course the movement in the
Eastern region resolved itself into three historical period according to
dominant rule at the time. These are:

1. the Kadiri (11th and 12th Centuries).

2. the Singasari (1250-1292).

3. the Majapahit (1294-1478).

It is needless to dwell at length on these periods when we are

already drunk deep with Javanese art.

Bali. In the island of Bali, detached by a narrow passage of sea

from the mainland of Java, is recorded, that when the latter was
it

submerged by Islam remained of the Hindu belief found a

what
retreat in its little dependency. Bali’s structural production are but a
pale reflection of the works of the great classical period as this flourished
in the larger island.

As regards the remaining island like Sumatra, Celcbese and Borneo

they may be left out for want of space as we do not find any stupendous
undertaking there. After all, all these islands reflect the greater India
movement and its representation has been fully fathomed in the fatho-
mless monuments.

HINDU ARCHITECTURE IN OUTER INDIA

The glimpses of Indian art in outer India may be found in China,
Japan and Central America, the being most interesting where the
last
remains of Maya Civilization have been discovered. Dr. Acharya has
summarized, the findings of the eminent orientalists and they may be
purviewed in his work, H. A. I. A., pp. 372-75.
 A —

B —The
. charts A. B. C. as indicated ,on page 189 may be
purvicwed in the Hindi Temple pp. 54-55 by Prof. Krararisch.

Site Plans—
APPENDICES
Vastu-Purusa-Mandala
General Plan.
PARAMtolKA PLAN OF 81 SQUARES
“ £ka$Ui Padika *’
- 1 —
Roga Agni^
Naga Mukhya Bhalla^a Soma Caraka Aditi Diti (Garaki)
(Papa-
raksasi)

Papa^
yaksms Rudra Apavatsa Parjanya

PRTHIVIDH^ARA
(Six Padas)

Sosa Yaksma Apa Jayanta

Asura Indra

Varuna
M I T R A BRAHMA ARYAM
Ravi
(Six Padas)
(Six Padas) (Nine Padas)
!

Puspa-
danta Satya

Savita Bhrsa
!
Sugriva Jaya
i

VI VASVAN
(Six Padas)
1 DauvS-
rika Indra Savitrl Nabha
i

Pitrgaoa Bhrnga- Gan- Grhak- Anita,

;

j(Putans) Mrga rija dharva Yama sata Vitatha Pusi

f(.B, The Pada-bboga ii to be seen th* Chapter ‘ Site-plans

APPENDICES
 ^ITE-PLANS
OR
VASTUPURUSA-MANDALA

N. B —The charts A. B. C. as
. indicated on
page 189 may be purviewed in the Hindu
Temple ( pp. 54-55 )
by Prof. Kramrisch.
 )

PARAMA^AYIKA PLAN OF 81 SQUARES

^
*‘‘EkaSiti-padika”

Roga
Agni_
(Pipa-
Naga Mukhya Bhallata Soma Caraka Aditi Diti [Caraki]
raksasi

Papa-
yaksma Rudra Apavasta Parjanya

PRTHIVIDHARA
(Six Padas)

Sosa Yaksma A pa Jayanla

A sura Indra

Varuna
M I T R A BRAHMA A R Y A M A
Ravi
(six Padas) (Nine Padas) (Six Padas)

Puspa-
danta Satya

Sugriva Jaya Saviti Bhrsa

V I V A S VA N
(Six Padas)

Dauva-
rika Indra Savitri Nabha

Bhrnga- Gan*- Grhak- Anila

Pitrgana
(PutanS) Mrga rija dharva Yama sata Vitatha Pusa (VidirJ)

, XBk The Pada-bhbga is to be seen in the Chapter ‘Fundamental Canons of Hindu

Architecture* page 194*95.
580 APPENDICES

Mapd&ka or Bbekapada (also called Cndaita) of 64 Squares

(Calussastipadika).

Prthividhara
2 Padas

Mitra Araya-
Brahma
2
4 Padas
ma
Padas 2 Padas

Vivasvan
2 Padas

Presidiag deities and their allocation of Padas in the plan

of 64 Squares.

N, B, Only the centred deities are referred, others may be inferred from the
preceeding chart,

I. 1. Central Lord Brahma. 4 Padas

II. 2 to 5. Those adjoining the centre i. e. Aryama,

VivasvSn, Milra and Pythivldhara each occu-
pying only 2 Padas—2 X 4 ... 8 ,»

III. l6to21. The eight of the central corners and the same
number of external ones taking each 4
pada— ixl6 ... 8 „
IV. 2 to 29, Among the other 24 external dieties Parjanya,
Bhpsa, Pusa, Bhfhga, DauvSrika, §osa, Niga
and Aditi, each occupy H padas— 4x8 ... 12 ^
V. 30to45. The remaining 16 external deities beginning
with Jayanta and ending in Caraka each
occupy two padas 2x16 ... ... 32 „
Total ... 64 Padas
 APPENDICES 581

Satapada VASrU (also called ASANA)

PLOT OF KOO SQUARES

PADA-DEVATAS
I. 1 Central Lord BrahmS « 16
II. 2 to 5. Those adjoining the Centre i. c. Aryama
etc. occupy 8 padas 4x8 = 32
III. 6 to 13. Those called Central Pada-kopasthas each
occupying only one Pada like those in
EkaSitipada-Vastu (12.18) 1X8 « 8
IV. 14 to 21. The Pada-Kopa-
deities called the external
sthas like Agni, Nabhas, VSyu, Mfga, Pitys,
Ksaya, Roga and Diti—each occupying
1 J padas— l^XS =# 12

V* 22 to 29. Among the remaining 24 deities, the

Parjanya etc. eight deities have two pa^as
8x2 each, » 16

1?. 30 to 45. The others (sixteen) only one each 1 x 16s» 16

Total ... lOO

 I

582
ROAD PLAN
(On Cnndlta)

Ghanta-raarg

Maharathya

MahSrathya

Yanamarga-

Yamamlarga

South—

Yanamarga

Yanamarga

MaharathyS'

Maharathya-

GhantSmarga

East

N. B. —Running to the west from the East and from the North to the
South these are 11 + 11 *22 main roads, the other G+6
minor roads vide the S. S. are not shown i. e, 4hefoot
paths etc.
 TOWN PLANS

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 58 ?

BUILDING PLANS
Prastara : It is through the prastara that we determine the different
locations in a building. How to work out prastara? (rcler to the body
of the work page 318). Let us illustrate some specimens :

The Prastara of 4 Gurus :

l. S 8 S S 9. s s s 1

2. 1 S S S 10. 1 s s I

3. s 1 s s 11. s 1 s 1

4. 1 1 s s 12. 1 1 s 1

5. s s 1 s 13. s s 1 1

6. Isis 14. 1 s 1 1

7. s 1 1 s 15. sill
8. Ills 16. 1111

The implication of this prastara is that out of these 16 houses so

worked out from the stand point of the orientation etc. some houses
have no alinda at all some only one alinda others two, three and four
alindas. Let us illustrateit, in some specific examples of Ekalala

house, the notation of which in the Raja Vallabba is 5 gurus :

Ramya 1 1 s s s

Sridhara 1 1 1 s s

VardhamSna 1111s
Karala 1 1 s s 1

Samfdha 11111

N.B. Similarly so many other specimens can be

worked out> Needless to multiply.

5 ^
The Prastara of 8 iGurus i

( Giving riiC to 256 rupas vide CatuSiala Houses )

1. ssssssss 33. 8 S S S 8 1 S 8

2. 1 S 8 S S S S S 34. Isssslss
3. slssssss 35. 8 1 8 8 8 1 8 8

4. 1 1 s s s s s s 36. 1 1 8 8 S 1 8 8

5. S S 1 8 S S S S 37. ssls8lss
6. 1 s 1 s s s s s 38. 1 8 1 S S 1 S 8

7. s 1 1 s s s s $ 39. 8 1 1 S S 1 8 8

8. 1 1 1 s s s s s 40. 1 1 1 8 8 1 8 8

9. s s s 1 s s s s 41. S 8 8 1 8 1 8 8

10. 1 S 8 1 S S S S 42. 1 8 8 1 8 1 8 8

11. S 1 8 1 S S S S 43. S 1 S 1 S 1 8 8

12. 1 1 8 1 S 8 S 8 44. 1 1 s 1 s 1 s 8

13. 8 S 1 1 S 8 8 8 45. S 8 1 1 S 1 S 8

14. 1 8 1 1 8 8 8 S N.B. Go on working like this

15. 8 I I 1 8 S 8 8 till all become laghus:

16. 1 1 1 1 8 S 8 8 256. 1 1 1 1 1 1 11
17. 8SSS1SS8 N.B. (i) As already pointed
18. 1 8 S 8 1 S 8 8 out that among these 256 rupas

19. 8 1 8 8 1 8 8 8 the principal criterion is Bhadra

20. 1 I 8 8 1 8 8 8 application — vibhadra, eka-

21. 8 S 1 S 1 S S S bhadra, dvibhadra, tribhadra,

22. 1 8 1 8 1 S 8 8 caturbhadra, pancabhadra, sad-

23. 8 1 I 8 I S 8 S bhadra, saptabhadra and as|a*

24. 1 1 1 8 1 8 S S bhadra & accordingly their rupas

25. S 8 S 1 1 8 8 8 being 1, 8, 28, 56, 70, 56,28, 8 and

26. 1 8 S 1 1 8 8 8 1 respectively and totalling 256.

27. 8 1 8 1 1 8 8 8 N. B. (ii) As indicated on

28. llsllsss pp. 318 and 324, the concrete

29. 8 8 1 1 1 8 8 8 house- plans arc not here shown,

30. 1 8 1 1 1 8 S 8 they are reserved now for the

81. 8 1 1 1 1 8 S S Vol. III. Glossary and Illus-

32. 1 1 1 1 1 S 8 S trations*
YASTULAK^ANAM
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esp, to Bhoja’s Samarahgana-Sutradhara,
ref.^

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Painting.
— Vastu^Sstra Vol. Ill —Glossary of VastuSastra (including
Silpa^stra and GitraSastra) technical words and their
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