TOPIC 1: SIMPLE STRESSES and DEFORMATIONS

Intended Learning Outcomes:

After completing the class, you will:
1. Have reviewed the principles of stress and deformation analysis for several kinds of stresses, including the following:
a. Normal stresses due to direct tension and compression forces
b. Shear stress due to direct shear force
c. Shear stress due to torsional load for both circular and non-circular sections
d. Shear stress in beams due to bending
e. Normal stress in beams due to bending
2. Be able to interpret the nature of the stress at a point by drawing the stress element at any point in a load-carrying
member for a variety of types of loads.
3. Have reviewed the importance of the flexural center of a beam cross section with regard to the alignment of loads on
beams.
4. Have reviewed beam-deflection formulas.
5. Be able to analyze beam-loading patterns that produce abrupt changes in the magnitude of the bending moment in the
beam.
6. Be able to properly apply stress concentration factors in stress analyses.

Introduction
Engineering structures and machines, such as airplanes, automobiles, bridges, spacecraft, buildings, electric generators, gas
turbines, and so forth, are usually formed by connecting various parts or members. In most structures or machines, the primary
function of a member is to support or transfer external forces (loads) that act on it, without failing. Failure of a member may occur
when it is loaded beyond its capacity to resist fracture, general yielding, excessive deflection, or instability . These types of failure
depend on the nature of the load and the type of member. In elementary mechanics of materials, members subjected to axial loads,
bending moments, and torsional forces are studied. Simple formulas for the stress and deflection of such members are developed.
Some of these formulas are based on simplifying assumptions and as such must be subjected to certain restrictions when extended
to new problems.
Stress is a force applied to an area of a body. It is sometimes called intensity of force applied to a unit area.
Induced Stress is the stress applied to a body coming from the load applied to it. These can be classified either:
1. Normal Stress – when the load applied is perpendicular to the area. These includes tensile stress, compressive
stress, bearing stress and flexural stress.
2. Shear Stress – when the load applied is parallel to the area. These includes direct shear stress, torsional stress and
vertical shearing in beams.

Design Stress is the predetermined strength of the material.

Representing a Stress Element:

One major goal of stress analysis is to determine the point within a load-carrying member that is subjected to the highest
stress level. You should develop the ability to visualize a stress element, a single, infinitesimally small cube from the member in
a highly stressed area, and to show vectors that represent the kind of stresses that exist on that element. The orientation of the
stress element is critical, and it must be aligned with specified axes on the member, typically called x, y, and z.

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 It is recommended that you visualize the cube form first and then represent a square stress element showing stresses on a
particular plane of interest in a given problem. In some problems with more general states of stress, two- or three-square stress
elements may be required to depict the complete stress condition.
Tensile and compressive stresses, called normal stresses, are shown acting perpendicular to opposite faces of the stress
element. Tensile stresses tend to pull on the element, whereas compressive stresses tend to crush it.
Shear stresses are created by direct shear, vertical shear in beams, or torsion. In each case, the action on an element
subjected to shear is a tendency to cut the element by exerting a stress downward on one face while simultaneously exerting a
stress upward on the opposite, parallel face. This action is that of a simple pair of shears or scissors. But note that if only one
pair of shear stresses acts on a stress element, it will not be in equilibrium. Positive shear stresses tend to rotate the element
in a clockwise direction. Negative shear stresses tend to rotate the element in a counterclockwise direction.
Rather, it will tend to spin because the pair of shear stresses forms a couple. To produce equilibrium, a second pair of shear
stresses on the other two faces of the element must exist, acting in a direction that opposes the first pair. In summary, shear
stresses on an element will always be shown as two pairs of equal stresses acting on (parallel to) the four sides of the element.

1. Normal Stresses and Deformation due to Axial Loads

Stress can be defined as the internal resistance offered by a unit area of a material to an externally applied load. Normal
stresses (s) are either tensile (positive) or compressive (negative). For a load-carrying member in which the external load is
uniformly distributed across the cross-sectional area of the member, the magnitude of the stress can be calculated from the
direct stress formula:
s= Force/Area =F/A

The following formula computes the stretch due to a direct axial tensile load or the shortening due to a direct axial
compressive load
𝐹𝐿 𝑠𝐿 𝐹̅ 𝑙
𝛿 = 𝐴𝐸 = 𝐸 or from the figure 𝛿 = 𝐴𝐸0
where 𝛿= total deformation of the member carrying the axial load
F = direct axial load
L = original total length of the member
E = modulus of elasticity of the material
A = cross-sectional area of the member
For tensile load:

2. Bearing Stress
A stress develops between two surfaces in contact under load. The bearing area is usually the projected area between the
two contacting surfaces.
𝐹
𝜎𝑏 =
𝐴𝑏

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3. Direct Shear Stress
Direct shear stress occurs when the applied force tends to cut through the member as scissors or shears do or when
a punch and a die are used to punch a slug of material from a sheet. Another important example of direct shear in
machine design is the tendency for a key to be sheared off at the section between the shaft and the hub of a machine
element when transmitting torque.
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑉
𝜏 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐴
𝑠
This stress is more properly called the average shearing stress, but we will make the simplifying assumption that
the stress is uniformly distributed across the shear area.

𝑽𝑳 𝝉𝑳 ̅ 𝒍𝟎
𝑭
Shear Deformation: 𝜹𝒔 = 𝑨𝑮 = =𝑨
𝑮 𝒔𝑮

Where G is the shear modulus of elasticity of the material

4. Torsional Shear Stress

When subjected to a torque, the outer surface of a solid round shaft experiences the greatest shearing strain and
therefore the largest torsional shear stress.

𝑇𝑟
The Torsional Shear stress is 𝜏 = = 𝑇/𝑍𝑃
𝐽
Where T- is torque applied to the member, r radius of the member,
J is the polar moment of inertia of the cross section.
ZP is polar section modulus = J/r

Torsional Deflection :
When a shaft is subjected to a torque, it undergoes a twisting in which one cross section is rotated relative to other
cross sections in the shaft. The angle of twist is computed from
𝑇𝐿
𝜃 = 𝐽𝐺
where Ѳ = angle of twist (radians)
L = length of the shaft over which the angle of twist is being computed
G = modulus of elasticity of the shaft material in shear
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Power, Torque and Speed Relation: 𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑇𝑁 = 𝜔𝑇
Where N angular speed in RPM and ω is the angular speed in rad/s.

Torsion in Non-circular torsion members:

The behavior of members having noncircular cross sections when subjected to torsion is radically different
from that for members having circular cross sections. However, the factors of most use in machine design are the
maximum stress and the total angle of twist for such members. The formulas for these factors can be expressed in
similar forms to the formulas used for members of circular cross section (solid and hollow round shafts). The
following two formulas can be used:
Shear Stress: 𝝉 = 𝑻/𝑸
𝑇𝐿
Torsional Deflection: 𝜃 = 𝐾𝐺
The table below shows the method of finding Q and K for various shapes.

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 For Thin-walled tubes of virtually any shape use:

The shear stress computed by this approach is the average stress in the tube wall. However, if the wall thickness t is small (a
thin wall), the stress is nearly uniform throughout the wall, and this approach will yield a close approximation of the
maximum stress.

The term open tube refers to a shape that appears to be tubular but is not completely closed. For example, some tubing is
manufactured by starting with a thin, flat strip of steel that is roll-formed into the desired shape (circular, rectangular,
square, and so on). Then the seam is welded along the entire length of the tube. It is interesting to compare the properties
of the cross section of such a tube before and after it is welded.

5. Shear Stress in Beams:

A beam carrying loads transverse to its axis will experience shearing forces, denoted by V. In the analysis of beams, it is
usual to compute the variation in shearing force across the entire length of the beam and to draw the shearing force
diagram. Then the resulting vertical shearing stress can be computed from
𝜏 = 𝑉𝑄/𝐼𝑡
where I = rectangular moment of inertia of the cross section of the beam
t = thickness of the section at the place where the shearing stress is to be computed
Q = first moment, with respect to the overall centroidal axis, of the area of that part of the cross section that lies
away from the axis where the shearing stress is to be computed.

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑃 𝑦̅
where Ap = that part of the area of the section above the place where the stress is to be computed
𝑦̅ = distance from the neutral axis of the section to the centroid of the area Ap

In some books or references, and in earlier editions of this book, Q was called the statical moment. Here we will use the
term first moment of the area. For most section shapes, the maximum vertical shearing stress occurs at the centroidal axis.
Specifically, if the thickness is not less at a place away from the centroidal axis, then it is assured that the maximum vertical
shearing stress occurs at the centroidal axis.

Special formula for a type of sections:

3𝑉
1. For rectangular cross sections: 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝐴
4𝑉
2. For circular cross sections: 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3𝐴

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 3. For I Shape beams: 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑉
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑏 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑣𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑏 (𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒: 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 15% 𝑙𝑜𝑤)
𝑡ℎ
2𝑉
4. For thin-walled tube: 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒: 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑡 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ)
𝐴

5. Flexural Stresses in Beams

A beam is a member that carries loads transverse to its axis. Such loads produce bending moments in the beam, which
result in the development of bending stresses. Bending stresses are normal stresses, that is, either tensile or compressive.
The maximum bending stress in a beam cross section will occur in the part farthest from the neutral axis of the section. At
that point, the flexure formula gives the stress:
𝑀𝑐
𝜎= = 𝑀/𝑆
𝐼
where M = magnitude of the bending moment at the section
I = moment of inertia of the cross section with respect to its neutral axis
c = distance from the neutral axis to the outermost fiber of the beam cross section
S = Section Modulus = M/c

The magnitude of the bending stress varies linearly within the cross section from a value of zero at the neutral axis,
to the maximum tensile stress on one side of the neutral axis, and to the maximum compressive stress on the other side.

Note that positive bending occurs when the deflected shape of the beam is concave upward, resulting in compression on the
upper part of the cross section and tension on the lower part. Conversely, negative bending causes the beam to be concave
downward. The flexure formula was developed subject to the following conditions:
1. The beam must be in pure bending. Shearing stresses must be zero or negligible. No axial loads are present.
2. The beam must not twist or be subjected to a torsional load.
3. The material of the beam must obey Hooke’s law.
4. The modulus of elasticity of the material must be the same in both tension and compression.
5. The beam is initially straight and has a constant cross section.
6. Any plane cross section of the beam remains plane during bending.
7. No part of the beam shape fails because of local buckling or wrinkling.

In most practical beams, which are long relative to their height, shear stresses are sufficiently small as to be negligible.
Furthermore, the maximum bending stress occurs at the outermost fibers of the beam section, where the shear stress is in fact
zero. A beam with varying cross section, which would violate condition 5, can be analyzed by the use of stress concentration
factors to be discussed later.

A beam section must be loaded in a way that ensures symmetrical bending; that is, there must be no tendency for the section to
twist under the load. If the line of action of the loads on such sections passes through the axis of symmetry, then there is no
tendency for the section to twist, and the flexure formula applies.

For design, it is convenient to define the term section modulus, S, as 𝑺 = 𝑰/𝒄

The flexure formula then becomes; 𝝈 = 𝑴/𝑺
Then, in design, it is usual to define a design stress, 𝜎𝐷 and, with the bending moment known, solve for S: 𝑺 = 𝑴/𝝈𝑫

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Beam Deflections
The bending loads applied to a beam cause it to deflect in a direction perpendicular to its axis. A beam that was originally
straight will deform to a slightly curved shape. In most cases, the critical factor is either the maximum deflection of the beam or
its deflection at specific locations. To evaluate the design, there are many methods of computing shaft deflections. We will review
briefly those methods using deflection formulas, superposition, and a general analytical approach. A set of formulas for
computing the deflection of beams at any point or at selected points is useful in many practical problems. Appendix 14 includes
several cases.

The general principles relating the deflection of a beam to the loading on the beam and its manner of support are presented
here. The result will be a set of relationships among the load, the vertical shearing force, the bending moment, the slope of the
deflected beam shape, and the actual deflection curve for the beam. The product of modulus of elasticity and the moment of
inertia, EI, for the beam is a measure of its stiffness or resistance to bending deflection. It is convenient to combine EI with the
slope and deflection values to maintain a proper relationship.

𝑀 𝑑2 𝑦
One fundamental concept for beams in bending is 𝐸𝐼 = 𝑑𝑥 2
where M = bending moment
x = position on the beam measured along its length
y = deflection

Thus, if it is desired to create an equation of the form y = f(x) (i.e., y as a function of x), it would be related to the other factors
as follows:
𝒅𝒚 𝑀 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑉 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑤 𝑑2 𝑦
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙); 𝜽= ; = ; = ; =
𝒅𝒙 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2

where w = general term for the load distribution on the beam. The last two equations follow from the observation that there
is a derivative (slope) relationship between shear and bending moment and between load and shear.

6. DESIGN STRESSES
A. Design Stress for members under normal induced stress
𝜎𝐷 = 𝑆𝑦 /𝑁 for Ductile Materials Sy is the yield strength of the materials
𝜎𝐷 = 𝑆𝑢 /𝑁 for Brittle Materials , Su is the ultimate strength of the materials

B. Design Stress for members under shear induced stress

𝜏𝐷 = 𝑆𝑠𝑦 /𝑁 for Ductile Materials , Ssy is the shear yield strength of the materials
𝜏𝐷 = 𝑆𝑠𝑢 /𝑁 for Brittle Materials , Ssu is the shear ultimate strength of the materials

See appendix for properties of engineering materials.

STRESS CONCENTRATIONS/RAISERS

The formulas reviewed earlier for computing simple stresses due to direct tensile and compressive forces, bending
moments, and torsional moments are applicable under certain conditions. One condition is that the geometry of the member is
uniform throughout the section of interest. In many typical machine design situations, inherent geometric discontinuities are
necessary for the parts to perform their desired functions. For example, as shown in figure below, shafts carrying gears, chain
sprockets, or belt sheaves usually have several diameters that create a series of shoulders that seat the power transmission
members and support bearings. Grooves in the shaft allow the installation of retaining rings. Keyseats milled into the shaft
enable keys to drive the elements. Similarly, tension members in linkages may be designed with retaining ring grooves, radial
holes for pins, screw threads, or reduced sections.
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 Any of these geometric discontinuities will cause the actual maximum stress in the part to be higher than the simple
formulas predict. Defining stress concentration factors as the factors by which the actual maximum stress exceeds the nominal
stress, 𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 or 𝜏𝑛𝑜𝑚 , predicted from the simple equations allows the designer to analyze these situations. The symbol for these
Kt.
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐾𝑡 𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 or 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐾𝑡 𝜏𝑛𝑜𝑚

depending on the kind of stress produced for the particular loading. The value of Kt depends on the shape of the discontinuity,
the specific geometry, and the type of stress. Charts are available for some stress raisers according to type of loading.

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More charts are available in the appendix. Please see appendix figure 18-1 to 18-10.

Problems:
1. The truss shown in figure below spans a total space of 18.0 ft and carries two concentrated loads on its top chord. The members are
made from standard steel angle and channel shapes as indicated in the figure. Consider all joints to be pinned. Compute the stresses
in all members near their midpoints away from the connections.

2. Compute the stress in the middle portion of rod AC in figure below if the vertical force on the boom is 2500 lb. The rod is
rectangular, 1.50 in by 3.50 in. If Each of the pins at A, B, and C has a diameter of 0.50 in and is loaded in double shear.
Compute the shear stress in each pin.

3. The figure below shows the shape of a slug that is to be cut from a sheet of steel having a thickness of 2.0 mm. If the punch
exerts a force of 225 kN, compute the shearing stress in the steel.

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4. Compute the torsional shear stress in a solid circular shaft having a diameter of 1.25 in that is transmitting 110 hp at a
speed of 560 rpm.
5. Compute the torsional shear stress in a hollow shaft with an outside diameter of 40 mm and an inside diameter of 30 mm
when transmitting 28 kilowatts (kW) of power at a speed of 45 rad/s.
6. A commercial steel supplier lists rectangular steel tubing having outside dimensions of 4.00 by 2.00 in and a wall thickness
of 0.109 in. Compute the maximum torque that can be applied to such a tube if the shear stress is to be limited to 6000 psi.
For this torque, compute the angle of twist of the tube over a length of 6.5 ft.
7. A beam is simply supported and carries the load shown in figure below. Specify suitable dimensions for the beam if it is
steel and the stress is limited to 18 000 psi, for the following shapes:
a. Square
b. Rectangle with height three times the width
c. Rectangle with height one-third the width
d. Solid circular section
e. American Standard beam section
f. American Standard channel with the legs down
g. Standard steel pipe

8. The figure below represents a wood joist for a platform, carrying a uniformly distributed load of 120 lb/ft and two
concentrated loads applied by some machinery. Compute the maximum stress due to bending in the joist and the
maximum vertical shear stress.

9. Draw the shear and moment diagrams.

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10. For the flat plate in tension shown in figure below, compute the stress at each hole, assuming that the holes are
sufficiently far apart that their effects do not interact.

11. compute the maximum stress in the member, considering stress concentrations.
a. For the stepped shaft shown under torsion:

b. For the stepped shaft shown under bending:

12. The beam shown in figure below is a stepped, flat bar having a constant thickness of 1.20 in. It carries a single
concentrated load at C of 1500 lb. Compare the stresses at the following locations:
a. In the vicinity of the load
b. At the section through the smaller hole to the right of section C
c. At the section through the larger hole to the right of section CNear section B where the bar changes height.

References:
Machine Elements in Mechanical Design Sixth Edition by Robert Mott, Edward Vavrek, Jhywen, Wang; Pearson
Education Inc. Publishing, 2018
Mechanical Design and Engineering Handbook; Second Edition; Peter RN Childs @2019 Elsevier
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 9th Edition; Richard C. Budynas and Kieth Niesbett; McGraw Hill
Series in Mechanical Engineering @ 2011
Design of Machine Elements Third Edition by M. F. Spotts; Prentice Hall Inc.
Design of Machine Elements Fourth Edition; V.M. Faires, Macmilan Company, @1965
Mechanical Systems Design Handbook [Dorf, CRC Press 2002](819s)
Design Engineer’s Sourcebook by Kieth L. Richard, CRC Press; @2018
Mechanisms and Mechanical Devices Sourcebook, Fourth Edition
Mechanical Engineers Data Handbook
Machine Elements Life and Design
Machine Elements In Mechanical Design

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