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Etienne Guyon, Jean-Pierre Hulin, Luc Petit & Catalin D. Mitescu - Physical Hydrodynamics - Oxford University Press (2015)

Q: What is the role of the Navier-Stokes equations in describing the flow of viscous Newtonian fluids and how do simplifying assumptions affect their application?

The Navier-Stokes equations describe the motion of viscous, incompressible Newtonian fluids by incorporating the forces that influence flow, including pressure, viscous stresses, and external forces like gravity. Simplifying assumptions such as considering one-dimensional or parallel flow eliminate the non-linear convective terms, allowing solutions in otherwise analytically complex scenarios. For example, assuming the velocity is on the x-axis results in simplified equations that are linear and solvable, highlighting the effects of pressure gradients and viscous forces without the complexities of multi-dimensional flow interactions .

Q: How do thin liquid films exhibit different dynamic behaviors compared to bulk fluid flow, particularly under the influence of gravity and viscosity?

Thin liquid films exhibit unique dynamic behaviors different from bulk fluid flow due to their confined geometry and surface interactions. In these films, surface tension and pressure gradients play a reduced role, leading to nearly atmospheric pressure throughout the film. The gravity component parallel to the film influences the flow significantly, often dominating as the driving force. This results in distinct behaviors such as the enhancement of flow along inclined surfaces due to gravity and viscosity effects, which can be described using lubrication approximation methods .

Q: What is the significance of the conservation of circulation in understanding the dynamics of a vortex ring and its stability?

The conservation of circulation is crucial for the stability of a vortex ring, as it dictates that the circular vorticity distribution and the velocity field maintaining the vortex's shape remain constant over time. This conservation implies that despite the exchange dynamics within the fluid, the overall airflow around the vortex core remains constant, ensuring the structure’s stability. This principle allows vortex rings to be stable and self-sustaining, as shown in the development and movement of rings with a constant velocity due to a balanced induction of velocities within the core .

Q: What is the impact of assuming incompressible flow in the conservation of momentum for Newtonian fluids, and how does it simplify analysis?

Assuming incompressible flow in the conservation of momentum for Newtonian fluids simplifies analysis by removing density variations from the equations. This assumption leads to a constant density allowing the use of simplified expressions for momentum conservation without needing to consider changes due to compression or expansion. It allows treating the stress tensor straightforwardly, and equations focus on velocities and pressure distributions, reducing complexity in solving the Navier-Stokes equations for fluid dynamics scenarios like Couette or Poiseuille flow .

Q: How does the Rayleigh–Taylor instability illustrate the competition between gravity and surface tension, and what factors influence which force dominates?

The Rayleigh–Taylor instability demonstrates competition between gravity and surface tension by considering two fluids of different densities with the lighter fluid beneath the heavier one, making the system gravitationally unstable. Surface tension acts to minimize the surface area and flatten the surface, restoring equilibrium. The stability of the interface is determined by the ratio of pressure differences due to gravity and surface tension, which corresponds to the Bond number. A larger system with larger interface disturbances is less influenced by surface tension, allowing gravity to dominate, while smaller systems are more stabilized by surface tension, flattening the disturbances .

Q: What is the Péclet number, and how does it relate to the transport of mass and thermal energy in fluid dynamics?

The Péclet number (Pe) is a dimensionless number that expresses the ratio between convective and diffusive transport of a quantity such as mass or thermal energy. In terms of mass transport, Pe is defined as the ratio of convective flux to diffusive mass flux, Pe = UL/Dm, where U is flow velocity, L is a characteristic length, and Dm is molecular diffusivity. For thermal energy transport, the Péclet number defines the effectiveness of convection relative to thermal diffusion, Peθ = UL/κ, where κ is thermal diffusivity. It serves as an equivalent to the Reynolds number for momentum, representing the relative importance of the two transport mechanisms .

Q: How does the concept of dimensional analysis help in identifying relevant dimensionless numbers in fluid flow problems, and what method is typically used to achieve this?

Dimensional analysis helps simplify and understand fluid flow problems by identifying relevant dimensionless numbers—combinations of physical parameters that capture the essence of different flow regimes. The Vaschy–Buckingham method is commonly employed: it involves expressing the physical quantities involved, such as viscosity, density, velocity, and characteristic length, in the form of products of their powers to identify dimensionless combinations. This technique does not disclose physical insights but helps predict the number and form of independent dimensionless groups, aiding the categorization and comparison of fluid flow characteristics under various conditions .

Q: How does the Schmidt number compare the diffusion of mass to the diffusion of momentum in fluids, and what does it indicate about the flow behavior?

The Schmidt number (Sc) is the ratio of momentum diffusion to mass diffusion, defined by Sc = ν/Dm, where ν is the kinematic viscosity and Dm is the mass diffusivity. It indicates how easily momentum is diffused compared to mass. A high Schmidt number signifies that momentum diffusivity is much larger than mass diffusivity, meaning that the flow spreads more due to velocity gradients rather than molecular diffusion. This typically characterizes fluid behavior such as tracer spreading in a viscous fluid where diffusive transport is less significant than convective transport .

Q: What challenges arise in measuring shear rates and stresses in non-Newtonian fluids, and why is understanding these parameters crucial?

Measuring shear rates and stresses in non-Newtonian fluids presents challenges because their relationship is not linear, unlike in Newtonian fluids where they are proportional. Instead, non-Newtonian fluids have complex dependencies, with shear thinning or thickening behavior among other characteristics like thixotropy and visco-elasticity. Understanding these parameters is crucial for predicting flow behavior accurately and designing processes and equipment that handle these fluids effectively, as seen in theoretical models such as steady-state Couette flow which attempts to provide practical setups for rheological measurement .

Q: In what way does the Rankine vortex model simplify the understanding of rotational flows in a fluid, and what assumptions does it make about vorticity distribution?

The Rankine vortex model simplifies the understanding of rotational flows by assuming a sharp distinction in vorticity distribution, where the vorticity is constant within a core of radius ξ, and zero outside. It assumes rotational symmetry and independence along the axis of the vortex. Such simplification allows studying the velocity field analytically, demonstrating behaviors like the decrease of tangential velocity with radial distance outside the core (∝1/r), exemplifying a near-real vortex where vorticity is concentrated rather than diffusely spread .

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Etienne Guyon, Jean-Pierre Hulin, Luc Petit & Catalin D. Mitescu - Physical Hydrodynamics - Oxford University Press (2015)

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PHYSICAL HYDRODYNAMICS

Physical Hydrodynamics
Second Edition

Etienne Guyon
Honorary director of Ecole normale supérieure. Ecole supérieure de Physique et Chimie (Paris)

Jean-Pierre Hulin
Senior CNRS Research Scientist, Emeritus, FAST Laboratory, Paris-Saclay University.

Luc Petit
Professor of Physics, ILM Laboratory, Université Claude Bernard-Lyon1

Catalin D. Mitescu
Professor of Physics, Emeritus at Pomona College

3
3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
Translated with revisions and extensions from the French language edition of:
Hydrodynamique physique – 3e édition
De Etienne Guyon, Jean-Pierre Hulin et Luc Petit
© 2012 Editions EDP Sciences
English Edition © Oxford University Press 2015
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted
First Edition published in 2001
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2014936053
ISBN 978–0–19–870244–3 (hbk.)
ISBN 978–0–19–870245–0 (pbk.)
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
Foreword

Fluid mechanics is a subject with a long history, but yet is young with regard to recent
discoveries, and has many applications which affect everyday life. Its history is a parade of
the great names of science: from the eighteenth century the Bernoullis, Euler and Lagrange;
from the nineteenth century Cauchy, Navier, Stokes, Helmholtz, Rayleigh, Reynolds and
Lamb; and from the twentieth century Couette, Prandtl, [Link] and Kolmogorov.
In the natural environment, we can now rely on the 5-day weather forecasts and tornado
warnings; early success in predicting tides is today applied to automated tsunami warn-
ings; understanding the circulation in the oceans and atmosphere is applied to pollution,
the ozone hole and climate change. In the interior of the earth, fluid mechanics is impor-
tant in mantle convection, volcanoes and their dust clouds, oil reservoirs and possible CO2
sequestration.
Fluid mechanics is central to many industries. The design of aircraft developed from
simple ideas in the early twentieth century to low-drag forms of wings with winglets at their
tips and improved body profiles by the end of the century. At the same time, jet-noise was
dramatically reduced with the introduction of wide entrance bypass fans which shield the
fast jet. Simple and complex fluids are processed in various manufacturing industries: for
glass and other materials, chemical engineering and food processing.
Recent research in fluid mechanics includes: microfluidics at the micron scale with the
possibility of multiple simultaneous tests of small biological samples; similar scales and
effects of wettability in ink-jet-printing; the ideas of convection allowing the design of
energy-efficient buildings by using natural convection; and the control of instabilities and
turbulence.
With such a wealth of ideas and applications, there is a major challenge of how to teach
the subject. Some material is best left to specialized Masters courses. But the basic core has
to be taught in a way to help students’ progress to the advanced topics, current and future.
The authors of this book have adopted in my opinion an approach and style which should
interest and educate students, preparing them for the future. I fear that some alternative
approaches fail on this: some engineering courses have an over-reliance on Computational
Fluid Dynamics, which can be unsafe in novel applications; some mathematical courses are
lost in the enormous difficulty of proving the governing equations have, or do not have,
solutions in the simplest of situations, an open Clay prize problem. The approach in this
book is grounded in experiment and reality. The chosen structure of the presentation helps
students come to deep insights into the subject.
In my opinion, the subject of fluid mechanics has benefited in the last 30 years from
the contributions of French physicists such as the authors of this book, bringing a fresh
approach to the subject along with novel experimental techniques and an appreciation of
practicalities.

John Hinch
University of Cambridge
Contents

Introduction xv

1 The Physics of Fluids 1

1.1 The liquid state 1
1.1.1 The different states of matter: model systems and real media 2
1.1.2 The solid–liquid transition: a sometimes nebulous boundary 5
1.2 Macroscopic transport coefficients 5
1.2.1 Thermal conductivity 6
1.2.2 Mass diffusion 11
1.3 Microscopic models for transport phenomena 13
1.3.1 The random walk 13
1.3.2 Transport coefficients for ideal gases 15
1.3.3 Diffusive transport phenomena in liquids 19
1.4 Surface effects and surface tension 21
1.4.1 Surface tension 21
1.4.2 Pressure differences associated with surface tension 23
1.4.3 Spreading of drops on a surface – the idea of wetting 25
1.4.4 Influence of gravity 27
1.4.5 Some methods for measuring the surface tension 29
1.4.6 The Rayleigh–Taylor instability 31
1.5 Scattering of electromagnetic waves and particles in fluids 33
1.5.1 Some probes of the structure of liquids 33
1.5.2 Elastic and inelastic scattering 34
1.5.3 Elastic and quasi elastic scattering of light: a tool for studying the structure and diffusive transport in liquids 37
1.5.4 Inelastic scattering of light in liquids 40
1A Appendix - Transport coefficients in fluids 42

2 Momentum Transport Under Various Flow Conditions 43

2.1 Diffusive and convective transport of momentum in flowing fluids 43
2.1.1 Diffusion and convection of momentum: two illustrative experiments 43
2.1.2 Momentum transport in a shear flow – introduction of the viscosity 45
2.2 Microscopic models of the viscosity 48
2.2.1 Viscosity of gases 48
2.2.2 Viscosity of liquids 49
2.2.3 Numerical simulation of molecular trajectories in a flow 51
2.3 Comparison between diffusion and convection mechanisms 52
2.3.1 The Reynolds number 52
2.3.2 Convective and diffusive mass, or thermal energy, transport 53
2.4 Description of various flow regimes 55
2.4.1 Flows in a cylindrical tube: Reynolds’ experiment 56
2.4.2 Various flow regimes in the wake of a cylinder 57
2.4.3 Flow behind a sphere 58
viii Contents

3 Kinematics of Fluids 60
3.1 Description of the motion of a fluid 60
3.1.1 Characteristic linear scales and the hypothesis of continuity 60
3.1.2 Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions of fluid motion 61
3.1.3 Acceleration of a particle of fluid 61
3.1.4 Streamlines and stream-tubes, trajectories and streaklines 63
3.2 Deformations in flows 64
3.2.1 Local components of the velocity gradient field 64
3.2.2 Analysis of the symmetric component of the rate of strain tensor: pure strain 65
3.2.3 Antisymmetric component of the tensor of the rate of deformation: pure rotation 68
3.2.4 Application 70
3.2.5 Case of large deformations 71
3.3 Conservation of mass in a moving fluid 72
3.3.1 Equation for the conservation of mass 73
3.3.2 Condition for an incompressible fluid 73
3.3.3 Rotational flows; potential flows 75
3.4 The stream function 75
3.4.1 Introduction and significance of the stream function 75
3.4.2 Stream functions for two-dimensional flows 77
3.4.3 Stream functions for axially symmetric flows 79
3.5 Visualization and measurement of the velocity and of the velocity gradients in flows 80
3.5.1 Visualization of flows 81
3.5.2 Concentration measurements 83
3.5.3 A few methods for measuring the local velocity in a fluid 83
3.5.4 Measurements of the velocity field and of velocity–gradients in a flowing fluid 86

4 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows 90

4.1 Surface forces 90
4.1.1 General expression for the surface forces: stresses in a fluid 90
4.1.2 Characteristics of the viscous shear stress tensor 92
4.1.3 The viscous shear-stress tensor for a Newtonian fluid 93
4.2 Equation of motion for a fluid 95
4.2.1 General equation for the dynamics of a fluid 95
4.2.2 Navier–Stokes equation of motion for a Newtonian fluid 97
4.2.3 Euler’s equation of motion for an ideal fluid 97
4.2.4 Dimensionless form of the Navier–Stokes equation 98
4.3 Boundary conditions for fluid flow 98
4.3.1 Boundary condition at a solid wall 98
4.3.2 Boundary conditions at the interface between two fluids: surface tension effects 99
4.4 Non-Newtonian fluids 101
4.4.1 Measurement of rheological characteristics 101
4.4.2 Time-independent non-Newtonian fluids 102
4.4.3 Non-Newtonian time-dependent fluids 106
4.4.4 Complex viscosity and elasticity of viscoelastic fluids 108
4.4.5 Anisotropic normal stresses 111
4.4.6 Elongational viscosity 113
4.4.7 Summary of the principal kinds of non-Newtonian fluids 114
4.5 One-dimensional flow of viscous Newtonian fluids 115
4.5.1 Navier–Stokes equation for one-dimensional flow 115
Contents ix

4.5.2 Couette flow between parallel planes 116

4.5.3 Poiseuille-type flows 117
4.5.4 Oscillating flows in a viscous fluid 120
4.5.5 Parallel flow resulting from a horizontal density variation 124
4.5.6 Cylindrical Couette flow 125
4.6 Simple one-dimensional, steady state flows of non-Newtonian fluids 127
4.6.1 Steady-state Couette plane flow 128
4.6.2 One-dimensional flow between fixed walls 128
4.6.3 Velocity profiles for simple rheological behavior 130
4.6.4 Flow of a viscoelastic fluid near an oscillating plane 132
4A Appendix - Representation of the equations of fluid mechanics in different systems of coordinates 134
4A.1 Representation of the stress-tensor, the equation of conservation of mass and the Navier–Stokes
equations in Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) 134
4A.2 Representation of the stress-tensor, the equation of conservation of mass, and the Navier–Stokes
equations in cylindrical coordinates (r, ϕ, z) 134
4A.3 Representation of the stress-tensor, the equation of conservation of mass, and the Navier–Stokes
equations in spherical polar coordinates (r, θ , ϕ) 135
Exercises 136

5 Conservation Laws 138

5.1 Equation of conservation of mass 138
5.2 Conservation of momentum 139
5.2.1 The local equation 139
5.2.2 The integral expression of the law of conservation of momentum 139
5.3 The conservation of kinetic energy; Bernoulli’s Equation 142
5.3.1 The conservation of energy for a flowing incompressible fluid with or without viscosity 143
5.3.2 Bernoulli’s equation and its applications 146
5.3.3 Applications of Bernoulli’s equation 147
5.4 Applications of the laws of conservation of energy and momentum 152
5.4.1 Jet incident onto a plane 152
5.4.2 Exit jet from an opening in a reservoir 154
5.4.3 Force on the walls of an axially symmetric conduit of varying cross-section 157
5.4.4 Liquid sheets of varying thickness: the hydraulic jump 158
Exercises 164

6 Potential Flow 166

6.1 Introduction 166
6.2 Definitions, properties and examples of potential flow 167
6.2.1 Characteristics and examples of velocity potentials 167
6.2.2 Uniqueness of the velocity potential 168
6.2.3 Velocity potentials for simple flows and combinations of potential functions 170
6.2.4 Examples of simple potential flows 174
6.3 Forces acting on an obstacle in potential flow 180
6.3.1 Two-dimensional flows 181
6.3.2 Added mass effects for a three-dimensional body undergoing acceleration in an ideal fluid 184
6.4 Linear surface waves on an ideal fluid 187
6.4.1 Swell, ripples and breaking waves 187
6.4.2 Trajectories of fluid particles during the passage of a wave 191
6.4.3 Solitons 192
6.4.4 Another example of potential flow in the presence of an interface: the Taylor bubble 193
x Contents

6.5 Electrical analog for two-dimensional potential flows 194

6.5.1 Direct analog 195
6.5.2 Inverse analog 195
6.6 Complex velocity potential 196
6.6.1 Definition of the complex potential 196
6.6.2 Complex velocity potential for several types of flow 197
6.6.3 Conformal mapping 199
6A Appendix: Velocity potentials and stream functions 206
6A.1 Velocity potentials and stream functions for two-dimensional flows 206
6A.2 Derivation of the velocity components from the stream function 207
6A.3 Derivation of the velocity components from the velocity potential function 207
Exercises 207

7 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows 210

7.1 Vorticity: its definition, and an example of straight vortex filaments 210
7.1.1 The concept of vorticity 210
7.1.2 A simple model of a line vortex: the Rankine vortex 212
7.1.3 Electromagnetic analogies 215
7.2 Dynamics of the circulation of the flow velocity 218
7.2.1 Kelvin’s theorem: conservation of the circulation 218
7.2.2 Sources of circulation 221
7.3 Dynamics of vorticity 226
7.3.1 Transport equation for vorticity, and its consequences 226
7.3.2 Equilibrium between elongation and diffusion in the dynamics of vorticity 230
7.4 A few examples of distributions of vorticity concentrated along singularities 232
7.4.1 Vorticity concentrated along specific lines 232
7.4.2 Dynamics of a system of parallel-line vortices 233
7.4.3 Vortex rings 239
7.5 Vortices, vorticity and movement in air and water 241
7.5.1 Thrust due to an emission of vortices 241
7.5.2 The effects of lift 243
7.5.3 Lift and propulsion 246
7.6 Rotating fluids 247
7.6.1 Motion of a fluid in a rotating reference frame 247
7.6.2 Flows at small Rossby numbers 252
7.6.3 Waves within rotating fluids 255
7.6.4 The effect of viscosity near the walls: the Ekman layer 263
7.7 Vorticity, rotation and secondary flows 266
7.7.1 Secondary flows due to the curvature of channels or due to channels with a free surface 266
7.7.2 Secondary flows in transient motion 267
7.7.3 Secondary flows associated with Ekman layer effects 269
7A Appendix - An almost perfect fluid: superfluid helium 270
7A.1 General considerations 270
7A.2 Two-fluid model for superfluid helium 271
7A.3 Experimental evidence for the existence of a superfluid component which flows without any energy
dissipation 271
7A.4 Superfluid helium: a quantum fluid 272
7A.5 Experiments involving superfluid vortices 273
Exercises 274
Contents xi

8 Quasi-Parallel Flows – Lubrication Approximation 277

8.1 Lubrication approximation 277
8.1.1 Quasi-parallel flows 277
8.1.2 Assumptions of the lubrication approximation 278
8.1.3 Non-stationary effects 280
8.1.4 Equations of motion in the lubrication approximation 280
8.1.5 An example of the application of the equation for lubrication: stationary flow between two
moving planes making a small angle to each other 281
8.1.6 Flow of a fluid film of arbitrary thickness 283
8.1.7 Flow between two eccentric cylinders with nearly equal radii 286
8.1.8 Lubrication and surface roughness 288
8.2 Flow of liquid films having a free surface: hydrodynamics of wetting 288
8.2.1 Dynamics of thin liquid films, neglecting surface-tension effects 289
8.2.2 Dynamic contact angles 290
8.2.3 Dynamics of the spread of droplets on a flat surface 293
8.2.4 Flows resulting from surface-tension gradients: the Marangoni effect 296
8.3 Falling liquid cylindrical jet 300
8.3.1 Stable flow regime 300
8.3.2 Capillary effects and Rayleigh-Plateau instability of the jet 302
Exercises 304

9 Flows at Low Reynolds Number 308

9.1 Flows at small Reynolds number 308
9.1.1 Physical meaning of the Reynolds number 308
9.1.2 Examples of flows at low Reynolds number 309
9.1.3 Some important characteristic 310
9.2 Equation of motion at low Reynolds number 311
9.2.1 Stokes equation 311
9.2.2 Some equivalent forms of the Stokes equation 312
9.2.3 Properties of the solutions of the Stokes equation 312
9.2.4 Dimensional arguments for low Reynolds number flows 319
9.3 Forces and torques acting on a moving solid body 321
9.3.1 Linearity of the equations governing the velocity of the solid body and the forces acting on it 321
9.3.2 The effect of the symmetry properties of solid bodies on the applied forces and torques 322
9.3.3 Propulsion at low Reynolds numbers 326
9.4 Constant-velocity motion of a sphere in a viscous fluid 327
9.4.1 The velocity field around a moving sphere 327
9.4.2 Force acting on a moving sphere: the drag coefficient 331
9.4.3 Generalization of the solution of the Stokes equation to other experiments 333
9.5 Limitations of the Stokes description at low Reynolds numbers 338
9.5.1 Oseen’s equation 338
9.5.2 Forces on an infinite circular cylinder in a uniform flow (Re 1) 340
9.6 Dynamics of suspensions 341
9.6.1 Rheology of suspensions 342
9.6.2 Sedimentation of particles in suspension 344
9.7 Flow in porous media 345
9.7.1 A few examples 345
9.7.2 Parameters characterizing a porous medium 346
xii Contents

9.7.3 Flow in saturated porous media–Darcy’s Law 348

9.7.4 Simple models of the permeability of porous media 352
9.7.5 Relationship between the electrical conductivity and the permeability of porous media 354
9.7.6 Flow of immiscible fluids in a porous medium 356
Exercises 360

10 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers 363

10.1 Introduction 363
10.2 Structure of the boundary layer near a flat plate in uniform flow 364
10.3 Equations of motion within the boundary layer – Prandtl theory 366
10.3.1 Equations of motion near a flat plate 366
10.3.2 Transport of vorticity in the boundary layer 368
10.3.3 Self-similarity of the velocity profiles in the boundary layer for the case of uniform, constant,
external velocity 368
10.4 Velocity profiles within boundary layers 370
10.4.1 Blasius equation for uniform external flow along a flat plate 370
10.4.2 Velocity profile: the solution of Blasius’s equation 371
10.4.3 Frictional force on a flat plate in uniform flow 373
10.4.4 Thicknesses of the boundary layers 374
10.4.5 Hydrodynamic stability of a laminar boundary layer – transition to turbulence 375
10.5 Laminar boundary layer in the presence of an external pressure gradient: boundary layer separation 376
10.5.1 Simplified physical treatment of the problem 376
10.5.2 Self-similar velocity profiles – flows of the form U (x) = C xm 376
10.5.3 Boundary layers of constant thickness 379
10.5.4 Flows lacking self-similarity – boundary layer separation 380
10.5.5 Practical consequences of boundary layer separation 381
10.6 Aerodynamics and boundary layers 381
10.6.1 Control of boundary layers on an airplane wing 381
10.6.2 Aerodynamics of road vehicles and trains 383
10.6.3 Aerodynamics of other land-based vehicles 385
10.6.4 Active and reactive control of the drag force and of the lift 386
10.7 Wake and laminar jet 386
10.7.1 Equation of motion of the wake 386
10.7.2 Drag force on a body – relationship with the velocity in the wake 389
10.7.3 Two-dimensional laminar jet 392
10.8 Thermal and mass boundary layers 393
10.8.1 Thermal boundary layers 393
10.8.2 Concentration boundary layers, polarography 397
10.8.3 Taylor dispersion 403
10.9 Flames 406
10.9.1 Flames, mixing and chemical reactions 407
10.9.2 Laminar diffusion flames 408
10.9.3 Premixed flames 411
10.9.4 Instability of a plane, premixed flame 414
Exercises 415

11 Hydrodynamic instabilities 417

11.1 A global approach to instability: the Landau model 417
11.1.1 A simple experimental model of a mechanical instability 418
Contents xiii

11.1.2 Flow around a cylinder in the neighborhood of the vortex-generation threshold 420
11.1.3 Time-dependent evolution of the instabilities in the Landau model 420
11.2 The Rayleigh-Bénard instability 423
11.2.1 Convective thermal transport equations 423
11.2.2 Stability of a layer of fluid in the presence of a vertical gradient of temperature 424
11.2.3 Description of the Rayleigh–Bénard instability 425
11.2.4 Mechanism for the Rayleigh–Bénard instability and corresponding orders of magnitude 425
11.2.5 Two-dimensional solution of the Rayleigh–Bénard problem 427
11.2.6 The Landau model applied to Rayleigh–Bénard convection 432
11.2.7 Evolution toward turbulence above the convection threshold 432
11.3 Other closed box instabilities 433
11.3.1 Thermocapillary Bénard-Marangoni instability 433
11.3.2 Taylor–Couette instability 437
11.3.3 Other centrifugal instabilities 439
11.4 Instabilities in open flows 440
11.4.1 Kelvin–Helmholtz instability 440
11.4.2 Role of the shape of the velocity profile for open flows 445
11.4.3 Sub-critical instabilities for Poiseuille and Couette flows 446

12 Turbulence 448
12.1 A long history 448
12.2 The fundamental equations 449
12.2.1 Statistical description of turbulent flows 449
12.2.2 Derivatives of average values 450
12.2.3 Governing equations of turbulent flows 451
12.2.4 Energy balance in a turbulent flow 453
12.2.5 Transport of the vorticity in a turbulent flow 455
12.3 Empirical expressions for the Reynolds tensor and applications to free flows 457
12.3.1 Closure of the Reynolds equation 457
12.3.2 Eddy viscosity 458
12.3.3 Mixing length 458
12.3.4 Other practical approaches to turbulence 459
12.4 Free turbulent flows: jets and wakes 460
12.4.1 Basic properties of two-dimensional and turbulent jets and wakes 460
12.4.2 Self-similar velocity fields in two-dimensional jets and wakes 463
12.4.3 Three-dimensional axially symmetric turbulent jets and wakes 465
12.5 Flows near a solid wall 466
12.5.1 Qualitative properties of turbulent flows in the presence of a wall 466
12.5.2 Stationary turbulent flows parallel to a plane wall 466
12.5.3 Turbulent flow between two parallel plates 469
12.5.4 Pressure losses and coefficient of friction for flows between parallel planes and in tubes 473
12.5.5 Turbulent boundary layers 475
12.5.6 Separation of turbulent boundary layers 477
12.6 Homogeneous turbulence – Kolmogorov’s theory 479
12.6.1 Energy cascade in a homogeneous turbulent flow 479
12.6.2 Spectral expression of Kolmogorov’s laws 482
12.6.3 Experimental verification of Kolmogorov’s theory 485
xiv Contents

12.7 Other aspects of turbulence 486

12.7.1 Intermittent turbulence 486
12.7.2 Coherent turbulent structures 486
12.7.3 Dynamics of vortices in two-dimensional turbulence 487
Exercises 488

Solutions to the Exercises 491

Bibliography 502
Index 507
Introduction

The place of fluid mechanics has been poorly defined in the scientific world. On the one
hand, it has a strong connection with applied mathematics, in particular in France where
the impact of such research has been extremely important from the nineteenth century
onward. In recent times, this tendency has been reinforced by significant developments of
computational science in such domains as turbulence and instabilities. On the other hand,
engineering communities deal with sophisticated technical problems regarding flows and
transfer of heat and matter, which require approximate solutions, but where some basic
understanding is often missing. A consequence of this state of affairs is that both physicists
and chemists, who are also involved in these issues, have remained on the sidelines. This was
the case in the basic training of the authors of the present book. Yet another possible reason
has been the strong polarization of physicists towards problems on the quantum scale, and
relativity, although the pioneering giants of the field (Einstein, Bohr, Heisenberg . . .) had a
good background in continuum mechanics. For a long time, physicists did not follow closely
the important developments in the field, or followed them only indirectly: for example, the
information on perfect flows and vorticity, of three of the authors of the present volume was
triggered by their experimental work on superfluid Helium. The study of hydrodynamic
instabilities was approached by analogies with phase transitions. Physical chemists dealt
with complex materials such as liquid crystals, colloids, or polymers: they had to apply
mechanics but also other approaches like scaling laws.
This schematic description of a mutual ignorance applies less and less frequently now-
adays. Over the last decades, the interaction between scientists trained in physics and in
mechanics has continued to increase through a great deal of joint research. The first edition
of Physical Hydrodynamics, which was published in English 13 years ago, is presented in a
completely renewed and expanded form and content while keeping the same physical, ped-
agogical approach. Moreover, 36 exercises have been added at the end of selected chapters
and their correction is provided at the end of the book.
Indeed, in the course of the last 30 years, physicists and chemists have approached the
subject in a manner complementary to classical mechanics. This implied the use of ex-
perimental and theoretical tools which had been developed for domains of physics such as
condensed matter, statistical physics and material science. International conferences such
as the APS-DFD or Euromech meetings led to interactions between participants with very
diverse backgrounds. A broader field of applications has also been considered, such as in
the life sciences, in addition to more classical engineering ones. But this also implies less
formal ways of reasoning, such as for example, scaling approaches making extensive use of
the classical tools of experimental physics.
The present book is based on our experience as experimental physicists. Actually, the
word “hydrodynamics” is somewhat misleading and we use it in the sense that was given
in Hydrodynamica by Daniel Bernoulli. We deal here not only with liquids but also with
gas flows such that compressibility effects cannot be ignored. We have therefore excluded
such problems as high-velocity gas flows, which involve a coupling between the equation
of motion and thermodynamics. One specificity of our approach is to attempt to tie in,
as often as possible, the macroscopic behavior of fluids to their microscopic properties.
We also rely, as often as is reasonable, on order of magnitude arguments rather than just
xvi Introduction

on formal derivations. Thus, in introducing dimensionless numbers, as is customary in the

field, we stress the fact they are ratios (in Greek, αναλoγια, analogy, which means ratio)
of similar quantities such as characteristic lengths, times, energies, and so on, rather than
relying on algebraic manipulations based on dimensional analysis. This was the approach of
Osborne Reynolds in introducing the dimensionless quantity which bears his name. Rather
than “cookbook recipes”, we look for a deeper physical understanding of the mechanisms
at play in a field extremely rich in experimental observations.
The book can be roughly divided into three parts:
The first five chapters (1 to 5) are devoted to the basic and classical elements of fluid
mechanics. In the first chapter, we give a schematic description typical of elementary
out-of-equilibrium statistical physics on non-equilibrium transport processes and of the
spectroscopic tools used for these studies. Diffusive versus convective processes are dis-
cussed in the following chapter. Kinematics and dynamics of flows as well as the use of
conservation laws provide the classical foundation of the book.
Different regimes of flows are analyzed in the following four chapters (6 to 9): potential
flows, flows governed by vorticity (with an extension to rotating flows as encountered in
geostrophic conditions); quasi-parallel flows and low Reynolds numbers flows.
The last chapters (10 to 12) are devoted to more detailed and complex phenomena which
simultaneously involve different mechanisms: boundary-layer flows lead to many applica-
tions as, in particular, those found in chemical engineering. Unstable flows are presented
in a simple way emphasizing the coupling between the different mechanisms involved and,
finally, the chapter on turbulent flows in which mathematical developments have been kept
to a minimum.
As stated above, our physicists’ approach was initiated by our research work on various
themes on fluid mechanics not often dealt with by specialists of classical mechanics (such
as, sound in superfluid He4 , instabilities in liquid crystals, percolation in porous media).
Our basic training made use of references such as Landau’s Fluid Mechanics. However,
over the course of time, we benefited from other communities and, in particular, the British
school of G.I. Taylor (the exquisite four volumes of his complete works) and direct con-
tacts with G.K. Batchelor who provided us an access to a pragmatic approach to fluids
where ingenious experimental discoveries are accompanied with rigorous reasoning and
more mathematical treatment well connected with experimental reality. The teaching of
John Hinch, who has accepted to write a “Foreword” to this book, and Keith Moffatt, who
introduced fluid mechanics to a number of us in a famous summer institute in Les Houches,
in 1973, have provided us with a number of fine tools suitable both for our research as well
as for undergraduate and graduate teaching at the origin of this book. In the USA, connec-
tions with A. Acrivos, J. Brady, G. Homsy, J. Koplik, L. Mahadevan, H. Stone and many
other colleagues have broadened our vision of the field. Our initial curiosity was stirred up
by several films of the NCFMF (National Committee for Fluid Mechanics Films), and by
the Album of Fluid Motion of M. Van Dyke (which inspired our “Ce que disent les fluides”
in French). More recently, the Multimedia Fluid Mechanics project directed by G. Homsy
has broadened the range of documents available for teaching purposes. Our English speak-
ing colleagues which have used the recent French edition of the book in their classes have
encouraged us to produce this new, second edition of Physical Hydrodynamics.
Above all, it is in the everyday life of class and laboratory activities that the book
has been constructed. The research and teaching of P. Bergé, B. Castaing, C. Clanet,
Y. Couder, M. Farge, M. Fermigier, P. Gondret, E. Guazzelli, J.F. Joanny, F. Moisy,
B. Perrin, Y. Pomeau, M. Rabaud, D. Salin, B. Semin, J.E. Wesfreid and many others are
at the origin of elements of this book. We wish to thank particularly several colleagues who
have directly contributed to specific parts of this book: C. Allain (non-Newtonian flows),
Introduction xvii

A. Ambari (polarogaphy), A.M. Cazabat (dynamics of wetting), M. Champion (flames),

C. Clanet and D. Quéré (capillarity), P. Gondret (exercises), F. Moisy (text and exercises
on turbulence and rotating flows), C. Nore (MHD), N. Ribe (free liquid jets) and J. Teixeira
(spectroscopy of fluids).
The translation, as well as the necessary adjustment to the English scientific form, has
been made essentially by C.D. Mitescu. We express our gratitude to Dr. Natalie Reinert,
DVM, who has edited the book during the last year. She has also contributed greatly to the
style of the translation. Our gratitude goes to Mrs Nicole Mitescu, wife of C.D. Mitescu
and mother of Nathalie for proof reading the book. We thank her as well as Marie Yvonne,
Danièle and Christine for their patience during the preparation of this new edition.

E. Guyon, J.P. Hulin, L. Petit, C.D. Mitescu

Figure 1.16 (a) Geometry of an arbitrary
boundary surface between two fluids (1) and
(a) (b)
(2), illustrating the corresponding defini-
(2) tion of the principal radii of curvature R
and R ; (b) the surface of a soap film
n R
stretched between two circular metal rings (at
|R'|
the top and bottom of the figure) is open
and, thus, the pressure on the two sides
R of the film is the same. The local mean
R' (1) curvature C = [(1/R) + (1/R )] is thus zero at
every point. The surface generated in this
way, a catenoid, achieves a minimum in
the surface area of the film, while taking
into account the boundary conditions im-
posed by the two rings. (after a photograph
by S. Schwartzenberg, © Exploratorium,
[Link])

Figure 1.30 Rayleigh scattering from a

beam of white light (coming from the left) inci-
dent on a container filled with water to which
a tiny amount of milk has been added. The
light scattered at right angles to the beam has
a bluish tint while the light transmitted to
the screen is reddish. (document courtesy of
B. Valeur)
Figure 2.10 Satellite view of cloud forma-
tions in the vortex street emitted behind the
volcanic island of Rishiri-to off the northern
tip of Hokkaidō in the Sea of Japan (docu-
ment NASA, mission STS100)

20 < Re < 212

Figure 2.11 Views from the top (a,b,c,d)
and back (e,f,g) of the flow behind a sphere
(at the left) visualized by injection of a fluo-
rescent dye. For increasing Reynolds num-
bers Re, evaluated on the basis of the up- 212 < Re < 267
stream velocity and the diameter of the
sphere, one observes in succession (a) a toroï-
dal vortex attached on the downstream side
of the sphere ( 20 < Re < 212); (b,e) two
fixed vortices with their axis parallel to the
main flow ( 212 < Re < 267); (c, f) two os- 267 < Re < 280
cillating vortices ( 267 < Re < 280); (d,g)
“hairpin”-like structures (Re > 280) (docu-
ments A. Przadka and S. Goujon Durand,
PMMH-ESPCI)
Re > 280
Figure 3.14 Visualization, by means of
streaklines of dye, of the flow around a cy-
lindrical obstacle with its axis perpendicular
to the plane of the figure. The flow is from left
to right and the dye is injected at 11 discrete
points (at the left of the figure). We note the
recirculation zone just downstream of the cyl-
inder. (document courtesy of L. Auffray and
P. Jenffer, Université Paris-Sud)

Figure 3.19 Visualization by the Schlieren

method of the variations in the index of re-
fraction of air, resulting from temperature
changes near a butane torch (lower plume)
and a heated glass rod (upper plume) (do-
cument courtesy of I. Smith)

Figure 3.21 Display of a turbulent jet of

liquid injected (from the left) into an identi-
cal fluid at rest. A fluorescent dye has been
added to the jet, illuminated by a light-sheet
in the plane of the figure and coinciding
with the axis of the jet. The colours corres-
pond to the local concentration of the dye in
the plane of the image (document courtesy of
C. Fukushima & J. Westerweel)
(a) (b)

Figure 3.25 Measurement by means of the

PIV technique of (a) the velocity field and
(b) the vorticity field of a vortex ring resulting
from the propulsion of a squid (Lolliguncula
Brevis), as it emits a series of pulsed jets
(documents courtesy of I.K. Bartol, P.S.
Vortex ring
Krueger, W. J. Stewart et J.T. Thompson) with a short tail
Velocity (cm.s–1) Vorticity (s–1)
0 20 40 -100 0 100

Figure 3.26 Flow toward a plane (at the 250

bottom of the figure) where there is a zero- 300
velocity stagnation point in the center of the
plane: (a) basic image: long exposure visuali-
zation of the streamlines by the use of particles
carried along by the flow; the colours corre- y y
spond to the vorticity field calculated from the
(μm) (μm)
velocity field of the image (b). Red and dark
blue correspond to zones of high vorticities
of opposite signs. - (b) velocity field obtained
by the micro-velocimetry technique from the
observation of the same particles (documents 00 0
x (μm) 200 0 x (μm) 350
courtesy of C. Pirat, G. Bolognesi and C.
Cottin-Bizonne, LPMCN-Lyon) (a) (b)
(a) (b)

Figure 4.16 Rise at two successive times,

around a rotating axis, of a viscoelastic
fluid (polystyrene dissolved in an organic
solvent): this phenomenon demonstrates the
Weissenberg effect (documents courtesy of
J. Bico, G. Mc Kinley, MIT)

Figure 4.17 The winding on a rotating

spool of a free layer of the viscoelastic fluid
shown in Figure 4.16 demonstrates the effect
of its high elongational viscosity (documents
courtesy of J. Bico, G. Mc Kinley, MIT)
(a) (b)

Figure 5.6 Deviation of a jet of fluid along

the curved surface of a cylinder. (a) Deflection
of the jet and attraction force on the cyl-
inder. (b) schematic diagram displaying the R
balance of the forces acting (document Belin –θi
publishers) Fp θi

v'
v e

Δv

Figure 5.11 Tidal bore heading up (to the

right) the Petitcodiac river, near its estuary in
the Bay of Fundy, in the Canadian province
of New Brunswick (document C. L. Gresley)
(a) (b)

Figure 7.1 (a) View, from a satellite above the Gulf of Mexico, of Hurricane Katrina, which devastated New Orleans in August
2005 (document NOAA). (b) Waterspout on the ocean offshore from the southern Florida islands. Note the spiral secondary flow at
the surface of the water (document V. Golden, NOAA)

Figure 7.17 Observation of a vortex ring

rising above the volcano Etna, as seen from
the “Torre del filosofo”. On can see, as the
ring moves, the displacement of its shadow
on the outer slope of the crater (document J.
Alean)
U 2
1
0 y
Figure 7.24 Vorticity field behind an oscil- (cm ) 40
lating wing of width d = 0.5 cm within a –1
(a) (s–1)
flow of constant Reynolds number Re = 255 U 2 20
for several amplitudes A of the oscillations of
1 y
the wing characterized by normalized values
0 (cm ) 0
Ad = A/d = 0.36 (a), 0.71(b), 1.07 (c) (the re-
spective Strouhal numbers are SrA = fA/U: (b) –1
2 –20
0.08, 0.16, 0.24). The color scale corresponds U
to the local vorticity (in s–1 ) (document cour- 1
0 y –40
tesy R. Godoy-Diana, J.L. Aider and J.E. d A (cm )
Wesfreid) –1
(c) –2
0 2 4 6 8 10
x (cm )

U (a)

Figure 7.28 (a) Visualization of a flow

around a wing with the appearance of a vor-
tex (in blue) at the tip of the wing (plate
courtesy O. Cadot and T. Pichon, ENSTA). (b)
(b) Visualization, by injection of smoke at
ground level, of the vortex from the end of
the wing of a plane spraying agricultural
products (NASA document)
Figure 7.29 Diagram of the flow around
the sails of a yacht designed for the America’s
cup: vortices (twisted coloured streamlines)
are generated at the top of the mast, at the up-
per point where the jib is fastened, and below
the boom bordering the lower side of the main-
sail. The yacht sails upwind and the angle
between its axis and the wind at the top of the
mast is 22◦ (document courtesy C. Pashias,
South African America’s Cup Challenge)

Ω Z(t)=A cos (σt )

(a)

Laser sheet
cφ
cg Figure 7.35 (a) Generation of inertial
ez waves by a horizontal cylinder (in red) os-
cillating vertically in a fluid rotating around
ey ex Visualization a vertical axis. (b) View of the lower half of
one of the beams emitted by the oscillating
cylinder. The velocity field is visualized
0.08 by the Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)
(b)
technique in a plane perpendicular to the
0
axis of the cylinder in its middle point. The
θ
z (mm)

color scale corresponds to the gradient of the

0.04
–40 fluid velocity in the direction of the phase
velocity cϕ . (documents courtesy P.P. Cortet,
C. Lamriben and F. Moisy)
–80 0

cφ
–120 –0.04
cg
–160
–0.08
–150 –100 –50 0
x (mm) y (s–1)
Figure 8.17 (a) Top view of the rise of a (a) (b)
liquid along the walls of a glass due to the
Marangoni effect, and of the fall of the liquid
with a lower alcohol concentration in the form
of “teardrops” or “wine legs.” (b) Close-up
side view of a model experiment which dis- α
plays this phenomenon. One pulls a plate
inclined at an angle α relative to the ho-
rizontal from the water-alcohol mixture: this
creates on the plate a fluid film which drops
back as legs or teardrops. The narrower trans-
verse ridges correspond to a different flow
instability (documents courtesy of J. Bush and “teardrop”
P. Hosoi, MIT)

ρ,γ pat+ pat

∆pcap

Figure 8.19 Destabilization, by the

Rayleigh-Plateau mechanism, of a vertical
cylindrical liquid jet. a) experimental obser- λ = 2π/k
r
vation of the development of the instability,
followed by the formation of drops (document
O
courtesy of J. Aristoff and J. Bush, MIT);
b) Schematic diagram for the development of R(z,t)
the instability
h(t)

(a) z (b)
Figure 9.1 Illustration of Forbes’ bands on
the “Mer de Glace” glacier (the top of Mont
Blanc is visible at the back). The shape of
these bands as well as the downstream in-
crease of the amplitude of their deformation
indicate the transverse profile of the flow-
velocity of the glacier (from left to right on
the image), which is considerably smaller near
the edges. The separation between the bands
corresponds to the displacement over a whole
year: they are formed downstream of “seracs”
(fracture zones high up on the glacier) and
indicate the different level of penetration of
solids and dust particles into the ice, depend-
ing on the snow coverage (document, courtesy
of J-F Hagenmuller /[Link])

UV light

Initial spot Observation

Figure 9.3 Experiment displaying the cha-
of dye point
otic dispersion of a drop of dye initially
located between two cylinders with different
axes (distance OO = 0.3 R2 ) turning in al-
R2 O O' R1
ternating directions and through different
angles. (a) schematic diagram of the experi-
ment; (b) distribution of the dye after ten se-
quences of alternate rotations through angles
θ 0 = 270 ◦ (exterior cylinder) and –3 θ 0 (in-
terior cylinder) (image courtesy J.M. Ottino,
Northwestern University)

(a) (b)
φ = 25o
1.2

υx /U00 0.4
–0.4

Figure 10.15 Large-scale simulation (see (a)

Section 12.3.4) of the flow behind an Ahmed
body with angle ϕ = 25◦ in a flow of av-
erage velocity U0 = 40 m/s upstream of the –0.1
body (the flow is from left to right). Two p–pat –0.2
longitudinal vortices are visible on the simu- ρU0022/2
lation. (a) Streamlines: the color corresponds –0.4
0.05
to the normalized component vx /U0 of the
p–pat –0.03
velocity in the direction of the average flow.
(b) Pressure change (p – pat )/( ρU02 /2) relative ρU002/2
–0.1
to the normalized atmospheric pressure (co-
0.01
lors) and velocity field (vectors). The vortices p–pat
are displayed as regions of low pressure (in –0.04
ρU002/2
blue on Figure (b)). They represent an impor-
–0.08
tant contribution to the drag force (courtesy
M. Minguez, R. Pasquetti, and E. Serre)

(b)
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 10.24 (a) Bunsen burner (collection:

Powerhouse Museum, Sidney); (b) diffusion-
type flame (closed ferrule); (c) premixed flame
(open ferrule); ((b-c): excerpts from a docu-
ment by A. J. Fijałkowski)

Figure 10.28 Visualization of a premixed

flame illuminated by a plane light sheet. The
white region indicates the boundary between
the fresh gases (blue-green) and the burnt ones
(red). The fresh gases have been seeded with
small refractory grains of caesium oxide so as
to visualize the streamlines: these are deflected
as they cross the flame front (plate courtesy J.
Quinard and G. Searby, IRPHE)

Figure 10.30 Landau-Darrieus instability

of a premixed methane-air flame-front,
propagating freely from top to bottom within
a tube of diameter 14 cm, when no acoustic
resonance occur (plate courtesy of J. Quinard,
G. Searby, B. Denel, and J. Graña-Otero,
IRPHE)
Figure 11.6 Temperature-inversion layer
and accumulation of “smog” above
downtown Los Angeles (plate courtesy
M. Luethi)

(a)

Figure 11.16 (a) Experimental visualiza-

tion of an instability at the interface between
two immiscible liquids in a parallelepipedic
cell initially horizontal and tilted downward
to the right. (plate courtesy O. Pouliquen).
(b) Kelvin–Helmholtz instability in a layer (b)
of clouds above the bay of Jervis, New South
Wales, Australia (plate courtesy G. Goloy)
Figure 12.2 Cross-sectional view of a tur-
bulent jet lighted by a plane of light perpen-
dicular to its axis and injected into a volume
of the same fluid. The jet contains a fluo-
rescent dye while the external fluid is pure.
The colours indicate the concentration of the
dye, increasing from blue to red (plate courtesy
H.E. Catrakis et P.E. Dimotakis)
(a) (b)

Figure 12.19 Numerical simulation of the

evolution, in time, of a distribution of
vorticity, initially random within a two-
dimensional turbulent flow, and evolving
without further addition of external energy.
The colour code is used to represent the vor-
ticity field: red for the strongly positive values,
blue for the strongly negative values, grey for (c) (d)
low values and yellow for the value zero.
The images (a), (b), (c) and (d) correspond re-
spectively to normalized times t = 0, t = 1,
t = 3, t = 5 (plates courtesy M. Farge and J-F.
Colonna)

(a) (b)

Figure 12.20 Vorticity distribution in a 500 500

13 m diameter tank rotating around a ver- y y
tical axis normal to the plane of the figure
(rotation period = 30 s): (a) after 2 periods (mm) (mm)
(b) after 10 periods. The turbulent flow has
been created by the motion, in the plane of the 0 0
figure, of a grid perpendicular to it. The com-
ponent of the vorticity along the axis is shown
by the colours and the velocity field, by the
vectors. The cyclonic vorticity zones (in red)
corresponds to a local rotation of same orien- –500 –500
tation as the applied rotation; the anticyclonic –500 0 x (mm) 500 x (mm)
–500 0 500
zones of opposite sign are in blue (plates cour-
tesy F. Moisy, C. Morize, M. Rabaud and
J. Sommeria)

–0.5 0 π (s–1) 0.5 –0.2 0 π (s –1) 0.2

The Physics of Fluids

From a microscopic viewpoint, the study of the physics of fluids can be considered as a
1
branch of thermodynamics. In a classical thermodynamic approach, we study the equi-
librium states of pure substances – solids, liquids and gases – and the changes of state 1.1 The liquid state 1
between these phases. A generalization of this approach is the study of fluctuations in 1.2 Macroscopic transport coefficients 5
the immediate neighborhood of an equilibrium state; these fluctuations are not only 1.3 Microscopic models for transport
characteristic of the state, but also or the way in which equilibrium is reached. Thus, phenomena 13
for a physical system with a large number of particles, which has undergone a “small
1.4 Surface effects and surface tension 21
disturbance” relative to its state of thermodynamic equilibrium, there exist straightfor-
1.5 Scattering of electromagnetic
ward proportionality relations between the fluxes that tend to restore equilibrium and
waves and particles in fluids 33
the amplitude of the displacement.
The study of these relations and the definition of the transport coefficients which 1A Appendix - Transport coefficients
in fluids 42
characterize them constitute the core of this first chapter. The discussion first empha-
sizes a macroscopic viewpoint (Section 1.2), and then a microscopic one (Section 1.3).
We also analyze (Section 1.4) some of the surface phenomena which appear when two
fluids have a common boundary (interface). Finally, we provide a brief overview of the
application of optical spectroscopy, of X-ray techniques and of neutron scattering to
the study of liquids (Section 1.5); such measurements permit the study of fluctuations
about the equilibrium point and the subsequent evaluation of the transport coefficients.
At the outset, though, we present in Section 1.1 a simple description of the microscopic
nature of a fluid, and attempt to describe the influence of its microscopic characteristics
on its macroscopic properties.

1.1 The liquid state

The periodic arrangement of atoms in a crystal is quite familiar to us from X-ray stud-
ies of its microscopic structure, or from the observation of its external shape. In this – the
solid – state of matter, atoms remain fixed relative to one another except for small am-
plitude vibrations resulting from thermal motion. In the other extreme limit, gases at low
pressure are nothing but a dilute system of particles with mutual interactions, weak ex-
cept at the moment of a collision. Kinetic theory models of gases allow one to understand,
from a microscopic viewpoint, the evolution of their equilibrium variables, such as tem-
perature or pressure, except in the neighborhood of a critical point. On the other hand,
the precise description of a liquid—with characteristics midway between those of gases and
solids—is much more delicate; should we consider it a very dense gas or a disordered solid?
Microscopic models of liquids often combine features from these two extremes. In particu-
lar, model two-dimensional systems, both microscopic and macroscopic, provide a powerful
tool for the analysis of both the structure and the static properties of the various states of
matter.

Physical Hydrodynamics. Second Edition. Etienne Guyon et al.

1.1.1 The different states of matter: model systems

and real media
Visual representation of different states of matter by means of an air table

Figure 1.1 Configurations observed as a re-

sult of the movement of disks on a vibrating
air table, corresponding to different values of
the packing fraction, C: (a) model for the solid
state, C = 0.815; (b) liquid-state simulation,
C = 0.741 (plates, courtesy Piotr Pieranski)

(a) (b)

An air table consists of a large horizontal plate drilled with a pattern of identical, small
diameter and uniformy spaced holes, through which air at high pressure is forced upwards.
A set of identical disks of radius R, placed on the table, and levitated by the air flow, can thus
move around with negligible friction. “Thermal motion” of these disks can be simulated by
vibrations of the supporting horizontal plate, or of its lateral boundaries. Depending on
the mean concentration of the disks, we observe the characteristics of the different states
of matter. Figures 1.1a and 1.1b were obtained by fastening a small light source on each
disk and recording photographically the corresponding trajectories (with an exposure time
much longer than the mean time between collisions). The trajectories of the disks appear as
white traces on the figures.
The concentration is characterized by the ratio of the surface area covered by the disks
to the total area of the table—a ratio defined as the packing fraction, C.

Maximal packing fraction: C = CM The maximum value CM for two-dimensional

systems of disks, is obtained with a compact triangular packing. The disks then form a
perfect, two-dimensional crystal lattice (Figure 1.2); this state represents that of a perfect
crystal with no thermal vibrations.

Figure 1.2 Maximally compact configura-

tion for a packing of disks of uniform diam-
R 3
eter: their centers form a plane, triangular,
crystalline lattice (L)
R 3

2R
The liquid state 3

Proof
In this configuration, the elementary pattern (unit cell) which, repeated periodically,√
leads
to the triangular lattice, is a diamond-shaped figure (L) of surface area S0 = (2R)(2R) 3/2.
This unit cell contains exactly the equivalent area Sp = π R2 of one disk. We hence find a
packing fraction:

Sp π R2
CM = = √ = 0.901. (1.1)
S0 2R2 3

Some people refer to this, somewhat incorrectly, as a hexagonal lattice, which would
correspond to having an element at the vertices of a hexagon, with no element in the center.

High packing fraction So long as the packing fraction remains close to CM , the disks,
as observed from the trajectories of the luminous points (Figure 1.1a), undergo limited
displacements around their equilibrium positions. Their mean positions remain, however,
constant and the resultant average structure is periodic: we have there an image of atomic
vibrations in a solid. Such vibrations are associated with sound propagation; the displace-
ments of individual particles are transmitted from one neighbor to the next in response to
a disturbance applied at the other end of the solid, leading to propagation modes known
as phonons. But, in this packing, it is virtually impossible for two neighboring rows to un-
dergo a relative displacement greater than R and, consequently, each particle retains the
same neighbors. The amplitude of any resulting slippage is thus quite limited, and elastic
restoring forces result.

Medium packing fraction For a packing fraction smaller than C 0 ≈ 0.8, we have a
transition to a different regime: an individual particle is now able to escape from the “cage”
created by its neighbors. In this instance, particles no longer have a fixed position relative
to immediately adjacent ones; the system now simulates a two-dimensional “liquid” (Figure
1.1b). Simultaneously, the periodicity of the crystal has vanished. The resulting fluidity of
the system leads to the occurrence of global displacements of the disks with respect to each
other in response to a relative motion of the side walls of the container.

Low packing fraction C C 0 In this final instance, we have a “gas” of particles.√The

relative distance between “nearest neighbors” can now be quite large (of order R/ C),
whereas it was of order 2R for the “liquid.”

Numerical simulations in terms of a hard-disk model

Results similar to those of Section 1.1.1 can be obtained by means of numerical simulations
in which the interaction between particles is of the hard-disk type; in this case, the interac-
tion potential between pairs of particles is zero when the distance r between their centers
is greater than 2R, and infinitely repulsive when r ≤ 2R. These calculations confirm and
extend the results of the analog model we have presented above. These simulations can be
improved by introducing more realistic interaction potentials—such as the Lennard–Jones
potential,—which, for three-dimensional systems, is of the form:
12 6
2R 2R
V (r) = V0 – . (1.2)
r r
4 The Physics of Fluids

This potential allows one to take into account the very slight interpenetration between pairs
of particles, strongly limited by the Pauli exclusion principle, when r ≤ 2R; it also introduces
a weak, attractive, van der Waals interaction between particles, which becomes dominant at
large distances (r R). Equation 1.2 predicts the existence of a minimum in the potential
V(r) for a value r 0 of the order of 2.2 R, thus indicating a potentially stable equilibrium state
absent in the hard-disk or hard-sphere model. By introducing this potential, we alter slightly
the equation of state of the two-dimensional ideal gas, and obtain a result similar to the van
der Waals equation for pure substances. More specifically, there appears a domain where
liquid–gas coexistence is possible.

Three-dimensional models
In Section 1.1.1, we simulated the structure of solids and the solid–liquid transition by a sys-
tem of flat circular disks. Can we also create similar models in three-dimensions by stacking
(a) beads of uniform diameter, which we rearrange by shaking, or by fluidization techniques
(keeping them temporarily apart by forcing through them an upward stream of fluid from
the bottom of the stack)? We find that it is indeed possible to represent certain structural
forms of matter with the help of periodic packings of beads; such is the case, for example,
for the face-centered cubic (FCC) lattice (Figure 1.3a), of packing fraction 0.74.

Packing fraction of a face-centered cubic lattice √

In this periodic packing, the basic building block is a cube of side a = 4R/ 2 (Figure
1.3b), since the diagonal of the faces of this cube has a length 4R; this unit cell contains the
equivalent of four complete spheres of radius R. The packing fraction C (fraction of the
(111) volume taken up by the spheres) is thus:
S (b)

4 (4/3) πR3 4 (4/3) πR3 π

C=
a3
= √ 3 = 3√2 0, 74 (1.3)
4R/ 2

The value of 0.74 for the packing fraction of the FCC structure is the highest known for any
R
packing of spheres of uniform diameter R. Once created, this packing ensures long-range
periodic order just as does the triangular lattice in two dimensions. Kepler’s conjecture,
which stipulated that this limit could not be exceeded for a packing of uniform spheres, was
a proved mathematically only in . . . 1998!

Figure 1.3 (a) Compact face-centered cu- The difference from the two-dimensional case is that this periodic packing is not sponta-
bic (FCC) packing for a system of beads of neously generated when a container is filled with identical spheres, even if shaken around.
uniform radius R. (b) The FCC lattice of There is, in fact, an infinite variety of ways of arranging 12 identical spheres around a sin-
inter-touching spheres has been sliced into the gle one; the icosahedron of Figure 4 in the next page is just one particular example. It is
cube which forms the unit cell of the lattice. thus not possible to construct a crystal starting from an arbitrary local filling. This is quite
This cube contains the equivalent of four com- different from the two-dimensional case where the pattern for putting six disks in contact
plete spheres. We can more easily visualize the with a central one is unique: they must be located at the vertices of a hexagon which then
correspondence with Figure 1.3a if we observe constitutes the seed of the two-dimensional triangular crystal of Figure 1.2.
that the sphere S at the ends of the (111) axis, In real life, when we fill a container at random with uniform spheres we create a disor-
the principal diagonal of the cube, plays the dered packing with a packing fraction ranging from 0.59 to 0.64. The resulting structure
role of the (partly hidden) sphere in the center represents fairly well that of an amorphous metal which can be created by rapid deposition
of the packing of Figure 1.3a of metallic liquid or vapor onto a very cold substrate. It is also a good representation of
Macroscopic transport coefficients 5

the instantaneous position of atoms in a simple liquid (Figure 1.1b). Finally, this packing We can equally obtain three-dimensional crys-
is also a good representation of granular or porous media (sand, sandstone) discussed in tal models by using uniform-diameter, micron-
sized spherical latex particles in an ionic so-
Section 9.7. lution. As long as Coulomb repulsion between
spheres is sufficiently strong, these interactions
lead to the formation of a periodic lattice of par-
1.1.2 The solid–liquid transition: a sometimes ticles (a colloïdal crystal). With increased con-
nebulous boundary centration of ions in the solution, the interaction
is screened more and more strongly; the periodic
The limit between a solid and a liquid is not always as simple as it appears in rest state; it structure ultimately disappears and the particles
aggregate.
depends closely on the amplitude and duration of applied stresses. The branch of science
studying the evolution of the deformation of materials under stress is known as rheology.
In Section 4.4, we discuss the different kinds of response observed in various fluids; here,
we confine our discussion to two examples.

Modelling plastic flow in two dimensions

The change in shape of solids, such as metal bars or springs, resulting from the action
of forces, is no longer reversible beyond a certain threshold stress, known as the elastic
limit. Thus many substances, though apparently solid, flow or creep when subjected to high
stresses (e.g., glaciers, the earth’s crust, metal sheets being cold pressed). This is referred to
as plasticity. The crucial role that defects in crystalline packings play in this phenomenon can
be illustrated by means of the two-dimensional models. These defects might be, for example,
the appearance of a new row of particles starting from a point in the lattice (dislocation), or
perhaps a contact line between two lattices of different orientation (grain boundary). We can
easily observe this by looking at a flat plane on which a monolayer of beads has been laid
out. If the plane is slightly inclined, we see that the motion of beads in the neighborhood of
defects allows for global deformations of the system. Thus, defects account for the flow of
solid matter. This observation is the basis of modern metallurgy. Figure 1.4 This packing, in the form of an
icosahedron is made up, just as in Figure
Effect of the rate of change of the stresses on the deformation of a medium 1.3a, starting with 12 identical spheres uni-
The rate at which stresses vary plays a role as important as their magnitude in the behavior formly placed around one in the center: it has
of a substance. We see in Section 4.4.4 that the response of some substances to variable– a higher probability of occurrence than the
frequency perturbations displays a transition from a solid-like state (at high frequencies) to FCC packing. Because it has fivefold symme-
a liquid-like one (at lower frequencies). The crossover between these two regimes occurs try, it cannot be indefinitely repeated to create
in the neighborhood of a time constant τ De characteristic of the substance: the kind of a crystal lattice
behavior observed depends on the ratio of τ De and of the characteristic time (or period) of
the excitation. This ratio, defined by Equation 4.44, is called the Deborah number.

1.2 Macroscopic transport coefficients

Let us now discuss transport phenomena which appear in fluids due to small deviations
from equilibrium conditions, deviations small enough that the system response continues to
be approximately linear. Three types of transport can then be studied:

• the transport of thermal energy resulting from spatial variations of temperature,

• the transport of matter due to variations in concentration,
• the transport of momentum in a moving fluid.

Though it is this last transport property which is treated in particular depth in this textbook,
in the present chapter we consider only the first two types listed above.
6 The Physics of Fluids

These several kinds of transport phenomena frequently coexist in the physics of fluids,
as indicated in the following examples:
T- (a)
• a warm object (at temperature T+ ) placed in a motionless fluid at lower tempera-
ture T-, frequently generates a convective circulation in the upper region of the fluid
(Figure 1.5a). In turn, the fluid motion increases the heat exchange between object
and fluid;
T+ • when we blow air on a glowing wooden ember, we affect simultaneously the transport
of mass, of matter and of heat (Q); the kinetics of the exothermic burning process is
v T- (b) correspondingly accelerated (Figure 1.5b).

Q Q We see, in these examples, a superposition of a number of exchange mechanisms: not only

convective (drag by the moving fluid), radiative and chemical (associated with the reactions
occurring), but also diffusive or conductive exchange. These depend only on the microscopic
T+ properties of the fluid and can be analyzed in terms of small deviations from the equilibrium
state. In this chapter, we discuss mainly the diffusive effects.
Figure 1.5 Heat exchange between a fluid We first consider, from a macroscopic viewpoint, the familiar example of heat con-
and a heated plate: (a) in the presence of duction, and proceed from there to look at mass diffusion (Section 1.2.2); we provide in
spontaneous convective fluid motion induced Section 1.3 a microscopic picture of these effects in gases and liquids. In Chapter 2, we ex-
by the existing temperature difference (dis- plain how the viscosity of a fluid results from a similar diffusion of momentum. The reason
cussed in detail in Chapter 11); (b) between for our simultaneous presentation of diffusive transport of these three physical quantities
an air stream and a warm body, resulting (heat, mass and momentum) is the fact that the equations describing each process and its
in the formation of a boundary layer (See observed characteristics are mathematically identical. The results obtained for heat trans-
Chapter 10) port are thus easily translated to that of mass, or momentum (requiring only a change of
definition of the associated coefficients and, for the momentum, a change from scalar to
vector quantities).

1.2.1 Thermal conductivity

Definition of thermal conductivity: the governing equation for heat transport
under stationary conditions
A semi-infinite homogeneous body (solid, liquid or gas) occupying the space corresponding
to positive values of x is subjected to a temperature gradient dT /dx in the direction of the
x-axis. This gradient is obtained by applying a temperature difference T 1 – T 2 between two
planes P 1 and P 2 a distance L apart (Figure 1.6). We shall consider heat conduction across
a cross-sectional area S perpendicular to the x–axis.

Figure 1.6 Axial heat transport in a solid JQ

cylinder, resulting from a temperature differ-
ence T1 – T2 x
(S)

x x + dx
T1 P1 T2 P2
Macroscopic transport coefficients 7

The heat flux JQ per unit area and per unit time, is directly proportional to the
temperature difference T 1 – T 2 , as given by:

δQ T1 – T2 dT
JQ = =k = –k . (1.4)
S δt L dx

The negative sign indicates that heat flow occurs in the direction opposite to the temperature
gradient. The last equality in Equation 1.4 results from the fact that, in the equilibrium
stationary state, the temperature varies linearly between the two boundary values T1 and
T2 , a result which we justify below. The coefficient k (known as the thermal conductivity) is
a function only of the properties of the material. It satisfies the dimensional equation:

[M][L]2 [T ]–3
[k] = = [M][L][T ]–3 []–1 (1.5)
[L]2 .[]/[L]

(here [L] stands for length, [M] for mass, [T ] for time and [] for temperature). Typical
values of this coefficient may be found in Table 1.2 in the appendix of this chapter.
The result of Equation 1.4 can be generalized to the case where the temperature T varies
with all three coordinates in three-dimensional space, to assume the vector form:

JQ (r) = –k ∇T (r). (1.6)

This result is mathematically identical to the local form of Ohm’s Law j(r) = –σ ∇V (r)
which relates the electric current density j(r) to the potential V(r) in electrodynamics (σ
being here the electrical conductivity of the medium). We can now easily understand why,
under stationary conditions, the temperature varies linearly with distance in the geome-
try of Figure 1.6, just as the potential varies linearly between two parallel electrodes (at
different potentials) immersed in a conducting fluid. The linear dependence in Equation
1.6 expresses a proportionality between a flux (of heat) and a thermodynamic force (the
temperature gradient); we find similar relations for the other transport phenomena in the
neighborhood of equilibrium conditions.

Application of the thermal conductivity equation to a cylindrical geometry

The experiment which we describe below allows one to measure the thermal conductivity of
a solid material in the shape of a hollow cylinder of external radius a, as shown in Figure 1.7.
Initially, the cylinder is placed in an isothermal bath at uniform temperature T1 in such a way
that T(r = a) = T1 at all times. The hollow region inside the cylinder (r < b) is completely
insulated from the external bath. In this inside space, we place a thermometer, to measure R
the interior temperature Ti (t), as well as a heater resistance R delivering a constant power P T1 Ti H
uniformly along the entire height H of the cylinder. If the aspect ratio H/a for the cylinder
r
is sufficiently large, we can assume that the heat flux JQ (r) is effectively radial and does not JQ (r)
vary along the axis of the cylinder. At time t = 0, the heater is turned on, and we observe the
variation of the interior temperature Ti (t) of the cylinder as measured by the thermometer
(Figure 1.7). At the end of a sufficient time lapse, this temperature stabilizes at a value
T 2 . Measurement of the temperature difference T2 -T1 provides us with the value of the 2b
thermal conductivity k of the cylinder as follows: If we calculate the radial heat flux JQ (r) 2a
per unit area (for b<r<a) between the two infinitesimally close cylinders at radii r and r+dr,
the magnitude of the total heat flux is: Figure 1.7 Schematic representation of the
experimental set-up for measuring the ther-
dT mal conductivity of a hollow, solid cylinder
P = 2π r H JQ (r) (1.7) where: JQ (r) = –k . (1.8)
dr
8 The Physics of Fluids

Under stationary conditions, the heater power P is constant. Combining these two
results, we obtain the differential equation:

dr 2πH k
This calculation, valid in a stationary regime, is =– dT . (1.9)
identical to that for the electrical conductivity of
r P
a conductor formed by two co-axial cylinders
under a potential difference (V 2 – V 1 ) (corre-
Integrating this equation, subject to the boundary conditions on the temperature, we find:
sponding to the temperature difference T2 – T1 )
and carrying a current I (which corresponds to P a
k= Log . (1.10)
the heater power P). 2πH (T2 – T1 ) b

Thermal exchanges under non-stationary conditions - the Fourier equation

The previous example was discussed under the assumption that a stationary condition had
been achieved, with the temperature at every point independent of time. We then measured
heat diffusion under a fixed gradient. Let us now look at a more general case, where the
temperature T is a function of both position and time. We will first examine the simpler
case of temperature variation in the one-dimensional geometry of Figure 1.6. The evolution
of the temperature T (x,t) is described by what is known as Fourier’s equation in one di-
mension, an equation which provides the relationship between the partial derivatives of the
temperature T with respect to time and to the spatial coordinate x:

∂T(x, t) ∂ 2 T (x, t) ∂T(x, t) ∂ 2 T (x, t)

ρC =k (1.11a) or: =κ (1.11b)
∂t ∂x2 ∂t ∂x2

k
where we write: κ= (1.12)
ρC

here ρ is the density of the material, and C its specific heat; the coefficient κ is the thermal
diffusivity (a large value of the thermal diffusivity corresponds to a large thermal conduc-
tivity k, and to a small inertia with respect to heat transfer, as measured by the product
ρ C). Dimensionally, Equation 1.11b implies that the ratio of κ to the square of a length is
inversely proportional to time; we thus obtain [κ] = [L]2 [T ]–1 in units of square meters per
second. Values of k, ρ and C for a number of typical fluids are given in the table at the end
of this chapter.

Derivation
If we express the energy balance for an infinitesimal elementary volume of cross-section S,
bounded by the adjacent planes at x and x + dx (Figure 1.6), the thermal energy entering
through S during the time dt is, according to Equation 1.6:

∂T (x, t)
qx (x)S dt = –k S dt. (1.13)
∂x

The heat flux exiting is:

∂T(x + dx, t)
qx (x + dx) S dt = –k S dt. (1.14)
∂x

The difference between these two fluxes is the net increase in energy content in the material
between the two planes, i.e:
Macroscopic transport coefficients 9

∂T(x, t) ∂T (x + dx, t) ∂ 2 T(x, t)
qx (x) S dt – qx (x + dx) S dt = k S dt – + = k S dt dx,
∂x ∂x ∂x2
(1.15)
using a Taylor series expansion for computing the right-hand side of the above equation.
Equating this result to the increase in thermal energy as a function of time leads to:

∂T (x, t) ∂ 2 T(x, t)
ρ C S dx dt = k S dt dx. (1.16)
∂t ∂x2

Simplifying Equation.1.16, we obtain Equations 1.11.

The form of Equation 1.11b is very general and characteristic of all diffusion phe-
nomena: we find it in identical form, but with different variables, in problems of mass or
momentum transport. It is frequently advantageous to make use of this correspondence
where the diffusivity coefficients have identical dimensions but different numerical values.
We note that, under stationary conditions in the one-dimensional geometry, Equation 1.11b
reduces to ∂ 2 T (x, t)/∂x2 = 0. We have then, in that particular case, a temperature gradient
constant with respect to the space coordinate x and consequently, as originally assumed in
Equation 1.4, a linear variation of the temperature with position.
More generally, in a problem where the temperature is a function of all three coordinates
(x, y, z), the term ∂ 2 T(x, t)/∂x2 in Equation 1.11 is replaced by the Laplacian ∇ 2 T so that:

∂T (r, t) k 2
= ∇ T = κ∇ 2 T, (1.17)
∂t ρC

which is the three-dimensional heat-diffusion equation (Fourier’s equation).

Application to the one-dimensional propagation of temperature variations

We consider now an homogeneous material occupying a semi-infinite half space x > 0 and,
initially, at a uniform temperature T = T0 . At time t = 0, one imposes a temperature T = T1
on the boundary x = 0. The temperature profiles in the material at different times t > 0 show
that the perturbation imposed in the plane x = 0 spreads progressively by thermal diffusion
(Figure 1.8a below).
The solution of this problem sheds light on numerous other examples of diffusion.
We might note first of all that, by using the thermal diffusivity κ and the time variable t,
√
we can construct a new variable κt which has the dimensions of a length. It is therefore,
quite reasonable to normalize the space coordinate x in terms of this characteristic length,
√
defining a new dimensionless variable u = x/ κt; similarly, instead of calculating T(x,t), we
introduce the normalized variable (T – T 0 )/(T 1 – T 0 ), which therefore takes on values 1
(for x = 0), and 0 (for x → ∞). We find then, as derived below, the solution:

T – T0
u
= 1 – erf , (1.18)
T1 – T0 2
u 2
where erf(u) is the error function, defined by erf(u) = √2 e–ζ dζ ; replacing z by u/2,
π 0
erf(u/2) equals 0 for u = 0, and approaches unity as u tends to infinity. Thus, for the partic-
ular boundary conditions which we have considered here, we have obtained a solution which
√
does not depend separately on x and t but only on the reduced variable u = x/ κt. Figure
1.8b indicates that the spatial profiles of the normalized temperature, corresponding to dif-
ferent moments in time, coincide when they are displayed as a function of this dimensionless
10 The Physics of Fluids

T (a) T –T0 (b)

Figure 1.8 Profiles of the variation of tem- T1–T0
perature with distance along an “infinitely T1 1
long” bar; (a) profiles at different times
t1 < t2 < t3 upon applying a step function in
temperature at the origin x = 0; (b) profiles for t1 t2 t3
different times as a function of the normalized
√
distance x/ κt. The corresponding universal
curve is predicted by Equation 1.18 To 0
0 x 0 1 x / κt

variable. For other boundary conditions, it might have been necessary to look for more
complicated solutions which depend separately on x and t.
Qualitatively, we see that, at a given time t, the effect of a temperature perturbation has
√
spread to a distance of order κt, (within a scale factor of the order of unity) in good agree-
ment with the dimensional form of κ. We note here the essential characteristic of diffusive
phenomena, a proportionality between the mean diffusion distance and the square root of the
time. This result specifically explains the ineffectiveness of diffusive mechanisms at great
distances: if it takes a time tL for a temperature perturbation to diffuse through a distance
L, it will need a time t 10L =100 tL for it to diffuse through a distance ten times as large! For
√ √
air, for example, κt = 1 cm for t = 10 s; κt = 10 cm for t = 103 s ≈ 16 mins.

Derivation of Equation 1.18

We seek trial solutions of the form:

x
T (x, t) = f √ = f (u). (1.19)
κt

Substituting the expression (1.19) into Equation 1.11b and writing the corresponding
partial derivatives of T with respect to t and x:
2
∂T (x, t) 1 x ∂ T (x, t) 1

= – t –3/2 √ f
(u) and: = f (u),
∂t x 2 κ ∂x2
t κt

we obtain the relation: f

(u) + u f (u) = 0. (1.20)

Defining F (u) = f
(u), the differential equation for F(u) in terms of the reduced variable
u is:
u F (u)
F
(u) +
2 /4
= 0, (1.21) with solution: F = F0 e–u . (1.22)
2
u x
We conclude: f (u) = A erf + B, where: u= √ . (1.23)
2 κt

Constants A and B are evaluated from the temperature boundary conditions; for x = 0:
T = T 1 = B, while, for x → ∞: T = T 0 = A + B.
Macroscopic transport coefficients 11

Transient heat diffusion in a cylindrical geometry

We have discussed earlier the radial heat transport in a hollow cylinder under stationary δT/ δT0
conditions. Let us now consider the transient temperature variations in the limiting case 1.0
where the cylinder is no longer hollow but solid. We suppose that the cylinder of outer (h)
radius a, initially at a temperature T 0 , is suddenly plunged at time t = 0 into a fluid of 0.8 (g)
temperature T 0 + δT 0 . We will not carry out in detail the required calculation in terms of
series of functions, but we confine ourselves to displaying the results obtained. 0.6 (f)
Figure 1.9 shows the temperature profiles for the reduced temperature δT(r/a)/δT 0 at (e)
different values of the time t (r is the distance from the axis of the cylinder, δT(r/a) is the 0.4 (d)
variation of the local temperature relative to the initial temperature T 0 ). The letters which (c)
0.2 (b)
label each profile correspond to different values of the ratio t/τ D , where τ D (= a2 /κ) rep- (a)
resents, as shown earlier, the order of magnitude of the diffusion time over a distance a. 0
We observe that, for short times, the temperature variation is confined to a layer close to
√ 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 r/a
the surface (r = a) of thickness of the order of κt. The temperature profiles are similar
to those which we have shown previously in Figure 1.8 for a plane boundary, i.e., for an Figure 1.9 The diffusion of heat in a cyl-
infinitely large radius of curvature. For longer times, of the order of 0.1τ D , the perturbation inder initially at temperature T0 which is
in temperature begins to be observed on the axis of the cylinder. It is everywhere equal to suddenly immersed, at time t=0, in a heat
T 0 + δT 0 when t becomes of order τ D . We see in Section 2.1.2 that these profiles equally bath such that its surface is then maintained
describe the temporal and spatial variation of the fluid velocity in a cylinder filled with fluid at temperature T0 + δT0 . The distribution of
and which is suddenly set into rotation. the reduced temperature δT/δT0 is displayed
as a function of the normalized distance r/a
Propagation: diffusion versus wave motion from the axis of the cylinder. The several
In order to estimate the effectiveness of various processes, let us compare the diffusion curves correspond to different times, measured
Equation 1.17 to the classical equation of propagation of a wave of amplitude A travelling in terms of the reduced-time variable ( t/τD =
in the x-direction: κt/a2 ): (a) t/τ D = 0.005; (b) 0.01; (c) 0.04;
(d) 0.1; (e) 0.15; (f) 0.2; (g) 0.3; (h) 0.4
∂2A ∂ 2A
= c2 2 , (1.24)
∂t 2 ∂x

where c is the velocity of the wave. We know that, for Equation 1.24, the most general so-
lution is of the form: A(x,t) = f1 (x – ct) + f2 (x + ct). The functions f1 (x – ct) and f2 (x + ct)
describe wave propagation, respectively in the positive and negative x-directions, at a con-
stant velocity c; the distance d covered by the wave is proportional to the time. We have seen
that Equation 1.17 has solutions for which the propagation distance x varies like the square
root of the time t; thus the “effective velocity of propagation” x/t decreases with distance.
Physically, this result is due to the fact that the flux of the variable which is diffusing (tem-
perature, concentration . . . ) is proportional to the gradient of this variable: the more the
variation front spreads out, the slower the propagation.
Thus, a simple change in the order of the derivative with respect to time yields com-
pletely different behaviors for the case of wave propagation and for diffusion. Diffusive
phenomena are efficient at short times, or for relatively small distances. On the other hand,
wave propagation and fluid convection resulting from the fluid motion, which also leads to
a displacement linear in time, dominate in every other situation.

1.2.2 Mass diffusion

Conservation of mass for a diffusing substance
Let us replace, in the one-dimensional example of Figure 1.6, the temperature T by the con-
centration of a substance diluted by the main fluid: this tracer substance might be another
gas, or smoke within the gas, ions, dye molecules, or radioactive isotopes in the liquid. In this
12 The Physics of Fluids

experiment of gradient diffusion, we are interested in determining the flux of tracer which
results from a gradient in its concentration. We could also investigate the phenomenon of
self-diffusion which describes the redistribution of “tagged” molecules (even in the absence
of a gradient) among other unmarked molecules of the same type. In a dilute solution, the
gradient diffusion and self-diffusion coefficients have identical values. For the case where
diffusing particles interact, these two coefficients can take on different values.
The concentration can be measured by the number density n(x,t) of tracer particles
per unit volume, or by the mass density ρA of the tracer A, per unit volume of the mix-
ture. In this case, the expression equivalent to Equation 1.6 (sometimes known as Fick’s
equation) is:

Jm = –Dm ∇ ρA , (1.25)

where Jm is the current density (mass per unit area per unit time), and Dm the molecular
diffusion coefficient of the tracer. Its value is a function of the properties of both the tracer
and the substance through which it diffuses. Dm satisfies the dimensional equation

[M][L]–2 [T]–1 [L]

[Dm ] = = [L]2 [T]–1 ,
[M][L]–3

thus having the same dimensions as the thermal diffusivity coefficient (Equation 1.16).
Table 1.2, in the appendix to this chapter, also provides a few, typical, numerical values for
this coefficient.
We can derive the partial differential equation which relates the variations of the density
with position and time by following, step by step, the same procedure used for the heat
conductivity problem; i.e., by expressing in two different ways the mass conservation of
the tracer within a given volume element. We thus obtain for the one-dimensional case, an
equation analogous to (1.11b):

∂ρA ∂ 2 ρA
= Dm . (1.26)
∂t ∂x2

In Section 1.2.1, we discussed examples of heat conduction with fixed temperature

boundary conditions on the walls of the sample. These examples would correspond here
to a problem where the boundary values of the concentrations of the chemical substances
are fixed. In that case, the mathematical solutions carry over exactly, merely substituting ρ A
for the variable T and replacing κ with Dm .
In practical terms, it is simpler, in the case of the mass diffusion problem, to prescribe
a particular initial concentration of tracer, and to observe how it evolves with time. The
equivalent thermal problem would consist in generating, over a rather short initial time in-
terval, a certain amount of heat at specific, localized points, and then observing the resultant
temperature distribution.

Spreading of a tracer initially localized in a plane

Let us assume that we introduce uniformly into the interior of a fluid a mass MA of tracer,
initially localized throughout a very narrow layer in the plane x =0. Mathematically, this
distribution is of the type of a Dirac δ-function with ρ A = MA δ(x). Provided the tracer does
not interact with the fluid, the conservation of mass can be written:
+∞
ρA (x) dx = MA = constant. (1.27)
–∞
Microscopic models for transport phenomena 13

Figure 1.10 Spreading, by means of molec-

t 0 2 π Dm t ρA (x,t)
ρA (x,t) ular diffusion, of a drop of tracer initially
MA
1 localized in the plane x = 0 at time t = 0;
(a) concentration profiles at times t = 0,
D m t1 t = t1
t = t1 and t = 2t1 ; (b) universal curve rep-
resenting the superposition of all curves of
(a) (b)
t = 2 t1 1 Figure 1.10a when we use the normalized
√
e variable x/ Dm t as abscissa and the am-
√
plitude 2 π Dm t/MA ρA (x, t) as ordinate.
The graph corresponds to the Gaussian of
0 x 0 2 x
Dm t Equation 1.29

To check these constraints, we can take the derivative g(x,t), with respect to the variable x,
of Equation 1.23 for thermal diffusion obtained above in Section 1.2.1. One has :
2
A –u
g(x, t) = √ e 4 , (1.28)
2 π κt
√
with: u = x/ κt. The function g(x,t) is the solution of Equation 1.11b: effectively, in taking
the derivative of this equation with respect to x, we find that, if a function is a solution of the
equation, its derivative with respect to x is also a solution. In replacing κ by Dm we therefore
obtain:
2
MA – x
ρA (x, t) = √ e 4Dm t . (1.29)
2 πDm t

The solution of this problem is a Gaussian (Figure 1.10). Its width increases proportionally
to the square root of the time: this is illustrative of the variation of the propagation distance The variation given by Equation 1.23 is the
√ response to a step-like variation of the initial
characteristic of diffusive phenomena. At the same time the amplitude decreases as 1/ t so temperature (or of the concentration of tracer)
that the area under the curve is conserved, this area representing the total mass of tracer and not, as here, to a very localized injection of a
injected. As was the case for the graph of Figure 1.8b, we find that, by using the coordi- finited amount of tracer. The corresponding so-
√ √ lution given by Equation 1.28 differs therefore
nate u = x/ κt as abscissa and the product 2 πDm t ρA (x, t)/MA as the ordinate, we can significantly from Equation 1.23: it is actually its
superimpose the different results on the universal curve displayed in Figure 1.10b. spatial derivative.

1.3 Microscopic models for transport

phenomena
The microscopic laws which we have derived for heat and mass diffusion have a very general
applicability to fluids and solids. Up to this point, we have considered neither the micro-
scopic nature of these transport processes nor the relation between the diffusion coefficients
and the structure of the medium in which the transport occurs. We are going to give a sim-
plified description of the microscopic mechanisms of transport. In the sections that follow
we proceed to discuss mass diffusion in terms of a random walk, we apply kinetic theory to
transport processes in gases and, finally, we treat the case of liquids.

1.3.1 The random walk

We study here again the spread of a drop of tracer initially localized at a point. Let us analyze
the movement of the tracer particles which might be molecules, or very small particles,
14 The Physics of Fluids

much less than a micron in size, sometimes called Brownian particles. Because of thermal
motion, these particles are not stationary, but follow rather complex trajectories which entail
a sequence of random changes in direction (Brownian motion).
To analyze this process, we use the model of a random walk (sometimes also known as the
“staggering drunkard” problem!). Starting from an origin O at initial time t = 0, the walker
takes steps of constant length and time duration τ setting out, at each subsequent step,
in a new direction completely independent of the preceding one. Physically, corresponds
to the mean free path of the particles; τ to the mean time between two collisions; and ū to
the thermal motion velocity (in this case, just as for random walk, the trajectory between
two collisions is a straight line). We wish to evaluate the mean distance from the origin O at
which the walker (representing one of the tracer molecules) is to be found at the end of a
number of steps N=t/τ . In statistical physics, we are concerned with averages: we therefore
The average of the vector displacement R(t) is,
need to calculate the mean square displacement < R(t)2 > where R is the magnitude of the
however, zero because all directions are inde- displacement of the walker from his starting point: in order to obtain a statistically significant
pendent and equivalent. value, the result is averaged over an ensemble of independent random walks.
We then find that:

t 2 2 2
< R(t)2 > = = t = Dm t (1.30) where: Dm = = ū = ū2 τ . (1.31)
τ τ τ

The root-mean-square (rms) displacement < R(t)2 > relative to the initial position in-
creases therefore like the square root of the time, a result which is thus equivalent to the law
of diffusive spreading.

Proof
At the end of the first step, <R(τ )2 > = R(τ )2 = 2 . We demonstrate by mathematical
induction that, after N steps:

< R2 (Nτ ) > = N2 . (1.32)

Let us assume that, after (N-1) steps: <R2 ((N-1)τ )> = (N-1) 2 . For a given walk such as
the one illustrated in Figure 1.11, let us denote by MN-1 the position at the end of step N-1,
and by MN that after the next (Nth) step. Thus, we have the vector equality:

(a) Mn (b)

Figure 1.11 (a) Displacement of a tracer Mn-1

particle during a Brownian random walk; we
assume that each step has the same size. (b) A
real life Brownian trajectory obtained by im- R(t)
age analysis for a polystyrene sphere which
was followed for 2000 s. An elementary dis-
placement lasts on average 1 s. [1 cm on the M3
graph corresponds to 3.5 μm] (doc. G. Bossis) M1

O
M2
Microscopic models for transport phenomena 15
2 2 2 2
(OMN ) = (OMN–1 + MN–1 MN ) = (OMN–1 ) +(MN–1 MN ) +2 (OMN–1 ) . (MN–1 MN ) .
(1.33)

Consider now the average value of Equation 1.33 over a large set of independent walks each
starting from the origin O at time t = 0. Because of the fact that each step is completely
independent of the previous one, the mean value of the scalar product (OMN-1 ).(MN – 1
MN ) must be zero (this product naturally has, with equal probability, positive and negative
values). We find therefore the expected result:

(OMN )2 = (N – 1) 2 + 2 + 0 = N 2 , (1.34)

which is equivalent to Equation 1.30 because t = Nτ .

We should note that the proof of Equation 1.30 does not depend on the dimensionality
of the space in which the random walk or the diffusion occurs. In the particular case where
this walk occurs along a straight line, it is relatively easy to demonstrate that the law giving
the probability of spreading from a point along this line is a Gaussian one. One recovers In the previous analysis, we treated the case
in this way independently the result of Equation 1.29 obtained by a purely macroscopic where every step of the random walk was of uni-
form length . It can be shown that the Gaussian
approach. This proof is based on the binomial theorem applied to a sequence of steps: model obtained under these conditions remains
valid even when the distribution of the sizes of
(p + q)N = pN + N pN–1 q + . . . + CrN pr qN–r + . . . + qN . (1.35) the random walk steps is not too broad (more
precisely, it is sufficient that the probability of
taking a step of size decreases more rapidly
If p (or q) (with p +q=1) represents the probability of stepping to the right (or to the left), than 1/2 ). If this is not the case, then the rms
the general term CrN pr qN–r gives the probability that we have taken r steps to the right and displacement of the random √walk will increase
N – r steps to the left. In the limit of a very large number of steps (N tending to infinity), with time more rapidly than t, due to the fact
that rare but very long steps will dominate the
we can show that the distribution of the binomial terms approaches a Gaussian, centered at diffusive behavior. In this case, we talk about
the origin if p = q =1/2. abnormal diffusion (here, hyperdiffusion).

If the random walk takes place along a plane which is slightly inclined, each step is slightly
biased in the downhill direction. At the end of a number of steps N, the distribution of the
walkers is no longer centered at the origin O, as in the case of the previous Gaussian, but is
centered around a point O
such that OO
points downward. We thus observe a convective
phenomenon which is superimposed on the diffusive phenomenon of the random walk: this
convective phenomenon will dominate over long periods of time because the displacement
√
OO
varies linearly with time while the diffusive transport distance increases only as t.
We can study this problem in the one-dimensional model wich we have just discussed, by
taking probabilities p and q different for the right and left directions. We then find that the
displacement of the center of gravity of the spot varies like |OO
| = N (p-q) , but the
spread remains Gaussian. This result represents an example of the diffusion of tracer in the
presence of a permanent field of volume forces, such as in the case of gravity on heavier
particles (sedimentation), or for an electric field on ions.

1.3.2 Transport coefficients for ideal gases

Representative elementary volume
Before trying to describe the macroscopic interpretation of transport coefficients, we will
give here the definition of a representative elementary volume (REV ). In the mechanics of
continuous media, we are called upon to define macroscopic quantities: pressure, tem-
perature, velocity, density. These quantities are averages over corresponding microscopic
quantities, on a scale (the REV ) large compared to that of the microscopic variations (m)
but small by comparison with the macroscopic scale (M) (Figure 1.12). This elementary
16 The Physics of Fluids

P
Figure 1.12 Definition of a representative
elementary volume REV ) used for defining
macroscopic quantities characterizing con-
tinuous media; V represents the volume
over which the physical variable P is being
averaged V

The range of length scales involved is indeed ex- representative volume is not found in all cases, particularly in very inhomogeneous media
tremely variable from one system to another. In a for which macroscopic changes occur over very short distances.
simple liquid, the microscopic scale is of the or-
der of a nanometer while macroscopic variations
Molecular diffusion for an ideal gas
take place over millimetric distances (or more) in
usual channels, but micrometers in microfluidic We consider again the case of the one-dimensional geometry of Section 1.2.1 (Figure 1.6)
devices: the REV is then easily defined. In po-
rous media studied in Section 9.7, the size of the
and we will study a dilute gas of tracer molecules, for which the number density n(x) varies
pores is generally a few 10 μm in porous rocks uniformly in the direction of the x-axis (Figure 1.13) The tracer molecules are accompanied
and a REV can still be defined in homogene- by other molecules which redistribute themselves in order to compensate for the pressure
ous rocks. It will be much more difficult if the
variations associated to those of the density n(x). The molecules move about with an effective
rock displays heterogeneities of millimetric size
or more such as fractures. velocity ū due to thermal motion. We then obtain (see below) the following value for the
diffusion coefficient:
1
Dm = ū . (1.36)
3
We observe that Equation 1.36 coincides (within a factor of 1/3) with the model obtained
for the random walk in Section 1.3.1 if we use, as the velocity between collisions, the thermal
motion velocity of the molecules and if we take the length of each step to be the mean free
path. In this particular case, this demonstrates the equivalence of the two phenomena, that
of the spreading of a drop of tracer and the flux created by a gradient in the concentration:
the two treatments, that of the kinetic theory of gases and that of the random walk, are thus
equivalent.

Proof
In order to determine Dm , we evaluate the total flux of tracer particles across a plane cross-
n(x) section located at x0 and of unit area (Figure 1.13). We designate by J + (or J – ) the flux of
tracer particles coming from the left (or from the right) of this plane (the flux represents
the number of particles which cross a unit area per unit time). Because of the effect of the
gradient in the concentration of particles n(x), these two fluxes are different. The ratio be-
tween the difference (J + – J – ) and (–∂n/∂x) then gives us the molecular diffusion coefficient
Dm . An exact calculation would use the distribution in magnitude and direction of thermal
x0 – x0 x0 + x molecular velocities. We will make here a few simplifying assumptions:

Figure 1.13 Schematic representation of a • We consider that only a third of the molecules move along the ±x direction with the
thermal velocity ū; the remaining two-thirds will move in the y- and z-directions and,
one-dimensional, kinetic theory, diffusive
transport model for tracer particles in a gas because of this, will not contribute to transport in the direction that we are considering.
• In order to evaluate the fluxes coming from the right or from the left, we divide the
space into cells of side equal to the mean free path of the tracer particles. It is at this
microscopic scale, which, however, is large compared to the particle size that exchanges
occur. The mean free path will hereafter be considered as the minimum scale for the
variations of the average properties: concentration, temperature and velocity.
Microscopic models for transport phenomena 17

Based on these assumptions, the flux J + can be written as:

11
J+ = n (x0 – ) ū. (1.37a)
23

The extra factor 1/2 accounts for the fraction of particles which move in the positive x
direction; n(x) is the number density of molecules in the plane located at x0 – . Equation
1.37a represents actually the classical definition of flux and the factor 1/6 allows us to take
into account the different directions of the molecular velocities. The main assumption is the
introduction of the location x0 – which amounts to assuming that particles which arrive
at x0 have taken a step exactly equal to . We write in the same way the flux J – of particles
coming from the right.

1
J– = n (x0 + ) ū. (1.37b)
6

The net flux J = J+ – J– which results from the concentration gradient dn/dx is thus:

1 1 dn(x) dn(x)
J= ū[n(x0 – ) – n(x0 + )] = – ū = –Dm . (1.38)
6 3 dx dx

The resultant Equation 1.36 matches exactly (including the coefficient 1/3) the result of a
more exact calculation based on the ideal-gas model.

A more rigorous kinetic theory√approach makes

Quantitative application to helium gas We now put into Equation 1.36 the properties 2 =
a distinction between urms = ū 3kBT/m
of helium gas at standard temperature and pressure (STP). The mass of a helium atom is and the mean velocity ū = |ū| = 8kB T/ (π m).
m = M/N in which M = 4 × 10–3 kg/mole and N = 6.02 × 1023 atoms/mole is Avogadro’s The former (urms ) occurs in the microscopic
number. The rms thermal velocity of the helium atom is given by: derivation of the pressure of an ideal gas of
non-interacting particles. The latter, ū, is the
one which must be used for calculating trans-
1 1 2 3kB T
m u2rms = m u2 = kB T (1.39a) i.e.: urms = , (1.39b) port properties. However, we note that these two
2 2 3 m speeds differ by only 8%, a totally negligible dif-
ference, as we are mainly interested in orders of
where kB = 1.38 × 10–23 J/K is Boltzmann’s constant. We obtain the value urms = 1,370 m/s. magnitude.
We get the mean free path from the classical derivation of this result in the kinetic
theory of gases:
1
= √ , (1.40)
2n σc

where σ c = 1.5 × 10–19 m2 is the effective cross section of a helium atom and the number
density of atoms is n = N /V with a molar volume V = 22.4 × 10–3 m3 .

1
We obtain: = 1.8 × 10–7 m and Dm = urms = 8 × 10–5 m2 .s–1 .
3

Explanation of Equation 1.40

It indicates that, in a cylinder of cross-section σ c and of length , we find, on the average,
a single molecule; such a cylinder represents the volume “swept out” by the molecule as it
moves through a distance . At least another particle must be present inside this volume for
a collision to take place.
18 The Physics of Fluids

We should observe that, in this model valid for ideal

√ gases (without particle interactions),
the diffusivity Dm increases with temperature as T if the number density n is constant
(since ū has the same dependence).

Calculation of the thermal diffusivity of an ideal gas

By an argument similar to that used for molecular diffusion, we find the following values for
the thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity:

1 k ū
k= ρCV ū (1.41a) and: κ= = . (1.41b)
2 ρCV 2

where the thermal velocity ū is given by Equation 1.39b, ρ is the density and CV is the spe-
cific heat at constant volume. Equation 1.41b for the thermal diffusivity κ is very similar to
Equation 1.36 for Dm . The mechanism which controls transport, diffusion through thermal
motion, is essentially the same in the two cases.
We note that the thermal conductivity k is independent of the number density n of
molecules so long as the approximation of an ideal gas is valid. In fact, ρCV is proportional
√
to the number density n and Equation 1.41a contains therefore the product n = n/( 2n σ )
which is independent of n. This result, at first somewhat surprising, is understandable if
we realize that, in increasing the number density n of particles, we increase the frequency
of collisions between them but we reduce by a similar amount the mean free path and,
consequently, the effectiveness of the transport.

Proof
Here, we assume that we have, on the one hand, particles of only one kind and that their
number density n is constant. On the other hand, we also assume that there exists a tempera-
ture gradient constant in the x-direction. Keeping in mind Equation 1.39b, we will then also
have a gradient of the velocity ū. Furthermore equations like 1.37 and 1.38, which evaluate
the particle flux, will now describe the thermal fluxes desinated by JQ , such that:

1
JQ+ = ρCV T (x0 – ) ū(x0 – ) (1.42a)
6

1
and: JQ– = ρCV T (x0 + ) ū (x0 + ). (1.42b)
6

The quantity ρ CV T is the energy per unit volume associated to the thermal motion of the
molecules.
In contrast to the previous case of mass diffusion, spatial variations of the thermal fluxes
JQ+ and JQ– result from those of both factors T and ū√ (the average molecular velocity ū due
to the thermal motion also varies with T); since ū ∝ T, one has: ∂ ū/ ∂x = (ū/ 2T )∂T /∂x.
Using this relation, the net thermal flux JQ becomes, by summing the contributions of the
variations of ū and T :

1 dT (x) dT (x)
JQ = JQ+ – JQ– = – ρCV ū (x0 ) = –k , (1.43)
2 dx dx

from which we instantly derive Equations 1.41a–b.

Microscopic models for transport phenomena 19

Validity of ideal-gas models

The results obtained above do not apply either to gases at very low pressures or to dense
gases which have properties approaching those of liquids.

• In the first case, if the mean free path becomes much larger than the size L of the
container, there are essentially more collisions with the walls, and many fewer colli-
sions between particles; but such collisions are the necessary condition to establish
the statistical equilibrium state described by the kinetic theory of gases. This particu-
lar regime, called the Knudsen regime, occurs in containers at very low pressures: in
fact, for pressures of the order of 0.1 Pascal, the mean free path of the molecules of
a gas becomes of the order of tens of centimeters. We can therefore reach Knudsen
regime in macroscopic-sized tubes.
• The second limit is that for which the average distance between particles (of the order
of n–1/3 ) is comparable to the mean free path. This is the situation in liquids, which
we are about to discuss.

1.3.3 Diffusive transport phenomena in liquids

In contrast to gases, we cannot understand the different transport coefficients for liquids
starting from a simple and unique model such as that of kinetic theory. We discuss here
very briefly the cases of mass diffusion and of thermal diffusion.

Molecular diffusion coefficient in liquids

When we discussed transport properties in gases, we assumed that the interactions between
molecules are negligible in the time interval between two collisions. In liquids, however,
interactions always remain very important. Thus, we are going to begin by studying the
diffusion of spherical particles of radius R used as tracers: in this case, if the particle moves
relative to the liquid with a velocity v, the force of interaction with the liquid is the Stokes
force:

F1 = –6π η R v, (1.44)

where η is a coefficient known as the viscosity, characteristic of the fluid, which will be de-
fined in Chapter 2. We justify this particular form of the interaction force in Section 9.4.2.
If the particle is small enough (typically for R smaller than a micron), thermal motion
effects are significant enough for us to calculate the corresponding molecular diffusion coef-
ficient. We extrapolate then this result to smaller diameters in order to estimate the diffusion
coefficient for a molecular tracer. We can put Equation 1.44 in the form:
v 1
F1 = – (1.45) with: μ= (1.46)
μ 6πη R

(μ is called the mobility). In a famous paper on Brownian motion published in 1905, Einstein
derived the following general relationship between the molecular diffusion coefficient Dm
and the mobility μ:

kB T
Dm = μ k B T . (1.47) i.e., after Equation 1.46: Dm = . (1.48)
6πηR
20 The Physics of Fluids

We observe that the coefficient Dm indicates a spreading, in the absence of external forces
but in the presence of thermal motion, while the mobility μ is defined in the presence of an
external force F 1 .
Equation 1.48 applies reasonably well for particle radii even down to molecular dimen-
sions; we can therefore use it to estimate an order of magnitude for the diffusion coefficient
in liquids. Thus, for a molecule 1 nm in diameter and a liquid of viscosity η = 10–3 Pa.s, we
find: Dm = 2.2 × 10–10 m2 /s– a value much smaller than that obtained for gases.

Proof of the Einstein relation

In order to prove the Einstein relation, we will write, for a particular case, the result of
equilibrium between the effects of thermal motion and of an external force. Let us assume
that we have a group of particles of some tracer (molecular or not), of mobility μ and dif-
fusion coefficient Dm submitted to a constant force field f oriented along the x-direction.
Practically, this model might correspond to the behavior of a group of Brownian particles
sedimenting as a result of gravity. We assume that they are in thermal equilibrium with
a thermostat at temperature T . The force field leads to a potential U = –f x. This poten-
tial induces a gradient dn/dx of the number density n of particles; locally, n(x) obeys the
Boltzmann distribution law.

– k UT fx 1 dn f
n (x) = n0 e B = n0 e kB T (1.49) whence: = . (1.50)
n dx kB T

The gradient dn/dx leads to a diffusive particle flux Jm such that:

dn f
Jm = –Dm = –Dm n . (1.51)
dx kB T

The force f leads to an average drift velocity of the particles vd = μ f . We observe that vd
is an average velocity for the particles taken as a group; it is generally much smaller than
the individual particle velocities due to the thermal motions which are, instead, randomly
oriented in all directions. vd results in a particle flux Jd such that:

Jd = n vd = n μ f . (1.52)

For statistical equilibrium, these two fluxes must cancel each other out so that Jm + Jd = 0.
In combining equations (1.51) and (1.52) into this result, we find the Einstein
relation (1.47).

Thermal conductivity of liquids

In a liquid there are two mechanisms of heat transfer. The first results from the nearest
neighbor propagation of individual particle vibrations in the liquid (represented approxi-
mately [Figure 1.1] in the model experiment using a dense ensemble of vibrating disks).
The second occurs for liquids metals (Hg, Na, . . .) and involves the electrons which are
also responsible for electrical conductivity. These two mechanisms are very similar to those
of the thermal conductivity in a crystalline solid; we will not discuss them here. One notes,
however, the great effectiveness of the mechanism of electronic transfer which results in
the fact that liquid metals are very good conductors of heat, while also having a high spe-
cific heat. Liquid sodium is, for example, used as a thermal conduction liquid in the heat
exchangers of breeder nuclear reactors.
Surface effects and surface tension 21

Values of diffusive transport coefficients

In Table 1.2, we indicate the values of diffusive transport coefficients for a few pure sub-
stances. In addition to the coefficients Dm and κ which we have discussed in this chapter,
we have added the kinematic viscosity coefficient ν. It represents the diffusivity of momen-
tum and its physical meaning will be discussed in detail in Chapter 2 (ν is proportional
to the dynamic viscosity η introduced in Equation 1.44 and inversely proportional to the
density ρ, so that ν = η/ρ). The coefficients Dm , κ and ν each have the same dimension
[L]2 [T ]–1 . In many processes, the two diffusion phenomena might occur at the same time.
Their relative effect will then be a very important parameter. We characterize this by means
of a dimensionless number which represents a ratio of the corresponding time constants
evaluated along a distance of the order of the characteristic length L of the flow. We will see
several examples of such dimensionless numbers in Section 2.3. They play an important
role in a number of phenomena involving heat and mass transfer.

1.4 Surface effects and surface tension

The interfaces between a liquid and another body, be it another gas, another liquid or a
solid, play a very important role in the equilibrium and flow of films or of liquid layers.
We will first introduce the coefficient called the surface tension, and discuss its relationship
with the energy of these interfaces.

1.4.1 Surface tension

Evidence of the effects of surface tension
Let us consider the experiment shown in Figure 1.14: a liquid film (soapy water, for ex-
ample) is held on a rectangular frame in which one side is movable. If we allow this side
to move freely, we observe that it moves in such a way as to minimize the surface area of
the film. In order to hold it stationary, we must exert a force F which is proportional to the
length L of the movable side. If we want to increase the surface area of the film by a value
dS = L d, we must supply an energy dW which corresponds to the work done by force F
and is expressed by:

dW = F d = 2γ L d = 2γ dS. (1.53)

γ is called the surface tension coefficient between the liquid in question and air; the factor
2 results from the fact that the liquid film is made up of two liquid–air interfaces. Equation
1.53 indicates that γ corresponds to an energy per unit area for each interface; it also rep-
resents the value of the force per unit length exerted by each interface on the side of the

Figure 1.14 A simple experimental illustra-

F
L tion of surface tension
22 The Physics of Fluids

frame. Its units are therefore Newtons per meter (N/m). Its value for pure water at room
temperature is approximately 70 × 10–3 N/m. In Table 1.1, we give numerical values of the
surface tension and of its dependence on temperature for a few common liquids; the values
given correspond to the surface tension between liquids and air; they are quite different in
the case of interfaces between two liquids, or between a liquid and solid, as we will see in
the next paragraph.

Surface tension Temperature Capillary length

dependence of γ
dγ γ
γ – dT lc = ρg
(N/m) (mN/(m.K)) (m)

Liquid metals 7 10–2 to 2.5 10–2 to 10–1 2 to 5 × 10–3

Table 1.1 Order of magnitude of a few phys-
ical parameters characterizing the interfacial Organic liquids 50 × 10–3 10–2 to 10–1 1 to 3 × 10–3
properties of some common liquids.
Molten salts 10–1 10–2 2 to 3 × 10–3

Silicone oils 20 × 10–3 10–2 10–3

Water 70 × 10–3 10–1 3 × 10–3
Molten glass 10–1 10–2 5 × 10–3

Surface tension phenomena result in minimizing the area of the interface, while taking
into account the other constraints placed on the system (gravity, pressure . . . ). Particularly,
in the absence of gravity, a drop takes on a spherical shape because this results in a
minimized surface for a given volume.

Physical origin of the surface tension forces

Surface tension is associated with the internal attractive forces between the molecules of a
fluid: van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonds (for example in water), ionic bonds, metallic
bonds (in metals such as mercury). Within the volume of a fluid, the forces exerted by each
molecule are compensated by those exerted by its neighboring molecules. If we introduce an
interface, for example in a vacuum, the forces exerted in that direction are not compensated:
this is the origin of surface energy. The value of the surface tension will vary greatly accord-
ing to the nature of the forces which occur between atoms or molecules. The high surface
tension of liquid metals (0.48 N/m for mercury and up to 2.5 N/m for osmium at 3000 K)
is explained by the large value of the energy associated with metallic bonds; in contrast, the
van der Waals forces which play a dominant role in numerous molecular substances, only
give values of the order 20×10–3 to 25×10–3 N/m.
Surface tension, which we have just defined, involves an interface between a liquid and
vacuum. In the case of contact between two bodies, the surface energy of each is modified
by the presence of the other, and we talk about interfacial tension. The latter depends on
the surface tension of each of the two components, as well as on the energy of interaction
between them. In order to indicate that we are talking about an interfacial tension, we give a
subscript corresponding to the bodies involved; thus γ AB represents the interfacial tension
(i.e., the energy per unit area between a substance A and a substance B).

Effect of temperature on surface tension

The reduction of the cohesion of a liquid with increasing temperature leads to a reduction
of the surface tension. For moderate changes in temperature, we can use the following linear
dependence:
Surface effects and surface tension 23

γ (T) = γ (T0 ) [1 – b (T – T0 )] . (1.54)

The coefficient b, of the order of 10–2 to 10–1 K–1 , is positive, which indicates that the
surface energy decreases as the temperature increases. Thus, the surface tension becomes
zero at the critical point. We will see in Section 8.2.4 that these variations can result in flows
(Marangoni effect).

Changes in surface tension in the presence of a surfactant

The presence of a third substance (or surfactant) at the interface between two fluids can
lead to a reduction of the surface tension. Without going into great detail about the recip-
rocal interaction between three bodies at the same place, we can explain qualitatively this
reduction in surface tension: consider a fatty-acid surfactant (such as stearic acid, which is
the main component of candles). It is a compound formed by a polar, acid, partially ionized
head, and of a long tail made up of CH2 radicals. In the presence of water, the molecule
aligns in such a way that its polar head is on the water side (we talk about a hydrophilic head)
and the aliphatic hydrophobic tail toward the external medium. For this reason we talk about
amphiphilic compounds. This interface of surfactant molecules between two fluids reduces
the direct interaction between their molecules, and accordingly reduces the interfacial ten-
sion as a result of the affinity of the surfactant for each of the two fluids. It then becomes
energetically more favorable for the system to increase the surface area between the two
fluids.
Surfactants play a key role in numerous problems of physical chemistry, particularly in
the area of detergents. These molecules attach to drops of fatty material with the hydropho-
bic tail at the interior and the hydrophilic head toward the exterior: this allows the fats to
dissolve in water. Surfactants also affect the mobility of liquids near interfaces.

1.4.2 Pressure differences associated with surface (a)

tension p1 (2)
(1) p2
Young–Laplace’s Law
Consider now, as in Figure 1.15a, a spherical drop (1) of radius R immersed in another R
fluid (2). For this droplet to be in equilibrium, the pressure of the interior fluid must exceed
that on the outside by an amount:

γ
p1 – p2 = 2 . (1.55) soap-water
R (b) solution
p1
For a soap bubble, the pressure difference measured between the inside and the outside of
p2
the bubble would be twice this value, again due to the presence of two liquid–air interfaces,
each of which gives a contribution 2γ /R (Figure 1.15b).

Proof
The radius of the drop corresponds to the equilibrium between the surface tension effects
(minimizing the area of the interface) and the excess pressure inside the drop relative to the
external one (this excess pressure can, for example, be maintained by connecting the inside Figure 1.15 (a) Capillary pressure differ-
of the droplet to an external reservoir at fixed pressure p1 ). ence p1 - p2 between the interior (1) and outer
To derive Equation 1.55, let us apply the principle of virtual work, corresponding to (2) regions of a spherical fluid droplet im-
an increase dR of the radius of the drop, under constant pressure difference pression mersed in an external fluid; (b) the case of
p = p1 – p2 . The value of p for mechanical equilibrium is such that the variation of the a soap bubble where there are two interfaces
total energy dW 1 vanishes. Two contributions make up dW 1 : between soapy water and air
24 The Physics of Fluids

• one, dWs , is due to the change in surface energy of the sphere:

dWs = d 4π γ R2 = 8π γ R dR, (1.56)

• the second, dWp , corresponds to the work done by pressure forces:

dWp = –p dV = – (p1 – p2 ) d (4/3) πR3 = – (p1 – p2 ) 4πR2 dR. (1.57)

In writing dWs + dWp = 0, we obtain Equation 1.55, also known as the Young–Laplace’s
law.

For the case where the boundary surface between the two fluids has arbitrary shape, the
Young–Laplace’s law takes on the more general form:

1 1
p1 – p2 = γ +
= γ C, (1.58)
R R

where R and R
are the principal radii of curvature of the surface at the point in question;
the principal radii are defined as the extreme values of the radii of curvature of the curves,
sectioned from the surface by a pair of mutually orthogonal planes, each containing the
normal n to the surface (Figure 1.16a). The sum C = (1/R) + (1/R
) is called the local
mean curvature of the interface. The radii of curvature R and R
have algebraic signs and
are positive when the corresponding center of curvature is located on the side of fluid (1).
In Figure 1.16b we see a liquid film bounded by a frame in a configuration where the average
curvature at each point is zero: R and R’ are different from zero but of opposite sign. This
allows the film to satisfy Young–Laplace’s law, Equation 1.58, when, like in this case, the
pressure on the two sides of the interface is the same.
The Young–Laplace’s law affects quite a number of physical phenomena, among which
we might mention in particular the nucleation of bubbles in a boiling liquid. For a liquid in
equilibrium being gradually heated, it is impossible for minute vapor bubbles to appear at
the normal boiling point, because this would require a correspondingly high excess pressure
inside the bubble at the moment that the bubble is formed (p ∝ 1/R); as a result, boiling
is delayed. Boiling generally occurs only when microscopic bubbles, already existing within
the fluid, begin to grow. To minimize this delay in boiling, bubble generators, such as glass
Figure 1.16C (a) Geometry of an arbitrary beads, may be placed in the liquid; these then provide a minimum size scale for vapor
boundary surface between two fluids (1) and bubbles to nucleate and grow. The larger this latter scale, the smaller the superheating.
(2), illustrating the corresponding definition
of the principal radii of curvature R and R
;
(b) the surface of a soap film stretched be- (a) (b)
tween two circular metal rings (at the top
and bottom of the figure) is open and, thus, (2)
the pressure on the two sides of the film is
n R
the same. The local mean curvature C = |R'|
[(1/R) + (1/R
)] is thus zero at every point.
The surface generated in this way, a catenoid,
achieves a minimum in the surface area of R
the film, while taking into account the bound- R' (1)
ary conditions imposed by the two rings.
(after a photograph by S. Schwartzenberg, ©
Exploratorium, [Link])
Surface effects and surface tension 25

1.4.3 Spreading of drops on a surface – the idea

of wetting
In this section, we study the conditions under which a drop of liquid wets a solid surface—
that is spreads out on the surface.

Spreading parameter
In order to see whether the spreading of a liquid (l) on a solid plane (s) is energetically fa-
vorable, we compare the interface energy values for a solid–vacuum interface when covered
and not covered by a liquid layer (Figure 1.17). We call γ sl the surface energy per unit area vacuum (a)
γ = γlo
in the presence of a liquid, γ so the energy relative to vacuum, and γ = γlo the interfacial
energy between the liquid and vacuum. The total surface energies in these two situations are liquid
γsl
respectively F σf = γ lo + γsl and F σ = γ so . We will assume that the thickness of the film is solid
sufficiently large compared to the range of the intermolecular forces so that we can neglect
the interaction between the two interfaces (we refer to this to as a macroscopic film). There vacuum (b)
γso
exists, however, microscopic films of submicron thickness for which this condition is not
solid
satisfied.
The presence of a macroscopic film will therefore be energetically favorable if the
Figure 1.17 Calculation of the interfacial
difference
energies for a surface which is covered (a), or
not covered (b) by a liquid film
S0 = Fσ – Fσ f = γso – γsl – γ (1.59)

is positive. We call S 0 the spreading parameter. In most cases, the external environment of
the surfaces consists of a gas, and we must substitute for the surface energies γ lo and γ so
relative to the vacuum the energies γ lg and γ sg relative to the gaseous environment. These
differences can be significant, particularly between γ sg and γ so because of the absorption
phenomena, and, more specifically, if the gaseous phase contains liquid vapor (equilib-
rium condition in the case of a saturated vapor). In that case we make practical use of the
spreading parameter S.

S = Fσ – Fσ f = γsg – γsl – γ , (1.60)

where γ refers here to the interfacial tension γ lg between the liquid and the gas.

Partial and total wetting

When the spreading parameter S is negative, we are in a situation of partial wetting; when
S is positive, we have total wetting and there might exist a liquid film on the solid surface.
From a molecular point of view, “hard” solids, having strong bonds (ionic, covalent or
metallic), have large surface energies (γ so = 0.5-1 N/m). Examples of these are glass, silica
and metallic oxides: these are generally wetted by most molecular liquids. They are also
easily contaminated by impurities present in the environment, which could alter the wetting
behavior.
On the other hand, the solids with lower energy bonds (van der Waals, hydrogen bonds)
will have weaker surface energies (γ sg = 5 × 10–2 N/m). This will be the case for polymers,
for Teflon or for paraffin: such surfaces are far more difficult to contaminate. Wetting will
be total or partial, depending on the liquid involved.

Equilibrium of a drop on a plate

Let us first consider the case of small droplets for which gravity is negligible (Figure 1.18a).
We can write the requirements for the equilibrium of forces on the triple contact line of the
26 The Physics of Fluids

Figure 1.18 (a) Equilibrium of a droplet (a) (b)

γ = γlg γ = γlg
wetting a flat solid plane, when the droplet liquid θ liquid θ
is small enough for gravity effects to be neg- γsl γsg γsl γsg
solid solid
ligible; (b) case of a large droplet flattened by
the effect of gravity
liquid interface with the plate. The vertical component is compensated by the elastic reaction
of the solid plate (for spreading on a liquid substrate, we would observe a deformation of
the liquid). We can write the equilibrium of the horizontal components of the force in the
form:

γsl + γ cos θ = γsg . (1.61)

Combining this result with Equation 1.60 for the spreading parameter, we obtain the law of
Young–Dupré:

γ (cos θ – 1) = S, (1.62)

where θ is called the static contact angle. We note that, for S =0, we have cos θ = 1. Larger
drops are flattened (Figure 1.18b) but the contact angle at the interface with the surface
keeps the same value.

Movement of an interface
Let us now consider the case of moving contact lines. We are talking about motion at in-
finitesimally small velocities under quasi-static conditions. The case of interfaces moving at
finite velocities will be dealt with in Section 8.2.2. Even when the motion is extremely slow,
we observe that there is a difference between the contact angles of a liquid with the wall,
depending on the direction of the motion of the contact line. We observe this effect in the
spreading or retraction of drops on a plane (Figure 1.19a and b), as well as in the case of
spontaneous motion of a drop on an inclined plane (Figure 1.19c) or when a hanging drop
moves within a tube (Figure 1.19d).
At very low speeds of movement considered in this chapter, this effect is due to the
presence of surface roughness or of chemical inhomogeneity on the solid surface. We talk
about an advancing θ a or receding θ r contact angle the limiting values in each of these
situations, where the speed of the contact line tends toward zero.

(a) (b)
Figure 1.19 Différence between advancing θa θr
(a) and receding (b) contact angles for droplets
placed in a situation of partial wetting when
(a) their volume is increased or (b) decreased.
(c) Advancing and receding contact angles (c) (d)
U
at the front and rear of a droplet moving
at very low speed down an inclined plane. U θr θr
(d) Advancing and receding contact angles for
θa
the case of a small liquid bubble which moves θa
very slowly downward in a capillary tube g
g
Surface effects and surface tension 27

1.4.4 Influence of gravity

Shape of droplets; the Bond number
The effects of capillarity, which are directly related to the curvature of interfaces, are im-
portant whenever we look at small-scale phenomena. For large objects, they are overridden
by the effects of volume forces such as gravity. As an illustration of this, let us examine the
sequence of mercury droplets of different sizes placed on a horizontal surface (Figure 1.20).
The smallest are spherical, while the larger ones display a flattened shape due to the effects
of gravity.

Figure 1.20 Flattening, under the action of gravity, of mercury droplets of various sizes lying
on a flat glass plate. The smallest droplet has a diameter of the order of 2 mm. We note that the
mercury does not wet the glass, i.e. near the glass the mercury surface is convex. The idea of wetting
has been discussed in a previous paragraph (Photograph by the authors.)

Let us estimate the order of magnitude of the differences between the capillary and
ρ
hydrostatic forces affecting a droplet in the shape of a spherical cap placed on a flat surface
(Figure 1.21). ρ +∆ ρ h
In more general terms, let us consider a droplet of fluid of density ρ + ρ immersed in a rg
fluid of density ρ. The difference between the capillary and hydrostatic pressures over the
height h of the droplet is respectively: R

γ
pcap = 2 (1.63a) and: pgrav = ρ g h. (1.63b)
R
Also, if the droplet is not too strongly deformed relative to a spherical shape, the radius rg Figure 1.21 Geometry of a partially wet-
of the contact line can be written as rg2 2Rh. We can therefore characterize the relative ting droplet placed on a flat plate
importance of the effects of gravity and capillarity by the ratio of the corresponding pressure
differences:

ρ g h ρ g rg2
Bo = ≈ . (1.64)
2γ /R γ

This ratio is called the Bond number. A large value of the Bond number corresponds to the
effects of gravity dominating those of surface tension. The value Bo = 1 allows us to define
a critical scale lc , called the capillary length. It is expressed as:

γ
lc = . (1.65)
ρ g
28 The Physics of Fluids

Typical values of lc are given in Table 1.1. In the case of mercury, it is of the order of
lc 2 mm; for water, lc 3 mm. Small values of the Bond number (for which capillary
effects dominate) are also observed in hydrodynamic experiments under microgravity con-
ditions. We can also reduce the effective density in experiments which use two non-miscible
fluids with a small difference ρ in their density; we then talk about compensated gravity
(due to the effect of Archimedes’ buoyancy). To gauge the relative importance of sur-
face tension for given flow conditions, one compares lc to the characteristic dimensions
of the flow.

Capillary rise along a wall

The capillary length lc appears in numerous phenomena. It represents, for example, the
order of magnitude of the capillary rise of a fluid along a vertical wall in the case where
the fluid is wetting, i.e. when the center of curvature of the interface is outside the liquid
(Figure 1.22).
We will determine the height to which a liquid rises in the neighborhood of the wall.
We should point out that there might exist a very thin, microscopic, film (a few hundred
Angstroms in thickness) above the contact line of the meniscus with the solid wall. We will
neglect the existence of this film in the present discussion.
The pressure inside the liquid at an ordinate y(x) below the interface can be written:
ps (x) = pat + ρ g y(x) – γ /R(x) where R(x) represents the local radius of curvature of the
interface (it is positive in the present case) and pat is the air pressure above the interface. The
term γ /R represents the effects of surface tension, while the term ρg y(x) represents those
of the hydrostatic pressure. On the other hand, just below the interface, in its flat region, the
pressure in the liquid is pat . We therefore arrive at the equation:

γ
ρ g y(x) = . (1.66)
R(x)

3/2

Using the geometrical relationship R(x) = 1 + y

(x)2 y (x), we obtain the differen-
tial equation:
⎛ ⎞
y

γ ⎝ 1
ρgy = γ (1.67) i.e.: 2
d(y ) = –2 d ⎠. (1.68)
(1 + y
2 )
3/2 ρg
1 + y
2

We observe that there appears the scaling length characteristic of the problem, i.e. the
√
capillary length lc = γ /ρg. By integrating, using the asymptotic conditions for very large

(a) y (b)
Figure 1.22 Rise of a wetting fluid on a
vertical wall: (a) schematic diagram; (b) ex- p= pat
periment conducted with water in a glass h0
container. The rise is of the order of a mil- θ
limeter. (Photograph C. Rousselin, Palais de y(x) x
la Découverte)
Surface effects and surface tension 29

x: y → 0 and → 0, and observing that y

(x = 0) = – cot θ 0 , we obtain the capillary rise
along the wall:

h20 = 2lc2 (1 – sin θ0 ). (1.69)

This capillary rise is, as expected, of the order of magnitude of the capillary length,
corrected by a factor involving the wetting properties of the wall by the liquid (contact
angle θ 0 ). The case of Figure 1.22 is that of a wetting fluid (θ 0 < 90◦ ). For a non-wetting
fluid such as mercury (θ 0 > 90◦ ), the interface drops in the neighborhood of the wall instead
of rising, and h0 represents the height to which the liquid goes down near the wall, below its
free surface far away from this wall.

Capillary rise in a tube: Jurin’s law

When a capillary tube is placed in a liquid (Figure 1.23a), we observe, as in the previous
(a)
case, a surface deformation near the walls, but also a rise of the meniscus in the tube relative
to the external fluid if the tube is of a small diameter and if the fluid wets the walls of the
tube (contact angle θ with the wall less than 90◦ ); if the fluid is non-wetting, as in the case
of mercury, the level of the interface in the tube drops below the external fluid.
We calculate now the difference in levels between the inside and outside of the capil-
lary tube. We write the equilibrium condition for the column of liquid located in the tube
(column of diameter d and height h) under the effect of its weight (πd2 hρg/4) and of the
pressure difference at the level of the interface (Figure 1.23b). Let us assume that the in-
terface between the liquid and air at the interior of the capillary is spherical and denote by
R its radius of curvature. The pressure P 1 just below the interface is equal to (Pat – 2γ /R).
On the other hand, R is related to the diameter d of the capillary tube and to the contact
angle θ by the equation d = 2 R cosθ. For the pressure difference between the two sides of
the interface, we therefore have:
(b) Pat
4γ cos θ R
p = Pat – P1 = . (1.70a)
d
θ P1
The pressure P 1 also equals Pat – ρ g h. Substituting this expression for P 1 in Equation
1.70a, we obtain:
h
4γ cos θ l2
h= = 4 c cos θ. (1.70b)
ρgd d d

This is Jurin’s law. It is all the better verified since we can neglect relative to h the capillary P0
rise on the walls given by Equation 1.69. This implies that r should be very small compared
to h. For a value of the surface tension γ = 7×10–2 N/m (water), cos θ = 0.6 and d = 1 mm,
we find a value h ≈ 20 mm, much greater than lc (lc = 3 mm for water). For a non-wetting Figure 1.23 (a) Capillary rise of fluid in a
fluid (contact angle θ > 90◦ ), Equation 1.70b is still valid but gives a negative value of h; set of tubes of diameters d decreasing from left
this implies a lowering of the level of the interface in the tube. to right (document K. Piroird); (b) schematic
diagram for the calculation of the rise height
1.4.5 Some methods for measuring the surface
tension
Several of these methods are based on the phenomena which we have described above.
Among the first, surface tension is measured directly without requiring some knowledge of
the contact angle of the liquids with the corresponding solid surfaces.
30 The Physics of Fluids

Measures of the geometry or of other characteristics of droplets

• Method of the hanging droplet

Influenced by gravity, a droplet is formed at the end of a capillary tube and its shape is
analyzed by image processing. It is then compared to theoretical profiles by adjusting
the value of the surface tension until the agreement is satisfactory. The accuracy of
this estimate can be of the order of 1 percent, or even better in ideal cases.
• Weight of droplets formed at the end of a capillary tube (dropper)
The weight of droplets produced by a capillary tube is approximately proportional to
the surface tension, and depends on the radius of the tube. In averaging a sufficient
number of measurements and applying appropriate corrections, one can obtain an
accuracy of the order of a few percent on this type of measurement.

We will now describe methods which involve the contact angle of liquids with solid walls.
Combined with the methods just described, they allow us to determine at the same time the
surface tension and the contact angle.

Measurement of forces on solid surfaces

These methods often display problems in reproducibility in the preparation of the surfaces,
(a) and depend on the manner in which the surfaces are put in contact with fluids.

2R
• Measurement of the height of capillary rise
This method consists of measuring the height to which a liquid rises in a capillary
tube. We determine the surface tension by using Jurin’s law, established in Equation
1.70b.
• Measurement of the pulling force of the interface on a solid object.
We draw vertically upward a hollow cylinder of radius R immersed in a liquid, and
(b) we measure the pulling force exerted by the liquid on the cylinder at the moment at
which the latter detaches from the interface. The force F obeys:

F = PArch. + 2 (2πR) γ cos θ

where P Arch. represents the Archimedes’ buoyancy exerted on the cylinder (factor
2 results from the presence of two liquid–solid–air contact lines at the level of the
Figure 1.24 Measurement of the surface
cylinder). At the moment when the cylinder detaches from the surface, as shown in
tension by the method of pulling a hollow
Figure 1.24, Archimedes’ buoyancy is no longer effective and the liquid–air interface
cylinder (a) Schematic diagram of the meas-
is vertical at the point of contact with the cylinder. We therefore have cos θ= 1 and:
urement (b) an actual experimental setup
(courtesy of P. Jenffer)
F = 4π R γ (1.71)

This method of determining surface tension by We should note that, in order to have reliable measurements, one must work with
measuring the force is known as Wilhelmy’s very clean surfaces.
method When by when the solid object is a
plate and du Noüy’s method when it is a ring.
In practical devices, correction factors must be Measurement of the contact angle
introduced in Equation 1.71.
The contact angles of a liquid surface with a wall can first of all be determined by combining
measurements of the force or of the capillary rise on interfaces with direct measurements of
the surface tension. They can also be determined directly by observations with a microscope
in favorable cases. Other techniques allow for more rapid and precise measurements in
particular cases.
Surface effects and surface tension 31

R
screen
Figure 1.25 Schematic diagram of the
measurement of the contact angle between a
θ θ
h droplet and a flat plane by reflection from the
upper surface of the droplet
θ
rg

• Interferometric measurements. Using monochromatic light, the measurement

of fringes of constant width near a contact line, in the case of a very small wetting
angle (<2◦ ), allows for the measurement of that angle;
• Reflection measurements (Figure 1.25) from the upper surface of a drop (contact
angles less than 20◦ ).

The limit of the illumined area of the screen corresponds to rays reflected at the contact
line, and the corresponding radius R is given by:

R – rg
tan 2θ = . (1.72)
h

1.4.6 The Rayleigh–Taylor instability

An example of competition between surface tension and gravity effects is the Rayleigh–
Taylor instability. We have seen that the effect of surface tension is to minimize the surface
area of the interface between two fluids—one way of visualizing this is to imagine the in- (a)
terface as an elastic membrane. Let us now consider the case of an horizontal interface ρ'(> ρ)
separating two fluids of different densities, with the lighter fluid located underneath the
heavier one. Such a system is gravitationally unstable; indeed any fluctuation of the surface ε
M'
from its initial flatness leads to a pressure imbalance tending to amplify the disturbance.
ρ M
However, in this instance, surface tension tends to flatten the surface to its original shape, x
M0
thus attempting to restore the equilibrium (Figure 1.26a ). This latter effect will be the more
marked the smaller the interface. We can evaluate the parameter governing the instability by L
considering more carefully these competing mechanisms.
The driving mechanism for this instability is gravity, with which we associate a (b)
hydrostatic pressure difference δp1 between one side and the other of the interface:

δp1 ≈ ρ
– ρ g ε, (1.73)
Figure 1.26 Rayleigh–Taylor instability;
(a) geometry of the experiment; (b) picture
ρ

where ε is the infinitesimal vertical displacement of the interface and ρ and are the den- of a beaker containing very viscous oil
sities of the two fluids (Figure 1.26a). The order of magnitude of the “stabilizing” pressure (5000 times more viscous than water) after
differences created by surface tension is: being suddenly turned upside down (plate by
γ C. Rousselin - Palais de la Découverte)
δp2 ≈ , (1.74)
R

where R is the radius of curvature of the interface. By assuming that this interface is similar
to a spherical bubble (first order approximation in ε/R), this radius R is related to the vertical
32 The Physics of Fluids

displacement ε by the equation ε R ≈ (L/4)2 . The relative magnitude of these two effects
will then be measured by the ratio:

δp1 ρ g ε ρ g L 2
≈ ≈ . (1.75)
δp2 γ /R γ

with ρ = ρ
–ρ. It is the value of this ratio which determines the stability of the interface.
In this parameter, we are not surprised to find the form of the Bond number (Equation
1.64), since we are considering in both these cases the relative importance of gravity and
surface tension.
We can easily observe this instability by using a sufficiently viscous fluid, in order to slow
down the growth of the interface deformations, and to facilitate their observation (Figure
1.26b). For example, by turning rapidly upside down a pot of viscous honey, we can observe
the appearance of a swelling of the interface on one side and a depression on the other.

Discussion of the Rayleigh–Taylor instability

Let us consider a container filled with a fluid of density ρ
and displaying at its lower end
an opening of length L in the x-direction (Figure 1.26a) and very long in the perpendicular
direction z, so that we can neglect curvature effects in this latter direction. This system is
placed above and in contact with a second fluid of lower density ρ
. Let us assume that any
deformation of the interface occurs in the plane of the figure, and let us denote by ε(x,t) the
vertical displacement of this interface relative to its initial plane configuration. Let us denote
by M and M’ two infinitely close points located on both sides of the interface in each of the
two fluids. If R(x) denotes the radius of curvature of the interface at the level of these two
points (counted positively if the center of curvature is inside the upper fluid), we can write
according to Laplace’s law:
γ
pM
– pM = . (1.76)
R (x)
The fundamental principle of hydrostatics applied inside each of these two fluids (prin-
ciple which we can apply since the fluids are at their limit of stability with a vanishingly low
velocity) allows us to write:

pM
= pM0 – ρ
g ε (1.77a) and: pM = pM0 – ρg ε. (1.77b)

At the point M 0 , the radius of curvature of the interface is indeed zero and the pressure has
the same value on the two sides of this interface. Eliminating pM
, pM and pM0 from the three
equations above, and taking into account the fact that the interface has small deformations
because we are close to the equilibrium point (so that R(x) 1/(d2 ε/dx2 )), we obtain:

d2 ε ρ g
=– ε(x, t). (1.78)
dx2 γ
This equation has a general solution:

ρg
ε (x, t) = A cos kx + B sin kx (1.79) with: k= . (1.80)
γ

If we further assume that the interface is fixed at a point of contact with the lateral walls,
ε(x,t) satisfies the boundary conditions: ε (x=0) = ε(x=L) = 0. Also, the average displace-
L
ment of the interface 0 ε(x, t) dx must be zero in order to ensure the conservation of fluid
in the container. All these conditions together restrict the solution to:

ε(x, t) = B sin kx, (1.81)

Scattering of electromagnetic waves and particles in fluids 33

where k = (2 n π/L) and n is an integer. The threshold is obtained for the smallest value of
√
k satisfying this condition (n = 1) with: 2π/L = ρ g/γ or, also:

ρ g L 2
= 4π2 . (1.82)
γ

In this equation we find the form of the parameter obtained in Equation 1.75. An order of The approach used here is very general in the
study of hydrodynamic instabilities (studied in
magnitude calculation with an air–water interface (ρ = 103 kg/m3 and γ ≈ 70 × 10–3 N/m) detail in Chapter 11). We have assumed a type
gives a threshold: of deformation or instability mode (Equation
1.79), and we have looked for the conditions
under which we have the limit of stability (i.e.,
4π 2 γ it represents a solution of equations of motion
Lc = ≈ 1.7 · 10–2 m. (1.83)
ρ g independent of time). It is that of the unstable
modes which corresponds to the smallest thresh-
old which determines the appearance of a global
The condition: L > Lc for observing the instability will therefore be very frequently satisfied. instability.

1.5 Scattering of electromagnetic waves

and particles in fluids
1.5.1 Some probes of the structure of liquids
Scattering probes
We have demonstrated above (Section 1.3), the close relationship between the transport
properties of fluids and their microscopic structure. This structure, as well as motion on
a very small scale, can be studied by analyzing the diffraction of a wave incident on the
substance. The wavelength involved must be comparable to, or larger by a few orders of
magnitude than inter-atomic distances. We can use not only electromagnetic waves (X-rays
or visible light), but also beams of particles (electrons or neutrons). For atomic particles, the
equivalent probe wavelengths are given by the de Broglie relation:

h h
λ= = (1.84)
p mv

(where h is Planck’s constant, while p, m and v, are respectively the momentum, mass and
velocity of the particle, assumed to be non-relativistic).
These three types of measurements are currently used in the study of liquids. Neutron
scattering techniques use either neutrons generated by the fission of uranium in nuclear
reactors (High Flux Istotope Reactor at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL,
USA), Institut Laue-Langevin in Grenoble, Laboratoire Léon Brillouin in Saclay), or those
expelled by bombarding a target with high energy particles (the Spallation Neutron
Source (ORNL, USA)), Isis (Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, UK), the future European
Spallation Source(Lund, Sweden) which are built exclusively for this purpose. These have
taken a very important role in the last decades. By comparison with X-ray diffraction,
neutron scattering is relatively more sensitive to the light elements, H, O, C, N which
we find in many organic liquids. This results from the fact that neutrons do not interact
with the electron cloud surrounding atoms, but only with the atomic nuclei. Also, for the
same element, this interaction varies from one isotope to another. The two other kinds of
spectroscopic probes “see” the electrons around atoms, and have accordingly a sensitivity
which increases rapidly with the atomic number: these techniques are obviously more
sensitive to heavy elements.
34 The Physics of Fluids

A few orders of magnitude

The techniques which we have just mentioned allow one to analyze the structure of a liq-
uid or its elementary excitations depending on the wavelength and the instruments used.
These excitations could be pressure waves, or elementary diffusive waves excited thermally.
We are now going to list a few orders of magnitude of the parameters corresponding to the
techniques in current use.
In order to gather information on the structure of a liquid on the scale of interatomic
distances, we use probes corresponding to wavelengths of the same order:

X-rays: these are classically generated by bombarding a metallic anode with electrons
accelerated by an electron gun. The corresponding wavelengths are of the order
of a few Ångstroms (e.g., 1.54 Å for the Kα -line of copper). Current studies are
also carried out by means of very strong synchrotron radiation obtained from the
acceleration of electrons in storage rings: Advanced Light Source in Berkeley (USA),
Diamond light source in the Rutherrford Appleton Laboratory (UK), SOLEIL syn-
chrotron (Source Optimisée de Lumière d’Energie Intermédiaire) in Saclay (France),
ESRF (European Synchrotron Radiation Facility) in Grenoble (France), . . . .
Electrons: for electrons accelerated through a potential difference of 200 V, the de
Broglie wavelength is 0.87 Å. These are slow, low-energy, non-relativistic electrons.
Neutrons: They are obtained from nuclear reactors or from spallation sources (see
previous page) by slowing high energy neutrons in a hydrogen environment, either
at room temperature (thermal neutrons) or at very low temperatures (cold neutrons).
After a sufficient number of collisions with the nuclei of the medium, the velocity dis-
tribution of the neutrons approaches thermal equilibrium with the liquid. At 300 K,
the corresponding peak wavelength is 1.78 Å.
Scattering of visible light: Because of its longer wavelength, we use such light to
analyze density or composition fluctuations of the fluid at large scales. It represents
a very useful tool for studying transport phenomena in liquids, but at scales larger
than a micron.

In the two sections that follow, we discuss elastic and inelastic scattering of X-rays and
neutrons, and then continue to Rayleigh and Brillouin scattering of light.

1.5.2 Elastic and inelastic scattering

In this section, we first discuss the characterization of the structure of liquids on the scale
of a few atoms (a few Ångstroms). However, the techniques of analysis that we use can
frequently be carried over to the scattering of light.

Pair correlation function in an atomic liquid

The essential information about the distribution of interatomic distances in a liquid is con-
tained in its pair correlation function, g(r) (Figure 1.27), defined as follows: if we take an
atom centered at O, g(r) is related to the number n(r) dr of atoms whose centers can be found
at a distance from O between r and r + dr by the relation:

4π r 2 g (r) dr = n (r) dr. (1.85)

The value of g(r) is practically zero inside a sphere of radius r = 2r 0 , where r 0 is the atomic
radius, because of the impenetrability of atoms. It displays a first peak for a value slightly
Scattering of electromagnetic waves and particles in fluids 35

(1) (2)
g(r)

Figure 1.27 Comparison of the variation of

2 the radial distribution function with distance
from the atom taken as the origin O, for a
metal just above (solid line) and just below
(dotted line) its melting point. Markers 1 and
1 2 indicate respectively the positions of the first
and second nearest neighbors

0 5 10 r / r0

greater than 2r 0 , which corresponds to the presence of nearest neighbor atoms (Figure
1.27). As r increases, the function g(r) then displays several damped oscillations which
correspond to the effects of second and third neighbors. Beyond a distance of a few atomic
radii, the function ρ(r) is constant and equal to the average density of atoms: this indicates
the absence of long range order in a liquid.
The distribution function ρ(r) corresponds to an average on all possible configurations of
atoms in a liquid. We will show that it can be inferred from scattering experiments, for
example using X-rays of wavelengths of the order of Ångstroms.

Elastic scattering
Figure 1.28 shows schematically a scattering experiment using wave vectors ki and kd We assume, in this case, that the hypothesis of
corresponding to the incident wave, the scattered wave and of the transfer wave vector q: elastic scattering is approximately satisfied for
X-ray photons of wavelength of the order of an
Ångstrom. The corresponding energy is of the
q = kd – ki (1.86) order of 12 KeV and is much greater than that
of excitations created in the fluid: this energy will
q represents the momentum transfer between the wave and the medium. We assume in this therefore be virtually unchanged during the scat-
tering. This will not be the case for probes such
case an elastic scattering, i.e., without change in energy. The magnitudes of kd and ki are
as thermal neutrons of the same wavelength for
therefore equal. which the energy is much lower (kT ≈ 1/40 eV
The scattered amplitude A(q) in the direction of kd is at 300 K).

A(q) = C D(q) 1 + g(r) ei q.r d3 r . (1.87)
V

(a) (b) P'

P Figure 1.28 Schematic representation of

B' elastic X-ray diffraction by a liquid; (a) repre-
O sentation in terms of wave vectors in Fourier
A transform space; (b) representation in physical
kd q r
space (the planes P and P
are at very large
θ B
M distance relative to the scale of the sample)
ki
36 The Physics of Fluids

Proof
Let us assume that the complex amplitude of the wave scattered by a molecule is D(q) (we
assume molecules with spherical symmetry, so that the angle of the wave vectors with the
characteristic directions of the molecule has no particular effect). Let us take a molecule
O as the origin, and assume there is a second molecule at a point M such that OM = r
(Figure 1.28b). Let us calculate the phase change ϕ between the waves scattered by O
and M from the optical path difference AOA
and BMB
(AB and A
B
are respectively
perpendicular to the incident and scattered wave vectors). In taking the projection of OM
on OA and OA
, we find ϕ = (ki – kd ).r = –q.r. The amplitude of the two resultant waves
is therefore:

AO+M = D (q)(1 + e–i ϕ ) = D (q) (1 + ei q.r ). (1.88)

In order to obtain a significant value, we must integrate this expression on the ensemble of
vectors r corresponding to the scattering volume by weighting that by the probability of the
presence g(r) on the second molecule: this leads to Equation 1.87.
The expression for the factor S(q) uses the
Fourier transform of ρ(r) to go from the real
space to that of the wave vector q. The inverse In Equation 1.87, the total scattered amplitude in the direction kd = ki +q depends on two
transform allows us to come back from meas- factors:
uring S(q) to the result for ρ(r); this is what
makes the method particularly interesting. As it
is the product q.r which occurs in the integral, • one D(q), which is related to the structure of individual molecules;

the information on the large scale structure will
be obtained from wave vectors q which are small • the other S(q) = 1 + V ρ(r) e
iq.r d3 r , known as the structure factor, is determined

(we talk about small angle scattering); for a given by the distribution of the relative positions of molecules.
value of ki , this implies that the direction of the
wave vector kd , where we make the measure-
The elastic scattering of X-rays is thus seen as a powerful method to analyze the corre-
ment, will make a small angle with the incident
wave. When the function ρ(r) is periodic, as is lations between the position of the molecules in the liquid (when these are all identical and
the case for a crystalline solid, S(q) will be also of spherical symmetry). The wavelength of the X-rays used is well adapted to the analysis
periodic in q. We will observe diffraction peaks of phenomena at the scale of atomic distances.
at angles where the Bragg condition is satisfied
for reflection from crystal planes.
The passage from real space to Fourier space
Inelastic scattering
for wave vectors and the resulting properties If, in the previous example, we have considered scattering as elastic, there is, more gener-
are a common characteristic of all the scattering
techniques, which are used in the study of the ally, always a transfer of momentum and of energy during the scattering: the magnitude
scattering of light. |kd | of the scattered wave vector is then different from that |ki | of the incident wave vector.
This consideration will be particularly important in the case of thermal neutrons where we
have seen above that the energy is much smaller than that of X-rays of the same wavelength
(kT ≈ 1/40 eV at 300 K for a wavelength of 1 Å): the relative value of the change in this
energy is therefore much more significant and we then have easily measurable inelastic scat-
tering. The latter provides very worthwhile information on the internal excitation modes of
a fluid.
Let us now generalize the previous discussion to whatever type of particles (neutrons . . .)
or waves (X-rays, light . . .) which are incident on or scattered from a particle A; the latter
could be an atom or a fictitious particle representing the complex effect of the interaction
of the wave with the fluid. In using Equation 1.84 to determine wave vectors, we can write
the energy and the momentum of these different objects in the form:

Particle or wave i Particle A Particle or wave d

Energy h̄ ω i h̄ h̄ ωd

Impulse h̄ ki h̄ q h̄ kd
Scattering of electromagnetic waves and particles in fluids 37

1032
10 r10(nm) 10
1 10 -1
10–2
104
Raman X-ray
102 scattering inelastic
E (meV)

scattering

100
Brillouin Inelastic Figure 1.29 Regions of energy and wave-
scattering neutron
10–2 vector transfer for the various experimental
scattering probes used in the spectroscopic analysis of
liquids
10–4
Photon
10–6 correlation

10–8 –4
10 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101 102
q (Å–1)

Among these different variables we have the following relationships, which imply the
conservation of energy and of momentum:

= ωd – ωi q = kd – ki . (1.89)

These relationships will be valid for local probes as well as for light for which the wave-
length is much greater. Light allows for the study of phenomena at a characteristic scale
much greater than the others, as we will see in the following sections.
Figure 1.29 displays the domains of energy and wave vector transfer for different classical
probes used in the analysis of liquids.

1.5.3 Elastic and quasi elastic scattering of light:

a tool for studying the structure and diffusive
transport in liquids
An example of elastic scattering of light: Rayleigh scattering by a dilute
emulsion
Let us observe (Figure 1.30) a long tube containing a dilute solution of small scale particles
(for example, water to which we have added a very small amount of milk). If we illumine
the tube through one of its ends, we will see reddish light coming out the opposite end;
on the other hand, at right angles to the beam, we observe scattered light which is bluish.
This experiment is analogous to the more common observation of the color of the sky,
which appears red at sunset, when we look in the direction of the rays of the sun (light
transmitted after absorption), and blue in the perpendicular direction (light scattered from
the molecules in the air). In the above experiment, the scattering occurs from density (and,
as a result, refraction index) fluctuations, due to the presence of the milk droplets. The
method of calculating the scattered light is analogous to that used in Section 1.5.2 for the
elastic scattering of X-rays. If the solution is dilute, the intensities of the light scattered by the
droplets simply add up, because g(r) is practically a constant: the variation of the scattered
intensity with the wave vector corresponds then to that of D(q).
The change of color observed results from absorption and scattering which are different
for the different components of the spectrum of white light. Monochromatic light of a given
38 The Physics of Fluids

Figure 1.30C Rayleigh scattering from a

wavelength keeps the same wavelength: this phenomenon, called Rayleigh scattering, appears
then as elastic.
If we illuminate a suspension of Brownian parti-
cles by coherent and monochromatic laser light, In the previous example, Rayleigh scattering results from concentration fluctuations due
the time dependent fluctuations in the light allow to the presence of the dilute emulsion of milk; in a pure liquid, its amplitude would be much
us to characterize the dynamics of these par- lower, and is associated to variations of the index of refraction due to the fluctuations of local
ticles. This technique, called dynamic scattering
of light (or photon correlation), has at present temperature. These fluctuations propagate diffusively, as we have seen in Section 1.2 of this
numerous applications. chapter, and not as waves.

Forced Rayleigh scattering

We will now analyze a model scattering experiment: forced Rayleigh scattering, where large
amplitude temperature variations are artificially created.
In a static liquid, we create a figure of interference fringes by means of a high-power, but
very short, laser pulse: the monochromatic beam is separated into two components, which
converge at the same spot inside the liquid under study (Figure 1.31). The spatial period
of the resulting pattern of interference fringes (the grid spacing) is determined from the
angle ϕ between the interfering beams, by the relation

y
z
Figure 1.31 Principle of forced Rayleigh LE2 θ
scattering experiment: a refractive index grat- kd
ing is “written” inside the liquid by the inter-
ference of two beams LE generated by a same
pulsed laser. This grating is then “read” by x
φ O
the beam LL of a low power continuous laser
which gets diffracted
ki
LE1 LL
Scattering of electromagnetic waves and particles in fluids 39
λ0
= , (1.90)
2n sin ϕ/2

where λ0 denotes the free space wavelength of the light, and n the index of refraction of the
liquid. The rise in temperature resulting from the laser pulse evolves with time and distance
y, according to a law of the type:

2 2π y
T (y, t) = T0 e–κ(2π/) t cos . (1.91)

Proof
Taking into account the high power of the laser LE, which forms a temperature grid (writing
beam), a spatial modulation T(y) of the temperature is associated with this interference
pattern as:

2πy
T (y, t) = T0 (t) cos .

The amplitude T 0 (t) of this variation in temperature attenuates with time because of
thermal diffusion; the wavelength of the modulation remains, however, almost constant
in time. The modulation T ( y,t) satisfies the thermal diffusion Equation 1.17. In applying
this equation to the preceding expression T (y, t), we obtain:

∂T0 (t) 4π2 κ 2

= – 2 T0 (t), i.e.: T0 (t) = T0 e–κ(2π /) t .
∂t

In substituting this equation in the expression for T(y, t), we get back Equation 1.91.

In order to measure the amplitude of these temperature variations, we illuminate the

system of fringes in the z-direction, perpendicular to the plane of the interfering beams,
with a continuous beam from a second, low power, laser LL with wavelength λ. This reading
beam is diffracted by the modulations in the index of refraction due to the temperature
modulation. Because the grid is periodic, we observe diffraction maxima for certain wave
vectors. This phenomenon is equivalent, in the case of visible light to the elastic scattering
of X-rays with the momentum transfer described in Figure 1.28. The transfer wave vector
q = kd – ki corresponds to the most intense maximum with magnitude q = 2π/. In fact,
the incident wave vector ki and the scattered wave vector kd have the same magnitude k (a
characteristic of elastic scattering) and make an angle θ to each other such that:

θ q λ
sin = ≈ (1.92)
2 2k 2

In Section 1.5.2, we have seen that the scattered amplitude is proportional to the amplitude
of the variations in density. The diffracted intensity Id (t) is thus proportional to the square of
the amplitude T 0 (t), which describes the temperature modulation. According to Equation
1.91, it decreases in time as:
2
Id (t) ∝ e–2 κq t = e–2(t/τQ ) . (1.93)

This decrease allows us to measure κ since q is known (q = 2π/ = (4π/λ)sin(θ/2)); note

that, according to Section 1.2.1, τ Q = 1/(κ q2 ) is of the order of the thermal diffusion time
along a distance equal to the wavelength =2π/q of the grid.
40 The Physics of Fluids

Spontaneous Rayleigh scattering

Spontaneous Rayleigh scattering corresponds to scattering of light by fluctuations in the
temperature or concentration due to thermal motion; these are naturally present within a
liquid. The technique of forced Rayleigh scattering, which we have studied above, repre-
In choosing a direction of observation for the sents an excellent model for scattering by such spontaneous fluctuations. The latter can
scattered light, one selects at the same time the
direction and the wavelength of the grid which be broken down into elementary perturbations, such as those that we have discussed; their
scatters the light. We thus achieve a filtering of wave vector can assume all magnitudes in all possible directions. The scattered amplitude
the spontaneous fluctuations from the ensem- is a combination of the corresponding scattered amplitudes. The light intensity detected is
ble of wavelengths, keeping only the components
which provide maximum light in the chosen generally very weak: for a laser of 0.1 W, it varies from a few photons to 107 photons per
direction. second.
The width ω of the spectrum around the frequency ω0 of the incident wave allows us
to determine the coefficients of the diffusive processes present in the fluid. This width varies
greatly: it can be as small as a fraction of a hertz if we observe the (very slow) scattering by
large particles, but it can also reach several tens of megahertz for fast processes.

1.5.4 Inelastic scattering of light in liquids

When the spectrum of light scattered from a fluid is analyzed with high enough resolution, a
pair of satellite lines (B) are found on either side of the central unshifted Rayleigh-scattered
line (R). These side peaks, illustrated in Figure 1.32, and known as Brillouin scattering, result
from the diffraction of the beam by spontaneous density (and, correspondingly, pressure)
fluctuations, propagating as acoustic waves in the fluid. The shift between the Rayleigh and
Brillouin lines is of a few gigahertz. The width of the lines provides information about the
time constants of the relaxation and the fluctuations in the mass and concentration. In order
to understand the physics of this phenomenon, we proceed, just as in the case of Rayleigh
scattering, to describe a model experiment where density fluctuations are externally
created.

Figure 1.32 Expanded-scale schematic of

the scattered-light spectrum with two
Brillouin-scattering lines (B) ω0 ± B
symmetrically located on either side of the
central, unshifted Rayleigh-scattering line
(R). The width of each spectral line provides a
measurement of the relaxation time constants
for mass and concentration fluctuations.
The separation between the Rayleigh and
Brillouin lines is of the order of a few
gigahertz

Forced Brillouin scattering

This experiment provides a model for inelastic scattering through the Doppler effect.
A high-frequency, acoustic travelling wave of frequency fs is generated within a liquid by
means of a quartz transducer (Figure 1.33). This wave consists of a modulation of the
pressure and density of wavelength , propagating through the liquid. Visible light of free-
space wavelength λ and frequency ω0 , is beamed at an angle θ/2 to the planes of the acoustic
wave. The optical beam is reflected at an equal angle from the acoustic wave-planes, and
Scattering of electromagnetic waves and particles in fluids 41

θ λ
2
Figure 1.33 Forced Brillouin scattering of
(T) a monochromatic light beam of wavelength
vs λ from an acoustic wave of wavelength
induced in a fluid by the transducer T
Λ θ
2

the beams reflected at each plane interfere. Since the optical path difference from one plane
to the next is 2sin(θ/2), we have constructive interference, provided that the equation:

θ λ
2sin =p (1.94)
2 n

is satisfied; p is any integer, (assumed hereafter to be unity, corresponding to the first-

order diffraction peak), and n represents the index of refraction of the liquid. It should be
observed that this expression is precisely identical to the Bragg condition for the reflection
of X-rays from the planes of a crystal. It can be derived by following each of the steps in
Section 1.5.3 for Equation 1.92. At the same time, because the reflecting planes are not
stationary, the frequency ωd of the diffracted wave is Doppler-shifted by an amount B
such that:

B ωd – ω0 vs θ vs θ vs λ
= = 2 sin = 2n sin = ; (1.95)
ω0 ω0 c/n 2 c 2 c
Orders of magnitude
here, vs is the velocity of the acoustic wave in the fluid ( fs = vs / is then its frequency). Let us consider an acoustic wave with speed
of sound vs = 1500 m/s and frequency fs =
Since c = ω0 λ/2π, we see that the Brillouin frequency shift B from ω0 equals the angular 150 MHz. The free-space wavelength of the
frequency ωs = 2π fs of the acoustic wave. The measurement of this frequency shift ωB light from a He–Ne laser is 6328 Å and the in-
from the spectrum of the scattered light (Figure 1.32), and the experimental measurement dex of refraction of the liquid is n = 1.5. The
acoustic wavelength is thus: = vs / fs =10–5 m.
of the scattering angle θ, for which we have a maximum in the scattered intensity, allows us Applying Equation 1.94, we find a Bragg angle
to determine the velocity vs from the relation vs =(B /2π)(λ/[2n sin(θ/2)]). The sign of the θ = 6.3 · 10–2 radians. The angular frequency
Doppler shift depends on the direction of propagation of the travelling wave relative to the ω0 of the light is given by ω0 = 2πc/λ =
3 × 1015 s–1 . From Equation 1.95, we obtain
incident light beam. If the travelling wave is replaced by a more easily generated standing B = 9.4 × 108 s–1 . The resultant frequency
wave – which, we recall, is nothing but a linear superposition of two waves travelling in split is sufficiently large to be easily measurable,
opposite directions – two symmetrically shifted lines are observed. even using incoherent light.

Spontaneous Brillouin scattering

As in the case of forced Brillouin scattering, we observe in the spectrum of light scattered
from a liquid, Brillouin scattering lines, symmetrically located on either side of the central
Rayleigh line. In the present case, these lines are due to thermodynamic pressure fluctu-
ations which occur and propagate spontaneously in the liquid (as opposed to the case just
discussed, in which they are externally generated).
Experimentally, one uses a collimated emitter beam together with a detector sufficiently
small in size, so that the angle θ between the incident and the reflected beams is well de-
fined. This is equivalent to selecting out those components of the pressure fluctuations for
which the Bragg reflection condition (Equation 1.94) is satisfied, and such that the angles
of incidence and reflection are equal. Equation 1.95 then gives immediately the propagation
velocity vs for these fluctuations. As implied by Equation 1.94, a fixed θ value is equivalent
42 The Physics of Fluids

to a given wave vector q of the fluctuations under study; by varying θ , one can measure the
dependence of vs on q, i.e., the dispersion law for the acoustic wave. It should be noted,
however, that the frequencies involved in such measurements are outside the normal range
of classical ultrasonic techniques.
As a generalization of these ideas, Brillouin scattering can be used directly to characterize
the velocity distribution of a system of particles in suspension in a fluid. In such a case, the
In the diffraction spectrum, other lines more dis-
tant from the Rayleigh scattering peak than the frequency variations that occur during scattering from the moving objects are measured.
Brillouin lines can be seen; these are due to the A very similar technique is laser Doppler anemometry, described in detail in Section 3.5.3.
excitation of (rotational and vibrational) inter- This method uses light, suspended particles to obtain information about the movement of
nal modes of the molecules, and correspond to
the phenomenon of Raman scattering, which we a fluid. By illuminating the particles by means of a laser beam, and observing the frequency
shall not discuss here. shift in the scattered light, the velocity of the particles can be determined.
In conclusion, we find that the Brillouin and Rayleigh scattering techniques are highly
complementary for studying transport phenomena in liquids:

• Rayleigh scattering leads to the analysis of diffusive transport phenomena, and the
measurement of the related coefficients.
• Brillouin scattering provides information about convective and wave-transport
modes; it allows us to measure the speed of sound in materials at high frequencies.

1A Appendix - Transport coefficients

in fluids
Table 1.2 Heat, mass and momentum transport coefficients in a number of common fluids. For the molecular diffusion coefficients Dm , we estimate
the order of magnitude of the self-diffusion coefficients (i.e., of the fluid in itself), in order to display the great numerical difference between gases and
liquids.
Thermal Specific heat at Density Thermal Molecular Kinematic Prandtl Dynamic
conductivity constant volume ρ diffusivity diffusivity viscosity number viscosity
k Cv (kg/m3 ) κ = k / ρCυ Dm ν Pr = ν / κ η=ρ ν
(J/m s K) (J/K) (m2 /s) (m2 /s) (m2 /s) (Pa s)

Liquid metals 1 – 102 ≈ 103 2 × 103 – 2 × 104 10–6 – 10–4 10–9 – 10–8 10–8 – 10–6 10–3 – 10–1 10–4 – 10–3

Organic liquids ≈ 0.15 103 – 3 × 103 103 10–8 – 10–7 10–10 – 10–7 10–7 – 10–6 1 – 10 10–4 – 10–3

Molten salts 10–7 – 10–6 103 – 4 × 103 ≈ 2 × 103 10–7 ≈ 10–10 10–6 10 10–3

Silicone oils 0.1 2 × 103 ≈ 103 10–7 10–13 – 10–9 10–5 – 10–1 10 – 107 10–2 – 103

Water 0.6 4 × 103 103 10–7 10–10 – 10–8 10–6 10 10–3

Molten glass 10–2 ≈ 103 ≈ 3 × 103 10–6 ≈ 10–12 10–2 103 – 104 10
(800 K)

Air (gas at 2.6 × 10–2 103 1.29 2.24 × 10–5 10–5 – 10–4 1.43 × 10–5 0.71 1.85 × 10–5
p = 1 atm and
T = 300 K)
Momentum Transport Under
Various Flow Conditions
2
2.1 Diffusive and convective transport
In the first chapter, we have seen how heat, or miscible tracers, are transported by of momentum in flowing fluids 43
diffusion. The flux of heat, or of tracer, is then proportional to the gradient of the
2.2 Microscopic models of the
quantity being transported (temperature or tracer concentration) and directed along
viscosity 48
this gradient, the flux being oriented so as to tend to attenuate these gradients. There
exists another mechanism (often much more effective) of heat or tracer transport: 2.3 Comparison between diffusion
and convection mechanisms 52
convection through flow. Thus, in a region of rapidly flowing fluid, a drop of dye is
displaced on average at the velocity of the fluid, all the while displaying some spreading 2.4 Description of various flow
regimes 55
due to the effect of molecular diffusion or of the transverse velocity gradients.
At the beginning of this chapter (Section 2.1), we show that the momentum of a
moving fluid can be transported, like heat or tracer concentration, simultaneously by
diffusion and by convection. However, an important difference from the cases just
mentioned is that momentum is a vector quantity, whereas temperature and concen-
tration are scalars. Section 2.2 includes a simplified discussion of the microscopic
models of the related coefficient, the viscosity, paralleling that of Chapter 1 for the
other transport coefficients. We then compare in Section 2.3 the relative effectiveness
of the convection and diffusion mechanisms, which will lead us to the definition of the
Reynolds number. Finally, in Section 2.4, we illustrate by the cases of flow in a tube or
around a cylinder or a sphere the changes occurring in the flow regime as the Reynolds
number increases.

2.1 Diffusive and convective transport

of momentum in flowing fluids
2.1.1 Diffusion and convection of momentum:
two illustrative experiments
It is easy to understand the transport of momentum by convection, if we first consider a
liquid in uniform parallel flow with a constant vector velocity U. Every element of fluid
carries along (convects) its momentum while being displaced at its own velocity, the local
velocity U of the flow. The momentum flux, per unit area, per unit time, is equal in this case
to the product of U with the quantity being transported, the momentum ρ U (where ρ is
the density of the fluid). The resulting term ρ U 2 has dimensions of a pressure; ρ U 2 /2 is
often called the dynamic pressure of the fluid and we shall see it appearing naturally in the
discussion of the conservation of energy (Section 5.3.2).
Momentum transfer by diffusion is, as we shall see, also an effective mechanism, but it is
frequently overshadowed by convective transport. Since the latter occurs in the direction of

Physical Hydrodynamics. Second Edition. Etienne Guyon et al.

© Oxford University Press 2015. Published in 2015 by Oxford University Press.
44 Momentum Transport Under Various Flow Conditions

Ώ0 Ώ0

Figure 2.1 (a) Initiation of the motion of a

viscous fluid, located in a cylindrical con-
tainer of which the wall is suddenly set into
rotation at a constant angular velocity 0 ;
(b) final steady-state motion. The graphs
shown below each figure display the corre-
sponding radial dependence of the angular Ώ(r) Ώ(r)
velocity profile at the upper surface of the fluid Ώ0 Ώ0

R r R r
(a) (b)

the flow, it is in fact easier to identify diffusion in the direction normal to the flow as outlined
in the experiment described in Figure 2.1. A long cylinder with vertical axis and radius R is
filled with a liquid for which we can visualize the flow by means of particles dropped on the
surface. The system is initially at rest. At the very beginning, we start the cylinder in mo-
tion with a constant angular velocity 0 . First of all, only the liquid layers in the immediate
vicinity of the cylinder begin to move with its angular velocity (Figure 2.1a). This fluid flow
is characterized by the angular velocity (r,t) = v(r,t)/r, where the local velocity v of the
flow is perpendicular to the radius r. The flow propagates from one layer to the next toward
the innermost layers; after a very long time, the whole fluid rotates with a uniform angular
velocity equal to that of the cylinder (Figure 2.1b). This phenomenon is remarkably similar
to the problem of thermal diffusion which we have discussed in Chapter 1 (Section 1.2.1):
there, we considered a solid cylinder made up of material with thermal diffusivity κ at an
initial uniform temperature T 0 ; at the first moment, we change the temperature of the outer
wall of the cylinder to a value T 0 + δT 0 . The perturbation in temperature propagated by dif-
fusion toward the inner layers and the thickness of the affected region increased with time as
(κt)1/2 ; the very same propagation law as t 1/2 is observed in the hydrodynamic experiment.
Moreover, we will see that, in this flow experiment in a rotating cylinder, we can also define
a diffusion coefficient for the momentum: this allows us to observe a rigorous correspond-
ence between the angular velocity profiles (r) at different times and the corresponding
The description given above (Figures 2.1a–b)
thermal diffusion profiles δT (r) in Figure 1.9.
would be rigorously true for an infinitely long
cylinder. In a real situation, the bottom of We observe a transfer of the “momentum” information by radial diffusion; the con-
the container creates an effect which eventually vection due to hydrodynamic flow cannot contribute to this propagation because the fluid
dominates the manner in which the velocity pro-
moves in a “tangential” direction, perpendicular to the radius. A second important result
file evolves after a long time, as a result of the
creation of a secondary flow due to the rotation of of this experiment is the fact that the velocity of the solid wall is precisely equal to that of
the bottom of the container (see Section 7.7.2). the adjacent fluid. This is characteristic of all normal viscous fluids. There occurs a kind of
Diffusive and convective transport of momentum in flowing fluids 45

frictional force between layers of fluid in contact with the solid which causes the fluid imme-
diately next to the wall to move at the same velocity. This diffusive transport of momentum
is characterized by a property which depends on the fluid, the viscosity, which we will now
discuss from a macroscopic viewpoint.

2.1.2 Momentum transport in a shear flow –

introduction of the viscosity
Macroscopic definition of the viscosity
y
The example which we have just discussed corresponded to a non-stationary problem in
which the velocity at a given point was time dependent. Let us now analyze the case of Vo
a F
the stationary flow of a fluid located between two infinite parallel plates and separated by a
distance a in the normal direction y (Figure 2.2). One plate is fixed, while the other moves υx(y)
parallel to itself at constant velocity V 0 in the x-direction. The fluid flow results from the O
O x
motion of the upper plate. Under stationary conditions (i.e., after enough time has passed
since the upper plate was set in motion) we observe that the velocity of the fluid varies Figure 2.2 Geometry of a simple shear flow
linearly from 0 to V 0 from one plate to the other according to the relationship:
y
vx (y) = V0 (2.1)
a
The resulting flow is known as simple shear flow or plane Couette flow. This type of flow can
be compared to thermal conductivity between two parallel plates at different temperatures
(Section 1.2.1): under stationary conditions, the temperature varied linearly between the
boundary values T 1 and T 2 at the plates. Here, the vector field v(y) replaces the scalar
temperature field T (x). Equation 1.6 relating the thermal energy flux and the temperature
gradient corresponds to proportionality between the frictional force F (for an area S of the
plate), which opposes the relative motion of the plates, and the velocity gradient between
them (F is in the direction of the negative x-axis).
Fx V0 ∂vx
=η = –η (2.2)
S L ∂y
The ratio Fx /S is known as the shear stress, with dimensions of a pressure.
The relationship between the characteristics of the shear stress Fx /S and those of the
thermal energy flux will be more clear as we study the mechanism at a molecular level.
The constant η is known as the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (because it is related to a
force), or simply as the viscosity. Its dimensional form is, according to Equation 2.2: Another usual notation for the viscosity is μ. We
find in the literature other historical units such as
–2 –2 the Poiseuille (Pl), which is the old name of the
[M] [L] [T] [L]
[η] = = [M] [L]–1 [T]–1 SI unit, and the CGS unit which is the Poise (Po)
[L] [T ]–1 [L]–1 and is equal to 0.1 Pa.s. We find in Table 1.2 at
the end of Chapter 1, values for the viscosity of
Its unit in the SI system is the Pascal-second (Pa.s) (1 Pa.s = 1 kg/(m.s)). several common fluids.

Equation for the diffusion of momentum

Going back to the non-stationary initial problem discussed in Section 2.1.1, let us con-
sider the simple situation of a plane geometry (Figure 2.3): we will assume a flow in
the x-direction, where the component vx (y,t) of the velocity is only a function of the
y-coordinate in the perpendicular direction. The partial differential equation governing the
variation of the velocity vx (y,t) with position y and time t is as follows:

∂vx η ∂ 2 vx ∂ 2 vx
= =ν 2 . (2.3)
∂t ρ ∂y 2 ∂y
46 Momentum Transport Under Various Flow Conditions

y ∂υx
ηS (y+dy) υx(y,t)
y+dy ∂y
y
Figure 2.3 Balance of the shear forces act- ∂υx
–ηS (y)
ing on an element of volume of the fluid ∂y
located between two planes in relative shear
motion

O x
z

It represents the equivalent for the velocity (or the momentum if we multiply both sides
by the fluid density ρ) of the thermal diffusion Equation 1.11b and of the mass diffusion
Equation 1.26. Temperature, or tracer concentration, are replaced by the components of the
velocity (here, vx ), or of the momentum per unit volume (ρ vx ). This equation involves the
coefficient ν, which depends on the properties of the fluid, and is known as the kinematic
viscosity; it obeys the relationship:

η
ν= (2.4)
ρ

and has dimensions [L]2 /[T]. The kinematic viscosity ν represents a diffusion coefficient for
momentum, quite analogous to the thermal diffusion coefficient κ and the mass diffusion
coefficient Dm which we introduced in the previous chapter. The correspondence allows for
a better understanding of the analogy, introduced at the beginning of this chapter, between
thermal diffusion and the propagation of a velocity perturbation toward the center of a
cylinder (Section 2.1.1).

Proof
Consider the balance of forces acting on a volume element bounded by two plane paral-
lel surfaces of cross section S and sides y and y + dy. The wall at position y undergoes a
shear force –ηS[∂vx /∂y]( y) due to the fluid below it, and in the negative x-direction, as
shown in Figure 2.3. In the same way, the wall at position y + dy is acted on by a force
+ηS[∂vx /∂y]( y + dy) exerted by the fluid above it and in the positive x-direction.
Consequently, we have a resultant force on the volume S dy:

∂vx ∂vx ∂ 2 vx
–η S ( y) + η S ( y + dy) = η S 2 dy.
∂y ∂y ∂y

This force causes the volume to accelerate according to Newton’s law:

∂vx ∂ 2 vx
ρ S dy = ηS dy.
∂t ∂y2

We obtain Equation 2.3 by dividing both sides by ρ S dy.

Equation 2.3 can be generalized to geometries in two or three dimensions so long as we

do not have convective terms (a concept which we will discuss in Section 3.1.3); for this,
we may substitute in Equation 2.3 the derivative with respect to the spatial coordinate by
Diffusive and convective transport of momentum in flowing fluids 47

a Laplacian. Each component of the velocity vector will then obey the resulting equation.
We can then write the result in vector form:

∂v
= ν∇ 2 v (2.5)
∂t

(the vector Laplacian ∇ 2 v is a vector such that its x component, for example, is equal to
∇ 2 vx ). We will prove and study this three-dimensional form in Chapter 4, where we will
include pressure terms in the complete formulation of this equation.

Flow near a flat plane caused to move suddenly parallel to itself

This problem is an application of Equation 2.5 to a plane version of the motion of the
fluid in the neighborhood of the wall of a cylinder, which we discussed in Section 2.1.1.
We assume that, at time t = 0, an infinite solid plane at position y = 0, is suddenly made
to move parallel to itself with constant velocity V 0 in the x-direction (Figure 2.4). We are
interested in the motion of the fluid with velocity vx (y,t) in the semi-infinite space located
above the y = 0 plane.
Figure 2.4a shows the evolution of the velocity profile with time. The solution of
Equation 2.3 for this problem is rigorously identical to that of the thermal diffusion problem
next to an infinite plane whose temperature is kept constant (Section 1.2.1). It is sufficient
to replace κ by ν and the reduced temperature by vx (y,t)/V 0 . The kinematic viscosity ν
= η/ρ thus represents the diffusion coefficient for momentum. By a change of variable
u = y/(νt)1/2 , analogous to that used for thermal diffusion, we find for Equation 2.3 the
same solution as for Equation 1.18:
y u
y 1 ξ2
vx √ = V0 1 – √ e–( 4νt ) dξ = V0 1 – erf (2.6)
2 νt π νt 0 2
√ u
where the function erf(u) is, like in Chapter 1, the integral (2/ π) 0 exp(–z2 )dz. The ratio
vx /V 0 then depends uniquely on the variable u. All the profiles can then be deduced from
one another by expanding the length scale in the y-direction by a factor proportional to
√
t: we say then that those are self-similar. The dependence of vx /V 0 on y and t, given by
Equation 2.6, is identical to the temperature dependence found in Chapter 1 for the thermal

y u= y
2 4νt Figure 2.4 (a) Time dependence of the ve-
locity profile vx (y,t) generated by the sud-
1 1 den displacement of a plane boundary
100 t0
wall parallel to itself (the Rayleigh prob-
lem). (b) Normalised coordinate representa-
25 t0 tion of the universal function 1– erf (u/2)
(u = y/(νt)1/2 ) corresponding to the previ-
t0 ous figure. The two figures displayed here
υx
are exact analogues of Figures 1.8 a,b in
Chapter 1 (but with ordinates and abscissae
y interchanged)
0 υx 0 1 - erf
V0 4νt
0 1
(a) (b)
48 Momentum Transport Under Various Flow Conditions

diffusion problem. Figure 2.4b is analogous to Figure 1.8b and shows the variation of the
ratio vx /V 0 as a function of u: the region where the influence of the perturbation is observed
√
has a thickness of the order of δ ≈ νt (diffusion length), but the velocity vx is not exactly
zero at greater distances.
The initiation of the flow of a fluid by viscous coupling is the more effective if its viscosity
η is large and its density ρ (and thus, its inertia) is small. In the case of water, for example,
One observes that the kinematic viscosity of air is the diffusion length for a velocity perturbation is of the order of 3 mm for t = 10 s, and
of the same order of magnitude as that of water: about 10 cm for t = 104 s, i.e., about three hours; this illustrates the poor effectiveness of
this is due to a compensation between the density
and the dynamic viscosity which are both smaller diffusion over long time periods, as we have already pointed out in Chapter 1 for the case
by a factor of one thousand for air. of thermal diffusion.
√
The t dependence of the diffusion length (common to all diffusion mechanisms)
makes viscous diffusion an ineffective mechanism at large distances. As a result, convec-
tive mechanisms, often quite complex, dominate whenever we consider flow in containers
of sufficiently large size; such mechanisms have, as do waves, propagation distances which
increase linearly with time. The terminology “sufficiently large” is unfortunately quite im-
precise: we will discover, further down, that an analysis based on certain dimensionless
numbers will allow us to make our reasoning much more quantitative.

2.2 Microscopic models of the viscosity

Just as for the cases of mass and heat transport, understanding the microscopic mecha-
nisms responsible for viscosity leads to a better grasp of the phenomenon. Here again, these
mechanisms turn out to be quite different depending on whether we are discussing gases
(where our treatment parallels rather closely that used for the other transport coefficients)
or liquids.

2.2.1 Viscosity of gases

y In this section, we adapt the kinetic-theory model (Section 1.3) to analyze momentum
y+ υx (y + ) u/6 transport in a shear flow, and to evaluate the viscosity coefficient defined in the previous
section. We consider a stationary shear flow in a gas, with the plane geometry illustrated in
x Figure 2.5. The streamlines are parallel to the x-axis and a velocity gradient exists along the
y
y-direction normal to the flow.
y– υx (y – ) u/6 We evaluate here the transfer, by way of the existing components of the thermal motion
in the y-direction, of the average x-component of the momentum, m vx (y) (where m is the
mass of a molecule). We encounter two completely different velocity scales:
Figure 2.5 Schematic representation of the
simplified calculation from which the viscos-
ity of a gas may be obtained
• ū, the average magnitude of the thermal velocity of individual molecules,
• the bulk velocity vx , which represents a slight bias of the thermal motion in the
positive x-direction; vx exists because of the relative motion of the boundary planes.

In defining, as we did in Chapter 1, as the mean free path of the molecules and n as
their number density, we obtain the expression for the dynamic viscosity:
1
η= m n ū (2.7)
3
The kinematic viscosity ν is defined by Equation 2.4:
η 1
ν= = ū (2.8)
ρ 3
Microscopic models of the viscosity 49

For ideal gases, ν takes on, therefore, an expression almost identical to that of the cor-
responding thermal and mass, diffusion coefficients, κ and Dm , introduced in Chapter 1.
This underscores the close similarity with these two other diffusive transport mechanisms
that our microscopic analysis had already suggested. For ideal gases, kinetic theory gives us,
by combining Equation 2.7 with the results of Section 1.3.2:
√
mT
η∝
σc
where σc is the effective collision cross-section of the molecules, and T the temperature of
the gas.
Just as in the case of the thermal conductivity k, the viscosity η is independent of the
density of the gas (and of the pressure) since the product n ≈ 1/σc does not depend on
it. As we pointed out in Section 1.3.2, this reasoning does not apply to gases at very low or
very high pressures.

Proof of the result for the viscosity

Let us evaluate the flux of momentum per unit time, crossing unit area of a plane at eleva-
tion y and coming from “above” (in Figure 2.5). This flux equals –(1/6)m vx ( y + )n ū, the
geometric factor 1/6 comes in because we account for the different directions of the mo-
lecular velocities by assuming that they are uniformly distributed. The flux of momentum
corresponding to molecules coming from “below” is similarly written as (1/6)m vx ( y – )n ū
(if we have a uniform temperature, ū is independent of y). Thus, in the presence of a non-
zero shear velocity gradient ∂vx /∂y, we have a net transfer of momentum across the plane
with coordinate y for the component in the x-direction.
The resulting flux of momentum per unit area and per unit time (taking as positive the
contribution coming from the region below the plan y) is thus:
1
– m n ū [vx ( y + ) – vx ( y – )].
6
This finite flux of momentum can be interpreted as a frictional force F, which acts between
two liquid layers located on either side of the plane y. The direction of this force, which acts
in the x-direction, corresponds to the drag of the layers moving at lower velocity by those of
higher velocities.
By applying the law of conservation of momentum F = dp/dt to the force per unit area
Fx /S and combining the result with the expression 2.2, we find:
Fx 1 ∂vx
= – m n ū [vx ( y + ) – vx ( y – )] = - η ,
S 6 ∂y
which leads immediately to Equation 2.7, after having used Taylor series expansion.

2.2.2 Viscosity of liquids

In Chapter 1, we studied the diffusion of particles in a liquid: we then assumed that it was
governed by forces of the type “viscous friction,” exerted by the fluid on the particles.
The viscous forces within a liquid can be analyzed by extending this first study, but we
will use here a different model. We assume that the molecules in the liquid are all of the same
size and move in a manner similar to the grains of a powder. The relative motion of “grains”
associated with the shear flow occurs by the passing of individual grains from the cell
50 Momentum Transport Under Various Flow Conditions

y (a)

υ x (y)
Figure 2.6 Illustration of the principle un- I
derlying the calculation of the viscosity of
liquids. The energy barrier g0 that a par-
ticle must overcome to pass from cell I into the x
potential wells J and J’ (a) is symmetric in the
absence of a flow (solid line in (b)). It becomes g(x) (b)
asymmetric (dashed line) in the presence of a 2 ασ
shear stress; this asymmetry then allows shear
flow to occur Δg0

a a
I x

bound by their nearest neigbors (which we assume are in contact with one of the grains)
to the next cell; we show this in Figure 2.6, where the curve g(x) represents the variation of
potential energy of the particle as a function of the distance x in the direction of the motion.
In the absence of flow, motion from a cell I to the neighboring cell J requires an acti-
vation energy g0 in order to pass over the potential barrier separating the two sites. The
application of a shear stress σ results in an asymmetry of the profile g(x) (dashed curve):
this favors the jump of a particle from cell I toward the neighboring cell J on its right (for
σ > 0) rather than toward the cell on its left J’. In the case illustrated in the figure, a shear
flow with G = ∂vx /∂y > 0 will thus appear (each layer slips over the previous one, resulting
in the increase of the absolute velocity of each plane with its co ordinate y). In the limit of
weak stresses, this description leads to the following expression for the viscosity:

h kgT0
η≈ e B . (2.9)
α
This equation indicates that viscosity decreases as the temperature increases, according
to a law of the Arrhenius type describing the activation process of the jump across the
potential barrier. This dependence
√ is opposite to that for gases, where the viscosity increases
with the temperature as T.

Proof of Equation 2.9 for the viscosity

The passage from one potential well to the other occurs because of the thermal activation
energy kB T; as a result, frequency of jumps from a cell I to the neighboring cell J obeys a
Maxwell–Boltzmann relation (h is Planck’s constant):

kB T – kgT0
f ≈ e B . (2.10)
h
The presence of a shear stress σ results in an asymmetry of the energy barrier heights in
going towards sites J and J’. The variations in the height of the maxima are proportional to
the stress σ , i.e. to the frictional force per unit area between the layers:

–g = –g0 ± α σ (2.11)

Microscopic models of the viscosity 51

One observes that this variation is first order relative to σ , the quantity ασ is a measure of the
energy resulting from the shear, which lowers or increases the energy barrier in the direction
of the flow (or in the opposite direction), and α is a coefficient having the dimension of a
volume.
We have therefore a difference in the frequencies f + and f – for the jumps from I to J and
from I to J’ and, as a result, a net global mobility of the particles. One has indeed:
An empirical form for expressing Equation 2.12
allows us to estimate the viscosity of a liquid by
g –ασ g +ασ
kB T – k0 T kB T – k0 T using its molar volume and its boiling point Tb :
I → J f+ ≈ e B and: I → J
f– ≈ e B .
h h T
h 3.8 b
η= e T . (2.13)
V /N
Let us take as reference of zero velocity the lower layer; the average velocity vI of the atoms
in the intermediate layer is of the order of magnitude of the product of the distance a covered Replacing g0 by an energy term proportional
to kB Tb is understandable. Boiling occurs ef-
per jump and the net frequency difference (f + – f – ) of these jumps:
fectively when the temperature is sufficiently
high so that two neighboring particles have a
kB T – kgT0 kα σT – ασ
significant probability to move apart. We have
vI = a( f+ – f– ) ≈ a e B e B – e kB T expressed a similar condition for the passage by
h thermal activation of a particle between cells I
and J or J
. Also, in order to derive Equation
The velocity gradient relative to the lower layer, assumed stationary, is thus: 2.13, we have assumed the volume α to be equal
to the average volume V /N for each molecule (N
is Avogadro’s number).
∂vx vI kB T – kgT0 ασ
G= ≈ ≈2 e B sinh (2.12) Example: Let us estimate the viscosity of
∂y a h kB T benzene at room temperature. V = 89 × 10–6
m3 /mole, Tb = 353 K, N = 6.02 × 1023 ,
h = 6.62 × 10–34 J.s. Applying Equation 2.13
In the limit of a weak stress, sinh (ασ /(kB T )) ≈ ασ /(kB T ). Equation 2.12 therefore leads to leads to a value η = 4.5 × 10–4 Pa.s comparable
Equation 2.9 if we use formula 2.2 for computing the viscosity η (= σ /G). to the experimental one, 6.5 × 10–4 Pa.s.

2.2.3 Numerical simulation of molecular

trajectories in a flow
We can represent the microscopic mechanisms which lead to viscosity by means of the nu-
merical simulation technique, known as molecular dynamics, which analyzes the trajectories
of individual molecules (for reasons of the length of calculation times, these simulations
are generally carried out with a reduced number of molecules). In such calculations, we
take into account local interactions between moving molecules, the effect of walls, which
are themselves represented by an ensemble of particles and the forces exerted on the fluid.
Figure 2.7a shows the trajectory of one (among a large number of) molecule confined
between two solid parallel planes, and subjected to a force field similar to gravity, in the
direction of the x-axis. One observes a disordered movement. The changes in direction
are the result of interactions with other molecules (which are not displayed in the figure).
There results a superposition of a drift in the direction of applied force superimposed on
the Brownian diffusion motion. The density of particles is sufficiently high so that this
two-dimensional model can simulate a liquid; this explains the numerous collisions. We also
observe that the acceleration in the x-direction is reduced in the neighborhood of the solid
walls. The particles adjacent to the walls are at rest, as is expected for flow of a viscous
fluid. Figure 2.7b shows, at different distances in the z-direction normal to the walls, the
velocity averaged over a large number of particles and of different times. This parabolic
drift velocity profile is an essential characteristic of the flow of viscous fluids, which we
study in detail in Chapter 4.
52 Momentum Transport Under Various Flow Conditions

Figure 2.7 (a) Trajectory of one individ- z z

ual molecule of a two-dimensional liquid, z2 z2
bounded by two fixed planes (z = z1 and
z = z2 ) and subjected to a constant force
(such as gravity) directed along the x-axis;
the location of the molecule at the beginning
of the simulation is near the wall. It should
be noted that the scales of distances along
the x and z-axes differ by a factor of 7;
this explains the steep apparent slopes of the
trajectories. (b) Mean, parabolic, Poiseuille-
type velocity profile within the liquid deduced z1 z1
from the same molecular dynamics simulation x O υx(z)
(courtesy J. Koplik) (a) (b)

2.3 Comparison between diffusion

and convection mechanisms
2.3.1 The Reynolds number
In an arbitrary flow of fluid, the two mechanisms (convective and diffusive) for momentum
transport are simultaneously active but, depending on the velocity and geometry of the flow,
they will not have the same order of magnitude. Let us analyze, for example, the case of the
fluid in a channel of arbitrary geometry, and let us evaluate the orders of magnitude for the
transport processes.

• Convection: the flux of momentum associated with convection is of the order of

ρU 2 where ρ is the density of the fluid and U is the velocity characteristic of the flow
(for example, the average velocity in the cross section). The order of magnitude of
this flux is obtained by multiplying the value of the momentum per unit volume, of
order ρ U , by the velocity U .
• Diffusion: in the case of parallel flows, which we have just analyzed, the transverse
flux of momentum resulting from the viscosity was η ∂vx /∂y. Most generally, it equals
the product of η by combinations of the first derivatives of the velocity components;
it is therefore of the order of η U/L. We can then evaluate a dimensionless ratio:

convective flux of momentum ρU2 UL

≈ = = Re. (2.14)
diffusive flux of momentum η U /L ν

This ratio is the definition of the Reynolds number, which characterizes the relative
importance of the momentum transport by convection and by viscous diffusion.
The Reynolds number can also be considered as the ratio between the characteristic
transport times by diffusion and convection along distances of order of magnitude L. Since
ν represents the diffusivity of momentum, the characteristic diffusion time over a distance
of order L is, just as for other diffusive processes, of order L 2 /ν. The characteristic time for
convection is of order L/U (the time for covering the distance L at the average velocity U of
the flow). From this we find a ratio of the characteristic times:
Comparison between diffusion and convection mechanisms 53

characteristic diffusion time L 2 /ν

UL
≈ = = Re. (2.15)
characteristic convection time L/U ν

It is the fastest mechanism which propagates the perturbations which will dominate and
determine the nature of the velocity field.

• In a flow at low Reynolds number, viscous forces and the associated diffusive transport
dominate. The flow profile results from an equilibrium between the viscous friction
forces and the pressure gradients (or the volume forces, externally exerted). As in-
dicated by the equation for Re, such flows will be observed at low velocities and/or
in very small systems (for example, bacteria or microorganisms), or also for very
viscous fluids within which the frictional forces between layers are significant. These
are in general very stable flows with clearly defined profiles known as creeping flows.
We will study these in detail in Chapter 9.
• On the other hand, in the case of flow at large Reynolds number, the transport of
momentum by convection dominates, and appears in the form of non-linear terms
containing products of the velocity components and their gradients. The correspond-
ing flows are often non-stationary: in particular, turbulent flows correspond to an
infinite number of possible solutions of the equations of motion (they will be studied
in Chapter 12). One observes these effects at high velocities, in fluids of low viscosity,
or in very large scale systems; such flows appear as a random superposition of vor-
tices of very variable scales. We should however observe that, at short distances of the
order of the dimension of the smallest structures, momentum transfer by diffusion
mechanisms plays again a major part.
• In certain instances, even in the case of large Reynolds numbers, the nature of the
flow can then be the same as at low velocity. The simplest example of this is that
of parallel flows (where only one component of the velocity is non-vanishing), such
as the flow in a rotating cylinder discussed in Section 2.1.1. In this case, we can
have momentum transport in the direction perpendicular to the streamlines only
by viscous diffusion; the flow remains governed by viscosity, independently of the
Reynolds number, so long as the velocity profile remains parallel (see chapter 8).
Such flows, which we call laminar, will be discussed in Section 4.5.
Nevertheless, if transverse components of the velocity are accidentally created lo-
cally, the momentum transport by convection no longer vanishes and new solutions
can appear. The flow then often becomes unstable and turbulent. We will study flows
of this type in Chapters 11 and 12; but in Section 2.4 of the current chapter, we will
describe, for several types of flow, different sequences of the transition between flow
regimes as the Reynolds number increases.

2.3.2 Convective and diffusive mass, or thermal

energy, transport
Convective and diffusive transport mechanisms can occur simultaneously in problems in-
volving the propagation of thermal energy or the dispersion of pollutants, as is the case for
momentum, which we have just discussed. The analysis of convective effects is even sim-
pler in these two cases because velocity only affects convective transport and because the
quantity convected (temperature, concentration) is a scalar.
54 Momentum Transport Under Various Flow Conditions

Transport of mass, Péclet number

Let us, for example, analyze the transport of a tracer substance A with local mass concentra-
tion ρ A (x,t) by a flow of characteristic velocity U . Assuming that we can neglect the effects
of the difference in density introduced by the presence of the tracer, this latter is, on the
one hand, carried along by the local velocity of the flow and, on the other hand, spreads
by molecular diffusion. Let us call L a length scale characteristic of the variations in the
concentration of the tracer; the diffusive flux of tracer obeys:
ρA
Jm = –Dm ∇ρA ≈ Dm ,
L
where Dm is its molecular diffusion coefficient (Equation 1.25). For the convective flux we
have, by an argument similar to that used for momentum in the previous paragraph:

Jconv ≈ ρA U .

The ratio of the fluxes associated with these two mechanisms can be expressed by:
Jconv ρA U UL
≈ = = Pe. (2.16)
Jm Dm ρA /L Dm
The ratio Pe, known as the Péclet number, represents for the phenomena of mass (tracer)
dispersion the equivalent of the Reynolds number for momentum. We can also, just as we
did for the Reynolds number, define the Péclet number, as the ratio of the characteristic
times for transport of mass along a distance of order L by diffusion and by convection.

Thermal energy transport, Prandtl number

For thermal diffusion, we can carry out similar comparisons between convective and diffu-
sive transport. This leads us to define, just as in the previous paragraph, a thermal Péclet
number by:
UL
Peθ = ,
κ
where κ is the thermal diffusivity introduced in Chapter 1. In order to evaluate the effective-
ness of diffusive transport of thermal energy relative to that of momentum, we calculate a
Prandtl number, which is the ratio between the coefficients of kinematic viscosity and thermal
diffusion:
ν Peθ
Pr = = . (2.17)
κ Re
In other words, the Prandtl number Pr represents the ratio of the characteristic times L 2 /κ
and L 2 /ν for the diffusion of temperature and velocity fluctuations over the same distance
L. Typical values of this number are listed in Table 1.2 at the end of Chapter 1. In the same
way, the Lewis number, Le = Dm /κ, represents a ratio between the thermal diffusion and mass
diffusion times; it occurs in the phenomena involving combustion, which we will study in
Section 10.9. Table 2.1 at the end of this section summarizes the definition of the various
dimensionless numbers which involve diffusion coefficients.
For gases, the coefficients of thermal diffusion κ, of mass diffusion Dm , and of kine-
matic viscosity ν are of the same order of magnitude as we have seen in Section 2.2.1: the
Prandtl number and the Lewis number are therefore of the order of unity. In a gas dynamic
problem, where we simultaneously observe mass and momentum transport, the Reynolds
and Péclet numbers are also of the same order of magnitude. On the other hand, in liquids,
Description of various flow regimes 55

UL momentum diffusion time

Reynolds number Re =
ν momentum convection time
UL mass (tracer) diffusion time
Péclet number Pe =
Dm mass (tracer) convection time
UL thermal diffusion time Table 2.1 Dimensionless numbers charac-
Thermal Péclet number Peθ =
κ thermal convection time terizing the relative magnitude of the var-
ν thermal diffusion time ious mechanisms governing diffusion and
Prandtl number Pr =
κ momentum diffusion time convection.
ν mass (tracer) diffusion time
Schmidt number Sc =
Dm momentum diffusion time
Dm thermal diffusion time
Lewis number Le =
κ mass (tracer) diffusion time

the Prandtl number can take on very different values depending on the thermal conduction
mechanisms which are observed. Thus, for liquid metals, it is the transport of thermal en-
ergy by the conduction electrons which dominates; this leads to a high thermal diffusion and
a correspondingly low value of the Prandtl number. On the other hand, in electrically insu-
lating liquids with high viscosities (such as organic oils), the thermal diffusivity varies very
In visualizing non-stationary flows by means of
little from one oil to another, while the viscosity and, consequently, the Prandtl number, can tracers, the distribution of dyes does not display
take on very large values. the instantaneous configuration of the flow, but
it depends on the entire history of the evolution
We can also define a mass Prandtl number Sc = ν /Dm , which is called the Schmidt number.
of the flow (Section 3.1.4).
If we consider the value of the coefficient Dm for liquids discussed in Section 1.3.3, we see
that, as the viscosity ν of the medium increases, Dm decreases at the same time. The values
of the Schmidt number Sc in liquids of high viscosity may therefore be very high (for water, We have defined in this section several di-
mensionless numbers (Reynolds, Prandtl, Péclet
which has a low viscosity, Sc is already of the order of 103 ). In such instances, even for low numbers . . .) characterizing the flows. A classi-
Reynolds numbers, the spread of a local concentration of tracer (such as a dye) due to the cal method for defining such numbers involves
effect of velocity gradients is much more important than that due to molecular diffusion. finding a dimensionless combination of the pa-
rameters which occur in the flow (in the form
The spreading of tracers in porous media is an example of the application of pheno-
of a product of powers of these parameters).
mena of convective dispersion. In such media (studied in Section 9.7), the size of the flow In the case of Reynolds numbers it was the vis-
channels is very small, and the Reynolds number Re is generally small. Because of the large cosity η, density ρ, velocity U and length scale
L. Keeping in mind the fact that the mass ap-
variations of the velocity from one point to another, resulting from the random geometry
pears only in η and ρ, we assume a form of
of the medium, the spread of a tracer acted on by velocity gradients is characterized by a the type (η/ρ)αUβ Lγ. The only possible dimen-
dispersion coefficient which takes on the role of the diffusivity for this problem: this coeffi- sionless form corresponds to β = γ = -α (in
cient is normally much larger than that, Dm , of molecular diffusion. More importantly, for fact, the dimension of η/ρ is U L). This method,
known as the method of Vaschy–Buckingham,
turbulent flows where the velocity at a given point varies with time, convective transport is provides a systematic approach in order to sug-
dominant except over very small distances, for which mixing by molecular diffusion takes gest dimensionless combinations and determine
place much faster than mixing by convection. the possible number of independent ones; but it
does not help our understanding of their physi-
We will analyze a few examples of this problem in Chapter 9, which discusses flows at cal significance, nor of what best characterizes a
low Reynolds numbers and in Chapter 10, which deals with boundary layers. given phenomenon.

2.4 Description of various flow regimes

We have shown throughout this chapter that, depending upon the flow velocities and geome-
tries, either diffusive or convective mechanisms dominate momentum transport in a fluid.
The measure of the relative importance of these transport mechanisms is the Reynolds
number, Re. We now discuss, on the basis of experimental observations, how variations in
56 Momentum Transport Under Various Flow Conditions

the transport processes, related to the values of the Reynolds number, affect the flow, and
how transitions between the various flow regimes take place.
Everyday life provides us with numerous examples of the diversity of flows—from
the perpetually fluctuating appearance of river rapids (“turbulent” flow) to the extremely
smooth, stable aspect of a high-viscosity oil being poured from one container to another
(“laminar” flow). There are also intermediate cases, where the flow is only intermittently
turbulent, or where it varies with time in a periodic manner. This is the case for air flow past
a telephone wire (“the singing wire”). The strong coupling between the deformations of a
Aeroelasticity is the domain of fluid mechanics structure (chimney, bridge) and vortex emission can lead to an amplification of these defor-
which deals with such coupling between aerody- mations and result ultimately in the destruction of the structure. A well known example is
namic forces (viscous and/or inertial ones) and
the deformations of the structure submitted to the collapse, in a moderate wind (68 km/h), of the Tacoma bridge following high amplitude
the flow. torsional oscillations of the deck coupled to vortex emission at the edges.

2.4.1 Flows in a cylindrical tube: Reynolds’

experiment
In a seminal article published in 1883, Osborne Reynolds, taking up previous experiments
done by Poiseuille, describes the transition of water flowing in a cylindrical tube from a
regime which is laminar (“direct”) to one which is turbulent (“sinuous”). He introduces,
at the very beginning of this paper, the number which now bears his name and he carries
out a very complete set of measurements in which he varies one by one the parameters
of the flow: the viscosity (by changing the temperature), the diameter and the velocity.
He shows experimentally, as a complement to his theoretical analysis, that the laminar-
turbulent transition occurs in these various cases for the same value Rec of this parameter.
He also shows that this transition is accompanied by a change in the relation governing the
variation of the pressure difference between the ends of a tube as a function of the flow rate.
Reynolds also observes that the tube needs to be longer than a certain “entry length” in
order to establish a stationary velocity profile (in this case, the “Poiseuille profile”). Finally,
he notes the importance of controlling the perturbations which generate the transition and
affect the value of Rec : in order to minimize them, he attaches at the entrance of the tube
a kind of funnel which leads to a continuous, gradual variation of the cross-section. These
different characteristics will be discussed in greater detail in Section 11.4.3.
Reynolds’ paper also discusses the visualizations that can be achieved by injecting dye at
given points near the entry of the tube. Observations obtained in a similar manner are
displayed in Figure 2.8. At low velocity (Re < Rec ) (case a), the injected dye remains
localized over a great distance along a straight line stream which, just as the velocity of

Figure 2.8 Reproduction of the classical

Reynolds experiment: visualization of a dye
injected at the entrance of a circular tube
in the case of (a) a laminar regime; (b) and
(c) turbulent regimes (plates N.H. Johannesen
and C. Lowe, An Album of Fluid Motion)
Description of various flow regimes 57

the fluid, is parallel to the cylinder axis. It is this absence of mixing and the stability of the
flow which lead to the name laminar flow. Above the critical Reynolds number Rec (cases
b, c), when the flow is turbulent, there appear transverse velocity components which vary
randomly with time and distance. These result in significant mixing of the dye between
the center and the regions close to the walls. Finally, for Re in the neighborhood of Rec ,
Reynolds reports an intermediate regime with turbulent surges, which propagate with the
flow and are separated by laminar flow phases.

2.4.2 Various flow regimes in the wake of a cylinder

One observes in Figures 2.9a–d different steps in the transition towards turbulence for the
case of a flow of increasing upstream velocity U around a circular cylinder of diameter d.
The flow is directed in the x-direction and the cylinder axis is oriented in the transverse The same experiment can also be set up by us-
ing a container, with water a few centimeters
z-direction. The images are obtained by illuminating the cylinder with a luminous “sheet” deep, in which there is a suspension of very
of light located in the x-y plane of the figure, and by injecting, upstream of the cylinder, a tiny, elongated particles; the particles are found
fluorescent dye or small, light particles. The Reynolds number characteristic of the flow is to line up with the flow, and to reflect the light
anisotropically. By displacing through the liquid
taken equal to Ud/ν. In Section 11.1, devoted to instabilities, we will discuss a model, called a vertical cylindrical object with diameter d, of a
the Landau model, describing the behavior in the neighborhood of the critical Reynolds few millimeters, we observe the different regimes
number (Rec = 47), at which recirculating eddies appear behind the cylinder. displayed in Figure 2.9.

• At low velocities (Re ≈ 1) (Figure 2.9a), the flow is laminar and quite symmetric
between the upstream and downstream regions of the cylinder. This is character-
istic of the reversibility of flows at low Reynolds numbers, which we will study
in Chapter 9 (when the direction of the flow is inverted, the streamlines are
unchanged).
• Beyond a Reynolds number Re ≈ 26 (Figure 2.9b), one observes two fixed recircu-
lating eddies downstream of the cylinder (recirculating flow). The length L of the
recirculating region increases as Re increases.
• Beyond a critical value Rec of the order of 47, the flow is no longer stationary and the
velocity of the fluid depends on time: vortices are periodically emitted downstream of
the cylinder (Figure 2.9c, for which Re ≈ 200). They form a double row of vortices,

(a) (b)
L

Figure 2.9 Visualization of the flow pat-

terns near a cylinder at various Reynolds
numbers: (a) virtually symmetric upstream
and downstream flow-patterns at low
Reynolds number (Re = 0.16); (b) two fixed
recirculation eddies appear downsteam,
y U behind the cylinder (Re = 26); (c) periodic
(c) x emission of vortices making up a Bénard–
(d) von Karman vortex street (Re = 200); (d)
turbulent wake (Re ∼ 8000) (plates a, b et c:
S. Taneda; plate d: H. Werlé)
58 Momentum Transport Under Various Flow Conditions

known as the Bénard–von Karman vortex street. The frequency at which these vortices
are emitted is characterized by a dimensionless number called the Strouhal number:
d
Sr = f , (2.18)
U
which does not depend very much on U and is of the order of unity. The frequency
Current understanding of turbulence takes into
account simultaneously the large structures f is, therefore, proportional to the velocity U.
which vary with the nature of the flow, the
disordered motion at small scales, which is inde-
• At very large Reynolds numbers (Figure 2.9d), one observes incoherent turbulent mo-
pendent of its nature, as well as the transfer of the
tion, at smaller spatial scales, which become progressively smaller the larger the
kinetic energy of the flow from larger scales to Reynolds number (in fact, their minimum size decreases as Re–1/2 ). However, the
smaller ones. These important concepts of sta- periodic emission of large vortices superimposed on these fluctuations still occurs.
tistical turbulence will be evoked in Chapter 7,
These remain observed at extremely large Reynolds numbers in oceanographic or
using examples from the dynamics of vortices,
and then studied in detail in Chapter 12. atmospheric flows behind very large obstacles (Figure 2.10).

Figure 2.10C Satellite view of cloud for-

mations in the vortex street emitted behind the
volcanic island of Rishiri-to off the northern
tip of Hokkaidō in the Sea of Japan (docu-
ment NASA, mission STS100)

2.4.3 Flow behind a sphere

Figures 2.11 a–c. show that flow regimes downstream of a sphere of diameter d differ in sev-
eral ways from the previous ones; these are observed in a flow at Reynolds number Re=Ud/ν
(U is the velocity of the uniform flow observed sufficiently far upstream of the sphere).

• For Re < 212, one observes an axially symmetric and stationary flow with, down-
stream of the sphere, a toroidal vortex with its axis parallel to the velocity U
(Figure 2.11a). This vortex plays the role of the two symetric recirculation zones
observed for the cylinder.
• For 212 < Re < 280, there appear two vortices parallel to the flow axis, symmetric
relative to the latter and counter-rotating. As the Reynolds number increases, the
vortices are, at first, stationary for Re < 267 (Figures 2.11b and e) and then oscillate
for Re > 267 (Figures 2.11c and f).
• Finally for Re > 280 (Figures 2.11d and g), the flow first becomes periodic, gen-
erating regular vortices in the form of “hairpins”: two longitudinal vortices appear
just as in the previous case but, beyond a finite distance, they change shape and are
connected by a segment transverse to the vortex. For yet larger Reynolds numbers,
we have, as previously, the appearance of more complicated motion and ultimately
of turbulence.
Description of various flow regimes 59

20 < Re < 212

Figure 2.11C Views from the top (a,b,c,d)
and back (e,f,g) of the flow behind a sphere
(at the left) visualized by injection of a fluo-
rescent dye. For increasing Reynolds num-
212 < Re < 267 bers Re, evaluated on the basis of the up-
stream velocity and the diameter of the
sphere, one observes in succession (a) a toroï-
dal vortex attached on the downstream side
of the sphere ( 20 < Re < 212); (b,e) two
fixed vortices with their axis parallel to the
267 < Re < 280 main flow ( 212 < Re < 267); (c, f) two os-
cillating vortices ( 267 < Re < 280); (d,g)
“hairpin”-like structures (Re > 280) (docu-
ments A. Przadka and S. Goujon Durand,
PMMH-ESPCI)

Re > 280

In these two examples and, quite generally, for flows around obstacles, the increase of
the inertial terms with the Reynolds number first creates stationary structures combined
with the fundamental laminar flow, then induces flow components periodic with time and,
finally, leads to turbulence. In other geometries, like in Poiseuille flows, turbulence appears
directly above some critical Re number.
Kinematics of Fluids
3 This chapter covers the study of the motion of a fluid including, in particular, the anal-
ysis of its deformations (or strains), without being concerned here with the origin of
3.1 Description of the motion of a fluid 60 these strains, discussed in the next chapter. We start by indicating the methods used
3.2 Deformations in flows 64 to characterize the motion of the fluid (Section 3.1): the definition of the velocity of a
3.3 Conservation of mass in a moving particle of fluid, the Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions, the acceleration and paths
fluid 72 characteristic of a flow. In Section 3.2, we analyze the strains in the fluid. Section 3.3
is devoted to setting up the mathematical formulation for the law of conservation of
3.4 The stream function 75
mass, and its consequences for an incompressible fluid—this is the case for the fluids
3.5 Visualization and measurement
considered throughout this book. We also mention, in the same section, a number of
of the velocity and of the velocity
gradients in flows 80
parallels with the electromagnetic theory, covered in greater details in following chap-
ters. We then introduce the concept of a stream function for plane (two-dimensional)
or axially symmetric flows (Section 3.4), and discuss a few examples of plane flows and
of the system of streamlines associated with these. Finally, in Section 3.5, we conclude
by describing a number of experimental methods used to characterize the velocity field
(velocity and velocity gradients) of a fluid.

3.1 Description of the motion of a fluid

3.1.1 Characteristic linear scales and the hypothesis
of continuity
We define a fluid particle as an element of fluid of volume V such that its size, a ≈ V 1/3 , is:

• very small relative to the length scale L characteristic of the flow (the width of a
channel, the radius of a tube, the size of an obstacle);
• very large relative to the mean free path of the molecules. If this were not the case,
the molecules could cross the entire volume of the particle with no change in their
energy or momentum; on a scale that small, a significant average distribution of the
velocity could not then be defined.

The macroscopic length scale L of the flow might be as small as a fraction of a millimeter
in the case of a capillary blood vessel, a micron for the holes in a porous medium or even
less in microfluidics. The mean free path (the lower scale limit) is of the order of microns
We must be careful not to confuse the particle of
fluid with the molecules (or atoms) making up the for gases at normal pressure and will, generally, be very much smaller than L in most appli-
fluid; the fluid particle will always contain, as dis- cations. On the other hand, for gases at very low pressures (less than ∼10–4 Pa ≈ 10–6 Torr)
cussed above, a very large number of molecules.
or for scales L sufficiently small, the mean free path could be of the same order of magni-
Figures 2.7 in Section 2.2.3 show clearly the dif-
ference between individual molecules (a) and the tude as the macroscopic dimensions of the container. In this molecular region, called the
average velocity of the fluid (b). Knudsen regime, the study of flows becomes a problem of the mechanics of discrete objects

Physical Hydrodynamics. Second Edition. Etienne Guyon et al.

which we can describe in terms of their collisions with the walls. We referred to this case in
Section 1.3.2 in the discussion of the diffusion coefficient of gases.
When the model of particles of fluid is applicable, the fluid can be treated as a continuous
medium. We then define the local velocity v of the fluid – i.e., the velocity of a fluid particle –
as the average value of the velocities of the molecules located inside this small volume of
fluid. This average is independent of the size a of the particle so long as the assumption
a holds and that a is small relative to the characteristic macroscopic length L of the flow.

3.1.2 Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions

of fluid motion
In the Eulerian description of fluid motion, we are concerned with the velocity v(r, t) of
a fluid particle which is located at time t at the fixed point M having vector position r.
At a later time t
, the velocity at the same point r will have become v(r, t
); moreover,
it will correspond to the velocity of different particles. This viewpoint is that of an ob-
server at rest in the reference frame in which the velocity v is measured, and corresponds
exactly to the experimental measurements carried out with probes which are fixed rela-
tive to the motion of the fluid; these techniques are described in Section 3.5. It is the
Eulerian velocity which we observe when we look down at water flowing under a bridge.
The particles of fluid we observe at a given point (indicated, for example, by dust on
the surface) are different at each instant of time. Their velocity is a function both of the
time at which we make the observation and of the point r (fixed relative to the bridge)
from which we look. This Eulerian description confronts us, however, with the inconven-
ience of introducing non-linear terms in the expression for the acceleration as we will see in
Section 3.1.3.
In the Lagrangian description, we follow, as it moves, a particle of fluid which had a
position r0 (r0 = OM0 ) at a given reference time t 0 . The velocity of the fluid is then char-
acterized by the vector V(r0 , t) which is a function of the two variables r0 and t. In the
example of the flowing river, this point of view is that of an observer floating on a raft be-
ing moved by the current: the speed of the raft is the Lagrangian velocity. The Lagrangian
point of view corresponds to measurements made with instruments which go along with the
We use capital letters to denote the Lagrangian
fluid as it moves, such as probe-balloons in the atmosphere, or tagged particles in a flow velocity V(r0 , t), as distinct from the Eulerian
(Section 3.5). velocity field v(r,t).

3.1.3 Acceleration of a particle of fluid

Consider a fluid particle located at time t at the point M 1 (r1 ) (Figure 3.1); its velocity at
v(r2, t')
that instant is v(r1 , t). At a slightly later time t
= t + δt, this fluid particle is now at the point
M 2 (r2 ) such that r2 = r1 + v(r1 , t)δt + O(δt2 ) and its velocity is now v(r2 , t
). The velocity v(r1, t')
v(r1, t')
change δv = v(r2 , t
) – v(r1 , t) of this fluid particle in the time interval δt results: M2(r2)

M1(r1) v(r1, t)

• on the one hand, from the explicit variation of the velocity field v(r,t) with time, if
Figure 3.1 Components of the acceleration
the flow is non-stationary (the corresponding term is: [v(r1 , t
) – v(r1 , t)]);
of a particle of fluid in non-stationary flow
• on the other hand, from the “probing” of the velocity field by the particle; this effect
contributes to the acceleration only if the field is non-uniform (the corresponding
term is: [v(r2 , t
) – v(r1 , t
)]).
62 Kinematics of Fluids

The resultant velocity change δv can then be written as a first-order expansion for each of
the two terms:
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
δv = v(r2 , t
) – v(r1 , t) = δt + δx + δy + δy + δz,
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z

where δx, δy and δz are the components of the vector r2 – r1 . The acceleration of the fluid
particle is then:

dv δv ∂v ∂v δx ∂v δy ∂v δz ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
= lim = lim + + + = + vx + vy + vz ,
dt δt→0 δt δt→0 ∂t ∂x δt ∂y δt ∂z δt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z

or, in a more concise form:

From here on we will use the notation d/dt to dv ∂v
refer to the Lagrangian derivative (or material = + (v · ∇)v. (3.1)
dt ∂t
or yet convective derivative) obtained as we fol-
low the fluid particles in their motion (this is The symbolic representation in the second term in the right-hand side of the equation in-
sometimes also denoted by D/Dt).
volves a scalar product between the vector v and the ∇ operator which has components
∂/∂x, ∂/∂y and ∂/∂z. Figures 3.2a and 3.2b illustrate the two types of contributions of the
scalar product to the total acceleration in a stationary flow (such that ∂v/∂t = 0).
In the case of Figure 3.2a, there exists a non-vanishing component ∂vx /∂x of the gradi-
ent of the velocity in the direction of the flow. As a result, a particle carried along by the
flow undergoes an acceleration equal to vx ∂vx /∂x. In Figure 3.2b, there exists a non-zero
transverse gradient ∂vx /∂y of the velocity component in the x-direction. Let us assume that
there is additionally a non-zero component vy of the velocity in the y-direction. This will
result in a change of the velocity vx along the particle trajectory for which the time derivative
will equal vy ∂vx /∂y. Both of these terms are included in the expression (v · ∇)vx which is
the component in the x-direction of the vector (v · ∇)v
We can write the equivalent of Equation 3.1 to express the variation of variables other
than the velocity along the trajectory of a particle of fluid: for example, we can use this
notation to express the variation of the temperature T(r, t) of the particle or its chemical
concentration C(r, t). We find then that the change in temperature of a particle along its
trajectory satisfies:

dT ∂T
= + (v · ∇)T, (3.2)
dt ∂t
where ∂T/∂t is the explicit time-derivative of the temperature of the fluid at a given fixed
point. The second, right-hand-side term displays the change of T due to the fluid flow in
the direction of the temperature gradient (this equation can be derived in the same manner
as Equation 3.1).

Figure 3.2 Two mechanisms contributing to υy

(a) (b)
convective acceleration under stationary flow porous wall
conditions: (a) acceleration of the fluid par- υy ∂υ
∂υ υx + ___x υy Δt
ticles as they move along a path where lon- υx υx + ___x υx Δt υy ∂y
gitudinal velocity gradients are present; (b) ∂x Δy
υx
acceleration of fluid particles in a gradient
which is transverse to the average flow (e.g., Δx
due to the motion through the porous walls at porous wall
υy
unequal velocities)
Description of the motion of a fluid 63

3.1.4 Streamlines and stream-tubes, trajectories

and streaklines
• Streamlines are the field lines of the vector field v(r, t). They are defined as the
tangents, at every point, to the velocity vector v(x,y,z,t0 ) at a given time t 0 . A stream-
tube is the set of streamlines which pass through a closed space curve. We can
visualize streamlines experimentally by taking a short-time-exposure photograph of
a system of particles in suspension. Each particle will mark on the photograph a
short segment indicating the direction of the local velocity vector; the streamlines
are tangent to the segments obtained in this way, and the length of the segments is
proportional to the magnitude of the velocity. We will provide in Section 3.5.1 a few
additional details on the methods used to visualize and make measurements on flows.

Mathematically, a streamline is defined as a curve tangent to the local velocity vector at

all points, so that a small displacement dM(dx, dy, dz) along the line will be co-linear with
the velocity vector v. This condition can be expressed as:

dx dy dz
dM × v = 0, i.e., = = .
vx vy vz

We obtain the equation for the streamlines by integrating these two differential equations.

• The trajectory, or pathline, of a fluid particle is defined as the path which this
particle follows in time – i.e., the set of successive positions through which this
particle passes as it moves. We can visualize these experimentally by taking a long-
time-exposure photograph of the displacement of a tracer emitted for a very short
time at a point in the fluid (dye, light-scattering particles, hydrogen bubbles . . .).
We obtain the mathematical expression for the pathline by integrating with respect
to time the Lagrangian velocity field V(r0 , t), i.e., the system of equations:

dx dy dz
= Vx (r0 , t), = Vy (r0 , t), = Vz (r0 , t).
dt dt dt

Indeed, if r is the position of a particle of fluid at time t, and r + dr its position at time
t + dt, we have, by definition of the Lagrangian velocity V(r0 , t) (as the particle is followed
along in its motion):
t
dr
V(r0 , t) = , whence, by direct integration: r(t) = r0 + V(r0 , t
)dt
.
dt t0

• A streakline represents the set of positions, at a given time t, of a particle of fluid

which coincided at an instant in the past with the point M 0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ). It is experi-
mentally obtained by continuous emission of a tracer (e.g., dye) at the point M 0 , and
provides an instantaneous photograph of the whole set of positions of this tracer.

For the case of stationary flow, the velocity field does not depend explicitly on the time,
so that ∂v/∂t = 0. In this case, the streamlines, pathlines and streaklines coincide. Indeed,
different “marker” particles emitted from the same point at different times follow the same
trajectories: they therefore represent at the same time the streaklines. Also, the local velocity
vector (independent of time) is tangent at each point to the trajectories, which therefore also
display the streamlines.
64 Kinematics of Fluids

In contrast, in the case of non-stationary flow, e.g., for an obstacle which moves through
a container in which the fluid is otherwise at rest, these different lines are, in general, quite
distinct from one another and the relationship between them is difficult to establish. We will
then usually be concerned with the streamlines within the fluid.

3.2 Deformations in flows

In this section, we analyze the deformation (strain) of a fluid particle; this is a needed step
toward the evaluation – carried out in Chapter 4 – of the force exerted by the nearby fluid.
A similar procedure can be used in the analysis of strains in an elastic solid but the latter
only undergo finite-amplitude deformations: as a result, in the mechanics of solids, the
concepts of strain and rotation replace those, for fluids, of the rate of strain and the rate
of rotation (the term “rate” used here indicates the change, per unit time, of the quantity
under consideration).

3.2.1 Local components of the velocity gradient field

Consider, at a given time t, a particle of fluid located at a point r with velocity v(r, t); the
velocity of a nearby particle located at the point r + δr is correspondingly v + δv. For each
component δvi (i =x, y, z) of δv, the velocity increment can be written to first-order relative
to the components of the displacement δxj ( j = x, y, z) as:

∂vi
δvi = δxj . (3.3)
∂xj
j

The fact of discussing only the change in velocity between two adjacent points is equivalent
to neglecting the global translational motion of the entire system of particles; such translation
indeed results in no deformation. The quantities Gii = (∂vi /∂xi ) are the elements of a second-
rank tensor – the tensor of the deformation rates (or the velocity gradient tensor) – for a fluid.
It can be written as a 3 × 3 (or 2 × 2) matrix in three (or two) dimensions, – a matrix
which can always be decomposed into a symmetric and an antisymmetric component, as
follows:

∂vi 1 ∂vi ∂vj 1 ∂vi ∂vj
Gij = = + + – . (3.4)
∂xj 2 ∂xj ∂xi 2 ∂xj ∂xi

We can rewrite:

1 ∂vi ∂vj 1 ∂vi ∂vj
eij = + (3.5a) and ωij = – , (3.5b)
2 ∂xj ∂xi 2 ∂xj ∂xi
i.e.,

Gij = eij + ωij . (3.6)

By their very definition, the tensors eij and ωij are respectively symmetric and antisym-
metric. We will study their physical significance in Sections 3.2.2 and 3.2.3. To simplify our
explanation, we will consider the case of deformations in two dimensions. These could be
observed by seeding the free surface of the liquid with a number of fine particles. Practically,
we will consider the deformation and rotation of a test object making up a small square
ABCD shown in Figure 3.3a below.
Deformations in flows 65

C D
C D Figure 3.3 Deformation of a square in a
C' P D'
y δx flow for which the velocity gradient field
P P'
consists of only diagonal terms of the type
x δy (∂vi /∂xi ). (a) original, undeformed square at
A' B' initial time t; (b) configuration of the square
A B
A B at the later time t + δt
(a) (b)

For an arbitrary point P in the test square ABCD, we will calculate the change in the
vector AP (δx, δy) in a time interval δt. We denote by A
and P
the position of the points A
and P at the end of the time interval δt. This change can be written as:

∂v ∂v
A P – AP = PP – AA = v(P) δt – v(A) δt ≈ δx + δy δt. (3.7a)
∂x ∂y

The right side of the above equation represents the first order expansion of v(P) – v(A)
according to Equation 3.3. This approximation is valid for time intervals δt and velocity
gradients ∂vi /∂xj sufficiently small so that the product (∂vi /∂xj ) δt is small compared to unity
i.e., for small deformations (the case of large deformations will be examined in Section 3.2.5).
By stating explicitly the components vx and vy of the velocity (ex and ey are the unit vectors
along the x- and y-axes, respectively), the preceding equation can also be re-written as:

∂vx ∂vy ∂vx ∂vy
A P – AP ≈ δx ex + δy ey δt + δy ex + δx ey δt. (3.7b)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

We will use this equation to study successively the evolution of each of the sides AB and
AC of the square due to the effect of the different components Gij of the velocity gradient
tensor.

3.2.2 Analysis of the symmetric component

of the rate of strain tensor: pure strain
This symmetric component is the tensor eij defined in Equation 3.5a. It contains, in the most
general case, both diagonal terms (i = j) and off-diagonal ones (i = j). We will consider in
turn the effect of each of these two terms on the test square defined in Figure 3.3a.

Deformations due to the diagonal terms of the tensor eij

Under the action of a velocity–gradient field containing only diagonal terms of the kind
∂vi /∂xi , the square ABCD will undergo, after time δt, the transformation shown in
Figure 3.3b. Using Equation 3.7b and taking the point B as P (δy = 0 and δx = AB), we
can write for the evolution of the side AB to first-order in (∂vx /∂x) δt:

∂vx
A B – AB ≈ AB δt ex .
∂x

The side AB therefore undergoes no rotation (it remains parallel to the x-axis). Its relative
elongation is:

δ(AB) (∂vx /∂x) AB δt ∂vx

≈ = δt.
AB AB ∂x
66 Kinematics of Fluids

It is positive if ∂vx /∂x is positive (the case for Figure 3.3). Similarly, for the evolution of the
vector AC (δx = 0, δy = AC) we can write:

∂vy
A C – AC ≈ AC δt ey .
∂y

The side AC thus doesn’t rotate either under the action of the velocity gradient. Its relative
elongation is:

δ(AC) ∂vy
≈ δt.
AC ∂y

Thus the sides of the square remain parallel to their original direction and, in the case of
the figure it undergoes a dilation (or, respectively, a contraction) in the x- and y-directions.
This illustrates the fact that the diagonal terms of the tensor of the components ∂vi /∂xj
represent relive the rate of stretching of the fluid element in the corresponding direction
(the x-direction for AB). Let us now estimate the relative change in the surface of the
square ABCD.

δS δ(AB) δ(AC) ∂vx ∂vy
= + = + δt = (∇ · v)δt. (3.8a)
S AB AC ∂x ∂y

Effectively, the trace of the tensor [e] (equivalent to that of the tensor [G]), which is the sum
of the diagonal elements (∂vi /∂xi ), is equal to the divergence of the velocity field and repre-
sents the rate of expansion of the fluid element under consideration. In our two-dimensional
example, this expansion corresponds to an increase in the surface area. More generally, for
a flow where the velocity varies in three dimensions, the relative change in volume V of a
parallelepiped can be written:

In order to write such relations without men- δV ∂vx ∂vy ∂vz
tioning explicitly all terms, we shall use the = + + δt = (∇ · v) δt. (3.8b)
V ∂x ∂y ∂z
(so-called) Einstein convention, which implies
summation on repeated indices. Thus, writing
(∂vi /∂xi ) implies: ∂vi /∂xi = i (∂vi /∂xi ). Thus, the rate of expansion of the volume of an element of fluid is also given by ∇·v. For an
incompressible fluid (δV/V = 0), this volume must remain constant; the velocity field must
therefore have zero divergence.

Deformations resulting from the off-diagonal components of tensor [e]

Let us now consider the deformations of the same square ABCD with its sides parallel to
the axes when only the off-diagonal terms of the tensor Gij (terms in ∂vi /∂xj with i = j) are
non-zero. Let us write at this point the change in vectors AB and AC. Following the same
procedure that we have just used, we obtain for the vector AB (δx = AB, δy = 0):

∂vy
A
B
– AB ≈ AB δt ey .
∂x

The side AB is no longer parallel to the x-axis, but rotates through an angle:

∂vy / ∂x AB δt ∂vy δα ∂vy
δα = = δt, so that: = . (3.9a)
AB ∂x δt ∂x

The angle δα is positive for the case of Figure 3.4 while the length of AB remains fixed.
Calculating in the same way the change in the vector AC, we obtain:
Deformations in flows 67

δβ
C' D'
C D C D Figure 3.4 Deformation of a square, result-
y ing from a flow such that exx = eyy = 0 and
ωxy = 0. (a) at time t before any deformation
B' has occurred; (b) geometry observed at time
x δα
A t + δt
A' B
A B
(a) (b)

∂vx δβ ∂vx
A C – AC = AC δt ex , so that: =– . (3.9b)
∂y δt ∂y

The angle of rotation δβ, for the case of Figure 3.4, is negative as we assume that ∂vx /∂y > 0.
If the two components ∂vx /∂y and ∂vy /∂x of the velocity–gradient tensor are equal, the
antisymmetric component ωxy will evidently vanish, while the angles δβ and δα will be
opposite. The time-rate of change of the angle γ between the sides A
B
and A
C
then
Because the Equation 3.10 represents the time
satisfies: derivative of the angle γ , the notation γ̇ is fre-
quently used for this quantity, known as the

δγ (δα – δβ) ∂vy ∂vx shear rate. We will discuss this idea further in
=– =– + = –2exy . (3.10) Chapter 4, particularly as to the manner in which
δt δt ∂x ∂y a fluid is affected by the flow.

We can therefore interpret the off-diagonal term exy as the rate of local angular deformation.

Relationship between the deformations resulting from the diagonal

and off-diagonal components of tensor [e]
In effect, if the trace of the tensor eij vanishes, and if we assume for the sake of simplicity that
ωij = 0, we have an equivalence between the deformations associated with a diagonal tensor
and an off-diagonal one as we can see in the example of Figure 3.5. We assume now again
that the tensor eij contains only diagonal terms, and consider an element of fluid ABCD,
initially square but with its diagonals (not its sides) oriented parallel to the x- and y-axes.
The deformations observed now are displayed in Figure 3.5 showing the square EFGH with
its sides parallel to the x- and y-axes, and within which the first square in inscribed. The
quadrangle A’B’C’D’ has its vertices in the middle of the sides of E’F’G’H’ and, as we see
in the figure, the length of its sides does not vary (at least to first-order) while the angles
between them change (resulting ultimately in a diamond shape). We obtain a deformation
of the same nature as if we had selected axes parallel to the sides AB and AC and a tensor
[e] with only off-diagonal non-zero components eij .

D G' Figure 3.5 Deformation of a square, with

H D G H'
y D' its diagonals aligned parallel to the x-y co-
C B ordinate axes, resulting from a flow for which
C B C' B' the velocity–gradient field contains only di-
x agonal elements of the form (∂vi /∂xi ); (a)
E A F E' A A' F' square with no deformation at the time t; (b)
(a) (b) deformed square at the time t + δt
68 Kinematics of Fluids

In fact, the case of an off-diagonal tensor [e] is equivalent to that of a diagonal tensor
if we calculate the eigenvectors of [e] and carry out a rotation of the axes such that [e] is
diagonal in this new reference frame (only the components eii are non-zero).

Proof
Let us first calculate the change in the vectors AD and CB corresponding to the diagonals
of the diamond. We can write, respectively:
∂vy ∂vx
A D – AD = AD δt ey and C B – CB = CB δt ex .
∂y ∂x

Thus, the diagonals AD and CB remain respectively parallel to the y- and x-axes even
though the angles between the sides vary. The area S of the diamond, which is equal to half
the product [Link], undergoes the following change:

δS δ(AD) δ(CB) ∂vy /∂y AD δt (∂vx /∂x) CB δt
= + = + = (∇ · v) δt.
S AD CB AD CB
We recover the result of Equation 3.8a, that the rate of change of area is proportional to the
divergence of the velocity vector.

This analysis of the effects of each of the terms of the velocity–gradient field (diagonal
and off-diagonal terms) suggests that we should break up the symmetric tensor [e], gener-
ally known as the tensor of the rate of change of deformation. Let us write it as the sum of the
diagonal tensor [t] (with three identical components tii ) and of the tensor [d] with vanishing
trace (the sum dll of its diagonal components):

1 1
eij = δij ell + eij – δij ell = tij + dij . (3.11)
3 3

The diagonal tensor tij represents the volume rate of expansion of the elements of the fluid.
The tensor dij , known as the deviator, is associated with the deformations that occur at
constant volume.

3.2.3 Antisymmetric component of the tensor

of the rate of deformation: pure rotation
We discuss now the antisymmetric tensor of components ωij = (1/2)(∂vi /∂xj – ∂vj /∂xi ), de-
fined in Section 3.2.1 (Equation 3.5b) and assume that only its (off-diagonal) components
can be non-zero while all those of the tensor [e] vanish. Let us again analyze the deformation

δβ
D'
C D C D
Figure 3.6 Rotation of an elementary C'
square resulting from the antisymmetric part y
ωij of the rate-of-deformation tensor Gij ; (a)
initial position of the square at time t; (b) B'
x δα
configuration at time t + δt A'
A B
A B
(a) (b)
Deformations in flows 69

of an elementary square (Section 3.2.2); the term ωij does not introduce any lengthening
of the sides, because it would be associated with the diagonal terms of the tensor eij , all of
which are assumed to be zero. Using Equations 3.9a and 3.9b, we find also that the con-
straint eij =0 implies that the changes δα and δβ in the angles of the sides relative to the
axes are identical: the angle between each side remains π/2, and the square undergoes no
change either in its shape or in its size, but only a rotation of angle δα = δβ or, equivalently,
(δα + δβ)/2. As a result of Equations 3.9a and 3.9b, the angular velocity of rotation of the
square is therefore:

δα δβ δα + δβ 1 ∂vy ∂vx
= = = – = ωyx . (3.12)
δt δt 2 δt 2 ∂x ∂y

The term ωij thus represents the angular velocity dα/dt of the local rotation without
deformation of an element of fluid.
We could also substitute for the antisymmetric tensor of components ωij the pseudo-
vector ω such that:

ωk = –εijk ωij , (3.13)

where εijk = +1 under an even permutation of the indices i, j and k, εijk = –1 for an odd
permutation of these indices (and ε ijk = 0 whenever any two indices are equal). This vector
ω (known as the vorticity of the flow) can then be written in the form:

ω = ∇ × v. (3.14)

In the particular case of two-dimensional flows, the vorticity vector is normal to the plane
of the flow. This idea of vorticity plays an important role in the mechanics of fluids; we will
discuss it thoroughly in Chapter 7, which is entirely devoted to this topic. The pseudo-
vector = (1/2) ∇× v, known as the vortex vector, represents the local angular velocity of
rotation of an element of fluid; thus, in the example just discussed, we have seen that dα/dt
= = ωyx = (1/2)ωz .
In the same way, let us discuss the case of a three-dimensional, solid-body rotation field
about the z-axis, perpendicular to the x-y plane. Denoting by the angular velocity vector,
the velocity field v = × r has as its components: vr = 0, vϕ = r, vz = 0. The value of the
curl is:

∂vϕ vϕ
∇×v= + ez = 2 ez = 2 . (3.15)
∂r r

We can observe experimentally the local rotation of a fluid (and, therefore, its vorticity) by
looking at the rotation of a rigid float of two crossed sticks on the surface of the fluid. More
practical and precise methods of measurement will be discussed in Section 3.5.4.
To summarize the results of Sections 3.2.2 and 3.2.3, combining Equations 3.6 and 3.11,
we find that the velocity–gradient tensor Gij = ∂vi /∂xj can always be represented as the sum
of three components:

Gij = tij + dij + ωij , (3.16)

where:

• tij is a diagonal tensor, representing the change in volume (or area in two dimensions)
of the elements of a fluid (it vanishes for an incompressible fluid);
70 Kinematics of Fluids

• dij is a zero-trace, symmetric tensor. It is related to the deformations of the elements

of the fluid, without changes in volume;
• ωij is an antisymmetric tensor, representing the solid-body rotation of the elements of
the fluid.

The decomposition of Gij , as in Equation 3.16, is essential to our understanding of the

stresses induced by the flow of a fluid, a topic to be discussed in Chapter 4. We will see that
the only relevant part of Gij is the one corresponding to deformations (the terms tij and dij ).

3.2.4 Application
Let us consider the example of a two-dimensional flow characterized by a stationary velocity
field v(x,y) such that vx = α x + 2βy and vy = – αy where α and β are two constants. We will
show that this field is a combination of different types of deformation and stretching of the
elements of the fluid which we have just discussed. This represents a field with no average
flow, for which the velocity is zero at the origin O(0, 0), and with a velocity field symmetric
with respect to O.
The velocity gradient tensor [G], defined by Equation 3.4, which characterizes these
deformations, can be written:

α 2β
[G] = . (3.17a)
0 –α

Let us break it up into the components suggested by Equation 3.16:

α 2β 0 0 α β 0 β
[G] = = + + .
0 –α 0 0 β –α –β 0 (3.17b)
expansion deformation rotation

The component corresponding to a volume expansion is zero, as would be expected for

incompressible flow (∇·v = 0). We observe that the rotation component represents the solid-
body rotation of the elements of the fluid. The component corresponding to deformation
results also in the angular displacement of the fluid components δr and additionally causes
a change in their length; these displacements depend on the orientation of the vectors δr.
There will only occur expansion without rotation in two characteristic directions, which are
mathematically obtained by diagonalizing the deformation
tensor. If we write the condition
α–λ β
for the determinant (λ – α ) – β of the matrix
2 2 2 to equal zero, we obtain
β –α – λ
the eigenvalues:

λ = ± α2 + β 2 . (3.18a)

The corresponding eigenvectors represent the directions in which there is no resulting ro-
tation. These two directions are represented by mutually normal straight lines obeying the
equations:

–α ± α 2 + β 2
(α – λ) x + βy = 0, (3.18b) i.e. y = x. (3.18c)
β
Deformations in flows 71

simple shear
y
Figure 3.7 The deformation of a volume
element in simple Couette shear flow can be
expressed as a superposition of a rotation and
deformation rotation a deformation without rotation
x

• The particular case α = 0, β = 0 corresponds to a pure deformation without rotation

of the elements of the fluid, such as shown in Figure 3.3. The eigenvectors are ori-
ented along the initial x- and y-axes. A square aligned along the x-axis changes into
a rectangle parallel to the same axes; the incompressibility condition implies that, to
first order, the changes in length of the two sides are equal and opposite.
• The case α = 0, β = 0 corresponds to a simple shear flow (or plane Couette flow)
(Figure 3.7); it results from the superposition of a deformation and a rotation, such
as those displayed in Figures 3.4 and 3.6. We then have vx = 2βy: the velocity has a
non-zero component only in the x-direction, and varies only in the direction normal
to this axis. This kind of velocity field is obtained by setting into relative motion,
parallel to their own plane, two parallel plates between which we put a viscous fluid.
We note that the eigenvectors of the deformation component are oriented at ± 45◦ to
the direction of the shear (the corresponding straight lines obey the equation y = ± x
as shown in the general equation established above).

In order to understand better the difference between these two last flows, let us analyze
the behavior of a liquid drop placed in a non-miscible fluid in which such a flow has been
created (we assume that the drop is centered at the origin O):

• For the case of pure deformation, the lengthening of the drop is largest along the
x-axis (if α is positive), which is one of the characteristic axes of the flow; the cap-
illary forces, which tend to minimize the surface area of the drop, then oppose this
deformation. Because the fluid velocity is zero at point O, the drop remains fixed
and it will stretch (and ultimately break up by emitting small droplets from its tip) if
the capillary forces which ensure its cohesion are insufficiently large. Such flow can
occur in the geometry discussed in Section 3.4.2 (Figure 3.13).
• For the case of simple shear flow, the maximal stretch is at 45◦ to the direction of the
flow (as we have just seen), and tends to deform the droplet. However, the droplet
also tends to rotate because of the rotational component in the flow; the effect of
the stretching is thus largely cancelled and the drop will only break up for very large
velocity gradients. In the case of high flow velocities, one can even show that it can
reach a stationary condition with ellipticity 0.25.

3.2.5 Case of large deformations

Let us now consider, as an example, the situation of large deformations for which the as-
sumption, that the velocity at each point remains constant as the point is displaced, is no
longer valid. This corresponds to the flow of the liquid over long periods of time, or to the
72 Kinematics of Fluids

case of extremely deformable solids. This is often the case in the deformation of geologic
y formations, which occur over extremely long elapsed times.
xy = cst. Let us consider the velocity field vx = αx, vy = – αy (Figure 3.8). The velocity has zero
divergence, and the gradient contains only diagonal terms: such a velocity field corresponds
(x0 ,y0)
to the elongation of elements of the fluid without any change in volume.
(x(t),y(t)) We then find, as in the proof below, that the variation of the components δx(t) and δy(t)
x of the displacement relative to the initial position is, in matrix form:
O
αt
δx(t) e –1 0 x0 x
= = [D] 0 . (3.19)
δy(t) 0 –αt
e – 1 y0 y0
Figure 3.8 Large deformation of an element
We then see that, for the general case of large deformations, the displacement no longer
of fluid in a pure deformation, incompressible
varies linearly either with the time, or with the velocity gradient tensor [G]; the condition of
flow
incompressibility is still satisfied. In the approximation of small deformations (αt 1), we
find by a first-order expansion of the exponential terms:

δx(t) α 0 x0 x0
=t = [G] t , (3.20)
δy(t) 0 –α y0 y0

a result which corresponds to a variation of the deformation, linear both with time and with
the velocity–gradient tensor [G].

Proof
In order to deal with this problem, we must take into account the change of velocity of the
elements of fluid during the displacement. The equation of motion of a specific point in the
fluid can then be written as:
dr dr
= v(r (t)), instead of: = v(r0 ),
dt dt
as was the case for small deformations seen above. We thus have:
dx dy
= αx (3.21a) and = –αy, (3.21b)
dt dt
so that, after integrating:

x (t) = x0 eαt (3.22a) and y (t) = y0 e–αt (3.22b)

The product of these two equations is x(t) y(t) = x0 y0 ; the trajectories of the particles are
therefore branches of hyperbolae (Figure 3.8). We note that, for a rectangle whose diagonal
has an initial position OM0 (x0 , y0 ), the area at time t is equal to x(t) y(t) (because the
point O is fixed) and therefore remains a constant. The components δx(t) and δy(t) of the

displacement are therefore: δx (t) = x0 eαt – 1 and δy (t) = y0 e–αt – 1 , from which we
obtain Equation 3.19.

3.3 Conservation of mass in a moving fluid

By writing down the global balance for the mass of fluid inside a fixed volume, we obtain a
local equation for the conservation of mass, also known as the equation of continuity. The
same procedure will be followed in Chapter 5 where we derive conservation laws for the
various other important quantities (e.g., energy, momentum).
Conservation of mass in a moving fluid 73

3.3.1 Equation for the conservation of mass

We consider an arbitrary volume V fixed in the reference frame used for describing the flow In the present case, where we are concerned with
of fluid, and bounded by a closed surface S (Figure 3.9). At each instant of time, fluid enters the net balance of mass, there is no "source" term
corresponding to the creation or annihilation of
and leaves this volume; the rate of change of the mass m contained within the volume is the this quantity. On the other hand, in the case of
opposite of the flux leaving through the boundary surface. a chemical reaction in a non-stoichiometric gas
We thus have: phase or in the presence of a solid phase, there
may well exist a term of that nature.

dm d ∂ρ
= ρ dV = dV = – ρ v·n dS. (3.23)
dt dt V V ∂t S
n
dS
The unit vector n normal to the closed surface S is directed outward from the enclosed vdt
volume V . Since V is fixed, we can interchange the order of integration and differentiation
with respect to time. Further, by applying Gauss’ divergence theorem to the rightmost term
of Equation 3.23, we obtain:

∂ρ
+ ∇·(ρ v) dV = 0. (3.24) Figure 3.9 The evaluation of the net mass
V ∂t
change within a fixed volume (V ). The unit
Since this equation holds for any arbitrary volume V , the integrand must be identically zero, vector n normal to a surface element ( dS)
yielding the equation of continuity: is directed outward from (V ), as we evaluate
the outward mass flux exiting, per unit time,
∂ρ from that volume element, equal to the surface
+ ∇·(ρ v) = 0. (3.25) integral of ρ v·n dS
∂t

One can write the ∇·(ρ v) term of Equation 3.25 as:

∇ · (ρ v) = ρ ∇·v + v·∇ρ,

which then allows us to rewrite this equation as: We observe in Equation 3.25 the exact paral-
lel with the equation of conservation of charge

∂ρ in the theory of electromagnetism. The latter
+ v·∇ρ + ρ ∇·v = 0. (3.26) can be written ∂ρ/∂t +∇·j = 0, where ρ and j
dt represent respectively the charge and current
densities.
We should note that the quantity in parentheses represents exactly the variation (dρ/dt) of
the fluid density with time for an element of fluid which is followed along with the flow
(the convective derivative corresponding to the Lagrangian description). We can therefore
rewrite Equation 3.26 in the form:

dρ
+ ρ ∇·v = 0, (3.27) (i) Equation 3.28 at the bottom of the page
dt
is hardly surprising, since we have already
seen in Section 3.2.2 that the term ∇·v,
which is another representation of the equation of the conservation of mass. which is the trace of the velocity–gradient
tensor, represents the local rate of change
of volume of an element of the fluid.
3.3.2 Condition for an incompressible fluid (ii) If we recall Equation 3.27, and replace
∇·v by the rate of change of volume
For an incompressible fluid, e.g., such that the density of each element is a constant during (1/V ) (δV /δt), to which it is equal accord-
the flow (dρ/dt = 0), the equation of conservation of mass has the very simple form: ing to Equation 3.8b, we observe that this
rate of volume expansion is the opposite
of the rate of change of density, because
∇·v = 0 (3.28) (1/ρ) (δρ/δt)+ (1/V ) (δV /δt) = 0.
74 Kinematics of Fluids

The conditions under which a fluid can be considered as incompressible can, in most
cases, be described by the inequality:
U c, (3.29)
where U represents a characteristic velocity for the flow and c is the speed of pressure waves
in the given fluid (i.e., the speed of sound). In effect, in the case of flow dominated by the
effects of the inertia of the fluid, the order of magnitude of pressure changes due to the flow
is δp ≈ ρU 2 . This term represents the convected momentum flux through the unit area, a
result that we discuss in greater detail in Chapter 5, when we consider Bernoulli’s equation.
If the compressibility of the fluid is χ the corresponding relative density fluctuations are δρ/ρ
≈ χ δp ≈ χ ρU 2 . The compressibility of the fluid can therefore be neglected if δρ/ρ 1,
√ √
i.e., U 1 / χρ where 1 / χρ is the speed of sound c.
We can write Equation 3.29 in a dimensionless form using the Mach number M defined
When the flow is dominated by the effects of as equal to the ratio U/c:
viscosity (the case of flows at small Reynolds
numbers which we will address in Chapter 9), M 1. (3.30)
Equation 3.30 is replaced
√ by the more restrictive
condition: M Re, where Re is the Reynolds This condition is clearly not satisfied in the studies of the dynamics of high velocity gases
number of the flow. In this instance, the pressure
fluctuations in the flow are indeed of the order of (aeronautical applications, shock waves); neglecting the compressibility of a fluid in such
δp ≈ ηU/L = ρU 2 / Re. instances is indeed equivalent to the assumption that the speed of sound is infinite.
Consider now the case of the non-stationary flow, for which there exists a characteris-
tic time scale T (e.g., the period of an acoustic wave). In this situation, the condition of
Equation 3.29 must be supplemented by a relation between the time scale T and the char-
acteristic time L/c over which a typical pressure perturbation is convected by the flow over
a distance L. This condition can be written:
T L/c. (3.31)

For a periodic flow with period T , Equation 3.31 can be written in the form of a comparison
between the wavelength λ = cT and the spatial scale L:

λ L. (3.32)

Finally, we consider one of the consequences of incompressibility in three-dimensional flows

near a stagnation point. We can write the deformation tensor eij in terms of coordinate axes
coinciding with the principal axes of the tensor. Since the trace of the tensor is invariant
under a rotational transformation of axes, the condition of incompressibility (the trace of
the tensor equal to zero) requires that two of the eigenvalues be negative and one positive
or, conversely, that only one eigenvalue be negative. Two types of local deformations corre-
spond to very different kinds of flows satisfy this condition. In the first case (Figure 3.10a),

(a) (b)

Figure 3.10 Three-dimensional flow in the

neighborhood of a stagnation point, such that O O
two eigenvalues of the velocity gradient tensor
are, respectively: (a) negative; (b) positive
The stream function 75

the fluid tends to “pile up” toward the origin from all directions in the plane of the neg- In the case of a two-dimensional flow discussed
ative eigenvalues, and hence to “stretch” in the third, orthogonal, direction. An elongated in Section 3.2.4, we no longer have the two dif-
ferent kinds of flows just discussed, because, in
particle placed in this flow will therefore line up along this third axis. In the opposite case
that situation, we have only two equal and op-
(Figure 3.10b), we might expect that a particle in the shape of a thin, flat disk would align posite eigenvalues for the deformation tensor.
in the plane of the positive eigenvalues. Besides this orientation effect, we can also observe There is only one possible type of deformation
a deformation by locating a drop of dye, or some non-miscible fluid, at the stagnation point for a droplet placed at the stagnation point: it
assumes the shape of an ellipse with its ma-
O. The elongation of the drop in the first case, and its flattening out in the second, indicate jor axis oriented in the direction of the positive
the very different velocity fields in the two cases. eigenvalue.

3.3.3 Rotational flows; potential flows

Very generally, we can represent an arbitrary vector field v(r) as the sum of three terms:

v(r) = v1 (r) + v2 (r) + v3 (r). (3.33)

• The field v1 (r) has zero divergence and its curl corresponds to a local rotation with
angular velocity = ω/2 (where ω is the vorticity of the flow). This field obeys:

∇·v1 (r) = 0 (3.34a) and ∇×v1 (r) = ω. (3.34b)

We have here an analogy with magnetism in the approximation of quasi-permanent
regimes, discussed in Chapter 7 where we consider vorticity and rotational flows.
• The field v2 (r) has simultaneously zero divergence and zero curl. It therefore satisfies
at the same time the equations:

∇·v2 (r) = 0 (3.35a) and ∇×v2 (r) = 0. (3.35b)

The second equation indicates that we can introduce a potential function , called
the velocity potential, such that v = ∇. The corresponding flows are known as po-
tential flows. We will study these in Chapter 6, where we also discuss the analogy with
electrostatics.
• Finally, the field v3 (r) takes into account the effects of changes in volume
(1/V ) (δV /δt). It is only non-zero in the case of a compressible fluid with:

1 δV
∇·v3 (r) = ∇·v(r) = (3.36a) and ∇×v3 (r) = 0. (3.36b)
V δt

3.4 The stream function

3.4.1 Introduction and significance of the
stream function
The stream function allows us to simplify the treatment of the vector velocity of an incom-
pressible fluid by dealing instead with a scalar field for the case where the velocity field
depends only on two coordinates (two-dimensional flow, or flow with an axis of rotational
symmetry).
Let us consider the flow of an incompressible fluid. Conservation of mass implies Equation
3.28: ∇·v = 0. If, on the other hand, we take a more general case where none of the
three vector components of the velocity vanish, we can then introduce a vector function
A such that:
76 Kinematics of Fluids

v = ∇×A. (3.37)

For velocities, the vector potential A associated with the incompressibility condition is the
analog of the vector potential introduced in the study of magnetism and resulting from
the relation ∇ · B = 0 (we develop this analogy in Section 7.1.3). The practical usefulness
of such a function is still somewhat limited because, here, we replace the velocity field v
with another vector field A. On the other hand, when the velocity depends only on two
coordinate directions, the velocity field can be directly expressed by a single component of
the vector potential A; this will be the case for two-dimensional flows, and also for axially
symmetric flows (with rotational symmetry about one axis). If we consider the case of a two-
dimensional flow (the case of axially symmetric flows will be discussed in Section 3.4.3),
the velocity vector is assumed to be translationally invariant along the z-axis and will have
no component in that direction [v = (vx (x, y), vy (x, y), 0)]. The condition ∇ · v = 0 is then
equivalent to:
∂υx ∂υy
+ = 0.
∂x ∂y
As a result of this equation, a scalar function exists such that:
∂ ∂
vx = , (3.38a) vy = – . (3.38b)
∂y ∂x
The reader’s attention is drawn to the nota- By inserting these results into Equation 3.37, we obtain:
tional convention which we follow in this text:
the pair (r, ϕ) indicates polar coordinates in
≡ Az . (3.38c)
two dimensions; in three dimensions, cylindri-
cal coordinates are denoted by (r, ϕ, z) while
the set (r, θ, ϕ) is used for spherical polar coor- The scalar function (x, y) (known as the stream function) represents thus the compo-
dinates. Thus r will always represent the radius nent of the vector potential A in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the flow
vector in two and three dimensions, in both cy- (here the z-axis). Note that we can introduce a stream function for any two-dimensional
lindrical and spherical-polar coordinates, while
ϕ is always the azimuth angle in both two and
incompressible flow, whether viscous or not.
three dimensions (i.e., the angle in the x-y- plane If polar coordinates (r, ϕ) are used in the plane of the flow, the equations for the velocity
measured relative to the direction of the x-axis). components and the stream function can be written as:
For spherical polar coordinates, the polar axis is
chosen to coincide with the Cartesian z-axis and 1 ∂ ∂
θ indicates the (conical) polar angle, measured vr = , (3.39a) vϕ = – . (3.39b)
from the polar axis. r ∂ϕ ∂r
Let us now consider the properties of the stream function. This will allow us to
understand its significance.

• The lines = constant coincide with the streamlines.

M2
n v
d Proof
For the case of a two-dimensional flow, let us evaluate the scalar product (v·∇) by using
M1 Equations 3.38a and 3.38b:
dM
∂ ∂
(v·∇) = vx + vy = 0. (3.40)
Figure 3.11 The streamlines for two- ∂x ∂y
dimensional incompressible flow (everywhere Now, the lines = constant are everywhere orthogonal to the vector field ∇. In fact, for
tangent to the local velocity vector) coincide a small displacement dM, the change d satisfies d = ∇ · dM; we therefore have d
with the lines along which the stream function = 0 when dM is normal to ∇ (Figure 3.11); the lines = constant are therefore parallel
is constant to v. The same reasoning applies to axially symmetric flows.
The stream function 77

• Again for the case of a two-dimensional flow, the quantity = 2 – 1 represents

the rate of flow of fluid in a stream tube of rectangular cross-section located between
the streamlines = 1 and = 2 and of unit depth in the z-direction.

Proof
In order to derive this result, let us evaluate the flow rate Q for the fluid in such a flow.
Assuming unit depth in the z- direction, we have:
M2
Q= v·(n d),
M1

so that, if d = (dx, dy, 0) and (n d) = (dy, -dx, 0), we then have:
M2 M2
∂ ∂
Q= dy + – (–dx) = d = 2 – 1 . (3.41)
M1 ∂y ∂x M1

It is thus established that, for this incompressible flow, the flow rate in such a stream tube is
constant everywhere along the tube.

3.4.2 Stream functions for two-dimensional flows

Elementary flows (uniform flow, vortices, sources and their various combinations) will be
studied in Chapter 6. We examine here, as an example, the set of two-dimensional flows for
which the stream function has the form:

(x, y) = a x2 + b y2 , (3.42a)

where a and b are real constants. The components of the velocity field thus satisfy:

∂ ∂
vx = = 2 b y, (3.42b) vy = – = –2 a x (3.42c)
∂y ∂x
and the streamlines are given by the equation:

(x, y) = constant. (3.42d)

Figure 3.12 on the next page illustrates the velocity profiles and the streamlines correspond-
ing to three specific values of the ratio a/b:

• Case a/b= 0 (Figure 3.12a). We then have:

υx = 2 b y, (3.43a) υy = 0. (3.43b)

We have already met such simple shear flows in Sections 2.1.2 and 3.2.4. This kind of flow
occurs in the case of a viscous fluid located between two parallel plates, at a distance d from
one another and moving parallel to their own plane with relative velocity U . The velocity
field is characterized by a value of the velocity gradient, or shear rate, γ̇ = (U / d) (its value
here is 2b) which has the dimensions of an inverse time. The streamlines correspond to the
straight lines y = constant and are parallel to the boundary plates.
78 Kinematics of Fluids

y y y

x x x
Figure 3.12 Streamlines (below) and veloc- O O O
ity profiles along the x- and y-axes (above) for
two-dimensional, plane flows characterized
(a) (b) (c)
by a stream function (x, y) = ax2 + by2 for
y y y
three specific values of the ratio a/b; (a) sim-
ple shear flow a/b = 0; (b) pure shear flow
a/b = –1; (c) pure rotation a/b = 1 x x x

• Case a/b = –1 (Figure 3.12b). The streamlines obey the equation:

= a x2 – y2 = constant. (3.44a)

They make up a set of rectangular hyperbolae for which the asymptotes are the bisectors of
each of the quadrants (y = ± x). The corresponding velocity field has the components:

This kind of velocity field is characterized by

the presence of elongation components, which υx = –2a y, (3.44b) υy = –2a x. (3.44c)
stretch out the fluid particles in the direction of
the flow; an example of this is the flow of a fluid Let us evaluate the curl of this velocity field:
through an orifice in the form of a slit. (Figure
3.13a) and also between a set of four counter- ∂vy ∂vx
rotating cylinders (Figure 3.13b). In this last ∇×v = – ez = 0, (3.44d)
∂x ∂y
case, we note that the central point O is a stag-
nation point: such a configuration is interesting if
we wish to study the deformation of a non-rigid in which ez is the unit vector along z. This velocity field is thus irrotational; it corresponds to
object which is not carried along by the flow. a pure deformation field with no rotation which we have already discussed in Section 3.2.

y
Figure 3.13 Shape of the streamlines for the x
case of elongational fluid flow; (a) through a O
slit-shaped opening; (b) between four counter-
rotating cylinders y

x
(a) (b)

• Case a/b = 1 (Figure 3.12c). The velocity components are:

υx = 2a y (3.45a) and: υy = 2a x. (3.45b)

The value of the curl of this velocity field is:

∇×v = –4 a ez . (3.45c)
The stream function 79

This flow corresponds to a pure rotation of the fluid around the z-axis normal to the plane of
the flow; the magnitude of the angular velocity is ||=|(∇× v)/2| = 2a (we have previously
discussed this case in Section 3.2.3). The streamlines are concentric circles which obey an
equation of the type:

= a x2 + y2 = constant. (3.45d)

In the general case for which the coefficients a and b in the equation (x, y) = a x2 + b y2
are not equal in absolute value, we can write in the form:

b+a 2 b–a
(x, y) = x + y2 + y2 – x2 = rot + shear , (3.46)
2 2
where:

• the stream function rot corresponds to pure rotation (the coefficients of x2 and y2
are equal). The magnitude of the angular velocity is then equal to b + a.
• the stream function shear corresponds to pure shear (the coefficients of x2 and y2
have opposite values).

Since the stream function and the velocity field are linearly related (as shown earlier),
the latter is the sum of the velocity fields corresponding to a pure rotation and to a pure
shear, i.e.:

υx = (b + a) y + (b – a) y (3.47a) and: υy = –(b+a)x+(b–a) x. (3.47b)

These general equations allow us, obviously, to retrieve for b = a and b = – a, the limiting
cases of pure shear flow and pure rotation which we discussed above.

3.4.3 Stream functions for axially symmetric flows

These are flows that have an axis of symmetry relative to which the velocity field is rota-
tionally invariant. In order to satisfy automatically the equation of conservation of mass, we
introduce, just as in the previous case, a scalar function – called the Stokes stream function –
which we also denote by .

• For the case of a problem with cylindrical symmetry, we write the equation of con-
servation of mass for an incompressible fluid (∇·v = 0) in cylindrical coordinates
(r, ϕ, z) (see Section 4A.2 of the appendix to Chapter 4):

1 ∂(r vr ) 1 ∂vϕ ∂vz

+ + = 0. (3.48)
r ∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z

The velocity field of an axially symmetric flow is independent of ϕ, so that the previous
equation becomes:

∂(r vr ) ∂vz
+r = 0. (3.49)
∂r ∂z
This equation is automatically satisfied provided we introduce a function such that:

1 ∂ 1 ∂
vr = , (3.50a) vz = – . (3.50b)
r ∂z r ∂r
80 Kinematics of Fluids

• For a problem with spherical symmetry, it is natural to use spherical polar coordi-
nates (r, θ, ϕ) (see Section 4A.3 of the appendix to Chapter 4). The equation of
conservation of mass is then:

1 ∂ (r 2 vr ) 1 ∂ (sin θ vθ ) 1 ∂vϕ
+ + = 0. (3.51a)
r2 ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ

Here again, for flows with axial symmetry about the polar z-axis, the velocity components
are independent of ϕ and the above equation becomes:

∂ (r 2 vr ) 1 ∂ (sin θ vθ )
+ = 0. (3.51b)
∂r r sin θ ∂θ

This equation is also automatically satisfied by a stream function (also denoted by )

such that:
1 ∂ 1 ∂
vr = (3.52a) and vθ = – . (3.52b)
r 2 sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂r

The definition of the stream function for the By comparing these equations with the components of the curl of the vector potential A
case of axially symmetric flows leads to a dimen- from which the velocity field (Equation 3.37) is derived, we find that the stream function
sionality different from that for two-dimensional
flows: in this case, it has the dimensions of the
is the quantity (r sin θ Aϕ ).
product of a velocity and a surface area (m3 /s), Several examples of the use of this stream function will be listed in Sections 6.2.3,
as opposed to the product of a velocity and a 6.2.4 and 9.4.1. In appendix 6A of Chapter 6, we summarize the complete set of equations
length (m2 /s) for the case of a two-dimensional
governing the components of the velocity and the stream function.
flow.

3.5 Visualization and measurement

of the velocity and of the velocity
gradients in flows
We will first describe a few techniques used to visualize flows (Section 3.5.1), and extend
these to quantitative measurements of solute or tracer concentrations (Section 3.5.2). Then,
we will discuss several methods for measuring the local velocity (Section 3.5.3) and, finally,
measurements of the velocity field of flows and of characteristic quantities such as velocity–
gradients and vorticity (Section 3.5.4).

Figure 3.14C Visualization, by means of

streaklines of dye, of the flow around a cy-
lindrical obstacle with its axis perpendicular
to the plane of the figure. The flow is from left
to right and the dye is injected at 11 discrete
points (at the left of the figure). We note the
recirculation zone just downstream of the cyl-
inder. (document courtesy of L. Auffray and
P. Jenffer, Université Paris-Sud)
Visualization and measurement of the velocity and of the velocity gradients in flows 81

3.5.1 Visualization of flows

A first method for visualizing flows makes use of tracers which follow the motion of the
fluid. Other techniques use the changes in the index of refraction resulting from changes in
the temperature and/or the density of the flowing fluid.

Tracking by means of dyes, bubbles (liquids), smoke (gases) and particles

In the case of liquids, we frequently visualize the flow by injecting a solution of dye at
different points in the liquid upstream of an obstacle. In some cases, however, the dye is
emitted at the edge of the obstacle so as to observe the flow in its immediate neighborhood.
We thus observe streaklines of the dye, extending over large distances in the case of laminar
flows (Figure 3.14). In Section 3.1.4, we have shown that these lines coincide with the
Figure 3.15 Visualization by means of the
streamlines if the flow is stationary, as in the case of Figure 3.14.
pulsed emission of hydrogen micro-bubbles in
Another technique involves the generation, by means of electrolysis in the flow of an
a convergent channel. The bubbles are gen-
ionic aqueous solution, of hydrogen micro-bubbles from a small diameter conducting wire
erated by electrolysis at a fine wire, perpen-
(10 to 100 μm) which is alternately insulated, and stripped, so as to define the zones in
dicular to the flow located just on the left of
which bubbles are emitted (Figure 3.15); the diameter of the bubbles is of the same order
the figure (plate from NCFMF). The distor-
of magnitude as that of the wire. One can thus display the streaklines (and therefore the
tion of the pattern of squares can be considered
streamlines), in the case of stationary flow. One can, moreover, generate dyed segments
as illustrative of the deformations discussed in
of controlled length by modulating the rate of emission of bubbles (Figure 3.15): one can
Section 3.2
visualize directly in this manner the deformation of elements of the fluid as discussed in
Section 3.2 (Figures 3.4 to 3.7).
One can also use, for the visualization, fine particles suspended in the fluid, which follow
locally its motion; it is important to select particles of a density as close as possible to that
of the fluid, in order to minimize sedimentation. Also, in order to avoid the images of par-
ticles located at different depths from the observer and being superimposed on top of one
another, one illuminates the flow by means of a very thin luminous plane normal to the di-
rection of observation, as shown in Figure 3.16: this technique is named optical tomography.
To generate this plane of light, one uses, most often, as a light source, a laser beam which we
widen in the direction of the plane by means of a cylindrical lens of very short focal length;
a second lens of much longer focal length allows one then to minimize the thickness of the
plane in the region of interest. One refers to this technique as visualization by a laser plane
or sheet (Figure 3.20).
A gaseous flow can be similarly tagged by certain chemical reactions between the gases Figure 3.16 Flow resulting from a small-
present in the flow (e.g., by creating very fine ammonium chloride “smoke” by means of amplitude (1.4 mm) vertical oscillation of a
the reaction of ammonia with gaseous hydrogen chloride: NH3 + HCl → NH4 Cl). One can sphere (12 mm in diameter) located in a fluid
also use smoke from incense, or very fine oil droplets, and carry out, just as for liquids, op- at the center of the figure. The flow is vi-
tical tomography by illuminating the flow with a luminous sheet. This is the case illustrated sualized by means of glass micro-spheres in
in Figure 10.28 which displays a flame front separating a mixture of fresh gases (on the suspension in the fluid, and illuminated by a
upstream side) and burnt gases (on the downstream side). Light is scattered upstream by sheet of light in the plane of the photograph.
refractory powders injected into the mixture, resulting in a bluish luminous region; down- The exposure time ( 30 s) is very long rela-
stream they are at a lower temperature and one has an orange-hued region. The conical tive to the period of oscillation of the sphere
white zone indicates the hottest region of the flame (see Section 10.9.3). (15 ms) so that the lighted lines display the
streamlines of the resultant flow (document
Visualization by means of anisotropic reflecting particles
from the authors)
This method is effective when significant variations in the direction of the flow from one
point to the next exist. One can use small aluminium flakes (such as those which can be
found in aluminium paints) or suspensions of particles that have the shape of long thin
platelets (these fluids, known as rheoscopic fluids, are commercially available, often sold
82 Kinematics of Fluids

under the name “KalliroscopeTM ”). When such particles are in suspension in a flow, they
align due to the action of velocity gradients—this results in the observation of contrasts in
the reflected light, allowing us to visualize the flows. Figure 3.17 shows the application of
this technique to a cellular thermal convection flow in a layer of liquid.

Visualizing changes in refractive index by the Schlieren technique

There is a wide spectrum of optical methods which use the refraction of light rays due to
local fluctuations in the index of refraction. Such variations can result from gradients in the
fluid density, (and hence in the index) induced by temperature differences, as is the case
in thermal convection phenomena. They may also be associated with density fluctuations
Figure 3.17 Top view of cellular flow in a due to compressibility effects, as found in high-velocity gas flows, and they may also due to
layer of liquid heated from underneath and variations in the chemical composition.
bounded by a free surface above. The flow is The Schlieren method is an example of these techniques which rely on variations of the
visualized by means of flakes of aluminium in index of refraction. Its principle, illustrated in Figure 3.18, consists of creating an image of
suspension in the liquid: the liquid is rising in the flow region by means of an optical device which blocks out the undeviated light rays
the center of the hexagonal cells and flowing which would normally propagate in the region of observation; one sees in the image only
downward along their edges. The flow results those rays which were refracted by the changes in the index, so that we can visualize the
from a Bénard–Marangoni instability due to latter. Often, mirrors are used instead of lenses in these devices, because their diameter can
changes in the surface tension with tempera- more easily be large enough to be, as needed, comparable to the extent of the region under
ture, which we discuss in Section 11.3.1 (plate study. Furthermore, mirrors allow for a reduction in the effective chromatic aberrations.
courtesy of J. Salan) Figure 3.19 shows that this method allows one to visualize changes in the index of refraction
of air resulting from temperature variations.

Figure 3.18 Principle of the Schlieren tech-

nique for visualizing refraction index varia-
tions within a flow. The light beam from a SC
source S is focused into a point source and L1 L2 B1'
then transformed into a parallel beam by lens
L1 . The beam is then refocused by a second
lens L2 onto a sharp edge blocking out the di- S
rect beam. The only light visible on the screen
SC (or recording camera) where the image of
the flow is formed is due to variations in the
index of refraction of the fluid B1 B2

Figure 3.19C Visualization by the Schli-

eren method of the variations in the index
of refraction of air, resulting from temper-
ature changes near a butane torch (lower
plume) and a heated glass rod (upper plume)
(document courtesy of I. Smith)
Visualization and measurement of the velocity and of the velocity gradients in flows 83

3.5.2 Concentration measurements

Industrial or environmental applications often make use of a mixture of fluids, initially
injected separately, then stirred and mixed by the flow, e.g., as in the case of chemicals which
will then undergo a reaction. It is frequently essential to determine the relative concentra-
tion of each component: this can be carried out by local probes (e.g., in liquids, by electrical
resistance micro probes or by electrodes measuring the concentration of specific ions).

Figure 3.20 Principle of the laser-induced

fluorescence technique. The beam from a laser
L is broadened into a light sheet LS by means
of a cylindrical lens CL, after being focused
LS by a spherical lens SL, so as to be as thin
as possible as it passes through the region of
FL D
interest in the flow (here, a vertical jet). The
CL light scattered by the fluorescent dye is ob-
SL served by a camera D, adjusted by means of a
focusing lens FL to make observations in the
L plane light-sheet LS

A particularly effective technique is laser-induced fluorescence (Figure 3.20). In the case

of flowing liquids, it consists of dissolving a given concentration of a fluorescent dye in one
of the components of the mixture: the flow is then illumined by a light beam of wavelength
λ0 selected to be in the region of maximum absorption of the dye. The light reemitted in
all directions by fluorescence then corresponds to wavelengths λf > λ0 ; its intensity is then
proportional to the concentration C of the dye, so long as it is not too high, and this allows
us to measure C. For this purpose, one frequently uses illumination by a thin sheet of laser
light (Section 3.5.1). This allows one to analyze the local structure of the mixing region
furthermore, because the wavelength of the laser is sharply defined, one can eliminate, by
means of an interference filter, the parasitic light reflected or transmitted at the original
wavelength λ0 , and visualize only the fluorescent dye.
Figure 3.21 illustrates the visualization of the mixing in a turbulent jet by means of this
technique. Furthermore, the use of very short laser pulses allows for the observation of very
clear and detailed views even in the case of high-velocity flows. The technique can even be
extended to the observation of three-dimensional concentrations by rapidly displacing the
laser beam in the direction normal to its plane, and using a high-speed camera. It can also
be applied to gases when one of the gases can be rendered fluorescent.

Figure 3.21C Display of a turbulent jet of

3.5.3 A few methods for measuring the local velocity
liquid injected (from the left) into an identi-
in a fluid cal fluid at rest. A fluorescent dye has been
Laser Doppler anemometry (LDA) added to the jet, illuminated by a light-sheet
in the plane of the figure and coinciding with
Laser Doppler anemometry makes use of the variations in intensity of light scattered by
the axis of the jet. The colours correspond
particles carried along by the flow in a periodically spatially illuminated region. One uses two
to the local concentration of the dye in the
beams split from the same laser, which intersect at an angle ϕ within a small measurement
plane of the image (document courtesy of C.
volume (Figure 3.22). The two beams interfere there and, as a result, a network of fringes
Fukushima & J. Westerweel)
appear (the planes of light and dark fringes are normal to the plane of the two beams). When
light-scattering particles are placed in a fluid and cross through the system of interference
84 Kinematics of Fluids

Figure 3.22 Schematic representation of the L1

Laser–Doppler anemometry technique, illus-
trating a split laser beam forming interference U0
fringes in the region of overlap, with small L2
t
particles carried along by the flowing fluid
as it crosses the region; the inset figure dis-
plays the variation of the beam intensity as
it is modulated by the passage of a particle
through the interference region φ

fringes, they are alternately bright and dark. By focusing the image of the fringes on a
photomultiplier, one detects oscillations corresponding to the modulation of the intensity of
the light scattered by each particle (inset of Figure 3.22): their frequency is measured by a
counter or a spectrum analyzer. This frequency is related to the component of the velocity
of the particle normal to the fringes by the equation:

2 U0 ϕ
f = n sin , (3.53)
λ0 2
where ϕ is the angle between the beams in the fluid, n the index of refraction of the fluid, and
λ0 the wavelength of light in free space. Assuming that the velocity of the particles coincides
with that of the fluid, one obtains a value for this velocity, averaged over the region of the
fringes, which can be quite small (a few microns). The maximum velocities then measured
can be as high as 100 m/s.

Proof
In Section 1.5.3 (Equation 1.90), we have shown that the fringe wavelength , which
corresponds to the geometry of the beams in Figure 3.22, satisfies:

= λ0 / {2n sin (ϕ/2)} . (3.54)

If a particle moves with a velocity component U 0 in the y-direction (thus normal to the
plane of the fringes), the frequency of the changes in the illumination of the particle, thus
of the intensity scattered by the particle, is f = U 0 /, from which we derive Equation 3.53.
Typically, for U 0 = 20 mm/s, ϕ = 30◦ , n =1.33 and λ0 = 0.5 μm, we find f ≈ 22.5 kHz. The
value of f is identical to the frequency shift for the light scattered by a moving particle: this
is the reason why this technique is known as Laser Doppler anemometry (LDA).

Advantages of Laser Doppler anemometry This technique has the major advantage
of not requiring the presence of an invasive physical probe within the flow: dust particles
naturally present in a liquid are frequently sufficient to provide an easily measured sig-
nal. In the case of gases, however, it is usually necessary to seed the flow with very tiny
particles.
Visualization and measurement of the velocity and of the velocity gradients in flows 85

The measurement of the velocity obtained is the absolute value, independent of the tem-
perature fluctuations, or of the variations in the composition of the fluid (making calibration
unnecessary).
One can also simultaneously determine all three velocity components with a three-
coloured laser.
One can also detect the direction of the flow by allowing the fringes to move continuously
by means of a variable optical retardation device (the frequency shift is related to the velocity
of the particles relative to the fringes and, because of this, is not the same for two particles
with opposite velocities).
Measurements can even be carried out in flames and in reactive media.

Disadvantages and limitations One can only measure the velocity of the scattering
particles rather than the velocity of the fluid itself (particles up to 0.25 μm follow the
changes in velocity up to frequencies around 10 kHz; particles as large as 4 μm are lim-
ited to 1 or 2 kHz); moreover, the necessity of having to seed the fluid with small particles
requires that they be compatible with the fluid.
Measurements are difficult to make near walls because of the aggregation of particles
and parasitic reflection of the light.
Measurements are impossible in opaque fluids.

Ultrasound anemometers
In the case of opaque liquids, one can use acoustic anemometers: these measure either
changes in the velocity of sound depending on whether it moves along or in the opposite
direction to the flow, or changes in frequency due to the Doppler effect when sound is
back-scattered by small particles or bubbles carried by the flow. One frequently uses short
bursts of soundwaves rather than a continuous sound: by choosing a time interval between
the emission and the reception window of the sound, one selects the distance over which the
measurement is carried out, and thus obtains a local measurement. By means of electronic
measurements with several time windows, one obtains an instaneous profile of the veloc-
ity. This technique is frequently used in medicine in measurements of the flow-velocity of
blood in the heart (a combination of the velocity measurement with echo-cardiography)
or in blood vessels. This technique has recently been extended to industrial or laboratory
measurements.

Hot-wire anemometry
Such anemometers measure the velocity of a flowing gas as a result of the cooling, by the
gas, of an electrically heated wire (Figure 3.23). It is an intrusive technique (the presence
of the probe can disturb the flow). Moreover, the variations of the signal with velocity are
nonlinear and must be calibrated (see Section 10.8.1). On the other hand, the diameter of
the wires used can be very small (a few microns) with a corresponding response time as fast
as a few microseconds, a significant advantage over other methods. Therefore, such devices
are frequently used in the fine-scale analysis of turbulent velocity fluctuations.
Figure 3.23 The sensor end of a three-wire
Principle of the measurement anemometer (plate courtesy of TSI)
One takes advantage of the variation in the resistance of the film, or of the wire, with tem-
perature. A feedback loop applies a variable heating current so as to keep the temperature
of the wire constant; the measurement of the heating current gives the velocity. This tech-
nique has the advantage, relative to a resistance measurement using heating by a constant
current, of suppressing the time constant associated with the heating or cooling of the wire,
and thus obtaining a frequency response of several hundred kHz. Hot-wires only detect
86 Kinematics of Fluids

the velocity components normal to their length: by using three wires perpendicular to each
other and combining their readouts, it is then possible to determine the three components
of the velocity. In the case of liquids, it is preferable to use, for reasons of robustness, heated
films deposited on the surface of the tip of the probe, and protected by a thin insulating layer.

Miniature Pitot tubes

They provide a simple (though much less effective) method of measurement of the local
velocity resulting from the pressure variations generated by the flow; we will describe this
technique in Section 5.3.3 as an application of the Bernoulli equation.

3.5.4 Measurements of the velocity field

and of velocity–gradients in a flowing fluid
Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)

Light
sheet
Illuminated
tracer
Figure 3.24 Principle of the measurement particles
of velocity by the PIV technique

Image Fluid
Digital flow
camera field

Principle of the measurement Thanks to recent developments in tools for analysis and
image processing, it is now possible to determine the velocity flow fields from the images of
particles carried along by the fluid: the main usefulness of this Particle Image Velocimetry
(PIV) method is to yield in a single step the instantaneous velocity field in the region of
observation, and not merely at a single location, as is the case for the techniques described
in Section 3.5.3.
Just as in the optical tomography technique, the flow is illumined by a light-sheet (usu-
ally from a laser), while the fluid is seeded by fluorescent, or sometimes merely reflective,
particles (Figure 3.24). A high-resolution digital camera takes two successive images of

(a) (b)

Figure 3.25C Measurement by means of

the PIV technique of (a) the velocity field
and (b) the vorticity field of a vortex ring
resulting from the propulsion of a squid
(Lolliguncula Brevis), as it emits a series of
pulsed jets (documents courtesy of I.K. Bartol,
Vortex ring
P.S. Krueger, W.J. Stewart et J.T. Thompson) with a short tail
Velocity (cm.s-1) Vorticity (s-1)
0 20 40 -100 0 100
Visualization and measurement of the velocity and of the velocity gradients in flows 87

250
300 Figure 3.26C Flow toward a plane (at the
bottom of the figure) where there is a zero-
velocity stagnation point in the center of the
plane: (a) basic image: long exposure visuali-
y y zation of the streamlines by the use of particles
carried along by the flow; the colours corre-
(μm) (μm)
spond to the vorticity field calculated from the
velocity field of the image b. (b) velocity field
obtained by the micro-velocimetry technique
from the observation of the same particles
(documents courtesy of C. Pirat, G. Bolognesi
00 x (μm) 200 00 x (μm) 350 and C. Cottin-Bizonne, LPMCN-Lyon)
(a) (b)

these particles separated by a short time interval δt. Correlation analysis (described below)
determines the displacement δr of particles in different regions of the flow, from which one
infers the local velocities v = δr/δt. One then obtains velocity fields such as those illustrated
in Figure 3.25, which correspond to the flow near a small moving squid, or that of Figure
3.26 (flow toward a stagnation point at a wall in a microchannel).

Practical measurements of the velocity field

In the case of liquids, one uses particles a few microns in size whose densities match as
closely as possible that of the liquid, in order avoid sedimentation (e.g., hollow glass beads
about 10 μm in diameter and with density 1.1 g/cm3 ). In the case of gases, however, the
density mismatch is always high, and one must, in order to slow down sedimentation, use
even smaller particles such as oil droplets or spherical silica particles with sizes of the order
of one micron.
In practice, in the generation of the illuminated plane, one frequently uses a pulsed laser
providing short pulses of light (a few ns) separated by a time interval δt: one thus obtains
images which are both brighter than with a continuous-wave laser and sharper thanks to
the short duration of the pulse. The thickness of the illuminating plane must be sufficiently
large so that particles remain inside the illuminated region during the interval between two
pulses.
Digital images can be considered as matrices I (xi , yj ) where xi and yj are the coordinates
of the pixels and I is the corresponding light intensity; they are divided into interroga-
tion areas. For each such area in the first image I 1 , one calculates a correlation function

C(δr) = i,j I 1 (xi , yj ) I 2 (xi + δx, yj + δy) between it and the second image I 2 (δx and δy
are the components of the separation δr). The value of δr for which the correlation function
is a maximum then corresponds to the displacement of the fluid in the window in question
during the time interval δt. δr can be determined with a resolution better than the distance
between adjacent pixels provided that the size of the particles is just a tiny bit larger than this
interval. One then repeats the same calculation for all the measurement windows in order
to retrieve the complete velocity field. The concentration of the particles and the size of the
measurement windows must be selected in such a way as to have a sufficient number of
particles in each window while avoiding overlap. Sizes of windows ranging from 16 × 16 to
64 × 64 pixels are generally used, depending on whether one wishes to emphasize the num-
ber or the accuracy of the measuring points. We must also observe that, in every case, the
spatial resolution of the measurement is of the order of the size of the window: since such
88 Kinematics of Fluids

images include at this point (in 2014) between 106 and 4 × 106 pixels in all, the velocity
fields currently measurable contain thus typically between 103 and 104 points.

Micro-anemometry The same technique is nowadays applied to flows at very small

scales, e.g., in channels used in microfluidics. In this case, we choose fluorescent particles
as tracers. In fact, a problem resulting from these small devices is the importance of par-
asitic reflections relative to the wavelength of the illumination laser. As we have discussed
It is difficult to obtain very thin luminous planes. in Section 3.5.2, we can eliminate these by means of an interference filter, while still pre-
Thus, in this method of micro-PIV, the measure-
serving the light emitted by the particles, by fluorescence. Figure 3.26b compares a velocity
ment plane is selected by the focusing distance,
making use of the very small depth-of-field of field obtained in this manner to the streamlines obtained by a long exposure of the moving
microscopes used for the observations. particles (Figure 3.26a).

Limitations and recent extensions of PIV applications A first important limitation

is the fact that the PIV method measures only the components of the velocity in the plane of
illumination. This difficulty can be overcome by the use of two cameras oriented obliquely
relative to the plane light-beam, instead of a single normal one, as described previously (this
is the stereo-PIV technique).

Principle of stereo-PIV
The two cameras look at the same region of measurement, their lines of sight being sym-
metric relative to the normal of the illuminated plane and making an angle ± α with the
latter (the plane of the lines of sight is chosen as the x-y plane in which x is perpendicular
to the illuminated y-z plane). Each camera measures the velocity component of a diffusing
particle normal to the line of sight. The velocity components vz which are measured are the
same for the two cameras. On the other hand, for the component in the x-y plane, one of the
cameras measures a velocity vy cos α + vx sin α and the other a velocity vy cos α – vx sin α.
One therefore obtains every velocity component by combining the different measurements.
However, the spatial variations of the velocity components in the direction normal to the
plane of measurement can still not be determined in this way.

In order to measure a three-dimensional velocity field, one can carry out a set of measure-
ments by displacing the luminous plane parallel to itself at each new measurement. In PIV
tomography, a volume of fluid is illumined globally, and the three-particle coordinates are
determined by combining the images from several cameras (typically four).
Initially, a further limitation of this technique, other than its limited spatial resolution,
was the small repetition rate of the velocity fields (a few times per second): this limitation
was due both to the rate of image acquisition by the camera and the pulse rate of the lasers.
Thanks to new lasers now available, and to cameras with their own high-speed memory
cards, repetition rates of a few kilohertz can be obtained at this time (2014).

Determination of the local velocity gradients

An important problem, particularly in the analysis of turbulent flows, is the determination of
the velocity gradients in a flow and, more specifically, of their rotational component, which
was discussed in Section 3.2.3.
When the PIV technique is used, the component of the vorticity perpendicular to the
measurement plane can be easily calculated from the spatial variations of the velocity. One
sees in Figure 3.25b that the presence of two high-vorticity regions is quite evident (we will
see in Section 7.4.3 that this corresponds to the creation of a vortex ring). Determining
Visualization and measurement of the velocity and of the velocity gradients in flows 89

other components of the vorticity requires the use of a three-dimensional system such as
those described above.
We will discuss in Section 10.8.2 another technique, polarography, which allows for the
measurement of velocity gradients in the neighborhood of a solid wall.
A direct method for measuring the vorticity consists in seeding the fluid with spherical
particles which are reflective only on part of their surface area. Because of the rotational
component of the flow, these particles are put into rotation at an angular velocity equal to
half the local vorticity of the fluid ( = (1/2) ∇× v) (Section 3.2.3); these particles must,
however, be sufficiently light so as to match the local rotation of the fluid. They are illumined
by a light beam which they reflect on a repetitive basis: one obtains the rotational velocity of
the particles, and thus the vorticity of the fluid, from the frequency of these light flashes.
Finally, let us mention the technique of forced Rayleigh scattering, introduced in
Section 1.5.3, which allows one to determine the vorticity from the rotation of the diffraction
pattern of an interference grating created within a flowing fluid.
Dynamics of viscous fluids:
4 rheology and parallel flows

4.1 Surface forces 90

4.2 Equation of motion for a fluid 95
4.3 Boundary conditions for fluid flow 98 Having introduced in Chapter 3 the concept of “rate of strain” of a flowing fluid, we
4.4 Non-Newtonian fluids 101 discuss here the manner in which such deformations can be produced by application
4.5 One-dimensional flow of viscous of a stress (external force, pressure, . . .). In the mechanics of solids, there exists
Newtonian fluids 115 a proportionality between the strain (or relative deformation) and the stresses, so
4.6 Simple one-dimensional, steady long as the stresses are not too strong. This relationship (Hooke’s law) was first
state flows of non-Newtonian described by Robert Hooke who wrote, three centuries ago, the law “ut tensio, sic
fluids 127 vis” (“as the strain, so is the force”). The corresponding relationship for viscous
4A Appendix - Representation of the fluids, first expressed by Newton, indicates the proportionality between the rates of
equations of fluid mechanics in strain and the stresses: it applies to flows at low Reynolds number and to the so-called
different systems of coordinates 134 Newtonian fluids.
In this chapter, we first write (Section 4.1) the expression for the surface forces
(pressure and viscosity) which act upon an element of the fluid. We then consider
(Section 4.2) the equation of motion for a fluid (Navier–Stokes equation), under cir-
cumstances where the effects of the viscosity of the fluid cannot be neglected (i.e.,
for a real fluid). We will then discuss (Section 4.3) the boundary conditions at the
walls which delimit the fluid flow. We will then tackle (Section 4.4) the case of non-
Newtonian fluids, for which the relationship between the stress and the deformation is
no longer linear and instantaneous. Finally we will analyze a few instances of parallel
flow in Newtonian fluids (Section 4.5) and some non Newtonian ones (Section 4.6) for
which the convective acceleration terms of the form (v.∇)v introduced in Chapter 3 are
identically zero.

4.1 Surface forces

4.1.1 General expression for the surface forces:
stresses in a fluid
Let us consider a surface element of area dS in a fluid. We analyze the force exerted by
the “piece” of fluid, located on one side of this element, on the fluid located on the other
side: stress is defined as a force per unit area. In a fluid at rest, it is normal to the surface
elements and its magnitude is independent of the orientation of these elements. Since this
stress is isotropic, a single number is sufficient to characterize its value at each point; this is
the hydrostatic pressure.
If the fluid is in motion, there appear additional stresses tangential to the element of
surface dS. The latter, indicative of the frictional forces between layers of fluid sliding one

Physical Hydrodynamics. Second Edition. Etienne Guyon et al.

relative to the other, are due to the viscosity of the fluid. We have, in fact, seen in Chapter 2
that the viscosity is a transport coefficient which characterizes the transfer of momentum
from the regions of higher velocity to those of lower velocity. To determine these forces, we
must know:

• the orientation of the surface dS in space, defined by means of the unit vector n
normal to the surface (dS denotes the vector of magnitude dS directed along n);
• the values of the three components of the force per unit area in the x-, y-, and
(a) y
z-directions for the three orientations of unit surfaces normal to these respective σ yx
axes.
n σ xx
This leads to nine coefficients σij which can be written as a 3 × 3 matrix representing
the stress tensor [σ] in the fluid under consideration. The element σij of the tensor (i = 1, 2, σ zx
3; j = 1, 2, 3) represents the component in the i-direction of the stress exerted on a surface O
with normal oriented in the j–direction. Accordingly: x

• σyx is the y-component of the force exerted on a unit area with normal pointing in
z
the x–direction (Figure 4.1a). This is a tangential or shear stress.
• σxx is the x-component of the force exerted on a surface perpendicular to the same (b) y
x–direction. It is a normal stress. dy n
df
Let us now determine the stress σn exerted on a surface dS with arbitrary normal n (Figure
4.1b). To this end, we must analyze the forces exerted on a tetrahedron of which three edges dx
are in the x-, y-, and z-directions, and of respective lengths dx, dy and dz. The side of the dz
tetrahedron bounded by the three other edges has the unit vector n as the outward normal O
with components nx , ny and nz ; n is the outward normal to the tetrahedron displayed. x
We denote by σxn dS, σyn dS and σzn dS the x-, y-, and z-components of the stress force
df exerted on the surface dS with outward normal n. Let us determine, for example, σ xn by z
considering the balance of the forces exerted on the faces of the tetrahedron.
The x-components of the forces exerted on the faces perpendicular to the x-, y-, and Figure 4.1 Components σ xx , σ yx and σ zx
z-directions are respectively: of the stress exerted on a surface of area dS:
(a) with normal directed parallel to the x-axis;

(–σ xx ) nx dS, –σxy ny dS, and (–σxz ) nz dS. (b) with normal n in an arbitrary direc-
tion. Because of the existence of tangential
We have used here the definitions of the components of the normal and shear stresses, as stresses along the surface, the resultant force
well as the fact that the projections dSx , dSy and dSz of the surface dS on which these df is generally not colinear with the normal
stresses act are equal to the product of dS with the components nx , ny and nz of the unit vector n
vector n along the three axes. The negative signs come about because the outward normals
to these surfaces are oriented opposite to the direction of the corresponding coordinate
axis, while the stresses are defined as positive if they point along the respective axis. The net
x-component of all the stresses on the tetrahedron is therefore:

σxn dS – σxx nx dS – σxy ny dS – σxz nz dS = σxn – σxx nx – σxy ny – σxz nz dS. (4.1)

Writing down Newton’s second law, where dV is the volume element, ρ the density of the
fluid, and d2 x/dt 2 the acceleration in the x-direction; fx is the x-component of any volume
forces present, e.g., gravity. We find:

d2 x
(σxn – σxx nx – σxy ny – σxz nz ) dS + fx dV = ρ dV . (4.2)
dt2
92 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

Let us now take the limit as dV approaches zero by reducing proportionately each of its
sides; this maintains the direction of the unit vector n constant. But dV approaches zero as
dS3/2 . Thus the two terms with factor dV in Equation 4.2 tend to zero more rapidly than
the term with factor dS, and cannot compensate for it. We therefore conclude that this latter
term must be identically zero, whence:

σxn = σxx nx + σxy ny + σxz nz . (4.3)

By cyclic permutation of the indices, we find equivalent relations for the two other
components σyn and σzn . This leads to the matrix equation:
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞
σxn σxx σxy σxz nx
⎝ σyn ⎠ = ⎝ σyx σyy σyz ⎠ ⎝ ny ⎠, (4.4)
σzn σzx σzy σzz nz

which can also be written in the form:

df
= σn = [σ] · n. (4.5)
dS

The term [σ]·n expresses the inner product of the second rank tensor [σ] with the vector n.
We also make frequent use of the notation:
The diagonal terms of the stress tensor [σ] result
both from the pressure and from the tensor [σ
]:
σin = σij nj , (4.6)
these components, usually called normal stresses,
are the result of the flow of the fluid and can-
cel out when the fluid is at rest. They occur in where summation is implicit on the index j (Einstein summation convention).
the case of Newtonian fluids (Section 4.1.3), but
are often particularly significant in the case of Presssure forces and the shear stress tensor
viscoelastic fluids, as we will see in Section 4.4.5.
We can separate out of the stress tensor [σ] the part which corresponds to the pressure
The pressure term denoted by the parameter p in
Equation 4.7 must be understood as a mechani-
stresses, which are the only ones acting in the absence of velocity gradients, for a fluid at
cal pressure, defined in terms of the mechanical rest or in uniform translational motion. This component is totally diagonal and isotropic—
stresses which act on an element of the fluid. the stresses are all normal and all three diagonal coefficients are identical. We can therefore
We cannot define the pressure in a moving fluid
separate the tensor into an expression of the form:
from thermodynamic considerations since the
system is not in thermodynamic equilibrium.
σij = σij
– p δij , (4.7)

where p is the pressure and δ ij the Kronecker delta symbol (δ ij = 1 if i = j, and δ ij = 0 if

i = j). The negative sign associated with p merely indicates that a fluid at rest is usually
y σyz
'
under compression, and thus the stress is acting opposite to the outward normal n. The
dz
–σzy
other term σij
corresponds to the viscosity stress tensor: it is the part of σij resulting from
σzy
' '
the deformation of the elements of the fluid.
dy
dx –σyz
'
4.1.2 Characteristics of the viscous shear stress
O
x tensor
We first demonstrate that the tensor [σ
] is symmetric. This can be done by considering the
z balance of the torques on an infinitesimal, cubic, volume element with sides dx, dy and dz
parallel to the coordinate axes (Figure 4.2).
Figure 4.2 Torques associated with the vis- In this demonstration, we will confine our argument to rotations around an axis in the
x-direction passing through the center of the cube, such that the components σyz
and σ

cous forces which act on the faces of a cube zy

located within the fluid of the surface forces are the only ones contributing to the resultant torque x with respect
Surface forces 93

to that axis (Figure 4.2); the same reasoning applies to the other components. The other
forces exerted on the faces of a cube are either parallel to the axis of rotation or pass through
it, and therefore do not contribute to x . We then obtain the expression:

dy
dz

dV
x = σzy (dx dz) – σyz (dx dy) = (σzy – σyz ) , (4.8) In calculating the torque, we have not taken
2 2 2 into account the terms corresponding to the
changes in the surface forces from one face
where dV = dx dy dz is the volume element. If the angular acceleration of the element is to the other. Effectively, in Equation 4.8, these
written as d2 x /dt 2 and dI is the moment of inertia about the axis of rotation, we have terms give a higher order contribution, of the

/∂y) dy dV , which are negligible when
type (∂σxy
x = dI (d2 x /dt 2 ). If we now take the limit (as in the previous derivation of Equation 4.3)
we take the limit as the dimensions of the volume
as dV tends to zero, we find that dI , which is of order dV ( dy2 + dz2 ), tends to zero as element tend to 0.
dV 5/3 (faster than dV ). We must therefore have the condition σzy
= σ
because the angular
yz
acceleration is to remain finite (even if there existed a mechanism creating a volume couple,
the overall torque on an element of the volume will also be proportional to dV and not
affect our result). This equality can be generalized to the other components of the tensor
such that:

σij
= σji
. (4.9)

This equation merely signals the equilibrium of the torques exerted on the volume elements
of the fluid.
Let us now specify the relation between the viscous stresses, i.e. the tensor [σ
], which
act on a fluid and the strains of the fluid. These stresses cancel out when an element of fluid
moves without strain, and, for this reason, depend neither on the velocity (global transla-
tion) nor on the local rotation. The latter is governed by the general antisymmetric tensor
ωij defined in Equation 3.5b. On the other hand, the tensor [σ
] of the viscous stresses is
symmetric and must depend only on the symmetric components eij of the tensor [e] of the
velocity gradients (rate of strain tensor), which has components:

1 ∂vi ∂vj
eij = + . (4.10)
2 ∂xj ∂xi

4.1.3 The viscous shear-stress tensor

for a Newtonian fluid
Throughout most of this text, we discuss exclusively those fluids, known as Newtonian
fluids, for which the components σij
of the viscosity stress tensor are assumed to depend
linearly on the instantaneous values of the deformations. Assuming further that the medium
is isotropic, this leads to the result:

σij
= 2A eij + B δij ell , (4.11)

where A and B are real constants characteristic of the fluid (and repeated indices imply
summation, according to the Einstein convention).

Justifying the relation between σij

and eij :
To first order, the components of the tensor [σ
] are linearly dependent on the components
of the deformation eij ; these components must, in fact, change sign when the components
of the strain change sign. The element σij
is then written:

σij
= Aijkl ekl , (4.12)
94 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

where Aijkl is a fourth-rank tensor, for which it can be shown that the most general form for
an isotropic medium is:

Aijkl = A δik δjl + A

δil δjk + B δij δkl .

Because the tensor [σ

] is symmetric (σij
= σji
), Aijkl must be symmetric with respect to
interchanging of i and j, so that A = A
. It then follows that:

σij
= A (δik δjl ekl + δil δjk ekl ) + B δij δkl ekl = A (eij + eji ) + B δij ell , (4.13)

i.e.: σij
= 2A eij + B δij ell .

We write Equation 4.11 in the equivalent form:

2
The coefficient ζ appears in “incompressible” σij
= η 2eij – δij ell + ζ (δij ell ), (4.14)
fluids only in measurements of the attenuation 3
of sound as the propagation of sound in any fluid
is necessarily accompanied by compressional ef- which uses the decomposition 3.11 of the strain tensor obtained in Section 3.2.2. The
fects, otherwise the velocity of sound would be
infinite. For ordinary liquids, the experimental first term corresponds to deformation without change in volume, while the second one
values of ζ are very small. represents isotropic dilation. The latter is therefore zero for an incompressible fluid.
The first coefficient appearing in Equation 4.14 is called the shear viscosity. Let us first
check that η is indeed the viscosity coefficient introduced in Section 2.1.2 for the particular
case of simple shear flow which we used in that introduction (Figure 4.3). Assume, for
example, that the velocity of the fluid v has only an x-component vx which varies only along
the y-direction. According to Equation 4.14, the only non-zero term of [σ
] is then:

∂vx
σxy = σyx =η . (4.15)
∂y

This expression is the same as Equation 2.2 for the term σxy
representing the tangential

stresses due to the relative motion of the various layers of fluid.

The second coefficient ζ which appears in Equation 4.14 is called the second viscosity or
the bulk viscosity. The corresponding stresses (diagonal terms of the tensor [σ
] having the
form ζ ∇.v) are related to changes in the volume of the fluid due to compression effects.
This term vanishes in the study of incompressible fluids because ∇.v = 0 is zero in that

y
υx (y)
dx
σ'xy
Figure 4.3 Shear stress in a simple shear –σ'xy
flow dy

x
z
Equation of motion for a fluid 95

case (the circumstances under which a fluid can be treated as incompressible have been
discussed in Section 3.3.2.). In such cases, Equation 4.14 simplifies to:

σij
= 2 η eij . (4.16)

The viscosity coefficients η and ζ defined above are both positive. We shall prove this
for the case of η in Section 5.3.1. In Appendix 4A in this chapter, the reader will find
representations of the stress tensor [σ
] in the most frequently used coordinate systems:
Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical polar.

4.2 Equation of motion for a fluid

4.2.1 General equation for the dynamics of a fluid
We apply Newton’s second law of motion to the dynamics of the volume of fluid (V ) by
equating the time rate of change of momentum and the net forces (volume and surface)
exerted on (V ). The volume (V ) is made up of a given amount of matter which moves
along with the fluid and remains within (V ).

d
ρ v dτ = ρ f dτ + [σ] · n d. (4.17)
dt V V S

Here, dτ is the differential volume of a small amount of material; d is a surface element

of the closed surface (S) which bounds (V ) ; [σ] is the tensor of all the forces (pressure and
viscosity) acting on d. The volume force f per unit mass of fluid might be, for instance,
a gravitational force, an electrostatic force on a charged fluid, a Coriolis force in a rotating
reference system, or the magnetic force on a fluid containing a suspension of magnetic
particles (a ferrofluid).
We might recall that the derivative (d/dt) is a Lagrangian derivative, evaluated in a ref-
erence system which moves with the fluid (as discussed in Section 3.1.2.). In this reference
frame, the product ρ dτ , representing the mass of a small amount of fluid material is a con-
stant: in fact, any element of the fluid always encloses, by definition, the same molecules as
they move along in the local velocity field of the flow. This result allows us to differentiate
with respect to time only the factor v in the first term of Equation 4.17, so as to write:

d dv
ρ v dτ = ρ dτ . (4.18)
dt V V dt

Rigorously, we should undertake a detailed evaluation of the momentum balance within the
volume (V ) but the simpler derivation we have used above discloses the essential physical
content of the problem.
Furthermore, the total component of the surface forces in the i-direction can be written:

[σ] · n d = σij nj d. (4.19)
S i S

This represents the flux of the components (σix , σiy , σiz ) across surface (S). Equation 4.19
can be transformed into a volume integral by means of Gauss’ divergence theorem:

∂σij
σij nj d = dτ (4.20)
S V ∂xj
96 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

(in the integrals of Equations 4.19 and 4.20, we use the Einstein implicit summation
convention over repeated indices). Equation 4.17 can therefore be written as:

dv
ρ dτ = ρ f dτ + ∇·[σ] dτ . (4.21)
V dt V V

The term ∇.[σ] represents here the vector with components ∂σij /∂xj . We further recall that,
in Equation 4.21, the integrals are evaluated over a volume (V ) which moves along with the
fluid. Taking the limit as this volume tends to zero and dividing by the value of the volume
element, we obtain the local equation of motion for a particle of fluid:

dv
ρ = ρ f + ∇·[σ]. (4.22)
dt

To be fully rigorous, as we have already mentioned in Section 3.1.1, the smallest volume
over which the integral is to be evaluated, i.e. the volume of a particle of fluid, should be the
smallest volume to which the assumption of a continuous medium applies. This limitation
is significant only in some very specific instances, such as the case of gases at extremely low
pressures.
Let us now separate out of [σ] the part due to the pressure from that related to the viscous
forces, as we did in Equation 4.7 (σij = σ ij
– p δ ij ); this expression is a reminder that pressure
contributes only to normal stresses. We then have:

∂ (p δij ) ∂p
(∇·[σ])i = (∇·[σ
])i – = (∇·[σ
])i – . (4.23)
∂xj ∂xi

Equation 4.22 then becomes:

dv
ρ = ρ f – ∇p + ∇·[σ
]. (4.24)
dt

This equation is applicable to any fluid, as we have made no assumption about the form
of the stress tensor [σ
]. Most often this equation is written by replacing the total time–
derivative dv/dt by ∂v/∂t + (v.∇)v just as we had done in Section 3.1.3. Thus:

∂v
ρ + ρ (v · ∇)v = ρ f – ∇p + ∇·[σ
]. (4.25)
∂t

• The first term of the left-hand side expression in Equation 4.25 represents the accel-
eration of a particle of fluid due to the explicit time–dependence of its velocity in a
fixed, Eulerian reference frame (acceleration in a homogeneous nonstationary field
v(r,t));
• the second term corresponds to the changes in velocity as a particle of fluid is con-
vected through the velocity field. This leads to an acceleration term, even if the
velocity field v(r) is time–independent;
• on the right-hand side, the term ρf represents the resultant of the volume forces
applied to the fluid;
• the next term, –∇p, indicating the effect of the pressure, corresponds to normal
stresses which are present even in the absence of fluid motion (hydrostatic pressure).
Equation of motion for a fluid 97

For a fluid at rest (v = 0), Equation 4.25 simplifies to the fundamental law of
hydrostatics:

ρ f – ∇p = 0. (4.26)

• finally, the last term ∇.[σ

] represents the viscous forces due to the strain of the fluid
elements. It contains both viscous shear stresses and normal stresses which might
appear during the motion of a compressible or viscoelastic fluid.

4.2.2 Navier–Stokes equation of motion

for a Newtonian fluid
If we substitute for the tensor [σ
] the explicit form obtained in Equation 4.14, we obtain We have implicitly assumed that the spatial vari-
for the i th component of the viscous forces: ations ∂η/∂xj and ∂ζ /∂xj of the viscosity coef-
ficients η and ζ are negligible, an assumption
which holds in homogeneous fluids. This is not
∂σij
∂ 2 vi η ∂ ∂vk
(∇·[σ
])i = =η + ζ+ . (4.27) always true; e.g., for the case of suspensions
∂xj ∂xj ∂xj 3 ∂xi ∂xk (Section 9.6), spatial variations in the concen-
tration lead to significant local variations in the
Equations 4.27 can be written in the vector form: viscosity.
η
∇·[σ
] = η ∇ 2 v + ζ + ∇(∇·v). (4.28)
3
If we substitute this in Equation 4.25, we obtain the equation of motion for a compressible
or incompressible Newtonian fluid:

∂v η
ρ + ρ (v·∇)v = ρ f – ∇p + η ∇ 2 v + ζ + ∇(∇·v). (4.29)
∂t 3
If the fluid flow is such that compressibility effects are negligible, ∇.v = 0, and then the
second viscosity coefficient ζ disappears. The resulting equation, known as the Navier–
Stokes equation, finds extensive use throughout the remainder of this text:

∂v In Equation 4.30, it is the combination of terms

ρ + ρ (v·∇)v = ρ f – ∇p + η ∇ 2 v. (4.30)
∂t ρ f–∇p of the volume force and the pressure gra-
dient which causes the flow: as we have already
The appendix at the end of this chapter lists explicit representations of this equation in the seen, so long as f = g, setting this sum equal to
several coordinate systems in common use. zero is equivalent to writing the equation for hy-
drostatics. We can therefore create a flow with
zero pressure gradient so long as ρ f = 0. We will
4.2.3 Euler’s equation of motion for an ideal fluid see below that this is the case, for example, for
a liquid film flowing under gravity along a verti-
cal or inclined plane, or, also, for a straight tube
Euler’s equation is the equation of motion for an ideal, incompressible fluid in which viscosity
filled with fluid, open at both ends and at an
effects are absent. This is just a special case of the Navier–Stokes equation 4.30 in which we angle to the horizontal, if we neglect capillarity.
put η = 0, to obtain:

∂v
ρ + ρ (v · ∇) v = ρ f – ∇p. (4.31)
∂t
This equation is rigorously applicable to an ideal fluid, i.e. one with zero viscosity. The The only ideal fluid is superfluid liquid helium.
The viscosity of its isotope He4 appears to van-
flow of ideal fluids is frequently (but not always) potential (the velocity field is obtained ish when it is cooled below a temperature of
from a potential function): this type of flow will be defined and described in Chapter 6. 2.172 K. The flow properties of this very pe-
Some flows of viscous fluids can be described by Euler’s equation, at least throughout a culiar fluid will be discussed in appendix 7A to
Chapter 7. The isotope He3 also becomes su-
significant portion of their volume: we will discuss the conditions for observing such flows perfluid but at much lower temperatures of the
in Section 6.1. order of 2 mK or below.
98 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

4.2.4 Dimensionless form of the Navier–Stokes

equation
We can also write the Navier–Stokes equation 4.30 in terms of dimensionless parameters
(that we label with “primes”) for the different variables. Let L and U be the respective scale
The choice of L/U for the normalization of factors for the spatial characteristic length, and for the velocity of the flow. We then have:
the time, and of ρU2 for the pressure, is ap-
propriate for flows where the non-linear terms r v t p – p0
r
= , v
= , t
= , p
= .
dominate. For flows governed mainly by the vis- L U L /U ρU 2
cosity terms, we will indicate in Section 9.2.4
another manner of writing the Navier–Stokes In defining p
, we have subtracted out the value p0 of the pressure in the absence of flow
equation in a dimensionless form, appropriate
for that regime. (hydrostatic pressure). The Navier–Stokes equation becomes after dividing both terms by
ρ U2 /L:

∂v

η
+ v · ∇
v
= –∇
p
+ ∇
2 v
.
∂t
ρUL

We see that there appears, as a factor of the term ∇

2 v
, the inverse of the Reynolds number
Re = (UL/ν) associated with the flow; this number represents the ratio of the non-linear,
convective term (v ·∇)v to the viscosity term ν ∇ 2 v as discussed in Section 2.3.1.
From the nature of the above equation, we can state that the velocity and pressure
(v
and p
) fields, solutions of this equation, satisfying the appropriate boundary conditions
for a given problem, are of the form:

v = F x
, y
, z
, t
, Re ,

p
= G x
, y
, z
, t
, Re ,

where F and G are functions dependent on the flow in the given problem.

4.3 Boundary conditions for fluid flow

The complete solution for the motion of a fluid (velocity field v(r, t)) requires both the inte-
gration of the equation of motion of the fluid particles and the specification of the boundary
conditions, i.e. of the value of the variables (velocity, stress) at all boundaries of the fluid.
Two different conditions apply, depending on whether the boundary medium is either a
solid or another fluid.

4.3.1 Boundary condition at a solid wall

The fact that the fluid cannot penetrate into the solid requires that the components of the
velocity normal to the boundary surface should be equal for the fluid and the solid:
dV n
vf
vs vs · n = vf · n.

This condition follows directly from the continuity equation, ∇·v = 0, derived in
Section 3.3.2. (Equation 3.28). To obtain this, we integrate this equation in a volume dV
bounded by two neighboring surface elements located on each side of the surface of the
solid and parallel to it (Figure 4.4). The boundary condition above expresses the fact that
the flux of the velocity vector coming out of the solid is zero if the solid is at rest.
Figure 4.4 Boundary conditions on the For an ideal (zero viscosity) fluid, there is no restriction on the tangential component
components of velocity at the interface be- of the velocity. This implies that the fluid can slip parallel to the solid surface (the case of
tween a solid and an ideal fluid Figure 4.4).
Boundary conditions for fluid flow 99

On the other hand, in the case of a real fluid, the viscosity stresses prevent any slipping
of the fluid relative to the solid surface. It can be shown that such a discontinuity would y
lead to infinite energy dissipation at the surface as a result of the viscosity. The tangential (a)
components of the velocities of the fluid and of the solid must therefore also be equal.
Coupled with the condition that the normal components must be equal, this leads to the
relation:

vfluid = vsolid , (4.32) x

i.e.: vfluid = 0 if the wall is at rest (Figure 4.5a). While this condition cannot be rigorously
proved theoretically, it can, nonetheless, be considered valid for simple fluids, and on the
scale of current experiments. However, significant instances of boundary slip are observable
for complex fluids, and even for simple fluids, at scales smaller than a micron. They can thus y
have a significant influence in experiments of micro- and nano-fluidics, which are nowadays (b)
displaying important developments.

Slip length
One frequently characterizes these effects in terms of a slip length b, also known as the
Navier length: it represents the distance from the wall where, by extrapolation, the velocity υs x
inside the solid is zero (Figure 4.5b). If the slippage velocity at the wall is vs and if x and
y are the respective coordinates parallel and perpendicular to the velocity at the wall, b is b
given in terms of the velocity gradient by:

vs Figure 4.5 Velocity profile for a viscous

b= .
∂vx / ∂y fluid near a solid wall at rest. (a) zero slip
velocity; (b) finite slippage velocity vs
We can interpret b by assuming that the slip is accompanied by a frictional force Ff = k vs
which balances the viscous force η ∂vx /∂y: b would then be equal to η/k and independ-
ent of vs . This assumption is frequently in accordance with experimental data: this is the
justification for using b rather than the slip velocity vs to characterize this phenomenon.
The existence of a non-zero value for b has been known for a long time in the case of
polymer solutions: a possible explanation for this is the presence of a very thin layer of
solvent of thickness δ and viscosity ηs adjacent to the wall. We then have Ff ≈ ηs vs /δ, i.e.
b ≈ δ η/ηs ; since ηs is much smaller than the viscosity η of the solution (see Section 4.4.3),
we therefore have b δ. Macromolecules forming a type of “rug” along the surface can
also play an important role. For such complex liquids, the slip lengths get to be a frac-
tion of a micron. For ordinary liquids, slip lengths even smaller, but non-vanishing (of the
order of nanometers) have also been observed, particularly along non-wetting walls. For
the remainder of this text, we will neglect these effects and assume that the slip length
is zero.

The condition that the stresses must be equal is

4.3.2 Boundary conditions at the interface between also valid at the surface separating a fluid and
a solid. In particular, it will provide interesting
two fluids: surface tension effects information in the case of a solid wall which
is easily deformed, such as a gel or rubber; it
In addition to Equation 4.32 describing the continuity of the velocities, we must find a will indeed allow us to evaluate the deformation
caused by flow by writing the equality between
condition for the continuity of the stresses (forces per unit area) at the interface between
the elastic stress corresponding to the deforma-
two fluids. We need in fact to have an equilibrium between the stresses within each of the tion of the solid, and the viscous stress exerted
two liquids and the stresses localized at the surface. by the fluid.
100 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

• At the interface between two perfect fluids, the normal stresses are associated
only to the pressure and their equilibrium is expressed by the Young–Laplace law
(Equation 1.58). We have, between the pressures p1 and p2 in the two fluids, the
relationship:

1 1
p1 – p2 = γ +
, (4.33a)
R R

where γ is the surface–tension coefficient between fluid 1 and fluid 2, while R and
R
are the principal radii of curvature of the interface. We recall that the pressure
The viscous stresses normal to interfaces or is higher on the concave side of the interface. In the more general case of a viscous
solid walls are very often neglected but may be-
fluid, the equilibrium equation must include viscous stresses and is expressed by:
come important in configurations like stagnation
points (Section 3.3.2. and 10.5.3), viscous jets
with free surfaces (Section 8.3) or very viscous 1 1
[σ](2) · n · n – [σ](1) · n · n = γ +
. (4.33b)
fluids. R R

In the above equation, the tensor products [σ](1) ·n and [σ](2) ·n represent the stresses
observed on an interface with normal n: their scalar product with the unit vector n
normal to the interface gives the normal components of the stresses. Indices (1) and
(2) refer to the two fluids in contact at the interface.
• Moreover, the equilibrium between the tangential stresses at the interface is
expressed by:

Equations 4.34 and 4.35 are valid provided the [σ](1) ·n · t = [σ](2) ·n · t. (4.34)
surface tension coefficient γ is constant over the
interface between the two fluids. We shall discuss
in Section 8.2.4 the so-called Marangoni effects Here, the scalar product of the stresses with the unit vector t tangent to the interface
observed when this condition is not satisfied. gives the tangential components of the stresses. Equations 4.33 and 4.34 express the
equality between the action and reaction of the forces acting on the liquids at the
interface.
For an incompressible Newtonian fluid, Equation 4.16 relating the stresses to
the velocity gradients assumes the form σ ij
= η(∂vi /∂xj + ∂vj /∂xi ). The continuity
y Equation 4.34 then becomes (Figure 4.6):

(1) (2)
Fluid 2 (1)
∂vi ∂vj (2)
∂vi ∂vj
η1 + ni tj = η2 + ni tj , (4.35)
∂xj ∂xi ∂xj ∂xi
n v(2)
p2 t O x
where ti (or ni ) represent respectively the components of a unit vector t (or n) tan-
p1 v(1) gent (or normal) to the interface (Equation 4.33b may be rewritten by using the
same procedure). Let us assume, specifically, that we replace the interface between
Fluid 1 the two fluids near the point O by a z-x plane, and that the velocity v is locally only
in the x-direction and a function of y only (Figure 4.6). For this simple geometry,
Figure 4.6 Conditions at the interface be- the expression for the tangential stress on the interface reduces to the single term
tween the viscous fluids (1) and (2) σxy = η ∂vx /∂y where vx (y) is the non-vanishing component of the velocity. The
condition that the tangential stresses be equal leads then immediately to the condition:

(1) (2)
∂vx ∂vx
η1 = η2 . (4.36)
∂y ∂y

This simply states that the velocity gradients at the interface are inversely propor-
tional to the dynamic viscosities of the two fluids.
Non-Newtonian fluids 101

Equation 4.36 turns out to be even simpler if one of the two fluids is a gas, the
interface is then referred to as a free surface. In that case, the very low viscosity of
gases in comparison of that of liquids allows us to write that the tangential stress in
the liquid at the interface is essentially zero, so that (just as for an ideal fluid):

([σ
](liquid) · n) · t = 0. (4.37)

For the specific example just treated this would imply ∂vx /∂y = 0 in the liquid at the
free surface.

4.4 Non-Newtonian fluids

Up to now, we have limited our discussion to the case of Newtonian fluids for which there is
a direct proportionality between the stresses and the rates of strain. We will now discuss the
case of non-Newtonian fluids for which this relationship is no longer linear and can, moreo-
ver, depend on the history of the flow. These properties frequently result from the presence
in the fluid of microscopic objects which are large relative to an atomic scale (while re-
maining small relative to the global scale of the flow): macromolecules in polymer solutions,
particles in suspensions, droplets or vesicles (liquid encased in a membrane) in emulsions
and biological fluids. These objects can even form yet larger structures which will have an
important influence on the flow properties (aggregates of platelets in clays, clumps of parti-
cles or entangled macromolecules). Such fluids are frequently found in nature (snow, mud,
blood, cream, etc.) as well as in everyday life (paints, shaving cream, mayonnaise, yoghurt,
cosmetics, etc.) or in industrial settings (cement, etc.).
Understanding such flow characteristics requires the understanding of the response of
such fluids to an applied stress. This is the purpose of rheology: this name dates only from the
1920s, and was suggested by E.C. Bingham who is considered, together with M. Reiner, as
the founder of this branch of science. We might recall the statement attributed to Heraclitus:
“panta rhei” (everything flows).

4.4.1 Measurement of rheological characteristics

For Newtonian or non-Newtonian fluids with time-independent characteristics, all we need
to do is measure the relationship between the rate of deformation (strain) of the fluid and
the stress which causes this strain. For the Newtonian case, a single experimental point is
sufficient; but, in the case of non-Newtonian fluids, we need the entire curve. Furthermore,
for fluids for which the response is time-dependent, and for viscoelastic fluids, we must
analyse the time-dependent response of the fluid to an excitation which varies with time.
The experimental methods used can be very simple like the measurement of the flow
rate through a tube at a given pressure, or of the velocity at which a small sphere falls within
the fluid; measuring the time it takes for a certain volume of fluid to flow through a funnel
is also an acceptable field test in many cases. However, the shear stress to which fluids are
subjected in such instances is not constant. Such measurements are only quantitative in
the case of Newtonian fluids (and, even for those, after careful calibration with well-known
fluids).
Laboratory viscometers use geometries where the shear rate is best known and as con-
stant as possible within the volume being measured. Figure 4.7 below illustrates a couple of
the most commonly used geometries.
102 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

In the Couette viscometer with coaxial cylinders (Figure 4.7a), the fluid is placed be-
tween two concentric cylinders of which only one is in motion. For the simplest devices
(known as constant shear), one measures the torque on one of the cylinders while fixing
the speed of rotation on the second. In contrast, one can fix the torque and measure the
angular velocity obtained in that manner; this last configuration, known as applied stress,
is well adapted to fluids with a threshold (Section 4.4.2). The shear rate is almost con-
stant throughout the volume between the cylinders, if the separation between them is small
compared to their radii. Instabilities can appear at high angular velocities (Section 11.3.2),
a fact that limits the domain over which we can measure shear stresses. Moreover, there
can also occur parasitic effects resulting from secondary flows along the horizontal base
of the cylinders; this accounts for the choice of the conical shape of the inside cylinder.
Such an apparatus can be very sensitive in the case of measurements on low viscosity fluids.
The most sensitive devices also allow one to make measurements in shear stress domains
sufficiently small so that the internal structure of the fluids is undisturbed. Radii of the
cylinders used vary from one to several centimetres and the gaps from one-tenth to a few
(a)
millimetres (but larger devices are needed in order to analyze suspensions of large parti-
cles). In the case for which the inner radius R1 and the outer radius R2 = R1 + R are
close (R R1 ) and, for cylinders of height h, the shear rate γ̇ and the stress σ obey
approximately:

M R
σ = (4.38a) and: γ̇ = ω0 (4.38b)
2 π R2 h R

(M is the moment of the torque applied to the cylinders, ω0 the angular velocity of rotation,
and R the average of the radii).
(b) The cone-plate viscometer (Figure 4.7b) requires very little liquid and is much easier to
use. The cone angles α are very small (α ≤ 4◦ ). The upper cone is set in rotation while
Figure 4.7 (a) Cylindrical Couette visco- leaving the lower cone fixed, or vice versa: the shear rate is almost constant throughout the
meter; (b) plane-cone viscometer. A constant volume (except close to the point which is slightly truncated) if the tip of the cone coincides
angular velocity is applied to one of the solids, with the lower plane. Effectively, the thickness and the tangential velocity both increase
and the resulting torque is then measured linearly with the distance from the axis of rotation. Using the same notation as in Equations
either on that surface, or on the facing one 4.38a and 4.38b, we find:

3M ω0
σ = (4.39a) and: γ̇ = . (4.39b)
2 π R3 α

Here again, hydrodynamic instabilities can be an impediment at high velocities, and the
presence of a free surface along the sides favors evaporation. The plane-cone apparatus
is in general less sensitive and only allows one to study velocities and/or shear rates larger
than those for the Couette viscometers. Some viscometers allow for the measurement of
stresses normal to the moving surface: such measurements allow one to detect possible
elastic properties of fluids (Section 4.4.5).

4.4.2 Time-independent non-Newtonian fluids

Generally we characterize rheological properties by the manner in which the shear stress σ
varies with the shear rate γ̇ ( γ̇ = ∂υx /∂y for a simple shear flow). Figure 4.8 displays, on a
linear scale, typical variations for different kinds of non-Newtonian fluids. In this figure, we
have made the implicit assumption that the dependence of σ on γ̇ is time-independent. For
many of the fluids to which we refer in Section 4.4.3, this assumption is not valid.
Non-Newtonian fluids 103

shear thinning
stress yield stress fluid
σ
Bingham
yield stress fluid
Figure 4.8 Dependence of the stress on the
shear thickening shear rate for various kinds of fluids
fluid Newtonian
fluid
shear thinning
fluid
.
shear rate γ

Shear thinning fluids

These fluids flow even under weak stress and are known as shear thinning fluids with an effec-
tive viscosity ηeff = σ / γ̇ decreasing when the shear rate increases (the subscript eff is omit-
ted in the following); these fluids are also sometimes called pseudoplastic. Many dilute solu-
tions of high molecular mass polymers behave in this way, a behavior attributed to the entan-
glement of macromolecules which separate progressively and align as a result of the shear.
A number of dilute suspensions of solid particles are also shear thinning; the result in
this case of destruction by the flow of structures originally created by attraction between
particles. Other examples are shampoos, or fruit juice concentrates. Likewise, printer’s inks,
consisting of solid pigments in suspension in complex liquids, display similar characteristics.
Figure 4.9 shows typical rheological characteristics obtained for solutions with different
concentrations of a polymer produced industrially by bacterial fermentation (scleroglucan
of the polysaccharide family); this polymer is used in many chemical and agroalimentary
applications. Instead of showing the variation of the stress σ as a function of the shear rate
γ̇ , as in Figure 4.8, we display in log–log coordinates the variation of the effective viscosity
η = σ / γ̇ as a function of the shear rate. These curves allow us to display the deviations from
Newtonian behavior. For water, this latter characteristic would appear as a horizontal line,
corresponding to a constant viscosity of the order of 1 mPa.s.

Figure 4.9 Measurements of the effective

1000 viscosity η = σ / γ̇ as a function of the shear
0.77 rate γ̇ carried out in steady state flow in
a Couette viscometer for aqueous solutions
η(mPa.s)

Shear thinning
behaviour of a polymer with relative mass concentra-
100 0.62 tion increasing upward (from 5 × 10–4 to
3 × 10–3 ). The numbers labeling each straight
line are the values of the exponent α giving
the variation of the viscosity with γ̇ (doc-
10 0.40 ument courtesy C. Allain, A. Paterson, A.
d’Onofrio)

0.1 1 10 γ (s-1) 100

104 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

For small values of γ̇ , the viscosity tends toward a constant value η0 (“Newtonian
plateau”): η0 increases with the polymer concentration and can be several thousand times
larger than the viscosity of the solvent (water). The effective viscosity η decreases with γ̇
following a power law:

η = D γ̇ –α (4.40)

(represented by a straight line in log–log coordinates) in which α(>0) increases with the
concentration. Moreover, the range of shear rates γ̇ over which Equation 4.40 is satisfied
becomes broader as the concentration of the solution increases (the lower limit of the range
becomes indeed lower). At the largest shear rates, the viscosity of the solution remains, in
all cases, greater than that of the solvent.
Just as for almost all non-Newtonian fluids, the variation of the viscosity reflects an ev-
olution of the internal structure of the fluid (here, a rearranging of the macromolecules).
The rheological characteristics of the solutions corresponding to Figure 4.9 vary only little
when they are subjected to cyclical increases and decreases of the shear rate. Such behav-
ior is, however, not the general case, and the rheological characteristics of complex fluids
frequently evolve in a significant manner when subjected to cyclical variations of the stress.

Shear thickening fluids

These are fluids which do not have a flow threshold and for which the viscosity increases
with the applied stress (they are also known as dilatant fluids). Some polymer solutions
display this behavior: if the macromolecules are initially wound up in balls, the stresses due
to the flow can unwind them into long chains, leading to an increased effective viscosity.
Other fluids display a sequence of shear thinning followed by shear thickening regimes as
the shear rate is increased; we can thus think of polymer chains that unwind and align,
reducing the effective viscosity η, until they begin to interact which, in contrast, increases η.

Bingham fluids
Yield stress fluids do not flow until the applied stress is higher than a critical value, σc (these
are sometimes also known as plastic fluids). A number of concentrated suspensions of solids
in a liquid, and some polymer solutions, display a flow threshold (often called yield stress)
beyond which the shear rate is not zero and increases with the stress. The theoretical model
of a Bingham fluid assumes that this latter variation is linear. For real fluids, we frequently
observe a variation which more closely approaches, beyond the threshold, a power law.
Let us assume an increasing pressure head is applied to such a fluid filling a cylindrical
tube: we observe, immediately above a threshold value, a solid-like flow of almost all the fluid
with a resultant velocity independent of the distance from the walls. The velocity gradients
are localized in the immediate neighborhood of the walls, because it is the only region where
the stress required to achieve shear flow is achieved. In such a case, we talk about plug
flow. As the stress is further increased, the velocity gradient becomes progressively non-
zero throughout the volume. We present, in Section 4.6.3, a quantitative calculation of such
profiles.
We can interpret this behavior as the destruction of three-dimensional structures in the
fluid which are generally formed when the fluid is at rest; clays have, for instance, a mi-
croscopic structure of platelets. In the absence of flow, the platelets form rigid structures,
held together by weak interactions which hold until a certain threshold of stress is attained.
Beyond this threshold, the structure is partly broken up, and flow becomes possible; the
higher the velocity, the more the structure is broken down, while the platelets align in the
direction of the flow. As a result, the increase of the stress with the shear rate is slower than
Non-Newtonian fluids 105

that which would result from a linear relationship. We then refer to these as shear thinning Drilling muds represent a particularly illustrative
threshold fluids (often called Herschel–Bulkley fluids, or Casson fluids). Some suspensions of example of a practical use of these fluids: these
muds are injected into the bottom of the borehole
colloidal particles also display these properties; in a similar manner, paints should spread at the level of the wellhead through an assembly
easily when a paintbrush subjects them to shear, but they should not drip spontaneously of hollow tubes which force the rotation of the
after having been applied. drill bit all the way from the surface, and then
they flow back to the surface in the course of
A precise measurement of the yield stress in such fluids can be obtained by analyz-
the drilling. They must be able to flow easily
ing their creep: we increase the applied stress in stepwise fashion, and look for the value when a pumping pressure is applied, but they
corresponding to the step at which the shear rate in the stationary regime is no longer zero. should also have sufficient resistance to shear so
that they will carry along the drill cuttings toward
Figure 4.10 displays the relation between the stress and the shear rate in semi-log coordi-
the surface, and prevent their falling back down
nates for a mixture of kaolin and water which corresponds to a suspension of clay particles: whenever the flow comes to a halt.
as the stress is gradually increased from zero, we observe no flow until a threshold value of Among other yield stress fluids with im-
the order of 10 Pa is reached. portant practical applications are creams and
emulsions used in the cosmetic industry, as well
as toothpastes. Another example is fresh cement
(for which the yield stress is of the order of a few
tens of Pascals), and quite a number of products
50 in the food industry.
σ (Pa)
40
Figure 4.10 Dependence of the shear rate on
30 the stress (in semi-log coordinates) for a water–
kaolin mixture. The solid triangles represent
20 experimental data. The continuous curve cor-
responds to Equation 4.43 with the values
σc = 9 Pa, n = 0.32 and K = 4.2 Pa.s–0.32
10
(document courtesy P. Coussot)
0
10–2 10–1 1 101 102 103 104
γ (s–1)

Approximate rheological behavior

For quite a number of practical applications, we need approximate analytical relationships
between the stress and the shear rate. As we have just seen, a variation of the type of
Equation 4.40, initially suggested by Ostwald, provides an approximation valid for a number
of cases. An exponent α > 0 corresponding to the shear thinning fluids (most often ob-
served), while α < 0 most often corresponds to shear thickening fluids. For α > 0, Equation
4.40 predicts that η becomes infinite when the shear rate γ̇ approaches zero, while we ob-
serve that η approaches instead a constant limit (often called zero shear rate viscosity or
Newtonian plateau) as seen in Figure 4.9. In order to display the complete curve and, par-
ticularly, the limiting values for high and low values of γ̇ , we use more complex equations
of the type:
η(γ̇ ) – η∞
= f (γ̇ ), (4.41)
η0 – η∞

e.g., where the function f (γ̇ ) is, for instance, of the type f (γ̇ ) = (1 + β 2 γ̇ 2 )–p (Carreau
relation).
The previous relationships predict a finite viscosity for γ̇ = 0, so that they are in fact
not applicable to yield stress fluids. We must then use other equations: the simplest is that
of Bingham, which assumes that the shear rate is proportional to the difference σ – σc , as
we exceed the threshold value σc . Few fluids display such a simple characteristic behavior,
and the equation relating stress to shear rate often displays a curvature directed downwards
106 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

(stress thinning threshold fluids). One frequently represents such a behavior by equations
combining the threshold effect with a power law, such as the Herschel–Bulkley relation:

σ ≤ σc : γ̇ = 0 (4.42) and σ > σc : σ = σc + K γ̇ n . (4.43)

This equation reproduces well the rheological characteristics of the water–kaolin mixtures
displayed in Figure 4.10.

4.4.3 Non-Newtonian time-dependent fluids

Thixotropic fluids and characteristic time-scales
Thixotropic fluids display an effective viscosity which decreases with time under the ac-
tion of a constant stress. Normal viscosity is restored only after some time has elapsed.
Concentrated polymer solutions, and suspensions of particles, are typical examples of such
behavior.
In fact, both thixotropic behavior and shear thinning behavior indicate a change of the
internal structure of the fluid as it flows (quite a number of fluids are thus simultaneously
shear thinning and thixotropic); the difference between these two concepts results from the
relative values of the characteristic times τDe for this structure to rearrange, and T , the time
Marcus Reiner who, together with E.C. over which the stress is applied. The ratio:
Bingham, is considered one of the fathers
of rheology, defined the Deborah number by τDe
referring to the bibical prophetes Deborah De = (4.44)
T
(Judges 5:5) who, after a victory over the
Philistines sang: “the mountains flowed before
the Lord.” If, on a human scale, mountains of these two characteristic times is known as the Deborah number.
appear indestructible, they nevertheless end up When De is small compared to unity, the fluid has time to rearrange its structure as the
being deformed, and even disappearing, over stress is varied (or as the applied shear rate γ̇ is changed). For a shear thinning fluid, the
the, infinitely long, time-scale of observation by
the divine. It is only a question of the scale of apparent viscosity would decrease with γ̇ , and the value thus obtained would be independ-
characteristic times! ent of the measurement; moreover, if we consider a cyclical increase and decrease of the
shear rate, the relationship between stress and shear rate is always the same. We can then
describe this behavior by curves of the type shown in Figure 4.8. In practical terms, how-
ever, this description only applies to certain fluids, and to steady-state or slowly changing
flows.
On the other hand, for a Deborah number De much greater than unity, the rheological
properties change during a time of the order of τDe as the structure of the fluid changes.
In the same way, when one describes a sequence of increasing and decreasing shear rates,
one observes hysteresis effects and ends up describing, after a transient regime, a limit cycle
for which the characteristic curves corresponding to changes in one direction or the other
do not coincide. Such behavior is a manifestation of thixotropic properties.
One also often encounters, in the literature de- In the case of polymers, thixotropic behavior indicates most often, on a microscopic
scribing such fluids, the Weissenberg number We, scale, the disentangling of clusters of macromolecules. In the case of suspensions, this can
defined as the product γ̇ τDe . This number char-
indicate the destruction of structures of particles held together by electrostatic attraction
acterizes processes in which the fluid evolves as
a function of time, when subjected to a constant forces, or van der Waals forces. Several solutions of clays (bentonites) described in
shear rate γ̇ . the previous section display similar behavior. A measurement of the torque required
to maintain a given angular velocity shows that this torque decreases with time (on a
time scale of several minutes). If the angular velocity is then reduced to zero, the fluid
displays a stress-strain relation quite different from that originally observed: a change
appears to have occurred in the structure of the fluid, and the original characteristics are
reproduced only if the fluid is left at rest for several hours. This evolution of the internal
structure of the flowing fluid is the more significant, the greater the applied velocity
gradients.
Non-Newtonian fluids 107

Thixotropic fluids have numerous practical applications: paints and drilling muds,
already described, are strongly thixotropic, an observation which reinforces the effect of
the shear thinning characteristics that we have encountered above. Food products, such as
ketchup, need to be shaken vigorously before they flow easily.
A few fluids display opposite characteristics to the ones we have just described, and
become more viscous as a function of time when subjected to shear: one talks then about
anti-thixotropic fluids, of which gypsum paste is an example. One also encounters the term
rheopexy, which characterizes the progressive solidification of fluids as they are stirred.

Viscoelasticity
Viscoelasticity corresponds to a behavior intermediate between that of an elastic solid (the
strain proportional to the stress, and related to it by the elastic modulus) and that of a
liquid (the rate of deformation increasing with the stress). A particularly spectacular exam-
ple of this is the case of the silicone silly putty balls (Figure 4.11) which bounce elastically
off the ground (a
, b
, c
, d
), but spread out like a liquid if allowed to rest on a flat surface
for a long enough time (a, b, c): when the rate at which stresses change is high (as in the case
of an impact) the internal structure of the substance has no time to rearrange itself during
the short time of the impact, and the material responds as an elastic solid. The correspond-
ing energy will be stored, for example, by changes in the orientation of macromolecules in
polymers.
However, if the silly putty is placed on a flat surface, the stress is then constant, and the
putty spreads out like a liquid as a result of the rearrangements in the internal structure,
on a time-scale corresponding to τDe . These characteristics differ markedly from those of
thixotropic fluids, which behave on short time-scales as very viscous liquids.

Figure 4.11 A ball of silicone paste (silly

putty) behaves very differently depending on
the length of time it is subjected to a stress.
(a,b,c): It spreads like a liquid if it is allowed
to rest for a long while on a flat surface. (a
, b
,
c
, d
): It bounces like an elastic ball if we let
it drop from a height, thus subjecting it to a
short, intense stress (figures from R. Lehoucq
(a–c) and authors (a
–d
))

Concentrated aqueous solutions of polymers (e.g., a solution of polyoxyethylene at mass

concentrations of a few parts per thousand), bread dough and man-made textile fibers
(Nylon, Kevlar, etc. . .) are other examples of viscoelastic fluids. Occasionally, the char-
acteristics of viscoelastic materials approach those of solids. This is the case, for example,
for jellies and for some types of foams.
Finally, viscoelastic fluids display differences between the usual components parallel and
perpendicular to the plane of the shear. This effect, also seen in other kinds of fluids, will
be analyzed in Section 4.4.5.
108 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

Other factors which influence the time-dependence of stresses

One also observes time-dependent behaviors in substances which have quite different
rheological characteristics, not necessarily viscoelastic ones. Thus, a concentrated solution
of corn starch in water behaves like an elastic solid when struck sharply with a spoon, while
the same spoon can be inserted easily if pushed in slowly (or it will even sink, if it is just left
to lie on the surface). In this example, the relaxation time of the structures is very short. It is
much longer in the case of the earth’s mantle, which behaves as a viscous fluid in the course
of convective tectonic motion, but which is evidently solid over ordinary time-scales.

4.4.4 Complex viscosity and elasticity of viscoelastic

fluids
Measurement of time-dependent characteristics of viscoelastic fluids
A first type of measurement consists of creating a stepwise change in the stress, or in the
shear rate, and measuring the corresponding changes in the shear rate (or in the stress). For
example, consider a sudden change (Figure 4.12a) in the torque applied to one of the
Г(t)
cylinders of a Couette viscometer. For a classical Newtonian fluid, the velocity of rotation
would stabilize almost instantaneously at a new constant value after changing the torque.
In contrast, in the case of a viscoelastic fluid, the angular rotation speed ω of the cylin-
t der increases greatly at first, then undergoes a relaxation toward a smaller constant value
(a) (Figure 4.12b), or to a value which varies very slowly with time. The opposite effect is
observed when the torque is suddenly dropped to zero: we might then see the cylinder ro-
ω(t) tating slightly in the opposite direction, before stopping suddenly as though it were held by a
rubber torsion wire, representing the elasticity of the liquid (recovery phenomenon). The de-
termination of the response time to excitations, in such measurements, allows us to estimate
t the time τDe for the structure to adapt.
The kind of response observed depends on several characteristic times: the characteristic
(b) time(s) of the response of the structure of the fluid, the characteristic time for stress to
change (or, for the shear rate to change), the inverse of the shear rate. According to their
Figure 4.12 Simplified schematic response relative values (and the inherent non-linearities of the fluid), we might observe several kinds
of a viscoelastic fluid to a sudden change in of behavior.
the applied stress in a Couette viscometer. (a) Finally, another technique for studying time-dependent fluids consists of applying to
Sudden change in the torque applied by the them sinusoidal variations of the stress (or of the shear rate) and measuring the correspond-
viscometer; (b) corresponding changes in the ing changes in the complementary variable as a function of time. For small deformations,
angular velocity ω(t) these are also sinusoidal but display a phase shift relative to the excitation: we must therefore
measure both the amplitude and the phase of the signal for a given excitation. The response
to these sinusoidal excitations, which we will describe in more detail below, is highly variable
depending on the relative orders of magnitude of the period of the excitation, and on the
time for the structure to rearrange internally (thus according to the Deborah number); it
also depends on the amplitude of the deformations that result.

Definition of the characteristic coefficients

Measurements made with a sinusoidal excitation allow us to determine the complex
modulus Ḡ(ω) which relates the complex stress σ̄ (t) = σ0 (ω) ei (ω t+ϕ) and the complex
strain γ̄ (t) = γ0 (ω) ei ω t with:

σ̄ (t) = Ḡ(ω) γ̄ (t) = (G

(ω) + i G

(ω)) γ̄ (t) (4.45)

(observe that γ̄ (t) is the strain and not the shear rate which is, in fact, its derivative with
respect to time). Ḡ(ω) is known as the complex modulus of rigidity: its real part, directly
Non-Newtonian fluids 109

related to the elasticity of the medium, is the storage modulus and its imaginary part, related
to the viscosity, is the loss modulus. For an elastic solid:

G
(ω) = G (4.46a) and: G

(ω) = 0. (4.46b)

where G is the shear modulus of the material. For a Newtonian viscous fluid, we have the
complex notation: γ̇¯ (t) = i ω γ̄ (t). Considering the usual equation σ̄ = η γ̇¯ (t), we have:

G
(ω) = 0 (4.47a) and: G

(ω) = η ω. (4.47b)

For fluids which are essentially viscous but with a small viscoelastic component, it is more
significant (but equally valid) to introduce a complex viscosity:

σ̄ (t) σ̄ (t) Ḡ(ω) G

(ω) G
(ω)
η̄(ω) = η
(ω) – i η

(ω) = = = = –i (4.48)
¯
γ̇ (t) i ω γ̄ (t) ω ω ω

Using these definitions we obtain the equations:

(ω) G
(ω)
η
(ω) = (4.49a) and: η

(ω) = . (4.49b)
ω ω

For a purely viscous fluid (without any elasticity), we find, as expected, η

(ω) = η and
η

(ω) = 0.
The coefficients G
(ω), G

(ω), η
(ω) and η

(ω) are frequency dependent, but they also

depend on the amplitude of the excitation. A study of these fluids implies an analysis of the
effects of these two parameters. Thus, the frequency of the transition between the viscous
low frequency regime (De 1) and the elastic regime at high frequencies provides an esti-
mate of the Deborah number and, then, of the characteristic response times of the internal
structure of the fluid.

Mechanical models of viscoelastic fluids

Just as in the case of the stress-strain dependence of fluids which are time-independent, it is
helpful to have approximate analytic expressions for viscoelastic fluids. We can characterize
the variation of G
and G

with the excitation frequency ω by means of linear mechanical

models, such as the model of the Maxwell liquid, which do not attempt to explain the internal
structure of the material.

The Maxwell model is approximately valid for the case of a linear viscoelastic fluid which
behaves as a fluid of viscosity η at small angular frequencies ω, and as a solid of elastic
modulus G when the frequencies are higher (qualitatively, this corresponds to the behavior
of the silly putty described above). From the viewpoint of the stress–strain relation, the
material behaves like a spring (stress σ̄ proportional to the strain with σ̄ = G γ̄ ) in series
with a damping mechanism (stress σ̄ = η γ̇¯ = i ω η γ̄ proportional to the shear rate γ̇¯ )
(Figure 4.13a).
For excitations at high frequencies, the damping mechanism has no time to react, and
the system then behaves like a spring; at very low frequencies, the spring is hardly de-
formed, and only the damping mechanism is in play. Note that this is only a mechanical
analog model, which in no way attempts to describe the internal structure of a mate-
rial, but only to mimic its overall behavior. In this model we observe the effect of the
110 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

(a) (b)

Figure 4.13 (a) Mechanical model of a

Maxwell liquid with a spring and damper spring
in series; (b) mechanical model for a Kelvin–
spring damper
Voigt solid

damper

applied stress σ̄ equally on the spring and on the damping mechanism; the two deformations
γ̄spring and γ̄damper add up, with the result:

σ̄ 1 σ̄ σ̄
γ̄Maxwell = γ̄spring + γ̄damper = + =
. (4.50)
G iω η G + iG

We thus have:

iωη iωη
Ḡ = G
+ iG

= = , (4.51a)
1 + i ω (η / G) 1 + iωτ

where τ = η/G corresponds to a characteristic relaxation time of the fluid, which determines
the transition frequency between the frequency regimes where the fluid appears as a liquid
(ω 1/ τ ; i.e. De 1), or as an elastic solid ω 1/ τ ; i.e. De 1). Using expressions
4.49a-b, Equation 4.51a can be rewritten in terms of the complex viscosity:

η
η̄(ω) = η
(ω) – i η

(ω) = . (4.51b)
1 + iωτ

The model of a Kelvin–Voigt solid behaves on the other hand like an elastic solid (with
elastic modulus G) for slow changes in the excitation, and like a viscous liquid (viscosity η)
for short-time excitations. This material can also be modeled by a spring, this time in parallel
with a damper (Figure 4.13b). By an analysis similar to the preceding one, the equation for
the complex elastic modulus Ḡ is now:

G
+ iG

= G + i ωη = G (1 + i ωτ ). (4.52)

Real fluids rarely behave like these two limiting cases and frequently involve several charac-
teristic times governing the rearrangement of their structures. More complex models have
been developed to describe their behavior and, particularly, to take into account the effect
of the amplitude of the deformations.
Non-Newtonian fluids 111

1000

G', G" (Pa) 100 Figure 4.14 Frequency dependence of the

magnitudes G
and G

for a solution of giant

10 micelles in log-log coordinates. The continu-
G"
ous curves correspond to the Maxwell model
1 (Equation 4.51a) adjusted for parameter val-
ues τ = 0.38 s and G = 249 Pa (document
0.1 courtesy J.-F. Berret, G. Porte and J.-P.
G'
Decruppe)
0.01
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Frequency (Hz)

Example of the characteristics of a viscoelastic fluid

Figure 4.14 displays the rheological characteristics of a fluid containing giant micelles: this
is the case for solutions of molecules with active surface tension compounds which gather
in worm-like structures of very small diameter (two molecules wide) but very long. These
structures are sometimes called “living structures” because they permanently separate and
reattach dynamically. On the figure, we clearly differentiate between two types of behavior,
depending on the frequency of the flow. For frequencies below 0.2 Hz, the solutions behave
essentially like viscous fluids with a loss modulus G

increasing linearly with the frequency

(this corresponds to the imaginary part of Equation 4.51a); the effect of the loss modulus
dominates, in this case, that of the storage modulus G
which varies as the square of the
frequency. At frequencies above 2 Hz, the storage modulus G
is effectively constant, while
the loss modulus G

decreases with frequency as f –1 . In this region, the behavior of the

fluid is similar to that of an elastic solid. At still higher frequencies, above 10 Hz, the G

component deviates upward relative to Equation 4.51a because of the presence of new
energy loss mechanisms.

4.4.5 Anisotropic normal stresses

Up to this point we have discussed different types of stress–strain relations, whether or not
time-dependent, observed in the case of non-Newtonian fluids by analyzing only the beha-
vior of the shear viscosity. We will now describe other phenomena associated to anisotropic
normal stresses or to the elongational viscosity and which involve other components of the
stress tensor, or other kinds of flows.
In a Newtonian fluid, there is no normal stress in parallel flows. On the other hand, if
we consider a viscoelastic fluid flowing in a tube, we often observe at the exit of the tube
(extrusion) an extensional normal stress in the direction of the flow, and an outward pressure
in the perpendicular direction. The difference between these normal stresses accounts for
the swelling of some polymer jet solutions or of molten polymers (solvent-free liquids at
high temperatures), as they exit from an orifice. The final diameter of the jet increases with
the rate of flow (Figures 4.15a–b) and can even reach the initial diameter several times over.
Beyond a certain rate of flow, one can even observe retardation effects, where the jet only
begins to swell after it has traveled some distance (Figure 4.15c). In the fabrication, by
extrusion, of wires, or when plastic parts are manufactured by injection into a mold, such
effects must be taken into account.
112 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

Figure 4.15 Swelling at the exit of a cap-

illary tube of a jet of an aqueous polymer
solution injected into a salt-water solution
of the same density. The flow rates are (a):
5 ml/h, (b) 80 ml/h, (c) 120 ml/h. (document
C. Allain, P. Perrot, D. Senis, FAST)

The Weissenberg effect is another classical demonstration of differences in the normal

stresses. A viscoelastic fluid such as egg whites (or bread dough) rises along the axis of a
rotating beater (Figure 4.16): there again, this rise is due to the nature of the normal stresses.
In the case of a Newtonian fluid, one observes, in contrast, a depression of the free surface,
due to the centrifugal force.

(a) (b)

Figure 4.16C Rise at two successive times,

around a rotating axis, of a viscoelastic
fluid (polystyrene dissolved in an organic
solvent): this phenomenon demonstrates the
Weissenberg effect (documents courtesy of
J. Bico, G. Mc Kinley, MIT)

Qualitative analysis of the Weissenberg effect: the main constituent of egg whites is
albumin, which is a protein made up of a rather long chain of molecules which leads to a
an elastic behavior of the egg whites; under the action of a stress, the chains are stretched
and/or unrolled and require a “certain” time lapse before reaching back their equilibrium
configuration. When the egg whites are caused to rotate, the macromolecules which are their
constituents are stretched out around the axis of rotation as though they were rubber bands
surrounding the axis. The resulting tension has the effect of “strangling” the fluid by push-
ing it toward the axis, a clear indication of the anisotropy of the normal stresses. If the elastic
behavior of the fluid is sufficiently great, this phenomenon can compensate for, or even over-
come, the effect of the centrifugal force resulting in an overpressure near the axis of rotation
instead of a depression. This excess pressure results then in the fluid rising along this axis.
A similar explanation can be made in the case of the swelling of jets of polymer solutions
(Figure 4.15); the “rubber bands” are stretched as they flow through the extrusion ori-
fice, and recover their length and shape by increasing their exit diameter and retaining their
volume.
Non-Newtonian fluids 113

Finally, if normal stress anisotropies are often important in the case of viscoelastic
polymer solutions, they can also be observed in other fluids such as suspensions of non-
Brownian anistropic particles (e.g., rods greater than one micron in size) or solutions of
giant micelles, such as those corresponding to the curves of Figure 4.14.
In quantitative terms, let us consider a two-dimensional shear flow vx (y). In the case of
isotropic Newtonian fluid flow, the normal stresses σxx , σyy and σzz are all identical. On the
other hand, in the flow of some non-Newtonian fluids, the difference:

N1 = σxx – σyy , (4.53a)

known as the first normal stress difference, is frequently large and positive (in some cases, it is
as large as ten times the shear stress). The second normal stress difference, is defined as:

N2 = σyy – σzz . (4.53b)

Generally it has a much smaller (less than 10% of N 1 ) and negative value; it is taken equal
to zero in some classical models (Weissenberg). N 1 and N 2 become zero in zero shear, and
frequently obey a power law as a function of the shear rate γ̇ (generally as γ̇ 2 ). Finally, time-
dependent effects can also be observed as the normal stress varies: thus, in the experiment
of Figure 4.15, the jet increases its diameter only beyond a threshold flow velocity, and at a
distance downstream of the orifice which increases the greater the velocity.
Some viscometers allow for measurements of N 1 in the classical plane–cone geometry.
The effects observed when the normal stresses differ can also be used to estimate indirectly
these differences (the swelling of a jet, or the rise of a fluid around a rotating axis). These
normal stress differences do not depend on the direction of the strain, as expected from
their variation as γ̇ 2 ; the fluid is observed to rise independent of the direction of rotation.

4.4.6 Elongational viscosity

The flow of a fluid through a small opening displays elongational viscosity effects in which
velocity gradients along the flow must be taken into account. Let us discuss here the case of
a flow known as elongational between two identical disks which are parallel and coaxial, and
which we pull apart. Figure 3.10a provides a schematic idea of a flow of this nature. The
velocity is zero on the axis half-way between the disks (point O). Outside the median plane
(z = 0), the axial component is directed toward the nearer disk, while the radial component
is in the z-direction. A velocity field of the form:

x y
vx = –ε̇ , (4.54a) vy = –ε̇ , (4.54b) vz = ε̇ z (4.54c)
2 2

is a good approximation for such a flow (it also satisfies the condition ∇·v = 0). For such
a velocity field with rotational symmetry around the z-axis, we can define an elongational
viscosity (also called Trouton viscosity) by:

σzz – (σxx / 2) – σyy / 2
ηel = . (4.55)
ε̇

For a Newtonian fluid, we have the simple relations σzz = 2η ε̇, σxx = –η ε̇, σyy = –η ε̇,
and we find that ηel = 3η. On the other hand, for a number of non-Newtonian fluids,
114 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

specifically viscoelastic ones, we have just seen that the normal stress differences included in
this definition can be significant. We call this phenomenon strengthening resulting from the
strain: on a microscopic scale, it results, for polymer fluid, from an alignment of the macro-
molecules, and then of the classical behavior of these, when the molecular chains have been
strongly stretched out. The viscosity ηel is difficult to measure because, as opposed to the
previous cases, we cannot easily generate stationary elongational flows.

This result has important practical consequences for the synthetic textile industry. When
we stretch a jet of ordinary liquid, capillary forces amplify the fluctuations in the diameter
which appear spontaneously and eventually break up the jet into droplets (Rayleigh–Plateau
instability described in Section 8.3.2). In contrast, the elongational viscosity of liquid visco-
elastic polymers used in the creation of synthetic fibers is quite significant: this slows down
the development of such instabilities and allows for the obtention of uniform diameter fibers,
if the stretching is slowed down in the thinnest regions. A “thread” of such a fluid pulled
upward from a free surface without any solid support can thus be rolled onto a spool above
the liquid (Figure 4.17).

We finally point out that some flows display simultaneously the several effects described
in this section: extrusion flows lead not only to the appearance of effects of the normal-stress
Figure 4.17C The winding on a rotating anisotropy but also indicate an elongational component.
spool of a free layer of the viscoelastic fluid
shown in Figure 4.16 demonstrates the effect
of its high elongational viscosity (documents 4.4.7 Summary of the principal kinds
courtesy of J. Bico, G. Mc Kinley, MIT) of non-Newtonian fluids
Table 4.1 presents a summary of the rheological properties which we have just defined in
order to describe the properties of complex fluids such as (among many others): colloi-
dal fluids, suspensions and polymers. Some of these fluids, for example yield stress and
viscoelastics ones, have, as we have just seen, a behavior very close to that of a solid, under
stresses which are weak and/or short-lived. On the other hand, some easily deformable solids

Type Name Characteristic

Newtonian Newtonian ηeff = σ /γ̇ constant as a function of γ̇

Non-linear stress–shear rate Shear thinning ηeff decreases as γ̇ increases

relation
Yield stress fluid γ̇ = 0 below a threshold stress σc
Table 4.1 Various kinds of non-Newtonian Shear thickening ηeff increases with γ̇
fluids.
Time-dependent evolution Thixotropic ηeff ↓ with time, under constant stress
under the action of a stress
Rheopectic ηeff ↑ with time, under constant stress

Mixed fluid-solid behavior Viscoelastic Elastic or viscous response dependent on

the time characteristic of the excitation.
High normal stresses
One-dimensional flow of viscous Newtonian fluids 115

(such as gels) can “flow” under the action of strong and/or long-lasting stresses; they can One often talks of soft matter, an expression
also display viscosity when they are deformed (e.g., in the Kelvin–Voigt model discussed in which has been introduced as a result of the sem-
inal work of the French physicist Pierre Gilles
Section 4.4.4) or, even, effects of surface tension. de Gennes to describe the general family of all
these materials. Their microscopic structure and
their physico-chemical characteristics are gener-
4.5 One-dimensional flow of viscous ally the key to understanding their mechanical
and flow properties.
Newtonian fluids
4.5.1 Navier–Stokes equation for one-dimensional
flow
The Navier–Stokes Equation 4.30, which describes the motion of an incompressible
Newtonian viscous fluid, results from a few simplying assumptions which we have described
above. It does not have, in general, an analytic solution. This is often the case because of
the presence of the non-linear term ρ(v.∇)v which represents the exploring of the spatial
variations of the velocity field by the particles of fluid.
This problem disappears for one-dimensional flow (often referred to as parallel flow).
We will assume hereafter that the velocity is everywhere in the x-direction with:

υy (x, y, z, t) = υz (x, y, z, t) = 0. (4.56)

Taking into account the above equations, the incompressibility condition ∇·v = 0 then
reduces to:

∂vx ∂ ∂ ∂
= 0, (4.57) whence: (v · ∇) v = vx + vy + vz v ≡ 0, (4.58)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z

because v then has only the component (vx (y, z, t), 0, 0). The Navier–Stokes equation then
becomes:
2
∂vx ∂p ∂ vx ∂ 2 vx ∂p ∂p
ρ = ρ fx – +η + and: ρ fy – = ρ fz – = 0.
∂t ∂x ∂y2 ∂z2 ∂y ∂z
(4.59a) (4.59b)

The two Equations 4.59b are merely an indication of hydrostatic equilibrium (in most cases
fx , fy and fz are the components of the gravitational acceleration g). In this case, f = g is
constant throughout the volume of the fluid; by taking the derivative of Equation 4.59b with
respect to x, we obtain:

∂ ∂p ∂ ∂p ∂ ∂p ∂ ∂p
= = 0, i.e.: = = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z ∂x

The pressure gradient ∂p/∂x in the flow is thus independent of y and of z; moreover, as
a result of Equation 4.59a, and of the fact that vx is independent of x, its derivative with
respect to x is zero. We have therefore:

∂p
= constant (4.60)
∂x

throughout the volume of one-dimensional flows (but ∂p/∂x can be time-dependent for
non-stationary flows).
116 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

In the case of a steady-state flow, the first term of Equation 4.22 is zero. As discussed
in Section 4.2.1, this is an indication of the fact that the resultant of the forces on a
volume-element of the fluid (gravity + pressure + viscous stresses) vanishes at all times
for one-dimensional stationary flows: in fact, the momentum of such an element of fluid
must remain constant as it moves both within space (one-dimensional characteristic) and
with time (stationary condition).
The first four examples of the flows which we will analyze below are of this last kind.
We will then discuss the case of cylindrical Couette flow which gives an example of a situa-
tion in which we can determine the velocity field even in the presence of non-linear terms.
However, the fact that we can find a solution for such flows does not indicate that this so-
lution is the only one which may be observed. Generally, for sufficiently large Reynolds
numbers, such parallel flows become unstable: turbulent velocity fields, which are much
more complicated and non-stationary, can then develop.
It is not only for parallel flows that the term (v·∇) v is negligible; this will also be the
case for flows at low Reynolds numbers (Re 1) to be discussed in Chapter 9. In this
case, this non-linear term can be neglected, even for cases with arbitrary geometry, by com-
y (a) parison with the component η ∇ 2 v which represents the forces of viscous friction. Such
Fx V0
y=a flows obey a linear equation of motion known as the Stokes equation. Finally, for flows
which are almost one-dimensional, discussed in Chapter 8, the equation of motion again
p = cst. v x(y)
becomes linear, provided that the Reynolds number (while still larger than 1) is not too
large (the limiting value then depends on the geometry of the flow). In that case we discuss
lubrification.
y=0 x
4.5.2 Couette flow between parallel planes
y (b)
We have previously discussed such flow between two parallel planes separated by a con-
y=a
stant distance and in relative motion in Section 2.1.2, where we discussed the diffusion of
p(x) v x(y) momentum.
Vmax We calculate here the velocity profile vx (y) between a lower plane (y = 0) at rest, and
an upper plane (y = a) which is displaced parallel to itself at a constant velocity V0 (Figure
4.18a). We assume that no pressure gradient is applied in the direction along the plates
y=0 x (i.e., ∂p/∂x = 0 throughout the volume according to Equation 4.60), that the flow is steady
and stationary (∂vx /∂t = 0), independent of z, and that the planes are horizontal (only the
Figure 4.18 Plane flows: (a) Couette flow; component of gravity gy = –g is non-zero). Equations 4.59 become:
the lower plane is at rest while the upper one
moves with constant velocity V0 in the x- ∂ 2 vx ∂p ∂p
η = (4.61) and = –ρ g, (4.62)
direction. (b) Poiseuille flow; both planes are ∂y2 ∂x ∂y
at rest while a pressure gradient is applied
(compare this flow to that of Figure 2.7b) where g is the absolute value of the acceleration of gravity (and the positive y-axis is
upward). Because ∂p/∂x = 0, Equation 4.61 becomes:

∂ 2 vx y
= 0, (4.63) which can be integrated: vx = V0 , (4.64)
∂y2 a

taking into account the boundary conditions which require that the relative velocity be zero
We note that Fx is independent of the distance y
from the lower plane and that the resultant vis-
at each of the boundary planes. Gravity merely results in a vertical hydrostatic pressure
cous force η (∂ 2 vx /∂y2 ) per unit volume of an gradient, which does not affect the flow. The viscous friction force per unit area on each of
element of the moving fluid is zero. This is re- the planes has the value:
quired in order that the resultant overall force
in the x-direction be zero on each element; in
∂vx η V0
fact, the pressure and gravity forces have a zero
|Fx | = σxy = η = . (4.65)
component in the x-direction. ∂y a
One-dimensional flow of viscous Newtonian fluids 117

4.5.3 Poiseuille-type flows

We discuss now the steady-state flow of an incompressible fluid between two fixed parallel
planes, and then in a tube of circular cross-section; these flows are driven by a pressure
difference applied between the boundaries of the planes, or of the tube. We assume that we
are far enough from the entry points of the channel so that the velocity profile is independ-
ent of distance along the flow; the problems involving the approach to steady-state of the
velocity profiles are discussed in Section 10.2, together with the downstream variation in
the thickness of the boundary layers.

Flow between two fixed parallel planes

We will first consider the steady-state flow of a viscous fluid between two horizontal planes,
fixed and parallel, located at y = 0 and y = a (Figure 4.18b). The flow results from a pres-
sure gradient ∂p/∂x = –K = –(p/L) in the x-direction. K is positive for flow in the direction
of positive x and, in accordance with Equation 4.60, it is constant throughout the fluid.
Equation 4.59a then becomes:

d2 v x
η + K = 0.
dy2

Integrating along the y-direction, and taking into account the boundary conditions at the
walls, (vx = 0 for y = 0 and y = a), we find:

K y (a – y) ∂p 1 4y (a – y)
vx = =– y (a – y) = Vmax . (4.66)
η 2 ∂x 2η a2

The corresponding flow is known as Poiseuille parallel flow. It has a parabolic velocity profile
with a maximum value V max in the symmetry plane of the channel (y = a/2), which has the
algebraic value:

2
a2 ∂p a
Vmax = K =– . (4.67)
8η ∂x 8 η

The flow rate Q of fluid per unit depth of the channel is the z-direction has the absolute
value:

a/2 a3 p a3
Q= vx (y) dy = K = , (4.68)
–a/2 12η L 12η

where p = p(x) – p(x+L) is the pressure drop over a distance L. The flow rate Q is thus
proportional to a3 for a given pressure drop p, thus increasing much more rapidly than
the cross-section a (per unit depth) of the channel.
We can define, in terms of the flow rate Q, an average flow velocity U given by U = Q/a,
whence:

a2 2Vmax
U =K = . (4.69)
12η 3
118 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

Superposition of Couette and Poiseuille flows between two parallel planes

V0 = 0
Let us now consider a steady-state flow between two horizontal planes, separated by a
distance a and parallel to the x-axis: the lower boundary y = 0 is taken as the reference
plane and the upper plane (y = a) moves with velocity vx = V0 in the parallel x-direction.
p=0
Δ
y In contrast to the case discussed in Section 4.5.2, we apply, in addition, a pressure gradient
x ∂p/∂x in the direction parallel to the boundary planes and independent of the time and of
the coordinates x, y and z. Integrating Equation 4.59a, we find:
(a)
V0 = 0 ∂p y2
vx (y) = + C y + D. (4.70)
∂x 2η

p =0
Δ
y The coefficient D is always zero because the velocity is everywhere zero along the plane
(c) x y = 0; the coefficient C can be determined by recognizing that the velocity is always V0 at
the upper boundary plane. We then obtain:
(b)
V0 = 0 ∂p y (a – y) y
vx (y) = – + V0 . (4.71)
∂x 2η a

p =0
Δ
The resultant velocity field is thus the superposition of a parabolic, Poiseuille velocity-
y
x field (first right-hand term in Equation 4.71, and of a Couette-type velocity-field (second
right-hand one). Figure 4.19 displays qualitatively the various resulting velocity profiles.
(c) Depending on the particular case, we might, or not, find a maximum between the two
planes. The resultant flow rate per unit depth in the z-direction is obtained by integrating
Figure 4.19 Superposition of a shear flow directly Equation 4.71, with respect to y:
(a) and of a Poiseuille flow (b); we obtain a
third kind of flow (c) in which we have coex- ∂p a3 V0 a
Q=– + . (4.72)
istence of shear and a pressure gradient in the ∂x 12 η 2
direction of the flow
We observe that it is also the sum of the respective flow rates corresponding to the Poiseuille
and Couette terms. The fact that we can superimpose both the velocity fields and the flow
We will find again examples of such flows in rates is a consequence of the linearity of Equation 4.59a.
Chapter 8, in the discussion of the flows between
two planes, in relative motion, making a small Flow in a cylindrical tube
angle with respect to each other, or induced by a
local temperature-gradient at the free surface of We discuss the flow resulting from a pressure difference p along a length L of a horizontal
a liquid (Marangoni effect). cylindrical tube of radius R (Figure 4.20). We assume that the only non-zero component of
the velocity is the axial velocity vz , and that it is only a function of the radial distance r from
the axis. We solve the Navier–Stokes equation by observing, as in the previous case, that the
pressure head loss coefficient K = (p/L) = – (∂p/∂z) = cst.

R υz (r)
Figure 4.20 Poiseuille flow in a cylindrical r Vmax z
tube of radius R, resulting from a pressure
difference p = p1 – p2 over a distance L
p1 p2

L
One-dimensional flow of viscous Newtonian fluids 119

• (i) Velocity-field for the flow Assuming that vz is only a function of r implies
that the radial velocity component vr is zero for
a stationary flow. First, any vϕ component of the
In cylindrical coordinates (r, ϕ, z) where r is the radial distance to the axis and ϕ = 0 for a velocity would correspond to a transient rotation
radius vector directed upward, the Navier-Stokes equation 4.59a–b becomes: of the fluid around the axis z vanishing in the
steady-state (Section 2.1.1). Taking then vϕ = 0
∂p 1 ∂p in the condition of incompressibility ∇·v = 0
0=– – ρ g cos ϕ (4.73a) 0=– + ρ g sin ϕ (4.73b) leads to (1/r) d(r vr )/dr = 0. Using the boundary
∂r r ∂ϕ condition vr = 0 at the tube wall of the tube leads
to vr = 0 everywhere.
∂p ∂p η ∂ ∂vz η ∂ ∂vz
0=– + ∇ 2 vz = – + r =K+ r . (4.73c)
∂z ∂z r ∂r ∂r r ∂r ∂r Equation 4.73 can be derived directly by writ-
ing that the resultant force is zero on a volume
bounded by two concentric cylinders of radii
Equations 4.73a and 4.73b indicate that the only effect of gravity is to create throughout
r and r + dr to which the viscous stresses are
the cross-section of the tube, a hydrostatic pressure-gradient which leaves the flow unaf- applied, and by two sections at a distance dz
fected. Just as in the case of plane Poiseuille flow, the gradient ∂p/∂z = –K is then constant between which the pressure gradient acts. We
throughout the flow volume, so that: obtain;

)
2π (r + dr) dz (σzr

r+dr – 2π r dz (σzr )r
1 d d vz K
r =– . (4.75) ∂p (4.74)
r dr dr η = 2π r dr dz .
∂z
By integrating this equation (eliminating the Log r term which diverges for r = 0) and using
This equation reduces to Equation 4.73c by a
the boundary conditions at the tube walls (vz = 0 for r = R) we find: first-order Taylor expansion and a division by
2π dr dz.
K 2 2 r2 K R2
vz = (R – r ) = Vmax 1 – 2 , (4.76) where: Vmax = .
4η R 4η

Here V max is the maximum value of the velocity which occurs along the axis of the tube
(r = 0). Up to now, we assumed that the acceleration of
The flow rate Q of the fluid in the tube is then: gravity had no component in the direction z of
the flow (like for an horizontal flow). If this is
not the case, Equation 4.73c becomes:
R π K R4 π R4 ∂ p
Q= vz (r) 2π r dr = =– . (4.77)
0 8η 8η ∂z ∂p 1 d
)
0=– + ρ gz + (r σzr
∂z r dr
By expressing the flow rate in terms of the tube diameter d of its length L and of the pressure
∂p 1 d d vz
drop p between its two ends, we obtain, finally: =– + ρ gz + η r .
∂z r dr dr

π p 4 Then, the sum: – ∂p/∂z + ρgz , and not just

Q= d . (4.78)
128 η L –∂p/∂z is the driving term of the flow.
For instance, a tube of axis z at angle θ to the
horizontal and connecting two two free-surface
This result, known as Poiseuille’s law, indicates that the flow rate varies as the fourth power reservoirs would have the atmospheric pressure
of the diameter of a circular tube, i.e., as the square of its cross-section. Let us compare, for at both ends and, therefore, a pressure gradient
example, the flow rates Q resulting from the same pressure gradient in a tube of diameter R (constant with z) equal to zero. The flow is then
only due to the component ρgz = ρgsin θ , and
and in one hundred tubes of diameter R/10 connected in parallel, representing an equivalent Equation 4.78 becomes:
cross-section: the flow rate would be one hundred times smaller in this latter case. This result
is quite different from that obtained in a problem of electrical current transport between two π ρ
Q= gz d 4 .
plane parallel electrodes perpendicular to the tubes: if the two sets of tubes have the same 128 η
electrical conductivity, the value of the electrical resistance is the same in both cases. The
major difference between these two examples results from the boundary condition of zero
velocity along the tube walls, in the case of a viscous fluid, a condition which does not apply
for the case of electrical current. Due to this condition, the transverse velocity gradients
and, accordingly, the viscous friction forces increase greatly as the size of the channels
decreases.
120 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

• (ii) Viscous-friction forces on the walls of a circular tube

The viscous friction force exerted by the fluid on the tube can be calculated by integrating
the stress over the area of the walls:

F= [σ] · n dS, (4.79)
(wall)

where n is the unit vector normal to the wall. The component Fz in the z-direction of the
flow is thus:
L 2π

Fz = [σzr r]r=R dϕ dz = dz [σ
zr r]r=R dϕ. (4.80)
(wall) 0 0

We can also calculate fz by writing that it must By using the expression σzr
= η (∂v / ∂r) given in appendix 4A.2 at the end of this chapter,
z
be the opposite of the difference –π R2 dp/dz we obtain for the force fz per unit length of the tube:
between the pressure forces on two sections of
the tube separated by a unit distance (we must
indeed have a zero resultant of the forces acting fz = 4 π η Vmax . (4.81)
on the fluid).

One also often calculates a dimensionless viscous drag coefficient Cd by normalizing

the force fz by the quantity (1/2)ρV 2max R. As we will see in Section 5.3.1., the term
(1/2)ρV 2max corresponds to a dynamic pressure or, with the extra factor of 1/2, to a
convective momentum flux. We then obtain:

fz η 8π
Cd = = 8π = , (4.82)
2 R
(1/2)ρ Vmax ρ Vmax R Re

y/δ where we have defined the Reynolds number related to the flow by Re = ρ V max R/η. This
kind of variation of the drag coefficient as 1/Re is characteristic of flows in which the convec-
5 tive effects associated with the terms of the type (v·∇)v are zero or negligible. On the other
hand, in the opposite limit of large Reynolds numbers (particularly for turbulent flows),
we generally obtain a drag coefficient Cd which varies little with the Reynolds number
(Figures 12.9 and 12.14). The drag coefficient Cd is then a good characterization of this
latter kind of flow but is less adequate for the present laminar flows.

4.5.4 Oscillating flows in a viscous fluid

Shear-flow near a plane oscillating parallel to its surface

π 3π/2 π/2 0 We now consider the flow of an incompressible viscous fluid above an infinite horizontal
solid plane which is subjected to a sinusoidal oscillating motion parallel to itself along the
–1.0 0 1.0 the x-axis (Figure 4.21). The instantaneous displacement x(t) of the plane at a time t is
υx(y,t)/ω A A sin ωt where A is the amplitude of the motion and ω its angular frequency. This prob-
lem is the sinusoidal version of the sudden motion of an infinite plane at constant velocity,
Figure 4.21 Instantaneous profiles of the previously considered in Section 2.1.2.
velocity vx (y, t) resulting from the oscilla- We seek the simplest solution of the equations of motion which satisfies the symmetries
tion of the plane y = 0 parallel to itself in of the problem and the boundary conditions both along the plate and at infinity (we as-
the x-direction, with amplitude A for several sume the fluid to be at rest at very large distances). Accordingly, we assume that the flow is
phases (indicated by the labels) one-dimensional with a velocity component vx (y,t) independent of the x- and z-directions
One-dimensional flow of viscous Newtonian fluids 121

in the plane (satisfying the boundary conditions). According to Equation 4.59b, the
y-component of the equation of motion reduces to the hydrostatic equation:

1 ∂p
0=– –g (4.83a)
ρ ∂y

and, moreover, ∂p/∂z = 0. On the other hand, ∂p/∂z must be contstant throughout the
volume of the fluid (Equation 4.60), and will vanish unless there exists a horizontal pressure
gradient applied from a great distance. The pressure is then independent of x and z, so that
we can rewrite Equation 4.59a in the form:

∂vx η ∂ 2 vx ∂ 2 vx
= =ν 2 , (4.83b)
∂t ρ ∂y2 ∂y

where ν = η/ρ. We get back the momentum diffusion equation derived in Section 2.1.2. Let
us now look for a periodic solution vx (y, t) of Equation 4.83b in the form:

vx (y, t) = |f (y)| cos (ω t + ϕ) = e f (y) ei ωt , (4.84)

where f (y) is a complex function (the symbol e indicates that we take the real part of the
quantity in question). Inserting this expression into Equation 4.83b, we obtain:

∂2f
i ω f (y) = ν , (4.85)
∂y2

for which we have the general solution:

ω
f (y) = C1 e–(1+i)ky + C2 e(1+i)ky where: k= . (4.86)
2ν

We then derive: vx (y, t) = e C1 e–ky ei(ωt–ky) + C2 eky ei(ωt+ky) . (4.87)

The velocity must approach zero as y tends towards infinity, which requires C2 = 0. On the
other hand, the boundary condition at the surface of the oscillating plane is written:
vx (y = 0, t) = ωAcos ωt, which then allows us to evaluate the constant of integration
C 1 = ω A; we therefore obtain:

υx (y, t) = ω A e–ky cos (ωt – k y) (4.88)

This indicates that the oscillation of the applied velocity at the surface of the plane propa-
gates toward the interior of the fluid [the term cos (ω t – k y)] with an exponential damping,
as e–ky . We thus have a propagation of a transverse wave which is attenuated in the viscous
fluid.
We define the penetration depth δ of the oscillation as the distance from the oscillating
plane for which the amplitude of the velocity is decreased by a factor 1/e, such that: Example:
For an oscillatory motion with frequency 2 Hz
in a fluid of kinematic viscosity ν = 10–3 m2 /s (a
2ν thousand times the viscosity of water), we obtain
δ= . (4.89) δ ≈ 10–2 m.
ω

The essential result of the above analysis is the conclusion that a shear wave will not
propagate over significant distances in a viscous liquid. The corresponding acoustic wave
122 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

This problem is the analog of the skin effect is said to be critically damped. We have here an essential difference between liquids and
in electrical conduction, or of the penetration
solids: in solids, there exists the propagation, in addition to the compressional wave (or-
of seasonal changes in temperature into the
ground. The equivalent of the viscosity coeffi- dinary sound), of two oscillation modes transverse to the direction of propagation—shear
cient is the resistivity of the conducting medium waves with two orthogonal polarizations. There are intermediate results with the possibility
in the case of the skin effect (within a factor of shear waves, propagating over significant distances, which can be observed in the case of
of μ0 ), and the thermal diffusivity in the case
of fluctuations in temperature in the ground. viscoelastic fluids. We will describe these in Section 4.6.4.
In each of these cases, we √have a penetration The frictional viscous force Fx on the oscillating plane can be written as:
depth δ which varies as 1/ ω and a complex
wave vector k, with modulus equal to 1/δ. Both ∂vx
of these variations are characteristic of all diffu- Fx = σxy dx dz = η dx dz. (4.90)
(plane) (plane) ∂y y=0
sive propagation phenomena.
Combining Equations 4.86, 4.88 and 4.90, we obtain the value fx of the frictional force per
unit area:

√ 3π √ 3π
fx = (A 2 ω kη) cos ωt – = A ω3/2 ρ η cos ωt – . (4.91)
4 4
Thus, fx has a phase retardation of three-eighths of a period relative to the velocity v(0, t)
of the plane. Just as we did in the case of the circular tube, we can normalize the amplitude
of the force fx by the dynamic pressure (1/2) ρ A2 ω2 expressed in terms of the peak value U
Geophysical application:
A seismograph located at a moderate distance = ω A of the velocity. We then obtain a coefficient of frictional drag:
from a place where an earthquake has occurred √
normally detects three signals, corresponding to A ω3/2 ρ η ν 2
Cd = =2 = √ . (4.92)
the three types of waves: two shear (S) and one (ρA ω / 2)
2 2 ωA2 Re
pressure (P) wave, which can propagate through
the solid earth. Nevertheless, if the source and
where Re = (ω A2 )/ν is the Reynolds number for the flow, evaluated in terms of the velocity U
the detector are located at more or less diametri-
cally opposite ends of the earth, the seismograph and of the characteristic length A. This time, however, Cd is proportional to the square root
detects only the signal corresponding to the pres- of the inverse of the Reynolds number. This variation is slower than that, as 1/Re, obtained
sure wave: the shear waves will not propagate for one-dimensional steady-state flows (Section 4.5.3.). The same type of variation will
indeed across the central core of the earth, the
outer layer of which is liquid (for distances of be found in Chapter 10 for boundary layers, suggesting that one has here an oscillating
2800 to 5100 km from the center). boundary layer.

Flow generated between two planes by an oscillating pressure gradient

When the flow rate is modulated, the inertial effects from the fluid increase with the fre-
quency of the modulation; then, oscillating boundary layers, very similar to the ones we
have encountered in the previous example, can appear near the walls of a capillary tube.
In contrast to the latter, however, the walls do not move and the pressure gradient no longer
vanishes in the direction of the flow. Let us analyze such a phenomenon for the simple case
of a one-dimensional flow between two fixed horizontal planes y = ± a/2, where the local
y velocity vx (y,t) is along the x-axis (Figure 4.22) and independent of the z-variable.
y = a/2 Assume that the longitudinal pressure gradient ∂p/∂x (t) is sinusoidally modulated at an
υx(ω,y) eiωt angular frequency ω, with a variation, in complex notation, ∂p/∂x (t) = ∂p/∂x (ω) eiω t . Let
O x us also write Equation 4.59a to include the acceleration term ∂vx /∂t and the gradient of
iω t the pressure. Looking for a sinusoidal solution for vx at angular frequency ω, we obtain in
∂p/∂x e
y = –a/2 complex notation:

∂vx 1 ∂p ∂ 2 vx
Figure 4.22 Oscillating flow between two = i ω vx = – (ω) eiωt + ν 2 .
∂t ρ ∂x ∂y
fixed, parallel planes, resulting from a sinus-
oidal pressure gradient parallel to the two The complex function vx (ω, y) eiω t , solution of this linear differential equation which
planes satisfies the boundary conditions vx = 0 for y = ± a/2 is then:

i ∂p cosh (k(ω)y)
vx (ω, y) = (ω) 1 – , (4.93a)
ρ ω ∂x cosh (k(ω)a / 2)
One-dimensional flow of viscous Newtonian fluids 123

iω ω
where: k(ω) = = (1 + i) . (4.93b)
ν 2ν

We find, by integrating with respect to the variable y, the complex amplitude of the variation
of the average velocity:

a/2
1 i ∂p tanh (k(ω)a / 2)
U (ω) = vx (ω, y)dy = (ω) 1 – . (4.94)
a ρ ω ∂x k(ω)a / 2
–a/2

Here k(ω) is the complex wave vector of the damped oscillating shear wave propagating
from an oscillating wall into a viscous fluid (Equation 4.86). The expression 1/|k(ω)| =
√
δ(ω) = ν / ω then gives the order of magnitude of the penetration depth δ(ω) of a wave
oscillating at angular frequency ω. The response of the system is very different depending
on whether δ(ω) is large or small compared to the channel width a between the planes:

• If |k (ω)| a 1 (i.e. δ(ω) a): low-frequency regime → viscous forces dominate.

If we expand tanh (ka/2) in a power series for small k a, we obtain:

a2 ∂p a2 ω
U (ω) = – (ω) 1 – i . (4.95)
12 η ∂x 10ν

The first term in the expression is dominant. It merely represents the velocity we calcu-
lated for the stationary flow. The flow is only weakly affected by inertial effects, which are
represented by the second, smaller, term (90◦ out of phase, as indicated by the factor i).
The correction term involves the ratio Ntν = a2 ω /ν of the viscous diffusion time a2 /ν over
the distance a to the period 2π/ω of the oscillation; Ntν (first found in 8.1.3) is also the ratio
of the non-stationary characteristics of the flow (ρ (∂v/∂t) term in the equation of motion) to
the viscous effects (η∇ 2 v term). In the case of a more complicated geometry, we would have
to also introduce the term in (v.∇)v, so that the flow would also depend on a Strouhal number
of the form Sr = ωL/U (U is the velocity, and L a characteristic length). This number, If L = a, the quotient Ntν /Sr corresponds to the
defined in Section 2.4.1, represents the ratio of the non-stationary and convective terms. Reynolds number Re =UL/ν.

• If |k (ω)| a 1 (i.e. δ(ω) a): high-frequency regime → inertial effects dominate.

Using the notation α = (1/2) ω a2 / 2ν, and the identity tanh(ix) = i tan(x) (valid for all
real x), we expand the hyperbolic tangent of the complex number (ka)/2:

k(ω)a tanh α + i tan α

tanh = tanh [α(1 + i)] = .
2 1 + i tanh α tan α
But, for α 1, tanh(α) is very close to unity, so that tanh (k(ω)a/2) ≈ 1 and one obtains:

i ∂p 2ν
U (ω) ≈ (ω) 1 – (1 – i) . (4.96)
ρ ω ∂x ωa2

The governing term (i /ρ ω)(∂p/∂x) corresponds to a solid body oscillation of the mass of
the fluid with an amplitude determined completely by its inertial response to the oscillating
pressure and 90◦ out of phase with it. It is only for a thickness of fluid of order δ(ω) that
viscosity effects are significant, and lead toenergy dissipation which is represented by the
real part of the correction term. The ratio 2ν / (ω a2 ) between the two terms of Equation
4.96 also gives the order of magnitude of the ratio of the thickness of the boundary layers
to the total width of the channel.
124 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

y 4.5.5 Parallel flow resulting from a horizontal

density variation
We consider here a steady-state flow between two vertical parallel plates, located at x = ± a/2
x = –a/2 x = a/2 and infinite in extent, resulting from a density gradient in the horizontal x-direction.
υy (x)
As an example, we can consider the case where the density change results from keeping
O x the two plates at different constant temperatures T 1 and T 2 (Figure 4.23). We assume that
the temperature is not a function of the y and z coordinates, and that it varies linearly along
T1 T2 >T1 the x-direction. We then have:

x
T (x) = T0 + T , (4.97)
a
Figure 4.23 Velocity profile for fluid flow
resulting from a temperature difference be- T1 + T2
tween two infinite vertical plates with: T0 = and T = T2 – T1 .
2

Explanation
We confine ourselves here to the case where only the vertical component vy of the velocity is
non-zero: we do not then have any thermal transport due to the flow, from one plate to the
other in the x-direction, and such transport is only a function of the thermal conductivity k
of the liquid. If we assume that the themal conductivity k does not depend on the tempera-
ture and the pressure, the thermal energy flux per unit area JQ = – k ∂T/∂x and, therefore,
the gradient ∂T/∂x must be constant, and not a function of x. Moreover, Equation 4.97
implies that the temperature T(x) is not a function of y and z. The flow which is parallel
to the plates and, therefore, to constant temperature surfaces does not then contribute to
thermal energy transfer.

Let us now assume that the variation of the density ρ of the fluid with temperature obeys:

ρ(T) = ρ0 [1 – α (T – T0 )] (4.98)

(T 0 is the temperature at x = 0 and α is the thermal expansion coefficient, generally positive)

and that the density ρ is independent of the pressure. We then obtain for the variation of
the density with distance:

x
ρ(x) = ρ 0 + δρ (x) = ρ 0 [1 – α (T (x) – T0 )] = ρ 0 1 – α T . (4.99)
a

The surfaces of constant density ρ(x) (or isochores) are thus the vertical planes x = constant.
It then becomes impossible for hydrostatic equilibrium to be established with the fluid
completely at rest (v = 0); if that were the case, the pressure p would have to satisfy the
fundamental equation of hydrostatics:

∇p = ρ g. (4.100)

The constant-pressure lines (isobars) would then be perpendicular to g and therefore (as
usual) horizontal with p = p(y). It would then be impossible for Equation 4.100 to be sat-
isfied, because its members depend on two different variables: y for the pressure and x for
the density. Accordingly, the fluid must begin to move.
One-dimensional flow of viscous Newtonian fluids 125

Assuming a steady-state flow with vertical velocity vy (x), the equation of motion for the
velocity becomes (as seen in the explanation further down):

∂ 2 vy x ∂ 2 vy
[ρ(x) – ρ0 ] g = η , (4.101a) i.e.: – α ρ0 g T = η 2 . (4.101b)
∂x2 a ∂x
Equation 4.101a indicates that the flow results from a volume force which varies with x
and is proportional to the difference between the local density and the average density.
Integrating Equation 4.101b, we then obtain:

α ρ0 g T x a2
vy (x) = – x2 – . (4.102)
η a 6 4

This profile is antisymmetric relative to x = 0 with zero net flow rate (Figure 4.23). The
choice made for the value of ∂p/∂y corresponds then to a system closed at both ends
(where we would, in fact, have near the boundaries two small perturbation zones, with a
transverse recirculation flow).

Explanation:
In view of the symmetry of the problem, we can assume that vy does not vary in the z-
direction. Moreover, if (vx = vz = 0), the equation ∇·v = 0 becomes ∂vy /∂y = 0, so that vy
will depend only on x. Under these conditions, and remembering that the velocity has a
component only in the y-direction, we can rewrite Equations 4.59a and 4.59b in the form:

∂p ∂ 2 vy ∂p ∂p
ρ(x)g + =η 2 (4.103a) and: = = 0. (4.103b)
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂z

The pressure gradient ∂p/∂y is thus independent of x and z because, taking the derivative
of Equation 4.103b with respect to y, one finds:

∂ ∂p ∂ ∂p ∂ ∂p ∂ ∂p
= =0 so that: = = 0.
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y

Moreover, ∂p/∂y also cannot be a function of y because the other terms in Equations 4.103a
do not depend on it: this gradient is therefore constant throughout the flow. Assuming that
this constant is equal to the gradient of the hydrostatic pressure – ρ 0 g associated with the
average density ρ 0 of the fluid which, as we have seen, corresponds to a tube closed at both
ends, we obtain Equation 4.101a. Using some other value for ∂p/∂y would be equivalent to
superimposing a Poiseuille type flow, corresponding to the resultant gradient ∂p/∂y +ρ 0 g.

We have assumed here that the flow resulted from a horizontal temperature gradient. The
variation of the density might have other sources, such as a concentration gradient of the
solute (e.g., salt in water). On the other hand, even though the velocity profile (Equation
4.102) satisfies the equation of motion for any difference of temperature T, other more
complicated solutions will be observed experimentally as T increases; for example, one
may observe recirculation cells, smaller in height than the extent of the plates and with a
non-vanishing velocity component in the x-direction.

4.5.6 Cylindrical Couette flow

We consider the steady-state behavior of an incompressible fluid of viscosity η, located
between two coaxial cylinders of radii R1 and R2 rotating about their axis with respective
126 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

angular velocities 1 and 2 (Figure 4.24). We assume that no external pressure gradient is
applied. We choose a system of cylindrical coordinates (r, ϕ, z) where the z-axis coincides
Ώ2 with the axis of the cylinders, and we evaluate the velocity components vr , vϕ , and vz .
υφ Even though this is a system with a very simple geometry, quite complex flow struc-
υr tures can appear (depending on the angular velocity of the cylinders), as we discuss in
Ώ1 M Chapter 11. We are interested here only in the simplest possible flow, corresponding to
φ
z pressure and velocity fields independent of z and ϕ. It is, in fact, what we observe at low ve-
O locities. In this case, keeping in mind that the system is invariant with respect to translation
R1
along the z-axis, and since there is no axial pressure gradient, we have vz = 0. Moreover,
in the simplest flow configuration, vϕ is independent of ϕ, because of the rotational in-
R2 variance around the z-axis. The equation of conservation of mass for an incompressible
fluid (∇·v = 0), given in cylindrical coordinates in Appendix 4A.2 at the end of this chapter
simplifies to:

Figure 4.24 Couette flow between two ro- ∂vr vr 1 ∂

+ = (r vr ) = 0. (4.104)
tating concentric cylinders seen from the di- ∂r r r ∂r
rection of the cylinders’ axis
Accordingly, vr can only appear in the form vr = (C/r), where C is a constant. But the
boundary conditions at the solid walls require that vr (r = R1 ) = vr (r = R2 ) = 0; therefore, vr
Equation 4.105b is also obtained by writing that must vanish throughout the fluid.
the global moment of the forces on a volume
bounded by two concentric cylinders of unit The Navier–Stokes equation in cylindrical coordinates (see Appendix 4A.2), yields:
depth and with radii r and r + dr vanishes, so

that: v2ϕ 1 ∂p ∂ 2 vϕ 1 ∂vϕ vϕ
= (4.105a) and: ν + – 2 = 0. (4.105b)
2π(r 2 σrϕ )(r + dr) – 2π(r 2 σrϕ )(r) = 0 (4.106a) r r ∂r ∂r 2 r ∂r r

i.e., as dr → 0:
In Equation 4.105a, the v2ϕ / r term corresponds directly to the inertial, centrifugal force re-
∂ 2 sulting from the curvature of the trajectories of the fluid particles. Even though this term
(r σrϕ ) = 0. (4.106b)
∂r involves the square of the velocity, it does not affect the flow, as it is counterbalanced by
Due to the symmetry of the velocity field the pressure gradient in the radial direction; it corresponds thus to a generalized form of
v(0,vϕ (r),0), σrϕ is the only non-vanishing com- the hydrostatic pressure, quite analogous to the effects of gravity, in the one-dimensional
ponent of the stress tensor, as can be shown horizontal flows we have previously discussed. The terms of the second Equation 4.105b
from the expressions of this tensor in cylindrical
coordinates in Appendix 4A.2. Then: correspond to the ϕ–component of the Laplacian operator applied to the velocity in
cylindrical coordinates.
1 ∂vr ∂vϕ vϕ
σrϕ = η + – Integrating Equation 4.105b (or the equivalent Equation 4.108 in the margin), we find:
r ∂ϕ ∂r r

∂vϕ vϕ ∂ vϕ b
=η – = ηr vϕ = a r + . (4.109)
∂r r ∂r r r
(4.107)

(It should be noted that σrϕ does vanish for The constants a and b are evaluated from the boundary conditions:
solid-body rotation of the fluid, where vϕ = ωr).
By substituting the above result into Equation
4.106b, which indicates the absence of overall υϕ (r = R1 ) = 1 R1 and υϕ (r = R2 ) = 2 R2
torque on an annular volume-element, we obtain
an equivalent formulation of Equation 4.105b:
which leads to the result:

∂ ∂ vϕ
r3 = 0. (4.108)
∂r ∂r r 2 R22 – 1 R21 (1 – 2 )R22 R12 1
vϕ = r+ . (4.110)
R22 – R12 R22 – R21 r

The pressure distribution can be obtained by integrating Equation 4.105a. Let us now ex-
amine a few special cases among the values of the angular velocities of the cylinders and of
their radii:
Simple one-dimensional, steady state flows of non-Newtonian fluids 127

• when the radii of both cylinders approach infinity, while their separation d = R2 – R1
remains constant, we recover the velocity field corresponding to the plane Couette
flow;
• if 1 = 2 , then vϕ = r, corresponding to solid-body rotation of the fluid;
• if 2 = 0 and R2 → ∞ (which amounts to eliminating the outer cylinder), then
vϕ = (1 R12 )/r. The result is the velocity field of a two-dimensional, irrotational
vortex, which we discuss in Section 6.2.3;
• if the inner cylinder is the only one in rotation (1 = 0, 2 = 0), the initial solution,
discussed above, becomes unstable when the angular velocity, 1 , exceeds a critical
value c . We show in Section 11.3.1 that, at that point, there appears a secondary
flow in the form of toroidal rolls (the Taylor-Couette instability).

Let us now evaluate the tangential viscous torques exerted on the cylinders. Using
Equation 4.107 to calculate σrϕ , we find

2b η
σrϕ = – , (4.111)
r2
where b is the coefficient of the 1/r term of the velocity field (Equation 4.109). Let us now
evaluate the total viscous torque 1 acting on the cylinder of radius R1 , per unit length along
the z-axis. 1 is equal to the product of the viscous stress σrϕ (R1 ) by the surface 2πR1 on
which the stress acts and by the radius R1 of this surface. Thus the torque on the inner
cylinder is:

2b η (2 – 1 )R22 R21

R1 = 2 πR21 ez = – 4 π η b ez = 4 π η ez , (4.112) In a steady-state regime, as indicated in Equation
R21 R22 – R21
4.111, the shear stress varies as 1/r 2 with the
distance from the axis of rotation. This result,
where ez is the unit vector along the z-axis. This relation shows that a solid-body rotation of a consequence of Equations 4.106a and 4.106b,
the two cylinders at the same angular velocity does not result in a torque; a relative rotation reflects the balance of the torques between dif-
(2 = 1 ) is needed for a torque to be observed. ferent layers of the fluid, and is also applicable
to non-Newtonian fluids. The stress-strain re-
Equation 4.112 confirms the concept (already discussed in Section 4.4.1) that it is pos- lation can only be directly determined for the
sible to determine the viscosity η from a measurement of the internal torque exerted by the latter fluids if the stress can be assumed to be
fluid on one of the two cylinders when their angular velocities are different (Couette vis- constant throughout the volume in which the
measurement occurs, i.e. if the distance between
cometer). In other devices, one applies a given torque to one of the cylinders and measures the cylinders is sufficiently small relative to the
the resulting angular velocity. average of their radii.

4.6 Simple one-dimensional, steady state

flows of non-Newtonian fluids
For non-Newtonian fluids, the Navier–Stokes equation is no longer applicable. We must
therefore use the general form 4.25 of the equation of motion, where the viscous component
is no longer equal to η ∇ 2 v, and we must start from the general form ∇·[σ
] of the viscous
stresses.
We will first restrict our discussion to the case of fluids for which the characteristics are
time-independent and isotropic, by assuming that a relationship exists between the shear
rate and the viscous stresses which is well defined, and a unique function of the fluid. This
is equivalent to assuming that we consider the shear thinning, or shear thickening, char-
acteristics, but not thixotropy or visco-elasticity. The shear rate γ̇xy = ∂υx /∂y is then not
just proportional to the viscous stress but obeys a more complicated relationship f (σ xy
)
128 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

(Figure 4.8). [For flow with radial symmetry, we must rather use the relationship between

)].
the shear rate and the stress in polar coordinates (r, ϕ, z): ∂vz /∂r = f (σ zr
Moreover, if we consider a flow in the x-direction between parallel planes, we can still
assume that the pressure gradient ∂p/∂x is constant between the planes if a steady state flow
is achieved with respect to x. In fact, even if transverse pressure gradients appear because
of normal stresses, they are independent of the distance x and will not affect ∂p/∂x (the
discussion of Section 4.5.1 remains valid).

4.6.1 Steady-state Couette plane flow

We will discuss a steady-state parallel flow, with the same geometry as that of Figure 4.18a:
a fluid layer located between the two planes y and y + δy must be in mechanical equilib-
rium; this requires that the condition σ xy
(y + δy) = σ
(y) be satisfied for all values of y
xy
and δy, since they are the only components of the non-vanishing stresses in the x-direction.

must therefore be constant throughout the fluid; this also means that
The viscous stress σ xy

) must also be constant. We have thus, just as for a Newtonian
the shear rate ∂vx /∂y = f (σ xy
fluid, a simple shear flow with velocity profile vx = V 0 y/a. Such a geometrical configuration
would be, in theory, ideal for a direct measurement of the rheological characteristic f (σ xy
),

since both the shear rate and the viscous stress are well defined. Unfortunately, this condi-
tion is only approximately satisfied in the practical geometries described earlier (plane-cone
viscometer, and cylindrical Couette viscometer).

4.6.2 One-dimensional flow between fixed walls

Let us go back to the two-dimensional steady-state flow between two horizontal walls y = 0
and y = a, as discussed in Section 4.5.3 for Newtonian fluids. Projecting the equation of
motion 4.25 in the x-direction of the flow, we obtain:

∂σxy ∂p
= . (4.113)
∂y ∂x

= 0, because there is
Along the plane of symmetry, y = a/2, of the flow, we must have σ xy
no reason for momentum transport to occur preferentially in one direction rather than the
opposite. By integrating Equation 4.113, we then obtain:

a ∂p

σxy = y– . (4.114)
2 ∂x
We observe that the force per unit area has the Then, on the walls at y = 0 and y = a, one has respectively:
same absolute value on each of the walls. As we
pointed out in Section 4.5.1 for Newtonian

a ∂p
a ∂p
fluids, Equation 4.114 expresses the equilib- σwall (y = 0) = – (4.115a) and: σwall (y = a) = . (4.115b)
rium between the x-components of the viscous 2 ∂x 2 ∂x
stresses and of the pressure on volume elements

, and by integration
of the fluid. We also note that both the veloc- If γ̇xy = ∂υx /∂y = f σxy , we obtain, by using Equation 4.114 for σ xy
ity gradients and the viscous stresses vanish in from y to a, the velocity vx (y) at position y:
the plane y = a/2, and reach a maximum in ab-
a
solute value on the walls (this is a result of ∂p
Equation 4.114, and of the fact that the function vx (y) = – f u du. (4.116)
f increases monotonically). y ∂x

The flow rate Q between the two planes (per unit depth in the third, z-direction) is obtained
by further integration in the y-direction:
a a
∂p
Q = –2 f u du dy (4.117)
a/2 y ∂x
Simple one-dimensional, steady state flows of non-Newtonian fluids 129

(We integrate over half the interval, and double the result). Integrating then by parts,
changes the integral into the even simpler form: For a Newtonian fluid, the function f (u) sim-
plifies to f (u) = u/η, and we recover the value
Q = – (a3 /12η)(∂p/∂x) (Equation 4.68). Note
a
∂p that the use of the above equations requires only
Q = –2 y f y dy. (4.118) that the function f be defined, monotonic and in-
a/2 ∂x
tegrable. Specifically, we would have no problem
in treating cases where the function f has a dif-
We now calculate the shear rate at the wall, γ̇wall = ∂vx /∂y(y = a), using the variation of the ferent value on the two sides of a threshold value
flow rate Q as a function of the pressure gradient, without using the function f . Combining of the stress.
Equations 4.114 and 4.115, we find at first:

a σxy
y =
. (4.119)
2 σwall

Substituting the right hand of Equation 4.119 for y, and γ̇xy for the function f , Equation
4.118 becomes:

σwall

2 a2

Q σwall =– σxy γ̇xy dσxy . (4.120)

2 0

Taking the derivative of the above equation with respect to σ wall and observing that Q is a

, we obtain:
function of ∂p/∂x, and thus of σ wall

dQ a2 2Q d Log Q
2Q+σwall
= – γ̇wall (4.121) i.e.: γ̇wall = – 2 + . (4.122)
dσwall 2 a2 d Log p

We note that Equation 4.122, known as the Mooney–Rabinovitch equation, involves

only macroscopic parameters which are relatively easy to measure (flow rate, pressure

difference, etc.). Moreover, the wall stress σ wall results immediately from the equation

σ wall = (a/2)(∂p/∂x). The local rheological characteristic γ̇xy = f σxy can therefore be ob-
tained from the global relationship between the flow rate and the pressure gradient along
the flow, but only if the function f does not depend on time.

Corresponding results for cylindrical capillaries

Starting with Equation 4.25, and taking into account that the equation ∂p/∂r = 0 still holds,
we obtain:
∂
∂p
r ∂p
(σ r) = r (4.123) whence: σzr = · (4.124)
∂r zr ∂z 2 ∂z

We again assume in going from Equation 4.123 to Equation 4.124, that σ zr

= 0 along the

axis r = 0. Combining Equation 4.124 and the relationship between the stress and rate of

), we obtain:
strain ∂vz /∂r = f (σ zr

R u ∂p
vz (r) = – f du. (4.125)
r 2 ∂z

We then calculate the flow rate Q by integrating 2π r vz (r) along r. Integrating by parts, we
finally obtain the equivalent of Equation 4.118:

R r ∂p
Q = –π r2 f d r. (4.126)
0 2 ∂z
130 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

and the wall
Replacing, just as in the case of the two parallel planes, r and (∂p/∂z) by σ zr

stress σ wall , we obtain:

σwall

3
2

Q σwall = –π R3 σzr γ̇zr dσzr . (4.127)

Taking the derivative of this equation with respect to σ wall and then dividing by σ
2
wall , we
finally obtain:

Q d Log Q
γ̇wall = – 3+ . (4.128)
π R3 d Log p

Here again, the above equation in combination with the relation between ∂p/∂z, σ wall
and the
radius of the tube allows us to determine the rheological characteristics of the fluid from the
relationship between the flow rate and the pressure difference. In practical terms, we carry
out several measurements on tubes of the same diameter, but of differing lengths, in order
to estimate and correct for the influence of tube end effects at the entrance. Also, comparing
the results obtained along tubes of differing diameters allows us to detect possible effects of
slip at the wall.

4.6.3 Velocity profiles for simple rheological

behavior
Power-law fluids
Let us assume that, just as in Equation 4.40, σ xy
= D (∂v /∂y)(1–α) . When α = 0, this equa-
x
tion simplifies to that for Newtonian fluids with D = η. For α < 0, the apparent viscosity

/(∂v /∂y) increases with the shear rate (shear thickening fluid). For α > 0, the appar-
σ xy x
ent viscosity decreases as a function of the shear rate (shear thinning fluid). We then have:
f (u) = D–1/(1–α) u1/(1–α) . By substituting this expression into Equations 4.116 and 4.125, we
obtain for the flow between two planes separated by a distance a and symmetric with respect
to the plane y = a/2, the profile:

1 2–α
1–α 1 ∂p 1–α
a 1–α a 2–α
1–α
vx (y) = ∂x – y – (4.129a)
2–α D 2 2

and, inside a cylindrical tube:

1
1–α 1 ∂p 1–α
vz (r) = 2–α 2–α
R 1–α – r 1–α (4.129b)
2–α 2D ∂z

[We multiply these expressions by –1 if ∂p/∂x > 0 (for the plane geometry), or ∂p/∂z > 0
(for the cylindrical case)]. The corresponding respective values for the flow rate are:
1 3–2α 1
2 – 2α 1 ∂p 1–α a 1–α π(1 – α) 1 ∂p 1–α 4–3α
Q= and: Q= R 1–α .
3 – 2α D ∂x 2 4 – 3α 2D ∂z
(4.130a) (4.130b)

We see that, for α > 0, the exponents for the law relating the change in flow rate to the aper-
tures a or R of the channels, at a given pressure gradient, are higher than those (respectively
Simple one-dimensional, steady state flows of non-Newtonian fluids 131

υx(r)/U α = –0.8
1.5 Figure 4.25 Profile along a diameter of the
α=0
ratio of the local velocity to the average veloc-
α = 0.8 ity in a cylindrical tube for fluids displaying
1.0
a power-law rheological behavior of the type

= D (∂v /∂y)(1–α) ; upper curve: α = –0.8
σxy x
0.5 (shear thickening fluid); middle curve: α = 0
(Newtonian fluid); flattest curve: α = 0.8
(shear thinning fluid)
0.0
–1.0 –0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 r/R

3 and 4) given by the Poiseuille laws in the case of Newtonian fluids; we can, in fact, rewrite
the exponent for a as 3 + α/(1 – α), and that for R as 4 + α /(1 – α). The ratio between the
rates of flow in two channels of different cross-sections, under a given pressure gradient is
therefore increased by the shear thinning characteristics of the fluid. This difference is, on
the contrary, reduced for a shear thickening fluid.
Let U = Q/a and U = Q/(πR2 ) be the respective average values of the velocity in each of
the two cases; we can rewrite the velocity profiles in the form:
2–α
vx 3 – 2α y 1 1–α vz 4 – 3α r 2–α
1 – 2 –
1–α
= and: = 1– .
U 2–α a 2 U 2–α R
(4.131a) (4.131b)

As we can see in Figure 4.25, the velocity profiles are sharper for the values α < 0 (shear Qualitatively, the shape of the profile increases
thickening fluids) than for a Newtonian fluid (α = 0); moreover, the curvature is effectively the velocity gradient in the neighborhood of the
wall and, thus, allows it to take advantage of
infinite at y = a/2 or where r = 0. The velocity profiles obtained for α > 0 (shear thinning an even lower effective viscosity; the effect is
fluids) are, on the other hand, increasingly flattened as the value of α increases. opposite in the case of a shear thickening fluid.

Bingham fluid between two parallel planes

As we have previously discussed, Bingham fluids are threshold fluids for which there exists
a linear relationship between the stress and the strain beyond a threshold σ c . We assume
that:

∂vx 1

= (σxy

– sign(σxy ) σc ) if σ > σc > 0 (4.132a)

xy
∂y D

∂vx

and: =0 if σ ≤ σc . (4.132b)
xy
∂y

In this case, the function f (u) is of the form (1/D)(u – sign(u) σc ) for |u|> σc and
f (u) = 0 for |u|≤ σc . Hereafter, we assume that ∂p/∂x < 0 and vx ≥ 0. The equation

= (y – a/2)(∂p/∂x) remains valid, and the stress σ
vanishes for y = 0. We therefore
σ xy xy
have a region near the plane of symmetry where σ xy
< σ and where ∂v /∂y is thus zero,
c x
such that the velocity has a constant value V max . The boundaries y1 and y2 of this region
are symmetric with respect to the plane y = a/2 and satisfy the condition:

a
a σc
y1 – = – y2 – = . (4.133)
2 2 ∂p
∂x
132 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

If y1 > a, the velocity is everywhere zero. If y1 < a, the velocity profile near the wall y = a is
υx(y) (a) obtained by simple integration of Equation 4.132a:

1 a ∂p
vx (y) = u – σc du (4.134)
D y ∂x
0 a y
and we have a symmetric profile near the wall y = 0. We then obtain, by using Equations
|∂p/∂x|1 < 2σc/a 4.132a and 4.132b, the velocity profiles:

1 ∂p
vx (y) = [a – y] [a + y – 2y1 ] (4.135)
υx(y) (b) 2D ∂x

1 ∂p
and: vx (y) = Vmax = [a – y1 ]2 , (4.136)
2D ∂x

0 a y respectively for y > y1 and 0 < y ≤ y1 (we have a symmetric velocity profile in the region
y < a/2). Qualitatively, we observe the shapes of velocity profiles shown in Figure 4.26.
|∂p/∂x|2 > 2σc/a
is everywhere less than the threshold stress, the fluid is at rest (top
Where the stress σ xy
graph). As the applied pressure gradient increases, we observe velocity profiles with a flat
region in the middle (region of plug flow) whose extent becomes smaller as the applied pres-
υx(y) (c)
sure gradient increases (velocity profiles in the center and bottom graphs). More generally,
we observe, looking at Figures 4.25 and 4.26 that the existence of a non-zero yield stress or
of a viscosity which decreases with the shear stress (which plays a similar role) leads in both
cases to a flattening of the velocity profile.
0 a y
|∂p/∂x|3 > |∂p/∂x|2 Bingham fluid in a cylindrical tube
The problem of a Bingham fluid in a cylindrical tube is solved like that of the flow between
two parallel planes by using Equation 4.124: σ zr
= (r/2) (∂p/∂z). In the central area of the
Figure 4.26 Velocity profiles observed for
the case of a Bingham fluid, for different profile, the velocity gradient ∂vz /∂r is zero all the way to the radius r0 = 2σc / |∂p / ∂x|. In
values of the longitudinal pressure gradient. this region we have a constant velocity V max which is zero if r 0 > R. If r 0 < R, the velocity
(Note that the slope is continuous at the points profile near the wall satisfies the equation:
where the flat region connects to the regions on
each of its sides) 1 R
u ∂p
vz (r) = – σc du. (4.137)
D 2 ∂z
r

We then obtain the respective velocity profiles for r > r 0 and r < r 0 :

1 ∂p 1 ∂p
[R – r0 ]2 .
vz (r) = [R – r] [R + r – 2r0 ] and: vz (r) = Vmax =
4D ∂z 4D ∂z
(4.138a) (4.138b)

These profiles are shown qualitatively in Figure 4.26.

4.6.4 Flow of a viscoelastic fluid near an oscillating

plane
We have discussed, in Section 4.5.4., the flow of a Newtonian fluid near a solid plane oscil-
lating parallel to itself, with a frequency ω. Let us now assume that the fluid is a viscoelastic
Maxwell fluid with rheological characteristics described by Equation 4.51b. We shall fol-
low in this case the same procedure as in the previous one, by assuming that the velocity
Simple one-dimensional, steady state flows of non-Newtonian fluids 133

vx parallel to the plane satisfies vx (y, t) = f (y) cos (ωt + ϕ) = e(f (y) eiωt )(Figure
4.22).
In Equation 4.85, we replace the viscosity ν by the complex viscosity ν̄ = η̄ / ρ which has the
form (see Equation 4.51b):
ν
ν̄ = . (4.139)
1 + iω τ
The characteristic response time of the fluid is related to the elastic modulus G and the
dynamic viscosity, η = ν /ρ, by τ = η/G. Solving Equation 4.85 and using Equation 4.139 for
the viscosity, we find solutions of the form:

f (y) = C1 e–(β+ik)y + C2 e(β+ik)y , (4.140)

where, in contrast to Newtonian case (Equation 4.86), we do not necessarily have β = k,

and where β and k satisfy the equation:
1 – i ωτ
iω = ν (β 2 – k2 + 2iβk). (4.141)
1 + ω2 τ 2
If we consider only flows in the semi-infinite space y > 0, we can assume (as for the case of
Newtonian fluid) C2 = 0 with β > 0. The real and imaginary parts of Equation 4.141 lead
us to the two relations:

β 2 – k2 + 2 βk ω τ = 0 (4.142a)

and: ω 1 + ω2 τ 2 = 2βν k – νωτ β 2 – k2 . (4.142b)

Substituting the value of β 2 – k2 from one equation into the other one, we find the The distance 1/β is the characteristic attenua-
dependence: tion length for velocity oscillations induced by
the motion of the plane; the ratio k/β thus rep-
ω resents the order of magnitude of the number
βk= . (4.143) of wavelengths over which attenuation occurs.
2ν
By means of Equations 4.143 and 4.145, and
This expression thus requires that k > 0 if β > 0. Substituting further in Equation 4.142a, using the definition (Equation 4.89) of the pene-
and taking the positive square root of the result obtained, we finally obtain the equation: tration depth of oscillations δ(ω) in a Newtonian
fluid, we obtain:

k2 1 τ τ 1
= + 1 + . (4.144) 2 k2 δ2 (ω) = 4ω τ (4.146)
ω2 2 ν ν ω2 τ 2
and:
From this, we can determine the value for β from Equation 4.141. At low frequencies, such
that ωτ 1, Equation 4.144 reduces to k2 = ω/2ν and, from Equation 4.143, β has the same k k2
= = k2 δ 2 (ω). (4.147)
value. This variation is identical to that for a Newtonian fluid (Equation 4.86): this was to be β ω / 2ν
expected since the complex viscosity ν̄, according to Equation 4.139, becomes essentially The condition ω τ 1 (elastic behavior of the
equal to ν. In the opposite limit, where ωτ 1 (with the period of sinusoidal excitation fluid) thus implies both k δ(ω)1 (wavelength
short relative to the characteristic response time τ of the viscoelastic fluid), Equation 4.144 much shorter than the viscous penetration
depth) and k / β1 (large number of wave-
becomes: lengths over the attenuation distance of the ve-
locity oscillations). Since Equation 4.143 can be
k2 τ ρ 1
= = = 2. (4.145) rewritten in the form: β δ(ω) = 1/(k δ(ω))1, we
ω2 ν G cs can also infer that the attenuation distance 1/β in
the elastic regime is much greater than the pene-
The ratio ω/k is then equal to the velocity of propagation cs of transverse shear waves in tration depth δ(ω) which would result only from
a solid with shear modulus G and density ρ: for high excitation frequencies, the medium viscosity effects. We note, however, that, for real
fluids such as those discussed in Figure 4.14, the
behaves as an elastic solid (the complex modulus Ḡ in Equation 4.51 then simplifies to the deviations from the Maxwell relation observed
real value G) in which such waves can propagate, in contrast to a Newtonian fluid in which at high frequencies will in practice reduce the
they attenuate very rapidly. distance over which the waves propagate.
134 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

4A Appendix - Representation of the

equations of fluid mechanics in different
systems of coordinates
4A.1 Representation of the stress-tensor, the
equation of conservation of mass and the
Navier–Stokes equations in Cartesian
coordinates (x, y, z)
z Stress Tensor

∂vx ∂vy ∂vz
M σxx = –p + 2η σyz = η +
∂x ∂z ∂y

∂vy ∂vz ∂vx
σyy = –p + 2η σzx = η +
y ∂y ∂x ∂z
O
∂vz ∂vx ∂vy
x φ r σzz = –p + 2η σxy = η +
∂z ∂y ∂x

Figure 4A.1 Definition and orientation of Equation of conservation of mass for an incompressible fluid (∇·v = 0)
cylindrical coordinates
∂vx ∂vy ∂vz
+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z

Navier–Stokes equations

∂vx ∂vx ∂vx ∂vx 1 ∂p ∂ 2 vx ∂ 2 vx ∂ 2 vx
+ vx + vy + vz =– +ν + + + fx
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂x ∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2

∂vy ∂vy ∂vy ∂vy 1 ∂p ∂ 2 vy ∂ 2 vy ∂ 2 vy
+ vx + vy + vz =– +ν + + + fy
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂y ∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2

∂vz ∂vz ∂vz ∂vz 1 ∂p ∂ 2 vz ∂ 2 vz ∂ 2 vz
+ vx + vy + vz =– +ν + + + fz
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂z ∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2

4A.2 Representation of the stress-tensor, the

equation of conservation of mass, and the
Navier–Stokes equations in cylindrical
coordinates (r, ϕ, z) (see Figure 4A.1 for the definition and
orientation of the cylindrical coordinates)

Stress Tensor

∂vr ∂vϕ 1 ∂vz
σrr = –p + 2η σϕz = η +
∂r ∂z r ∂ϕ

1 ∂vϕ vr ∂vz ∂vr
σϕϕ = –p + 2η + σzr = η +
r ∂ϕ r ∂r ∂z

∂vz 1 ∂vr ∂vϕ vϕ
σzz = –p + 2η σrϕ = η + –
∂z r ∂ϕ ∂r r
Appendix - Representation of the equations of fluid mechanics in different systems of coordinates 135

Equation of conservation of mass for an incompressible fluid (∇·v = 0)

1 ∂(r vr ) 1 ∂vϕ ∂vz

+ + =0
r ∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z

Navier–Stokes equations

∂vr ∂vr vϕ ∂vr ∂vr v2ϕ

+ vr + + vz – =
∂t ∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z r
2
1 ∂p ∂ vr 1 ∂ 2 vr ∂ 2 vr 1 ∂vr 2 ∂vϕ vr
– +ν + + + – – + fr [r-component]
ρ ∂r ∂r 2 r 2 ∂ϕ 2 ∂z2 r ∂r r 2 ∂ϕ r 2

∂vϕ ∂vϕ vϕ ∂vϕ ∂vϕ vr vϕ

+ vr + + vz + =
∂t ∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z r
2
1 1 ∂p ∂ vϕ 1 ∂ 2 vϕ ∂ 2 vϕ 1 ∂vϕ 2 ∂vr vϕ
– +ν + + + + – + fϕ [ϕ-component]
ρ r ∂ϕ ∂r 2 r 2 ∂ϕ 2 ∂z2 r ∂r r 2 ∂ϕ r2

∂vz ∂vz vϕ ∂vz ∂vz

+ vr + + vz =
∂t ∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z
2
1 ∂p ∂ vz 1 ∂ 2 vz ∂ 2 vz 1 ∂vz
– +ν + + + + fz [z-component]
ρ ∂z ∂r 2 r 2 ∂ϕ 2 ∂z2 r ∂r

4A.3 Representation of the stress-tensor, the

equation of conservation of mass, and the
Navier–Stokes equations in spherical polar
coordinates (r, θ, ϕ)
Stress Tensor z

∂vr 1 ∂vθ 1 ∂vϕ vϕ cot θ M
σrr = –p + 2η σθϕ = η + –
∂r r sin θ ∂ϕ r ∂θ r θ
r
1 ∂vθ vr ∂vϕ vϕ 1 ∂vr
σθθ = –p + 2η + σϕr =η – +
r ∂θ r ∂r r r sin θ ∂ϕ O y

1 ∂vϕ vr vθ cot θ 1 ∂vr ∂vθ vθ
σϕϕ = –p + 2η + + σrθ =η + – x φ
r sin θ ∂ϕ r r r ∂θ ∂r r

Figure 4A.2 Definition and orientation of

Equation of conservation of mass for an incompressible fluid (∇·v = 0) spherical polar coordinates

1 ∂(r 2 vr ) 1 ∂(sin θ vθ ) 1 ∂vϕ ∂vr vr 1 ∂ vθ cot θ vθ 1 ∂vϕ

+ + = +2 + + + =0
r 2 ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ ∂r r r ∂θ r r sin θ ∂ϕ
136 Dynamics of viscous fluids: rheology and parallel flows

Navier–Stokes equations

∂vr ∂vr vθ ∂vr vϕ ∂vr v2θ + v2ϕ

+ vr + + – =
∂t ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ r

1 ∂p 1 ∂ 2 (r vr ) 1 ∂ 2 vr 1 ∂ 2 vr cot θ ∂vr
– +ν + 2 + + 2
ρ ∂r r ∂r 2 r ∂θ 2 r 2 sin2 θ ∂ϕ 2 r ∂θ

2 ∂vθ 2 ∂vϕ 2vr 2 cot θ
– 2 – 2 – 2 – vθ + fr [r-component]
r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ r r2

∂vθ ∂v v ∂vθ vϕ ∂vθ vr vθ v2ϕ cot θ

+ vr θ + θ + + – =
∂t ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ r r

1 1 ∂p 1 ∂ 2 (rvθ ) 1 ∂ 2 vθ 1 ∂ 2 vθ cot θ ∂vθ
– +ν + 2 + + 2
ρ r ∂θ r ∂r 2 r ∂θ 2 r 2 sin2 θ ∂ϕ 2 r ∂θ

2 cos θ ∂vϕ 2 ∂vr vθ
– + 2 – + fθ [θ-component]
r 2 sin2 θ ∂ϕ r ∂θ r 2 sin2 θ

∂vϕ ∂vϕ vθ ∂vϕ vϕ ∂vϕ vr vϕ vθ vϕ cot θ

+ vr + + + + =
∂t ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ r r

1 1 ∂p 1 ∂ 2 r vϕ 1 ∂ 2 vϕ 1 ∂ 2 vϕ cot θ ∂vϕ
– +ν + 2 + + 2
ρ r sin θ ∂ϕ r ∂r 2 r ∂θ 2 r sin θ ∂ϕ 2
2 2 r ∂θ

2 ∂vr 2 cos θ ∂vθ vϕ
+ 2 + – + fϕ [ϕ-component]
r sin θ ∂ϕ r 2 sin2 θ ∂ϕ r 2 sin2 θ

.........................................................................................

EXERCISES

1) Laminar Poiseuille flow between two coaxial tubes.

A Newtonian fluid (viscosity η) fills the space between two coaxial cylindrical tubes
with axis z, constant radii R1 and R2 >R1 and length L. A pressure difference p is
applied between the ends of the tubes and we neglect the entry effects. Assuming a
parallel flow vz (r) and using Equations
4.73, determine the velocity profile and show

π p R22 –R12 R22 –R21
that the flow rate Q is: Q = R 2 + R 2 – . Apply this result in
8η L 2 1 Log(R / R )2 1
the two limits R1 → 0 and R1 → R2 and indicate the corresponding situations.

2) Flow of a Bingham fluid on a tilted plane

We consider the flow of a layer of Bingham fluid (described in Section 4.6.3) of constant
thickness h deposited upon a plane surface (x,z). The z-axis is horizontal and the x-
axis is tilted at an angle α (> 0) with respect to the horizontal. The free surface is in
contact with air at a pressure p0 , and we assume that the normal stresses are isotropic.

The flow (if any) is parallel to x with a velocity vx (y) υy = υz = 0 . Write the x- and y-
components of the equation of motion (Equation 4.25) and the boundary conditions.
Appendix - Representation of the equations of fluid mechanics in different systems of coordinates 137

What is the pressure variation in the fluid volume? Solve the equations of motion and
study the change of the profile vx (y) as the angle α increases from 0.

3) Dynamics of a meniscus rising in a cylindrical tube.

The bottom end of an open vertical cylindrical tube is put in contact at t = 0 with the
horizontal surface of large area of a liquid of density ρ, viscosity η and surface tension γ .
The wetting angle is θ, and the diameter d of the tube is small compared to the capillary
length lc . What is the variation with time of the height h(t) of the air–liquid interface
in the tube (the variation of the velocity is slow enough so that acceleration terms are
negligible)? Write explicitly the variation h(t) at short and long times.

4) Poiseuille flow in an elastic tube.

A stationary Poiseuille flow of flow rate Q of a fluid of viscosity η is established in
an horizontal tube of circular cross-section A(x) and of length L parallel to the di-
rection x; the walls of the tube are elastic (e.g. as those of blood vessels) and A(x)
satisfies: A(x)=A0 (1+K(p(x)-p0 )) where K is a constant related to the elasticity of
the tube. The pressure has the same value p0 outside the wall and at the outlet
x = L; p(x) is the pressure inside the tube at the distance x from the inlet. The Poiseuille
relation 4.77 is assumed to remain valid in a given section x=cst. Use it to write the
equation satisfied by the variation of the area A(x) as a function of x and show that:
1/3
A = A0 1 + (24π η Q K / A20 )(L – x) . What is then the variation of the pressure drop
p(0)-p0 as a function of the flow rate Q?
Conservation Laws
5 This chapter deals with various conservation laws for a moving fluid: conservation
of mass, of momentum and of energy. The conservation of circulation of the veloc-
5.1 Equation of conservation of mass 138 ity (angular momentum) will be treated in detail in Chapter 7. The question of the
5.2 Conservation of momentum 139 conservation of mass, already discussed in Chapter 3, is only briefly restated here
5.3 The conservation of kinetic (Section 5.1).
energy; Bernoulli’s Equation 142 The equations of motion for real fluids have been derived in the previous chapter.
Together with the equation of conservation of mass, they lead to the derivation of the
5.4 Applications of the laws of
conservation of energy and equation of conservation of momentum (Section 5.2). By applying this equation to
momentum 152 a suitably chosen volume within the fluid, called the control volume, we are able to
analyze the exchange of momentum in simple flows.
We thereupon discuss the equation of conservation of energy, stated in the form of
Bernoulli’s equation (Section 5.3), applying it then to a number of classical examples
(Pitot tube, Venturi gauge, etc.).
Finally, we conclude (Section 5.4) by dealing with a few more complex problems.
These latter illustrate how we can analyze quantitatively a number of flows by means
of the conservation laws, without requiring a complete determination of the velocity
field in the fluid.

5.1 Equation of conservation of mass

The equation of conservation of mass was derived earlier in Section 3.3.1. We recall here the
two equivalent ways of expressing it, corresponding to the two different reference frames,
i.e. the Eulerian and Lagrangian frames:

∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ ρ vj
Eulerian viewpoint (Equation 3.25): + ∇. (ρv) = + = 0. (5.1)
∂t ∂t ∂xj

dρ dρ ∂vj
Lagrangian viewpoint (Equation 3.27): + ρ ∇·v = +ρ = 0. (5.2)
dt dt ∂xj

The Lagrangian (or convective) derivative dρ/dt refers to the change in density of a
particle of fluid that we follow along in its motion (just as in the previous chapters, we retain
the Einstein convention of summing over repeated indices).
In situations where there is a source term for the fluid, e.g., a reactive flow in which a
certain chemical species A of partial density ρ A can be formed, Equation 5.1 then becomes

∂ρA
= –∇·(ρA v) + qA . (5.3)
∂t

Physical Hydrodynamics. Second Edition. Etienne Guyon et al.

Here, qA indicates the rate at which the density of species A is being produced per unit The presence of a spatial gradient of concen-
time. Equation 5.3 expresses the rate of change of density ∂ρ A /∂t in terms of the negative tration of species A causes a diffusive flux JDA
proportional to this gradient (JDA = –DA ∇CA ).
divergence, or influx, of ρ A v together with a volume source term qA . We will need to add JDA to ρ A v in the first term
of the right-hand side of Equation 5.3. We will
see that the expression thus obtained corre-
5.2 Conservation of momentum sponds to the most general form of conservation
equations.

5.2.1 The local equation

The momentum per unit volume of a fluid is equal to ρ v. The time derivative of its i th
component (i = x, y, z) is then:

∂(ρ vi ) ∂ρ ∂vi
= vi +ρ . (5.4)
∂t ∂t ∂t

We then combine Equations 5.4 and 5.1 (after having multiplied the latter by vi ), together
with the general form of the equation of motion 4.25 for a fluid (restated below) along the
xi -axis:

∂vi ∂vi ∂p ∂σij

ρ = –ρ vj – + + ρ fi , (5.5)
∂t ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj

where ρfi is a force per unit volume, and σ ij

is the viscous stress tensor. We then obtain:

∂ ∂ ρvj ∂vi ∂p ∂σij

(ρvi ) = –vi – ρ vj – + + ρ fi ,
∂t ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj
∂ ∂
i.e.: (ρvi ) = – ρ vi vj + pδij – σij
+ ρ fi . (5.6)
∂t ∂xj

In the above derivation, we have included the pressure term ∂p/∂xi in the parenthesis as
∂( p δ ij )/∂xj . In this very general form, Equation 5.6 is valid for all fluids, Newtonian or not,
compressible or incompressible. We find here a term ∂(ρvi )/∂t for the rate of change of
momentum, the divergence of a flux (ρ vi vj + p δij – σ ij
) and a source term ρ fi . In order
to understand more precisely the physical significance of these various terms, we look for a
global expression of Equation 5.6, by integrating over a macroscopic volume of the fluid.

5.2.2 The integral expression of the law

of conservation of momentum
Integral of the equation of conservation of momentum
Going back to the equation above, and integrating over a volume V fixed in space (such
that particles of fluid can cross its outer boundaries), we obtain:

∂ (ρ vi ) ∂
dV = – ρ vi vj + p δij – σij
dV + ρ fi dV . (5.7)
V ∂t V ∂xj V

Transforming now the first integral on the right-hand side by means of the divergence
theorem, we have further:

∂ (ρ vi )
dV = – ρ vi vj + p δij – σij
nj dS + ρ fi dV , (5.8)
V ∂t S V
140 Conservation Laws

S represents the surface bounding the volume of integration V . Using the fact that this
volume V is fixed, we can write for the time-derivative of the i th component of the total
momentum within V :

d
ρ vi dV =– ρ vi vj + p δij – σij
nj dS + ρ fi dV . (5.9)
dt V S V

Or, in vector form, with n being the outward normal to the volume V:

d !
We can write Equation 5.10 in the following ρ v dV =– (ρ v (v·n) + p n – σ
· n)d S + ρ f dV . (5.10)
alternative form (where we take f = g): dt V S V

d The first integral on the right-hand side of the above equation describes the contribution to
ρ v dV
dt V the change of momentum of the flux through surface S. Momentum being a vector quantity,

! the corresponding flux is a second-rank tensor having the most general form:
=– ρ v(v · n) – σ
· n dS (5.14)
S

+ (ρ g – ∇p) dV . ij = ρ vi vj + p δij – σij
, (5.11)
V

This alternate expression makes it more obvi- ij is called the momentum flux tensor per unit area: it is the flux in the j-direction of the
ous that it is the difference between the pressure i th component of the momentum. It consists of three terms:
gradient and the hydrostatic pressure gradient
(equal to –ρ g), and not the pressure itself, that
generates momentum. The change of momen-
tum within a volume of fluid is then the differ-
• ρ vi vj , the transport of the i th component of the momentum, ρvi , by particles moving
ence between this contribution and the fluxes in the j-direction;
due to viscous diffusion and convection through
the boundaries. For instance, in some numerical
• p δij , the momentum transport associated with pressure forces;
simulations, one applies a volume force rather • –σij
, the transport of momentum associated with the viscous friction forces.
than a pressure gradient in order to create flow.

The integral – S p n dS is the resultant of the pressure forces exerted normal to the
surface S.

The integral S [σ
]·n dS is equal to the tangential component of the viscous friction
force exerted on the surface S.
The second integral on the right-hand side represents the rate of generation of
momentum, due to the external force field f, within the volume under consideration.
By using the notation [] for the momentum flux tensor, we obtain the more compact
form for Equation 5.10:

d
ρ v dV = – []·n dS + ρ f dV. (5.12)
dt V S V

Equations 5.10 and 5.12 appear in the classical form characteristic of any conservation
law: the time derivative of a certain physical quantity (here, the momentum ρ v of the fluid
located within the volume of integration) is equal to the sum of a flux term and a source
term. The importance of this equation is that it allows us, in certain cases, to determine
the parameters of a flow without needing to know all its details within the volume V . It is
sufficient to know what the flow is on the boundaries of the volume. Indeed, if we are dealing
with a stationary flow (velocity and pressure fields independent of time), the term on the
left-hand side of the equation of conservation 5.10, the only one involving a volume integral
Conservation of momentum 141

of the velocity field of the fluid, is then identically zero. The equation then takes on a much
simpler form:

!
ρ v (v · n) d S + pn dS – σ
·n d S – ρ f dV = 0. (5.13)
S S S V

By an appropriate choice of the volume of integration, usually called the control volume
(bounded by the walls of a channel within which the fluid flows, or by surfaces which either
coincide with the flow tubes or are normal to them), we can then easily determine the force
exerted on the boundary of this volume by the moving fluid. We illustrate the use of this
property by means of a few specific examples in Section 5.4.

The case of an incompressible Newtonian fluid

Throughout the remainder of this section, we confine ourselves to the study of incompress-
ible Newtonian fluids. In such a case, we have the simple relationship [σ
] = 2η[e] between
the stress tensor [σ
] and the rate-of-strain (or deformation) tensor [e] (Equation 4.16).
Equation 5.10 then becomes:

d
ρ v dV = – (ρv (v·n) + p n – 2η [e]·n) dS + ρ f dV . (5.15)
dt V S V

We now discuss a few examples of simple flows to which we can apply local and integral
momentum conservation equations.
y V0
Application of the momentum conservation law to simple flows a
In Section 4.5 we used the equation of motion for a viscous fluid and applied it to simple
flows between parallel planes, such as Poiseuille flow or Couette shear flow. Here we an- y + δy
δ
alyze these flows in terms of the conservation of momentum, rather than in terms of the y
equilibrium of forces. x x + δx
Consider first the case of a stationary, simple shear (Couette) flow of an incompressible
Newtonian fluid located between two planes y = 0 and y = a, the lower plane being fixed x
0
while the upper one moves parallel to itself at the constant velocity V 0 in the x-direction (a)
(Figure 5.1a). As shown in Chapter 4, the velocity field v has components (V 0 y/a, 0, 0). y
We assume that gravity effects are insignificant. Let us consider the conservation of mo- a
mentum for a volume dV , of unit depth in the z-direction, and with dimensions δx and δy y + δy
along the two other directions. Since the velocity field is everywhere in the x-direction, δ
y Vmax
the only non-zero component of momentum ρ vx is along the x-axis. In this direction, x x + δx
the momentum flux entering through the faces located at x and x + δx is, according to
Equation 5.11:
x
0
xx nx δy = – ρ υx + p nx δy
2
(b)
(the unit vector n is oriented toward the outside of the volume and perpendicular to the Figure 5.1 Definition of the volume element
boundary). But the velocity vx depends only on the y-coordinate and the pressure p is δV for the calculation of the conservation of
constant throughout the flow. The algebraic value of the flux exiting through the face located momentum (a) for simple shear flow (Couette
at x + δx (where nx = 1) is thus opposite to the flux through the face located at x (for which flow) between two parallel planes without any
nx = –1). As a result, there is simply passive transport of momentum in the x-direction external pressure gradient; (b) for Poiseuille
across the element δV . flow between two planes y = 0 and y = a,
In the y-direction, the algebraic flux of the momentum ρvx through the faces located at resulting from a horizontal pressure gradient
y and y + δy can be written: ∂p/∂x

xy ny δx = –σxy ny δx = –η (∂υx /∂y) ny δx. (5.16)

142 Conservation Laws

For a velocity gradient as shown in Figure 5.1a, this momentum transfer is directed down-
ward because the layers of fluid located near the plane moving with the greater velocity V0
drag along the others. Here again, since the velocity gradient ∂vx /∂y does not depend on y,
the algebraic flux across the faces located at y and y+δy are in opposite directions (ny = –1
on the face at y and ny = +1 on the other) We have simply a passive transfer of momentum
in the y-direction (here again, for the specific case of Couette flow).
We obtain a very different result in the case of stationary Poiseuille flow, again in the
absence of gravity, resulting from a constant pressure gradient ∂p/∂x between the two fixed
parallel planes y = 0 and y = a (Figure 5.1b). In this case, the velocity component vy is zero,
and vx has a parabolic profile such that, following Equations 4.66 and 4.67:

a2 ∂p y(a – y)
vx ( y) = – . (5.17)
2η ∂x a2

As in the previous case, the pressure gradient in the y-direction remains zero (p = p(x)),
and only the momentum component ρ vx in the x-direction is non-vanishing. Its flux across
the faces perpendicular to the x-direction of the volume element δV is equal to:

xx nx δy = – ρ υx ( y) + p (x) nx δy.
2

In this case, the flux varies both in the x-direction (because of the pressure gradient ∂p/∂x)
and in the y-direction (because of the change in ρ v2x ( y)). In the same way, the momentum
flux through the faces located at y and y+δy, again given by Equation 5.16, depends on y.
In contrast, the time-rate of change of the momentum Px within the volume element δV
must still be zero because the flow is stationary. We thus obtain, applying Equation 5.12
and expanding the result for small values of δx and δy, the equation:

∂Px ∂ ∂ xx ∂ xy
= (ρ vx ) δx δy = – + δx δy = 0, (5.18)
∂t ∂t ∂x ∂y

which can be rewritten in the form:

∂ 2 vx ( y) ∂p
–η + δx δy = 0,
∂y2 ∂x

which is identical to the Navier-Stokes equation 4.59 in parallel flow.

Writing the equation of conservation of momentum gives us then simply a different
point of view of the equation of motion. Equation 5.18 indicates that the contribution of the
pressure gradient (∂ xx /∂x term) to the momentum is compensated by the change ∂ xy /∂y
of the viscous flux of momentum xy = –η ∂vx /∂y in the transverse y-direction. For Poiseuille
flow we find, using Equation 5.17, that this latter flux has the value xy = [(a/2)–y] ∂p/∂x;
it is therefore zero at y=a/2 (half-way between the two planes) and has a maximal absolute
value along the walls. For ∂p/∂x < 0, this flux is directed toward the nearest wall; at a given
transverse position y, it represents the momentum added per unit time by the pressure
gradient between the planes a/2 and y.

5.3 The conservation of kinetic energy;

Bernoulli’s Equation
We first evaluate the rate of change in the kinetic energy per unit volume for a moving fluid.
For the specific case of an ideal fluid this leads us to Bernoulli’s equation, one of the forms
The conservation of kinetic energy; Bernoulli’s Equation 143

which express the conservation of energy. Thereafter, we discuss applications of Bernoulli’s

equation to a few real flow situations where viscosity may be neglected.

5.3.1 The conservation of energy for a flowing

incompressible fluid with or without viscosity
Derivation of the conservation equation
We consider the case of incompressible fluid flow. The kinetic energy per unit volume can
be written:

dEc ρ v2
ec = = .
dV 2
Calculating the Eulerian derivative of ec with respect to time at a fixed point, we obtain the
following equation:
2
∂ ρ v2 ρv ∂vi
= –∇· v + p – [σ
]·v + ρ v·f – σij
. (5.19)
∂t 2 2 ∂xj

Derivation of Equation 5.19. We can write:

∂ ρ v2 ∂v ∂vi
= ρ v· = ρ vi . (5.20)
∂t 2 ∂t ∂t

Replacing ∂v/∂t by its value from the equation of motion of the fluid (Equation 4.25):

∂vi ∂vi ∂p ∂σij

ρ + vj =– + + ρ fi , (5.21)
∂t ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj

we obtain:

∂ ρ v2 ∂vi ∂p ∂σij
= –ρ vi vj
– vi + vi + ρ vi fi
∂t 2 ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj
2 (5.22)
∂ ρv ∂p ∂
∂vi
= –vj – vi + vi σij – σij
+ ρ vi fi ,
∂xj 2 ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj
2
∂ ρ v2 v ∂vi
i.e.: = (–v ·∇) ρ + p + ∇· [σ
]·v – σij
+ ρ v·f. (5.23)
∂t 2 2 ∂xj

Applying the general result from vector calculus, ∇·(α A) = A·∇α + α ∇·A, we find:
2 2
ρv ρv ρ v2
∇· v +p = + p (∇·v) + (v·∇) +p . (5.24)
2 2 2

By then combining the condition for incompressibility ∇·v = 0 with Equations 5.23 and
5.24, Equation 5.19 follows in a straightforward manner.

In order to understand more easily the physical meaning of the terms in the local
Equation 5.19, we carry out an integration leading to the integral form of the same equation.
We choose a volume of integration V , fixed in space and bounded by the surface S, and
apply Gauss’ divergence theorem to introduce the corresponding flux vectors:
144 Conservation Laws

d v2 v2
ρ dV =– ρ v·n dS
dt V 2 S 2

!
– p v · n dS + σ
·n ·v dS + ρ f·v dV (5.25)
S S V

∂vi
– σij
dV .
V ∂xj

• The first term on the right-hand side of Equation 5.25 represents the overall flux of
kinetic energy ρv2 /2 convected by the fluid across the surface S.
• The next three terms of the equation represent the work done by the combination of
forces acting on the volume V under consideration:
The first two of these give respectively the work done by the pressure forces and by
the components of the viscous stresses which act normal to the surface S, enclosing
the volume V .
The third term corresponds to the increase in energy resulting from external forces
(equal to ρ f per unit volume). This term is positive when ρ f and v are in the same
direction, as would be the case for a fluid flowing downward within the earth’s gravi-
tational field (f = g), leading to an increase in the kinetic energy. If the force field f is
the derivative of a potential, we can consider that the work resulting from it indicates
an exchange of kinetic and potential energy.

• Finally, we will see that the term

V σij ∂vi / ∂xj dV represents the irreversible

transformation of kinetic energy, by viscous dissipation, into internal energy of the
fluid in the form of heat.

We now discuss, in greater detail, the respective contribution of the two terms of
Equation 5.25 which involve the viscous shear stresses [σ
].

Kinetic energy dissipation through viscosity in a parallel plane flow

Consider a volume element δV of sides δx and δy along the x- and y-directions respec-
tively, and of unit depth in the z-direction in a stationary plane parallel flow with velocities
vx (y) such as those indicated in Figure (5.1a–b). Let us assume that only the components

= σ
of the viscous stress tensor are non-zero (as will be the case for Newtonian fluid)
σ xy yx
and that the component in the x-direction of the volume force is zero. The work done per
unit time by these forces on the upper and lower faces of the volume element, i.e., the third
term on the right-hand side of Equation 5.25, has the value:

∂

σxy (y + δy) vx (y + δy) – σxy (y) vx (y) δx = σ (y) vx (y) δx δy.
∂y xy

The difference in sign results from the fact that the normal n is oriented toward positive
y for the upper face, and toward negative y for the lower face. The derivative of the product
of the second term can be split into two terms:

•
(y)/∂y) δx δy. It represents the work done per unit time
The first is equal to vx (∂σ xy

(y + δy) – σ
(y) of the viscous stresses on the lower and upper
by the resultant σ xy xy
faces of the volume element. This work would result in a change of the global kinetic
energy of the element but, in the present case, according to Equation 4.113, it is
The conservation of kinetic energy; Bernoulli’s Equation 145

opposite to the work done by the pressure forces on the faces of height δy of the
element. This latter work has the value (p(x) – p(x + δx)) vx δy = –(∂p/∂x) vx δx δy.
The kinetic energy thus remains constant, as expected since the flow is stationary.
• The second term resulting from taking the derivative of the product has the value

(∂v (y)/∂y) δx δy and corresponds, in contrast, solely to work due to deformation.
σ xy x
In fact, in a reference frame moving at the average velocity vx (y), it represents the

δx exerted on the upper face of the volume
work done per unit time by the force σ xy
element: the point at which this force acts moves at velocity (∂vx (y)/∂y)δy relative
to the lower face. If the element was solid, this work would be stored in the form
of potential energy of elastic deformation; for a fluid, it is dissipated in the form of
thermal energy and transformed into internal energy.

Kinetic energy dissipation through viscosity in an arbitrary flow geometry

Equation 5.25 represents simply the generalization of the previous decomposition to a flow
with arbitrary geometry. It expresses the result that the work done by forces which act on a
volume element and the increase of kinetic energy by convection contribute to the change in
the kinetic energy of the volume on the one hand, and on the other hand, are transformed
into thermal energy. The rate of viscous dissipation of energy in the volume V of the fluid
is thus:

δEc / δt = σij
∂vi / ∂xj dV = σij
eij dV .
V V

Proof

Consider the integral: δEc / δt = V σij ∂vi / ∂xj dV . Making use of the symmetry of
the tensor [σ
] (σ ij
=σ ji
), we can write: σij
∂vi /∂xj = 12 σij
∂vi /∂xj + 12 σji
∂vi /∂xj . In order to
calculate δEc /δt, we sum over the two indices i and j and interchange these two indices in
the second term of the previous sum in order to obtain, after taking out the factor σ ij
:

δEc 1
∂vi 1 ∂vi 1 ∂vi ∂vj
= σij + σji
dV = σij
+ dV .
δt V 2 ∂xj 2 ∂xj V 2 ∂xj ∂xi

We recognize the component eij of the deformation tensor in the factor following σ ij
.

Kinetic energy dissipation in a Newtonian fluid

For the particular case of an incompressible Newtonian fluid, the above equation for the
rate of viscous dissipation can be combined with Equation 4.16 to obtain:

2
δEc η ∂vi ∂vj
= + dV = 2 η e2ij dV , (5.26)
δt 2 V ∂xj ∂xi V

where eij is the tensor of the rate of deformation. Since the term δEc /δt corresponds to an
irreversible energy dissipation and the quadratic form within the integral is positive definite,
this equation agrees with the fact that the viscosity coefficient is necessarily positive (see
Section 4.1.3).
146 Conservation Laws

5.3.2 Bernoulli’s equation and its applications

Bernoulli’s equation expresses the conservation of energy for ideal, incompressible fluids when
the volume forces f result from a potential ϕ with f = ∇ϕ (one has ϕ = g y when the vol-
ume force is gravity and the vertical coordinate y is positive upwards). We discuss first the
case of stationary flows, then that of non-stationary ones and, finally, we will illustrate the
underlying physics with a few applications of this equation.

Bernoulli’s equation for stationary flow

For an ideal fluid in stationary flow, one can neglect the losses of energy due to viscosity
and Equation 5.19 becomes:
2 2
ρv ρv
∇· v +p –ρv·f =∇· v + p + ρ (v·∇) ϕ = 0. (5.27)
2 2

Using again the general vector result, ∇·(α A) = A·∇α + α∇·A and the incompressibil-
ity equation ∇·v = 0, together with its consequence that the fluid density ρ is constant,
Equation 5.27 can be rewritten in the form:

ρ v2
(v · ∇) +p+ρϕ = 0. (5.28)
2

The scalar product in the above equation represents the time rate of change dP /dt of the
quantity P = ρ(v2 /2) + p + ρ ϕ during the course of a displacement along a streamline
(tangent at all points to the velocity vector). In fact, because the flow is stationary, the
Eulerian derivative ∂P /∂t is zero, so that:

dP
= (v · ∇) P = 0. (5.29)
dt

We hence infer a first representation of Bernoulli’s equation:

v2
ρ + p + ρ ϕ = constant along a streamline. (5.30)
2

The quantity ρv2 /2, having the dimensions of a pressure, is called the dynamic pressure, and
the expression p + (ρ v2 )/2 is the total or stagnation pressure.
Let us analyze this result by considering a uniform horizontal flow with velocity U which
impinges perpendicularly on an obstacle (Figure 5.2). There appears a stagnation point S,
where both the tangential and the normal velocity components are zero even for the case of
pO U ps an ideal fluid.
S
O Let us denote by pO the pressure at a point O located sufficiently far from the obstacle
on the same horizontal streamline as S (ϕ is then constant), and where the velocity has the
magnitude U . We have, between pO and the pressure ps at S, the relationship:

Figure 5.2 Flow in the neighborhood of a ps = pO + ρU 2 /2. (5.31)

stagnation point S for a fluid incident on
an obstacle. A measurement of the difference The fact that the fluid velocity is zero at S accounts for the name for ps , the stagnation
between the stagnation pressure pS and the pressure, which, by extension is given to the sum ps = p +ρ U 2 /2. This expression is also
pressure pO far from the obstacle leads to a referred to as the total pressure.
measurement of the fluid velocity U Equation 5.30 predicts that an increase in the velocity along a streamline is associated to
a decrease of the pressure along the same path. This effect explains cavitation phenomena:
The conservation of kinetic energy; Bernoulli’s Equation 147

if the velocity increases sufficiently so that the pressure drops down to the saturation vapor
pressure of the fluid at the corresponding temperature, the fluid displays local boiling. The
resulting vapor bubbles formed within the fluid implode afterwards on solid surfaces (tur-
bine blades, propellers, . . .) causing, in time, undesirable pitting of the surfaces. The noise
associated with the emission of such bubbles is also and important factor in the detection
of military submarines. Moreover, some species of shrimp can close their claws at a large
enough velocity (∼20 m/s) that a cavitation bubble is emitted which can paralyze its nearby
prey; as a result of the multitude of such shellfish, the resultant noise can even, on occasions,
be loud enough to interfere with sonar detectors!

Bernoulli’s equation for potential flow

Let us now consider the case of potential flow (discussed in detail in Chapter 6). The
velocity field v is then derivable from a potential such that:

v = ∇ (5.32)

We continue to assume that the flow is incompressible, with constant density ρ, and acted
upon by volume forces f derivable from a potential ϕ. However, we no longer assume that
the velocity field is stationary. We now derive Bernoulli’s equation directly from Euler’s
equation 4.31; we could also, of course, have used this same method to derive Bernoulli’s
equation in the most general case:

∂ ∇ ∂
ρ = ρ∇ = –ρ (v·∇) v – ∇p – ∇(ρ ϕ). (5.33)
∂t ∂t

We make use of the following identity from vector calculus:

v2
(v · ∇)v = ∇ – v × (∇ × v). (5.34)
2
Moreover, due to the fact that the flow is curl free (since the velocity field is derivable from
a potential function and, consequently, ∇×v = 0), Equation 5.33 becomes:
2
∂ v
∇ ρ = –∇ ρ – ∇p – ∇(ρ ϕ), (5.35)
∂t 2

so that, after integrating:

∂ v2
ρ +ρ + p + ρ ϕ = constant. (5.36)
∂t 2
This equation is another representation of Bernoulli’s equation. If the flow is stationary, such
that ρ(∂/∂t) = 0, this equation seems to revert to Equation 5.30. The crucial difference
here is in that the quantity (ρv2 /2 + p + ρ ϕ) is constant throughout the volume of the flow,
instead of only along a streamline as in the previous discussion. However, this more general
result cannot be derived merely from the law of conservation of energy.

5.3.3 Applications of Bernoulli’s equation

Bernoulli’s equation leads to the understanding of a large number of effects in which a
change in the velocity along the flow (e.g., due to the narrowing of a tube) results in an
opposite change in the pressure. The examples below give a few illustrations or applications
of these effects. Moreover, we will see how Bernoulli’s equation can be applied, at least to a
good approximation, to the flow of real fluids.
148 Conservation Laws

Preliminary reminder: an important property of one-dimensional flows

Before taking up these examples, we should recall a key result already discussed for Couette
and Poiseuille viscous flows in Chapter 4. Consider a volume of flowing fluid within which
the velocity is always in the same x-direction. We demonstrate that, in this case, the trans-
verse change in pressure along a cross-section normal to the flow reduces to the gradient
of the hydrostatic pressure: there is no additional term due to the flow. Indeed, because
the condition of incompressibility, ∇·v = 0, together with the fact that vy = vz = 0, leads to
∂vx /∂x = 0, the term (v·∇)v is identically zero. Moreover, the viscous friction forces are in
the x-direction. The equation of motion thus reduces to:

∂p
+ρg = 0 in the vertical direction (normal to the flow) (5.37a)
∂y

∂p
and: =0 in the other direction normal to the flow. (5.37b)
∂z
In the absence of gravitational effects, the pressure is thus constant throughout the cross-
section normal to the flow. This is a very important result in a large number of problems
involving the flow of real fluids.
Moreover, in high-velocity flow, real fluids display ideal fluid behavior, except within a
very thin boundary layer near the solid walls. It is in this boundary layer, discussed in detail
in Chapter 10 that the transition occurs between the zero tangential velocity condition at the
wall, and the bulk flow velocity expected for an ideal fluid. Since the flow in this boundary
layer is essentially locally parallel to the wall, we have, as a consequence of Equation 5.37b,
continuity of the pressure between the wall and the region just outside the boundary layer.

The Pitot tube

The Pitot tube involves a direct application of Bernoulli’s equation, allowing for a determina-
tion of the velocity of a fluid by means of a pressure measurement. In the example discussed
below, it consists of a fixed obstacle placed within a fluid in motion. In quite a number of
practical applications, however, the Pitot tube is attached to a moving object (airplane, boat,
etc.), and used to measure its velocity relative to the fluid. The device consists of two con-
centric tubes (Figure 5.3): the inner tube has an opening S at its apex, oriented normal to the
incoming flow, while the second tube is perforated with a series of tiny openings A spaced
uniformly along the circumference of a circle, on the outer surface of the device. A dif-
ferential manometer connected to each of the two tubes measures the pressure difference
p between points S and A.
If we neglect viscous effects, assuming that they are only significant within a very thin
boundary layer near the walls of the tubes, we can apply Equation 5.30 along the streamline
OS, coinciding with the axis of the tubes:

Towards differential manometer

Figure 5.3 Principle of the Pitot tube.

A'
Bernoulli’s equation is applied along the two U
streamlines, from O to S, and from O
to A
O' A
O S
The conservation of kinetic energy; Bernoulli’s Equation 149

U2
pO + ρ = ps . (5.38)
2

If we apply now Equation 5.30 along the streamline O

A
(the point A
is on the same vertical
axis as the pressure inlet A but outside the boundary layer):

U2 v2
v2
U2
pO
+ ρ = pA
+ ρ A = pA + ρ A = pA + ρ . (5.39)
2 2 2 2

Indeed, as we have just seen, the pressure remains constant as we cross the quasi one-
dimensional flow in the boundary layer normal to this flow, and we thus have pA = pA
.
On the other hand, the velocity at A
is effectively equal to U if A
is sufficiently far down-
stream of S and if the cross-section of the Pitot tube is small relative to the diameter of
the flow channel. Finally, the pressures at points O and O
infinitesimally close to each other
and located far upstream of the obstacle have the same values. We then obtain by combining
Equations 5.38 and 5.39:

U2
p = pS – pA = ρ (5.40)
2

The magnitude of the flow velocity is thus directly obtainable from a measurement of the
pressure difference p.

The Venturi gauge

The Venturi gauge (Figure 5.4) uses Bernoulli’s equation to evaluate the decrease in pressure
at a constriction in a tube. It is frequently used in practical applications (to draw in the
air-gas mixture in an automobile carburettor, in vacuum nozzles, in flow meters . . .).

A' C' z

A'' hA C'' hC Figure 5.4 Lowering of pressure in the

B'
B'' hB higher fluid-velocity region of a Venturi gauge
A B C O

When flow is initiated in this system, there appears a height difference, proportional to
the square of the flow rate, between the levels hA and hB in the manometer tubes A and B.
On the other hand, levels hA and hC are practically equal (hC being slightly lower than hA , if
the flow is directed from A to C, as a result of the head loss in the tube due to viscosity, which
we neglect in the present discussion). At the surface of the liquid in the three manometer
tubes, we have a pressure equal to the atmospheric pressure p0 :

pA
= pB
= pC
= p0 . (5.41)

Provided the manometer tubes are sufficiently narrow in diameter, they cause little distur-
bance in the flow. The latter then remains parallel in the sections of the tube where points
A, B and C are located (assuming the pressure detection points are sufficiently far away
from the regions where the cross-section of the tube is varying, so that the velocity can be
assumed uniform at their location). Equation 5.37 therefore holds. The pressure gradients
between A and A

, B and B

, C and C

then reduce to the hydrostatic pressure gradient.

150 Conservation Laws

Throughout the discussion on the left, we ne- The flow hardly penetrates into the manometer tubes, and the pressure gradient there is
glect viscous forces; it might thus seem that also hydrostatic only. We can therefore write:
this model corresponds to an approximation of
an ideal fluid. On the contrary, the phenom-
enon of the Venturi gauge would not be ob- pA = pA
+ ρ g hA = p0 + ρ g hA . (5.42)
served in an ideal fluid in potential flow, because
the boundary condition for zero velocity at the Similarly: pB = p0 + ρ g hB (5.43) and: pC = p0 + ρ g hC . (5.44)
walls plays an essential part! The reason for this
apparent paradox is the fact that the key hy- Let us now assume that the flow is uniform in each of the sections with respective veloci-
pothesis of our discussion (i.e., the fact that the
transverse pressure gradient reduces to the hy- ties vA , vB and vC , except very close to the solid walls. The transition to the condition of
drostatic pressure) is no longer obeyed. Let us zero tangential velocity at the solid wall occurs over a very narrow boundary layer without
write Bernoulli’s equation 5.36 assuming that the any transverse pressure gradient, as we have discussed above. If the energy losses through
only volume force is gravity and that the flow is
potential throughout the fluid: viscous friction are sufficiently small relative to the kinetic energy of the fluid, we can apply
Bernoulli’s equation 5.30 along the horizontal streamline ABC with:
v2 p
+ + g z = constant. (5.47)
2 ρ 1 2 1 1
pA + ρ v = pB + ρ v2B = pC + ρ v2C , (5.45)
If the manometer tubes are sufficiently long, the 2 A 2 2
effect of main flow decreases sufficiently as we
go up in the tubes, so that we can write: i.e., substituting for pA , pB and pC their values given by Equations 5.42–5.44, and dividing
the result by ρg, we obtain:
υA
= υB
= υC
= 0. (5.48)
Thus, applying Equation 5.47 to points A
, B
1 v2A 1 v2B 1 v2C
and C
, where the pressure p is equal to p0 , we hA + = hB + = hC + . (5.46)
find: 2 g 2 g 2 g

ghA = ghB = ghC , (5.49) This predicts indeed a lower level in the manometer tube B placed in the region of highest
i.e., hA = hB = hC . (5.50) velocity and a difference in level between A and B proportional to (vB 2 – vA 2 ). In order
There would therefore not be any difference be- to make use of Equation 5.45, we have assumed that the velocity is uniform throughout
tween the levels in the three tubes. We would still each of the cross-sections A, B and C. In actual experimental conditions, this assumption is
have a pressure difference between the points A not strictly valid, because of the boundary conditions of zero velocity at the wall; we must
and B but this difference would be exactly com-
pensated in the opposite direction due to the therefore introduce an experimental correction factor dependent on the velocity profile.
velocity changes as we go up inside the mano-
metric tubes toward A

and B

. Indeed, as we Application of Bernoulli’s equation to flow along a curve

no longer have the condition of zero tangential
velocity at the walls, the flow penetrates a finite
Consider a flow with curved streamlines of radius of curvature R (Figure 5.5). Assuming
distance into the tubes. The condition that the also that we can neglect viscous friction and volume forces, the equilibrium condition be-
velocity field be parallel at the points A

and B

tween the pressure gradient and the acceleration of a particle of incompressible fluid can be
where the pressures are being detected is thus no
written:
longer satisfied. In a viscous flow, on the other
hand, the velocity is zero or very small both at
the walls and within the manometer tubes: we dv dv v2
ρ = ρ t+ ρ n = –∇p. (5.51)
have, therefore, a virtually parallel flow as soon dt dt R
as we are a small distance away from the walls.
where t and n are unit vectors tangent and normal to the streamlines, and dv/dt is the
Lagrangian acceleration. By taking the scalar product of Equation 5.51 with t, and denoting
by s the coordinate along the length of the streamline, we obtain:
v
∂v ∂p
er t ρ v· =– , (5.52)
∂s ∂s
n
which is a local form of the equation of motion (recall that v = ds/dt). Similarly, by taking
R
the scalar product of the same equation with n, we have:

v2 ∂p ∂p
C ρ = –n·∇ p = –n· er = (5.53)
R ∂r ∂r

Figure 5.5 Variation of the pressure in a (er is the radial unit vector opposite in direction to n). The pressure therefore increases as
flow in which the streamlines are curved we go away from the center of curvature C of the streamline.
The conservation of kinetic energy; Bernoulli’s Equation 151

(a) (b)

Figure 5.6C Deviation of a jet of fluid

along the curved surface of a cylinder. (a)
Deflection of the jet and attraction force on
R the cylinder. (b) schematic diagram display-
θi ing the balance of the forces acting (document
Fp θi Belin publishers)

v'
v e

∆v

The Coanda effect

The above result underlies the explanation of the Coanda effect, which can be observed
by placing a cylindrical object under a jet of liquid, normal to the jet, but slightly off-axis
(Figure 5.6a): the jet tends to stick to the obstacle and undergoes a deflection. At the same
time, the fact that the wires holding up the cylinder are inclined to the vertical indicates
that the cylinder is attracted by the jet. According to Equation 5.53, the curvature of the
streamlines creates a pressure gradient ∂p/∂r > 0: the pressure at the level of the cylinder is
lower than the atmospheric pressure outside the jet, providing an explanation for the mutual
attraction of the jet and the cylinder.

Proof
In order to calculate the corresponding force of attraction, let us assume that we have,
instead of the jet, a sheet of liquid of thickness e in a plane parallel to the axis of the cylinder
(Figure 5.6b). By assuming that the atmospheric pressure pat acts at the outer surface of the
sheet, it should be equal, according to Equation 5.53, to pat – ρv2 e/R on the inner surface
(if e R). Then the force Fp exerted by the jet on the cylinder, per unit depth parallel to
the cylinder axis, satisfies:

θi
v2
Fp = ρ e R cos θ dθ = 2ρ e v2 sin θi .
R
–θi

The force Fp is perpendicular to the bisector of the angle between the flow directions
upstream and downstream of the contact points and is oriented away from the axis of the
cylinder.
152 Conservation Laws

We come to the same result by analyzing the change in the momentum of the jet between
the point where it comes into contact with the cylinder, and the point where it leaves. Let
us take the component in the y-direction of Equation (5.13): the deflection of the jet corre-
sponds to a change in velocity v = (v
– v) and to a difference between the entering and
exit fluxes of the component of momentum in the y-direction equal to 2 ρ e v2 sin θ i . If we
neglect viscosity forces, in order to have conservation of momentum this difference must
be compensated by a resultant pressure force, which is in fact the one which we have just
calculated.

This same mechanism allows us to explain how a very light ball can be levitated within
an air jet impinging at a small angle to the vertical, slightly above the ball. Just as in the
case of the cylinder, the compensating force results from the curvature of the streamlines
The Coanda effect is not the only one which acts which lowers the pressure, and not because of the impact of the jet of air. A comparable
in the teapot effect; recent studies have indicated
phenomenon is the teapot effect: the liquid stream which flows from the spout of a teapot
that the liquid film remains much less in contact
with the surface of the spout if the latter is non- seems to be attached to the spout’s surface after having followed the curve of the spout,
wetting (e.g., coated with teflon). instead of flowing directly into a cup.

5.4 Applications of the laws of conservation

of energy and momentum
We describe in this section a number of flows which can be analyzed by the application of
the laws of conservation of momentum, of mass and of energy. In this manner we avoid
a complete determination of the velocity field of the fluid, a task frequently impossible in
a real situation. Also, in this section, we assume that one deals with an ideal fluid so that
viscous effects can be neglected.

5.4.1 Jet incident onto a plane

This problem is closely related to simple observations of the impingement on obstacles of
different shapes of a stream of water. Consider a two-dimensional rectangular jet of liquid of
width h and unit depth in the z-direction, perpendicular to the plane of the figure, impinging
upon a plane wall at an angle α to the normal (Figure 5.7). Assume that the velocity U of

U 2 B2
A2
α y
Figure 5.7 Schematic view of the splitting
of the fluid flow and of the control volume A
h U O x
for a two-dimensional jet incident on a flat
surface B (S)

B1
A1
U1
h1
Applications of the laws of conservation of energy and momentum 153

the fluid is uniform throughout its cross-section. Upon impact with the wall, the jet splits
up into two sheets of thicknesses h1 and h2 , and respective velocities U 1 and U 2 . We will
show that:

h1 = (h/2) (1 + sin α) (5.54a) h2 = (h/2) (1 – sin α). (5.54b)

On the other hand, the component of force normal to the plane and per unit depth has
the value:

F⊥ = Fx cos α + Fy sin α = ρ U 2 h cos α. (5.55)

This equation displays the standard dependence of inertial resistance forces in the absence
of viscosity, i.e., a force proportional to the square of the velocity, and to the density of the
fluid.

Proof
Assuming, as mentioned above, an ideal fluid in potential flow, we neglect viscosity effects.
We equally neglect the effect of gravity, an assumption justified by the fact that the exper-
imentally observed sheets of fluid are quite thin. The balance of the rates of flow, required
by mass conservation (assuming unit depth in the z-direction) implies:

hU = h1 U1 + h2 U2 . (5.56)

If the flow is potential, Bernoulli’s Equation 5.36 applies throughout the volume of fluid,
so that:

1 1 1
p+ ρ U 2 = p1 + ρ U12 = p2 + ρ U22 . (5.57)
2 2 2

But, since the streamlines in each of the three cross-sections AB, A1 B1 and A2 B2 of the
sheets of fluid are all parallel, the pressure p does not vary across them so that we have:

p = p1 = p2 = p0 = (atmospheric pressure). (5.58)

Combining Equations 5.57 and 5.58, we conclude that the velocity is identical throughout
the liquid sheet:

U = U1 = U2 . (5.59)

Inserting this into Equation 5.56, the conservation of mass for fluid flow, we obtain a simple
relation for the thicknesses of the fluid sheets:

h = h1 + h2 . (5.60)

The conservation of momentum (Equation 5.13) now allows us to calculate the force of the
jet on the plane: selecting a control volume bounded by the boldface lines in Figure 5.7 and
of unit depth in the z-direction, and taking components of this vector equation along the
x- and y-axes, while still neglecting gravity and viscous shear forces, we obtain:

ρ U12 h1 sin α – U22 h2 sin α – U 2 h + (δp nx ) dS = 0 (5.61a)
plane
154 Conservation Laws

and: ρ –U12 h1 cos α + U22 h2 cos α + δp ny dS = 0. (5.61b)
plane

The two surface integrals are evaluated on the part of the solid plane located between the
cross-sections A1 B1 and A2 B2 . They represent the components Fx and Fy of the total pres-
sure force F on the plane in the x- and y-directions. The atmospheric pressure p0 acts

through integrals of the form S (p0 ni ) dS (where i = x or y and S is the entire surface
bounding the control volume), integrals which in this case are identically zero. Recalling
that the velocities U , U 1 , and U 2 are all equal, Equations 5.61a and 5.61b reduce to:

Fx = ρ U 2 (h – (h1 – h2 ) sin α) (5.62a) and: Fy = ρ U 2 (h1 – h2 ) cos α. (5.62b)

We now determine the thicknesses h1 and h2 of the two sheets of liquid from the fact that
the component of the force F parallel to the plane is zero (on the continued assumption that
viscous friction forces are zero, and that only pressure forces act normal to the plane). This
leads to the condition:

F = Fx sin α – Fy cos α = 0. (5.63)

Combining Equations 5.62a and 5.62b, we find:

ρ U 2 (h – (h1 – h2 ) sin α) sin α – ρ U 2 (h1 – h2 ) cos2 α = 0,

whence: h1 – h2 = h sin α. (5.64)

Combining this last result with Equation 5.60, we finally obtain Equations 5.54 a and b for
h1 and h2 . We also obtain Fx and Fy using Equations 5.62a, 5.62b and 5.64 and, then, F ⊥
using the first equality in Equation 5.55.

5.4.2 Exit jet from an opening in a reservoir

We consider here a container emptying through a small circular opening located in its lower
region (Figure 5.8a). If the cross-sectional area S 0 of the opening is not too small, viscous
losses can again be neglected here. As usual, we denote the atmospheric pressure by p0 , and
we observe that it acts on the free surface of the container, and on the outside of the exit jet.

A p0

E' F'
Figure 5.8 (a) Jet emerging from a reservoir S0 Sfb vf
through a circular orifice; (b) reentrant tube, (S) p0 H' G'
h
known as Borda’s mouthpiece, for which it B
can be shown that the final cross-sectional y
area of the jet, Sfb , is equal to half the C
S0 Sf vf
cross-section of the original exit orifice S0

O
z x
Applications of the laws of conservation of energy and momentum 155

Determination of the velocity of the exit jet

Experimental observations indicate that, as the jet exits from the opening, it contracts down
to a minimum cross-section, the vena contracta, which we denote by Sf . When this minimum
value has been attained, the streamlines have become parallel. The pressure has therefore,
in accordance with Equations 5.37a and 5.37b, the same value p0 in the jet as outside it
(we neglect the gradient of hydrostatic pressure over the dimension of the jet). Also, if
the area of the container is large compared to that of the section Sf , the velocity at which
the level of the liquid inside the large container drops is negligible relative to the velocity
of the jet (since the flow rate must be conserved). Let y0 be the vertical coordinate of the
fluid surface in the container and h be the difference in elevation between this fluid surface
and the orifice. Writing Bernoulli’s equation along a streamline, such as ABC on Figure 5.8,
leads us then to:

1 2
p0 + ρ g y0 = p0 + ρ v + ρ g(y0 – h). (5.65)
2 f

The velocity vf at the minimal section is then:

vf = 2g h. (5.66)

We observe that vf has the same value as for a body dropping from a height h under the
action of gravity in the absence of friction.

Calculation of the vena contracta

The minimum cross-section Sf can only be calculated exactly for the particular case
of a tube re-entrant toward the interior of the container (Borda’s mouthpiece, shown in
Figure 5.8b). We show below that one has then:

Sfb = S0 /2. (5.67)

Experimentally, for a circular orifice drilled directly in the wall, it is observed that
Sfb /S 0 ≈ 0.6. This ratio, larger than predicted by Equation 5.67, results from the fact that
the pressure is lower along the wall in the neighborhood of point C (Figure 5.8a) than for
Borda’s mouthpiece: the reaction force is therefore greater than in this latter case, so that the
jet, whose rate of flow must provide the balancing momentum, but which exits with the
same velocity, must have a larger cross-section. More generally, for various configurations
of the opening mouthpiece, one finds experimentally values of the contraction coefficient
Sf /S 0 , ranging usually between 0.5 and 1.

Proof
Let us apply the conservation of momentum (Equation 5.13) to a control volume bounded
by a fixed surface S, consisting of the free surface at the top of the reservoir, of the walls of
the container “wet” by the fluid, of the surface of the jet up to its minimum cross-section
Sfb , and finally of Sfb itself. The x-component of the vector equation 5.13 is then:

ρ vx (vj nj ) dS + p nx dS = 0. (5.68)
S S

The first integral reduces simply to ρ Sfb v2fb . The second one can be calculated on the basis
of the hypothesis of the reentrant mouthpiece. The pressure p is everywhere equal to the
156 Conservation Laws

hydrostatic pressure except on the lateral surface of the jet, and across its cross-section Sf
where it is equal to p0 . If p were everywhere equal to the hydrostatic pressure:

p hydro = p0 + ρg (y0 – y),

we would have found an integral S p hydro n dS equal to the weight W of the fluid contained
within S (y is the vertical coordinate of the point in question). Thus, the x-component of
this integral is zero.

p hydro nx dS = 0. (5.69)
S

Since p differs from p hydro only over the region E

F
G
H
of the surface of integration, where
p is equal to p0 , we have:

p nx dS = p hydro nx dS + ( p0 – p hydro ) nx dS,
S S (E
F
G
H
)

or, using the equation for p hydro :

p nx dS = p0 S0 – (p0 + ρ g (y0 – y))S0 = p0 S0 – (p0 + ρ g h)S0 = –ρ g h S0 . (5.70)
S

The cross-section S 0 of the opening is indeed equal to the projected area of the surface
E
F
G
H
onto a plane perpendicular to the x-axis. We have also assumed that the rela-
tive variation of ρ g (y0 -y) across the section S 0 is negligible. Inserting Equation 5.70 into
Equation 5.68, we obtain:

ρ Sf υfb2 = ρ g h S0 . (5.71)

Equation 5.67 then results when we insert the value of the velocity from Equation 5.66.

Force exerted by the fluid on the container

The force F exerted by the fluid on the entire container is equal to the integral of the pressure
forces on the surface wetted by the liquid. In order to evaluate its component Fx in the
x-direction, we use Equation 5.70, subtracting from the integral the horizontal component
of the pressure forces on the section E
F
G
H
of S corresponding to the free jet.

Fx = p nx dS = p nx dS – p0 nx dS, (5.72)
(walls) S (E
F
G
H
)

i.e.: Fx = –(ρSfb v2fb + p0 S0 ) = –(ρ g h + p0 )S0 . (5.73)

It is not surprising that the pressure p0 appears in this expression: indeed, the pressure
on the free surface of the reservoir must necessarily play a role. On the other hand, this
external pressure does not appear in the summation of all the forces exerted on the walls of
the container, since the external fluid (in this case, air) exerts its counter-pressure p0 on the
outer face of the container.
Applications of the laws of conservation of energy and momentum 157

5.4.3 Force on the walls of an axially symmetric

conduit of varying cross-section
Assume that we have a conduit in the shape of a surface of revolution around the x-axis,
with a section in which the channel diverges smoothly and that, on both sides of this section,
we have regions of uniform cross-section S 1 and S 2 in which the flow velocities U 1 and U 2
are parallel to the x-axis (Figure 5.9). We will show that the component Fx in the x-direction
of the forces exerted on the walls of the conduit has the value:

2
1 S2 S1 1 S1 S2
Fx = p1 (S1 – S2 ) + ρ U12 S1 2 – – = p1 (S1 – S2 ) – ρ U12 S1 – ,
2 S1 S2 2 S2 S1
(5.74)

where p1 is the pressure at the inlet. This equation allows us, by the use of the equations of
the conservation of mass, momentum and energy, to express the force Fx simply in terms of
the variables p1 and U 1 , without the need for a complete calculation of the velocity field of
the flow. As in the previous case, this equation neglects any viscosity effects and is therefore
only an approximation for viscous fluids.

S2
p2 Figure 5.9 Determination of the force ex-
S1 (Σ ) erted on the walls of a conduit in the shape
p1 1
(Σ) of a surface of revolution, based on the laws of
U1 U2 x conservation of momentum and of mass over
a control volume bounded by the surfaces ,
1 and 2
(Σ2)

Proof
Let us choose a fixed control volume bounded by a surface of revolution S consisting of the
two sections normal to the x-axis ( 1 and 2 ) and of the region of the tube wall located be-
tween these (). Assuming that the flow is stationary, we can therefore use Equation 5.13 to
express the conservation of momentum. By taking components in the x-direction, we obtain:

ρ vx vj nj dS + p nx dS – σxj
nj dS = 0. (5.75)
S S S

Gravity forces have no component in the horizontal x-direction and, accordingly, do not

involves only the contribution along
appear in this expression. The integral containing σ xj
the lateral wall , but we neglect hereafter this contribution due to viscous effects. In the

term S p nx dS, let us now separate the contributions of the conduit walls (surface )
from those of the cross-sections ( 1 and 2 ); we note that the contribution of surface
to the first integral of Equation 5.75 is zero. Denoting by Fpx the x-component of the
pressure forces on , we obtain, by grouping the terms involving p and ρv2x integrated over
the surfaces 1 and 2 :
158 Conservation Laws

Fpx = p + ρv2x dS – p + ρv2x dS. (5.76)
1 2

In the above equations, we observe that there appear, in addition to the pressure terms p,
terms of the form (ρ vx2 ) which correspond to normal stresses due to the motion of the fluid.
They represent a flux in the x-direction of the component of momentum ρvx , i.e., vx (ρvx ).
In order to obtain a value for Fpx , it is enough then to know the distribution of pressures
and velocities in sections 1 and 2 .
In the example of the conduit illustrated in Figure 5.9, the cross-section slowly increases
from a value S 1 to the value S 2 . We can then apply Equations 5.37a, 5.37b and 5.38 in each
of the regions where the areas of sections 1 and 2 are constant and equal to S 1 and S 2 .
The pressure gradient in both sections 1 and 2 then reduces to the hydrostatic pressure
gradient. This does not affect the motion of the fluid, and can therefore be neglected in
the equation above. We also assume that the velocities are constant over each of the cross-
sections and respectively equal to U 1 and U 2 , as would be the case for a fluid with negligible
viscosity. Equation 5.76 then becomes:

Fpx = p1 S1 + ρU12 S1 – p2 S2 + ρU22 S2 . (5.77)

As mentioned above, there is, in addition to the pressure forces, a term related to the mo-
mentum convected by the flowing fluid. If we now write down the condition for energy
conservation, by applying Bernoulli’s equations along a streamline, we obtain:

1 2
p2 – p1 = ρ U1 – U22 . (5.78)
2

We then obtain Equation 5.74 by combining Equations 5.77 and 5.78 with the law of
conservation of mass, which in this case is given by:

U2 = U1 S1 /S2 . (5.79)

5.4.4 Liquid sheets of varying thickness: the

hydraulic jump
Qualitative properties of hydraulic jumps
Anyone who has looked at water flowing down from a tap into a sink has probably noticed,
on the surface on which the water impinges, a circular bulge in the water flow centered
around the jet (Figure 5.10). This bulge, known as a hydraulic jump, occurs at the border
between a central region where the fluid is shallow, and an outer one where the fluid is
considerably deeper. The boundary between these two regions corresponds to a transition
of the flow velocity U (x) from a value higher than the local velocity c(h) of the surface
waves in the central region, to a subcritical value further out. We will see in Section 6.4 that
√
c = gh represents the local velocity of these gravity waves along the surface of a layer of
fluid of thickness h. As a result, there appears a rather abrupt transition: when the fluid
becomes deeper, the fluid velocity decreases while the wave velocity increases.
A breaking wave represents a moving version of the phenomenon of the hydraulic jump:
here, the jump moves along at the velocity of the breaking wave’s crest. In that case, if we
wish to apply the theoretical analysis developed below, we need to do so in a reference frame
Applications of the laws of conservation of energy and momentum 159

Figure 5.10 Formation of a bulge, which

can be considered as an hydraulic jump, when
a jet of water impinges on a solid flat hor-
izontal surface. The velocity of the fluid in
the central region exceeds that of the surface
waves in that region, and then become smaller
than the latter in the region beyond the bulge
and all the way to the edges. We observe in
the right center region a “V”-shaped ripple
opening outward (dotted lines), due to an im-
perfection on the surface, which corresponds to
a kind of shock wave, somewhat similar to the
supersonic “bang” from an airplane breaking
the sound barrier (document S. Middleman)

Figure 5.11C Tidal bore heading up (to the

right) the Petitcodiac river, near its estuary in
the Bay of Fundy, in the Canadian province
of New Brunswick (document C. L. Gresley)

fixed relative to this moving region. Another particularly spectacular moving hydraulic jump The tidal bore is only observed in a few regions
is the tidal bore which can appear where the flow of a river meets a rising tide (Figure 5.11). of the world. It results from the combination
of large amplitude tides, a funnel-shaped estu-
The hydraulic jump is quantitatively characterized by the ratio of the velocity of the fluid ary much wider at its mouth, a gentle slope and
and of the surface waves, known as the Froude number: shallow water in the corresponding river.

U (x)
Fr = √ . (5.80)
g h(x)

In the experiment illustrated in Figure 5.10, the Froude number changes from a value
greater than 1 near the center to a value less than 1 in the outer regions.
This phenomenon is the analog of the shock wave which is formed near a supersonic
airplane and which corresponds to the change of the velocity of the air from a value greater
than to a value less than that of sound. The Mach number, M = v/c (where c indicates the
velocity of sound), is the analog of the Froude number, Fr. Moreover, we often observe
behind an obstacle the formation of a characteristic “V” (Figure 5.10), at an angle which
160 Conservation Laws

depends, just as for compressible flows, on the ratio between the velocity of the fluid and
that of the surface waves.

Liquid flow over a weir (an underwater obstacle)

Hydraulic jumps can appear in flowing liquid layers downstream of an obstacle
(Figure 5.12). Le us first discuss the flow over the obstacle: we denote by h the initial level
of the fluid, and by h(x) the change with distance of the thickness of the fluid layer, e0 (x) the
elevation of the bottom and let us assume that the velocity U (x) is uniform in every vertical
cross-section of the flow; the relationship between U (x) and e0 (x) is given for a stationary
flow by:
1 dU (x) de0 (x)
–g h(x) + U 2 (x) + g = 0. (5.81)
U (x) dx dx

(1) (2) (3) (4)

(I)

h hydraulic jump
U h(x) (II)
e0M e0(x) x
xM

Figure 5.12 Flowing liquid passing over a weir (underwater obstacle) for the two cases of the calculation. Case I:
Froude number, Fr < 1; case II: Froude number, Fr > 1. In case (II), a low fluid velocity region (1) is followed by
a second region (2) of acceleration, then by a high-velocity region (3) upstream of the hydraulic jump, and finally
by a low velocity region downstream of the jump

Proof
The two equations below express the conservation of mass, and Bernoulli’s equation along
a streamline just under the surface above which the atmospheric pressure has the constant
value p0 :

1 1
U h = U (x) h(x) and: p0 + ρ U 2 +ρg h = p0 + ρ U 2(x)+ρ g (h(x) + e0 (x)).
2 2
Taking the derivative of these two equations with respect to x, we obtain:
dh(x) dU (x) dU (x) dh(x) de0 (x)
U (x) + h(x) =0 and ρ U (x) +ρg +ρg = 0.
∂x ∂x dx dx dx
Equation 5.81 follows from combining these last equations in order to eliminate the term
dh/dx.

Let us assume that the flow is initially sufficiently slow, and the depth sufficiently large so
that:

U 2 – g h < 0 (i.e., Fr < 1).

We see the appearance of two types of behavior, at the moment when the flow passes over
the position xM where the crest of the weir, of height e0M , is located, and where (de0 /dx) = 0.
Equation 5.81 can, in fact, be satisfied in two ways:
Applications of the laws of conservation of energy and momentum 161

Figure 5.13 Flow of a fluid over a weir (an

underwater obstacle) in a rectangular chan-
nel; (a) situation where the Froude number
is everywhere smaller than unity; (b) case
where the flow is supercritical everywhere up-
stream of the region where the weir’s height is
a maximum (plates courtesy of M. Devillers,
(a) (b) ENSTA)

(i) dU(x)/dx = 0. In this case, we have also, from the equation of conservation of mass,
dh(x)/dx = 0. (This corresponds to case I in Figure 5.12 and to plate (a) in Figure
5.13). After passing over the crest of the weir, the thickness of the fluid layer increases
again, and the velocity returns to its original value U .
(ii) U2 (x) = g h(x). In this second case, dU(x)/dx no longer changes sign. Thus, the ve-
locity continues to increase, and the thickness of the fluid to diminish, after passing
over the point xM . Equation 5.82 can still be satisfied because U2(x) – gh(x) becomes
positive, and (de0 /dx) also changes sign, as it passes over the point x = xM (case II in
Figure 5.12 and plate (b) in Figure 5.13).

We can see the key role that the Froude number plays in these phenomena. In case (i),
the Froude number is everywhere less than one. In case (ii), it increases and goes through
the value 1 exactly at the point xM , then becoming greater than one (supercritical flow).
The fluid then returns to a state of smooth flow with a large depth in a very abrupt manner,
by means of a hydraulic jump, as illustrated in Figures 5.12 and 5.13b (we discuss this
phenomenon further on). We can observe the transition from one behavior to the other
by gradually increasing the velocity of the fluid at constant depth until the value Fr = 1 is
reached at the point x = xM . We observe hydraulic jumps of the kind displayed in Figure
5.13b in spillways downstream of dams.
The discussion above indicates that there can be two different values of the velocity, and
of the depth of the fluid, for the same height e0 (x) of the weir at a fixed flow rate: one
corresponding to a Froude number Fr greater than unity, the other to a number Fr
less
than one. For the specific case e0 = 0 (region far downstream of the obstacle, where U
is
the velocity and h
the depth of the fluid), we find a second solution Fr
= Fr such that:

Fr 2/3 Fr
2/3 Fr 2/3 + Fr
2/3 = 2. (5.82)

If Fr is less than one, this equation can effectively only be satisfied if Fr

is greater than one.
Indeed, if this were not the case, the sum in Equation 5.82 would be less than two, and each
of the factors in the product would be smaller than unity.

Proof
Let us rewrite Equation 5.81, eliminating the height h(x) by means of the flow rate condition
Q = U (x) h(x). We then obtain:

∂ 1 1 ∂ [U (x)] 2 ∂e0 (x)
gQ + +g = 0,
∂x U (x) 2 ∂x ∂x
162 Conservation Laws

so that, after integrating between two points located respectively far upstream and far
downstream of the obstacle, where the flow velocities are U and U
:

1 1 1 2
gQ –
+ U – U
2 = 0.
U U 2

This equation is satisfied either by U = U

, or when:

U + U

g Q = UU
. (5.83)
2
Rewriting this last equation by means of the Froude numbers written in the form:

U U 3/2 U
U
3/2
Fr = √ = √ , Fr
= √
= √

gh gUh gh gU h

and using the equations Q =Uh= U

h
, we obtain Equation 5.82 from Equation 5.83, after
cancelling out g Q.

Analogy with compressible flow and shock waves

At the beginning of Section 5.4.4, we have already underscored the close analogy between
these problems and those of compressible flows. The system equivalent to the problem
we have just discussed is the convergent-divergent nozzle (known as the de Laval nozzle)
illustrated in Figure 5.14. The analog of the Froude number is the Mach number, M.
M<1 For low flow rates, the flow velocity is everywhere lower than the speed of sound and
reaches a maximum at the point where the cross-section is a minimum: the throat (flow
U(x) corresponding to case (a) in Figure 5.13). But, when the velocity reaches the speed of sound
M<1 M <1 M <1
at the throat (M =1), it continues to increase with distance and becomes supersonic in the
downstream region. This increase in velocity comes about as a result of the continuous
(a) x decrease of the gas pressure required to maintain the conservation of the mass. Further
downstream, a shock wave appears which forms a transition toward the higher pressure
regions beyond the nozzle exit, where the Mach number is again less than unity. This shock
front is the analog of the hydraulic jump illustrated in Figures 5.12 and 5.13, which we now
Shock
wave proceed to discuss in greater detail.
U(x)
M<1 M =1 M >1 M<1 Hydraulic jump: conservation equations
As we have mentioned above, a hydraulic jump corresponds to a sudden transition from a
flow with Froude number Fr greater than one to a value less than one. As opposed to the
(b)
previous discussion as to how h(x) varies above an underwater obstacle, we can no longer
apply Bernoulli’s equation, because there is significant energy dissipation in the region of
Figure 5.14 Flow of a compressible fluid the jump. We then rely simply on the equations of conservation of mass and of momentum.
within a convergent-divergent nozzle. (a) In Figure 5.15 (next page), we show schematically a hydraulic jump with two regions
Case where the flow remains subsonic where the flow is parallel and uniform, with velocities U and U
respectively upstream and
throughout the nozzle; (b) case where the flow downstream. Using the equation of conservation of momentum, we can obtain the following
reaches the speed of sound at the throat of the relationships between U, U
and the levels h and h
upstream and downstream of the jump:
nozzle, resulting in a shock wave indicated by

the line of dashes h (h + h
) h
(h + h
)
U
= g
, (5.84a) U= g . (5.84b)
h 2 h 2

By squaring and then subtracting, we find that U and U

satisfy:

U
< gh
(5.85a) and U> gh. (5.85b)
Applications of the laws of conservation of energy and momentum 163

C C'
y
B' Figure 5.15 Hydraulic jump. The up-
stream fluid velocity is greater than the
√
speed gh of surface waves, while the down-
√
B U' stream fluid velocity is smaller (than gh).
h' We display the control volume ABCC B
A
A

U through which we calculate the conservation

h
A A' of momentum and of mass
x

given that h is smaller than h

. The flow is thus supercritical (velocity greater than that of the
surface waves) in the region before the jump, and sub-critical in the other. From a physical
point of view, this result indicates that the jump will have a stable structure. The ripples
which might escape upstream in the super-critical region, taking away a corresponding part
of the energy, will be brought back by the flow which moves more rapidly than they do.
Those which would be driven downstream by the flow beyond the jump move fast enough
to go upstream against the flow and return toward the jump.

Proof
As in the preceding case, we use Equation 5.13 which expresses the conservation of momen-
tum by assuming that the flow is stationary and neglecting the viscosity along the boundaries
of the control volume. We choose a control volume bounded by the surface (S) denoted by
ABCB
A
A in the plane of the figure, and of unit depth in the perpendicular direction. Note
that part of the control volume is in air, and accordingly subjected to atmospheric pressure
p0 . Let us assume that the flow velocity is uniform and equal to U and U
in sections AB
and A
B
of the control volume, which are the only ones through which there is non-zero
mass transport; we then obtain:

ρ vx (vj nj )dS = ρ U
2 h
– ρ U 2 h. (5.86)
S

As before, we determine the pressure p on AB and A

B
from Equations 5.37:

where p = p0 + ρ g (h – y) and p
= p0 + ρ g h
– y .

By adding a term – p0 (h
– h), corresponding to the integral of p0 along the section BC we
obtain:

h h
ρg
2
p nx dS = p0 h – h
– (p0 + ρg (h – y)) dy + p0 + ρg h
– y dy = h – h2 .
s 0 0 2
(5.87)

Equation 5.13 can then be written, after taking into consideration Equations 5.86 and 5.87,
and neglecting any viscosity:
g
U
2 h
– U 2 h + h
2 – h2 = 0. (5.88)
2
The conservation of mass from upstream to downstream of the jump then requires:

U
h
= U h. (5.89)
164 Conservation Laws

Using Equation 5.89, in order to eliminate U

(or U ) from Equation 5.88, we then obtain
Equations 5.84a and 5.84b.

Ratio between the fluid levels and the velocities on either side of the jump
In order to determine the ratio h
/h, we rewrite Equation 5.84b in the form:

gh
2 + ghh
– 2U 2 h = 0. (5.90)

Taking the positive root of this quadratic equation in h

, we find:

√
h
U –gh + (gh)2 + 8 U 2 gh –1 + 1 + 8 Fr 2
=
= = . (5.91)
h U –gh 2

Here, Fr is the Froude number of the upstream flow. This again leads to the result that, if
h
/h is greater than unity, this implies that Fr > 1, and that the flow is super-critical upstream
of the jump. For Fr = 1, we find that h
= h, corresponding to the limiting case of a jump of
√
infinitesimal amplitude where both velocities are very close to the value gh.

.........................................................................................

EXERCISES

1) Momentum conservation using a moving control volume

Assume that the control volume used in Equation 5.10 is moving at a constant veloc-
ity w while v is the velocity in the fixed reference frame. Show that we must replace
in this equation one of the velocity vectors v by the relative velocity v-w. Write the
mass-conservation equation for this same control volume. These results can be used in
Exercises (2) and (4).

2) Principle of a rotating lawn sprinkler

This device consists of a horizontal, straight tube of length 2R, rotating around a verti-
cal axis in the middle and with a vertical injection of water along this axis into the tube
(total flow rate 2q). A nozzle is attached perpendicular to the tube at each of its ends,
creating a horizontal jet of cross-section S and velocity U relative to the nozzle. If the
sprinkler rotates at an angular velocity , compute the tangential force component Ft

Ft
W
Г q S U

R
Ω

q 2q
S Ft
U
W
Applications of the laws of conservation of energy and momentum 165

on the nozzle due to the flow. Write the equation of motion if () is the torque due
to friction opposing the rotation. What is the value of if = 0? What is the torque
which must be applied in order to keep = 0? Considering the system as an engine,
when is the greatest power available (use the solution from Exercise (1)).

3) Impact of a circular jet on a plane and a cone

We would like to extend the results obtained for a two-dimensional sheet of liquid in
Section 5.4.1 to a circular laminar jet of perfect fluid in potential flow. We start with a
large plate upon which the jet impinges at an angle of incidence α which creates on the
plate layer of liquid flowing radially outward. The radius of the jet is R and the fluid
velocity inside it U. What is the velocity U (r) in the radial flow on the plane? In the
particular case α = 0, is the thickness e(r) constant as a function of r and/or what is its
variation? What is the total component of the force normal to the plane and its variation
with α?
We then consider a conical surface of tip O, half-angle β and with the same x-axis as
the jet. What is the variation of the thickness e(h) with the distance h from the tip O rotation sensor
along the x-axis? What is the force F on the cone?

4) Principle of a turbine flow-meter Ώ

Some flow-meters use a helix of geometry similar to that of a boat propeller, located (a)
inside a circular channel with a very small clearance between the end of the blades
and the channel wall (see Figure (a) in the margin). The flow velocity U upstream of
U freely rotating rotor
the blades is measured from their angular velocity around the x-axis of the helix.
In a simple model (see Figure (b) in the margin), the blades are represented as twisted Ω
vφ
plates, tilted at an angle α(r) with respect to x at a distance r from this axis. We consider x
the relative velocity Vrel (r) in the moving reference frame of the twisted blade. What α(r)
are the values of the tangential components of Vrel and of the velocity of the blade r
U (b)
vϕ (r)? Assuming now that there is no momentum loss by solid or viscous friction, and
using again the results of Exercise (1), what is the angular velocity at which the local Vrel
exchange of tangential momentum between the blade and the fluid is zero? What must
the variation of α(r) be so that this relation is satisfied for all values of r? In this case,
what is the flow velocity at the level of the blades? What happens if the energy loss
during the rotation is non-zero?
Potential Flow
6 The study of an ideal (perfect) fluid or “dry water,” as Richard P. Feynman called it in
the Feynman Lectures in Physics, is an important part of fluid dynamics. In the mechan-
6.1 Introduction 166 ics of solids, the laws of motion can be expressed, in the absence of friction, in terms
6.2 Definitions, properties and of conservation laws. In a similar way, assuming a zero viscosity led to simpler energy
examples of potential flow 167 and momentum conservation laws in Chapter 5 and allowed us to solve a number of
6.3 Forces acting on an obstacle problems without requiring a detailed knowledge of the local motion. This lack of vis-
in potential flow 180 cosity also leads, indirectly, to a persistence of the irrotational nature of the velocity
6.4 Linear surface waves on an ideal field: we derive this result in Section 6.1 of this chapter, where we also list the cases
fluid 187 for which the theory of potential flow applies. We then introduce the velocity poten-
6.5 Electrical analog for
tial and its properties (Section 6.2), together with a number of illustrations. Next, in
two-dimensional potential flows 194 Section 6.3, we deal more generally with the case of potential flow around an obstacle
of arbitrary shape. We then continue with a discussion of linear waves along the sur-
6.6 Complex velocity potential 196
face of a fluid, a specific example of potential flow (Section 6.4). The following section
6A Appendix: Velocity potentials (Section 6.5) discusses the analogy between potential flow and electromagnetic theory.
and stream functions 206
Then, in Section 6.6, we introduce the concept of the complex potential, providing
a number of illustrative examples, concluding finally with a description, and explicit
examples, of the use of conformal mapping in the solution of flow problems.

6.1 Introduction
First and foremost, it is ideal (non-viscous) fluids which lead to potential flows. As seen in
Section 4.2.3, their motion is described by Euler’s equation:
∂v (r, t)
ρ + ρ (v ·∇) v (r, t) = ρ f – ∇p. (6.1)
∂t
The potential flow of an ideal fluid is such that its velocity field v (r, t) can be derived from
a velocity potential (r, t), with:
v (r, t) = ∇ (r, t). (6.2)

The flow velocity field v (r, t) must therefore satisfy both Euler’s equation and the curl-free
condition ∇ × v = 0, a consequence of Equation 6.2. We will show in Section 7.2.1, as a
result of Euler’s equation, that, if the flow of an ideal fluid is curl-free at a given instant of
time (e.g., if the fluid is initially at rest with v(r) ≡ 0), it will remain so at any subsequent
time provided that any external volume forces are also the derivatives of a potential, and
that the fluid density is constant, or only a function of the pressure. In these circumstances,
potential flow of an ideal fluid can continue indefinitely, and we can, moreover, apply the
formulation (Equation 5.36) of Bernoulli’s theorem as derived in Section 5.3.2:

∂ v2
ρ +ρ + p + ρ ϕ = constant within the volume of the flow,
∂t 2

Physical Hydrodynamics. Second Edition. Etienne Guyon et al.

© Oxford University Press 2015. Published in 2015 by Oxford University Press.
Definitions, properties and examples of potential flow 167

where ϕ is the potential from which the volume forces derive. This equation allows us to
determine, by integration, the velocity potential at any arbitrary time from its value at a spe-
cific time: this is in accordance with the fact that such flows remain permanently potential.
Let us note that the mathematical determination of the velocity field v(r) is quite analogous
to that of the electrostatic field E(r), or even of a time-dependent field at sufficiently low
frequencies such that ∇× E(r) = 0. Equation 6.2 is thus analogous, within a minus sign, to
the relationship between the electrostatic field E(r) and the corresponding potential V (r).
From an experimental point of view, we have mentioned, in Section 4.2.3, that the only
fluid with properties approaching those of an ideal fluid is superfluid liquid helium. We will
discuss in the appendix of Chapter 7 the characteristic features of superfluid flow which
satisfies the curl-free condition except along singular lines (quantum vortices), where the
vorticity is concentrated.
On the other hand, viscous fluids can also lead to approximately potential flow, at least
in a large part of their volume. This is the case when the transit time of a particle of viscous
fluid past a solid body is short: then, the perturbation brought to the flow by the zero velocity
boundary condition at the surface can only propagate by viscous diffusion over a small
transverse distance. In this way, non-turbulent flows at large Reynolds numbers frequently
display potential-flow properties except for a thin boundary layer near walls and a narrow
wake downstream from any obstacles. We will discuss such flows in Chapter 10.
Similar results are obtained for high-frequency sinusoidal flow (ω = 2π/T) near an object
of characteristic length L. In this case, the resultant flow will be approximately potential if
the diffusion distance of the velocity gradients resulting from the zero velocity boundary √
condition at the walls is small compared to L (this diffusion length is proportional to νT
as we have seen in Section 2.1.2). We will see the same effect in a transient phase of duration
T , which shows similar behavior for flow around an object that is set into sudden motion.
The existence of free surfaces can also lead to the appearance of almost potential flow:
in fact, as we have seen in the case of an ideal fluid in Section 4.3.2, we do not have a
requirement of zero tangential velocity at such free surfaces. We can therefore set fluid in
motion without the appearance of a velocity gradient (and thus of a non-zero curl) near the
wall. An example of such flow is that due to Taylor bubbles (large bubbles rising in tubes of
a diameter comparable to that of the bubble, which we will discuss in Section 6.4.4).

6.2 Definitions, properties and examples

of potential flow
6.2.1 Characteristics and examples of velocity
potentials
If we assume incompressible flow (Equation 3.28), Equation 6.2 becomes:

∇·v = ∇·[∇ (r)] = ∇ 2 (r) = 0. (6.3)

In electrostatics, this case corresponds to the field obtained in the absence of free charges.
The resulting vector velocity field reduces to the scalar solution of Laplace’s equation for
the potential. Here, we have the benefit of the entire arsenal of methods developed for
electrostatics (we have already mentioned this equivalence in Section 3.3.3).
The boundary conditions are that the normal component of the velocity vn is zero relative
to that of solid walls. The impossibility of fluid flow through a solid wall S leads to the
condition:
168 Potential Flow

∂
[vn ]S = = 0, (6.4)
∂n S
(C1)
in which [vn ]S is the velocity component of the wall normal to its surface. At the interface
(S) between two ideal fluids 1 and 2, the boundary condition vn1 = vn2 is expressed by:

(C0) (C2 ) ∂1 ∂2
= . (6.5)
∂n S ∂n S

There is no boundary condition applying to the tangential component of the velocity be-
cause we have no viscous forces: in fact, viscosity requires that these tangential components
be equal in real fluids, as we have seen in Section 4.3.1.
(a)

(C ) 6.2.2 Uniqueness of the velocity potential

Here again, we will call upon the classical proofs from electrostatics. Within a simply con-
nected volume of fluid (Figure 6.1a), there exists a unique velocity field, potential and
incompressible, which corresponds to the normal velocity components at the solid walls
and to a given velocity at infinity.

Proof
Assume that we have two velocity fields v1 = ∇1 and v2 = ∇2 corresponding to the same

(b) boundary conditions. We show that the integral (v1 – v2 )2 dτ evaluated over the entire
volume is zero. This indicates that the velocity fields v1 and v2 are identical. Let us write
Figure 6.1 (a) Example of a simply con- v = v1 – v2 and = 1 – 2 . We then obtain:
nected volume of fluid: the area of the curves
(C) can be reduced to zero by being continu- (v1 – v2 )2 dτ = v·(∇) dτ = ∇·(v ) dτ – (∇·v) dτ.
ously deformed without intersecting the sur- V V V V
face of the solid. (b) Doubly connected volume
of fluid: the area of the curve (C) cannot be The integral on the extreme right-hand side is zero because ∇ · v = 0. The adjacent integral
reduced to zero by a continuous deformation can be transformed into a surface integral on the solid walls and at infinity:

∇·(v ) dτ = v·n dS.
V S

This integral is zero on the solid walls because of the boundary condition on the normal
A method similar to the one used to demon- velocity component, which requires that v · n = 0. The surface integral also vanishes to-
strate the uniqueness allows us to show that the ward infinity because, as we will see in Section 6.2.4, the effect on the velocity field of the
velocity field of this flow is that which mini-
existence of any obstacle decreases as l/r 3 with the distance r. As a result, the integral of
mizes the total kinetic energy. This is true for all
fields which satisfy simultaneously ∇ · v = 0 and any such terms on a spherical surface with area proportional to r 2 tends to zero at large
the boundary conditions along the walls and at distances.
infinity.

A volume of fluid will be multiply connected for solid walls of which at least one di-
mension is infinite (e.g., an infinitely long cylinder), or for walls with a toroidal geometry
(Figures 6.1b and 6.2). In both these cases, we can have a closed curve (C) entirely contained
within the fluid, for which the area cannot be reduced to zero by continuous deformation
within the fluid. In this instance, we cannot define an unambiguous value of the velocity

potential because the circulation C v·dl = C (∇)·dl of the velocity along the contour
(C) can take on an arbitrary finite value .
Definitions, properties and examples of potential flow 169
Figure 6.2 Flow geometry used in the proof
(a) (b) of the uniqueness of the solutions of Laplace’s
equation, for the case of a doubly connected
volume of fluid. (a) The surface (S) rests on
+
(Σ) – the two curves (C
) and (C

) along which the

circulations are equal. (b) The evaluation of
(St )
(C'') the integral of ( v1 – v2 )2 over the volume of
(C)
(S) (C') flow, excluding the infinitesimal volume be-
tween the two surfaces + et – , that are
infinitely close but on different sides of the sur-
face (). For clarity, only the intersections of
these two surfaces with a surface bounded by
Proof the contour (C) have been shown.
Consider a geometry, such as that illustrated in Figure 6.2, in which the fluid volume is
bounded by a solid toroidal surface (S t ). We calculate the potential starting with a line
integral of the velocity along a closed curve (C) (Figure 6.2b).
We first show that, though the nature of the flow is potential and the fluid velocity v uniquely

defined at every point, the resulting circulation = c v·dl along the curve (C) no longer
necessarily vanishes. Applying Stokes’ theorem to the circulation, we have:

= v · dl = (∇ × v) · n dS.
C S

This equation gives the dependence of the circulation of the velocity v along the curve (C)
on the flux of ∇×v through a surface (S) anchored on this curve. For (S) to be completely
enclosed in fluid, either the path of integration (C) must not encircle the toroidal surface
(S t ), or the surface (S) must be enclosed by the two curves (C
) and (C

) both of which
encircle the surface (S t ) (it is the combination of these two curves which then makes up the
contour (C)). It is this latter case which is displayed in Figure 6.2a for surface (S). We then
have:

(∇ × v) · n dS = v · dl – v · dl = 0.
S C

Thus the circulation = c v·dl is not uniquely defined; we have merely demonstrated that
it has the same value for any given space curve, such as (C
) and (C

), which encircles the

torus (S t ) once only, and in the same direction.
If does not vanish, a single-valued potential function cannot be defined. In fact, the

integral = c [Link] satisfies:

v · dl = (∇)·dl = = ,
C C

where is the total increment in for a complete loop along the curve (C’ ). Should
be non-vanishing, the function is correspondingly multivalued, and defined only within
an integer multiple of : this problem can be dealt with by postulating along (C) a point
where the function is discontinuous, and changes by an amount + or – depending
on the direction of travel. Since the position of this point is arbitrary, we can postulate the
existence inside the torus (St ) of a cut surface (), the locus of all such points of disconti-
nuity (the trace of () is shown in light gray in Figure 6.2b). This is quite analogous to the
approach used to define the value of an angle in polar coordinates.
170 Potential Flow

We now demonstrate that, with this modification, there does exist a unique poten-
tial velocity field corresponding to a given . For this purpose we evaluate the integral
2
V (v1 – v2 ) dτ over the volume (V ) (Figure 6.2b), bounded by the toroidal surface (St )
and by two additional surfaces of integration ( + ) and ( – ); we assume that ( + ) and ( – )
are infinitesimaly close to () and on each side of it. The volume V is simply connected so
that we can proceed now as in this latter case and obtain:

(v1 – v2 )2 dτ = (1 – 2 ) (v1 – v2 )·n dS.
V S

The surface of integration bounding the volume (V ) consists of the surfaces (St ), ( + ) and
( – ). Since v1 and v2 have a zero normal component on (St ), there are contributions only
from the integrals over ( + ) and ( – ). v1 and v2 are continuous at the surface () and
thus each have the same value on all three surfaces (), ( + ) and ( – ). Thus:

(v1 – v2 )2 dτ = (1+ – 1– – 2+ + 2– ) (v1 – v2 )·n dS.
V

Moreover the difference + – – between the values of , at two corresponding points of

the surfaces ( + ) and ( – ), equals . We thus have:

The problem of multiply connected geometries
occurs also in the study of magnetic fields as- (v1 – v2 )2 dτ = (1 – 2 ) (v1 – v2 )·n dS = (1 – 2 ) (Q1 – Q2 ),
V
sociated with currents. The circulation of the
magnetic field around a closed contour which
encloses an infinitely long wire, or a wire loop, where Q1 and Q2 are the respective fluxes of the two velocity fields across the surface . For
carrying a current is, according to Ampere’s law, the existence of a unique solution, it is therefore sufficient that the circulation has a given
independent of the contour (for a given number
fixed value , in addition to the equality of the normal components of the velocities at the
of turns about the wire, or of crossings of the
loop, in the same direction). walls. Indeed, if 1 = 2 , we have 2
V (v1 – v2 ) dτ = 0, so that v1 = v2 .

6.2.3 Velocity potentials for simple flows

and combinations of potential functions
In this section, we discuss four elementary flows: uniform, source, vortex and dipole flows.
We then analyze how the velocity fields for these flows can be superimposed to solve more
complicated problems. Finally, in Section 6.2.4, we illustrate these ideas with a few examples
of the velocity fields around objects of simple shape. Since we are discussing incompressible
fluids, we also determine the stream function (defined in Section 3.4) for these flows. A table
of the velocity potentials and stream functions for the most common flows is included at the
end of this chapter.

Uniform parallel flow

Consider uniform flow with velocity U in the x-direction, with corresponding velocity
components:

υx = U = constant; υy = 0 for a two-dimensional flow

and: υx = U = constant; υy = υz = 0 for a three-dimensional flow.

Definitions, properties and examples of potential flow 171

In two dimensions, from Equations 3.38, we have:

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= = vx = U and =– = vy = 0,
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

whence: =Ux (6.6a) and: = U y. (6.6b)

The streamlines ( = constant) are thus straight lines in the x-direction (and consequently,
as required, parallel to the velocity U). The equipotentials ( = constant) are parallel straight
lines in the y–direction (and perpendicular to the streamlines).
In three dimensions, since the flow is axially symmetric, we can obtain a similar result by the
use of the Stokes stream function which we have defined in Section 3.4. Here, we assume
that the flow is in the z-direction.

• In cylindrical coordinates (r, ϕ, z), we obtain by using Equations 3.50:

∂ 1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂
=– = vz = U and = = vr = 0,
∂z r ∂r ∂r r ∂z

whence: =Uz (6.7a) and = –(U r 2 )/2. (6.7b)

• In spherical polar coordinates (r, θ, ϕ), we have similarly, in accordance with

Equations 3.52:

∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
= 2 = vr = U cos θ, =– = vθ = –U sin θ,
∂r r sin θ ∂θ r ∂θ r sin θ ∂r

whence: = U r cos θ (6.8a) and = (U r 2 sin2 θ)/2. (6.8b)

We should recall that the lines (or surfaces) = constant are streamlines (or surfaces) along
which the current flows. They obey the equations r = constant and r sin θ = constant, in their
respective cylindrical and spherical polar coordinates, and they are parallel to the direction
of the velocity U . The equipotential lines (or, in three dimensions, surfaces) are respectively
the curves (or surfaces) normal to the flow.

Vortex flow
Two-dimensional vortex flow is flow around an axis perpendicular to the x-y plane and pass-
ing through the origin O. The velocity field is azimuthal (i.e., normal to the plane formed by
the radius vector and the axis), with components vr and vϕ obeying, in polar coordinates:

vr = 0, vϕ = ,
2π r

where is a constant. Equivalently, according to Equations 3.39a and 3.39b:

1 ∂ ∂ ∂ 1 ∂
=– = vϕ = , = = vr = 0.
r ∂ϕ ∂r 2π r ∂r r ∂ϕ

If we evaluate the circulation of the velocity along a circle (C), of radius r centered at O,
we find:
2π
v · dl = r dϕ = ,
C 0 2π r
172 Potential Flow

is therefore the circulation along any curve looping once around the origin. We obtain:

ϕ r
= (6.9a) and: =– Log , (6.9b)
2π 2π r0

where r 0 is an arbitrary constant which maintains the dimensionless character of the argu-
ment of the logarithm ( and are always defined within an arbitrary additive constant,
because ultimately only their derivative has physical significance).
It should be noted that this is a case of a doubly connected flow. The singular line r = 0
(extending infinitely far along the z-axis) takes on the role of the solid surface St shown in
Figure 6.2 and around which we evaluated the circulation of velocity (in this instance, the
radius of curvature of the torus is infinite). The velocity potential is not uniquely defined
since it contains the angle ϕ. As a result, the circulation of velocity along the contour looping
n times in the positive direction around the line r = 0 equals n. This situation is analogous to
that of a magnetic field resulting from an infinitely long straight wire, of very small diameter,
carrying an electric current.

Sources and sinks

Elementary potential flows streaming at a rate of flow Q away from, or toward, a point are
known, respectively, as sources and sinks (Q > 0 for a source, while Q < 0 for a sink).
In two dimensions, the flow from a source is given in cylindrical coordinates by
(a) y (Figure 6.3b):

v Q
vr (r) = , υϕ = 0.
2πr
φ x The value of the velocity flux across a circle of radius r about the origin (evidently equal to
O the rate of flow, Q), is:
Φ = Φ1
Ψ = Ψ1 2π
Ψ = Ψ2 Φ = Φ2 v · n dl = r vr dϕ = Q.
C 0

(b) y Using Equations 3.19a and 3.19b, we obtain for this flow:

∂ 1 ∂ Q 1 ∂ ∂
v = = , =– = 0,
Φ = Φ1 ∂r r ∂ϕ 2πr r ∂ϕ ∂r

x Q r Q
whence: = Log , (6.10a) = ϕ. (6.10b)
O 2π r0 2π

Ψ = Ψ1 Ψ = Ψ2 As in the previous case, and are defined within an arbitrary constant. We note the close
correspondence, in two dimensions, between the solutions obtained here for a source, and
Φ = Φ2
those just derived for a vortex. The functions and are merely interchanged between
one flow and the other, but their mathematical dependence is the same. For the source,
Figure 6.3 Streamlines and equipotential the radial streamlines are identical to the equipotentials for vortex flow. The streamlines
lines (a) for a plane vortex flow around the of the vortex, concentric circles about the origin, correspond to the equipotentials in the
z-axis and (b) for flow resulting from a source presence of a source. This correspondence is more closely analyzed in Section 6.6, where
located at the origin of the coordinate axes we introduce the concept of a complex velocity potential.
In three dimensions, the velocity field resulting from a point source with outflow at rate Q,
can be written in spherical coordinates:

Q
vr = , υθ = υϕ = 0.
4πr 2
Definitions, properties and examples of potential flow 173

The flow must effectively be radial, and such that the flux through a sphere of arbitrary
radius r always equals Q. We then have, using Equations (3.52a) and (3.52b):

∂ 1 ∂ Q 1 ∂ 1 ∂
= 2 = vr = , =– = vθ = 0.
∂r r sin θ ∂θ 4πr 2 r ∂θ r sin θ ∂r

The velocity potential and the stream function can then be written

Q Q
=– , (6.11a) =– cos θ. (6.11b)
4πr 4π

Dipole flow
Consider a point sink at S 1 and a source at S 2 , separated by a distance d, with the same abso-
lute value of flow rate, Q. Letting their separation d→0 while keeping the product p = Q |d|
constant, we obtain a dipole flow, with vector moment p = Q (S1 S2 ) = Q d, oriented from
the sink to the source (Figure 6.4). P
In two dimensions, the velocity potentials induced at the point P (OP = r) by the source
S 2 , or the sink S 1 , respectively located at OS2 = r2 and OS1 = r1 , can be expressed in
cylindrical coordinates by:
r
Q |r – r2 | Q |r – r1 |
2 = Log , 1 = – Log .
2π r0 2π r0
φ
We have therefore, for the source and sink pair: p x
S1 S2
Q
= 1 + 2 = (Log |r – r2 | – Log |r – r1 |). a
2π

Let us now carry out a Taylor series expansion of Log |r – r2 | to the lowest non-vanishing
order near |r| = |OP|. In the limit in which we are interested (i.e. d→0 while the product
p = Q d remains constant), |r| is much greater than |r1 | = |OS1 | and |r2 | = |OS2 | (and
thus also than d), we thus obtain:

Q ∂ (Log r)
2 = (|r – r2 | – |r|) + · · · Figure 6.4 Two-dimensional flow resulting
2π ∂r from the combination of a sink S1 and a
source S2 , having the same absolute value Q
Q ∂ (Log r)
and: 1 = – (|r – r1 | – |r|) + · · · . of the flow rate
2π ∂r

Whence, in the limit where d → 0:

Q 1 Q d cos ϕ p cos ϕ
= (|r – r2 | – |r – r1 |) = – =– , (6.12)
2π r 2π r 2π r

p·r
i.e.: =– , (6.13)
2π r 2

where p = Q (S1 S2 ) ( p = |p| = Q d) and ϕ is the angle between S1 S2 and the radius vector
r of magnitude r.
From the gradient of the potential , we obtain the components of the velocity:

∂ p cos ϕ 1 ∂ p sin ϕ
vr = = , (6.14a) vϕ = = . (6.14b)
∂r 2π r 2 r ∂ϕ 2π r 2
174 Potential Flow

At distances r large compared to d, the potential and the velocity field resulting from this
dipole flow are seen therefore to have the same mathematical dependence as the potential
and the electric field due to an electric dipole with dipole moment p. The stream function
is once again obtained by integration of the velocity components:

p sin ϕ p×r
= = . (6.14c)
2π r 2πr 2

Going through a similar set of steps for a three-dimensional flow and a moment p parallel
to the z-axis (θ = 0), we obtain the potential for dipole flow in spherical polar coordinates:

p cos θ p·r
=– =– . (6.15a)
4πr 2 4πr 3

with corresponding components vr and vθ for the velocity field:

p cos θ p sin θ
vr = , (6.15b) and: vθ = (6.15c)
2πr 3 4πr 3

and a stream function obtained by use of Equations 3.52, satisfies:

p sin2 θ
= . (6.15d)
4πr

Solutions of Laplace’s equation: superposition and separation of variables

As a result of the linearity of Laplace’s equation, linear combinations of solutions are them-
selves also solutions. We can therefore construct the velocity field for a potential problem by
superimposing simple solutions in such a way that the resulting function obeys the boundary
conditions. Also, just as for the case of the electrostatic potential resulting from a distribution
of electric charges, we can write the velocity potential for a flow as a multipole expansion. This
corresponds to a sum of elementary potentials related to distributions of more and more
complicated sources of fluid (simple source, dipole, quadrupole, etc.). We will see that the
velocity potential of a dipole can describe simple velocity fields such as those corresponding
to flow around a sphere or a cylinder.
Another approach consists of looking for particular solutions of Laplace’s equation writ-
ten as a product of separate functions of the individual variables: in that case, we must use
coordinate systems which reflect the symmetry of the problem. Problems with cylindrical
symmetry lead to solutions involving Bessel functions. Those with spherical symmetry in-
volve the same Legendre polynomials that are also used in the solution of the Schrödinger
equation encountered in quantum mechanics for the description of atomic orbitals.

6.2.4 Examples of simple potential flows

The examples which follow involve the elementary flows studied above. We discuss, in
order, uniform flow around a circular cylinder, three-dimensional flow around a sphere
located in an otherwise uniform flow, flow around a Rankine solid and, finally, the
superposition of flows resulting from a sink and a vortex.

Flow around a circular cylinder

We consider uniform flow at velocity U, perturbed by the presence of a circular cylinder
of radius R, with its axis normal to the direction of the velocity. Given that this problem is
invariant for translations along the axis of the cylinder, we can treat it as two-dimensional.
Definitions, properties and examples of potential flow 175

We examine first the case where (i) there is no circulation of the velocity around the cylinder,
and, then (ii), we include the effects of an existing circulation, thus observing the effect of
lift. We discuss this effect in a more general approach, in Section 6.3.1, where we treat the
case of a two-dimensional obstacle of arbitrary cross-section.

(i) Circular cylinder with no circulation Let us consider, in polar coordinate nota-
tion, the velocity potential resulting from a superposition of the potential corresponding
to uniform flow at velocity U in the direction ϕ = 0 (Equation 6.6a) and of a dipole of
moment p pointing in the same direction (Equation 6.12). We then have:

p cos ϕ p
= uniform flow + dipole = U r cos ϕ – = U r– cos ϕ. (6.16)
2π r 2π r
This equation provides a first logical step: the dipole potential is in fact the first non-zero
term of a multipole expansion since, by assumption, there is no source of fluid within the
cylinder. Given the uniqueness of potential solutions with a given circulation, Equation 6.16
is the solution of our problem if it satisfies the boundary conditions at the walls. If this is
not the case, we will have to add in higher order terms of the multipole expansion. From
Equation 6.16 for the potential, we obtain the velocity components:

∂ p 1 ∂ p
vr = = U+ cos ϕ, vϕ = =– U– sin ϕ.
∂r 2π r 2 r ∂ϕ 2πr 2

We now look for a value of p such that the velocity field obeys the boundary conditions:
v = U at infinity, and vr (r=R) = 0 (normal component of the velocity zero at the surface
r = R of the cylinder).
The first condition is obeyed trivially, since the dipole contribution vanishes as 1/r 2 at
large distances. The second implies:

p R2
= –U , whence: = U r cos ϕ 1 + 2 ,
2πR2 r

thus yielding the required value of the dipole moment p as a function of the velocity U .
Accordingly, the velocity field has the form:

R2 R2
vr = U 1 – 2 cos ϕ, (6.17a) vϕ = –U 1 + 2 sin ϕ. (6.17b)
r r

Because of the uniqueness of the solutions of Laplace’s equation, this velocity field, obeying
the required boundary conditions at infinity and along the surface of the cylinder, must
therefore be the correct solution for our problem.
The stream function for this flow can equally be constructed from those for uniform
flow and for the dipole. However, we can obtain it more easily from the velocity field de-
rived above, by direct integration of Equations (6.17a,b) and from the expression for in
cylindrical coordinates. We thus obtain:

R2
= U r sin ϕ 1 – 2 .
r

The streamlines for this flow are shown in Figure 6.5 (following page). We observe a parti-
cular streamline corresponding to = 0. It consists of two semi-infinite lines starting from
the stagnation points r = R and ϕ = 0 or π (the points along the circumference of the cylinder
where the velocity is zero), and of the circumference of the cylinder itself.
176 Potential Flow

Figure 6.5 Shape of the streamlines around

a circular cylinder placed within a flow which
is uniform at infinity, for the case where there
is no circulation of the velocity around the
cylinder. This figure was obtained experimen- Ψ= 0
tally using a Hele-Shaw cell which allows us
to simulate a two-dimensional potential flow
from that around an obstacle placed between
two parallel plates with very small separa-
tion. This technique is discussed in Chapter 9,
Figure 9.23 (plate courtesy of H. Peregrine,
(ii) Flow around a circular cylinder in the presence of circulation In this case,
“An Album of fluid motion”)
we obtain the velocity potential by adding to the previous potential (Equation 6.16) the
potential of a vortex of circulation (Equation 6.9a). As a matter of fact, the velocity
field of the vortex is tangent to the circles r = constant, and vanishes at infinity. It therefore
automatically satisfies the two boundary conditions. Since there is only a single potential
flow corresponding to a given value of the circulation , the sum of these two velocity
potentials must be the correct solution to the problem. Thus, if we write U as the magnitude
y
(a) of the velocity parallel to the x-axis:
U
p
Г
= Ur – cos ϕ + ϕ.
P1 P2 x 2π r 2π

In the same manner, we obtain the velocity components by superposition of the solutions:

y
(b) v = vcylinder + vvortex
U

Г because each of these velocity fields satisfies independently the boundary conditions.
x We therefore conclude:
P

R2 R2
vr = U 1 – 2 cos ϕ, (6.18a) vϕ = –U 1 + 2 sin ϕ + . (6.18b)
r r 2π r

Let us now determine if there still exist stagnation points on the surface of the cylinder.
y They must be such that:
(c)
U

R2
Г vϕ (r = R) = –U 1 + 2 sin ϕ+ = 0, i.e.,: sin ϕ = . (6.19)
R 2πR 4πRU
x
Equation 6.19 leads us to a distinction between two different regimes according to the
P relative values of the respective magnitudes of circulation and velocity, || and |U |:

• for 0 < ||< 4π R |U |, there are two stagnation points P 1 and P 2 , symmetri-
cally located relative to the y-axis (Figure 6.6a). Their position is determined by the
Figure 6.6 Shape of the streamlines around angles ϕ, solutions of Equation 6.19. As the circulation increases, P 1 and P 2 move
a circular cylinder placed in a flow, uniform closer to each other, starting from their diametrically opposite positions for = 0 (the
at infinity, for the case where the circulation case previously discussed). Ultimately they merge into a unique stagnation point P
of the velocity around the cylinder is not on the surface of the cylinder when || = 4π R |U | (Figure 6.6b).
zero (it is negative for the case of the figure); • for ||> 4π R |U |, there are no longer any stagnation points along the surface of
(a): 0 < ||< 4πR|U|; (b) || = 4πR|U|; the cylinder. Immediately next to the cylinder, we observe closed streamlines, and
(c) || > 4πR|U| open ones further away (Figure 6.6c). On a trajectory intermediate between these
Definitions, properties and examples of potential flow 177

two cases we find a single stagnation point P external to the cylinder. Its coordinates
ϕ and r satisfy sin ϕ = ± 1 (depending on whether and U have the same sign) and:

R2 ||
– |U | 1 + 2 + = 0, (6.20a)
r 2πr

⎛ ⎞
2
|| ||
whence: r = R⎝ + – 1⎠ (6.20b)
4πR |U | 4πR |U |

(in fact, the second solution of Equation 6.20a corresponds to a value smaller
than R).

The force exerted by the fluid on the cylinder is normal to the axis and has two com-
ponents: one, along the direction of the velocity U is called the drag force; the other, in the
perpendicular direction, is the lift. To evaluate these components of the force, we determine
the resultant of the pressure on the cylinder from the pressure field p(r = R, ϕ) along the sur-
face. The pressure obeys Bernoulli’s Equation 5.36, applicable throughout the fluid, since
we are dealing with potential flow. Taking as a reference a point infinitely distant radially
(where the pressure is p0 and the velocity U), we obtain:

1 2 1
p(r = R, ϕ) + ρ v (r = R, ϕ) = p0 + ρU 2 ,
2 ϕ 2
2
1
whence p = p0 + ρU 2 1 – –2 sin ϕ + .
2 2π RU

The lift, per unit length of cylinder, is then the total resultant component FL of the pressure
in the y–direction:

FL = – p sin ϕ R dϕ.
cylinder surface

The only non-zero term in the integral comes from the term involving sin ϕ, in the equation
we have just derived for the pressure, so that:

2π
ρU 2
FL = – sin ϕ d ϕ = – ρ U ; (6.21)
0 π

here, for the cases illustrated in Figure 6.6, FL is directed upward. This result for the lift,
also known as the Magnus force, is derived more generally in Section 6.3.1 (Equations 6.43
and 6.44).
Moreover, the x-component of the pressure forces, the drag force FD , is zero. This
follows from the fact that the magnitude of the velocity at points on the cylinder sym-
metrically located relative to the y-axis is the same, and hence we have the same pressure.
The x-component of the global pressure force cancels because of this symmetry. This re-
sult may be shown to be valid for all stationary flows of an ideal fluid around an obstacle.
In every such case, the vanishing of the drag force is consistent with the absence of a viscous
dissipation mechanism.
178 Potential Flow

Sphere in a flow with uniform velocity at infinity

We now discuss the case of uniform flow at velocity U perturbed by a stationary sphere of
radius R located at the origin (Figure 6.7). In keeping with the analogy with the electrostatic
problem, and following the procedure we used for the case of the cylinder, we pick as
a trial function for the velocity potential the superposition of the potentials for uniform
U flow (Equation 6.8a) and for a dipole (Equation 6.15a). We thus obtain, in spherical polar
z
coordinates:
p cos θ p
= U r cos θ – = (U r – ) cos θ. (6.22)
4πr 2 4πr 2

The components of the velocity can then be written:

Figure 6.7 Streamlines around a motion-
∂ p 1 ∂ p
less sphere placed within a uniform potential vr = = U+ cos θ, vθ = =– U– sin θ υϕ = 0. (6.23)
flow ∂r 2π r 3 r ∂θ 4πr 3

The dipole moment p is determined, as before, from the boundary condition at the surface
of the sphere:
p
vr (r = R) = U + cos θ = 0,
2πR3

R3
so that: p = –2π UR3 (6.24a) and: = U r cos θ 1 + . (6.24b)
2r 3

The condition that the velocity equals U at infinity is satisfied by the form chosen for the
potential (the dipole contribution vanishes toward infinity). We obtain for the velocity
field:

R3 R3
vr = U 1 – 3 cos θ, vθ = –U 1 + 3 sin θ, υϕ = 0. (6.25)
r 2r

The streamlines are obtained from the stream function, itself derived from the velocity
potential by integration of the two equations below (see Equations 3.52):

∂ 2 R3
= r sin θ vr = U r 2 – sin θ cos θ, (6.26a)
∂θ r

∂ R3
= –(r sin θ) vθ = U r + 2 sin2 θ. (6.26b)
∂r 2r

Thus, within a constant of integration:

U 2 R3
= r – sin2 θ. (6.27)
2 r

Figure 6.7 displays the distribution of the corresponding streamlines. The surface = 0 is
made up of the sphere (r = R) and of the axis of symmetry (θ = 0 and θ = π). We should
note that the magnitude of the deviation of the velocity from U decreases as 1/r 3 for large
values of r.
We will discuss in Section 9.4.1 the flow of a fluid around a sphere at low Reynolds
numbers, when viscosity forces dominate (contrary to the present case); in that case, the
magnitude of the velocity decreases as 1/r, i.e. much more slowly than for the potential flow
discussed here.
Definitions, properties and examples of potential flow 179

(C0 )

Figure 6.8 Flow around an axially sym-

metric solid, known as a Rankine solid. This
U P0 S z
flow is equivalent to the superposition of a
uniform flow and of the flow resulting from
a source S

The Rankine solid

This example is the case of a source placed in a uniform flow (Figure 6.8). We show that the
resultant flow field is identical to that of the flow around an obstacle having a specific shape,
called a Rankine solid, which has axial symmetry around the direction of the unperturbed
flow.
We start with a velocity potential and a stream function corresponding to the superposi-
tion of a uniform flow (Equation 6.8) and that of a source located at the origin (Equation
6.11):

= uniform flow + source , = uniform flow + source ,

so that, in spherical coordinates:

Q r2 2 Q
= U r cos θ – (6.28a) and: = U sin θ – cos θ. (6.28b)
4πr 2 4π

We obtain the velocity components from Equation 6.28a:

∂ Q 1 ∂
vr = = U cos θ + vθ = = – U sin θ υϕ = 0. (6.29)
∂r 4πr 2 r ∂θ

There is a stagnation (zero-velocity) point P 0 on the x-axis (θ = 0 or π depending on the

sign of Q relative to that of U ) when:

|Q|
r = r0 = . (6.30)
4π |U |

The streamlines are surfaces of revolution around the z-axis. More precisely, each stream-
line is the intersection of one of these surfaces of revolution with a plane bounded by the
(polar) z-axis and extending radially outward at a given angle of azimuth ϕ, with equation:

r2 2 Q
U sin θ – cos θ = = constant. (6.31)
2 4π

A set of such streamlines is illustrated in Figure 6.8.

The value 0 of the stream function along the streamline (C0 ) in the plane of the fig-
ure and passing through the stagnation point P 0 , determined above, (r = r 0 , θ = π) can be
written:

Q
0 = (r = r0 , θ = π) = .
4π
180 Potential Flow

The obstacle described by Equation 6.32 be- Substituting the above value in Equation 6.31, we obtain the equation for (C0 ):
longs to the more general family of Rankine
ovoidal solids: these are obtained by superimpos- Q 1 + cos θ
ing current sheets corresponding to a uniform r2 = . (6.32)
2π U sin2 θ
flow together with a source and a sink of equal
flow rate. The parameter which changes the This streamline is made up, on one hand, of the z-axis (θ = 0, π) and, on the other hand,
shape of the solid is the distance between the
source and the sink. When this distance tends
of the curve which separates the fluid space into two regions in which the respective fluid
to zero, we get back to the flow around a sphere streams belong to each of the two basic flows (uniform flow and flow resulting from the
which we have studied in the preceding example. source). We can replace this flow tube by a solid obstacle without altering the remaining flow.
For the case where this distance becomes infi-
nitely large (e.g., if the sink goes to infinity), we Sink and vortex
have the particular case of the semi-infinite solid
discussed here: the sink then becomes only an We now treat the superposition of the two-dimensional flow resulting from the simultaneous
additional component of the uniform flow. presence of a sink, with flow rate –Q (Q > 0), and a vortex of circulation , both centered at
the origin. The resulting flow approximates the case of a cylindrical container being emp-
tied through a central hole (sink), while simultaneously receiving a peripheral inflow so as to
maintain the vortex motion. The only feature of such a flow not represented here, because
this is a two-dimensional model, is a depression of the free surface which is generally ob-
served in the center of the container. The resultant velocity potential, and stream function,
can be written as:

= sink + vortex and = sink + vortex ,

i.e., in cylindrical coordinates (Equations 6.9 and 6.10):

Q r Q r
=– Log + ϕ (6.33) and: =– ϕ– Log . (6.34)
2π r0 2π 2π 2π r0
y
from which we obtain the velocity components:
v Ψ ∂ Q 1 ∂
vr = =– (6.35a) and: vϕ = =– . (6.35b)
φ x ∂r 2πr r ∂ϕ 2πr

The equation of the streamlines is then, still in cylindrical coordinates:

Q r –
Q
ϕ
= constant = K – ϕ– Log whence r = r1 e . (6.36)
2π 2π r0

Figure 6.9 Streamlines for the flow result- They are therefore logarithmic spirals (Figure 6.9), with the factor r 1 as the parameter
ing from the superposition of a sink and a identifying a specific streamline. These correspond to the trajectory of a particle which goes
vortex located at the origin. In the figure, around the sink, gradually approaching it. The velocity vector v makes a constant angle ψ
the vortex has been chosen to have positive with the radius vector r such that:
circulation vϕ
tan ψ = =– .
vr Q

This angle is zero (radial streamlines) if = 0 (sink only), or π/2 if Q = 0 (vortex only).

6.3 Forces acting on an obstacle

in potential flow
In this section, we discuss the problem of the forces exerted by a fluid in potential flow on
a solid obstacle of arbitrary shape placed within it. The treatment is based on the fact, al-
ready discussed above (Section 6.2.3), that we can use a multipole expansion of the velocity
potential (the terms of the expansion must be solutions of Laplace’s equation). We must
also comply with the boundary conditions for the normal component of the velocity at the
Forces acting on an obstacle in potential flow 181

surface of the object (zero for an object at rest). For calculating the field, at large distances
r from the object, we take into account only the first non-vanishing contribution, to lowest
order in 1/r, i.e., the one which approaches zero most slowly is the one which we must use
in the calculation of the velocity field.
By means of the equations of conservation of momentum, the force exerted can be de-
termined from the velocity field, evaluated far enough from the body that the preceding
dipole approximation holds. In two dimensions, we must also take into account the possible
existence of a circulation, related to the lack of uniqueness of the solutions for the potential,
as discussed in Section 6.2.2.

6.3.1 Two-dimensional flows

Velocity potential
A circular cylinder, or the cross-section of an infinitely long wing, are classic examples of
two-dimensional obstacles. We assume these objects to be fixed, as would be the case in a
wind tunnel in which the fluid has velocity U, uniform at large distances from the obstacle,
and normal to the z-axis of the cylinder. We also assume, a priori, that a finite circulation
exists around the obstacle, without worrying about the manner in which this circulation
might be induced (this point is addressed in Section 7.5.2).
At a distance r from the obstacle, large compared to its dimensions in the x-y plane, we
can write the velocity in the form:

v (r) = U + ∇1 (r) + ∇2 (r) = U + v1 + v2 . (6.37)

• The term ∇1 (r), where 1 (r) = (/2π) ϕ + constant (Equation 6.9a), expresses
the effect on the velocity field of the circulation around the obstacle. The sum of
the first two terms represents the combination of a uniform flow with velocity U and
of a vortex.
• The potential 2 (r) expresses changes in the velocity potential due to the shape
and non-zero transverse dimension of the obstacle. We write 2 as a multipole ex-
pansion (simple source, dipole, quadrupole, etc. . . .). Normally, the flow does not
contain sources, so that the first non-vanishing term is the dipole and is, using
(Equation 6.13):
A·r
2 = , (6.38)
r2
where A is a constant vector characteristic of the dipole. If the obstacle is a circular
cylinder, this potential is the exact solution of the problem (Section 6.2.4, exam-
ple (i)). For an obstacle of arbitrary shape, it merely represents the correction term
which dominates at large distances. This correction to the value of the potential thus
decreases as 1/r with distance, which leads to a decrease in 1/r 2 of the corresponding
contribution to the velocity. We now demonstrate that this expansion is sufficient to
determine the forces which act on the obstacle.

Drag and lift forces on a two-dimensional obstacle

We calculate the lift (FL ) and drag (FD ) forces exerted on the body in the directions re-
spectively normal and parallel to the flow. For this purpose, we evaluate the components
along the x- and y-directions of the momentum conservation equation (Equation 5.10),
for a cylindrical slice located around the obstacle, of radius r large relative to its dimen-
sions in the x-y plane and of unit length along the z–axis (Figure 6.10a): we thus avoid the
integration of the pressure field over the entire surface of the obstacle. We shall see that the
182 Potential Flow

Figure 6.10 The evaluation of the lift force y

(a) (b)
FL , and of the drag force FD , on a cylindrical
obstacle with its axis transverse to a uniform n
(S) FL υ+ p–
flow when there is also a finite circulation Г
of the velocity around the obstacle. (a) (S) FD
U x U x
represents the surface of the circular cylinder FL
within which we carry out the momentum
balance. (b) Determination of the direction of
υ– p+
FL as a function of the direction of the cir-
culation from the application of Bernoulli’s
Equation

exact form of the cross-section of the obstacle in the plane of the figure is not relevant to the
calculation of the lift force FL . This results from the fact that only the dominant term 1 of
the multipole expansion of the velocity potential is required for the determination of FL .
Let us apply the momentum balance equation (Equation 5.10), derived in the preceding
chapter, to a cylindrical element of radius r surface area (S), and of unit depth in the di-
rection normal to the plane of the Figure 6.10a. Since we have ideal, potential flow, we can
ignore any effects of the viscosity stress tensor σij
. We then obtain:

– (ρ vx (v · n) + p nx ) dS + (–FD ) = 0, (6.39a)
S

– ρ vy (v · n) + p ny dS + (–FL ) = 0. (6.39b)
S

In these equations, n = [cos ϕ, sin ϕ, 0] is the unit vector normal to the surface element of
the cylinder dS = r dϕ; FD and FL , representing the respective drag and lift forces per unit
length along the z-axis, are considered to be a special kind of fictitious volume forces: they
are the forces which must be applied by an observer, or an external mechanism, in order to
maintain the obstacle in its place by balancing out the effect of the lift and the drag exerted
by the fluid. Separating out the pressure and inertial terms, we obtain:
2π 2π
FD = – ρ v2x cos ϕ + vx vy sin ϕ r dϕ – (p cos ϕ)r dϕ, (6.40a)
0 0
2π 2π
FL = – ρ vx vy cos ϕ + v2y sin ϕ r dϕ – ( p sin ϕ)r dϕ. (6.40b)
0 0

Using the expansion of the velocity v(r) from Equation 6.37, and removing the terms which
become negligible after the pressure has been evaluated, Equations 6.40a and 6.40b become:
2π !
FD = ρ –U v1x cos ϕ – U v1y sin ϕ r dϕ, (6.41a)
0
2π !
FL = ρ –U v1y cos ϕ + U v1x sin ϕ r dϕ. (6.41b)
0

Proof
We first replace v by U + v1 + v2 in Equations 6.40a and 6.40b. Each of the terms contain-
ing components of v2 effectively decreases as 1/r 2 (or even more rapidly if the terms involve
their product or their square). After having multiplied by r, we then have a contribution in
1/r to the integral which approaches zero at large distances. Moreover, the pressure field
Forces acting on an obstacle in potential flow 183

is given by Bernoulli’s Equation, which is valid throughout the medium, since the flow is
potential:

1 2 1
p+ ρ v = p0 + ρU 2 .
2 2

where p0 is the uniform pressure at a distance from the obstacle, sufficiently large so that
|v| = |U |. By using the expansion of v(r) and, as previously, neglecting the terms resulting
from the components of v2 , we have:

1 1 1
p = p0 + ρU 2 – ρ(U + v1 + v2 )2 = p0 – ρ U v1x – ρ v21 .
2 2 2

We can therefore rewrite Equations 6.40a and 6.40b in the form:

2π
2π
1
FD = – ρ (U + v1x )2 cos ϕ +(U + v1x ) v1y sin ϕ] r dϕ +ρ U v1x + v21 r cos ϕ dϕ,
0 0 2
2π 2π
1 Ώ1
FL = – ρ (U + v1x ) v1y cos ϕ + v21y sin ϕ] r dϕ + ρ U v1x + v21 r sin ϕ dϕ.
0 0 2 1
V1
In fact, the term with p0 constant vanishes since the integrals of cos ϕ and sin ϕ between
zero and 2π vanish. We can also neglect second-order terms of the kind v1x v1y , v21y or v21x : 2
V3
the corresponding integrals will indeed decrease as 1/r or even more rapidly since v1 varies Ώ3
as 1/r and these terms are multiplied by r. Only the terms –ρU v1x and –ρU v1y which have 1
a contribution constant with r at large distances will contribute to the integrals. We then 2 3
recover easily Equations 6.41a and 6.41b. 3

Equation 6.41a for the drag force can be rewritten in the form: Figure 6.11 The aerodynamics of ping-
pong ball strokes. When the ball is hit, the
2π 2π
FD = –ρ U (v1 ·n) r dϕ = –ρ U (v1 ·n) dS = 0, (6.42) player influences the curvature of the ulti-
0 0 mate trajectory of the ball by three different
techniques. (1) Top spin: If the hand moves
where n has components cos ϕ and sin ϕ, and represents the unit vector normal to the upward at the instant of impact, the edge of
surface of integration. FD is then proportional to the flux of the velocity field vl through the ball starts to move with velocity V1 in
the surface (S) and is equal to zero (i.e., it is a vortex-type velocity field and not a source- the direction tangent to the impact, since it
like term). does not slip relative to the racket. A rotation
We will find again in Section 6.3.2 this zero value of the drag force for three-dimensional 1 ≈ V1 /R (where R is the radius of the ball)
bodies: it represents the absence of energy dissipation in potential flows of ideal fluids under results and as a consequence the ball expe-
stationary conditions. riences a lift force proportional to 1 . The
Regarding the lift force FL , we obtain, denoting by (C) the curve which represents the trajectory will curve downwards leading to
intersection of (S) with the plane of the figure: a higher initial velocity, without overreach-
ing the boundaries of the table. (2) Straight
FL = –ρU (v1x dx + v1y dy) = –ρU v · dl = –ρU . (6.43) stroke: This is the normal stroke of the be-
C C
ginner pushing the ball. The player does not
affect in any way the curvature of the ball’s
Thus, only the term 1 = ϕ/2π resulting from the presence of a circulation of the velocity
path. (3) Slice: This is the converse of top spin
around the obstacle contributes to the lift force FL , also known as the Magnus force. This can
with a tangential velocity V3 which creates
be expressed in vector form by using an axial circulation vector parallel to the z-direction.
an upward lift, and a much flatter, almost
will be oriented toward the back of the plane of the figure, for a rotation in the same
horizontal trajectory
direction as in Figure 6.10b, and toward the front in the opposite case (this representation
184 Potential Flow

will become more obvious in the next chapter, where the circulation will be related to the
vorticity vector, also pointing in the z-direction). The lift force then satisfies:
Interpretations such as that given on figure 6.11
dealing with a real fluid are not rigourous for two
reasons. The objects we discuss are in fact not FL = ρ U × . (6.44)
two-dimensional but, in contrast to the assump-
tions made above, have three finite dimensions.
We can then find that, for whatever integration We also find the sign of the force, by applying Bernoulli’s Equation at two opposite points
contour (C) we choose, there is a surface (S) an- located above and below the obstacle (Figure 6.10b). With the direction of the circulation
chored on (C) which is totally enclosed in the which we have chosen around the obstacle, the absolute value of the velocity v+ at a point
fluid. The circulation of the velocity v along
the contour (C) is equal to the flux of ∇×v above the obstacle is higher than the velocity v– below. The pressure p– above the obstacle
through the surface (S), and would then van- is thus less than the pressure p+ below, leading to a lift force directed upward.
ish identically (just as with the Magnus force)
for potential flow. In the case of balls spinning Magnus force for real flows
in a real viscous fluid, the drag of the latter by
viscous forces near the walls results, on the con- The Magnus force is responsible for the fact that airplanes can fly through the air.
trary, in the appearance of the circulation and of In fact, there is a circulation of the velocity field around a cross-section of the wings (see
a non-vanishing Magnus lift force. In the same
way, the circulation around a wing of finite Section 6.6.3). This force is also the basis of the mechanisms for propulsion and support
length would vanish for a purely ideal potential resulting from the action of a propeller (in ships, airplanes, helicopters, etc.). Finally, we
flow: we will see in Section 7.5.2 (Figures 7.27 can use it to explain a pitcher’s curve ball in baseball (or the bowler’s in cricket), the topspin
to 7.29) that, in order to have a non-vanishing
, we must have a vortex of circulation equal to and slices in tennis or ping-pong strokes (Figure 6.11 on previous page), and the “curving”
originating from the tip of the wing. kick in soccer.

6.3.2 Added mass effects for a three-dimensional

body undergoing acceleration in an ideal fluid
For a body with three finite dimensions, in relative motion at a constant velocity in an
infinite volume of an ideal fluid, the drag force vanishes just as for a two-dimensional body
† Physicists with some exposure to quantum
(Equation 6.42); like in the previous case, this reflects the lack of viscous dissipation of the
electrodynamics will recognize the analogy with energy. For purely potential flow, this is also true for the lift force: as we saw above, this is
the difference between a bare particle’s mass or
charge and those of one dressed by interactions. the result of the absence of circulation of the velocity around the body.
On the other hand, when a body is accelerated we must take into account the drag due to
inertial effects in the incompressible fluid displaced by the solid: i.e., when the solid object
is accelerated, the fluid it displaces must also undergo acceleration. It is this phenomenon
of the solid being dressed † by the surrounding fluid which causes an increase in the inertial
effects, and leads to a fictitious mass called the added mass.
We calculate now in the following order, the kinetic energy of the fluid set in motion
M by the object, the impulse which it senses as a result of the acceleration of the object and,
(S0) r
U finally, the force exerted on it.
( 0)
Derivation of the velocity potential and of the pressure field around
a finite three-dimensional obstacle
We consider a solid body of arbitrary shape and volume V 0 bounded by a surface S0 , moving
(S1) at velocity U in a fluid which is at rest far from the body (Figure 6.12).
Just as in the two-dimensional case discussed above, we can expand the velocity potential
Figure 6.12 An obstacle of arbitrary shape at a point M, located at a distance r from the object, in powers of 1/r, where r is large
with all finite dimensions moving at velocity compared to the greatest dimension of the object. Here again we encounter the analog
U in a fluid which is at rest far from the ob- of the multipole expansion of a distribution of charges in electrostatics: the terms in 1/r
stacle. The fictitious spherical surface (S1 ), of correspond to free charges, those in 1/r 2 to dipoles, etc.
large radius R, indicated around the obstacle

is useful in calculating the kinetic energy of A1 p 1 1
the fluid (r) = + ·∇ + O 3 . (6.45)
r 4π r r
Forces acting on an obstacle in potential flow 185

The first term is a source term such that the flux of the velocity field through a sphere (S1 )
of large radius R, surrounding the object, satisfies:

A1
v · n dS = 2 4π R2 = 4π A1 .
S1 R

In the present example, we have no source of fluid so that A1 = 0. The second term of
Equation 6.45 is the expression for the potential due to a dipole which we derived as
Equation 6.15 in Section 6.2.3. Keeping in mind the principle of superposition, the compo-
nents of the dipole moment p and those of the velocity U obey a linear relationship, which
can be written:

pi = αij Uj with summation implied over the repeated index j, (6.46)

where α ij is an element of a tensor [α] characteristic of the shape of the solid object. For the
particular case of the sphere, Equation 6.46 takes the form

p = 2π U R3 , (6.47a) i.e.: αij = 2π R δij . (6.47b)

Proof
This relationship is deduced from Equation 6.24a, by changing the sign of the dipole mo-
ment p: the flow around a sphere moving at velocity U is indeed, in the reference frame of
the sphere, equal and opposite to that for a motionless sphere within a flow of velocity –U.

Kinetic energy of the fluid

We calculate the kinetic energy Ek for a large volume of fluid (V 1 ), surrounding the ob-
ject, and bounded by the sphere (S1 ) of radius R. For this purpose, we use the following
expansion allowing one to take into account the volume V 0 of the object:

ρ ρ ρ ρ
Ek = v2 dV = U2 dV + (v – U) (v + U) dV = (I1 + I2 ).
2 V1 2 V1 2 V1 2
(6.48)
From this we infer (see below):
ρ

Ek = p · U – V0 U 2 . (6.49)
2
The total kinetic energy of the fluid Ek has a square law dependence on the velocity U ,
because p varies linearly with U following Equation 6.46. Thus:
ρ
Ek = αij Ui Uj – V0 Ui Ui . (6.50)
2

Proof
We have first:

4
I1 = U 2 π R3 – V0 . (6.51)
3

In order to evaluate I 2 , we begin with the vector identity

∇·( f v) = (v·∇) f + f ∇·v.

186 Potential Flow

Writing f = + U · r, and making use of the condition of incompressibility ∇ · v = 0, we

then have:

(v – U) (v + U) = ∇ · [(v – U) ( + U · r)].

The volume integral I 2 is therefore equal to the sum of two surface integrals, one over the
surface (S0 ) of the object, and the other over the surface (S1 ) of the sphere of radius R much
larger than the size of the object. We thus obtain:

I2 = [(v – U) ( + U · r)] · n dS + [(v – U) ( + U · r)]· n dS.
S0 S1

The first integral on the right-hand side is identically zero because, at the surface of the
object, (v – U)·n = 0. Expanding the product in the second integral, we find:

I2 = [ v – U + (U · r) v – (U · r) U]· n dS. (6.52)
S1

The first term in the integral is of order (1/R5 ), so that its surface integral vanishes as R

tends to infinity. The velocity field resulting from the potential = – (p · n) / 4πr 2 of the
dipole (Equation 6.15a) can be written:

p p·n r
v=– +3( ) n, with: n= .
4πr 3 4πr 3 r

We substitute these two expressions for v and r so that we can evaluate the last three terms
of Equation 6.52. We can then write I 2 in the form:

d
I2 = (U · n) (3 p · n) – 4π (U · n)2 R3 ,
S1 4π

where d is the element of the solid angle subtended by the surface element dS at the center
of the sphere (S1 ) with radius R (dS = R2 d). In order to compute I 2 , we use the following
general vector identity, applicable for any constant vectors A and B:

4π 4π
(A · n)(B · n)d = Ai Bj ni nj d = Ai Bj δij = A · B.
3 3

4π 2 3
We then obtain: I2 = p · U – U R (6.53)
3

Substituting Equations 6.51 and 6.53 into Equation 6.48, we obtain Equation 6.49.

Impulse
Let us denote by P the momentum of the fluid associated with the motion resulting from
the displacement of the solid body (P should not be confused with the dipole moment p).
For a change δU in the velocity of the object, the resulting variation in the kinetic energy of
the fluid set in motion is related to P by:

δEk = P · δU. (6.54)

Linear surface waves on an ideal fluid 187

If we now use Equation 6.50 for the kinetic energy and assume that αij = αji (which can
always be achieved by symmetrizing the expression), we can then write:
ρ !
δEk = αij 2 Uj δUi – 2V0 Ui δUi = ρ αij Uj – V0 Ui δUi .
2
Comparing this with Equation 6.54 and using Equation 6.46, we find:

P = ρ p – ρ V0 U. (6.55)

The significance of these two terms is the following: assume that we eliminate the object
and replace it by the (pure) dipole moment p. The velocity field resulting at the surface (S1 )
will be the same in both cases. The term ρ p represents therefore the momentum associated
with the dipole itself, while ρV0 U is then the added effect of the finite solid object.

Force on the solid object

From the expression for the impulse, we deduce the force that the fluid exerts on the object:
dP dp dU
F =– = –ρ + ρ V0 . (6.56)
dt dt dt
For the special case where the object moves with constant velocity U, p is also a constant,
and the resultant force F (lift + drag) vanishes as predicted.

Special case for a spherical object

For the case where the object is a sphere of radius R, the dipole moment p can be expressed
as a function of U (Equation 6.47a). Using Equation 6.49, we then obtain for the kinetic
energy of the fluid:
π 3 2
Ek = ρR U . (6.57a)
3
In the same manner, we deduce a value for the force F from Equations 6.47 and 6.56:
ρ V0 dU
F=– . (6.57b)
2 dt
The force which must be applied to the sphere so as to obtain the acceleration dU/dt is thus
increased by a value –F, the same as if we had added to the mass of the sphere half the mass
of the fluid which it displaces (this represents the added mass).

6.4 Linear surface waves on an ideal fluid

An important class of problems, which can be described in terms of the properties of an
ideal fluid, so long as we are willing to neglect attenuation effects which arise from viscosity,
is that of surface waves. These problems involve the coupling between deformations of the
surface and the bulk flows which result from them. The mechanisms which tend, as the
wave propagates, to restore the free surface to its equilibrium configuration are gravity,
which counteracts deviations of the surface from the horizontal, and surface tension, which
opposes any curvature of the interface and tends to minimize its area.

6.4.1 Swell, ripples and breaking waves

We begin by listing the various wave regimes which can exist at the surface of a fluid. Figure
6.13 below indicates the dependence of the propagation velocity c of a wave on the wave
188 Potential Flow

c
gh

Figure 6.13 Variation of the phase velocity

of a surface wave as a function of the wave
vector k for a liquid layer of thickness h large
compared to the capillary length c . As k in-
creases, there is a transition from the regime of
shallow water to that of deep water waves for cmin = c(kc)
k ≈ 1/h and then from gravitational toward gravity capillary
capillary waves governed by surface tension waves waves
for k ≈ kc = 1/lc k = 2π/ λ
0
kc=1/ c

shallow water deep water

vector k = 2π/λ. We see that the variation is not monotonic and, specifically, that there
exists a minimum value cmin for a certain value kc of the wave vector k (for water cmin is
m/s). We see below that kc equals the reciprocal of the capillary length of the fluid c =
0.23
γ /ρg, which we defined by Equation 1.65 (Section 1.4.4). For a wave of wave number k
(corresponding to an angular frequency ω), propagating along the surface of a layer of fluid
of thickness h, density ρ, and surface tension γ , the velocity c is given by the equation:

g γ k2
c2 = tanh(kh) 1 + . (6.58)
k ρg

This result is derived at the end of this section. It is easily generalized to the case of waves
at the interface between two immiscible liquids. We discuss this particular problem in the
framework of interfacial instabilities in Section 11.4.1.
Let us evaluate the relative importance of the different terms in Equation 6.58. We can
do this by introducing explicitly the capillary length c :
g
c2 = tanh(kh) 1 + k2 2c . (6.59)
k
In the discussion below, we consider the case where the thickness h of the fluid layer is
significantly larger than the capillary length c : for water this length is about 3 mm, amply
justifying this assumption.
In Equation 6.59, the factor tanh (kh) is of the order of unity for those surface waves,
called deep water waves, for which h is large relative to the wavelength λ = 2π/k. For that case,
Equation 6.59 simplifies to:
g
c2 ≈ 1 + k2 2c . (6.60)
k

• The first term on the right-hand side, dominant for wavelengths large relative to the
capillary length c (kc << 1), corresponds to gravity waves. Their phase velocity is:

g
c= , (6.61)
k
which decreases as the wave vector increases. This wave corresponds to ocean swells.
Linear surface waves on an ideal fluid 189

• In the other limit, for short wavelengths (k c 1), the second term dominates. The
phase velocity for capillary waves then becomes:

γk
c ≈ g k c ≈ , (6.62)
ρ

The minimum in the wave velocity corresponds to the case where the respective contri-
butions due to capillarity and gravity are of the same order of magnitude, i.e. where the
corresponding wavelength λc is comparable to c . The capillary length is thus the boundary
between the domains where gravitational and capillarity effects each dominate.

γ
λc = 2π c = 2π , (6.63) Insects and other small animals living on the
ρg surface of the water often take advantage of sur-
face waves in different ways. First of all, the
generation of such waves and their associated
In the case where the wavelength is large compared to both the depth h of fluid and the momentum contribute in a similar manner to
capillary length c (i.e., k h 1 and k c 1), Equation 6.59 takes on the approximate other mechanisms (vortex emission, friction on
form: the liquid, etc.) by which some of these insects
move on the surface. The emission of waves,
however, both requires energy and dissipates
c= gh. (6.64) it: other small insects avoid this emission and
the equivalent frictional resistance which results
from that by moving at a velocity less than the
In this case, known as that of shallow water gravity waves, it is the thickness of the fluid layer minimum cm = 0.23 m/s of the wave velocity.
which determines the wave velocity. It provides the explanation for the phenomenon of Finally, other insects find further applications for
breaking waves, in a situation such as that at a steep beach where the depth changes rapidly. this: whirligig beetles spin and thus emit spi-
ral waves which allow them to avoid obstacles
The crest of the wave, where the water is significantly deeper than in the trough just ahead thanks to the reflection of the waves from these
of it, propagates faster and actually overtakes the leading trough. obstacles.

Derivation of Equation 6.58 for the dispersion of surface waves

Consider a layer of liquid of average depth h (Figure 6.14) bounded below by the plane
y = 0. We seek solutions for two-dimensional waves characterized by the velocity potential
(x, y, t). On one hand, we assume that the amplitude of the wave is sufficiently small that
terms of the type (v.∇)v are negligible, and, on the other hand, that the curvature of the
interface remains always small.
This is equivalent to assuming ∂y0 (x, t)/∂x 1 where y0 (x,t) represents the instanta-
neous position of the surface. Bernoulli’s Equation (Equation 5.36) for a non-stationary
problem of this type takes then the form (writing ϕ = g y and neglecting the v2 /2 term):

∂ p
+ + g y = constant. (6.65)
∂t ρ

Figure 6.14 Geometry of a liquid layer for

the analysis of the propagation of surface
y0(x,t) h waves

O x
190 Potential Flow

The pressure at the surface of the liquid is given by the Young-Laplace law (Equation
1.58 with R
→ ∞):

γ
p = p0 – , (6.66)
R

where p0 is the external pressure above the interface, γ the coefficient of surface tension
and R (∂ 2 y/ ∂x2 )–1 is the instantaneous local curvature of the interface. At the bottom of
the container (at y = 0), the velocity normal to the surface is zero, so that:

∂
= 0. (6.67)
∂y y=0

At the interface, we require the vertical component of the velocity of the fluid to equal that
The equality on the right is, in fact, correct of the interface, so that:
only to first order. There is a higher order
term, whose significance we shall discuss in
Section 11.4.1, which takes into account the ef- ∂ ∂y0
v y ( y = y0 ) = = . (6.68)
fect of the horizontal convective motion on the ∂y y = y0 ∂t
vertical displacement of the interface when the
interface is not horizontal.
The potential function we seek here is a solution of Laplace’s equation ∇ 2 = 0, satisfying
the boundary conditions stated above. We obtain a solution for by the method of sepa-
ration of variables. We therefore assume a solution in the form of the product of a function
f (u), where u = x – ct, representing a wave traveling at speed c in the positive x-direction,
with a function q( y), dependent on the vertical y coordinate, i.e.:

(x, y, t) = f (u) q ( y). (6.69)

Substitution into Laplace’s equation leads to:

∂ 2f ∂ 2q 1 ∂ 2f 1 ∂ 2q
q+f 2 = 0 or =– .
∂u 2 ∂y f ∂u 2 q ∂y2

Since each side of the latter equation is respectively a function of only one of the independent
variables u and y, each side must necessarily be a constant, so that:

1 ∂ 2f 1 ∂ 2g
=– = constant = –k2 . (6.70)
f ∂u2 q ∂y2

We have chosen the constant to be negative for the x-dependent left-hand side, because we
want sinusoidally propagating solutions of the form ei(kx–ωt) in the x-direction. Taking into
account the boundary condition (Equation 6.67), we then obtain for the potential function
a solution of the form:

(x, y, t) = f (x – ct) q(y) = A ei(kx–ωt) cosh(ky), (6.71)

where A is a constant proportional to the amplitude of the wave. The y-dependence corre-
sponds to an attenuation of the wave with depth. Taking the derivative of Equation 6.65 with
respect to time, and using once again the boundary condition (Equation 6.68), we obtain
the equation:

∂2 ∂ γ ∂ 3
+g – = 0. (6.72)
∂t 2 ∂y ρ ∂x2 ∂y y = y0
Linear surface waves on an ideal fluid 191

Finally, substituting in this last equation the explicit form of the solution for the potential
(Equation 6.71), and replacing y0 (x, t) by its average value, h, we find:

γ k3
ω2 = gk + tanh (kh), (6.73)
ρ

which reduces to Equation 6.58, the result stated at the beginning of this section, since the
phase velocity is c = ω/k.

6.4.2 Trajectories of fluid particles during

the passage of a wave
If we use the solution for the velocity potential (Equation 6.71):

(x, y, t) = A e i(kx–ωt) cosh (ky)

derived in the previous section, the corresponding velocity fields obtained from the equation
v(x, y, t) = ∇, are:

∂ ∂
vx (t) = = A i k e i(kx–ωt) cosh (ky), vy (t) = = A k e i(kx–ωt) sinh (ky).
∂x ∂y

We then integrate the above fields with respect to the time t. Because this appears only in
the exponentials, integration with respect to time is equivalent to dividing by –iω, – i.e.,
multiplying by i/ω. We set the constant of integration to zero, which amounts to looking
only at the oscillating component of the corresponding coordinate. We obtain:

k i(kx–ωt) k i(kx–ωt)
x (t) = –A e cosh (ky), y (t) = iA e sinh (ky).
ω ω

We then take the real parts of the above results, in order to see the displacements in the real
space, using Euler’s identity e iu = cos u + i sin u. This then leads to the equation (with time
as a parameter) for the trajectories of the particles of fluid in the (x, y)-plane:

k k
x (t) = – A cos(kx – ωt) cosh(ky), y (t) = –A sin(kx – ωt) sinh(ky).
ω ω

Here, x and y are the mean position coordinates for each particle and x(t) and y(t)
are the components of the displacement of each particle at time t relative to this position.
We now eliminate the expressions involving time in these equations, obtaining the equation
of an ellipse:

(x)2 (y)2 A2 k 2
+ = . (6.74)
2
cosh (ky) 2
sinh (ky) ω2

• In deep water, far from the bottom, k|y| 1. Therefore:

e2ky
cosh2 (ky) = sinh2 (ky) = .
4
192 Potential Flow

The trajectories are then circular, with a radius Rt (y) = Rt (h) ek(y–h) (Rt (h) being
y
the value at the surface). The amplitude of the displacement decreases exponentially
with the depth and becomes negligible as soon as the latter exceeds a few wavelengths
(Figure 6.15a).
(a)
• In shallow water, we have k|y| 1, for all y. The trajectories are therefore ellipses
with major axis {2A(k/ω)} in the x-direction, and minor axis {2A(k/ω) ky} vertically:
they are highly elongated near the surface, and gradually becoming flat straight-line
x
segments near the bottom. The ratio of the axes of the ellipse is of the order of ky.
y The amplitude of the displacement of the particles in the (horizontal) x–direction
remains basically constant (Figure 6.15b), while the vertical one is a factor ky smaller.
(b) Thus, the shallow-water approximation is in fact equivalent to neglecting the velocity
component vy for all values of y, and to assuming that the velocity component vx is
independent of y.
x

Figure 6.15 The trajectories of fluid parti- 6.4.3 Solitons

cles as a wave passes by (a) for deep water
and (b) for shallow water. The horizontal ar- Here, we enter the rich and complex domain of non-linear waves, for the effects of which
row indicates the direction of propagation of surface waves provide one of the simplest illustrations. We present here a semi-quantitative
the wave discussion of some of their properties.
We consider the propagation of a perturbation of the free surface of a fluid layer of
thickness h, having amplitude A, not negligible in comparison to h, and localized in a region
A of width (Figure 6.16). We show that, by a compensating effect, such a perturbation can
∆ propagate without deformation, resulting in what is known as a soliton, or solitary wave.
h Two effects compete to modify the profile of the disturbance as it propagates:

x • A spreading due to dispersion: the perturbation, of width , can be considered as

a wave packet, or superposition of sinusoidal waves of nearly equal frequencies.
Figure 6.16 A soliton, with amplitude A Assuming that k h is not too large, we expand to lowest order Equation 6.58 pre-
that is non-negligable relative to the thickness dicting the velocity of the gravity waves. If we also neglect the term corresponding to
h of the fluid layer, can propagate along the capillarity, we obtain:
surface of the liquid without undergoing any

deformation k2 h 2
c(k) ≈ g h 1 – . (6.75)
6
We note that components of the wave with the shorter wavelengths (larger k values) prop-
agate more slowly. If the spatial extent of the wave is , the spectrum of its wave vectors
extends approximately over 0 < k < kmax ≈ 1/. The velocity difference δc between these
extremes has order of magnitude:
h2
|δc| ≈ gh 2. (6.76)

This velocity difference between the various components of the wave spectrum tends to
cause spreading of the wave packet, a result typical of the classical phenomenon known as
dispersion.

• The steepening of the wave front results from non-linear effects; since the wave ve-
locity increases with increasing depth h, the crest and the trough of the deformation
tend to propagate with respective velocities:

c
= g (h + A) and c = g h.
Linear surface waves on an ideal fluid 193

The crest thus propagates more rapidly than the trough, tending to steepen the wave, and
often causing it to break. The corresponding difference in velocity is of order:

gA
c
– c ≈ . (6.77)
h2
The dispersion and non-linearity effects cancel out when the two above velocity differences
(Equations 6.76 and 6.77) are of the same order of magnitude, i.e., when:

h2 g h3
gh 2 ≈ A, so that: A ≈ 2. (6.78)
h
The wave propagates without any deformation only if the cancellation is exact everywhere
along the profile of the wave. It can be shown by a more elaborate calculation that this can
be achieved for a precisely determined shape, having the mathematical form:
The propagation of such solitary waves can
A be observed in canals over distances of several
y=h+ , (6.79a) with: A = 4 h /3,
2 3
(6.79b) miles. We recall the story of Scott Russell, who
cosh2 (x/) in 1838 discovered solitons as he followed on
horseback the wave resulting from the sudden
and a velocity of propagation: stopping of barge on a canal. Also, some of the
tidal bores discussed in Section 5.4.4 (the slower

c= g (h + A). (6.79c) ones) are composed a leading shock-like wave
followed by a train of solitons.

6.4.4 Another example of potential flow in the

presence of an interface: the Taylor bubble
Big bubbles of air rising in a large diameter water-filled tube, close to that of the bubble
(10 cm or more in diameter), frequently display in the forward direction a stable quasi-
spherical shape (Figure 6.17a). On the other hand, the wake which they leave behind is
generally turbulent. In 1950, G.I. Taylor showed that the velocity Ub at which the bubble
rises is well predicted by a simple model, which assumes a potential flow in the region near
the tip of the bubble, neglecting wall effects. This is why we discuss here this phenomenon,
although it involves global movement of a water-air interface rather than the propagation of
a wave.
Given the assumption of potential flow, the rising velocity, for a bubble of diameter much
greater than the capillary length lc (Section 1.4.4, Equation 1.65), and comparable to that
of the tube, is given by:

2
Ub ≈ gR ≈ 0.47 2gR. (6.80a)
3

(b) Figure 6.17 (a) View of a Taylor bubble ris-

z -Ub ing in a tube full of water with a diameter
d = 8 cm Document courtesy of S. Madani,
O. Caballina, M. Souhar). (b) Schematic di-
agram of the flow around the leading edge
pint
θ υθ of the spherical shape of the Taylor bubble
R (the reference frame of the spherical coordi-
O nates is assumed to be stationary relative to
the bubble).
194 Potential Flow

Experimentally, measurements carried out in tubes of diameter d (slightly greater than 2R)
yield, in the limit of large diameters and low viscosities:

Ub ≈ 0.35 gd. (6.80b)

For smaller diameters and/or more viscous fluids, the velocity will be lower, due to surface
tension and viscosity effects.

Proof
In a reference frame where the bubble is stationary under the given assumptions, this prob-
lem is equivalent to that of a uniform stationary flow with velocity –U bubble around a sphere.
The tangential velocity at the surface of the bubble is then vθ = – (3/2) U sin θ, according to
Equation 6.25. Capillary effects will be negligible and the pressure in the liquid at the sur-
face of the bubble with be equal to the pressure pint of the gas in the bubble, a pressure
which is effectively constant. If we apply Bernoulli’s Equation at the surface of the bubble
between the stagnation point at the tip of the bubble (θ = 0, z = R) and a point on the leading
face (θ < π/2, z = R cos θ):
9
pint + ρ Ub2 sin2 θ + ρ g R cos θ = pint + ρ g R. (6.81)
As Taylor writes in his original paper, the result 8
of this demonstration is valid because of the ef-
fective absence of viscous stress at the surface of Assuming that one remains in the vicinity of the tip with θ 1, one can take
the bubble given the small value of the viscosity (1 – cos θ) = 2 sin2 (θ/2) ∼
= θ 2 /2 and sin2 θ ∼
= θ 2 , so that Equation 6.80a results from Equation
of air within the bubble. For a solid body of the 6.81. For water in a tube of diameter 2R = 0.1 m, the velocity of an air bubble of diame-
same geometry as the bubble, a boundary layer
would appear at the surface so as to satisfy the
ter nearly equal to 2R will be 0.35 m/s, corresponding to a Reynolds number Re = 2RUb /ν
condition of zero relative velocity at the wall. around 35,000.

6.5 Electrical analog for two-dimensional

potential flows
Consider a two-dimensional, potential, incompressible fluid flow. As indicated in
Equations 3.38 and 6.2, known as the Cauchy-Riemann conditions, the velocity field can
be derived from the velocity potential (x, y), or from the stream function (x,y) with:

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
vx = = (6.82a) and: vy = =– . (6.82b)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Since ∇·v = 0 and ∇ × v = 0, we conclude that each of the functions (x, y) and (x, y) is
harmonic, i.e., obeys Laplace’s equation:

∇ 2 = 0, (6.83a) ∇ 2 = 0. (6.83b)
Similarly, the electrical potential V resulting, in vacuum, from a static or a quasi-static
distribution of charges obeys the identical equation:

∇ 2 V = 0. (6.84)

By comparing Equations 6.83a and 6.84, with due care in the use of appropriate bound-
ary conditions, it is therefore possible to establish a correspondence between the electrical
potential V and, either the velocity potential (direct analog) or the stream function
Electrical analog for two-dimensional potential flows 195

(inverse analog). In the latter case, we see that it is sufficient to prescribe an electrical equi-
potential function with the geometry of the solid walls; all other equipotentials then describe
the streamlines. This correspondence is used in analog models of the flow of ideal fluids
in two dimensions. These models are constructed by passing an electric current through
an electrolytic tank, or through a sheet of paper or plastic covered by a weakly electrically
conducting layer (e.g., graphite).

6.5.1 Direct analog

In this case, the velocity potential (x, y) corresponds to the electrical potential V(x, y),
Ψ = Ψ1
and the velocity field v = ∇, to the current density j = σ E = –σ ∇V , σ being the electrical U solid
obstacle Ψ = Ψ2
conductivity of the medium. The streamlines of the hydrodynamic problem, being tangent
to a solid obstacle, require this object to be replaced by an insulator of identical geometry. Ψ = Ψ3
The equipotentials of the electrical problem (easily determined experimentally) correspond
then to velocity equipotentials. The streamlines for the hydrodynamic problem could then e1 +Vo
be obtained by drawing the system of curves orthogonal to these equipotentials (e.g., by resistive paper
using a resistive sheet with a circular hole to represent the flow around the cylinder shown V = V1
good
bon
in Figure 6.5). The resulting method is somewhat impractical; it is much preferable to use d conductor V = V2
the inverse analog. V = V3
e2 0
6.5.2 Inverse analog
Figure 6.18 (a) A representation of uniform
In this case, the electrical equipotentials correspond directly to the streamlines of the fluid. flow at velocity U between two solid parallel
Here, the hydrodynamic obstacle is replaced by a perfect conductor acting as an equipotential planes, as it is perturbed by a rigid obstacle.
surface: the particular streamline, which forms the boundary of the object in the hydro- (b) The inverse electrical analog of the flow in
dynamic problem, corresponds to the equipotential boundary for the similar object in the (a) using a sheet of paper of low electrical con-
electrical model. ductance (clear shade), two lateral electrodes
In practice, one uses a weakly conducting piece of paper on which is painted, with a e1 and e2 , and a highly conducting central
more conducting paint, a surface of the same shape as that of the obstacle in hydrodynamic region (grey) in the shape of the obstacle
flow. The flow conditions, far from the obstacle, are simulated by applying an electrical
potential between a pair of appropriately located, well-separated, lateral electrodes (Figure
6.18) e1 and e2 . The streamlines are obtained point-by-point, by moving an electrode along
the surface of the paper, in such a way as to follow the electrical equipotential lines. Instead of the electrically conducting paper, one
Finally, we demonstrate that, in the inverse analog, the existence of non-zero circulation
can use a shallow layer of electrolytic solution.
( = (c) v·d) around the obstacle can be simulated by injecting (or withdrawing, depend-
ing on the sign of ) an electrical current of magnitude I from the conducting obstacle
toward the conducting paper. The total amount I of current emitted satisfies:

I ∝ . (6.85)

Proof
The strength I of the current emitted can be written:

I = j · n (h d) = σ h E · n d, (6.86)

where h is the thickness of the conducting sheet, σ its electrical conductivity, and j the
current density; n is the unit vector normal to the contour (C), along which the circulation
196 Potential Flow

is calculated (Figure 6.19), and d is the element of length along this contour. However,
ϕ = constant
in the inverse analog, the electrical field lines correspond to the velocity equipotentials and
must therefore be orthogonal to the streamlines in the fluid. We therefore have:
d n
(C) E = α∇, (6.87)
Ψ = constant
where the constant α stands for the ratio between the units of the electrical case and the hy-
drodynamic one. We then recover Equation 6.85 by rewriting Equation 6.86, using Equation
6.82a and Equation 6.82b and noting that n d = (–dy, dx, 0):
I

I = σh (∇ · n) d = ασ h –υy (–dy) + (υx ) (dx) = ασ h v · d = α σ h .
Figure 6.19 Simulation of the circulation of (C) (C) (C)
the velocity around an obstacle by injection of
The proportionality factor corresponds to the product of σ h by the ratio between the
an electrical courent through the conducting
electrical and velocity potentials.
electrode into the resistive circuit. The equipo-
tentials then have the same geometry as the
streamlines around the obstacle
6.6 Complex velocity potential
Conformal mappings which result from the use of a complex potential allow us to set up a
correspondence between the two-dimensional velocity fields described above and problems
involving more complex geometries, such as the profile of a two-dimensional wing.

6.6.1 Definition of the complex potential

Equations 6.82 satisfied by the conjugate harmonic functions and represent the
Cauchy-Riemann conditions: they are both necessary and sufficient for the complex potential
function:

f (z) = (x, y) + i (x, y) (6.88)

to be an analytic function of the complex variable z = x + iy. The derivative of f (z) is then
called the complex velocity:
d f (z)
= w(z) = vx – i vy . (6.89)
dz

Proof
Choosing, for instance, the increment dz along the real axis (= dx + i 0), we find:
∂( + i) ∂ ∂
w(z) = = +i = vx – i vy , (6.90a)
∂x ∂x ∂x
while an independently chosen displacement in the imaginary direction (dz = 0 +i dy) leads
to the identical conclusion:
∂ ( + i ) ∂ ∂
= –i + = – i vy + vx = w(z). (6.90b)
i ∂y ∂y ∂y
Thus, the result is completely general, applying for any arbitrary increment dz = dx + i dy.

We can also determine the physical meaning, over a closed contour (C), of the complex
circulation (z) defined by:
Complex velocity potential 197

(z) = w (z)dz = vx – i vy (dx + i dy) = (vx dx + vy dy) + i (vx dy – vy dx),
(C) (C) (C) (C)

i.e.: (z) = v · dl + i v · n dl = + i Q (6.91)
(C) (C)

where n represents a unit vector normal to the line element dl. The real part of (z), , is
thus the circulation of the fluid, and the imaginary part, Q, the rate of flow of the fluid (per
unit length normal to the plane of the flow), resulting from sources inside the contour (C).
For a source-free flow within a simply connected region (z) = 0. Along a closed contour,
the function f (z) is uniquely defined at each point.

6.6.2 Complex velocity potential for several

types of flow
The following complex potentials can be shown to correspond to the flows discussed in
Sections 6.2.3 and 6.2.4:

(i) Uniform parallel flow

f (z) = U z.

The potential, where U = Ux – i Uy is a complex constant, represents then a uniform flow

in an arbitrary direction in the x-y plane.

(ii) Source and vortex

We have seen above, in Section 6.2.3, the correspondence between the streamlines of one
of these flows and the equipotentials of the other one. These two flows can be described
together by the complex potential:

f (z) = a0 Log z, (6.92)

where the coefficient a0 is complex.

The complex velocity is, as always, the derivative of the complex potential. Since
f (z) = a0 Log z, we have then:
a0 a0 –i ϕ
w(z) = vx - i vy = = e
z r
or, in polar coordinates:

υr – iυϕ = a0 /r,

because we can easily show by expanding and identifying corresponding terms that:

υr – i υϕ = υx – i υy ei ϕ .

• For real a0 (a0 = Q/2π) then:

υr = Q/(2π r), υϕ = 0,

which we recognize as the velocity field of a source with flow rate Q.

198 Potential Flow

• If a0 is a pure imaginary (a0 = –i /2π), then:

υr = 0, υϕ = / (2π r),

which represents the velocity field of a vortex with circulation .

(iii) Dipole flow

The complex potential of a two-dimensional dipole and its corresponding velocity field can
be respectively written:

f (z) = –p/2πz (6.93) and: w (z) = p/2π z2 ,

whence:

υr = p cos ϕ/2π r 2 , υϕ = p sin ϕ/2π r 2 .

These equations are identical to Equations 6.14a and 6.14b.

(iv) Flow around a corner or near a stagnation point

As a final example of the complex potential method, we now discuss a class of flows which
have significant practical applications. These flows are described by complex potentials of
the form:

f (z) = C zm+1 , (6.94)

corresponding to two-dimensional flow in the presence of a wedge-shaped corner formed

by the intersection of two planes intersecting at the origin. In polar coordinates, the velocity
potential and the stream function may be respectively written:

= C r m+1 cos(m + 1)ϕ, = C r m+1 sin(m + 1)ϕ.

The components of the velocity are obtained by taking the derivatives of :

∂ 1 ∂
vr = = (m + 1) C r m cos(m + 1) ϕ, vϕ = = – (m + 1) C r m sin(m + 1) ϕ.
∂r r ∂ϕ
(6.95)

The straight lines with equations ϕ = 0 and ϕ = nπ/(m + l), with n a positive or negative
integer, are therefore streamlines for which = 0 for all r. They represent the intersection
of plane rigid walls with the plane of the flow. We now discuss different shapes of these
corners determined by different values of the parameter m (Figure 6.20 below).

• The case m > 1 represents the flow inside an acute-angled re-entrant corner (Figure
6.20a). In this instance, the magnitude of the velocity at the origin approaches zero
as rm .
• For m = 1, f (z) = C z2 , we have flow inside a right angle or in the neighborhood
of a stagnation point at a plane wall (provided that, in this second case, we add in
the symmetric flow relative to the y-axis) (Figure 6.20b). We see, in this situation, a
streamline perpendicular to the wall which ends at the stagnation point on the wall,
where the velocity is zero.
Complex velocity potential 199

Figure 6.20 Flows for which the veloc-

(a) (b) (c) ity potential has the form: f(z) = C zm+1.
(a) m >1; (b) m = 1; (c) 0 < m <1; (d) m = 0;
(e) –1/2<m<0; (f) m = –1/2

(d) (e) (f)

• When 0 < m <1, the function f (z) represents flow inside an obtuse-angled corner
with opening α = π/(m + 1), bounded by the solid walls ϕ = 0 and ϕ = π/(m+1),
corresponding respectively to n = 0 and n = 1 (Figure 6.20c).
• If m = 0, we have the simple case of flow parallel to a plane (Figure 6.20d).
• For –1/2 < m < 0, we have this time, still with values n = 0 and n = 1 at the solid walls,
flow around the outside of a corner, obtuse-angled (if m > –1/3) or acute-angled
(when m < –1/3), as shown in Figure 6.20e.
• Finally, m = –1/2 corresponds to flow around the edge of a semi-infinite flat plate
(Figure 6.20f).

For negative m, with the flow outside the corner, the magnitude of the velocity at the
origin diverges as rm , in contrast with the situation when m was positive. Such divergence is,
of course, unphysical; we shall see, in Section 10.5.2, that we must reconsider this particular
result, taking into account the viscosity of this fluid. The existence of viscosity requires that
the velocity approach zero continously at stationary, solid walls. The solutions that we have
just discussed apply at sufficiently large distances from such walls; they are found to connect
to the condition of zero velocity, by means of a transition region known as a boundary layer.

6.6.3 Conformal mapping

The conformal mapping method
Consider the pair of complex variables z = x + iy and Z = X + iY , each represented by a
point in its own (complex) plane, and such that Z is an analytic function of z:

Z = g(z). (6.96)

Equation 6.96 is then called a conformal transformation, mapping a given point (x,y) in
the z–plane, into a specific point (X,Y ) in the Z-plane. Consequently, it maps the family
of streamlines (x,y) = constant (and the corresponding equipotentials (x,y) = constant)
into respective families in the (X, Y ), i.e., Z-plane (Figure 6.21).
One of the fundamental properties of conformal mappings is that angles between inter-
secting curves are preserved, as shown directly below. Thus, while two arcs of curves (C1 )
and (C2 ), intersecting at a point z0 , mapping into Z 0 in the Z-plane, are macroscopically
distorted and rotated, the angles between their tangents are preserved (Figure 6.21 below).
More specifically, streamlines and equipotentials, mutually orthogonal in the x-y plane,
200 Potential Flow

Φ' = constant
Figure 6.21 Mapping of the families of
streamlines and of the corresponding equipo- y Ψ = constant Z = g(z) Y
Zo δZ2
tentials by means of the conformal mapping (C'2)
Z = g(z). The angles of intersections between
δz2 Φ = cst. δZ1 Ψ' = cst.
the curves are unchanged preserving the or-
zo
thogonality of the curves whenever g(z) is
(C2) δz1 (C1) (C'1)
analytic at the point of intersection z0 and its
derivative g(z0 ) = 0
x X

remain so in their representations as mapped onto the X-Y plane. The corresponding curve
increments can be written as:

δZ1 = g
(z0 ) δz1 and δZ2 = g
(z0 ) δz2 .

So long as g
(z0 ) remains finite, we can conclude:

δZ2 |δZ2 | i(arg δZ2 –arg δZ1 ) |δz2 | i(arg δz2 –arg δz1 )
= e = e ,
The singular points of the conformal mapping δZ1 |δZ1 | |δz1 |
correspond to points z0 where g(z) is zero or in-
finity. At these points, angles are not conserved,
and we will show that the ratio of the initial an- |δZ2 | |δz2 |
i.e.,: = and arg(δZ2 ) – arg(δZ1 ) = arg(δz2 ) – arg(δz1 ).
gles and their images equals the order of the first |δZ1 | |δz1 |
non-vanishing derivative of the function g(z) at
the point z0 . Let us call this order n; expanding
the function g(z) to order n around z0 we find: Thus the scaling factor for the length of the segments, which results from the transfor-
mation, does not depend on their direction. Moreover, the angle between the curves (C1 )
(δz)n ∂ n g(z)
δZ ≈ . and (C2 ) is equal to the angle between their images, except at the points with coordinate z0
n! ∂zn z=z0 such that g
(z0 ) is either equal to zero or to infinity.
The ratios of the two increments δz1 et δz2 and As a result of this property that angles are preserved, we conclude that the images of the
of their corresponding transforms δZ 1 et δZ 2 equipotentials (x, y) = constant and (x, y) = constant, are orthogonal to each other just
thus satisfy: as they were in the original reference frame.
δ Z2 |δ Z2 | i(arg δZ –arg δZ ) A second important property is that, if a function f (x, y) is harmonic i.e. (if it obeys
= e 2 1
Laplace’s equation in the x-y plane), the function F (X,Y ) resulting from the mapping is also
δ Z1 |δ Z1 |
harmonic with respect to the X-Y variables. As a result, the streamlines and equipotentials,
|δ z2 |n |δ z2 |n i n(arg δz –arg δz )
= = e 2 1 . not only preserve their mutual orthogonality through the transformation, but become the
|δ z1 |n |δ z1 |n
streamlines and equipotentials of the mapped flow. Thus, if we determine these curves in a
So that we have: certain flow geometry, we can deduce from them, in general, the solutions corresponding to
arg δZ2 – arg δZ1 = n (arg δz2 – arg δz1 ). any conformal mapping of the original geometry!
Let us assume that the complex potential f (z) characterizes a flow in a domain of the
plane (x, y) and that h(Z) represents the inverse transformation of the conformal mapping
Z = g(z) defined by Equation 6.96. The function:

f (h (Z)) = F (Z) (6.97)

describes the flow in the (X,Y ) plane for which the equipotentials and the streamlines are
respectively the images obtained by transforming equipotentials and streamlines located in
the (x, y)-plane. Specifically, the mapping law transforms the obstacles in the object plane
into the obstacles in the image plane. It is therefore possible to obtain directly the velocity
and the complex potential by means of the g(z) transform.
Complex velocity potential 201

Transformation of a plane into a corner

In Section 6.6.2 (iv), we studied the flow of fluid inside or outside a corner, by the method
of complex potentials. An equivalent method for the study of this kind of flow is to carry
out a conformal mapping of flow parallel to a plane by means of the following transform:

z = h(Z) = Z m+1 . (6.98)

In using this transform, the complex potential f (z) = U z of the initial flow is transformed
into a potential:

F(Z) = U Z m+1 , (6.99)

which precisely describes the kind of flow we wish to examine, as we showed in

Section 6.6.2 (iv). Note that the fact that the plane is transformed into a corner is due
to the singularity of the inverse function of h(Z) at the origin; at this point, angles are not
conserved, and the zero angle in the object plane is transformed into an acute, or obtuse
angle, depending on the value of the parameter m.

The Joukowski transformation –– Modeling an airplane wing in potential flow

This transformation is the first of a series of conformal mappings which allow us to change
from flow around a circular cylinder to flow around a two-dimensional profile of an airplane
wing. As a result, we can determine the velocity field of the flow around an element of the
flat plane, located in a flow which is uniform at infinity and inclined at an angle with respect
to the plane.

(i) Definition

The Joukowski transformation is defined by the equation:

R2
Z = g (z) = z + , (6.100)
z
where R is a real number. It transforms a circle, centered at the origin and of radius r in the
(x, y) plane, into an ellipse in the (X,Y )-plane. Effectively, for z = r e i ϕ (polar equation of a
circle), we have:

R2 –i ϕ R2 R2
Z = X + iY = r ei ϕ + e = r+ cos ϕ + i r – sin ϕ.
r r r

By eliminating the angle ϕ between the equations for X and Y , we obtain:

X2 Y2
2
2
+ = 1,
2 2
r + Rr r – Rr

which is the equation of an ellipse for which the foci P 1 et P 2 are located on the X-axis, at
the points X = ± 2R (Figure 6.22).
When r = R (the radius of the circle equals the parameter of the Joukowski transforma-
tion), we have:

Z = 2 R cos ϕ.

The ellipse then becomes the straight line segment (), bounded by the points with
coordinates Y = 0 and X = ± 2R. In this last case, when an object point makes one turn
202 Potential Flow

y
Y
Z = g (z) 2
Figure 6.22 Mapping of a circle under the r – Rr
Joukowski transformation. The resulting el-
R
lipse collapses into a straight-line segment () p1 p2 x P1 P2 X
[–2R, +2R] when the radius of the circle be- o –2R O (∑) + 2R 2
ing mapped equals the parameter R in the
r r + Rr
equation for the transformation R

around the circle, its image under the transformation covers the segment in both directions;
first it covers the “upper” part of the line segment (for θ varying between 0 and π), and
next it covers the “lower” part (for θ varying between π and 2π). We observe that angles at
the points P 1 and P 2 which are the transforms of the points p1 and p2 located at z = ±R,
are not conserved. The derivative g
(z) = 1 – R2 /z2 of the function g(z) which defines the
conformal mapping, vanishes indeed at points p1 and p2 .

(ii) Inverse transform of a flow parallel to a segment of a flat plane

Let us now consider in the image (X, Y ) plane, a uniform flow parallel to a plane (II),
which is traced in the plane of the figure precisely by the segment () discussed above
(Figure 6.23). The complex potential for this flow is:

F (Z) = U Z.

In the object (x,y)-plane, we have a corresponding flow around a circle (C) of radius R
centered at the origin, with uniform velocity U far from the circle (Figure 6.23b). The
corresponding complex potential can be written directly:

f (z) = F [g (z)] = U (z + R2 /z). (6.101)

Taking the real part of f (z), we recover the velocity potential , already derived in
Section 6.2.4.
In the neighborhood of the stagnation point p1 of the circle (C), we have locally the same
kind of flow as one normal to a plane (Figure 6.20b). In the transformation, this corresponds
to flow at the leading edge of the plate () and parallel to it (Figure 6.20f).

Y y
z = g –1(Z )

Figure 6.23 (a) Flow around a plate at zero p1 (C) p2

U P1 P2 X x
angle of incidence. (b) Its image under the • • • •
– 2R (∑) 2R –R R
Joukowski transformation (Equation 6.100)

(a) (b)
Complex velocity potential 203

y
Г Y
Г
(C) p2 f F Figure 6.24 (a) Flow around a circular cyl-
x
α p1 P1 (∑) P2 X inder at an angle of incidence α and with
α circulation . (b) mapping of this flow by
U means of the Joukowski transformation
U

(a) (b)

(iii) Complex potential for a flow incident at an angle onto a plate segment

Consider now, in the (X,Y ) plane, the flow around a plate segment () when the direction
of () is at an angle of incidence α to the direction of the velocity U , and where, moreover,
there is a circulation of the velocity around (). This problem is a simplified model of the
flow around a wing. We begin by deriving the complex potential in the (x, y)-plane. This is
easily done by rotating the axes through an angle α (Figure 6.24a): z is then mapped into
the point z1 = z e–i α in the potential described by Equation 6.101. We then add to this the
complex potential corresponding to flow with circulation around the cylinder (Equation
6.92). This leads to:
–i α
R2 ze
f2 (z) = U z e–i α + –iα – i Log . (6.102)
ze 2π R

Conformal mapping preserves the angles at all points where the derivative does not vanish.
The angle of incidence in the (X,Y ) plane is then also equal to α. It can also be shown that
the conformal mapping also preserves the circulation. The complex potential:

F2 (Z) = f2 g–1 (z)

obtained from Equation 6.102 by the transform inverse to g(z), then represents the potential
for the flow around the element of the plate () (Figure 6.24b).
As a matter of fact, the transform inverse to g(z) is not an analytic function and, con-
sequently, the corresponding potential F 2 cannot be written directly. However, we are here
only interested in the complex velocity which is easily determined.

(iv) Complex velocity at the solid plane

We have:
dF2 df2 dz df2 1
W (z) = = = , (6.103a)
dZ dz dZ dz g
(z)

z2 R2
i.e.,: W (z) = U e–i α – –i . (6.103b)
z2 – R2 z2 e–i α 2π z

We shall confine our analysis to the calculation of the complex velocity at the surface of the
plate segment (). Since this is the image of a circle (C) we need only substitute z = R ei ϕ
in the above equation, so that:
204 Potential Flow

1 –i ϕ
W (z) = U e–i α – e–i (α–2ϕ) – i e .
1 – e–2i ϕ 2π R

We note that the velocity W at P 1 in the image plane has been expressed as a function of
the radius R of the circle and of the polar angle ϕ in the original plane of Figure 6.24a.
We should recall that Z = X + iY and z are related by the mapping formula (6.100). On the
circle r = R, the relationship is X = 2R cos ϕ and Y = 0. Multiplying both the numerator and
the denominator by e iϕ/2 , we obtain for the variation of W along the surface of the plate ():

U sin (ϕ – α) – /(4π R)
W (ϕ) = (6.104)
sin ϕ

As it might have been predicted, the expression we have obtained is real, since the compo-
nent of the velocity normal to the plane segment must vanish. We see in Figures 6.24a and
6.24b, respectively, the outline of the streamlines in the (x,y)- and (X,Y )-planes. We should
pay particular attention to the two stagnation points P 1 and P 2 on (). These two points
correspond to values of ϕ such that:

sin (θ – α) =
4π RU

which are located asymmetrically in the presence of a circulation. These points are the places
where W = 0, and exist only if the magnitude of the circulation is smaller than 4π RU .

(v) The Kutta condition

We now seek the particular value of the circulation which results in the point P 2 , the image
of the stagnation point p2 , being located precisely at the sharp, trailing (downstream) edge F
of the plate, as illustrated in Figure 6.24b. It can be shown that this corresponds to the stable
configuration of flow around the cross-section of a wing at a finite angle of incidence (angle
of attack) α: the value of the circulation around the wing adjusts itself to that necessary to
satisfy this condition (paradoxically, this is the condition, for flow around a wing of a viscous
fluid, that allows it to be treated as though it were non-viscous). The point p2 then coincides
P2
(a) with the point of the contour (C) whose image is the trailing edge F in the X – Y plane. This
point corresponds to ϕ = 0, and we must therefore have:

α F W (ϕ = 0) = 0, i.e.,: 0 = –U sin α – /4π R.

U
VP2 = U cos α ≠ 0
Whence: = –4π R U sin α. (6.105)
(b)
F The above equation constitutes the Kutta condition. We should nonetheless observe that
VF = 0 at the point P 2 (the image of the stagnation point p2 ), the velocity is not zero since the
denominator of the complex velocity W also vanishes (Figure 6.25a). The trailing edge is a
Figure 6.25 Comparison of the velocities at singular point of the transformation; we find the velocity at that point by taking into account
the trailing edge at the corner of an angle of Equation 6.105, and expanding Equation 6.104 in the neighborhood of ϕ = 0:
intersection. (a) Angle 0 and (b) finite angle
W (ϕ = 0) = U cos α = Vp2 = VF .

This last result is only valid if the angle between the upper and lower bearing surfaces is
zero, as shown in Figures 6.24 and 6.25a. On the other hand, for real profiles, this angle is
not zero, as shown in Figure 6.25b. In this case, the velocity at the point F becomes zero: we
Complex velocity potential 205

have, in fact, seen in Section 6.6.2 (iv), by analyzing flows in the neighborhood of a dihedral
corner, that the velocity at the corner vanishes if the angle at the corner is smaller than 180◦
(as is the case in Figures 6.20a, 6.20b and 6.20c).

(vi) Estimate of the lift force on a wing

The expression obtained above for the circulation allows us to evaluate the lift force on an
airplane wing. It can, in fact, be expressed, according to Equation 6.44, in the form:

FL = ρ U × . (6.105)

Taking into account Equation 6.105, we find, for the order of magnitude of the lift force per
unit length in the direction normal to the plane of the flow:

FL = πρU 2 (4 R) sin α

If we call L the wing-span of the wing and = 4R, its width, known as the chord, we finally
obtain, for the lift force on the entire wing:

FL = πρU 2 (L ) sin α (6.106)

The orders of magnitude for three different types of airplanes are as follows:

Aircraft type Takeoff Chord Wingspan Angle of Lift force FL Gross

speed U attack takeoff
(degrees) weight

Boeing 300 km/h 9m 60 m 10◦ 3 × 107 N 300,000 kg

747 airliner (6.7 × 106 lb-f) 660,000 lb

Cessna 100 km/h 1.70 m 9m 13◦ 104 N 900 kg

private (2,200 lb-f) 2,000 lb
aircraft

Mirage 350 km/h 5m 9m 20◦ 6 × 105 N 16,000 kg

F1 fighter (130,000 lb-f) 35,000 lb
airplane

We note that an airliner takes off thanks to its large wing area, but with a small attack
angle, for reasons of passenger comfort. The small private plane requires much smaller lift,
because of its small weight. Finally, the fighter plane takes off at very high angles of attack
and at high velocity, to compensate for its much smaller wing area. We will come back in
more general terms to the idea of lift in Section 7.5.2.
The finite lifting plate segment we have just discussed represents only a crude approxi-
mation to the cross-section of a real airplane wing. It illustrates, however, the major physical
principles behind the mechanisms which generate lift, by the combined effect of flow at
an angle of attack, and of the presence of circulation of the velocity around the section.
Moreover, if the circle to which we apply the Joukowski transformation (Figure 6.23) is
gradually shifted so that its center is no longer at the origin, we obtain images, known as
Joukowski airfoils, which bear a much closer resemblance to the cross-sections of real wings.
In closing, we remark that these two-dimensional models of flow around a wing neglect
important effects related to its three-dimensional nature. Specifically, in real situations, there
appears a vortex structure which trails off from the wing tips (see Section 7.5.2).
206 Potential Flow

6A Appendix: Velocity potentials

and stream functions
6A.1 Velocity potentials and stream functions
for two-dimensional flows

Type of flow Velocity potential Stream function

uniform flow in two = Ux = Uy

dimensions

uniform flow in three = Uz = (–Ur 2 )/2

dimensions at velocity U
(cylindrical coordinates)

uniform flow in three = Ur cos θ = (Ur 2 sin2 θ)/2

dimensions at velocity U
(spherical polar coordinates)
ϕ r
Vortex (cylindrical = =– Log
2π 2π r0
coordinates)

Q r Q
2-D point source (cylindrical = Log = ϕ
2π r0 2π
coordinates)
Q Q
3-D point source (spherical =– =– cos θ
4π r 4π
polar coordinates )
p·r p sin ϕ
2-D dipole flow (cylindrical =– =–
2π r 2 2π r
coordinates)

p·r p sin2 θ
3-D dipole flow (spherical =– =
4π r 3 4π r
polar coordinates)

R2 R2
Flow around a circular =U r cos ϕ 1 + 2 =U r sin ϕ 1 – 2
r r
cylinder (cylindrical
coordinates)

R3 U R3
Flow around a sphere =U r 1+ cos θ = r2 – sin2 θ
2r 3 2 r
(spherical polar coordinates)

Corner with (dihedral) angle = C r m+1 cos (m + 1)ϕ = C r m+1 sin (m + 1)ϕ
α = π/(m + 1) (cylindrical
coordinates)
Appendix: Velocity potentials and stream functions 207

6A.2 Derivation of the velocity components

from the stream function
∂ ∂
2-D flow (Cartesian coordinates) vx = vy = –
∂y ∂x

1 ∂ ∂
2-D flow (polar coordinates) vr = vϕ = –
r ∂ϕ ∂r

1 ∂ 1 ∂
Axially symmetric flow vr = vz = –
r ∂z r ∂r
(cylindrical coordinates)
1 ∂ 1 ∂
Axially symmetric flow vr = vθ = –
r 2 sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂r
(spherical polar coordinates)

6A.3 Derivation of the velocity components

from the velocity potential function
The equations displayed in this table are merely explicit representations of the general
relationship v = ∇ in the respective Cartesian, polar, cylindrical and spherical polar
coordinates.

∂ ∂
2-D flow (Cartesian coordinates) vx = vy =
∂x ∂y

∂ 1 ∂
2-D flow (polar coordinates) vr = vϕ =
∂r r ∂ϕ

∂ ∂ ∂
3-D flow (Cartesian coordinates) vx = vy = vz =
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂ 1 ∂ ∂
3-D flow (cylindrical coordinates) vr = vϕ = vz =
∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z

∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
3-D flow (spherical polar coordinates) vr = vθ = vϕ =
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ

.........................................................................................

EXERCISES

1) The method of images: line source in front of a solid plane surface

Consider an infinite line parallel to the z-axis with x = 0 and y = a. A perfect fluid is
emitted radially at a flow rate q per unit length of the line. In an infinite fluid, the
flow field is potential and invariant along z with vz = 0. It corresponds in a plane
z = constant to the two-dimensional flow from a point source (known as a line source).
208 Potential Flow

An infinite solid wall is put in the plane y = 0. Show that the flow remains the same in the
half-space y > 0 if we replace this wall by a second parallel line source. Using Equation
6.92, which corresponds to a two-dimensional point source in an infinite fluid, show
that the corresponding complex potential is q/2π Log (z2 + a2 ). Compute the flow ve-
locity on the plane surface and show that the deviation of the pressure from its value
ρ q 2 x 2 / a2
far upstream (under zero gravity) is: δp(x, 0) = – 2 . Compute
2 πa 1 + x2 / a2
then the corresponding force Fp on the plane per unit distance along z (using the re-
u2
u2 1 u u2
sult: 2 du = atan(u) – 2 ). In what direction is the force on
u1 u2 + 1 2 u + 1 u1
the plane oriented? Give a physical interpretation of this apparently counter-intuitive
result. Does the direction of the force change if q is replaced by –q?

2) Force on a half-cylinder placed in a uniform flow

y
ρf

po ρhc R M g
U r
O φ
x

A half-cylinder of density ρ hc and radius R is placed upon a solid plane y = 0 at the bot-
tom of a large, deep bath of a perfect fluid of density ρ f < ρ hc . The axis of the cylinder is
parallel to the z-axis, and the flow is potential and two-dimensional in the (x, y)-plane
with a velocity U parallel to x at large distances from the obstacle, where the pressure
has a constant value p0 . Using the results of Section 6.2.4(i), show that the pressure
distribution p(ϕ) at the surface of the cylinder is: p(ϕ) = p0 + ρf U 2 (2 cos2 ϕ – 3/ 2).
Compute the total pressure force per unit length of the cylinder (the pressure in the thin
space between the cylinder and the plane is assumed to be equal to that on the surface
of the cylinder at ϕ = 0 and ϕ = π). What is the velocity UM above which the cylinder
does not remain at the bottom of the bath?

3) Gravity waves at the interface between fluids of different densities

g ρ1 h1
yo(x,t)
O
x
ρ2 h2

Two layers with thicknesses h1 and h2 of ideal fluids of different densities ρ 1 and ρ 2
fill the space between two horizontal solid walls y = h1 and y = –h2 . We neglect the
influence of surface tension and study the gravity waves distorting the interface between
the fluids initially located at y = 0 and represented by a function y0 (x, t). We follow
the same approach as in Section 6.4.1 and assume that the velocities induced by the
Appendix: Velocity potentials and stream functions 209

waves in each fluid correspond to potential functions of the type j = fj (x, t) gj ( y) with
j = 1, 2. What are the boundary conditions which need to be satisfied at the walls and
at the interface (in particular that resulting from the Bernoulli equations). Assuming
that fj (x, t) = Aj ei(kx–ωt) , what is the equation satisfied by gj ( y) in order to comply with
Laplace’s equation, and what are its solutions satisfying the boundary conditions at the
walls? Using these latter results, write Bernoulli’s Equation and the relation expressing
the continuity of the vertical velocity at the interface. Show then that: ω2 (ρ1 coth kh1 +
ρ2 coth kh2 ) = (ρ2 – ρ1 )gk. Write the variation of the phase velocity c of the wave as a
function of k in the two limiting cases kh2 , kh1 1 and kh2 , kh1 1.
Compare these results to those obtained for one liquid with a free surface.

4) Reflection of a gravity wave due to a variation of depth

i y
yo(x,t) t
r x
O
Φi(x,y,t)+Φr(x,y,t) Φt(x,y,t) h2
h1
g 2
1

A plane gravity wave propagates in the direction x > 0 at the free surface of a layer
of perfect fluid with zero surface tension, and, at x = 0, reaches a point at which the
depth decreases from h1 to h2 . The two layers have an infinite length in the x-direction.
We assume that the incident (i) wave generates both a reflected (r) and a transmitted
(t) wave at the step: the velocity potentials are respectively i , r and t and are as-
sumed (as in the previous exercise) to be of the form: j = fj (x, t) gj ( y) = Aj e i(± kx–ωt)
cosh kj ( y+hj ) (the index j corresponds to (i), (t) or (r)). As in the previous exercise,
we use the approach described in Section 6.4.1. What are the phase velocities of the
three different waves in the shallow water limit kh 1? What are the relations between
the different potentials at the step (x = 0)? Write the corresponding equations and take
their limit when kh 1 (shallow water limit). Obtain then the values of At and Ar as a
function of Ai .
Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics
7 and Rotating Flows

7.1 Vorticity: its definition, and an

In the discussion of deformations of an element of fluid in Section 3.2, we have seen
example of straight vortex
filaments 210 the appearance of a term involving the local rotation, i.e. the antisymmetric part of
the velocity gradient tensor. The corresponding local rotation vector equals half the
7.2 Dynamics of the circulation of the
vorticity, defined as the curl of the velocity field. Thus, vorticity is the tool which
flow velocity 218
enables us to characterize the local rotation within a fluid. In some cases, it can be
7.3 Dynamics of vorticity 226
localized in space, as in vortices; in others, it is continuously distributed, as in a fluid
7.4 A few examples of distributions in uniform rotation.
of vorticity concentrated along We begin this chapter by reviewing the definition of vorticity, illustrating it by using
singularities 232
the example of vortex lines. This will allow us to examine in detail the mathematical
7.5 Vortices, vorticity and movement parallel between the velocity and a magnetic field, and between the vorticity and the
in air and water 241 electric current which generates that field (Section 7.1). We then discuss the transport
7.6 Rotating fluids 247 of vorticity in an ideal fluid: on the one hand, from the point of view of the dynamics
7.7 Vorticity, rotation and secondary of the circulation (Kelvin’s theorem, Section 7.2), and on the other hand, by deriving
flows 266 directly an equation for the evolution of the vorticity (Section 7.3). Kelvin’s theorem al-
7A Appendix - An almost perfect lows us to justify, a posteriori, the discussion of potential flows that we have carried out
fluid: superfluid helium 270 in Chapter 6. We demonstrate that, for an ideal fluid under a few specific restrictions,
flow which was initially potential remains potential at subsequent times. We describe
the dynamics of a system of vortices, corresponding to flows within which all the vor-
ticity is concentrated along singular lines (Section 7.4). We then consider, in Section
7.5, propulsion mechanisms in water and air involving vorticity. Section 7.6 studies
rotation flows where the effects of solid body rotation are superimposed on the vortic-
ity existing in the rotating reference frame. Such a discussion plays an important part
in our understanding of atmospheric and oceanographic phenomena. Finally, Section
7.7 discusses secondary flows which are frequent near walls and/or when centrifugal
forces are present.

7.1 Vorticity: its definition, and an example

of straight vortex filaments
7.1.1 The concept of vorticity
Vorticity and the velocity field
In Section 3.2.3, we have defined the vorticity pseudovector ω(r) at a point r, by:

ω (r) = ∇ × v(r), (7.1)

Physical Hydrodynamics. Second Edition. Etienne Guyon et al.

© Oxford University Press 2015. Published in 2015 by Oxford University Press.
Vorticity: its definition, and an example of straight vortex filaments 211

where v(r) is the velocity field of the flow. We have shown that ω is equal to twice the local
rotation vector of the fluid (in some outdated references, this latter vector is called The components ωk of the vorticity ω(r)
are related to the anti-symmetric part
vorticity vector instead of rotation vector). ωij = 1/2(∂vi /∂xj –∂vj /∂xi ) of the velocity
Just as in the case of streamlines, we define vorticity lines which are tangent at every gradient tensor Gij = ∂vi /∂xj by ωk = –εijk ωij ;
point to the vorticity pseudovector. Similarly, vorticity tubes represent that portion of space εijk has value zero if any two indices are equal,
+1 if the permutation i → j → k is cyclic, and
bounded by a surface made up of vorticity lines anchored on a closed space curve. -1 if it is inverted.

Vorticity for various types of flow

We find vorticity at any time that the flow is not ideal and potential and, therefore, for
viscous fluids. It plays a particularly important role in turbulent flows, which can often be
considered as a superposition of an average translational movement and local rotational
motions, on a set of highly variable scales. In such flows, vorticity is distributed throughout
the volume of the fluid.
In other circumstances, however, the flow might be almost everywhere potential, except
for a line (or core) of radius ξ , small compared to the overall scale of the flow: all the vorticity
is then localized in this core, around which the fluid rotates. We encounter such vortex flows
in tornadoes and hurricanes (Figure 7.1a) and in atmospheric waterspouts (Figure 7.1b),
in the whirlpools formed when a bathroom sink or tub empties or, on a completely different
scale, in the vortices in superfluid helium (ξ ≈ 10–10 m), which we will study in the appendix
to this chapter.
In other instances, the vorticity is less clearly localized, but rotational flow structures
remain easily identifiable. This is the case for shear layers between fluids moving at differ-
ent velocities, which we discuss in Section 7.4.2. Finally, structures of this type are clearly
visible on a scale of several hundreds of kilometers on satellite photos of hurricanes or cy-
clones, or in the atmosphere of Jupiter on scales of several tens of thousands of kilometers.
In Sections 2.4.2 and 2.4.3, we also came across the periodic formation of vortex-type
structures in the wakes behind an obstacle.

Figure 7.1C (a) View, from a satellite above the Gulf of Mexico, of Hurricane Katrina, which devastated
New Orleans in August 2005 (document NOAA). (b) Waterspout on the ocean offshore from the southern
Florida islands. Note the spiral secondary flow at the surface of the water (document V. Golden, NOAA)
212 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

7.1.2 A simple model of a line vortex: the Rankine

z vortex
(a) ω
ξ The Rankine vortex is a model representation of a linear filament where the vorticity is
concentrated in a small diameter region, the core of the vortex (Figure 7.2a): in this model,
(II) (I) we assume that there is a uniform distribution of vorticity ωz = ωz0 localized within a cir-
(C) cular cylinder of radius ξ and infinitely long in the direction z (region II). We assume that
the other components ωx and ωy vanish everywhere, that the flow field has a rotational
r symmetry of axis z and that it is invariant along z. For r > ξ (region I), ωz = 0.
v(r)
Velocity field of a Rankine vortex
We calculate the corresponding velocity field by using Stokes’ theorem, which states that the
(b) circulation of a vector field A along a closed contour (C) is equal to the flux of the curl of A
n Δ
×A through a surface (S) anchored on this contour (Figure 7.2b):
d A

(S)
A · dl = (∇ × A) · n dS. (7.2)
C S
(C)
Region I (r > ξ ): In order to calculate the flow velocity component vϕ orthogonal to the
Figure 7.2 (a) Velocity field generated by a
radial vector r, let us first apply Equation 7.2 along a circle of radius r > ξ centered on
linear vorticity tube. (b) Calculation of the
the axis of the tube and in a plane perpendicular to the z-axis. Assuming that the flow is
circulation of a vector field A along a curve
azimuthal along the axis and, as mentioned above, independent of z, and according to the
(C), from the flux of its curl through a surface
assumptions made about ωz , we find that the circulation of the velocity vector around the
(S) anchored on the curve
circle has the value:
ξ
= 2 πr vϕ (r) = 2π ωz (r) r dr = ωz0 π ξ 2 . (7.3)
0

The circulation is therefore independent of r and equal to ωz0 π ξ 2 so long as r is greater

than ξ : it characterizes the strength of the vortex. The component vϕ varies thus as 1/r with:

The decrease of vϕ as 1/r is characteristic of any vϕ (r) = . (7.4)
azimuthal field with zero curl. Let us assume
2πr
that only the vϕ component does not vanish,
and that it depends only on r. The condition More generally, the circulation has the same value for every arbitrary closed contour
∇×v = 0 becomes: which goes once around the cylinder. We can check this by applying Stokes’ theorem to any
such contour. These results remain valid in the limit when the vortex core shrinks down to a
1 ∂
(∇×v)z = (r vϕ ) = 0, line with an infinite density of vorticity: provided that the integral of this singular distribution
r ∂r
remains finite, it will again give the value of the circulation of the velocity around the core
so that vϕ is proportional to 1/r. of the vortex.
Region II (r < ξ ): the circulation of the velocity has the value:

2π r vϕ (r) = 2π ωz r dr = ωz0 πr 2 ,
0 (7.5)
ω0 r r
vϕ (r) = z = .
2 2π ξ 2

We thus have a solid body rotation in the core of the vortex with vϕ (r) ∝ r. We observe that
the angular velocity of rotation equals ωz0 / 2.
Vorticity: its definition, and an example of straight vortex filaments 213

Physically, the flow in region I thus appears as a potential flow in a multiply connected
geometry, which we have already seen in Section 6.2; this flow is superimposed on a solid
body rotation in the core on the axis of the vortex (region II), which then plays the role of
the obstacle around which the circulation of the fluid appears.
In the flow of a viscous fluid, the effect of viscosity increases as r decreases and as the
velocity gradient ∂vϕ /∂r increases. The model of the Rankine vortex assumes that, below a
radius ξ , which is the boundary of the vortex core, these effects are such that only solid-body
rotation of angular velocity is possible: in this region, vϕ = r.

Pressure field within a Rankine vortex

• Region I (r > ξ ). In the curl-free region of the velocity field of the vortex, the varia-
tion of the pressure p is obtained by applying Bernoulli’s equation (Equation 5.36).
The pressure p decreases as we approach the core of the vortex in such a way that (if
we neglect gravitational effects):

1 2 1 2
p(r) + ρ v = p(r) + ρ 2 2 = p∞ , (7.6)
2 ϕ 2 4π r

in which p∞ is the limiting value of the pressure p(r) as r → ∞. If p(r) decreases

sufficiently as r decreases, we can have boiling of the rotating fluid. We have discussed
this cavitation phenomenon in Section 5.3.2. A further consequence of this decrease
in pressure in the central region is that a solid object of finite size placed close to
the axis of a vortex line is subjected to a radial pressure directed toward the center
of the core; in fact, according to Equation 7.6, the pressure is higher on the side of
the object which is farther from the vortex core. Thus solid particles, or gas bubbles
collected by a vortex filament, can be swept into the central region and write (this
observation has been used to visualize vortex structures). In the same way, vortex
lines can be trapped by the asperities on a solid wall.
• Region II: (r < ξ ). In the solid body rotation region, the liquid is at rest in the ref-
erence frame which rotates with angular velocity ωz0 / 2. We will derive in Section
7.6.1 the equations of motion of a fluid in a rotating reference frame. Still neglecting
gravity, we assume here that the radial pressure gradient compensates the centrifugal
force associated to the rotation, so that:

0 2
∂p ωz 2
=ρ r=ρ r. (7.7)
∂r 2 2π ξ 2

The pressure increases quadratically with r, and, for r < ξ :

2
ωz0 r2 2 r2
p(r) = p(0) + ρ = p(0) + ρ . (7.8)
2 2 2π ξ 2 2

By requiring that Equations 7.6 and 7.8 be simultaneously satisfied at r = ξ , we can calculate
p(0) as a function of the pressure p∞ at large distances.

Kinetic energy per unit length of a Rankine vortex

The kinetic energy ek of a Rankine vortex has the value, per unit length:

2 L 1
ek = ρ Log + . (7.9)
4π ξ 4
214 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

Proof
Let us consider, first of all, the case where the radius of the core is zero. We then obtain:

2
1 ρ
ek = ρ v2ϕ dS = 2πr dr. (7.10)
2 2 2πr

This integral of the form dr/r = d(Log r) diverges, as r approaches both infinity and zero.
The first divergence disappears if we limit r to the size L of the container (L = R in the
previous example). The second divergence disappears when the radius ξ of the core is
finite. The additional contribution of the core to the kinetic energy is finite and equal to
Jξ 2ξ / 2, where Jξ = π ρ ξ 4 / 2 is its moment of inertia, and ξ = |ω(ξ )|/2 = /(2 π ξ 2 ), the
angular velocity of its rotation. We then obtain Equation 7.9 for the kinetic energy by adding
this contribution to the kinetic energy of the external part.

r (I)
An example of a line vortex: the Rankine vortex at a free surface
As an experimental model for the Rankine vortex, we can use a cylindrical container where
water is maintained at a constant level: water is injected tangentially near the outer walls
h∞ at a flow rate Q while simultaneously emptying through a central, circular opening at the
h(r)
(II) bottom. The observation of the free surface (Figure 7.3) allows one to distinguish an ex-
ternal, convex region (I) merging into an interior, parabolic one (II). In order to explain
this observation, we represent the flow as a Rankine vortex where region (I) corresponds
h(0) to a curl-free flow and region (II) is in solid-body rotation. The preceding derivations thus
remain fundamentally valid: we will need, however, to take into account the hydrostatic
pressure-gradient terms which we have so far neglected. Their equilibrium with the terms
R involving the centrifugal force determines the shape of the free surface.
(a)
Region (I) (r ≥ ξ )
The free surface has a typically hyperbolic profile obeying the equation:

2
h(r) = – + h∞ . (7.11)
8π2 g r 2

Proof
We can use again Equation 7.6 by adding a hydrostatic pressure term ρ g z just as we saw
in Section 5.3.2. Moreover, at a large distance r from the axis, the term in 1/r 2 becomes
negligible, and the fluid surface approaches a constant level z = h∞ . Since the pressure above
the surface equals the atmospheric pressure p0 , Equation 7.6 allows us to write:

(b)
1 2
p(r, z) + ρ g z + ρ = p0 + ρ g h∞ . (7.12)
Figure 7.3 (a) Vortex generated by the emp- 2 4π2 r 2
tying of a container through a circular orifice.
(b) Experimental set-up: continuous filling Moreover, if we neglect capillary effects due to the curvature of the interface, the level
through the tube shown, allows the vortex to z = h(r) of the free surface, still at a distance r > ξ , must be such that p(r, h(r)) = p0 .
be examined under stationary conditions By replacing p and z by their values in Equation 7.12, we obtain Equation 7.11.
Vorticity: its definition, and an example of straight vortex filaments 215

Region (II) (r ≤ ξ )
We have here an interface of parabolic shape:
2
r2
h(r) = h(0) + . (7.13)
2π ξ 2 2g

In order to obtain the level h(0) on the axis as a function of h∞ , we need only write that
Equations 7.11 and 7.13 give the same value for r = ξ .

Proof
Equation 7.7 for the radial pressure gradient is still valid, but we must take into account the
gradient of the hydrostatic pressure: ∂p/∂z = –ρ g. By integrating with respect to r and z, and
using the condition p = p0 for z = h(0) and r = 0, we obtain:
2
r2
p(r, z) = p0 + ρ + ρ g (h(0) – z).
2π ξ 2 2

Equation 7.13 for the surface follows then from the fact that p = p0 along it.

Many ideas which we will encounter in more general distributions of vorticity follow from
this example. Vorticity is in fact often concentrated in the form of filaments, in localized
regions of space. We will see in Section 7.3.2 how such a concentration can appear in a
longitudinal rotational flow (which represents, in a simplified manner, the velocity field for
an emptying container).

7.1.3 Electromagnetic analogies

The Helmholtz analogy
Principle of the analogy Equation 7.1, relating the velocity field v(r), and the vorticity
ω(r), is formally identical to the electromagnetic equation, j(r) = (∇ × B(r))/μ0 , which This equation is generally used in the quasi-
stationary regime of Maxwell’s equations where
gives the dependence, under stationary or quasi-stationary conditions, of the current density one can neglect the term ε0 ∂A/∂t and which cor-
j(r) on the magnetic field B(r) in a vacuum. responds to what we normally call magnetostatics.
We now elaborate on this analogy. First of all, for an incompressible fluid, the field v is
source free, as is the magnetic field B, since they satisfy respectively:
A mathematical correspondence is thus seen to
exist between the magnetic field H and the fluid
∇ · H = ∇· (B/μ0 ) = 0 (7.14a) and ∇·v = 0. (7.14b) velocity v, provided that the boundary conditions
are also identical. In hydrodynamics, the nor-
Similarly, we recall Ampere’s law which states: mal component of the velocity is zero at all
static solid walls (v⊥ = 0): this condition, dis-
cussed in Section 4.3.1, leads to streamlines
I= H · dl = j · dS. (7.15) which are parallel to solid boundaries. We find
C S similar boundary conditions in electromagnetic
problems only in the very special case of super-
It relates the circulation of the magnetic excitation field H(r) along the space curve (C), conductors which, due to a property known as
which goes around a conductor carrying an electric current, and the flux I of the current the Meissner effect, expel magnetic fields from
their interior. In the discussion below, we there-
density j(r) through a surface (S) anchored on this contour. This equation is the analog of fore use the analogy between the velocity and
Equation 7.2, which gives the value of the circulation around a vortex line. the magnetic field only when the latter results
The velocity field resulting from a vortex filament can thus be shown to correspond to from a system of current-carrying wires in free
space. This is equivalent to the case of a fluid in
the field H resulting from an electric current in a conducting wire. The circulation of the
an infinitely large container, where we need not
velocity vector is then the analog of the circulation of the field H, and thus of the electric be concerned with boundary conditions at the
current I . walls.
216 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

ω We now study this correspondence explicitly for a straight vortex tube, and an infinitely
(a)
r0 long, straight wire.

Correspondence fields resulting from vortex filaments and straight conducting

(C) wires The straight vortex filaments which we have discussed above are thus analogous to
straight conducting wires. The velocity field of such a vortex filament (assumed of infinite
r length) in the geometry of Figure 7.4a is given by Equation 7.4; for a conducting wire
v(r)
(Figure 7.4b), we have an equivalent expression:

(b) j I
Hϕ (r) = , (7.16)
r0 2πr

where Hϕ (r) is the tangential component of the field H at a distance r from the wire. In both
(C) cases, only the tangential component of the velocity (or, respectively, of the magnetic field)
is non-zero.
r
H(r)
Calculation of the velocity field from the vorticity field In practical terms, the
main function of the Helmholtz analogy is that it provides us with a method to calculate
(c) B everywhere the velocity field of a fluid from its vorticity field. In electromagnetics, the field
dH created at a point O (which we choose as the origin) by a line element dl of electrical
r0
conductor located in empty space at a point M obeys the law of Biot and Savart:
B=0
(C) 1 dl × r
dH = – I , (7.17)
r 4π r3
A(r) in this equation, I is the electrical current in the conductor, r is the vector OM and r its
modulus. Similarly, the field resulting from a distribution j(r) of current density within a
volume (V ) satisfies:
Figure 7.4 (a) Velocity field of a straight
1 j (r) × r
vortex filament (b) Magnetic field induced by H= dV . (7.18)
a current density in a tube (Helmholtz an- V 4π r3
alog) (c) Magnetic field and vector potential
created by a solenoid (Maxwell analog)
We find identical equations for the velocity field v, induced by an element dl of a vortex fila-
ment with circulation , or by a distribution ω(r) of vorticity in a volume (V ) (Figure 7.5).
For this, one uses the equivalences B/μ0 ↔ v and I ↔ . We thus obtain the equations
which correspond to Equations 7.17 and 7.18 for the velocity induced at the origin r = 0:

1 dl × r
(V) 3 1 ω(r) × r
(a) dv = – (7.19a) and v= dV . (7.19b)
M 4π r 4π r3
r V
O dV
dH
j Application: self-induced velocity field on a curved vortex filament We show
below that the order of magnitude of the velocity ul self-induced by a curved vortex at a
(b) (V)
M point O (Figure 7.6 on next page) is:
r dV
O
dv || R
ω |ul | = – Log , (7.20)
4πR ξ

Figure 7.5 (a) Magnetic field induced by a where R is the radius of curvature of the vortex line, its circulation, and ξ the radius of
current density j(r); (b) velocity field result- its core. The velocity vector ul , perpendicular to the plane of the vortex filament, results
ing from a distribution of vorticity ω( r) mainly from elements of the vortex very close to the point of interest. It is this component
Vorticity: its definition, and an example of straight vortex filaments 217

y
C
Figure 7.6 Self-induced velocity field on a
φ R curved vortex filament: the velocity vector ul
R induced at point O is pointing out of the pic-
2ξ ture, for the direction of the circulation shown
M
dr on the figure
ul r
φ/2 x
O

ul which accounts for the motion of curved vortices even in the absence of external flow.
Indeed, we show in Section 7.2.1 that an element of vortex filament in an ideal fluid moves
at a velocity equal to the local velocity of the fluid (Kelvin’s theorem). Such a velocity is the
sum of the external velocity field and of the velocities induced by the other elements of the
vortex.

Proof
The self-induced velocity field is calculated at a point O on the curved vortex line (where we
assume that the radius of curvature R is very large compared to the radius ξ of the vortex
core). We evaluate only the local contribution ul , due to the neighboring points M, obtained
by carrying out a line integral over the region of the vortex from M
to M, where M
is the
mirror image point to M on the vortex, relative to the y-z plane. From Equation (7.19a),
the velocity ul , directed along the z-axis, is:

dr × r
ul = – .
4π r3

In the reference frame with origin O, the components of r are: [R sin ϕ, R (1 - cos ϕ), 0].
So that:

dr = [R cos ϕ dϕ, R sin ϕ dϕ, 0].

Taking into account the symmetry of the problem relative to the y-z plane, we find:
ϕmax ϕmax
dr × r 2R2 sin2 (ϕ / 2) dϕ dϕ
|ul | = = 2 = .
4π r3 4π ϕmin 8R 3 sin3 (ϕ / 2) 8πR ϕmin sin(ϕ / 2)

The velocity induced at each point of the vortex accordingly varies as the inverse of the
radius of curvature of the vortex ring. Specifically, we note that the velocity thus van-
ishes for a straight, vortex filament (R → ∞), as we would have expected from symmetry
considerations.

For small values of ϕ, the integral diverges, as 2 dϕ/ϕ, i.e., as 2 Log ϕ. As before,
this is due to the fact that the above calculation treats the vortex as an infinitesimally thin
singularity, neglecting any finite radial extent of the core; it cannot, therefore, be applicable
below values of ϕ min so small that distances r become comparable to the core radius ξ .
The existence of this divergence indicates, also, that the largest contributions to the velocity
field induced at O result from those elements of the vortex line nearest that point. An exact
treatment of the problem would need to take into account the fact that the vorticity density
218 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

is distributed over the radius of the core, ξ , and an even more precise approximation would
consider ξ as a lower limit for the variable r. For our present treatment then, it is sufficient
to obtain an order of magnitude estimate by taking ϕ min ≈ ξ /R, as the lower limit of the
integral. These assumptions then lead to Equation 7.20: the effect of the upper limit ϕ max
is merely an additive constant depending weakly on ϕ max which can be, for instance, taken
equal to π/2.

The Maxwell analogy

We have just seen the usefulness of the Helmholtz analogy which allowed us to evaluate the
velocity field from a distribution of vorticity. However, this analogy associates an axial pseu-
dovector (for which the direction depends on the choice of reference frame), the vorticity, to
a polar vector, the current density. In a similar manner, it creates a correspondence between
the velocity field (polar vector) and the magnetic field (axial vector). A second analogy,
In classical electromagnetic theory, the vector which follows directly from Maxwell’s equations, creates a direct correspondence between
potential A(r) is generally considered as only a
convenient intermediate step in the calculation of the vorticity ω and the magnetic field B, on the one hand, and the hydrodynamic velocity
magnetic fields, just like the scalar potential for field v and the magnetic potential vector A, on the other hand. This analogy associates a
an electric field. Its physical significance, which polar vector to a polar vector, and an axial vector to an axial vector. The correspondence
Maxwell emphasized, is subject to controversy.
The difficulty arises from the fact that if the vec-
between the equations is then the following:
tor potential A is defined from its relationship to
the magnetic field by B = ∇ × A, it is only de- B=∇×A (7.21a) and: ω = ∇ × v. (7.21b)
termined within an arbitrary gradient of a scalar
function. ∇·A=0 (7.22a) and: ∇ · v = 0. (7.22b)
Using the vector potential A allows one to
express the equations of fluid mechanics in com- In this analogy, the equivalent of a straight line vortex is an infinitely long solenoid with
pletely identical terms to Maxwell’s equations for
electromagnetic theory: this is of particular inter- a radius equal to that of the vortex core (Figure 7.4c): the field B differs from zero only
est in situations where the two fields (magnetic within the solenoid (just as ω is non-zero only within the core). It is the vector potential A
and hydrodynamic) are coexistent. We will see which, just as the velocity due to the vortex, decreases at 1/r outside the solenoid; only its
in the appendix of this chapter (Section 7A.4),
that, for quantum phenomena, such a vector tangential component Aϕ is non-zero and it is related to the field Bi within the solenoid and
potential has a clear physical significance. to its radius ξ by Aϕ = Bi ξ 2 /2r.

7.2 Dynamics of the circulation of the flow

velocity
Having introduced the concepts of vortex lines and of continuous distributions of vorticity,
we discuss, in this section, the dynamics of the vorticity by considering the variation of the
circulation along an arbitrary closed contour “drawn” within the fluid and dragged along
by it. In the section that follows, we use yet another approach by deriving directly, from the
Navier-Stokes equation, the law of evolution of vorticity with time. The results derived in
these two sections are applicable both to continuous distributions of vorticity and to those
cases where the vorticity is localized along singularities.

7.2.1 Kelvin’s theorem: conservation

of the circulation
Derivation of Kelvin’s theorem
Kelvin’s theorem expresses the fact that, for a closed contour in which each point moves with
the velocity of the fluid at that location, the circulation is constant, provided the following
conditions are satisfied:
Dynamics of the circulation of the flow velocity 219

• the fluid is inviscid (i.e., an ideal fluid for which η = 0),

• the external forces are derivable from a potential function ϕ: f = –∇ϕ,
• the fluid density ρ is constant or, more generally, only a function of pressure:
ρ = f ( p). t+dt
δ +d (C’)
(δ )
These assumptions are identical to those made in Section 5.3.2, in deriving Bernoulli’s dt
dt
theorem. Kelvin’s theorem is expressed by the equation: t
v(r) dt
d
v · δ = 0, (7.23)
dt C v(r+δ ) dt
δ
(C)
where, as defined earlier, d/dt is the convective (Lagrangian) derivative calculated following
the motion of fluid particles. The integral is evaluated along the closed contour (C); we have Figure 7.7 Change in an element of a mate-
used the notation δ in order to differentiate this element of length from variations of with rial curve (C) which follows the motion of the
time. The space curve along which the integration is carried out moves along with the fluid, fluid
as indicated in Figure 7.7.

Proof
Changes in the circulation are the sum of two contributions: one due to the variation with
time of the velocity at the points of the contour of integration, and the other to the fact that
the contour (C) is itself deformed as it undergoes displacements. These two effects can be
separated out by dividing the integral (Equation 7.23) into the two terms:

d dv d (δ )
v · δ = · δ + v· · (7.24)
dt C C dt C dt

The first integral is evaluated by the use of Euler’s equation which can be written:

dv 1
= –∇ϕ – ∇p. (7.25)
dt ρ

If the fluid density ρ depends only on the pressure (ρ = f ( p)), the second term of Equation

7.25 can also be expressed as the gradient of a function g( p) = dp / f( p). In accordance
with the fundamental property of gradients, the circulation of these two gradients and,
consequently, that of the vector dv/dt along the closed curve (C), is then zero. The second
integral of Equation 7.24 obeys the following sequence of equalities:

d (δ ) δi ∂υi ∂ v2 v2
v· = υi · d = υi δj = · δj = ∇ · δ = 0.
C dt C dt C ∂xj C ∂xj 2 C 2

Indeed, the variation with time of a line element δ of the contour is due to the difference δv
between the velocities of the two points located at the two ends of this element (Figure 7.7),
so that each component d(δi )/dt is equal to the product (∂vi /∂xj ) δj . Combining these two
results leads then to Equation 7.23.

By using Equation 7.2, Kelvin’s theorem can be rewritten in the form:

d d
∇ × v · δS = ω · δS = 0. (7.26)
dt S dt S

Thus, the flux of the vorticity vector ω through any surface anchored on the space curve
(C) moving with the fluid, i.e., the total vorticity in (C), remains constant during the flow.
220 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

Physical meaning and consequences of Kelvin’s theorem

The result just derived above expresses the conservation of angular momentum in an ideal
fluid, thus completing our presentation of the conservation laws in Chapter 5.

Justification in the case of an ideal fluid

Consider an elementary tube of vorticity of length δL resting on a circle of radius r perpen-
(C) dicular to ω (Figure 7.8). We have seen previously that the local angular velocity vector, ,
d
of an element of fluid equals ω/2. Since the circulation of the velocity along the circle (C)
r ω
of radius r is equal to the total flux of the vorticity through the circle, is related to the
δL magnitude ω of the vorticity by:

Figure 7.8 Calculation of the angular mo- = v · d = πr 2 ω. (7.27)
mentum for an element of a vortex tube

The product π r 2 ω can be rewritten so as to include explicitly the magnitude (= ω/2)
of the local rotational velocity, as well as the moment of inertia J of the cylinder of
length δL:

δm r 2 ω 4π
πr 2 ω = = K J . (7.28)
2 2 δm

Here δm = ρπr 2 δL is the mass of fluid, with density ρ, contained in the element of the cyl-
inder, J = δm r 2 /2 is the moment of inertia associated with this fluid and K = 4π/δm. Thus,
since the mass δm of fluid in the element of vorticity tube is necessarily constant, conserva-
tion of the circulation with time is equivalent, according to Equations 7.27 and 7.28, to
the conservation of the angular momentum J of the fluid in the vortex-tube element.

We can draw a number of physical conclusions from the circulation theorem:

(i) If, at an initial time, the circulation around any closed contour is zero, it remains
A specific application of this property is the ap- zero subsequently. Specifically, an inviscid fluid (i.e., for which η = 0) set in motion
pearance of an incipient vortex downstream of
from a state of rest will continue, at any subsequent time, in irrotational flow (i.e.,
the trailing edge of an airplane wing when the
latter is set in motion (Figure 7.27b). such that the vorticity vector ω(r) is identically zero everywhere). In fact, the
circulation along any closed curve drawn within the fluid being zero initially, it
remains so for all time. Since such curves can be drawn arbitrarily small, it follows,
by the application of Stokes’ theorem, that ω(r) is everywhere zero. This result,
originally stated in Section 6.1, allowed us to make the connection between the
study of potential flows and that of ideal fluids.
C1 S1 C S
C1d C1b C1a ω (ii) In a flow where the vorticity vector ω(r) is no longer identically zero, vortex lines
C1c (and tubes) follow precisely the motion of the curves (or surfaces) made up of
fluid particles which are called material lines. Let us draw such a closed material
contour (C) on the wall of a vortex tube (T ). In Figure 7.9, (C) does not make a
loop around the tube: thus, there exists a surface (S) which is entirely part of the
Figure 7.9 Variation of the flux of vorticity tube wall and rests on curve (C). The vorticity ω is tangent to the wall so that its
through material contours drawn on the wall flux through the surface (S) is zero: it will remain so at all later times while the
of a vortex tube material contour (C) is convected by the flow. This is true for all contours like (C)
Dynamics of the circulation of the flow velocity 221

and, therefore, the volume of matter made of fluid particles belonging initially to
(T ) and convected by the flow is also a vortex tube.
(iii) Consider now a contour (C1 ) drawn on the walls of the tube (T ) and made of
two loops (C1a ) and (C1b ) drawn around the tube and connected by two parallel
paths (C1c ) and (C1d ) (Figure 7.9). The total circulation of the velocity along (C1 )
remains zero, like for (C), because there exists a surface (S1 ) resting on (C1 ) and
belonging entirely to the tube wall; in contrast, the circulation on either (C1a ) or
(C1b ) is non-zero because any surface resting on one of these curves must extend
across the tube section. The paths (C1c ) and (C1d ) can be brought infinitely close to
each other and are followed in opposite directions so that their contributions cancel
out. The sum of the circulations along (C1a ) and (C1b ) then becomes equal to that
along (C1 ) and, therefore, to zero: these circulations have a different sign because
they are followed in opposite directions and their absolute values are equal. The
flux of vorticity (equal to its circulation) is therefore the same through all curves
surrounding once the vortex tube: this is just like the flux of the velocity vector in
a flow tube, in the absence of sources.
(iv) In Section 7.4, we discuss the motion of vortex filaments for which the vortic-
ity is concentrated along singular lines (vortex cores). In that case, the results we
have just derived show that the cores of these vortices always move at the local
velocity of the fluid (a velocity resultant from the external flow velocity and the
velocity induced by other vortex filaments, as shown in Section 7.1.3). Indeed,
if a little material contour, be it very small, completely surrounds the core of the
vortex at a given instant of time, it will always loop around it, after being dis-
placed by the fluid: the circulation of the velocity along this contour thus remains
constant, as well as the flux of the vorticity in the core of the vortex which is
equal to it.

Moreover, the cores of these vortex filaments must either close on themselves (case of
vortex rings), or they must terminate on a solid wall or liquid interface. They cannot have
a dangling, loose, end in an ideal fluid. If, in fact, we assume that such a free end exists,
and calculate the circulation of the velocity of a fluid along a contour (C) surrounding the
vortex, we find that equals the flux of the vorticity ω across a surface (S) anchored on (C).
Depending on the position of (S) relative to the free end, (S) might or might not intersect
the core of the vortex, so that the value of the integral would be different depending on the
position of (S). Such a result would then be contrary to the existence of a well defined value
of circulation of the velocity along (C).

7.2.2 Sources of circulation

Let us recall the proof of the circulation theorem starting with Equation 7.24. When the
three conditions stated at the beginning of Section 7.2.1 are not satisfied, the circulation
of the velocity around a particular contour of matter is no longer constant. The second
term of that equation remains zero, and we need to evaluate the first term by expressing
dv/dt starting from the Navier-Stokes equation (Equation 4.30) instead of Euler’s equation
(Equation 4.31) which we used in Section 7.2.1:

dv 1
= f – ∇p + ν ∇ 2 v. (7.29)
dt ρ
222 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

Equation 7.24 then becomes:

d dv 1
v · δ = · δ = f · δ – (∇ p) · δ + ν ∇ 2 v · δ .
dt C C dt C C ρ C (7.30)
I II III

We now examine, term by term, the physical meaning of each of the three terms I, II and III.

Non-conservative volume forces (term I in Equation 7.30)

Any forces f (per unit volume) which are not derivable from a potential, and which are
therefore such that their circulation along a closed contour is not zero, are capable of creating
circulation. We find, in hydrodynamic problems, two important examples of such forces:

In a laboratory setting, the effect of Coriolis Coriolis (fictitious) forces They appear as a term (–2 × v), when we write the equa-
forces may be observed by allowing for a large tion of motion of a fluid in a rotating reference frame with a rotation vector (the term
diameter cylindrical container (of the order of
2 meters in diameter) to empty through a hole “fictitious” indicates that these forces are not really physical forces but merely result from
located in its center. The presence of a radial the change of reference frame, since the velocity v is measured in the rotating frame). For
component of the velocity, directed toward the example, atmospheric and ocean current flows occur in a reference frame which rotates at
hole through which the fluid empties, results in a
Coriolis force which depends on the local value
, the local rotation vector of the earth, for which the direction (just as that of ) depends
of and leads to rotation of the fluid. This re- on the hemisphere of the earth considered (Section 7.6.1).
sult is quite similar to that of the flow around a More generally, we will see in Section 7.6 that Coriolis forces have a key influence on
region of low atmospheric pressure. It is how-
large-scale flows in the atmosphere.
ever essential that the experimental conditions
be very carefully controlled: more precisely, the
fluid must be allowed to rest for an extended Magneto-hydrodynamic forces Vorticity can also be created by magneto-hydrodynamic
time, in order for any residual vorticity to be forces which are produced by the action of a magnetic field B on an electrically conducting
completely dissipated. In the emptying of bath-
room sinks or bathtubs, it is the effects of the fluid. Consider a conducting fluid with zero net electrical charge subjected to an electric
residual vorticity (see Section 7.3.2), amplified field E and a magnetic field B (E and B are defined in the laboratory reference frame).
as the container empties, which ultimately result In the presence of an electric current density j(r, t) in the fluid, there appears a Laplace
in the appearance of the drain whirlpool: the fi-
nal direction of rotation is often random and, in force: FLaplace = j × B per unit volume.
any case, unrelated to the direction of .

Proof
The Lorentz force on an individual particle (electron, ion, etc.) with charge qi and velocity
vpi in the reference frame of the laboratory is equal to qi (E +vpi × B). The total velocity, vpi ,
is the sum of the velocity of the particle relative to the fluid and the velocity v of the fluid
itself. Let us now calculate the total force per unit volume V1 equal to: i∈V1 qi (E + vpi × B).
The component due to the electric field vanishes because the fluid is charge neutral with
i∈V1 qi = 0. Moreover, the sum i∈V1 qi vpi is the electrical current density j in the fluid,
which then leads to a Laplace force per unit volume: F = i∈V1 qi vi × B = j × B. We observe
that, again for a neutrally charged fluid, j is uniquely determined by the relative motion of
the charges with respect to the fluid (in opposite directions according to the sign of the
charge). In fact, the velocity v of the flow gives a vanishing contribution i∈V1 qi v (for the
same reason, j does not depend on the reference frame selected).

Including this Laplace force in the equation of motion of the fluid, the latter becomes:

dv 1 j×B
= f – ∇p + + ν ∇ 2 v. (7.31)
dt ρ ρ

We now assume that the quasistatic approximation (previously used in Section 7.1.3)
is valid with sufficiently slow changes and correspondingly low velocities such that we
Dynamics of the circulation of the flow velocity 223

can neglect the displacement currents ∂D/∂t and use Maxwell’s equation in the form
∇ × H = ∇ × B /μ = j. We will also assume that B and H are proportional to each other,
with the magnetic permeability μ = B/H possibly being spatially inhomogeneous. In rewrit-
ing the equation for the Laplace force using these equations and the vector identity
(B·∇)B/μ = ∇(B2 /2μ) + {∇ × (B/μ)} × B, Equation 7.31 for the motion becomes:

dv 1 B2 1 B
=f– ∇ p+ + (B · ∇) + ν ∇ 2 v. (7.32)
dt ρ 2μ ρ μ

The term B2 /2μ, added to the pressure in the expression for the gradient, cannot contribute
as a source of vorticity (if ρ is constant): we frequently refer to this term as a magnetic
pressure. In contrast, the term (B ·∇)(B/μ) is not a gradient of a potential function and thus
can be a source for the vorticity.
If the magnetic field can create a vorticity in the fluid, the flow of a conducting fluid can,
reciprocally, generate a magnetic field. The magnetic field B satisfies indeed the equation:

∂B
= ∇ × (v × B) + νm ∇ 2 B, (7.33a)
∂t

where ν m = (μσel )–1 is the magnetic diffusivity (σel is the electrical conductivity of the fluid
and μ, its magnetic permeability). By using the identity ∇ × (v × B) = –(v·∇)B + (B ·∇)v,
Equation 7.33a can be rewritten in the form:

dB ∂B
= + (v · ∇) B = (B · ∇) v + νm ∇ 2 B. (7.33b)
dt ∂t

We see on the right hand side of the first equality the sum of a term due to non-stationary
flow and of a convective term. The first term on the right side of the second equality cor-
responds to the effects of stretching and tipping over of magnetic field tubes. We discuss
such effects in Section 7.3.1 in relation to Equation 7.41: the latter determines the evolution
of the vorticity and has a structure identical to that of Equation 7.33b. We note that, in
the case of stretching (e.g., a term vz ∂Bz /∂z > 0 for a field along the z-direction) there is
an amplification of the magnetic field. Finally, the last term on the right hand side of the
second equation expresses the diffusion of the field B, which always tends, in contrast, to
attenuate it.

Proof
In a fluid at rest, the electrical current is related to the electric field E in the laboratory
reference frame by Ohm’s law j = σel E. When the fluid is in motion at a velocity v relative
to the laboratory reference frame, this equation is still valid if E is replaced by the field E’,
taken this time in the reference frame of the fluid. E’ is related to the fields E and B by
E’ = E + v × B. In the laboratory frame, the equation j = σel E’ for Ohm’s law thus becomes
a function of the fields E and B with: j = σel (E + v × B).
In calculating the curl of Maxwell’s equation, ∇ × (B/μ) = j, and using the above derived
equation, we obtain:

∇× (∇× (B/μ)) = σel (∇× E + ∇× (v × B)). (7.34)

Using the vector identity, Equation 7.45, to calculate ∇ × (∇ × B) as well as the

other Maxwell equations ∇·B = 0 and ∇ × E = ∂B/∂t, we retrieve Equation 7.33a with
ν m = (μ σ el )–1 in the case where the magnetic permeability μ and the electrical conductivity
224 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

This dimensionless number Rem = UL/ν m σ el are constant throughout the fluid. As in the case of other transport phenomena, we in-
(where U and L are the characteristic velocity troduce here a dimensionless number Rem to characterize the relative importance of the
and dimension of the flow) is called the magnetic
Reynolds number.
convective and diffusing terms in Equations 7.33a and 7.33b.

A particularly important example in geophysics of the application of Equations 7.32,

7.33a and 7.33b is the dynamo effect, which is the origin of the earth’s magnetic field; the
conductive fluid is, in that case, the liquid core of the interior of the earth, and the mag-
netic field is the result of the convective flow within this core. This involves a complex
coupled system, where an initial fluctuation of the magnetic field will result in forces and,
consequently, in an electric current in the fluid, which, in turn, induces a magnetic field
amplifying the initial fluctuation.
This dynamo effect has been reproduced in the laboratory in a cylindrical container
filled with liquid sodium (another type of conducting fluid) within a turbulent flow resulting
from two coaxial turbines located at the two ends of the container and rotating in opposite
directions. A magnetic field then spontaneously appears above a threshold angular velocity,
and random reversals of this field, comparable to those of the earth’s magnetic field, have
been observed. A key factor for the appearance of the dynamo effect is the value of the
magnetic Reynolds number Rem defined above.
There are numerous applications of magnetohydrodynamics: a few examples are the
Tokamak machines for thermonuclear fusion, where a conductive plasma (ionised gas) is
subjected to a strong magnetic field, propulsion systems for satellites or some manufacturing
processes involving liquid metals. Plasmas submitted to magnetic fields are also widespread
in astrophysics (e.g., in stars) or in the atmosphere of the earth, particularly at very high
altitudes.

Non-barotropic fluids (term II in Equation 7.30)

A barotropic fluid is one for which ρ = f ( p), i.e., such that isobars (surfaces for which
(V') isobars
p = constant) coincide with the surfaces of constant density (isosteres). If this is not the case,
P
G the term (–∇p)/ρ cannot be expressed as the gradient of a scalar potential function: then,
isosteres the corresponding integral in Equation 7.30 does not vanish. In this case, if we consider an
isolated element of fluid (V
), its center of gravity G no longer necessarily coincides with
Figure 7.10 Unbalance of the forces of pres- the center of buoyancy P, determined (according to Archimedes’ principle) by the isobars
sure and gravity in a non-barotropic fluid of the external fluid (Figure 7.10). Consequently a torque results, tending to cause local
rotation of the fluid and to create a circulation of the velocity.

Proof
A necessary and sufficient condition for (∇p)/ρ to be the gradient of a potential function is
that ∇ × ((∇p)/ρ) = 0. Recalling the general vector identity:

∇×(αA) = α∇×A +(∇α)×A, (7.35)

∇p 1 1 1
we must have: ∇× = ∇×∇p – 2 ∇ρ×∇p = – 2 ∇ρ×∇p = 0. (7.36)
ρ ρ ρ ρ

Accordingly, a potential function exists for (∇p)/ρ if, and only if, the vectors ∇p and ∇ρ are
everywhere parallel, i.e., if the surfaces of constant pressure and constant density, normal
to their respective gradients, coincide.
Quantitatively, term II of Equation 7.30 can be rewritten by using Stokes’ theorem,
relating the flux to the circulation:
Dynamics of the circulation of the flow velocity 225

1 1
– ∇p · dl = – ∇× ∇p · dS. (7.37)
C ρ S ρ

The integral of the right-hand term is evaluated over a surface (S) anchored on the closed
curve (C) located inside the fluid, the vector dS being normal to the surface (S). In combin-
ing Equation 7.37 with Equation 7.36, we find the contribution of the non-barotropic effect
to the change in the circulation:

d 1 1
v · dl = ∇p · dl = – ∇ρ × ∇p · dS. (7.38)
C ρ S ρ
dt 2
C

Examples of non-barotropic fluids A first example of a non-barotropic fluid is the

case of the fluid placed between two vertical plates at different temperatures, resulting in a
horizontal temperature gradient. We have studied this situation in Section 4.5.5: the changes
in the density with temperature result, in this configuration, in the appearance of a horizontal
gradient of the density ρ. The latter is thus perpendicular to the pressure gradient, which
coincides with the hydrostatic pressure gradient, vertical if the fluid is in an equilibrium
state. We thus have a creation of vorticity such that a thermal convection motion appears.
C4
A second example is the case where density variations are associated with variations in
the concentration of a solution. Such is the case of a solution of a liquid whose concentration C3
varies with depth, obtained, for example, by carefully filling a container with a sugar solution C2
of concentration C decreasing with the vertical distance from the bottom of the container n C1
(Figure 7.11). The solution is in stable equilibrium, since the density decreases with height.
The concentration C is then constant along a given horizontal plane. Since the fluid is
at rest, the only possible mass transport occurs through molecular diffusion, with a flux, Figure 7.11 Convective motion of a fluid,
j = –Dm ∇C, which is, in this case, directed vertically upward. in the presence of an oblique solid surface, for
If a flat plate is inserted at an angle, at a fixed position in this solution, there cannot be which there exists a vertical gradient in the
any mass diffusion across the solid surface; thus, as indicated in the preceding equation, we density (C1 > C2 > C3 > C4 )
must have (∇C)n = 0 at the solid wall (where n is the unit vector normal to the plate). Lines
of constant density no longer remain everywhere horizontal because they must intersect
the inclined plate at a right angle. Therefore, there appears a horizontal component of the
gradient of concentration and, as a result of this, a gradient in density analogous to that of
the preceding example. Along a given horizontal line, the density is higher near the inclined
solid surface. Consequently, there is an imbalance in the hydrostatic pressure, which cre-
ates a convective movement. Its direction is such that it tends to decrease the gradients of
concentration. This in turn leads to the creation of circulation of the velocity vector.

Viscosity effects (term III in Equation 7.30)

Viscosity leads to the existence of velocity gradients in the neighborhood of walls, here again
creating circulation. Starting, for example, from a fluid at rest, the generation of such a flow
is often accompanied by the appearance of vorticity, and hence of circulation. The integral
along the closed contour in the term III of Equation 7.30, involving dissipative viscosity
forces, does not then vanish during this transitional phase. We have already encountered
this effect in Section 2.1.1, in the example discussing the setting into rotational motion of a
cylinder full of fluid. Initially, the fluid was at rest, while the stationary, time-independent,
final condition of the fluid was solid body rotation, corresponding to a uniform density of
vorticity. It is the diffusive transport of vorticity, by means of viscous forces, which results
in that distribution.
226 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

U U
Cupstream Cdownstream
Figure 7.12 Vorticity creation associated to
viscous forces in a fluid incident on a flat plate

Let us, for example, analyze a Blasius flow of fluid (see Sections 10.2 and 10.4.1) which is
near the edge of a semi-infinite plate parallel to the average flow (Figure 7.12). Circulation
is created in the immediate neighborhood of the leading edge of the plate. Upstream of
the edge, the velocity field U is uniform, and the net circulation of the velocity is zero
along a closed contour of the type (Cupstream ) shown on Figure 7.12. On the other hand,
downstream of the leading edge of the plate, a velocity gradient appears because the velocity
must be zero at the wall, while again approaching U sufficiently far from the plate. The
circulation along the closed contour (Cdownstream ), bounded on one side by the plate, is
thus non-zero downstream of the sharp edge. The creation and growth of the boundary
layer, the region near the plate where velocity gradients exist, is discussed in Chapter 10.
An even more striking example of the generation of vorticity due to viscosity effects is the
downstream shedding of vortices from a cylinder placed normal to a potential upstream
flow (Figures 2.9 and 2.10).

7.3 Dynamics of vorticity

7.3.1 Transport equation for vorticity,
and its consequences
The Helmholtz equation for an incompressible fluid
We now generalize the results of the preceding section by considering directly the evolution
of the vector field of vorticity ω. We start by writing the Navier-Stokes equation in the form:
2
∂v v 1
–v ×ω+∇ = f – ∇p + ν∇ 2 v, (7.39)
∂t 2 ρ

where, from Equation 5.34, the (v.∇)v term has been replaced by its equivalent expression:
–v × ω + ∇(v2 /2). Taking the curl of this equation, we obtain:

∂ 1
(∇ × v) – ∇ × (v × ω) = ∇ × f – ∇p + ν∇ × ∇ 2 v . (7.40)
∂t ρ

Assuming now that the volume forces f are conservative (i.e., equal to the gradient of a po-
tential), that the density ρ is constant, and that the kinematic viscosity is finite(assumptions
equivalent to neglecting type I and II terms in Equation 7.30, the evolution equation for the
vorticity), Equation 7.40 becomes

∂ω
+ (v · ∇) ω = (ω · ∇) v + ν ∇ 2 ω. (7.41)
∂t
The above equation plays, for ω(r, t), a role similar to the Navier-Stokes equation for
v(r, t). Recognizing that the terms on the left hand side are none other than the Lagrangian
derivative, we can equally write:
Dynamics of vorticity 227
dω
= (ω · ∇) v + ν∇ 2 ω. (7.42)
dt

This transport equation holds for all kinds of flows, whether laminar or turbulent.
Describing a flow in terms of its vorticity field is thus always a legitimate alternative to a
description in terms of the velocity field. The choice of either approach is governed by
practical considerations related to the specific configuration of the flow.

Proof of Equation 7.41: In Equation 7.40, we split up ∇ × (v×ω) by using the following
general vector identity, applicable to arbitrary vector fields A and B:

∇ × (A × B) = (B · ∇) A – (A · ∇) B – B (∇ · A) + A (∇ · B) . (7.43)

Assuming the fluid to be incompressible, so that ∇· v = 0, and given that

∇· ω = ∇·(∇ × v) ≡ 0 for any vector field, we have:

∇ × (v × ω) = (ω · ∇) v – (v · ∇) ω. (7.44)

To evaluate the last term, ν∇ 2 ω, we further recall the vector identity:

∇ × (∇ × A) = ∇ (∇ · A) – ∇ 2 A. (7.45)

Letting A = v, we obtain:

∇ 2 v = ∇ (∇ · v) – ∇ × (∇ × v) = –∇ × ω. (7.46)

Taking the curl of both terms, this equation becomes:

∇ × ∇ 2 v = –∇ × (∇ × ω).

So that, again using Equation 7.45:

∇ × ∇ 2 v = ∇ 2 ω – ∇ (∇ · ω) = ∇ 2 ω. (7.47)

We thus show that the last two terms in Equations 7.40 and 7.41 are identical.

In Equation 7.41, the first two terms describe the effect of the non-stationary flow and
of the convection of the vorticity; the last term gives the decay of vorticity due to vis-
cous effects. Were it not for the term (ω ·∇)v, this equation would be very similar to the
heat transport and mass diffusion equations (Equations 1.17 and 1.26). Here, we see the
kinematic viscosity ν as the diffusion coefficient for the vector vorticity ω.
An important consequence of this equation is the persistence of the irrotational state in
an ideal fluid (η = 0) initially at rest. Indeed, if ω(r, t = 0) vanishes identically at the start,
we have:

dω
= (ω · ∇) v = 0. (7.48)
dt

So that, at all times t, ω(r, t) remains identically zero. We have already stated this funda-
mental property during our discussion of potential flow at the beginning of Chapter 6, and
also derived it in the preceding section, on the basis of Kelvin’s theorem (Section 7.2.1(i)).
228 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

Elongation and tilting of vortex tubes

The additional term (ω ·∇)v in Equation 7.41 involves spatial variations of the velocity
vector v for displacements in the direction of the vorticity vector ω. This term is pres-
ent even in the case of ideal fluids, in situations where an initial, non-zero, vorticity ω
exists. Throughout the present section, in fact, viscosity effects will be neglected; their
consequences are treated in the section that follows.
Here, we calculate the change in ω from the deformations of an element of a vorticity
tube of length δ parallel to ω and perpendicular cross-section S (Fig. 7.13). We have al-
ready seen in Section 7.2.1 that tubes of vorticity are convected by the fluid just as a set of
material lines. For the purposes of our analysis, we split the term (ω ·∇)v into a component
parallel to the vector ω (assumed, in the following, to be parallel to the z-axis) and a com-
ponent perpendicular to ω (labelled “⊥”).With this choice of coordinates, Equation 7.41
can then be written in the form:

dω ∂vz ∂v⊥
= ωz ez + ωz e⊥ , (7.49)
dt ∂z ∂z

where ez and e⊥ are the respective unit vectors along the z-axis, and normal to it.

• The term ωz ∂vz /∂z represents the effect of the elongation of the element. As δ
increases (Figure 7.13a), the cross-section S decreases, and the magnitude of the
vorticity ω increases.
• The term ωz ∂v⊥ /∂ z corresponds to the tilt of the vortex tube, with no change in
its length, nor in the magnitude of ω induced by the variation along z of v⊥ (Figure
7.13b).
Physically, the elongation term is the direct consequence of the conservation of the an-
gular momentum, already mentioned in Section 7.2.1, associated with the conservation of
circulation around the vortex tube. Indeed, any elongation of an element of stream tube in
the fluid must be accompanied by a decrease in its cross-section, since the mass ρS δ of the
element remains constant. As a result, the moment of inertia J of the tube decreases, since
J is proportional to S 2 δ. The angular velocity , and thus the vorticity, must therefore also
increase, in order that the angular momentum J be conserved. By reasoning in terms of
the conservation of circulation, rather than that of angular momentum, we write that the
quantity = ω S is constant ( is effectively, according to Stokes’ theorem, the circulation
of the velocity around the vortex tube). Since S δ is constant, we conclude that ω (and
hence ) is proportional to δ and that the ratio ω /δ must remain constant.

z ω
ω ω υ (z)
S

Figure 7.13 (a) Change in the vorticity ω

associated to deformations of a vortex-tube by
elongation; (b) change in ω as the vortex-tube δ e
tilts

ez (a) (b)
Dynamics of vorticity 229

Ώ1 Ώ2 (< Ώ1) Ώ1
Figure 7.14 The change in vorticity, result-
ing from a change in the depth of a fluid,
is displayed by the change in the rotational
U velocity of a ball placed on the surface of
the liquid, flowing with velocity U (from the
movie “Vorticity” of NCFMF)

This effect can be elegantly demonstrated by generating a vertical vortex line in a hor-
izontally flowing layer of liquid. The vorticity of the vortex can be visualized by floating a
small ball on the surface of the liquid, and observing its resultant rotation (Figure 7.14).
The presence of a bump along the bottom of the channel leads to a decrease in the length
of a vortex tube, and hence to a slowing of the rotation of the ball (ω and δ decrease
proportionately in order to maintain their constant ratio).
We will see in Section 7.6, which discusses rotating flows, the significance of these elon-
gational effects for atmospheric phenomena in the presence of elevation differences in the
ground level.

An example of the application of the conservation of vorticity:

Hill’s spherical vortex
Hill’s vortex represents a limiting case, where vorticity is distributed throughout the volume
of a sphere of radius R; the other limit corresponds to the distributions of vortex lines
discussed previously. The components of ω(r) can be written in cylindrical coordinates as:

ωϕ = A r, ωr = ωz = 0 (inside the sphere), (7.50a) ω = 0 outside the sphere. (7.50b)

The vortex lines are therefore circles centered on the axis of symmetry, the z-axis and
normal to it (Figure 7.15). We assume that the fluid is ideal, and incompressible, and that
the vorticity was generated as part of the initial conditions.
The significance of the shape of this distribution can be understood by analyzing
the evolution of a vorticity tube, consisting of a toroid of average radius r, with cross-
sectional radius a (Figure 7.15(a)); the circulation around this toroid has magnitude
πa2 ωϕ (r). If the vortex tube is deformed while being dragged along by the fluid mo-
tion, its volume 2π2 r(t)a2 (t) must remain constant because of the incompressibility of
the fluid. Conservation of the circulation in the tube results therefore in the quantity
a2 ωϕ (r) ∝ ωϕ (r)/r(t) remaining constant as the tube moves along with the fluid (Lagrangian

(b) U
(a)
Figure 7.15 Hill’s spherical vortex; (a)
R schematic diagram of a toroidal vortex tube
φ inside the vortex; (b) shape of the streamlines,
r −R R
z both in the interior and around this vortex, in
a reference frame moving with the velocity of
ωφ the entire vortex

2a
230 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

point of view). The choice ωϕ = Ar therefore corresponds to a distribution of vorticity which

obeys the above condition at all times.

Quantitative proof
We write the azimuthal component of the equation of evolution for the vorticity (Equation
7.42), denoting by er and eϕ the respective unit vectors in the radial and azimuthal direc-
tions. In cylindrical coordinates, this equation has only one non-zero component, the one in
the ϕ-direction. Expanding the term (ω ·∇)v in cylindrical coordinates, while using the rela-
tionship ∂er /∂ϕ = eϕ , and the rotational symmetry of the problem around the z-axis (which
implies that ∂vr /∂ϕ = 0), we find:

dωϕ 1 ∂ ωϕ vr
eϕ = ωϕ (vr er ) = eϕ .
dt r ∂ϕ r

This, in turn, leads to:

d ωϕ 1 dωϕ d 1 1 ωϕ vr ωϕ
= + ωϕ = – 2 vr = 0. (7.51)
dt r r dt dt r r r r

We have thus shown that the relation ωϕ /r = constant remains satisfied at all times by the vor-
ticity in Hill’s spherical vortex since it allows one to satisfy the evolution equation. Moreover,
one can show, too, that, in a reference frame moving along with the average displacement of the
vortex, the distributions of vorticity and velocity are stationary: fluid particles located inside
the sphere of radius R move along the closed trajectories shown on Figure 7.15b. We can
calculate the resulting velocity field by applying the law of Biot and Savart (Equation 7.19b)
to this distribution of vorticity.

Stream function for Hill’s spherical vortex In a reference frame moving at the mean
velocity U of the vortex, it can be shown that the stream function , defined, in cylindrical
coordinates, by Equation 3.52 is, within the vortex:

A 2 2
=– r R – z2 – r 2 . (7.52a)
10

The surface z2 + r 2 = R2 and the axis r = 0 are therefore streamlines. Moreover, outside the
vortex, the vorticity vanishes: the flow is then potential and identical to that around a sphere
of radius R. The macroscopic displacement velocity of the vortex, in a reference frame
where the fluid at infinity is at rest, is therefore related to the constant A by:

2
U= A R2 (7.52b)
15
Finally, the tangential component of the velocity, at the vortex surface r = R, equals
–(l/5)A r R.

7.3.2 Equilibrium between elongation and diffusion

in the dynamics of vorticity
An important feature of the equation of transport of the vorticity (Equation 7.42) is the
coexistence of a viscous diffusion term which tends to spread out the distribution of vortic-
ity, and of an elongation term which, in contrast, tends to concentrate the vorticity and to
increase its magnitude. The equilibrium between these two terms is a fundamental aspect
of the dynamics of the vorticity in turbulent flows, which will be discussed in Chapter 12.
Dynamics of vorticity 231

Evolution of the vorticity in an axially symmetric, elongational flow

This model provides an approximate representation of the dynamics of the exchanges of
vorticity for ordinary flow near an orifice at the bottom of a cylindrical container (emptying
of a container). We have already discussed (Section 7.1.2) the Rankine vortex, one model
for the velocity field of a vortex due to such a flow. We need to understand now why, in that
case, the vorticity remains localized within a small-diameter core instead of spreading out
uniformly throughout the fluid.
Consider an axially symmetric, incompressible, irrotational flow (Figure 7.16) with v(r,z)
O x
velocity components: y
ωz
υr = – (a/2) r and υz = a z with (a > 0). (7.53)

This flow corresponds to an elongation along the z-axis, compensated by the radial flow
needed to obey mass conservation; it is reasonably representative of the velocity field near
an orifice at the bottom of a container. z
Assume now that this flow is perturbed by the introduction of a small amplitude distribu-
tion of vorticity ωz (r, t) (the emptying whirlpool). Let us now write, for this distribution of Figure 7.16 Model of an axially-symmetric
vorticity, the equation of transport (Equation 7.41) in cylindrical coordinates: elongational flow (see Figure 7.3)

∂ωz a ∂ ν ∂ ∂ω
z
= ωz r 2 + r . (7.54)
∂t 2r ∂r r ∂r ∂r

The first term on the right-hand side corresponds to the sum of the elongation and con-
vection terms in Equation 7.41. Under stationary conditions, the left-hand side is zero
(∂ωz /∂t) = 0, so that Equation 7.54, after integration with respect to r, becomes:

a ∂ωz
ωz r 2 + ν r = constant. (7.55)
2 ∂r
The constant in the above equation must be necessarily zero; otherwise, further inte-
gration of Equation 7.55, in the region of small r, leads to a divergence of the vorticity ωz .
Furthermore, at large values of the radius r, it would decrease as 1/r 2 , so that the total vortic-
ity, integrated over the radial cross section of the flow, i.e. the circulation, would also diverge.
From physical considerations, however, it must remain finite and constant, because in this
situation there exists no mechanism for creating vorticity. The distribution of vorticity must
therefore obey the equation:
2
ωz = ω1 e–ar /4ν . (7.56)
√
This result corresponds to a balance, over a characteristic distance δD ≈ ν/a, between the
effects of elongation of the vorticity under the action of the elongational field v, and those
of a spreading due to diffusion. In the case of flow through a hole of diameter d, with a
characteristic velocity U , we have:

U δD ν 1
a≈ and ≈ ≈ , (7.57)
d d Ud Re

where Re is the Reynolds number (Re = Ud/ν). Thus, the larger the Reynolds number char-
acteristic of the flow, the more concentrated will be the vorticity inside a small diameter core.
The model of the Rankine vortex (Section 7.1.2) represents only an approximation to the
structure of such vortices (there is no definite boundary to the core), but it describes cor-
rectly the fact that most of the vorticity of the flow √
is concentrated within a very small radius
inside the core. The variation of this radius as 1/ Re is indicative of the balance between
232 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

convection and diffusion. We will come across an identical dependence in Chapter 10 as we

study boundary layers, where equilibria of the same type are observed.

Creation and annihilation of vorticity in turbulent flow

The above result suggests an analogy with the volume distributed turbulence, which we
study in Section 12.6. In this model, we assume that the energy transfer is carried out by
convective, non-dissipative mechanisms, from large-scale turbulent structures to smaller
and smaller vortices in which vorticity is concentrated (Kolmogorov energy cascade). The
elongation and bending of vortex tubes plays an essential role in this process. On the other
hand, viscosity comes in only at the scale of the smallest vortices and, just as in the problem
we have discussed, it is mainly significant over distances on the scale of the vortex core.
In contrast, in two-dimensional flows where the velocity field v is independent of one
of the coordinates (e.g., the vertical), the (ω·∇)v term is identically zero. This property is
characteristic, on large scales, of the turbulence in atmospheric and oceanographic flows.
It is due to the finite vertical extent of these flows (corresponding to the depth of oceans, or
the thickness of the atmosphere), and especially also to the influence of the angular velocity
of the earth: this rotation tends to decouple the components of motion perpendicular and
parallel to the surface of the earth, as we will see in Section 7.6, where we discuss rotating
flows. For the same reason, two-dimensional turbulence, where stretching of vortices cannot
take place, has very different characteristics from that in three dimensions.
We have previously discussed the dynamics of vortex lines by considering them isolated,
and assuming that they are subjected to an external velocity field. In both two- and three-
dimensional flows, we must also take into account the interaction between different vortex
tubes. Finally, for curved vortices, we must also consider the interaction with the velocity
field of the vortex itself (Section 7.1.3). We study these effects in the following section,
dedicated to the dynamics of filamentary vortices.

7.4 A few examples of distributions

of vorticity concentrated along
singularities
7.4.1 Vorticity concentrated along specific lines
At the beginning of this chapter (Section 7.1.1) we have mentioned examples of flows where
the vorticity is concentrated along filaments. We might also recall the formation of straight
vortex filaments in alternate rows, downstream of a cylindrical obstacle placed normal to a
flow. In that case, they form an alternating alley (the Bénard-von Karman vortex street), seen
previously in Section 2.4.2. A similar, but single, row of vortices is observed at the mixing
layer between two parallel flows moving at different velocities, whether of the same fluid or
of different fluids (see Section 11.4.1). In the latter cases, the ratio of the size of the vortex
core to the overall dimensions of the structure is larger than for the vortex filaments, but the
rotation around a central zone is clearly visible.
In other cases, vortex lines form closed loops (vortex rings). Specifically, we might men-
tion smoke rings emitted from the apertures of pipes or other circular openings: for example,
from the mouth of a cigarette smoker or, on a larger scale, from active volcanic craters
(Figure 7.17). Another illustration, this time microscopic, is that of vortex rings smaller
than a micron in size, which have been identified in superfluid helium, and whose dynamics
have been extensively studied experimentally (see Section 7A.5 at the end of this chapter).
A few examples of distributions of vorticity concentrated along singularities 233

Figure 7.17C Observation of a vortex ring

rising above the volcano Etna, as seen from
the “Torre del Filosofo”. One can see, as the
ring moves, the displacement of its shadow
on the outer slope of the crater (document J.
Alean)

In the remainder of this section, we model various flows by means of vortex filaments
with very small core radii. We treat first the case of straight-line vortices, then that of vortex
rings.

7.4.2 Dynamics of a system of parallel-line vortices

We discuss distributions of parallel-axis, straight-line vortex filaments corresponding to sev-
eral of the examples cited above. In the absence of viscosity, every element of the vortex core
moves at the local fluid velocity at that point. This velocity is the sum of the external velocity (a)
field and of the velocity resulting from all other vortices, since a straight-line vortex does not
affect itself. As seen in Section 7.2.1, this result is a direct consequence of Kelvin’s theorem O2
as it applies to ideal fluids. O1 Г2
Parallel, line-vortex pairs Г1
We begin with the simplest example of two parallel vortex filaments with respective circula- (b)
tions 1 and 2 (Figure 7.18a). The fluid velocity at the cores O1 and O2 of each filament O2
is simply equal to the velocity induced by the other vortex. This latter velocity is normal to O1 Г2 = –Г1
the line segment O1 O2 and has respective magnitudes: 2 /(2π d) and 1 /2π d where d is
the separation between the vortex cores. Г1
Two cases are particularly important: (c)
O2
• 1 + 2 = 0 (the vortex pair shown in Figure 7.18b). The pair of vortices moves Г1 C
at constant velocity in the direction normal to the line joining them. In this case, Г2 = Г1
this linear velocity has magnitude Vp = /(2 πd) where is the magnitude of each O1
circulation. We find a similar result in the case of vortex rings. There, the circulations
of the fluid velocity around the core at two diametrically opposite points of the ring
are opposite.
Figure 7.18 Velocity field associated with
• 1 = 2 (Figure 7.18c). The pair of lines rotates around the center C of the line two parallel line vortices with respective cir-
segment O1 O2 , with angular velocity /πd 2 where again is the magnitude of each culations 1 et 2 ; (a) the most general case;
circulation. (b) 1 + 2 = 0, the line O1 O2 moves paral-
lel to itself; (c) 1 = 2 , the line O1 O2 rotates
More generally, for an arbitrary value of the ratio 1 / 2 , the vortex lines rotate around their about its center C
“center of gravity” (we assign to them respective coefficients 1 and 2 ) with an angular
234 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

velocity ( 1 + 2 )/(2πd 2 ). In our example of the pair of opposite vortices, the center of
gravity is at infinity.
The results just discussed for the case of vortex pairs are an indirect consequence of
the laws of conservation of momentum and angular momentum, for the ideal fluid within
which the lines are moving. Thus, in the more general case of arbitrary numbers of lines,
the following results hold:

• the total circulation i remains constant during the motion;

• the center of gravity G of the system of vortices, defined by the equation
i GOi = 0, remains fixed.

We now continue by discussing a number of specific distributions of vorticity, which are

good approximations of real flows.

Continuous and discrete vortex sheets

A tangential-velocity discontinuity (a free shear layer) can result from the superposition of
two layers (whether or not of the same fluid) initially separated by a very thin wall and in
tangential contact with each other at two different velocities, constant within each layer:

υx = U1 ( y > 0), υx = U2 ( y < 0)

Corresponding to this flow, there is an infinitely thin vortex sheet, continuous along the
plane y = 0 and with a uniform density of vorticity γ 1 per unit length along the z-axis with:
ε
γ1 = lim ωz dy ; (7.58)
ε→0 –ε

y γ 1 can be evaluated by applying Ampere’s law to the contour (C) in Figure 7.19:
U1 d
(C) (U1 – U2 ) d = γ1 d, (7.59) whence: γ1 = (U1 – U2 ).
x
U2 It should be noted that, in these equations, γ 1 has the dimensions of a velocity, since it
represents a circulation per unit length. In a real experimental situation, such a vortex sheet
is unstable; the vorticity concentrates in vortex cores periodically located along a line parallel
to the x-axis, along the direction of the flow. This instability is discussed in more detail in
Figure 7.19 Circulation along a contour Section 11.4.1.
(C), associated to a flow displaying a discon-
tinuity of the tangential velocity Simple vortex street
We now consider a large number of parallel straight line vortices evenly spaced along a
straight line (simple vortex street). The velocity field at an arbitrary point can be easily cal-
culated by superposition of the velocity fields resulting from each individual vortex. We have
seen in Section 6.6.2(ii) that the complex velocity potential w(z) = vx – i vy at a coordi-
nate point z = x + i y is, for an isolated vortex located at the point with coordinates xi and
yi (zi = xi + i yi ) and with an algebraic value of the circulation:

i
f (z) = – Log (z – zi ). (7.60)
2π

Corresponding to this potential, there exists a tangential velocity field vϕ = /(2π|z – zi |)

due to the vortex located at zi .
A few examples of distributions of vorticity concentrated along singularities 235

For an infinite system of parallel vortex lines periodically located along the real axis
between –∞ and +∞ at the points zm = m a (where m is any integer), we have a complex
velocity:

dF i π z
w(z) = =– cot . (7.61)
dz 2a a

In order to obtain the complex velocity wm (z) for each vortex, located at zm = m a, we must
subtract from w(z) the contribution of that particular vortex so that we obtain:

i π z a
wm (z) = – cot – . (7.62)
2a a π(z – ma)

It can be shown, by expanding the cotangent function in the neighborhood of each point
zm = m a, that wm (z) is zero for z = ma, and that, consequently, this velocity is zero at the
center of each vortex. The vortex row remains motionless, a fact which might have easily
been predicted from symmetry arguments.

Proof
We begin by calculating the complex potential of the vortex street from the velocity potential
(Equation 7.60) for each vortex:
m=∞ m=∞
i i "
F (z) = – Log [z – zm ] = – Log [z – ma] . (7.63)
2π m=–∞
2π m=–∞

Rearranging, in the equation above, terms corresponding to the same absolute value of m,
in the form:

2
z
Log (z – ma) + Log (z + ma) = Log z2 – ma)2 = Log(ma)2 + Log 2 2
–1 ,
m a
∞ ∞
i " z2 i "
we obtain: F(z) = – Log z 1– 2 2 – Log (–1)n (ma)2 .
2π m a 2π
m=1 m=1

Denoting by F 0 the second term (independent of z, which appears in this equation), and
using the identity:
∞
"
π z i
x2 i a
sin x = x 1– , we obtain: F(z) = – Log sin – Log + F0 .
m2 π2 2π a 2π π
m=1

The complex velocity w(z) is then obtained by taking the derivative of F(z) with respect to z.

Benard-von Karman vortex street

The above calculation scheme may also be applied to the case of the double, alternating,
vortex street. We have seen in Section 2.4.2 that, above Reynolds numbers of the order
of 50, alternating vortices are periodically shed downstream of cylindrical obstacles. This
system of vortices is known as the Bénard-von Karman (BvK ) vortex street (Figure 2.9).
We now calculate the velocity field along the vortex street, which we represent as two, par-
allel, single rows of the type just treated (Figure 7.20), each shifted relative to the other by
236 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

y
a
Figure 7.20 Schematic diagram of the U
Bénard-von Karman double vortex street
generated in a uniform velocity stream v
passing across a cylinder (see also Figure D b O x
2.9c)

half the spacing between vortices. The sign of the circulation is identical for every vortex in
the same row, but opposite for the ones in the facing row.
The double vortex street moves lengthwise, parallel to itself, as a result of both the overall
flow velocity U and the velocity induced on a given vortex by all those of the other row
(we have indeed just proved that velocity contributions due to vortices in the same row
cancel, by symmetry). Moreover, considering the effects of pairs of vortices in the facing
row symmetric with respect to the vortex of interest shows that there can be only an x-
component to the velocity induced on it; since the velocity is identical at each vortex, the
system moves then with no deformation. The detailed calculation of this velocity is found
below. It can be shown, by a linear instability analysis, that the only solution for an infinitely
long vortex street, stable to first order, is one for which the vortices are located in alternate
positions in the two rows, with a ratio b/a ≈ 0.3 independent of the velocity.

Calculation of the velocity for a double vortex street Consider the case of two rows
of vortices, each infinitely long, like those of the simple vortex street; let us denote by W
the complex velocity induced by the vortices of the lower row on a vortex of the upper row,
located at the point (0, b/2). Taking into account the fact that the upper row induces a zero
resultant velocity on this vortex, and using Equations 7.61 and 7.62 derived for the case of
the simple vortex street, as well as the identity tan(ix) = i tanh(x), we obtain:

i π a b
w(z) = – cot z+ +i ,
2a a 2 2

b i i πb πb
i.e.: W =w i = tan =– tanh . (7.64)
2 2a a 2a a

We show in the same manner that the velocity induced by the vortices in the upper row on
those of the lower row has the same value. This demonstrates that the entire double vortex
street moves globally at the velocity W given by Equation 7.64.

Profile of the flow velocity between the double row of vortices Up to this point,
we have been mainly interested in the velocity induced on each vortex by all the others.
It is equally important to determine the velocity field in the remainder of the fluid, and
specifically between the rows of vortices. Moreover, perturbations of the velocity field by
the vortex street allow us to estimate the momentum which it carries along and the force
that would result on any obstacle. For this purpose we need to calculate the velocity profile
w(y) along the y-axis (Figure 7.20), perpendicular to the axis of the double vortex street
(chosen as the x-axis) and at the same distance from the two nearest vortices (this avoids
A few examples of distributions of vorticity concentrated along singularities 237

perturbations of the velocity field in the region near each vortex). We then obtain:

sinh (π b / a) cosh (π b / a)
vx (y) = – , (7.65a)
a sinh2 (π b / a) + cosh2 (2π y / a)

cosh (π b / a) cosh (2π y / a)

and vy (y) = . (7.65b)
a sinh2 (π b / a) + cosh2 (2π y / a)

The two velocity components vx and vy are even functions of y, and both change sign ac-
cording to . In the configuration of Figure 7.20, vy is positive while vx is negative. The
maximum absolute value of these two components is obtained at y = 0 where respectively
vx (0) = –(/a) tanh(πb/a) and vy (0) = /(a cosh(πb/a)). Finally, at a large positive trans-
verse distance y, the two components vx and vy decrease respectively exponentially as e–4πy/a
and e–2πy/a .

Proof
In order to calculate the velocity profile w(y), we use Equation 7.61, derived for a vortex
row, by replacing z by z –z0 (with a circulation –) for the upper row, and z by z+z0 (with
circulation +) for the lower row. The coordinates z0 = ib/2 + a/4 and –z0 correspond to the
cores of the nearest vortices and the affix of the points where we measure the velocity profile
is iy. Summing the contributions of both rows, we obtain the complex velocity field:

i π (i y + z0 ) π (i y – z0 )
w (z) = – cot – cot .
2a a a

Using the trigonometric equations: cot (p) – cot (q) = sin (q – p)/(sinp sinq) and
sin (p) sin (q) = (cos( p – q) – cos( p + q))/2, we obtain, in succession:

i sin (2π z0 / a) i sin (2πz0 / a)

w(y) = = .
2a sin {π (i y + z0 )/ a} sin {π (i y – z0 )/ a} a cos (2π z0 / a) – cos (2π iy / a)

Substituting for z0 its value and using the equations cos(ix) = cosh(x) and sin(ix) = i sinh(x),
the previous equation becomes for z0 on the y-axis:

cosh (π b / a)
w(y) = vx ( y) – i vy ( y) = ,
a – sinh (π b / a) + i cosh (2πy / a)

from whence we derive Equations 7.65.

Frequency of vortex shedding in the double vortex street Let us now estimate the
vortex shedding frequency f corresponding to the example in Figure 7.20. The velocity of
the vortex street relative to the cylindrical obstacle is proportional to U , the incident flow
velocity on the cylinder. Indeed, the velocity W , which we have just calculated, is itself
proportional to the external flow velocity. On the other hand, the transverse spacing a can
be assumed to be proportional to the diameter D of the obstacle. The vortex shedding
frequency f thus satisfies:

U +W U f
f ≈ ≈α , (7.66) whence: Sr = ≈ α. (7.67)
a D (U / D)

The dimensionless number Sr, previously defined in Section 2.4.2, is known as the Strouhal
number. Under the assumptions that we have made, it is independent of the velocity and
238 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

These characteristics have led to the design of the nature of the fluid for a given obstacle and thus constitutes a dimensionless parameter
flow meters, measuring the fluid velocity by characterizing the frequency of vortex shedding.
means of the frequency at which the vortices are In accordance with Equations 7.66 and 7.67, Sr should be less than 1 since we have
formed. Sharp-edged obstacles are used, since
the vortex shedding is then more stable and
a > D, as seen in Figure 7.20; moreover, U + W is smaller than U because the velocities
Sr is less dependent on the Reynolds number. U and W are in opposite directions. Experimentally, it is observed that Sr is of the order of
The formation of vortices can be detected by 0.2 for a circular cylinder, and that it has little dependence on the nature of the fluid or on
measuring oscillations in the pressure difference
the Reynolds number, so long as the latter is sufficiently large (over a few thousands, if we
between the two faces of the obstacle, parallel to
the flow. take the size of the object as the typical length scale).
The formation of vortices behind structures
can also have undesirable consequences, like Momentum of a set of parallel vortex filaments
in the example of the collapse of the Tacoma
bridge discussed at the beginning of Section 2.4. Let us begin with the case of two parallel counter-rotating parallel vortices with circulation
More generally, the interaction between fluids vectors 1 and 2 = – 1 (Figure 7.18b). As in the preceding discussion, we will consider
and solid bodies makes up a mixed discipline this situation in a plane perpendicular to the two vortices (their intersections are the points
with numerous applications which we will not
discuss further here. O1 et O2 ). In order to compute the momentum, we start with a configuration where the two
vortex cores coincide at the origin O (the velocity fields in that case cancel out exactly), and
we apply to each of them a force fi per unit length (i = 1,2); due to this force, each vor-
tex acquires a velocity component dri /dt perpendicular to fi and to the core of the vortex
(with ri = OOi ). This velocity is such that the corresponding Magnus force per unit length
FMi = ρ(dri /dt) × i is equal to –fi (see Section 6.3.1): this allows one to keep the global
force on each vortex filament equal to zero. Taking f1 = f2 and because 2 = – 1 , the veloc-
ities dri /dt of the two vortices induced by the forces are opposite so that they move apart
(f1 and f2 must be chosen perpendicular to the orientation of O1 O2 desired); at the same
time, the work done by the total force f1 + f2 corresponds to the increase in the energy of
the vortex pair. We obtain the momentum per unit length of the pair by integrating the total
force with respect to time from t = 0 to the moment when the filaments reach the distance
|r2 – r1 | = d of interest:

t t
dr1 dr2
P= (f1 + f2 )dt = ρ × 1 + × 2 dt,
dt dt
0 0

whence P = ρ (r1 × 1 + r2 × 2 ) = –ρ (O1 O2 × 1 ).

When |O1 O2 | = d, the modulus of P is then P = ρ d where is the magnitude of the

circulations. One notes that the result is independent both on the choice of the origin O and
on the magnitude of the forces fi .
Let us now generalize this result to an arbitrary number of parallel vortices. We pro-
ceed as before by having them all start at the same origin O; we then subject them to
a force fi per unit length, which results in a velocity dri /dt such that the Magnus force
FMi = –ρ(dri /dt) × i equals –fi (we then have a zero resultant force). It is enough to choose
fi such that dri /dt is directed along OOi . By adding up the various contributions, as in the
In order for this result to be independent of the preceding equation, we find:
origin O the sum of all the circulations must be
zero, which also results in a zero circulation of
the velocity at infinity. P=ρ (ri × i ). (7.68a)
i

For the case of a continuous distribution of vorticity, still two-dimensional, we can adjust
this equation by applying it to elementary vortices of cross-section dS perpendicular to their
A rigorous, but delicate, proof of the preced- length and then integrating in the same plane.
ing results, as well as their generalization to
three dimensions, has been carried out by P.G.
Saffman. P=ρ (r × ω(r))dS. (7.68b)
A few examples of distributions of vorticity concentrated along singularities 239

7.4.3 Vortex rings

A vortex ring can be imagined as a small diameter vortex tube closed on itself, very similar We can generate experimentally vortex rings by
to an infinitesimally thin doughnut (Figure 7.21). The circulation is constant along any the means of a cylindrical can in which one of the
end plates has been replaced by a thin stretched
contour looping once around the vortex core. A vortex ring is a very stable vorticity struc-
elastic membrane, while a circular hole has been
ture, frequently observed in hydrodynamics whenever obstacles or orifices with circular carved in the other end plate. After having intro-
symmetry are present (Figure 7.17). duced smoke into the can, a smoke ring can be
emitted at the hole by flicking the membrane; we
Velocity of a vortex ring can then study its trajectory, or how it is deviated
in the presence of an obstacle.
We study below the case of a plane circular vortex ring, of radius R, moving in an ideal
fluid as a result of the velocity induced at each point M by the other elements dl of the dℓ
vortex core (we assume a zero external velocity field). We have seen in Section 7.1.3 that
the corresponding velocity component dv is normal both to the line element and to the
vector connecting M to dl ; dv is therefore perpendicular to the plane of the vortex ring. dv
The total velocity induced at a given point is then also normal to the plane of the ring and, V
because of the symmetry of the problem, it is the same at every point of the vortex core. Г Г
The ring therefore moves without deformation, parallel to its axis, at a velocity V.
The order of magnitude of V can be calculated by means of Equation 7.20, which gives
the velocity induced by an arc of the vortex line at each of its points:

R Figure 7.21 Schematic diagram of a vortex
V ≈ Log ,
4π R ξ ring with circulation moving at uniform
velocity
where ξ is a length of the order of magnitude of the vortex core. When ξ R, the dis-
placement velocity results mainly from the divergent contribution of elements of the vortex
line closest to the point in question. This contribution is here greater than that due to the
velocity induced by the diametrically opposite vortex ring elements by a factor Log (R/ξ ).
An exact calculation, assuming that the vortex has a cylindrical core in uniform rotation,
gives a closely similar value: For comparable values of circulation , the
larger the radius of the vortex ring, the slower
it moves. This result is very reminiscent of that

8R 1 obtained above for two parallel line vortices of
V = Log – . (7.69) opposite circulation , separated by a distance
4π R ξ 2 d, for which the displacement velocity, equal to
(/(2π d)), also varies as 1/d.
Moreover, a vortex ring has kinetic energy and momentum, corresponding to the kinetic
energy and momentum of the fluid it causes to move because of its structure: this is the
reason why an impulse can be detected when a smoke ring impacts onto a solid surface.
We now estimate directly the magnitude of these quantities.

Kinetic energy of a vortex ring

We start with the expression (Equation 7.9) of the kinetic energy ek per unit length of a
straight vortex filament. If the radius of curvature R of the ring is large relative to the core
radius ξ , the total kinetic energy Ek of the ring is approximately (2π R ek ), so that, neglecting
the additive term due to the core:

R R
Ek ≈ ρ 2 Ln .
2 ξ

In the above equation, we have neglected any distortion of the velocity field by distant el-
ements of the vortex line and we assume L = R as the upper length scale of the radius r
in the integral. In fact, at larger distances, the decrease of the velocity field is much faster
240 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

(as 1/r 3 , as for a magnetic dipole) so that its contribution to Ek becomes negligible. The
exact value of Ek , obtained by a full integration, is very close to our estimate:

ρ 2 R 8R 3
Ek = Log – . (7.70)
2 ξ 2

We see therefore that in spite of the fact that the displacement velocity decreases in vortex
rings, as their radius becomes larger, the overall kinetic energy increases!

Momentum of a vortex ring

Using the same approach as for straight vortex filaments, we calculate the momentum asso-
ciated with a vortex ring by assuming that the vortex core is subjected to a constant force f,
directed along the velocity V: the vortex responds to this force by an increase in its ra-
dius, which allows it to store the work done by the force f as additional kinetic energy. This
change in radius leads to a Magnus force per unit length which balances exactly the force
f with: fM = ρ(dr/dt) × = – f. The magnitude F = 2π r f of the total force on the ring then
satisfies:

dr
F = 2πρ r .
dt

The magnitude of the momentum P of a vortex of radius R is equal to the integral

Fdt = 2π ρ r dr evaluated between the radii zero and R. We therefore obtain:

P = π ρ R2 . (7.71)

Using Equations 7.70 and 7.71 for the energy Ek and momentum P of the ring, we can
determine the group velocity Vg (R) of the ring from the classical definition:

dEk dEk / dR ρ 2 Log (8R/ξ ) – 3/2 + 1
Vg (R) = = = = (Log (8R/ξ ) – 1/2) = V .
dP dP / dR 2 2πρ R 4πR
(7.72)

Vg is therefore equal to V , the velocity at which the vortex ring moves, which is also that for
energy transport.
This behavior is very different from that of usual material systems, where an increase
in the kinetic energy and momentum is usually accompanied by a simultaneous increase in
the velocity. In contrast, in the case of vortex rings, the velocity decreases while the radius,
kinetic energy and momentum all increase. The laws governing the dynamics of vortex rings
that we have just described have been verified with great precision in the case of superfluid
helium (see the appendix to this chapter).

Interactions between vortex rings, or between a ring and a solid wall

The dynamics of a system of vortex rings can be described, like that for parallel vortex lines,
by considering the field induced at one vortex by all the others.

Impact of a vortex ring on a solid plane The behavior of a ring approaching a flat
U plane can be described by replacing the plane with an image ring symmetric with respect to
the plane (Figure 7.22). The presence of the ring image ensures that the normal component
of the velocity at the plane is zero; the tangential component need not vanish, because we are
Figure 7.22 A vortex ring impacting onto a discussing the case of a non-viscous fluid. As a result of its interaction with the image, the
solid plane radius of the ring increases indefinitely while it moves slower and slower towards the plane
Vortices, vorticity and movement in air and water 241

(the ring does not bounce away either!). The image ring induces indeed on the original one
an outward, radial,velocity component which increases as the ring gets closer to the plane.
Moreover, the velocity components normal to the plane induced on a given element by the
other parts of the ring is largely cancelled by those induced by the image ring.

Figure 7.23 Relative “leapfrog”-like mo-

tion of two coaxial vortex rings is described
by this sequence of four images. (An Album of
Fluid Motion; M. Van Dyke)

Coaxial vortex rings with identical circulation The interaction of two vortex rings,
such as might be created at the exit of a circular jet, leads to an amusing leapfrog phenome-
non (Figure 7.23). Each ring passes through the inside of the ring just ahead, while its radius
decreases. It is then itself passed by the other ring which is now behind it, and so on. The
velocity field, induced on ring A1 by the ring A2 ahead of it, includes a radial component
of velocity Vr1 , at A1 , directed towards the axis: this decreases the radius of A1 and con-
sequently, increases its velocity. Simultaneously, ring A1 induces on A2 an outward radial
velocity component Vr2 which, conversely, increases its radius, and causes it to slow down.
The process goes on until A1 has caught up with A2 , and passed through it, a sequence
which repeats indefinitely.

7.5 Vortices, vorticity and movement

in air and water
Vortices and, more generally, the circulation of velocity frequently play a crucial role in
the movement of fluids by inducing thrust (or drag) forces which lead to (or retard) the
motion, but also create lift. These effects are significant, whether the fluid is air or water,
for vehicles or animals moving at a Reynolds number large enough to generate the vortices.
The opposite case of displacements governed by viscosity, such as for microorganisms, will
be discussed in Chapter 9.

7.5.1 Thrust due to an emission of vortices

Many kinds of animal species, such as fish and birds, propel themselves by emitting vortex
streets from the beating of their tails or wings. Figure 7.24 illustrates this phenomenon by
242 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

U 2
1
0 y ωz
Figure 7.24C Vorticity field behind an os- (cm )
–1 40
cillating wing of width d = 0.5 cm within a (a) (s–1)
flow of constant Reynolds number Re = 255
U 2 20
for several amplitudes A of the oscillations of
the wing characterized by normalized values 1 y
Ad = A/d = 0.36 (a), 0.71 (b), 1.07 (c) (the 0 (cm ) 0
respective Strouhal numbers are SrA = fA/U: (b) –1
0.08, 0.16, 0.24). The color scale corresponds 2 –20
U
to the local vorticity (in s–1 ) (document cour- 1
tesy R. Godoy-Diana, J.L. Aider and J.E. d A 0 y –40
(cm )
Wesfreid) –1
(c) –2
0 2 4 6 8 10
x (cm )

displaying the velocity fields in the fluid, as measured downstream of a simple model using a
wing which oscillates at constant frequency f and an amplitude A. The wing has a thickness
d and it is placed in a flow of constant velocity U (with Reynolds number Re = Ud/ν).
At small amplitudes (Figure 7.24a), we observe a Bénard-von Karman (BvK) vortex
street of the same nature as observed behind a fixed obstacle placed within a flow (see
Sections 2.4.2 and 7.4.2). As the amplitude increases, this vortex street is replaced by an-
other one where the vortices rotate in the direction opposite to that in the previous case
(Figure 7.24c). At the boundary between these two regimes, we observe an intermediate
structure, i.e. a linear region of alternating vortices (Figure 7.24b).
The inversion of the direction of the vortices results in the appearance of a thrust force
opposed to the average flow, whereas there is a drag force for the BvK vortex street. The
component FD of these forces in the direction of U is, per unit length of the vortex:

b
FD = ε ρ (U + W), (7.73)
a

where ε = 1 for the BvK vortex street and ε = –1 for the inverse one. The induced velocity
W given by Equation 7.64 is of opposite sign to U in the first case and of the same sign in
the second case (but we always have |W| < |U|).

Proof
According to Equation 7.68, the total momentum of a vortex street equals:
P = ρ i (ri × i ). The generation of an additional vortex pair leads to a variation in
the component of the momentum in the direction of the average flow U with a value:

PU = ρ (OO+ × + OO– × –)· eU = ρ (O– O+ × )· eU ; (7.74)

eU is the unit vector in the direction of U and O– O+ is the vector joining the inter-
sections with a normal plane of the cores of the two vortices which have been created.
We observe that the variation PU is independent of the choice of the vortex pair se-
lected (and even of that of the neighbors with which a vortex is associated). The mixed
Vortices, vorticity and movement in air and water 243

product ρ (O– O+ ∧ )· eU is always equal to b (Figure 7.20): the drag force is then
obtained by multiplying PU eU by the number of vortex pairs generated per unit time,
which is the frequency f (Equation 7.66). Finally, the sign of PU depends on the orien-
tation of the component transverse to U of the vector O– O+ , which allows us to justify
Equation 7.73.
This latter equation is only an approximation, and an exact calculation needs to take into
account the velocity variations in the potential region of the flow, such as those given by
Equation 7.65. This introduces some correction terms, but preserves the dominant term
proportional to ρ b U/a.

Figure 7.25 Observation domains of the

various flow regimes behind an oscillat-
ing wing, as a function of the normalized
Strouhal number SrA = f A/U; (•) values of
SrA corresponding to the propulsion mecha-
nisms for different animals (from [Link]-
Diana, J.L. Aider and J.E. Wesfreid)

Figure 7.25 shows the observation regions for various regimes resulting from experi-
ments carried out at different values of the amplitude and of the frequency of oscillation.
These measurements indicate that the type of regime observed depends principally on the
Strouhal number SrA = f A/U . The transition between the BvK vortex street and the inverse The Strouhal number SrA is defined here by the
one is observed for a value of SrA of the order of 0.15. For values of SrA above 0.4, the use of the oscillation amplitude A as a character-
istic length.
vortex street loses its periodicity and its average direction is deviated relative to that of the
velocity U.
The most effective region of thrust is observed in the regime of the inverse vortex street
(0.15 ≤ SrA ≤ 0.4): we observe in Figure 7.25 that these values of SrA correspond well to
those observed for a broad variety of birds, insects and fish.
In addition to the effect of the vortex emission that we have just described, flight and
swim strategies frequently rely on deformations of the wing or the fin at the frequency of
beating, which can be created deliberately or merely result from the flexibility of the wing.

7.5.2 The effects of lift

As defined in Section 6.3.1 and Section 6.6.3, lift is the component of the force perpendic-
ular to the relative velocity of an object and a fluid. The lift on airplane wings clearly plays a
crucial role in their flight, as it does in the flight of birds. Fish (and submarines) also use the
effects of lift (in addition to Archimedes’ buoyancy) to allow them to move at a fixed depth.
We will first discuss the lift on airplane wings.
244 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

Lift and drag on an airplane wing

FL (a) Figure 7.26a reminds us of the definition of the lift and drag forces on an airplane wing that
we will at first consider as a two-dimensional object (with geometry not dependent on the
direction normal to the plane of the figure).
FD α
U ℓ The lift force FL is perpendicular to the velocity U, and balances the weight of the air-
t plane: one seeks to maximize this lift. The drag force FD is parallel and opposite to the
(b) velocity: one needs therefore to minimize it. Practically, one characterizes the lift and the
Cx drag by two dimensionless coefficients (respectively Cz and Cx ) which depend uniquely on
Cz Cz the geometry and the angle of attack α of the wing; Cz and Cx are defined in terms of the
lift, the drag, the area S of the wing, and the density ρ of the air by:

1 1
Cx FL = ρU 2 S Cz (α) (7.75a) and FD = ρU 2 S Cx (α). (7.75b)
2 2

10 αc ≈ 20 α (°) The lift is due to the circulation of the velocity of the fluid around the wing: this is
in fact a manifestation of the Magnus force which has been described in Section 6.3.1
Figure 7.26 (a) Schematic diagram of the (Equation 6.44). This circulation results from the shape of the cross-section of the wing, in
flow around a wing, and of the lift and drag such a way that the stagnation point of the flow on the upper surface of the wing is located at
forces, and t are the leading and trailing the trailing edge t: this condition, known as the Kutta condition has been analyzed in Section
edges (see discussion of Figures 6.22 et seq.); 6.6.3 (Equation 6.105). The circulation and the lift force FD increase as the velocity U of
(b) Dependence of the lift and drag coeffi- the wing relative to the fluid increases (Equation 6.106); the airplane can take off when U
cients, respectively Cz and Cx , on the angle is large enough so that FD exceeds its weight.
of attack α Figure 7.26b indicates the variation of the lift and drag coefficients as a function of
the angle of incidence α of the wing relative to the average velocity U. One observes that
Cz increases nearly linearly with α up to a value α c : then, as α increases (while remaining
below α c ) the speed of the airplane for which the lift force compensates for the weight
of the airplane decreases. Above the critical angle α c , the lift coefficient decreases rapidly
(stalling phenomenon): this process is related to the boundary-layer separation discussed in
Section 10.6.1.

Lift on an airplane wing

In Section 2.1 of this chapter, we have shown that, for an ideal fluid, if the initial circulation
of the velocity v of the fluid along a curve (C) is equal to zero, it remains equal to zero at
all subsequent times around the curves (C’(t)), which correspond to particles of the fluid
initially located on (C) and carried along by the flow (Kelvin’s theorem). In contrast, in the
case of a boundary layer, the presence of a vorticity layer very close to the wall allows for
the appearance of a circulation around the cross-section of the wing and, consequently, of
Figure 7.27 (a, b) Appearance of circula- a lift force. We can however apply Kelvin’s theorem to a curve (C) which surrounds the
tion around an airplane wing as it begins to
accelerate: (a) initially, the circulation of the
fluid velocity along the contour (C) around
(a)
the static wing is zero; (b) the creation of
circulation around the wing as it begins (C)
to move is compensated by the appearance
of a vortex which is left behind; (c) three-
dimensional structure of the distribution of (b)
vorticity around an airplane: the vortex line
which includes the wing and the starting vor- (C'(t)) Г
tex is closed by two vortices emitted from the
U –Г
tip of each wing
Vortices, vorticity and movement in air and water 245

wing outside the boundary layer (Figure 7.27a) and far enough so that the flow can be
considered as ideal everywhere along this curve. Consider a wing set in motion at an initial
time: we observe a vortex appearing on the trailing edge of the wing (Figure 7.27b). The
circulation – of the velocity of the fluid around this start-up vortex must be opposite to
the value around the wing in order to maintain zero circulation along (C’(t)): the initial
circulation along (C) is indeed zero because the fluid is still at rest. This phenomenon can
also be observed at the trailing edge of a spoon displaced in a coffee cup while remaining
parallel to itself. The start-up vortex is left behind when the motion starts; moreover, in a
real fluid, the distribution of the vorticity spreads out by viscous diffusion.
In Section 7.2.1, we have also shown that, in the case of an ideal fluid, a vortex line must
close up on itself or needs to have its two ends localized on a solid wall or a liquid interface;
given that the length of the wings is finite, the vorticity circuit which includes the wing of
the airplane and the take off vortex must be closed by two vortices with axes parallel to
the velocity U of the airplane and emitted at the ends of the wings (Figures 7.27c, 7.28a
and 7.28b).
Behind a large airplane, these trailing edge vortices can be sufficiently large so as to unbal-
ance another airplane that follows it too closely; this is especially the case when the velocity
of the first airplane is low and the values of Cz , of α and thus of the circulation must,
accordingly, be quite high, so that the corresponding lift compensates for the weight of the
airplane (Equation 6.106).
These vortices are also a source of needless energy dissipation: winglets, placed at the
extreme ends of the wing, allow one to limit this effect in modern airplanes. Other strategies

Figure 7.28C (a) Visualization of a flow

around a wing with the appearance of a
vortex at the tip of the wing (plate cour-
tesy O. Cadot and T. Pichon, ENSTA).
(b) Visualization, by injection of smoke at
ground level, of the vortex from the end of
the wing of a plane spraying agricultural
products (NASA document)
246 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

can also be considered to reduce the wake e.g., by the emission of secondary vortices which
are superimposed on the wake and destabilize and destroy the original vortices (Crow’s
instability).

7.5.3 Lift and propulsion

Propulsion by the turning blades of a propeller
The propeller blades of a boat and those of an airplane also induce lift: they are indeed
inclined at a small angle relative to the plane in which they rotate in such a way that the lift
is parallel to the axis of rotation and thus corresponds to a force of propulsion. Moreover,
just like for an airplane wing, the drag force (which is located in the plane of rotation) will
be small and result in a minimal energy dissipation.
This differs completely from instances such as a watermill where the speed at which the
vanes move is perpendicular to their surface: in this case, only the drag force on the vanes
has an effect, and the lift plays no role. The motion of the vanes communicates indeed a
rearward momentum to the water while pushing it backward: however, there is a significant
energy dissipation due to the work of the drag force resulting from the difference between
the speed of the vanes and that of the water. The efficiency is therefore very poor. The oars
of a rowing boat are yet another means of propulsion which uses drag.
The blades of a helicopter, aside from their very long shape, function essentially just as
those of a propeller but they serve directly to support the helicopter since the axis of rotation
is vertical (in this case we talk about lift from rotation).

Propulsion of sailboats
We can consider the sail of a boat as similar to an airplane wing mounted vertically with its
width decreasing as one moves upward. When a boat sails upwind, the angle that the wind
Figure 7.29C Diagram of the flow around makes with the sail is relatively small and its direction is such that it fills the sail. The force
the sails of a yacht designed for the America’s resulting on the sail is then actually a lift force perpendicular to the sail. The component of
cup: vortices (twisted coloured streamlines) this force perpendicular to the axis of the sailboat is compensated by a keel or a centerboard;
are generated at the top of the mast, at the up- these act as vertical plates located under the sailboat parallel to its axis and induce a very
per point where the jib is fastened, and below large resistance to the drift of the boat perpendicular to its sailing direction. The component
the boom bordering the lower side of the main- of the lift force in the direction of the axis of the boat is then the force which allows for the
sail. The yacht sails upwind and the angle propulsion.
between its axis and the wind at the top of the We have, just as for an airplane wing, a resultant circulation around the sail with, this
mast is 22◦ (document courtesy C. Pashias, time, a circulation vector oriented vertically: the vortices at the wingtips of an aeroplane are
South African America’s Cup Challenge) here replaced by a vortex emitted horizontally from the tip of the mast and another one
emitted between the bottom side of the sail and the deck of the boat (Figure 7.29).

Lift, drag and propulsion for animals (and humans)

While swimming, a fish (or a swimmer) must permanently adjust the angle of attack of its
fin (or hand) relative to the ambient fluid in order to have maximal efficiency. Too large an
angle results in a behavior similar to the vanes of a windmill, with a significant dissipation
of energy in their wake. If the hand or the fin is parallel to the flow, the drag force will be
small, but there will be no significant lift force usable for propulsion: one therefore needs
a sufficiently large angle of incidence. It is the sensitivity of the swimmer (or fish) to the
surrounding flow which allows for finding the optimal orientation.
Rotating fluids 247

7.6 Rotating fluids

The study of rotating fluids is particularly important in the understanding of atmospheric
and oceanic flows. Figure 7.30 indicates the effect of the rotation of the earth, which has Ώ0 Ώ
an angular velocity 0 10–4 s–1 . Atmospheric and oceanic flows observed with reference
to the surface of the earth take place in a reference frame which rotates at the local angu- j k
N y z
lar velocity = 0 sin α (α is the latitude): this is the same velocity as in the Foucault’s
pendulum experiment for which the rotational period relative to an observer on the earth is x i
T = 2π/(0 sin α). Geophysicists call the quantity 2: planetary vorticity. P M
Laboratory experiments on rotating plates are often used to model the effect of the ter- r
restrial rotation on flows in the atmosphere or the ocean, and result in spectacular and
unexpected effects. α
Rotating flows also occur in numerous industrial processes. The structure of flows in Equator
rotating containers is strongly influenced by the rotation, particularly in the boundary layers.
We will be interested principally in the case, most important in geophysics, where the
deviations of the velocity of the fluid with respect to the global rotation are small. Figure 7.30 Schematic diagram displaying
the definition of the local coordinate system
7.6.1 Motion of a fluid in a rotating reference frame used to describe flow in a rotating reference
frame
Equation of motion of the fluid in a rotating reference frame
We start from the classical equation of motion in a fixed reference frame (the Navier-Stokes
equation) in order to derive the corresponding equation in a reference frame rotating at
angular velocity ( being parallel to the axis of rotation). We will denote by va the velocity
of the fluid in the “absolute” (fixed) reference frame and the “relative” velocity vr in the
rotating reference frame. The velocities are measured at a point M with OM = r (O is the
origin of the coordinate axes assumed to be located on the axis of rotation).
The variations with time of an arbitrary vector field A(r) in the absolute reference frame
and in the rotating reference frame, are related by the equation:

dA dA
= + × A, (7.76)
dt a dt r

where dA/dt represents a Lagrangian derivative. For example, if we have a constant vector
A in the rotating fluid, its rate of variation in the absolute reference frame is dA/dt = × A.
Using Equation 7.76 to rewrite the terms of the equation of motion in the rotating reference
frame, we obtain:

dvr ∂vr p 1
= + (vr · ∇) vr = –∇ + ϕ – ( × r)2 + ν∇ 2 vr – 2 × vr . (7.77)
dt r ∂t ρ 2

The term (1/2)∇( × r)2 is associated with the centrifugal force and appears as a volume
force. The component –2 × vr , the Coriolis force, is normal to the velocity of the particles
in the fluid: it is this particular force which explains the rotation of Foucault’s pendulum
and the eastward derivation of bodies in free fall. We will see that it is also responsible for
important atmospheric phenomena.

Proof
Let us first apply Equation 7.76 to the radius vector r for which the time derivatives are the
absolute velocity va and the rotating frame velocity vr . We then obtain:

va = vr + × r. (7.78)
248 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

Applying again Equation 7.76 to the preceding expression for va , we obtain:

dva dva dvr
= + × va = + 2 × vr + × ( × r). (7.79)
dt a dt r dt

The term: × ( × r) is equal to –∇( × r)2 /2 since only the component r⊥ of r, normal
to , is effective, and that both expressions are then equal to – 2 r⊥ . Let us start from the
Navier-Stokes equation for which the usual form in an absolute reference frame is:

dva ∂va 1
= + (va · ∇) va = – ∇p + ν∇ 2 va – ∇ϕ (7.80)
dt a ∂t ρ

(ϕ represents the potential of the volume forces per unit mass, such that ϕ = gz for gravity).
Expressing va as a function of vr by means of Equations 7.78 and 7.79, Equation 7.80
becomes:

dvr ∂vr 1 1
= + (vr · ∇) vr = – ∇p + ν ∇ 2 vr – ∇ϕ – 2 × vr + ∇( × r)2 . (7.81)
dt r ∂t ρ 2

When ∇ 2 va is replaced by its expression as a function of ∇ 2 vr obtained from Equation 7.78,

these two terms differ indeed only by ∇ 2 ( × r) which is identically zero since × r is a
linear function of the components of r. Grouping the gradient terms, Equation 7.81 gives
back Equation 7.77 for the particular case of a constant density fluid (ρ = constant).

Throughout the remainder of this chapter, we drop the subscript r and we use the
components of the velocity measured in the rotating reference frame.

Effects of the centrifugal force in a rotating fluid

The centrifugal force can induce flow: an important application is represented by centrifugal
pumps: the fluid is injected along an axis, set in motion by vanes, and finally forced to exit by
the gradient of the pressure due to the rotation. Another application is the ability to obtain
very thin fluid layers of uniform thickness by depositing a droplet onto a rotating disk (spin
coating). The effect of the centrifugal force is equally crucial in the formation of tornadoes
and water spouts. We will see in Section 7.7 that these forces can result in secondary flows,
which become superimposed onto the main flow in some flow geometries (e.g., tubes with
curved walls).
In the remainder of this chapter, we will be interested in the opposite case, seen fre-
quently, where the centrifugal forces do not generate flows. Let us assume, for example,
a container rotating at uniform velocity. After a sufficiently long time has elapsed, the
fluid takes on the angular velocity of the walls of the container if no mechanism cre-
ates flow relative to the walls (see Section 2.1.1). In this case, we obtain, taking vr ≡ 0 in
Equation 7.77:

p 1 p 1 p 2 r2⊥
+ ϕ – ( × r)2 = + gz – ( × r)2 = + gz – = constant (7.82)
ρ 2 ρ 2 ρ 2

(r ⊥ = r sin θ is the distance to the axis of rotation and is the magnitude of ). The cen-
trifugal force creates an additional pressure gradient, which depends only on the distance
r ⊥ to the axis of rotation: in the remainder of this chapter, we will not take this into ac-
count but use implicitly a value of the pressure corrected from this effect by adding the
term –ρ 2 (r ⊥ )2 /2.
Rotating fluids 249

The centrifugal force has, however, a very obvious effect on the shape of a free surface
of a fluid. The pressure there is indeed constant and equal to the atmospheric pressure
(from Section 1.4.4, we can neglect the effects of surface tension if the size of the con-
tainer is larger than a few millimeters). The level z(r ⊥ ) of the free surface then satisfies:
gz(r ⊥ ) – 2 (r ⊥ )2 = constant. We find here again the well-known parabolic shape of the free
surface, which has a minimum on the axis of rotation (r ⊥ = 0). The corresponding centrifu-
gal pressure term due to rotation is compensated here by an additional hydrostatic one due
to the deformation of the free surface.

Equation of motion of the vorticity in a rotating reference frame

Like for deriving the equation of motion of the vorticity in the absolute reference frame
(Section 7.3), we take here the curl of Equation 7.77 which eliminates the gradient terms.
We then obtain the equation of transport of the vorticity in the rotating reference frame:

dω ∂ω
= + (v ·∇)ω = ((ω + 2)·∇)v + ν ∇ 2 ω (7.83)
dt ∂t
(where ω = ∇ × vr ). The only difference between this equation and that obtained in the
absence of any rotation is the presence of the term of planetary vorticity 2 in addition to
the vorticity ω. The sum ω + 2 of these two terms is known as the absolute vorticity. The
term (ω ·∇)v represents the variations of vorticity which accompany changes in the length
or orientation of the vorticity tubes (Section 7.3.1). Rotation adds an additional contribution
which can be dominant at high rotational velocities.

Order of magnitude of the different terms of the equation of motion; Rossby and
Ekman numbers
Let us call L the characteristic length of the flow (such as the size of a channel) and U
its characteristic velocity (e.g., the maximum velocity or an average velocity). Multiplying
Equation 7.77 by L/U 2 so as to create dimensionless variables, one obtains:

∂v
ν || L
+ (v
·∇
)v
= –∇
p
+ ∇
2 v
– 2 ×v
, (7.84)
∂t
UL U ||

where v
=v/U, p
= ( p – p0 )/(ρU 2 ); p0 is the pressure in the absence of flow but in the pres-
ence of rotation and of the volume forces with ∇( p0 /ρ) = –∇(ϕ – ( × r)2 /2). The operator
∇
corresponds to derivatives with respect to the components of the dimensionless radius
vector r
= r/L; /|| is the unit vector in the direction of the axis of rotation.
Equation 7.84 only introduces, aside from the dimensionless variables r
, v
and p
, the
dimensionless combinations ν/(U L) (the inverse of the Reynolds number) and ||L/U
which is the inverse of the number Ro = U /(||L), which is called the Rossby number. The
solutions of Equation 7.84 are thus of the form:
x y z p – p0 x y z
v
= v
= f , , , Re, Ro , = p
= g , , , Re, Ro .
U L L L ρU 2 L L L
(7.85a) (7.85b)
Two flows with identical geometry, but having different values of U and L, then correspond
to similar velocity and pressure fields if the Reynolds and Rossby numbers are the same.
The Rossby number corresponds physically to the ratio between the orders of magnitude
of a convective transport term of the equation of motion and of the Coriolis force term.
We have:
U2
|(v · ∇) v| ≈ and 2 | × v| ≈ || U .
L
250 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

U convective transport term

Thus: Ro = ≈ .
|| L Coriolis force term

In flows at small Rossby number, the effect of rotation and of the Coriolis force domi-
nate. The Rossby number becomes small, for normal flow velocities, only for motion on a
very large scale. Thus for an atmospheric flow, with || = 10–4 s–1 ; U ≈ 10 m/s, L ≈ 103 km,
we find Ro = 10–l . This explains why the rotation of the earth affects the direction of the cy-
clonic movements which are opposite in the northern and southern hemispheres. This does
not apply, however, to tornadoes with velocities of 100 m/s on a scale of kilometers, where
Ro = 103 (nor does it apply to the vortex that forms in a draining bathtub!).
In the same way, we can evaluate the ratio between the viscosity terms and the Coriolis
force in the equation of motion where:

νU
ν ∇2 v ≈ and 2 |( × v)| ≈ || U .
L2

The ratio of these terms, knows as the Ekman number, satisfies:

ν viscous force
Ekman number = Ek = ≈ .
|| L 2 Coriolis force

We will use the Ekman number in the study of flows near the bottom of a container or
adjacent to a rotating wall (Sections 7.6.4 and 7.7.2).

Potential vorticity
We can understand the meaning of this parameter by observing a vortex tube passing over
a two-dimensional obstacle transverse to a flow in the absence of viscosity.
A related problem is the change in direction of a dominant wind which passes over a long
mountain range (in the y-direction in Figure 7.31) and with relatively constant height in this
direction. This is partly similar to the effect of a change of velocity on vertical vorticity tubes
such as those in Figure 7.14 but, here, it is the absolute vorticity ω +2 which affects the
flow as opposed to ω, the vorticity of the flow by itself in this first case.
We assume that we have a thin layer of fluid perpendicular to the axis of rotation in the
z-direction and flowing initially with a velocity V0 (vx0 , vy0 ) which is uniform and constant
(Figure 7.31). The fluid layer passes over an obstacle infinitely long in the y-direction and
with height h0 – h(x) (h0 being the initial thickness of the fluid layer); the upper surface,
however, remains horizontal. We are interested here in the variation of the ωz component
of the vorticity: we retain therefore all the terms which contain ωz (with the exception of
the terms involving the viscosity, which we neglect throughout this paragraph). Moreover,
Figure 7.31 Flow of a layer of fuid of thick- we assume that the horizontal velocity components are uniform throughout the thickness of
ness h(x) over an obstacle of infinite length in the layer, so that ∂vx /∂z = ∂vy /∂z = 0. By taking the derivative relative to z of the condition
the y-direction (the entire system rotates with
angular velocity ). V0 is the initial veloc-
ity of the fluid upstream of the obstacle, while
V1 is that downstream: as the fluid passes
over the obstacle, the vy -component under-
goes a negative change vy1 – vy0 which signals
an anticyclone-type deviation (in the north-
ern hemisphere). The local vorticity ωz (h)
decreases with the thickness h of the fluid
layer, in accordance with Equation. 7.90
Rotating fluids 251

of incompressibility ∇·v = 0, we find therefore ∂ 2v z /∂z2 = 0. The derivative ∂vz /∂z is then a
constant with z such that:
∂vz 1 dh
= (7.86)
∂z h dt
since vz = 0 for z = h0 and vz = –dh/dt for z = h0 – h.
Taking into account these approximations, we use the transport equation for vorticity
(Equation 7.83) in the form:

dω dωz ∂vz
= ((ω + 2) · ∇) v (7.87) whence: = (ωz + 2 ) (7.88)
dt dt ∂z
dωz /dt is a Lagrangian derivative, which represents the change in the vorticity in an element
of fluid which we follow along its motion and is the component of on the z-axis. We note
that, if the slope of the bottom of the fluid layer is small, such that |∂h/∂x|and|∂h/∂y|1,
the vertical component vz of the velocity of the fluid will also be small relative to vx and
vy . In contrast, the derivative ∂vz /∂z which has a multiplying factor 1/h is of the same or-
der of magnitude as the derivatives of vx and vy with respect to x and y; this explains the
important role which they have in this particular problem. Combining Equations 7.86 and
7.88, we find:

1 dωz 1 dh d ωz + 2
= , (7.89a) whence: Log = 0. (7.89b)
ωz + 2 dt h dt dt h

ωz + 2
We thus obtain, finally: = constant; (7.90)
h
this conserved quantity is known as the potential vorticity. Equation 7.90 plays a fundamental
role in geophysics: it generalizes the equation of conservation of angular momentum for an
element of matter, expressed by Kelvin’s theorem in a non-rotating reference frame ( = 0).
In this latter case, Equation 7.90 reduces to the condition ωz /h = constant, which we have
already discussed in Section 7.3.1 (h was then replaced by δ).
Let us now take a cylinder of liquid with initial cross section S 0 before it arrives on the ob-
stacle (h = h0 ). When the liquid cylinder arrives in a region where the thickness of the liquid
layer is h, its cross section S(h) obeys the equation S(h)h = S 0 h0 (conservation of the volume
of fluid, which we assume to be incompressible). Equation 7.90 then becomes:

(ωz (h0 ) + 2)S0 = (ωz (h) + 2 ) S(h). (7.91)

According to Stokes’ theorem, ωz (h0 )S 0 and ωz (h)S(h) represent the circulation of the
velocity around a cylinder of liquid before and during its passing over an obstacle: Equation
7.91 is thus a generalization of Kelvin’s theorem, with two additional terms in 2 which
correspond to the rotation.

We can also use Equation 7.90 to determine the variation of the horizontal velocity of
the fluid layer when it passes over the obstacle. For this purpose, let us calculate the ve-
locity components of the fluid velocity downstream of the obstacle. Taking into account
the symmetry of the obstacle, the velocity field is independent of the coordinate y, and
∂vx /∂y = ∂vy /∂y = 0. The component ωz of the vorticity then reduces to ωz = ∂vy /∂x; ωz is
initially zero throughout the region where h = h0 . Equation 7.90 can then be rewritten in the
form:
∂vy 2 (h0 – h)
=– , (7.92)
∂x h0
252 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

so that, after integration with respect to x:

2
v1y = v0y – A, (7.93)
h0

where A(>0) is the area (h0 – h)dx of the horizontal cross-section of the obstacle (Figure
7.31). Moreover, since the quantity of fluid flowing through the planes x = constant is con-
served, we must have v1x = v0x . Thus, in the northern hemisphere, the wind deviates in a
clockwise direction (anti-cyclonic). In nature, this effect will only be observed if a mountain
range is sufficiently long; otherwise, and especially if Ro 1, the wind will just go around
as in the experiments to be discussed in the next section.

7.6.2 Flows at small Rossby numbers

Geostrophic flows
Let us consider again Equation 7.77 assuming, as we did in the discussion above, that the
effect of the centrifugal force and of the volume forces result merely in a gradient of the
hydrostatic pressure, which we will subtract from the total pressure. Let us assume that the
Rossby number Ro is 1, which will allow us to neglect the convective transport term
(v ·∇)v (as well as the terms (v ·∇)ω and (ω ·∇)v of the equation of conservation of the
vorticity ω which must also obey ω ). Finally, let us assume that the viscosity forces are
negligible on the scale of the flows at which we are looking (Ekman number 1). Equations
7.77 and 7.83 then reduce to:

∂v p ∂ω
= –∇ – (2 × v) (7.94) and = 2 ( · ∇) v. (7.95)
∂t ρ ∂t

Let us further assume that the flow is quasi stationary, which will allow us to neglect the
terms ∂v/∂t and ∂ω/∂t. If τ is the characteristic time for changes in the flow, this amounts to
assuming that the product τ is 1. A flow which obeys all these conditions is known as a
geostrophic flow.
Let us assume again that the axis of rotation is the z-axis. Equation 7.94 becomes:

∂p ∂p ∂p
= 2ρ vy (7.96a) = –2ρ vx (7.96b) and = 0. (7.96c)
∂x ∂y ∂z

Taking the derivative of the first two equations with respect to z, we obtain:

∂vx ∂vy
= = 0. (7.97)
∂z ∂z

Under the same conditions, Equation 7.95 reduces to:

∂vz
= 0. (7.98)
∂z

Combining this result with the incompressibility condition ∇· v = 0, we then obtain:

∂vz ∂vx ∂vy

– = + = 0. (7.99)
∂z ∂x ∂y
Rotating fluids 253

We then observe that a geostrophic flow has the following three characteristics:

• This flow is the result of a two-dimensional flow v(x, y) and of a translation parallel
to the axis of rotation with a velocity independent of the coordinate z along this axis.
If the boundary conditions (walls, free surface) require vz = 0 at one of the points
along the lines parallel to the axis of rotation (as this will frequently be the situation),
we then have vz = 0 everywhere. The motion is then two-dimensional with velocity
components vx (x, y) and vy (x, y).
• The flow is normal to the pressure gradient: the streamlines coincide with the isobars.
The fact that the flow is normal to the gradient of the pressure (and, as a result, to the
force applied on an element of volume) reminds us of a Magnus force (force perpen-
dicular to the relative velocity of a vortex and of a flow, as well as its vorticity). We can
apply this result to help us read meteorological charts which display isobar curves:
the tangents to these latter curves represent the direction of the average wind in the
region considered, at an altitude high enough so that the influence of the boundary
layer near the earth is not significant.
• If the fluid is incompressible, we have ∂vx /∂x + ∂vy /∂y = 0. The cross-section of a
plane curve normal to which moves along with the fluid remains thus constant:
particularly, according to Kelvin’s theorem, the cross-section of the vorticity tubes
also remains constant.

The combination of Equations 7.97 to 7.99 represents the Taylor-Proudman theorem, of

which we will see spectacular applications.

Displacement of a solid perpendicular to

Let us assume that the fluid has an almost horizontal free surface, and that we displace a
solid body of finite dimensions (such as a sphere), at a velocity U parallel to the surface
(Figure 7.32a). If the magnitude of the velocity U is small enough and constant, the con-
ditions for applying the Taylor-Proudman theorem will be obeyed. Due to the boundary
conditions, the local velocity of the fluid must first be equal to U over the whole outer sur-
face of the solid. From Equations 7.97 and 7.98, this velocity is also equal to U everywhere
in the vertical cylinder of fluid, resting on the outer contour of the solid and rising up to
the upper free surface. Below the solid, the resulting flow is more complicated because the
condition ∂v/∂z = 0 cannot be obeyed due to the boundary condition at the solid bottom of
the container.

Figure 7.32 Motion of a solid body within

a rotating fluid. (a) The velocity of the dis-
placement U is perpendicular to the axis of
rotation. Dye injected into the region of fluid
just above the object moves with it; (b) changes
in the local vorticity resulting from the mo-
tion of the solid object parallel to the axis of
rotation, in a rotating container
254 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

In such an experiment, the flow is only approxi- As a first approximation, everything thus occurs as if the interior of the upper fluid
mately geostrophic. The conditions for applying cylinder remained separated from its outside, while moving along at the uniform ve-
the Taylor-Proudman theorem are not, for ex-
ample, obeyed at the boundary between the locity U. Outside the cylinder of fluid, the flow is the same as that of an ideal fluid
inside and the outside of the virtual cylinder; a around a vertical solid cylinder. The fluid cylinder represents a Taylor column. In fact,
small exchange of fluid takes therefore place at we observe experimentally (Figure 7.32a) that dye injected into it remains there for a
this boundary.
very long time during the flow; in contrast, any dye injected on the outside avoids this
cylinder.

(a) (b)
Figure 7.33 Injection of colored water from
above in a container filled with water: (a) sta-
tionary, (b) in rotation. The isotropic struc-
ture of the mixure is replaced by a filamentary
structure resulting from the rotation (copied
from Illustrated Fluid Mechanics, NCFMF,
MIT Press)

A visual demonstration of two-dimensional behavior of flows at Ro1

We can set up this type of experiment with Let us inject colored water at the surface of a container full of clear water which can be set in
a turntable upon which we fasten a cylindri- rotation at an angular velocity high enough to obtain small Rossby numbers. If the container
cal glass container, carefully centered, and filled
with water. We can then establish a simplified is stationary, the colored water is dispersed; then, it spreads out along the bottom without
version of the experiment in Figure 7.32a by any definite structural form (Figure 7.33a). If the container is now rapidly rotated, the
placing at the bottom of the container a fixed solution takes on the form of vertical streaks parallel to the axis of rotation, thus illustrating
obstacle away from the axis of rotation (e.g.,
a cylinder small in height): by making small
that the flow is invariant in the direction of this axis (Figure 7.33b).
changes in the rotational velocity we create, be-
cause of the inertia of the liquid, a flow of the Motion of a solid parallel to the axis of rotation
liquid around the obstacle. Just as in Figure
Let us now take a solid object rising vertically with velocity U in a container similar to
7.32a, this flow extends all the way to the sur-
face: dye injected above the obstacle will remain that of Figure 7.32b (the velocity U is, here, parallel to ). Here, again, one can no longer
localized in this Taylor column where the fluid is obey rigorously the conditions of the Taylor–Proudman theorem and we do not have a
at rest relative to the obstacle.
purely geostrophic flow: the vertical component of the fluid velocity cannot indeed be iden-
tically zero all along a vertical line rising from the solid surface. We first observe that the
force opposing the motion of the solid is much stronger than in the absence of rotation.
We also note that the effect of the vertical motion of the solid propagates over large distances
above and below the solid (there is, however, a transition zone near the lower and upper
boundaries of the fluid volume): if there were no rotation, the flow perturbation induced
by the motion of the object would decay over a distance of the order of its size. Moreover,
we observe that the motion of the solid induces a rotation of fluid in opposite directions
above and below the solid: these rotations can be visualized by locally injecting colored
fluid.
In order to evaluate quantitatively these different effects, let us first take the divergence
of Equation 7.94. We obtain, by the use of the vector identity:

∇ ·(A × B) = –A ·(∇ × B) + B ·(∇ × A) :

∇ p
2
∇2 p
2·ω = (7.100a) or 2 ωz = . (7.100b)
ρ ρ
Rotating fluids 255

We can combine this result with the component of the equation for vorticity in the A related phenomenon is the behavior, in the ab-
sence of a pressure gradient, of a fluid particle
z-direction (Equation 7.95): to which is applied a small initial velocity δv in
∂ 2
a fluid initially at rest in the rotating reference
∂ωz ∂vz ∂vz frame. The resulting change in velocity obeys the
= 2 , (7.101) whence: 4ρ 2 = ∇ p . (7.102)
∂t ∂z ∂z ∂t simplified form of Equation 7.94:

∂v
If we displace the solid in the direction parallel to the axis of rotation, the conditions for zero = –2 ( × v). (7.103)
∂t
velocity at the free surface and at the bottom of the container require that ∂vz/ ∂z will not
vanish (<0 above the solid and >0 below, for U > 0). There appears therefore, in accordance The velocity components are thus in the form:
with Equation 7.101, a vorticity ωz of amplitude initially proportional to the time and to ,
υx = A cos (–2 t + ϕ), (7.104a)
with opposite signs above and below the solid.
υy = A sin (–2 t + ϕ), (7.104b)
According to Equation 7.102, the Laplacian ∇ 2 p of the pressure increases proportion-
ately to the time and to 2 , also with opposite signs above and below the solid. Let us υz = constant. (7.104c)
assume that the solid is axially symmetric around an axis parallel to the rotation vector ,
The particle does not move along a straight line
and that ∂p/∂r = 0 for r = 0 (r being the distance to the axis of symmetry); using the fact as it would in the absence of rotation; on the
that we must match the external pressure, which is not perturbed at large distances from contrary, it follows, in the plane perpendicu-
the axis, we find that, for U > 0, there is an excess of pressure above the solid and a pres- lar to , circular paths with an angular velocity
– 2 (twice the angular velocity of rotation of
sure reduction below, both proportional to 2 . Moreover, for small amplitudes, this excess a Foucault pendulum); it returns therefore peri-
pressure is linearly proportional to the displacement: if we release the object after having odically to its initial location. 2 thus represents
displaced it rapidly parallel to , it moves slightly backwards and can even display a few a characteristic frequency of the rotating fluid,
which is actually observed in oceanographic sys-
oscillations.
tems. In the atmosphere, such motion can be
Everything occurs as if the rotating fluid had a certain elasticity: this elasticity is not superimposed onto a geostrophic flow. This mo-
related to the compressibility of the fluid in question, but results from the quasi two- tion is analogous to that of a charged particle of
dimensional character of the flow (Equation 7.99) due to the Coriolis force. Let us assume, charge q and mass m in a magnetic field B: the
motion of the charged particle in the plane per-
for example, that one induces a radial flow perturbation of velocity vr so as to increase the pendicular to B is also circular and its angular
area of a circle (C) in a plane normal to (Figure 7.34). The Coriolis force associated to frequency is the Larmor frequency qB/m. The
vr results in a tangential velocity component vt ; this component is, in turn, associated to a analog of the Coriolis force –2( × v) is, in this
case, the Laplace force q(v × B).
Coriolis force inducing a radial velocity component vr2 of direction opposite to vr which
tends to bring back the curve to its original area.

7.6.3 Waves within rotating fluids

We introduce here several mechanisms for wave propagation in rotating fluids, all of these υt
υr2
associated with deviations relative to the basic geostrophic flows (or appearing in a fluid at
rest); such waves do not involve the compressibility of the fluid, but are associated to the υr
Coriolis force. These waves will be modelled using Equations 7.94 and 7.95 which include (C')
non-stationary terms; second-order terms in v and ω and centrifugal forces are neglected, (C)
as well as the effects of viscosity and gravity. The fact that these equations of motion, valid
at small Rossby numbers, are linear, allows for a simple study of these waves, which play a
very important role in the atmosphere and oceans.

Inertial waves
Figure 7.34 A perturbation of the velocity
The “elasticity” of rotating fluids, already discussed in Section 7.6.2 can be sufficient to vr which tends to increase the area of a cir-
allow for the propagation of waves known as inertial waves. cular material curve (C) to (C’) leads, due to
We can generate these waves by creating an oscillation, parallel to the axis of rotation, the effect of the Coriolis forces, to fluctuations
of a solid object (a cylinder in Figure 7.35a) with a small amplitude z0 (t) = A exp(i σ t). vt and then vr2 which tend to bring it back to
The frequency σ needs to be sufficiently large so that the non-stationary terms ∂v/∂t and the initial radius
∂ω/∂t are not negligible. In order to achieve this, the ratio σ /, of σ to the rotational angular
velocity , must not be much less than 1 (otherwise, as we will see further down, we are
back in the case of geostrophic flows).
256 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

Ώ Z(t)=A cos (σt)

(a)

Laser sheet
Figure 7.35C (a) Generation of inertial cφ
waves by a horizontal cylinder oscillating cg
ez
vertically in a fluid rotating around a ver-
tical axis. (b) View of the lower half of one ey Visualization
ex
of the beams emitted by the oscillating cyl-
inder. The velocity field is visualized by the
Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) technique (b) 0.08
in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the 0
cylinder in its middle point. The color scale

z (mm)
θ 0.04
corresponds to the gradient of the fluid veloc- –40
ity in the direction of the phase velocity cϕ .
(documents courtesy P.P. Cortet, C. Lamriben –80 0
and F. Moisy)
–120 cφ
–0.04
–160 cg

–0.08
–150 –100 –50 0 ωy (s−1)
x (mm)
During a period 2π/σ of the oscillation, the fluid
particles follow circular trajectories in the plane
of the beams: we see in Figure 7.35b that the
orientation of the velocity of the fluid at a given Experimentally, we observe that the motion of the fluid resulting from this oscillation is
time is constant in the direction parallel to this concentrated in two thin plane beams which cross at the cylinder and make equal angles θ
plane but varies in the perpendicular direction.
Since this orientation is determined by the phase with the horizontal (Figure 7.35).
of the motion along the circular trajectories, the Assuming that the wave is planar and that its wave vector k makes an angle θ with the
planes which are parallel to that of the beam cor- angular velocity vector , we find that the dispersion relation between σ and the wave
respond to a constant phase: the wave vector k
and the phase velocity cϕ are therefore normal vector k is:
to them. In contrast, the group velocity cg must
be oriented in the direction of the beam, since it σ = 2 cos θ. (7.105)
corresponds to propagation of energy: it is thus
perpendicular to the phase velocity cϕ indicating The frequency σ does not depend on the magnitude of the wave vector, but solely on its
an unusual kind of anisotropy for a propagating orientation. The frequency of these inertial waves has a maximum value 2 for θ = 0, which
wave.
is the characteristic frequency of the particles of fluid which we have already discussed in
the preceding section (k has then the direction of the axis of the rotation).
One does indeed find in this case circular trajec- In the low-frequency limit σ →0 (the quasi-stationary case), we find, in contrast, ge-
tories of the particles in a plane perpendicular to ostrophic flows with θ = π/2 which corresponds to a phase of the wave invariant in the
(Equation 7.104).
z-direction, in agreement with the two-dimensional nature of these flows.

Proof
Let us consider the z-direction component of Equation 7.94, taking into account the non-
stationary term:
∂vz 1 ∂p
=– (7.106)
∂t ρ ∂z
Rotating fluids 257

and let us combine this with Equation 7.102. We obtain the propagation equation for
pressure fluctuations:
The phase velocity cϕ = σ /k of the wave has a
value (2 cos θ )/k: it is non-zero and directed
∂2p ∂2 along k. For the group velocity cg , we must use
4 2 =– (∇ 2 p). (7.107) a vector definition: the velocity component cg//
∂z2 ∂t 2
along k, given by the usual expression cg = dσ /dk
and using Equation 7.105 is indeed zero. For the
From this, we obtain Equation 7.105, by assuming a pressure variation of the type perpendicular component, which does not van-
p = p0 ei(σ t–k.r) , corresponding to a plane wave, and using this expression in Equation 7.107. ish, we have cg⊥ = (1/k) dσ /dθ = –(2 sin θ)/k.

Kelvin waves
In contrast to the preceding case, we consider here surface waves of the same nature as those
which we have studied in Section 6.4, but altered by the effect of the Coriolis force. The
hydrostatic pressure gradients resulting from the passage of the wave are, indeed, partially
balanced by this force. We study here the case where the waves propagate along a vertical
wall (x = 0) which corresponds to the situation of a wave propagating along a coast line; it is
only in this case that we observe plane waves, where the velocity of the fluid is everywhere
parallel to the direction of propagation.
We use here the geometry displayed in Figure 7.36a, assuming that we are in a regime
of shallow water waves, for a fluid with negligible viscosity: the height h of the fluid at rest
is assumed to be constant (horizontal bottom), and small compared to the characteristic
distances for the variation of the level of the surface in the x and y directions.
Let us denote by z0 (x, y, t) the instantaneous thickness of the fluid layer and let us assume
that the waves have a small amplitude; the component vy of the velocity of the fluid, assumed
to be independent of the vertical coordinate z, can then be written (see proof below):
√ z
gh c y
υy (x, y, z, t) = υy1 (y + c t) e–x/R x/R
+υy2 (y – c t) e , with: R = = .
2 2 z0(x,y,t)
(7.108a) (7.108b)

One then finds that the depth z0 can be expressed in the form: h
(a)
O x
h
z0 (x, y, t) = h – vy1 (x, y + c t) – vy2 (x, y – c t) . (7.108c)
g 11
10 6
6 2 8
The components vy1 and vy2 vary exponentially with x and with opposite arguments but, 5
in the geometry of Figure 7.36a (with > 0), only the solution varying as e–x/R has physical 4
significance: as we go away from the wall, the other solution would in fact correspond to an 4 6
exponential growth of the deformation. The wave is therefore confined along the vertical
(b)
wall x = 0 and its amplitude z0 – h decreases exponentially over a distance R, known as the
deformation distance. The value of R is smaller, the greater the angular velocity of rotation: for
an ocean depth of the order of 100 meters with = 10–4 s–1 , we find a value of R of the order Figure 7.36 (a) Schematic diagram for the
of 150 km. This length R appears also in other geophysical problems which involve vertical propagation of a Kelvin wave along a verti-
motion of fluids. Finally, one has a single possible direction of propagation of the wave (that cal wall (x = 0); (b) propagation of tides in the
associated to the decreasing exponential); it changes, according to Equation 7.108b, with English Channel with time indicated in hours
the direction of the rotation. (dashed lines) and lines of equal amplitude of
Such waves can be associated with tides, or with the action of winds parallel to the shore the tides in metres (solid lines), indicating a
line (Figure 7.36b). For two shores close enough to each other, these waves can result in a maximum value of the tide near the French
significant difference of the amplitude of the tides, as is the case between the English and coast (after J. Proudman (1953) and A. E.
French coasts of the English Channel. A tide that travels from west to east can, indeed, be Gill (1982))
258 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

Waves analogous to Kelvin waves can propagate considered as a Kelvin wave propagating along the French coast: the latter plays the role of
along the equator, still from west to east, with-
the wall x = 0, and the resulting tides are consequently higher. This is equally the case for
out the presence of a coastline being needed.
In fact, since the direction of the local com- rising and falling tides which represent opposite directions of the sea-level but which always
ponent of the rotation of the earth becomes propagate in the same direction (the direction of the currents is, of course, opposite for the
inverted as we pass through the equator, we can
two cases).
satisfy the boundary conditions for the equations
with components decreasing exponentially both
northward and southward, while still propagat-
ing in the same direction. Such waves appear, Proof
just as Rossby waves which we will now de- The assumptions of a shallow depth of the fluid layer, and of a small amplitude for the wave,
scribe, during the phenomenon known as “El
allow us to write a simpler form of the equation of motion than for the general case discussed
Niño” which perturbs significantly the meteo-
rologic conditions in the Pacific Ocean west of in Chapter 6. In the absence of viscosity, the pressure gradient in the x- and y-directions is
the coast of North and South America. In this related to the changes in the level of the surface by:
case, we deal with waves propagating near the
American coastlines as well as near the equator. ∂p ∂z0 ∂p ∂z0
Such waves have been detected by satellite ob- = ρg (7.109a) and = ρg (7.109b)
servations (from Topex-Poseidon and also Jason ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
1 and 2) able to detect changes of the order of a
centimeter of the average level of the ocean. (the pressure near the surface is indeed equal to the atmospheric pressure and the vertical-
pressure gradient is purely of hydrostatic origin). It follows then from Equation 7.94:

∂vx ∂z0 ∂vy ∂z0

– 2 vy = –g (7.110a) and + 2 vx = –g . (7.110b)
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂y

Moreover, the property of incompressibility ∇·v = 0 can be written, evaluating ∂vz /∂z just
as we did in deriving Equation 7.86:

1 ∂z0 ∂vx ∂vy

+ + =0 (7.111)
h ∂t ∂x ∂y

(in a first-order approximation, we have substitued h for z0 in the first factor on the left
hand side). The component vx of the velocity normal to the wall, must necessarily van-
ish at the wall (x = 0): we will then assume throughout the remainder of this section that
vx = 0 throughout the volume of the fluid, and show that we are able to solve the equations
of motion under this assumption. Equations 7.110 and 7.111 thus become:

∂z0 ∂vy ∂z0

–2 vy = –g , (7.112a) = –g (7.112b)
∂x ∂t ∂y

1 ∂z0 ∂vy
and + = 0. (7.112c)
h ∂t ∂y

We observe that, according to Equation 7.112a, the slope of the surface in the x-direction
is a function both of the direction of the rotation and of the instantaneous velocity. If we
eliminate z0 from Equations 7.112b and 7.112c after taking derivatives with respect to t
and y, we obtain the wave equation:

∂ 2 vy ∂ 2 vy ∂ 2 vy
= gh = c2 2 , (7.113)
∂t 2 ∂y2 ∂y
√
where c = g h is the wave velocity: this velocity is identical to that of gravity waves in shal-
low water, in the absence of rotation (Equation 6.64) and it is independent of . We will now
see, however, that plays a key role in determining the changes in z0 as a function of the
distance from the vertical wall (as indicated by Equation 7.112a). Let us now break up the
Rotating fluids 259

velocity field vy and the depth z0 into two components traveling in opposite directions, so
that:

υy (x, y, t) = υy1 (x, y + c t) + υy2 (x, y – c t) (7.114a)

and z0 (x, y, t) = δz01 (x, y + c t) + δz02 (x, y – c t) + h, (7.114b)

√
where c = g h. By substituting these two equations into Equation 7.112b and then inte-
grating, we prove Equation 7.108c. By combining this last equation with Equations 7.112a,
7.114a and 7.114b, we obtain:

∂ ∂ 2
vy1 (x, y + c t) – vy2 (x, y – c t) = – √ vy1 (x, y + c t) + vy2 (x, y – c t) . (7.115)
∂x ∂x gh

We then obtain Equation 7.108a by integration with respect to x.

Rossby waves due to changes in the local velocity of the earth

The mechanism underlying these waves is quite different, and based on the variation with
the latitude of the local velocity of the rotation of the earth. These are also called plane-
tary waves, because their wavelength is of the same order of magnitude as the scale factors
characteristic of the entire earth. They are characterized by sinusoidal oscillations which
propagate from east to west in mid-latitude regions. The Rossby waves are closely related to
the global atmospheric circulation, and to the occurence of cyclonic and anti-cyclonic zones
alternating over distances of several thousand kilometers. Just like Kelvin waves, they play
an important role in the climatic variations related to major ocean currents (e.g., such as the
“El Niño” phenomenon).
The local component of the rotation of the earth (projection of the vector of the
rotation of the earth 0 onto the local perpendicular to the surface of the earth) obeys the
equation:

= 0 sin α, (7.116)

in which α is the latitude (Figure 7.30). In local coordinates, with x oriented eastward
and y northward, a low-order expansion of Equation 7.116 around the reference latitude
y = 0 yields:

βy
(y) = y=0 + (7.117)
2

where β = (2 cos α)/R (R is the radius of the earth). Geophysicists speak of the β-plane
model to take into account the changes with latitude of the value of in Equation 7.90
In the real world, these assumptions are fre-
for the potential vorticity. We analyze below the propagation of Rossby waves with and quently not satisfied; we would then have to
without an average flow of component V0 in the x-direction (Figure 7.37 on the next page). take into account the variations of h, and con-
sequently, of the velocity of gravity waves.
We further assume that the depth h of the layer of fluid remains constant.
We might also need to take into account inter-
Let us first assume that V0 = 0, and impose an oscillatory motion nal waves which deform the interface between
δy(t, x = 0) =A exp(–i σ t) in the y-direction (South-North) of fluid particles in the fluid layers of different densities (e.g., within
plane x = 0. Let us further assume that vx vanishes and that the vorticity ωz is also zero for the ocean). We will neglect these effects in the
model which we consider here, which is a good
δy = 0. We seek to understand how this oscillation may propagate towards other regions approximation describing the essential physical
of the fluid (x = 0). According to Equation 7.90, the total vorticity ωz +2 of the fluid phenomenon.
260 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

y N
ωz > 0 ωz > 0 Ώ > Ώ(0)
Figure 7.37 Schematic diagram of the me-
chanism of the propagation of Rossby waves x Ώ(0)
from east to west (in the negative x-direction)
ωz < 0 Ώ < Ώ(0) S

particles must remain constant; for a displacement δy, the variation β δy of 2, resulting
from Equation 7.117, must be compensated by the appearance of a vorticity component:

∂vy
ωz = = –β δy. (7.118)
∂x

The sign of this vorticity component depends on the direction of the displacement. Equation
7.118 indicates that the oscillations may propagate beyond the plane x = 0, but that the
velocity vy will depend on the distance. If we assume (as will be shown below) that we
generate a plane wave with: δy = A ei(k x–σ t) , Equation 7.118 reduces to k σ = –β (taking
vy = d(δy)/dt). The velocity of propagation is then c = σ /k = –β/k2 : the negative sign indicates
that the waves propagate in the direction x < 0. These free Rossby waves observed in the
absence of flow (V0 = 0) are tranverse waves propagating westward (x < 0).
Let us now consider the more general case where we have a global flow V0 and where we
take into account the changes in velocity in the y-direction, assuming that they are charac-
terized by a component of the wave-vector. Retaining the assumption of a constant depth
of the fluid layer, we obtain (as will be proved below) the more general dispersion relation:

σ β
c= = V0 – 2 (7.119)
k k + 2

Without a global flow (V0 = 0) and for = 0, we obtain again the equation c = –β/k2 found
above. The velocity c increases with the wave length and decreases as one moves away from
the equator.
At intermediate latitudes, the westerly winds can have a sufficiently high velocity so that
we can have c = 0 in Equation 7.119. In such stationary regimes, a Rossby wave can be initi-
ated, for example, by the deviation of a westerly wind over a long mountain range oriented
in the North-South direction (Figure 7.31). Air streams moving eastward display a north-
south oscillation with a wavelength of a few hundred kilometers but the velocity field remains
invariant as a function of time. Taking c = 0 in Equation 7.119, we then obtain:

20 cos α
k2 = . (7.120)
RV0

Substituting for 20 cos α the value 10–4 s–1 , and assuming that V0 is of the order of 10 m/s,
we find a wavelength of the order of 5000 km; this is indeed the order of magnitude for the
waves observed.

Proof
Let us write Equation 7.118 for the conservation of the potential vorticity in the form:

dωz
+ β vy = 0. (7.121)
dt
Rotating fluids 261

We assume that this motion is a superposition of an constant flow of velocity V0 in the

x-direction, and of a perturbation v
varying sinusoidally in the x- and y-directions, i.e.:

vx = V0 + v
0x ei(kx+y–σ t) , vy = v
0y ei(kx+y–σ t) , ωz = ω0 + ω0
ei(kx+y–σ t) .

We represent the perturbation in the velocity by means of a stream-function (as in

Chapter 6, Section 6.5) such that:

∂ ∂
v
x = – , (7.122a) v
y = . (7.122b)
∂y ∂x

∂ ∂ ∂
Equation 7.121 then becomes: + V0 ∇2 + β =0 (7.123)
∂t ∂x ∂x

We look for solutions in the form = 0 ei(kx+ y–σ t). Substituting this into the previous
equation, we find:

– – σ + kV0 k2 + 2 + k β = 0 (7.124)

From this, we derive Equation 7.119 for the phase velocity.

As we have mentioned above, the model which leads to this equation is only an approx-
imation, as it does not take into account changes in the depth of the fluid layer, nor is it
applicable in the region near the equator where the Rossby approximation becomes invalid.
The velocities of propagation of the waves are higher than the ones predicted here, most
particularly near the equator.

Rossby waves due to the changes in depth of the fluid layers

The same phenomenon can result, not from the β effect, but because of the progressive
change in the depth h of oceans as one moves away from the coast. Then, the change in the
potential vorticity is induced by the variation of h (Equation 7.90): such topographic Rossby
waves are observed for instance in the Gulf of Mexico.
Let us use again the previous approach and assume (Figure 7.38) that the thickness h
of the fluid layer is equal to h0 on the axis y = 0 and that it varies linearly with distance so
that h( y) = h0 – γ y (γ 1). On the other hand, h is assumed to be independent of x. The
unperturbed flow is uniform, at a velocity V0 in the x-direction. Let us now assume that we
cause a small perturbation by creating a velocity component vy normal to the mean flow (we

y
z
Ώ

Figure 7.38 Schematic diagram of the flow

h0 of a rotating fluid layer with a depth varying
V0 in the direction y normal to the mean flow
h(y) x
v1
υy

V0
262 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

can, for example, introduce a tiny obstacle at x = 0, transverse to the flow): we are interested
here in the stationary flow resulting from this perturbation, which we assume to be constant.
The initial vorticity ∂vx /∂y is assumed to be zero.
Let us follow the trajectory of an element of fluid which starts at the point x = 0, y = 0 (so
that h = h0 ), at time t = 0, with an initial velocity (V0 , v1 ) where v1 is the small perturbation.
We apply Equation 7.90 to this small element between the initial time and an arbitrary time,
assuming ωz = 0 for h = h0 in the form:

∂vy h 2γ y
= ωz = 2 –1 =– . (7.125)
∂x h0 h0

If γ and have the same sign and, if V 0 > 0, the component vy in the y-direction of the
velocity of the small element of the fluid decreases as it goes further from the plane y = 0,
while being carried along in the direction x > 0 by the average flow. The component vy ends
up becoming zero and turns negative. The element of fluid then crosses the plane y = 0 and
oscillates between both sides of this plane, as it is carried along. If, on the other hand, γ and
have opposite signs (still with V0 > 0), the fluid element takes on a velocity component
which increases as it moves further from the plane y = 0: we thus do not have any oscillation
of the trajectory. If V0 < 0, the requirements are reversed: for an oscillation to appear, the
product V0 γ must be >0.
For a sinusoidal oscillation, we find that the wavevector k has the value:

Throughout this discussion of the case of a

varying depth, we considered spatially periodic 2γ
oscillations of the velocity and the trajectory of
k= . (7.126)
h0 V0
the fluid particles which are stationary in time
in the reference frame of the laboratory. Just as
in the previous case of the β effect, one can
also create similar waves without any average Proof
flow, by means of a periodic excitation of angular Let us assume that the component in the y-direction of the velocity of the particle of fluid
frequency σ and wave vector k.
The stationary case studied above corre- varies sinusoidally along its trajectory with:
sponds to a superposition of a wave of this type
together with a flow such that the phase veloc- υy = υ1 e–i k x , (7.127a)
ity satisfies cϕ = σ /k = –V 0 . Combining this
expression with Equation 7.126 leads to:
where k is the wave-vector of the oscillation. We also assume that the particle is located at the
σ = –2 γ / (h0 k). (7.129) origin (x = 0, y = 0) at time t = 0 and that its position in the x-direction obeys the condition
In this case, σ is the angular frequency of the x = V0 t. The distance y of the particle relative to the plane y = 0 must then be given by:
temporal oscillations of the coordinate y of a
given fluid particle as one follows its motion v1 –i k x
along its trajectory. Taking the derivative of y=i e . (7.127b)
kV0
Equation 7.129 shows that the corresponding
group velocity cg = dσ /dk is equal to –cϕ = V0 .
For the transport of energy, the global velocity is We obtain this dependence from Equation 7.127a by substituting, in the integration with
therefore 2 V0 because cg must be added to the respect to time, dt by dx/V0 . By substituting Equations 7.127a and 7.127b into Equation
velocity of the mean flow. 7.125, we obtain:
In the general case of an arbitrary value of
V 0 , Equation 7.129 remains valid, except for the
2i γ υ1 –ik x
sign; it allows one to determine k as a function of –i k υ1 e–i k x = e . (7.128)
σ and to deduce the following expressions for h0 kV0
the phase and group velocities:
from which Equation 7.126 follows immediately.
σ h0 σ 2
cϕ = =– (7.130a) We find therefore that we may have a periodic oscillation of the y-coordinate in the trajectory
k 2γ
of the particle only if V0 γ > 0, leading to a real value of k. Equations 7.127 and 7.128 then
dσ h0 σ 2 predict stable and stationary oscillating trajectories in the rotating reference frame.
and cg = = . (7.130b)
dk 2γ
Rotating fluids 263

Figure 7.39 Experimental demonstration

Obstacle
of Rossby waves in a layer of rotating fluid
of varying depth in the radial direction;
(b1) (a) principle of the device ((a1 ) and (a2 ));
(a1)
(b) experimental observations (b1 ) and (b2 ))
(plates from “Illustrated experiments of fluid
Ώ Mechanics, NCFMF, MIT Press”)

Obstacle

(a2) (b2)

In order to observe Rossby waves experimentally in the laboratory, the above discussion
shows therefore that we can rotate a layer of fluid which is thinner near the axis of rota-
tion than further out (e.g. a cone-shaped bottom such as that in Figure 7.39a). An obstacle
placed across the fluid layer can then create a transverse component of the velocity: one
visualizes the oscillations by means of solid particles in suspension, after inducing a rela-
tive motion of the fluid with respect to the bottom by varying slightly the angular velocity
(Figure 7.39b).

7.6.4 The effect of viscosity near the walls:

the Ekman layer
In the preceding sections, we have overlooked all the effects of viscosity. We will now study The Ekman layer was introduced, in 1903, in the
the transition region between a flow affected by viscosity near the walls and a geostrophic doctoral thesis of the Swede V. Ekman, who ex-
plained the deviation of the ship of the Arctic
flow perpendicular to the pressure gradient away from the walls. This transition occurs over explorer F. Nansen. Nansen had observed sev-
a layer of finite thickness: the Ekman layer. While the effects of the rotation of the earth are eral years earlier that his ship, caught in icy polar
only observed on a large scale far away from any boundaries (at the surface of the earth or of waters, had deviated by some 20 degrees to the
right of the direction of the wind.
the ocean), effects associated with the Ekman layer are important on local scales. Within this
region, we will make use of Equation 7.77 by assuming that the flow is stationary (∂v/∂t = 0),
and neglecting the terms associated with gravity or with centrifugal forces:

p
(v · ∇) v = –∇ – 2 ( × v) + ν ∇ 2 v. (7.131)
ρ

The effect of a wall perpendicular to the axis of rotation

Let us apply Equation 7.131 to a stationary flow near a solid wall located at the plane
z = 0 and perpendicular to the rotation vector . The flow results from the application of a
264 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

pressure gradient ∂p/∂y = constant at a great distance from the plane (∂p/∂x = 0). We assume
that this flow is parallel to the plane z = 0 and that it is uniform with components vx (z) and
vy (z) in a plane at a given position z. The component in the z-direction of Equation 7.131
is ∂p/∂z = 0: the pressure gradient is thus independent of z and, as a result, constant and
equal to ∂p/∂y throughout the fluid. Equation 7.131 thus becomes:

1 ∂p ∂ 2 vy ∂ 2 vx
– + ν 2 – 2 vx = 0 (7.132a) and ν + 2 vy = 0. (7.132b)
ρ ∂y ∂z ∂z2

Let us assume that the effect of viscosity disappears far from the plane z = 0 so that we
match the velocity Vg of the geostrophic flow given by Equations 7.96; we then find that the
components vx and vy of the velocity of the fluid obey:
⎛ ⎞

– z ⎠

vx = Vg ⎝1 – e ν – ν
z
cos z (7.133a) and vy = Vg e sin z. (7.133b)
ν ν

As we go farther from the wall, we approach exponentially the geostrophic velocity over a
√
distance of the order of ν/. This distance represents the thickness δ E of the Ekman layer;
for water, where ν = 10–6 m2 /s, δ E is of the order of 10 cm for = 10–4 s–l . Very near the
wall, vx and vy tend to vanish; they are of the same order of magnitude with:

z
vx ∼
= vy ∼
= Vg . (7.134)
δE

The local velocity of the fluid then makes an angle of 45º with the pressure gradient.

Proof
According to Equations 7.96, the geostrophic velocity Vg must be in the x-direction (at a
right angle with the pressure gradient ∂p/∂y) with:
1 ∂p
Vg = – . (7.135)
2 ρ ∂y

If we now introduce a complex velocity, w = vx – i vy , we obtain from Equations 7.132:

∂2w
2 (w – Vg ) – i ν = 0. (7.136)
∂z2

We then integrate this equation in the form:

⎛ ⎞

–(1+i) z
w – Vg = A e
–(1+i) ν
z
, (7.137a) whence: w = Vg ⎝1 – e ν ⎠ (7.137b)

(we have kept only the exponent which tends towards zero as z→∞ and, in order to deter-
mine A, we have used the boundary condition of zero velocity w = 0 for z = 0); Equations
7.133 then follow.
We note in conclusion that the geostrophic velocity is not the maximum value of the
component vx : this component reaches indeed a value of 1.1 times Vg when the argument
z/δ E, of the cosine becomes of the order of π (the flow has however the same direction
as Vg ).
Rotating fluids 265

υy
π π Figure 7.40 Parametric representation of
6 z/δE 3 the variations of the components of the fluid
π
2 velocity as a function of the distance z to
v(z) the solid horizontal wall. At a large distance
45° (z/δ E → ∞) the velocity becomes equal to the
∞ υx geostrophic velocity Vg oriented along Ox
Vg π

Figure 7.40 displays in a parametric manner the variation of the components vx and vy As →0, the thickness of the Ekman layer tends
as a function of the angle z/δ E , for which we indicate a few values (Ekman spiral). We obtain toward infinity. In this case, we frequently find
that the non-linear terms (v·∇) v in the equation
similar results for turbulent atmospheric flows, but the value of the angles in the neighbor- of motion dominate the effects of the Coriolis
hood of solid surfaces is quite different. One observes indeed that the wind near the ground force, particularly near the surface, and that they
level blows in a direction slightly different from that at a higher altitude. The directions of balance out the viscous forces. We are then back
to the case of a classical boundary layer, with the
the deviations are opposite in the northern and southern hemispheres. flow parallel to the pressure gradient.

Motion resulting from surface stresses

An Ekman layer can also appear underneath the surface of oceans in response to a frictional
stress τ resulting from winds which are parallel to the surface and directed in the x-direction
(Figure 7.41). We assume that at significant depths, the velocity becomes constant and equal
to a value V (Vx , Vy ) independent of the presence of the surface stress (V then acts only as
an additive constant). As in the previous case, the equations of motion appear in the form:

∂ 2 vy ∂ 2 vx
ν – 2 (vx – Vx ) = 0 (7.138a) and ν + 2 vy – Vy = 0. (7.138b)
∂z2 ∂z2

We then obtain the velocity components:

τx z π
vx = V x + √ e z/δE cos – . (7.139a)
ρ0 2 ν δE 4

τx z π
and vy = Vy + √ e z/δE sin – (7.139b)
ρ0 2 ν δE 4

These equations are very similar to Equations 7.133. In particular, we observe again the
√
appearance of the thickness δE = ν/ of the Ekman layer, which indicates here the char-
acteristic thickness of the layer of fluid in which the flow velocity component v – V induced

z x v(z = 0)-V
Ώ τ Figure 7.41 Structure of an Ekman surface
y 45° layer (the arrows represent the difference v – V
between the local velocity and its value V
at large depths). The figure displayed corre-
v(z)-V
sponds to the northern hemisphere ( > 0),
and the deviation is observed to the right of
the surface stress τ. The deviation is in the
opposite direction in the southern hemisphere
266 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

by the wind (independent of the current at greater depths) will be observed. At the surface
(z = 0), v – V is at an angle of 45º with respect to the stress τ (here parallel to the wind): this
deviation is oriented clockwise in the northern hemisphere.
We find again an Ekman spiral to indicate the change in the direction of the flow with
increasing depth (Figure 7.41). In order to obtain the total current resulting from the wind,
we take the integral of the velocity relative to z over the lower half-space. We find:

0
0 τx
Qx = (vx – Vx ) dz = 0 (7.140a) and Qy = vy – Vy dz = – . (7.140b)
–∞ –∞ 2ρ0

The resulting average flow is then orthogonal to the direction of the wind and this deviation
is also clockwise in the northern hemisphere (Figure 7.41).

Proof
If the stress τ at the surface of the ocean (z = 0) is in the x-direction (τ x , 0), we obtain,
assuming that the flow is laminar, the boundary conditions:

∂vx ∂vy
ρ0 ν = τx (7.141a) and ρ0 ν = 0. (7.141b)
∂z ∂z

Introducing, as in the preceding case, the complex velocities w = vx – ivy and W = Vx – iVy ,
solving these equations and applying the boundary conditions 7.141, we obtain:

τx (1 – i) τx e –iπ/4
w = W + Ae
(1+i) ν
z
(7.142) and A= √ = √ . (7.143)
2ρ0 ν ρ0 2ν

We must indeed keep only the solution with an exponential vanishing as z→ – ∞. We thus
obtain Equations 7.139a-b.

A' v 7.7 Vorticity, rotation and secondary flows

A B'
A" B Secondary flows are flows which are superimposed on the main flow and, in some cases, can
R actually replace it: they frequently have a lower velocity and a different direction from the
B"
main flow. A brief discussion of such flows does belong in this chapter: a number of such
flows are, in fact, associated with the rotation of fluids, with centrifugal forces resulting from
a curvature of the streamlines, or with layers of vorticity created by viscous effects in the
neighborhood of solid walls. The dynamics of the vorticity and of the angular momentum
Figure 7.42 Secondary flow (Dean cells) in play, morever, an essential role in these phenomena. Let us now give a few examples of
a curved tube with square cross-section secondary flows and of the mechanisms which can lead to them.

7.7.1 Secondary flows due to the curvature of

These secondary flow cells appear irrespective
of the geometry of the cross-section of the flow channels or due to channels with a free surface
(including for circular tubes) and whether it has
a free surface or not. These flows should not be In cross-sections of curved channels (Figure 7.42), there appear two recirculation cells
confused with Dean-type instabilities discussed (Dean’s recirculation cells), each symmetric with respect to the plane of the curvature of the
in Section 11.3.3: the latter appear only beyond a
threshhold velocity, and occur along the concave channel: the flow is directed respectively opposite to and towards the center of curvature in
external wall. the plane of symmetry and near the side walls.
Vorticity, rotation and secondary flows 267

In a curved channel with a free surface (e.g., a meandering river) there also appears a
recirculation cell, where the flow is in the opposite direction to the center of curvature at the
z
surface, but directed toward this center of the curvature at the bottom (Figure 7.43). x
Jl
One considers that this mechanism explains, at least partially, the significant asymmetry y
jL J0 υx
often observed between the slopes of the two banks of a meandering river; in the cross- jL
section of the stream, the secondary flow has indeed a direction such that it erodes the
outer bank and deposits sediments on the inner bank of the meander. The velocity of these Jo
secondary flows increases in both these cases with the curvature and with the velocity of the
main flow, but they are always present even when the velocities are low.
Figure 7.43 Schematic distribution of the
We will now analyze these phenomena in two different ways: first in terms of the pressure
velocity and vorticity in a river meander.
gradients, and then on the basis of the vorticity. We saw in Section 7.1 that it is possible to
The total angular momentum J0 , sum of that
go from one such description to the other, and that we are discussing the same phenomenon
resulting from the circulation ( jL ) and that
from two different points of view.
due to the velocity gradient ∂vx /∂z ( J1 ) is
The curvature of the streamlines of a flow creates a radial pressure gradient directed
conserved.
opposite to the center of curvature (Equation 5.53). This gradient is of the same nature as
that associated with the centrifugal force in Equation 7.77. It balances out the centrifugal The Ekman layer, discussed above in Section
7.6.4 can also be considered an example of sec-
force when we are far from a wall, e.g., along a segment AB of Figure 7.42 or close to the ondary flow. Indeed, far from the wall, the main
surface of the channel in Figure 7.43. Near the side walls (e.g. at the level of the segments geostrophic flow corresponds to a balance be-
A
B
and A

of Figure 7.42) we find this same radial pressure gradient (assuming that the tween the pressure gradient and the Coriolis
flow (the latter replaces the centrifugal force in
flow is locally parallel): however, it is no longer balanced by the centrifugal force because the example of the meandering river). Near the
the velocity is small and the term v2 /R in Equation 5.53 is also small. This radial gradient wall, the pressure gradient is the same because
results then in a local flow toward the centre of curvature: it is balanced out by viscous the flow is entirely parallel; but, this time, it is
balanced by a viscous stress: this stress results
forces associated with this flow. In order to take into account mass conservation, this new
in a secondary flow with an orientation paral-
flow must be compensated by another one in the opposite direction at the center of the lel to the pressure gradient and different from
tube (or on the surface of the channel); we recover therefore the direction of the observed the main geostrophic flow. The Ekman spiral de-
circulation. scribes a transition region between the principal
and the secondary flows. We discuss this type of
We describe now the same phenomenon by using vorticity considerations based on the secondary flow in Section 7.7.3.
rotation, due to curvature, of the vorticity layers near the walls. Let us go back to a flow
with depth h in a channel for which the width is assumed to be large compared to h (Figure
7.43), which describes a shallow river; in this configuration, we have a vorticity component The appearance of a component ωx is dis-
ωy directed transversely to the average flow, (which we originally assumed to be in the x- cussed in the facing text associated with the term
(ω·∇)v in equation 7.41 above governing the
direction). ωy is associated with the velocity gradient ∂vx /∂z between the bottom of the variation of the vorticity (this term is needed,
river, where the velocity is zero, and the surface, where the velocity is the maximum. The moreover, as we have seen, to guarantee the
vorticity ω represents a local rotation of the fluid and, consequently, an angular momentum conservation of angular momentum). Just as we
have assumed the depth of the fluid layer to be
J. The curvature of the meandering flow causes the vorticity ω (and thus J), which is always small relative to its transverse dimension, we also
perpendicular to the flow, to rotate by the same angle as the velocity of the fluid: the angular assume that the component ωz of the vorticity is
momentum of the main flow varies therefore from J0 to J1 before and after the curved negligible: we discuss in Section 9.7.3 a similar
example of flow in very thin cells made up of
zone. If we assume that there is conservation of the global angular momentum, the variation parallel plates (Hele-Shaw cells) where the aver-
J0 – J1 = jL which is parallel to the average flow reflects the appearance of a component age flow parallel to the plates is potential, thus
of longitudinal vorticity ωx ∝ jL . This corresponds to a rotating secondary flow within the with zero vorticity. The derivatives ∂vx /∂y and
∂vy /∂x must therefore be equal. The component
section of the main flow. We can apply the same line of reasoning for the curved channel in
ωy ∂vx /∂y of (ω·∇)v in the x-direction is then of
Figure 7.42. the order of ωy ∂vy /∂x ≈ ωy vx /R, where R is the
radius of curvature of the meander; the order of
magnitude of ∂vy /∂x is, indeed: vx ∂θ/∂x ∼ = vx /R
so long as the angle of deviation θ of the
7.7.2 Secondary flows in transient motion trajectory relative to the x-direction is small.
Thus, there appears a longitudinal component
In this section we discuss a secondary flow associated with the centrifugal force which re- ωx of the vorticity which has a time depend-
sults, in turn, in another secondary flow. Let us stir tea in a teacup in which we have kept ence dωx /dt = (ω·∇)vx ≈ ω y vx /R ≈ vx 2 /(Rh), if
h is the thickness of the fluid layer (i.e.
a few tea leaves as markers. The liquid stops spinning within about 20 seconds, and we the depth of the river); we have taken here:
notice that, when they stop, the tea leaves have gathered in the center of the cup. This in- ωy ∼= ∂vx /∂z ≈ vx /h).
volves a twofold paradox! If the slowing down were due simply to the viscous diffusion of
268 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

momentum, the order of magnitude of the expected characteristic stopping time should
be 10 to 100 times longer (R2 /ν = 1,600 s, where R = 4 cm is the radius of the cup and
ν = 10–6 m2 /s for water). Moreover, we might think that the centrifugal force which acts
on the tea leaves which are heavier than the fluid, would force them toward the periph-
ery. We explain now this effect by looking at the phenomenon of spin-up which is similar
but better controlled: we will show that it is the secondary flows created near the bottom of
the cup which both displace the leaves toward the center, and ensure momentum transfers
Ώ slowing down the fluid much more rapidly than simple viscous diffusion (Figure 7.44).
We now examine the evolution of the motion of a fluid within a cylindrical container
(with solid upper and lower walls) set into rotation with an angular velocity around a
vertical axis, starting at an initial time, t = 0. If the cylinder was infinitely long, the onset
of the rotation within the liquid would be uniform along the height of the cylinder: as seen
in Chapter 1, this latter problem is formally equivalent to that of reaching a uniform tem-
ur perature in a cylinder by radial thermal diffusion (Section 1.2.1). The viscous diffusion of
momentum only plays a dominant role within a very short period of time past the onset of
h
rotation, so long as the liquid near the bottom of the container (or near its top wall) has not
yet been set into rotation over a significant depth.
uz After the onset of rotation, the radial pressure gradient remains, by continuity, almost
the same in the layers which have been set into rotation as in the rest of the fluid (since
δν the largest velocity components are those in the plane perpendicular to the axis, the ver-
uR
tical pressure gradient reduces to the hydrostatic pressure and is constant throughout the
section). In the central region of the cylinder, where the fluid remains at rest, the radial
Figure 7.44 Principle of the “spin-up” pressure gradient ∂p/∂r is negligible and will thus be equally negligible near the upper and
effect lower faces. Therefore, this term ∂p/∂r cannot compensate in Equation 7.77, the centrifugal
force term 1/2 ∂(2 r 2 )/∂r = 2 r, which induces therefore a radial flow away from the axis
near the bottom and the top of the container. This outflow is compensated by an axial flow
toward the nearest horizontal end face, of fluid coming from the central part of the height
of the container and located close to its axis. This axial flow generates, in turn, a radial flow
towards the axis in regions away from the horizontal faces. This convective movement of
the fluid replaces the mechanism of viscous diffusion, and leads much more rapidly than
the latter to a uniform distribution of the momentum of the fluid and of its rotation.
By illuminating the cylinder transversely with a plane of laser light, after having injected a
small amount of fluorescent dye, we see the vertical boundary between the rotating external
liquid and that at rest in the interior move at a relatively constant velocity toward the interior
of the cylinder, no longer in a diffusive manner.

Evaluating the effect

Instead of causing a change in the angular velocity from 0 to , let us consider a small,
abrupt change in the angular velocity from to (1+ε) with ε1 (a small change is more
appropriate for evaluating orders of magnitude by means of first-order mathematical expan-
sions). The increase in the angular velocity at the level of the bottom of the container is of
order ε. The characteristic viscous-diffusion time τ D over a distance R is of order R2 /ν: it
would represent the time required for the change in angular velocity to propagate through-
out the volume of the fluid, in the absence of any secondary flow mechanism. A second
natural time-constant, t 0 = 1/, is the reciprocal of the angular frequency of the cylinder.
The ratio t 0 /τ D of these two characteristic times is the Ekman number Ek = ν/(R2 ), defined
in Section 7.6.1, and which is, in this instance, very much smaller than unity.
Initially then, only the fluid near the upper and lower walls of the cylinder is dragged
along with the new rotational velocity by the effect of viscosity. The depth of the layer
Vorticity, rotation and secondary flows 269
√
involved can be taken equal to δν = ν t0 , which represents the characteristic distance of
viscous diffusion over time t 0 and equals the thickness of the Ekman layer discussed in
Section 7.6.4. Since, in this last case, the radial and tangential components of the fluid
velocity can be of comparable magnitude, we will then take uR ≈ ε R (only the velocity
change relative to the original steady state flow of angular velocity is significant). This
radial flow is also confined within layers of thickness δ ν near the upper and lower walls of the
cylinder; it is oriented outward and must be balanced by vertical flows of velocity uz from the
central region of the cylinder, themselves compensated by radial flows with velocity ur now
directed toward the axis, spread over most of the height H of the cylinder over a distance
from the axis r < R. For a cylinder of approximate radius R, mass conservation may then be
written as:

2π r H ur ∼
= 2π δν R uR ∼
= 2π ε δν R2 ; (7.144)

in this equation, the flow in the Ekman layer has been estimated in a cylinder of radius R.
We will now attempt to estimate the characteristic time τ r needed to attain a new steady-
state flow. Let us first evaluate the variation δr, resulting from the change in velocity, of the
distance from the axis for fluid particles located in the central region; we estimate then τ r
which must be of order δr/ur . In the central region, the viscosity has negligible effect, and we
must conserve the angular momemtum of the particles of fluid. If we consider an annular
region of mass M located at a distance r from the axis, δr must be such that:

M r 2 = M(r – δr)2 (1 + ε), (7.145a)

whence, retaining only the first order terms in δr and ε:

δr = –ε r/2 (7.145b)

From the two equations above, we can estimate the characteristic time for establishing a new
flow configuration:

∼ δr ∼ εr H r ∼ r 2 H 1 R2 ∼ r 2 H –1
τr = = = 2 = 2 t0 Ek . (7.146a)
ur 2 R2 ε δν R R ν R R

If the cylinder is not too stretched out, the two geometrical coefficients r 2 /R2 and H/R are
of order unity, we thus have:

τr ≈ t0 Ek–1 . (7.146b)

The characteristic time τr is then independent of ε and much greater than t 0 , since Ek is
small compared to unity. It remains, however, much smaller than the characteristic time
τD for viscous diffusion, which is of order t 0 Ek-1 . The existence of secondary flows, then
allows us to achieve, much more rapidly, a rotational steady-state.

7.7.3 Secondary flows associated with Ekman

layer effects
Examples of such oceanographic flows, are the rising (“upwelling”) and sinking (“downwell-
ing”) of masses of water observed near some coasts, and in equatorial regions. These flows
result generally from deviations due to earth’s rotation of flows induced by a dominant wind
over the ocean (see Section 7.6.4 for effects of this type).
270 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

Coastal upwelling and downwelling

Such secondary flows are particularly significant near coastlines. For example, in the north-
ern hemisphere (Figure 7.45a), a north wind parallel to a coast induces, because of the
N Coriolis forces, a flow perpendicular to and away from the coast. In order to insure mass
conservation, this current is compensated by a rising current of fish-rich waters (upwelling)
along the coast. The inverse phenomenon (downwelling) is observed if there is a change in
the direction of the wind, or in the local component of the earth’s rotation (in the Southern
(a)
V hemisphere), or in the orientation of the coastline.

5° N Equatorial upwelling
Equator
5° S Another kind of upwelling can occur along the equator, where the prevailing trade winds are
directed westward (Figure 7.45b). On both sides of the equator, the stresses resulting from
such winds create flows in opposite directions (because of the change in sign of the local
component of the earth’s rotation), which push masses of water away from the equator.
These currents are again compensated by cold water rising from the depths, here localized
T (b) near the equator. A further result is the rise of the “thermocline” (the region where a large
temperature gradient marks, at a certain depth, the boundary between masses of water at
Figure 7.45 (a) Upwelling effect associated different temperatures). One can also observe significant resulting deformations (of several
with winds near a coastline; (b) configuration tens of centimeters) in the sea-level.
of the surface winds and of the resulting ver-
tical and transverse flow in the ocean near
the equator. These deep currents also result 7A Appendix - An almost perfect fluid:
in a deformation of the “thermocline” (dashed
line)
superfluid helium
7A.1 General considerations
At a transition temperature, Tλ = 2.1720 K (at a saturated vapor pressure of 37.80 mm
of Hg), liquid helium, specifically in its most common isotopic form of atomic mass 4,
undergoes a second-order phase transition to a superfluid state. At that point, its viscosity
vanishes, so that liquid helium at low temperatures represents a model of an ideal fluid.

Because He4 atoms are bosons (the nucleus has an even number of nucleons), this transition
has some similarities with a Bose-Einstein condensation where a finite fraction of the atoms
are in the same quantum state. We will see that this fluid fraction can be represented by
a macroscopic quantum wave-function. The Bose-Einstein model assumes, however, that
one deals with an ideal gas which is not the case here because the interactions between the
helium atoms are quite significant (just as in an ordinary liquid).
The isotope He3 undergoes a somewhat similar transition, but at much lower temper-
atures (of the order of 10–3 K). In its particular case, the atoms are fermions: we are then
dealing, just as in the case of electron pairs in superconductors, with a condensation of
interacting fermion pairs, which behave like quasi-bosons.
Authentic Bose condensations have been observed when the de Broglie wave-functions
of a great number (106 ) of atoms (Rb, Na) grouped in close proximity overlap. The hydro-
dynamic properties of such Bose-Einstein condensates actually display a significant analogy
with those of superfluid helium.
Appendix - An almost perfect fluid: superfluid helium 271

7A.2 Two-fluid model for superfluid helium

Experimental measurements indicate that at a finite temperature (somewhat lower than Tλ ),
we can consider that an intimate mixture of two fluids coexists: one of these is a superfluid
with zero viscosity and the other one a normal,viscous fluid which can interact with walls
(this corresponds to thermal excitations, rotons and phonons, within the fluid). We can
define for each of the fluid phases a velocity (vs and vn ) and a partial density (ρ s and ρ n )
such that ρ s + ρ n = ρ (the overall density of liquid helium), and ρ s vs +ρ n vn = ρv, where v is
the global velocity of the liquid. Depending on the nature of the experiments carried out,
the influence of one fluid or the other may be dominant.

• When a stack of flat disks separated by a few millimeters oscillates in a helium bath,
they drag along only the normal fluid: one can thus measure the relative density of
this normal fluid, which changes from 100% of the overall density ρ at Tλ to almost
zero for T < 0.8K where the thermal excitations are negligible.
• On the other hand, only the superfluid can pass easily through extremely fine porous
filters (with openings ranging from 1 to 103 nm), through which the rate of flow of
normal fluid is negligible.

7A.3 Experimental evidence for the existence

of a superfluid component which flows
without any energy dissipation

Superfluid helium films

Just above the surface of the liquid, an extremely thin film (≈ 10nm) of molecules held
against the wall by van der Waals forces appears at the walls of the container. In the
case of a normal fluid, the viscous forces are much too strong, and prevent any flow
whatsoever. On the other hand, in superfluid helium, such a film, known as a Rollin
film, can flow at a sufficiently high rate that the container empties into another one
beneath it.
Flow through extremely tiny holes
One can observe superfluid helium flowing through very tiny holes, with zero pressure
difference (thus without any dissipation), until a critical velocity is reached; this ve-
locity is frequently greater, the tinier the opening (typically 10μm or less) and can
reach several meters per second at low temperatures.
Persistent currents
Within toroidal samples of porous material, one can generate persistent currents of the
superfluid which last indefinitely, analogous to those observed in superconductors.

Experimental evidence
Persistent currents were measured experimentally either by measuring the associated angu-
lar momentum by means of an experiment based on a gyroscopic effect, or by measuring
the Doppler effect in fourth sound propagating in a torus shaped porous sample filled with
superfluid helium and in which the persistent current is generated. The fourth sound is a
272 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

particular type of sound wave, corresponding to oscillations involving only the superfluid
component of the fluid; any motion of the normal component is indeed completely inhibited
by the viscous forces, which are strongly dominant within the small pores of the medium.
This fourth sound propagates along the ring at a different velocity depending on whether the
propagation is in the direction of the velocity Vs of the persistent current, or in the opposite
direction: comparing the sound velocities in these two directions thus allows us to determine
V s . The velocity Vs decreases logarithmically with time (just like the electric current in su-
perconducting solenoids): thus, after an initial phase of rapid change, we observe a decrease
of only a few percent, over several days. This suggests the possibility of a persistent current
of indefinite duration (comparable to the age of the universe) . . . provided one could keep
the helium in the superfluid state!

7A.4 Superfluid helium: a quantum fluid

Macroscopic phase of the superfluid Phase
We consider that the superfluid fraction defined on the basis of the two-fluid model, can
be described by a macroscopic wave-function ρs eiϕ(r) which is common to all the atoms
involved. The function ϕ(x, y, z, t) can be interpreted as the phase of this macroscopic wave-
function. Absent any superfluid flow, we find long-range order characterized by the fact that
the phase is the same at all points (just like the direction of the magnetization in a magnetic
system). The superfluid velocity vs can be derived from the potential ϕ(x, y, z, t), just as in
a normal quantum current, by:

h
vs = ∇ϕ (7A.1)
2π m

(where h is Planck’s constant and m is the mass of the helium atom).

Quantisation of the circulation and vortex filaments

The phase ϕ(x, y, z, t) defined above is defined within an integer multiple of 2π. Let us as-
sume that the fluid volume contains an infinitely long one-dimensional solid, or a singularity:
the circulation of ∇ϕ around the solid, or around the singularity, is then not necessarily zero
(Section 6.2.2), and equals 2 n π where n is any integer. The circulation of the superfluid
velocity vs along a closed curve (C) thus obeys:

h nh
= vs · d = ∇ϕ.d = . (7A.2)
C C 2π m m

The circulation of the superfluid velocity is thus quantized and a multiple of the elementary
circulation h/m = 10–7 m2 /s.
The case n = 0 corresponds to a potential flow in a simply-connected volume of helium
without any singularity of the wave function. We find the value n = 0 when the volume of
helium is multiply connected (e.g., if we have a situation where there is a continuous solid
cylinder around which the superfluid is in rotation) or in a system where singular vortex
lines are present. This last case is often represented by vortex filaments for which n = 1
The kinetic energy of vortices increases as n2 , and the radius ξ of the core is of the order of size of an atom ξ ∼ = 0.2 nm; the line vortex
while the corresponding circulation increases
only as n: it is therefore energetically more fa- discussed in Section 7.1.2 of the present chapter is thus an excellent representation of these
vorable to have n = 1 for all vortices. objects.
Appendix - An almost perfect fluid: superfluid helium 273

The equivalent of the Aharonov-Bohm effect for the case of superfluid helium
Several experiments have been able to demonstrate the validity of Equation 7A.1. More
generally, the quantum nature of helium allows us to think about observing quantum
phenomena known in other systems.
Let us consider the example of the Aharonov-Bohm effect: this effect corresponds to the
quantum interference between a beam of charged particles which splits around a region The phase difference between the two sides of
the electromagnetic wave corresponds to the
within which there exists a localized magnetic field, e.g., in a solenoid (Figure 7.4c). circulation of the vector potential around the so-
An analogous representation of this effect is the propagation of a plane wave along the lenoid. Just as we have seen in Section 7.1.3, this
surface of a fluid in which we have created a vortex perpendicular to this surface. The potential does not vanish in the region outside
the solenoid (unlike the magnetic field) and has
hydrodynamic equivalent in the Maxwell analog corresponds to a current circulating around a direct influence on the charged particles. In the
a vortex (Figure 7.4a).The plane wave undergoes an unequal phase change on the two sides case of superfluid helium, it is the velocity itself
of the vortex. which is the equivalent of the vector potential.

7A.5 Experiments involving superfluid vortices

Generation of rotation within a volume of superfluid helium

h Ω (a) (b)
Γ = n m

Figure 7A.1 (a) Schematic diagram of the

distribution of vortex filaments in a rotating
cylindrical container full of superfluid he-
lium. (b), (c) Top view of superfluid vortices
in a cylindrical container full of superfluid
(c) helium rotating at angular velocities b and
c > b (electric charges, trapped in the cores
of the vortices, are focused onto a fluores-
cent screen for the display) (plates courtesy of
R. Packard and G. Williams)

Superconducting analogy: If a plate of cer-

tain kinds of superconductors (known as type II
superconductors) is perpendicular to a magnetic
field B, this field penetrates in very localized
Quantized vortices appear, for example, in a container full of superfluid helium which is magnetic field tubes: around these, we have cur-
set into rotation. If the curl, ∇ × v = 0, was conserved within the entire volume of fluid, the rents due to the superconductors which maintain
helium would remain at rest. However, we observe that, above a very small critical velocity, a zero magnetic field outside these tubes (these
objects are known as superconducting vortices).
it begins to have an average rotation similar to an ordinary fluid, with its surface taking on We then have a perfect correspondance between
the expected parabolic shape. The corresponding average velocity field is generated by an these two systems in the representation of the
ensemble of vortex lines with an average direction parallel to the axis of rotation (Figure Maxwell analog (Section 7.1.3) since the mag-
netic field B corresponds to the vorticity ω. Just
7A.1a): the density ns of these lines per unit surface area is uniform and it is such that
as in the case of the circulation around the vor-
ns h/m corresponds to the vorticity of the overall flow. It has been in fact possible to visualize tices, the flux of the magnetic field B in these
experimentally the positions of the cores of such vortices within cylindrical containers a few vortices is quantized: the flux quantum has the
millimeters in diameter (Figures 7A.1b and c). value h/2e. Networks of vortices similar to those
which we have just described have also been
recently observed in rotating Bose condensates.
Experimental evidence for the quantisation of the circulation
in superfluid helium
In this experiment, a container with superfluid helium is set into rotation. A magnetic wire is
stretched at the center of the container: electric excitation coils induce transverse vibrations
274 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

h Ω (a) (b)
Γ = n m

15
Figure 7A.2 (a) Schematic diagram of the

Number of observations
experiment carried out by H.E. Hall and W.F.
Wire
Vinen to demonstrate the quantization of the vibration 10
circulation of the velocity in a rotating con- plane
tainer of superfluid helium. (b) Distribution
statistics of the experimental values of the
5
circulation (normalized by h/m)

0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 n

of the wire at its mechanical resonance frequency ω0 (Figure 7A.2a). For a sufficiently
high rotation rate, a vortex line appears, and gets trapped on the wire: we observe there a
circulation which must have the value h/m. This circulation results in a Magnus force per-
pendicular to the plane of the vibration. This leads to a precession at an angular frequency
directly related to . The resonant frequency of the wire is then split and becomes ω0 ±.
The Doppler effect can be understood if we recall that a linear vibration can be decomposed
into two equal and opposite circular motions. The observed experimental results are indeed
found to be of order h/m as we see in Figure 7A.2b.

Dynamics of vortex rings in superfluid liquid helium

The dynamics of vortex rings can also be studied by trapping charged particles and applying
a uniform electric field; this, in turn, provides a well-defined kinetic energy to each ring
(increasing its radius). One can even measure directly the radius of the rings by passing
them through calibrated micro-grids.
These experiments must be carried out at very Thus, one has been able to ascertain directly, within better than a few percent, that the
low temperatures (T ∼ = 0.5K) in order to avoid velocity of a vortex ring varies inversely with its energy, as predicted by Equations 7.69 and
the energy losses associated with the interaction
of the vortex cores with thermal excitations at 7.70. One finds also the expected value h/m for and obtains the value ξ ∼ = 0.18nm for the
higher temperature. radius of the vortex core.

.........................................................................................

EXERCISES

1) Vortex and plane boundary

A semi-infinite volume ( y > 0) of perfect fluid is bounded by the solid plane y = 0. A
vortex filament of circulation parallel to the z-axis is located initially at the point
(x, y). Show that the influence of the plane may be replaced by a second vortex. What
must be its characteristics and what will be the motion of the vortex?

2) Vortex in a corner
A volume (x > 0, y > 0) of perfect fluid is bounded by two semi-infinite solid planes
(x = 0, y = 0) intersecting at a right angle. A linear vortex filament of circula-
tion , parallel to the z-axis, has its core initially located at point (x0 , y0 ). As in
Appendix - An almost perfect fluid: superfluid helium 275

Exercise 1, show that the planes can be replaced by a set of filaments. Show that
the complex potential of the flow velocity induced on the filament may be written as
f (z) = i(/2π)Log (xy/(x+iy)). Show then that the trajectory of the filament satisfies
dy/dx = – y3 /x3 and compute this trajectory. What is its limit at long times?

3) Geostrophic flow in a rotating channel

A Newtonian fluid fills up the space between two infinite, parallel, solid planes
y = ±a/2 and flows with a stationary velocity profile vx ( y) (vy = vz = 0) in a refer-
ence frame rotating around the z-axis at an angular velocity . Centrifugal forces and
gravity are neglected and the pressure is p0 on the z-axis. We denote by Q the volume
flow rate of the fluid per unit length along the vertical z-direction. Compute the pres-
sure p( x, y) and the velocity profile vx ( y) after writing the equations of motion for vx
in the rotating reference frame. For which values of does the pressure gradient along
y become much larger than that along x? What is then the structure of the flow?
In the two following problems, we consider stationary flows for which the geostrophic
approximation discussed in Section 7.6.2 is valid: such flows correspond to Ekman and
Rossby numbers Ek 1 and Ro 1 and result from a balance between the pressure
gradients and the Coriolis forces. In both problems, hydrostatic pressure terms must
be taken into account by replacing Equation 7.96c by ∂p/∂z = –ρ g.

4) Tilt of the free surface of the oceans between two coasts

A layer of fluid of finite thickness h( y) (h(0) = h0 ) flows at a constant velocity Vx be-
tween vertical planes y = ±L/2 with h L (Figure(a)). Both the fluid and the walls
rotate at an angular velocity around the vertical z-axis. Write the equations of motion
and show that the slope is ∂h/ ∂y = tan β(as mentioned in Section 7.6.1, the centrifugal
force terms are assumed to have been included in the pressure and are not taken into
account). Compute the value of β and the difference between the liquid levels near the
two walls for 2 = 10–4 s–1 , L = 100 km, Vx = 3 m/s.
In order to model an oceanic current of temperature and composition different from
those of the surrounding fluid, we study the stationary counterflow of juxtaposed fluids
of densities ρ 1 and ρ 2 > ρ 1 , and velocities Vx1 ( y) and Vx2 ( y). The interface between
fluids is hi ( y) ( y<0) and those of the fluids with air h1 ( y) ( y<0) and h2 ( y) ( y<0) with
hi (0) = h1 (0) = h2 (0) = h0. Write the equations of motion in the two fluids as well as the

(a) (b)
x x

Vx Vx2 Vx1

Ω Ω
z z

β2 β1
β βi ρ
h2(y) 1 h1(y)
y
h0 h(y)
y ρ2 h0 h (y)
i
y = L/2 y = –L/2 y = L/2 y = –L/2
276 Vorticity, Vortex Dynamics and Rotating Flows

equality between the pressures of the two fluids at their interface. Compute then the
angles β i , β 1 and β 2 . What is the relative magnitude of β i and β 1 or β 2 , if ρ2 – ρ1 ρ1 ?

5) Modelization of thermal winds

Let us consider winds induced by variations in temperature (and therefore in density) of
the air in the direction parallel to the surface of the earth (high-altitude jetstreams are a
particular kind of thermal wind). To start, let us consider a layer of incompressible fluid
with a temperature T(x, y) independent of the vertical coordinate z. is the projection
of the earth’s rotation vector on the z-axis. Assuming that the fluid density varies with
the temperature as ρ = ρ 0 (1–α(T –T 0 )), show that an horizontal temperature gradient
induces a flow of velocity varying with the elevation as: ∂v / ∂z = (αg /2 ||2 ) × ∇T.
In the case of the earth’s atmosphere, air is compressible and assumed to be a perfect
gas with: p/ρ =RT/M (the molar mass M = 29 × 10–3 kg and R = 8.32 J/K). It is then
convenient to use the pressure instead of z as the variable characterizing the elevation
(this is in line with the practical estimation of the altitude from pressure measure-
ments). Show that dz = –(RT/Mg) d(Ln p) (at constant x and y) and deduce from
it that (∂v / ∂(Ln p))x,y = –(R / 2M||2 ) × (∇T)p (the notation (∇T)p indicates that
the variations of T with x and y are considered for displacements along which p, and
not z, is kept constant).
Compute the order of magnitude of the variation of v for a horizontal temperature
gradient of about 1K/1000 km at a latitude such that = 10–4 s–1 and for a variation
of the pressure by a factor p2 /p1 = 4.
Quasi-Parallel
Flows – Lubrication
Approximation 8
8.1 Lubrication approximation 277
8.2 Flow of liquid films having a free
surface: hydrodynamics of wetting 288
A significant number of practically important flows (application of coatings or paints,
lubrication flows between tight-fitting parts, liquid jets, etc.) have streamlines which are 8.3 Falling liquid cylindrical jet 300
almost parallel. We discuss first (Section 8.1) the so-called lubrication approximation,
which allows us to perform a theoretical calculation for these flows, and we give several
examples of flows between two solid surfaces. We use then the same method (Section
8.2) to deal with fluid films which have a free surface: we treat specifically problems of
wetting, dynamic contact angle and analyze the spreading of liquid layers or droplets.
A particularly interesting case is that of Marangoni effects, where the flow results from
spatial variations of the surface tension at the interface. Finally, we discuss a similar
problem involving the drop of a viscous jet and the Rayleigh-Plateau instabilities which
can appear, and which occur because of surface tension (Section 8.3).

8.1 Lubrication approximation

8.1.1 Quasi-parallel flows
We have discussed in Chapter 4 one-dimensional flows for which only one component of
the velocity does not vanish. In this case, the non-linear term (v · ∇) v of the Navier-Stokes
equation vanishes identically, because the gradient of the velocity v is normal to it. We then
end up with a linear equation of motion for the fluid (Equation 4.59) which applies whatever
the Reynolds number of the flow might be (so long as instabilities do not appear).
In this chapter, we study flows for which the streamlines are almost parallel, such as, for
example, flows between solid walls which are at a very small angle θ to each other, or flows
in a thin liquid layer. We can then neglect the non-linear terms, but only if certain specific
conditions are satisfied by the Reynolds number: in that case, we speak of the lubrication
approximation.
Later on, in Chapter 9, we discuss flows with arbitrary geometries: in that case, the
condition on the Reynolds number for being able to neglect non-linear terms, is even more
stringent (Re 1).
We encounter quasi-parallel flows in a number of applications such as the spreading of
a fluid film, or the lubrication of rotating machinery. We can thus calculate the dynamics
of the spreading of a film in the former case, or the forces between the moving surfaces in
the latter, by making the assumption that the flows are effectively parallel to the surfaces of
these films.

Physical Hydrodynamics. Second Edition. Etienne Guyon et al.

© Oxford University Press 2015. Published in 2015 by Oxford University Press.
278 Quasi-Parallel Flows – Lubrication Approximation

8.1.2 Assumptions of the lubrication approximation

We assume that we have an angle θ 1 at all points between the walls, so that the char-
acteristic distances over which flow parameters change are everywhere much greater than
their separation, as shown in Figure 8.1. In the following, we consider a two-dimensional
configuration where only the x- and y-directions are involved, but these results can be easily
generalized to a three-dimensional case.
Let us find out what becomes of the different terms of the Navier-Stokes equation
(Equation 4.30) for two-dimensional flow in the x-y plane. As we have previously indicated
(Section 4.2.2), the flow does not result only from the pressure gradient, but from that of
the combination (p – ρg·r), where r is the radius-vector for the point in question. In order
to simplify the writing, we assume that ∇p, in fact, denotes ∇(p – ρg·r). The components
of Equation 4.30 then become:

∂vx 1 ∂p ∂ 2 vx ∂ 2 vx
+ (v.∇) vx = – +ν + (8.1a)
∂t ρ ∂x ∂x2 ∂y2

∂vy 1 ∂p ∂ 2 vy ∂ 2 vy
and: + (v.∇) vy = – +ν + . (8.1b)
∂t ρ ∂y ∂x 2 ∂y 2

We must add to this equation the condition for conservation of mass for an incompressible
fluid, i.e. ∇· v = 0:

∂vx ∂vy
+ = 0. (8.2)
∂x ∂y

We first consider a stationary flow, which allows us to neglect terms such as ∂/∂t, and we
carry out the discussion based on an approximate evaluation of the orders of magnitude of
the different terms. In the case of a stable and slow laminar flow, we observe experimentally
that the trajectories of the fluid particles follow the surface of the walls, as shown in Figure
8.1. Therefore, in the middle of the flow, we can assume that the angle between the velocity
and the wall y = 0 is of the order of the angle θ ( 1) between the two walls, so that:

υy ≈ υx θ ≈ U θ, (8.3)

where U is the characteristic velocity of the flow (e.g., the average velocity or even the
maximum velocity at the center of the channel, both of which can be considered to be
of the same order of magnitude in terms of the approximation that we are carrying out).
Considering that we are assuming a Poiseuille-type velocity profile between the walls, we can
consider that the typical distance, over which variations of the velocity in the y-direction
occur, is the local thickness e(x), which we will assume to have a typical value e0 (this
amounts to saying that the relative change in the thickness is small along the length L).
We thus obtain:

y
θ
Figure 8.1 Schematic diagram of the geo- υy
metry of a lubrication flow e0 U e(x) υx
x

L
Lubrication approximation 279

∂vx U ∂vy Uθ
≈ (8.4a) and: ≈ , (8.4b)
∂y e0 ∂y e0

from which, using Equations 8.2:

∂vx ∂vy Uθ
=– ≈ (8.5)
∂x ∂y e0

(the orders of magnitude are specified in terms of their absolute values). Using the above
results, we estimate in the same way the second derivatives:

∂ 2 vx Uθ ∂ 2 vx U
≈ 2 , (8.6a) ≈ 2 (8.6b)
∂x ∂y e0 ∂y2 e0

∂ 2 vy Uθ
and: ≈ 2 . (8.6c)
∂y2 e0

We also state an upper limit for the absolute value of the terms ∂ 2 vx /∂x2 and ∂ 2 vy /∂x∂y
(which are opposite to each other because of the incompressibility condition) by taking
∂/∂x ≈ 1/L; this leads to:

∂ 2 vx ∂ 2 vy Uθ ∂ 2 vy Uθ
=– ≈ (8.7a) and, similarly: ≈ 2 . (8.7b)
∂x2 ∂x∂y e0 L ∂x2 L

These terms are therefore very small relative to the second derivatives with respect to y; the
latter will therefore be the only viscosity terms retained in Equations 8.1a and 8.1b.
Let us now consider the conditions under which the non-linear term of the component
of the equation of motion, in the direction of the average flow, is negligible relative to the
viscosity term. By using the previous results, we obtain:

∂vx U2 θ ∂vx U2 θ ∂ 2 vx νU
vx ≈ , (8.8a) vy ≈ (8.8b) and ν ≈ 2 . (8.8c)
∂x e0 ∂y e0 ∂y2 e0

The non-linear terms are therefore negligible if:

U2 θ U U e0 1
ν 2, (8.9a) i.e.: Re = . (8.9b)
e0 e0 ν θ

For flows in arbitrary geometry, the condition obeyed by the Reynolds number, in order
to be able to neglect the non-linear terms, is Re 1. Equations 8.9b is then much less
restrictive because in the lubrication geometries the angle θ is small relative to 1. We can thus
continue to use a linear equation even for flows which correspond to a Reynolds number
Re significantly greater than 1. In the limiting case of a parallel flow, the non-linear term
vanishes at all values of the Reynolds number.
Let us calculate the component ∂p/∂y of the pressure gradient in the direction normal
to the average flow on the basis of Equations 8.1b. We estimate, as in the previous case:

∂vy U2 θ ∂vy U2 θ2 ∂ 2 vy Uθ
vx ≈ , (8.10a) vy ≈ , (8.10b) ν ≈ν 2 . (8.10c)
∂x L ∂y e0 ∂y2 e0
280 Quasi-Parallel Flows – Lubrication Approximation

The viscous term resulting from Equations 8.10c is thus smaller by an order of magnitude
in θ than that given by Equations 8.8c. If Re 1/θ and e0 /L is sufficiently small, the non-
linear terms in Equations 8.10a and 8.10b will be smaller than the viscous term in Equations
8.10c and, in any case, very small, in comparison with the viscous term of the equation, in
the x-direction. We can thus consider that the pressure gradient transverse to the flow is
zero (or, more precisely, that it reduces to the hydrostatic pressure) when θ is small, and the
Reynolds number sufficiently small.
We should, however, note that this entire discussion assumes that there is a fully de-
veloped unperturbed laminar flow. Beyond certain critical flow velocities, even if Equation
8.9b is satisfied, the flow between parallel planes becomes unstable, and significant velocity
components, normal to the average flow, appear. The preceding results are then no longer
valid.

8.1.3 Non-stationary effects

Let us now go back to Navier-Stokes equation, written as in Equation 8.1, and assume
that the flow changes over a characteristic time T , or that it is periodic with angular fre-
quency ω (a parameter better suited for a periodic flow). The term ∂v/∂t will then be either
of order U/T or, equivalently, of U ω. It will be negligible relative to the viscosity term if
|∂v / ∂t| |ν ∇ 2 v|, i.e.:

U U e20
ν 2 or Ntν = 1.
T e0 νT

The ratio Ntν of the characteristic times appeared already in Equation 4.95 during our
discussion of alternating flows between two planes (Section 4.5.4). The condition Ntν 1
expresses that the characteristic time e20 /ν for the diffusion of the velocity gradients (or of
the vorticity) over the thickness e0 of the fluid film is much smaller than the characteristic
time T for the evolution of the flow or, equivalently, small compared to 1/ω. One notes that
e02 /ν represents also the time needed to establish a stationary velocity profile: if the above
condition is satisfied, the flow can then be considered as quasi-stationary, and the terms of
the type ∂v/∂t can be neglected.

8.1.4 Equations of motion in the lubrication

approximation
In this case, if instabilities do not appear in the flow, and the conditions θ 1 and Re 1/θ
are satisfied, Equations 8.1a and 8.1b simplify, for a steady state flow, to:

1 ∂p ∂ 2 νx ∂p
=ν 2 (8.11a) and: = 0, (8.11b)
ρ ∂x ∂y ∂y

which represents exactly the same system of equations as for a parallel flow. The velocity vx
will vary in the x-direction if the thickness is no longer a constant, but this variation will be
much slower than in the y-direction, for which the characteristic distance for change is e0 .
In order to calculate the velocity profile, we then integrate Equation 8.11a relative to y,
as though ∂p/∂x were a constant (the x and y variables become decoupled). In effect,
if the requirements for the lubrication approximation are satisfied, ∂p/∂x is practically
independent of y, just as for a parallel flow; on the other hand, it varies, in the x-direction,
over distances which are much larger than the thickness e0 of the fluid layer. Weakly
non-stationary flows can be treated in the same manner if the time-dependent change
Lubrication approximation 281

in the velocity is sufficiently slow. We will see, further down, examples where the lack of
stationarity plays a significant role.

8.1.5 An example of the application of the equation

for lubrication: stationary flow between two
moving planes making a small angle to each
other
If we let a sheet of paper slide parallel to the horizontal surface of a smooth table, the
presence of a film of air between the table and the sheet helps the sliding; on the other hand,
if the sheet of paper has a few holes in it, it slides very poorly because there no longer exists
a pressure difference between the outside air and this intermediate sheet. The pressure
difference which exists in the former case is due to the formation of a wedge toward the
back between the sheet and the table, shown schematically in Figure 8.2.

y (a)

e2 Figure 8.2 Schematic diagram of the flow

e1 θ
e(x) resulting from the motion of an inclined plane
em
υx moving relative to a fixed horizontal plane;
(a) the velocity field is shown in the reference
O x1 –U x2 L x frame in which the inclined plane is fixed;
1
(b) variation of the pressure in the region
p (b) between the two planes
pm

p0 p0 x

For this calculation, we will assume that the sheets extend infinitely in the transverse
z-direction (perpendicular to the plane of the figure). Also, we will compute values of the
force, and of the flow rate, which correspond to a layer of unit depth in that direction.
Moreover, we change the reference frame and assume that the velocity of the sheet is zero,
and that the lower plane is moving with a velocity –U; this allows us to obtain a stationary
flow profile, because the lower surface moves in its own plane and the thickness of the fluid
is therefore constant at a fixed point relative to the upper plane. The distance between the
planes is given by:

e (x) = e1 + θx,

where the angle θ = (e2 – e1 )/L is assumed to be small. In this case, and if Re 1/θ , Equation
8.11b shows that the pressure p and, therefore, ∂p/∂x are independent of y.
Integrating Equation 8.11a with respect to y under this assumption and taking into
account the boundary conditions υx ( y = 0) = – U and υx ( y = e (x)) = 0, we obtain then:

1 dp e (x) – y
υx (x, y) = – y [e (x) – y] – U . (8.12)
2η dx e (x)
282 Quasi-Parallel Flows – Lubrication Approximation

Just as in Section 4.5.3, the velocity field corresponds to the superposition of a Poiseuille
flow (parabolic term in y associated with the pressure gradient) and of a Couette flow (term
linear in y, related to the movement of the plane with velocity –U). In Figure 8.2a, we have
shown the parabolic velocity profiles between the two planes corresponding to different
distances along x.
We compute now the pressure distribution in the upper plane by integrating
Equation 8.12 with respect to y between 0 and e(x); the flow rate Q (per unit depth in the
z-direction) is constant with x because the flow is stationary in the reference frame selected
so that:
e(x)
1 dp e(x)3 U e(x)
Q = constant = vx dy = – – . (8.13)
0 η dx 12 2

As we might have expected, this equation coincides with Equation 4.72 when we replace
V 0 by –U and a by e(x). We therefore conclude, replacing x by e as the variable:
Let us consider the velocity profiles between
the two planes on the basis of Equations 8.12,
dp dp 12 η Q 6 ηU
taking the derivative with respect to y and re- =θ =– – . (8.14)
placing ∂p/∂x by θ (∂p/∂e), and ∂p/∂e by com- dx de e(x)3 e(x)2
bining Equations 8.14 and Equations 8.17. We
are specifically interested in the existence of a We can obtain the value em of the thickness at the point where the pressure has an extreme
maximum in the velocity profile. We take the
derivative: value (dp/de = 0), so that:

∂vx 2y – e(x) ∂p U Q
= θ + em = –2 . (8.15)
∂y 2η ∂e(x) e(x) U

2U 3e1 e2 (2y – e(x))
= + 2e(x) – 3y . Finally we obtain the pressure p(x) by integrating Equations 8.14 relative to e with
e(x)2 e(x)(e1 + e2 )
(8.21)
p (x = 0) = p0 (atmospheric pressure outside the thin film). We find that:
Near the lower wall (y = 0) and the upper wall
(y = e(x) ), we have, respectively: 6ηQ 1 1 6 ηU 1 1
p(x) = p0 + – + – . (8.16)
∂vx 2U 3 e1 e2 θ e(x)2 e21 θ e(x) e1
= – + 2 e(x) (8.22a)
∂y e(x)2 (e1 + e2 )
From this, we determine the value of the flow rate Q by writing that the pressure is also
and equal to p0 at the other end of the plane (where e = e2 ). We then obtain:

∂vx 2U 3 e1 e2
= – e(x) . (8.22b) e1 e2 e1 e2
∂y e(x)2 (e1 + e2 ) Q=– U; (8.17) whence: em = 2 . (8.18)
e1 + e2 e1 + e2
The derivatives ∂vx /∂y of the velocity profile on
the upper and lower planes then vanish, respec- Equation 8.18 indicates that, when e1 e2 , we have em ∼= 2e1 : the point where the pressure
tively when e (x1 ) = 3e1 e2 / (2 (e1 + e2 )) = 3em /4 has an extreme value is then very close to the side where the thickness has the value e1 .
and e (x2 ) = 3e1 e / (e1 + e2 ) = 3em /2, i.e. on
both sides of the point where the pressure is In all cases, according to Equation 8.17, Q and U are opposite in sign, i.e. the average flow
a maximum. For distances smaller than x1 , the of the fluid has the direction of the motion of the lower plane. Equations 8.16 can then be
velocity has a minimum; for distances greater transformed by replacing Q by its value as a function of U , so that we obtain:
than x2 , the velocity is positive in the neighbor-
hood of the upper wall, and it has a maximum.
In the section of thickness em corresponding to
6 ηU (e2 – e(x) ) (e(x) – e1 )
p(x) = p0 + . (8.19)
the pressure maximum, the velocity varies line- θ e(x)2 (e1 + e2 )
arly with the distance y: this is easily shown by
taking the second derivative ∂ 2 vx /∂y2 of the ve- The difference p (x) – p0 has then necessarily the same sign as U/θ, since e(x) is bounded by
locity profile vx ( y) from Equation 8.21 so as to
obtain ∂ 2 vx /∂y2 = (θ /η)(∂p/∂e(x)). The distance the values e1 and e2 . Figure 8.2b gives the corresponding pressure distribution.
x at which the curvature becomes zero corre- The normal force FN on the lower plane, due to this excess pressure resulting from the
sponds to the maximum in the pressure: this is flow, is given by the integral:
quite expected since, in the absence of a pres-
sure gradient, the Poiseuille component of the
flow becomes zero and only a Couette-type flow
L 1 e2 6 ηU e2 2 (e2 – e1 )
FN = – ( p – p0 ) dx = – ( p – p0 ) de = – Log – . (8.20)
remains. 0 θ e1 θ2 e1 e2 + e1
Lubrication approximation 283

We also determine the tangential frictional force on the lower plane, i.e.: The net resultant force on the fluid in the space
L between the planes must be zero since the pres-
∂vx 1 e2 e(x) dp ηU sure difference between the entry and exit of this
FT = η dx = + de space is also zero. The x- and y-components
0 ∂y θ e1 2 dx e(x)
(8.23) of the force on the upper plane must there-
fore be equal to –FT and –FN ; they can also
2ηU e2 3(e2 – e1 )
= 2 Log – . be computed from the pressure and velocity on
θ e1 (e2 + e1 ) that plane. However, the pressure and tangential
forces are respectively perpendicular and parallel
For e2 /e1 = 10, the prefactors of ηU /θ 2 and ηU /θ respectively in Equations 8.20 and 8.23 to the plane and, therefore, at an angle θ respec-
are –4 and 4.3. tively to y and x: they must then be projected
on these axis in order to retrieve the values –FT
In the general case, the relative role of the values of θ, e1 and e2 is somewhat subtle
and –FN .
because, when θ → 0 and e2 → e1 , both the numerator and the denominator of the expres-
sions for FT and FN approach zero. We will evaluate these two components for the particular
case where the thickness e2 is much greater than the thickness e1 . In that case, we find: From Equations 8.24a–b, FT and FN are ap-
proximately proportional to 1/θ and 1/θ 2 only,
e2 6 ηU e2 ηU provided e2 /e1 1 (then, θ ≈ e2 /L). If e2 /e1 →
FN – Log – 2 (8.24a) and FT 4 Log – 6 . (8.24b)
e1 θ2 e1 θ 1, we must use Equations 8.20 and 8.23, leading
to FN = 0 when e2 = e1 (parallel planes).
where θ = (e2 – e1 ) /L e2 /L (for a given angle θ, the influence of e2 /e1 on the values of FT
and FN is small). When the angle θ is small, FN can take on large values, while the tangential
frictional force FT will be smaller by an order of magnitude: this is the fundamental result
of the lubrication model.
For e2 e1 , p(x) is highest for e(x) ≈ 2e1 .
This property is extremely useful in a wide range of applications: axles rotating within a
More generally, in lubrication flows, the pres-
bearing of barely larger diameter, thus able to support much greater normal stresses without sure is highest in the regions of small liquid
excessive friction (bearings of rotating machinery, wheel axles of vehicles. . . ). In some cases, thickness: this allows one to obtain approximate
the normal forces are so large that solid pieces can be deformed in regions where their solutions. Take, for instance, two spheres of ra-
dius R approaching each other with a minimum
cross-section is very small; for this reason they are known as elasto-hydrodynamic forces. separation e1 (t): the force between them may
Lubrication forces can also have rather undesirable effects: if we walk on an oil slick, the be estimated from the pressure√distribution on
normal forces will support our weight while the tangential force is insufficient to allow us to the spherical cap with radius R e1 (t) where
the local separation between the surfaces of the
maintain our balance. There is a similar effect when a car skids out of control along a wet two spheres is between e1 and 2e1 (see similar
road (a phenomenon known as aquaplaning): the thin film of water between the tires and problems below).
the road can support the weight of a car, while the forces that prevent slip are too weak.

8.1.6 Flow of a fluid film of arbitrary thickness

In this section, we consider the more general case of a flow of a thin film of fluid between
two solid surfaces with varying separation, and with relative motion in arbitrary directions.

Reynolds’ equation
We retain the assumption of a film of fluid sufficiently thin relative to the characteristic
distances along x over which the velocity and the thickness parallel to the film vary, so that
we can still consider the flow as quasi-parallel (Figure 8.3). We also assume that the lower
surface is a stationary plane y = 0 and that each point of the upper surface located at a height
h(x, t) has a velocity with components U (x, t) and V (x, t) in the x- and y-directions. The
longitudinal pressure gradient ∂p/∂x is considered constant over the thickness of the film, but
can exhibit a slow variation along this film. As seen in Section 8.1.2, the term ∂p/∂x needs to
be replaced by ∂p/∂x – ρ gx when the component gx of gravity in the plane of the film does
not vanish. In the present section, the upper surface is solid but not necessarily plane.
As in the preceding case, the local flow is a superposition of a Poiseuille-type and a
Couette-type flow. This can result from the relative displacement of the solid walls, which
limits the upper and lower surfaces of the film and/or, possibly, by an applied pressure
gradient.
284 Quasi-Parallel Flows – Lubrication Approximation

x x+dx
y
Figure 8.3 Schematic diagram of a quasi-
one-dimensional flow in a thin fluid layer
between a plane and a solid upper surface (U,V)
with a distance h(x, t) from the plane, which h(x,t)
Q(x,t)
can be a function of both time and position
O x

Let us rewrite Equations 8.13 relating the local flow rate Q(x, t) in the film (per unit
length in the z-direction), the gradient ∂p/∂x and the velocity component U (x, t) in the
x-direction of the upper surface, with:

h3 ∂p U h
Q(x, t) = – + . (8.25)
12 η ∂x 2

In contrast with the case of Equations 8.13, Q can depend on x as well as on t. Let us now
analyze the conservation of mass in a thin layer of the fluid film over the range (x, x +dx):
the change (∂h/∂t)dx of the volume of fluid in this layer, per unit time, is equal to the
difference Q(x) – Q(x + dx) = - (∂Q/∂x)dx between the rates of flow of fluid entering and
exiting. We thus obtain, by taking the derivative of Equations 8.25 with respect to x:

The problem in Section 8.1.5 (flow between two ∂h 1 ∂ ∂p 1 ∂U ∂h
planes at an angle θ) can be treated as a partic- = h3 – h +U . (8.26)
∂t 12 η ∂x ∂x 2 ∂x ∂x
ular case of Reynolds’ equation (Equation 8.26)
with ∂h/∂t = – U ∂h/∂x, h(x) = e(x) and ∂e/∂t
= – U ∂e/∂x. In this former section, we used a This result applies to a two-dimensional flow, translationally invariant in the z-direction.
reference frame fixed relative to the upper plane, Equation 8.26 is known as Reynolds’ equation. In practice, we frequently fix the values of the
where the flow was stationary, whereas, here, we pressure at the two ends of the fluid layer.
are in a reference frame fixed with respect to the
lower plane and in which ∂h/∂t is non-zero (the
Let us now take note of the fact that the vertical V and horizontal U components of the
local velocity of the upper plane is then +U ). local velocity of the wall are related to the derivative ∂h/∂t by the geometric condition:
Equations 8.26 then becomes:
∂h ∂h
=V –U . (8.27)
∂ ∂p ∂h ∂t ∂x
h3 = –6 ηU . (8.31)
∂x ∂x ∂x
A horizontal displacement of the upper wall results indeed in a change in the local depth,
We obtain the same equation by multiplying if the wall itself is not locally horizontal. This variation is added to that resulting from the
Equations 8.14 by e(x)3 and taking the deriva- vertical velocity V of the wall. We see then, according to Equations 8.27, that h remains
tive with respect to x (Q is constant relative to
x in the reference frame used in Section 8.1.5,
constant if the upper wall moves in its own plane (V /U = ∂h/∂x).
while, here, it varies). In the case of a two-dimensional film, where the thickness h(x, z, t) varies in the x- and
z-directions parallel to the lower plane, we must replace Equations 8.25 by:

h3 U// h
Q// (x, z, t) = – ∇// p + , (8.28)
12 η 2

where U// is the projection onto the z-x plane of the velocity U of the upper surface with
respective components W and U in the z- and x-directions. The components Qz and Qx of
Q// represent the local rates of flow through unit cross-sections respectively perpendicular
to the z- and x-directions. The symbol ∇// indicates the gradient in the directions parallel to
the plane. By writing the equation of conservation of mass in the three-dimensional form
∂h/∂t + ∇·Q// = 0, we obtain the generalization of Equations 8.26:

∂h
∇ · h3 ∇// p = h3 ∇ 2 p + 3 h2 (∇// h) · (∇// p) = 6η h ∇// · U// + U// · (∇// h) + 2 . (8.29)
∂t
Lubrication approximation 285

Similarly, Equations 8.27 becomes:

∂h
= V – U// · ∇// h. (8.30)
∂t

Application of Reynolds’ equation: a sphere dropping toward

a plane, in a viscous fluid
Consider a rigid sphere of radius a dropping vertically toward an horizontal flat plane
z
(Figure 8.4): we denote by h0(t) the minimum distance between the sphere and the plane,
i.e. along the axis of the system. Considering the rotational symmetry (the pressure being
solely a function of r and t) and the condition U// = 0, Equations 8.29 becomes:

1 ∂ ∂p ∂h ∂h dh0 (t)
r h3 = 12η (8.32) with = . 2a
r ∂r ∂r ∂t ∂t dt
pat U
This last condition corresponds to the requirement of a uniform vertical velocity ∂h/∂t for
all points of the surface of the sphere. We can calculate the global force F on the sphere by r υr(r,z,t)
integrating the pressure:
h0(t) h(r,t)
rM hM
F= 2π r p(r) dr = 2πa p(h) dh, Figure 8.4 Schematic diagram for a sphere
0 h0
dropping toward an infinite plane
6 π a2 dh0
so that we obtain: F =– , (8.33)
h0 dt

provided that the thickness hM as we get away from the region of minimum depth is
significantly greater than h0 .

Proof
In order to calculate p(h), we first integrate Equations 8.32 with respect to r, after having
multiplied both sides by r. We then obtain:

∂p ∂h
r h3 = 6 η r2 . (8.34)
∂r ∂t

The constant of integration is zero because none of the derivatives diverge when r = 0.
In order to calculate the pressure distribution, we substitute h for the variable r, by using the
approximate geometrical relationship:

r2
h(r, t) = h0 (t) + , (8.35)
2a

whence dh = r dr/a and dp/dr =(r/a) dp/dh.

dh0 1 3 η a dh0
Thus: dp = –3 η a d 2 and p(h) = p0 – . (8.36)
dt h h2 dt

The pressure must indeed be equal to the atmospheric pressure p0 when h becomes large.
286 Quasi-Parallel Flows – Lubrication Approximation

For a sphere of radius a, falling under its own weight and with respective densities ρ s and
ρ f of the sphere and the fluid, we find, by equating the weight of the sphere, decreased by
the buoyancy due to the Archimedes force, to the viscous force from Equations 8.33 that:

d(Log h0 ) 2π a (ρs – ρf )g
=– (8.37) i.e.: h0 (t) = h0 (0) e–t/τ , (8.38)
dt 9 η

with τ = 9 η/[2πa (ρ s – ρ f ) g]. Theoretically, the sphere will take an infinitely long time to
touch the plane because its motion is continuously slowing down! Practically, however, the
roughness of the surfaces involved will lead to contact when the separation becomes of the
order of this micro-roughness, although there still remains a tiny free space for the fluid to
For the case where the sphere is replaced by a
flat-bottomed cylinder parallel to the plane, we be evacuated.
find that the force varies as 1/h3 instead of 1/h If, on the other hand, we specify a drop velocity Vz = dh/dt, the force that needs to be
for a given velocity, because the viscous forces applied for keeping Vz constant diverges, according to Equations 8.36, as 1/h0 when the
are more uniformly distributed over the bottom
of the cylinder, instead of being localized in the distance h0 approaches zero, while the pressure diverges as 1/h20 in the region of minimum
region of minimum thickness. thickness h0 : this can result in a local deformation of the surface of the sphere.

8.1.7 Flow between two eccentric cylinders

with nearly equal radii
An important industrial application of lubrication is the motion of moving objects with a
narrow region between the parts (piston-and-cylinder, axle-and-bearing, etc.) filled with
lubricating fluid.
Here we are specifically interested in the flow of the lubricant in the small gap be-
tween a rotating axle and its bearing, as well as in the forces which result from it:
this system is schematized in Figure 8.5 by two cylinders of nearly equal radii R and
R + δR (δR/R = ε 1), with their axes parallel but offset by a distance a = λ δR (λ ≤ 1).
We assume that only the inner cylinder rotates at an angular velocity and that the flow
is invariant in the z-direction of the axes of the cylinders. We will take, as the origin of the
polar coordinates, the point of intersection O of the axis of the larger cylinder with the plane
of the figure; the angle θ = 0 corresponds to the direction of the segment OO’ (and, also, to
the minimum e0 of the local distance e(θ) between the cylinders); α is the angle that OO’
makes with the vertical. The distance e(θ) satisfies the equation:

e (θ) = δR – a cos θ = εR (1 – λ cos θ). (8.39)

Figure 8.5 Schematic diagram of the cross- R+δR

section of an axle rotating within its bearing, M e(θ)
the z-axis being perpendicular to the plane of r
the figure. The points O and O
correspond to Ώ O θ R
O'
the intersection of the axes of the two cylinders
α θ1
with the plane of the figure
fp(–θ1) –θ1 fp(θ1)
e0
Lubrication approximation 287

Proof
The distance r = |OM| between O and a point M of the inner cylinder such that OM
makes an angle θ with the segment OO
connecting the axes satisfies, to first-order:

r = R + a cos θ = R + λ δR cos θ

Equation 8.39 is then obtained by subtracting r from the radius R+δR of the outer cylinder
and replacing δR by εR.

In the region around a given angle θ , we consider that the flow is identical to that between
two parallel planes separated by a distance e(θ), one of which (corresponding to the inner The characteristics of the curve in Figure 8.6 re-
sult from the form of Equations 8.38 and 8.41.
cylinder) moving at a velocity R. This assumption is equivalent to eliminating curvature The variation of e(θ) and that of ∂p/∂θ are sym-
effects, such as the gradient in the pressure due to the centrifugal force; the latter is ac- metric with respect to θ = 0: as a result, the
tually transverse to the flow and does not affect it. We can then apply Reynolds’ equation pressure changes p(θ ) – p(0) obtained by inte-
gration are anti-symmetric. We must, moreover,
(Equations 8.26) in the form: also have the condition that p(π) = p(–π) since
these two values of θ correspond to the same
1 ∂ 3 ∂p ∂e(θ) ∂p 1 C physical location diametrically opposite to the
e(θ ) =6η (8.40) so: = 6 η R2 + , (8.41)
R2 ∂θ ∂θ ∂θ ∂θ e(θ)2 e(θ)3 point of minimum thickness. If p(θ )-p(0) is not
constant, it must have, at least, two extrema of
opposite signs at points which are symmetric
where C is a constant of integration. In order to go from Equations 8.26 to Equations 8.41,
relative to θ = 0 so that the constant C must
we have merely replaced the derivatives ∂/∂x by (1/R) ∂/∂θ . The element of length ds in the be opposite in sign to (see Equations 8.41).
direction tangent to the surfaces of the cylinders, corresponding to an angular change dθ , is In the neighborhood of θ = 0, the term 1/e3 in
indeed equal to R dθ (still assuming that δR R); ds here plays the role of dx in the problem Equations 8.41 dominates the other term, and
the derivative ∂p/∂θ(0) is opposite in sign to
involving planes. Figure 8.6 displays the changes in pressure as a function of θ calculated (< 0 in Figure 8.6). The presence of the term in
for λ = 0.9, by numerical integration of Equations 8.41, and using Equations 8.39. We have 1/e3 implies that the smaller the minimum thick-
large minima and maxima of the pressure near x = 0 because of the large value of the term ness e(0) is relative to the maximum value e(π),
the larger the absolute values of the pressure
in 1/e3 : we can observe here cavitation bubbles in the region of low pressure (see Section extrema will be, and closer to the point θ = 0.
8.3.2).

p(θ)-p(0) (u. a.)

1 Figure 8.6 The variation of the pressure in

the region between the axle and its bearing in
π –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3π Figure 8.5
–1 θ (radians)

–2

–3

Just as in the case of the two planes which we discussed in Section 8.1.5, we assume that
the viscous friction forces, which act tangentially to the cylinders, are negligible relative to
the pressure forces in the normal direction. Let us now investigate how these forces can
support heavy weights as in the cases of a wheel axle or of the axis of rotating machinery.
To this end, let us look at the pressure forces per unit area fp = dFp /dS acting on the inner
cylinder at corresponding points θ 1 and –θ 1 (Figure 8.5). We can neglect the effect of the
288 Quasi-Parallel Flows – Lubrication Approximation

The form of equation 8.43 may seem counter- average pressure p(0) because the integral of the force which results on the entirety of each
intuitive. We might think that the force of gravity cylinder is zero. We will therefore assume that p(θ 1 ) = –p(–θ 1 ). The sum of the vertical
would require the point of minimal thickness to
be at the lowest point of the bearing in the verti- components fzp (±θ 1 ) of the pressure forces per unit area at θ 1 and –θ 1 will be:
cal direction from the axis O: OO’ would be in
that case vertical with α = 0. However, the verti- fzp (θ1 ) + fzp (–θ1 ) = –p (θ1 ) cos (α + θ1 ) + p (–θ1 ) cos (α – θ1 ) = 2p (θ1 ) sin α sin θ1 . (8.42)
cal resultant of the pressure forces would vanish,
because the contribution of each point at a po-
sition θ is cancelled out by that of a point at the Thus, the vertical resultant of the pressure forces is a maximum when the angle α of
angle –θ : the pressure p(θ) is then opposite to OO’ with the vertical has the value π/2 (OO’ is then horizontal). The value Fpπ/2 of this
that at p(–θ ) and the vertical component of the force per unit length along the axis is then given by the integral:
normal to the surface is the same. In contrast,
if α = π/2, the pressure force also changes sign
when we replace θ by – θ , but so does the verti-
θ
6 ηA R
cal component of the normal to the surface. The Fpπ /2 = – sin (θ) p(θ)R dθ which can be shown to equal to: Fpπ /2 = . (8.43)
contributions to the force then have the same ε2 λ
–θ
sign and they add up. The value of α will adjust
to a value intermediate between 0 and π/2 de-
pending on the weight which must be supported. Here, A is a constant dependent on λ. This bearing force varies as 1/ε2 : when ε is very small,
one can generate very significant bearing forces.
Let us now evaluate the viscous frictional force Fν π/2 in the direction of θ = π/2. Per unit
area, this force is of the order of η R/((1 – λ) ε R) in the region of minimum thickness; if
this is applied along a distance of order R, we obtain then:
(a) η R
Fvπ/2 ≈ . (8.44)
(1 – λ) ε

(b) This viscous frictional force, varying as 1/ε, is smaller than the bearing force by an order of
magnitude in ε, as we have assumed.

8.1.8 Lubrication and surface roughness

Figure 8.7 Relative motion of two spheres.
(a) ideal case without any interaction other The examples which we have given and, specifically, that of the axle and its bearing, sug-
than those due to hydrodynamics; (b) Real gest that the distance between the solid surfaces should be as small as possible: this will be
case of rough spheres: the two spheres undergo limited by the roughness of the surfaces which, in our calculations, have been assumed to
a shift in their trajectories, instead of coming be perfectly smooth. If the rough areas of the surfaces actually come into contact, there will
back on the same straight line which they fol- appear solid-solid frictional forces which would block any motion. Another example is the
lowed initially (an analogous effect is observed interaction between particles in a suspension when they are separated by a small distance.
in the case where the two spheres display As we have seen in Section 8.1.5, the viscous forces increase when a sphere approaches a
inter-particle interactions such as electrostatic wall very closely; when the distance becomes small, we must again take into account the
repulsion) effects of surface roughness. An example is given in Figure 8.7. In the case of two perfectly
smooth spheres which come together, the final trajectory coincides with the line of initial
The reversibility argument assumes that the ve- displacement (Figure 8.7a): this is the result of the time-reversal invariance in solutions of
locity field takes on, at every instant, the equi-
Stokes’ equation of motion at small Reynolds number (see Section 9.2.3). This reversibility
librium configuration which corresponds to the
instantaneous distance between the obstacles; can be broken by the effect of the roughness of the particles (Figure 8.7b). Quite a number
we have described a similar problem in Section of problems related to lubrication, to friction and to wear depend on the heterogeneity of
8.1.3 which discussed the stationarity of lubrica- surfaces.
tion flows. When the two spheres come together
at a distance d, with relative velocity U , the time
for establishing the velocity profile is of the or-
der of d 2 /ν: this must be small relative to the
characteristic time d/U over which the distance
8.2 Flow of liquid films having a free
between particles evolves. The Reynolds num-
ber Ud/ν must then be small. In the opposite
surface: hydrodynamics of wetting
case, the dynamics of the motion of the sphere
would depend on its previous history. We en- Other situations where inertial forces and non-linear terms in the equations of motion of
counter effects of this type, for which we will fluids are negligible are encountered in the case of thin fluid films with a free surface: there
not go into detail here, in the case of strongly again, the velocity of the fluid is almost parallel to the surface of the film. Such flows are
accelerating particles (specifically, effects known
as Basset forces). often present in nature and have, additionally, important applications such as the spreading
Flow of liquid films having a free surface: hydrodynamics of wetting 289

of coatings, paints or cleaning fluids on various materials; also, some thermal exchangers
make use of flowing liquid films. This situation is similar to that of lubrication, but the
presence of free surfaces affects the boundary conditions, and additional forces appear due
to surface tension. We have discussed this idea in Section 1.4 and have described some static
properties of the resulting interfaces. Using the Young-Dupré equation (Equation 1.62), we
have also introduced the spreading parameter and the static contact angle.
In this discussion, we are interested in flows of thin films with a free surface resulting
from a competition between surface tension, gravity and viscosity. In all cases, we will make
broad use of the lubrication approximation.
First of all, we analyze the simple case of the flow of liquid layers uninfluenced by surface
tension, such as the falling of a liquid film along a flat isothermal wall. Then, in the situation
of complete wetting, we study the dependence of the dynamic contact angle of an interface
on the velocity at which the contact line moves. We use this result to predict the spreading of
small droplets and compare this to that of larger drops under the influence of gravity. Finally,
we look at the case of Marangoni effects in which temperature or concentration gradients, in
tensioactive compounds, result in surface tension gradients, which, themselves, induce flow.

8.2.1 Dynamics of thin liquid films, neglecting

surface-tension effects
The influence of surface tension is negligible for films which have a surface flat or slightly q
curved because the difference in the Laplace pressure between the two sides of the interface
is then either zero or very small. We will discuss situations where the surface tension is
constant all over the surface so that Marangoni effects will not come into play. υx y
Flows of liquid films with a free surface have specific characteristics. First of all, if surface g
tension is not in play, the pressure equals the atmospheric pressure throughout the inter- patm
face. Just as for other quasi-parallel flows, the pressure gradients normal to the interface
(and thus normal to the flow velocity) are reduced to the hydrostatic pressure. Given the h
small thickness of the films, the pressure is everywhere close to the atmospheric pressure: ρ
the pressure gradients parallel to the film (and to the velocity of the fluid) are thus generally η
much smaller than for the flows between two solid surfaces which we have previously con-
x
sidered. Often, this gradient will be zero (specifically for films of constant thickness) and
the driving force of the flow is the component g// of gravity parallel to the surface of the film: Figure 8.8 Flow along a vertical wall due to
we recall that in the Stokes equation (and in that of Navier-Stokes), the driving force of the an injection of fluid through a horizontal slit
flow is represented by the sum ∇p – ρ g and not just by ∇p.
If, externally, we have air at rest (or at moderate velocities), we can consider that the
stress at the interface vanishes (Section 4.3.2): the derivative of the velocity in the direction
This will no longer be the case when there is a
normal to the surface thus also vanishes. We have then an extremum of the velocity at the high-velocity flow of air (e.g., high winds above
surface and not a zero value as would be the case at a solid wall. the surface of a lake or river.)

Example: viscous film falling along a vertical wall, at a fixed flow rate
We can create a fluid film (density ρ, viscosity η) along a vertical wall by injecting fluid
through a horizontal slit (Figure 8.8). The flow rate q in the slit, per unit width in the
z-direction, is constant. We shall now predict the dependence of the thickness of the fluid
layer on the flow rate q, in the region where this layer has a constant thickness h. Assuming
that the flow is invariant and has zero velocity in the z-direction, the Navier-Stokes equations
become:

1 ∂p ∂ 2 vx ∂p
– ρg = η 2 (8.45a) and = 0. (8.45b)
ρ ∂x ∂y ∂y
290 Quasi-Parallel Flows – Lubrication Approximation

For sufficiently large velocities, such flows de- Because we have constant external pressure, continuous at the surface and continuous at all
velop instabilities which cause the thickness of
horizontal levels, we have p = patm throughout the fluid film: the pressure gradient parallel
the film to vary and create local curvature at
the surface. Then, one needs to take into ac- to the velocity also vanishes (∂p/∂x = 0). The flow thus results merely from the vertical
count both the surface tension and the pressure component g > 0 of gravity. Integrating with the boundary conditions, vx ( y = 0) = 0 and
gradients parallel to the surface. ∂vx /∂y( y = h) = 0, we find:
We obtain similar results for a flow along a
plane inclined at an angle θ relative to the verti- h
cal. We must then replace –ρ g by –ρ g cos θ in ρg ρ g h3
Equations 8.45a and add a term –ρg sin θ into vx = y (2 h – y) (8.46a) and q= vx dy = . (8.46b)
2η 3η
Equation 8.45b. However, since this last term 0
is constant, ∂p/∂x still vanishes even though the
hydrostatic pressure gradient in the y-direction The thickness of the fluid layer varies with the injected rate of flow as q1/3 .
no longer vanishes. Equations 8.46a and 8.46b
remain applicable when we replace g by g cos θ .
8.2.2 Dynamic contact angles
Case of complete wetting: Tanner’s law
In contrast to the previous example, surface tension plays a key role in problems involv-
ing the contact line between a gas-liquid interface (or a liquid-liquid interface) and a solid
surface. Here, we are interested in the changes, of hydrodynamic origin, in the contact an-
gle as a function of the velocity V of the line: it is referred to as a dynamic contact angle.
We consider here the case of complete wetting for which the initial spreading parameter
S = γ sg – γ sl – γ (defined in Equation 1.59) is positive (we use here the notation γ for γ lg ).
The motion of the interface at a velocity V changes the contact angle from the value θ s = 0
(static contact angle) for V = 0 to a finite value θ(V ). In such systems with complete wet-
ting, we always have, upstream of the contact line, a precursor film of submicron thickness:
the dynamic contact angle θ(V ) is in fact an apparent contact angle, with the wall, of the
macroscopic region of the meniscus (Figure 8.9).

z
Figure 8.9 Schematic diagram for the mo-
tion of a contact line relative to a solid surface
ξ (x) Q(x)
in the presence of the precursor film upstream γlg
θ V
of the meniscus
x x x +V dt γsl O γsg
y

Let us first consider the equilibrium of forces acting on the contact line by assuming a
two-dimensional geometry. Following the same steps as those used in Chapter 1 in order
to prove the Young-Dupré equation (Equation 1.62), we find a resultant force, per unit
length, with horizontal component: Fr (θ ) = γ sg – γ sl – γ cos θ . However, according to
this equation, the condition of static equilibrium Fr = 0 cannot be satisfied at zero velocity
even when θ = 0. The excess force per unit length equals S(> 0), and we assume that
its use is to create the precursor film, and that this contribution remains constant when
V is not zero. The effective resultant force which causes the motion of the region of
macroscopic thickness of the meniscus (to the left of the point O on Figure 8.9) is thus:
Fr (θ) – S = γ (1 – cos θ). The corresponding power (energy per unit time) dEts /dt is then:
dEts
= γ (1 – cos θ) V . (8.47)
dt
This energy, provided by the capillary forces, is dissipated through viscosity in the flow
of the film resulting from the motion of the interface. We note that dEts /dt should vanish for
Flow of liquid films having a free surface: hydrodynamics of wetting 291

an angle θ = 0, which would correspond to an almost motionless interface for which all the
available energy is dissipated in the residual film.
Let us now analyze the flow in the macroscopic region of the fluid film of thickness ξ (x)
at a distance x from the contact line. We assume that we are sufficiently close to this contact
line that gravity effects are negligible for the small vertical distances which we are consider-
ing. We will also assume that the apparent macroscopic contact angle θ is sufficiently small
that we can use everywhere the lubrication approximation. Let us call Q(x) the rate of flow
(per unit length normal to the figure) in the cross-section of the film: the change between
the times t and t + dt in the volume contained between the cross-section at x and the contact
line equals Q(x)dt (this is the volume injected in the same time interval). Let us assume,
moreover, that the interface moves without deformation at velocity V : the preceding change
in volume must also be equal to that ξ (x)(V dt) of a layer of fluid of thickness V dt, located
in the neighborhood of cross-section x, whence:

Q(x) = V ξ(x). (8.48)

It follows therefore that the average velocity in section x defined by Vm (x) = Q(x)/ξ (x) is Our approach here, based on an estimate of the
constant with x and equal to V . In the lubrication approximation, the tangential stress driving and dissipation effects, is only approxi-
mate. In fact, the assumption of a plane interface
η ∂vx /∂z on the interface z = ξ (x) vanishes (condition at a free surface); and, moreo- implies that there is zero capillary pressure dif-
ver, vx (0) = 0. We will then have a velocity profile of the type vx (z) = A(x)(ξ (x) – z/2)z. ference between the sides of the interface, and,
Integrating between 0 and ξ (x) relative to z so as to calculate Q(x), we find that: consequently, a constant pressure within the
fluid. This contradicts the prediction (Equations
Q(x)
z
8.49) for the velocity profile, which requires a
vx (x, z) = 3 ξ (x) – z. (8.49) pressure gradient ∂p/∂x = –3 ηQ/ξ 3 . Thus, the
ξ (x)
3 2 interface needs to display a variable radius of
curvature near the contact line so that the dif-
We note that the velocity vx (x, ξ ) of the fluid at the interface equals 3 Q(x)/(2 ξ (x)): it is ference in capillary pressure can balance such
gradients.
then higher than the average velocity Vm (x)= V and also independent of x.
Let us now write that the power dEts /dt given by Equation 8.47 equals the total
power dEη /dt dissipated by viscosity in the flow corresponding to the velocity profile from
Equations 8.49. From Equation 5.26, the dissipated power per unit volume is η (∂vx /∂z)2 .
We obtain the total dissipation dEη /dt (again per unit length in the transverse direction) by
first integrating this expression between 0 and ξ (x) with respect to z and then with respect
to x. Let us now take ξ (x) = θ x, which amounts to neglecting the curvature of the interface
in the x-plane: assuming that the greatest part of the dissipation occurs very close to the
contact line, the resulting error will be quite small. Using Equations 8.48 and 8.49, we then
obtain in absolute magnitude:

dEη Q2 (x) 1 V2 xM 1
= 3η dx = 3 ηV 2 dx = 3 η dx. (8.50)
dt ξ 3 (x) ξ (x) θ xm x

Here, we needed to introduce an upper limit xM and lower limit xm , because of the loga-
rithmic divergence of the integral as x approaches zero and infinity. We can assume that
the upper limit xM corresponds to a length of the order of the size of the droplet in the
x-z plane, but we have a much more serious problem from the divergence of the dissipated
power at very small distances from the contact line. This issue is, still at this time, the object
of significant study and of numerical simulations on a molecular scale, and there is no exact
solution presently available. Considering then xm as an adjustable parameter of this model,
we obtain:

dEts dEη V2 xM
= γ (1 – cos θ)V = = 3η Log . (8.51)
dt dt θ xm
292 Quasi-Parallel Flows – Lubrication Approximation

In the approximation of small contact angles, where (1 – cos θ) ≈ θ 2 /2, we finally find
Tanner’s equation:

ηV xM xM
θ3 = 6 Log = 6 Ca Log . (8.52)
γ xm xm

The dimensionless capillary number Ca = ηV /γ indicates the relative importance of the

effects due to the viscosity and those due to capillarity. The pressure differences of viscous
and capillary origin are indeed respectively of the order of ηV /L and γ /L, so that their ratio
is of the order of Ca, if the gradients of the velocity and the radii of the curvature of the
interfaces have the same characteristic length L (if this were not the case, the ratio would still
be of the order of Ca, but we would need to introduce a geometrical correction factor). The
capillary number can also be considered as the ratio of the velocity V characteristic of the
flow to a velocity γ /η characteristic of the fluid (of the order of 102 m/s for water). This result
does not involve the value of the spreading parameter: this merely indicates the fact that the
excess energy corresponding to a positive value of this parameter is assumed to be dissipated
The experimental value of xm (caption of in the residual film, without influencing the dynamics of the macroscopic meniscus.
Figure 8.10) is of the same order of magnitude Figure 8.10 shows the experimental verification of Tanner’s law, using measurements
as that resulting from the small-scale analysis of
both the connection between the macroscopic carried out by an optical method on a meniscus of silicone oil moving inside a capillary
meniscus and the precursor film, and the dis- tube. The continuous curve displays the theoretical variation predicted by Tanner’s equation
sipation of energy in the precursor film. In this (Equations 8.52) but with a multiplying factor equal to 9 instead of 6 as indeed predicted
model, where the interface can no longer be
considered as a sharp corner with angle θ , the by more complete models. The ratio ε = xm /xM , is taken as equal to 10–4 , a value which
transition region starts when the thickness of the gives the best agreement with the experimental points. These points follow very closely the
film reaches a value smaller than a/θ (a is a length theoretical prediction up to surprisingly large values of the angle θ d , of the order of 100º.
on an atomic scale). The corresponding value
of the distance xm is thus of order a/θ 2 ; this
The corresponding value of xm is of the order of 100 nm.
explains why xm is large compared to atomic dis-
tances and accounts for the experimental value
of xm /xM .
θ d (o)

150
Figure 8.10 Change in the contact angle as
a function of the capillary number, Ca, for
an interface silicone oil-air in a capillary
tube, under conditions of complete wetting. 100
() Experimental data. (document courtesy
of M. Fermigier and P. Jenffer). The solid
curve is inferred from Tanner’s law, using 50
ε = xm /xM = 10–4

Ca = ηhV/γ
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1

Contact angles under conditions of partial wetting

We can apply a similar approach to the case of partial wetting, so long as the wetting angle
is not far from zero. The equations which we then obtain are more poorly obeyed than
Tanner’s law; we therefore use, in general, a rather empirical approach which generalizes
this law. Other models involving molecular adsorption processes have also been suggested.
One of the difficulties involves the definition of the static contact angle, discussed in
Section 1.4.3: depending on the direction of the motion of the contact line, the contact
angle takes indeed general different values (for forward or backward motion) in the limit of
small velocities.
Flow of liquid films having a free surface: hydrodynamics of wetting 293

8.2.3 Dynamics of the spread of droplets

on a flat surface
Small droplets with complete wetting
Here, we are interested in the changes, as a function of time, of the radius of droplets
of a non-volatile liquid which lie on a solid substrate, under conditions of total wetting.
We will assume, just as we did in order to derive Tanner’s law, that the dynamics of the
droplet results from a continuous equilibrium between the viscous dissipation and the work
done by capillary forces on the contact line. We assume (as we will discuss later), that it
is enough to take into account the viscous dissipation in the region near the contact line
(i.e. at distances small relative to the radius of curvature). We will thus apply to this three-
h(t) θ (t)
dimensional system the equations which we have used above for the two-dimensional case
of a straight contact line. More precisely, we assume that they continue to be valid so long rg (t)
as the radius of curvature of the interface is much greater than the thickness of the droplet.
R(t)
Let us denote by the volume of the droplet and assume that it keeps the shape of a
spherical cap of height h(t), with a radius of curvature R(t) and with a contact radius rg (t)
with the plane (Figure 8.11). We then have: Figure 8.11 Spreading of a droplet under
the action of capillary forces
= (π/4) rg3 θ. (8.53)

Proof
We have an exact relationship (2 R– h) h = rg2 (Figure 8.11) between the geometrical pa-
rameters. We obtain the volume of the spherical cap by integration from zero to h(t) of
π r 2 dz = π(2R – z) z dz (here r is the radius, expressed in terms of the same equation, of
the horizontal cross-section of the cap at an arbitrary value of the height z, taken as positive
downward from the top of the cap). We then obtain:

h3 π
= π R h2 – ≈ π R(t) h2 (t) = rg2 (t) h(t). (8.54)
3 2

Moreover, we also have h(t) = rg (t) tan(θ/2) so that we obtain Equation 8.53 by assuming
that the angle θ is much smaller than 1.

Combining Equations 8.52 and 8.53 and substituting drg /dt for V , we obtain then:
3
drg γ 1 4 !10 5 γ 4 3
= , (8.55) thus: rg (t) = t. (8.56)
dt η 6 Log xM πrg3 3 η Log xM π
xm xm

We therefore predict a very slow growth, as t 1/10 , of the radius of the droplet as a func-
tion of time. Because the product rg3(t) θ (t) is constant (Equation 8.53), θ(t) decreases as
t –3/10 under these circumstances. The numerical coefficients can be easily calculated by
combining Equations 8.54 and 8.56. We note that the solution obtained here can only be
approximate because we have assumed that the radius of curvature is constant along the
interface, since it is taken as a spherical cap. Also, the pressure just below the free sur-
face is constant along that surface: this in fact contradicts the existence of a spreading flow
which leads to pressure gradients resulting from the viscosity (we have already discussed
294 Quasi-Parallel Flows – Lubrication Approximation

10 + 14.4 μl
Figure 8.12 Variation with time (in log-log ++
++
+++++
coordinates) of the radius rg (t), for a series of rg (t) ++ +
+++ + 7.8 μl
droplets of silicone oil of variable volume , (mm) ++
++
++
+++
++
( η = 0.02 Pa.s, γ = 20 mN/m), which are +
+
+ + +++ 4.7 μl
+
++ +
spreading on flat plates of hydrophilic glass. + ++ ++ 3.8 μl
++ + ++ ++
The dashed line indicates the boundary be- + +
+ + + + + + + 2.9 μl
+
5 +
+ ++ ++ ++
tween the regimes dominated by gravity and + + ++ + +
+ + + + ++
1/8 + 1.5 μl
+ +
by capillarity. The solid lines respectively to + + + + + + rg ∞t + ++
the right and to the left of the dashed line + +
+ + + ++
+ +
rg ∞t1/10+ + + gravity +++++ 0.78 μl
correspond to the change in the power-law of ++
the exponents, from 1/10 and 1/8. (document + + +
+
+ ++
courtesy of A.M. Cazabat, and M. Cohen + capillarity + ++
+
Stuart) 2.5 + +
+
+

30 60 300 600 t (s)

this concept when we dealt with Tanner’s law). The exact solution is quite complicated:
it predicts a similar dependence of rg (t) on the physical parameters, but with somewhat
different numerical coefficients.
Figure 8.12 displays the variation as a function of time of the radius of a series of droplets
of silicone oil lying on smooth plates of hydrophilic glass. The variation of rg (t) as t 1/10 is
only observed at short times (to the left of the dashed line) when rg is small enough so that
the capillary effects dominate. At longer times, we enter into a regime dominated by gravity
which is applicable to the droplets of larger diameter which we will now describe. We have
in fact shown in Section 1.4.4 that it is the relative values of the radius rg and of the capillary
length which determine the relative importance of the capillary and gravity effects.

The gravitational spread of large drops

In this case, gravity plays a dominant role in determining at the same time the geometry
of the drop and its dynamics. The drops can then be viewed as flat in the center region,
with their curvature localized at the edges (Figure 8.13). We will first compare the energy
dissipation per unit time due to the viscosity in the center region (dEηcr /dt) to that near the
contact line (dEηcl /dt) which has already been calculated in the preceding case. Their ratio
has the value:
# #
dEηcr dEηcl rg θ xM
≈ Log . (8.57)
dt dt 4h xm

z
r
Figure 8.13 Schematic diagram of a large- H
radius drop spreading out under the effect of υr (r,z) V(t)
h(t) θ
gravity
r
g rg (t)
Flow of liquid films having a free surface: hydrodynamics of wetting 295

Within a logarithmic coefficient, this ratio is of the order of magnitude of the ratio of the
radius rg of the drop to the width (≈ h/θ) of the transition zone between the contact line
and the flat center region of the drop. Thus, for drops of outer radius rg large relative to
h/θ , the dissipation by viscosity in the flat region of the drop ends up being the dominant
one, in contrast to the small droplets discussed previously for which the dissipation near the
contact line is the most significant.

Proof
Let us assume that, in the central region, the drop has a thickness h(t) independent of the
distance r to the axis. Let us analyze the conservation of the mass of liquid in a cylinder
of radius r, with the same axis as the drop, and of constant height H always larger than
the thickness of the drop (H>h(t)). The volume rate of flow Q(r) through the walls of this
cylinder is opposite to the change per unit time of the amount of fluid inside, so that:

dh 1 dh Vm (r)
Q(r) = 2π r h Vm (r) = –πr 2 (8.58a) or: = –2 = cst with r, (8.58b)
dt h dt r

where Vm (r) is the average, over the thickness h of the drop, of the radial velocity vr (r, z)
of the fluid. Moreover, as in Equations 8.48, the average velocity Vm (rg ) equals the spread
velocity V (rg ) = drg /dt at the edge of the drop. Combining this result with Equations 8.58b,
applied to the radii r and rg , we obtain:

r drg r
Vm (r) = Vm (rg ) = . (8.59)
rg dt rg

Just as in Equation 8.49, the velocity profile vr (r, z) in the thickness of the drop is a half
parabola with a velocity maximum equal to 3Vm (r)/2 at the interface. We then find that
the absolute value of the viscous energy dissipation per unit time dEηcr /dt in the flat center
region of the drop, with radius approximately equal to rg , satisfies:

dEηcr
rg h(r) ∂v 2
3 rg2 3

drg
2
rg2
r
=η 2 π r dr dz = πη V2 = πη . (8.60a)
dt 0 0 ∂z 2 h 2 dt h

Applying Equations 8.51 along the perimeter 2πrg of the drop, we find the energy dEηcl /dt
dissipated by the viscosity per unit time, in the area of the contact line:

dEηcl V2 xM
= 6π η rg Log . (8.60b)
dt θ xm

We then recover Equation 8.57 by taking the ratio of these two dissipation terms.

We determine now the spreading equation for drops, for the case where gravity is the dom-
inant force (Figure 8.13). Just as in the previous case, we assume that the liquid in question
is non-volatile, in order to avoid evaporation phenomena which, often accompanied by
changes in the surface tension, create additional flow by virtue of the Marangoni effect
(we will be discussing this in Section 8.2.4, which follows).
We estimate the spreading law by assuming that the thickness of the drop is uniform
all over its surface. The dissipation of energy through viscosity must, at every instant
296 Quasi-Parallel Flows – Lubrication Approximation

of time, correspond to the change in potential energy of the drop which has the value:
(d/dt)[(π/2)ρ g rg2 h2 ]. Moreover, the volume = π rg2 h of the drop is constant. We thus have,
using Equations 8.60a to evaluate the viscous dissipation, the following energy balance:

d π 3 drg 2 rg2
ρ g rg2 h2 = – η π · (8.61)
dt 2 2 dt h
We can evaluate rg (t), in the same manner, but
with more precise coefficients, by assuming that Let us now substitute for h its value as a function of and rg . We then obtain:
the thickness h(r, t) of the film is no longer ex- 3 1
actly constant as a function of the distance from drg 2 3 ρ g 8 16 ρ g t 8
the axis, but is described by a self-similar pro- rg7 = , (8.62) so that: rg (t) = . (8.63)
dt 3 π3 η π 3 η
file; more precisely, it must satisfy a relation
of the type h(r, t) = h(0, t) f (r/rg (t)) in which
In this way, we then predict (assuming that the radius of the drop is zero at time t = 0), a
rg2 (t) h(0, t) is constant with time in order to
keep constant the liquid volume, and f (x) = 0 growth of the drop as t 1/8 , instead of t1/10 in the previous case. This result is in agreement
for x > 1. with the growth at long times, which we observe on the curves in Figure 8.12.
The spreading behavior as t 1/8 and t 1/10 represents two limiting cases, applicable to drops
spreading under conditions of complete wetting. Other types of spreading behavior (as t 1/4 )
are observed for flow on a rotating plate, or on some surfaces with roughness. Adapting
these models to the geometries and properties of more complex fluids has very important
applications to the spreading of decorative or protective coatings. Another important prac-
tical problem, which we will not discuss here, is the appearance of interfacial instabilities
in flowing films, which can be brought on by deformations, often very significant, of the
contact line, or by changes in the depth.

8.2.4 Flows resulting from surface-tension

gradients: the Marangoni effect
Principle of the Marangoni effect
Gradients in the surface tension due to changes in temperature or in the concentration of
solutes (e.g., affecting surface tension) can create surface stresses and cause fluid motion.
Fluid flow resulting from such stresses is known as the Marangoni effect; this is also known
as the thermo-capillary effect when it results from temperature gradients.
Thus, if a layer of water covers a surface, and a piece of soap touches a point on that
γ = γ0 γ = γ0 surface, we see this part of the surface “drying out” (Figure 8.14): the surface tension is
indeed locally reduced and the forces due to surface tension become unbalanced. We thus
γ < γ0O have flow toward the neighboring regions where the surface tension is unchanged (this can
be visualized by the motion of dust particles initially present on the surface).
Such motion of the fluid can also be due to variations in the temperature T from one
Figure 8.14 Deformation of a fluid layer
point to another of a liquid-air or liquid-liquid interface. As shown in Section 1.4.1, the
by the local addition of a small amount of
surface tension coefficient depends on temperature according to an equation which, for
tensioactive product
moderate changes in temperature, takes on the linear form:

γ (T ) = γ (T0 ) (1 – b (T – T0 )). (8.64)

A temperature gradient parallel to the surface of a liquid causes a tangential stress on it

(Figure 8.15 below). Along a strip of width δx, the surface tension forces are no longer
in balance. The resultant force is directed toward the regions of lower temperature.
Corresponding to a temperature gradient dT/dx, there is a surface-tension gradient equal to:

dγ dγ dT dT
= = –b γ (T0 ) . (8.65)
dx dT dx dx
Flow of liquid films having a free surface: hydrodynamics of wetting 297

–F11 F2 2

T2 x
T1 (>T2 ) Figure 8.15 The appearance of tensile
γ1 γ2 stresses at the free surface of a liquid as a
L result of a horizontal temperature gradient

δx

(γ )
This gradient causes a stress σxy , in the x-direction, on the surface element L δx, where:

F2 – F1 (γ2 – γ1 )L dγ dT
σxy(γ ) = = = = –b γ (T0 ) . (8.66)
L δx L δx dx dx

(γ )
The negative sign appearing in σxy indicates the fact that the resultant tension (and the
flow that results from it) acts in the direction of lower temperature.

Flow created in a horizontal liquid layer by a temperature gradient

(γ )
The stress σxy on the interface due to the surface-tension gradient will generate a flow of
(η)
velocity vx ( y) which, in turn, will induce a viscous friction stress σxy = –η (∂vx /∂y) at the
interface. For a free, plane, gas-liquid interface, the total tangential stress must vanish so
(γ ) (η)
that the stresses σxy and σxy must balance each other. We then have:

dT ∂υx
σxy
(γ )
+ σxy
(η)
= –b γ (T0 ) –η = 0. (8.67)
dx ∂y interface

Let us now calculate the resultant flow-profile in a fluid film bounded from below by a solid
horizontal plane y = 0, of average thickness a, and extending infinitely in the z-direction
(Figure 8.16). We assume, as in the previous sections, that the flow is one-dimensional, the
only non-zero component being vx ( y).
The pressure gradient in the y-direction satisfies: (∂p/∂y) = –ρg. Let us assume that,
at the onset, the upper surface is perfectly horizontal, that the density of the fluid is not

y dγ dT
>0 dx < 0
a dx
h(x) Figure 8.16 Velocity profile within a
finite-length fluid film, in the presence of a
υx(y)
horizontal temperature gradient, which
causes a recirculating flow due to the
Marangoni effect. The pressure gradient
resulting from the parabolic velocity profile
causes a deformation of the free upper surface

x
298 Quasi-Parallel Flows – Lubrication Approximation

a function of temperature, and that this density is uniform throughout the depth h. The
pressure satisfies everywhere the equation:

p = patm + ρ g (a – y). (8.68)

The pressure is then independent of x and the x-component of the equation of motion
reduces to:
∂ 2 vx
η = 0. (8.69)
∂y2

The velocity vx then varies linearly with y, just as for simple shear flow. Making use of
Equations 8.67, we find:

b γ(T0 ) dT
vx ( y) = – y. (8.70)
η dx
In a real situation, the film is of finite length in the x-direction. As a result, the fluid piles
upon the side towards which the flow is directed leading to a gradient in the thickness h(x)
of the film. Let dh/dx be the slope of the free surface (dh/dx 1); the flow remains quasi
one-dimensional and the vertical pressure gradient is still equal to –ρg. The only effect of
the slope in the surface is thus to induce a horizontal pressure gradient ρg(dh/dx). Under
stationary conditions, the latter creates a subsurface counterflow which exactly compensates
the shear flow near the surface, to give a zero net-flow rate. The profile of the interface then
satisfies the condition:

3b γ (T0 ) dT
h2 (x) – h2 (x0 ) = – (x – x0 ). (8.71)
ρg dx

The phenomenon we have just described can be easily observed by bringing the tip of a hot
soldering iron near a water surface; a dip can be seen in the surface just below the tip.

Proof
The equation of motion corresponding to the overall stationary state can be written:

∂ 2 vx dh
η =ρg .
∂y2 dx

Integrating, with the conditions:

h(x) ρg dh y2 y h
vx ( y) dy = 0 and: vx (0) = 0, we obtain: vx = – . (8.72)
0 η dx 2 3

This flow is therefore a superposition of a shear flow and a Poiseuille flow. We can find the
value of dh/dx by using again the condition of Equations 8.67 for the surface stress, thus:

dh 3 b γ (T0 ) dT
h =– . (8.73)
dx 2 ρg dx

Equation 8.71 results from this, by integration.

Surface-tension gradients resulting from temperature differences are the basis of numer-
ous hydrodynamic instabilities. Among the best-known of these is the Bénard-Marangoni
instability of a horizontal fluid layer with a free surface, heated from below. We will discuss
Flow of liquid films having a free surface: hydrodynamics of wetting 299

in more detail, in Section 11.3.1, this phenomenon which causes the appearance of a hex-
agonal lattice of convection cells. We also observe the rise of a liquid film when we dip a
vertical plate, heated at the top, into the liquid. Finally, liquid drops begin to move if they
are placed on a plate or on a wire where there exists a temperature gradient.
In industrial applications, flow resulting from surface gradients of thermal origin can
have significant practical importance. For example, this occurs in the case of very pure
single crystals produced by cooling in the presence of temperature-gradients: defects can
appear because of this flow. The motion of bubbles resulting from such gradients can also
greatly influence thermal transfer for boiling occurring along a heated wall.

Marangoni effect resulting from changes in the chemical composition

We can cause changes in the surface tension of a fluid by adding tensioactive compounds:
one example is that of the amphiphilic molecules that we mentioned in Section 1.4.1, which
can significantly reduce the surface tension when they are present along an interface. A con-
centration gradient of such molecules along a gas-liquid or liquid-liquid interface leads to a
surface tension gradient which will result in Marangoni flow.
A spectacular example of this is the phenomenon of “wine legs” or “tears of wine” which
can be seen in a glass partly filled with wine having a sufficiently high alcohol content.
Swirling the glass creates a liquid film along the walls, above the surface of the wine. We see
the liquid film rise, first creating a bulge near the top, followed by the appearance of droplets
which fall regularly downward after a certain amount of time.
This phenomenon is the result of the decrease in surface tension of a water-alcohol
solution (the wine!), as the concentration of alcohol increases. The evaporation of the al-
cohol from the liquid film leads to an increase in its surface tension, and causes the rise of
the fluid film above the free surface where the surface tension is unchanged. In the bulge,
the evaporation diminishes and the gradients in the surface tension can no longer balance
the effects of gravity on the droplets, which fall in “tears of wine”, also called “wine legs”
(Figure 8.17).
We have seen at the beginning of this section the example of putting a small amount of
soap on a thin, horizontal layer of water: the water “dessicates” because the surface tension
is highly decreased at this point, and all of the liquid is pulled toward other regions. This
phenomenon is found to have practical applications in the drying of certain fragile and very
expensive objects, such as the disks (wafers) of silicon used in microelectronic applications
(in this last case, the process involves blowing alcohol vapor or a similar compound).

Figure 8.17C (a) Top view of the rise of

a liquid along the walls of a glass due to
the Marangoni effect, and of the fall of the
(a) (b)
liquid with a lower alcohol concentration in
the form of “teardrops” or “wine legs.” (b)
Close-up side view of a model experiment
which displays this phenomenon. One pulls
α
a plate inclined at an angle α relative to
the horizontal from the water-alcohol mix-
ture: this creates on the plate a fluid film
which drops back as legs or teardrops. The
narrower transverse ridges correspond to a
“teardrop” different flow instability (documents courtesy
of J. Bush and P. Hosoi, MIT)
300 Quasi-Parallel Flows – Lubrication Approximation

8.3 Falling liquid cylindrical jet

Q In every example discussed so far in this chapter, the flow occurred in the presence of one or
more walls: in the stationary flow regime, forces due to gravity or to the pressure gradients
could then be balanced by the viscous stresses on the wall(s).
2 a0 This is no longer the case when we have a free jet flowing from an opening, as shown
in Figure 8.18. The viscous shear stress σzr
at the free surface of the jet (r = a(z)) can, in

this case, be considered to be negligible: this leads to the conclusion that the radial gradient
r, υ of the velocity component vz also vanishes near the surface (Section 4.3.2, Equation 4.37).
z , υz The absence of this viscous shear stress component σzr
which might otherwise cause radial

changes in the velocity of the jet leads us to assume that vz is independent of r.

Even if the cross-section of the jet changes slowly with distance, and the flow is quasi-
parallel, the assumptions of the lubrication approximation must be entirely revised: this
ρ,η,γ
approximation was indeed based on the existence of equilibrium between the shear stresses
and either the pressure gradients or gravity.
Other viscous terms which we have so far neglected relative to σxr
need to be taken

into account: these are, specifically, the diagonal components of the viscous shear tensor
2 a1 which oppose the stretching of the jet as the fluid velocity changes in the x-direction. In the
present case, the components which have to be taken into account include: σ zz
= 2 η ∂v /∂z
z

= 2 η ∂v /∂r (Chapter 4, appendix 4A.2).
and σ rr r

Figure 8.18 Jet of viscous fluid falling from 8.3.1 Stable flow regime
an orifice. The jet falls onto a plane at the bot- Equations of motion
tom of the figure, which leads to the observed
In the one-dimensional model discussed here, the change in the cross-section A(z) = π a2 (z)
coiling; this coiling is not discussed here, and
and the velocity vz (z) of the jet satisfy the following equation of motion proven below:
we will interest ourselves only in the straight

portion of the jet (image courtesy of N. Ribe) ∂vz (z) ∂a(z) ∂ ∂vz (z)
ρg A(z) = ρA(z) vz (z) + πγ – 3η A(z) . (8.74)
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z

This equation of motion expresses the fact that the force of gravity is balanced by a
combination of three terms:

• the inertial term, indicating the acceleration of the fluid along its trajectory;
• the change in the z-direction of the capillary pressure;
• viscous stresses related to the lengthening of the jet in the z-direction, to the decrease
of its cross-section and to the resulting change in velocity.

Proof
Let us integrate with respect to r the condition of incompressibility ∇·v = 0 in cylindrical
coordinates (Chapter 4, appendix 4A.2), taking into account the finite velocity vr at r = 0
and the fact that vz , and thus its gradient ∂vz /∂z, are not functions of r. We then obtain:

r ∂vz
υr = – , (8.75)
2 ∂z
∂vr ∂vz σ

from which we infer: σrr

= 2η =– η = – zz . (8.76)
∂r ∂z 2
In order to ensure that the jet is in mechanical equilibrium in the transverse direction, we
must have p – σrr
independent of r. Since, from Equations 8.76, σrr
must be independent of
Falling liquid cylindrical jet 301

r, the same needs to be true regarding the pressure. On the other hand, if p is the pressure
inside the fluid at the level of the interface, we must also have:
γ γ ∂vz
p – σrr
= patm + , i.e.: p = patm + –η . (8.77)
a(z) a(z) ∂z

We assume, moreover, that the flow is stationary; the rate of flow Q of the fluid in the jet is:

Q = π a2 (z) υz (z) = A(z) υz(z) (8.78)

must be constant as a function of z and of t in order to ensure the conservation of mass

(A(z) is the cross-section of the jet at the distance z). Let us now write Equation 5.10 for
the conservation of momentum in a slice of the jet located between the cross-sections z and
z + δz:

!z+δz
ρ g A δz = ρ Q vz (z) + ( p(z) – patm )A(z) – σzz A(z) z . (8.79)

Rewriting this equation in differential form, and using Equations 8.75, 8.77 and 8.78, we
obtain Equation 8.74.

We assume, first of all, that the change in capillary pressure has a negligible effect, and
we will look for the laws involving changes in the two limiting cases, where either the inertial
term or the viscous term dominate.

Inertial regime

∂vz
Equation 8.74 reduces to: g = vz ,
∂z

so that, by integration: υz2 (z) – υz0

2
= 2 gz. (8.80)

We recognize that this is the change in velocity with distance of an object in free fall: this
is a logical result since the only frictional forces are of viscous origin, and, here, we assume
they are negligible. When υz (z) υz0 the velocity thus increases as the square root of the
√
distance (vz (z) = 2 g z).

Viscous regime

∂ ∂vz (z)
Equation 8.74 becomes: ρ g A(z) = –3 η A(z) . (8.81)
∂z ∂z

From this, we infer the following variations of the flow velocity and the cross-section, as
functions of z:
g 6ν Q
vz (z) = (z – zi )2 (8.82a) and A(z) = (z – zi )–2 . (8.82b)
6ν g

We can then determine zi (< 0) from the value vz0 of the flow velocity at z = 0. For υz υz0 ,
the velocity increases as the square of the distance (vz = g z2 /6ν).
302 Quasi-Parallel Flows – Lubrication Approximation

Proof
For an injection orifice of diameter d, this Gravity is compensated, in the present case, by the viscous stresses resulting from the
self-similar power-law solution is only valid far stretching of the jet. Let us assume that, as in the previous situation, vz has a power-law
downstream of the orifice, when the cross-
dependence on z or, more precisely, on (z – zi ), where zi is an arbitrary origin so that
section A(z) of the jet is small compared to
its initial value πd 2 /4. Combining this condi- vz = Cη (z – zi )α : this implies that A = (Q/Cη ) (z – zi )–α . Inserting this into Equations 8.81,
tion with Equation 8.82a, we obtain: z – zi
we obtain (z – zi )2–α = 3 ν η Cη /g, which requires α = 2 and Cη = g/6ν . This leads to

(24 / π) ν Q/(d 2 g) . Equations 8.82a and 8.82b.

Transition from the viscous to the inertial regime

The viscous regime is found in the start-up phase where the viscous forces maintain a low
flow velocity. Subsequently, the inertial effects take over.
Let us evaluate, in the viscous regime and where υz υz0 (z zi ), the change with
distance in the inertial and viscous terms in Equation 8.74, by means of Equations 8.82a
and 8.82b. We find:

∂vz ρ Qgz ∂ ∂vz 6ηQ
ρ A vz (8.83a) and: –3η A . (8.83b)
∂z 3ν ∂z ∂z z2

The ratio of the inertial to the viscous term is thus of the order of g z3 /(18 ν 2 ): the inertial
term increases with the distance while the viscous term decreases (because of the decrease
of A(x)). The distance zc corresponding to the transition (ratio of the order of unity) is then:
1/3
We find Equation 8.84b by writing Equation 18 ν 2
8.82a for z = zc , assuming vz vz0 , and then zc ∼
= (8.84a) from which we infer: υz (zc ) zc ∼
= 3 ν. (8.84b)
multiplying both sides by zc 2 . g

In order for the viscous regime to extend throughout the length of the jet, we must have
zc ≥ L: in the limit zc = L, we then have: vL L ∼ = 3 ν. The Reynolds number ReL = vL L/ν,
This condition is much stricter than that for the based on the length of the jet must be at most of the order of unity.
lubrication approximation, for flow in the pres- Even for a slow change of radius as a function of the distance (quasi-parallel flow), the
ence of a wall, which here would be vL a0 /ν <
1/θ ≈ L/a0 ; this is equivalent to ReL < (L/a0 )2
viscous terms will only be dominant, in a real situation, if we use very viscous fluids in order,
where (L/a0 )2 1. This result reflects the much from Equation 8.84a, to satisfy the condition zc ≥ L.
smaller values of the viscous terms in the absence In the case of water (ν ≈ 10–6 m2 /s), one finds zc ≈ 0.12 mm which makes any exper-
of a wall: these terms then result uniquely from
imental observation extremely difficult. In order to reach a value of the order of 0.1 m we
the stretching of the jet, which leads to longitudi-
nal and transverse flow-velocity gradients which need a viscosity around 2.5 × 10–2 m2 /s, i.e., about 25,000 times the viscosity of water.
are much smaller than for a shear flow in the
presence of a wall.
8.3.2 Capillary effects and Rayleigh-Plateau
instability of the jet
Until now, we have neglected surface-tension effects in the flow of vertical jets. In fact,
for very viscous fluids, the flow described just above remains stable. On the other hand, for
liquids with low viscosity, such as water, the effect of surface tension can lead to an instability
and to the formation of drops; we can easily observe this by looking at the evolution, as a
function of distance, of a jet of water, originally cylindrical (Figures 8.19a,b).
In order to explain this instability, known as the Rayleigh-Plateau instability, let us cal-
culate the changes in the capillary pressure resulting from a deformation of the external
surface of an originally cylindrical jet of liquid. When no deformation is present, the cap-
illary pressure difference pcap between the inside of the jet and the (constant) atmospheric
pressure pat outside satisfies p0cap = γ /R0 . Let us assume now that the jet remains axially
Falling liquid cylindrical jet 303

symmetric, and that its local radius, R(z) is modulated sinusoidally in the z-direction of its
axis (Figure 8.19b): ρ,γ pat+ pat
∆pcap
R (z, t) = R0 + h (t) cos kz. (8.85)

Here, we assume that the velocity profile in the jet is uniform and we study the deformations
in a reference frame moving at the corresponding (gravity is assumed to have no influence
on the instability). We also assume that h(t) R0 and that the slope of the interface remains
small (dR/ dz 1). The variation pcap (z, t) = pcap (z, t) – p0cap of the capillary pressure
difference due to the deformation is: λ =2π/k
r
O
1
pcap (z, t) = γ h(t) cos kz k2 – 2 . (8.86)
R0 R(z,t)

h(t)
Justification
The pressure difference pcap (z) is determined from the Young-Laplace law (Equation 1.58),
in terms of the sum of the contributions of the two radii of curvature R1 and R2 of the jet
R0
surface respectively in planes containing and perpendicular to the axis. We then obtain:
z (b)
1 1 ∂ 2 R(z, t) 1 (a)
pcap (z, t) = γ + =γ – +
R1 R2 ∂z2 R(z, t)
(8.87) Figure 8.19C Destabilization, by the

1 Rayleigh-Plateau mechanism, of a vertical
= γ k2 h(t) cos kz + ,
R0 + h(t) cos kz cylindrical liquid jet. a) experimental obser-
vation of the development of the instability,
Expanding the last term on the right-hand side in terms of h/R0 and substracting p0cap , we followed by the formation of drops (document
obtain Equation 8.86. courtesy of J. Aristoff and J. Bush, MIT);
b) Schematic diagram for the development of
the instability
When k2 – 1/R20 < 0, pcap becomes negative in the regions where R(x) > R0 (cos kz > 0)
and, in contrast, positive for R(z) < R0 (cos kz < 0). Since the pressure inside the non-
deformed jet is constant (and equal to pat + γ /R0 ), the pressure in the regions where the
radius of the jet increases due to the deformation will be larger than in those where it de-
creases. The flow resulting from these pressure differences thus reinforces the instability.
The absolute amplitude of these pressure changes is greatest when |k| 1/R0 and decreases
when k approaches 1/R0 .
This larger value of the changes in capillary pressure as a function of z for long-
wavelength deformations might seem paradoxical: capillary effects generally increase indeed
with the curvature of the interfaces. But, here, the contribution to the Young-Laplace law of
the curvature in planes containing the axis (k2 term in Equations 8.86) stabilizes the inter-
face; it is the curvature in the planes normal to the axis which is destabilizing (term varying
as –1/R20 ). It is thus logical that the destabilising capillary pressure is highest when the first
term almost vanishes, for k → 0.
On the other hand, the change as a function of k of the rate of increase σ does not
depend only on pcap but also on the fact that the time for transfering matter between the
regions of smaller and larger radii acts over a distance of the order of a half wavelength: the
decrease in this distance as k increases must then, to the contrary, lead to an increase in σ .
The approximate estimate of σ (carried out below) for an inertial flow:

σ 2 ∝ k2 R20 1 – k2 R02 (8.88)
304 Quasi-Parallel Flows – Lubrication Approximation

combines these two effects. This rate √ of increase is only positive if k < 1/R0 (unstable case),
and has a maximum when k = 1/(R0 2) ≈ 0.7/R0 : this value is quite close to that experi-
mentally observed, and corresponds to a wavelength of 1.4 times the perimeter of the jet.
This last result is applicable to numerous instabilities which display a range of unstable
wavelengths: the dominant instability is that of the wavelength for which the rate of growth
is a maximum. Moreover, the simple model which we discuss here takes no account of the
effects of the viscosity or of the average flow rate.

For highly viscous fluids, the Rayleigh-Plateau Justification of Equation 8.88

instability can still be observed, because the In the cases for which the instability is best visible (fluids with small viscosity), we are gen-
changes in the capillary pressure related to the
deformations of the interface (Equation 8.86) erally in an inertial regime for which the effect of viscosity can be neglected: the acceleration
remain the same. In contrast, Equation 8.88 ∂vz /∂t of the fluid is then proportional to the pressure gradient in the z-direction. Assuming
is no longer valid because the development of that this pressure gradient is uniform over the cross-section and equal to the capillary-
the instability then results from the equilibrium
between the capillary and the viscous forces. pressure gradient, and that the velocity is also uniform, we have: ρ ∂vz /∂t ≈ –∂pcap /∂z.
Using Equation 8.86 to estimate pcap , the corresponding flow rate Q(z, t) satisfies:

∂Q(z, t) π R02 ∂pcap (z) π γ h(t) R02 1
≈– = sinkz k k2 – 2 . (8.89)
∂t ρ ∂z ρ R0

The conservation of the flow rate of fluid can be written locally for a given z in the form:

dh(t) ∂Q
2π R0 cos kz =– , (8.90)
dt ∂z
The Rayleigh-Plateau instability can also be ob-
served in the case of some, very soft, solids, such where the left-hand side represents the change with time of the cross-section of the jet (again
as gels. All solids are characterized by a surface when h R0 ). Taking the derivatives of Equations 8.89 and 8.90 respectively with respect
energy: in contrast to liquids, the corresponding to z and to t and setting the results equal, we obtain after dividing both sides by 2π R0 h(t)
forces are, however, generally negligible in com-
parison with the elastic forces. Their ratio can cos kz:
be characterized by the length h = γ /E, where γ
is the surface energy and E is Young’s modulus 1 d 2 h(t) γ γ
≈ k2 R20 1 – k2 R02 or: σ2 ≈ k2 R20 (1 – k2 R20 ),
(the ratio of the stress F/S to the resulting rela- h(t) dt 2
2 ρ R0
3
2 ρ R03
tive deformation L/L). For iron, for example, (8.91a) (8.91b)
this length is 3 × 10–13 m and the surface en-
ergy has no significant effect on deformations on assuming that h(t) increases with time as exp(σ t). The exponential growth coefficient σ
this scale. This is no longer the case for gels for
which Young’s modulus has a value of a few Pa then satisfies Equations 8.88. If we take into account the pressure and radial velocity gra-
(instead of ≈ 2 × 1011 Pa for iron): the length h is dients, we obtain a similar result, where the factor k2 R20 /2 is replaced by a function f (kR0 )
then a few mm. Surface-tension forces are then whose maximum corresponds to k = 0.697/R0 , remarkably close to the value obtained from
sufficently great to result in a Rayleigh-Plateau
instability (but, in contrast, the elastic forces can
the simple approximation above.
prevent the breaking up into droplets).

h(φ,t)
.........................................................................................
q patm
φ EXERCISES
In the following exercises, the lubrication approximation (see Section 8.1.2) is assumed to
be valid and the thickness of the liquid films is assumed to vary slowly with distance parallel
to the flow.
R
1) Flow of a fluid layer around a horizontal cylinder
g A horizontal circular cylinder of radius R and axis along z (see in the margin), is coated
ρ,ν externally by a layer of a Newtonian fluid of initial thickness h0 R constant with re-
spect to the coordinates z and ϕ (using cylindrical coordinates r,ϕ,z). This represents,
Falling liquid cylindrical jet 305

for instance, the painting of a tube by means of a brush: we are interested in the sub-
sequent flow of the paint leading to azimuthal variations of its thickness. Show that the
influence of the pressure gradients on the flow is negligible compared to that of grav-
ity. Using the procedure of Section 8.2.1, compute the flow rate q(ϕ,t) per unit length
along z through a cross-section ϕ = constant as a function of h(ϕ,t) and the viscosity ν.
Both h and q are assumed to remain independent of z. Show that the equation govern-
ing the variation of the thickness h(ϕ, t) is: ∂h/∂t = –gh2 /(3νR) (3∂h/∂ϕ sin ϕ + h cos ϕ).
Neglecting surface tension effects, compute, for a constant viscosity ν, the variations
h(ϕ, t)/h0 at the top and the bottom of the tube (ϕ = 0 and ϕ = π), using the character-

istic flow time constant τf = 3 ν R/ 2 g h20 . Compute then h(ϕ,t)/h0 for ϕ = 0 and ϕ = π
when ν increases exponentially with time as ν = ν0 exp(t / τd ) (in order to simulate the
drying of the paint). What is the thickness variation at times short or long compared to
τ d depending on the relative values of τ d and τ f ?

2) Spin coating

z Ω
h(r,t) patm

υr(r,z,t)
O r

In the “spin coating technique”, in order to obtain a thin layer of constant thickness
of viscous fluid an initially thicker layer is placed over a horizontal disk rotating at a
constant angular velocity around the z-axis. Neglecting surface tension and gravity,
show that the flow rate q(r) through a cylinder of radius r and axis Oz, higher than the
$
maximum of the thickness h(r, t) of the layer, is q(r) = 2π 2 r 2 h3 (r, t) 3ν . Write the
relation between ∂h/∂t and q and show that, if h(r, t) is constant with r at a time t, it
remains so thereafter. What is then the variation h(t) for an initial thickness h0 ? What is
the thickness after 10 s and 100 s for = 60 π rad/s, ν = 10–5 m2 /s and h0 = 0.5 mm?

3) Rough sphere dropping away from a plane

z
Oz r
η,ρf

h0 2E

ρs
g a

We generalize the analysis of Section 8.1.6 to a rough sphere of radius a. The roughness
is represented by a distribution of half spheres of radius ε a. The space between the
sphere and the plane is filled by a Newtonian liquid. In contrast to the case of Figure
8.4, the rough sphere is initially below the plane and in contact with it (we assume
that three of the small half spheres are at an atomic distance h0 (0) = h0m ε from the
306 Quasi-Parallel Flows – Lubrication Approximation

plane); the sphere moves away under its weight thereafter. Due to the reversibility of low
Reynolds number flows, the flow velocity field is the opposite, for a same distance from
the plane, of that for a sphere falling towards it. In the early phase of the motion during
which h0 ε, how should equation 8.33 be modified? What becomes of the equation
when ε h0 a? At larger distances h0> a, equations 8.33 must be replaced by the
empirical expression F = – 6π η a 1 + ha dh0 /dt. Show that it is valid for a sphere with
0
smooth walls both for h0 a and h0 a. Show that theequation of motion of the
3 ε 2 dh0
sphere is then 4π 3 a (ρs – ρf )g = 6π η a 1 + h0 (t)+ε + a h0
3 a
dt and that the distance
h0 (t) satisfies the implicit relation:

2a2 h0 (t) + ε 3ε 2 h0 (t)

(ρs – ρf )t = h0 (t) – h0m + a Log + Log .
9η h0m + ε a h0m

We want to use this equation in order to determine the relative roughness ε/a of the
O y sphere by measuring the times ta and t 2a for its move away by distances a and 2a from
the plane (J.R. Smart and D.T. Leighton, 1989). Show that ε/a can be written as a
patm function of solely ta and t 2a .

4) Liquid film draining under gravity along a vertical plate

υx A vertical plate ( y = 0) is dipped into a viscous fluid and then quickly pulled out: it car-
g ries with it a layer of fluid of thickness h(x, t) (x = 0 at the top of the layer) which drains
down due to gravity (surface tension is neglected). Compute the flow rate q per unit
q(x,t)

length along z through a section x = constant (see Section 8.2.1). Show that, because
of the conservation of mass, h(x, t) satisfies the relation ∂h/∂t + (g/ν) h2 (∂h/∂x) = 0.
h(x,t) We assume that, after a transitory phase, the variation of h corresponds to a self-similar
solution: h = f (x / t α ). Determine α and the function f . What is the corresponding
thickness of the film at a distance x = 0.2 m for ν = 10–3 m2 /s and t = 1, 10, 100
η ρ and 104 s?

x 5) Rayleigh-Plateau instability on a cylindrical fiber

r
patm h(t)
ρ,γ patm+∆pcap e0

R0
O
z

λ =2π/k

We examine the instability of a viscous film of initially constant thickness e0 upon a

horizontal cylindrical fiber of radius R0 e0 and axis z. Surface tension and vis-
cosity effects are taken into account while gravity is neglected. The flow along the
film is supposed to be quasi-stationary and controlled by viscosity as in Equation 8.25
and not by inertia as in Section 8.3.2. Assuming a sinewave distorsion of the interface
(e(z) = e0 + h(t) cos k z) and using a relation similar to Equation 8.86, compute the
Falling liquid cylindrical jet 307

pressure p(z) and show that the flow rate Q(z) through a cross-section z = constant
!
is Q(z) = 2π γ k h e30 /(3 η R0 ) (k2 R20 – 1) sin kz. Using this result, write the con-
servation of mass at a distance z and show that the governing equation for h(t) is
!
1/τ (k) = (1/h) (dh/dt) = (k2 e30 γ )/(3 η R02 ) (1 – k2 R02 ). For what value of k does τ (k)
reach its minimum value τ min ? Using the results of Exercise 1, what is the condi-
tion on τ min which must be satisfied by τ min in order for gravity to be negligible, as
assumed above? Compute τ min and the corresponding wavelength for η = 10–1 Pa.s,
γ = 5 × 10–2 N/m, R0 = 0.5 mm and e0 = 20 μm.

6) Liquid film rising due to the Marangoni effect (Section 8.2.4) z

A vertical plate (x = 0) is dipped into a liquid bath of horizontal free surface at z = 0.
A vertical temperature gradient ∂T/∂z < 0 is established on the plate at the origin time
t = 0. It creates a vertical gradient ∂γ /∂z = –b γ (∂T/∂z) of the surface tension which V(h)
causes a liquid film of thickness h(z, t) to move up on the plate. Determine the velocity h(z,t)
profile vz (x) as a function of h and show that the local flow rate q per unit distance along
y is q = σ (γ ) (h2 /2η) – ρg (h3 /3η). What is the value of the stress σ (γ ) on the surface? As υz(x,z,t)
g
the film rises, the point where the thickness h has a given value also moves. Show that
its velocity V is equal to dq/dh and that it is constant with time and depends only on h

q(z,t)
(use the equation of conservation of mass to relate the variations of q and h). What is patm
the geometrical transformation leading from the profile h1 (z) at a time t 1 to h2 (z) at the
time t 2 ? Show that the variation V (h) of the velocity with h displays a maximum. What
O x
are the corresponding thickness hmax and velocity V (hmax ) ? Assuming that h > hmax
h0 η ρ
for z = 0, explain qualitatively why the profile must be cut off (h goes abruptly to zero)
for a value of h which must be larger than hmax .
Flows at Low Reynolds
9 Number

9.1 Flows at small Reynolds number 308

Flows at low Reynolds number are characterized by the dominance of effects due to
9.2 Equation of motion at low the viscosity of the fluid, as opposed to those related to its inertia. The Stokes equation,
Reynolds number 311
which governs such flows, is linear because the non-linear convective term (v·∇)v can
9.3 Forces and torques acting on a be neglected. For parallel flows, which we studied in Chapter 4, this convective term
moving solid body 321 vanishes at all velocities. In Chapter 8, we considered quasi-parallel flows for which
9.4 Constant-velocity motion of a viscous terms continue to dominate, for geometrical reasons, up to fairly high Reynolds
sphere in a viscous fluid 327 numbers, Re. In this chapter, we discuss flows of arbitrary geometry where the small
9.5 Limitations of the Stokes value of the inertial contributions comes from the low value of Re.
description at low Reynolds After several examples of such flows (Section 9.1), we study, in Section 9.2, a
numbers 338 certain number of general properties (reversibility, additivity, minimum dissipation)
9.6 Dynamics of suspensions 341 which result from the linear form of the Stokes equation, and which are at the origin
9.7 Flow in porous media 345 of simple solutions; these properties completely distinguish these flows from those at
high Reynolds numbers. Flows around small objects (or due to the motion of these ob-
jects in a fluid at rest) are an important group of applications which will be discussed
in Section 9.3. Flow around a sphere (the Stokes problem) is an important example,
although its determination is delicate (Section 9.4). In Section 9.5, we examine the cor-
rections needed at large distances when the value of Re becomes of the order of one.
Finally, we will consider the problem of the motion of a group of particles (suspen-
sions, Section 9.6) and that of a fluid flowing through a set of fixed particles (porous
medium, Section 9.7).

9.1 Flows at small Reynolds number

9.1.1 Physical meaning of the Reynolds number
We have introduced in Section 2.3.1 the Reynolds number by means of the equation:

ρUL UL
Re = = , (9.1)
η ν

where U and L are the respective velocity and characteristic length of the flow and ρ, η and
ν are respectively the density, and the dynamic and kinematic viscosities of the fluid. The
Reynolds number can have several physical interpretations:

• The ratio τ ν / τ c of the characteristic times τ ν for the transport of momentum by

viscous diffusion over a distance L (τ ν = L 2 /ν) and τ c for the momentum transport
by convection over the distance L (τ c = L/U ).

Physical Hydrodynamics. Second Edition. Etienne Guyon et al.

• The ratio of the inertial to the viscous terms in the Navier–Stokes equation: In this equation, if the various velocity compo-
nents are of the same order of magnitude, and
the length scales in the different directions as
∂v well (in contrast to the case of parallel or quasi-
ρ + ρ (v · ∇) v = –∇p + ρ f + η ∇ 2 v. (9.2) parallel flows), the inertial terms ρ (v · ∇)v and
∂t the viscous terms η∇ 2 v are respectively of the
order of ρ U 2 /L and ηU /L 2 so that their ratio is
• The ratio of the stresses associated with the inertia of the fluid (ρU 2 ) and with of the order of Re.
the viscous friction (ηU /L).

9.1.2 Examples of flows at low Reynolds number

Flows at low Reynolds number (Re 1), sometimes known as creeping flows, are flows dom-
inated by viscosity, where inertial effects are negligible. Such flows can have quite varied
physical origins, since this number is a combination of three different factors:

Small size of the moving objects or of the flow channels

(The small value of Re is then directly related to that of L):

• The motion of bacteria (with lengths of a few microns). For bacteria with a length
of 3 μm moving at a velocity of 10 μm/s in water (ρ = 103 Kg/m3 , η ≈ 10–3 Pa.s), we
find Re ≈ 3 × 10–5 . (This problem will be discussed in Section 9.3.3). For high flow velocities and materials with large-
size pores, the condition Re 1 will frequently
• Flows in porous and fractured media (Section 9.7) for which the size of the flow not be satisfied in practical situations.
channels is of the order of a few microns or less.
• Microfluidics The technologies of micro-machining and micro-electronics allow
one to engrave interconnected networks of micro-channels with smaller and smaller
openings (again of a few microns or less). This allows one to create devices for
analyzing a very small amount of fluid or for preparing small quantities of phar-
maceutical components with high added-value. Mixing and separation play a very
important role in these devices and have specific characteristics at very low Reynolds
numbers.

Very viscous fluids and / or with low velocity

• Slow movements of the earth’s mantle Re ≈ 10–20 . At depths greater than

100 km, the earth’s mantle can be considered as a Newtonian fluid of density
ρ ≈ 2.1 ×103 Kg/m3 and of viscosity η ≈ 1021 Pa.s. With U ≈ 0.05 m/year (1.5 × 10–9
m/s) and a thickness of the mantle of the order of 2900 km, we get a value of Re of
the order of 10–20 .
• Motion of glaciers Re ≈ 10 – l7 – 10–15 In Figure 9.1: on the next page the motion of Let us assume that L ≈ 1000 m and
U ≈ 0.3 m/year (10–8 m/s). The viscosity of the
the tongue of a glacier is marked by bands of rocks (Forbes’ bands) which have been
ice is quite variable within the range 1013 < η <
deformed as a result of the change in velocity between the edges and the center of 1015 Pa.s with ρ = 103 Kg/m3 . We then obtain
the glacier. In spite of appearances, the profile of the bands is not parabolic (unlike the indicated values of Re.
Poiseuille flow in Section 4.5.3): ice cannot be considered a Newtonian fluid, and,
moreover, the geometry of the flow is complex because the thickness of the layer of
ice is often much smaller than its width.
• Flows of very viscous fluids Let us mention, for example, tars, pastes, plastics
and honey. Some species of heavy oils have, at room temperature, a viscosity several
million times that of water.
310 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

Figure 9.1C Illustration of Forbes’ bands

on the “Mer de Glace” glacier (the top of
Mont Blanc is visible at the back). The shape
of these bands as well as the downstream in-
crease of the amplitude of their deformation
indicate the transverse profile of the flow-
velocity of the glacier (from left to right on
the image), which is considerably smaller near
the edges. The separation between the bands
corresponds to the displacement over a whole
year: they are formed downstream of “seracs”
(fracture zones high up on the glacier) and
indicate the different level of penetration of
solids and dust particles into the ice, depend-
ing on the snow coverage (document, courtesy
of J-F Hagenmuller /[Link])

9.1.3 Some important characteristic

Stopping distance of a moving object
Let us characterize the effect of inertia by the stopping distance ds of an object moving
with an initial velocity U when we suddenly suppress the force which propels it (the op-
posite of the drag force FT ). At low Reynolds numbers, the stopping distance satisfies
ds /L ≈ (ρ S /ρ) Re while, at high Reynolds numbers, we have ds /L ≈ ρ S /ρ (L is the size of
the object, ρ S its density and ρ and η are the density and viscosity of the fluid). The stop-
ping distance is, therefore, very small if Re 1. Thus, when a bacterium a few microns in
size stops its propulsion, its velocity goes to zero in a time of the order of a microsecond,
and it only travels 10–11 m (for the numerical values given in Section 9.1.2)! In contrast, a
boat drifting on its own, after having cut off the engine, travels a distance of the order of its
length.

Proof
At high Reynolds numbers, we can estimate FT by the integral ρ U 2 L 2 of the flux of mo-
mentum ρU 2 over the cross-section S = L 2 of the object in motion. We will find the same
order of magnitude for FT in Chapter 12 for turbulent flows. The mass m of the moving
object is m = ρ S L 3 and its kinetic energy is thus Ek ≈ ρ S U 2 L 3 . The stopping distance ds is
such that the work done by the force FT zeroes out the kinetic energy Ek and thus satisfies
FT ds ≈ Ek . We then find: ds /L ≈ ρ S /ρ.
At low Reynolds numbers, the drag force is purely viscous so that: FT ≈ ηUL
(Section 9.2.4) and the stopping distance ds still satisfies FT ds ≈ Ek ; we then find
ds /L ≈ (ρ S /ρ) Re. The corresponding stopping times are then of the order of ds /U and are
respectively equal to (ρ S /ρ)τ d and (ρ S /ρ)τ c for the cases Re 1 and Re 1. We find here
the characteristic viscous diffusion and convection times (Section 9.1.1) but with an extra
factor (ρ S /ρ).

Mixing at low Reynolds number

Flows at low Reynolds numbers have, like all laminar flows, streamlines which only slowly
evolve with time: there is thus no mixing comparable to that resulting from velocity fluctua-
tions in turbulent flow. The transfer from one streamline to another of the species in solution
Equation of motion at low Reynolds number 311

to be mixed takes only place through transverse molecular diffusion. In a simple flow with Let us look at the example of a flow with char-
arbitrary geometry, this mechanism is efficient only if the Péclet number, Pe = UL/Dm , de- acteristic length L in all directions and with a
characteristic velocity U with Re = UL / ν 1.
fined in Section 2.3.2, is smaller than one. This condition is much more stringent than the Let us assume that we want to mix with the re-
condition Re 1, because, generally, Dm ν (for water and simple solute ions, ν ≈ 10–6 m2 /s maining flow a tracer (dye, chemical compound,
and Dm ≈ 10–9 m2 /s). The ratio Dm /ν is smaller for solute molecules of greater molecular etc.) characterized by a molecular diffusion co-
efficient Dm and initially localized on a stream-
mass as well as for more viscous solvents because Dm ∝ ν –1 for a given solute and a liquid
line. The time required for the tracer to spread
solvent of viscosity ν (the latter relation applies only to simple liquids). For viscous fluids throughout the flow section by diffusion trans-
and large solute molecules, mixing by molecular diffusion is effective only at extremely low verse to the streamlines is τ D ≈ L 2 /Dm : in order
for this mixing to occur during the transit time
velocities.
τ c ≈ L/U of the tracer along the flow, we must
We will discuss, in Section 9.2.3, the strategy of Lagrangian mixing, also called chaotic have τ D < τ c , which leads to the condition Pe < 1.
mixing. It allows one to increase the effectiveness of molecular diffusion by reducing the
thickness of the layers of each fluid by a well-chosen sequence of relative motions of the walls
of the flow. In Section 10.8.3, we will also discuss the similar problem of Taylor dispersion,
this time in a parallel flow, but not necessarily at a low Reynolds number.

9.2 Equation of motion at low

Reynolds number
9.2.1 Stokes equation
As we have seen in Section 9.1.1, a first fundamental characteristic of flows where Re 1
is the fact that one can neglect the inertial term ρ(v · ∇)v of the Navier–Stokes equation
(Equation 9.2) relative to the viscous term η ∇ 2 v.
Another key dimensionless number is the ratio Ntν of the non-stationary term ρ(∂v/∂t) We have already encountered this ratio in
to the viscous term: Section 4.5.4, as well as in Section 8.1.3, in the
discussion of an alternating flow of a fluid be-
tween two planes (in that case, the characteristic
|ρ ∂v / ∂t| ρ L2 L2
Ntν = = = (9.3) time T is the period of the oscillation).
η ∇ v
2 ηT νT

where T is the characteristic time for changes in the velocity.

The restriction of a low Reynolds number implies no assumption about the stationar-
ity of the flow, and thus on the value of Ntν . However, throughout most of this chapter,
we will confine ourselves to flows for which the velocity profiles are quasi-stationary and
where Nt ν is also very small compared to one. This indicates that, during the time T, the
changes in velocity can propagate by viscous diffusion through a distance much larger than The equation 9.4 derived from the Navier-
the characteristic length L of the flow. Under these conditions, the term ρ ∂v/∂t of the equa- Stokes equation, assumes that the flow is incom-
pressible. At high Reynolds numbers, we have
tion of motion can be considered negligible. By combining the previous assumptions, the seen in Section 3.3.2 that this assumption is valid
Navier–Stokes equation becomes: only if U c (c is the velocity of sound, equal
to 1/(χρ)1/2 where the compressibility χ of the
fluid equals –(1/V ) (∂V /∂p)). At low Reynolds
∇p – ρ f = ∇ (p – p0 ) = η∇ 2 v (9.4)
numbers, we will see in Section 9.2.4 that the
pressure differences δp resulting from the flow
The external force f per unit mass can be written in the form f = (1/ρ) (∇p0 ), in the frequent are of the order of ηU /L (instead of ρU 2 for
Re 1). The corresponding changes in vol-
case where it is the derivative of a potential function; when f corresponds to the acceleration
ume δV /V are thus (in absolute magnitude) of
g due to gravity, ∇p0 represents the gradient of the hydrostatic pressure. the order of χηU /L which we can write in the
We do not usually need to consider these volume forces in cases where there is no energy form χηU 2 /Re = (U 2 /c2 )/Re. The incompressi-
√
exchange with the flow. The term ∇p0 = ρ g h is, in this case, taken into account implicitly bility condition thus becomes: U c Re. This
is much more stringent, and can be difficult to
in the variable p. Equation 9.4 then takes on the form known as the Stokes equation: satisfy when the Reynolds numbers are very low,
as we have mentioned for the case of the motion
of the earth’s mantle.
∇p = η∇ 2 v (9.5)
312 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

9.2.2 Some equivalent forms of the Stokes equation

The Stokes equation (Equation 9.5) can be written in a more general form which uses the
components σij of the surface stresses in the fluid. Recalling Equation 4.7:

σij = σ ij
– p δij

where σ ij
is the viscosity stress tensor, such that ∂σ ij
/∂xj = η ∇ 2 vi . Equation 9.5 thus
becomes:

∂σij
=0 first form (9.6)
∂xj

This equation is applicable to non-Newtonian fluids. We have seen in Section 7.1 that it is
possible to describe these flows in terms of their vorticity field ω = ∇ × v, rather than of their
velocity field v. For flows at low Reynolds number, using the incompressibility condition
∇ · v = 0 and the vector identity:

∇× (∇×A) = ∇ (∇·A) – ∇ 2 A (9.7)

which holds for any arbitrary vector field A, Equation 9.5 can then be written in the form:

The equations of motion used in Chapters 4 and ∇p = –η (∇×ω) second form (9.8)
8 to determine parallel, and quasi-parallel, quasi-
stationary flows are specific forms of the Stokes
equation where the velocity appears only in one
This equation implies specifically that:
of the components and the others reduce to
hydrostatic equilibrium. The disappearance of ∇2 p = 0 (9.9)
the inertial terms is, in Chapters 4 and 8, re-
lated to the geometry of the flow and not to the
value of Re. By taking the curl of Equation 9.8, the left-hand term vanishes. If we then apply the identities
from Equation 9.7 and use the general vector identity ∇ · (∇×ω) = 0, we obtain:

∇2ω = 0 third form (9.10)

This equation is a specific case of the equation of evolution of vorticity derived in Chapter 7
(Equations 7.41 and 7.42) for the case of a stationary flow at low Reynolds number. The
transport of the vorticity by viscous diffusion was represented there by the term η ∇ 2 ω. The
physical interpretation of Equation 9.10 is thus that, in a stationary flow at low Reynolds
number, no diffusion of vorticity occurs: this is related to the fact that the velocity gradients
have reached an equilibrium.

9.2.3 Properties of the solutions of the Stokes

equation
Uniqueness
In a flow channel, and for given boundary conditions (at infinity or, at finite distances, at the
boundary of solid walls), the Stokes equation has a unique solution. This essential property
is a consequence of the linearity of the equation. On the other hand, for the flow of a real
fluid at a sufficiently high Reynolds number, there exist an infinite number of solutions of
the Navier–Stokes equation, and they evolve with time. The non-linear convective terms
and the presence of vorticity are at the origin of the multiplicity of such solutions and of
their evolution.
Equation of motion at low Reynolds number 313

Proof
Let us assume that there exist two velocity fields v(r) and v
(r) which are solutions of the
Stokes equation and which satisfy the same boundary conditions at the walls and at infinity.
Let us first show that all the derivatives of the components satisfy everywhere:

∂vi ∂v

= i (9.11)
∂xj ∂xj

It is then sufficient to integrate relative to xj in order to show that vi = vi

. In order to prove
Equation 9.11 for arbitrary i and j, we will establish that:
2
∂vi ∂v
i
– dV = 0 (9.12)
∂xj ∂xj

(we sum over all i and j and the integral is evaluated over the volume which bounds the
flow). We can then write:
2
∂υi ∂υi
∂ ∂υi ∂υi

– dV = υi – υi
– dV
∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj

– υi – υi
∇ 2 υi – ∇ 2 υi
dV

The first term on the right-hand side of this equation can be transformed into a surface
integral which vanishes because vi = vi
on the walls. By using Stokes’ equation, the right-
hand term can be written:

1 ∂p ∂p
1 ∂ !
υi – υi
– dV = υi – υi
p – p
dV
η ∂xi ∂xi η ∂xi

1 ∂
– p – p
υi – υi
dV .
η ∂xi

The first term on the right-hand side of this equality vanishes because it can also be trans-
formed into a surface integral which is zero because vi = vi
on the walls. The second term
also vanishes because ∇·v = ∇·v
= 0. The identity (Equation 9.12) and, consequently, the
uniqueness of the velocity field are thus shown.

Reversibility
Reversibility is a direct consequence of the linearity of the Stokes equation. Let us assume
that we have a known velocity field v(x, y, z), a solution of the equation that corresponds
to a pressure field p(x, y, z) ; –v(x, y, z) will also be a solution provided that we change
the sign of the pressure gradients, as well as the velocity at every point of the solid walls.
Equation 9.5 is still satisfied because its two terms are replaced by their opposites and the
boundary conditions are correctly altered. The uniqueness of the solutions thus ensures that
we are indeed talking about the same velocity field. It is worth mentioning that, if it is the
gradient of the hydrostatic pressure which drives the flow, the direction of the acceleration
of gravity g must also be inverted.

Experimental evidence of the reversibility A classical experiment illustrated by the

series of images in Figure 9.2 below uses two coaxial cylinders, with the space between the
cylinders filled with a very viscous fluid. A drop of dye of size comparable to the distance
314 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

Figure 9.2 Experiment displaying the re-

versibility of flows at low Reynolds number;
(a) initial situation; (b) after one turn of the
(a) (b)
inner cylinder in a clockwise direction; (c)
after a turn and a quarter; (d) return to
the initial position (images provided by the
authors)

between the cylinders is locally injected into the fluid. The inner cylinder is then rotated
very slowly: the particles of dye located near the cylinder follow exactly its motion, while
those near the outer cylinder remain almost motionless. The spot of dye spreads along the
whole perimeter of the space between the cylinders and, if we move through several turns,
becomes virtually invisible because of its spreading. We then stop the rotation and reverse
its direction, again at a very low velocity. The velocity at the solid walls, as well as the
resulting forces, are thus inverted, so that the velocities of the particles of dye, according to
the reversibility principle, become opposite to the previous ones and these particles follow
the same trajectory in the opposite direction. After the cylinder has been turned by the
same total angle as in the initial maneuver, every particle of dye returns to its inital position
and the spot reappears with a geometry close to that at the start ! It is only the molecular
diffusion of the dye which is not reversible and, as a result, causes the spot to spread slightly.
If we had used a less viscous fluid or had worked with a greater rotational speed, so that the
non-linear terms in (v · ∇)v are not negligible, the dye would have been mixed by the effects
of the velocity gradients of the vortices which may then appear, and its dispersion would
have been irreversible.

Chaos and Lagrangian mixing We do, however, have flows at small Reynolds num-
bers for which the preceeding reversibility property does not apply. This is the case in the
experiment described above, when the two cylinders are not coaxial and when we turn them
Equation of motion at low Reynolds number 315

alternately in opposite directions through different, specific angles. Figure 9.3 shows that a
spot of dye initially localized can then be spread over a large section of the surface in the
form of multiple sheet-like layers. UV light
In this type of flow, the trajectories followed by the dye display angular points (known as
hyperbolic points) at the moment when the rotation switches from one cylinder to the other.
At the location of these points, the trajectories are very sensitive to infinitesimal changes in Initial spot Observation
the position of the particles. Thus, after a certain number of cycles, two particles of dye that of dye point
were intially very close end up by following very different trajectories and separating signif-
icantly. In such a case we would not, in practical terms, have reversibility of this spreading R2 OO' R1
process, even if we reproduced precisely in the opposite direction the entire sequence of
rotations. The least error would indeed be amplified and prevent a return to the initial con-
figuration, even if the instantaneous flow still remains reversible. This result is in contrast to
the case of coaxial cylinders, where the trajectories are circular, and thus have no hyperbolic
points.
This phenomenon has been called Lagrangian chaos because the trajectories in real space
have properties similar to those which describe, in the phase space, the chaotic behavior of
a dynamical system (in phase space, the coordinates are not those of ordinary space, but are
the variables which characterize the state of the system). (a)
Such flows make mixing also much easier, even when Re < 1 and Pe > 1. Using the same
approach as in Section 9.1.3, the time necessary in order to obtain mixing by transverse
diffusion between the layers shown in Figure 9.3 will be e2 /Dm where e is the distance
between layers: this value is much smaller than the time L2 /Dm corresponding to the dif-
fusion over the global size L of the flow. This type of mixing is frequently called chaotic
mixing.
Let us now examine some of the consequences of reversibility.

Symmetry of the flow around a body displaying a plane of symmetry We assume

that we have a motionless body with three finite dimensions, which displays a plane of
symmetry, x = 0, and is placed in a flow of velocity U which, far from the object, is in the
x-direction. When the velocity U far from the body is perpendicular to its symmetry plane (b)
x = 0, the streamlines upstream of the body are symmetrical to those downstream. This is
the case for the flow at Reynolds number Re = 0.16 around the cylinder shown in Figure 2.9a Figure 9.3C Experiment displaying the
in Chapter 2. chaotic dispersion of a drop of dye initially
located between two cylinders with different
axes (distance OO
= 0.3 R2 ) turning in
Proof
alternating directions and through different
Let us carry out two transformations which both result in a reversal of the velocity U of the
angles. (a) schematic diagram of the ex-
flow far from the body, starting with the same flow v(0) (x, y, z), and let us then write that,
periment; (b) distribution of the dye after
because of the uniqueness property, these flows are identical (Figure 9.4 on the next page).
ten sequences of alternate rotations through
Let us first reverse the direction of the flow: the new velocity field satisfies everywhere the
angles θ 0 = 270◦ (exterior cylinder) and
condition v(1) (x, y, z) = – v(0) (x, y, z) (reversibility) and, particularly, U reverses into – U
–3 θ 0 (interior cylinder) (image courtesy J.M.
far from the body. Let us now go back to the initial velocity v(0) and carry out a symmetry
Ottino, Northwestern University)
operation relative to the plane x = 0. The flow at infinity is again reversed (U →– U) and
the body transforms into itself because of its symmetry plane.
The flows obtained by these two transformations must then be identical because they
correspond to the same velocity at infinity and to the same boundary conditions at the
surface of the body. The first transformation (reversal of the direction of the flow) yields
the velocity field v(1) of components:

υx(1) (x, y, z) = –υx(0) (x, y, z) and υy,z

(1) (0)
(x, y, z) = –υy,z (x, y, z).
316 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

y v(1)
Figure 9.4 The symmetry of the streamlines v (0)
v (2)
of the flow upstream and downstream of an
obstacle displaying a symmetry plane (here,
–U –U U x
the plane x = 0) can be shown by reversing the –x x
flow-velocity U far from the obstacle into –U

The second transformation (symmetry relative to the plane x = 0) yields the velocity
components:

υx(2) (x, y, z) = –υx(0) (–x, y, z) and υy,z

(2)
(x, y, z) = υy,z
(0)
(–x, y, z).

Because the two velocity fields v(1) and v(2) must be identical, we thus have:

υx(0) (–x, y, z) = υx(0) (x, y, z) and υy,z

(0) (0)
(–x, y, z) = –υy,z (x, y, z).

The result is that the streamlines are symmetrical relative to the plane x = 0. This result is
a very sensitive test for a low value of the Reynolds number. For instance, in the case of
the flow around a cylinder (Section 2.4.2), as soon as Re becomes of the order of 1, the
upstream and downsteam flows are not symmetrical any more. Then, recirculation zones
appear downstream for Re 5 (Figure 2.9b) and become unstable for Re 60 with the
emission of an alternating vortex street.
(a)
If the obstacle does not have a plane of symmetry, the flow at small Reynolds number is
not symmetrical between the upstream and downstream sides. However, if one reverses the
direction of the flow, the fluid follows the same streamlines in the opposite direction because
of the reversibility of the flow at low Reynolds number, independently of the symmetry
properties of the obstacles.
In the example which follows, this result is no longer valid as the Reynolds number
increases. Imagine a flow obtained by either blowing or sucking through a funnel. At low
(b)
Reynolds numbers, the streamlines diverge almost radially in the flared section (Figure 9.5a)
and are essentially the same whether one blows or sucks; only the direction of the flow is
Figure 9.5 (a) Representation of the flow at changed. In fact, this is not what happens in a real-life experiment, because one is then
low Reynolds number in a divergent funnel; under conditions of high Reynolds numbers, and the reversibility of the flow no longer
the flow is reversible, and the streamlines are applies: one can always blow out a candle by blowing through the narrow end of a funnel,
the same whether one is blowing or suck- but never by suction! This results from the fact that, by blowing, one forms an air jet which
ing through the opening. (b) Flow at high is confined to a small portion of the section of the funnel (Figure 9.5b) because of the
Reynolds number; in that case, a recircula- boundary layer separation of the flow in its flared section. We will discuss this phenomenon in
tion zone appears near one of the walls in the Section 10.5.4. On the other hand, in the case of suction, the flow is distributed throughout
divergent section of the funnel (the jet is no the cross-section of the funnel and, for the same pressure difference, the maximum of the
longer symmetric relative to the axis) velocity in this section is much smaller.

Dropping a sphere along a rigid wall Let us imagine that we have a sphere falling
gravitationally (with its weight corrected by the Archimedes buoyancy) in a liquid, near a
vertical wall, after being dropped with a zero initial velocity. The reversibility property leads
to the result that the sedimentation velocity U of the sphere is permanently in the vertical
Equation of motion at low Reynolds number 317

direction. Similar reasons explain why a cylinder sedimenting vertically in a viscous fluid
under the action of gravity remains parallel to its original orientation (Section 9.3.2). In the
same way, two identical spheres, in close proximity, fall in a liquid with no relative motion
to each other (Section 9.4.3).

U2 –Mg
–Mg U1
Figure 9.6 (a) A falling sphere in a viscous
fluid near a vertical wall; (b) motion resulting
from time reversal; (c) motion after reversal
U Mg through the plane of symmetry for solution (a)

(a) (b) (c)

Proof
Let us assume that the velocity U is at an oblique angle, and oriented in such a way that the
particle moves toward the wall (Figure 9.6a). One considers that the weight of the sphere
is balanced by the combination of hydrodynamic forces on its surface. Let us first reverse
everywhere the local velocity v(r) of the fluid flow (v
(r) = –v(r)), which implies that the
direction of the gravitational acceleration g is also inverted; because of the boundary condi-
tions at the solid walls (Figure 9.6b), the velocity U of the sphere is replaced by its opposite
U1 = – U. Such a flow satisfies the equation of motion of the fluid because the components
of the stresses on the sphere are also everywhere replaced by their opposite and, conse-
quently, they balance out the new value –Mg of the weight of the object. Let us come back
to the initial configuration (a) and carry out a symmetry relative to plane (P ), the horizontal
diametral plane of the sphere which is also perpendicular to the solid wall (case (c)); one
obtains then, if the acceleration due to gravity is also inverted, a velocity U2 . The veloc-
ity field of the fluid is then symmetrical to its original direction relative to the plane (P ):
the components of the velocity in this plane are unchanged while only the vertical compo-
nent is inverted. The two transformed velocity fields then correspond to the motion of the
same body under the effect of the same acceleration, and must therefore be identical so that
U1 = U2 . This implies that U should be vertical. One notes that these results are only exactly
applicable in the limit of a Reynolds number approaching zero; at a finite Reynolds number,
even very low, the cumulative effects of the non-linear convection terms end up destroying
the reversibility property and its consequences.

Invariance of the streamlines to changes in the flow rate (Re 1)

This is a further consequence of the linearity of the Stokes equation. Indeed, if v is a solu-
tion, so is λv (λ real), provided that the velocities at the solid walls, and the external forces,
are changed by the same factor λ. The new solution is then obtained by multiplying every-
where the initial solution v(x, y, z, t) by the factor λ by which the flow rate has been changed
(reversibility is a special case of this feature, for which λ = –1). Since the direction of the ve-
locity remains the same at all points, the shape of the streamlines, which are tangent to it,
remains unchanged, and only the magnitude of the velocity varies. Thus, in a flow where
318 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

the boundaries are at rest, one has the same flow profile for any velocity, so long as the
condition of low Reynolds number is obeyed.

Superposition of solutions of the Stokes equation

This property is again an immediate consequence of the linearity of the Stokes equation: if
vl (x, y, z, t) and v2 (x, y, z, t) are two solutions of this equation, then λ1 v1 + λ2 v2 is also a so-
lution with a corresponding pressure gradient which can be written: ∇p = λ1 ∇p1 + λ2 ∇p2 .
The velocity at the walls is the linear combination of the velocities for solutions 1 and 2 with
the same coefficients λ1 and λ2 . Since there exists a unique velocity field corresponding
to given boundary conditions, it is the solution λ1 v1 + λ2 v2 which is observed experi-
mentally. One can therefore superimpose linearly velocity fields corresponding to different
flows, in channels with identical geometry, provided that one combines linearly, with the
same coefficients, the values of the velocities at the walls.
We have already encountered this property in dealing with the superposition of Couette
and Poiseuille flows (Section 4.5.3).

Minimum in the energy dissipation

For given boundary conditions at the walls and at infinity, a flow which obeys the Stokes’
equation ∇p = η∇ 2 v corresponds to a minimum in the rate of dissipation of energy ε.
Equation 5.26 gives the following expression of ε:

2
∂υi η ∂υi ∂υj
ε= σij
dV = + dV = 2η e2ij dV . (9.13)
∂xj 2 ∂xj ∂xi

(we have here, according to our usual convention, an implicit summation over the indices i
and j).

Proof
Let eij be the rate-of-strain tensor corresponding to a velocity field v, which is a solution
of the Stokes’ equation, and assume that another tensor eij
exists, corresponding to another
velocity field v
which obeys the same two boundary conditions as well as the incompress-
ibility condition, ∇·v
= 0, but which is not a solution of the Stokes’ equation. We can then
write:
2
2η e
2
ij dV = eij
2 dV + 2η e
ij – eij dV + 4η e
ij – eij eij dV . (9.14)

We will prove that the last integral is zero. It can be written in the form:

1 ∂v
i ∂vi ∂vi
(e
ij – eij ) eij dV = – dV
2 ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj

1 ∂vi ∂vi ∂vj 1
+ – dV = (I1 + I2 )
2 ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi 2

(recalling again that we use the usual summation convention for repeated indices; these are
therefore dummy indices which can be permuted). We have then, for the first integral:

∂v
i ∂vi ∂vi ∂
∂vi
∂ 2 vi
I1 = – dV = vi – vi dV – vi – vi dV .
∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ∂x2j
Equation of motion at low Reynolds number 319

The first term of the right-hand side can be changed into a surface integral, for which the
integrand vanishes at the walls. The second term can be written, as a result of the Stokes
equation:

∂ 2 υi 1
∂p
υi – υi dV = υi – υi dV
∂x2j η ∂xi

1 ∂ ! 1 ∂ υi
– υi
= p υi
– υi dV – p dV .
η ∂xi η ∂xi

Here again, the first term on the right-hand side can be transformed into a surface integral,
which is zero since, by assumption, the two velocities are the same at the walls. The second
term vanishes also, because incompressibility requires ∇ · v = 0 = ∇ · v
.
Let us now evaluate the integral I 2 . It can be written:

∂υi
∂υi ∂υj ∂
∂υj
∂ 2 υj
I2 = – dV = υi – υi dV – υi – υi dV
∂xj ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj ∂xi ∂xi ∂xj

The first term on the right-hand side can once again be transformed into a surface integral,
which vanishes because the velocity vanishes at the walls; the second term also vanishes
since ∇·v = 0.

Thus, the integral (eij – eij ) eij dV is zero. Since the second term on the right-hand
side of Equation 9.14 is positive, the energy dissipation associated with the tensor eij
exceeds
indeed that corresponding to the velocity field which satisfies the Stokes equation.

The property, just stated, that the dissipated energy is minimized, applies only if the The principle of energy minimization applies
Reynolds number is low: at high Reynolds numbers, turbulent solutions of the Navier– only when we compare two instances with the
same location and geometry for the walls. It does
Stokes equation dissipate a greater amount of energy than laminar ones for identical
not, in any way, imply that, if the solid walls are
boundary conditions. free to move, the result will be a configuration
minimizing the energy dissipation. For instance,
a small rod free to rotate near the stagnation
9.2.4 Dimensional arguments for low Reynolds point of a longitudinal flow, assumes, in contrast,
an orientation wich maximizes the dissipation of
number flows energy.
The velocity and pressure fields for a flow of given geometry with respective characteristic
velocity and length U and L satisfy, if Re 1, the equations:
x y z ηU x y z This result extends the property of proportion-
v (x, y, z) = U F , , , p (x, y, z) – p0 (x, y, z) = G , , . ality of the whole velocity field v(x, y, z) to U , as
L L L L L L L
(9.15a) shown in Section 9.2.3.
(9.15b)

where F and G are respectively dimensionless vector and scalar functions which depend
only on the geometry of the flow. Thus, the velocity and pressure distributions in two flows
with the same geometry but with different sizes, characteristic velocities and viscosities can
be inferred one from the other thanks to these equations. Since the solutions are unique,
these will be, moreover, the only possible flows.

Proof
We have seen in Section 4.2.4 that the Navier–Stokes equation (Equation 9.2) could be writ-
ten in dimensionless form by dividing each variable by an appropriate characteristic value.
320 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

We will proceed in the same way here, but will make use of the following dimensionless
variables which reflect better the dominant role of the viscosity:

r
v tν (p – p0 ) L
r
= , v = , t
= 2 , p
= . (9.16)
L U L ηU

U and L are again the characteristic velocity and length of the flow; p0 is the hydrostatic
pressure in the absence of flow, while τ ν = L 2 /ν represents the viscous diffusion time over
the characteristic length L of the flow (instead of the convection time L/U ) and ηU /L is
the viscous stress for a velocity gradient of the order of U /L (in lieu of the pressure ρU 2 ).
We then rewrite the Navier–Stokes equation in the dimensionless form:

∂v

+ Re v
.∇
v
= –∇
p
+ ∇
2 v
. (9.17a)
∂t

In accordance with the discussion in Section 9.2.1, the non-stationary term is negligible if
the flow evolves slowly over a time t long compared to τν (thus over a time t
1). In such
a case, the solutions of the equation of motion can be written in the form:
x y z x y z
v
(x, y, z) = F , , , Re (9.17b) and: p
(x, y, z) = G , , , Re , (9.17c)
L L L L L L

where F and G are respectively dimensionless vector and scalar functions. When Re 1,
the inertial term on the left-hand side of Equation 9.17a can be considered zero and, again
for a stationary or quasi-stationary flow, one obtains the dimensionless form of the Stokes
equation:

∇
p
= ∇
2 v
, (9.18a)

but, this time, with solutions that are independent of Re:

x y z x y z
v
(x, y, z) = F , , (9.18b) and p
(x, y, z) = G , , . (9.18c)
L L L L L L

From this, one infers Equations 9.15. One notes that the inertial term could only be ne-
glected because it does not display any singularity when Re → 0. It has indeed been shown
above that the velocity approaches zero in proportion to U whenever Re 1. This is not
the case for flows at high Reynolds number with the different normalization introduced in
Section 4.2.4. In that case, the viscous term does not vanish as Re → ∞, in spite of the factor
1/Re, because the velocity gradients diverge.

As a result, one can make similar predictions for the forces exerted on the walls or on moving
solids. The local viscous stresses have components of the form η(∂vi /∂xj ); they are thus
proportional to the product of ηU /L by dimensionless functions of the scaled coordinates
x/L, y/L and z/L. The global viscous drag force is obtained by integration of these stresses
over the entire area of the walls, from which one obtains an additional factor L 2 multiplied
by a constant vector A. One obtains then the dimensional equation:

Viscous drag force ≈ A (η U /L) L 2 ≈ A (η U L). (9.19a)

A similar argument may be used for the difference p – p0 between the pressure and the hy-
drostatic pressure (Equation 9.15b). By integrating this term over the surfaces of the walls,
Forces and torques acting on a moving solid body 321

an additional factor L2
appears again. The total force F acting on the walls has therefore This force is frequently normalized by
(1/2) ρU 2 S: (1/2) ρU 2 is the order of mag-
the following form similar to Equation 9.19a: nitude of the dynamic pressure defined in
Section 5.3.2, and S ≈ L 2 is an area charac-
F = –B η U L, (9.19b) teristic of the walls. For flows at low Reynolds
number, we thus obtain a coefficient of friction:
where B is a vector dependent only on the orientation and geometry of the flow and of the
|F| η 1
solid walls. The minus sign indicates that the force F opposes the motion. Cd ≈ ≈ ≈ · (9.20)
1 ρUL
2ρ U L
2 2 Re

This proportionality of the coefficient of friction

9.3 Forces and torques acting on a moving on the inverse of the Reynolds number is char-
acteristic of flows at small Reynolds numbers.
solid body We have already observed this property in the
case of laminar flows discussed in Section 4.5,
for which the transport of momentum by con-
As we have just seen, one of the consequences of the linearity of the Stokes equation is the vection is zero for reasons of the geometry.
proportionality between the forces on the solid walls and the characteristic velocity of the We note however, that this proportionality to
fluid. We will define this property (Section 9.3.1) and look at its application in two examples the inverse of the Reynolds number is merely
a reflection of the definition of Cd : this defini-
of solids with quite different symmetries (Section 9.3.2): a rod and a corkscrew. tion is actually only physically meaningful for
flows with a high Reynolds number, dominated
by inertial effects and for which Cd varies lit-
9.3.1 Linearity of the equations governing the tle with Re. In the case of pure viscous drag at
velocity of the solid body and the forces acting a low Reynolds number, this definition is less
appropriate.
on it
Any motion of the solid body can be represented at a given time as the combination of an
overall translation at velocity U(t) and of a rotation at an angular velocity (t) (Figure 9.7).
The velocity at any point of the solid can be written as:

v = U + ω × r, (9.21)

where r is the radius vector relative to the origin of the axes (a change of this origin is
equivalent to a change in U).
Let us designate as Fi and Gi the components of the force and torque acting on the solid
(the torque is calculated relative the origin O of the coordinate system). These components
are the integrals of the viscous stresses and of the local pressure on the surface of the solid.
Thus, they satisfy the equations:

Fi = –η Aij Uj + Bij j (9.22) and Gi = –η Cij Uj + Dij j . (9.23)

The coefficients Aij or, respectively, Dij connect the forces (or, respectively, the torques)
to the translations (or, respectively, the rotations). The coefficients Bij and Cij represent,
in contrast, the respective cross-effects of the forces resulting from a rotation and of the
torques created by a translational motion. Thus, a helical object turning at slow speed about
its axis in a very viscous fluid is subjected to a force parallel to this axis. This “corkscrew”

Ώ
y
Figure 9.7 The force and torque acting on
r F an object moving at velocity U and rotating
O U with an angular velocity in a viscous fluid
x
G
z
322 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

effect will be discussed further in Section 9.3.2. This force results from the absence of a
plane of symmetry perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
Equations 9.22 and 9.23 can be obtained by linear combination, with the same co-
efficients, of two velocity fields which are solutions of the Stokes equation and of the
corresponding pressure fields (provided one combines in a similar way the boundary con-
ditions for the velocity along the walls). One also notes that the coefficients Aij have the
dimensions of a length, Bij and Cij , that of an area, and Dij , of a volume.
The tensors with components Aij , Bij , Cij and Dij have general symmetry properties
independent of the shape of the body; these properties can be derived by using the fact that
the stress tensor σ ij , is symmetrical, and they are represented by the equations:

Aij = Aji , (9.24a) Dij = Dji , (9.24b) Bij = Bji . (9.24c)

The equivalence of the tensors Bij and Cji takes into account the reciprocal relationship
between the force on a rotating particle and the torque on a particle in translation.
The matrix Aij connecting Fi and Uj , which is symmetric, can be diagonalized. There
exists then, regardless of the shape of the body, a Cartesian coordinate system in which each
component of the force is proportional to the corresponding component of the velocity:

Fi = –η λi Ui (9.25)

(in contrast to our usual convention, there is no summation here on the repeated index i).
The scalar product F · U represents the loss of energy by viscous dissipation. It must there-
fore be negative, regardless of U: this implies that each of the eigenvalues λi is positive.
From a geometrical point of view, the condition F · U < 0 indicates that the angle (usually
not zero) between the force F and the direction of motion must always be obtuse.
For solid bodies having specific symmetries (planes or axes), additional relations appear
between the coefficients Aij , Bij , Cij and Dij , as we will see for three different examples.

9.3.2 The effect of the symmetry properties of solid

bodies on the applied forces and torques
Solid body having a plane of symmetry
Take a solid having x1 = 0 as a plane of symmetry; the coefficients Aij obey:

A12 = A21 = A13 = A31 = 0. (9.26)

Physically, this indicates that the force corresponding to a motion perpendicular to a plane
of symmetry is, itself, normal to this plane. Conversely, a body having a horizontal plane of
symmetry which falls under its own weight in a viscous fluid will have no horizontal velocity
component. Moreover:

C11 = C22 = C33 = C32 = C23 = 0 and B11 = B22 = B33 = B32 = B23 = 0.
(9.27) (9.28)

This shows that a corkscrew effect (the appearance of a force parallel to the axis of rotation
x1 of a solid body) can exist only if the plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation is not a
plane of symmetry of the body. Finally:

D12 = D21 = D13 = D31 = 0. (9.29)

Forces and torques acting on a moving solid body 323

Proof
Select a coordinate system where two of the axes (x2 and x3 ) lie in the plane of symmetry
x1 = 0. The coefficients Aij are then unchanged under the symmetry operation x1 → –x1 .
Under this same operation, F l changes into F
1 = –F 1 and U 1 into –U 1 , while the other
components stay unchanged. Equation 9.22 for the components F 1 and F
1 is then:

F1 = –η (A11 U1 + A12 U2 + A13 U3 ) and F1

= –η (A11 (–U1 ) + A12 U2 + A13 U3 ).

Since the two expressions above must have equal and opposite values, it follows that:
A12 = A13 = 0.
By using the other components of F, one shows in the same manner that the coefficients
A21 and A31 vanish. Quite different results are obtained for the coefficient Cij , relating the
components Gj of the applied torque to those of the velocity. Indeed, G is a pseudo-vector
with the same kind of symmetry as a rotational velocity. It therefore does not change sign
under a reflection in a plane normal to it, but does become inverted for a symmetry relative
to a plane parallel to its own direction. Thus, when x1 is changed into –x1 , G l changes
into G l , G 2 into –G 2 , and G 3 into –G 3 . By an argument similar to that given above, one
obtains Equations 9.27 and 9.28. In the case of the tensor Dij , relating the torque G and
the rotational velocity vector , the same components as for Aij vanish, since both of these
pseudo-vectors are characterized by the same symmetry.

Bodies with three mutually perpendicular planes of symmetry

When the body has three mutually orthogonal planes of symmetry (e.g., ellipsoid, paral-
lelepiped, or any body having a similar level of symmetry . . .), every coefficient Cij , and
consequently Bij , is zero with respect to any coordinate system in accordance with Equations
9.27 and 9.28. There is a total decoupling between translational and rotational motion; only
a torque can cause the object to rotate (if it is non-zero when computed with respect to an
axis of rotation passing through the point of intersection of the planes of symmetry).
In the same way, according to Equation 9.26, the matrix Aij is diagonal relative to a set
of coordinate axes perpendicular to the planes of symmetry of the solid.

(i) A cylindrical rod with circular cross-section falling in a viscous fluid

Such a body has an axis of revolution (assumed to be pointing in the z-direction) in addition
to three mutually perpendicular axes of symmetry. Not only does it fall without spinning
in a viscous fluid, but its motion is determined by only two coefficients which characterize
the viscous friction parallel and normal to the axis (e.g. Azz = λ and Axx = Ayy = λ⊥ ). If the O
ratio of these two coefficients is known, it is possible to determine the angle at which the rod
falls relative to the vertical as a function of the angle of inclination of the rod. θ x
α

z mg
Proof
Consider a long uniform rod, of circular cross-section, with center of symmetry O U
(Figure 9.8). Let the z-axis be along the axis of the rod, and let the x-axis, perpendicu-
lar to it, be located in the vertical plane of symmetry. If the rod is of uniform density, the
force of gravity acts at the center of symmetry, and there is no torque which could cause Figure 9.8 A cylindrical rod falling
rotation. In this coordinate system, then: obliquely in a viscous fluid
324 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

Fz = –η λ Uz , Fx = –η λ⊥ Ux , Fy = –η λ⊥ Uy . (9.30)

As indicated below (Section 9.4.3), it can be shown, by a calculation valid in the limit of
very slender objects, that: λ⊥ = 2 λ (Equations 9.71a-b): the resistance to motion parallel
to the long dimension is half that in the normal direction. Let us define α as the angle of
the trajectory relative to the axis of the rod, and θ the angle of inclination of this axis to the
vertical. When the rod moves with constant velocity, we can write:

Fz = –mg cos θ = –η λ Uz and: Fx = –mg sin θ == –η λ⊥ Ux = –2 η λ Ux ,

(9.31a) (9.31b)

where m represents the mass of the rod minus the contribution of the Archimedes buoyancy.

Then: tan α = Ux /Uz = (tan θ ) /2.

The angle of deviation θ– α of the trajectory relative to the vertical direction then satisfies:

(tan θ – tan α) tan θ

tan(θ – α) = = . (9.32)
1 + tan θ tan α 2 + tan2 θ

For α = 0 and α = π/2, the rod falls vertically; one is back to the case where the applied force
(the weight of the rod) is perpendicular to a plane of symmetry
√ of the solid. The maximum
√
value of the trajectory angle (θ– α) occurs when tan θ = 2, so that: tan(θ – α) = 1 /(2 2),
corresponding to (θ– α) ≈ 19.5◦ .

(ii) Case of a cube or a sphere

In the case of a cube, planes parallel to the cube faces and passing through the center
of symmetry, are mutually orthogonal symmetry planes, and the tensor Aij is diagonal
in the corresponding coordinate system. Since these planes are all equivalent, the three
corresponding eigenvalues are equal, and we can write:

[A] = λ [ I ],

where [ I ] is the identity matrix. For pure translational motion, the viscous friction force is
colinear with the velocity in any possible direction, so that Equation 9.19b becomes:

F = –η C L U, (9.33)

where L is a length characteristic of the solid, and C a constant. The force F acts at the
center of symmetry of the object. This result holds equally for a sphere of radius R (= L),
with C = 6π (as we show in Section 9.4.2). Moreover, since this force acts at the center of
symmetry of the solid, it cannot induce rotation. Thus, a body with spherical symmetry,
such as a cube, or a regular tetrahedron, always falls vertically in a viscous fluid at low
Reynolds numbers, irrespective of the initial orientation of its faces relative to the vertical
(the density must, however, be uniform throughout the body). We estimate further down
(Section 9.4.3) the viscous drag force in such cases.
Forces and torques acting on a moving solid body 325

In the case of pure rotation, the tensor Dij , given the relationship between the torque and
the rotational angular-velocity vector, is also proportional to [ I ] (provided that the axis of
rotation passes through the center of symmetry). Accordingly:

G = –η L 3 D . (9.34)

For a sphere of radius R = L, it will be shown that D = 8π (Section 9.4.3).

Translational–rotational coupling for a body devoid of planes of symmetry

Λ
Ώ z
R

F Figure 9.9 Motion of a helix spinning in a

F viscous fluid
F||
α Fz z
υ υ||
V

In this case, some of the coefficients which we have previously considered as vanishing
can actually play a very important role. Consider, for example, the motion of an object with
helical symmetry around an axis oriented in the z-direction (Figure 9.9). Since the x-y plane
is not a plane of symmetry, the coefficients Bzz and Czz do not vanish. A rotation of the helix
with angular velocity z thus induces a propulsive force Bzz z in the z-direction, parallel
to the axis of rotation, its direction dependent on whether the spiral is right- or left-handed.
Per unit length of the helix, Bzz has the value:

Bzz = 2π λ R2 /. (9.35)

Proof
We demonstrate this result by analyzing the local forces acting on an element of length of
the helix, assuming it to be similar to a short, straight rod moving with azimuthal velocity
R around the axis of rotation (where R is the radius of the helix). We assume that the
pitch of the helix is large relative to the radius R; locally, such an element of length makes
therefore a small angle α = 2π R/ with the z-axis. The corresponding velocity components
v ≈ αR = 2π R2 / and v⊥ = R, respectively parallel and perpendicular to the rod,
induce the respective force components F and F⊥ . These forces can be expressed per unit
length as:

F = –η λ v = –2π η λ R2 / and F⊥ = –η λ⊥ v⊥ = –2 λ η R.

These forces, in turn, can be projected into a component parallel to the z-axis, and a
component normal to the radius.
As seen in the inset of Figure 9.9, the two projections of F and F⊥ in the z-direction
are opposite to each other. If we compute their projection in the z-direction, keeping in
326 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

mind that the angle α = 2π R/ is small, we find that they have a non-zero resultant with
magnitude:

Fz = α F⊥ – F = 2π η λ R2 /,

per unit length of the helix. The orientation of these two components and, as a result, the
force Fz are reversed if either the direction of rotation or the pitch of the helix is changed.
The component Fz has the same value for every element of the helix. There is consequently
a macroscopic driving force in the z-direction proportional to the velocity and to the viscos-
ity. We thus recover Equation 9.35 for the coefficient of coupling Bzz between the angular
velocity and the driving force per unit length of the helix.
The orientations of the components of F and F ⊥ normal to the radius vary continuously
all along the helix. They therefore have a zero resultant, but they do contribute to a resistive
torque with value:

Gz = F⊥ cos α + F sin α R ≈ –2 η λ R2 .

Since the distance from the point of application of these forces to the axis of rotation is
R, the coefficient of coupling Dzz between the angular velocity and the resistive torque is
therefore: Dzz = 2 λ R2 .

9.3.3 Propulsion at low Reynolds numbers

Propulsion by the rotation of a helix
The previous model allows us to explain the motion of certain types of bacteria: thus,
Escherichia coli propels itself by rotating its tail (flagellum) by means of a molecular mo-
tor around an articulation located at one end of its body. The method of propulsion is
completely different from the action of propellers on a boat. In the latter case, which corre-
sponds to a flow at high Reynolds number, the effect of propulsion is due to the circulation
of the velocity of the fluid around the blades of the propeller. This causes the appearance
of a Magnus force perpendicular to the velocity of the blade, which is analogous to the lift
on the wings of an airplane, as seen in Section 7.5.2. There results an overall propulsion
force proportional to the square of the velocity of rotation: the efficiency of such a classical
propeller would be much smaller at low Reynolds numbers, since this lift force is missing.

The scallop theorem

In real life, in contrast to the case of our model, A significant point in the propulsion at low Reynolds numbers is a property known as the
this type of propulsion takes place in seawa- scallop theorem. Let us assume that we have a miniature version of this bivalved mollusk, of a
ter at a Reynolds number of several thousands,
where inertial effects dominate and reversibil- size small enough so that the Reynolds number Re is smaller than 1, which alternately opens
ity no longer applies. More precisely, scallops and closes by suction or ejection of a liquid. Such flows would be reversible with respect
move by opening their shell slowly, and closing to a change of direction of the motion of the walls; the model would then undergo merely
it rapidly. Then, the emission of a rearward jet
(and thus of momentum) in the second stage a sequence of forward and backward movements of same amplitude and no overall motion
is not balanced by the momentum oriented in would occur.
the forward direction, thus resulting in a net As seen previously, such forces are proportional to the velocity of the walls. If we denote
propulsion.
by e(t) the maximum opening of the shell, the instantaneous propulsive force will vary in the
manner: F (e) = k(e) de/dt. The total impulse resulting from a change of the opening from
e
a value e1 to a value e2 would then be P = e 2 k(e)de. The contributions of the phases of
1
opening and closing are thus opposite, and this is independent of the velocities of motion
Constant-velocity motion of a sphere in a viscous fluid 327

in each phase (as long as Re 1). More generally, the propulsion of microorganisms at
low Reynolds number cannot result from a series of motions of the same amplitude in
alternating directions.

Some methods to avoid reversibility

Let us go back to the example of bacteria or other microorganisms made up of a body and
a flagellum, already mentioned above in the propulsion of E. coli. In contrast to that case,
let us assume that the flagellum moves inside a plane. If we create a stationary wave on
the flagellum with, for example, a point fixed at the place where it ties in with the main
body, the average propulsion force is zero: we have effectively a sequence of symmetric
deformations in both directions. On the other hand, the net force would be non-zero for
a progressive wave (such results were demonstrated experimentally by applying alternating
forces via magnetic ball-bearings along model flagella).
Still referring to flagella, irreversibility can result from their mechanical properties and,
specifically, from their elasticity. Let us assume that we excite a flexible, elastic flagellum by
means of a sinusoidal motion of one of its ends (this model mimics in a simplified manner In such a situation, the object is not passive; the
motion of its different points is constrained, e.g.
the propulsion of certain microorganisms). The dynamics of each element is the result, not its length must remain constant, although it can
only of the hydrodynamic force due to its motion relative to the fluid, but also from the exert forces on the fluid. In the experiment of
elastic forces created by its deformation. This results in the fact that the geometry, and thus Figure 9.2, we would also violate reversibility by
replacing the spot of dye with a flexible thread
the forces, are not the same at a given position, during the back and forth phases of the that, depending on the phase of its motion, could
motion. A net driving force can thus appear. be stretched or folded.
Let us now leave the case of flagella, and come back to that of an articulated object. The
scallop theorem tells us that there can be no propulsion if there is only one degree of free-
dom (the opening and closing of the model shell). On the other hand, propulsion has been
demonstrated in the case of objects including two articulations (e.g, a set of three articulated
stems): in this case, with an appropriate sequence of individual motions of the articulations,
bringing back the object to its initial state without requiring exactly inverse motion, pro-
pulsion can be. This is also possible for a chain of three spheres by using an appropriate
sequence of changes of their relative position: one can thus model the propulsion of certain
types of microorganisms by the deformation of their bodies.

9.4 Constant-velocity motion of a sphere

in a viscous fluid
9.4.1 The velocity field around a moving sphere
Assume that we have a fluid at rest at infinity, with a velocity field described in spherical,
polar coordinates (r, θ, ϕ), such that the polar, z-axis (θ = 0), points along the direction of
a sphere, of radius R, moving with uniform velocity U (Figure 9.10a). Because of the rota-
tional symmetry of the system around the polar axis z, the velocity field is axially symmetric:
therefore, the velocity component vϕ is zero, and the other two components vr and vθ are
independent of ϕ. As a result of calculations carried out in detail below, one obtains for the
two components vr and vθ :

3R R3 3R R3
vr = U cos θ – (9.36a) and: vθ = –U sin θ + 3 . (9.36b)
2r 2r 3 4r 4r
These velocity components vanish at infinity and coincide with those of the sphere at its
surface (r = R) as required. The above solution is only valid when the Reynolds number is
small compared to unity, and for a sphere moving along at constant velocity U .
328 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

The most striking aspect of the above result is the slow decrease, as 1/r, of the flow
velocity with the distance r from the center of the sphere. We contrast this result, valid at
low Reynolds numbers, with the much faster decrease, as 1/r 3 , of the velocity near a sphere
in potential flow, discussed in Section 6.2.4.
This slow decrease of the perturbation in velocity results from the ineffectiveness of
diffusion in transporting, away from the sphere, the momentum imparted to the fluid by
viscous friction forces. We can retrieve this variation as 1/r by means of a simple physical
argument: assume that the velocity decreases as r –α far from the sphere; the momentum flux
resulting from diffusion can be expressed in terms of gradients of the velocity components,
varying therefore as r -α-1 . The integral of this flux over a sphere of radius r thus varies as
r -α+1 ; but it must be constant, independent of r, and its magnitude must correspond to the
total frictional force on the sphere. Accordingly, we find that α = 1, so that the corresponding
velocity field varies indeed as 1/r.

v
σ'r θ
r M
p θ
(a)
U z
Figure 9.10 (a) Streamlines of the flow
around a sphere moving with constant veloc-
ity U in a fluid at rest. The components of
the normal and tangential stresses acting at
a point on the surface of the sphere are also
shown on the figure. (b) Streamlines of the
(b)
flow of a viscous fluid with uniform veloc- U
ity U at infinity and Re 1. (c) Potential
flow of an ideal fluid around the same sphere z
(Section 6.2.4)

For a sphere at rest in a flow of uniform velocity U far from it, the velocity V of the fluid
is obtained by subtracting from the velocity U the components given by Equations 9.36 a-b:

3R R3
Vr = U cos θ – vr = U cos θ 1 – + 3 , (9.37a)
2r 2r

3R R3
and: Vθ = –U sin θ – vθ = –U sin θ 1 – – 3 . (9.37b)
4r 4r
In this frame of reference, where the sphere is at rest, the streamlines return much more
slowly to the configuration of uniform velocity as we move away from the sphere than for a
potential flow (Figure 9.10b & c).
We compute below step-by-step the velocity components given by Equations 9.36a &
b. The result is based initially on a guess of a trial function for the distribution of pressure
around the sphere; this distribution is then used to calculate the velocity field obeying the
required boundary conditions, from which we evaluate the arbitrary constants of the trial
function. Since we have shown above that solutions for the velocity field are unique, the
resultant solution must be the correct one.
Constant-velocity motion of a sphere in a viscous fluid 329

Calculation of the pressure field

The pressure field p(r) is a harmonic function since it satisfies ∇ 2 p = 0 (Equation 9.9).
We can therefore expand p(r) in spherical polar coordinates (r, θ, ϕ) as a linear combination
of a term in 1/r, and of its successive derivatives relative to the various coordinates; each
of these terms is a solution of Laplace’s equation ∇ 2 f = 0, and corresponds to the multi-
pole field resulting from a charge, a dipole, a quadrupole, etc. The leading terms of this
expansion are:

A 1 r δij xi xj
φ0 ∝ , φ1 ∝ ∇ =– 3 and [φ2 ] such that φ2ij ∝ – 3 .
r r r r3 r5

Assume that we neglect the hydrostatic pressure term and that the remaining components
of p vanish at infinity (this only appears as an additive constant): no constants, or terms
containing positive powers of r, appear in p(r). We thus use, as a trial function, the simplest
of these terms that obeys the symmetry of the problem. The pressure field must be in the
form φ η U , since p is proportional to U and to η (Section 9.2.4). φ is the linear combination
of the basis functions introduced above. The only term compatible with the scalar form of
p is the component of φ 1 parallel to U, i.e., ∂/∂z(1/r) = –cos θ/r 2 (indeed, the terms of the
form (sin θ cos ϕ)/r 2 and (sin θ sin ϕ)/r 2 do not display the axial symmetry around the polar
axis, chosen in the direction of U). On the other hand, the term φ 0 would imply a radial
pressure gradient and thus a source of flow which does not exist. We can therefore write:

cos θ 1 U
p = C ηU = –C η U·∇ = –C η ∇· . (9.38)
r2 r r

The forces acting on the sphere are thus proportional to the velocity and to the viscosity.
We now investigate whether there exists a velocity field corresponding to this pressure dis-
tribution and which obeys the Stokes equation and the boundary conditions at the wall of
the sphere. If this was not the case, we would have to add into p(r) higher-order terms in
the expansion (this the case for a body having a shape more complex than that of a sphere).

Vorticity field corresponding to the distribution of pressure

Starting with the Stokes equation as written in Equation 9.8, and combining it with Equation
9.38, we obtain:

–C η∇{∇·(U/r)} = –C η ∇×{∇×(U/r)} – C η ∇ 2 (U/r) = –η ∇×ω. (9.39)

But, we have:

U 1 U
∇2 · = U·∇ 2 = 0, (9.40) so that: ω = C ∇× +∇g(r). (9.41)
r r r

where g(r) is a function obeying Laplace’s equation, as can be seen by taking the divergence
of Equation 9.41. However, only the component ωϕ is non-zero, since vϕ = 0 and v is in-
dependent of ϕ. The unknown function g(r) must therefore be of the form α ϕ + β where
α and β are constants. But ω is independent of ϕ just as v; the constant α must then be
zero. Moreover, as g appears only through its gradient, we can also take β = 0. Thus, the
330 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

function g vanishes identically. Using the vector identity ∇×(m A) = m (∇×A) + (∇m)×A,
one obtains:

U 1 sin θ
ω = C ∇× = –C U ×∇ , (9.42) i.e. : ωϕ = CU 2 (9.43)
r r r

Evaluation of the stream function from the vorticity field

If we now introduce the Stokes stream function (Section 3.4.3), such that:

1 ∂ 1 ∂
υr = (9.44) and: υθ = – . (9.45)
r 2 sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂r

1 ∂(r υθ ) ∂υr 1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂
We then obtain: ωϕ = – =– – 3 . (9.46)
r ∂r ∂θ r sin θ ∂r 2 r ∂θ sin θ ∂θ

Substituting Equation 9.46 into Equation 9.43, we obtain:

1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂ sin θ
– – 3 = CU . (9.47)
r sin θ ∂r 2 r ∂θ sin θ ∂θ r2

One can achieve separation of variables by assuming = U sin2 θ f (r), a form justified by
the fact that the z-axis must be a streamline. Equation 9.47 then becomes, after factoring
out the terms in sin θ:

1 ∂ 2f 2f CU
– + 3 = 2 . (9.48)
r ∂r 2 r r

Solutions to the homogeneous form of the above equation can be written as L

/r and (M
r 2 ),
where L
and M
are the required arbitrary constants, while a particular solution is CU r/2.
Letting then: L = L
/U and M = M
/U , one obtains:

L Cr
= U sin2 θ + M r2 + . (9.49)
r 2

Calculation of the velocity field

The components of the velocity field can now be obtained from Equations 9.44 and 9.45:

C 2L C L
υr = U cos θ + 3 + 2M (9.50a) and: υθ = –U sin θ – 3 + 2M . (9.50b)
r r 2r r

The constants are determined by using the boundary conditions:

for r → ∞, v → 0, so that M = 0;
for r = R, one must have: vr = U for θ = 0, and vθ = – U for θ = π/2.

Thus: C = 3R/2 and L = –R3 /4.

One then obtains the velocity components given by Equations 9.36 as well as the fol-
lowing equations for the pressure and vorticity fields (n is the unit vector along the radius
vector OM):

3 cos θ 3 U·n 3 sin θ 3 (U × n)ϕ

p= η U R 2 = η R 2 (9.51) and ωϕ = UR 2 = R . (9.52)
2 r 2 r 2 r 2 r2
Constant-velocity motion of a sphere in a viscous fluid 331

9.4.2 Force acting on a moving sphere: the drag

coefficient
Case of a fluid of infinite volume
By using the above results, one finds that the total drag force F on a sphere of radius R and
velocity U in a fluid of viscosity η has the value:

F = – 6 π η R U. (9.53)

Experimentally, we find that this expression, known as the Stokes law, is closely obeyed up
to Reynolds numbers of the order of unity (even though it has been derived under the much
more restrictive assumption Re 1). The drag force F has, moreover, the dimensional form
given in Section 9.2.4 (Equation 9.19b).

Proof
The normal stress, due to the pressure at the surface of the sphere, can be written:

∂vr 3 η U cos θ
σr = –p + 2η = · (9.54a)
∂r r=R 2 R

Let us emphasize that the contribution due to the velocity gradient vanishes at the surface
of the sphere. The effect of this is that the normal stress has a maximum along the z-axis.
Moreover there appears a tangential stress associated with the viscosity which, as stated in
Appendix A-2, Chapter 4, has the form:

1 ∂vr ∂vθ vθ 3 η U sin θ
σrθ = η + – = · (9.54b)
r ∂θ ∂r r r=R 2 R

One observes that σrθ is largest at a right angle to the polar axis. All the other terms of the
stress tensor vanish; the resultant force per unit area can therefore be written at every point
on the sphere:
dF dF 3 η U cos θ 3 η U sin θ 3 ηU
= [σ ]·n = σrr er +σrθ eθ , i.e : =– er + eθ = – .
dS dS 2 R 2 R 2 R
(9.55)
The force dF/dS is then independent of θ and ϕ and its orientation is exactly opposite to
U since the two components of U in the radial direction, and normal to it, are respectively
(U cos θ ) and (–U sin θ). The total drag force is finally simply obtained by multiplying the
value of dF/dS by the area 4π R2 of the sphere.
To take into account the effect of gravity, one adds to the pressure p the contribution
–ρf g z of the hydrostatic pressure. By integrating over the surface of the sphere, this term
results in the Archimedes buoyancy (–ρf V sphere g).

Application to the determination of the terminal velocity for a falling sphere

in a viscous fluid at low Reynolds numbers
When a sphere of radius R and density ρ s sediments in a fluid of infinite extent, of density ρ f
and of viscosity η, it reaches a terminal velocity which results from the equilibrium between
For a glass bead 1 mm in diameter
the Stokes drag force and the weight of the sphere, corrected by Archimedes buoyancy. This (ρ s = 2.5 × 103 Kg/m3 ) sedimenting in
velocity can be written: glycerine (ρ f ≈ 103 Kg/m3 , η ≈ 1 Pa.s), one has
Vterminal ≈ 10 m/s; the Reynolds number for
–3

2 ρs – ρf g R2 this flow is Re = 10–3 and the condition Re 1

Vterminal = . (9.56) is, therefore, well obeyed.
9 η
332 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

This relationship between the terminal velocity of the bead and the viscosity of a fluid
is used in some viscometers; there, the velocity V terminal is determined from the fall time
We note that, in contrast to the mere determina- of a calibrated bead over a known distance. Practical viscometers of this type use vertical
tion of its functional dependence by dimensional
tubes for which the diameter is not large relative to that of the bead. As will be seen below,
analysis, the exact calculation of the force ex-
erted on a sphere by a low Reynolds number this leads to significant correction factors in the resulting frictional force. The viscosity is
flow (a problem which appears, at first glance, determined by calibrating the device by means of liquids of known viscosity.
particularly simple because of the symmetries in- The drag coefficient can now be computed from the Stokes force, using Equation 9.20
volved), is quite complicated. This underscores
the great importance, in fluid mechanics, of in the form:
the search for approximate solutions illustrating
the underlying principles, and leading to ex- F 24
Cd = so that: Cd = (9.57)
pressions, such as Equation 9.19b, in terms of (πR2 ) 21 ρ U 2 Re
dimensionless parameters. The evaluation of the
exact numerical coefficients, determined by the where Re = (2 U R/ν). This drag coefficient displays the variation as 1/Re predicted on the
specific shapes of the flow, can often only be car-
ried out by numerical calculations or by a series basis of dimensional analysis in Section 9.2.4. It has also the same form as obtained earlier
of experimental tests. in Section 4.5.3 for the case of Poiseuille flow.

The effect of walls

The presence of plane or cylindrical walls, located parallel or perpendicular to the motion
of a sedimenting sphere, increases the effect of friction. The significant effect of the Stokes
force in the case of these obstacles must be emphasized.
As an example, for a sphere located in a tube with radius 10 times than of the sphere,
there is a 20% increase in the force compared to the case of an infinite volume. This increase
is essentially the effect of the wall of the tube, as well as, to a lesser degree, of the upward
counter-flow of the liquid displaced by the moving sphere, which also contributes to the
drag. The magnitude of this latter effect is determined by the ratio of the area of the particle,
projected onto a plane perpendicular to its motion, to that of the tube section here, this ratio
is proportional to the square of the ratio of the radius of the particle to that of the tube while
the first effect was proportional to this ratio.
Figures 9.11a–b display streamlines around a sphere moving along the axis of a cylin-
drical tube in reference frames respectively fixed relative to the sphere (Figure 9.11a) and
to the tube (Figure 9.11b). In the second figure, we see clearly the existence of a recircula-
tion due to a rising flow (counterflow) near the wall of the tube, opposite to the downward
motion of the sphere (and of the fluid close to it). In both these cases, the streamlines are
symmetric relative to the horizontal diameter plane of the sphere. This would no longer be
the case at higher Reynolds numbers.
Figure 9.11 Visualization of the flow re-
sulting from the sedimentation of a sphere
along the axis of a vertical, cylindrical tube (a) (b)
filled with glycerol, and of diameter 163 mm,
double that of the sphere. The Reynolds num-
ber is Re = 0.1. The streamlines are visual-
ized by means of small magnesium particles
illuminated by a plane light sheet (the illumi-
nation comes from the left of the figure, and
the dark patch at the right of the sphere corre-
sponds to its shadow). (a) The camera moves
in such a way that it is fixed relative to the
sphere. (b) The camera is fixed relative to the
tube. During the exposure time, the sphere has
moved through a small fraction of its diameter
(plates courtesy of M. Coutanceau)
Constant-velocity motion of a sphere in a viscous fluid 333

In the case of a sphere moving perpendicular to a flat plate, the drag force when the
sphere is very close to the plate has been determined in Section 8.1.6, Equation 8.33.
In this case, Equation 9.53 for the drag force is multiplied by a factor R/h, in which h is
the minimum distance between the sphere and the wall, such that:

F = – 6π η R U (R/h). We can tie in this equation, valid for h R, to

Equation 9.53, which is applicable in the limit
h R, so as to obtain:
We note specifically that, because of the reversibility of flows at low Reynolds numbers, this

equation applies whether the sphere is getting closer to or farther from the walls. R
F = – 6π η R 1 + U.
h
9.4.3 Generalization of the solution of the Stokes The force resulting from this equation (a pri-
equation to other experiments ori valid in both limits R / h 1 and R / h 1)
remains within 6.5% of the exact value (de-
The Stokes problem can be generalized to other geometries such as a sphere in the presence termined from a calculation involving a series
expansion) for intermediate values of the ratio
of walls, a rotating sphere, a set of spheres, ellipsoidal objects (of which the cylindrical rod,
R/h.
treated in Section 9.3.2, is a limiting case) or, even more simply, a case where the solid
sphere is replaced by a fluid. We discuss now a few of these problems.

Rotating sphere
In general terms, any instantaneous motion of a solid can be decomposed into a translation
and a rotation. Aside from the translational motion of the sphere, we will now study the
flow resulting from its rotation about its own axis in a fluid at rest far away (Figure 9.12). z
We find that the azimuthal component of the velocity field has the value: Ώ

υφ
υϕ (r, θ) = R3 sin θ/r 2 . (9.58)
θ
r
The torque due to forces opposing this rotation is in the z-direction, so that:
R
G = –8π η R3 , (9.59)

a form which we had predicted by dimensional analysis in Section 9.3.2 (Equation 9.34).

Proof Figure 9.12 Velocity field resulting from the

Given the symmetry of the problem, the only non-zero component of the velocity is vϕ rotation of a sphere in a viscous fluid
which depends only on r and the polar angle θ and which is such that vϕ (r = R) = R sin θ.
Also, as a consequence of symmetry, the pressure must be independent of ϕ. The compo-
nent in the ϕ direction in the equation of motion in spherical coordinates (Appendix 4A.3,
Chapter 4) can then be written:

1 ∂ 2 r υϕ 1 ∂ 2 υϕ cot θ ∂υϕ υϕ
η + 2 + 2 – = 0.
r ∂r 2 r ∂θ 2 r ∂θ r 2 sin2 θ

Using the expansion vϕ (r, θ) = f (r) g(θ), where g(θ) = sin θ in order to satisfy the boundary
conditions at the surface of the sphere, this equation can be simplified into:

∂ 2f 2 ∂f 2 f (r)
+ – = 0.
∂r 2 r ∂r r2

By looking for a solution of the form f ∝ r α , one finds that α = 1 or –2; only the second value
allows one to obey the condition of zero velocity at infinity. Equation 9.58 is then obtained
334 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

by choosing the multiplying factor so as to obey the boundary conditions on the sphere.
One computes from vϕ (r, θ) the value of the only non-vanishing component of the stresses
exerted on the sphere (r = R) by means of the equation:

∂vϕ vϕ
σϕ,r = η – = –3η sin θ.
∂r r
The total resistive torque is obtained by multiplying σϕr by the distance R sin θ and
integrating over the entire surface of the sphere. One then retrieves Equation 9.59.

The respective influence of two spheres

One examines the case of two identical spheres, sedimenting in a fluid of infinite extent,
but sufficiently close to each other so that the velocity field resulting from the motion of
one sphere affects the motion of the other. The sedimentation velocity can be evaluated
by adding the individual values of the sedimentation velocity of one sphere to that result-
ing from the motion of the other. By using the property of reversibility of flows at low
Reynolds numbers, discussed in Section 9.2.3, one shows that the resulting velocities of the
two spheres must be identical. The straight line joining their centers thus does not rotate
during the fall, regardless of its original direction, and the distance between their centers re-
mains constant. The combination of the two spheres thus behaves like a solid of revolution
with a plane of symmetry perpendicular to its axis. The inverse of the sedimentation veloc-
ity Vs (normalized by its value Vs0 for one sphere in an infinite medium) is shown in Figure
9.13 as a function of d/2R, for the two cases where the straight line joining the centers of
the spheres is either vertical or horizontal.

Vs0
Vs
0.9 Vs Vs
Figure 9.13 Comparison between the sedi-
mentation velocity Vs of two identical spheres, 0.8
with either vertical or horizontal separation 2R
between them. Vso is the velocity of an isolated d Vs
sphere 0.7

Vs d
0.6
2R

1 2 3 4 5 6

Let us assume that the distance d between the centers is sufficiently large relative to the
radius R so that we can neglect the terms in 1/d 3 in the velocity field resulting from the effect
of each of the spheres on the other (Equations 9.36). When the line joining the centers is
vertical, each sphere induces in the vicinity of the other one a velocity component vi of the
order of (3/2)Vs R/d parallel to the sedimentation velocity Vs . The relative velocity of the
spheres with respect to the fluid is then smaller than Vs by the amount vi ; it must also be
equal to the terminal velocity Vs0 of an isolated sphere in order to insure the equilibrium
between the weight of the sphere and the viscous drag. One thus has:

3R
Vs0 = Vs – vi ≈ Vs 1 – , (9.60)
2d
Constant-velocity motion of a sphere in a viscous fluid 335

Vso 3R
so that: = 1– . (9.61)
Vs 2d

For the case where the line joining the centers is horizontal, one obtains:

Vso 3R
= 1– . (9.62)
Vs 4d

Both the above equations are only valid when the distance between the spheres is sufficiently
large. The curves on Figure 9.13 were obtained instead by an exact calculation.

Drop of fluid in motion within another immiscible fluid

Consider a fluid sphere of viscosity ηi with its center fixed within another, external, non-
miscible fluid with viscosity ηe = ληi moving at velocity U at infinity (Figure 9.14). In order
to determine the external velocity field, the general form of Equations 9.50 (taking the value
M = 1/2 to get the velocity at infinity) is used. Within the drop, a calculation similar to that
carried out above provides a velocity field of the form:

υr = U cos θ A + B r 2 (9.63a) and υθ = –U sin θ A + 2B r 2 . (9.63b)

where A and B are constants evaluated by means of the boundary conditions requiring that
the velocity and the shear stresses be continuous at the surface of the sphere. One notes that
the r-dependence of the two velocity fields is quite different; this is understandable since, on
the one hand, the distribution of vorticity inside the drop is not the same as that obtained in
Equations 9.36a–b and, on the other hand, the boundary conditions are also different. In
particular, no terms of the type l/rn (n > 0) may appear in the inner velocity field since the
velocity at the center of the sphere must be finite.
One obtains, for each of the two velocity fields:

• external:

3 + 2λ R 1 R3
υr = U cos θ 1 – + , (9.64a)
2 (1 + λ) r 2 (1 + λ) r 3

3 + 2λ R 1 R3
υθ = –U sin θ 1 – – . (9.64b)
4 (1 + λ) r 4 (1 + λ) r 3

• internal:

λ r 2
υr = –U cos θ 1– , (9.65a)
2 (1 + λ) R

Figure 9.14 Flow patterns outside and in-

side a liquid sphere of fixed center placed
inside another fluid of uniform velocity U at
infinity (configuration comparable to that of
Figure 9.10b)
336 Flows at Low Reynolds Number
r 2
λ
υθ = U sin θ 1–2 . (9.65b)
2 (1 + λ) R

The Stokes force acting on the sphere is then:

3 + 2λ
F = 2π ηe R U . (9.66)
1+λ

In the case of a sphere moving at a velocity U in a fluid at rest, a minus sign must be added
in front of the right hand side of Equation 9.66. This result reduces to Stokes law (Equation
9.53) in the limit where λ approaches zero (the inner fluid is infinitely viscous), and to the
expression for a gas bubble within the fluid, in the opposite limit, as λ tends to infinity:

F = 4π ηe R U. (9.67)

The change in the numerical coefficient from 6π to 4π results from the fact that the bound-
ary conditions are different in the two cases. In a real experiment, values intermediate
between 6π and 4π are obtained if surfactants are present in the liquid and get attached
to the interface, making it more rigid. This is often the case in real life for a bubble rising
through water containing even small amounts of impurities.

Frictional force on an object of arbitrary shape, the concept of a Stokeslet

At a large distance L R from a sphere moving in a fluid at rest, the terms of order greater
than 1/r in Equations 9.36a-b for the velocity field become negligible, so that:

3 cos θ 3 sin θ
vr = UR , (9.68a) and: vθ = – U R . (9.68b)
2 r 2 2r

By combining these equations with the expression F = 6 π η R U of the force exerted by the
sphere on the fluid (opposing the Stokes drag force), they become:

F cos θ F sin θ
vr = , (9.69a) and: vθ = – . (9.69b)
4π η r 4π η 2r

By using Equation 9.51 we can also express the pressure at large distances as a function
of F by:

F cos θ
p= . (9.70)
4π r 2

It can be shown that Equations 9.69a–b and 9.70 apply to a body of arbitrary shape,
provided that it has three finite dimensions (of order of magnitude denoted by R for the
largest one), that the distance r is large compared to these latter dimensions (r R), and
that the axis θ = 0 of the coordinate system corresponds to the direction of the force F.
These equations remain valid even if the body lacks spherical symmetry and/or that the
direction of the force F is not parallel to that of the velocity U of the body.
It may seem surprising that it is the force exerted on the fluid which determines the veloc-
ity at large distances, and not the velocity of the body. As a matter of fact, the latter velocity
results in boundary conditions at a short distance and their effect is no longer observed far
from the body. In contrast, the force F exerted by the body on the fluid generates momen-
tum per unit time. In order to ensure that the flow field is stationary, this contribution must
be compensated by an outward momentum flux far away from the body: F must then be
equal to the overall value of this flux through a surface surrounding the body, such as a
Constant-velocity motion of a sphere in a viscous fluid 337

sphere. This value must be independent of the radius of the sphere of integration provided
the latter is much greater than R. In the Stokes regime, momentum transport is achieved
only by viscous diffusion (we will see further on that this is true only if r/R 1/Re): the
local flux of momentum is then determined by the gradients of the components of the ve-
locity, which vary as 1/r 2 if the velocity varies as 1/r. The integral of the flux of the sphere of
radius r should be of the order of magnitude of the product of the surface 4πr 2 by the local
flux varying as 1/r 2 and can thus be a constant (such would not be the case for any other
dependence of the velocity as a function of r). The velocity field at large distances is thus
determined by the local diffusive flux F of the momentum and not by the flow near the body.
In fact, this velocity field would be the same if the force F was applied at a single point, in
which case Equations 9.69a–b would be valid at all distances from that point: one refers to
such a velocity and pressure field as a Stokeslet. Actually, the velocity field resulting from the
motion of a large number of particles is well modeled, except close to the particles, by that
created by a set of Stokeslets, each coincident with the center of the particles: simulation
techniques based on this approach are known as Stokesian dynamics.

Frictional force on an object of arbitrary shape

We have already suggested this problem in Section 9.3.2. For each geometry, we will have
different coefficients relating the components of the force to those of the velocity.
The minimum energy dissipation theorem (Section 9.2.3) allows us to evaluate the
Stokes drag force acting on a cube of edge 2L moving with velocity U (Figure 9.15). F
It should first be noted that, as shown above, (Section 9.3.2, example (ii)), the force F
acting on the cube is independent of its orientation√relative to U; it is, moreover, always
opposite to U. Consider the sphere (S) of radius L 3 circumscribing the cube (C). Let us
now replace the true velocity field around (C), vc (r), by a superposition of the velocity vs (r)
around the sphere (assumed solid) and of a uniform field between (S) and (C) correspond-
2L
ing to the velocity U. This second solution, obeying the boundary conditions on (S) and
(C), corresponds to an energy dissipation higher than that of the true solution. By apply-
ing the Stokes law to the flow around this sphere, we obtain an upper limit for the energy U
dissipated, namely:
Figure 9.15 Geometrical illustration for the
√ approximate calculation of the hydrodynamic
–F.U < 6π η 3 LU ; 2
drag force F on a cube (C) moving at veloc-
ity U
F and U are the magnitudes of the force and the velocity, while –F · U is the true rate of
energy dissipation around the cube (C). The√right-hand term of the inequality represents
the power dissipated by a sphere of radius L 3, while the rate of dissipation between the
sphere and (C) is zero, since the velocity is uniform. Consider now similarly the sphere (S
),
of radius L, inscribed within (C); the rate of dissipation due to (S
) is lower than that obtained
for the solution corresponding to uniform flow of velocity U between (S
) and (C) and to
the unknown flow pattern around (C). Accordingly, this sets a lower limit to the dissipation:
6π η L U 2 . Combining these two inequalities, one concludes that the force F , acting on the
cube, is bounded by:

√
6π η L |U | < |F | < 6π η 3 L |U |.

It should be noted that these two limits bracket the exact solution rather closely. In general
terms, the force acting on a finite-size object, of maximum linear dimension L max , is very
nearly the same as that acting on a sphere of diameter L max .
338 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

The correspondence with the spherical case dis- Forces on long cylindrical objects
cussed in the text at the right allows us to
evaluate the orders of magnitude of the sedimen- For a long rod of radius R and length L, aligned parallel (F ) or perpendicular (F ⊥ ) to the
tation velocities of macromolecules of polymers force of gravity, a detailed calculation leads to the equations:
which have, in solution, a configuration of a ball,
or of colloidal aggregates; these are non-compact 2πη L U 4πη L U
objects for which we can still define a hydrody- F – (9.71a) and: F⊥ – . (9.71b)
namic radius Rh compatible with the application Log R – 32 + Log2
L
Log R – 12 + Log2
L
of the Stokes equation. This radius Rh remains
of the order of magnitude of the radius of the The ratio of these values of the forces is quite close to two: this is the result which we
sphere circumscribing the object. One can find
the value of this hydrodynamic radius by light have used for computing both the angle from vertical at which a cylindrical rod falls, and the
scattering techniques. force resulting from the rotation of a helix (Section 9.3.2). The values of the two forces are
quite close to the force on a circumscribed sphere of radius L/2 as is also the case for other
geometrical shapes. This is another example of the long range of hydrodynamic interactions
at low Reynolds numbers: as a result, the details of the shape of a moving object influence
very weakly the flow velocity field far away from this object or the forces on it.

9.5 Limitations of the Stokes description

at low Reynolds numbers
9.5.1 Oseen’s equation
The proof of the Stokes equation at the beginning of this chapter is based on the assumption
that the inertial terms (v · ∇)v and the non-stationary term ∂v/∂t are negligible relative to
the viscous terms in the equation of motion. We will show, starting from the case of flow
around a sphere, that these assumptions are no longer obeyed at a sufficiently great distance
from the sphere. The Stokes equation is then no longer valid and needs to be replaced by
Oseen’s equation.

Kinetic energy of the fluid far from the sphere

At a large distance from the sphere (r R), the values of the velocity components
(Equations 9.36a-b) can be approximated by:

3R 3R
υr ≈ U cosθ (9.72a) and: υθ ≈ – U sin θ . (9.72b)
2 r 4 r
One infers a lower limit for the kinetic energy of the fluid ek per unit volume by writing:

ek = (1/2) ρ υ 2 (r) > (9/32) ρ U 2 R2 /r 2 .

The kinetic energy (dEk /dr) in the volume between the spheres of radii r and r + dr thus
satisfies:

dEk = ek 4π r 2 dr > (9π/8) ρ U 2 R2 dr. (9.73)

Integration over the entire physical space then gives an infinite total energy. Therefore,
Stokes equation cannot be valid at a large distance from the sphere.

Convection and acceleration effects far from the sphere – Oseen’s equation
Assume a sphere (S) moving at a velocity U within a viscous fluid which is at rest at infinity;
the Reynolds number is taken equal to: Re = (2ρ U R/η) 1. Let us now evaluate the order
Limitations of the Stokes description at low Reynolds numbers 339

of magnitude of the various terms of the Navier–Stokes equation at a large distance L R 5

from the sphere. The order of magnitude of the velocity at this distance is v ≈ U (R/L)
(Equations 9.72a–b). In the reference frame of a fixed observer, located at the distance L y/R
from (S), the velocity field of the fluid induced by the motion of (S) is not stationary, even
if the velocity of (S) is constant: the velocity which is given by Equations 9.36a–b depends
indeed on the distance of the observer to the sphere (S) which varies due to the motion of 0 U
the latter. One has then:

∂v ∂v ∂v R 1 U 2R
= – (U · ∇) v, so that: ρ ≈ ρ U ≈ ρ U U =ρ 2 .
∂t ∂t ∂r L L L
–5
–5 0 x/R 5

Proof Figure 9.16 Asymmetric flow around

Let us call O and O’ the positions of the center of the sphere respectively at times t and a sphere moving with constant velocity
t + dt. If we define the radius vector r = OM with r R, the radius vector at time t + dt will (Re = 0.5). The velocity field was obtained
be O’M = O’O + r = – U dt + r. The change in velocity at the fixed point M between t and solving Oseen’s equation in a reference frame
t + dt will then be: v(r – U dt) – v(r) = – (U · ∇) v dt. By writing that this change represents where the fluid is at rest at infinity. This
∂v/∂t dt, one obtains the order of magnitude needed. flow configuration should be compared to
that in Figure 9.10a which corresponds to
a Reynolds number much smaller than one.
The term ρ ∂v/∂t thus decreases as 1/L 2 , while the viscous stress term is of the order of:
(Plate courtesy of E. Guazzelli, IUSTI)

R 1 UR
η ∇ 2 v ≈ η U ≈η 3 ,
L L2 L

and which thus varies as 1/L 3 . The ratio of these two terms is then of the order of ρUL/η,
and increases with the distance. Therefore, at a distance L of the sphere such that:

L 1 ν
≈ or: L≈ ,
R Re U

one has ρUL/η ≈ 1 and the assumption of quasi-stationarity is no longer valid. On the other
hand, still for a fluid at rest at infinity, the convection transport term (v · ∇) v satisfies:

U 2 R2
UR
|ρ (v·∇) v| ≈ ρ 3
η ∇ 2 v ≈ η 3 .
L L

It varies therefore as 1/L 3 and remains always negligible if Re 1.

Let us now analyze the case of a motionless sphere within a fluid which moves at con-
stant velocity U at infinity. In this case, in contrast, the non-stationary term ∂v/∂t vanishes
identically for a fixed observer, whatever the location of the latter. At a sufficiently large dis-
tance the velocity v of the fluid tends toward U and (v·∇)v is very nearly (U·∇)v. It is then
the convective term which is of order ρU 2 R/L 3 and is no longer negligible at large distances
relative to the viscous dissipation term.
Thus, in an infinite volume of fluid, the Stokes equation is only an approximation valid
sufficiently close to the solid; because of the weak decrease in the velocity field, the corre-
sponding errors can become sizable. Far from the sphere, one then needs to replace, as a
first approximation, the Stokes equation by Oseen’s equation:

ρ (U·∇) v = –∇p + η∇ 2 v. (9.74a)

340 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

If Oseen’s equation gives a better description Going back to the first case where the solid moves at constant velocity in a fluid at
for the flow than Stokes equation far from the rest at infinity; one just needs to add to the Stokes equation the time-varying term
sphere, it is not correct near the sphere be-
cause its estimate of the non-linear terms or of
ρ ∂v/∂t = – (U · ∇) v obtained above, so that:
the acceleration is incorrect. More complicated
methods (matched asymptotic expansions) are
needed to tie together the two types of solutions ρ (–U · ∇) v = –∇p + η∇ 2 v. (9.74b)
in the region of the distances R L R/Re.
The actual value of F is intermediate be-
tween those predicted by the Stokes equation Using these equations, one obtains the corrected value for the drag force F:
(Equation 9.53) and by Equation 9.75 and satis-
fies approximately:
3
3
F = – 6π η R U 1 + Re + O(Re2 ), (9.75)
F – 6π ηR U 1 + Re + O(Re2 ). 16
16

where Re = 2RU /ν.

In contrast with the Stokes flows, the resulting velocity fields are asymmetric relative to
the diametral plane perpendicular to the flow. Figure 9.16 above displays a moving sphere
within a fluid at rest at infinity. The streamlines are closer together behind the sphere than
in front of it (the vorticity is more concentrated downstream). In fact, for the length scales
L ≈ R/Re, the vorticity, locally created by the motion of the sphere, does not diffuse rapidly
The previous analysis remains valid far away enough to spread out equally between the upstream and downstream regions, and is dragged
from a solid of arbitrary shape, provided that all preferentially to the rear. We shall see in Chapter 10 (Section 10.7) that, at high Reynolds
three of its dimensions are finite. The dominant
numbers, or at large distances L R/Re, the asymmetry is such that the velocity gradients
term of the velocity field is, indeed, still of the
order of 1/r at large distances from the solid, and are restricted to a narrow wake downstream of the body (this is however only the case for
the previous approximations remain applicable. well-shaped aerodynamic bodies, behind which the wake remains laminar).

9.5.2 Forces on an infinite circular cylinder

in a uniform flow (Re 1)
Assume that the velocity v(r) varies as U f(r) as
a function of r for r R (R being the radius Assume now an infinitely long cylinder of radius R located in a flow of velocity U perpen-
of the cylinder): the viscous stresses (as well dicular to its axis. The crux of this problem is the Stokes paradox: there exists no solution
as the changes in pressure) will then decrease of the Stokes equation which obeys, simultaneously, the boundary conditions at the sur-
as ηU df/dr. The flux of momentum must, this
time, be calculated over cylinders of radius r and face of the cylinder and at infinity. A physical explanation of this mathematical result is
unit length (and no longer over spheres): the that two-dimensional flows governed solely by viscosity have a much slower decrease in the
product (2πr)η U df /dr is proportional to the velocity and pressure fields than those around a sphere. By using the same kind of argu-
force F per unit length and must be independent
of r. r df /dr must therefore be a constant, lead-
ment as in Section 9.4.1, one finds a variation of the velocity as Log r and of the pressure
ing to f (r) ∝ Log r, p(r) ∝1/r and F ∝ ηU. With as 1/r (instead of 1/r and 1/r 2 for a sphere). The calculation of the kinetic energy carried
such a variation of f (r), the kinetic energy per out in Section 9.5.1 then indicates that the kinetic energy between two cylinders of radii
unit length between two cylinders of radii r and
r and r + dr increases with r: one can therefore not deal with such a flow in the Stokes
r + dr must vary as U 2 r Log2 (r) and increases
indeed with r. approximation, which is indeed only valid, as shown above, at short distances.
It is thus Oseen’s equation which, while not valid near the cylinder (just as in the case of
a sphere), provides a first approximation for the drag force per unit length:

4πηU ∼ 4πηU
F= = , (9.76)
(1/2) – γ – Log(Re/8) 2 – Log Re

where Re = 2UR/ν and γ ∼ = 0.577 is Euler’s constant.

At distances small enough so that Ur/ν 1, the flow still obeys the Stokes equation.
Seeking the solution for zero velocity at the cylinder boundary corresponding to the value
Dynamics of suspensions 341

of the force given by Equation 9.76, we find the stream function (Lamb, 1911):

U r R2
= 2 r Log – r + sin ϕ,
2 (2 – Log Re) R r

with Re = 2 RU /ν and the radial and tangential components of the velocity:

1 ∂ U r R2 The term varying as Log r thus becomes dom-
vr = = 2 Log – 1 + 2 cos ϕ (9.77a) inant when one moves far enough from the
r ∂ϕ 2 (2 – Log Re) R r cylinder so that R2 / r 2 1. Just like in the case
of the sphere, a more exact calculation requires

∂ U r R2 matched asymptotic expansions using the solu-
and vϕ = – =– 2 Log +1– 2 sin ϕ. (9.77b) tions of the Stokes equation near the cylinder
∂r 2 (2 – Log Re) R r and Oseen’s equation further away. We would
find of course the same results for a moving cyl-
inder within a fluid at rest (within a change of
sign for the drag force and an additive term for
It is interesting to compare Equation 9.76 to Equation 9.71b for the force per unit length on
the components of the cylinder velocity).
a cylinder of finite length L. The two equations are similar but, again within a multiplicative
coefficient, the ratio L/R is replaced by 1/Re for the infinite cylinder, so that L is replaced In Section 9.5.1, ν/U is also the distance for
by ν/U . This suggests that ν/U represents a maximum distance beyond which the different which the non-stationary or convective terms of
the Stokes equation become significant.
parts of the length of the cylinder no longer influence one another.

9.6 Dynamics of suspensions

The last two Sections 9.6 and 9.7 deal with flows at low Reynolds numbers in the case of
suspensions and of porous media. They are distinct, first of all, from the previous sections
because one deals with a large number of solid particles distributed in disorderly fashion
within a flow; in the case of suspensions they are free to move, while they are fixed in
porous media. Moreover, we are interested in average laws governing the flows, and not on
the detailed velocity field around each particle. These topics are related to the extent that
the laws for very concentrated suspensions tie in with those for porous media.
The problem of particles in suspension is of great practical importance. It covers the
sedimentation of particles, the flow of suspensions (clay, drilling muds, cements, extruded
foods such as varieties of pasta, etc.), as well as the behavior of fluidized beds; the latter, of
large industrial importance, correspond to solid particles levitated by an upward injection
of a fluid from the bottom of a container, resulting in a suspension of separated particles.
The behavior of suspensions vary greatly depending on the size L of the particles in-
volved. In the case of very small Brownian particles (Section 1.3.1), effects due to thermal
motion are very significant. For large particles, hydrodynamic effects dominate. The rela-
tive importance of these two mechanisms is measured by the Péclet number, Pe, defined in
Chapter 2 (Equation 2.16) as:

Pe = U L/D,

where U is the flow velocity and D the Brownian diffusion coefficient for the particles. Here,
the Péclet number is taken equal to the ratio of the diffusion time for spherical particles over
a distance of the order of their radius R, to the convection time for particles due to the flow
over the same distance R. In Chapter 1, the Brownian diffusion coefficient D for particles
has been shown to satisfy (Equation 1.48):

kB T
D= ,
6π η R
342 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

where R is the radius of the particles, and η is the viscosity of the fluid. The characteristic
time τ D for Brownian diffusion of the particles over a distance R is τ D ≈ R2 /D. The convec-
tion time of particles at the characteristic velocity U ≈ γ̇ R of the flow is τC ≈ R/U ≈ 1/γ̇
(γ̇ is the shear rate of the flow). Thus, the Péclet number satisfies:

τD 6π η γ̇ R3
Pe = = . (9.78)
τC kB T

A priori, the change in behavior of a particle from Brownian for Pe ≤ 1 to non-Brownian for
Pe 1 depends on the value of the shear rate γ̇. However, because of the large exponent
in the factor R3 , it is essentially the size of the particles which determines the crossover be-
tween the two types of behavior. In practical terms, we consider that the crossover between
Brownian and non-Brownian particles occurs when their size is of the order of 1 μm.

Justification
Consider particles in water at ambient temperature. The limit Pe ≈ 1 corresponds to a
diameter of particles of the order of 1 μm for shear rates of γ̇ ≈ 1 s–1 . The following
coincidence allows one to remember the crossover between the two domains: particles
An additional factor must be considered in 1 μm in diameter suspended in water at ambient temperature and in a flow with shear rates
the discussion of the hydrodynamic motion of
small objects: it corresponds to the van der of 1 s–l , have a Brownian diffusion coefficient D ≈ 1 μm2 /s, a corresponding characteristic
Waals forces between particles or, if the par- time τ D ≈ R2 /D ≈ 1 s, and a Péclet number of the order of one. Taking the micrometer
ticles carry electric charges and the solvents and the second as fundamental units for these different magnitudes, one summarizes this
have polar molecules, to the electrostatic forces.
The corresponding (colloidal) interactions play
property by:
a dominant role when particles come into very
close proximity (at distances typically less than a 2R ≈ D ≈ γ̇ ≈ τD ≈ Pe ≈ 1. (9.79)
hundred nanometers).

9.6.1 Rheology of suspensions

Dilute suspensions behave as homogeneous Newtonian fluids with a viscosity η greater than
the viscosity η0 of the fluid alone. The viscosity η obeys an equation derived by Einstein in
1905, in his famous paper on the theory of Brownian motion:

η = η0 (1 + 2.5 C). (9.80)

2ε
where C ( 1) is the volume fraction occupied by the particles (the ratio of the total volume
occupied by the spheres to the total volume of the suspension). This result is remarkably
L simple and general and does not depend on whether the particles are Brownian or non-
Brownian nor on the type of flow. The only assumption on which it rests is that of a lack
D
of hydrodynamic interactions between particles: this allows one to consider only the per-
turbation to the flow due to the presence of a single particle, and to sum this perturbation
over all particles. Such a summation implies that the global contribution to the viscosity is
E proportional to the volume fraction C. The complete proof requires a computation of the
F increase in the dissipated energy of the suspension due to the presence of particles and is
not straightforward.

Figure 9.17 Schematic diagram of a sus- Qualitative justification for Equation 9.80
pension of particles, and the manner of esti- Imagine the transfer of momentum along a line L drawn at random in the suspension
mating its viscosity (Figure 9.17). Such transport is diffusive in the fluid region DE between two particles,
Dynamics of suspensions 343

but occurs quasi-instantaneously along the segment EF within a solid particle, which effec-
tively accelerates the transfer. Overall, everything goes on as if the length of the line was
shortened by the effect of the particles through which it passes. According to a theorem in
stereology outlined below, the fraction of length located inside solid particles, along a line
passing at random through the suspension, is equal to the volume fraction C of the particles.
The ratio of the lengths DE and DF is then, on average:
Relationship between the particle concen-
tration and the intercepted fraction of a
DE EF
=1– = 1 – C. randomly drawn line: Along a line element
DF DF L drawn at random through the heterogeneous
suspension of particles (Figure 9.17), imagine
that one constructs a cylinder of infinitesimal
Writing the expression of the diffusion time τ D of the momentum along the line DF in two radius ε (where ε is much smaller than any
different ways, one obtains: characteristic dimension of the particles). The
volume fraction of the above cylinder and the
fraction of the length of a line L which is located
DF 2 DE 2 [DF (1 – C)]2 inside these particles are equal: in the calculation
τD = = = . of the volume ratio, the same factor πε2 appears
η/ρ η0 /ρ η0 /ρ
indeed in the numerator and the denominator.
Since the cylindrical tube was randomly drawn
The first expression involves the overall viscosity η of the suspension of fluid and particles; through the suspension, the volume fraction of
solid matter within the tube equals the average
in the second, one only includes the viscosity of the fluid, while taking into account the fact volume fraction in the entire system, provided
that diffusion through the fluid occurs only over the distance DE. Expanding to first order that the length L is much greater than the size
in C, we find η0 = (1 + 2 C), agreeing reasonably with the exact result. of individual particles and that the suspension is
homogeneous.

The variation predicted by Equation 9.80 is correct up to a volume fraction C of a few

percent. For these values, the average distance between the particles is five to ten times
their radius. Under these conditions, it is reasonable to neglect the effect of the presence
of adjacent particles on the motion of a single particle, in spite of the slow decrease of the
hydrodynamic perturbations that they generate (these perturbations are proportional to the
ratio of the radius of the particle to the distance from one particle to its neighbor). For
greater concentrations, the terms neglected in the previous approximation become larger
than the first order correction of the viscosity. One must then take into account the hy-
drodynamic interactions between particles. As a first approximation, only the contribution
of the interactions between pairs of particles need be considered; it is then summed over
all pairs of particles in the suspension, giving a term in the viscosity of the suspension
proportional to the square of the volume fraction C:

η0 = 1 + 2.5 C + k C2 . (9.81)

However, despite the above simplifying assumptions, the calculation leading to this formula
is rather elaborate (partly because of the slow decrease of the velocity perturbations resulting
from the presence of particles). Moreover, the coefficient k of the C2 term depends both on
the nature of the flow to which the suspension is subjected, and on the Brownian motion of
the particles (the value of k ranges between 5.2 and 7.6): these variations reflect the influence
of the flow on the spatial arrangement of the particles (the formation of aggregates, the effect
of the orientation for ellipsoidal particles, etc.). Thus, the viscosity of a suspension subjected
to an elongational flow is not identical to that of the same suspension subjected to a shear
flow because of the effects of the temporary formation of chains of particles. The viscosity
depends therefore on the nature and the velocity of the flow to which the suspension is
subjected, and can also be a function of time (see Section 4.4.3).
344 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

9.6.2 Sedimentation of particles in suspension

Sedimentation of dilute suspensions
The study of the influence of the flow induced by a moving sphere on the motion
of another sphere (Section 9.4.3), has shown that this mutual interaction increases the
sedimentation velocity of both spheres. For a suspension of a large number of parti-
cles, this effect is however hidden by the counterflow at velocity vc around each particle
(Figure 9.18a). Such flows are visible in Figure 9.11b: they ensure the conservation of
the rate of flow of a fluid, assumed to be incompressible, throughout any cross-section
perpendicular to the motion of the particles.
The sedimentation velocity VS of a dilute suspension of spheres with volume fraction
C is smaller than the velocity VS0 of an isolated sphere. In an idealized geometry, where
sedimentation occurs toward an infinitely distant plane, we would obtain:

VS (C) = VS0 (1 – 6.5 C). (9.82)

This equation is a first-order expansion in the concentration C and takes into account inter-
actions between a pair of particles. A second-order term can be evaluated, but only through
a much more complicated calculation which involves assumptions about the relative distri-
bution of particles which is practically unknown. In addition, the calculations can no longer
be restricted to nearest neighbor interaction due long-range effects (also resulting from the
slow decrease of the velocity with distance) as 1/r.

The effect of heterogeneities in the concentration, Boycott effect

When heterogeneities exist in the concentration of particles in a horizontal plane, there
results a horizontal gradient of the average density in the suspension. As shown in
Section 4.5.5, such a gradient induces a recirculation motion: depending on the local verti-
cal component of the velocity, sedimentation will then be accelerated or slowed down. Such
Figure 9.18: (a) Local counterflow effect motion can be favored by the geometry of the walls (e.g., for a spherical wall).
during the sedimentation of a suspension in A process with similar origin is the Boycott effect, discovered by A.E. Boycott while he
a vertical tube. (b) Boycott effect, when sedi- observed the sedimentation of red blood cells in a tube tilted from the vertical: this occurs
mentation occurs in a tube at an angle to the much more rapidly in this situation than when the tube is vertical (Figure 9.18b). On the
vertical. The two tubes contain a suspension one hand, in the vertical tube, one has only the sedimentation velocity predicted by Equation
of the same concentration and were flipped at 9.82 and slowed down by counterflow. On the other hand, in a tilted tube, the component
the same time (plates courtesy L. Petit) of the gravitational force transverse to the axis of the tube leads to a transverse segregation
of particles toward the lower part of each cross-section. One then observes a horizontal
gradient of the concentration, and thus of the density, leading to a recirculation flow. The
latter is directed downward in the region where the particles are grouped: it drags them
along and accelerates markedly the sedimentation.

Sedimentation of concentrated suspensions

Except for a global translational motion, the high
concentration limit of such flows is very similar
At high concentrations C, the interactions between particles increase, and their rela-
to the flow in a porous medium, where the over- tive motion becomes negligible as C approaches a limiting value Cm ; Cm represents the
all particles are fixed and the fluid flows between concentration of a compact aggregate of particles falling under its own weight in the fluid.
them (Section 9.7.3).
During the sedimentation of a bed of similarly sized particle, rather abrupt variations are
Moreover, at high concentration, the ve-
locity VS varies more rapidly with C than frequently observed in the concentration profiles (as shown in the pictures of Figure 9.19).
the linear dependence predicted by Equation For sufficiently high concentrations (C > 20%) such experiments display an abrupt trailing
9.82. One frequently uses the empirical equa-
front in the concentration. Trailing particles move faster than those deeper within the sus-
tion of Richardson-Zaki: VS (C) = VS0 (1 – C)n
(n ≈ 5.5) valid at low values of Re and for pension, since the slowing effect due to nearby particles is less significant; they can therefore
C ≤ 0.5. catch up to the main pack even if variations in individual velocities due to the dispersion of
Flow in porous media 345

Figure 9.19 Sedimentation of a suspension

of particles observed by means of an X-ray
scanner for times increasing from left to right.
The gray levels correspond to the concentra-
tion of particles which is a maxium in the
brightest regions. (Plate courtesy F. Auzerais)

The flow rate C VS (C) of the particles starts

from zero for C = 0 and displays a maximum for
particle sizes are significant. There is also, in the lower part of the images of Figure 9.19, an intermediate concentration before dropping
a leading front moving up against the motion of the particles: this front corresponds to the back to zero for the concentration of the static
upper edge of the motionless sediment formed at the bottom of the container. There are sediment. Such a variation leads to the appear-
ance of discontinuities in C (one cannot have a
also intermediate fronts due to the non-monotonic change of the flow rate C VS (C) as a continuous variation because the low concentra-
function of C: this latter feature corresponds to the formation of a shock wave, which has tion layers would catch up with the slower more
some analogies with traffic jams on busy highways. concentrated ones below them).

9.7 Flow in porous media

9.7.1 A few examples
A porous medium is a piece of solid matter, often characterized in terms of its cavities, or
pores, which occur either as an interconnected network, or as isolated hollows. One sees on
the plates of Figure 9.20 two examples of such materials observed in scanning and optical
microscopes. In the majority of practical instances, the size of the pores is sufficiently small
and the flows sufficiently slow that the condition of low Reynolds number applies. The study
of these materials leads to three types of problems, depending on the nature of the phases
present within the pores.
Figure 9.20 (a) Scanning electron micro-
A first category is that of flows for which the pores are saturated (i.e. completely filled)
scope image of a bronze powder sintered
with a single fluid phase, as in the case of a soil fully saturated with water.
by heating it to a temperature of 700 ◦ C
(500×). (b) Cross-section of this same sin-
tered material (100×): the pore space ap-
pears in black on the image. (c) Cross-section
of a sample of less regular cobalt powder:
the distribution of pores, again shown in
black, is more heterogeneous (Plates courtesy
J.-P. Jernot). The porosity of such media, as-
sumed homogeneous on a larger scale, can
be estimated from the fraction of the cross-
sectional surface corresponding to the pores
(a) (b) (c) (Section 9.7.2)
346 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

In a second class of problems, two or more immiscible fluids coexist in the cavities.
There are then a large number of interfaces between the different fluids. Each interface
corresponds to the presence of a meniscus: capillary effects (see Section 1.4) must therefore
be taken into account in order to characterize the respective flows of the different phases.
Such flows are encountered in numerous situations: soils partly saturated with water (the
second phase is high-humidity air) or mixtures of water and oil in petroleum-bearing rocks;
they are discussed briefly in Section 9.7.6.
Finally, the transport of solid particles is very important in filtration problems, either on
the surface of the filter or within its bulk. This generally affects the fluid flow, and leads to
time-dependent hydrodynamic properties of the medium (by clogging of the filter).

9.7.2 Parameters characterizing a porous medium

The equality of φ S and φ is demonstrated by
taking a given cross-section S and moving it Porosity
in the perpendicular z-direction through a dis-
tance z: one thus sweeps out a volume Sz It is defined by the ratio:
within which the pore volume is, by definition,
φSz. Moreover, one can also calculate this volume of the pores
pore volume by integrating in the z-direction the
φ= = 1 – C, (9.83)
total volume
surface of each cross-section located inside the
pores, which is equal to φ S S. By equating the re- where C is the packing fraction defined in Section 1.1.1. It can be shown that, for an iso-
sult φ S Sz of this integration to the previously tropic, homogeneous medium, φ is also equal to the fraction φ s of the surface corresponding
obtained value, one finds: φ = φ S . The second
equation is derived in the same manner as the to the pores in a plane cross-section of the material, as well as to the fraction φ L of the length
one relating the concentration of particles in a located inside the pores for a line randomly passing through the medium.
suspension and the fraction of the length of a
randomly selected line within these particles (see Specific area
Section 9.6.1 and Figure 9.17).
The specific area, denoted by SV hereafter, is the surface of the walls of the pores per unit
volume of a porous medium. It has the dimension of an inverse length.
SV can also be determined by counting, on the
image of a cross-section of the medium, the For the case of pores of simple geometry (i.e. when their walls are almost smooth), the
number of points of intersection per unit length quantity SV is of the order of the reciprocal of the local size of the pores. For example, for
of the walls of the pores with a straight line cross- a cylinder of length L and diameter d, one finds:
ing the porous medium. Going back to Figure
9.17, we see that the element of a cylinder that (π d) L 4
cuts the particles intercepts a total area of their SV = = . (9.84)
walls equal to the product of the number of in- (π d 2 / 4) L d
tercepts n by each segment, multiplied by the
surface of the base of the cylinder S and by a Classically, if a molecular species is allowed to be progressively adsorbed in the medium
numerical factor F which expresses the effect of which has been previously well evacuated, the completion of the first adsorbed molecular
the inclination relative to the axis of the cylinder monolayer can be detected by a step in the observed pressure. If a represents the size of the
of the elementary surfaces intercepted. The ratio
of the surface (n S F) to the volume (S L) is then adsorbed molecules and Va the total volume of the molecules adsorbed in the volume V of
equal to F n/L. For an isotropic medium, it can the porous medium, one has:
be shown that F = 2: the specific area SV is then
equal, in that case, to twice the number of inter- Va
ceptions of the walls of the pores of the medium
SV = . (9.85)
(V a)
by a random line of unit length.
The specific area is an essential paramenter for all processes involving adsorption and
catalysis. Such processes depend indeed strongly on the area available within the material
Parameters such as the porosity or the spe- for chemical or physico-chemical reactions. For the case where the grains are themselves
cific area are traditionally obtained by averaging porous, we must distinguish between the effects of intragranular porosity, which has the
over a certain representative elementary volume greatest contribution to the effects of adsorption, and of intergranular porosity, which
(REV ) of the medium defined in Section 1.3.2.
The size of this volume must be at least ten
determines largely the value of the total porosity.
pore lengths for very homogeneous materials; it For many applications, one characterizes frequently the specific area of a medium by
is much greater, and even sometimes impossible dividing SV by its density, giving thus the surface of the pores for unit mass of the medium.
to define, for heterogeneous media, or for those
This ratio reaches several million m2 /Kg for activated charcoal or divided catalysts, and of
whose structure displays a very broad range of
characteristic length scales. the order of 1000 m2 /Kg for a set of grains of the order of a micrometer.
Flow in porous media 347

Tortuosity
The transport properties of porous media (the flow of fluids or passage of an electric cur-
rent) involve other geometrical characteristics than the specific area and the porosity. The
topology of the medium (the number of pores to which every pore is connected), the com-
plexity of the paths through the pore space, the characteristic sizes of the pores and of
the channels which join them, also have a significant effect. Moreover, one must take into
account dangling arms (the railroad dead end sidings in the flow), which are particularly
significant in highly heterogeneous media with small numbers of pores. To take into ac-
count these different factors, one defines a parameter T, called the tortuosity, in terms of the
effective electrical conductivity σp of the porous medium, intrinsically an insulator, when
saturated with a conducting fluid of known conductivity σf :

σf
T =φ . (9.86)
σp

L Figure 9.21 (a) Model of the geometry of

L
the porous medium in the form of a network
I Q of wavy capillaries. This model allows de-
S fining the tortuosity of the porous medium
Lcap
on the basis of its electrical conductivity ob-
tained by applying a potential difference V
P1 P2=P1-∆P
V1 (a) V2=V1-∆V (b)
and measuring the value I of the electrical
P1 P2=P1-∆P current through the medium. (b) Parameters
involved in the flow of a fluid through a
porous medium

In order to appreciate the practical significance of the tortuosity, a porous medium is

modeled by means of a system of wavy capillaries (Figure 9.21a). One finds in this case:
2
Lcap
T= , (9.87)
L

where L cap is the curvilinear length of the capillaries, and L the length of the sample. For
wavy capillaries, L cap is greater than L, and the tortuosity is greater than one; in con-
trast, T equals one if all capillaries are straight. From a general theoretical point of view,
T corresponds to the scattering of the electric field by the obstacles in the medium.

Proof
Let us calculate the effective electrical conductivity σp of a porous medium, saturated with a
conducting fluid. Here, V is the electrical potential difference between two cross-sections
of area S of the medium (Figure 9.21a), and I the electric current passing through it;
one has:

V = 1/σp (L/S) I . (9.88)

Similarly for each individual capillary, one can write:

V = 1/σf Lcap /Scap Icap , (9.89)
348 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

where L cap represents the average length of the capillaries. The ratio of these two equations
satisfies:
2
σp L I Scap L
= = φ, (9.90)
σf Lcap Icap S Lcap

because I = N I cap and φ = (N S cap L cap )/(S L) where N is the number of capillaries in
the surface S. By using the definition of Equation 9.86, one finds Equation 9.87 for the
tortuosity. This model will be used below (Section 9.7.4) to calculate the flow rate Q of the
fluid induced through such a medium by a pressure difference P.

9.7.3 Flow in saturated porous media–Darcy’s Law

One-dimensional, low velocity flow
One is interested here in saturated porous media for which the pore space is completely
filled with a single fluid, assumed to be Newtonian and incompressible. If the flow is slow
enough so that the Reynolds number based on the pore size and the local velocity is much
Table 9.1 – A few typical values of the smaller than one, the pressure gradients under stationary conditions will be proportional to
permeability for porous media. the flow velocities in the pores (Poiseuille’s law applied to each pore). This proportionality,
valid in the case of each individual pore, is maintained after averaging the flow rate and the
Medium Permeability
pressure gradients over a volume large relative to the size of the pores. For a homogeneous
(Darcy)
sample of length L and constant cross-section S (Figure 9.21b), and for a pressure gradient
Soil 0.3 – 15 oriented along the length, the flow rate Q satisfies therefore (Darcy’s law):
Brick 0.005 — 0.2
K P
Limestone 0.002 — 0.05 Q= S . (9.91)
η L
Sandstone 0.0005 — 5
Cigarette 1000 The constant of proportionality K is the permeability, which is one of the characteristics of
Glass fibres 20 — 50 the porous medium. As shown below (Section 9.7.4), it has the dimensions of a surface
Sand 20 — 200 area and is of the order of magnitude of the cross-section of an individual pore. A common
Silica powder 0.01 — 0.05 unit for the permeability is the Darcy (∼
=1 μm2 ) which is very appropriate for the orders of
magnitude encountered in natural porous media (see Table 9.1).

Darcy equation generalized to three dimensions

In three dimensions, and taking into account gravity, Equation 9.91 can be generalized for
an isotropic medium to:

Q nu K
The real average velocity vp within the pores, of- vs = =– (∇p – ρ g), (9.92)
ten called interstitial velocity, can in fact be much S η
greater than vs since only part of the total vol-
ume of the medium is available for the transport where nu is a unit vector. Each component vsi of vs corresponds to the rate of flow Qi
of fluid. Thus, for a set of parallel capillaries of through a unit area with its normal in the direction of the corresponding axis i. The velocity
total porosity φ, vp will satisfy vp =vs /φ. In fact,
the average flow rate per unit cross-section of vs is known as the Darcy velocity (also called superficial or filtration velocity).
the material perpendicular to the capillaries is, If K and η are constant, one has, following Equation 9.92:
on the one hand, equal to vs and, on the other
hand, equal to the product of vp by the fraction
∇ × vs = 0, where: vs = –∇, (9.93)
of the cross-sectional surface made up by the
pores; this is equal to φ as seen in Section 9.7.1.
For a homogeneous but anisotropic porous me-
dium, such as a layered medium, one generalizes
Equation 9.92 by substituting a tensor for the K
scalar K. with: = (p + ρgz).
η
Flow in porous media 349

If the fluid is incompressible, the velocity field vs satisfies ∇·vs = 0, so that:

∇ 2 = 0. (9.94)

The superficial velocity field vs can thus be derived from a potential with vanishing
Laplacian, just as in the case of the velocity field of an ideal fluid. But, because of the
small size of the pores, the flow of a viscous fluid in a porous medium is one of the cases
where the effect of the viscosity is greatest and the behavior of the fluid is very different
from that of an ideal fluid. The explanation for this paradox comes from the fact that vs is
not a local velocity, but a macroscopic velocity field defined by averaging over a volume large
compared to that of the pores. Viscosity effects, which are significant at small length scales,
are then averaged out.

Applying Darcy’s Law to the flow in a porous embankment

y
pat pat
y0 nonsaturated zone Figure 9.22 Flow between two water ta-
υsx g bles at different levels (y = y0 , y1 ) through a
water υsy vs porous embankment bounded by the planes
saturated zone x = 0, x = L. The geometry is assumed to
Q ys (x) y1
K be two-dimensional
z water
O impermeable layer L x

As an example, let us analyze the flow through a porous embankment of permeability K

and length L which separates two water volumes at different levels y0 and y1 (Figure 9.22).
One assumes a stationary regime in which the water level ys (x) within the medium is con-
stant in time, with a flow rate Q per unit distance along z constant in each cross-section
(x = constant) and independent of x. If the slope of the free surface is sufficiently small inside
the porous medium (Forcheimer’s approximation), we will show below that the dependence
of the water level on distance satisfies:

y20 – y2s (x) x

= . (9.95)
y20 – y21 L

One obtains a parabolic profile, just as for a water jet freely flowing out of a container (not
withstanding the complete difference in the nature of the forces involved). The flow rate Q
satisfies:

y20 – y21
Q=K g . (9.96)
2Lν

Proof
The part of the porous medium which is not saturated by water is filled with air; if
one neglects the effects of the surface tension, the water pressure just below the surface
ys (x) is therefore equal to the atmospheric pressure patm . Let us now write the equality
350 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

of the pressure between two points on the surface located at x and x + δx. One obtains
p(x, ys (x)) = p(x + δx, ys (x + δx)) whence, by expanding:

∂p ∂p
δx + δys = 0. (9.97)
∂x ∂y

If ∂ys (x)/∂x is sufficiently small, one can consider that the component vsy of the surface
velocity vs is much smaller than the component vsx and that the pressure gradient ∂p/∂y
in the y-direction reduces to the hydrostatic pressure gradient –ρ g (these assumptions are
quite similar to those used for quasi-parallel flows). One then obtains, from Equation 9.97,
the horizontal pressure-gradient:

∂p dys (x) ∂p dys (x)

=– = ρg . (9.98)
∂x dx ∂y dx

Applying Darcy’s law (Equation 9.92) allows one to calculate the horizontal component
vsx (x) of the flow rate velocity, which has the value: – (K /η) ∂p/∂x (∂p/∂x and, consequently,
vsx (x) are both independent of y). The flow rate Q = vsx (x) ys (x) (constant with x) is then:

K dys (x) Kg dys (x)

Q = –ρ g ys (x) =– ys (x) . (9.99)
η dx ν dx

Equation 9.96 and the profile ys (x) are then obtained by integrating Equation 9.99 respec-
tively between 0 and L and between 0 and x. Combining these last two results provides
finally Equation 9.95.

Non-linear flow regimes in porous media

Equation 9.92 is valid at low flow velocities such that the Reynolds number Re (calculated
by taking the size of the pores as the length scale) is much less than one. At higher velocities
(and values of Re of a few units), the relationship between pressure and flow rate is no longer
linear. It can be represented by a power law:

|∇p| ∝ υ n , (9.100)

with the exponent n of the order of 2. This dependence indicates the effect of non-linear
convective terms in the equation of motion of the fluid. In this case, there is still no turbu-
lence in the pores: even with a laminar flow, the great changes in magnitude and direction
of the velocity from one pore to another can render significant the effect of terms such as
(v · ∇)v. This represents a case opposite to that of parallel flows, where such terms can
remain negligible even for Reynolds numbers significantly greater than one.
At higher Reynolds numbers, recirculation zones can also appear in the fluid behind
the grains that make up the porous medium. Such zones are of the same nature as those
described in Sections 2.4.2 and 2.4.3 while discussing the evolution of flow behind a cylinder
or a sphere as a function of the Reynolds number.

A two-dimensional model of a porous medium: the Hele-Shaw cell

A Hele-Shaw cell (Figure 9.23 below) consists of two parallel plates very close to one another
and separated by spacers of size L and thickness a L, equal to the separation between
the plates, acting as obstacles. This system is used to represent the velocity fields of two-
dimensional potential flows of ideal fluids around an obstacle: an example corresponding to
flow around a cylinder is shown in Chapter 6 (Figure 6.5).
Flow in porous media 351

y
z

Figure 9.23 Geometry of a Hele-Shaw cell

with an obstacle of length L, large relative to
a its thickness a.
x
2
–a
2 L

Just as for the case of porous media, this result appears at first glance paradoxical. Given
the proximity of the plates, viscous friction forces will play an essential role on the charac-
teristics of the flow. In fact, just as in the case of porous media, it is the average velocity field
over the gap between the plates which can be derived from a potential, not the local velocity.
Between the plates, the flow is nearly parallel to the x-y-plane and one therefore has:
vz ≈ 0. This can be explained on the basis of the equation of the conservation of mass,
which reads: ∂vx /∂x + ∂vy /∂y + ∂vz /∂z = 0. Because the length scales in the z-direction (of
order a) are very small relative to those in the x- or y- directions (of order L), one can indeed
estimate that the order of magnitude of the component vz is:

υz ≈ (a/L) υx, y υx, y . (9.101)

The great difference between the length scales normal and parallel to the plane of the plates
further allows us to write the following inequalities , also valid replacing vx by vy :

∂ 2 vx ∂ 2 vx ∂ 2 vx( y)
≈ . (9.102)
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2

Moreover, the inertial terms ρ|(v · ∇)v| are negligible relative to those |η∇ 2 v| since the
flow occurs at low Reynolds numbers. Keeping in mind Equations 9.101 and 9.102, the
Navier–Stokes equation reduces to:

∂ 2 v
η = –∇ p, (9.103)
∂z2

with: p = p (x, y). The subscript indicates that the equation applies to the component of
the vectors (velocity or pressure gradient) in the x-y plane. One separates the variables by
writing:

v (x, y, z) = v (x, y, 0) f (z), (9.104)

where, from Equation 9.102, the dependence of v on x and y is very slow relative to that
of f (z) on z. From Equations 9.103 and 9.104, one obtains: f (z) = (1 – 4 z2 /a2 ).
Finally, the velocity field between the plates obeys:

v (x, y, 0) = – a2 /2η ∇ p (9.105) and: υz (x, y, 0) = 0. (9.106)

Thus the direction of the velocity v is everywhere parallel to that of ∇p; moreover, this
direction does not change along the direction of the thickness of the fluid layer, even if the
magnitude of v is highly dependent on z. Equation 9.105 thus represents, for a Hele-Shaw
cell, the equivalent of Darcy’s law for porous media. From Equation 9.105, one deduces:
352 Flows at Low Reynolds Number
!
∇ × v (x, y, 0) = ∇ × (∇p) = 0. (9.107)

The streamlines in a plane of constant z are thus the same for all values of z and are iden-
tical to those for two-dimensional potential flow of an ideal fluid around obstacles with
geometry identical to that of the spacers. Near the spacers, there is a boundary condition
of zero velocity, but its effect is limited to a distance from the boundary of the order of the
thickness a.
The Hele-Shaw cell can be used experimentally as a model porous medium. One can thus
simulate the flow in the porous embankment, discussed above, by means of a Hele-Shaw
cell for which the plates are vertical, with the two sides located between two water volumes
of different levels. The free surface in the cell will be parabolic, as predicted by Equation
9.95. One can also model the spatial variations in the permeability by varying spatially the
distance a between the plates.

9.7.4 Simple models of the permeability of porous

media
Permeability of a system of wavy capillaries
Simple porous media, where the pores are well interconnected and of relatively uniform
cross-section, are frequently modeled as a system of wavy capillaries with individual di-
ameters d (Figure 9.21a). This approach has already been used in Section 9.7.2 in order
to evaluate the electrical conductivity. As shown below, the equivalent permeability of this
system of capillaries is:

φ d2 1
K= . (9.108)
32 T

Therefore for a given porosity, the permeability varies as the square of the diameter of
the channels: thus, the pressure drop for a given flow rate increases very rapidly as the size
of the pores decreases, even if the total pore volume remains constant. This result is quite
different from that obtained for the electrical conductivity σp of the same porous medium
filled with a fluid of given electrical conductivity σf . In this latter case, the ratio σp /σf for
circular channels is proportional to the porosity φ and independent of d.

Proof
For a single capillary, the dependence of the flow rate δQ on the pressure drop p is given
by Poiseuille’s equation (Equation 4.78):

π P 4
δQ = d . (9.109)
128 η Lcap

Let N be the number of capillaries in the surface S normal to the direction of the flow, and
K is the permeability for flows in that direction. The total flow rate per unit area through
the system of cross-section S is given by:

π d 4 P
Q = N δQ = N . (9.110)
128 η Lcap

According to Darcy’s law (Equation 9.91), Q also satisfies: Q/S = (K/η)(P/L). Taking into
account the equation for the porosity φ = N(π d 2 /4) Lcap /(SL), one finds Equation 9.108.
Flow in porous media 353

For this model, as well as that discussed in the previous section, it is assumed that all
capillaries, whether straight or wavy, are on average parallel to one particular direction, an
assumption corresponding to a highly anisotropic porous medium. But one can also make
a simple estimate of the permeability of an isotropic porous medium by assuming that it
consists of three sets of mutually perpendicular capillaries. For a pressure gradient directed
along one of these sets, only that particular one contributes to fluid transport, reducing the
effective permeability by a factor of three relative to the previous case. One then has:

φ d2 1
K= . (9.111)
96 T

The Kozeny-Carman equation

Equation 9.111 involves a pore diameter d which is almost impossible to define unam-
biguously, even if sections of the material of interest are available. The Kozeny–Carman
equation allows one to relate the permeability K of a porous medium to experimentally
measured, physical parameters, here, the porosity and the specific area of the material. The
specific area SV is used in this approximation to evaluate the diameter of the pores, which
is only possible for pores of simple and well connected geometry. For a system of capillaries
(Figure 9.21a), the permeability K satisfies, for example:

1 φ3
K= . (9.112)
6 SV 2 T

The constant 1/6 appears when the medium is modeled as a set of three mutually perpendic-
ular systems of parallel capillaries. An interesting feature of the Kozeny-Carman equation
is the fact that for porous grain packings or compressed powders, 6T can be replaced by a
nearly constant experimental value of the order of five. This result, however, is only valid
for grains and packings with simple geometries and when the size of the pores does not vary
too much.

Proof
The specific area SV (the surface of the pore walls per unit volume of the medium) for a set
of capillaries is:

N (π d) Lcap
SV = , (9.113)
SL

where N is the number of capillaries over the cross-section S of the porous medium. The
porosity φ of the medium can be written as:

N (π d 2 /4) Lcap
φ= . (9.114)
SL

From the two preceding equations we then find, for the specific area as a function of the
porosity:

4 4φ
SV = φ, (9.115a) so that: d= . (9.115b)
d SV

By substituting this last value for d into Equation 9.111, one then obtains Equation 9.112:
354 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

Moreover, one can substitute for the quantity SV in Equation 9.112 the parameter
SV
= SV /(1 – φ) representing the area of the pore walls per unit volume of the solid. The
second expression is of particular interest when one deals with identical grains of simple
shape, because SV
then represents the surface-to-volume ratio of the individual grains. For
a porous composition of spherical grains of diameter D: SV
= 6D and one obtains what is
known as Ergun’s equation:
For a packing of spherical grains of diameter
D = 100 μm and porosity φ = 0.4 (correspond- φ 3 D2
ing to a packing fraction of 60%), one finds
K= . (9.116)
180 (1 – φ)2
K ≈ 10–l1 m2 .

9.7.5 Relationship between the electrical

conductivity and the permeability
of porous media
One uses here a different approach for evaluating the permeability of a porous medium:
it is applicable to a larger set of real media, for which the geometries of the pores and
the flow channels are more complex. In this approach, one attempts to establish relation-
ships between the permeability and the electrical conductivity of the medium saturated by
a conducting fluid. The latter is indeed also related, albeit in a manner different from the
permeability, to the structure and aperture of the channels which cross the medium.

Model of porous medium with two length scales

The porous medium is represented as a system of particles of characteristic size a (which
is also the order of magnitude of the length of the channels), for which the surfaces are
separated by a characteristic distance d (representing the minimum diameter of the chan-
a nels) (Figure 9.24). This approach has some common points with the models of capillaries
that we have described previously (it is in fact simpler as it does not involve explicitly the
tortuosity); it is however characterized by the introduction of the two length scales a and d
d
instead of assuming long tubes.
One evaluates now the relationship between the permeability of the porous medium, its
electrical conductivity σp and that σf of the fluid saturating the medium. Instead of making
separate use of the parameters σp and σf , one introduces the formation factor F (greater
Figure 9.24 Schematic diagram of a po- than or equal to one) of the medium, which is equal to their ratio so that:
rous medium, showing channels of minimum
aperture d between grains of diameter a.
F = σf /σp (9.117)
While this schematic representation is two-
dimensional, one can imagine that this is a
The dimensions a and d can be related to F and to the permeability K by:
cross-section through two grains and that,

above and below the plane of the figure, σf √ √ σf √ √
d≈ K = FK (9.118a) and: a ≈ K = F K. (9.118b)
another pair of grains forms the remaining σp σp
boundaries of the channel

Proof
One first evaluates F in the geometry of Figure 9.24. Considering that the cross-sections S
and S cap to be used in Equations 9.88 and 9.89 are respectively S ≈ a2 and S cap ≈ d 2 and
taking I = I cap and L = L cap = a, one obtains:

σf a2
F= ≈ 2 (9.119a)
σp d
Flow in porous media 355

Moreover, according to Equation 9.109 and taking again L cap ≈ a, the flow rate through In the present discussion, Darcy’s law was ap-
plied to a cube of size a, which is then implicitly
single channels is of the order of δQ ≈ (1/η)(P/a)d 4 . Using Darcy’s law (Equation 9.91)
considered to be an elementary representative
with, again, S=a2 and with Q = δQ, one obtains: volume on which one can define macroscopic
variables such as K and F . In spite of this ap-
proximation, which is difficult to justify for very
d4
K≈ . (9.119b) heterogeneous porous media, we will see further
a2 down that the equations obtained can be used
on natural rocks. This shows that the purpose of
By combining the two previous equations, one retrieves Equations 9.118a–b. the scaling laws of Equations 9.118 and 9.119
is to predict the dependence of the permeability
and electrical conductivity on the characteristic
lengths of the structure of the medium, without
We explore two different ways of using Equations 9.118a–b. In the first, one determines attempting to determine the numerical values of
a characteristic opening dc for the channels by means of an auxiliary physical measurement; these coefficients.
in the second, one uses porous media made up of grains of known and minimally variable
size a but with different packing fractions, and thus porosity, as can be obtained by changing
the degree of sintering.

Using the conductivity-permeability-size relationship of channels

In this approach, pioneered by Katz and Thompson, a characteristic value of d is estimated The type of analysis carried out here and based
on the concept of a critical size dc for channels
by a technique similar to mercury porosimetry, to be described in more detail in Section 9.7.6. has been applied to other transport problems,
The characteristic diameter dc , thus determined, is well adapted for use in Equation 9.118a: such as electrical transport in very heteroge-
the electrical (or hydraulic) conductivity of a given path through the sample is determined neous solids, or hydraulic transport in fissured
media. The underlying concept is that for a
by the narrowest openings (those for which the drop of the electrical potential, or that of
system for which one parameter varies greatly
the pressure, are the highest). The overall conductivity of several channels in parallel is, from one point to another in the medium, (the
in contrast, determined by those through which flow is easiest, i.e. those through which the electrical resistance of a network of conducting
electrical current or fluid flow rate is largest. It is thus the narrowest part of these easiest paths elements with greatly varying individual resis-
tances), the overall conductivity is minimally
which controls the transport properties: one will see that it is, specifically, this narrowest affected by those elements which are excellent
dimension which is determined by porosimetry measurements. conductors: they only act as local short circuits.
One thus expects, by taking the square of Equation 9.118a, to obtain dc 2 ≈ FK. The same is true for the elements of the net-
work which are poor conductors: they contribute
Remarkably, this equation is obeyed by samples with permeability varying over a huge very little to the overall conductivity because
range (from 1 to 108 ) and with very different porosities and mineral compositions. These they are generally short-circuited by elements
measurements have resulted in the following quantitative relationship, obeyed within a which are better conductors. These are the el-
ements with intermediate resistance but which
factor of two: are just sufficiently numerous to create a contin-
uous path through the sample which determine
σp dc 2 the conductivity of the overall system.
K= . (9.120)
σf 226

Using the conductivity-permeability-size relationship of grains

Equation 9.118b has a more restricted domain of application; it can be used, however, to
make predictions for sedimentary rocks compacted over long geological periods or gran-
ular media welded by sintering with no significant change in the grain size. Systematic
experiments have been carried out on model porous media obtained by high-temperature
sintering, during different time lapses, of glass beads of the same diameter (a few hundred
microns); as the level of sintering increases, the size of the channels d decreases while their
length a stays constant. Samples prepared from beads of different diameters have also been
compared. The measurements lead to the following equation for the permeability K as a
function of the square of the grain size and the form factor:

2
σp a2
K = 14.1 a2 = 14.1 . (9.121)
σf F2
356 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

This relation has the form of Equation 9.118b squared. These results are, however, only
valid for moderate levels of sintering, corresponding to porosities φ ≥ 10 %. For lower
porosities, and until the sintered material is no longer permeable, the effect of dangling
arms (unconnected pores) alters the validity of the model.

9.7.6 Flow of immiscible fluids in a porous medium

This type of flow occurs when two or more immiscible fluids (or a liquid and a gas) are
simultaneously present in a porous environment, a situation occurring in oil-bearing rocks,
as well as in the hydrology of non-saturated soils. This is the case for the enhanced recov-
ery of petroleum (oil and water mixture) and in the experiment of mercury porosimetry
described above. One must then take into account the viscous pressure drop due to flow in
each of the phases, as well as the differences of capillary pressure determining the curvature
of the interfaces of the two fluids. The relative importance of these two phenomena can be
measured by the dimensionless capillary number Ca = ηv/γ . This number characterizes the
ratio of the viscosity effects and of the capillary pressure and has been already defined in
Section 8.2.2.
We will first discuss the more classical approach, that of the model of relative permeabil-
ities: it can be used when the viscous pressure gradients play an important part, and the
distribution of the two phases within the porous material is relatively homogeneous. This
approach uses Darcy’s law by continuing to use macroscopic variables (defined by aver-
aging over an elementary representative volume) which characterize the distribution and
movement of the fluids. We will then discuss a few problems associated with the action of
capillary forces and several cases where they play a dominant role. In this case, the observed
phenomena are quite different depending on whether the fluid initially present is displaced
by a fluid which is more (imbibition process) or less (drainage process) wetting for the porous
medium.

Relative permeability of a porous medium

Let us analyze the penetration of water in a cylindrical sample initially saturated with oil
(Figure 9.25). The first important parameter is the saturation Sw of the porous material
with water, defined as the fraction of the volume of the pores filled with water. Similarly,
one defines a saturation So in oil (if the pores are completely saturated and no other fluid
is present, one has So + Sw = 1). The parameters Sw and So , as well as the respective local
flow velocities vsw and vso for water and oil, are averages over an elementary representative
volume, and vary as one moves farther from the initial injection phase. In the center there
will be a region where the two phases, water and oil, are continuous. In contrast, at each of
the two ends, only one of the respective phases, water or oil, is continuous.

injection
of water water oil
Figure 9.25 Schematic representation of the
displacement of oil by water in a porous
medium residual
oil

O x
Flow in porous media 357

At a given distance x from the injection face, one defines coefficients krw and kro , referred
to as the average relative permeabilities:

Qw krw
nw = vsw = – K (∇pw – ρw g) (9.122a)
A ηw

Qo kro
and: no = vso = –K (∇po – ρo g), (9.122b)
A ηo

where K is the average Darcy permeability such as would be measured in the presence of
a single phase. Qw and Qo are the flow rates of water and oil, A the cross-section of the
sample, nw and no are unit vectors, ηw , ρ w , ηo and ρ o are the respective viscosities and
densities for water and oil. This approach attempts to generalize Darcy’s law in the simplest
manner possible: one takes into account the presence of two fluids by merely introducing
two multiplying numerical factors krw and kro . The pressures pw and po within the water
and oil can be different because of the capillary pressure jump across the oil–water inter-
face. Equations 9.122a–b include the changes in pressure due to the hydrostatic pressure
gradients, which are different in the oil and water phases. These equations make the implicit
assumption that there is a homogeneous distribution of water and oil on the scale of the rep-
resentative volume over which Sw , Qw and Qo are defined. It is difficult for this condition to
be obeyed in heterogenous porous media, or in the presence of hydrodynamic instabilities
due, for example, to viscosity differences between the two fluids.
It is normally assumed, particularly in the oil industry, that the parameters krw and kro are
functions of Sw only and do not depend on the prior history of the flow. It is then possible to
determine experimentally krw and kro as a function of Sw by measuring, as a function of time,
the amounts of water and oil flowing out of a sample during the injection process, as well
as the time-dependence of the pressure difference between the ends. This much simplified
assumption is generally not obeyed, particularly if one compares the first injection in a
sample initially saturated with a single fluid, with invasion resulting from several injections of
one or the other fluid. Therefore, routine measurements of relative permeability are always
carried out with a precise specific experimental procedure so as to provide comparable
results from one material to another.
Figure 9.26 indicates the typical functional dependence of krw and kro on the saturation
Sw . One observes that krw vanishes at a finite, non-zero value of the saturation Swi : this
indicates that the water films or droplets, still present at yet lower values of the saturation,
no longer form a continuous path through the sample, and can therefore no longer be set in

krw
kro
Figure 9.26 Typical variation of the rela-
tive permeabilities krw for water and kro for
kro krw oil as a function of the relative saturation
Sw of water in the pore space. The residual
saturations in water and oil are Swi and Soi

0 Swi 1–Soi 100 Sw (%)

358 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

motion by small pressure gradient (irreducible water-saturation). Quite similarly, there must
be a minimum oil saturation 1–Soi for a continuous path of oil to exist, and thus get a flow of
oil under a pressure gradient. The concept of relative permeability, in spite of its empirical
nature, allows one to account for the profiles of invasion fronts when one fluid displaces
another within a porous medium. It further occurs in numerous other situations, where the
porous medium is partially saturated with water, like in soil science and in agronomics.

Effects of wetting in two-phase flows in porous media

One considers here the case where the capillary number Ca is small enough so that the cap-
illary effects become significant, or even dominate. One assumes that the porous medium
is initially completely saturated with a fluid (or completely empty); another fluid is then in-
jected into it. As mentioned above, there will be two types of such processes: drainage and
imbibition.

Porosimetry represents a special case of drain- An example of drainage: porosimetry Fluid already present is replaced by a second
age in which the non-wetting fluid is mercury, fluid which is less wetting for the porous medium. The term mercury porosimetry designates
and the wetting fluid is represented by vacuum.
Because of this, the capillary pressure difference a technique for characterizing the size of pores in a material where an excess pressure is
is equal to the pressure of the mercury. used to force non-wetting mercury into a porous sample, initially empty of fluid. In order to
overcome the capillary forces and penetrate into a cylindrical pore of diameter d, one needs
to apply an excess pressure, p, varying as a function of d as:

4 γ cos θ
p = , (9.123)
d

where θ is the wetting angle, and γ the surface tension of the mercury; if the menis-
cus is a spherical cap making an angle θ with the walls, its radius of curvature is indeed
R = d/(2 cos θ) and p is given by Young-Laplace’s equation (Equation1.55).

Figure 9.27 (a) Measuring the porosity:

(b)
variation of the pore volume Vw invaded by (a)
Log(dVw /d∆p) (u.a.)

mercury as a function of the injection pressure

Vw (∆p) (u.a.)

p. Inset: estimate of the histogram of the pore

sizes d, obtained by taking the derivative of
Vw (p). (b) Schematic representation, on the
scale of a few pores, of the process of porosime-
try by the penetration of non-wetting mercury
(light gray) in a sample initially empty (white Log(d) (u.a.)
pw pnw
areas). Insert: enlarged image of the meniscus
inside a connecting channel. ∆p1 ∆pc ∆p2 Log(∆p) (u.a.)

In practical terms, we measure the change in the injected volume of mercury in the
sample as a function of the applied excess pressure (Figure 9.27a): the injection velocity
is kept very low so that the effect of the viscous forces remains negligible, and only the
capillary forces affect the measurement.
Figure 9.27b represents schematically, at the scale of a few pores, the distribution of the
non-wetting phase (nw, in this case: mercury) when it displaces the wetting phase (w, in
this case, the vacuum) and the corresponding interface menisci. For a given excess pressure
p, the only invaded pores are those connected to the inlet face of the porous medium
by a path along which the diameters of the channels and pores are all greater than the
Flow in porous media 359

diameter d(p) obtained from Equation 9.123: the interface menisci can go through the
narrow parts a channel only if their diameter is greater than d(p). Similarly, a large pore
completely surrounded by inlets is only invaded if the excess pressure is sufficient to enter
these inlets. Finally, at any time, the progression of the front occurs through the nearest,
largest-diameter pore.
At small values p1 of the excess pressure p, the fluid nw only invades the largest pores
near the inlet surface, and the menisci are stopped in the first narrow channels they en-
counter: the invaded volume Vw is then small (p ≈ p1 on Figure 9.27a). As p increases
further, the penetration is deeper and deeper. For a critical value pc , there appears a first One detects the appearance of this path by meas-
path going all the way through the porous medium. Physically, dc (pc ) is the opening of the uring the electrical conductivity between the
inlet and outlet of the sample; it corresponds to
narrowest passage along the easiest path going through the porous medium: it is, effectively, the instant when this conductance no longer van-
this path which determines the pressure pc to be applied in order to travel along the entire ishes. It is therefore this value dc which is used in
path. Many pores of size d > dc are not invaded if they are not connected to the injection Equation 9.120 to evaluate the permeability.
face, and the fraction of the pore volume invaded is small.
If p is increased further, the invasion around this critical path increases, and other paths
appear: the value of Vw increases then quite rapidly before reaching saturation when almost
every pore is invaded, as is the case for p ≈ p2 in Figure 9.27a.
In elementary interpretations of porosimetry measurements, the invaded volume for a
given excess pressure p is assumed to represent the total volume of pores with a size
larger than d(p), obtained from Equation 9.123. One then takes the derivative of the curve
with respect to p and converts the injection pressures into diameters, again by means of
Equation 9.123: this provides the estimation of the distribution of the pore volumes as a
function of their diameter (insert in Figure 9.27a). The previous discussion of the physical
mechanism of invasion shows, however, that these assumptions are very approximate, even
if through are quite frequently used: first of all, the volume Vw is largely determined by the
volume of the pores, while d(p) indicates the diameter of the inlet channels. On the other
hand, we have seen that, at a given injection pressure, an important fraction of the large
channels of diameter greater than d(p) remain empty.
The previous description of the very slow invasion process of the porous medium by a
non-wetting fluid is a particular example of the general phenomenon of percolation. This
concept was first introduced for the study of a filter initially made up of interconnected,
open channels which are gradually and randomly blocked. In this case, the percolation
threshold corresponds to the moment when the permeability vanishes. The situation of
mercury porosimetry corresponds, in contrast, to the case of a porous medium which
is gradually unblocked by increasing the pressure p, until a pressure threshold pc is
reached, at which point the mercury passes through the entire porous medium, and the
electrical conductivity of the entire sample is no longer zero.
The process of percolation belongs to the family of critical phenomena, characterized by
the fact that certain properties (e.g., here the electrical conductivity or permeability) obey
universal laws as a function of the distance to the threshold (here, p – pc ).
Mercury porosimetry is not the only drainage process which can take place in porous
media. For example, millions of years ago, a drainage process occurred when oilfields were
formed by the filling of early rock formations by oil, replacing the ocean water previously
there. Moreover, in certain cases, the existing reservoir rocks have become preferentially
wettable by oil: the recovery of petroleum, by injection of water, then becomes a process
of drainage. In this case, since the displaced fluid (water or oil) is incompressible, residual
fluid can remain at the end of the process.

Imbibition Imbibition is the operation inverse to drainage: a fluid wetting effectively the
surface of pores, displaces spontaneously a less wetting fluid that initially fills the medium.
360 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

This is the case, for example, of the penetration of water in a porous medium easily wet by
water, and initially filled with air (the non-wetting fluid). If, in contrast, one starts with a
porous medium saturated with water and lets it empty under the influence of gravity, the
penetration of the air which begins to replace the water is a drainage process.
When petroleum production occurs from a reservoir rock, the petroleum is generally
displaced by water (injected or coming from a greater depth). If the rocks are preferentially
wetted by water rather than by the oil, as is frequently the case, one has also imbibition.
In imbition processes, the smallest pores are the first ones invaded by the wetting fluid
(the opposite of drainage): the capillary forces favour indeed the invasion and are strongest
in the narrowest channels.
Continuous films of wetting fluid are frequently found along the walls of a porous me-
dium: they play a key role in the phenomenon of imbibition, by allowing the penetration of
wetting fluid well ahead of the average displacement front. The non-wetting fluid, on the
contrary, remains in the form of isolated residual drops after the passage of the displacement
front.
The phenomena of drainage and imbibition have an important place in the science
of soils. However, for particles of small size (clays) a significant fraction of the water is
chemically bonded to the particles of the soil.

.........................................................................................

EXERCISES

All these exercises correspond to Newtonian Stokes flows at Re 1 where the inertia of the
fluid is negligible.

1) Torque on a cylinder and a cross in a shear flow

υx(y) y (b)
(a) dFr y
dFφ
r
O φ x O φ x
z z

Consider a solid cylinder (length 2L, diameter L) free to rotate around its center O
in the plane z = 0 (Figure (a)) and placed in a parallel shear flow vx (y) at Re 1 (the
shear rate is S = ∂vx / ∂y) The inertia of the cylinder and gravity are neglected. From
Equation 9.30, estimate the local components dFr and dFϕ of the hydrodynamic forces
per unit length as the angle ϕ(t) of the cylinder relative to the x-direction varies. Show
that the total torque with respect to O is: GO = –(2 /3) λ η L 2 (S sin2 ϕ + ϕ̇). What is
the value of GO ? Compute the variation ϕ(t) and the limit of ϕ at long times.
Two cylinders are rigidly fixed at right angles at the point O in the plane z = 0 (see
Fig (b)). What is the expression for the torque? How is the motion of the two cylinders
related to the vorticity?
Flow in porous media 361

2) Sedimentation of a sphere
A solid sphere of density ρ s and radius R is dropped into an infinite bath of viscous
fluid of density ρ f and viscosity η with a zero initial velocity (we take into account the
inertia of the sphere while neglecting that of the fluid). Determine the time dependence
of the vertical velocity vz of the sphere and of its height z; what is the corresponding
time constant τ ? What is the variation of z(t) with time in the two limits t τ and
t τ ? If d = 1mm, ρ s = 2000 kg/m3 and ρ f = 1000 kg/m3 , compute τ for η = 1 Pa.s
and the corresponding distance to reach the limiting velocity V terminal within 1%. How
does this result change if η = 10–3 Pa.s? Is the condition Re 1 still satisfied?

3) Stokes flow from a three-dimensional point-source

Show that the radial flow velocity vr (r, θ) from a point-like source O in the plane solid
wall θ = π/2 satisfies vr = f (θ )/r 2 (use Figure 4A.3 and formula from Appendix 4A.3).
Assuming that the pressure p goes to zero at infinity as 1/r α : what must be the value
of α? Assuming that f (θ )=A cos2 θ, compute the flow velocity vr as a function of the
flow rate q through a half sphere of radius r; by writing the components of the equation
of motion, show that: p = –η q (1 – 3 cos2 θ ) / (πr 3 ). How does the sign of the radial
pressure gradient vary with θ ?

4) Torque on two concentric rotating spheres

One wants to extend the computation of the torque on a rotating sphere
(Equation 9.59) to two spheres with the same center O and radii R1 < R2 rotat-
ing around the same z-axis at angular velocities 1 and 2 . The interval between
the two spheres is filled by a fluid of viscosity η. Show that the velocity satisfies:
vϕ (r,θ ) = (Arα +B rβ )g(θ). Compute the velocity fields when one sphere rotates while
the other is fixed. What happens to these fields if R2 → ∞ and 2 = 0, or R1 → 0
and 1 = 0? Compute the torque on the remaining sphere in both configurations. What
are the velocity and the torque if R2 – R1 = δ R1 and 2 = 0? How can the problem
of two spheres rotating at different velocities be solved using the above results?

5) Permeability of a layered medium

Consider a porous medium made up of alternate layers of thicknesses h1 and h2 and (a) L
permeabilities k1 and k2 . What is the equivalent permeability k of the medium at a k1
scale large compared to the thickness of the layers for flows parallel (k ) (case (a)) and Q, I L
perpendicular (k⊥ ) (case (b)) to the layers? How do these results change if k1 k2 ? h1
k2
We consider now the particular case where each layer is a random packing of beads of h2
diameters d 1 (resp. d 2 ) for a layer of type 1 (resp. 2): what are the ratios φ 1 /φ 2 and k1 /k2
between the porosities and the permeabilities of the layers and the ratio k / k⊥ ? If the
pores are filled with a same electrically resistive fluid (while the beads are insulating), is
the effective electrical conductivity different for currents parallel and perpendicular to L, ∆p, ∆V
the layers?
(b) L
6) Porous embankment with two fluids of different densities
L
Q, I
y

patm patm k2 k1
y0 nonsaturated zone
h2 h1
υsx g
υsy vs
fresh ρf L, ∆p, ∆V
water K y1
Q yfa (x)
xfsmin yfs (x) salty ρs > ρf
z water
O impermeable layer L x
362 Flows at Low Reynolds Number

We generalize the model of a porous embankment studied in Section 9.7.3

(Figure 9.22) by assuming: (see figure above) have fresh ( f ) and salty (s) water respec-
tively upstream and downstream of the embankment with densities ρ f and ρ s > ρ f (as
is the case near the sea). The salty water penetrates into the embankment and remains
static thereafter. Its interface yfs (x) with the fresh water starts at y = y1 for x = L (see
figure); yfa (x) is the interface between the upper fluid and air with yfa (L) = y1 . We con-
sider a stationary regime in which the profiles yfa and yfs are independent of time. Show
that (ρf – ρs )/ρs = (yfa – y1 )/(yfs – y1 ) (neglecting the interdiffusion of the two fluids,
which are assumed to remain separated, and ignoring the vicinity of the point x = L
where the approximations made in Section 9.7.3 are no longer valid). Compute the
flow rate Q of fresh water (per unit length along z) as a function of the slope ∂yfs /∂x of
the fresh-salty water interface. Calculate the distance L – xfsmin of salt water penetration
into the embankment as a function of Q.
Coupled Transport. Laminar
Boundary Layers
10
10.1 Introduction 363
The combined effects of diffusion and convection and, ultimately of chemical re-
actions, involve length scales which characterize the relative effectiveness of these 10.2 Structure of the boundary layer
near a flat plate in uniform flow 364
mechanisms. The most classical instance is that of the boundary layer around a solid
body which appears in laminar flows at high Reynolds numbers: far from the object, 10.3 Equations of motion within
and so long as the incident flow is not turbulent, the viscous terms in the equation of the boundary layer – Prandtl
theory 366
motion are negligible, and the flow has the same profile as for an ideal fluid. The con-
nection with the condition of zero velocity along solid stationary walls occurs over the 10.4 Velocity profiles within boundary
layers 370
region, known as the boundary layer, which is thinner the higher the Reynolds num-
ber. This chapter thus complements the study of the potential flow of ideal fluids in 10.5 Laminar boundary layer in the
Chapter 6. presence of an external pressure
gradient: boundary layer
After the introduction, the structure of the boundary layers is discussed in Section
separation 376
10.2 by comparing the effects of diffusion (coming from the viscosity) and convection:
this introduces the idea of different characteristic length scales for motion perpendic- 10.6 Aerodynamics and boundary
layers 381
ular and parallel to the surface of an obstacle. The self-similar nature of boundary
layer flows is then demonstrated in Section 10.3 and 10.4. The effect of a pressure 10.7 Wake and laminar jet 386
gradient in the direction of the flow is considered in Section 10.5: it can induce a 10.8 Thermal and mass boundary
boundary layer separation which plays an essential role in aerodynamics as shown in layers 393
Section 10.6. Section 10.7 deals with laminar wakes behind an obstacle: they can in- 10.9 Flames 406
deed be considered as boundary layers evolving in the absence of a solid wall. The
occurrence of temperature or concentration gradients near the surface of a body leads
to that of thermal or mass-transfer boundary layers (coupled to the fluid velocity ones).
Section 10.8 deals with these problems which have a number of applications in thermal
or chemical engineering: illustrations of such properties are provided in two cases of
boundary layers involving the concentration of ions in the neighborhood of electro-
chemical electrodes. Finally, in Section 10.9, combustion problems are introduced in
two limiting cases, that of a diffusive flame and of a premixed flame. In these two in-
stances, in addition to the effects of convection and diffusion, one must consider the
chemical reaction in the combustion, and the corresponding thermal effects.

10.1 Introduction
In laminar flow at high Reynolds number (Re = UL/ν 1) around a solid body, the viscosity
terms in the equation of motion (Equation 4.30) are only to be taken into account within a
thin region around the obstacle known as a boundary layer.
Vorticity created near the walls is convected in the wake (Figure 10.1a below) down-
stream of the solid: it will be seen in Section 10.7 that, in this region, the velocity gradients

Physical Hydrodynamics. Second Edition. Etienne Guyon et al.

© Oxford University Press 2015. Published in 2015 by Oxford University Press.
364 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

Figure 10.1 (a) Cross-section of a boundary (a)

layer and a laminar wake along and behind
a wing in uniform flow at zero angle of in-
cidence; (b) boundary layer, separated from
the surface of a non-streamlined object, with a
large associated wake. In this case, the size of
the wake is of the same order of magnitude as
the lateral dimension of the obstacle (courtesy (b)
of H. Werlé, ONERA)

are also localized within a small part of the total volume of the flow. This justifies, a posteriori,
the study of the flow of ideal fluids, since the corresponding velocity profiles apply almost
everywhere: the effects of viscosity are significant only within the boundary layer near a
solid wall or, downstream of an obstacle, in the wake. The concept of a boundary layer thus
provides the link between two important domains of fluid mechanics: the study of the ve-
locity fields of ideal fluids in potential flow, carried out in Chapter 6, and the determination,
of practical interest, of the flow of viscous fluids at finite Reynolds numbers.
This concept, due to Ludwig Prandtl (1905), must be appropriately adapted in a number
of real experimental situations:

The present chapter deals only with laminar

• flows which are turbulent upstream of a body and/or in the boundary layer: convec-
tive momentum-transport then plays an important role and dominates the diffusive
boundary layers, within which the velocity field
varies only slowly with time. The turbulent transfer which normally occurs in a laminar boundary layer. The velocity profiles are
boundary layers are discussed in Section 12.5.5. significantly altered in these turbulent boundary layers;
• for solid bodies not well streamlined: the boundary layer only exists along a portion
of the surface of the object, and a turbulent wake of width comparable to that of
the obstacle appears downstream. This corresponds to the phenomenon of boundary
layer separation illustrated in Figure 10.1b. In that case, the downstream flow bears
little resemblance to that of an ideal fluid; both the energy dissipation and the drag
force on the object are greatly increased.

10.2 Structure of the boundary layer near

a flat plate in uniform flow
One considers a uniform laminar flow, of velocity U, parallel to a semi-infinite flat plate
with its edge parallel to the z-axis and perpendicular to the plane of the figure (Figure 10.2a
below). If the velocity is sufficiently high, the influence of the plate will not be noticeable
upstream of its leading edge: velocity gradients will indeed not have had time to diffuse an
appreciable distance from the edge of the plate before being carried along downstream by
the flow. As a result, near the edge, the velocity gradients, and the vorticity, are confined
very close to the surface of the plate. Just as in the problem of a flat plate set in motion
Structure of the boundary layer near a flat plate in uniform flow 365

y
U U U (a)

Figure 10.2 (a) Growth of the boundary

layer along a flat semi-infinite plate, with its
δ(x0) δ(x1) x edge O normal to the plane of the figure, lo-
cated in otherwise uniform flow with velocity
O x0 x1
U. (b) Entry length effect for flow between two
semi-infinite, parallel plates. We find again
(b) a Poiseuille-type flow after a distance x1 .
U δ(x0) δ(x1) In both cases, the scale in the y-direction is
d exaggerated relative to that in the x-direction
U
δ(x0) δ(x1) x
x0 x1

parallel to itself, discussed in Section 2.1.2, the velocity gradients attenuate with time; in-
deed, the spatial distribution of vorticity, initially localized along the wall, spreads out by
√
viscous diffusion over distances of the order of δ ≈ νt, where ν is the kinematic viscosity
of the fluid.
However, in contrast to the problem discussed in Chapter 2, the fluid is here simulta-
neously carried along parallel to the plate with a velocity of the order of magnitude of the
external flow velocity, U . In the reference frame of the moving fluid, the order of magnitude
of the time t for moving through a distance x0 downstream from the edge of the plate is:
√
t ≈ x0 /U . Substituting this value in the equation δ ≈ νt, one finds that, at a distance x0
from the edge, the velocity gradients are localized within a distance from the surface of the
plate Figure 10.2a:

ν x0
δ(x0 ) ≈ ; (10.1a)
U

δ(x0 ) thus represents the thickness of the boundary layer over which the transition occurs,
between the ideal-fluid flow far from the plate and the flow very close to it. This flow is
governed by the viscosity which requires the condition of zero-velocity at the wall. One
therefore has:

δ(x0 ) ν 1
≈ ≈ 1, (10.1b)
x0 U x0 Rex0

in which Rex0 is a local Reynolds number defined by taking the distance x0 to the plate edge
as the local length scale. Thus, as Rex0 tends toward infinity, the maximum thickness of the
boundary layer becomes very small in comparison with the characteristic global length of
the plate. This result explains why, at an increasingly large Reynolds number, the external, This is not to say that the effects of such a layer,
non-turbulent flow-region of a viscous fluid behaves more and more like an ideal fluid: the even infinitely thin, can be neglected. On the
contrary, from the results derived in Section
thickness of the layer where viscous effects are observed tends indeed toward zero. 5.3.1, one finds that the energy dissipation due
We will see in Section 10.4.4 that the edge of the boundary layer is not a streamline, and to a finite change in the velocity over an infinitely
√ thin layer is itself infinite. This is known as a sin-
that the rate of flow within it increases as x0 . Moreover, if Rex0 exceeds a certain value, the
gular perturbation which describes the approach
boundary layer itself becomes unstable and turbulent: the estimates made above are then no to the limit δ = 0.
longer valid, since the momentum transport by turbulent convection causes δ to increase
much more rapidly with x0 than in the laminar case.
A phenomenon closely related to the boundary layer is the entry length effect which delays
the establishment of a stationary flow profile downstream of the sharp entrance of a channel.
366 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

Figure 10.2b (above) illustrates schematically this process, for the simple case of flow be-
tween two semi-infinite plates perpendicular to the plane of the figure and separated by a
distance d. At a short distance x0 , downstream from the edges O and O
marking the en-
trance ends of the two plates, the velocity between them is almost uniform with magnitude
equal to the upstream velocity U ; this profile is referred to as a plug flow. The transition to
the zero-velocity condition at the surface of the plates occurs once again over a thin bound-
ary layer of local thickness δ(x0 ). Further downstream, the thickness δ(x) increases, and the
two boundary layers ultimately merge at a distance x1 from the opening such that:
x1 Ud
≈ ≈ Red ,
d ν
where Red is the Reynolds number based on the velocity U and the separation d between
the plates. The length x1 is then that required for the establishment, between the two plates,
The estimate of x1 on the right is obtained
of the parabolic, stationary velocity profile discussed in Section 4.5.3: x1 becomes greater
by means of Equation 10.1a, writing that as Red increases (1000 times the diameter for Re = 1000). For a cylindrical tube, the same
δ(x1 ) ≈ d/2. kind of behavior is qualitatively observed.

10.3 Equations of motion within

the boundary layer – Prandtl theory
10.3.1 Equations of motion near a flat plate
Let us examine a two-dimensional, stationary flow in the x-y plane near a flat plate y = 0, for
a potential external flow U(x) assumed to be in x-direction, parallel to the plate. The results
derived below remain valid even for curved walls, provided that the radius of curvature is
large relative to the thickness δ of the boundary layer.
The characteristic distance in the direction x is locally, at a given point M, of the order
of its distance x0 from the edge of the plate (Figure 10.3). Normal to the flow direction,
the characteristic length is the local thickness of the boundary layer δ(x0 ), which is very
small relative to x0 (Equations 10.1 a-b). The entire discussion which follows is based on
the existence of these two very different length-scales, one in the direction parallel to the
wall, the other perpendicular to it. Under these assumptions, the equation of motion in the
x-direction becomes:
∂vx ∂vx ∂U (x) ∂ 2 vx
vx + vy = U (x) +ν 2 . (10.2)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
while the pressure satisfies:

∂p/∂y = 0 (10.3) and: p(x) + ρU 2(x)/2 = constant. (10.4)

y
Figure 10.3 Boundary layer along a semi- U(x)
infinite plane plate, located in an external δ (x0 )
velocity field U(x) parallel to the plate; δ(x0 ) is y v
the order of magnitude of the local thickness of x
the boundary layer at a point x0 downstream M(x,y)
from the edge of the plate x0 x
O
Equations of motion within the boundary layer – Prandtl theory 367

Equation 10.3 is similar to the absence of the pressure gradient normal to the streamlines
for parallel flow, or rather, in the present case, quasi-parallel. Just as in Chapter 9, the pres-
sure is corrected relative to the hydrostatic pressure p0 = ρ g·r and the notation p represents
implicitly the difference p – p0 .

Proof
Because the flow of interest is two-dimensional and incompressible, the equation of the
conservation of mass can be written:

∂vx ∂vy
+ = 0, (10.5)
∂x ∂y

where vx and vy are the components of the velocity v of the fluid in the respective x and y
directions. Equation 10.5 indicates that the component of velocity perpendicular to the wall
is smaller by an order of magnitude than the component parallel to the wall, so that:

δ(x0 ) vx
vy ≈ vx ≈ vx , (10.6)
x0 Rex0

since δ(x0 ) ≈ x0 / Rex0 x0 . There results:

∂ 2 vx vx vx ∂ 2 vx ∂ 2 vy vy vy ∂ 2 vy
≈ 2 2 ≈ and: ≈ 2 2 ≈ .
∂y 2 δ (x0 ) x0 ∂x2 ∂y 2 δ (x0 ) x0 ∂x2
(10.7a) (10.7b)

These inequalities allow one to write the Navier-Stokes equations in the simpler form:

∂vx ∂vx 1 ∂p ∂ 2 vx ∂vy ∂vy 1 ∂p ∂ 2 vy

vx + vy =– +ν and: vx + vy =– +ν .
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂y2 ∂x ∂y ρ ∂y ∂y2
(10.8a) (10.8b)

The term vy ∂vx /∂y has been retained in Equation 10.8a: it is indeed of the same order of
magnitude as vx ∂vx /∂x because:

∂vx δ(x0 ) vx v2 ∂vx

vy ≈ vx = x ≈ vx .
∂y x0 δ(x0 ) x0 ∂x

The small value of vx is compensated by the large value of the gradient ∂vx /∂y in the direc-
tion normal to the wall, along which the length scales are much smaller. In the same manner,
the terms vy ∂vy /∂y and vx ∂vy /∂x are of the same order of magnitude in Equation 10.8b.
In order to go from Equation 10.8a to Equation 10.8b, ∂p/∂x is replaced by ∂p/∂y, and vy
substituted for vx in the three other terms; since vy is very small compared to vx , these
three terms are, each, smaller by an order of magnitude than the corresponding terms in
Equation 10.8a. Changes in pressure in the y-direction will therefore have a negligible effect
on the velocity profile, when compared to the variations in the x-direction which appear
in Equation 10.8a. One can therefore write Equation 10.8b as ∂p/∂y = 0 (Equation 10.3),
so that:

p = p(x). (10.9)
368 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers
At the edge of the boundary layer, at a dis- Outside the boundary layer, viscous effects are negligible, and Bernoulli’s equation
tance δ(x0 ) from the wall, the term vx (∂vx /∂x)
corresponding to the convective transport of (Equation 10.4) can be applied just as in the case of an ideal fluid; taking the derivative
momentum and the term ν(∂ 2 vx /∂y2 ) for mo- of this equation relative to x leads to:
mentum transport by viscous diffusion are of
the same order of magnitude. Indeed, vx (∂vx /∂x) ∂p ∂U (x)
is of the order (U 2 (x0 )/x0 ), while ν(∂ 2 vx /∂y2 ) + ρ U (x) = 0. (10.10)
satisfies, for y ≈ δ(x0 ):
∂x ∂x

∂ 2 vx U (x0 ) U (x0 )Rex0 Equation 10.2 is finally obtained by combining Equations 10.8 and 10.10.
ν ≈ν 2 ≈ν
∂y2 δ (x0 ) x02

U 2 (x0 )
≈ .
x0
10.3.2 Transport of vorticity in the boundary layer
The general equation for transport of vorticity in a Newtonian fluid (Equation 7.41) can be
written:

∂ω
+ (v·∇)ω = (ω·∇)v + ν ∇ 2 ω. (10.11)
∂t

It can be simplified in the present case of a two-dimensional flow, where only the component
ωz is non-zero and the flow is stationary. As a result, the term (ω ·∇) v vanishes, so that one
obtains:

∂ωz ∂ωz ∂ 2 ωz
vx + vy =ν . (10.12)
∂x ∂y ∂y2

This equation expresses the balance between the transport of vorticity by convection and
by diffusion. Changes in ωz associated with the stretching of vorticity tubes do not indeed
occur as a consequence of the two-dimensional character of the flow; these properties have
been discussed in Chapter 7 as part of the study of vorticity.

10.3.3 Self-similarity of the velocity profiles

in the boundary layer for the case of uniform,
constant, external velocity
As already seen above, the length scales x0 and δ(x0 ) parallel and normal to the wall are very
√
different. The same is true of the corresponding velocity scales vx (≈U ) and vy ≈ U / Re .
Moreover, there is no unique characteristic length scale applicable at every point in the flow.
Two very different local length scales are therefore used:

• a distance x0 , measured from the edge of the plate parallel to the direction of flow;

ν x0 x0
• the corresponding local thickness δ(x0 ) ≈
U
≈
Rex0
of the boundary layer, in
the y-direction normal to the wall.

The Navier-Stokes equation is then rewritten using a system of dimensionless variables

(denoted using ‘primes’) defined using the two above length scales and the corresponding
velocity scales:

• U parallel to the plate;

• √U
Rex0
normal to it (Equation 10.6).
Equations of motion within the boundary layer – Prandtl theory 369

One has then:

x y y Rex0
x
= , (10.13a) y
= = , (10.13b)
x0 δ(x0 ) x0

vx vy Rex0
v
x = , (10.13c) and v
y = . (10.13d)
U U
One considers first the case where the velocity U (x) outside the boundary layer is inde- Mathematically, the right-hand side of Equation
pendent of x. One has then: ∂U (x)/∂x = 0 and, consequently, ∂p/∂x = 0 in agreement with 10.15, representing viscous momentum-
transport, plays a role as important as that of
Equation 10.10. Equations 10.2 and 10.5 then become: the convective terms, a fact indicative of the
true physical situation. This is not the case
in the limit of an infinite Reynolds number
∂v
x ∂v
y ∂v
x ∂v
x ∂ 2 v
x
+ =0 (10.14) and: v
x + v
y = . (10.15) in the dimensionless Navier-Stokes equation,
∂x
∂y
∂x
∂y
∂y
2 obtained by using a single length scale as in
Section 4.2.4. Indeed, in that instance, the
Let us now show that, still for a constant external velocity U , there are solutions for equation reduces simply to Euler’s equation
(Equation 4.31) for ideal fluids. By using the
Equations 10.14 and 10.15 which are functions, not of x
and y
individually, but of the two different length-scales, normal and parallel
single dimensionless variable: to the wall, one takes into account properly the
velocity gradient (and thus of the viscous forces)
y
y which is quite large near the walls within the
θ= √ = √ . (10.16) boundary layer.
x
νx / U

The corresponding variations of the velocity components are of the form:

vx y vy ν y ν Such a profile is known as self-similar: the de-
=f √ = f (θ ) and: = h √ = h(θ ).
U ν x/U U Ux νx / U Ux pendence of the component vx of the velocity
(10.17) (10.18) with the distance y from the surface of the
√ plate
is always the same, within a scale factor νx / U ,
for any distance x from the edge of the plate.

Proof
Equations 10.14 and 10.15 have solutions of the form:

υx
= f (x
, y
) (10.19) and: υy
= g x
, y
. (10.20)

One then has: x y
vx = U f , (10.21)
x0 δ(x0 )

νU x y νU x y
and: vy = g , or: vy = h , ,
x0 x0 δ(x0 ) x x0 δ(x0 )
(10.22) (10.23)
√
with h = g x/x0 . The components vx and vy depend a priori on the two variables x/x0 and
y/δ(x0 ). However, the functions f and h cannot involve independently these two variables,
but only in a combination which does not use x0 . The choice of the length-scale x0 parallel
to the plate is indeed arbitrary while the solution of the problem is independent√of x0 and
cannot therefore depend on this choice. One selects therefore the variable θ = y
/ x
which
is the simplest combination that does not involve x0 .

The concept of self-similarity, and the method just used, apply very generally to a wide
variety of situations. An example of a self-similar velocity profile has indeed already been
370 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

The self-similarity property of a velocity profile found in Section 2.1.2, for the flow induced by the motion of a plate in a direction parallel
in the boundary layer is observed whenever the to its own plane. In that case, the velocity profile depends only on the dimensionless param-
outer velocity profile U (x) has no characteristic √
eter y / νt, involving the distance y from the plate and the elapsed time t. The variable t is
length-scale; an example of such a flow has just
been presented in the case of a flat plate. Yet, analogous, for a non-stationary problem, to the distance x from the edge of a plate in the
another example occurs in the family of flows present case of a stationary boundary layer. A similar example is discussed in Section 10.7,
of the form U (x) = C xm corresponding to a flow regarding the shape of the transverse velocity profile in a laminar wake behind a solid obsta-
near the angle of intersection of two planes, men-
tioned in Section 6.6.2(iv): it is discussed in cle. One also finds self-similar profiles for jets and for mixing layers between two adjacent
Section 10.5.2 in terms of the behavior of the fluids at different velocities, both in the laminar and turbulent regimes.
boundary layer in the presence of a pressure
gradient in the external flow.

10.4 Velocity profiles within boundary

layers
10.4.1 Blasius equation for uniform external flow
along a flat plate
One looks for the differential equation obeyed by the velocity field within the boundary layer,
along a flat plate, again located in a uniform flow of velocity U, parallel to its plane: for that
purpose, the velocity component vx (x, y) (Equation 10.17) is expressed as a function of the
reduced variable θ, introduced in Equation 10.16, and of the magnitude U of the velocity:

y
υx (x, y) = U f (θ) and: θ= √ .
ν x/U

Substituting these expressions into Equations 10.2 and 10.5, which hold within the
boundary layer, one obtains the equation known as the Blasius equation:

θ
1

(θ ) = – f (θ) f (ξ ) dξ . (10.24)
2 0

Proof
one uses the incompressibility condition, Equation 10.5, in order to express the variable y
as a function of x and θ. One obtains:

∂vx ∂vy ∂θ θ ∂vy ∂vy ∂y ∂vy νx
=– = U f
(θ) = –U f
(θ) . Moreover: = = .
∂x ∂y ∂x 2x ∂θ ∂y ∂θ ∂y U
(10.25) (10.26)

By combining these two equations, one obtains:

∂vy νU f
(θ)
= θ . (10.27)
∂θ x 2

The results, by integrating by parts with respect to θ at constant x (ξ being the variable of
integration between 0 and θ ):

νU 1 1
vy = θ f (θ ) – f (ξ )dξ . (10.28)
x 2 2
Velocity profiles within boundary layers 371

The constant of integration which determines the limits of the integral appearing in the ex-
pression for vy is evaluated below by using the boundary conditions. The terms in Equation
10.2 are obtained by replacing vy by the preceding expression:

∂U ∂vx U2 f
(θ)
U = 0, (10.29) vx = –θ f (θ ) , (10.30)
∂x ∂x x 2

∂vx U2
1 1 ∂ 2 vx U 2

vy = f (θ) θf (θ) – f (ξ ) dξ and: ν = f (θ).

∂y x 2 2 ∂y2 x
(10.31) (10.32)

One obtains then: 1

(θ ) = – f (θ ) f (ξ ) dξ (10.33)
2

by combining the different terms in Equation 10.2 that we have just solved, and cancelling
out the factor U 2 /x. This eliminates the variable x from the equation and confirms the self-
similarity property (θ is the only remaining variable). The limits of integration in Equations
10.28 and 10.33 are determined by using the boundary conditions at the surface of the plate
and at infinity. One has indeed:

vx ( y = 0) vy ( y = 0) vy (θ = 0)
= f (θ = 0) = 0, (10.34a) √ = √ =0 (10.34b)
U ν U /x ν U /x

vx
and lim = lim f (θ) = 1. (10.34c)
y→∞ U θ →∞

The condition of Equation 10.34b determines the limits of integration in Equation 10.28
for vy , which becomes:

νU 1 1 θ
vy = θ f(θ) – f (ξ ) dξ · (10.35)
x 2 2 0

In the same way, Equations 10.34a-b determine the limits of the integral in Equation 10.33:
it takes therefore the form of Equation 10.24. y
θ=
νx
5 U

10.4.2 Velocity profile: the solution of Blasius’s

equation
√
Figure 10.4 displays, using the dimensionless quantities f = vx /U and θ = y/ ν x/U , the
variation of the longitudinal velocity component as a function of the distance to the plate 0 υx 1
0 0.5 f( θ) =
as obtained by a numerical integration of Equation 10.24; at small distances, the variation U
is linear with a slope df /dθ(0) = 0.332 ∼= 1/3. Between θ = 3 and θ = 5, there is a transition
toward the limiting value θ = 1 at large distances (vx /U = 0.99 for θ = 5). This result confirms Figure 10.4 Variation of the normalized
the importance of the concept of a boundary layer: as one moves away from the plate, one velocity component parallel to the plate
recovers quickly the external uniform flow. As will be shown below, these characteristics as a function of the normalized distance
√
of the velocity profile in the figure can be inferred simply from the form of the Blasius θ = ν x/U
372 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

equation (Equation 10.24). For flows in turbulent boundary layers, the velocity approaches
more slowly its asymptotic value (see Section 12.5.5).

Proof
The derivative of Equation 10.24 can be written:

θ
1

(θ) = – f (θ) f (θ) + f

(θ) f (ξ ) dξ . (10.36)
2 0

For θ = 0, one has f (0) = 0 (Equation 10.34a) and, according to Equation 10.24, f"(0) = 0 so
that, from Equation 10.36: f
(0) = 0. Thus, at small values of θ, the variation of the velocity
component vx parallel to the plate as a function of the distance to the plate is very linear;
it can be expressed in the form of a partial expansion:

vx (θ )
= f (θ) ≈ θ f
(0) + b θ 4 + O(θ 5 ). (10.37)
U

Substituting this expansion into Equation 10.36 and writing the equality of terms of order
θ, one finds:

1
2
b=– f (0). (10.38)
48

Thus:

• the concavity of the profile f (θ) is oriented upstream of the flow because f"(θ) < 0
(Figure 10.4);
• even for a value of θ as large as 2, the correction b θ 3 relative to a linear variation is only
of the order of f
(0)/6 ∼
= 0.055.

In the opposite limit, for large values of θ, f (θ) approaches 1 (Equation 10.34c) and
θ
0 f (ξ ) dξ becomes of the order of θ. The Blasius equation (Equation 10.24) thus
approaches the simplified form:

(θ) ≈ – θ f (θ). (10.39)

2
By integrating this expression one finds that f
(θ) is of the order of Ke–θ /4 . Thus, the
profile f (θ) approaches exponentially its asymptotic value 1: as soon as θ takes on a value
of 4 or 5, f
(θ) is indeed only of the order of a few thousandths. By combining the two
preceding limits (θ → 0 and θ → ∞), one predicts that f (θ) shifts abruptly from a linear
dependence to its asymptotic value. This result is well obeyed by the variation displayed in
Figure 10.4.
Let us determine now the order of magnitude of the value of f
(0) of the slope at the ori-
gin on the basis of the approximate expansion in Equation 10.37. This expansion predicts
indeed a very linear initial variation followed by a sudden rounding (corresponding to the
bend in the profile of Figure 10.4) beyond which f (θ) would reach a maximum for a value
θ m obtained by setting to zero the derivative of Equation 10.37 with respect to θ:

1/3
θm = 12/f
(0) . (10.40)
Velocity profiles within boundary layers 373

The maximum corresponding value of f (θ) should be close to 1: this asymptotic value is
indeed reached very quickly, i.e. exponentially, by the velocity profile beyond the bend. One
has, as a first approximation:
1
2
f (θm ) = θm f
(0) – f (0) θm4 ≈ 1.
48
Substituting for θ m in this equation the value given by Equation 10.40, one obtains:

f
(0) ≈ 0.29 and : θm ≈ 3.44.

This estimation of f
(0) is of the same order of magnitude as the exact value
f
(0) = 0.332 mentioned above.

10.4.3 Frictional force on a flat plate in uniform flow

For flow in the x-direction, the frictional force on a surface with its normal in the y-direction,
having length L in the x-direction and unit width, has the value:

4 1
Ftotal = ρU L2
. (10.41)
3 ReL

The drag coefficient Cd is defined by normalizing the force per unit area by the product
of the dynamic pressure (1/2 ρ U 2 ) and of the surface area in contact with the fluid (2L),
so that:

Ftotal 1.33
Cd = = √ . (10.42) This
√ variation of the drag coefficient Cd as
ρU 2 L ReL 1 / ReL is slower than the variation as 1/Re ob-
tained for flow at low Reynolds numbers, where
the transport is controlled by viscous diffusion
Proof (Equation 9.20). The transport of momentum
The frictional force per unit area at a distance x from the edge is the component σxy of the by viscous diffusion is in fact confined within
stress: the small thickness of the boundary layer, and
enhanced by the presence of velocity gradients

∂vx ∂θ U significantly higher than those existing when the

σxy =η = η U f
(0) = η U f
(0) (10.43) Reynolds number is small compared to unity.
∂y y=0 ∂y νx In contrast, the variation is faster than for tur-
bulent flows (Section 12.5.4): in the latter case,
or, introducing a term of the form ρU 2 , having the dimensions of a pressure: convective transport dominates, the force is pro-
portional to the square of the velocity, and Cd
is approximately independent of the Reynolds

ν
σxy = ρU 2 f
(0) . (10.44) number (Equation 12.74).
Ux

In order to obtain the total force exerted by the fluid on the plate, σxy
is integrated with

respect to x over both sides of the flat plate of length L. One finds:
L
ν dx νL
Ftotal = 2 ρU 2 f
(0) √ = 4ρU 2 f
(0) . (10.45)
U 0 x U

Equation 10.41 is then obtained by defining a Reynolds number ReL = UL/ν using, as
a characteristic length, the size L of the plate in the direction of the flow and taking
f
(0) ≈ 1/3.
374 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

10.4.4 Thicknesses of the boundary layers

We have shown that, in the presence of a flow with velocity U , the thickness of the boundary
√
layer varies as νx /U . In order to evaluate more precisely the constant of proportionality,
we take the thickness of the boundary layer δ as equal to the value y for which f (θ) = vx ( y)/U
has a given value. For instance, δ 0.99 (corresponding to vx /U = 0.99) is given by:

νx
δ0.99 = 5 . (10.46)
U

The choice of the value of f is arbitrary so other more universally applicable definitions
based on a physical effect have been introduced. Their value, however, only differs from
that of δ 0.99 by a numerical constant.

y
Figure 10.5 Evaluation of the thickness of
U δ*
the boundary layer along a flat plate, in terms
of the displacement δ ∗ of the streamlines exter-
nal to the boundary layer (the vertical scale is D D
greatly expanded) O x

(i) The displacement thickness δ ∗

A more universally accepted definition of the boundary layer corresponds to the
displacement δ ∗ of the streamlines of the external potential flow. This displacement
varies with the distance from the leading edge of the plate in the direction of the
flow. In order to evaluate the quantity δ ∗ , we write the integral for the flow rate
within a stream tube of unit width along the direction perpendicular to the plane
of Figure 10.5, and of thickness D upstream of the plate (D must be considerably
larger than δ ∗ ):
D D+δ ∗ D+δ ∗ D+δ ∗
U dy = vx dy = (vx – U ) dy + U dy. (10.47)
0 0 0 0

If D is sufficiently large, we can consider that (vx – U ) is 0 beyond the distance

(D+ δ ∗ ), leading to the equation:
D+δ ∗ ∞
(vx – U ) dy = (vx – U ) dy. (10.48)
0 0

If the flow is uniform, Equation 10.47 then becomes:

∞ ∞
vx (x, y)
U D – U (D + δ ∗ ) = (vx – U ) dy, so that: δ ∗ (x) = 1– dy.
0 0 U
(10.49) (10.50)

νx
And one obtains, by numerical integration: δ ∗ = 1.73 . (10.51)
U
Velocity profiles within boundary layers 375

(ii) Momentum thickness δ∗∗

Quite similarly to the displacement of the streamline, the thickness of a boundary
layer can be defined in terms of the change in the momentum inside a stream tube
or on the basis of changes in the kinetic energy. Thus:

upstream flux of momentum – flux at distance x

δ ∗∗ = , (10.52a)
ρU 2

∞ vx (U – vx )
so that: δ ∗∗ = dy. (10.52b)
0 U2

For uniform external flow one obtains, numerically:

νx
δ ∗∗ (x) = 0.66 . (10.53)
U

The product ρU 2 δ ∗∗ is equal to the frictional force on one side of the wall between the
edge and the distance x (i.e., to half the value for L = x given by Equation 10.41, which
corresponds to using both sides).

10.4.5 Hydrodynamic stability of a laminar

boundary layer – transition to turbulence
So far, Reynolds numbers have been defined in this chapter by using, as length-scales,
distances in the direction of the flow. One has thus used: Rex0 = U x0 / ν and ReL = UL / ν,
where x0 and L are respectively the local distance to the edge of the wall, and the total
length in the direction of the flow: the conditions Rex0 1 and ReL 1 must be obeyed so
that the thickness δ of the boundary layer can be small relative to x0 and L. In contrast, the
stability of a laminar boundary layer is determined by the value of a local Reynolds number
using the thickness of the boundary layer as the length scale. Similarly, in order to determine
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent in a tube, one takes, as the characteristic length in
the Reynolds number, the diameter of the tube and not its length. For example, one defines:

U δ0.99 Ux
Reδ0.99 = ∝ . (10.54)
ν ν

This number increases as the square root of the distance x from the edge of the plate.
Accordingly, even at high flow velocities, hydrodynamic instabilities appear only beyond
an appreciable distance x from the leading edge. These first take the form of regular two-
dimensional oscillations of the velocity in the x-y plane and, later, of three-dimensional We will discuss in Section 12.5.5 the character-
istics of these turbulent boundary layers: above a
fluctuations. Beyond a threshold amplitude of the fluctuations, turbulent regions appear. small distance from the plate, momentum trans-
At still higher velocities, the whole boundary layer displays rapid fluctuations of the port no longer results from the viscosity, but
instantaneous local velocity. from the turbulent fluctuations of the velocity.
376 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

10.5 Laminar boundary layer in the

presence of an external pressure
gradient: boundary layer separation
10.5.1 Simplified physical treatment of the problem
Let us assume that the velocity of the external potential flow U (x) decreases with the dis-
tance x downstream of the leading edge of the plate as would be the case, for example, in a
divergent flow. Outside the boundary layer, the pressure p(x) increases with distance since
the pressure gradient ∂p/∂x in this direction obeys Bernoulli’s equation (Equation 10.4):

∂p ∂U
= –ρU > 0. (10.55)
∂x ∂x

Moreover, because, according to Equation 10.3, variations in pressure in the transverse

direction are negligible, the longitudinal pressure-gradient is constant within the boundary
layer. Thus, in the low-velocity regions near the wall, the dynamics of fluid elements results
from two opposing effects: on the one hand, the positive pressure gradient ∂p/∂x slows down
their motion; on the other hand, momentum transfer by viscous diffusion from higher-
velocity regions tends to accelerate them. If the velocity gradient ∂U/∂x is sufficiently large
in magnitude, there will be a reversal of the direction of flow near the wall. This phenomenon
characterizes boundary layer separation (see Figures 10.1b, 10.6 and 10.7). In the opposite
case of a positive downstream velocity gradient, the corresponding pressure-gradient ∂p/∂x
is negative, the fluid near the wall is accelerated, and the boundary layer thins out, leading
to stability.

10.5.2 Self-similar velocity profiles – flows

of the form U(x) = C xm
In Section 6.6.2 (iv), the complex potential f(z) = C zm+1 has been seen to describe the flow
along two solid half-planes intersecting at an angle π/(m + 1). Along the plane ϕ = 0, the
velocity reduces to its radial component:

υr = C (m + 1) r m ,

in which the radius vector r is equal, in the plane, to the distance x from the vertex of the
angle. Thus, assuming a velocity dependence U (x) = C xm just outside the boundary layer,
one can analyze the behavior of the boundary layer for flow around planes intersecting at
a sharp angle. One derives first the differential equation obeyed by the velocity field within
the boundary layer; in this case, it is the analog of the Blasius equation written above for
uniform external flows.

The Falkner – Skan equation

One follows a procedure similar to that used in the case of uniform flow (Section 10.4.1).
√
The combination of the dimensionless variables x/x0 and y / νU(x0 ) / x0 , which does not
depend on the local distance x0 from the vertex, is:

U (x) C xm–1
θ =y =y . (10.56)
νx ν
Laminar boundary layer in the presence of an external pressure gradient: boundary layer separation 377

y 9
θ= νx 8
U(x)
7
6 Figure 10.6 Shape of the velocity profiles
5 m < –0.091 within a boundary layer for external flows of
4 mc = – 0.091 the type U(x) = C xm ; vx (x, y) is the compo-
3 nent of velocity parallel to the wall. The solu-
m=0 tion m = 0 is that displayed in Figure 10.4
2
1 m=1
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 f(θ) = υx 1.0
U(x)

Expressing the different terms of Equation 10.2, in terms of the variable θ , one finds the
differential equation satisfied by the ratio vx (x,y)/U (x) of the velocity component parallel to
the plane, to the external flow velocity U (x):
θ
m+1

m (1 – f 2 (θ)) + f

(θ ) = – f (θ) f (ξ ) dξ . (10.57)
2 0

This equation, sometimes known as the Falkner-Skan equation, reduces, as expected, to the
Blasius equation (Equation 10.24) for the specific case m = 0.

Velocity profiles within the boundary layer

By solving numerically the Falkner–Skan equation, one obtains the velocity profiles of the
type shown in Figure 10.6: the larger and more positive the exponent m, the thinner the
corresponding boundary layer. As m decreases, the boundary layer thickness increases and,
for a small negative critical value mc = – 0.0905, the velocity gradient at the wall vanishes.
For even more negative values of m, the direction of the flow near the wall is reversed, a
phenomenon known as boundary layer separation introduced above in Section 10.5.1.
The critical angle α c , corresponding to the appearance of a flow reversal, is equal to:
π
αc = = 198◦ .
mc + 1

There is, in this case, a deviation by an angle equal to 198◦ –180◦ = 18◦ of the velocity of the
fluid close to the surface before and after the vertex. Figure 10.7 illustrates the type of flow
Figure 10.7 Generalized boundary layer
observed when the angle exceeds this value.
separation for flow at the leading edge of an
The larger the absolute value of |m| (with m < 0), the slower f (θ) reaches its asymp-
inclined plate. The figure displays an angle
totic value of unity. In the limiting case where m = –1, the velocity has no asymptotic limit.
of incidence greater than 20◦ , a value close to
Physically, this corresponds to a divergent flow from the vertex of an angle between two
the limit of 18◦ beyond which boundary layer
planes (U ∝ 1/x), and a boundary layer no longer exists. For m > 0, the boundary layer is
separation occurs (plate courtesy of ONERA)
thinner than for U = constant and, when m = 1 (flow toward a stagnation point), its thickness
remains constant with the distance away from the point of incidence (Figure 10.8a below).
One does not observe in Figure 10.8a any local flow reversal in the divergence region
upstream of the stagnation point: this is due to the lack of a solid wall creating a layer of
slow fluid flow easily stopped by the pressure gradient opposite to it. Instead, if a flat plate
is put normal to the wall (Figure 10.8b), recirculation zones appear within the angles which
they form.
378 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

(a)
Approximate calculation of the condition for boundary layer separation
Let us go back to the Falkner-Skan equation (Equation 10.57), in the form:

θ
m+1

m (1 – f 2 (θ)) + f

(θ) = – f (θ) f (ξ ) dξ . (10.58)

2 0

For θ = 0 : f (0) = 0, (10.59) so that: m + f

(0) = 0.

(b)
m 2
Thus, at small values of θ: f (θ ) = θ f
(0) – θ + O(θ 3 ). (10.60)
2

For large values of θ , instead:

Figure 10.8 Flow toward a plane with a θ

stagnation point; (a) the absence of a solid f (θ) → 1 (10.61) and, consequently: f (ξ ) dξ → θ .
0
wall prevents the formation of a boundary
layer in the region where the flow diverges;
Therefore, Equation 10.58 approaches the limiting form:
(b) if a wall is inserted, there appears two vor-
tex regions resulting from the boundary layer m+1 (m+1) θ 2
separation on each side of this wall (plates f

(θ ) = – θ f
(θ), (10.62) so that: f
(θ) ≈ C e
–
4 ; (10.63)
2
courtesy, H. Werlé, ONERA)

f
(θ) then approaches 0 more slowly for m < 0 (∂U/∂x < 0) than for m > 0 (∂U/∂x > 0).
This is in agreement with the larger thickness of the boundary layer for m < 0 than for
m > 0 (Figure 10.6). The connection is made again between the dependence predicted by
Equation 10.63, for θ → ∞, and that given by Equation 10.60, for small θ values.

• When m > 0, f

(0) is negative; the curvature of the velocity profile is therefore directed

toward the left on Figure 10.6 and there is no point of inflection. In order to reach the
asymptotic value faster than in the case U = constant, f
(0) must be larger than in this
latter case for a same magnitude of the velocity outside the boundary layer.
• If m is negative, f
(0) is, in contrast, smaller, and the curvature of the velocity profile, near
the point O, is directed toward the right. For |m| sufficiently large, we have therefore a
reversal of the direction of flow near the wall (f
(0) < 0).

Let us estimate now the critical value mc at which f

(0) = 0. We have, in this case, for
small θ:

θ2
f (θ) = –mc + O(θ 3 ).
2

Moreover, f (θ) must then reach the limiting value of 1 when θ is of the order of a few
units. By assuming in the previous expression that f = 1 for θ = 5, we obtain the order of
magnitude mc = –1/12 ∼= – 0.083 (the exact value is – 0.0905).
Laminar boundary layer in the presence of an external pressure gradient: boundary layer separation 379

10.5.3 Boundary layers of constant thickness

We examine several situations for which the boundary layer along a plate maintains a
constant thickness. A first way to obtain this result is to compensate the thickening of a
boundary layer, resulting from the diffusion of vorticity, by a velocity component directed
toward the wall.

Flow toward a stagnation point

We see, in the example of Figure 10.8a above, that flow toward a stagnation point has such
a component. In the idealized case of a stagnation point in two dimensions, the stream
function outside the boundary layer is = k x y, with corresponding velocity components
vx = k x and vy = –k y (for a stagnation point located at x = 0 and y = 0). The thickness δ(x)
then obeys the equation:

νx ν
δ(x) ≈ ≈ , (10.64)
vx (x) k

so that δ is independent of distance: there is then a compensation between the opposing

effects of convective transport toward the wall, and diffusion away from it.

Flow in the presence of suction

One encounters a related case by considering the effect, on the Blasius problem, of suction
perpendicular to the plate, with a normal velocity component at the wall: vy = –V inde-
pendent of x (Figure 10.9). Such a technique has been suggested for limiting the boundary
layer separation on cars and airplane wings (Section 10.6). Assume now that there exists
a solution of the equations of motion corresponding to a boundary layer of thickness and
velocity profile independent of x. In this case, vx and vy depend only on y and the velocity
component vy , normal to the wall, satisfies ∂vy /∂y = 0 as a result of the condition of incom-
pressibility. We thus have vy = constant = –V throughout the volume of the fluid. For the
transport of vorticity in the stationary regime, Equation 10.12 can be written:

∂ωz ∂ 2 ωz
–V =ν , (10.65)
∂y ∂y2

since the term ∂ωz /∂x is zero. Let us integrate this equation once, obtaining:

dωz
– V (ωz – ω0 ) = ν , (10.66)
dy

y U

Figure 10.9 Boundary layer in the presence

of suction at a uniform velocity –V along the
δ (V) wall

x
–V
380 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

where ω0 represents the vorticity at a large distance from the plate (where dωz /dy ≈ 0),
and equals zero if the flow outside the boundary layer is uniform. Integrating again and
choosing the constants of integration such that vx = U , far from the plate, and vx = 0 for
y = 0, we obtain:

∂vx U V –V y Vy
ωz = = e ν and: vx = U 1 – e– ν .
∂y ν

We find that, as initially assumed, the boundary layer has a constant thickness δ(V ) = ν/ V ;
this reflects the fact that, at the edge of the boundary layer, the convective and diffusive
transport terms in Equation 10.65, respectively of order Vωz /δ and ν ωz /δ 2 , balance each
other.

Periodic flows with zero-average translational velocity

A first example, already mentioned in Section 4.5.4, is that of flow near a plate oscillating
parallel to its own plane with angular frequency ω (not to be mistaken for the vorticity). The
√
effect of the motion of the plane decays exponentially over a distance δω = ν / ω; here, δ ω
is the order of magnitude of the distance over which changes in velocity diffuse during the
period 2π/ω of the oscillation. The similar situation of a boundary layer occurring on a disk
in uniform rotation used in polarographic measurements will be seen in Section 10.8.2.

10.5.4 Flows lacking self-similarity – boundary layer

separation
For the self-similar flows of the form U = C xm discussed above, the direction of flow
reverses over the entire boundary wall as m crosses the value mc . In a number of real exper-
imental cases of flows with velocity decreasing in the downstream direction the boundary
layer separates only at a certain point, known as the separation point, beyond which a recir-
culation zone appears. Such is the case for flows around bodies lacking aerodynamic shape
(Figure 10.1b), or having a divergent-flow profile (Figure 10.10). Thus, for velocity de-
Figure 10.10 Velocity profile in a high- pendences of the kind U (x) = U 0 – α x, there appears a natural characteristic length U 0 /α
angle divergent channel. One observes the for the flow. The distance of the separation point relative to the beginning of the zone of
occurrence of a stagnation zone followed negative velocity gradient is determined by this length and has virtually no dependence on
by a recirculation region (plate courtesy of the Reynolds number Re.
H. Werlé, ONERA)
Proof
Very generally, in accordance with Equations 10.14 and 10.15, the velocity field vx (x, y)
inside the boundary layer obeys the equation:

vx (x, y) x y
=f , , (10.67)
U (x) L δL

where x and y are local coordinates respectively parallel and normal to the boundary wall,
L is the length characteristic of the flow in the direction parallel to the wall, and δL is the
corresponding thickness of the boundary layer. When the thickness δL is small compared to
L, the external velocity profile U (x) is independent of the Reynolds number (the effect of
the boundary layer region on the external flow is negligible). The condition [∂vx /∂y]y = 0 = 0,
which gives the position of the separation point, becomes:

f
(x/L, 0) = 0. (10.68)
Aerodynamics and boundary layers 381

Thus, the value of the ratio x/L, which determines the position of the separation point, is
independent of the Reynolds number if it is large enough so that the boundary layer is well
established upstream.

10.5.5 Practical consequences of boundary layer

separation
Flow regions where recirculation occurs are generally very unstable. The minimum value Let us emphasize the difference between the ap-
pearance of turbulence associated with bound-
of the Reynolds number at which instabilities can be easily amplified decreases then to ary layer separation, which causes generally sig-
a few tens. A turbulent region of considerable width, in which there is significant energy nificant energy dissipation, and the transition
dissipation appears therefore behind the separation point. The drag force (the component towards turbulence of the boundary layer itself,
which also increases the dissipation, but can de-
of the viscous force parallel to the direction of flow) then increases substantially; such an
lay the onset of the separation. In some cases,
effect is observed for bodies which lack an aerodynamic profile, as illustrated in Figure 10.1b. one even observes that the turbulent bound-
In contrast, the drag force is quite low for a streamlined body from which the boundary layer ary layers, which had separated while they were
still laminar, actually reattach. These effects are
does not separate, and for which the resultant wake is very narrow (Figure 10.1a).
studied in Chapter 12, devoted to turbulent
flows (Section 12.5.5. and 12.5.6).

10.6 Aerodynamics and boundary layers

The aerodynamics of land-based and airborne vehicles is an important field for the appli-
cation of the concepts of laminar and turbulent boundary layers: even if other factors also
play a significant role, the control of the boundary layers represents an important economic
issue for the improvement of performance and energy consumption in such vehicles. This
significant subject lies beyond the scope of a general discussion; we will confine ourselves
to a schematic presentation beginning with an airplane wing which, as a first approxima-
tion, can be considered a long object with two-dimensional geometry. In contrast, all three
dimensions are of the same order of magnitude for cars, and three-dimensional effects then
play an essential role.
(a)

10.6.1 Control of boundary layers on an

airplane wing
Separation phenomenon
The lift on airplane wings has been discussed in Section 6.6.3 and 7.5.2: more precisely, it
represents the Magnus force due to the circulation of velocity around the wing. In order (b)
to ensure equilibrium, the lift force FL must balance the weight of the airplane: from
Equation 7.75a, the product U 2 Cz , where Cz is the lift coefficient, must then remain a
constant. From Equation 6.106, Cz increases linearly with the angle of incidence α for small
values of α so that U 2 α must also be a constant. In order to reduce the distance required
for an airplane to land or to take off, one must then also decrease its velocity during the
corresponding phases of flight while increasing the angle of incidence α of the wing.
At moderate values of α, the streamlines follow the profile of the wing (Figure 10.11a) Figure 10.11 Visualization of the flow
so that the boundary layer remains attached. If α is increased beyond a critical angle α c , around the profile of an airplane wing at
one observes a separation of the boundary layer on the upper surface of the wing, and the two different angles of incidence with and
appearance of a long, turbulent wake (Figure 10.11b). The pressure on the upper surface without boundary layer separation: (a) below
of the wing increases, the lift decreases rapidly and the drag force increases, as seen in the angle of separation; (b) above that angle
Figure 10.12 below: when the lift does not balance the weight any more, the airplane stalls (plates from “Illustrated experiments in fluid
and the angle of incidence must be reduced to regain control. mechanics”, NCFMF, MIT Press)
382 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

Figure 10.12 (a) Leading-edge wing flap on u (a) v (c)

an airplane. (b) Functional dependence of u' > u
P1
the lift coefficient Cz on the angle of inci-
P2 > P1 v + δv
dence, with (solid line) and without (dashes)
a leading-edge wing flap. (c) Trailing-edge
wing flap, which results in a significant in- Cz (b) Cz (d)
crease in the circulation around the wing
for a given velocity and angle of incidence.
(d) Comparison of the dependence of the lift
coefficient Cz on the angle of incidence α with
(solid line) and without (dashes) a trailing- αc α'c α αc α
edge wing flap

Control of the boundary layer separation on airplane wings

The value of α at which this stalling phenomenon appears must then be increased in order
to achieve a large enough lift when the airplane flies at a low velocity during take-off and
landing. Two complementary strategies currently used in practice are:

• increase the critical angle of incidence α c by means of leading-edge wing flaps;

• increase the lift coefficient Cz for a given angle α by means of trailing-edge wing flaps.

A leading-edge wing flap such as the one illustrated in Figure 10.12a, results in an
increase of the critical angle α c , which appears in the dependence of the lift coefficient Cz
on α (Figure 10.12b). Due to the effect of the flap, air from below the wing is injected
tangentially along the upper surface; it thus “regenerates” the boundary layer across the top
of the wing by increasing the velocity of the fluid near the wall. At large angles of incidence,
the effect of the inverse pressure-gradient is thus reduced, and the critical angle of incidence
α c correspondingly increases.
A trailing-edge wing flap, when extended (Figure 10.12c), causes an increase, at a
given velocity, in the circulation around the cross-section of the wing; as a result, the curve
Cz (α) is translated upwards, as shown in Figure 10.12d. On very large airliners, the flaps
themselves have further flaps attached to them (up to three successive stages on the Airbus
A340 or the Boeing 747). One thus often see several sets of flaps extending one behind the
other, with the rearmost one almost vertical. These systems increase quite considerably the
drag on the wing: they are therefore used exclusively on takeoff and landing, at airplane
speeds too low for the lift to be adequate under the normal configuration of the wing. The
principle behind the action of trailing-edge wing flaps is a combination of two different
effects:

• the existence of a gap between the flap and the main portion of the wing allows for
the “regeneration” of the boundary layer, by inducing a flow from the lower face of the
wing to the upper one (similar to that mentioned in the previous section for leading-
edge flaps). This avoids boundary layer separation at the flaps, in spite of their high
angle of incidence relative to the main flow;
• the flaps create a significant downward deviation, δv, of the flow velocity at the rear
of the wing and in the wake, resulting in a major increase of the circulation, and of
the corresponding lift.
Aerodynamics and boundary layers 383

Other methods for controlling the separation of boundary layers

Many other methods have been used or studied to delay boundary layer separation; some of
these are variations on the preceding ones. One can, for example, instead of using leading-
edge wing flaps, change the shape of the wing itself in the area of the leading edge to achieve
a comparable result. Another example is the use of small vanes perpendicular to the surface
of the wing and oblique with respect to the mean flow: these generate vortices parallel to the
flow, which bring toward the wall a small amount of high velocity air. These vortex generators
have been used practically to delay the boundary layer separation but they increase the drag.

10.6.2 Aerodynamics of road vehicles and trains

Specific features of the aerodynamics of cars
In practical applications, one tries to minimize the drag force. The latter is associated mainly
to the pressure drop between the upstream and downstream regions, in contrast to the
airplane, for which it is the frictional force which dominates. Also, in contrast to airplanes,
the lift force does not have to compensate the weight of the vehicle: it must instead be
oriented downward in order to ensure good contact of the tires with the road, and to improve
handling but cannot be so high as to cause friction and wear on the tires.
The drag force FD is characterized by a coefficient Cx varying from greater than 0.5 for The coefficient Cx is defined as
older cars to less than 0.3 for newer ones. The decrease of this Cx is a major consideration Cx = |FD |/ (ρU 2A /2) where A is the pro-
jected area of the vehicle’s shape onto a plane
for car manufacturers because of its impact on fuel efficiency. They must, however, also normal to the velocity U. This definition is
take into account the comfort of the vehicle, which often implies opposite constraints. derived from that of the drag coefficient CD
Figure 10.13 shows the relative contribution to the drag of the various parts of a vehicle: (Equation 9.20) by substituting the area A for
the square of the characteristic length.
if the rear of the vehicle plays the essential role, the contribution of the additional elements
(such as the wheels, the side-view mirrors and the door handles) is not negligible. This
drag is the result of the combined frictional (viscous or, more often, turbulent) and pressure
forces: it is the latter which, generally, have the largest contribution.
In contrast to the wing of an airplane, a car has a width and height comparable to its
length. The flow of air around the car’s body thus has a pronounced three-dimensional
nature, which strongly influences the aerodynamic forces on the vehicle.
We will center our discussion on the rear of the vehicle which, according to Figure 10.13,
contributes approximately three-quarters of the drag force. This is indeed where the bound-
ary layer separations are localized: these lead to the formation of recirculation and vortex
zones which are both sources of energy dissipation.

Remaining drag : 10%

(5% Cx pressure,
5% Cx shear friction) Rear window: 28%

Figure 10.13 Respective contributions to

Rear base: 45%
the drag of the different elements of a
car (courtesy of J-L. Aider, PSA Peugeot-
Wheel arches: 4%
Citroën)

Wheels: 13%
384 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

Velocity field behind a motor vehicle – Ahmed body

Figure 10.14 Schematic diagram for the

flow around a three-dimensional, non-
aerodynamic body (Ahmed body), which φ
models in a simplified manner the flow
around a motor vehicle. The structures which
contribute to the downstream dissipation are
the circulation of the velocity, transverse to the
main flow at the level of the rear window, and
of the rear base, as well as the longitudinal As a model for the structure of this flow, aerodynamic engineers have introduced a sim-
vortices emitted from the two rear-corners of ple standard model: the Ahmed body (Figure 10.14). This shape allows them to reproduce
the roof (as indicated by A. Brunn et al.) experimentally or numerically, in a reasonably realistic manner, the structure of the flow
behind a motor vehicle, and to vary effectively the parameters such as the angle ϕ of the
rear window. The velocity field behind this body combines two types of structures:

• A pair of counter-rotating axial vortices parallel to the average velocity and

emitted at the level of the lateral edges of the model profile, reminiscent of the vor-
tices at the wingtips of airplanes (Figure 7.27c) or of those created behind a sphere
(Figure 2.11). Figure 10.15 displays a numerical simulation of the flow behind an

φ = 25o
1.2
υx /U00 0.4
–0.4

Figure 10.15C Large-scale simulation (see

Section 12.3.4) of the flow behind an Ahmed
body with angle ϕ = 25◦ in a flow of average (a)
velocity U0 = 40 m/s upstream of the body
(the flow is from left to right). Two longitu-
–0.1
dinal vortices are visible on the simulation. p–pat
–0.2
(a) Streamlines: the color (see in color plate ρrU2002/2
section) corresponds to the normalized com- –0.4 0.05
ponent vx /U0 of the velocity in the direction p–pat
–0.03
of the average flow. (b) Pressure change (p – ρrU0022 /2
–0.1
pat )/( ρU02 /2) relative to the normalized at- 0.01
mospheric pressure (colors) and velocity field p–pat
–0.04
(vectors). The vortices are displayed as re- ρrU0202 /2
–0.08
gions of low pressure (in blue on Figure (b)).
They represent an important contribution to
the drag force (courtesy M. Minguez, R.
Pasquetti, and E. Serre)

(b)
Aerodynamics and boundary layers 385

Figure 10.16 Visualizations in a wind tun-

nel of the wakes of vehicles (a) with a fast-
back profile (Renault Laguna, plate courtesy
Renault), and (b) with a more steeply inclined
rear window, hatchback design (Citroën AX,
plate courtesy PSA Peugeot-Citroën). The ve-
hicles are stationary and the fluid flows from
right to left. One sees a large difference be-
tween the widths in cases (a) and (b) of the
(a) (b) recirculation zones made visible in the vertical
symmetry plane by a light sheet. Insets: recir-
culation flows in the symmetry plane of two
Ahmed body (with ϕ = 25◦ ). The large magnitude of these vortices indicates the Ahmed bodies with comparable tilt angles: (a)
strongly three-dimensional character of the flow. ϕ = 25◦ , (b) ϕ = 35◦ . Just like in the visu-
alizations, the recirculation zones are much
• Recirculation flows of axis normal to the symmetry plane of the body
larger in case (b), where the boundary layer
(located in the center part of the rear of the vehicle). These flows are similar to those
separates just behind the edge of the roof
behind a two-dimensional obstacle (inclined ramp or downward step) and are strongly
dependent on the tilt angle.

Figure 10.16 shows the influence of this angle by means of wind-tunnel visualizations In the vehicle of Figure 10.16a, there is also
and numerical simulations of the flow in the vertical symmetry plane, both behind real a slight rise of the profile of the bodywork at
the junction between the rear window and the
vehicles and an Ahmed body. rear base: there is, as a result, a high pres-
sure region at this point creating a force with
• For small tilt angles of the rear window (case (a)), the recirculation zone is either components oriented downward (increasing the
adherence), and forward (decreasing the drag).
absent or very small: the boundary layer is either attached or weakly separated. The height of this rise must not be too large
In contrast, there is a region of strong recirculation below the vertical rear base and a in order to avoid creating a new downstream
second small recirculation of opposite direction underneath this first region. turbulent region which would increase the drag.

• For high angles of inclination, the boundary layer separates from the top of the rear
window and a large recirculation zone appears, covering also part of rear base with a
second, weaker, recirculation zone lower down.

The transition between these two regimes occurs around ϕ = 25◦ . This value is of the
same order of magnitude as the limit angle (≈18◦ ) which corresponds to the maximum of
the drag and, also, as the angle beyond which the boundary layer separates above a corner
between two planes (Section 10.5.2).
The two types of recirculation (longitudinal and transverse) both contribute to the drag While trying to reduce the drag, one must avoid
force but in a different manner depending on the value of the angle ϕ. At small values of ϕ, that, at high speeds, the negative lift which is es-
like in Figure 10.16a, for instance, the contribution of the transverse recirculation is smaller sential for safe driving, be too small or, even,
vanish. On the other hand, sport vehicles of pres-
but the effect of axial vortices is strongly magnified. Overall, the resulting dependence of tigious brands were known for having a poor
the drag force on the angle is not monotonic (one frequently observes high values around road handling capability at low speeds, but ex-
ϕ = 30◦ ); in some cases, moreover, values of ϕ < 10◦ or ϕ > 35◦ (fast-back) yield acceptable cellent at higher ones, because of the increase of
the negative lift.
and comparable values of the drag force.

10.6.3 Aerodynamics of other land-based vehicles

Drag force on a high-speed train The flow pattern at the rear of a TGV is strongly
turbulent because the boundary layer from the
For a car, the frictional forces at the level of the roof or on the sides are small compared to
roof continues toward the rear and there is no re-
the pressure forces. This is no longer the case for a truck or a high-speed train (known in circulation at the scale of the overall height. Just
France as “TGV”). In contrast to the case of a car, the pressure forces at the front and at as for a car, two longitudinal vortices are created.
386 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

Semi-trailer aerodynamics: the rear represent only 10% of the aerodynamic drag, while 30% of this drag is the friction
Without precautions, a turbulent region appears
which results from the turbulent boundary layers on the sides and on the roof. There is also
in the gap behind the truck and the trailer of a
semi-trailer, creating an additional drag. Placing a significant contribution from the bogies (40–50%) as well as the pantographs (10–20%)
a baffle between the roof of the truck and the top which generate significant turbulence along the roof. Recirculation flows also appear in the
of the trailer eliminates this recirculation zone. space between the cars of the train or between two sections of the train and are sources of
The more continuous aerodynamic profile ob-
tained reduces the perturbations to the flow and dissipation which play an important role.
the drag. Finally, for the aerodynamics of TGV’s a further constraint comes from the fact that the
train must be able to move in either direction: the front and the rear of a high-speed train
must then have the same geometry.

10.6.4 Active and reactive control of the drag force

and of the lift
Trailing edge wing flap represent an example of As seen above, streamlining the upper part of a truck, improving the shape of a rear-view
open-loop active control of the lift: the pilot opens mirror, or of the door handle, can significantly reduce drag: this is known as a passive control
more or less the flaps, depending on the speed of
the airplane, and its distance to the airport. because such changes are made permanently without any additional energy.
The closed-loop reactive control is the object of In the case of active control, there is a direct action on the flow depending on its instanta-
current research without having yet major indus- neous characteristics and/or on its environment. Because it is the driver who regulates this
trial applications: the drag can be reduced, for
instance, by placing, at the back edge of the roof
action as a function of the indications on his dashboard and the characteristics of the envi-
of an Ahmed body, motorized vortex generators ronment, one speaks of an open-loop control. In a further stage, the resulting action will be
controlled by a sensor. controlled by a computer connected to sensors: one will then have a closed-loop control also
known as a reactive control.
This method is rarely used in practice. It had, A possible active control of the separation of boundary layers consists in the suction of
however, found an application in sailing: the tur- low velocity air near a wall or on the contrary, in its acceleration by tangential jets. This
bosail of the wind-driven catamaran "Moulin à
Vent" developed by Malavard and Cousteau is a allows one to avoid the situation where the adverse pressure-gradient, due to the decrease in
very thick wing placed vertically. It is oriented the speed of the external flow, might reverse the direction of the flow of the slower fluid: one
relative to the direction of the wind just like an can thus slow down the separation of the boundary layer even at high angles of incidence.
ordinary sail, and the separation of the bound-
ary layer is prevented by suction of air through
The suction and the injection of air require, however, additional energy: the suction would
a slit located in the region where the separation then only be applied if there is a risk of separation.
would take place. In this way, a large circulation Another possible application of active control is the reduction of the drag associated
of the velocity (and thus horizontal lift forces)
with the emission of Bénard–von Karman vortices behind a cylinder perpendicular to a
can be generated around the "sail."
flow (Section 11.1.2). This emission can be controlled by imposing rotations in alternating
directions of the cylinder around its axis. The change in the drag depends on the ratio of
the frequency of rotation to that of the vortex emission: at high values of this ratio, the drag
as well as the length of the vortex street decreases downstream of the obstacle.

10.7 Wake and laminar jet

10.7.1 Equation of motion of the wake
Qualitative characteristics
One studies the flow behind a motionless solid of comparable characteristic scale a in all
directions and placed in a fluid of uniform upstream velocity U (Figure 10.17 below). The
flow is assumed to be laminar and stationary throughout the region: this implies having a
Reynolds number Re = Ua/ν small enough so as to avoid the occurrence of instabilities in the
wake (e.g., less than a few tens for a sphere); the case of wakes at high Reynolds numbers
will be discussed in Section 12.4. However, as seen in Section 9.5.1, even if Re is small
Wake and laminar jet 387

y
U
U

υz=U – υsz Figure 10.17 Wake downstream of a solid

body located in a flow with velocity U at
v L1 v L2 infinity. The curves display the transverse
x U υz , z U profiles of the velocity vz at two different
distances L1 and L2 from the body

L1
L2

compared to unity, the convective terms become dominant at a sufficiently large distance L
from the body (L a/ Re).
One analyzes the perturbation of the average flow U, at a distance in the downstream
direction sufficiently large compared to the characteristic size of the body so that:

• the exact shape of the body is not relevant;

• Oseen’s equation (Equation 9.74a) applies;
• the convection term of this equation dominates.

One uses an approach similar to that of Section 10.2 (Figure 10.2). The transit over the
body of a volume of fluid reduces there locally, because of the condition of zero velocity at
the walls, the velocity compared to the value U (Figure 10.17). This reduction, as well as
the associated vorticity, is initially localized over a distance of the order of the size of the
body. The time taken by this volume of fluid to arrive at a distance L downstream of the
obstacle is t ≈ L/U . During this time interval, the vorticity (and, therefore, the velocity
gradients) have diffused over a distance transverse to the flow of the order:

√ νL
e≈ ν t ≈ . (10.69)
U
√
They are thus concentrated within a wake of thickness e, which increases as L with distance
(Figure 10.17) and, as such, more slowly than the distance L from the body. As already
discussed at the beginning of this chapter, this kind of profile is typical of flows where the
transport of momentum and vorticity by convection occurs in a particular direction (the
transport in the normal direction being uniquely diffusive).
Relative to the body, the thickness e of the wake at distance L is seen to subtend an angle:

e ν ν a 1 a
α≈ ≈ = = √ . (10.70)
L UL Ua L Rea L

The Reynolds number Rea uses the size a of the body as the characteristic length-scale.
Thus, even if the Reynolds number is not very large, the angle α becomes small (α 1)
when the distance L obeys:

L 1
. (10.71)
a Rea
388 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

The velocity gradients and the vorticity are therefore confined in a small part of the fluid
space. Compared to the case of a boundary layer near a plate, the velocity is not equal to
zero along the axis but is reduced by an amount vs = U – v which decreases as one gets
further away from the body.

Equation of motion in the wake

Taking into account the assumptions made above, the component in the z-direction of the
equation of motion can be put in the form:
2
∂vsz ∂ vsz ∂ 2 vsz
U =ν + . (10.72)
∂z ∂x2 ∂y 2

This equation has the form of a thermal diffusion equation (Equation 1.17) in two
dimensions (where the time variable is replaced by z/U ).

Proof
Equation 10.71 is also the condition required for Oseen’s equation (Equation 9.74) dis-
cussed in Section 9.5.1 to be valid. This equation can be rewritten for vs = U – v in the
form:

–ρ (U · ∇) vs = –∇p – η ∇ 2 vs ; (10.73)

vs is used in these proofs rather than v, because vs becomes zero at large distances, while
v approaches the constant value U. Taking into account the great difference between the
length scales e along x and y and L in the z-direction one obtains, in the same manner as for
the equations for the boundary layers:

υsx ≈ υsy ≈ υsz e/L υsz . (10.74)

By taking the different components of Equation 10.73 along the x-, y- and z-directions, the
terms which control ∂p/∂x and ∂p/∂y are found to be smaller by an order of magnitude in
e/L than those which determine ∂p/∂z. The changes in pressure in the directions perpen-
dicular to the velocity of the fluid can thus be neglected, both inside and outside the wake.
Moreover, if gravity is also neglected, the pressure outside the wake (where the velocity of
the fluid is quite small) is uniform as soon as one is sufficiently far away from the moving
body. One can thus also neglect changes in pressure in the direction of the external flow.
Combining the two above results, one concludes that the pressure inside the wake can be
assumed to be uniform as was already the case for laminar boundary layers.

∂ 2 vsz e2 ∂ 2 vsz ∂ 2 vsz ∂ 2 vsz

Moreover: ≈ 2 , . (10.75)
∂z2 L ∂y2 ∂x2 ∂y2

Using these results, the component in the z-direction of Equation 10.73 yields Equation
10.72.

Wake behind a body with all dimensions finite

Using Equation 10.72, it will be shown that:
2
Q U –U r
vsz = U – vz = e 4ν z , (10.76)
4π ν z
Wake and laminar jet 389

where:

Q= vsz dx dy (10.77) and: r 2 = x2 + y2 ;

Q is the deficit in the rate of flow of fluid through the wake; this deficit will be shown below
to be independent of the distance z. The deficit in the velocity along the axis thus decreases
as 1/z with distance. Moreover, Q will be related to the drag force on the body in Section
10.7.2

Proof
The following Equation 10.78 is the axially symmetric solution of Equation 10.72 which
satisfies the condition vsz = 0 at infinity:

CU –U (x2 +y2 ) C U –U r 2
vsz = e 4ν z = e 4νz , (10.78)
πνz πνz
in which C is a constant of integration. The rate of flow Q across the wake is then given by:
∞
2 U r2
Q(z) = 2π r vsz (z, r) dr ≈ 4C e–θ d(θ 2 ) with: θ2 = ,
0 4νz
Let us consider a reference frame which moves
at velocity U and where the fluid is at rest at in-
Q (z) = 4C. finity and the object has a velocity –U: in such a
so that: case, the velocity in the wake is –vsz and the rate
of flow Q is merely the opposite of the rate of
flow of the fluid localized in the wake. This flow
Q is therefore independent of z; Equation 10.76 is obtained by replacing in Equation 10.78 is compensated by a flow in the direction of the
C by its value. object distributed over the entire space.

One observes in Equation 10.76 that, along paraboloids obeying the equation These paraboloids are, at the same time, stream
U r 2 /4ν z = constant, the velocity deficit vsz is a constant fraction of its maximum value tubes in the reference frame which is at rest rela-
tive to the fluid at infinity. Using Equation 10.76,
Q U /4π νz on the z axis. the deficit in the rate of flow Q(r 0 (z)) through
a cross-section of radius r 0 (z) of the surfaces
Wake behind an infinitely long cylinder obeys:
For a two-dimensional flow behind a cylinder which is infinitely long in the x-direction, one
√ r0 (z) Q U – U r2
r0 (z)
finds a variation as z of the width of the wake as a function of the distance z from the 2π vsz r dr = e 4ν z r dr
0 0 2ν z
cylinder parallel to the flow. By ignoring derivatives with respect to z in Oseen’s equation

and by integrating, one finds a velocity deficit: r0 (z)
–U r2 U r2
= Qe 4ν z d
0 4ν z
U U y2 ⎛ ⎞
–
vsz = U – vz = Q e 4νz. (10.79) U r02 (z)
4π ν z = Q ⎝1 – e
–
4ν z ⎠.
Q represents here again the volume flux within the wake (per unit length in the z direction);
it is independent of z, just as in the preceding case. In contrast, the
√ decrease of the velocity This flux is thus independent of z on a parabo-
maximum as a function of distance is definitely slower, i.e. as 1 / L instead of 1/ L. loid (r02 (z)/z = constant).

10.7.2 Drag force on a body – relationship with the

velocity in the wake
In the preceding discussion (Section 10.7.1), the flow rate Q of fluid across the wake was
unknown. For a body located in a flow of uniform velocity U (Fig.10.18 below), Q will be
shown now to be related to the drag force F by:
390 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

x
U
U
Figure 10.18 Estimate of the drag force on
z=U – sz
an axially symmetric object from the flow rate
within the wake. Far from the body, the fluid F z,z
is in motion at a velocity U

F= ρ U (U – vz ) dx dy = ρUQ. (10 .80)

This equation is, however, only valid in this form for bodies having either a spherical
symmetry or that of a regular polyhedron for which the force F is always parallel to the
velocity U.
Thus, for the specific case of a sphere and a Reynolds number Re = UR/ν 1:

F = 6π η R U, so that: Q = 6π ν R. (10.81)

Unexpectedly, the deficit of the rate of flow Q in the wake does not depend on the velocity
U : an increase in U leads to an increase in vsx , but the latter is exactly compensated by the
corresponding decrease of the width e of the wake.
Thus, in Equation 10.76, the component vsz of the velocity deficit in the wake obeys
(again for a sphere with Re 1):

3RU U (x2 +y2 )

–
vsz = U – vz = e 4ν z , (10.82)
2z

As indicated above, using Oseen’s equation does where z is the downstream distance to the center of the sphere.
not contradict the assumption Re 1, used
to derive Equation 10.81, but Equation 10.82 is The problem of a sphere with velocity U moving within a fluid at rest at infinity is
only valid if z/R 1/Re. equivalent, within a relative translation, to the preceding case of a motionless sphere in a
fluid with velocity –U. In that case, Equation 10.82 represents directly the component vz in
the z-direction of the velocity of the fluid resulting from the motion of the sphere. On the
other hand, the drag force is in the direction opposite to the velocity U.

Proof of Equation 10.80

Consider the case of a sphere in uniform flow where the velocity deficit
vsz satisfies Equation
10.76. According to this equation, vsz is largest up to distances r = x2 + y2 from the axis
√
of the order of νz / U and decreases exponentially as a function of r thereafter. Outside
the wake (for instance upstream of the body), the perturbation vs to the average velocity
U decreases as 1/L 2 with the distance L from the body (instead of 1/L in the wake). Far
from the body, one has an approximately radial flow with a velocity of order Q/L 2 directed
outward, which compensates the volume rate Q of the flow in the wake (one has a similar
velocity field in Figure 9.16). The conservation of the flow rate through sections A and A

Wake and laminar jet 391

of the same stream tube located respectively far upstream and downstream of the body can
be written (Figure 10.18):

vz (x, y) dx dy = A U = vz (x, y) dx dy. (10.83)
(A) (A
)

In fact, if the cross-section A of area A is sufficiently far upstream of the body, the con-
tribution of the radial flow (which decreases as 1/L 2 ) to the integral over section A will be
negligible relative to that of the wake (velocity deficit in the wake decreasing as 1/L).
In the same way, due to the stationarity of the flow, the equation of the conservation of
momentum in the volume of the stream tube bounded by A and A
(Equation 5.13) reduces
to:

ρ vz vj nj dS = σzj nj dS + (–Fz ), (10.84)
(S) (S)

in which S is the whole surface bounding the volume V . The only volume force that appears
is a force (–Fz ), opposite to the drag force, which must be applied to the body in order to
maintain it in equilibrium.
Again, on the right side of Equation 10.84 the term σ ij includes the components associ-
ated with both viscous and pressure forces. Outside the wake, one can neglect the effect of
viscous forces. Regarding the contribution of the integral over the section A
, only σ xy

is

non-zero and it does not contribute to the integral, so that:

σzj
nj dS = 0 .
(S)

The integral (–p) nz dS (contribution from the pressure) is also zero. Outside the wake,
one can indeed apply Bernoulli’s equation:

p + ρU 2 /2 = constant;

U and, consequently, p are therefore constant. Inside the wake, the streamlines are almost
parallel; the pressure thus does not vary along the direction perpendicular to the stream-
lines. It has therefore the same constant value inside the wake as outside. The integral

(S) (–p) nz dS reduces then to – p (S) nz dS, which is zero over the entire closed surface.
Regarding now the integral on the left-hand side of Equation 10.84, the contribution of the
walls of the stream tube vanishes. This integral then is reduced to the following difference
between the fluxes of momentum through the cross-sections A and A
:

ρv2z dS – ρv2z dS = ρv2z dS – ρ A U 2 ,
(A
) (A) (A
)

where A is the area of the cross-section A. Multiplying Equation 10.83 by ρU provides a

value of ρ A U 2 to be substituted in the previous equation in order to obtain, after a change
of sign, the following form for Equation 10.84:

ρ vz (U – vz ) dx dy = Fz . (10.85)
(A
)

This equation simplifies to Equation 10.80 when one is sufficiently far from the body, so
that U – υz U and one can take in the first factor vz ≈ U .
392 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

One observes that Equation 10.85 implies that the integral ρ (A
) vz (U – vz ) dx dy is con-

stant and that, therefore, if vz ∼
= U , Q = ρ (A
) (U – vz ) dx dy is also independent of the
chosen cross section A’. The constant value of the flow rate Q and Equation 10.85 itself are
thus the result of the combination of the conservation of momentum and mass.

The relationship between the drag force and the flow rate of fluid within the wake has
a very general physical meaning not limited to laminar flows. Behind an aerodynamically
shaped body, the wake has a very small width, and the rate of flow inside the wake is corre-
spondingly small (the velocity deficit (U – vz ) is of the order of magnitude of U ). One has
then, according to Equation 10.80, a resulting low drag force. In contrast, behind an object
lacking aerodynamic shape, the boundary layer separates, becomes unstable and disperses
rapidly. This results in additional dissipation, and is generally associated to the appearance
of turbulence downstream of the obstacle (as is the case in Figure 10.1b). The drag force is
then greatly increased.

10.7.3 Two-dimensional laminar jet

The problem of the laminar jet corresponds to the injection of a viscous fluid into the same
fluid at rest (U = 0); here, x will be the direction of the injection and y that of the width of
the jet which has a structure invariant in the direction z. Just as in the case of the boundary
layer and the wake, the velocity gradients are localized within the width e of the jet, which
√
increases gradually as e ≈ νt by transverse viscous diffusion as a function of the transit
time t of the fluid particles (and therefore also of the distance x). Proceeding as in the case of

the viscous wake, one shows then that the integral ρ v2x dy (corresponding to the left-hand
term of Equation 10.85 with U = 0) is independent of x, provided that the integral along y is
evaluated over the entire cross-section of the jet (and over a unit distance in the z-direction).
One must then have v2x (x) e(x) ≈ M/ρ ≈ constant (here, M is the total flux of momentum
over a unit distance along z, and ρ is the density). The velocity vx will then decrease as a
function of the distance x. More precisely, the variation of the width can be rewritten in the
differential form:

∂(e2 ) ∂(e2 ) ∂(e2 ) M
≈ν≈ vx ≈ . (10.86)
∂t ∂x ∂x eρ

Since ν is constant, one obtains then, by integrating with respect to x:

ρ 1/3 2/3
M
e(x) ≈ x2/3 ν 2/3 (10.87) and, also: vx (x) ≈ x–1/3 ν –1/3 . (10.88)
M ρ

As might have been expected, the exponents differ from those obtained in the case of the
wake: however, just like for the wake, the ratio e(x)/x decreases with distance as x–1/3 . The
assumption of a strongly localized vorticity at great distance thus still applies.
A detailed calculation indicates that the velocity profiles vx (x,y) are self-similar with:

2/3 1/3
3M 1 y M
vx (x, ξ ) ≈ x–1/3 ν –1/3 , where: ξ≈ .
32 ρ cosh2 ξ x2/3 48 ρν 2
(10.89a) (10.89b)

By computing from these two equations: vx (x) = vx (x, ξ = 0) and e(x) = y(x) for ξ = 1, one
retrieves the dependence on x, ν and M/ρ predicted by Equations 10.87 and 10.88. For
Thermal and mass boundary layers 393

a three-dimensional jet, one must integrate along y and z in order to compute the flux of
momentum. Its constant value leads to vx ∝ e(x)–1 . By proceeding as for Equation 10.86,
one obtains ∂e/∂x = constant. In this case, the boundary layer approach used in the present
chapter is no longer valid, because the ratio e/x no longer approaches zero at large distances.

10.8 Thermal and mass boundary layers

The concept of a boundary layer is useful not only for characterizing the flow regimes and
forces acting on an obstacle for a large range of Reynolds numbers, but also for computing
heat and mass transfer between a solid body and the surrounding fluid. Such transfer is
affected by the flow around the object, as we instinctively know whenever we blow along
the surface of a hot body in order to cool it. Indeed, some of the most important problems
associated with the re-entry of a space vehicle into the earth’s atmosphere are related to the The concepts of thermal and mass boundary
heat exchange in the thin boundary layer around the nose of the rocket. In this situation, heat layers have numerous practical applications in
the domain of heat or mass transfer: for instance,
is generated by the aerodynamic flow itself in the neighborhood of the obstacle. The concept when the thermal or mass boundary layers are
of a thermal boundary layer is closely related to that of the hydrodynamic boundary layer thin relative to the velocity boundary layer, the
discussed previously. Such a layer results from a combination of longitudinal heat convection measurement of the characteristics of heat or
mass transfer allows for a determination of the
by the velocity field, and transverse conduction by diffusion. Nonetheless, its structure is velocity gradient near the walls.
strongly affected by the fact that it coexists with a velocity boundary layer: more precisely, it
depends on the relative effectiveness of diffusive heat and momentum transfers, measured
by means of the Prandtl number Pr = ν/κ, defined in Chapter 2, Section 2.3.2. Electro-
chemical reactions at plane electrodes provide several examples of mass boundary layers:
these will be governed by the Schmidt number, Sc = ν/D.

10.8.1 Thermal boundary layers

Consider again the geometry of Figure 10.2a with a temperature difference between a value
T 0 at the flat plate and the uniform temperature T 1 of the fluid far from the wall. Once the
temperature and velocity profiles have become stationary, the temperature differs appreci-
ably from T 1 only over a thin region near the wall. In order to study the structure of this
thermal boundary layer, one must add to the Navier-Stokes equation, which results in the
Blasius velocity profile, another equation accounting for heat transport. Such an equation
is derived, just like the equation of motion for a fluid, by writing that the variation dT /dt of
the temperature of an element of fluid, in a reference frame moving with the fluid element,
satisfies the heat-conduction equation (Equation 1.17). Using Equation 3.2, it then takes on
the form:

dT ∂T
= + (v·∇)T = κ ∇ 2 T . (10.90a)
dt ∂t

Just as for a velocity boundary layer, the spatial derivatives in the direction of flow are smaller
by an order of magnitude than those in the direction normal to the wall. One can therefore
write:

dT ∂T ∂T ∂T ∂2T
= + vx + vy =κ , (10.90b)
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂y2

neglecting the diffusive term κ(∂ 2 T /∂x2 ) relative to κ(∂ 2 T/∂y2 ). The second and third
convective terms of the equation play, for heat conduction, the same role as those of the
394 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

Navier-Stokes equation for the momentum. The temperature must satisfy the boundary
conditions:

T (x, y = 0) = T0 for x > 0, T (x, y) = T1 for y large.

The form of Equations 10.90a-b implies the following assumptions:

• there are no sources of heat such as those which would be observed in the presence of
high-speed flows and strong velocity gradients near solid walls (this is the case for the
re-entry of the rocket mentioned above). The case of combustion will be discussed
in Section 10.9;
• the effect of Archimedes’ buoyancy on the warmer, less dense fluid is neglected;
• finally, the viscosity is assumed to be constant with the temperature.

When the above assumptions are satisfied, the thermal problem can be solved, in princi-
ple, once the velocity field is given; there is indeed no back coupling from the variation of
the thermal field on the hydrodynamic behavior because of the lack of coupling between the
temperature and velocity fields of the fluid. Let us now discuss the structure of the boundary
layers observed at different values of the Prandtl number Pr = ν/κ.

Prandtl number much greater than one

This is the case for insulating and/or high viscosity liquids. Transverse heat conduction is
then quite inefficient compared to the diffusion of momentum: however, it is this transverse
conduction which determines the growth of thermal boundary layers as a function of dis-
tance downstream. The local thickness of the layer corresponds indeed to the distance from
the wall at which diffusive and convective transport phenomena are equally effective (this
result was already pointed out, for the velocity boundary layer, in Section 10.3.1).
The thickness δ θ (x) of the thermal boundary layer T must, therefore, be small compared
to that, δ(x), of the velocity boundary layer V (Figure 10.19): one can then assume that,
within the thickness of the thermal boundary layer (0 < y < δ θ ), the velocity varies linearly
with y, so that:

y
vx U , (10.91)
δ(x)
√
where δ(x) = νx / U is the thickness of the velocity boundary layer.

y
U vx(x0,y)
T1 T(x0,y)
Figure 10.19 Thermal (T ) and velocity
(V ) boundary layers for a Prandtl number
much greater than one
δ (x)

O T0 x0 δθ (x)
x
Thermal and mass boundary layers 395

These assumptions lead to the result that the ratio δ θ /δ is independent of x with:

3 κ 1/3 1 1/3
δθ κ δθ
≈ , (10.92a) i.e.: ≈ = 1. (10.92b)
δ ν δ ν Pr

√
Thus, δ θ also increases with distance as x and, using Equations 10.1a and 10.92b:
1/3 √
δθ ≈ κ ν 1/2 x/U.

Justification
√
The thickness δ θ (x) is of the order of κ tθ (x) where tθ (x) is the time taken by the fluid
at the edge of the thermal boundary layer ( y = δ θ ) to cover the distance x. Using Equation
10.91, the corresponding velocity is vx ( y = δθ ) U (δθ / δ): the assumption that δ θ /δ does
not vary with x implies that vx ( y = δθ ) is also independent of x, so that:

x δ(x) x δ(x)
tθ ≈ (10.93a) and: δθ (x) ≈ κ tθ (x) ≈ κ . (10.93b)
U δθ (x) U δθ (x)

By dividing term by term, Equation 10.93b by Equation 10.1a, one obtains Equation 10.92b
which justifies, a posteriori, the hypothesis of a ratio δθ /δ constant with x.

Like in Equation 10.2, the two convective terms vx ∂T/∂x and vy ∂T /∂y, and the diffusive
term κ ∂ 2 T /∂y2 in the thermal transport equation (Equation 10.90b) are of the same or-
der of magnitude at the edge of the thermal boundary layer ( y = δ θ ). Just as the velocity
boundary layer, the thermal one corresponds to the boundary between the regions where
the diffusive transport of heat is dominant ( y < δ θ ) and those where convective transport
dominates ( y > δ θ ).

Proof
Equation 10.5 for the conservation of mass can be rewritten using Equation 10.91,
leading to:

∂vy ∂vx y dδ y2 dδ
=– ≈U 2 , so that, by integration: vy ≈ U . (10.94)
∂y ∂x δ (x) dx δ 2 dx
The order of magnitude of the different terms of Equation 10.90b for the thermal trans-
port along the edge of the thermal boundary layer ( y = δ θ (x)) can be evaluated using the
same approach as in Section 10.3.1; for the temperature, one uses the reduced variable
θ (y) = (T – T 0 ) / (T 1 – T 0 ) (note that this definition of θ differs from that used at the
beginning of this chapter). One obtains first, using Equation 10.94:

∂θ δ 2 dδ θ(δθ ) δθ dδ
vy ≈ U θ2 ≈U 2 , (10.95a)
∂y δ dx δθ(x) δ dx
because ∂θ/∂y ≈ θ(δ θ ) / δ θ (x) and, at the edge of the thermal boundary layer ( y = δ θ (x)), one
has T(δ θ ) = T l so that θ(δ θ ) ≈ 1. In the same way, the second convective term vx (∂θ /∂x)
and the diffusive term κ(∂ 2 θ /∂y2 ) satisfy respectively, still for y = δ θ (x):

∂θ δθ θ dδθ U dδθ ∂ 2θ θ(δθ ) κ

vx ≈U ≈ (10.95b) and: κ ≈κ ≈ 2 . (10.95c)
∂x δ δθ dx δ dx ∂y2 δθ2 δθ
396 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

One used above the estimate ∂θ /∂x ≈ ∂θ /∂y (dδ θ /dx) ≈ θ/δ θ (dδ θ /dx): it corresponds to
the assumption that the ratio between the distances in the y- and x-directions along which
there is a significant change of θ is of the order of dδ θ /dx. The two convective terms in
Equations 10.95a-b are of the same order of magnitude due to the fact that, δ θ /δ being
independent of x, one has dδ θ /dx ≈ (δ θ /δ) dδ/dx. By substituting for δ θ in Equations 10.95a
and 10.95c its expression as a function of δ from Equation 10.92b, one obtains respectively
(again for y = δ θ (x)):

∂θ κ 1/3 1 dδ κ 1/3 1 ∂ 2θ κ ν 2/3 U κ ν 2/3

vy ≈U ≈U , and: κ ≈ 2 ≈ ,
∂y ν δ dx ν x ∂y 2 δ κ x ν κ

which are indeed of the same order of magnitude.

Using the preceding results, one estimates the thermal flux between the solid and the
fluid:

Q ∝ k T Re1/2 Pr 1/3 . (10.96)

Here, T = T 0 – T 1 and the Reynolds number Re is taken equal to UL/ν where L is the total
length of the plate in the direction of the flow.

Proof
As mentioned above, the diffusive thermal heat-exchange is dominant within the thermal
boundary layer. The thermal flux dQ through a surface element of length dx in the direction
of the velocity U and of unit length in the z-direction thus obeys:

T0 – T1 Pr 1/3
dQ = k dx = k (T0 – T1 ) dx. (10.97)
δθ δ

The thermal conductivity k, which accounts for the diffusion of heat in the fluid, was defined
in Section 1.2.1. By integrating Equation 10.97 over the total length L of the plate, and
writing T =T 0 –T 1 we find the global flux, which leads to Equation 10.96.

Equation 10.96 for the variation of the thermal flux as a function of Pr and Re is the
key result of this calculation: it is frequently rewritten by replacing Q by the dimensionless
parameter Nu = Q/(kT). This Nusselt number Nu is the ratio between the actual flux Q in
the presence of flow, and the flux which would be obtained under the same conditions of
geometry and temperature without any convection. One then obtains:

Nu = C Re1/2 Pr 1/3 . (10.98)

This is a relation which an engineer would find upon looking up in tables for the solution
for a heat-transfer problem. For this specific case of flow parallel to a warm plate, the coef-
ficient of proportionality C is approximately 0.34. The exponents 1/2 and 1/3 of Re and Pr
are characteristic of thermal transfers for Prandtl numbers very large compared to one.

Prandtl number much smaller than unity

This is a situation found only for liquid metals (e.g., Pr = 0.01 for mercury). In this limit, the
viscous boundary layer is, in contrast to the preceding case, much thinner than the thermal
Thermal and mass boundary layers 397

one; thus, the velocity is uniform and of value U throughout the thickness δ θ . In this case,
one can use the arguments from Section 10.2, replacing the kinematic viscosity ν by the
thermal diffusivity κ; one might also carry out the same calculation as for Pr 1, but taking
vx = U in the thermal boundary layer. One then has:

κx δ(x) ν
δθ (x) ≈ and: ≈ . (10.99)
U δθ (x) κ

Carrying out the same calculation as in the above section leads to a dependence of the
Nusselt number of the type Nu ≈ Re1/2 Pr 1/2 . Thus the variation with respect to the velocity
as Re1/2 is preserved, but the interchange in the relative thickness of the velocity and tem-
perature boundary layers causes the exponent for the Prandtl number to change from 1/3 to
1/2.

Prandtl number of order unity

Physically, such a situation corresponds to the case of gases for which the thermal conduc-
tivity and momentum diffusion coefficients are of the same order of magnitude. In this case,
the growth of the thermal boundary layer occurs at the same rate as that of the viscous one,
and the two thicknesses are of the same order of magnitude (this is in fact equivalent to
taking the limit at Pr = 1 of the two equations obtained above).

An application of heat exchange laws between a solid and a flowing fluid:

the hot-wire anemometer
This device, described in Section 3.5.3, makes use of a wire heated by an electrical current,
and cooled by a transverse flow, to measure the velocity of the flow. The temperature of
the wires is determined by the equilibrium between the Joule heating of the wire and the
cooling by the forced convection and by thermal diffusion. Only the component Un of the
velocity of the fluid normal to the wire contributes significantly to the cooling. Experimental The Nusselt number Nu is proportional to the
measurements show that the Nusselt number, which corresponds to thermal heat-exchange ratio between the thermal power P = R I 2 gener-
between the wire and the flow, obeys the equation: ated in the wire by electrical heat, and the tem-
perature difference Tw – T 0 between the wire
and the distant fluid. The temperature Tw of
Nu = 0.57 Pr 1/3 Re1/2 + 0.42 Pr 1/5 . (10.100) the wire is measured by its electrical resistance,
which obeys R = R0 (1 + a(Tw – T 0 )) where R0
is the resistance of the wire at temperature T 0 .
When both Pr and Re are large, the right hand side of the equation can be reduced to the The electrical resistance R of the hot wire obeys
first term which is the same as for a laminar boundary layer near a wall. This result may the following experimental law as a function of
the velocity Un normal to the wire:
seem, at first, surprising because these devices are often used in turbulent flows: the device
is however sufficiently small relative to the size of the vortices present in the flow that, at R I2
= A + B Un0.5 . (10.101)
the scale of its diameter, the flow appears as laminar. The fact that the device is not a plate R – R0
parallel to the flow but a circular cylinder with stagnation points accounts for the second
This is in agreement with the variation of Nu
term which is independent of the Reynolds number. given by Equation (10.100), since R – R0 ∝ T –
T 0 and Re ∝ Un .

10.8.2 Concentration boundary layers,

polarography
Concentration boundary layer resulting from an electrode imbedded in a wall
Concentration boundary layers appear when a chemical reaction occurs at a solid wall, with
absorption or emission of one of the components of a flowing mixture. This is particularly
the case for electro-chemical reactions induced by a metallic electrode placed within the
flow. This phenomenon is well illustrated by the polarographic technique which allows for
398 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

υ x = Gy
C0
Figure 10.20 Formation of the concentra-
tion boundary layer (indicated by the dashed
curves) near an electrode at which an δc (x)
oxidation–reduction reaction is induced W x

z electrode

0 L x

An example is the ferrocyanide–ferricyanide re- the measurement of the velocity gradient in a liquid near a solid wall: it uses a controlled,
action in the presence of a low-resistivity so- electro–chemical oxidation–reduction reaction within a flowing reagent.
lution (e.g., KCl): the latter eliminates almost
completely parasitic potential differences due to The reaction is induced by injecting a current into a small size electrode (of length L
electrical currents flowing in the bulk of the parallel to the flow, and width W ), embedded in the wall near which one wants to measure
solution. the velocity gradient (Figure 10.20). Assume, for example, that the solution contains initially
only ferrous ions Fe2+ (in general in the form of complex Fe(CN)4– 6 ) with concentration
C0 , which are oxidized into Fe3+ ions by the injection of an electric current. The oxidation
reaction, decreasing the concentration Cw of Fe2+ ions at the wall, creates a concentration
gradient relative to the value C0 ; this, in turn, induces a diffusive flux of ions toward the
wall, J = –Dm (∂C/∂y), compensated by the influx of ions from the upstream convective
current (Dm is the molecular diffusion coefficient of the ions). The concentration gradient
increases with the electric current density (controlled by the polarization potential) until
the concentration Cw at the wall drops to zero. At that point, all the Fe2+ ions reaching
the electrode by diffusion and convection are oxidized, any attempt to increase further the
current by increasing the electrical potential difference triggers other oxidation–reduction
reactions. This boundary condition is equivalent to the condition of constant temperature
or zero velocity at the walls for thermal and velocity boundary layers: just as in these cases,
the thickness δ c of the concentration boundary layer is the distance at which the diffusive
and convective fluxes become comparable.
In most cases, the molecular diffusion coefficient Dm is much smaller than the kinematic
viscosity ν. The problem is therefore very similar to that of a thermal boundary layer, for a
Prandtl number very large compared to unity. The Schmidt number Sc = ν/Dm , introduced
in Section 2.3.2 (Table 2.1), plays the role of the Prandtl number Pr; values of Sc of the
order of 1,000 are common for many liquids. The dynamics of exchanges is, therefore,
analogous to that discussed in Section 10.8.1 for the thermal boundary layer (with Pr 1):
the concentration boundary layer is, in the present case also, much thinner than the velocity
one, and its thickness δ c obeys the equivalent of Equation 10.92b:
1/3 1/3
δc (x) Dm 1
≈ ≈ 1. (10.102)
δ(x) ν Sc

The difference between the present experiment and the thermal problem is that the
electrode covers only a small portion of the length of the solid wall in the direction of the flow
(in the example discussed in Section 10.8.1, the plate was, in contrast, assumed to be heated
throughout its length). The momentum boundary layer, initiated far upstream, is already
highly developed at the electrode: one therefore assumes that its thickness, and consequently
the velocity gradient G = ∂vx /∂y at the wall, are constant over the length of the electrode.
Thermal and mass boundary layers 399

As shown below, the thickness δ c of the concentration boundary layer varies as:
1/3
Dm x
δc (x) ≈ , (10.103)
G

where x is the distance from the upstream edge of the electrode. The concentration bound-
ary layer thus grows as x1/3 , instead of x1/2 in the example of Section 10.8.1: this difference
arises because the velocity gradient G normal to the wall is, as mentioned above, constant
over the active region of the electrodes, instead of decreasing with the distance x. Such con-
centration boundary layers can occur even in established flows where a velocity boundary
layer is absent provided δc (x) satisfies:
1/3
δc (x) Dm
≈ 1.
x G x2

Proof
The thickness δ c (x) of the boundary layer is calculated by locating the origin, x = 0, at the
upstream edge of the electrode, and letting C0 be the concentration of ions in the incident
solution outside the boundary layer. Just like for the equation of thermal transport (Equation
10.90a), the transport equation for the concentration C (here, of ions) is shown to be, in
the most general case:
dC ∂C
= + (v ·∇ )C = Dm ∇ 2 C. (10.104a)
dt ∂t
In a stationary regime, and using the usual approximations for boundary layers, the equation
becomes:
∂C ∂C ∂2C
vx + vy = Dm . (10.104b)
∂x ∂y ∂y2
Like in Section 10.8.1, the thickness δ c of the concentration boundary layer is taken equal to
the distance from the wall at which the convective-transport and diffusive-transport terms
become comparable. Since the velocity gradient G is assumed to be constant over the en-
tire surface of the electrode, one has a parallel flow with vy = 0 and vx = G y: the second
convective term vy (∂C/∂y) is therefore itself zero. On the other hand, at the edge of the
concentration boundary layer ( y = δ c (x)), vx = G δ c (x). Thus, the first convective term of
Equation 10.104b has an order of magnitude:
∂C ∂C ∂δc (x) C0 ∂δc (x) ∂δc (x)
vx ≈ vx ≈ G δc (x) ≈ G C0 . (10.105)
∂x ∂y ∂x δc (x) ∂x ∂x
Like in Equation 10.95b, one takes ∂C/∂x ≈ ∂C/∂y (dδ c (x)/dx) ≈ (C0 /δ c (x))(dδ c (x)/dx).
The diffusive term Dm (∂ 2 C/∂y2 ) is of the order of Dm C0 /δ c 2 since the characteristic scale
on which the concentration varies in the y-direction is δ c . By writing that the estimates of
the diffusive and convective terms obtained above are equal, one obtains, by removing the
factor C 0 :
∂δc (x) Dm
δc2 ≈ ,
∂x G
from which one infers Equation 10.103 by integration with respect to x.
400 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

We now show that a detailed analysis of the mass transfer within the concentration boundary
layer leads to the measurement of the transverse velocity gradient G near the solid wall.

Measurement of a velocity near a wall by a polarographic method

In a practical experiment, the potential difference V between the probe electrode and a
reference electrode (maintained, by construction, at a fixed potential with respect to the
solution) is kept constant. After stabilization, the current I at the electrodes is measured
I for several values of V (Figure 10.21). This current is a result of a transfer of electrical
charges between the electrode and the ions with which it comes into contact.
IL1 G1 In the polarogram I = f (V ) of Figure 10.21, a minimal voltage is required to induce the
oxidation Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e– (or, more exactly, the reaction Fe(CN)4– 6 → Fe(CN)6 + e ).
3– –

G2 < G1 Beyond this value, the current increases with V at the same time as the concentration Cw
IL2
along the wall decreases. The limiting current is reached when the concentration Cw of ions
at the wall is zero and all the Fe2+ ions brought by diffusion to the boundary layer have
∆V been oxidized. At still higher values of V , the current again increases, either because other
oxidation–reduction reactions are induced, or because electrolysis of the solvent occurs. The
Figure 10.21 Variation of the electrical cur- limiting value IL of the current is related to the velocity gradient G = ∂vx /∂y near the wall by:
rent I in the measuring electrode as a function
of the potential difference V relative to a IL ∝ G 1/3 ; (10.106)
reference electrode in an oxidation–reduction
reaction. The two curves correspond to differ-
therefore, the measurement of IL allows one to determine G. This variation of the signal
ent values of the velocity gradient G at the
as G 1/3 complicates the use of this measurement, but the readings are consistent and the
wall. The potential differences depend on the
perturbation of the flow is quite small. The measurement of the velocity gradient at the wall
ionic reaction used, and are of the order of a
is particularly reliable.
few hundred millivolts. The current intensi-
ties depend on the area of the electrodes, and
can vary from a fraction of a microampere to Proof
several milliamperes The motion of the ions is a result of the combination of three mechanisms:

(i) migration of active ions due to the electric field (determined by an electrical
potential φ);
(ii) molecular diffusion due to the concentration of active ions created by the reaction at
the level of the electrode;
(iii) convection due to the flow near the electrode.

The flux J, in moles per unit area and unit time, of the active ion (Fe2+ ) with molecular
concentration C can then be expressed as:

βF
J= Dm C ∇φ – Dm ∇C + C v, (10.107)
RT

where: Dm = molecular diffusivity of the reagent;

β = number of active electrons per molecule of reagent, with β = 1 for the case of
Fe2+ ions;
F = Faraday’s constant (F = NA e = 96,500 coulombs).
At the level of the wall ( y = 0), C and v vanish, and only the flux associated with molecular
diffusion is non-zero. When the concentration Cw of ions at the wall is zero, this diffusive
flux is equal to: J = –Dm ∂C/∂y ≈ Dm C0 /δ c ; there results an electrical current density:

C0
j(x) ≈ βF Dm . (10.108)
δc
Thermal and mass boundary layers 401

The total current per unit width of the electrode (normal to the flow) thus equals:
L
dx If the electro-chemical reaction involved is suf-
I = –βFDm C0 , (10.109)
0 δc (x) ficiently fast, the electro-chemical probes can
carry out non-stationary measurements (fluc-
so that, by substituting for δ c in Equation 10.103: tuations of the parietal velocity gradient in
the presence of instabilities or turbulence).
I ∝ β F C0 D2/3 1/3 2/3
m G L , (10.110) However, while this measurement of the parietal
velocity gradient by means of the electrical cur-
rent I is straightforward in a stationary regime, in
where L is the length of the electrode in the direction of the flow. One then finds the variation
a non-stationary one, the transfer functions re-
I ∝ G 1/3 of Equation 10.106. lating the different variables of interest are more
complex.

Mass and velocity boundary layers on a rotating disk electrode

Velocity-field near a rotating disk Measurements of the kind just described above
are frequently performed by means of rotating-disk electrodes: these use a circular electrode
located, close to the axis of rotation, at the surface of a disk rotating with constant angular
velocity 0 in an electrolyte solution (Figure 10.22). The disk acts as a centrifugal pump: the z
fluid undergoes axial suction toward the disk, and is then ejected radially. A useful feature
of this system is the presence of a velocity boundary layer of constant thickness over the
√ υφ
surface with δ = ν/ 0 . Moreover, the axial velocity vz is also independent of r and ϕ, and ξ υr
is of the order of –0 3/2 ν –1/2 z2 (this is known as a uniformly accessible electrode). Besides, the υz
radial and tangential components are proportional to r.
r
Justification
One uses a system of cylindrical coordinates, assuming a stationary flow and axial symme-
try around the axis of rotation. The effect of gravity is neglected, so that the pressure is Ω0
constant outside the velocity boundary layer: this pressure is therefore assumed to be con-
stant everywhere (by continuity), just as in previous cases. Throughout this example, we Figure 10.22 Schematic diagram of a ro-
consider a fixed laboratory frame, in which the electrode rotates, and we do not therefore tating disk electrode
need to introduce Coriolis forces into the equations of motion.
At the wall of the electrode (z = 0), the velocity of the fluid is strictly orthoradial with
vϕ (r, 0) = 0 r, vr (r, 0) = 0 and vz (r, 0) = 0; vr and vϕ vanish for distances z greater than a
few thicknesses of the boundary layer δ. Within the boundary layer, the radial component of
the flow is the result of an equilibrium between the centrifugal force and the radial viscous
stress: let us now evaluate this equilibrium for a cylinder of fluid of height of the order of δ
in the z-direction and with a base of area: r dr dϕ . Using the simplifying assumption that
the velocities vr and vϕ vanish outside of the boundary layer (z ≥ δ), the only viscous stress
to be taken into account is that along the disk τ 0 ≈ η [∂vr /∂z]z = 0 . Simplifying by r dr dϕ,
the equilibrium of radial forces on the cylinder can then be written in the form:

∂υr 20
ρ 20 r δ ≈ η , so that, near the wall: vr ≈ r z δ.
∂z z=0 ν
(10.111a) (10.111b)

In order to estimate the velocity vz , one uses the condition of incompressibility:

1 ∂ ∂vz 20 2
(r vr ) + = 0, so that, near the wall: vz ≈ – z δ. (10.112)
r ∂r ∂z ν
In order to estimate the thickness δ, one considers again that it corresponds to the dis-
tance at which there is an equilibrium between the transverse convection of momentum (at
402 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

velocity vz ) and the viscous diffusion of the projection ρ v of the momentum on the disk
(with components ρvr and ρvϕ ). This process is comparable to the suction boundary layer
(Section 10.5.3). The projection v of the velocity must therefore obey:

∂v v ν
ν ≈ν ≈ –vz (δ) v , i.e. : δ≈ .
∂z δ |vz (δ)|

Combining this result with Equation 10.112 for z = δ, one retrieves the relation:

δ= ν/ 0 . (10.113)

The thickness δ of the velocity boundary layer is thus constant over the surface of the disk.
Substituting this value for δ in Equations 10.111b and 10.112, one obtains:

υr ≈ 3/2
0 ν
–1/2
r z. (10.114)

For z ≈ δ, vr is of the order of the tangential velocity vϕ ≈ 0 r, and:

υz = –α0 z2 = –3/2
0 ν
–1/2 2
z , (10.115a) with: α0 = 3/2
0 ν
–1/2
. (10.115b)

The value of vz at the surface of the disk is then constant. The complete analytical
calculation gives a similar equation valid to second order in z:

υz = –c 3/2
0 ν
–1/2 2
z , (10.116a) with: c = 0.51. (10.116b)

Equations 10.114 and 10.115 are only valid inside the boundary layer (z < δ). Outside
this, vz approaches a constant value as the distance z increases and the velocities vr and vϕ
approach zero.

Mass transfer toward a “rotating-disk electrode”

One assumes that the central region of the rotating disk is taken up by an electrode of radius
R small relative to the radius of the disk (in order to be able to ignore edge effects) at
the same level as the disk itself. One also assumes that the angular velocity 0 is constant
and that a stationary regime has been reached both for the distribution of velocity and for
that of the concentration. Finally, one assumes that, just as in the case of the velocity, the
concentration C is only a function of z. The equation for the transport of concentration
then becomes:

dC d2 C
υz (z) = Dm 2 , (10.117)
dz dz

with boundary conditions C = C0 for z → ∞ and C = 0 at z = 0. Just as for the other cases
discussed in this section, the thickness δ c of the concentration boundary layer is taken as
the distance from the wall where the convective and diffusive terms are of the same order
of magnitude with C ≈ C 0 . The order of magnitude of the thickness of the mass boundary
layer is then:

1/3 1/3
Dm δc Dm
δc ≈ ≈ Dm1/3 ν 1/6 –1/2
0 ,
so that: ≈ ∝ Sc–1/3 .
α0 δ ν
(10.118a) (10.118b)
Thermal and mass boundary layers 403

This variation as Sc–1/3of the ratio between the thicknesses of the two boundary layers is
then the same as for polarography. The total electrical current I corresponding to this ionic
transfer is:

–1/6 1/2
I ≈ β F πR2 D2/3 m ν 0 C0 . (10.119)

The exact result, known as the Levich equation, from the name of a contemporary Russian
physical-chemist, is identical, within an added numerical factor 0.62. Given the viscosity of
the fluid, Equation 10.119 then allows one to measure the diffusion coefficient, Dm , of the
ions.

Justification
As the coordinates r and ϕ appear neither in the equation nor in the boundary conditions,
one assumes therefore that, just as the velocity, the concentration C is independent of r. One
uses then Equation 10.115a to estimate the two sides of Equation 10.117 for z = δ c with:

∂C C0 d2 C C0
vz ≈ α0 δc2 ≈ α0 δc C0 , (10.120a) and: Dm ≈ Dm 2 . (10.120b)
∂z δc dz2 δc

Writing that these two terms are of the same order of magnitude, and replacing α 0 by its
value, one recovers Equations 10.118a-b.
At the electrode (z = 0), just like in the preceding example of polarography, the electrical
current density j corresponds completely to diffusion, so that:

∂C C0
j = β F Dm ≈ β F Dm . (10.121)
∂z z=0 δc

It is then sufficient to substitute for δ c in this latter equation its value given by Equation
10.118a and to multiply the result by the area πR2 of the electrode to obtain Equation
10.119.
The preceding result corresponds to the limiting case where the electrochemical reaction
at the wall is instantaneous. In a more general case, we would need to take into account the
time constant of the chemical reaction, as well as the time needed for the different reagents
to reach the wall. This is specifically the case for slow reactions such as corrosion.

10.8.3 Taylor dispersion

In the two examples of the thermal boundary layer and of polarography, one dealt with a
longitudinal convective transport of a scalar quantity (the thermal energy or the mass) and
with a transverse diffusive transport. The changes in temperature and concentration then
remained localized in a boundary layer which is thin relative to the global width of the flow.
In Taylor dispersion, one still has a longitudinal convective and diffusive transport, but
it can extend over the entire area of the flow, and one no longer has a boundary layer. The
generic process corresponding to Taylor dispersion is the spreading of a small spot of dye
injected into a small diameter tube inside which a fluid flows. A two dimensional illustration
of this process is shown in Figure 10.23: a narrow band of dye is injected initially at the
entrance of a channel made up of two parallel planes separated by a distance a, and between
which there is a parabolic Poiseuille velocity profile. The dots represent molecules carried
along by the local flow and undergoing, at the same time, a Brownian motion representing
404 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

t = 10 t = 100 (a)
y

x
0 100 200 300
Figure 10.23 Schematic diagram of the
spreading of a band of tracer particles in
a Poiseuille flow between parallel plates, at
four successive instants of time (t = 10, 100,
(b)
1000 and 10000 time steps). The scale in the t = 1,000
x-direction is contracted by a factor of 10 as y
one proceeds from one graph to the one lower x
down (numerical Monte-Carlo simulation by
the authors) 0 1,000 2,000 3,000

t = 10,000 (c)
y

x
0 10,000 20,000 30,000

molecular diffusion. The Péclet number Pe = a U /Dm defined in Equation 2.16, Section
2.3.2, and which characterizes the relative importance of the convective and diffusive
transport processes, plays here a key role (U = average velocity, a = channel opening).
Without flow, we would only have molecular diffusion, both parallel and normal to the
walls of the channel: the spreading at the end of a time interval t, in the x-direction is then:

x ≈ Dm t. (10.122)

In the presence of a flow, at short time intervals, the band of dye is deformed following the
local motion of the fluid, and takes on a parabolic form indicative of the velocity profile
(curve t = 10 in Figure 10.23a); the velocity of the dye particles varies indeed according to
their distance from the walls. In that case, the distance over which the spot of dye spreads
out in the x-direction of the flow is:

For flow between two planes, one should take x ≈ U t, (10.123)

into account the factor 3/2, corresponding to
the ratio between the maximum velocity and where U is the average velocity of the flow.
the average velocity. Also, at very short times t,
molecular diffusion in the direction of the flow At longer times (t = 100 and t = 1,000 in Figure 10.23a & b), molecular diffusion spreads
becomes again dominant: this is the case, in ac- out the dye between the planes. Then, a distribution which is almost uniform in the direction
cordance
√ with Equations 10.122 and 10.123, if: y is reached for t τ D , where τ D is the characteristic diffusion time over a distance a with:
Dm t > U t. or, equivalently: t < Dm /U 2 .
a2
τD = ; (10.124)
Dm
this corresponds to Figure 10.23c (t = 10,000).
Thermal and mass boundary layers 405

Moreover, one observes experimentally (or numerically) that the variation with x of
the average over y of the concentration is quite close to a Gaussian function of width x
increasing as the square-root of the elapsed time, with:

x ≈ DTaylor t . (10.125)

One has therefore a macroscopically diffusive spreading (superimposed on the average dis-
placement at velocity U ) characterized by DTaylor (coefficient of the Taylor dispersion). One
estimates DTaylor by assuming that at the time t = τ D corresponding to the transition between
the convective and diffusive spreading, Equations 10.123 and 10.125 are simultaneously
obeyed, so that:

a2 a2 a2 U 2 A somewhat surprising result is the decrease of
x ≈ DTaylor ≈U , and : DTaylor ≈ . (10.126) the dispersion as Dm increases, (with U a re-
Dm Dm Dm
maining constant), in contrast to the case of pure
molecular diffusion. Indeed, when the transverse
For two parallel planes, Taylor’s calculation, complemented by Aris, yields: molecular diffusion increases, the concentration
of dye is homogeneized more rapidly in the y di-
a2 U 2 DTaylor Pe2 rection and spreading due to velocity variations
DTaylor = Dm + , (10.127a) or: =1+ . (10.127b) in the y direction is reduced.
210 Dm Dm 210

For a cylindrical capillary of diameter d, we have:

d2 U 2 DTaylor Pe2
DTaylor = Dm + , (10.128a) or: =1+ . (10.128b)
192 Dm Dm 192

here Pe = d U /Dm . At small values of the Peclet number (Pe 1), molecular diffusion
dominates and one recovers the molecular diffusion coefficient Dm .
Taylor dispersion plays an important role in the motion and mixing of chemical reagents
in the network of small channels found in micro-fluidic experiments. It also represents a
practical method to determine the molecular diffusion coefficient Dm .

Proof
In the geometry of Figure 10.23, the convection-diffusion equation (Equation 10.104a)
becomes:

∂C 4y2 ∂C ∂2C
+ U0 1 – 2 = Dm , (10.129)
∂t a ∂x ∂y2

where vx ( y) = U 0 (1 – 4 y2/a2 ) represents the Poiseuille velocity profile between the two
planes y = ±a/2 (U 0 = 3U /2). The second derivative ∂ 2 C/∂x2 can be neglected provided
the variations of the concentration in the x-direction are sufficiently slow (length of flow
channel along x large compared to the distance a). The derivative ∂C/∂t is then estimated
in the reference frame moving at the average velocity of the fluid (here, 2U 0 /3), by means
of the changes of coordinates:

x1 = x – 2U0 t/3, and t1 = t

and of the equation:

∂C ∂C 2 U0 ∂C
= – . (10.130)
∂t x ∂t x1 3 ∂x1 t
406 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

In this reference frame, in this reference frame, the concentration profile is independent
of time with (∂C/∂t)x1 =0: an observer moving at the velocity of the flow does not indeed
explore the concentration profile like a static observer would do. Moreover, the variations of
the convective flux of the dye parallel to the average flow must be balanced by the transverse
diffusive transport so that Equation 10.129 becomes:

1 4y2 ∂C ∂ 2C
U0 – 2 = Dm . (10.131)
3 a ∂x1 ∂y2

Finally, (∂C/∂x1 )t must be independent of y because of the transverse homogeneization of

the concentration and of the slow variation of C(x1 , t 1 ) with x1 . By integrating Equation
10.131 between 0 and y, taking into account the fact that C must be an even function of y,
one finds:

a2 U0 ∂C y2 y4
C(x1 , y) = C(x1 , 0) + – 2 . (10.132)
3Dm ∂x1 2 a

The average tracer flux J per unit area convected in the direction of the flow through a
cross-section x1 = constant is given by:
a/2
1 4y2
aJ=2 C(x1 , y) U0 – 2 dy ; (10.133)
0 3 a

the choice of the constant C(x1 , 0) is arbitrary because, in Equation 10.133, it is multiplied
by an integral equal to zero. Replacing C(x1 , y) by Equation 10.132, and the maximum
velocity U 0 by its expression 3U/2 as a function of the average velocity, one finds:

a2 U 2 ∂C
J=– . (10.134)
210 Dm ∂x1

This corresponds, as expected, to the expression: J = –DTaylor (∂C/∂x1 )t of a diffusive flux

with a coefficient DTaylor equal to the U 2 term in Equation 10.127a. A more elaborate
approach is required to recover the additive term Dm in Equations 127a-b.

10.9 Flames
We will be using a very simplified form of the The study of flames belongs at the same time to fluid mechanics, molecular-transport
chemical reactions by assuming that a single phenomena, and chemical kinetics. It does not deal directly with boundary layers of the
global reaction accounts for the overall produc-
tion of thermal energy and the disappearance type discussed in most of this chapter: howevever, like them, flames involve simultane-
of the reagent: actually, the "simple" case of ously convection, thermal diffusion and mass processes, each having its own characteristic
the H2 -air mixture involves more than a dozen time constant. Moreover, flames involve a combustion chemical reaction, frequently local-
reversible reactions between eight chemical spe-
cies; for the frequently used mixture of air and ized within a thin region, and characterized by its own specific time constant. Finally, the
kerosene, 1800 reactions between 220 species Navier-Stokes equation must take into account the changes in density due to thermal dilation
must be taken into account. The problem of and to the production of the various chemical species.
flames is thus already formidable even in its
simplest forms!
We will not attempt here to give a complete overview of the rather complicated problem
of flames and combustion and will refer the reader to specialized resources cited in the
references: we wish only to give, by means of a few examples, an idea of the relationship
between these phenomena and the transport processes studied in the remainder of this book.
Flames 407

10.9.1 Flames, mixing and chemical reactions

Diffusion and premixed flames
A flame brings into play a strongly exothermal chemical reaction between a combustible gas
(e.g., natural gas) and an oxidizing gas (generally the oxygen in the air) within the flow of
fluids. A flame can only appear if there exists a region where these reagents are present in
a suitable mixture: several types of flames may be observed depending on the geometry of
the mixing region and the mechanism of the mixture.

Figure 10.24C (a) Bunsen burner (col-

lection: Powerhouse Museum, Sidney); (b)
diffusion-type flame (closed ferrule); (c) pre-
mixed flame (open ferrule); ((b-c): excerpts
from a document by A. J. Fijałkowski)

The behavior of a Bunsen burner illustrates the very different types of flames observed,
depending on the conditions of the mixing of the two components. This device is made up
of a vertical tube in which the combustible natural gas is injected; a lateral opening on the
side, adjustable by rotating the ferrule, allows for the insertion of a selectable amount of air
(Figure 10.24a).
If the ferrule is closed, the pure combustible gas exits from the burner, and the ambient
air is used for oxidation: if the flow is laminar, the mixture takes place by molecular diffusion,
and the flame appears in this mixing region. One then has a non-premixed diffusion flame at
the interface between the combustible and pure oxidizing gases. In this case, combustion is
frequently incomplete, and there appear soot particles, which glow when they are heated to
high temperatures. This explains the brilliant region above the flame in Figure 10.24b. This
case is discussed in Section 10.9.2
If the ferrule is wide open, air coming in through the lateral opening mixes with the gas
inside the tube: it is this mixture which reacts (generally as it exits at the upper opening)
when it attains a region where the temperature is high enough (Figure 10.24c). It will be
shown in Section 10.9.3 that, in such a premixed flame, the reaction takes place within a thin
layer separating the fresh gases usptream and the burnt gases downstream. As seen in the
figure, not only the geometry but also the color of the flame differs from the preceding case
of the non-premixed flame. The reaction is more complete because the mixture is closer
to a stoichiometric composition. One does not then see any soot particles. The blue color
visible on Figure 10.24c (see in color plate section) corresponds to the region of highest
temperature in the flame.

Characteristic reaction time—Damköhler number

Obtaining a mixture of combustible and oxidizing gases of suitable composition is not the
only condition for creating a flame. The speed of the reaction depends not only on the
408 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

fraction (per unit mass) of the fresh reactive species, but also on the reaction kinetics: the
latter is characterized in simple cases by a time constant τ R which varies very rapidly with
temperature according to an Arrhenius-type law:

τR (T ) = τ0 eE/RT (10.135)

(E is the energy of activation of the combustion reaction, and τ 0 an elastic collision time for
the gas). This very rapid change of the speed of the reaction as a function of temperature is
Evaluation of the flame temperature TB . an essential characteristic of flames, as compared to many reactions in chemical engineering.
One assumes a simple reaction scheme in the In the neighborhood of the maximum temperature TB in the flame (TB ≈ 2,000 K), one has:
form F → B + Q accounting for the transition
from the initial fresh products F (the combusti-
ble and oxidizing gases) to the final burnt com- τR (TB ) = τ0 eE/ RTB = τ0 eβ , (10.136) where: β = E/RTB . (10.137)
bustion products B (specifically carbon dioxide
and water vapor) with a resultant exothermal en-
ergy Q. The maximum temperature TB reached Typically β is of order of magnitude 10 and τ R of the order of a few 10–4 s.
in the flame is thus estimated by assuming (adi- In order to estimate the influence of this characteristic time, one frequently uses a
abatic hypothesis) that the energy created by Damköhler number Da equal to the ratio τ A /τ R where τ A is the characteristic time for
the reaction of a given volume is used to heat
the corresponding volume of reagent gas, i.e.:
bringing reagents together. Depending on the type of the flame (diffusion or premixed),
Q = CP (TB – TF ), where TF is the temperature the time-constant τ A is a characteristic time for diffusion or convection. Large values of
of the unburnt gases. Generally, flames do not the Damköhler number indicate rapid combustion, localized within a very thin layer; this
appear spontaneously: a local rise in tempera-
layer separates the oxidizing and combustible gases for a diffusion flame, and the mixture of
ture must be induced by means of an external
method (match, spark, etc.) in order to initiate fresh and burnt gases for a premixed flame. In contrast, a small or zero Damköhler number
the reaction, which, then, maintains itself thanks corresponds to a "frozen" chemical reaction with a passive interpenetration of the species
to the exothermal energy that it generates. induced by diffusion or convection.
In the following, one always assumes that the Damköhler number is large (short reaction
intervals). This assumption is valid for cars and rockets engines and gas turbines (premixed
flames), and for the flames in wildfires or torches (diffusion flames).

Laminar and turbulent flames

In a turbulent regime, there is a very strong The idealized Bunsen burner corresponds to a laminar flow regime: this is seldom the gen-
coupling between the changes in volume due eral case, and the nature of the flow greatly influences the characteristics of the flames. In a
to temperature fluctuations, the composition of
the mixture, and the fluctuations in the velocity turbulent regime, laminar diffusion is replaced by transport through turbulent velocity fluc-
of the gases; this problem only be treated very tuations (Section 12.2.3), which are much more effective. These play an essential role, for
approximately. On the other hand, the velocity example, in the combustion occurring in the cylinders of car engines.
fluctuations lead to deformations of the surface
of the flame (wrinkled flame). In the following sections, the discussion is restricted to laminar flows and to simple
geometries for which it is possible to define characteristic time constants in simple terms.

10.9.2 Laminar diffusion flames

In addition to the Bunsen burner with a closed ferrule, the flame of a candle is another
example of a diffusion flame. In this case, the reactive gases created by pyrolysis at the level
of the wick meet the oxygen of the air during a rising motion resulting from the thermal
convection of the hot gases. Mixing is achieved here through molecular diffusion. Diffusion
flames are also present in numerous applications using jets or combustible droplets. For a
diffusion flame, the Damköhler number is taken equal to Da = τ d /τR where τ d = l 2 /Dm is the
characteristic time-constant for the diffusion of fresh gases over the width l of the flame.

A simple case: the Burke-Schumann (1928) model

This model of a diffusion flame is based on several, drastically simplifying, assump-
tions, but gives a good first-approximation of the physics of the behavior of such flames.
Flames 409

y
oxidizing gas
Figure 10.25 Schematic diagram of a
qm diffusion-type flame according to the Burke-
combustible gas C(x,y) > Ci x Schumann model. The solid-line contour
Qm Lf has been calculated on the basis of Equation
10.139 on the next page
oxidizing gas

The flow is assumed to be parallel (vy = vz = 0), invariant in the z-direction and stationary There are other possible geometries for
(Figure 10.25): the combustible gas is injected into the flowing, oxidizing one by means of diffusion-type flames, e.g., those appearing
at the interface between a jet of oxidizing gas
a slit normal to the plane of the figure. The mass flux qm = ρ vx per unit length in the y- and a combustible one incident from opposite
and z-directions is assumed to be independent of y and z, and to have the same value in the directions.
two fluids. The viscosity of the fluids is not taken into account and the molecular-diffusion
coefficient, Dm , and the coefficient of thermal diffusion, κ, are assumed to be equal to each
other. There is then a coupling between a molecular (and thermal) transverse diffusion
and a longitudinal convection: mathematically, this problem is analogous to the transport of
momentum within a laminar wake (Section 10.7.1 and 10.7.2).
In the case where there is no chemical reaction (e.g., if τ R = ∞) , there is a passive trans-
verse diffusion of the combustible gas into the oxidizing one: then, at a large enough distance
x from the injection-point (x = 0), the concentration field satisfies (see proof below):

–qm y2
1
C(x, y) = Qm e 4 ρ Dm x , (10.138)
4π ρ qm Dm x

where Qm is the total mass flow rate of the combustible gas injected per unit length through
a slit in the z-direction. As x increases, the concentration profile C(x, y) in the y-direction
√
also widens, and the maximal value C(x, 0), along the axis decreases as 1/ x.

Proof
As the flow is parallel (vy = 0), Equation 3.25 for the conservation of mass in a stationary
regime requires that ρ vx = qm be independent of x: note that the velocity vx can vary as the
temperature (and thus the density) changes. Taking into account the similarity between this
problem and the transport of momentum in a laminar wake, one uses Equation 10.72 while
ignoring derivatives with respect to z, replacing the viscosity ν by Dm , and multiplying the
equation by the density ρ. One obtains then for the spatial variations of the concentration
C(x, y):

∂C ∂C ∂ 2C
ρ vx = qm = ρ Dm .
∂x ∂x ∂y2

An equation of the same type is obtained for the variation of temperature by using ρ κ = k/Cp
instead of ρDm . Assume that ρ Dm = constant and that the distance x is large enough so
that the width of the injection-slit is negligible compared to that of the wake: the solu-
tion (Equation 10.79) of the equation of the two-dimensional laminar wake can be used
to obtain:
∞ –qm y2
qm
C(x, y) = C(x, y) dy e 4ρ Dm x .
–∞ 4πρ Dm x
410 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

Equation 10.138 results from this relation since, like qm , the mass flow rate
∞ ∞
Qm = –∞ ρ C vx dy = qm –∞ C dy must be independent of x; the integral over y of the
concentration can therefore be replaced by the ratio Qm /qm .

The assumption of a very large Damköhler num- Assume now that the reaction time is short relative to the diffusion time constant
ber used here avoids to have to introduce a (Da 1): in this case, the reaction takes place in a very thin layer considered as the contour
chemical reaction term.
of the flame. One assumes that the reaction occurs at a distance yi (x) for which C(x, y)
has a value Ci (e.g., this might be the value corresponding to a stoichiometric composition
of the mixture). The concentration profile (Equation 10.138) is also assumed to be valid
between y = 0 and yi . The profile yi (x) is obtained by taking y = yi and C = Ci in Equation
10.138 and by taking then the logarithm of the square of the equation:

22 ρ Dm x Qm2
yi = Log – Log x . (10.139)
qm 4π ρ Ci2 qm Dm

The length Lf of the flame is the value of x for which the concentration on the axis ( yi = 0) is
equal to Ci (Equation 10.139 no longer gives a real value beyond this point).

Qm2
One therefore has: Lf = . (10.140)
4π ρ qm Dm Ci2

The ratio Qm /qm is constant, independent of x, and represents the width h0 of the slit
through which the pure combustible gas is injected with Ci = 1; Lf is then proportional to
the rate of flow of the combustible gas as well as to the reciprocal of the molecular diffusion
coefficient Dm (or rather, here, of the product ρ Dm ). Equation 10.140 can be rewritten in
an alternative form: if v0 and ρ 0 are the velocity and the density inside the injection slit,
qm = ρ v0 and Qm = ρ v0 h0 , so that:

v0 h02 Lf Pe0
Lf ≈ (10.141a) or: ≈ , (10.141b)
4π D0m Ci 2 h0 4π Ci 2

where Pe0 = v0 h0 / D0m is the Péclet number at the point of the injection.

More general cases

The Burke-Schumann model does not include the motion of the hot fluid rising by convec-
tion, which can play a very important role. It can be taken into account by introducing the
Froude number Fr 0 = ρ v20 /(ρ g d) of the flow (ρ being of the order of magnitude of the
changes in the density). One can then generalize Equation 10.141b in the form of a scaling
law:

Lf ρ v20 v0 h0 v0 h0
∝ f = f (Fr0 ) , (10.142)
h0 ρ g d Dm0 Dm0

where h0 can be replaced by the diameter d 0 in the case of a circular tube. Such scaling laws
are approximately valid for slow flows such that the time-constant τR can be considered as
negligible compared to the other characteristic times. The case of fast flows is much more
complicated.
Flames 411

10.9.3 Premixed flames

f
Deflagration flames and detonation
Let us now discuss an elementary model of a premixed flame, assuming, for simplicity, that ud
it results from the injection of a mixture of fresh gases in an open tube. In a first step, one
assumes that the tube is initially filled with a static mixture and is then lit at one end: as the
combustion progresses, one observes a rearward propagation of the flame which separates
( a)
the fresh and cold gases from the burnt hot ones. The flame progresses in this manner
until all the fresh gases in the tube have been used up. The appearance of a thin flame front
separating the fresh gases from the burnt ones results from the large value of Da (a condition
already used to define a flame surface in the preceding case). 2α f
There are two regimes for the propagation. In the case of a deflagration flame, the veloc- f sin α
ity ud is of the order of a meter per second, the pressure in the flame can be considered as
ud
constant: this is the regime which is studied in the following. In contrast, there is frequently
a transition towards a detonation regime (also called explosive regime), with a velocity of the
order of the speed of sound: such a process is not considered in this book which deals mostly υf
with incompressible flows.
Practically, gases are injected, at a finite flow rate, into a tubular burner: when the ve-
(b)
locity vf of the gases, at the level of the flame-front, is equal to the absolute value of ud , it
compensates exactly the velocity of burning, and one has a plane stationary flame at the
outlet of the tube (Figure 10.26a). Figure 10.26 Premixed flames. (a) The
For |vf | > ud , the flame front is conical (Figures 10.24c, 10.26b and, below, 10.28); in flame is plane when the velocities ud for the
this case, the velocity ud has to be equal to the absolute value of the velocity component vf propagation of the deflagration flame and vf
sin α normal to the front (α is the half-angle of the cone) so that the flame front remains of the fresh gases are equal and opposite. (b)
stationary. The corresponding value of α is then given by the equation: For |vf | > ud , the flame is conical with a
half-angle α function of the ratio |vf |/ud

ud = υf sin α. (10.143) In the case of a Bunsen burner where |vf | <
ud , the flame is "swallowed": it moves into the
burner which can cause great damage to the
tube. To avoid such an accident, devices arrest-
The greater the velocity of the gases, the smaller the angle of the flame tip. ing the flame are placed in some burners at the
exit of the mixture of fresh gases.
Propagation of a one-dimensional flame
One considers now a plane flame, using in reference frame static relative to the flame front
in which the flow, concentration and temperature profiles can be considered as station-
ary. Figure 10.27 indicates the variation of these different quantities as a function of the
normalized distance x/δ κ to the flame-front.

Figure 10.27 Variations with distance to

the flame front, parallel to the mean flow, of
θ ,CB
the normalized temperature and relative con-
centration (solid curve) and of the rate of reac-
1 tion (dotted curve) in a reference frame fixed
relative to a one-dimensional flame front. The
width of the reaction region is smaller than
the distance over which the temperature and
concentration vary. The rate of reaction is in
arbitrary units. The horizontal scale is nor-
x υf
( )
malized by the width of the temperature front
Fresh gases –1 –1/β 0 Burnt gases
k x/δ κ ≈ x/δ Dm ≈ x vf /κ (Equation 10.146)
412 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

We use a reduced temperature θ defined by: Both the reduced temperature θ and the relative concentration CB of the burnt gases
increase continuously between the two (upstream and downstream) limiting values, 0 and 1.
θ = (T – TF ) / (TB – TF ), (10.144)
Surprisingly, the combustion reaction takes place only within a very narrow region where
which varies continuously from zero to one, just one has simultaneously a small (but sufficient) amount of reagents, and a high temperature;
like CB , in the transition zone between fresh and it is also in this region that one has the strongest emission of light, as seen in Figure 10.28.
burnt gases. One also assumes, for simplicity, in
Figure 10.27, that the variations of θ and CB as As shown in Figure 10.27, there are more reagents available upstream, but the temperature
a function of the distance x are the same: this is not sufficient for the reaction to take place. The rise in temperature due to the combustion
will be justified further down. The concentra- propagates through a nearest neighbor mechanism (e.g. thermal diffusion), toward the re-
tion CF of fresh gases is then equal to 1 – CB
and therefore decreases from one to zero as gion of fresh gases located just upstream: the combustion reaction can then start there, in its
x increases. turn, when the threshold temperature is reached. The flame-front then propagates between
nearest neighbors in the direction of the fresh gases. The diffusion of burnt gases coming
from the reaction zone can also play a role in the propagation of the rise in temperature.

Characteristic distances within a one-dimensional flame

One uses again the reference frame of the flame-front in which flow is stationary, and
assumes that the variables of the problem (temperature T, density ρ, average velocity v)
depend only on the distance x. The subscripts F and B will refer to the values of these vari-
ables for fresh and burnt gases, respectively upstream or downstream of the flame-front.
Finally, we will assume that the pressure is constant.
The equation of conservation of mass for the flow can be written in the form:
This change in the velocity is the origin of
the variation of the orientation of the stream- ρB nF TF
ρF υF = ρB υB (10.145a) with: = , (10.145b)
lines at the flame front observed in the conical ρF nB TB
flame of Figure 10.28 below. In this case, the
velocity component normal to the front varies in the limit of an ideal gas, and denoting by nF /nB the ratio of the initial number of molecules
as predicted by Equations 10.145a-b, while the
tangential component remains constant. to the final one, in the chemical reaction. Therefore, the density of the gas decreases and
the velocity of the flow increases as one passes from the region of fresh gases to that of the
burnt ones.
A very important fact is the very similar variations of the temperature and relative con-
centration of burnt gases with the distance x: this similarity results from the very similar
values of the thermal and molecular diffusion coefficients κ and Dm for gases (Section 1.3.2
and 2.3.2). The width of the region over which this variation takes place is of the order of:

κ Dm
δκ ≈ δD ≈ ≈ , (10.146)
vf vf

where vf is the typical velocity of the gas mixture inside the front.

Justification
In the reference frame of the flame front, where the flow and the thermal transfer are sta-
tionary, the normalized temperature θ depends only on x and the partial derivatives relative
to time vanish. One can therefore write the equation for thermal balance (Equation 10.90a)
in the form:

Figure 10.28C Visualization of a pre- dθ d2 θ dθ d2 θ QR

ρ Cp v x =k + QR , so that: vx =κ + ,
mixed flame illuminated by a plane light dx dx2 dx dx2 ρ Cp
sheet. The white region indicates the bound- (10.147a) (10.147b)
ary between the fresh gases and the burnt where Cp is the heat capacity per unit mass, QR the thermal energy created by the reaction
ones. The fresh gases have been seeded with per unit volume and unit time and vx the local velocity, which depends on x. Regarding the
small refractory grains of caesium oxide so as relative concentration CB , it satisfies:
to visualize the streamlines: these are deflected
as they cross the flame front (plate courtesy J. dCB d2 C B
vx = Dm + QB , (10.148)
Quinard and G. Searby, IRPHE) dx dx2
Flames 413

where QB corresponds to the production of gases burnt by the reaction. When the pressure
is not too high, we can assume that the values of Dm and κ for gases are close to each other
(the Lewis number Le = Dm /κ is of the order of one). Moreover, CB and θ both vary between
0 and 1 from the downstream and upstream ends of the flame and, again, the terms QR and
QB have the same dependence on x since the generation of thermal energy accompanies
the production of burnt gases. The changes in CB and θ are thus described by effectively
identical equations with similar boundary conditions, and accordingly can only have similar
values.
Outside the (narrow) region of the reaction, the terms QR and QB can be considered
to vanish. The convection and diffusion terms in Equation 10.147b (and, therefore, also in
Equation 10.148) must also be equal. We thus obtain vf θ/δ κ ≈ κ θ/δ κ 2 where the velocity
vf is chosen to be of the same order of magnitude as that corresponding to the inflection
point of the curve around the value of θ ≈ 0.5, so that we can infer the order of magnitude
(Equation 10.146).

Another essential characteristic length-scale for this problem is the width δ R of the region
where the reaction takes place. This obeys:

δκ δD
δR ≈ ≈ , (10.149)
β β

where β, defined in Equation 10.137, determines the kinetics of the reaction. The estimate
β ≈ 10 given above confirms the low value of δ R relative to δ D and δ κ .

Justification
One assumes that the term of Equation 10.148 describing the production of burnt gases
is proportional to the reciprocal of the characteristic time constant τ R (T ) of the reaction
and to the relative concentration (1 – CB ) of fresh gases available for combustion; then, in
accordance with Equation 10.136:
TB /T
QB ∝ (1 – CB ) e–β ≈ (1 – CB ) e–β/θ . (10.150)

Assuming that T0 TB leads to: θ ≈ T /TB from Equation 10.144. Equation 10.150
indicates therefore the need, already discussed above, to have, at the same time, a sufficient
injection of fresh gases and a temperature high enough to induce the reaction. As already
seen above, (1 – CB ) varies approximately as (1 – θ) as a function of x, and thus much slower
than the exponential term e–β/θ . The width δ R of the reaction region can then be assumed to
correspond to a variation of the exponential by a factor of the order of 1/e: the corresponding
change of θ is approximately 1/β (Figure 10.28). Since the variation of θ is approximately
one over the distance δ κ , one obtains the estimate (Equation 10.149) for the width δ R of the
reaction zone. In this last region, one shows that the diffusion-term dominates relative to the
convection one, so that Equations 10.147b and 10.148 reduce to an equilibium reaction–
diffusion, while there is an equilibrium between convection and diffusion in the part of the
region of thickness δ κ where the reactions are negligible.

Propagation velocity of a premixed flame

As shown above, the propagation of a premixed flame occurs between nearest neighbors:
the combustion reaction taking place at a given location brings the adjacent layer, with
contains fresh gases, to the ignition temperature TB . During the characteristic duration τ R
414 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers
√
of the reaction (Equation 10.136), a layer of thickness e = κ τR is heated. The propagation
For a typical value of κ, 5 × 10–5 m2 /s at TB velocity of the burning, ud , thus has an order of magnitude:
≈ 2,200 K with τ R ≈ 3 × 10–4 s, which cor-
responds to a mixture of methane and air, one
obtains ud ≈ 0.4 m/s et e ≈ 0.12 mm. For an air- ud ≈ e/ τR ≈ κ/ τR . (10.151)
hydrogen mixture, the time-constant τ R would
be shorter (τ R ≈ 8 × 10–6 s for TB ≈ 2,400 K)
which leads to a higher velocity ud ≈ 3 m/s, and
to e ≈ 0.02 mm. 10.9.4 Instability of a plane, premixed flame
This instability results from the refraction of the streamlines, already observed in Figures
10.26b and 10.28, in the case where the gas flow is at an angle relative to the front of
Like in Figure 10.27, the normal component of a premixed flame. One considers a flame front initially plane and stationary, to which is
the local velocity varies as one crosses the front applied an infinitesimal sinusoidal perturbation (Figure 10.29). The streamlines crossing
(Equation 10.145a), while the tangential compo-
nent is continuous; one must, however, recover
the flame-front are closer together (and thus the velocity is higher) in the part of the front
a constant velocity far enough upstream and which is deformed in the direction of the burnt gases, and the velocity is lower in the region
downstream of the front. where the deformation is directed toward the fresh gases.
Thus, in the regions of increasing velocity (Figure 10.29), the velocity vf of the gases has
a lower absolute value than the intrinsic velocity ud in the direction opposite to the front: this
front is no longer locally stationary, and the deformation is amplified. In the regions where
the velocity is decreasing, one has, in contrast, |vf | < |ud | but the deformation (which is in
the opposite direction) is also amplified.

Streamlines

Burnt gases
Figure 10.29 Schematic diagram for the
Landau-Darrieus instability: a modulation
me
of the transverse profile of a plane flame is Fla nt
amplified by the refraction of the streamlines fro
Increasing velocity
Decreasing velocity
Fresh gases

2π/k

Figure 10.30C Landau-Darrieus instabil-

ity of a premixed methane-air flame-front,
propagating freely from top to bottom within
a tube of diameter 14 cm, when no acoustic
resonance occur (plate courtesy of J. Quinard,
G. Searby, B. Denel, and J. Graña-Otero,
IRPHE)
Flames 415

One also observes these instabilities for flames propagating in a static mixture as shown The development of these instabilities can be
slowed by gravitational effects (for a vertical
in Figure 10.30 above.
flame and a stabilising density-difference be-
tween the two sides of the flame front): this
effect will be particularly sensitive to long wave-
lengths, while the diffusion phenomena prevent
......................................................................................... the development of short-wavelength deforma-
tions. We thus see a preferential development
of deformations with characteristic intermediate
EXERCISES values.

1) Stationary dissolution boundary layer near a free surface of a falling film

Consider a Newtonian liquid film of constant thickness h and of height L flowing
along a vertical wall y = 0; the flow is stationary, invariant along z and unidirec- y
tional (vz = 0, vy = 0). The velocity profile is parabolic with vx = V 0 y/h (2–y/h) for O
y ≤ h (Section 8.2.1) and the Reynolds number is defined as Re = V 0 h/ν. The film
surface is in contact with a gas which diffuses into the liquid with a diffusion co-
efficient Dg . The concentration of gas at the free surface ( y = h) is assumed in the υx V
0
following to be constant with C(x, h) = C0 . If the thickness δ c of the diffusion layer
is small compared to h, show that the concentration C(x,y) of dissolved gas satis- C(x,y)
L
fies, in the stationary regime:V0 ∂C / ∂x – Dg ∂ 2 C / ∂y2 = 0. Using a self-similarity
√
assumption (discuss it) with a reduced variable u = (h – y) / x, show that the equa- C=C0
tion becomes –(V0 u/ 2)∂C / ∂u – Dg ∂ 2 C / ∂u2 = 0, and compute the profile C(x, y). h
What is the scaling law satisfied by the thickness δ c of the boundary layer? What is
δc(x)
the condition on the value of Dg for the transport equation established above to be
valid? How does the transverse concentration gradient ∂C/∂y at the surface ( y = h)
vary with x? x

2) Boundary layer for a cylindrical Couette flow with radial aspiration

We consider two coaxial cylinders of axis z, of radii R1 and R2 > R1 , with porous
walls bounding a Newtonian fluid. The outside cylinder rotates at an angular velocity
and the inner one is fixed. The tangential slip velocity of the fluid at the walls and the
component vz are assumed to be zero. The fluid is sucked uniformly though the walls
toward the z-axis with a total absolute flow rate Q per unit length along z. We assume
that stationary flow is reached around the cylinder, with a velocity depending only on r y
(gravity is neglected). Ω Q
Show that the components vr and vϕ of the fluid velocity satisfy vr (r) = – α / r and

–α ∂(r vϕ )/∂r = ν r 2 ∂ 2 vϕ /∂r 2 + r ∂vϕ /∂r – vϕ . What is the value of α ? Show that υφ υr
r Q η,ρ
there are power-law stationary solutions vϕ (r) ∝ r γ ; what are the possible values of γ
? Explain why α/ν represents a characteristic Reynolds number of the flow. Show that x
vϕ = (R22 )/(r) ((r /R2 )2–α/ν – (R1 /R2 )2–α/ν )/(1 – (R1 /R2 )2–α/ν ) and that, for α/ν 1, R1
and except close to r = R1 , vϕ corresponds to a potential flow. Compute the order of R2
magnitude of the distance δ at which viscous-momentum transport is of the same or-
der as the radial, convective, one. Compare these results to the characteristics of the
boundary layer on a flat plate with aspiration.

3) Transient flow around a rotating cylinder

A solid circular cylinder of radius R and infinite length is initially at rest in an infinite
Newtonian fluid; it is set in rotation at t = 0 at a constant angular velocity around
its axis Oz the rotation generates a velocity field vϕ (r, t) (vr = vz = 0) with a Reynolds
416 Coupled Transport. Laminar Boundary Layers

number Re = R2 / ν 1. Discuss qualitatively, as in Section 10.2, the development

√
of the velocity field after the rotation has started, at times t such that νt R. Show
that vϕ (r, t) satisfies a diffusion equation. Assuming stationary flow and a power-law
variation of vϕ with r, show that the velocity profile should be vϕS (r) = R (R / r).
What would be the corresponding stationary distribution ωrS (r) of the z-component of
the vorticity and the total energy? (ωz (r, t) = (1/r) ∂(r vϕ )∂r). Can this flow be reached
in a finite time? Studying now the variation with time, we look for a self-similar solution:
2 √
vϕ (r, t) = vS (r) f (u) in which u = r 2 /t. Show that f = e–r /4νt if R νt. Compute
the corresponding local vorticity ωz and the total vorticity in the fluid.
Hydrodynamic instabilities

Instabilities in fluid mechanics are part of a broad set of phenomena occurring in many
11
areas of science (changes of phase in the physics of condensed matter, buckling in the
mechanics of solids, etc.). Instabilities often correspond to bifurcations observed when 11.1 A global approach to instability:
a control parameter (e.g., temperature difference in the case of thermal convection) the Landau model 417
exceeds a certain threshold. They generally imply a reduction in the symmetry of the 11.2 The Rayleigh-Bénard instability 423
system characterized by an order parameter. For the simplest instabilities, the ampli- 11.3 Other closed box instabilities 433
tude increases in a continuous and reversible manner when the control parameter goes
11.4 Instabilities in open flows 440
beyond the threshold. Other instabilities display hysteresis or lead to a complete loss
of symmetry. We introduce first the formalism used by Landau in describing instabili-
ties (Section 11.1), starting with a mechanical example; we then apply this formalism
to the case of flow around a cylinder, which has already been described qualitatively
in Section 2.4.2. We examine then the classical Rayleigh–Bénard convective instability
(Section 11.2) induced by a vertical temperature gradient: it occurs beyond a threshold
temperature difference determined by the balance between the forces due to the density
gradient which lead to the flow, and the diffusive effects which oppose it. We discuss
then, in Section 11.3, the similarities of this instability to, and differences from, other
closed-flow instabilities governed by centrifugal forces (the Taylor–Couette instability)
or by gradients in the surface tension (the Bénard–Marangoni instability). This last
case allows one to introduce the concept of a subcritical instability. In Section 11.4,
the Kelvin–Helmholtz instability for parallel flows at different velocities represents an
example of the case of open flows; the effect of the form of the velocity profiles of
these flows is then described before discussing the stability of Couette and Poiseuille
flows.

11.1 A global approach to instability:

the Landau model
When an instability causes a transition from a certain type of flow regime to another, a
simple but effective approach to determine the overall local velocity field consists of char-
The Landau model was initially developed to ex-
acterizing this transition by means of macroscopic variables; this can be, for example, a
plain second-order phase transitions. It has been
Fourier component of the flow velocity if the instability displays a periodicity in the space subsequently applied to hydrodynamic instabil-
or time domains. Such models were initially developed by the Russian physicist, L. Landau, ities, assuming that the local interactions may
to describe phase transitions at a threshold (critical point) of systems in thermodynamic be averaged out by means of a mean field ap-
proximation. This will be the case for several of
equilibrium. the hydrodynamic instabilities described here.
Often, in physics, the investigation of the neighborhood of a transition point is a rich In contrast, for a transition such as the critical
source of information on the different regimes on both sides of the threshold. In order to point of fluids, this assumption, which is equiva-
lent to that of the simple van der Waals model, is
characterize a physical system near a transition, one uses a series expansion of the order not valid for real fluids, because of strong critical
parameter (a variable characterizing the state of the transition) as a function of a control fluctuations.

Physical Hydrodynamics. Second Edition. Etienne Guyon et al.

parameter representing the distance from the threshold. As an example, for the critical point
of a liquid–gas transition (van der Waals model), the control parameter is the relative devi-
ation, ε = (T – Tc )/Tc , of the temperature from the critical value Tc ; the order parameter
is the difference in density between the liquid and the gas and is non-zero only for tem-
peratures less than Tc , at which liquid and gas can coexist. This approach will be extended
below to fluid flows which are non-equilibrium systems, starting with the example of flow
downstream of a cylinder. A simple analog mechanical model of such instabilities displaying
the essential characteristics of “Landau-style” approaches is first presented.

11.1.1 A simple experimental model of a mechanical

instability
Consider a solid ball of mass m free to roll without friction along the inside of a circular
ring of radius R, spinning at angular velocity around a vertical axis (Figure 11.1a). The
location of the equilibrium position of the ball-bearing is studied as a function of the angu-
lar velocity (this position is characterized by the angle θ relative to the vertical). In the
reference frame of the ring, the total energy of the ball-bearing is its potential energy: the
sum of a gravitational term and a term corresponding to the centrifugal force, so that:

m 2 R2 2
Ep = mg R (1 – cos θ) – sin θ. (11.1)
2
Figure 11.1 (a) Experimental model of the
mechanical instability for a ball-bearing in
a ring rotating around a vertical axis (plate
(a) (b) 1.0 Ep
courtesy C. Rousselin). (b) Normalized po-
tential energy Ep /mgR of the ball-bearing, re- mgR
sulting from gravity and the centrifugal force Ώ < Ώc
as a function of angular position θ for three
0.5 Ώ = Ώc
normalized rotational velocities: /c = 0.6
(upper curve), /c = 1 (central curve) and θ
/c = 1.2 (lower curve); c is the critical
angular velocity (g/R)1/2 . Depending on the
rotational velocity, we have either a single sta- Ώ > Ώc
0
ble equilibrium position, or two stable ones
and one unstable −90 −45 0 45 θ (o) 90

Justification
The potential energy Ep is equal to the work done by the components of the forces tangential
to the ring, which act on the ball bearing, as it moves from a zero angle to an angle θ. The
normal components are compensated by the force of reaction from the ring. For a given
angle θ , the tangential components are respectively –g sin θ and m 2 R sin θ cos θ, so that:

Ft = –m g sin θ + m 2 R sin θ cos θ . (11.2)

Using the convention of zero total energy when θ = 0, Equation 11.1 is obtained by
θ
calculating the integral Ep = – 0 Ft (θ) R dθ.
A global approach to instability: the Landau model 419

Figure 11.1b displays the variation of the energy Ep normalized by m g R as a function

of θ for three different angular velocities. The equilibrium position of the ball-bearing cor-
responds to the extrema of Ep for which we have also Ft = 0 since Ft = – dEp /dθ. We find a
unique equilibrium position when ≤ c and two stable and one unstable one for > c .
The threshold value is:

c = g/R. (11.3)

Justification
The value θ = 0 is always a solution for Ft = 0. The other values of the angle for which Ft
vanishes must obey the equation cos θ = g/(2 R): it provides a physical value of θ only if
g/(2 R) ≤ 1, which takes one back to the previous threshold.

Depending on the value of , one obtains the following results:

• For ≤ c , the variation of the energy Ep (θ) as a function of θ has a unique

minimum corresponding to the stable equilibrium at θ = 0.
• For > c , the position θ = 0 corresponds to a maximum, thus to an unstable equi-
librium. There are two symmetrical, stable equilibrium positions ± θ e , such that
cos θ e = g/(2 R). These two positions then coincide at θ = 0 for = c .

In the classical vocabulary of Landau-type models, the variation as a function of of the

angles θ corresponding to a stable equilibrium, displayed schematically in Figure 11.2, is the
bifurcation diagram for the system. In this mechanical transition, the equilibrium-angle θ is
the order parameter, and the control parameter. Beyond the threshold c , the system selects
one of the solutions +θ or –θ (either of the branches of the stability diagram). This choice is
accompanied by a reduction in the symmetry of the entire system (ring+solid ball), known
as symmetry breaking: one loses indeed the symmetry relative to the vertical axis as soon as
the ball moves away from the location θ = 0.
In the limit → c and for small values of θ, the variation of the potential energy may
be written as a function of the variable – c in the form of the following so-called Landau
expansion:

θ(°) S

45 Figure 11.2 Variation of the angular posi-

tion of the solid ball in the experimental model
of mechanical instability as a function of the
S U Ω/Ωc
0 angular velocity . c is the threshold of the
0 1 2 3 instability, the branches S correspond to stable
equilibria, and the branch U to an unstable
equilibrium
–45
S

–90
420 Hydrodynamic instabilities
2
There is another analogy between the mechani- c
cal model and phase-transitions: near the thresh- Ep = m R2 –θ 2 c ( – c ) + θ 4 . (11.4)
old c , after undergoing a small displacement 8
from its equilibrium position, the ball-bearing
returns very slowly to it. This is the result of Beyond the threshold, the solutions take on the simple form:
the very flat shape of the curve corresponding
to the variation of the potential energy with θ. θ (ε) = ± 2 εβ (11.5a) with: ε = ( – c ) /c (11.5b) and an exponent: β = 1/2.
In the same manner, near the critical point of the
liquid, there is a divergence of the observed dur-
ing of the fluctuation (e.g., of the density): this is
The exponent β, known as the critical exponent, characterizes the increase in the angle θ
referred to as critical slowing down. (order parameter) as a function of the angular velocity (control parameter), beyond the
threshold.
(a)
11.1.2 Flow around a cylinder in the neighborhood
of the vortex-generation threshold
The generation of alternating vortices downstream of a cylinder (Section 2.4.2) is a first
(b) application of the Landau model in fluid mechanics. One selects as the control parameter the
ratio:
Re – Rec
ε= . (11.5)
Rec

(c) This parameter characterizes the relative deviation of the Reynolds number Re from the
critical value Rec corresponding to the transition between the regimes of stable flow and
periodic emission of vortices. The amplitude Ay of the oscillation of the transverse velocity
due to vortex emission will be used as the order parameter of the transition. It can be meas-
ured by the laser anemometry technique (Section 3.5.3) in the high velocity regions, and is
(d) non-zero when the Reynolds number is larger than the critical value Rec .
One first analyzes the evolution of the flow downstream of the cylinder: we consider
Reynolds numbers Re slightly larger than the threshold Rec above which one observes
a periodic emission of vortices, and thus a periodic change in the velocity. The series
of photographs in Figure 11.3 displays visualizations of the flow by a dye at Reynolds
numbers close to the threshold value Rec . So long as the amplitude Ay of the velocity
Figure 11.3 Flow past a cylinder for var- oscillations is small enough so that the linear analysis (carried out earlier) remains valid,
ious small deviations (Re – Rec ) of the one has:
Reynolds number) from its threshold value 2 Re – Rec
for vortex generation: (a) (Re – Rec ) = –0.4, Ay = 0 for ε < 0 (11.6) and: Ay ∝ε= for ε > 0. (11.7)
Rec
no vortices present; (b) (Re – Rec ) = 0.3, light
waviness; (c) (Re – Rec ) = 1, oscillations are This variation, plotted in Figure 11.4a below, is similar to that obtained for the mechanical
amplified; (d) (Re – Rec ) = 5.2, generation of system described in Section 11.1.1. The symmetry is broken when the flow choses the side
alternating vortices downstream of the cyl- of the cylinder where the first vortex is emitted.
inder. (Plates courtesy of C. Mathis and
M. Provansal)
11.1.3 Time-dependent evolution of the instabilities
In a more complete analysis, the study of the var- in the Landau model
iation of the amplitude (Re) leading to equations
(11.6,7) should not be restricted to one point In this section, the model is applied step by step to the specific case of vortex shedding gen-
downstream of the obstacle: the time variation
erated by the flow around a cylinder. One assumes that, superimposed on the laminar flow
of the complete spatial profile of the ampli-
tude (global mode) should be analyzed. But the (stable for Re < Rec ), there is a set of instability modes characterized by an index k. Their
σ
shape of this profile varies with (Re –Rec ), an ef- amplitude Ak (t) is, for a given mode, assumed to be of the form e k t where σ k = σ kr + i σ ki
fect neglected in the simple Landau model: one is the complex coefficient for the exponential growth of the mode. The imaginary part
uses then instead the related Ginzburg–Landau
model, which takes into account the spatial vari- σ ki characterizes the frequency of the oscillations corresponding to the mode; the real part
ations of the order parameter. indicates the rate of growth (σkr > 0), or of decrease (σkr < 0), of this mode:
A global approach to instability: the Landau model 421

• for Re < Rec , all modes (and, therefore, every perturbation) decay exponentially (σkr
1
(a)
+
++
+

is negative for all values of k); +

Ay2
+
+

• for Re = Rec , σkr is negative for all modes, save for a marginally stable mode m such
+
+
+

that σmr = 0;

(cm.s–1)2
+
+

• for Re > Rec , σkr is negative for most modes, but a range of modes exists for which +

σkr > 0. The dominant mode for which σmr is most positive is characterized by the +

suffix m: in the following, one refers to σmr as σm. This parameter characterizes here
0.1
the development of the vortex emission. 0.01 Re – Rec 0.1
Rec
One considers now the evolution of the time-average |A|2 = <|A(t)|2 >. This average must
be calculated over a time long relative to the period T ≈ 2π/σi of the oscillation, but suf- τ (s) + (b)
ficiently short compared to the time-constant τ ≈ 1/σm of its growth or decay. These two +
+

conditions define the domain of the validity of the Landau equation and can only be simulta- 10 +
+
+
neously obeyed if σi σm (one denotes by σi a typical imaginary component of the complex + +

frequency σ ); this condition is met near the threshold where σm becomes zero. In this limit, +

the velocity increases exponentially as Ay (t) ∝ e σm t . The square of the magnitude of the
+
+
1
amplitude is then a solution of the equation:
0.01 Re – Rec 0.1
(A) = 2 σm |A|2 . (11.8) Rec
The variation of the amplitude A(t) of the perturbation predicted by Equation 11.8 is,
Figure 11.4 (a) Variation of the square of
however, not valid for long times because this amplitude must be bounded. To ensure this
the steady state amplitude Ay of velocity oscil-
saturation, Landau altered Equation 11.8 by including an additional term in the power-law
lations induced by the Bénard–von Kármán
expansion of the right-hand term, so that:
vortices behind a 6 mm. diameter cylinder
d as a function of the normalized difference
|A (t)|2 = – (A), (11.9a) where: – (A) = 2 σm |A|2 – 2 b |A|4 . (11.9b)
dt ε = (Re – Rec )/Rec from the threshold Rec .
The dashed line corresponds to a variation of
The third-order term would contain, indeed, a periodic factor of vanishing average value.
A2y as (Re – Rec ) (b) Variation of the char-
The next non-vanishing term is of fourth order, and its amplitude must be negative
acteristic time τ = 1/σ r for the relaxation of
(b > 0) so as to avoid the divergence of the solution at very long times.
the perturbation below the threshold Rec as
d a function of the absolute normalized differ-
One thus obtains : |A|2 = 2 σm |A|2 – 2 b |A|4 . (11.10) ence |ε|. The dashed line corresponds to a
dt
variation as (Rec – Re)-1 (results courtesy C.
Equation 11.10 can be transformed to describe the evolution of the amplitude |A(t)|:
Mathis and M. Provansal)
d |A|
= σm |A| – b |A|3 . (11.11)
dt The form of the potential in (11.9b) is
the same as that found for the expansion
This equation is suitable for describing an instability leading to a stationary flow, such as (Equation 11.4) of the total energy in the me-
the Rayleigh–Bénard instability discussed in Section 11.2. chanical example of the spherical ball. The order
parameter θ, in that example, corresponded to
For an instability generating a periodic flow, such as vortex emission, a more general form the variable A in the present case. However, in
involving the complex amplitude |A(t)| ei ϕ and a complex value σ = σm + i σi is needed: the example of the spherical ball, the time de-
pendence was omitted since only the equilibrium
dA position was of interest.
= σ A – b |A|2 A = (σm + i σi ) A – b |A|2 A. (11.12)
dt
Writing Equation 11.11 in this way, for the magnitude, one obtains a new equation for the
evolution of the phase:
dϕ
= σi . (11.13)
dt
Here, σi = ω represents the angular frequency of vortex generation.
422 Hydrodynamic instabilities

In the present case, Equation 11.12 accounts for the different characteristics of vortex
generation downstream of a cylinder:

• The solution stationary in amplitude has a magnitude Aeq = σm /b.
Expanding σm in a power-series of the Reynolds number, one obtains:
σm = k
(Re – Rec ) + O(Re – Rec )2 , in which k
is positive and equal to the in-
verse of the characteristic time-constant of the problem. The stationary amplitude
of the oscillation satisfies then Equation 11.11 so that:

σm
Aeq = ∝ Re – Rec . (11.14)
b

These results allow one to draw, for vortex gen- The variation of the magnitude |Aeq | of the order parameter as a function of the control pa-
eration, a diagram identical to that in Figure 10.2 rameter ε of the instability must be of the same type as that illustrated by Figure 11.2. Figure
provided that θ is replaced by |Aeq |, and by 11.4a, on the previous page, displays the results of measurements of the velocity by laser
Re. The second branch of the diagram indicates
the possibility of generating the initial vortex on
anemometry downstream of a cylinder: the squared amplitude |Aeq |2 is indeed propor-
either of the two sides of the cylinder (initial tional to Re – Rec above the threshold Rec (the variation has a unit slope in the logarithmic
breaking of the symmetry of the flow). coordinates used). On the other hand, |Aeq |2 vanishes for Re < Rec .

• The time-constant 1/σm which characterizes the dynamics of the instability obeys:

|A| 1 Rec
= ∝ . (11.15)
d |A| /dt σm Re – Rec
The Landau equation allows one to describe
precursor effects observed just below the thresh- Above the threshold, 1/σm accounts for the rate of growth of the instability; below it, the
old; a small perturbation of the flow is sufficient negative value of 1/σm refers to the damping of the perturbation, which might consist in
in this region to trigger an oscillation which then
decays exponentially as a function of time. a transient vortex emission. Figure 11.4b indicates that the characteristic time τ = 1/σm is
indeed proportional to |Rec – Re|–1 below the threshold.
The above predictions regarding the variation of 1/σm are in agreement with the ex-
perimental measurements of the flow beyond an obstacle. This is shown by Figure 11.5
which displays, for various negative values of the parameter ε, the time variation of the
oscillations of the transverse component of the velocity. These oscillations are generated
by a brief perturbation upstream of the obstacle: they correspond to an emission of vor-
tices in the wake downstream of the cylinder which persists for a limited time, increasing

Figure 11.5 Dependence of the amplitude

of oscillation of the velocity in response to
an initial impulse at different distances be-
low the threshold Rec . One observes that
the frequency is quite insensitive to the
value of ε, but that the relaxation time
τ becomes quite long near the threshold
Rec = 47. The three curves correspond to val-
ues of ε = (Rec – Re)/Rec respectively equal
to (a) 0.2, (b) 0.057 and (c) 0.027. (Docs.
courtesy C. Mathis and M. Provansal)
The Rayleigh-Bénard instability 423

as ε gets closer to 0. Moreover, the frequency of these oscillation is close to that (σi ) of
the natural oscillations above the threshold: σi does not display indeed a singular behavior
for Re = Rec .
Experimentally, the characteristic time-constant of the exponential relaxation of the
oscillation varies as |Rec – Re|–1 as predicted by Equation 11.15 and shown in Figure 11.4b.
The divergence of this relaxation time-constant τ , when the Reynolds number equals
Rec , is the critical slowing: it is observed too, as noted previously, in second-order phase
transitions. More precisely, the experimental variation of τ can be expressed as a function
of the viscous diffusion time d 2 /ν (d is the diameter of the obstacle, and the kinematic
viscosity ν of the liquid) by:

1 d2
τ= 5 . (11.16)
σm ν |Re – Rec |

The critical Reynolds number determined from the variation of τ with Re is the same as
that deduced from the variation of the amplitude Aeq with Re.

11.2 The Rayleigh-Bénard instability The name of this instability associates those of
the French physicist Henri Bénard who first
described the formation, above a temperature
In this section, we discuss a hydrodynamic instability known as the Rayleigh-Bénard (R-B) threshold, of periodical convective structures of
instability, caused by buoyancy forces resulting from spatial variations of the temperature a liquid layer heated from below, and of Lord
(and therefore of the density) of the fluid. This instability occurs in a fluid located between Rayleigh who interpreted these effects in terms
of thermal expansion. However, the instability
two horizontal plates and subjected to a vertical temperature gradient. An essential charac- observed by Bénard on a layer of liquid with
teristic of such thermal convection phenomena is the strong coupling between the temperature a free upper surface was due mainly to gra-
and velocity fields in the fluid. dients of surface tension (it resulted actually
from the Bénard–Marangoni effect discussed in
One first seeks to determine the conditions of appearance of this instability from the Section 11.3.1).
equations of motion and transport and from the local velocity field. It is then shown that,
just like the generation of vortices behind a cylinder, this instability can also be described by We discussed in Section 4.5.5 a thermal convec-
Landau’s global formalism. tion flow resulting due to a horizontal temper-
ature gradient which also created Archimedes’
buoyancy forces. In that case one did not deal
11.2.1 Convective thermal transport equations with an instability since no temperature thresh-
old was needed to create the flow (the fluid
velocity increased linearly with the temperature
The coupling between the temperature and the velocity of the fluid appears in the two
gradient).
governing equations of the problem: the equation of heat transport and the Navier-Stokes
equation. In the first one, the convective transport terms correspond to the temperature
variations induced by the flow. In the second equation, the term containing the variations
of the density with temperature corresponds to the driving force generating the flow of the
fluid.
In the presence of a flow at velocity v and without volume thermal sources, the thermal-
transport equation already discussed in Chapter 10 (Equation 10.90a) is written:

dT ∂T
= + (v · ∇) T = κ ∇ 2 T . (11.17)
dt ∂t
Actually, this equation merely represents the application, to a moving fluid particle, of the
equation for thermal transport derived in Chapter 1 (Equation 1.17). The derivative dT/dt
represents the change in temperature of a particle followed along its trajectory: this is the
Lagrangian derivative appearing throughout this volume in different terms associated with
a particle of fluid (velocity, temperature, concentration of tracer particles, etc.). The deriv-
ative ∂T/∂t represents the temperature variation with time at a given fixed point. The next
term (v·∇)T in the equation for dT /dt describes the thermal transport due to the fluid flow.
424 Hydrodynamic instabilities

The velocity field v appearing in the diffusion–convection equation (Equation 11.17)

often represents a forced flow: one has then a forced convection. The present discussion
deals with the opposite case of free convection, where the flow results from spatial varia-
tions in the temperature: this corresponds, for example to the circulation of hot air above a
heater.
The second equation involved is the Navier-Stokes equation (Equation 4.30); after
dividing by ρ, it can be written:

∂v 1
+ (v · ∇) v = – ∇p + ν∇ 2 v + g. (11.18)
∂t ρ

The origin of the coupling between the velocity of the fluid and the spatial temperature vari-
ations is the variation of the density ρ of the fluid with the temperature T : these variations
influence indeed the term –(l/ρ) ∇p of the Navier-Stokes equation.

11.2.2 Stability of a layer of fluid in the presence

of a vertical gradient of temperature
Let us consider a layer of fluid located between two fixed horizontal planes each at a different
temperature. The density of the fluid decreases as its temperature increases: therefore, if
the temperature of the lower plate is below that of the upper plate, the resultant density
gradient is stable (the denser fluid remains at the bottom). This configuration occurs in
the atmosphere of certain cities when the layers of hot air are above the layers of cooler
Here and throughout this section, the density of
the fluids is assumed to decrease in a mono-
air: this so-called temperature inversion does not allow for the proper removal of air pollution
tonic way with temperature. This is not always (Figure 11.6) and a layer of smog results in the upper atmosphere. This smog reinforces the
the case and, in particular, liquid water has a process by absorbing solar radiation and preventing the heating of the lower atmospheric
density maximum at 4º C. This density anomaly
layers.
explains the fact that, below the surface of frozen
lakes and rivers, one find a layer of liquid water The opposite configuration of a fluid heated from below is unstable because the fluid
at 0º C in equilibrium with solid ice, and then, particles of lower density are below those with higher density. However, in contrast to the
further down, a denser layer of liquid water at case of a horizontal gradient, a motion of the fluid only appears when the temperature
4º C. The stratification of this layer is stable: it is
the presence of this stable liquid layer that allows difference is higher than a certain value, known as the instability threshold. This phenomenon
for a survival of marine life. is known as the Rayleigh–Bénard instability.

Figure 11.6C Temperature-inversion layer

and accumulation of “smog” above down-
town Los Angeles (plate courtesy M. Luethi)
The Rayleigh-Bénard instability 425

11.2.3 Description of the Rayleigh–Bénard y

T1
instability
a
Let us first describe the experimental results observed in the configuration of Figure 11.7:
T 1 is the temperature of the upper plate ( y = a) and T 2 > T 1 is that of the lower plate
( y = 0). y T(y)+θ
x
• So long as the temperature difference T = T 2 – T 1 is lower than a critical value O T2 (>T1)
Tc , the heat exchanges are strictly diffusive (as in the case where the fluid is heated
from above).
Figure 11.7 Schematic diagram of the on-
• For T > Tc the fluid is set into motion: parallel counter-rotating rolls appear si- set of the Rayleigh–Bénard instability. A local
multaneously throughout the cell (Figure 11.8). Their diameter is comparable to the fluctuation θ of the temperature of a fluid
distance between the plates. The velocity of the fluid in the rolls varies continuously particle (shaded) initiates an upward convec-
and reversibly as the temperature difference (T – Tc ) varies above the threshold. tive motion. Once the particle has started
• For sufficiently high temperature differences above Tc , further thresholds cor- moving (black), its difference of temperature
responding to the onset of non-stationary phenomena can be identified: they are with the surrounding fluid increases with the
detected from the variations with time of local temperatures measured by thermocou- displacement and is stronger if the thermal ex-
ples. We observe the existence of temperature fluctuations coupled with fluctuations change with this fluid is small: this reinforces
of the velocity field. The different sequences of instabilities which ultimately lead to the effect of the initial fluctuation
turbulence have been extensively studied in relation to their mathematical properties.

Several ways of estimating the threshold Tc will now be discussed: this will make us
more familiar with the various approaches of this type of problem.

11.2.4 Mechanism for the Rayleigh–Bénard

instability and corresponding orders
of magnitude
Qualitative mechanism of the instability
The mechanism can be understood on the basis of the diagram in Figure 11.7.

• Let us assume that an initial temperature fluctuation θ relative to the local equilibrium
temperature T ( y) occurs within a small fluid particle.
• As a result of the Archimedes’ buoyancy, the particle starts to move vertically: if θ is
positive, the motion is upward.
• If the particle does not cool down too fast during this latter motion, its density
contrast with respect to the surrounding fluid (which is increasingly cold) rises Figure 11.8 System of convective rolls in a
and, consequently, Archimedes’ buoyancy increases as the particles rise. This effect circular layer of oil between two plates main-
reinforces the initial temperature perturbation, and amplifies the convection. tained at different temperatures (view from
the top). The white lines, where light is fo-
This positive feedback loop allows the convective instability to maintain itself: for this, cused, correspond to the regions separating
the effect of stabilizing mechanisms such that the thermal conductivity (which causes the adjacent rolls when the fluid is rising. The de-
temperature perturbation to spread), and the kinematic viscosity (which attenuates the ve- fects and branches of the network of rolls are
locity perturbations) must not be too large. The conditions for the onset of the instability the result of the conditions to be satisfied at
are thus governed by the relative values of the time constants for thermal heat exchange and the circular boundary; the rolls connect indeed
for momentum exchange which occur in this problem. A very important parameter is the preferentially at right angles to the side walls
Prandtl number Pr = ν/κ, defined in Section 2.3.2, which characterizes the relative diffusi- (plate courtesy of V. Croquette, P. Legal, A.
vity of momentum and temperature. The qualitative analysis presented in the next section Pocheau, CEA Saclay)
426 Hydrodynamic instabilities

corresponds to a Prandtl number much greater than one like, for example, for very viscous
oils. In this case, the viscous diffusion time constant for momentum over a given distance
is much shorter than that for thermal diffusion (these time constants vary respectively as
1/ν and 1/κ). The fluid velocity is then a fast variable adjusting rapidly to the variations
of the vertical forces due to changes in the density; in contrast, the temperature is a slow
variable. The thermal equilibrium of particles displaced from their static equilibrium point
is then assumed to control the vertical force, and, as a result, the amplification of the insta-
bility. In the opposite case Pr 1 (for example for mercury), this conclusion is no longer
valid. However, both theory and experiments show that the value of the instability threshold
remains the same.

Physical criterion for the instability in the case of a Prandtl

number much greater than unity
The stability of the layer of liquid is determined by the value of the Rayleigh number:

α T g a3
Ra = , (11.19a)
νκ
where T is the temperature difference between the plates and α characterizes the change
in density of the fluid as a function of temperature, as:

ρ = ρ0 (1 – α (T – T0 )) , (11.19b)

T 0 is a reference temperature and ρ 0 the corresponding density. In order for the convective
instability to arise, Ra must be greater than its critical value Rac : its experimental value is
1,708 when the fluid is located between two rigid horizontal plates. The critical temperature
difference Tc varies very rapidly as a function of the distance a between the plates: for a
thickness twice as small, Tc is increased by a factor of eight.

Order of magnitude
For an experiment carried out using silicone oil with ν ≈ 10–4 m2 /s, κ = 10–7 m2 /s,
α = 10–3 K–1 and a = 10–2 m, one finds a value Tc ≈ 1.7 K.

Proof
Let us analyze the motion of a spherical liquid particle with radius r 0 . Assuming that, as
a consequence of a fluctuation, the particle acquires a velocity v (positive if it is directed
upward). Is this velocity fluctuation subsequently attenuated or does it continue to be am-
plified? Because of its vertical motion, the particle reaches regions where the temperature is
different from its initial value: if Pr 1 the particle does not reach immediately a thermal
equilibrium while, in contrast, its velocity takes immediately an equilibrium value. Let us
now evaluate the temperature difference δT acquired relative to the surrounding fluid. The
characteristic time-constant τ Q for thermal relaxation obeys:

τQ = A r02 /κ, (11.20)

where A is a geometrical constant. During this time interval, the particle has moved through
a distance δy = v τQ and the differences δT and δρ between its temperature and density and
those of the surrounding fluid become respectively:

∂T r 2 T r02 T
δT = δy = A υ 0 (11.21) and: δρ = –ρ0 α δT = –A ρ0 α υ , (11.22)
∂y κ a κ a
The Rayleigh-Bénard instability 427

where α is defined in Equation 11.19b. Accordingly, the driving force on the liquid sphere
(the Archimedes’ buoyancy) is:

4 4 r 5 T
Fm = – π r03 δρ g = π A ρ0 α g υ 0 . (11.23)
3 3 κ a
The velocity v of the particle then increases if the driving force is greater than the Stokes
viscous force Fvisc = – 6π η r 0 v calculated in Chapter 9 (Equation 9.53). The instability
criterion thus becomes: The value of the velocity v of the particle does
not appear in the instability criterion because
4 r 5 T of the linearity of the equations derived. In or-
Fm > Fvisc , (11.24a) i.e.: π A ρ0 α g υ 0 > 6π η r0 υ (11.24b) der to determine the stationary amplitude of
3 κ a the fully developed convection, additional non-
linear terms must be included.
The greater the spatial extent of the perturbation, the greater its instability. Taking as a
maximum size r 0 = a/2 and substituting for η/ρ 0 the kinematic viscosity ν, the condition for
instability becomes: Replacing the liquid sphere by a liquid cylin-
der, so as to respect the symmetry of the rolls
generated, simply amounts to remove a factor
α T g a3 72 a in Equations 11.22 and 11.23: the force on
Ra = > = Rac .
νκ A a cylinder depends indeed only logarithmically
on its diameter, as seen in Section 9.5.2. The fi-
One recovers therefore the form of the experimental condition for instability; the numerical nal result (Equations 11.24) is the same within a
value of Rac is different, particularly because the stiffness of the walls is not taken into geometrical factor.
consideration in the simplified model.

11.2.5 Two-dimensional solution of the

Rayleigh–Bénard problem
Approximate calculation of the stability threshold
Experimentally, above the instability threshold, one observes parallel rolls with nearly circu-
lar cross-section: the fluid in each roll rotates in the opposite direction relative to its adjacent
neighbor. Together with this observation, one assumes, on the other hand, that the liquid
layer extends to infinity in the two horizontal directions, x and z, that the velocity field is
independent of z and that vz = 0. As an approximation, the vertical component vy of the
convective velocity is taken equal to the periodic function:

υy (x, t) = υy0 (t) cos kx. (11.25)

One takes k = π/a as the value of the wave vector: this value takes into account the fact that
the rolls are circular and of a diameter of the order of a. This formulation corresponds to an
analysis in terms of modes, in which one looks for Fourier components of the solution of wave
vectors k. The amplitude vy0 (t) plays the role of an order parameter of the Rayleigh–Bénard
instability, just like the angle θ in the mechanical example of Section 11.1.1. Equation
11.25 is only an approximation since it does not obey the boundary conditions along the
horizontal walls with ordinates y = ± a/2; it does obey however the incompressibility con-
dition and provides a good approximation for the critical Rayleigh number. The equations The component of Equation 11.18 correspond-
(11.18) and (11.17) for vertical transport of the velocity and of the thermal energy can be ing to the horizontal velocity component vx has
written as: not been written; it is however needed for satis-
fying the incompressibility condition if one takes
into account the variation of vy with y, in order
∂υy ∂υy ∂ 2 υy ∂ 2 υy 1 ∂p
+ υy =ν + – – g, (11.26a) to reproduce more realistically than by Equation
∂t ∂y ∂x2 ∂y2 ρ ∂y 11.25 the velocity field of the rolls.
428 Hydrodynamic instabilities

∂T ∂T ∂ 2T ∂2T
and: + υy =κ + . (11.26b)
∂t ∂y ∂x2 ∂y2

One assumes now that the system is close to the instability threshold and that one can
use the Boussinesq approximation: this implies that the variations of the parameters of the
fluid as a function of the temperature can be neglected, except for the density. Moreover,
the deviations θ of the temperature from the profile below the threshold and the velocity
components vx and vy are assumed to be small, which allows one to neglect second-order
terms. In this case, Equations 11.26a–b can be rewritten in the form:

In Equations 11.27a–b, only first-order terms in ∂υy ∂ 2 υy ∂ 2 υy ∂θ ∂2θ ∂2θ T
v and θ have been retained and second-order =ν + +αgθ (11.27a) and: =κ + 2 +υy . (11.27b)
∂t ∂x2 ∂y2 ∂t ∂x2 ∂y a
ones were neglected: as a result, there is still
a convective term in the equation for thermal
transport, but none in the Navier–Stokes equa- The two symmetrical Equations 11.27a–b both include a diffusive term inhibiting the devel-
tion (it would indeed be of second order in v). opment of the instabilities and a time-dependent term. It is the coupling terms, vy (T /a)
and αg θ, between the variables vy and θ which account for the onset of the convective
motion.

Proof
To lowest order in the perturbation expansion, the solution of the two coupled equations
(Equations 11.26a–b) yields vy = 0, and a linear change in the temperature as a function of
the y-coordinate. These solutions correspond to the state of the system in the absence of
convection, below the critical Rayleigh number. In this regime, where thermal transport is
purely diffusive, the velocity, pressure and temperature obey:

υy = 0 (11.28a), p0 = constant – ρ0 g y (11.28b)

(T1 – T2 ) y T
and: T0 = T2 + = T2 – y. (11.28c)
a a

The solution of the perturbation expansion to the next order corresponds to the appearance
of the convection: if one remains infinitesimally close to the threshold, the velocity vy is
infinitesimally small to the first-order with respect to the distance from the threshold. The
velocity and pressure fields can therefore be written in the form:

T (x, y, t) = T0 ( y) + θ(x, t), (11.29a) p (x, y, t) = p0 ( y) + δp(x, t) (11.29b)

and:

ρ (x, y, t) = ρ0 ( y) + δρ (x, t) . (11.29c)

Equation 11.26a can be rewritten, replacing p and ρ by Equations 11.29b–c and keeping
only the first-order terms in vy , δρ and δp. One obtains then, by using the expressions of
Equations 11.28a-b-c which correspond to the diffusive regime:

∂vy ∂ 2 vy ∂ 2 vy δρ ∂p0 1 ∂(δp)
=ν + + – . (11.30)
∂t ∂x2 ∂y2 ρ02 ∂y ρ0 ∂y
The Rayleigh-Bénard instability 429

Combining Equations 11.19b, 11.28b and 11.29b–c leads to:

δρ ∂p0
= α g θ. (11.31)
ρ02 ∂y

Using this value in Equation 11.30, and further assuming that δp is only a function of x
and t, the equation simplifies to Equation 11.27a. Similarly, by using Equations 11.28c and
11.29a, in Equation 11.26b, one obtains 11.27b.

One now looks for the stability condition, using only solutions of Equations 11.27a–b for
which the variation of the amplitude vy (x, t) has the form of Equation 11.25 with a time
dependence:

υy0 = υ0 eσ t . (11.32)

Here, the real parameter σ has the dimensions of a reciprocal time. The exponential depend-
ence eσ t indicates that an infinitesimal velocity perturbation increases exponentially with
time (σ > 0) if T is greater than Tc , or undergoes exponential damping (σ < 0) in the op-
posite situation. The value σ = 0 corresponds to the threshold of the instability (T = Tc ).
This type of variation was already encountered during the discussion of the Landau model
for flow beyond a cylinder (where σ is a complex variable) in Section 11.1.3. We then find
that this threshold value Tc obeys: The value π4 ≈ 97 in Equation 11.33b is
much smaller than the experimental value
Tc ν κ k4 α Tc g a3 Rac = 1,708 for a fluid layer bounded by two
= |∇T|c = , (11.33a) so that: Rac = = π4 , (11.33b) rigid plates. This difference is hardly surprising
a αg νκ if one keeps in mind the gross approximations
which have been used; the goal, here, was only
where the Rayleigh number Ra is again defined by Equation 11.19a, with k = π/a. to obtain the correct dimensional form for Ra.
In the neighborhood of Rac , the growth rate σ , defined by Equation 11.32, satisfies:

Ra – Rac νκ 2
σ = k . (11.34)
Rac ν+κ

For Ra → Rac , the growth of perturbations (velocity, temperature) becomes infinitesimally

slow. This phenomenon known as critical slowing was already discussed in connection with
Figure 11.4b. The continuous transition from real negative values of σ to positive ones,
as the Rayleigh number goes through its critical value, is known as the stability exchange
principle. It characterizes the continuous transition from a thermodynamic state of thermal
diffusive exchange below the threshold, to a state of dynamic convective order above it.

Proof
The variations of the velocity field given by Equations 11.25 and 11.32 are associated to
variations of the temperature given by the similar expression:

T (x, y, t) = T0 ( y) + θ (x, t) = T0 ( y) + θ0 cos(k x)eσ t . (11.35)

The same factor cos(kx) is found in the two equations for vy and T because the extrema
of the vertical velocity and the temperature are in phase with the rising, or descending,
fluid columns. By substituting these expressions of vy and T in the equations of motion,
Equations 11.27a–b, and by factoring out cos(kx) eσ t , one obtains:
430 Hydrodynamic instabilities

In the more frequent case of a liquid which σ υ0 = –νk2 υ0 + α g θ0 (11.36) and: σ θ0 = –κk2 θ0 + υ0 (T /a) . (11.37)
is a poor thermal conductor, the Prandtl num-
ber Pr = ν/κ is much greater than one. From The term α g θ0 corresponds to the modulation of the Archimedes’ buoyancy of the liquid,
Equation 11.32, the prefactor for the growth
rate (or the rate of decrease) is then of the or- due to the periodic variation of the temperature in a horizontal plane. The compatibility
der of κk2 : it is thus governed by the thermal condition of these two equations, homogeneous in v0 and θ 0 is:
conductivity. When Ra = 0, a perturbation of
wave vector k ≈ 1/a close to that of the rolls
has a thermal relaxation time constant τ Q = a2 /κ. ν k2 + σ κ k2 + σ – α g (T/a) = 0. (11.38)
This justifies the assumption made above ac-
cording to which, when Pr is much greater than
unity, the thermal conductivity is responsible for Equation11.33a is then obtained by setting σ = 0 in this expression and Equation 11.33b by
the damping of the rolls. The velocity variable assuming that k = πa, as mentioned at the beginning of the present section.
which has a faster intrinsic response is slaved to
the evolution of the temperature field. On the Equation 11.38 first allows one to calculate the growth rate σ of the instability as a
other hand, when Pr is much smaller than one, function of the difference T – Tc , assumed to be small enough so that the terms in
the viscous diffusion of the velocity perturba- σ 2 can be neglected. Equation 11.34 is then obtained by using Equation 11.33a for Tc
tions governs the attenuation of the convective
motion.
because (Ra – Rac )/Rac = (T – Tc )/Tc .

The stability domain as a function of the wavelength

Ra The complete solution of the linear, two-dimensional problem, which takes into account
(as opposed to the above calculation) the variations of the velocity in the y-direction and
the velocity component vx yields the stability diagram in Figure 11.9. The solid curve (C)
(U) separates a region (S), where the system is stable relative to linear perturbations of the
(C)
stationary problem, from an unstable region (U ); in the latter the system is linearly unstable,
i.e., unstable with respect to perturbations of infinitesimal amplitude. The minimum of the
(S) curve occurs at a value λc ≈ 2a of the wavelength in the case of boundary conditions of
Rac
zero velocity on the rigid horizontal plates; this value agrees with the assumption made in
the simpler calculations carried out above.
λc λ
Amplitude variation of the instability as a function of the distance
Figure 11.9 Stability diagram for the to the threshold
Rayleigh–Bénard instability, obtained by
The linear analysis discussed above provides information on the value of the threshold
selecting the wavelength λ = 2π/k of the
and the nature of the solutions in the neighborhood of Rac . However, it does not predict
system of rolls, and the Rayleigh number
the long term evolution of the flow for Ra > Rac and, more specifically, the amplitude of
Ra, as control parameters. The so-called
the spatial variations of the velocity: the exponential variation in Equation 11.32 would
marginal stability curve (C), corresponding
indeed lead to a divergence over a long period of time. In this problem, the non-linear
to a growth rate σ = 0, separates the unstable
changes of the base flow determine the final limit to the growth of the amplitude. One pre-
region (U) from the stable one (S) (i.e. stable
dicts then theoretically that the limiting amplitude of the velocity components vi (i = x, y)
with respect to infinitesimal perturbations).
obeys:
Configurations of rolls corresponding to
wavelengths λ both lower and higher than the
1 T – Tc
critical value λc are illustrated schematically υi2 = , (11.39)
γi T
Let us now analyze qualitatively the increase in
the critical Rayleigh number seen in Figure 11.9 in which γi is proportional to the constant b in Equation 11.9b. This result agrees with
as λ goes away from the value λc . For rolls with
a narrow width along x, viscosity effects due to experimental measurements of the velocity by laser Doppler anemometry carried out on
counter-flows within the same roll delay the on- Rayleigh–Bénard experiments. These measurements show that the velocity vx at long times
set of convection; moreover, thermal convection increases continuously with T – Tc beyond the threshold as:
from the edge of one roll to the next tends more
efficiently to uniformize the temperature. On the
other hand, for very wide rolls, convective trans- υx ∝ [T – Tc ]β , (11.40)
port is quite ineffective and there is a significant
energy dissipation by viscous friction at the level
of the horizontal plates. with an exponent β = 1/2 (Figure 11.11a two pages below).
The Rayleigh-Bénard instability 431

y
T1
Figure 11.10 Temperature profile between
υx T two horizontal plates, heated in the presence
υy of a convective flow of vertical and horizon-
υy
tal velocity components vx and vy when the
velocity is high enough for thermal boundary
υx layers to appear in the vicinity of the walls

T2(>T1)

Justification
The physical origin of these non-linear effects is described schematically in Figure 11.10.
The convective thermal heat exchange reduces the temperature difference in the central
region of the fluid layer: the largest temperature changes occur then in the thermal boundary
layers near the walls, where the velocity vy is small, and where thermal transport is due
mainly to the diffusive heat conduction.
The lower thermal gradient (∇T )0 in the central region leads to a reduction of the local
Rayleigh number based on this gradient and, therefore of the velocity. More quantitatively,
one assumes that:

(∇T )0 ≈ 1 – γi υi2 ∇T , (11.41)

in which ∇T is the mean gradient T /a applied to the system; the presence of the quadratic
term vi 2 takes into account the fact that +vi and –vi reduce the gradient by the same amount.
By taking as the order of magnitude of the temperature gradient in the center region (∇T )0
the threshold value Tc /a, one obtains then Equation 11.39.

A dimensionless macroscopic parameter, frequently used to characterize the develop-

ment of the instability above the threshold, is the Nusselt number Nu, already encountered
in Section 10.8.1 and defined as:

measured heat flux

Nu = . (11.42)
heat flux by thermal conductivity in the absence of convection

The term in the denominator can be determined by heating the upper plate of the cell: in that
case, the density stratification is stable, and thermal heat exchange occurs uniquely through
the thermal conductivity (neglecting radiative transfers). In agreement with the definition
in Equation 11.42, one has:

Nu = 1 for T ≤ Tc . (11.43a)

Moreover, the experimental measurements of the heat flux, from one plate to the other, in
the presence of convection indicate a variation of Nu of the type:

Nu – 1 ∝ (T – Tc ) for T ≥ Tc . (11.43b)

432 Hydrodynamic instabilities

Physical explanation: The vertical heat flux is the same at every level between the plates:
in the central region, it is dominated by convection and corresponds to the average value of
the product θvy in a z-x-plane. As vy and θ each vary as (T – Tc )1/2 (Equation 11.40),
one has a resultant variation of Nu as (T – Tc ). One notes that, in the regions where
vy > 0, convection carries warm fluid (θ > 0) upward; on the other hand, when vy < 0, the
flow carries cold fluid (θ < 0) downward: in both cases the product θvy is positive, and the
two contributions add up together.

11.2.6 The Landau model applied

to Rayleigh–Bénard convection

Figure 11.11 (a) Variation of the maximum

υxMax (a) τ(s) (b)
+
horizontal velocity component in a system of 5000
150 +
rolls as a function of the temperature differ-
(μm.s–1)
+

ence T. The dashed line corresponds to a +

+
+
100 +
500
+

variation as T – Tc . (b) Variation of +

+ +
+

the relaxation time-constant τ of the system of +

++
+
rolls with the ratio ε = (Ra-Rac )/Rac charac- 50 +++

+
+ 50
terizing the deviation from the threshold. The +
+

dashed line corresponds (in logarithmic coor-

4 ΔTc 5 6 7 ΔT (°C) 0.01 0.1 1 ε
dinates) to a variation τ ∝ ε–1 (from docs.
courtesy of [Link], M. Dubois, P. Bergé)
The variation as (T – Tc )1/2 of the velocity components in Equations 11.39 and 11.40
suggests that the global behavior of the Rayleigh–Bénard instability may be described by
In the Rayleigh–Bénard problem, one has a bro- means of the Landau model introduced in Section 11.1. Since the convective flow created
ken symmetry like for the solid ball in the rotat- by this instability is stationary, Equation 11.11 can be used to describe it. One can choose,
ing hoop. This corresponds to the choice of the for example, the Rayleigh number Ra (or the temperature difference T ) as a control
phase ϕ in the function cos (k x + ϕ) which de-
scribes the structure of the system of rolls. For a
parameter and, as the order parameter |A|, the maximum |vMax i | of the absolute value of
given position of the rolls, there are two possible one of the velocity components in the cell.
directions of rotation which satisfy the inversion One expects then a variation of |vx | and |vy | as a function of Ra (or T ) of a type
of the direction of rotation from one roll to the
similar to those displayed in Figures 11.2 and 11.4a. Figure 11.11 displays indeed an ex-
next (ϕ changed into ϕ+π). These two solutions
are equivalent to the two symmetrical equilib- perimental variation as T – Tc of the maximum |vMax x | of the absolute value of the
rium positions of the ball above the instability velocity component vx for T > Tc . For T < Tc , the velocity |vMax x | is zero. The sec-
threshold.
ond branch of the curves in Figure 11.2 would correspond to a system of rolls shifted by
one unit: this would be equivalent to inverting the direction of rotation of each roll, because
they alternate in direction.
Detailed models of the R-B instability allow Another proof of the correctness of the Landau description of this instability is given
for the calculation of the complete velocity and by the relaxation of |vMax x | after a sudden change in T (> Tc ) toward a new value
temperature fields for a given temperature dif-
ference: one can then, in principle, determine satisfying Equation 11.14. Experimental measurements of the characteristic time-constant τ
the coefficients of the Landau model from these of this relaxation show that it varies as the inverse of the distance from the threshold (Figure
results. 11.11b) in agreement with Equation 11.15.

11.2.7 Evolution toward turbulence above

the convection threshold
Sufficiently above the thermal convection threshold, one reaches a turbulent regime in
which the velocity field has a random time and space component. This does not imply,
Other closed box instabilities 433

however, that the macroscopic roll structures disappear. In the case of R-B convection, as
well as for other instabilities described further down, there are several possible “scenarios”
for the transition from an initial stationary instability to a state of weak turbulence. The
scenarios actually observed depend on several experimental parameters (geometry and size
of the box, Prandtl number, . . .).
In the case of an instability in “small boxes”, i.e., containing a small number of convec-
tion rolls, one might observe at first a two frequency scenario. In order to detect these, one
can, for example, carry out a spectral analysis of the temporal dependence of the tempera-
ture measured by local sensors placed in the cell. In this case, if the temperature difference
is increased further above the linear threshold Tc , there will appear a first unstable fre-
quency f 1 above a new threshold Tc1 > Tc : it will correspond, for example, to a periodic
modulation of the rolls. Then, a second frequency f 2 incommensurate with the first one ap-
pears for Tc2 > Tc1 . Finally, for a value Tc3 > Tc2 , the flow becomes unpredictable
while no third frequency appears. One has a transition toward weak turbulence, in contrast
with the classical description in which turbulence is expected to appear as a result of the
combination of an infinite set of unstable frequencies.
A second scenario, known as that of frequency division, obtained under different experi-
mental conditions but still in small containers, consists in the appearance of a first unstable
frequency f 1 , followed by a second f 2 = f 1 /2, a third f 3 = f 2 /2, and so forth. The thresh-
olds corresponding to each of these period doublings become closer and closer, and converge
toward a value Ret where one observes a transition to full turbulence.
The situation is quite different in “large containers”: turbulent puffs appear when one is This intermittent turbulent scenario has similar-
sufficiently above the linear instability threshold. ities with the subcritical transition mechanisms
toward turbulence, which will be considered in
Section 11.4.3. It is also encountered in the
case of the instability of the Taylor–Couette rolls
(Section 11.3.2).
11.3 Other closed box instabilities
Closed box instabilities develop in a space of finite dimensions, with no mean flow, as was the
case, for example, for the Rayleigh–Bénard instability, and in contrast to the Bénard–von
Karman instability described in Section 2.4.2.

11.3.1 Thermocapillary Bénard-Marangoni

instability
The so-called Bénard-Marangoni instability appears when one heats the lower face of a
thin layer of fluid with a free upper surface: it results from the forces induced on the free In a volume of fluid bounded by two solid hor-
surface by the gradients of the surface tension discussed in Section 8.2.4. This effect is izontal plates, the Rayleigh–Bénard instability
superimposed on the Rayleigh-Bénard mechanism, which is due to a density gradient. mechanism is the only one at work.
Beyond a critical value of the temperature difference, hexagonal flow-cells appear be-
tween the bottom of the liquid layer and the free surface (Figure 3.17). The fluid rises in
the center of the hexagons and flows down along the edges (Figure 11.12 below). The size
of the hexagons is of the same order of magnitude as the thickness of the fluid layer.
Qualitatively, the mechanism of the instability is the following: one assumes that, initially,
the temperature rises slightly by an amount θ at a point on the free surface, thus reducing
the local surface tension. As a result, the fluid at the surface is expelled radially toward the
colder region outward where the surface tension is higher. In order to conserve the flow
rate, warmer fluid rises from the lower region of the cell: this additional thermal energy
reinforces the initial perturbation. The driving force of the instability is therefore the differ-
ences between the surface tensions in the regions of different temperatures at the surface of
434 Hydrodynamic instabilities

y T1
T1+ θ

Figure 11.12 Schematic diagram of the

flow occurring in cells with a Bénard–
Marangoni instability (see also the visualiza- a
tion (top view) shown in Figure 3.17)

the liquid. Just as in the case of the Rayleigh–Bénard instability, the stabilizing processes are
the thermal conductivity and the viscosity which, respectively, smooth out the temperature
variations and slow down the motion of fluid particles; they also determine the sizes of the
cells (these are of the order of their thickness).

Threshold of the Bénard–Marangoni instability

The dimensionless parameter, which controls this instability, is the Marangoni number, Ma,
which satisfies:

b γ T a
Ma = , (11.44)
ηκ

where b = –(l/γ )(∂γ /∂T ) represents the relative rate of variation of the surface tension γ with
the temperature T , as defined in Equation 1.54, and a is the thickness of the fluid layer (flows
resulting from these surface tension gradients were already discussed in Section 8.2.4).

Proof
One assumes here that the characteristic length scale for the variations of the velocity and
temperature in the horizontal direction is the same as that in the vertical direction (i.e., the
thickness a of the fluid layer). This implies that the cross-section of a convection cell by a
vertical plane is roughly a square as shown by Figure 11.12.
The principle of this calculation is very similar to that used for the Rayleigh–Bénard in-
stability. The only difference comes from the fact that, for the Marangoni effect, the driving
force (Equation 8.66) is localized on the free surface of the fluid. One perturbs an element
of the fluid by applying to it a velocity vc and analyzing whether or not this velocity decreases
as a function of time. In the two previous examples the stability criterion was obtained by
comparing the forces on elements of fluid with a size r 0 of the order of a/2: the present
discussion uses elements of the same size and with one face coinciding with the free sur-
face of the fluid. Evaluating then, like in Section 11.2.4, the temperature difference induced
between the element and the surrounding fluid provides Equation 11.21 in the equivalent
form:

a2 T
δT A vc . (11.45)
κ a
Other closed box instabilities 435

The driving force Fm on a volume element is then related to the absolute value of the
derivative dγ /dT of the surface tension with respect to the temperature by

a dγ a3 dγ T
Fm
2 dT δT vc κ dT a . (11.46)

The face of the fluid element which coincides with the interface has been assumed to be
square with two sides perpendicular to the convection flow vc ; one then obtains Equation
11.46 by assuming that the temperature difference between these two sides is of order δT ,
and that Fm is the difference between the surface tension forces on them. The order of the
magnitude of the damping force Fvisc is, as in the Rayleigh–Bénard case:

Fvisc ≈ η υc a.

The condition for the growth of the instability can then be written:

a3 dγ T

Fm > Fvisc , so that : vc
κ dT a > η vc a. (11.47)

The ratio Fm /Fvisc is then equal to the Marangoni number given by Equation 11.44: it is
therefore the dimensionless combination which determines the possible occurrence of the
instability.

The ratio of the Rayleigh number to the Marangoni number obeys:

Ra α ρ g a2 |δρ| g a2
= = , (11.48)
Ma |dγ /dT| |δγ |
In a weightless environment, the effect of
Archimedes’ buoyancy disappears and only the
where |δρ| and |δγ| are the absolute values of the respective changes of the density and Marangoni effect remains. It may thus be in-
surface tension resulting from a same temperature difference δT. This ratio characterizes teresting to carry out experiments with large
single crystals grown in a zero gravity environ-
the relative influence of Archimedes’ buoyancy and of the surface tension forces, due to
ment, where convection motions due to gravita-
temperature variations in a horizontal layer with a free upper surface. The ratio Ra/Ma is tional forces, which usually disturb the regular
then equivalent here to the Bond number introduced in Chapter 1 (Equation 1.64). For growth of crystals, are absent. Very large crys-
tals, or those normally very difficult to grow
a fixed temperature difference, the ratio Ra/Ma varies as a2 : surface tension effects are
(e.g., protein crystals), have been grown in a
therefore dominant for small thicknesses of the fluid layer, and those due to gravity for spaceship environment: however, the Marangoni
larger thicknesses. effect may then play a dominant role.
There exists another difference between the Rayleigh-Bénard and Bénard-Marangoni
instabilities than that between the definitions of Ra and Ma: in the case of the Rayleigh-
Bénard instability, there is a symmetry between the fluid rising to the top and descending to
the bottom (Section 11.2.6). In the problems of the Bénard-Marangoni instability, there is
no such symmetry between top and bottom: the instability creates then hexagonal structures
(Figure 11.12) where the liquid rises in the center and spreads out toward the corresponding
edges where it flows downward; in contrast to the Rayleigh-Bénard instability, this configu-
ration cannot be transformed by a simple translation into one in which the liquid rises along
the edges and descends in the center.

Behavior above the threshold

The asymmetry mentioned just above is visible in the stability diagram of Figure 11.13a be-
low: this diagram displays the variation, as a function of Ma, of the vertical component vy of
436 Hydrodynamic instabilities

Figure 11.13 (a) Variation as a func- (a) (b)

tion of the normalized Marangoni number υy (a.u.) Ma>Mac1
Ma<Mac2 Mac1
ε = (Ma – Mac1 )/Mac1 of the convective ve- 2 υy Mac2 Ma0 υy
locity for the Bénard–Marangoni instability
of a thin liquid layer heated from below
(according to H. Swinney et al.). In con- υy υy υy υy
1
trast with the model mechanical instability
(Figure 11.2a) or the Rayleigh–Bénard one, ϕ
the stability diagram is not symmetrical rel- 0
Mac2 Ma0 Mac1
ative to the axis vy = 0. The images in the υy
“insets” display typical observations in the
stable and unstable regions (left and right, re- −0.06 −0.04 −0.02 0 0.02 0.04 ε
spectively) and for Ma = Ma0 (in the center).
The + symbols correspond to data obtained
by increasing the value of Ma from small the velocity at the center of the hexagons. When the temperature difference T , and thus
numbers, and the to values obtained by Ma, is increased, starting from T = 0 (Ma = 0), thermal transfer results first from ther-
decreasing Ma starting from larger numbers mal conduction without flow. When the critical threshold Mac1 is reached, there is a sudden
Ma > Mac1 . (b) Free energy curves (vy ) as- transition to a regime of thermal convection with a finite value of the velocity vy increasing
sociated with values of Ma corresponding to continuously as a function of Ma. If, instead, Ma is decreased progressively from a value
the different regimes. The curves have been Ma > Mac1 , one can then go down to a value Mac2 < Mac1 before the disappearance of the
shifted horizontally with respect to one an- convection cells. At values intermediate between Mac2 and Mac1 , one can induce a transi-
other, and the amplitude of the secondary tion from the thermal conductivity regime to the convection one by applying a perturbation
minimum has been exaggerated to improve to the static fluid layer: the amplitude required to trigger the transition becomes smaller as
the readability (all vy axes correspond to a one gets closer to the critical value Mac1 .
zero value of ). The two dashed curves in-
dicate the tendency for non-zero values of vy
Extension of the Landau model to the Bénard–Marangoni instability
to evolve, corresponding to minima in
In order to account for the asymmetry of the instability diagram, we need to modify the
Landau model by adding into Equation 11.9b for the free energy, terms corresponding to
odd powers of vy . The velocity vy plays here the role of A and, as seen just above, the values
of vy and -vy are not equivalent. One uses thus the following expression:

υy = 2k
(Mac – Ma) υy2 + c υy3 + 2 b υy4 . (11.49)

Figure 11.13b displays the variations (vy ) resulting from this equation: for Ma < Mac2 ,
the curves have a single minimum corresponding to vy = 0: no convection cells appear and
one is in the thermal conduction domain. For Mac2 < Ma < Mac1 , has two minima: one
is at vy = 0 and the other at a finite value of vy , even at the threshold Mac2 for which the
minimum is merely a point of inflection. In this domain, depending on the previous his-
tory of the system and the perturbations it has undergone, one observes either a stable
state, or a convective state with hexagonal cells. Moreover, transitions from one state to
the other (generally to the convective regime) can be induced by perturbations of suffi-
ciently large amplitude to overcome the intermediate maximum of the energy curve. There
is also, on the other hand, a value Ma0 for which (as seen in the center inset in Figure
11.13a), one can have coexistence of the two states, because the two minima of have
the same value. Finally for Ma > Mac1 , one has an energy maximum (unstable equilib-
rium) at vy = 0. One almost always observes in this case flows with liquid rising in the
center of the cells (right-hand inset). Flows in the opposite direction correspond to a shal-
lower energy minimum (lower, dashed branch on Figure 11.13a) and are usually difficult to
observe.
Other closed box instabilities 437

One notes analogies between this hysteretic transition and first-order thermodynamic tran-
sitions, such as those between the liquid and gas states. By heating a well degassed volume
of water in a container with smooth walls, water can indeed be kept in its liquid state well
above the normal boiling point: boiling can be triggered by introducing a few bubbles, e.g.,
with the help of a porous stem. This phenomenon of delayed boiling is equivalent to the
hysteresis in Figure 11.13a. In the same way, the liquid and gas phases may coexist at a
temperature which is a unique function of the external pressure (determined in this case by
a “Maxwell construction”): this is equivalent to the existence of stable and unstable states
for Ma = Ma0 .

An instability displaying the characteristics of the Bénard–Marangoni instability (hys-

teresis, the ability to trigger the instability by perturbations, the possible coexistence of the
two states,...) is referred to as subcritical. Instabilities such as the Rayleigh–Bénard insta-
bility, or that leading to the emission of vortex streets (Section 2.4.2), are instead called
supercritical.

11.3.2 Taylor–Couette instability

z Figure 11.14 Pictures of a system of
υ0(r) Ώ
2 Taylor–Couette rolls visualized by means of
reflecting particles suspended in the fluid.
Ώ1
(a) Just above the threshold Tac ; (b) further
above the threshold we observe wave-like
rolls (plates courtesy of D. Andereck and
H. Swinney); (c) schematic view of the rolls
appearing in the Taylor–Couette instability
for flow between two cylinders with different
(a) (b) (c) rotational velocities 1 and 2

Couette flow between two concentric cylinders has been discussed in Section 4.5.6. The
stationary velocity field obtained at low rotational velocities is a purely tangential flow, of
velocity profile given by Equation 4.110. If the inner cylinder is fixed and the outer cylinder
rotated, the flow is stable up to a velocity at which it becomes turbulent without any appear-
ance of characteristic structures in the flow: this is the problem that Maurice Couette had
studied in his doctoral thesis, in 1901. On the other hand, if the inner cylinder is rotated
while maintaining the outer cylinder fixed, a fluid circulation with a toroidal rolls geome-
try appears above a critical value c of the rotational angular velocity ; the plane of the
tori is horizontal and their cross-section has a diameter equal to the distance a between the
cylinders (Figure 11.14). This type of structure was first described by G. I. Taylor in 1923:
the rolls are easily visualized if the liquid contains small flat particles which reflect light
(see Section 3.5.1). The rolls can be studied quantitatively by means of velocity gradient
probes located on the walls as discussed in Section 10.8.2. They can also be studied by laser
Doppler anemometry or by the PIV techniques described in Section 3.5.4). The result-
ant velocity field is the sum of the unperturbed tangential flow and of a toroidal advective
motion.
This Taylor–Couette instability has a close correspondence with the Rayleigh–Bénard
one. The radial gradient of the centrifugal force, due to the greater angular momentum of
the fluid closer to the axis, replaces, in this problem, the effect of the Archimedes’ buoyancy
438 Hydrodynamic instabilities

Rayleigh– Taylor–Couette Bénard–Marangoni

Bénard Instability Instability
Instability

Viscous-damping force Fvisc = η vc a Fvisc = η vc a Fvisc = η vc a

Driving-force FArchimedes’ buoyancy Fcentrifugal force Fsuface tension

a5 T 2 R a5 a3 dγ T
ρ0 α g υc ρ 0 a2 υc υc
κ a a ν κ dT a
Table 11.1 Table comparing the charac-
teristic parameters of the Rayleigh–Bénard, Relaxation
Taylor–Couette and Bénard–Marangoni time-constant of the a2 /κ a2 /ν a2 /κ
instabilities. perturbation with the
surrounding fluid

α T g a3 2 R a3 (dγ /dT ) T a
Characteristic Ra = Ta = Ma = –
νκ ν2 ηκ
parameter of the
instability

Critical value for the Rac = 1,708 Tac = 1,712 Mac = 80

onset of the instability kc = 3.11/a kc = 3.11/a

due to the unstable stratification of the density. Also, the stabilizing effect of the viscosity
(allowing for a fluid element displaced from its initial position to reach a velocity equilibrium
with the surrounding fluid), replaces that of the thermal conductivity.
The kinematic viscosity ν occurs squared in the One finds for this instability a dimensionless number equivalent to the Rayleigh number
Taylor number. It first appears once in the eval- for the Rayleigh–Bénard one by writing an equilibrium of forces similar to that used in this
uation of the time constant τν for a velocity
perturbation to reach equilibrium with the sur- former case. One finds then (see below) the characteristic number:
rounding fluid by viscous friction (in the case of
the Rayleigh–Bénard instability, the correspond-
2 a3 R
ing time constant is that for thermal equilib- Ta = , (11.50)
rium). ν comes into play a second time in the ν2
calculation of the viscous–friction force which
opposes the driving force. The ν 2 denominator known as the Taylor number (a is the distance between the cylinders and Ra their average
in the Taylor number thus replaces the product radius; is the rotational angular velocity of the inner cylinder). Table 11.1 indicates the
ν κ in the Rayleigh number.
parallels between the parameters and the forces characteristic of these two instabilities, and
of the Bénard–Marangoni instability discussed just above (geometrical constants are not
given in this table).

Proof
Like for the Rayleigh–Bénard instability, one assumes that a radial, convective velocity pertur-
bation vc , normal to the tangential mean flow is applied to a sphere of fluid with a small
radius r 0 and density ρ,. The momentum of the sphere is then p = m vc , (m = (4π/3)r03
is the mass of this fluid sphere) and is lost by viscous damping after a characteristic
time τν . Because the viscous damping force acting on the sphere is Fvisc = 6π η r 0 vc , one
find then:

4 dυc 1 1 dυc ν
π ρ r03 = –6π η r0 υc , so that : = = A 2,
3 dt τν υc dt r0
Other closed box instabilities 439

where A is a geometrical numerical coefficient. This expression for the viscous-damping

time τν is, moreover, equivalent to that of the thermal diffusion time in Equation 11.20.
After a time τν , the particle has moved by a distance: δr ≈ vc τ ν . The order of magnitude of
the driving force Fm correspond then to the variation of the centrifugal force m 2(r)r over
the distance δr. The local rotational angular velocity (r) varies from a value on the inner
cylinder to zero on the outer cylinder (r = R + a). One takes then as the order of magnitude
for Fm :

4 ∂ 2 R Bρ r5 R
Fm = πρr03 (2 (r)) δr ≈ B r03 ρ vc τ ν = vc 2 0 ,
3 ∂r a Aν a

where B is a geometrical constant. The instability condition equivalent to Equations 11.24a–

b is thus:

Bρ r5 R
Fm > Fvisc , i.e. : υc 2 0 > 6π ρ ν r0 υc .
Aν a

Just as in the case of the Rayleigh–Bénard instability, the largest perturbations obey most
easily the latter condition with an upper limit r 0 ≈ a/2. Neglecting geometrical coeffi-
cients, one finds indeed that the ratio Fm /Fvisc is equal to the Taylor number given in
Equation 11.50.

The critical wave vector kc corresponds to the instability modes involving the smallest Taylor
number: just as in the case of the Rayleigh–Bénard instability, it is of the order of π/a which
corresponds, for both instabilities, to a diameter of the rolls comparable to the distance
between the solid walls. The stability curve in the plane (Ta, λ) is also very similar to that
obtained in the (Ra, λ) plane for the Rayleigh–Bénard instability (Figure 11.9).

11.3.3 Other centrifugal instabilities

The Dean instability shows up beyond a criti-
The Taylor–Couette instability is part of broader class of instabilities resulting from cal value Dnc of the Dean number, Dn, which
centrifugal force effects for fluids in rotation, or for curved flows. represents the ratio between the centrifugal and
viscous forces. The Dean number, Dn, is de-
For example, the Görtler instability appears in a boundary layer developing along a fined as:
curved concave wall (flow parallel to the plane of curvature): it develops in a Blasius-like
velocity profile (Section 10.4.2) instead of a Couette profile for the Taylor–Couette instabil- Dn = (Um Dh / ν) Dh / Rc ,
ity. Beyond a threshold velocity, convection rolls appear with their axis parallel to the mean
where Um is the average velocity in a section,
flow. Rc is the radius of curvature of the channel, and
The Dean instability is observed in developed flows of the Poiseuille-type in curved chan- Dh is a length characterizing the hydraulic aper-
nels such as the one with rectangular cross-section displayed in Figure 11.15a below. For any ture. Figure 11.15b displays the development of
the instability as Dn increases.
flow velocity, two recirculation cells first appear at the two ends of the cross-section: these In a channel with a square cross-section, the
correspond to a Dean secondary flow described in Section 7.7.1 and already shown in Figure Dean instability results in the appearance, near
7.42 for a cross-section of different aspect ratio. The actual Dean instability corresponds the concave walls of the channel, and near the
plane of symmetry of the flow, of two addi-
to the appearance of initially smaller cells localized near the concave wall of the channel tional small cells rotating in opposite directions,
between two secondary flow cells (Figure 11.15a below): in contrast to the secondary flow, and superimposed on the secondary flow shown
these new cells only appear above a threshold flow velocity. schematically in Figure 7.42.
440 Hydrodynamic instabilities

concave wall
Figure 11.15 (a) Schematic diagram of the
secondary flow and of the Dean instabil- Dn =65
v
ity in an elongated rectangular cross-section
of a curved tube. (b) Visualization by the Dn =127
v
LIF technique (Section 3.5.2) in a flow sec-
tion for six values of the Dean number Dn Dn =135
of a fluorescent dye flow injected upstream Dean
(the angle between the entry and measurement Dean
secondary instability Dn =140
cross-sections is 180º) (plates courtesy of H. flow
Dn =200
Fellouah, C. Castelain, A. Ould El Moctar,
H. Peerhossaini)
Dn =325
The closed box type instabilities (Rayleigh–
(a) (b)
Bénard, Bénard–Marangoni, Taylor–Couette)
discussed above are sometimes referred to as ab-
solute instabilities: beyond the instability thresh-
old, they develop indeed without propagating.
In open flows such as jets, other kinds of insta- 11.4 Instabilities in open flows
bilities known as convective (not to be confused
with the thermal convection instabilities discussed
previously) may, in addition, be encountered: In this section, one first discusses in detail the instability of a shear flow (Kelvin–Helmholtz
perturbations in the flow develop (or attenuate, instability) for which the threshold value is independent of viscosity effects. This discussion
if they happen to be below threshold) within allows one to review a whole series of concepts related to ideal fluids, to vorticity, and
a finite-size region, as they are carried along
(convected), by the average motion of the fluid.
to waves. Next, after having discussed the influence of the shape of velocity profiles, one
considers the case of Poiseuille and Couette flows which demonstrates the richness and
complexity of the mechanisms of the transition toward turbulence.
(a)

11.4.1 Kelvin–Helmholtz instability

Wind blowing parallel to a free surface of water may induce the formation of waves: for
a force 7 wind on the Beaufort scale (i.e., approximately 60 km/h) these will amplify into
breaking waves. This phenomenon is a manifestation of the Kelvin–Helmholtz instability.
This instability can also be observed in the experiment of Figure 11.16a: a parallelepipedic
cell, containing two superimposed non-miscible liquids, is tilted from an initially horizontal
position. By resetting the cell to a horizontal position, one creates a shear flow of the fluids
(b) at the level of the interface: one observes that the interface becomes wavy as it returns
to a horizontal position. Such effects occasionally appear on a much larger scale, in an
atmosphere in which clouds are present (Figure 11.16b).
In the following discussions, the effect of viscosity is neglected: this assumption is valid if
the thickness of the viscous boundary layer is small relative compared to the perturbation to
be amplified. This is the case for a flow at a velocity high enough so that the corresponding
Reynolds number is much greater than one.

Physical explanation for the Kelvin–Helmholtz instability

Figure 11.16C (a) Experimental visuali-
zation of an instability at the interface be- The shear flow results in a velocity gradient which is assumed to be localized in the neighbor-
tween two immiscible liquids in a paral- hood of the interface between the two fluids (left-side of Figure 11.17 below). A deformation
lelepipedic cell initially horizontal and tilted of the interface reduces the distance between the streamlines along the convex face and in-
downward to the right. (plate courtesy O. creases therefore the velocity v in the term ρv2 /2 of Bernoulli’s equation (Equation 11.58).
Pouliquen). (b) Kelvin–Helmholtz instability On the other side of the interface (the concave face), both the speed and ρv2 /2 decrease
in a layer of clouds above the bay of Jervis, because the streamlines spread apart. This contrast between the values of the ρv2 /2 terms
New South Wales, Australia (plate courtesy on either side of the interface results in an amplification of its deformation.
G. Goloy)
Instabilities in open flows 441

y y 1
υ1+
υ1- Figure 11.17 Deformation of the interface
α between two superimposed fluids, moving
ξ (x, t)
υx x parallel to each other at different velocities in
υ2- the x-direction
υ2+ 2

Such structures of parallel vortices generated at

Justification the interface of two liquid jets of differing ve-
If the interface remained motionless, according to Equation 11.58, a pressure difference locities can be observed at high Reynolds num-
oriented so as to amplify the deformation should appear. Here, the interface is free and, bers where turbulence can also occur. These
mixing layers represent an example of turbu-
absent surface tension, the pressure is the same on both sides: the difference between the lent coherent structures which will be discussed in
values of the ρv2 /2 terms will then be compensated in Bernoulli’s equation (Equation 11.58) Section 12.7.2.
by a term ∂/∂t corresponding to an acceleration of the fluid. Therefore, only deformation
modes of the interface for which the displacement is in the same direction as the acceleration
will be amplified.

Instability model in a linear regime

y y y
U1 + U2
U1 U1–U2 Figure 11.18 Flow of two superimposed
2
2 fluids in contact, moving parallel to each
other at different velocities and representation
x = x + x
of the velocity field of this flow as the superpo-
sition of an overall translation and a relative
U2–U1 flow of zero average velocity
U2 2

These processes are modelled as the flow of two superimposed fluids (1) and (2), moving
parallel to each other at different velocities U 1 and U 2 in the x-direction (Figure 11.18).
This flow is the superposition of a global translation at velocity (U 1 + U 2 )/2, and of a
flow antisymmetric relative to a horizontal plane, y = 0, and at a velocity ± U /2 with
U = U 1 – U 2 . As seen in Section 7.4.2, this is equivalent to assuming the presence of an
infinitesimal layer of vorticity at y = 0.
One also assumes (a general result for two-dimensional flows) that the first instability
which develops corresponds to a two-dimensional perturbation characterized by the height
ξ (x, t) of the interface above a base plane y = 0 (Figure 11.17). In the reference frame
moving at the global translational velocity (U 1 + U 2 )/2, the velocity fields v1 et v2 in each
liquid can be written in the form:

Ux Ux
v1 = ∇ + 1 (x, y, t) , (11.51a) v2 = ∇ – + 2 (x, y, t) . (11.51b)
2 2

The first term in each equation between the brackets is the velocity potential of the unper-
turbed flow; the second term is the potential for the velocity perturbation resulting from
the deformation ξ (x, t). The calculation is carried out in a linear approximation valid if the
442 Hydrodynamic instabilities

amplitude ξ (x, t) of the perturbations is small relative to their wavelength: this implies that
the angle α with the x–axis of the tangent at the interface (Figure 11.17) is small, so that:

∂ξ
α ≈ tan α = 1. (11.52)
∂x
The corresponding velocity perturbations are also assumed to be small relative to the ve-
locities ± U /2 of the basic flow. One now takes, for the coupled variables ξ , 1 , and 2
characterizing this perturbation, solutions of the form:

ξ 1 2
= = = eik x+σ t . (11.53)
A B1 e–k y B2 e k y

One will then look for relations between these several variables resulting from the boundary
conditions and the equations of motion.

Justification
The terms Bl e–k y and B2 ek y are required by the structure of Laplace’s equation, in the
same way as they were used in the study of surface waves carried out in Section 6.4.1. One
also needs to associate to the sinusoidal variation in the x-direction an exponential variation
along the perpendicular y-axis with a characteristic decay length equal to the wavelength.
The “–” and “+” signs ensure that the physical solution corresponds to an attenuation of
the wave in the two upper and lower half-spaces respectively. The term eσ t indicates that
one looks for modes varying exponentially with time like in the Rayleigh–Bénard problem.
One cannot exclude the existence of an imaginary component in σ : for surface waves of
stationary amplitude, this is indeed the only non-zero component.

A first relation between 1 , 2 , and the amplitude ξ (x, t) is provided by the boundary
conditions at y = 0 for the velocity component of the fluids normal to the interface:

∂1 ∂ξ U ∂ξ ∂2 ∂ξ U ∂ξ
υ1y = = + , (11.54a) and: υ2y = = – . (11.54b)
∂y ∂t 2 ∂x ∂y ∂t 2 ∂x

Applying Equations 11.53 in the above equations and simplifying by the factor eik x+σ t , one
then obtains:

U U
k B1 + σ + i k A=0 (11.55a) and: k B2 – σ – i k A = 0. (11.55b)
2 2

Proof
The normal velocity components at the interface [v1⊥ ], [v2⊥ ] must be continuous and equal
to the component (∂ξ /∂t) cos α of its velocity (the tangential components may, however, be
different because the fluids are assumed to be ideal). Calculating these normal components
for the two fluids, taking the projection of the velocity of each fluid on the normal to the
boundary and taking also cos α = 1, the previous equation becomes:
The second term in Equation 11.56b is the ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ
Lagrangian derivative of the position ξ (x, t) of υiy – υix α = (i = 1, 2) , (11.56a) so that: υiy ∼
= +υix (i = 1, 2) . (11.56b)
the interface. It is obtained by following a fluid ∂t ∂t ∂x
particle located close to the interface.
The approximation cos α ∼ = 1 introduces a By taking v1x = U /2 in Equations 11.56a–b, we obtain Equations 11.54a–b by using
second-order error in α while the other terms in Equations 11.51a–b for the velocity fields v1 and v2 and retaining only first order terms.
Equations 11.54a–b are of first-order in α.
Instabilities in open flows 443

Case where the interfacial surface tension and the differences

in density are neglected
In a first step, the effects of capillarity and of the difference in density between the two
liquids are neglected. In this case, the pressures on each side of the interfaces are equal, so
that:

p1 (x, y, t) = p2 (x, y, t) , for y=ξ (11.57)

Moreover, Bernoulli’s equation (Equation 5.36) allows one to write, for each of the two
fluids (assuming they have equal densities ρ 1 = ρ 2 = ρ):

∂i 1
pi + ρ + ρ g y + ρυi2 = constant (i = 1, 2) . (11.58)
∂t 2

∂1 U ∂1 ∂2 U ∂2
Therefore : + = – . (11.59)
∂t y=0 2 ∂x y=0 ∂t y=0 2 ∂x y=0

Justification
By subtracting Equations 11.58 and taking y = ξ , the term ρ g y cancels out as well as the
term pi (from Equation 11.57). In the equation obtained in this way, the terms including
vi 2 can be expressed by means of Equations 11.51a–b: by writing that those of terms of
the resulting expression which are of first-order relative to the perturbations i (and thus
vary as eik x + σ t ) are equal, one obtains Equation 11.59. The condition y = ξ has been re-
placed by that of y = 0, a substitution justified by the fact that the effect of variations over the
infinitesimal distance ξ would be second-order. Note that subtracting Equation 11.58 elim-
inates possible components of p and ξ proportional to eik x + σ t . Equation 11.59 expresses
the dynamic equilibrium for this problem (it plays the role of an equation of motion), while
Equations 11.54a–b express kinematic conditions.

It follows that the growth rate σ is related to the wave vector k by:

U
σ =±k . (11.60)
2
This relationship between the growth rate and the wave vector k, which corresponds to a
dispersion relation for a wave, show that there is always an unstable mode. Equation 11.60
implies also that, if the surface tension and gravitational forces are absent, the modes with a
short wavelength always display the greatest amplification.

Proof
Substituting Equation 11.53 into Equation 11.59, one obtains, after having cancelled out
eik x + σ t , and taking again y = 0:

U U
σ + ik B1 – σ – i k B2 = 0. (11.61)
2 2

Equations 11.55a–b and 11.61 represent a system of homogeneous, linear equations with
unknown coefficients A, B1 , B2 . These equations will only be compatible if the determinant
of the matrix of these coefficients vanishes, so that:
444 Hydrodynamic instabilities

U U U U
k σ + ik σ + ik + k σ –ik σ – ik = 0, (11.62)
2 2 2 2

U 2
whence: σ2 = k . (11.63)
2

Equation 11.60 results immediately. One observes that the value of the growth rate is
obtained by a dimensionally correct combination of the wave vector k and of the velocity U .

Effects of the interfacial tension and of differences in the density

Capillary forces and gravity limit respectively the growth of small-wavelength perturbations
and of those of long wavelengths (if the heavier fluid is below the lighter one). The previous
calculations will now be altered in order to take into account these effects.

• The pressure boundary condition (Equation 11.57) is replaced by:

∂ 2ξ
(p1 )y=ξ = (p2 )y=ξ + γ = (p2 )y=ξ – γ k2 ξ . (11.64)
∂x2

• In Bernoulli’s equation, one introduces the hydrostatic term ρ i g ξ (i = 1, 2) with

ρ 1 = ρ 2 .

The condition for the compatibility of the three equations is written like in the previous
case, and leads this time to the instability condition:

U 2 ρ1 ρ2 g ρ2 – ρ1 γk
> c20 = + , (11.65)
(ρ1 + ρ2 )2 k ρ2 + ρ1 ρ2 + ρ1
U ρ1 ρ2
ρ +ρ1 2
where c0 is the velocity of the surface waves in the absence of flow (U = 0). The stabilizing
(U)
effects of the density difference (ρ 1 – ρ 2 ) (first term) and of the surface tension γ are clearly
c0(k) apparent. The minimum value of c0 , c0min , and the critical wavelength kc associated with it,
(S) satisfy the equations:

c0min 2 4γ g ( ρ2 – ρ1 ) g (ρ2 – ρ1 )
c0 min = (11.66a) and: kc = . (11.66b)
(ρ1 + ρ2 )2 γ
GW kc CW k
Note that kc is the reciprocal of the capillary length introduced in Section 1.4.4.
√
Figure 11.19 Stability diagram for the The set of threshold values of U ρ1 ρ2 / (ρ1 + ρ2 ) corresponding to different wave vec-
Kelvin–Helmholtz instability as a function of tors is represented by the solid curve on Figure 11.19. This curve represents the limit
the wave vector k. Along the solid-line (rep- of linear stability of the problem analogous to the curve displayed in Figure 11.9 for the
resenting the marginal-stability curve), the Rayleigh–Bénard instability. The minimum of the curve (and thus of the velocity U required
velocity c0 (k) of the surface waves is given to observe the instability) corresponds to a critical wave vector kc for which gravitational
by the right-hand side of Equation 11.65. and capillary effects are of comparable magnitude. The inner region (U ) is the domain
(U) represents the domain of instability; GW where perturbations with a given wave vector are amplified. In the region (S) outside this
and CW are those regions in which the sta- curve, gravity and capillary waves excited by external perturbations are damped by vis-
bilizing effects of gravity and capillary forces cous effects and their amplitude decreases exponentially with time, as soon as the excitation
respectively dominate stops.
Instabilities in open flows 445

Experimental measurements
This curve can be determined experimentally by using a water-filled channel above which
air is blown parallel to the free surface, at a selectable velocity. By means of a movable
plate, located at one end of the channel, a local surface oscillation of adjustable frequency
is “forced”, simultaneously determining the wave vector. For each driving frequency, the
minimum wind velocity at which an instability appears is measured: this minimum is the
velocity for which the amplitude of the waves increases as a function of the distance from
the point of excitation. Such measurements lead to the determination of the equivalent of
the stability curve shown in Figure 11.19 (with the wave vector k replaced by the driving
frequency).

Kelvin–Helmholtz instability in a non-linear regime

B
The above linear analysis does not apply to large amplitude regimes for which a description
E
in terms of the exponential growth of a single wave vector mode is insufficient. In order to A C
understand the subsequent evolution of the instability, one uses a discrete representation of
(a) D
the velocity discontinuity as a system of parallel vortex lines (a method previously used in
Section 7.4.2). Such techniques are frequently used for numerical calculations: the compu- B
tation of the non-linear evolution of the Kelvin–Helmholtz flow was first carried out as early
A E
as in the1930s. Let us consider, for example, the behavior of four, parallel, vortex lines A, C
B, C and D: these lines are part of a sheet of linear vortices (of core perpendicular to the
plane of the figure) with a contour displaying a bump at B. In order to study the evolution (b) D
of the shape of this bump, one looks at the effect, on the vortex at B, of two vortices placed
symmetrically at A and C (Figure 11.20a). Figure 11.20 Evolution of a set of four
As a consequence of the deformation of the shape of the boundary, the field in- identical vortex filaments, normal to the
duced by these vortices has a horizontal component which causes the vortex at B to plane of the figure, and which are part of a
move closer to that at C; similarly, the vortex at D also comes closer to C. Thus, the vortex sheet; (a) initial shape of the vortex
vorticity is increased in the neighborhood of C while, around A, it is weakened. As a re- sheet after a bump has appeared on it; (b) ev-
sult of the additional flow due to this vorticity, the interface becomes steeper, and takes olution of the shape of the sheet resulting from
on the form shown in Figure 11.20b (it is referred to as a type-N wave, a reference the interaction between the velocity fields of
to the asymmetric form of that letter). Finally, the surface can break, just like ocean the vortices
waves.

11.4.2 Role of the shape of the velocity

profile for open flows
For the Kelvin–Helmholtz instability discussed just above, the basic shear flow displays an
inflection point: such flows were shown to be always unstable, absent the effects of gravity,
capillarity and viscosity. We will now show that, on the other hand, flows for which the ve-
locity profile does not display an inflection point are stable, provided the effect of viscosity is
neglected: this is, for example, the case for Poiseuille-type flows, or those inside a boundary
layer.
However, for viscous fluids, even flow profiles without an inflection point can be un-
stable. This may seem paradoxical since viscosity had always appeared previously as a
stabilizing parameter: in contrast, in this case, momentum transfers due to the viscosity
are the driving force for the instability for high values of the Reynolds number.
446 Hydrodynamic instabilities

Figure 11.21 Evolution of the perturbation y

in the parallel flow of an ideal fluid for the y2 y2 y
case where the variation of the fluid velocity
vx (y) with the distance y, normal to the flow
has no points of inflection: (a) Velocity pro- dυx
y1 υx(y) y1
file for vx (y). (b) Variation of the derivative dy
dvx /dy of the velocity profile as a function of (a) (b)
y. (c) Perturbation of the flow due to the dis- A'
placement of an element of fluid from F to F
.
(d) Velocity field resulting from the elements y2 A F' B y2 F'
of fluid A and B, displaced to their new posi-
tions A
and B
. On the schematic diagrams B'
(c) and (d), the fine-print arrows represent
the local vorticity, those in bolder print the y1 F y1
additional vorticity representing the local dif-
(c) (d)
ference between the displaced element of fluid
and the local vorticity field

Justification
Consider now a two-dimensional flow with a velocity parallel the x-direction: the exact
velocity profile vx ( y) is not known but one assumes that its curvature d2 vx /dy2 (nega-
tive in the case of Figure 11.21a) does not change sign for any value of y. The vorticity
ωz = –dvx /dy varies then monotonically with the coordinate y (Figure 11.21b).
One displaces now an element of fluid by a small distance y2 – y1 from point F to point
F
(Figure 11.21c). If viscosity effects are neglected, the vorticity is only carried along,
and cannot diffuse, as previously seen in Section 7.3.1. One assumes therefore that the
fluid particle retains its initial vorticity when it reaches the point F
: it appears, relative to
the equilibrium profile, as a little vortex with an effective vorticity (bold-face arrow on the
figure) proportional to the difference between the values of ωz at points F and F
(fine-print
arrows). This vortex, in turn, acts on the elements of fluid A and B, located near F
: A and
B are then displaced in opposite directions toward the points A
and B
, also retaining their
own initial vorticity (Figure 11.21d). As a result, each of them is out of equilibrium with the
surrounding fluid: this process is thus equivalent to the appearance of two opposite vortices
at A
and B
(their effective vorticity is once again displayed by the bold-face arrow on the
figure). The direction of the velocity that these vortices induce at F
is such that it pushes
back toward F the fluid element considered initially.
A velocity profile without a point of inflection is therefore stable relative to an infinitesi-
mal perturbation in the limit that the fluid can be considered as ideal, so that only convection
effects can affect the vorticity. This conclusion clearly no longer applies when one includes
effects of the viscous diffusion of the vorticity.

11.4.3 Sub-critical instabilities for Poiseuille

and Couette flows
The Kelvin–Helmholtz instability displays supercritical characteristics, at least for suffi-
ciently deep fluid layers, and develops thereafter without displaying hysteresis effects. It will
be seen that this is not the case for open flows such as those of the Poiseuille and Couette
type. Just as in the Bénard–Marangoni instability (Section 11.3.1), the instabilities of these
Instabilities in open flows 447

flows can be subcritical and perturbations of high enough amplitude can cause a sudden
transition toward an unstable regime, starting from rest, below a linear threshold. For such
flows, instabilities can show up by the appearance of structures which propagate with the
flow (one then refers to a convective regime of the instabilities) or which appear in a given
region and persist there (an absolute regime).

Poiseuille flow in a circular tube

In his study of the transition toward turbulence in a cylindrical tube discussed in
Section 2.4.1, O. Reynolds was the first to show evidence of such effects; this problem
is however still poorly understood. The subcritical nature of these instabilities is made more
clear by the fact that the critical Reynolds number corresponding to their occurrence has
been shown to be infinite, if the fluctuations in the flow are infinitesimal. A finite amplitude
perturbation is then needed to trigger instabilities leading to turbulence. Measurements by
means of an experimental set-up similar to that of Reynolds have shown that, in the range
1,500 < Re < 1,750, one can induce localized perturbations in the flow with a length of about
20 diameters: these turbulent puffs coexist with the Poiseuille flow and decay faster with dis-
tance as Re is farther below 1,750. Between Re = 1,750 and Re = 2,200 (typically), there are
turbulent plugs (already observed by Reynolds) of constant length which propagate at a ve-
locity of the same order as the average flow. When the Reynolds number increases further,
these turbulent plugs end up occupying the entire flow. The critical Reynolds numbers for
the spontaneous transition to turbulence can vary from a few thousands to about 105 de-
pending on external conditions in the experiment (vibrations, conditions at the entry point,
roughness of the walls, etc.). Current studies using PIV techniques and the introduction of
controlled perturbations, allow for a detailed analysis of these unstable structures.

Poiseuille flow between parallel plates

On the other hand, for Poiseuille flow between two parallel plates, there exists a well-defined
threshold for the appearance of infinitesimal instabilities (Rec = 5,900): this is known as
the linear threshold, since linear approximations can be used to predict the evolution of
such perturbations. However, it is equally possible for finite amplitude perturbations to be
amplified for a Reynolds number (of order 1,000) much lower than the above value. In fact,
experimentally, the transition to well-developed turbulence throughout the volume occurs
in a manner similar to the case of a circular tube.

Plane Couette flow

Plane Couette flow also displays subcritical characteristics. There is a non-linear threshold
ReNL ≈ 1,500, representing the minimum velocity for large amplitude perturbations to be
amplified (Re = U h/ν, where h is the distance between the planes, and U their relative These results display analogies with first-order
velocity). As one approaches this threshold from higher values, one observes a continuous phase transitions (such as the transition from a
increase in the amplitude required to create a permanent turbulent structure. A minimum liquid to gaseous state near a critical point). The
transition from one state to another depends in
spatial extent of these perturbations is also required. At higher Reynolds numbers, the en- this case, in addition to the amplitude of the per-
tire flow volume can be made turbulent. Experiments displaying these properties have been turbations, on a critical radius for nucleation of
carried out between two parallel flat plates moving in opposite directions at the same ab- the unstable (turbulent) phase which grows from
the stable state. They can be put in relation with
solute velocity: the velocity in the median plane is zero. This make the observation of the
the analysis of the B-M instability presented in
perturbations, which are then at rest, easier. Figure 11.13.
Turbulence
12 This book concludes with the most challenging aspect of the mechanics of fluids: tur-
bulence which we have already encountered in various manifestations throughout this
12.1 A long history 448 book. In Chapter 2, we have seen that the flow behind a cylindrical obstacle become
12.2 The fundamental equations 449 turbulent at Reynolds numbers of a few hundreds. In Chapter 7, we have studied the
12.3 Empirical expressions for the physics of vortices, which are important elements of turbulence. Boundary layer sep-
Reynolds tensor and applications aration (Chapter 10) produces turbulent wakes downstream of bodies placed within a
to free flows 457 flow. Finally, the study of hydrodynamic instabilities in Chapter 11 forms a beginning
12.4 Free turbulent flows: jets and to the study of turbulence.
wakes 460 After a brief historical overview (Section 12.1), we derive (Section 12.2) the basic
12.5 Flows near a solid wall 466
equations governing turbulence, by splitting up the local instantaneous velocity field
into a mean flow and fluctuations; we apply the same procedure to other variables
12.6 Homogeneous
(vorticity, pressure, energy). The fluctuations are correlated and thus have a non van-
turbulence – Kolmogorov’s theory 479
ishing contribution: the resulting turbulent transport mechanism plays a key role, both
12.7 Other aspects of turbulence 486 for energy and momentum transfer and for the transfers of thermal energy and solutes.
We present then (Section 12.3) several empirical relationships between the transport
of momentum by turbulent fluctuations and the gradient of the mean flow. We also
discuss (Section 12.4) their application to free flows such as jets, wakes, or mixing
layers.
In Section 12.5, we tackle turbulent flows bounded by solid walls. Momentum trans-
port involves viscosity only in the immediate vicinity of the wall (viscous sublayer); then
it takes place by means of increasingly larger vortices as one moves away from the wall
(inertial layer).
Kolmogorov’s theory (Section 12.6) applies, on the contrary, to homogeneous tur-
bulence and uses the variations of the fluctuating quantities (velocity, vorticity . . .) as a
function of the size of the vortices to which they correspond: it describes, within three-
dimensional flows, the transfer of the energy from the mean flow, and of its large-scale
components, toward those corresponding to smaller spatial scales where the effect of
viscosity becomes significant. One thus derives scaling laws characteristic of the trans-
port, and encounters again vorticity amplification by the stretching of vortices already
discussed in Chapter 7.
Finally, in Section 12.7, we will discuss two-dimensional flows, for which the mech-
anism of the stretching of vortices is non-existent, as well as the case of large, coherent,
turbulent structures.

12.1 A long history

Turbulence makes up an essential chapter in the study of fluid flows. From the times
of antiquity, it has been the object of imaged descriptions. The classical quotation “We
never bathe twice in the same river”, attributed to Heraclitus, refers to the everchanging

Physical Hydrodynamics. Second Edition. Etienne Guyon et al.

character – non-stationary and unpredictable – of turbulent flows. In “De natura rerum”,

Lucretius gives a description of the surface of the sea, alternately calm, and very agitated.
He introduces, following Epicurus, the idea of “clinamen” (in English, deviation), which
In the previous chapter, we have already dis-
refers to changes of the trajectories of atoms which, amplified, lead to the build-up of bodies cussed this sensitivity to initial conditions, as we
in an unexpected manner, in the same way as the appearance of the turbulent motion of a studied hydrodynamic instabilities, which which
fluid. lead to an unpredictable behavior.
Moreover, turbulent flows lead to the appearance of easily recognized geometrical forms,
such as the vortices and filamentary structures drawn by Leonardo da Vinci, and which
became associated with the modern idea of coherent structures. The Bénard–von Karman
vortex-streets, discussed in Section 2.4.2, as well as the mixing-layer structures at the in-
terface of two fluids moving at different velocities (Section 11.4.1), are examples of such
structures. Leonardo da Vinci also gives a first description of transport within a turbulent
flow, for which we borrow the transcription in the reference book by Uriel Frisch on this
subject:

“Where the turbulence of water is generated;

where the turbulence of the water maintains for long;
where the turbulence comes to rest.”

We will see in Section 12.6 that this can be related to the energy cascade, known as
Kolgomorov’s cascade, which extends from the scale of large vortices to that of smaller
and smaller ones, and to which we have referred while studying the Rankine vortex in
Section 7.3.2. Finally, we have seen in Section 2.4.1 how, as early as 1880, Reynolds studied
the transition between laminar and turbulent flows.
We might continue with this historical presentation. . . to state, in conclusion, that the
problem of predicting turbulent flows, which has been the object of many studies as early
as the end of the nineteenth century, remains to this day incompletely understood.

12.2 The fundamental equations

12.2.1 Statistical description of turbulent flows
Turbulent flows display random fluctuations of the velocity. For this reason, their study
resembles the study of gases of particles in statistical mechanics. Rather than attempt to
describe the velocity at every point x and at any instant of time t, one needs to focus on the
probability of obtaining a given velocity at an ensemble of carefully chosen points. In practi-
cal terms, a complete determination of such probability distributions is impossible, and one
is limited to the determination of moments of this distribution, such as the average or the
mean-square deviation, as well as the correlation functions between the velocity fluctuations
at neighboring points and times.
The variables describing a turbulent flow (velocity, pressure, temperature,
composition. . .) can then be split up into average values, and fluctuations related to
the turbulence, of zero-average value. Let us apply this decomposition, known as Reynolds
decomposition, to the component vi of the velocity in the form:

vi = v̄i + v
i with: v
i = 0. (12.1)

We are now interested in deriving the laws which affect the variations of the average value
v̄i and those of the correlations between the components v
i of the fluctuations. Strictly
speaking, in order to determine these average values, one must create a large number N of
450 Turbulence

configurations of the same flow with identical initial conditions and geometries, and carry
out an ensemble average over the N values obtained for all these configurations:

1 N α
v̄i (x, t) = lim v (x, t), (12.2)
N→∞ N 1 i

where the index α varies from 1 to N and characterizes the specific configuration. This
procedure is the only possible one when the flow is time-dependent, and one is interested
in the temporal evolution of v̄i (x, t) (e.g., like for turbulence resulting from the motion
of a grid through a fixed volume of fluid). Practically, this approach can however only be
applied to flows easily reproducible, and for which the evolution time (e.g., the relaxation
of the turbulent velocity toward zero), is not too long.
Such ensemble averages are not required if one deals with a statistically stationary flow.
In such flows, the values of the velocity and the pressure fluctuate as a function of time, but
their statistical properties (their probability distribution, average value, etc.) remain con-
stant. One then assumes that turbulence satisfies the hypothesis of ergodicity: if one waits
long enough, the flow passes through all possible states, and the time elapsed in each of
these states is proportional to its probability. One infers from this the following definition
for the component v̄i of the average velocity of the flow at a given point x:
t0 +T
1
v̄i (x) = lim vi (x, t) dt. (12.3)
T →∞ T t0

In order to obtain a significant value of the average, the averaging time T must be large
relative to the characteristic duration τ of the slowest fluctuations in the velocity associated
to turbulent motions.
If the mean flow is not rigorously stationary but evolves slowly, e.g. as a result of a
variation in the external parameters, one can still define an average v̄i (x, t0 ) for a given
time t 0 by adapting the definition of Equation 12.3: for this, the averaging time T must be
small relative to the characteristic time T1 for the large scale evolution of the global flow.
The combination of these two conditions for T implies that the duration τ of the slowest
turbulent fluctuations must be much shorter than the time T1 : the mean flow must therefore
be almost stationary, and one can then assume that the ergodicity assumption is valid.
In addition to the time averages of the components of the velocity and of the other fluctu-
The experimental devices used have been, ating variables (pressure, temperature, etc.), one will also use the higher order moments of
among others, hot-wire and laser-doppler
anemometers (Section 3.5.3). Other, more re- these variables (or the averages of products of these variables), which indicate the relation-
cent, techniques, such as laser-induced fluo- ship between their variations at different locations and times. The study of such space and
rescence (Section 3.5.2) or the velocimetry by time correlations from instantaneous measurements of the velocity at two different locations
particle images (Section 3.5.4), provide impor-
tant new additional information on the geometry is one of the major aspects of the experimental studies of turbulence, in relation with the
of turbulence. development of statistical models.

12.2.2 Derivatives of average values

When an ensemble average is used, one finds, by taking a space or time derivative
of Equation 12.2 and interchanging the order of the operations of summation and
differentiation:

∂ v̄i ∂vi ∂ v̄i ∂vi

= (12.4) and: = . (12.5)
∂xj ∂xj ∂t ∂t

When a time average is used instead, one obtains the same results for the space derivatives
by applying the same procedure to Equation 12.3. For the time-derivative, Equation 12.5
The fundamental equations 451

is valid only if the condition (discussed above) of a characteristic time τ of the fluctuations
much smaller than that for the evolution of the flow is satisfied.

Proof
The time-derivative of the average velocity obeys, by splitting vi into v̄i + v
i :

∂vi vi (t0 + δt) – vi (t0 ) v̄i (t0 + δt) – v̄i (t0 ) v
i (t0 + δt) – v
i (t0 )
= lim = lim + .
∂t δt→0 δt δt→0 δt δt
(12.6)

The two averages of the fluctuations of the term on the right-hand side will cancel out if the
averaging time T is much greater than τ . On the other hand, one can assume that the term
on the left-hand side equals ∂vi /∂t if T is sufficiently small relative to the global evolution
time T 1 . Taking δt = T, one then obtains a significant value for this derivative.

12.2.3 Governing equations of turbulent flows

Reynolds Equation
The Navier–Stokes equation continues to apply to the instantaneous velocity vi so long as
the length scale of the smallest turbulent motion of particles in the fluid is large relative to the
mean-free-path of individual molecules (the validity of this assumption is discussed further
down). One also assumes, as in the remainder of this book, that the fluid is incompressible.
The equation of motion, known as Reynolds equation, obeyed by the average value v̄i of
the velocity, is as follows:
∂ v̄i ∂ v̄i ∂v
1 ∂ p̄ ∂ 2 v̄i In Equation 12.7, one sums over the indices j
+ v̄j + v
j i = – + ν 2 + fi . (12.7)
∂t ∂xj ∂xj ρ ∂xi ∂xj which appear twice in a term.

This so-called Reynolds equation differs only in the term v

j ∂v
i /∂xj from that obtained
by replacing simply, in the Navier–Stokes equation, p and vi by their averages p̄ and v̄i .

Proof
Using the splitting of Equation 12.1 in the Navier–Stokes equation normalized by the
density ρ, one obtains:
∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂2
v̄i + v
i + v̄j + v
j v̄i + v
i = – p̄ + p
+ ν 2 v̄i + v
i + fi . (12.8)
∂t ∂xj ρ ∂xi ∂xj
As above, the Einstein convention of implicit summation over the index j is used; Equation
12.8 is then averaged over time. All terms in which the fluctuations p
or v
i appear only once
vanish when they are averaged. Only the cross-product v
j ∂v
i /∂xj and the terms which only
include the average values of vi and p are non-zero, resulting in Equation 12.7.

This chapter deals only with incompressible turbulence and the incompressibility condi-
tion, ∇·v = 0, applies both to the average and fluctuating fields. These two conditions can
be written as:
∂ ∂

v̄j = 0 (12.9) and: v = 0, (12.10)
∂xj ∂xj j

where Equation 12.10 is valid at every instant of time.

452 Turbulence

Just like the usual Navier–Stokes equation, Equation 12.7 can be transformed into an
equation for momentum conservation:

∂ v̄i ∂
ρ = σij – ρ v̄i v̄j – ρ v
i v
j + ρ fi , (12.11a)
∂t ∂xj

where:

∂ v̄i ∂ v̄j
σ̄ij = –p̄ δij + ρ ν + . (12.11b)
∂xj ∂xi

Proof
Equations (12.11) are obtained by multiplying Equation 12.7 by ρ, rewriting the cross-
product by using Equation 12.10:

∂
∂

∂
∂

v
j v = v v – v
i v = vv,
∂xj i ∂xj i j ∂xj j ∂xj i j
$
and carrying out this same operation on the term v̄j ∂ v̄i ∂xj .

The term:

τij = –ρ v
i v
j . (12.11c)

in Equation 12.11a is the Reynolds tensor. The average ij of the momentum flux

ij = ρ vi vj + p δ ij – σ ij introduced in Section 5.2.2 (Equation 5.11) obeys:

ij = – σij + ρ v̄i v̄j + ρ v

i v
j = – σ
ij + p̄ δij + ρ v̄i v̄j + ρ v
i v
j . (12.12)

Again, Equations 12.11a and 12.12 obeyed by the averages v̄i and p̄, are virtually identical
to the equations obtained by replacing, in the corresponding Equations 5.6 and 5.11, vi and
p by their average values. The additional term, fundamental for turbulent transport, is the
Reynolds tensor.

The meaning of the Reynolds tensor

The term τij = –ρ v
i v
j , characterizing the correlation between the instantaneous compo-
nents of the fluctuating velocity, accounts for the momentum transport by means of the
turbulent fluctuations. It is also known as the turbulent stress tensor and is a symmetric ten-
sor. It has therefore three diagonal components τ ii , and three off-diagonal components τ i=j
which play a particularly important role: for a turbulent flow in a cylindrical tube, or be-
tween two planes, they ensure the transport towards the walls of the momentum parallel to
the mean flow (Section 12.5.2). In this way, they are similar to the off-diagonal components
of the viscosity stress tensor discussed in Chapter 4.

Turbulent transport of thermal energy or matter

Up to this point, we have attempted to derive equations obeyed by the average velocity of
the turbulent flow which controls, consequently, the momentum transport. One can handle
in the same way the problem of thermal transport in turbulent flow. Thermal transport by
turbulent fluctuations of the velocity has some common features with the kinetic-theory
The fundamental equations 453

model of gases discussed in Chapter 1 (Section 1.3.2). In this last case, the transfer was
associated with the adiabatic displacement of the molecules resulting from their thermal
random motion within a temperature gradient. Here, this thermal agitation is replaced by
the turbulent velocity fluctuations.
In the general case, the equation of thermal transport in a flowing fluid in the absence of
a heat source is:

∂T ∂T ∂2T
+ vj =κ , (12.13)
∂t ∂xj ∂x2j

where vj is the local velocity of the fluid and κ = k/(ρCp ) is its thermal diffusivity (Cp is
the thermal heat capacity per unit mass, ρ the density, and k the thermal conductivity).
Just as in the case of the velocity, we frequently have, in a turbulent flow, fluctuations of
the temperature T , which we can split up in the form T = T + T
. The space and time
derivatives of T are considered, just as in the case of the velocity, as equal to the average
values of the derivatives. By splitting both T and the velocity vi = v̄i + v
i , and averaging the
thermal transport equation, one obtains an equation equivalent to the Reynolds equation:

∂ T̄ ∂ ∂ 2 T̄
=– v̄j T̄ + v
j T
+ κ . (12.14)
∂t ∂xj ∂x2j

The average v
j T
plays a role equivalent to the Reynolds tensor and accounts for the global
thermal transfer due to the transport of temperature fluctuations by those of the velocity.
From Equation 12.14, one infers, as above, the following expression of the thermal flux QT
within the turbulent flow:

∂ T̄
QTj = –k + ρ Cp v̄j T̄ + ρ Cp v
j T
. (12.15)
∂xj

One considers now, instead of thermal transport, that of a soluble component (ion, dye, Example: Let us compare, for an ionic solution,
radioactive tracer, chemical pollutant, etc.) with a concentration C expressed as the mass of the orders of magnitude of the flux components
associated with the different mechanisms con-
solute per unit volume of solvent. In the same way, one obtains the following equation for
tributing to Qm . The typical value of Dm for
the mass flux Qm of the solute per unit area and time, in the absence of a source term (e.g., a simple ion is Dm = 10–9 m2 /s. Let us assume
a chemical reaction): that, for an average value C of the concentra-
tion, there is an average concentration-gradient
corresponding to a variation of the order of
∂ C̄ 10–1 C across a container of size 0.1 m. Let
Qmj = –Dm + v̄j C̄ + v
j C
. (12.16)
∂xj us now generate in this container, for exam-
ple with a large spoon, a turbulent mixing flow
which results in turbulent velocity fluctuations of
The coefficient Dm is the molecular diffusivity associated with the quantity involved: for the order of 10–2 m/s, and concentration fluc-
turbulent flows, the corresponding term contributes generally weakly to Qmj . This is the tuations of the order of 10–1 C. The orders of
idea which is used naturally while stirring a cup of coffee after adding cream! magnitude of the mass transport terms by turbu-
lent fluctuations and by molecular diffusion (if
The ratio Pet between the turbulent and molecular diffusion terms can be considered,
the fluid had remained at rest) are respectively
whether one refers to a thermal transfer or a mass transfer, as a turbulent Péclet number; v
C
≈ 10–3 C m/s and Dm ∂C/∂xj ≈ 10–7 C m/s.
using the same definition as in Section 2.3.2. Its order of magnitude is Pet ≈ 104 , for the Turbulent diffusion is clearly much more effi-
previous example. cient than molecular diffusion.

12.2.4 Energy balance in a turbulent flow

The kinetic energy of a turbulent flow is the sum of the energy of the mean flow and of
2
the turbulent fluctuations. Effectively, when we average v̄i + v
i , the cross terms v̄i v
i in
454 Turbulence

the expansion of the square average out to zero, such that v2i = v̄2i + v
i 2 . We will thus write
out separately the balance equations for these two components in order to understand the
change in the total kinetic energy.

Changes in the kinetic energy of the mean flow in the absence of gravity
To calculate this balance, one multiplies the Navier–Stokes equation by v̄i , sums over the
different components and then takes averages (the volume force fi is assumed to be zero).
By splitting up each velocity component as in Equation 12.1, dividing by ρ in order to obtain
the energy per unit mass, and eliminating those terms where the fluctuations only occur in
a single factor so that their average is zero, one obtains:

∂ v̄2i ∂ v̄i ∂ p̄ ∂v
∂ 2 v̄i
+ v̄i v̄j = – v̄i – v̄i v
j i + ν v̄i 2 . (12.17)
∂t 2 ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj

Using the incompressibility condition (Equations 12.9 and 12.10), Equation 12.17 can be
rewritten in the form:
2
∂ v̄2i ∂ v̄2i ∂ p̄ v̄j ∂ v̄i ∂ v̄i ∂ v̄i
+ v̄j = –v̄i v
i v
j – + ν v̄i –ν + v
i v
j . (12.18)
∂t 2 ∂xj 2 ∂xj ρ ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj

On the left-hand side:

$ $
• the term ∂ ∂t v̄2i 2 corresponds to the time variation of the average energy. It is
non-zero if the mean flow is not stationary.
$
• the term v̄j ∂ ∂xj v̄2i corresponds to the convection by the mean flow of the spatial
gradient of the average kinetic energy. By grouping this term with the first one, one
obtains a kind of Lagrangian derivative but constructed by means of the average
velocity and not of the total velocity.

The right-hand side of the equation includes the following contributions of the various
mechanisms:

• the first three terms (grouped within the same parentheses) represent the divergence
of the flux terms from different origins (turbulent fluctuations, pressure, viscos-
ity). Their integral over a control volume corresponds to the work done by the
corresponding stresses.
$ 2
• the term –ν ∂ v̄i ∂xj expresses, by reference to Section 5.3.1, the loss of the energy
in the mean flow by viscous dissipation (this term is obtained by replacing vi by v̄i in
Equation 5.26).
$
• the last term v
i v
j ∂ v̄i ∂xj of the equation represents the transfer of energy between
the mean flow and the turbulent fluctuations: it involves at the same time the gra-
dient of the mean flow and the Reynolds tensor τij = –ρ v
i v
j for the transport of
momentum by turbulent fluctuations.

Changes in the kinetic energy of the turbulent fluctuations

in the absence of gravity
One proceeds exactly as for obtaining Equations 12.17 and 12.18, but the Navier–Stokes
equation is multiplied by v
i instead of v̄i before summing over the indices i and j and
The fundamental equations 455

averaging. By proceeding just as before, to regroup the different terms of the equations thus
obtained, one obtains:

∂ v
i 2 ∂ v
i 2 ∂ vi 2 vj p
v
j ∂v
∂v
i 2

∂ v̄i
+ v̄j = – – + ν v
i i –ν –vi vj . (12.19)
∂t 2 ∂xj 2 ∂xj 2 ρ ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj

This equation is similar in form to Equation 12.18, replacing the average values by their
fluctuating components. On the left hand side:

• the term ∂ v
i 2 / 2 /∂t characterizes the lack of stationarity of the energy of the
turbulent fluctuations;

• the term v̄j ∂ v2i / 2 /∂xj indicates, as in Equation 12.18, a convection by the mean
flow but, here, of the gradient in the energy of the turbulent fluctuations. We could
also group it with the first term in order to obtain a particular term of the Lagrangian
derivative (based on the convection by the mean flow). We will see further on that the velocity gradi-
ents associated with vortices (particularly those
of small size) are much greater than those associ-
On the right-hand side: ated with the mean flow, except very close to the
$ 2
walls (Section 12.6.1). The term –ν ∂v
i ∂xj
for the viscous dissipation of turbulent fluctu-
• the first three terms, all in the form of a divergence, also represent, after integrating ations in Equation 12.19 is then much greater
$ 2
over an element of volume, the work done by the turbulent pressure and viscous than the corresponding term –ν ∂ v̄i ∂xj for
stresses. These stresses are fluctuating but yield non-zero contributions, because they the mean flow. Regarding the relative order of
are multiplied by fluctuating velocity components; magnitude of the last two terms in Equation
12.18, one shifts from one to the other by sub-
$ 2 $ 2 $
• the term –ν ∂v
i ∂xj expresses, again by reference to Section 5.3.1, the loss of stituting in –ν ∂ v̄i ∂xj the factor –ν ∂ v̄i ∂xj
(viscous stressses associated with the mean flow)
energy of the turbulent fluctuations by viscous dissipation.
$ by v
i v
j (turbulent stresses). Here, also, the tur-
• the term -v
i v
j ∂ v̄i ∂xj is the same as that in Equation 12.18, but it has the opposite bulent stresses are generally dominant except, as
sign: this confirms its role in the exchange of energy between the mean flow and the will be seen, very close to the walls.
fluctuations.

12.2.5 Transport of the vorticity in a turbulent flow

Balance of the vorticity of the turbulent fluctations
Just as for the velocity and pressure fields, one splits up the vorticity ω = ∇ × v into
ω = ω̄ + ω
. The fluctuation terms ω
i correspond to combinations of the gradients of the
components of the fluctuations of the velocity: in absolute value, they are generally much
greater than the terms ω̄i (see Section 12.6.1).
One is thus interested only in the equation of conservation of the components ω
i , or
rather, since their average value is zero, in the quantity ω
i 2 /2 (summed over i), known

as the enstrophy. The equation of conservation of the enstrophy ω
2 / 2 = i ω
i 2 /2 of the
turbulent fluctuations is then derived by starting from Equation 7.42 for the transport of
vorticity and proceeding as in the case of the energy and the momentum. Keeping only the
dominant terms, one obtains:

2
∂ ω
2 ∂ ω
2 ∂v
i ∂ωi

+ v̄j = ω
i ω
j –ν . (12.20a)
∂t 2 ∂xj 2 ∂xj ∂xj
456 Turbulence

Proof
One multiplies Equation 7.42 by ω
i and averages, using the same splitting as previously for
vi and neglecting the average vorticity ω̄i relative to ω
i . The different terms become:
⎛ ⎞
∂ωi ∂ ω
2j ∂ ω
2i ∂ ω̄i

ω j vj = v̄j ⎝ ⎠

+ vj + ωj
v
j ,
∂xj ∂xj 2 ∂xj 2 ∂xj
⎛ ⎞
∂ ω
2i ∂ ⎝
ω
2i ⎠
where: v
j = vj ,
∂xj 2 ∂xj 2

∂vi ∂ v̄i ∂v

–ω
i ωj = –ωi
ωj
– ωi
ωj
i ,
∂xj ∂xj ∂xj
2 2
∂ 2 ωi ∂ 2 ωi
∂ ∂ωi
∂ωi
ν ∂ 2 ω
2i ∂ωi

ν ωi
= ν ω
i =ν ωi
–ν = –ν .
∂xj2
∂x2j ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj 2 ∂x2j ∂xj
$
Terms such as ωi
ωj
∂ v̄i ∂xj which include the derivative of terms already averaged are then
$
considered negligible relative to terms of the type ωi
ωj
∂v
i ∂xj . Taking these remarks into
account, one finds the two dominant terms of the right-hand term of Equation 12.20a. For
a quasi-stationary and homogeneous flow, the left-hand side of this equation vanishes, and
it becomes:
2
ωi
ωj
∂v
i / ∂xj = ν ∂ωi
/ ∂xj . (12.20b)

Equation 12.20a-b plays for the vorticity (and, through it, for the angular momentum)
the role of the energy balance equation (Equation 12.19) for the kinetic energy. The term
2
–ν ∂ωi
/ ∂xj represents the vorticity dissipation by viscous diffusion. The second term

ωi
ωj
∂v
i / ∂xj results from the term ωj ∂vi /∂xj of Equation 7.42: this term corresponds to
variations of the turbulent vorticity due to the stretching of the vorticity tubes by velocity
fluctuations. In order to compensate for viscous diffusion, this term must be positive: there
is thus, on average, more stretching than compression of the vorticity tubes. Thus, the
A similar equilibrium between stretching of the
vorticity and viscous diffusion was discussed in
larger ones are continuously being stretched into tubes of smaller cross-section: this process
Section 7.3.2, in the case of vortices created by continues up to the point where the losses due to viscosity come into equilibrium with the
emptying a container. increase in vorticity.
This particular model applies only to three-dimensional flows: for a purely two-
dimensional one, the vorticity is always perpendicular to the plane of the flow, and
the stretching term vanishes identically. In Section 12.7.3, this is shown to influence
considerably the properties of the turbulence of two-dimensional flows.
The effectiveness of this stretching process is well demonstrated experimentally for tur-
bulent flows between parallel disks turning in opposite directions around the same axis.
Vortex filaments with a very localized core appear sporadically. However, these vortices
become unstable and disappear soon after they have appeared. Such filaments are also
observed in numerical simulations.

Divergence of the vorticity at a finite time in the absence of viscosity

In the absence of viscosity, the amplification of the vorticity by stretching would lead to a
divergence of this vorticity within a finite time-interval. Let us go back to Equation 12.20a
Empirical expressions for the Reynolds tensor and applications to free flows 457

while neglecting the effect of viscosity. Dimensionally, the right hand term is of order ω3 .
In a symbolic manner, the vorticity thus obeys the equation:

1 dω2
= A ω3 ,
2 dt

where A is a constant of the order of unity. This equation has a solution of the form:

1 1
– = A t,
ω0 ω

where ωo is the vorticity at an initial time t = 0, so that:

ω0 ω0 t0 1
ω= = , (12.21a) with: t0 = . (12.21b)
1 – Aωt t0 – t A ω0

In this model, the vorticity ω diverges after a time t0 , known as the catastrophe time, which
is of the same order of magnitude as the time it takes to flip, by rotation, the original vortex
packet. Whether the effect of viscosity can inhibit such a divergence from occurring within
a finite time-interval remains an open question.

12.3 Empirical expressions for the Reynolds

tensor and applications to free flows
12.3.1 Closure of the Reynolds equation
The set of Equations 12.7 and 12.9 includes more unknowns than equations: in addition
to the four unknowns v̄i and p̄ one has indeed the six components of τ ij (the correlation
functions). One finds the equations obeyed by τ ij by multiplying Equations 12.7 by v
i , and
then taking their average. However, the resulting equations then contain higher order mo-
ments, which bring into play three fluctuating components. One might iterate once more
this process, which would cause the appearance, within the same time-scale, of fourth order
moments! One can then never obtain in this way a closed system containing as many equa-
tions as unknowns. This problem, due to the presence of a nonlinear term (v·∇)v in the
equations of motion, is essential in the study of turbulence.
One has therefore to find approximate solutions by looking for possible expressions for
τ ij as a function of the average components of the flow velocity: this allows then to close
the equations and to solve the averaged equations of motion. The major shortcoming of
these approaches is that they are not based on rigorous theoretical grounds: they do not
involve indeed physical variables with well defined values and clear significance, but they
introduce adjustable parameters which need to be determined for each flow. Nonetheless,
these equations, initially intended to be theoretical models of turbulence, remain very useful
for the practical characterization of turbulent flows.
In such an approach, one seeks to relate statistical quantities (essentially first and second-
order moments) obtained by averaging operations, rather than derive equations relating
instantaneous values, valid at every instant of time and every point in space. One looks
more specifically for relationships between second-order moments (such as the Reynolds
tensor), and first-order moments, such as the gradient of the average velocity.
458 Turbulence

12.3.2 Eddy viscosity

In this approach, one accounts for the increase in friction and momentum transport in a
turbulent flow by introducing a viscosity ν t which acts in addition to the classical viscos-
This concept was in 1875 by Boussinesq in his ity of fluids. In this approach, one writes, in analogy with the viscosity tensor, the tensor
“Essai sur la théorie des eaux courantes” (Essay on
the theory of running waters). τij = –ρ v
i v
j for the turbulent stresses in the form:

∂ v̄i ∂ v̄j
τij = ρ νt + . (12.22)
∂xj ∂xi

This concept has however no solid physical basis: this eddy (or turbulent) viscosity νt is
independent of the properties of the fluid, but depends instead upon the nature of the flow
as well as on the point at which it is measured. In fact, defining an eddy viscosity is equivalent
to replace the problem of the variation of τ ij as a function of the characteristics of the flow
by that of the variation of ν t .
Several models have been developed to estimate the eddy viscosity. A first one, dis-
cussed below, uses the concept of a mixing length. Another approach is the k-ε model, often
used in numerical simulations and where ν t is estimated from the energy of the turbulent
fluctuations and of the energy being dissipated.

12.3.3 Mixing length

This approach was suggested by Prandtl in 1903: it is inspired by the kinetic theory of
gases, and provides an estimate of the eddy viscosity ν t . For that, one introduces a scaling
length which plays the same role as the mean free path of molecules, and assumes that the
fluctuating components of the velocity play the same role as the velocity of thermal motion
(see Section 1.3).
y The gradient of the average velocity ∂ v̄x /∂y is assumed to be positive (Figure 12.1); one
M' also assumes that the fluid particles initially in the plane y = y0 and moving toward the plane
y0+∆y y = y0 + y under the action of a velocity fluctuation v
y > 0 retain their initial velocity
υx(y0+∆y)
component in the x-direction which is of the order of v̄x (y0 ). The arrival of such a particle
υ'y in the plane y = y0 + y, where the average velocity v̄x (y0 + y) is higher appears then as a
M negative velocity fluctuation of the order of magnitude:
y0
υx(y0) x ∂ v̄x
v
x ≈ v̄x ( y0 ) – v̄x (y0 + y) = –y .
∂y
Figure 12.1 Schematic diagram of the mo-
mentum transport in a turbulent flow. We as- This displacement gives then an instantaneous contribution to the momentum transport
sume that there exists a mean flow parallel to ρ v
x v
y ≈ –ρy v
y (∂ v̄x /∂y) < 0; the same argument can be applied to a particle coming from
the x-axis with a velocity depending uniquely above (e.g., going from the plane y0 +y to the plane y0 ) by replacing y by – y. In this
on the y-coordinate case, one has v
y < 0 and the instantaneous contribution to ρ v
x v
y is again negative. There
is therefore a correlation between the signs of v
x and v
y due the fact that the fluctuations v
x
are determined from v
y and the spatial variations of the average velocity: one has therefore
ρ v
x v
y < 0 in a one-dimensional flow with a velocity gradient ∂ v̄x / ∂y > 0.
Averaging over the various trajectories and possible velocities of an element of fluid, one
obtains for the corresponding component of the Reynolds tensor:

∂ v̄x
τxy = –ρ v
x v
y = ρ y v
y , (12.23a) so that: νt = y v
y . (12.23b)
∂y
In the case of the mixing length model, ν t is written in the form:

νt = u∗ , (12.24a)
Empirical expressions for the Reynolds tensor and applications to free flows 459

where is the mixing length: in terms of Equation 12.23b and the preceding discussion,
can be interpreted as the average distance over which the velocity of an element of fluid
remains correlated to its initial value and ensures an effective transport of the momentum.
The characteristic velocity u∗ isof the same order of magnitude as the amplitude of the
transverse velocity fluctuations v
y2 .

Values of the mixing length

The values of and u∗ used in practice vary from one kind of flow to another. Thus, we
will see in Section 12.4 that, for free flows such as jets or turbulent wakes, the mixing length
can be considered constant in the direction transverse to the mean flow, and of the order
of the average width of this flow. For such flows, we generally relate the velocity u∗ to the
transverse profile v̄x (y) of the average velocity by:

u∗ = |∂ v̄x /∂y|. (12.24b)

For flow near a wall (such as in a channel or for a turbulent boundary layer near a
plane wall), the local value of is generally taken as proportional to the distance from the
wall, particularly when this is the only available characteristic length. The velocity u∗ is, in
turn, directly related to the stress at the wall. In Section 12.5, it will be seen that one can
then predict the logarithmic variation of the average velocity as a function of the distance
to the wall which is observed experimentally. However, this agreement is essentially a
reflection of dimensional constraints: at a given distance y from the wall, y is indeed the
only characteristic length involved.
For quasi-parallel flows, a slightly more general definition, due to von Karman, relates
to the curvature of the velocity profiles with: = – k|∂ v̄x /∂y|/|∂ 2 v̄x /∂y2 |.
Such simple assumptions cannot however be made for every flow, especially when there
are scaling lengths and characteristic times. This represents one of the major problems of
these models.

Validity of the analog between the mixing length model

and the kinetic theory of gases
As just stated, the mixing length approach has similarities with the mean free path intro-
duced in Sections 1.3.2 and 2.2.1 to calculate the viscosity (or the diffusivity) on the basis
of the kinetic theory of gases: the velocity u∗ plays, for momentum transport, the same role
as the thermal motion velocity in kinetic theory. The essential difference is that, for the mi-
croscopic calculation of viscosity, there is a scale separation between small scales of random
motions due to thermal agitation and the averaging distance used to calculate the viscosity.
Such a separation does not exist in turbulent motion, for which the largest turbulent scales
are of the same order of magnitude as the average motion. This lack of separability of scales
in turbulent motion presents a major obstacle to attempts to relate the kinetic theory of gases
to the study of turbulence.

12.3.4 Other practical approaches to turbulence

Many other models have been suggested to deal with turbulence, particularly in the
perspective of numerical simulations.
The increase in computing power now allows one to simulate numerically turbulent flows
by integration of the Navier–Stokes equation. Such direct numerical simulations (DNS) re-
quire, however, quite long calculation times on very powerful computers: they are thus
limited, probably for another few years, to simple geometries and to moderate Reynolds
numbers Re.
460 Turbulence

For most practical applications, other approaches must be used. An important obstacle
to this type of simulation comes from the great disparity between the size of large scale mo-
tions and that of the smallest vortices; this scale is smaller as Re is greater (Section 12.6.1).
In order to simulate these at the same time as the global flow, the number of points that
must be included in the simulation mesh (and the corresponding length of the calculation)
increases very rapidly with Re.
However, the mean flow only exchanges energy and momentum with the largest vortices,
and its geometry only affects these vortices. This has led to the development of large eddy
simulation (LES) methods for which only motions of large and medium scale are directly
simulated. Momentum and energy exchange at the level of small scale turbulence are, for
their part, described by models similar to that of eddy viscosity.

Figure 12.2C Cross-sectional view of a 12.4 Free turbulent flows: jets and wakes
turbulent jet lighted by a plane of light per-
pendicular to its axis and injected into a The eddy viscosity models frequently provide good results for free turbulent flows such
volume of the same fluid. The jet contains as jets, mixing layers or wakes behind a body. We will present a parallel discussion of the
a fluorescent dye while the external fluid cases of the wake and jet: the latter is demonstrated visually in Figure 12.2 by means of the
is pure. The colours indicate the concentra- technique of laser induced fluorescence (LIF) described in Section 3.5.2.
tion of the dye, increasing from blue to red
(courtesy H.E. Catrakis et P.E. Dimotakis) 12.4.1 Basic properties of two-dimensional
and turbulent jets and wakes
Equations of motion
Let us first discuss the cases of a two-dimensional turbulent wake behind a cylindrical ob-
(a) y U stacle in a uniform, non-turbulent flow at velocity U (Figure 12.3a) and of a jet emitted
into a stationary fluid from a slit, very long in the z-direction (Figure 12.3b). For both
U cases, the downstream distance x is assumed to be large enough so that the flow is insen-
υy e(x)
Uw(x) sitive to the exact geometry of the obstacle or slit. The perturbation to the external flow of
υx x velocity U (with U = 0 for the jet) is also assumed to be limited to a region of finite char-
υx(x,y) acteristic transverse dimension e(x): this half-width of the wake (or the jet) is assumed to
p0 be small relative to x. Finally, these flows are not influenced by the walls, so that the vis-
cous terms η∂ 2 v̄i /∂x2j are neglected in the equation of motion throughout the volume of the
(b) y y fluid.
In the wake, the velocity deficit U – v̄x is assumed to be small relative to U. On the other
υx(x,y) hand, the conservation equation (Equation 12.9) and the condition e (x) x imply that
υy e(x) Uj(x) the transverse component v̄x (x, y) of the average velocity is U – v̄x (or v̄x for the
υx x jet). For both cases the velocity and pressure p0 are constant outside the perturbation zone
(y e (x)).
p0 One assumes that the flow is statistically stationary in the sense discussed in
Section 12.2.1 and invariant in the z-direction. Assuming also that the volume forces vanish,
Figure 12.3 Schematic diagram of the ve- and neglecting the viscous terms, the equations for momentum transport (Equation 12.11)
locity profiles (a) in a wake behind an infi- can be written in the form:

1 ∂ p̄ ∂

∂
2
nitely long cylinder, and (b) in a jet emitted
∂ v̄x ∂ v̄x
from a slit, virtually infinitely long in the v̄x + v̄y =– – vx vy – vx , (12.25a)
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂y ∂x
z-direction

∂ v̄y ∂ v̄y 1 ∂ p̄ ∂

∂
2
and: v̄x + v̄y =– – v v – vy . (12.25b)
∂x ∂y ρ ∂y ∂x x y ∂y
Free turbulent flows: jets and wakes 461

Equation 12.25a can be simplified, for the wake, to:

∂ v̄x ∂

U =– v v , (12.26a)
∂x ∂y x y

∂ 2 ∂ ∂

and, for the jet, to: v̄x + v̄x v̄y = – v v . (12.26b)
∂x ∂y ∂y x y
These equations express the equilibrium be-
Equation (12.26a) is very similar to the 2D version of Equation 10.72 valid for a laminar tween the variations of the longitudinal momen-
tum flux of the mean flow and the transverse
jet: the viscous stress η∂vx /∂y is simply replaced by the corresponding component –ρ v
x v
y momentum flux due both to fluctuations and to
of the Reynolds tensor. the average transverse flow.

Justification:
Several inequalities allow one to neglect some of the terms of Equations 12.25a–b.

• Equation 12.9, for the conservation of the flow, can be rewritten in the form
$
∂(U – v̄x )/∂x = ∂ v̄y ∂y for the wake: one obtains then the order of magnitude of the
average transverse velocity v̄y ≈ (U – v̄x )e(x)/x U e(x)/x. For the jet, Equation 12.9
leads to: v̄y ≈ v̄x e(x)/x v̄x .
• The small value of the velocity deficit (ῡx – U U ) implies that, for the wake:
v̄x ∂ v̄x /∂x ∼
= U ∂ v̄x /∂x: just as in the case of a laminar wake, this term will dominate
(because of the factor U ) the other term v̄y ∂ v̄x / ∂y which is then neglected in Equation
12.26a. In contrast, for the jet, the two terms on the right-hand side of Equation 12.25b
must be kept: one shows that their sum is equal to the left-hand side of Equation 12.26b
by expanding the latter and using the conservation equation (Equation 12.9).
• Just as in the case of laminar quasi-parallel flows, the terms on the left-hand side of
Equation 12.25b are negligible.
• In contrast with the average components of the velocity, the different components of
the Reynolds tensor are of the same order of magnitude; however,
$ their derivatives
$ with
respect to x are negligible relative to the derivatives ∂ v
x v
y ∂y and ∂ v
y2 ∂y with
respect to y because e (x) x. Taking into account the previous assumptions, Equation
12.25b becomes then:

–(1 / ρ) ∂ p̄ / ∂y – ∂ v
y2 / ∂y = 0, (12.27a)

so that, by integrating between the interior and exterior of the wake, or of the jet:

p̄(x, y) = p0 – ρ v
y2 (x, y). (12.27b) One encounters in other turbulent flows such
variations of the pressure in the direction trans-
verse to the mean flow: even if they do not
influence it, they contribute to differentiating
One infers from Equation 12.27b the value (1/ρ)∂p/∂x = – ∂v
y2 /∂x of the pressure gra- the flows from parallel or quasi-parallel laminar
dient in the x-direction:
this term is negligible because it is smaller by an order of magnitude flows, for which these transverse gradients are
considered to vanish.
than the term ∂ v
x v
y /∂y in Equation 12.25a. One recovers then Equations 12.26a-b.

Conservation of momentum and of flow rate

Let us now integrate Equations 12.26a–b relative to y over an infinite transverse distance
(in practical terms, sufficiently large to contain the whole perturbed zone).
462 Turbulence

• For the turbulent wake, one obtains first, having divided Equation 12.26a by U :

+∞ ∂ v̄x (x, y) 1 +∞ ∂

– dy = v v dy = 0
–∞ ∂x U –∞ ∂y x y

( v
x v
y vanishes indeed outside the wake). This equation can be rewritten in the form:
∞
∂Q(x)
The conservation of Q(x) is only approxi- =0 (12.28a) with: Q(x) = (U – v̄x (y)) dy. (12.28b)
mate, and results from the conservation of mo- ∂x –∞
mentum. Proceeding as in the derivation of ∞
Equation 10.85 for a laminar wake, one finds The rate of flow Q(x) = –∞ (U – v̄x (y))dy associated with the velocity deficit U – v̄x in the
that
∞the quantity actually constant with x is wake is then constant along it. Q(x) is also equal, in absolute value, to the flow rate in the
ρ –∞ v̄x (U – v̄x ) dy. This condition simplifies
reference frame moving at velocity U, and it is defined per unit length in the z-direction.
to ρ U Q(x) = constant only if U – v̄x Ūx as
has been, indeed, assumed. Writing the conservation of momentum between the upstream and downstream regions
of the body, one shows, like in Chapter 10 for a laminar wake (Equation 10.80), that there
is the following relationship between the drag force FD per unit length of the cylinder and
the constant value Q of the flow rate Q(x).

FD = ρU Q. (12.29)

• For the turbulent jet, the integral of Equation 12.26b can be written:

+∞ +∞
+∞ ∂ 2 ∂ ∂

ρ v̄x dy = –ρ v̄x v̄y dy – ρ vx vy dy = 0.
–∞ ∂x –∞ ∂y –∞ ∂y
The two integrals of the right-hand side are zero, because the average velocities and the
fluctuations vanish outside the jet. One thus obtains:
+∞
∂φj (x)
= 0, (12.30a) where: φj (x) = ρ v̄2x (x, y) dy. (12.30b)
∂x –∞

The flux of momentum over the width of the jet has then a value φ j independent of the
+∞
distance x: this requires an increase in the flow rate Q(x) = –∞ v̄x (x, y) dy with x since
the average velocity v̄x is decreasing. The jet “sucks in” more and more external fluid as it
moves along.

If the self-similarity assumption is valid, Estimate of the variation of the two-dimensional widths of the wake
Equations 12.31a–b are rigorously exact since and turbulent jet as a function of distance
the flow rate Qw in the wake and the flux φ j of
the momentum in the jet obey: Let us take as respective characteristic velocities Uw (x) and Uj (x) in the wake and in the jet,
the components of the velocity U – v̄x (x, 0) and v̄x (x, 0) along the axis y = 0. Estimating the
+∞
Qw = (U – v̄x (x, y)) dy integrals in Equations 12.28b and 12.30b using these characteristic values then leads to:
–∞
+∞
= Uw (x) e(x) f (ξ ) dξ = constant and: Uw (x) e (x) ≈ constant (12.31a) and: Uj 2 (x) e (x) ≈ constant. (12.31b)
–∞
+∞ Let us now estimate the terms of the equations of motion Equations 12.26a–b by as-
φj = ρ v̄2x (x, y) dy suming that the component v
x v
y varies as Uw 2 or Uj 2 . One further assumes that the
–∞
+∞
characteristic distances for the variation of the averages of the velocity components and
= ρUj2 (x) e(x) f 2 (ξ ) dξ = constant. of the corresponding Reynolds tensor along the x- and y-directions are respectively x and
–∞
e(x). By equating the estimates found in this manner, one obtains respectively:

U Uw (x) U 2 (x) Uj2 (x) Uj2 (x)

≈ w (12.32a) and: ≈ . (12.32b)
x e(x) x e(x)
Free turbulent flows: jets and wakes 463

Combining Equations 12.31a–b and 12.32a–b, one obtains:

√ and:
1
Uw (x) ∝ √ , (12.33b)
for the wake: e(x) ∝ x (12.33a) x
1
and for the jet: e (x) ∝ x (12.34a) and: Uj (x) ∝ √ . (12.34b)
x

Moreover, one infers from Equations 12.33a–b and 12.34a–b that the Reynolds number
Rew = Uw (x) e(x)/ν for the wake is independent of the distance x, while that of the jet
(Rej = Uj (x) e(x)/ν) increases with that distance. One also notes that the variations of e(x)
and Uw (x) are the same for laminar and turbulent wakes, while they are different in the case
of a jet (for a laminar jet: e(x) ∝ x2/3 and Uj (x) ∝ x–1/3 ).

12.4.2 Self-similar velocity fields

in two-dimensional jets and wakes
Equations of motion for self-similar jets and wakes
In order to determine quantitatively the velocity profiles v̄x (x, y), the equations of motion
are rewritten with an assumption of self-similarity of the same nature as that used for the
boundary layers and laminar wakes in Chapter 10 (Sections 10.3.3 and 10.7).
For this purpose, the velocity deficit U – v̄x for the wake and the velocity v̄x for the jet,
normalized by Uw or Uj , are assumed to depend solely on the normalized transverse distance
ξ = y/e(x) and not separately on y and x, respectively with:

U – v̄x (x, y) = Uw (x) f (ξ ) (12.35a) and: v̄x (x, y) = Uj (x) f (ξ ). (12.35b) The component of the transverse velocity
v̄y (x, ξ ) in the jet may be computed from the
incompressibility condition (Equation 12.9) and
Uw and Uj are defined like in the previous case for ξ = 0, which implies: f (0) = 1. the definition (Equation 12.35b), so that:
One also assumes that similar conditions are obeyed by the transverse component v
x v
y ξ
1 de(x)
of the Reynolds tensor (normalized by the same characteristic velocities): v̄y = Uj (x) 2 ξ f (ξ ) – f (u) du .
2 dx 0
(12.39)
v
x v
y (x, y) = Uw2 (x) g (ξ ) (12.36a) and: v
x v
y (x, y) = Uj2 (x) g (ξ ). (12.36b)
This component then has also a self-similar
form.
• For the turbulent wake, the equation of motion, Equation 12.26a, is shown to
become:

de(x) ! K

U f + ξ f
= Uw (x) g
= g, (12.37)
dx e(x)
$ +∞
where f’ and g’ are derivatives with respect to the variable ξ and K = Qw –∞ f (ξ ) dξ = cst.
Equation 12.37 can be obeyed, when x and ξ vary independently, only if
e(x) de(x)/dx = constant. One then recovers Equations 12.33a–b. The √constant of proportionality between e(x)
Experimentally, self-similarity is obeyed at a few hundred diameters downstream of the and x can have an arbitrary value. If it is
√ changed, the value of ξ corresponding to a given
cylinder; the width of the wake and the velocity deficit also vary respectively as x and
$√ value of y is also changed so that Equation 12.37
1 x. continues to be obeyed.

• For the turbulent jet, the equation of motion (Equation 12.26b) becomes:

ξ 2
α
ξ α ∂2
f f (u) du + f 2 = f (u) du = g
, (12.38a)
2 0 2 ∂ξ 2
0
464 Turbulence

so that:

de(x)
α= = constant. (12.38b)
dx
$√
This last equation is equivalent to Equation 12.34a, and confirms that Uj (x) ∝ 1 x ac-
cording to Equation 12.31b. Experimentally, the self-similarity condition is obeyed as soon
as the distance x exceeds about ten times the initial diameter of the jet.

Application of eddy viscosity and mixing length models

The explicit determination of the transverse flow profile requires the choice of a closure
relation between v
x v
y (x, y) and the mean velocity v̄x (x, y). One uses for this purpose the
concepts of eddy viscosity and of mixing length defined by Equations 12.22 and 12.24a-b.
Identifying by means of Equations 12.35 and 12.36 the terms v
x v
y (x, y) and –νt ∂ v̄x /∂y,
leads respectively to: ν t ∝ Uw (x)e(x) and ν t ∝ Uj (x)e(x) for the wake and the jet. One then
has a constant eddy viscosity ν t independent of x in the case of the wake, while it increases
√
as x for the jet. The mixing length (x) is, in both these cases, proportional to the width
e(x). This suggests that the size of the vortices which ensure the momentum transport is
proportional to the local width of the wake or jet.

Justification
Let us equate, for the case of the wake, the two terms –νt ∂ v̄x /∂y = νt (Uw (x)/e(x)) f {
(ξ ) and
v
x v
y (x, y) = Uw2 (x) g (ξ ). One obtains ν t = Uw (x) e(x) g(ξ )/f’(ξ ) which has therefore the ex-
pected dependence on x. The mixing length obtained by combining Equations 12.24a-b
is related to νt by νt = 2 |∂ v̄x /∂y| so that: 2 = e2 (x) g(ξ )/f’ 2 (ξ ). One has therefore:
(x) ∝ e(x). Using this procedure, the same result is obtained for the jet.

Profile of the average velocity in a two-dimensional wake

The eddy viscosity ν t is now assumed to be constant as a function of ξ in addition to being
independent of x, as seen above. Equation 12.27 is then identical to that used for a laminar
wake, merely replacing ν by ν t . The profile of the velocity deficit is then given by the same
Equation 10.79 obtained in that previous case:

Uy 2
U –
U – v̄x = Q e 4νt x . (12.40)
4πνt x

Experimentally, sufficiently far downstream from a cylinder placed within a flow, the agree-
ment with the predictions of this equation is acceptable, specifically in the central region of
the flow (Figure 12.4a on the next page).
√ for ν t in
Equation 12.40 and the expression √ the The difference from the laminar wake is the large value of the eddy viscosity ν t . This
√ ∝ νt x / U ∝ x d.
text at right imply that: e(x)
viscosity is generally much greater than ν when the Reynolds number is high. One finds
For this reason, ξ = y / x d is chosen as the
vertical coordinate in Figure 12.4a. experimentally that ν t ∼
= 0.017 U d, where d is the diameter of the cylinder.

Profile of the average velocity for a two-dimensional jet

By assuming, just as for the wake, that the eddy viscosity is independent of y over the width
of the jet, the component v̄x (y) of the average velocity obeys:

Uj (x)
v̄x ( y) = ; (12.41)
y Ret
cosh2 √
x 2
Free turbulent flows: jets and wakes 465

0.6 Figure 12.4 (a) Comparison of the experi-

(a) 3 (b) mental measurements (+) and the theoretical
y
y Ret ++ predictions for Equation 12.40 (solid line)
xd +
++
x ++ for the variation of the normalized velocity
0.4 +
2
++
+
+
+ +
+
deficit (U – v̄x )/ Uw (x) with
√ the normalized
++
+ +
+
transverse distance ξ = y / x d in a turbu-
+
+ +
++ lent wake behind a cylinder (from Townsend,
0.2 +
1 + +
1956). (b) Comparison of the experimental
+
+ ++
+
+ +
++
measurements ( +) and the theoretical pre-
++
+ ++ dictions of Equation 12.41 (solid line) for
+
0 00
++
the normalized velocity profile v̄x / Uj (x) in
0 0.5 U- υx 1 0.5 υx 1
a plane turbulent jet as a function of the
Uw(x) Uj(x)
normalised transverse distance Ret /x (experi-
ments of Heskestad (1965); from Pope, 2000)

Ret = Uj (x) e(x)/ν t (x) is the turbulent Reynolds number defined on the basis of the eddy vis-
cosity ν t , the velocity Uj (x) at y = 0 and the width e(x). Since, as seen above, ν t ∝ Uj (x) e(x),
Ret is therefore constant and independent of x.
Experimentally, Equation 12.41 is satisfied in the central region of the jet but with
$
significant deviations when v̄x Uj becomes smaller than 0.25 (Figure 12.4b). Also, still
experimentally, Ret , as well as the ratio α = e(x)/x, are both independent of the rate of flow
of the jet.

Proof
By introducing the eddy viscosity coefficient and using Equations 12.35b and 12.36b, the
function g(ξ ) is found to obey: g(ξ ) = v
x v
y / Uj2 = – (νt ∂ v̄x /∂y) /Uj2 = – (1 / Ret ) f
(ξ ).
Replacing g by this expression in Equation 12.38a, one obtains the differential equation
obeyed by f (ξ ) which has the solution:

f (ξ ) = 1 cosh2 ξ αRet / 2 .

Just as for the wake, no precise quantitative definition had been given up to now for e(x) or
α: the value α = e(x)/x = 1/Ret selected here gives a reasonable order of magnitude for the
width of the jet, since f (1) (corresponding to y = e(x)) is then of the order of 0.6. Equation
12.41 results immediately.

12.4.3 Three-dimensional axially symmetric

turbulent jets and wakes
For the three-dimensional case of an axially symmetric wake or jet, the conservation of the
flow rate is obeyed in the first instance, and that of the momentum, in the second. The cal-
culation of Q and φ j (Equations 12.28b and 12.30b) involves however an integration in both
the y- and z-directions, rather than only along y. Equations 12.31a-b are then replaced by:

Uw (x)e2 (x) ≈ constant (12.42a) and: Uj2 (x)e2 (x) ≈ constant. (12.42b)

Combining these equations with Equations 12.36a-b, which remain valid, one obtains for
the axially symmetric wake:
466 Turbulence

e(x) ∝ x1/3 (12.43a) and: Uw (x) ∝ x–2/3 , (12.43b)

while, for the jet:

1
e(x) ∝ x (12.43c) and: Uj (x) ∝ . (12.43d)
x

In conclusion, the turbulent (or eddy) viscosity and mixing length models provide an
acceptable approximate expression for the velocity profiles as a function of distance in
quasi-parallel turbulent flows far from solid walls, such as jets and wakes (this is also the
case in turbulent mixing layers). More precisely, at each distance x, the mixing lengths are
proportional to the transverse dimension of the flows.
We will now discuss flows close to walls for which the effect of viscosity needs to be taken
into account.

12.5 Flows near a solid wall

12.5.1 Qualitative properties of turbulent flows
in the presence of a wall
y
This problem, of great practical importance, is found in numerous examples of flows within
a conduit and near obstacles. This occurs, coupled with mass transfer, in chemical engineer-
υx ing flows and, coupled with heat transfer, in thermal flows. In aerodynamics, it occurs in
the evaluation of pressure drops and frictional forces associated with turbulent flows.
Let us start off by considering a fully developed flow in a cylindrical conduit or between
two parallel plates. The properties of such flows differ quite considerably from those of a
laminar flow. Thus, the profile for the average velocity v̄x inside the conduit is, in particular,
much flatter in the central region than the parabolic profile which characterizes viscous lami-
Figure 12.5 Average velocity profile for nar flows (Figure 12.5). The velocity gradient at the wall is, in contrast, much higher. On the
flow in laminar (dashed line) and turbulent other hand, the pressure drop between the ends of the conduit is no longer proportional to
(solid line) regimes within a conduit. The hor- the flow rate Q, as in the case of a laminar flow, but varies approximately as Q2 .
izontal velocity scale has been in each case Just as for the free turbulent flows in Section 12.4, momentum transfer is essentially
divided by the average velocity in order to convective and associated with velocity fluctuations by means of the Reynolds tensor of the
make the comparison easier turbulent stresses. This is the case throughout the flow except for a fine viscous sublayer near
the wall: the latter results from the vanishing velocity and fluctuations at the wall which do
not occur in free flows. The thickness of this sublayer (i.e. the distance at which there is a
transition from viscous diffusive to convective transport) represents a second characteristic
length scale in addition to the global transverse size of the flow.
Finally, the velocity profile v̄x no longer depends on the geometry of the flow at distances
small relative to the global scale where one observes, in addition to the viscous sublayer, an
inertial sublayer where the convective transport dominates. These two sublayers appear both
in a conduit and in a turbulent boundary layer.

12.5.2 Stationary turbulent flows parallel

to a plane wall
Equations of motion
Let us consider a turbulent flow where the average velocity is parallel to the x-direction
along a plane y = 0; let us further assume that the flow is well established, and that the
Flows near a solid wall 467

y
υx (y)

Inertial Figure 12.6 Schematic diagram of the tur-

υ'y bulent velocity field for a flow parallel to a
sublayer υ'x
υ'y υ'x plane wall
Viscous
sublayer
x

statistical properties of the turbulent fluctuations are independent of the distance x along the
flow Figure 12.6. The component v̄y of the average velocity then vanishes; the longitudinal
component v̄x and the moments of the components of the velocity fluctuations (such as v
y 2
and v
x v
y ) are then only functions of y. The components of Equation 12.11 for the transport
of momentum in a stationary regime can then be written:

∂ ∂ v̄x 1 ∂ p̄ ∂
2 1 ∂ p̄
ν – v
x v
y – = 0 (12.44a) and: v + = 0. (12.44b)
∂y ∂y ρ ∂x ∂y y ρ ∂y

When the turbulent fluctuations vanish (laminar flows), one recovers the Navier–Stokes
equations for parallel flows.
According to Equation 12.44b: p̄ = p0 – ρ v
2
y , where the pressure p0 at the wall is only
a function of x (v
2
y , just as every component of the velocity and its fluctuations, vanishes
at the wall). Since v
2
y is independent of x, the derivatives ∂ p̄/∂x = ∂ p̄0 /∂x must then equal.
These gradients are independent of x since the terms in Equation 12.44a depend only on y.
By integrating Equation 12.44a relative to y, one obtains then:

∂ v̄x ∂ p̄
ρν – ρ v
x v
y = y + τ0 . (12.45)
∂y ∂x

• At very small distances from the wall, where the velocity fluctuations and the term
containing the pressure gradient are negligible, Equation 12.45 reduces to:

∂ v̄x
τ0 = ρ ν , (12.46)
∂y

τ 0 represents the stress on the wall, which reduces to the viscous stress because of the
condition of zero velocity. The stress τ 0 depends not only on the average velocity of
the flow, but also on the Reynolds number and the roughness of the wall. Taking into
account the condition of zero-average velocity at y = 0, one then has, by integrating:

τ0 y
v̄x = . (12.47)
ρν

• As one gets further away from the wall, the convective transport of momentum by the
turbulent fluctuations substitutes for the transport by viscous diffusion (the distance
for this transition is evaluated further down), and Equation 12.45 becomes:

∂ p̄
–ρ v
x v
y = y + τ0 . (12.48a)
∂x
468 Turbulence

Let us discuss the condition for the term (∂ p̄ / ∂x) In the inertial sublayer which we introduced above, where simultaneously Equation
to be negligible in the case of a flow between 12.48a is satisfied and y is small relative to the transverse global distance h of the
two parallel plates separated by a distance 2h: as
the mid-plane y = h is the plane of symmetry of flow, the term ∂ p̄ /∂x is negligible and:
the flow, ρ v
x v
y vanishes there because the mo-
mentum has no reason to be transported toward τ0 = –ρ v
x v
y . (12.48b)
one plate rather than the other. One then has
τ0 = –h (∂ p̄ / ∂x) which expresses the equilibrium
between the forces due to the pressure gradient Because of this equality, one can define a characteristic velocity u∗ , known as the
and the stress on the two walls. The term involv- frictional velocity, by:
ing (∂ p̄ / ∂x) in Equation 12.48a is then negligible
τ0 = ρ u∗ 2 ,
if y is small compared to h. This assumption is
(12.49)
assumed to remain valid for other geometries.

which represents a characteristic velocity of the turbulent fluctuations.

• Finally, a third region, known as the external flow region, corresponds to larger values
of y, going up to the transverse global size: there, one must use the complete form of
Equation 12.48a.

Evaluation of the velocity profile by means of the mixing-length model

We will now determine the velocity profile in the inertial and viscous sublayers, and the
distance at which there is a transition between the viscous and convective transport mecha-
nisms. In a first approach, we will use the concept of mixing length, which has already been
applied to the case of jets and turbulent wakes in Section 12.4.

• In the viscous sublayer, the velocity profile is linear and given by Equation 12.47.
• In the inertial sublayer, one obtains by combining Equations 12.49 and 12.24b:

∂ v̄x
τ0 = ρ u∗2 = ρ u∗ . (12.50a)
∂y

In the present case of a uniform flow parallel to a plane wall, one considers that the mixing
length is proportional to the distance y from the wall so that = κy. This assumes that, in
the range of length-scales for which the equation τ0 = –ρ v
x v
y is valid, the structure of the
flow and the momentum transport at a given distance from the wall are affected neither by
vortices of size much greater than this distance, nor by the layer very close to the wall where
the viscosity dominates. The distance y from the wall then represents the only significant
length-scale. This also implies that the momentum transport takes place over a distance of
the order of y. Equation 12.50a then becomes:

∂ v̄x u∗ u∗
= , (12.50b) so that: v̄x = Log y + constant. (12.51)
∂y κy κ

One finds experimentally that the value of 1/κ is approximately 2.5 for a large range of
turbulent flows in the presence of a wall: this parameter κ is known as the von Karman
constant (and should not be confused with the thermal diffusivity κ).

The order of magnitude of the viscous sublayer

According to Equation 12.50b, the velocity gradient should diverge as y approaches 0. This
$
increases the viscosity term ρν(∂ v̄x /∂y) ∼
= ρ ν u∗ (κy) in Equation 12.45. This term becomes
of the order of magnitude of the total stress τ 0 = ρ u∗2 at a distance y ≈ ν/(κu∗ ). At smaller
distances, the viscous stress dominates, and remains equal to ρ u∗2 . The length ν/u∗ then
represents the order of magnitude of the thickness of the viscous sublayer; beyond this
distance, one gets into the inertial sublayer.
Flows near a solid wall 469

Common characteristics of turbulent flows near a wall

• As soon as one gets to a small distance from the wall, momentum transport is ac-
counted for by the turbulent velocity fluctuations (inertial sublayer). This mechanism
is much more effective than the viscosity, and the flux of momentum is larger than
in a laminar flow.
• In the immediate neighborhood of the wall, where v
x = v
y = 0, the transport of
momentum results solely from viscous diffusion (viscous sublayer). The momentum
flux is then: ρ ν ∂ v̄x /∂y (0) and it must take the same large value as in the inertial
sublayer: the velocity gradient ∂ v̄x /∂y (0) is then also higher than if the entire flow
had been laminar.
• While studying the viscous and inertial sublayers, we have not used the global geom-
etry of the flow. Experiments show indeed that, in numerous cases, it has no effect
on the flow in these two regions, but only on the external flow on a larger scale.
• The pressure is not constant along a perpendicular to the wall, in contrast to the
laminar case (but the pressure gradient in the direction of the flow remains constant).

12.5.3 Turbulent flow between two parallel plates

Let us now analyze more quantitatively the case of flows within channels with parallel walls.
We will use a more dimensional approach taking advantage of the specific features of the
flow without referring to the mixing length model.

Equations of motion in scaled coordinates

The flow between two parallel plates is symmetrical relative to the plane y = h parallel to the y
plates and half-way between them (Figure 12.7); one discusses therefore below only the part 2h
of the velocity profile corresponding to 0 ≤ y ≤ h, the remaining region (h ≤ y ≤ 2h) being υx (y)
obtained by symmetry. Because of the same symmetry argument, the derivative ∂ v̄x /∂y and
M
the convective flux ρ v
x v
y must both vanish at y = h. Equation 12.45 then becomes: h
υ'y υ'x
∂ p̄ ∗2 ∂ p̄ υ'x υ'y
τ0 + h=0 (12.52a) or: ρu =– h. (12.52b)
∂x ∂x O x
By dividing the two terms of Equation 12.45 by ρ, and using Equation 12.52b, one
obtains: Figure 12.7 Configuration of the turbulent
flow between two parallel plates, separated by
∂ v̄x h–y a distance 2h
ν – v
x v
y = u∗2 . (12.53)
∂y h

There are two characteristic length scales in this problem: the distance 2h between the plates
and the thickness ν/u∗ of the viscous sublayer. Substituting for the stress τ 0 its value as a
function of the frictional velocity u∗ , Equation 12.47 becomes:

v̄x u∗ y
∗
= . (12.54)
u ν

In order to calculate the velocity profile in the inertial sublayer, one introduces two different
dimensionless variables related to the two characteristic scales h and ν/u∗ :
y u∗
Y = (12.55a) and: y+ = y , (12.55b)
h ν
470 Turbulence

for which the ratio is given by a Reynolds number:

y+ u∗ h
= = Re∗ . (12.55c)
Y ν

Either variable may be used, depending on whether one is interested in the structure in the
center of the flow or near the walls: in the latter case, the velocity profile is not influenced
by the global structure of the flow, but the viscosity can play a role, and the variable y+
is then more suitable. Far from the walls, in contrast, the viscosity no longer affects the
velocity profile and the variable Y is better suited. In laminar flow, one did not need to
distinguish between the two dimensionless variables, because the viscosity plays a dominant
role throughout the flow.
For the average velocity v̄x , one uses in the same way two different dimensionless vari-
ables. For studying the flow near the walls, one uses the ratio v̄x / u∗ (this normalization
appears already in Equation 12.54). If, on the other hand, one is interested in the veloc-
ity field in the center of the flow, the normalized velocity deficit (v̄x – U0 ) / u∗ will be used
instead (the relevant natural velocity is then the velocity U 0 in the symmetry plane y = h).
By analogy with the solution of the dimensionless Navier–Stokes equations, one assumes
that the two scaled average velocity variables can be written as functions of Y and y+ in the
form:
ν
v̄x (Y ) – U0 = u∗ f1(Y ) for: y ∗ , Re∗ 1 . (12.56)
u

In the same way, near the wall:

v̄x y+ = u∗ f y+ for: y h, Re∗ 1 . (12.57)

Moreover, one has f (0) = f 1 (1) = 0. The two functions f and f 1 are in principle universal,
so long as there is a sufficiently long time left for the turbulent flow to develop and lose
the “memory” of its initial configuration. More precisely, one must be sufficiently far away
from the upstream end of the conduit or of the wall so that the entry features of the flow
have disappeared.

Inertial sublayer – logarithmic variation of the velocity

In this approach, the inertial sublayer is the domain of values of y such that Equations 12.56
and 12.57 may be valid simultaneously; this implies the double inequality:

ν u∗ h
yh which requires that: Re∗ = 1. (12.58)
u∗ ν

Typically, such a domain with 30 ν/u∗ < y < 0.1 h exists only if Re∗ > 103 . In this region, the
convective momentum transport plays an essential role. Equations 12.56 and 12.57 must,
of course, yield in this domain the same value of the average velocity for a given value of y
(this represents an example of a matched asymptotic expansion approach, very often used in
fluid mechanics). By taking derivatives of the two equations with respect to y one must, first
of all, obtain the same function: multiplying the result by y, one obtains then:

∂f1 (Y ) ∂f y+
Y = y+ . (12.59)
∂Y ∂y+

The functions f and f 1 must be universal and have a unique respective dependence on
y+ and on Y . However, it is possible to vary independently these variables by changing,
Flows near a solid wall 471

for example, Re∗to keep one of them constant (and, consequently, to keep constant the
corresponding term in Equation 12.59). The two sides of the equation must be equal to the
same constant written as 1/κ, so that:

1 1 y
f1 (Y ) = Log Y + C or: v̄x (y) – U0 = u∗ Log + C (12.60a)
κ κ h

1 1 y u∗
and: f y+ = Log y+ + C
or: v̄x (y) = u∗ Log + C
. (12.60b)
κ κ ν

The parameter κ is the von Karman constant already defined in Equation 12.50b. Since the
two Equations 12.60a and 12.60b must be identical in the intermediate region joining them,
one has:

U0 1
= Log Re∗ + C
– C. (12.61)
u∗ κ

The above equation allows one to determine the maximum velocity, once the pressure
gradient and the width of the channel are known.

Velocity profiles for turbulent flows in a conduit

Figure 12.8 displays the variation of the normalized average velocity as a function of the
scaled distance y+ from the wall, for flow in a circular tube of diameter D (symbols “◦”).
The corresponding measurements in a turbulent boundary layer are also indicated (symbols
“”) and will be discussed in Section 12.5.5.
The use of a logarithmic horizontal scale for the variable y+ demonstrates a linear vari-
ation (accordingly, exponential as a function of Log y+ ), for values of y+ ≥ 25 and up to a
distance y of the order of 0.1D; vx (y)/u∗ then obeys Equation 12.60b with C
≈ 5.0 and 1/κ
= 2.5 (dashed line), so that:

v̄x y u∗
= 2.5 Log + 5. (12.62)
u∗ ν

We also see in the figure that, at short distances y+ ≤ 5 within the viscous sublayer, there
is good agreement between the experimental points and the theoretical value v̄x / u∗ = y+

30
υx
u* Figure 12.8 Profile for the variation of the
20 average scaled velocity v̄x / u∗ as a function of

υx u*y
υx 2.5 Log u*y +5
u*
= ν ( ) the scaled distance to the wall y+ = u∗ y/ν for
= turbulent flows in a cylindrical tube 200 mm
u* ν in diameter (symbols “◦”) and in a bound-
10 ary layer resulting from uniform flow near a
plane wall (symbols “”) (according to Patel,
1965)

0
1 10 102 103 u*y 104
ν
472 Turbulence

We find graphically that the intersection of the (Equation 12.54) and, beyond that, a transition region toward the logarithmic dependence
two limiting equations, Equations 12.54 and (the linear dependence appears as a curved line in Figure 12.8 because of our using a
12.60b, corresponds to y+ = u∗ y/ν = 11 (dashed
lines in Figure 12.8 above). We must then have:
horizontal, logarithmic scale).
For y+ = 5, the two terms for momentum transport obey:
v̄x / u∗ = 11 = 2.5 Log 11 + C
.

We verify then that: C

= 11 – 2.5 Log 11 ≈ 5. v
x v
y ∂ (v̄x / u∗ )
– ≈ 0.1 . (12.63)
u∗2 ∂y+

As Re∗ increases, the range of distances to Thus in the viscous sublayer, the velocity fluctuations are not negligible, but the momen-
the wall corresponding to the inertial sublayer, tum transport due to the viscosity is dominant relative to the convective transport. For
where the logarithmic dependence applies, be-
comes broader. More precisely, its upper limit y+ = 11, corresponding to the intersection of the two curves representing Equations 12.54
is always a fraction of h with the same order of and 12.60b (see above at left), the two terms are equivalent.
magnitude while its lower limit decreases (it is of
the order of 10ν/u∗ ). Relationship of the average velocity to the maximum velocity
in turbulent flows
In order to describe the central region of the flow, one must add an additional term W (y/h)
to the right-hand side of Equation 12.60a:
y
1 y
v̄x (y) – U0 = u∗ Log + C + W . (12.64)
κ h h

For flow between parallel plates, one finds experimentally that one can choose
W (Y ) ∝ sin αY with C + W (1) = 0 and W (0) = 0. As soon as y/h < 0.1, the logarithmic
dependence is again valid. In practical terms, one frequently takes as a first approximation
C = 0 and W = 0 in Equation 12.64.
According to these latter assumptions, and using Equations 12.61 and 12.60a, as well as
the values C
= 5 (given above) and C = 0, one obtains:

v̄x ( y) – U0 y U0
= 2.5 Log (12.65) and: = 2.5 Log Re∗ + 5. (12.66)
u∗ h u∗

By combining these two equations, one obtains:

v̄x (y)
y
∗
= 2.5 Log + Log Re∗ + 5. (12.67)
u h

By integrating this equation over the half-interval between the two planes, one obtains the
average velocity Um with:

h
Um 1
= v̄x dy = 2.5 Log Re∗ + 2.5. (12.68a)
u∗ h 0

For a circular tube of diameter D, one obtains a similar equation by taking Re∗ = u∗ D/ν:

Um
= 2.5 Log Re∗ – 0.5. (12.68b)
u∗

Taking Re∗ = 103 in Equations 12.66 and 12.68a, one finds for the flow between plates
Um /U 0 = 0.88. This value is notably larger than the ratio 2/3 for a laminar flow between
plates (Equation 4.69): this is a confirmation of the fact that a turbulent profile is much
Flows near a solid wall 473

flatter than the laminar, parabolic profile. The ratio Um /U 0 increases with Re∗
and, accord-
ing to Equations 12.66 and 12.68, it tends toward 1 when 2.5 Log Re∗ 1: this indicates
that the velocity profile approaches plug flow (except very close to the walls).

12.5.4 Pressure losses and coefficient of friction for

flows between parallel planes and in tubes
Flows between plates and in tubes with smooth walls
Equation 12.68a allows one to determine the relationship between the average veloc-
ity and the pressure gradient p/L parallel to the flow between two plates. In fact,
the force (2p h/L) on an element of fluid of unit length in the x- z-directions, which
extends across the interval 2h between the two plates, must be in equilibrium with the total
wall stress τ 0 = 2ρ u∗2 on these plates.

p h p h3
Therefore: u∗ = (12.69a) and: Re =∗
. (12.69b)
ρL ρ ν2 L

The rate of flow Q between the plates per unit depth in the z-direction is Q = 2Um h.
Equation 12.68a can therefore be transformed into the relation between the flow rate and
the pressure gradient:
⎛ ⎞
p h3 ⎝ p h3
Q = 2Um h = 2 2.5 Log + 2.5⎠. (12.70)
ρL ρ ν2 L

This equation indicates that the rate of flow Q between the plates is approximately propor-
tional to the square root of the pressure-gradient p/L because of the slow variation of the
logarithmic term. The flow velocity therefore increases slower as a function of the pressure
drop than for a laminar flow for which Q ∝ p/L.
For the case of a tube of diameter D with smooth walls, we would similarly obtain
τ 0 = (D/4)(p/L) = ρ u∗2 , so that:

∗ p D ∗ p D3
u = , (12.71a) Re = , (12.71b)
4ρL 4ρ ν 2 L

⎛ ⎞
π D2 p D p D3
and: Q= ⎝2.5 Log – 0.5⎠. (12.72) By using a base 10 logarithm, as is custom-
4 4ρ L 4ρ ν 2 L ary for practical applications, one derives from
Equation 12.74, the equation:

Let us now introduce, still for the case of a tube, a friction factor: –2
Cd = 2.03 log10 Cd ReD – 1.09 .
(12.75)
p 8 u∗2
Cd = = . (12.73) This equation is very similar to the equation
L ρ Um2 Um2 used in engineering for commercial tubes with
D 2
circular cross-section and smooth walls:
Using Equation 12.68b, this equation becomes: $ –2
Cd = 2 log10 Cd ReD 2.51
–2
8 u∗ D = 2 log10 Cd ReD – 0.8 .
= 2.5 Log – 0.5 = 2.5 Log ReD Cd – 3.1, (12.74)
Cd ν (12.76)
474 Turbulence

0,1

Figure 12.9 Variation of friction factor Cd 0.075 ε/D = 0.05

(Equation 12.73) as a function of the Cd
Reynolds number ReD = Um D/ν for different
0.05 ε/D = 0.02
tubes with circular cross-sections with smooth
and rough walls. The roughness is character-
ized in the case of each curve by the ratio
0.03 ε/D = 0.005
between the characteristic height ε of the sur-
face asperities and the diameter D of the tube. Cd = 64/ReD
The linear dependence on the left indicates a 0.02 ε/D = 0.001
laminar flow. The lowest curve of the right-
hand group corresponds to a tube with smooth 0.015
walls. The dashed lines indicate the laminar-
ε/D = 0.0001
turbulent transition zone (according to L.F.
Moody, 1944) 0.01
ε/D = 0 ε/D = 0.00001
103 104 105 106 107 ReD 108

where ReD = Um D/ν. This variation corresponds to the lowest of the curves on Figure 12.9
(ε/D = 0) where one notes that Cd varies only by a factor 3 when the Reynolds number ReD
varies by a factor 100.

Flows in conduits with rough walls

In this case of great practical importance, the average height ε of the asperities (Figure
12.10) introduces a new parameter into the problem. If ε ν/u∗ , the presence of the asper-
ities does not change the structure of the viscous sublayer, and the previous results remain
ε υx(y) valid: the assumption of a smooth wall may be retained.
2h If ε ν/u∗ , it is the scale length ε and no longer the thickness ν/u∗ of the viscous sublayer
which governs the structure of the velocity field at a small distance from the walls; one then
has rough walls. The dimensionless variable y+ must then be replaced by yε = y/ε; but one
can only expect simple predictions for distances y ε, such that the details of the local
geometry of the asperities no longer affect the flow. If ν/u∗ ε y h, one substitutes
Figure 12.10 Schematic diagram for a flow then for Equation 12.60b, the equation:
between two planes with rough walls, sepa-
rated by a distance 2h with a thickness ε of u∗ y
v̄x = Log . (12.77)
asperities along the walls κ ε

One assumes for simplicity that v̄x = 0 for y = ε, so that there is no additive constant. One
obtains then, by assuming that the equation remains valid up to y = h and integrating v̄x
between ε and h:

u∗ h
Um ≈ Log – 1 . (12.78)
κ ε

Proceeding as in the case of Equations 12.72

to 12.76, one finds that the flow rate be-
tween the plates is exactly proportional to p/L, and that the friction factor Cd is constant
(without a logarithmic dependence on ReD ).
Figure 12.9 displays the variation of Cd with the Reynolds number ReD for different
values of the ratio ε/D (again for tubes of circular cross-section). The transition to the
Flows near a solid wall 475

turbulent regime results in an increase of Cd . Then, as ReD increases further, one has first Experimentally, one obtains, for tubes with
a regime where the thickness ν/u∗ of the viscous sublayer is large relative to ε: Cd follows in rough walls, the following value (independent of
this regime the universal dependence (Equation 12.74) obtained for smooth tubes. At larger the velocity) for the limit of Cd at high Reynolds
numbers:
values of ReD such that ν/u∗ ε, Cd has a constant value determined by the roughness of
–2
the walls. The weak variation of Cd with ReD then justifies the use of this coefficient to ε/D –2 D
Cd = 2 log10 = 2 log10 + 1.14 .
characterize the wall friction for industrial turbulent flows of fluids with low viscosity. 3.7 ε
(12.79)

12.5.5 Turbulent boundary layers For a laminar flow corresponding to Poiseuille’s

Equation 4.78, one obtains instead with the same
In Section 12.5.3, we discussed flows between two plates and in a tube, and assumed that definition of Cd :
they had reached a stationary velocity profile valid over the whole cross-section of the flow
64
and invariant along it. We will now analyze the case of a turbulent boundary layer which de- Cd = . (12.80)
ReD
velops along a smooth semi-infinite plane located in a uniform flow U parallel to the x-axis
(Figure 12.11). One assumes that the characteristic distances for the evolution of the veloc- This variation appears at the left in Figure 12.9.
ity of the flow in the x-direction are large relative to those in the y-direction. Just as for the The coefficient Cd varies as 1/ReD like for the
other viscous flows for which the velocity of the
laminar boundary layer discussed in Chapter 10, the flow outside the turbulent boundary
fluid is proportional to the applied pressure gra-
layer is considered as potential and with uniform velocity U: in this latter case, the bound- dients. This variation is much faster than that
ary between the turbulent region and the external flow at constant velocity fluctuates as a observed for turbulent flows and even for lam-
inar boundary layers (as l/Re1/2 in the case of the
function of time, even though, instantaneously, this boundary is quite clear in experimen-
latter).
tal visualizations (Figure 12.11). In order to determine the thickness of the boundary layer
δ(x), instantaneous velocity profiles at different times are averaged.

y
U
x Figure 12.11 Flow in a turbulent boundary
layer. The gray-levels in the image correspond
to the intensity of the fluorescence induced by
δ(x) a laser plane perpendicular to the wall (the
fluorescent dye is emitted at the wall)
υx(x,y)

Variation of the thickness δ as a function of the distance along the wall

The elements of fluid are carried along parallel to the wall at a velocity of the order of U . One
assumes that the transverse fluctuations vy
of the velocity tend to drive away from the plate
the boundary of the turbulence: this transverse increase is thus convective, not diffusive, as
was the case for the laminar boundary layer. But, in the inertial sublayer: ρ u∗2 = –ρ v
x v
y

and experiments indicate that one also often has v
x v
y ≈ v
2y . One can therefore consider
that the transverse velocity fluctuations vy
are of the order of u∗ . By using the same kind of
qualitative reasoning as in Section 10.2, one obtains:

dδ(x) u∗ u∗ x
≈ , (12.81a) so that: δ(x) ≈ , (12.81b)
dx U U

if we take as the origin x = 0 the edge of the plate. We will see in fact, further down, that u∗
varies only little with the distance x in the direction of the mean flow. The average thickness
√
thus increases proportionately to the distance x and not as x, as it would in a laminar
boundary layer.
476 Turbulence

Laminar and viscous sublayers for a smooth wall

The symbols () in Figure 12.8 correspond to the experimental variation of the velocity
v̄x / u∗ as a function of Log (y u∗ /ν) in a turbulent boundary layer resulting from uniform
flow near a flat plate (u∗ is, as in the previous case, related to the stress on the wall by
Equation 12.49). The experimental variations are practically identical to those observed for
flow in a tube of circular cross-section. We have, just as in this previous case, both a viscous
and an inertial sublayer corresponding to variations, respectively linear and logarithmic, of
the average velocity as a function of the distance to the wall. The two normalized velocity
profiles are almost identical when the distance to the wall is less than 0.1 D for the tube, or
small in comparison with the thickness of the boundary layer. Thus:

• in the viscous sublayer (y ν/u∗ ), one has:

u∗2 y
v̄x (y) ≈ (12.82) and: τ (x) = ρ u∗2 . (12.83)
ν

• in the inertial sublayer (ν/u∗ y δ(x)), the velocity profile y obeys an equation
identical to Equation 12.60b:

1 y u∗
v̄x (y) = u∗ Log + C
, (12.84)
κ ν

with the same coefficients 1/κ = 2.5 and C

∼= 5. One has also an equation equivalent to
Equation 12.60a for the variable Y = y/δ(x).

Velocity profile at the edge of a turbulent boundary layer in the case

of a smooth wall
At high Reynolds numbers, we move away from the logarithmic dependence of the profile
as soon as y > 0.15 δ(x), approximately. In this transitional region, the flow is alternately
potential and turbulent because of the great amplitude of the motion of the edge of the
boundary layer seen in Figure 12.11. Equation 12.84 is then no longer valid. The correction
term W , which we need to introduce, depends only, as in the case of the two plates, on the
variable y/δ(x). For y ν/u∗ , Equation 12.84 can thus be generalized into the form:

v̄x (y) 1 y u∗ y
∗
= Log + C
+ W (12.85)
u κ ν δ(x)

The function W (y/δ(x)) vanishes in the inertial sublayer (y δ), and its variation near the
edge of the layer is similar to that observed at the center of the flows between plates. Writing,
by means of Equation 12.85, the condition v̄x (δ) = U for y = δ(x), one obtains:

U 1
= Log Re∗δ + C

, (12.86)
u∗ κ

where C

= C
+ W (1) and Re∗δ = u∗ δ(x)/ν.

Frictional coefficient along a smooth wall

Defining the friction factor Cd as Cd = ρ u ∗2 /ρU 2 , Equation 12.86 becomes:

1
Cd = 2 (12.87)
(1/κ) Log Re∗δ + C

Flows near a solid wall 477

Cd varies therefore slowly (logarithmically) with Re∗δ

(and therefore with δ(x)), for a
smooth plane wall: this result is in contrast with the variation as 1/Re1/2 for laminar flows
(Equation 10.42).
These results justify a posteriori the assumption of a constant value of u∗ , made above in
order to evaluate the variation of δ(x) with x. Quantitatively, by using Equation 12.86 and
Equation 12.81b, one obtains:
x
δ(x) ≈ . (12.88)
(1/κ) Log Re∗δ + C

The variation of δ(x) with x is thus approximately linear in x; more precisely, δ varies as x0.9
because of the increase as Log x of the Log Reδ∗ term in the denominator of Equation 12.88.
Moreover, the ratio δ(x)/x depends only very slightly on the external velocity U . Note that
δ represents only an average thickness, since the boundary with the external flow is strongly
fluctuating and tortuous.

Turbulent boundary layer near a rough surface

Just as in the case of a fully developed flow, the effect of surface roughness is dominant
when its depth ε becomes greater than the thickness of the viscous sublayer. In this case,
the velocity profile as well as the frictional force and the coefficient Cd depend on the two
length scales δ and ε. Just as in Equation 12.79, which corresponds to a fully developed flow
in a circular tube, the form of the equations for Cd and for δ(x) is inferred from Equations
12.87 and 12.88 by substituting for Log Reδ ∗ the value Log (δ/ε).

Comparison of the laminar and turbulent boundary layers

In concluding this presentation of the characteristics of turbulent boundary layers, let us
summarize the main differences from the laminar boundary layers:

• In a laminar layer, the velocity varies linearly with the distance from the wall in the vi-
cinity of the wall, and then it joins up exponentially with its asymptotic value (Figure
12.12). For the turbulent layer, in normalized coordinates, the initial slope ∂ v̄x /∂y of y
the profile in the laminar sublayer is higher than in the laminar case; then, we join δ(x)
the velocity of the external flow more slowly than in the laminar case because of the
logarithmic variation in the inertial sublayer.
1
• The thickness of the boundary layer increases approximately as the distance x from
√
the edge of the turbulent layer (instead of x in the case of a laminar layer). The
convective momentum flux resulting from the turbulent fluctuations in the inertial
sublayer is greater than the diffusive flux taking place in a laminar layer. As a re-
sult, the friction coefficient Cd is higher. Just as for a fully developed flow, this also 0 υx (x,y) 1
explains the large value of the slope ∂ v̄x /∂y at the wall: in the viscous sublayer, the U(x)
viscous momentum transport must indeed compensate for the smaller magnitude of
Figure 12.12 Comparison between the nor-
the convective transport so that both fluxes match.
malized velocity profiles for flows in a lami-
• The coefficient Cd at a plane wall varies slower with the Reynolds
√ number for the nar (dashes) and turbulent (solid line) regimes
turbulent layer (as Log (1/Re)) than for a laminar layer (as 1/ Re). Cd is then most in boundary layers in the neighborhood of a
often higher in the turbulent case; moreover, Cd also increases with the roughness of smooth flat plate
the wall at high Reynolds numbers.

12.5.6 Separation of turbulent boundary layers

Another characteristic of turbulent boundary layers, essential in practical applications, is
the fact that the gradient ∂U /∂x < 0, required in order to generate the separation, is much
478 Turbulence

(a) (b)
Figure 12.13 Difference between the loca-
tions of the separation points for the case (a) of
a laminar boundary layer and (b) of a turbu-
lent one. In the second case, a wire around the
sphere upstream of the separation point causes
the transition toward a turbulent boundary
layer and thus slows down the separation
(plates courtesy H. Werlé, ONERA)

higher than for a laminar layer (Section 10.5.4). This is an indication of the much greater
effectiveness of the convective momentum transfer by vortices in the turbulent layer as
compared to the purely diffusive transfer in the laminar layer. The transfer of momentum
toward the low-velocity regions near the wall is thus more significant, and slows down the
inversion of the direction of the flow.
One can thus stabilize the boundary layers by inducing a transition toward turbulence
upstream of the normal separation point (e.g., by a small roughness along the surface). The
The effect of the reduced size of the wake is separation of the boundary layer then occurs much farther along than if it had remained
generally much greater than that of the increase
of the frictional force, in the region where the laminar. The width of the downstream turbulent wake is then significantly reduced (Figure
boundary layer has not separated because it be- 12.13b), in comparison with a laminar boundary layer (Figure 12.13a).
came turbulent: the amplitude of this latter effect This reduction of the size of the wake causes a significant decrease of the energy dis-
can be visualized in Figure 12.9 through the dif-
ference between the values of Cd for laminar and sipation in the wake. The global drag can then be significantly decreased, an important
turbulent flow, in the transition region for a tube consideration in a number of practical applications.
of circular cross-section (ReD ≈ 3000). One of the most spectacular manifestations of this effect is the phenomenon of the drag
crisis: it is observed at Reynolds numbers of several hundred thousands, even on smooth
spheres and circular cylinders. It is the result of a spontaneous transition of the laminar
boundary layer toward turbulence: this phenomenon is accompanied by a dramatic reduc-
tion of the drag (Figure 12.14) related to the reduction of the size of the wake. For dimpled

2Fd
Cd =
ρU02 d

Figure 12.14 Illustration of the drag- 10

coefficient crisis for a cylinder of circular
5
cross-section: at a Reynolds number of the
order of 3 × 105, the drag exerted on a
2
circular cylinder suddenly drops by a factor
of the order of 2. This is the result of the 1
sudden decrease in the width of the wake
0.5

0.1 1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107

U0 d
Re =
ν
Homogeneous turbulence – Kolmogorov’s theory 479

surfaces, such as a golf ball, or rough surfaces, such as a tennis ball, this transition occurs The reattachment of the boundary layer along a
earlier. This allows for a reduction of the drag, provided that the velocity required for the wall may be observed (Figure 12.15) by looking
at the tarpaulin on the side of a passing truck.
transition is exceeded, a result instinctively recognized by strong players.
A related effect is the reattachment of boundary layers which sometimes occurs when a
boundary layer becomes turbulent just downstream of a separation point Figure 12.15.
In this case, the transverse momentum transfer, by turbulent fluctuations, can be sufficient
to reaccelerate the fluid near the wall, and suppress the recirculation flow.

12.6 Homogeneous
turbulence – Kolmogorov’s theory
The multiplicity of the characteristic sizes of vortex-like motions is one of the essential
features of turbulence. We have already written, in Section 12.2, the balance equations for Figure 12.15 Separation and subsequent
the exchange of energy and vorticity between the mean flow and the ensemble of these reattachment of a boundary layer due to
turbulent fluctuations of the velocity. The goal of the theory developed by Kolmogorov, in its transition to turbulence, the result of a
1941, is to make these balances more precise, and to study the distribution and the exchange snub-nosed profile (plate courtesy ONERA)
of energy and vorticity among vortices of different sizes.

12.6.1 Energy cascade in a homogeneous

turbulent flow
Qualitative description
In the Kolmogorov model of an energy cascade, one considers that the energy injected into injection
the mean flow at its largest scale is transmitted to the largest vortices of characteristic size ℓ
(Figure 12.16); these transmit then the energy to immediately smaller vortices located in the
same region of space and, sequentially, eventually to the smallest vortices, at whose level the
energy is dissipated by the viscosity.
The energy transfer between vortices of different sizes in Kolmogorov’s theory displays
some analogies with the transfer of momentum in a turbulent flow near a wall. The average
transfer
motion of a homogeneous turbulent flow corresponds to the profile of the global velocity,
or to the velocity at a large distance from the walls. The smallest vortices for which viscous
dissipation is important correspond to the viscous sublayer very close to the walls. Between k
η
these two scales, there exists an intermediate domain, in which the transfer of momentum
or energy is dominated by inertial effects, and with characteristics independent both of the dissipation
viscosity and the global size of the flow.
In order to justify this description, one considers Equation 12.19 for the transport of Figure 12.16 Principle of Kolmogorov’s
the energy of the fluctuations, assuming at this stage that the mean flow is stationary. One energy-transfer cascade from the largest vor-
assumes further that the flow evolves slowly, as a function of the distance, so that the diver- tices toward the smallest ones. Note that the
gence of the terms involving the flux of energy is small. The balance of the energy of the vertical scale is defined here in terms of the
turbulent fluctuations thus becomes, neglecting these terms and those on the left-hand side: virtual space of the sizes of the vortices, not in
real space: the vortices are actually randomly
2 distributed with no segregation with respect to
∂v
i ∂ v̄i
–ν = v
i v
j . (12.89) their size
∂xj ∂xj

This equation indicates that, for these fluctuations, there is equilibrium between the en-
ergy dissipated by the viscosity and that received from the mean flow. Let us assume
more precisely a fact verified a posteriori in Equations 12.92a–b. The velocities associated
with the vortices increase with their size; in contrast, the velocity gradients are greater for
480 Turbulence

the small vortices. In this case, for the energy balance (Equation 12.89), the largest vor-

tices contribute, in dominant fashion, to the term –v
i v
j ∂ v̄i / ∂xj and the smallest ones to
2
ν ∂v
i /∂xj .
The image of the Rankine vortex discussed in Section 7.1.2 allows one to understand
the origin of this energy exchange: it results from the stretching of the vortex tubes, which
appears in the equation for the balance of vorticity (Equation 12.20a) through the term

ωi
ωj
∂v
i / ∂xj . In a stationary homogeneous flow for which dω
2 /dt = 0, this term must be,
on average, positive for Equation 12.20b to be obeyed. As seen in Section 7.3.1, if one
stretches a vortex tube of length L and radius R, the circulation of the velocity around
the vortex tube (equal to the integral πω
R2 of the vorticity through a cross-section) and its
volume V = πR2 L remain constant as the vortex is deformed. The kinetic energy of rotation
of the tube, of the order of ρV R2 ω
2 , is, in contrast, proportional to 1/R2 and also to L: the
energy of the vortex increases therefore as it is stretched.
The key complementary assumption of the above-mentioned Kolmogorov model is that
Let us describe, in more precise terms, what we the vortices of a given size receive energy only from those of immediately greater size, and
mean by “size immediately larger or smaller”. transmit it only to those of immediately smaller size. Let us denote by ξ (≤ ) one of the
Arguments such as the previous one classify im-
plicitly vortices along a logarithmic scale which characteristic sizes of the vortices present and by v
ξ and (∂v
/∂x)ξ the order of magnitude
is the only one adequate to describe the varia- of the velocity fluctuations and of the velocity gradient associated with vortices of size ξ .
tions by several orders of magnitude of the size The present discussion will take place in the space of the size ξ of the vortices and assume
of the vortices in a highly developed turbulence.
One divides then the scale of the useful values that the component v
ξ increases as ξ increases, while the derivatives (∂v
/∂x)ξ decrease:
of Log ξ into equal intervals which correspond, since, in the following, one assumes also that (∂v
/∂x)ξ ≈ v
ξ /ξ , these assumptions imply
for example, to a change by a factor of two, as that, if v
ξ follows a power law in ξ , the exponent must be less that one. The stretching
one shifts from one length-scale to the neighbor-
ing one. The vortices are then distributed among
of the vortex tubes corresponding to a component of size ξ of the turbulent velocity field
the various intervals: one will say, for example, results only from velocity gradients (∂v
/∂x)ξ
created by the components of size ξ
> ξ (the
that vortices with a size of the order of ξ receive components of size smaller than ξ give a vanishing effect when averaged over the whole
energy from vortices of size 2ξ and then pass it
vortex). Among these components, those which give the largest values of (∂v
/∂x)ξ
, and
on to those of typical size ξ /2 (the number two is
arbitrary). which have the strongest effect correspond to the sizes immediately greater than ξ .

Scaling laws and characteristic sizes resulting from the energy-cascade model
Let us call ε the amount of energy per unit mass exchanged during a given time interval
by the mean flow with the largest vortices (ε is measured in m2 /s3 ). In the cascade process
which has just been described, ε is also equal to the energy exchanged by vortices of arbi-
trary size ξ with those of a neighboring size, so long as the size ξ is large enough so that one
can neglect dissipation due to viscosity.
One considers first the level of the large scales of turbulence: one denotes as the size
of the largest vortices, v
the associated characteristic velocity and t the time taken by a
particle of matter to go around the entire vortex with t ≈ /v
; t is assumed to represent
the order of magnitude of the time taken by the vortex to transfer its initial energy. One
then has:

dv
2 v
2 A v
3
≈ –A
, (12.90a) i.e.: ε≈
. (12.90b)
dt /v
A is a dimensionless constant of the order of unity. Equation 12.90b can be verified
experimentally by measuring the loss of energy from the turbulence created by the passage
of a flow at velocity U through a grid, as a function of the distance to the latter. The
experiments confirm approximately the initial assumptions, even when the size of the
largest vortices changes. These experimental verifications suggest that Equations 12.90a–b
remains valid for smaller vortices, of size ξ < , but large enough so that viscous effects
remain negligible. Then:
Homogeneous turbulence – Kolmogorov’s theory 481

dv
2
ξ v
2
ξ v
ξ A v
3
ξ
≈A , (12.91a) so that: ε≈ . (12.91b)
dt ξ ξ
One refers to the range of sizes of vortices for which this equation is obeyed as the inertial
subrange: it is justified by the fact that the time tξ ≈ ξ /v
ξ is the only characteristic time
associated with a vortex of given size, intermediate between those of the largest vortices and
of the smallest (affected by viscosity). This implies that the dynamics of the intermediate-
sized vortices is independent of both the global structure of the flow (the largest vortices)
and of the viscosity which only affects the smallest ones: this assumption results from the
cascade model in which vortices in a given range of sizes interact only with the immediately
larger and smaller ones.
Since the rate of transfer of energy ε is the same for all vortices and is therefore
independent of ξ , Equation 12.91b implies:

v
ξ ∝ ξ 1/3 (12.92a) and: (∂v
/ ∂x)ξ ∝ ξ –2/3 . (12.92b)

This confirms the assumption that v

ξ
decreases and the gradient (∂v
/∂x)
ξ increases as the
spatial scale ξ of the vortices decreases.
As the total amount of the energy transferred must be equal to the dissipated energy, ε
also represents the rate of dissipation of energy per unit mass. Let us call η the character-
istic size of the smallest vortices (this established notation should not be confused with the
dynamic viscosity η). More specifically, η represents the size of the vortices for which the
2
energy dissipated by viscosity ν ∂v
i /∂xj becomes of the order of ε. Substituting for this
last expression the approximate value ν (v
η / η)2 , the length η and the corresponding velocity
v
η must obey the double condition, taking A = 1 in Equations 12.91a-b:
2
v
η v
3
η
ε =ν = . (12.93)
η η

Solving this equation, one obtains:

η = ν 3/4 ε –1/4 (12.94) and: v

η = (ν ε)1/4 , (12.95)

v
η
where η and are respectively referred to as the Kolmogorov length and Kolmogorov velocity.
Since the smallest vortices lose their energy very rapidly by viscous dissipation, one can
consider that η represents the typical lower limit of the size of vortices. Another way to obtain
this same result consists in calculating the Reynolds number Reη = v
η η / ν by taking the
Kolmogorov velocity and length as characteristic scales. One finds Reη = 1 which confirms
that η is the length-scale for which convective and viscous effects become of the same order
of magnitude.
The inertial subrange of vortex sizes ξ for which scaling laws such as Equation 12.92a-b
are valid extends (as an order of magnitude) from η to . According to the very prin-
ciple of the energy cascade, this concept is indeed no longer applicable to scales of size
greater than , as seen above, or less than η, for which viscous dissipation becomes im-
portant. Experimental results corresponding to this inertial subrange will be discussed in
Section 12.6.3.
In this same domain of vortex sizes, Equation 12.91b remains valid and the kinetic energy
Eξ per unit mass of fluid, corresponding to vortices of size ξ has the value:

Eξ ∝ v
2
ξ ∝ (ε ξ ) .
2/3
(12.96)

The energy is thus principally associated with the largest vortices.

482 Turbulence

On the other hand, the enstrophy ωξ

2 (the square of the vorticity defined in Sec-
tion 12.2.5) associated with vortices of size ξ has a dependence ωξ
2 ∝ (v
ξ / ξ )2 ∝ ε 2/3 ξ –4/3 .
The enstrophy is then concentrated in the smallest vortices because it increases as their size
In addition to the scaling laws which have just decreases.
been discussed, Kolmogorov has derived a pre-
cise general equation, based on the conserva- Kolmogorov cascade and correlations between velocity fluctuations
tion of energy and valid in homogeneous and
isotropic turbulence: it involves a third-order An equation related to the previous one characterizes the correlation between velocity fluc-
moment of the component v of the velocity, tuations measured at two points separated by an interval r in a turbulent homogeneous and
parallel to the increment r : isotropic flow. One finds that:
% 3 & 4
% 2 &
v x + r – v (x) = – ε r . (12.98) v (x + r) – v (x) = C ε 2/3 r 2/3 , (12.97)
5 x

This equation is known as Kolmogorov’s four- in which r = |r| and v is the velocity component in the direction of r. The correlation
fifths law, and is valid for distances r small com- function of the left-hand side is independent of the volume over which the average is taken
pared to the size of the largest vortices. It may be
used to determine the parameter ε (which plays a because of the homogeneity of the flow; it does not depend either on the orientation of r
key role, as seen above, in Kolmogorov’s cascade because of the isotropy. It is understood that this equation is only valid in the same range of
model). distance scales r for which Equation 12.96 is itself valid.

12.6.2 Spectral expression of Kolmogorov’s laws

So far, turbulent flow has been considered as a superposition of vortices of different sizes.
We describe now another classical method using the Fourier transform of the velocity field
to perform a spectral decomposition into sinusoidal components of different wave numbers.

Spectral decomposition of the spatial variation of the velocity

The spectral decomposition of the velocity field is performed by taking the three-
dimensional Fourier transform of the components v
j . This amounts to represent the velocity
fluctuations as a superposition of sinusoidal waves. One thus defines:

1
v
k,j = 3
v
j (r) e–ik·r d3 r , (12.99a)
(2π)
and, taking the inverse Fourier transform:

v
j (r) = v
k,j ei k·r d3 k. (12.99b)

The kinetic energy of the flow can then be computed as a function of the components v
k,j
by means Equation 12.99b. The energy per unit mass obeys (summing over the index j and
the volume V corresponding to a unit mass of the fluid):
2
v
2 v

j k,j
d3 r = d3 k. (12.100)
V 2 2

2
vk, j / 2 d3 k thus represents the energy per unit mass associated to the components

of the wave vector near k, within a volume d3 k of the spectral domain. In a homogeneous
and isotropic turbulent flow, this energy depends only on the modulus |k| and not on the
direction of k. One can then define a spectral energy density E(k): E(k) dk is the energy
associated with the components for which the modulus of the wave vector ranges between k
and k + dk. As the corresponding volume in the spectral region is 4π k2 dk, one obtains
then (again summing over j):
Homogeneous turbulence – Kolmogorov’s theory 483
2

E(k) = 2π ρ k2 v
k,j . (12.101) The viscous energy dissipation can be computed
from Equation 5.26 by means of a similar mathe-
matical method. For homogeneous and isotropic
An important problem with the Fourier transform is that the sine wave functions have turbulence, this dissipation obeys, again for a
an infinite extent through the physical space, while turbulent structures have a finite size. volume V of unit mass of fluid:
One must then consider vortices of different sizes as wave packets, corresponding to an
interval k of values of k centered around zero; more specifically, the size ξ of the vortex is 2 ν eij2 dV = 2ν k2 E(k) dk.
V
of the order of 2π/k. Just as in the case of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, we cannot (12.102)
perfectly localize the turbulent fluctuations both in real space and in the space of the wave As in the previous case, only the modulus k of
vectors: the larger k, the smaller the spatial extent will be. the wave vector is involved. The factor k2 ap-
Other more elaborate techniques such as the wavelet transform have also been used. The pears while computing the Fourier transforms of
the spatial derivatives of the velocity occurring
wavelets, like sinusoidal waves, constitute an orthonormal basis. In contrast to them, they in eij 2 , leading to the appearance of the different
are only non-vanishing in a finite size region which corresponds to the characteristic size of components of k as multiplying factors.
the turbulent fluctuations that they represent.

Spectral tranformation based on variations in time

The PIV techniques described in Section 3.5.4 determine the instantaneous velocity field One cannot measure in this way the components
in a measurement plane, and thus allow one to carry out the Fourier transformations of the v
k ,j for every component of the wave vector k,
i
velocity components which have just been discussed (at least for two of the components but only for the component k1 parallel to the
mean flow U. Moreover, one measures generally
of the velocity). However, the experimental velocity mapping barely amounts to a hundred only one or two components of the velocity: one
points in each direction: the range of length-scales covered by these mappings is thus narrow 2
does not, therefore, determine the sum v
k,j /2
since it extends only from the interval between points up to the global field of view. At high for every component of k and all the indices j,
Reynolds numbers, one will then be unable to cover the full domain of length-scales required but only parameters like:
in order to describe the flow; this region should, indeed, range from the global size of the

2
flow down to scales smaller than the Kolmogorov length η. One cannot then verify precisely vk ,1
1
E1 (k1 ) = (12.103)
scaling laws as in Equations 12.92a-b. 2
Other techniques allow one, however, to determine E(k) in such cases. One frequently However, if the turbulent fluctuations are iso-
tropic, E 1 (k1 ) and E(k) are shown to be related
uses a fixed probe to measure one or several components of the velocity and records its by:
output as a function of time. Information on the spatial variation of the velocity at a given
d 1 dE1
time may be deduced from this measurement if individual vortices cross the probe over E(k) = 2k13 . (12.104)
dk1 k1 dk1
a time lapse shorter than the characteristic time for their evolution: such measurements
require therefore a high mean velocity of the flow (compared to that of the velocity fluc- E(k) can then be evaluated as a function of
tuations). This latter assumption is that of Taylor’s frozen turbulence. Practically, spectral E 1 (k1 ). If, as seen further down, E(k) varies
with k following a power law, E 1 (k1 ) also obeys
components v
ω,j which are functions of the angular frequency ω are computed by applying a power law with the same exponent and in the
a Fourier transform to the variations with time. Using the assumption of frozen turbulence, same range of wave vectors as E(k).
one considers that v
ω,j coincides with the spectral spatial component v
k1 ,j , in which k1 is the
component of the wave vector parallel to the velocity v̄ of the mean flow and related to its
modulus by k1 = ω/v̄. Using probes which have a high frequency response, such as hot-wire In another approach one uses a detector attached
anemometers (Section 3.5.3), very fast time variations can be measured, allowing for the outside a body (e.g. plane or boat) moving
rapidly within a flow and measures the time var-
analysis of vortices over a very broad domain of characteristic length scales. iation of its relative velocity with respect to the
fluid. These variations are translated to spatial
Kolmogorov’s similarity laws in wave vector space variations by performing a spectral analysis and
replacing the frequency ω by the product U k1
We will now describe similarity laws which express, in the wave vector space k, the proc- (U is the velocity of the probe and k1 the compo-
ess of energy cascade discussed in real space in Section 12.6.1. Just like above, vortices are nent of the wave vector parallel to the motion).
considered as a wave packet for which the range of the values of the wave vector k is cen- If the distribution of the turbulent fluctuations
is isotropic, E(k) can be deduced from these
terd about zero over a width k ≈ 2π/ξ . The wave vectors occurring in the description spectral components (Equation 12.104). The as-
of vortices of size ξ are thus of the order of 1/ξ , and are greater, the smaller the vortices. sumption of frozen turbulence is valid, in this case,
We will now derive, by means of dimensional arguments, two similarity laws suggested by if the probe crosses a turbulent structure in a
time lapse shorter that needed for the structure
Kolmogorov: the first is valid for sufficiently small vortices (thus for large wave vectors) to evolve.
so that they are not influenced by the global structure of the mean flow; the range of wave
484 Turbulence

vectors over which this law is valid includes the smallest vortices for which viscosity cannot
be neglected. The second of Kolmogorov’s laws is more specific, and only applies in the
intermediate inertial subdomain where neither the viscosity nor the mean flow play a role.

Kolmogorov’s first similarity law

One first examines the case of vortices of size ξ ≈ 1/k . In this case, the energy den-
sity E(k) per unit mass, of dimension L 3 /T 2 , must depend only on the variables k, ν and
ε, of respective dimensions: 1/L, L 2 /T and L 2 /T 3 , and not on . The Kolmogorov length
η = ν 3/4 ε –1/4 is then the only characteristic scale length in this problem (one recalls that it is
the size of vortices for which the energy dissipation by viscosity is of the order of magnitude
of the rate ε of transfer of energy from the mean flow).
Kolmogorov’s first similarity law assumes then that, again if k 1, the wave vector k is
only involved through a function f of the dimensionless combination kη. There must be, in
front of f , a prefactor ε α ν β Z with the same dimension as E(k) so that: α = 1/4 and β = 5/4.
One then obtains:

E(k) = ν 5/4 ε 1/4 f (kη). (12.105)

Because of the loss of energy by vortices of size less than η due to viscous dissipation, one
predicts (and verifies experimentally) that the function E(k) decreases faster for k 1/η
than for smaller values of the wave vector.

Kolmogorov’s second similarity law: inertial subrange

Let us now analyze the case of vortices of size ξ η : in contrast to the previous case,
viscosity does not play a role in the dissipation of their energy. The energy density E(k)
then must be only a function of k, and ε. Proceeding as in the previous case, one finds:

E (k) = ε2/3 5/3 g (k) for: k 1/η; (12.106)

k must be slightly greater than 1/ so that the scales involved are not too much affected by
the large-scale structure of the flow.
If is much larger than η, there exists a range of values of k for which the condi-
tions k 1 of Kolmogorov’s first law, and kη 1 of Equation 12.106, are simultaneously
obeyed. This range is the inertial subrange.
In this domain, E(k) must be independent of in Equation 12.106, implying that
g(k) ∝ (k)–5/3 . On the other hand, E(k) must also be independent of ν in Equation 12.105;
substituting for η its value in Equation 12.94, this implies that f (kη) ∝ (k η)–5/3 . These two
conditions lead to the same equation:

Equation 12.107 is equivalent to the equation E (k) = K0 ε2/3 k–5/3 . (12.107)

derived above for the energy Eξ of vortices of
size ξ . Considering that the size ξ of the vor- One finds experimentally that K 0 , known as Kolmogorov’s constant, is of the order of 1.45,
tices corresponding to turbulent fluctuations of
and that it is independent of and of ν. Equation 12.107 confirms that, as seen above, the
wave vectors of modulus k is of the order of
1/k, Equation 12.96 becomes Eξ =1/k ∝ ε 2/3 k–2/3 . energy is dominantly concentrated in the large vortices, and decreases with their size.
Discussing again the size of vortices in terms of Equation 12.107 represents the famous Kolmogorov k–5/3 law which has been well verified
a logarithmic scale (e.g., energy exchange be-
experimentally, as shown by Figure 12.17. As said above, this equation is only valid in the
tween vortices and others of double and half
their size), one can consider that Eξ =1/k rep- range of wave vectors corresponding to the inertial subdomain, i.e. to vortices large enough
resents, in the space of the wave vectors, the so that the effects of viscosity are negligible, but small relative to the characteristic size of
integral of E(k) over an interval k ≈ k. One the mean flow where energy injection occurs. This condition translates into the relationship
then obtains, from Equation 12.107, the estimate
Eξ =1/k ∝ (ε2/3 k–5/3 )k, which corresponds well η 1/k : this implies that η (in practical terms > 103 η or even 104 η). Making
with that deduced from Equation 12.96. use of Equation 12.94, this inequality becomes:
Homogeneous turbulence – Kolmogorov’s theory 485
3/4
v

= Re 3/4 1, (12.108)
ν

where Re is the Reynolds number associated with the velocity and size scales of large vor-
tices. These scales are generally significantly smaller than the global velocity and size scales
of the flow (e.g., for turbulence resulting from a grid). The number Re is thus generally
smaller than the global Reynolds number of the flow: this makes it even more difficult to
satisfy experimentally the condition of Equation 12.108.

12.6.3 Experimental verification of Kolmogorov’s

theory
Verification of the k–5/3 law
The verification can be carried out in natural flows. In the atmosphere, one easily reaches a
Reynolds number Re ≈ 107 , with = 100 m, v
= 1 m/s, ν ≈ 10–5 m2 /s. Measurements on
meteorological towers, or using a probe dragged by a plane flying through the atmosphere,
allowed one to verify the variation of E(k) as k–5/3 over about three orders of magnitude
(vortices with a size varying between a few centimeters and a hundred meters) and also ver-
ified the isotropy of the established turbulence. This dependence is also verified on oceanic
flows (for instance tidal flows in straits), where the global Reynolds numbers can be as large
as 3 × 108 . Finally, experiments carried out in the large wind-tunnel at Modane (France)
have shown, in a well-controlled manner, variations of this type over a broad range of wave
vectors (there, again, over a little less than three orders of magnitude) (Figure 12.17). One
notes the very clear appearance of a cut-off effect at large wave vectors, and also for large
vortices at small wave vectors.

Verification of Kolmogorov’s first law

Such a verification can be carried out in a laboratory setting by means of hot-wire anemome-
ters, which provide very localized measurements. Experimentally, one can demonstrate that,
if k 1, the ratio E(k)/(ε 1/4 ν 5/4 ) is a universal function of kη. In the laboratory, it is quite
rare to be able to observe the inertial subrange; as mentioned above, this is mostly possible
in the atmosphere, in the ocean, or in large wind-tunnels (Figure 12.17). The parameter ε
can be determined indirectly, since it is equal to the total energy dissipated by the smallest
vortices. One verifies experimentally that, for very various Reynolds numbers and methods
of generating flows, the measurements correctly follow a universal law for k 1.
Figure 12.17 Spatial spectrum, in arbi-
trary units, of the turbulent fluctuations of
the longitudinal component v
of the velocity
10-1 squared,measured in the ONERA S1 wind-
(υ' 2) tunnel at Modane-Avrieux as a function of
(u.a.) the wave vector k. The dashed line corre-
10-3 sponds to a variation as k–5/3 . Experimental
-5/3
parameters: average velocity v̄ = 20.6 m/s,

v
2 = 1.66 m/s, diameter of the experi-
10-5 mental cross-section D = 24 m, Kolmogorov
length η = 0.31 mm (kη = 1/η = 3.2 × 103
m–1 ). The spectrum was calculated as a func-
10-7 tion of the wave vector k from the time fluc-
tuations of the velocity, taking into account
the variations of the local velocity of the flow
1 10 100 k (m–1) 1000 v̄ + v
(from Y. Gagne and Y. Malécot)
486 Turbulence

12.7 Other aspects of turbulence

Up to this point, we have considered that turbulence was characterized by the existence
of unpredictable flows, with strong non-linear effects and a significant convective trans-
port (this transport is the reason for the great effectiveness of turbulent mixing). We are,
however, far from having explored all the possible manifestations of turbulence, which fre-
quently end up beyond this simple description. We will discuss here briefly a few of these
situations by making use of what we have been able to learn throughout this textbook, and
by referring the reader to more specialized works for a detailed analysis.

12.7.1 Intermittent turbulence

Kolmogorov’s theory gives a good overview of isotropic turbulence, and remains a key
reference for a first approach to homogeneous turbulence. Nonetheless, large vortices are
never in statistical equilibrium in real-life experiments. Since these determine the amplitude
of the energy exchange, this implies that there are other temporal variations in the value of
ε: experimental measurements show, in fact, that there exist considerable variations of the
energy-dissipation ε as a function of time, and from one point to another. Physically, these
fluctuations can be correlated to the passage of turbulent structures that one easily observes
on the surface of a river. The turbulent puffs are closely related to the concept of intermittency.
The importance of fluctuations in ε leads to take them into account in the consideration of
higher-order moments of the velocity where Kolmogorov’s theory is deficient; one must
then take into account not only the average value, but also the higher-order moments of the
probability distribution of ε.

12.7.2 Coherent turbulent structures

One has seen in several instances that turbulence is not incompatible with the existence
of large-scale, extremely stable structures, known as coherent structures. The red spot in
Jupiter’s atmosphere is an outstanding example at an extremely high Reynolds number.
Assuming a velocity of the order of 100 m/s, a kinematic viscosity of hydrogen of the order
of 10–5 m2 /s, and a height of the atmosphere of 100 km, one obtains a Reynolds number:
Re ≈ 1012 .
In Chapter 2, we showed that vortices with alternating directions of the circulation,
the Bénard–von Karman vortex street, appear behind a cylindrical obstacle within a flow
(Figure 2.9). Such vortex streets can still be observed at very high Reynolds numbers
(Figure 2.10).
One encounters similar structures at the boundary between two plane parallel flows with
different velocities: the corresponding Kelvin–Helmholtz instability for parallel flows at dif-
ferent velocities has been discussed in Section 11.4.1. This instability creates a periodic row
of vortices with their axes perpendicular to the flow (Figure 11.16) and with the same direc-
tion of circulation, in contrast to the Bénard–von Karman vortex street. If, instead of having
a flow between walls, the parallel flows are unconfined, the size of the vortices increases ap-
Figure 12.18 Coherent vortex structures in proximately linearly as a function of the distance from the point where the jets meet. Such
a mixing layer at the boundary of two structures create an admixture between the two fluids so that one also speaks of a mixing
gas flows of different densities and veloc- layer instability.
ities (helium moving more rapidly above, The American physicist A. Roshko showed experimentally that these large two-
nitrogen more slowly below) at different dimensional vortex structures persist almost identically at every Reynolds number, re-
Reynolds numbers. (a) Rea ; (b) Reb = Rea /2; gardless of how high it is. These large-scale structures are visible in the three images of
(c) Rec = Rea /4 (from G.L. Brown and A. Figure 12.18 at different Reynolds numbers. On the other hand, finer structures which cor-
Roshko, 1974) respond to smaller-size vortices are more visible for the highest value of Re (Figure 12.18a).
Other aspects of turbulence 487

In spite of the presence of smaller vortices, it is the large-scale structures which govern
the mixing: this mixing has very different characteristics in the regions where the structures
roll up (giving the appearance of a cake roll) than in the stretching regions, which also
appear simultaneously. This is especially important for two fluids undergoing a chemical
reaction, such as in a gas burner (Section 10.9.1 and Figure 10.24b).
Even when the result is unchanged regarding large-scale coherent structures, increasing
the Reynolds number leads to the appearance of small three-dimensional structures within
the larger ones: the two-dimensional rolls are distorted, then stretched in the direction of the
flow before producing smaller vortices. This last result is actually conform to Kolmogorov’s
theory, which predicts a decrease in the scale of the dissipative structures as the Reynolds
number increases. We can thus observe an intermediate inertial regime, at scales smaller
than those of the large structues.

12.7.3 Dynamics of vortices in two-dimensional

turbulence
Another spectacular characteristic of unconfined mixing layers, such as those displayed
in Figure 12.18, is the evolution of vortices as they move. Their velocity is intermediate
between that of the two flows, i.e., 1/2(U 1 + U 2 ) as seen in Sections 7.4.2 and 11.4.1. The
vortices tend to group themselves in pairs with the same direction of the circulation as they
move away from the point where they were created; they end up playing hopscotch, until
they combine to produce a third one, larger than the first two.
Because this result involves the large-scale structures, which are essentially two-
dimensional, it can be considered as a characteristic of two-dimensional turbulence. In fact,
the process of accretion of vortices, which has just been described, is also observed in
numerical simulations of two-dimensional turbulence such as those in Figure 12.19.
The turbulent structures (visualized by the distribution of vorticity) grow through the
coalescence of vortices with the same direction of circulation, as was the case in the mixing
layer described above. At the same time, these structures attenuate due to viscous effects,
since one does not have a new source of energy after the creation of the vortices. Similar

(a) (b)

Figure 12.19C Numerical simulation of

the evolution, in time, of a distribution of
vorticity, initially random within a two-
dimensional turbulent flow, and evolving
without further addition of external energy.
The color code (see color plate section) is used
to represent the vorticity field: red for the
(c) (d) strongly positive values, blue for the strongly
negative values, gray for low values and yel-
low for the value zero. The images (a), (b), (c)
and (d) correspond respectively to normalized
times t = 0, t = 1, t = 3, t = 5 (plates courtesy
M. Farge and J-F. Colonna)
488 Turbulence

Figure 12.20C Vorticity distribution in a

13 m diameter tank rotating around a ver-
tical axis normal to the plane of the figure
(rotation period = 30 s): (a) after 2 periods
(b) after 10 periods. The turbulent flow has
been created by the motion, in the plane of the
figure, of a grid perpendicular to it. The com-
ponent of the vorticity along the axis is shown
by the colours and the velocity field, by the
vectors. The cyclonic vorticity zones (in red)
corresponds to a local rotation of same orien-
tation as the applied rotation; the anticyclonic
zones of opposite sign are in blue (plates cour-
tesy F. Moisy, C. Morize, M. Rabaud and
J. Sommeria)

results are obtained in model two-dimensional flows, such as can be produced by moving
a rod in a soap film.
Globally, two-dimensional turbulent flows differ from three-dimensional ones. In three-
dimensional flows, the essential mechanism for the evolution of turbulence is the stretching
of the vorticity by the velocity-gradients parallel to the axis (Section 7.3.2). This mechanism
is obviously missing in two-dimensional flows since the velocity gradients are then perpen-
dicular to the axis of the vorticity. One then refers to an inverse cascade to describe the
transfer of turbulence toward large-scale structures; this is in contrast to the Kolmogorov’s
direct cascade, discussed above for three-dimensional flows.
A particularly important example of almost two-dimensional turbulence is that of the
turbulence at very large scales, such as in oceans, or in the atmosphere. In fact, one saw
in Section 7.6.2 that the Coriolis force uncouples the motion perpendicular to the axis of
rotation from that parallel to it. Moreover, the amplitude of the vertical motion perpendicu-
lar to the surface is bounded by thermal stratification, and the thickness of the atmosphere.
These effects affect very strongly the large-scale turbulent mixing within the oceans, and in
the atmosphere.
Experimentally, one observes the coalescence of vortices in the turbulence created in
rotational flows, as we can see in Figure 12.20. In this case (like in earth’s atmosphere),
the cyclonic vorticity (in the same direction as that of the applied rotation) is privileged.
Such laboratory experiments are helpful in order to understand these results important in
meteorological problems.

.........................................................................................

EXERCISES

1) Energy dissipation in a turbulent flow

We consider a turbulent flow of water assumed to be homogeneous, stationary and
isotropic, in which the characteristic size of the largest vortices is = 0.3 m and their
velocity v = 3 m/s. What is the Reynolds number associated to the largest vortices?
What is the energy ε per unit time and mass of the fluid which is transmitted by means
of the Kolmogorov energy cascade (described in 12.6.1)? This energy is ultimately
turned into heat by viscous dissipation in the smallest vortices. Neglecting external
Other aspects of turbulence 489

losses, compute the corresponding rise of the temperature after one minute (the specific
heat of water is CV = 4200 J/(Kg.K)). What is the order of magnitude of the size of the
smallest vortices in such a flow?

2) Transport of a solute in turbulent flow

A solute of molecular diffusion coefficient Dm is dropped into a turbulent flow: C and v
are respectively the local values of the mass concentration of the dye and of the velocity,
C
and v
, C and v their fluctuations and mean values. Using Equation 12.16, show that
the equation equivalent to Equation 12.14 for the transport of the solute is:

∂C
= –∇·(v̄C + v
C
) + Dm ∇ 2 C (2)
∂t

The measured rms fluctuations v
z 2 of a given velocity component vz and C
2 of the

concentration C are respectively v
2 z = 1 m/s and C
2 = 10–3 kg/m3 . One measures,
in addition, a correlation coefficient equal to 0.5 between the fluctuations C
and vz
.
Compute the mass flux of the solute in the direction z resulting from the turbulent
The correlation coefficient of two random vari-
fluctuations. Assuming a molecular diffusion coefficient Dm = 10–9 m2 /s and a gradient ables a’(t) et b’(t) of zero mean value is the ratio:
of the mean concentration of 10–2 kg/m4 , compare the corresponding mass flux to that

a (t)
b (t)
resulting from turbulent fluctuations. a
2 (t) b
2 (t)
3) Decay of a turbulent flow
We consider a highly turbulent flow of water with a zero mean velocity produced in
a container filled with water by moving up and down several times at a high velocity
a horizontal grid of area close to that of the container cross-section. The grid is then
suddently extracted from the bath at the time t = 0 after which the turbulence created
by the stirring is left to decay. We call 0 and v0 the size and velocity of the largest
vortices at the initial time t = 0.
In a first step, we assume that the size of the largest vortices involved in the Kolmogorov
cascade process remains constant ( = 0 ) during the decay until the Reynolds number
is too small and flow becomes laminar. Assuming that most of the total kinetic energy is
carried by the largest vortices, relate its variation to the parameter ε of the Kolmogorov
theory, and obtain the equation satisfied by the velocity v (t) of the largest vortices.
Integrating this equation, show that the velocity v would decrease as 1/t at long times.
Estimate the time t 10 at which the Reynolds number Re = v / ν becomes of the order
of 10. Beyond this time, one assumes that decay is controlled by viscous dissipation
assumed to be represented by a Stokes force f ≈ cν ρν v on a volume of size (cν
is a constant coefficient): show that the velocity decays exponentially with time in this
regime and determine the prefactor by assuming that the transition between the two
regimes takes place at t = t 10 . Experimental measurements show that, in the first regime,
the decay of the velocity of the turbulent fluctuations is slower that predicted above
(variation of v as t–0.6 rather than as 1/t): assuming that this is due to a variation of
with time, what must be this variation in order to obtain the experimental exponent?

4) Turbulent plane Couette flow

We study the parallel, turbulent, Couette flow between two parallel plates y = 0 and
y = 2h of respective velocities 0 and 2U in the direction x and with no applied pres-
sure gradient. Assuming that the mean velocity and the Reynolds tensor satisfy:
v̄x (y) = U f (ξ ) and v
x v
y = U 2 g(ξ ) with ξ = y/h, show, using the equations of motion
(Equation 12.44a), that: f

=Re g
with Re = U h/ν.
490 Turbulence

The eddy viscosity approach (Equation 12.22), leads to the closure relation:
v
x v
y = –νt ∂ v̄x / ∂y. One assumes that νt = κc U y for y < h in which κc is a constant
≈ 1: discuss this last assumption by referring to Equations 12.24a and 12.50 used for a
turbulent Poiseuille flow. Show that the function f (ξ ) satisfies: f

(ξ + 1 / (κc Re)) + f
= 0
(for ξ < 1) and compute f (ξ ). Deduce from this result the value of the friction coeffi-
cient defined by Cd = σ̄xy / (ρU 2 /2). Show that these two latter expressions can still be
used for Re 1.
What do the velocity profile and the friction coefficient become at large Reynolds num-
bers? Write the limit of this expression at short distances from the wall: what is the
dominant momentum transport mechanism in this region? What is the limit at large
distances and the corresponding dominant transport mechanism?
Solutions to the Exercises

Chapter 4
1) Laminar Poiseuille flow between two coaxial tubes.
As for flow in a rigid circular tube (Poiseuille flow, see Section 4.5.3), we infer from
the three components of the equation of motion that the pressure gradient ∂p/∂z along
the z-axis is constant; if ∂p/∂z < 0, we have ∂p/∂z = –p/L. The r and ϕ components
of the equation of motion express hydrostatic pressure variations, and the z component
is p/L = –(η/r) ∂/∂r (r ∂vz /∂r) so that vz = –(r 2 / 4η)p/L + C Log r + D. The Log r
term is retained since the fluid volume does not include the axis r = 0. Applying the
p R21 – R22
boundary conditions vz = 0 for r = R1 and r = R2 gives C = – and
4η L Log(R2 /R1 )
p R22 Log (R1 ) – R21 Log (R2 )
D=– providing the velocity profile and flow rate.
4η L Log(R2 /R1 )
If R1 → 0, the logarithmic term vanishes, leading to the formula for a single tube. If
R1 → R2 : Q π R1 p e3 /(6η L) with e = R2 – R1 . This latter value is equal to the flow rate
per unit width between two parallel planes separated by a distance e and multiplied by the
perimeter 2π R which represents the effective transverse size.

2) Flow of a Bingham Fluid on a tilted plane.

The x- and y-components of Equation 4.25 are: ρg sin α – ∂p/∂x + ∂σxy
/ ∂y = 0 and

–ρg cos α – ∂p/∂y = 0. The boundary conditions are vx (0) = 0 for the velocity, p(h) = p0
for the pressure, and σxy
(h) = 0 for σ
. The variation of p is purely hydro-
xy
static with p = p0 + ρg(h – y) cos α and ∂p/∂x = 0. Integrating the x component gives:

= ρg sin α(h – y). If ρgh sin α ≤ σ , σ
≤ σ (and ∂v / ∂y = 0) in the whole fluid layer,
σxy c xy c x

> σ (and ∂v / ∂y = 0) for y < y and σ
≤ σ (and
we have vx ≡ 0. If ρg h sin α > σc , σxy c x c xy c
∂vx / ∂y = 0) for y ≥ yc , we then have yc = h – σc /(ρg sin α). Integrating in both regions
and writing the continuity of the velocity at y = yc , leads to: vx = (ρg sin α /D)( yc y – y2 /2)
for y ≤ yc and vx = ρ g y2c sin α /2D for y ≥ yc ; D is the constant appearing in the equation
(4.132a) relating the strain and the stress for the Bingham fluid (plug flow in the upper part
of the layer). Increasing α increases the thickness of the plug flow domain.

3) Dynamics of a meniscus rising in a cylindrical tube.

For a wetting angle θ ≥ π/2 (non-wetting fluid), the meniscus does not enter the tube
if the latter just touches the surface. If θ < π/2, the meniscus rises at a height h(t)
with h(0) = 0 which saturates at long times to the value h∞ = 4γ cos θ/(ρg d) given by
Equation 1.70b. At shorter times, writing the flow rate in the tube as a balance between
the capillary, gravity and viscous forces (Equations 1.70a and 4.78) leads to the equation:
h dh/dt = (ρgd 2 /(32η))(h∞ – h) so that: –h – h∞ Log(1 – h/h∞ ) = ρgd 2 t/(32η). At short
√
times, h increases from 0 according to the law: h (γ d cosθ/4η) t ; at long times, h reaches

its limiting value exponentially with h∞ – h = h∞ exp –ρ 2 g2 d 3 t/(128 γ η cos θ) .

4) Poiseuille flow in an elastic tube.

Equation 4.77 can be rewritten: Q = –A2 ∂p/∂x/(8π η) = constant. The dependence of
A on pressure p provides a second relation between ∂p/∂x and A(x), leading
492 Solutions to the Exercises

to ∂A3 /∂x = –24π η Q K A0 . Integrating this equation with the boundary condition
A(L) = A0 leads to the variation
given in the text. The pressure at the inlet then satisfies
'

A(0) – A0 24π η Q K L 1/3
p(0) – p0 = = 1+ –1 K.
A0 K A20

Chapter 5
1) Momentum conservation using a moving control volume.
If the control volume is moving, the only term to be changed in Equation 5.10 is that
corresponding to the flux of momentum through the surface S: while the momentum of
the fluid is still ρv, it is the velocity relative to the reference frame of the control vol-
ume v-w which determines its flux through the surface S. Equation 5.10 then becomes:

V ρ v dV = – S ρv((v – W).n) = p n – [σ ] · n dS + V ρf dV
d
. Similarly, the
dt $
mass conservation equation (Equation 3.23) becomes: dm/dt = d/dt
V ρdV dt =
– S ρ(v – W)·n dS.

2) Principle of a rotating lawn sprinkler.

In order to apply the equation of conservation of momentum, we use a control volume
(dotted line) moving with the nozzle at its tangential velocity W = R. The relative velocity
U of the fluid with respect to the nozzle at its outlet is q/S. The velocity of the fluid in
the fixed reference frame is therefore q/S – R. If the velocity of rotation is constant,
the first side of the momentum conservation equation 5.10 is zero; moreover, the radial
inlet part does not contribute to the tangential component of the equation which becomes:
Ft = ρ q(q/S – R) : the forces Ft are localized at the distance r = R of the axis of rotation
and their momentum 2Ft R must balance the torque so that () = 2ρ qR (q/S - R).
In the limiting case = 0, we then have: () = 2ρ q2 R/S. For = 0, = q/(R S). As an
engine, the sprinkler supplies a power which is largest for = q/(2 R S) with a value
ρq3/2S2 (or, equivalently: ρU 3 S/2).

3) Impact of a circular jet on a plane and a cone.

For α = 0, we retain the circular symmetry of the flow. Both in the circular jet and in the
layer on the plate beyond the vicinity of the stagnation point, flow remains quasi-parallel
with a free surface so that the pressure remains equal to the atmospheric pressure: as in
Section 5.4.1, both U , to satisfy Bernoulli’s equation, and the total flow rate Q, to in-
sure mass conservation, must be constant with r. Since Q = 2π r e(r) U , this implies that
e(r) ∝1/r. The component of the momentum flux normal to the plane is equal to the force
F⊥ on the plane, so that F⊥ = π ρ U 2 R2 cos α.
In the case of a conical obstacle, the pressure in the film remains equal to the atmospheric
pressure and both the velocity U and the flow rate Q must be independant of the distance h.
Here, Q = 2 e(h) h tan β so that e(h) ∝ 1/h. By symmetry, the force F on the cone must be
parallel to the x-direction. In order to compute Fx , we must take into account the fluxes of
momentum both at the inlet and the outlet (they both have a non-zero component along x).
Fx corresponds to their difference with: Fx = πρR2 U 2 (1 – cos β). For β = π /2, we find, as
could be expected, the same result as for a plane.

4) Principle of a turbine flow-meter.

In the local (rotating) reference frame, the relative flow velocity Vrel must be parallel to
the surface of the blade (zero normal relative velocity). The x component is equal to U
(mass-conservation condition) so that the tangential component must be U tan α (< 0 in
Solutions to the Exercises 493

the figure). The local tangential velocity in the laboratory frame at the distance r is then
vϕ +U tan α = r + U tan α. As in Exercises 1 and 2, if there is no friction, no tangential
force (and, therefore, no momentum flux component) is needed to keep the blade rotating
and the sum must be zero: this condition may be satisfied simultaneously over the whole
blade provided tan α ∝ r. One then retains the same velocity U through the device. The
angular velocity is therefore = – U (tan α)/r and is proportional to U , allowing the use
of the system as a flow velocity measurement device. If there is a torque due to solid or
fluid friction, we have r + U tan α = 0 and a torque compensating for the frictional one
appears.

Chapter 6
1) The method of images: line source in front of a solid plane surface.
If we use two sources symmetrical with respect to the solid surface y = 0, the y-components
of the velocities from the two sources cancel out on the surface, while the x-components
parallel to it add up: the potential flow resulting from the combined effects of the
source and its “image” satisfies the required boundary conditions and provides the ac-
tual flow field in the region. From Equation 6.92, the complex potential of a source
is q/(2π z): after replacing z by z + ia and z – ia and summing the two terms, we ob-

tain: f (z) = (q/2π) (Log (z + ia) + Log (z – ia)) = (q/2π ) Log z2 + a2 and the complex
$ 2
velocity is therefore w (z) = q z π z + a . Furthermore, on the plane y = 0, we find:
2
$
υx (x) = q x π x2 + a2 . The corresponding local Bernoulli pressure δp = –ρυx2 /2 there-
+∞
fore has the value given in the text. By taking u = x/a, we obtain: Fp = –∞ δp(x, 0) dx =
ρ q2 /(4π a). The plane is attracted by the source because of the reduced local pressure on
the plane as a result of Bernoulli’s equation. This attractive force remains the same if the
source is replaced by a sink since the pressure variation is quadratic in q.

2) Force on a half-cylinder placed in a uniform flow.

The flow velocity around the half-cylinder is identical for y > 0 to that around the complete
cylinder due to the symmetry of the latter flow with respect to the diametral plane y = 0.
We can then apply Equations 6.17 which give vϕ = –2U sin ϕ and vr = 0 at the surface of the
half-cylinder. If we start by neglecting buoyancy forces and apply the Bernoulli equation for
potential flows in the form p (R, ϕ) + ρf υϕ2 (R, ϕ) /2 = p0 + ρf U 2 /2, we find the relation
given in the text (in particular, p (0) = p (π) = p0 + ρf U 2 /2 and p (π/2) = p0 – 3ρf U 2 /2).
By symmetry, only the y-component of the pressure force F on the upper surface of the
π
half-cylinder, per unit length, is non-zero with: Fy(upper surface) = – 0 p(ϕ) R sin ϕ dϕ =
–2p0 R + (5/3) ρf U R. The force on the base of the half-cylinder is: Fy(base) = p (0) 2R =
2

2p0 R+ρf U 2 R so that the global hydrodynamic force is: Fy(total) = (8/3) ρf U 2 R. If buoyancy
effects are then introduced, the cylinder will remain fix on the plane until the force Fy(total)

exceeds the weight of the cylinder corrected by Archimedes buoyancy: –π R2 g ρhc – ρf /2;

the corresponding threshold velocity is: UM = (3π R g(ρhc – ρf )/(16ρf ).

3) Gravity waves at the interface between fluids of different densities.

The vertical velocities of each fluid must be zero at the corresponding wall and must be
equal at the interface with: ∂1 /∂y (0) = ∂2 /∂y (0), ∂1 /∂y (h1 ) = 0, ∂2 /∂y (h2 ) = 0.
Writing the Bernoulli Equation 6.65 in both fluids at the interface, taking derivatives with
respect to time after multiplying by ρ j , and making use of the equality of the pressures at the
interface, leads to: ρ1 ∂ 2 1 /∂t 2 + ρ1 g∂1 /∂y = ρ2 ∂ 2 2 /∂t2 + ρ1 g∂2 /∂y (all derivatives are
494 Solutions to the Exercises

taken at y = 0). With the form assumed for fj (x,t), Laplace’s equation ∇ 2 j = 0 becomes:
∂ 2 gj /∂y2 = k2 gj with solutions which are linear combinations of e±ky . The boundary
conditions at the walls lead to g1 ( y) = cosh k( y – h1 ) and g2 ( y) = cosh k( y + h2 ) since the
derivative of gj must be zero on the corresponding wall. Inserting these forms of g1 and g2
in Bernoulli’s equation and in the expression of the continuity of the velocity at the interface

leads respectively to: ρ1 A1 ω2 cosh(k h1 ) + g k sinh kh1 = ρ2 A2 ω2 cosh kh2 – g k sinh kh2
and: A1 sinh kh1 = –A2 . Combining these two equations leads to the dispersion relation ω(k)

given in the text. For k hj 1 (shallow-water case), the approximation coth k hj 1/ k hj
leads to: c = ω /k = g h1 h2 (ρ2 – ρ1 ) / (ρ1 h2 + ρ2 h1 ). For h1 = h2 , this becomes:
2 2 2

c2 = g hj (ρ2 – ρ1 ) / (ρ1 + ρ2 ). We then have an additional factor: (ρ2 – ρ1 ) / (ρ1 + ρ2 ) com-

pared to the case of an interface between a liquid and air: the upper factor corresponds
to the restoring force, which is smaller for liquids of similar density, and the lower one
to the inertia of the fluids, which is instead larger. The velocity of the wave may then be
much lower than for a single liquid if ρ2 – ρ1 ρ1 , ρ2 . For k hj 1 (deep-water case),
the approximation coth khj 1 leads to: c2 = (g/k) (ρ2 – ρ1 ) / (ρ1 + ρ2 ). The velocity is
multiplied by the same factor as in the case of a shallow layer.

4) Reflection of a gravity wave due to a variation of depth.

Since the equations of motion and the boundary conditions are the same as those used in
Section 6.4.1 for establishing Equation 6.73, the latter will remain valid (taking γ = 0) with
different propagation velocities in the two regions. In the shallow-water limit, we have
√ √
c1 = g h1 and c2 = g h2 (if kj hj 1) leading to wave vectors ki = ω/c1 , kt = ω/c2 ,
kr = –ω/c1 . We write the continuity of the vertical velocity across the step with: vyi + vyr = vyt
or: ∂i /∂y + ∂r /∂y = ∂t /∂y. Ideally, we should take x=0 and y=y0 but, as a first
order approximation, the values are taken at y = 0. Using the expressions for j given
in the text and taking sinh kj ( y + hj ) ∼ = kj ( y + hj ) (kj hj 1), we obtain, after elimi-
nating some common factors: Ai k2i h1 + Ar k2r h1 = At k2t h2 , so that Ai + Ar = At (all
products of the form k2 h have the same value, as k2j = (ω/cj )2 ≈ 1/hj ). The sec-
ond boundary condition is provided by the continuity of the flux in the x-direction
through the plane x = 0. If k h 1, the velocity is uniform in the vertical direction
so that the conservation equation becomes: h1 (∂i /∂x + ∂r /∂x) = h2 ∂t /∂x, leading to
√ √
Ai ki h1 – Ar kr h1 = At kt h2 so that: (Ai – Ar ) h1 = At h2 . Combining the two conditions
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
leads to: At /Ai = 2 h1 /( h1 + h2 ) and Ar /Ai = ( h1 – h2 )/( h1 + h2 ). Increasing
the difference between the depths increases the magnitude of the reflected wave compared
to the transmitted one.

Chapter 7
1) Vortex and plane boundary.
The flow may be reproduced by adding a second vortex filament of opposite circulation
– and located at point (x, – y). This image vortex insures that the resulting velocity at the
plane y = 0 is only tangential. The velocity induced on the vortex by its image is along the x
direction and equal to /4πy. It will therefore move, like a vortex pair, at a constant velocity
parallel to the plane y = 0.

2) Vortex in a corner.
The boundary conditions are satisfied at the planes by replacing them by two vor-
tices of circulation – at points (x, –y) and (–x, y) and one with + at point (–x, –y).
Applying Equation 7.60 and removing the additive constants leads to the given po-
tential. Taking derivatives with respect to z leads to vx = (/2π) x2 /(y(x2 +y2 )) and
Solutions to the Exercises 495

vy = –(/2π) y2 /(x (x2 +y2 ))

from which we obtain immediately the result dx/x3 = –dy/y3 .
Integrating this relation leads to: 1/x2 + 1/y2 = 1/x20 + 1/y20 . Depending on the sign of ,
the vortex
moves towards x → ∞ or y → ∞ with a limit for the other coordinate equal to:
x0 y0 / x02 + y20 .

3) Geostrophic flow in a rotating channel.

Equation 7.131 becomes: ν ∂ 2 vx /∂y2 = (1/ρ)∂p/∂x, –2 vx = (1/ρ) ∂p/∂y and
(1/ρ) ∂p/∂z = 0. ∂p/∂x is therefore constant and vx is zero at the two walls, so that we have
the symmetrical Poiseuille velocity profile given by Equation 4.66. The velocity field is: The appearance of a pressure gradient trans-
vx (y) = –(6Q/a3 )(y2 –a2 /4) and the pressure field : p = p0 –12ηQx/a3 +12(ρ/a3 )(y3 –ya2 /4) verse to the flow is analogous to the Hall effect in
(Q = volume flow rate in the flow section per unit length along z). There results: p(x, a/2) – a sample of (for instance) a semiconductor sub-
jected to a magnetic field B: when an electrical
p(x, –a/2) = – 2 ρ . We then obtain: ∂p/∂x ∂p/∂y if 12 η vx /a2 2 ρ vx , i.e. when the
current I perpendicular to B is injected in the
Ekman number: Ek = ν / a2 is 1. In this case, we can consider p as constant along x: sample, a gradient of the electrical voltage per-
we then recover a geostrophic flow with a velocity parallel to the isopressure lines. pendicular (and proportional) both to B and I
appears.
4) Tilt of the free surface of the oceans between two coasts.
We have: 2 Vx = (–1/ρ) ∂p/∂y, 0 = (1/ρ) ∂p/∂x and g = (–1/ρ) ∂p/∂z. Since p(h( y)) = p0 ,
we have the result: p( y) = p0 + ρ g (h – y) so that: 2 Vx = –g ∂h/∂y = –g tan β. For the
current numerical values of the different parameters, h(–L/2) – h(L/2) ∼ = 3 m.
In the case of two fluids, the previous relations are valid separately for each of them
with: 2 Vx1 = –g tan β1 and 2 Vx2 = –g tan β2 . The pressures in fluids 1 and 2 must
be equal at their interface z = hi ( y). Integrating with respect to x and y from point z = h0 ,
y = 0 where p = p0 leads to: p1 ( y,z) = p0 + ρ 1 g (h0 – z) – 2 ρ 1 Vx1 y and to a similar
expression for p2 (replacing the index 1 by 2) Since p1 = p2 for z = hi ( y), we obtain finally:
tan βi = (hi – h0 )/y = –(2 /g) (ρ1 Vx1 – ρ2 Vx2 )/(ρ1 – ρ2 ). As a result, the angle βi is much
larger than either β 1 or β 2 if ρ2 – ρ1 ρ1 (for sea currents of different salinities, we have:
(ρ1 – ρ2 )/ ρ1 ≈ 10–3 ).

5) Modelization of thermal winds.

The equations of motion are: ∂p/∂x = –2ρ vy , ∂p/∂y = 2ρ vx , ∂p/∂z = –ρ g. For an
incompressible fluid, taking derivatives of the two first equations with respect to z and

combining them with the third one leads to ∂v/∂z = – g/ 2ρ||2 ×∇ρ The depend-
ence on ∇T results immediately (second-order terms associated with the variation of ρ are
neglected).
Combining the equation of state of the gas with the expression for ∂p/∂z provides the
relation between dz and d (Log p); the relationship between ∂v/∂z and ∇ρ obtained above
leads to that between ∂v/∂(Log p) and ∇T by replacing, in addition, ∇ρ by –(ρ/T )(∇T)p .
The variation v of the velocity is given by: |v| = (R |∇T | /2M ||) Log(p2 /p1 ) and is
of the order of 2 m/s for the current values of the parameters.

Chapter 8
1) Flow of a fluid layer around a horizontal cylinder.
The pressure is constant at the interface (p = patm ) so that the pressure variations p – patm
within the film are of the order of ρg h (considering the variations of p perpendicular to the
surface, i.e. the velocity). The pressure gradient parallel to the film is then of the order of
ρg h/R : it is, therefore, one order of magnitude smaller in h/r than the volume force compo-
nent ρ g h sin ϕ and can be neglected. The flow rate q is then computed as in Section 8.2.1,
replacing the gravity g by its component g sin ϕ so that q = g h3 sin ϕ/(3 ν). The expres-
sion ∂h/∂t is then obtained from the mass conservation equation: ∂h/∂t = –1/R (∂q/∂ϕ).
496 Solutions to the Exercises

Integrating this expression for a Newtonian fluid, we find that the thicknesses at ϕ = 0 and
$ $
ϕ = π vary respectively as h(0, t) = h0 1 + t/τf and h(π, t) = h0 1 – t/τf .
For a fluid of varying viscosity, we obtain for ϕ = 0 and ϕ = π:

h(0, t) = h0 1 + τd (1 – e–t/τd )/ τf and h(π, t) = h0 1 – τd (1 – e–t/τd )/ τf . For t τd ,
a first order development with respect to t/τ d gives the same result as if the fluid had

not dried. At long times such as t τd , we obtain: h(0, t τd ) = h0 / 1 + τd /τf and

h(π, t τd ) = h0 / 1 – τd /τf , so that, for τd < τf , we reach a constant thickness, larger for
ϕ = π than for ϕ = 0.

2) Spin coating.
The pressure in the fluid film can be considered constant and the flow driven
by the centrifugal forces. The radial velocity profile is vr (r, z) = (2 r/2ν) (2hz – z2 ):
the flow rate q is the result of integration with respect to z and multiplication by
2πr. Writing the equation of conservation of mass within the cylinder, we obtain:
!
∂h/∂t = –(1/2π r)∂q/∂r = –2 /ν 2h2 /3 + r h2 ∂h/∂r . The variation of h with t is then in-
$√
dependent of r if ∂h/ ∂r = 0 at any given time. By integration, h =h0 1 + t/τ with
τ = 3ν/( 4h0 ), resulting numerically in: h(10 s) = 4.6 μm, h(100 s) = 1.45 μm. In prac-
2 2

tical cases, the thickness h of the layer is not initially uniform; however, these variations are
damped out due to the dependence of the flow rate on h (more fluid flows out of thicker
regions than they receive from thinner ones).

3) Rough sphere dropping away from a plane.

For h0 ε, the dominant contribution comes from the three individual rugosities closest
to the contact: the diameter a must be replaced by ε in Equation 8.33 and a factor 3 must
be added. For ε h0 a, Equation 8.33 remains valid provided h0 is replaced by h0 + ε.
At very large distances, h0 a, the expression F = –6πηa (1 + a/h0 ) dh0 /dt coincides
with Stokes equation for a sphere while, at small distances, it coincides with Equation 8.33.
By combining these different components, we obtain the expression for F given in the text.
The equation of motion shown in the exercise is then obtained by writing that F balances
the apparent weight (4/3) π a3 (ρs – ρf )g. This gives the implicit expression of h0 (t) after
integration with respect to time. Subtracting the values of this expression for h0 = a and 2a
and dividing by its value for h0 = 2a leads to: ε/a = 2 exp (2 – t2a (1 + Log 2)/(t2a – ta )).

4) Liquid film draining under gravity along a vertical plate.

The pressure is constant within the film and equal to the atmospheric pressure patm : the
flow rate q per unit length through a section x = constant of the film is then given by
Equation 8.46b. The equation of conservation of mass at a given height x is ∂h/∂t = –∂q/∂x:
combining these two equations leads to the partial differential equation given in the
text. Replacing h by f (x/t α ) gives: g f 2 / ν = α x/t. Therefore, one must have α = 1 and
√
h = (ν/g) x/t. For the values of x and ν of interest and t = 1, 10, 100 and 104 s, we obtain
respectively h = 4.5, 1.4, 0.45 and 0.045 mm.

5) Rayleigh–Plateau instability on a cylindrical fiber.

The difference between the local pressure and the external value patm is given by
Equation 8.86 because, as in Section 8.3.2, only capillary forces need to be taken into ac-
count (in principle R0 should be replaced by R0 + e0 but the value R0 is retained since
e0 R0 ). When inertia is negligible, from Equation 8.25, the expression of the flow rate
Q(z) is: Q(z) –(e30 / 3η)2πR0 (∂p/ ∂z); substituting in this expression the value of p(z) from
Equation 8.86 leads to the equation given in the text. dh/dt and τ (k) are then obtained
Solutions to the Exercises 497

by means of the mass conservation equation

√ ∂Q/∂z = –2π R0 ∂h/∂t. Just as for the jet, the
√ τmin =12 η R /(e0 γ ); here, τ min = 190 s and
time constant is shortest for k = 1/ R 2 with 4 3

the corresponding wavelength is: λ = 2π R 2 4.5 mm. The initial assumption that the
effect of gravity is negligible will be valid if the characteristic time τ min is shorter than the
characteristic time τ d for drainage by gravity determined in Exercise 1.

6) Liquid film rising due to the Marangoni effect (Section 8.2.4).

The pressure is again constant within the film due to the small curvature of the surface.
The equation of motion then reduces to η ∂ 2 vz /∂x2 = g. Integrating with the boundary con-
ditions vz (0) = 0 and η (∂vz /∂x)x=h = σ (γ ) = – b γ (∂T /∂z) (see Equation 8.67) leads to
vz (x) = (g/ 2ηh) x(x – 2h) + σ (γ ) x/η. We then obtain q(h) by integration with respect to x.
The conservation of mass implies (∂q/∂z)t = –(∂h/∂t)z so that (dq/dh)(∂h/∂z)t = –(∂h/∂t)z ,
because q is only a function of h. The velocity V (h) = (∂z/∂t)h of the point of height h
satisfies the relation: V (h)= – (∂h/∂t)z /(∂h/∂z)t : this equation is obtained by writing that
the Lagrangian derivative: dh/dt = (∂h/∂t)z + V (h)(∂h/∂z)t is equal to zero. We have then:
V (h) = dq/dh = σ (γ ) h /η – ρg h2 / η. The velocity V(h) is therefore constant with time so
that the coordinate z of this point is proportional to the time t with z = V (h) t. The profiles
hi (z) at different times can therefore be deduced from one another by an affine transfor-
mation: for example, the values of z1 need to be multiplied by the ratio t 2 /t1 of the times
in order to obtain z2 . The maximum value of V(h) at which d2 q/dh2 = 0 is obtained for
hmax = σ (γ ) /(2ρ g) so that V (hmax ) = (σ (γ ) )2 t/(4η ρg). The presence of such a maximum re-
quires that the thickness h(z) does not decrease continuously to zero: assuming that h > hmax
for z = 0, there would indeed be two values of h corresponding to a same normalized height
x/t (= V ). Mathematically, this implies that h goes abruptly to zero after decreasing conti-
nuously from h(0) to a value hs > hmax determined by the shape of the curve V (h). This is
formally similar to phenomena such as shock waves in compressible fluids (Section 5.4.4).
Experimentally, we observe that variations of h in the direction y also take place due to an
instability of the front.

Chapter 9
1) Torque on a cylinder and a cross in a shear flow.
The forces per unit length are determined by the local relative velocity of
the cylinder and the fluid, using notations identical to those in Equation 9.30:

dFϕ /dr = –2η λ (r/2L) ϕ̇ + S sin2 ϕ and dFr / dr = η λ (r/2L) (S sin ϕ cos ϕ). This pro-
vides the total torque G 0 after multiplying dFϕ /dr by r and integrating. We have G0 = 0 due
to the zero inertia so that: ϕ(t) = tan–1 [tan ϕ0 /(1 + S(tan ϕ0 )t)] and the rod gets aligned
with the flow at long times. For two cylinders at right angles, we add the torques leading
to: G0 = –(2/3) η λ L 3 (2 ϕ̇ + S ) = 0. The angular velocity in the stationary regime is then
constant and equal to – S/2 = ωz /2. This is the principle of a simple device measuring the
vorticity in two-dimensional flows. More generally, the rotation of a solid body floating at
the surface of a flowing liquid layer may be used to estimate the component of the local
vorticity perpendicular to the surface (see Section 7.3.1).

2) Sedimentation of a sphere.
Neglecting the inertia of the fluid since Re 1, we obtain:
! ! !
2R2 ρs /(9η) dvz /dt = – vz – 2R2 g ρs – ρf /(9η) ; leading to: z(t) = Vterminal t – τ (1 – e–t/τ )
with τ = 2/9 (R / η) ρs (see Equation 9.56 for Vterminal ). This terminal velocity is
2

reached within 1% for e–t/τ = 0.01 or t = t c = 2.3 log10 (100) τ . At short times,
498 Solutions to the Exercises

z(t) = g (ρ s –ρ f ) t 2 /(2 ρ s ) (free fall equation); at long times: z(t) Vterminal (t – τ ).

For the present numerical values, τ = 1.1 × 10–4 s and t c = 5.1 × 10–4 s in the first case
and respectively 0.11 s and 0.51 s in the second. The corresponding velocities V terminal are
0.55 mm/s and 550 mm/s and the Reynolds numbers are 5.5 × 10–4 and 550. In the first
case, z(tc ) = 0.2 μm while the condition Re 1 is not satisfied in the second case.

3) Stokes flow from a three-dimensional point-source.

The incompressibility equation reduces to (1/r 2 )∂(r 2 vr )/∂r = 0 so that r 2 vr is only a func-
tion of θ because of the circular symmetry around the z-axis. From the Stokes equation,
∂p/∂r must therefore vary as 1/r 4 and p as 1/r 3 . Multiplying the velocity A cos2 θ/ r 2 by
2π r 2 sin θ dθ, integrating over θ between 0 and π/2 and equating the result to q leads to:
A = 3q/2π. Integrating the θ component of the equation of motion with respect to θ leads
to: p(r, θ) = (2η/r 3 ) (C + 3q cos2 θ/2π). Computing then the r-component of the equation
of motion (for instance for θ = π/ 2) gives C = –q/2π. Both p and the gradient ∂p/∂r change
sign at the angle θ = arccos(1/31/2 ) < π/2 although the radial velocity is always of the same
sign.

4) Torque on two concentric rotating spheres.

Using the same method as in Section 9.4.3, we find that f (r) = Ar + B/r 2 ; the val-
ues of A and B are obtained from the boundary conditions on the two spheres with:
! !
vϕ (r,θ ) = 1 sin θ R31 R23 /(R31 – R23 ) 1/r 2 – r/R32 for 2 = 0 (swap the indices 1 and 2 in
the other case). For R2 → ∞ and 2 = 0, we retrieve Equation 9.58 for the flow
around a rotating sphere. For R1 → 0 and 1 = 0, we have solid body rotation of the
fluid inside the sphere of radius R2 . The torque is computed as in Section 9.4.3 with:
!
G = –8π η 1 R31 R32 /(R31 – R32 ) for 2 = 0 on cylinder 1 and –G on the other (for 1 = 0,
1 → 2 and the signs are inverted). For δ R1 , vϕ (r, θ) = 1 sin θ R(r – R2 )/ε and we
have G = –(8π/3) η R4 /δ. If both spheres rotate, we just add the expressions for the given
velocity for 1 = 0 and 2 = 0 (see the superposition of solutions of the Stokes equation in
Section 9.2.3).

5) Permeability of a layered medium.

For flow parallel to the layers, the pressure drop p is the same along all layers but the flow
rate depends on the permeability. Estimating from Darcy’s law the flow rates Q1 and Q2
in a layer of each type and writing their sum using the global effective permeability k// of
the layered medium, we find: k// = (k1 h1 + k2 h2 )/(h1 + h2 ). For flow perpendicular to the
layers, the flow rate Q through all layers is the same but the pressure drops p1 and p2
are different. Writing their sum as a function of Q using the effective permeability k⊥ leads
to: k⊥ = (h1 + h2 )/(h1 /k1 + h2 /k2 ). If k1 k2 , k// = k1 h1 /(h1 +h2 ) and k⊥ = k2 (h1 + h2 )/h2 .
The porosity and tortuosity of random unconsolidated packings of spherical beads
of uniform diameter d and prepared using a same procedure is practically inde-
pendent of their diameter d (see Section 1.1.1). We have therefore φ 1 /φ 2 = 1 and
k ∝ d 2 so that: k1 /k2 = (d1 /d2 )2 and, using the previous relations, one finds:

k /k⊥ = h1 d12 + h2 d22 h1 d22 + h2 d12 /((h1 + h2 )2 d12 d22 ). In contrast, the electrical conduc-
tivity of the packings does not depend on d but only on the porosity and tortuosity and
is the same for the two layers. The global conductivities in the parallel and perpendicular
configurations are then both equal to this latter common value.
Solutions to the Exercises 499

6) Porous embankment with two fluids of different densities.

Just as for a single fluid, we can neglect the effect of the flow on the transverse pressure
gradient which is then purely hydrostatic. Computing the pressure profile pfs (x) at the in-
terface yfs (x) separately in the salty stagnant water and in the fresh water and equating the
two resulting expressions provides the relation between yfs and yfa . The flow rate Q can
be computed in the same way as for a single fluid with Q = –(kgρf /μ)( yfa – yfs )∂yfa /∂x.
Using the relation between yfs and yfa to compute Q as a function of ∂yfs /∂x leads

to: (yfs – y1 )2 = 2νQρf (x – L)/ g k ρf – ρs . The profile yfs (x) is therefore parabolic. The
penetration distance L – xfs min is obtained by taking yfs = 0 in the previous expression so that:

L – xfsmin = k g y12 ρs – ρf /(2 ν Q ρf ). The slope ∂yfs /∂x of the interface increases (and
L – xmin
fs decreases) with the viscous pressure gradient ∂p/∂x and, therefore, with Q. For
a given pressure gradient ∂p/∂x, the slope must be larger at small values of the density con-
trast ρ s – ρ f : this allows one to keep constant the hydrostatic pressure terms which are the
product of the two and balance the viscous pressure.

Chapter 10
1) Stationary dissolution boundary layer near a free surface of a falling film.
Since the flow velocity is parallel to the x-axis, the local flux J(x,y) of dissolved gas
has a convective x-component: Jxconv = C(x, y) vx ( y) and a diffusive y-component:
diff
Jy = –Dg ∂C(x, y)/∂y. The diffusive x-component can be neglected because:
∂C/∂x ∂C/∂y. If Dg is low, the gas penetrates only over a distance from the surface δ c
∝ (Dg )1/2 which is assumed to be h (this will be discussed below): the velocity vx ( y) in
this layer can be taken equal to V 0 so that Jxconv C(x, y) V0 . Writing the stationarity condi-
tion ∇ · J = 0 in this penetration layer leads then to the equation given in the text. Replacing
∂C/∂x by –u(∂C/∂u)/(2x1/2 ) and ∂ 2 C/∂y2 by (1/x)(∂ 2 C/∂u2 ) provides the reduced variable
form of the equation. Two successive integrations with the boundary conditions C = 0 for
!
y → –∞ and C = C0 for y = h lead to: C = C0 1 – erf (h - y) V0 /(4 Dg x) . The
characteristic distance δ c over which the concentration varies from C0 to 0 is therefore

4Dg x/V0 and represents the thickness of the gas diffusion boundary layer in this problem.
The above hypothesis of a small penetration distance can be expressed by δc (L) h which
requires a Péclet number Pe = V0 h/ Dg L/h. The transverse gradient ∂C/∂y at the free
√
surface ( y = h) satisfies: (∂C/∂y)y=h = –(∂C/∂u)u=0 / x = –C0 V0 /(π Dg x); it therefore
√
decreases as 1/ x.

2) Boundary layer for a cylindrical Couette flow with radial aspiration.

The absolute flow rate Q per unit length along z and through a cylinder of radius r is
Q = –2π r vr and is constant so that: α = Q/ 2π . Replacing vr by –α/ r in the ϕ compo-
nent of the Navier–Stokes equation (see Appendix 4A.2) provides the expression given
in the text since vϕ depends only on r. Replacing vϕ by C r γ and simplifying by C ν r γ
leads to: γ = –1 and γ =1 – α/ν. The Darcy velocity through the inner porous wall is
vs = Q/(2πR1 ) = – α/R1 so that α/ν = |vs|R1 /ν represents the Reynolds number associated
to vs and R1 . Assuming that vϕ (r) is of the form: C1 /r + C2 r 1–α/ν and using the bound-
ary conditions on the two cylinders provides then the given expression. For α/ν 1, the
exponent 2 – α/ν is negative and the terms containing R1 /R2 are the only important ones
in the fraction, except when r R1 . One has then vϕ (r) ∝ 1/ r (a vortex potential flow),
except for r → R1 . The thickness δ of the layer where the vorticity is localized is estimated
by writing that, at a distance δ from the inner cylinder (r R1 ), the viscous transport term
η ∂vϕ /∂r ≈ η vϕ /δ is of the same order as the convective one: ρ vϕ vr ≈ ρ vϕ α/ R1 so that:
500 Solutions to the Exercises

δ ≈ νR1 /α = ν/vs where vs is the suction velocity. This value is the same as for a flat plate
with aspiration but the variation with distance is a power law rather than an exponential one.

3) Transient flow around a rotating cylinder.

√
At short times, fluid motion is localized in a thin layer of thickness δ ≈ νt (Section 2.1.2).
The variation of vϕ (r, t) is then governed by the ϕ component of the equation of motion
in cylindrical coordinates (see Appendix 4A.2) which reduces to a pure diffusion equation.
The r component of the equation ∂p/∂r = ρ v2ϕ /r shows that the pressure gradient balances
the centrifugal force. In the stationary regime, taking vϕ = C r γ leads to: γ 2 = 1. Eliminating
γ = 1 (fluid at rest at infinity) leads to vϕS = C/r with C = R2 (vϕS = R for r = R)
and ωzS = 0. The corresponding kinetic energy per unit volume is ρ 2 R4 /r 2 and its in-
tegral over the whole fluid volume diverges at large distances: this stationary flow cannot
then be reached in a finite time. Inserting the expression vϕ = vϕS f (u) into the equation
2
of motion and simplifying by vϕS and r 2 /t leads, after integration, to: f = C e–u /4νt + D
√
with D= 0 (finite total kinetic energy) and C = 1 if R νt. The vorticity satis-
2 √
fies: ωz = (1/r) ∂(rvϕ )/∂r = –(R2 /(2νt))e–r /4νt and it decays over a distance ∝ νt: if
√ ∞
R νt, the total vorticity R 2π r ωz dr is constant and equal to 2πR (circulation of
2

the velocity around the cylinder).

Chapter 12
1) Energy dissipation in a turbulent flow.
The Reynolds number Re = v /ν is 9 105 and the corresponding energy ε dissipated per
unit time and unit mass satisfies: ε = v3 / = 90W /kg. The temperature rise T per minute
(duration τ M = 60 s) then satisfies: Cv T = τ M ε so that: T ∼ = 1.3 K. Finally, the size η of
the smallest vortices given by Equation 12.94 is: η = ν 3/4 ε –1/4 10 μm.

2) Transport of a solute in turbulent flow.

The mass conservation equation of the solute can be written: ∂C/∂t + ∇·Qm = 0. Using
Equation 12.16 as the equation for Qm , we obtain the equation given in the text.
For a correlation coefficient of 0.5, the turbulent transport
term associated to the fluc-
tuations of the velocity and concentration is: v
C
= 0.5 v
2z C
2 = 5 × 10–4 kg/(m2 .s).
On the other hand, the mass flux due to molecular diffusion is –Dm ∇C ≈ 10–11 kg/(m2 .s)
which is considerably smaller than the turbulent flux.

3) Decay of a turbulent flow.

The rate of variation with time of the kinetic energy must be equal to the energy trans-
mitted per unit time in the energy cascade by vortices of a characteristic size to the next
smaller ones. As a result, we have, per unit mass: (1/2) dv2 /dt –v3 / or dv /v2 –dt/.
After integrating, we obtain: v (t) = v0 /(1 + v0 t/) so that, at long times: v (t) /t and,
Re (2 /ν)/ t = τν / t. The characteristic diffusion time over the distance is τ ν and vo is
the value of v at t = 0. These approximations are valid if v0 t/ 1 or: v0 /v 1.
For a very large initial Reynolds number Re0 10, the latter condition is satisfied as
Re decreases towards 10: the time t10 for reaching Re = 10 is then of the order of τν /10
while Re and v decrease as 1/t. In the final viscous dissipation regime, the variation of the
velocity of fluid particles of size satisfies: –cν ρν v = ρ 3 dv/dt or –cν (ν/2 ) v = dv/dt
so that v = K e–cν t/τν (cν is a constant). Assuming that the transition from the turbulent
regime occurs at t = t 10 , we then have: v = (ν/10) e–cν (t – t10 )/τν .
Solutions to the Exercises 501

If v ∝ t –0.6in the first regime, assuming that the equation –dt/ remains valid,
dv /v2
leads to ∝ t0.4 : the size of the largest eddies increases slowly with time until it is limited by
the container size.

4) Turbulent plane Couette flow.

Due to the absence of applied pressure gradient (∂ p̄/∂x = 0), Equation 12.44a for parallel
flows becomes: ν ∂ v̄x /∂y–v
x v
y = σ̄xy /ρ = cst, in which σ̄xy is the total stress at the wall. Using
dimensionless parameters and taking derivatives with respect to x in order to eliminate the
constant leads to f

=Re g
.
Rewriting the definition of ν t in dimensionless coordinates: g = –(νt /Uh) f
and using
the value: νt = κc U y leads to g = –κc ξ f
; the expression of ν t is similar to that derived for
turbulent Poiseuille flows (Equations 12.24a and 12.50) in which u∗ is replaced by U and
the constant κ by κ c which may also be expected to be ≈ 1. Taking the derivative of this
equation with respect to ξ and combining the result with the relation between f
and g
leads
to the differential equation for f given in the text.
Dividing by (ξ + (1/ (κc Re)) f
and integrating once leads to: (ξ + 1/(κc Re)) f
= C1 .
Dividing by (ξ + 1/ (κc Re)) and integrating with f = 0 and 1 respectively for ξ = 0 and
1 gives: f (ξ ) = Log(1 + κc Re ξ )/Log(1 + κc Re ). Using σ̄xy /ρ = ν ∂ v̄x /∂y (0) leads to:
Cd = 2 κc /Log(1 + κc Re).
For Re 1, we have f (ξ ) = ξ and Cd = 2 / Re: both results correspond to the variations
for laminar Couette flows.
For Re 1, Cd varies slowly (logarithmically) with Re like for a turbulent Poiseuille flow
between smooth plates.
For Re 1 and for ξ Re 1 (i.e. y ν/U ), we have f (ξ ) κc Re ξ /Log(1 + κc Re ):
this corresponds to a linear variation f (ξ ) ≈ yU /ν, similar (replacing again u∗ by U ) to that
found in the viscous sublayer of Poiseuille flows close to the wall (Equation 12.54).
For Re ξ 1, the variation of the velocity with y/h is logarithmic as in the inertial
sublayer of Poiseuille turbulent flows. A remarkable feature is that the expression for the
velocity profile established above is valid at all distances from the wall and at all Reynolds
numbers.
Bibliography

General references
Batchelor, G.K. (2000) An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics. Cambridge University Press.
Faber, T.E. (1995) Fluid Dynamics for Physicists. Cambridge University Press.
Feynman, R.P., Leighton, R. and Sands, M. (1964) The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Volume 2, Chapters 40 “The flow of dry water”
and 41 “The flow of wet water.” Addison-Wesley.
Kundu, P.K., Cohen, L.M. and Dowling, D.R. (2011) Fluid Mechanics, 5th edition, Academic Press.
Lamb, H. (1993) Hydrodynamics. Cambridge University Press.
Landau, L.D. and Lifschitz, E.M. (1987) Fluid Mechanics. 2nd edition. Chapters 1 to 4. Pergamon Press.

Books and multimedia documents giving an approach of fluid mechanics based on images
Guyon, E., Hulin, J-P. and Petit, L. (2011) Ce que disent les fluides, la science des écoulements en images, 2nd edition. Belin.
Guyon, E. and Guyon, MY. (2014). “Taking fluid mechanics to the general public” Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics. 46, 1–22.
Homsy, G. (2008) Multimedia Fluid Mechanics (MMFM) second edition. Cambridge University Press.
Paterson, A.R. (1983) A First Course in Fluid Dynamics. Cambridge University Press.
Samimy, K.S., Breuer, K.S., Leal, L.G. and Steen, P.H. (2004) A Gallery of Fluid Motion. Cambridge University Press.
Shapiro, A.H. (1961–1972) National Committee for Fluid Mechanics Films (NCFMF) and its companion book: Illustrated Experiments in
Fluid Mechanics (IEFM, 1974). MIT Press. For internet access to all these films use Shapiro and NCFMF as search keywords.
Tritton, D.J. (1988) Physical Fluid Dynamics. 2nd edn. Oxford Science Publications.
Van Dyke, M. (1982) An Album of Fluid Motion (AFM). Parabolic Press.

History of hydrodynamics
Darrigol, O. (2008) Worlds of Flows: A History of Hydrodynamics from the Bernoullis to Prandtl. Oxford University Press.

In addition to the above general references, we provide below, chapter by chapter, more specialized ones which are arranged as follows:

• References relevant to the chapter: review articles in scientific journals or fluid

mechanics textbooks discussing in greater depth some content of the chapter.
• Specific references dealing with specific ideas discussed in a particular section of the
chapter.
• Films from the NCFMF series: see above.

Chapter 1
Adamson, W.A. and Gast, A.P. (1997) Physical Chemistry of Surfaces. John Wiley & Sons.
Bird, B.R., Stewart, W.E. and Lightfoot, E.N. (2006) Transport Phenomena. John Wiley & Sons.
Carslaw, H.S. and Jaeger, J.C. (1959) Conduction of Heat in Solids. Oxford University Press.
Egelstaff, P.A. (1994) An Introduction to the Liquid State. Oxford University Press.
Guyon, E. et al. (2010) Matière et matériaux. De quoi est fait le monde. Belin.
McQuarrie, D. (1976) Statistical Mechanics. Harper and Row.
Reif, F. (1972) Statistical Physics. McGraw-Hill. See bibliography of Chapter 8.
Bibliography 503

Specific references
Barker, J. and Henderson, D. (1981) “Numerical simulations of two-dimensional phase transitions.” Scientific American. 180, Nov.
130–138.
Charmet, J., Cloitre, M., Fermigier, M., Guyon, E.; Jenffer, P. ; Limat, L. ; Petit, L. (1986). “Application of forced Rayleigh scattering to
hydrodynamic measurements.” IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics. QE-22, 1461–1468.
Betrencourt, C., Guyon, E. and Giraud, L.G. (1980) “Teaching physics out of a bag of marbles.” European Journal of Physics. 1, 206–211.
Pieranski, P. (1984) “An experimental model of a classical many body problem.” American Journal of Physics. 52, 68–73.

Chapter 2
Specific references
Koplik, J., Banavar, J. and Willemsen, J.F. (1988) “Molecular dynamics of Poiseuille flow and moving contact lines.” Physical Review
Letters. 60, 1282–1285.
Provansal, M., Mathis, C. and Boyer, L. (1987) “Bénard-von Kármán instability: transient and forced regimes.” Journal of Fluid
Mechanics. 182, 1–22.
Miedzik, J., Gumowski, K., Goujon-Durand, S., Jenffer, P. and Wesfreid, J.E. (2008) “Wake behind a sphere in early transitional regimes.”
Physical Review E. 77, 055308.
Reynolds, O. (1883) “An experimental investigation on the circumstances which determine whether the motion of water shall be direct
or sinuous and the law of resistance in a parallel channel.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 174, 935–982.
Rott, N. (1990) “Note on the history of the Reynolds number.” Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics. 22, 1–20.

Chapter 3
Adrian, R.J. (1991) “Particle imaging techniques for experimental fluid mechanics.” Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics. 23, 261–304.
Merzkirch, W. (1979) Flow Visualization. Academic Press.

Specific references
Bartol, I.K., Kruger, K.S., Stewart, W.S. and Thomson, J.T. (2009) “Hydrodynamics of pulsed jetting in juvenile and adult brief squid
Lolliguncula brevis: evidence of multiple jet ‘modes’ and their implications for propulsive efficiency.” Journal of Experimental Biology.
212, 1889–1903.
Taylor, G.I. (1934) “The formation of emulsions in definable fields of flow.” Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 146, 501–523.

NCFMF film
Kline, S.J. (1966) Flow Visualization (IEFM, p. 34).
Lumley, J.L. (1963) Deformation of Continuous Media (IEFM, p. 11).

Chapter 4
Byron Bird, R. and Hassager, O. (1987) Dynamics of Polymeric Liquids. John Wiley & Sons.
Coussot, P. (2005) Rheometry of Pastes, Suspensions and Granular Materials. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Larson, R.G. (1999) The Structure and Rheology of Complex Fluids. Oxford University Press.
Oswald, P. (2009) Rheophysics: The Deformation and Flow of Matter. Cambridge University Press.

Specific references
Allain, C., Cloitre, M. and Perrot, P. (1997) “Experimental investigation and scaling laws of die swelling in semi-dilute polymer solutions.”
Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics. 73, 51–66.
Berret, J-F., Porte, G. and Decruppe J-P. (1997) “Inhomogeneous shear flows of wormlike micelles.” Physical Review E. 55, 1668–1676.
Charlaix, E., Kushnick, A.P. and Stokes, J.P. (1989) “Experimental study of the dynamic permeability of porous media.” Physical Review
Letters. 61, 1595–1598.
Cottin-Bizonne, C., Cross, B., Steinberger, A. and Charlaix, E. (2005) “Boundary slip on smooth hydrophobic surfaces.” Physical Review
Letters. 94, 056102.
Reiner, M. (1964) “The Deborah number.” Physics Today. 17 n◦ 1, 62.
504 Bibliography

NCFMF films
Markovitz, H. (1964) Rheological Behaviour of Fluids (IEFM, p. 18).
Trefethen, L. (1967) Surface Tension in Fluid Mechanics (IEFM, p. 26).

Chapter 5
Middleman, S. (1995) Modeling Axisymmetric Flows: Dynamics of Films, Jets and Drops. Academic Press.
Milne-Thomson, L.M. (1996) Theoretical Hydrodynamics. Dover Publications.

NCFMF film
Shapiro, A.H. (1962) Pressure Fields and Fluid Acceleration (IEFM, p. 39).

Chapter 6
Lighthill, M.J. (2001) Waves in Fluids, 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press.
Stoker, J.J. (1957) Water Waves, The Mathematical Theory with Applications. John Wiley & Sons.

Specific references
Davies, R.M. and Taylor, G.I. (1950) “The mechanics of large bubbles rising through extended liquids and through liquids in tubes.”
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A. 200, 375–390.

NCFMF film
Bryson, A.E. (1964) Waves in Fluids (IEFM, p. 105).

Chapter 7
Childress, S. (1981) Mechanics of Swimming and Flying. Cambridge University Press.
Cushman-Roisin, B. (1994) Introduction to Geophysical Fluid Dynamics. Prentice Hall.
Greenspan, H.P. (1990) The Theory of Rotating Fluids. Breukelen Press.
Holton, J.R. (2004) An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology, 4th edition, Academic Press.
Saffman, P.J. (1995) Vortex Dynamics. Cambridge University Press.

Specific references
Cortet, P-P., Lamriben, C. and Moisy, F. (2010) “Viscous spreading of an inertial wave beam in a rotating fluid.” Physics of Fluids. 22
086603.
Donnelly, R.J., Glaberson, W.I. and Parks, R. (1967) Experimental Superfluidity. University of Chicago Press.
Donnelly, R.J. (1993) “Quantized Vortices and Turbulence in Helium II.” Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics. 25, 327–371.
Godoy-Diana, R., Aider, J-L. and Wesfreid, J.E. (2008) “Transitions in the wake of a flapping foil.” Physical Review Letters E. 77, 016308.
Guyon, E., Kojima, H., Veitz, W. and Rudnick, I. (1972) “Persistent current states in rotating superfuid He.” Journal of Low Temperature
Physics. 9, 187–193.
Williams, G. and Packard, R.E. (1980) “A technique for photographing vortex positions in rotating superfluid He.” Journal of Low
Temperature Physics. 39, 553–577.

NCFMF films
Shapiro, A.H. (1961) Vorticity (IEFM, p. 63).
Fultz, D. (1969) Rotating Flows (IEFM, p. 143).

Chapter 8
De Gennes, P.G., Brochard, F. and Quéré, Y. (2004) Capillarity and Wetting Phenomena: Drops, Bubbles, Pearls, Waves. Springer.
Bibliography 505

Specific references
Cazabat, A.M. and Cohen Stuart, M. (1986) “Dynamics of wetting: effects of surface roughness.” Journal of Physical Chemistry. 90,
5845–5849.
Fermigier, M. and Jenffer, P. (1991) “An experimental investigation of the dynamic contact angle.” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science.
146, 226–241.
Mora, S., Abkarian, M., Tabuteau, H. and Pomeau, Y. (2011) “Surface instability of soft solids under strain.” Soft Matter. 7, 10612–
10619.
Ribe, N.M. (2004) “Coiling of viscous jets.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A. 460, 3223–3239.
Trouton, F.T. (1906) “On the coefficient of viscous traction and its relation to that of viscosity.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London
A. 77, 426–440.

Chapter 9
Bear, J. (1989) Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media. Dover Publications.
Dullien, F.A. (1992) Porous Media; Fluid Transport and Pore Structure. Academic Press.
Guazzelli, E. and Morris, J.F. (2012) A Physical Introduction to Suspension Dynamics. Cambridge University Press.
Happel, J. and Brenner, H. (1983) Low Reynolds Number Hydrodynamics (with special applications to particulate media). Kluwer Academic
Publishers.
Hinch, E.J. (1988) “Hydrodynamics at Low Reynolds Number: a brief and elementary introduction” in Disorder and Mixing. Guyon, E.,
Nadal, J.P. and Pomeau, Y. eds., N.A.T.O. A.S.I. E series, Kluwer Academic Publishers. 152, 43–55.
Moffatt, K. (1977) “Six lectures on fluid dynamics” in: Fluid Dynamics, les Houches 1973. Balian, R. and Peube, J.L. eds., Gordon and
Breach, 149–234.
Scheidegger, A.E. (1979) The Physics of Flow Through Porous Media. University of Toronto Press.

Specific references
Katz, A.J. and Thompson, A.H. (1986) “Quantitative prediction of permeability in porous rocks.” Physical Review B. 34, 8179–8181.
Lliboutry, L.A. (1987) Very Slow Flows of Solids. Ch. 7. M. Nijjhoff Publishers.
Purcell, E.M. (1977) “Life at low Reynolds number.” American Journal of Physics. 45, 3–11.
Tabeling, P. (2005) Introduction to Microfluidics. Oxford University Press.
Wong, P., Koplik, J. and Tomanic, J.P. (1984) “Conductivity and permeability of rocks.” Physical Review B. 30, 6606–6614.

NCFMF film
Taylor, G.I. (1964) Low Reynolds Number Flows (IEFM, p. 47).

Chapter 10
Levich, V.G. (1962) Physicochemical Hydrodynamics. Prentice Hall.
Prandtl, L. and Tietjens, O.G. (1957) Fundamentals of Hydro- and Aerodynamics. Dover Publications.
Probstein, R.F. (1994) Physicochemical Hydrodynamics, An Introduction. 2nd edition, Wiley-Blackwell.
Schlichtling, H. and Gersten, K. (2000) Boundary Layer Theory. 8th edition, Springer.

Specific references
Comte-Bellot, G. (1976) “Hot-wire anemometry”. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics. 8, 209–231.
Freymuth, P., Bank, W. and Palmer, M. (1984) “First experimental evidence of vortex splitting.” Physics of Fluids. 27, 1045–1046.
Minguez, M., Pasquetti, R. and Serre, E. (2008) “High-order large-eddy simulation of flow over the ‘Ahmed body’ car model.” Physics
of Fluids. 20, 095101.
Quinard, J., Searby, G., Denet, B. and Graña-Otero, J. (2011) “Self turbulent flame speed.” Flow, Turbulence and Combustion. 89, 231–247.
Werle, H. (1974) The Uses of a Hydrodynamic Wind Tunneling Space Research. ONERA publication # 156, p. 43; ibid. publication #1303,
p. 343.
506 Bibliography

NCFMF film
Abernathy, F.H. (1968) Fundamentals of Boundary Layers (IEFM, p. 75).

Chapter 11
Berge, P., Pomeau, Y. and Vidal, C. (1987) Order within Chaos. Wiley-VCH.
Charru, F. (2011) Hydrodynamic Instabilities. Cambridge University Press.
Lin, C.C. (1955) The Theory of Hydrodynamic Stability. Cambridge University Press.
Manneville, P. (2010) Instabilities, Chaos and Turbulence: An Introduction to Nonlinear Dynamics and Complex Systems, 2nd edition, Imperial
College Press.
Mutabazi, I.,Wesfreid, J.E. and Guyon, E. (2006) Dynamics of Spatio-temporal Structures. Springer.

Specific references
Andereck, C.D., Liu, S.S. and Swinney, H.L. (1986) “Flow regimes in a circular Couette system with independently rotating cylinders,”
Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 164, 155–183.
Fellouah, H., Castelain, C., Ould El Moktar, A. and Peerhossani, H. (2006) “A criterion for detection of the onset of Dean instability,”
European Journal of Mechanics. B/Fluids. 46, 505–531.
Guyon, E. and Pieranski, P. (1974) “Convective instabilities in nematic liquid crystals.” Physica. 73, 184–194.
Heslot, F., Castaing, B. and Libchaber, A. (1987) “Transitions to turbulence in helium gas.” Physical Review. A 36, 5870–5873.
Libchaber, A., Fauve, S. and Laroche, C. (1983) “Two-parameter study of the routes to chaos.” Physica D. 7, 73–84.
Schatz, M.F., Van Hook, S.J., McCormick, W.D., Swift, J.B. and Swinney, H.L. (2008) “Onset of surface-tension-driven Bénard
instability,” Physical Review Letters. 75, 1938–1941.
Thorpe, S.A. (1969) “Experiments on the instability of stratified shear flows: immiscible fluids.” Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 39, 25–48.
Thorpe, S.A. (1971) “Experiments on the instability of stratified shear flows: miscible fluids.” Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 46, 299–319.

NCFMF film
Mollo-Christensen, E.L. (1972) Flow Instabilities (IEFM, p. 113).

Chapter 12
Davidson, P.A. (2004) Turbulence: An Introduction for Scientists and Engineers. Oxford University Press.
Frisch, U. (1996) Turbulence: The legacy of A.N. Kolmogorov. Cambridge University Press.
Lesieur, M. (1997) Turbulence in Fluids. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Pope, S.B. (2000) Turbulent Flows. Cambridge University Press.
Tennekes, M. and Lumley, J.M. (1972) A First Course in Turbulence. Cambridge University Press.

Specific references
Catrakis, H.J. and Dimotakis, P.E. (1996) “Mixing in turbulent jets: scalar measures and isosurface geometry.” Journal of Fluid Mechanics.
317, 369–406.
Kahlerras, H., Malecot, Y. and Gagne, Y. (1998) “Intermittency and Reynolds number,” Physics of Fluids. 10, 910–921.
Moisy, F., Morize, C., Rabaud, M. and Sommeria, J. (2011) “Decay laws, anisotropy and cyclone–anticyclone asymmetry in decaying
rotating turbulence.” Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 666, 5–35.

NCFMF film
Stewart, L.W. (1966) Turbulence (IEFM, p. 82).
Index

A laminar 363 compactness 4

acceleration (fluid particle) 61, 96 mass 393 see also packing fraction
added mass 184, 187 momentum thickness 375 compressible 74, 162
aerodynamics reattachment 479 conformal mapping 199
of airplane wings 381 separation 364, 376, 380, 477 connected
of cars 383 separation control 381 multiply 168, 213, 272
Aharonov-Bohm effect 273 stability of laminar 375 simply 168, 197, 272
Ahmed body 384 thermal 393 conservation
airplanes 159, 205, 244, 381 turbulent 375, 475 angular momentum 220, 251, 267
anemometry Boussinesq approximation 428 kinetic energy 142
hot-wire 85, 397 Boycott effect 344 mass 72, 134, 135, 138
laser Doppler 83 breaking waves 189, 440 momentum 139
Pitot tube 148 Brillouin scattering 40 contact angle
ultrasound 85 Brownian dynamic 290
angle of attack 244 diffusion 51, 341 static 26, 292
angular momentum 220, 228, 251, 266, motion 14, 19, 342, 403 contraction coefficient 155
437, 456 control parameter 418
particles 14, 20, 113, 342
control volume 141, 152
bubbles 23, 63, 81, 147, 167, 193, 249,
B convection forced-, free 397, 424
336
bacteria motion 53, 309, 326 convective
buoyancy 224, 243, 331, 394, 423
barotropic fluid 224 derivative 62, 73, 138
Burke-Schumann model 409
bearing 286 transport 43, 53, 250, 368, 399, 423,
Bénard-Marangoni instability 82, 298, 433 466, 472, 486
C
Bénard-von Karman vortex street 57, 235, Coriolis force 95, 222, 247, 255, 270, 488
capillarity 27, 189
242, 421 Couette flow
capillary
Bernoulli’s equation 142, 147, 150, 166, cylindrical 115, 125
194, 213, 376, 440 length 22, 27, 188, 294 plane 45, 71, 116, 127, 447
β-plane model 259 number 292, 356 Couette viscometer 102, 127
bifurcation diagram 419 waves 189, 444 creep 105
Bingham fluid 104, 131 Casson fluid 105 creeping flows 53, 309
Biot and Savart formula 216 catastrophe time 457 critical slowing 423, 429
Blasius cavitation 146, 213, 287 crystal lattice 2
equation 370 centrifugal force 112, 126, 247 curvature, mean 24
flow 226, 370 chaotic mixing 315 cylinder
Bond number 27, 32, 435 circular cylinder (potential flow creeping flow (around a) 340
Borda’s mouthpiece 154 around) 174 flow regimes (behind a) 57
Bose-Einstein 270 circulation flow (between two coaxial) 102, 125,
boundary conditions 98 conservation 218 315
boundary layer 363 source of 221 potential flow (around a) 174
constant thickness 379, 401 Coanda effect 151 cylindrical coordinates 134
control (active, passive) 386 coherent structures/motion
control (by suction) 386 (turbulent) 58, 441, 486 D
control (by wing flaps) 382 colloids 5, 104, 338 Damköhler number 408
displacement thickness 374 combustion 406 Darcy’s law 348, 351, 356
508 Index

Dean electrode (rotating disk) 401 quasi-parallel 277, 289

instability 439 electromagnetic analogies 215 reactive 138, 406
number 439 energy cascade 232, 449, 479 reversal 376
secondary flow 266, 439 energy dissipation rotational 75, 211
Deborah number 5, 106 kinetic 145 secondary 102, 127, 248, 266, 270
De Broglie relation 33, 270 minimum (creeping flows) 318, 337 self-similar 296, 369, 376, 463
deep water waves 188 enstrophy 455, 482 source (potential) 172, 197, 206
deflagration 411 entry length 365 stagnation point, near 198
deformation 64 equation of motion 95, 97, 98 stagnation point (toward) 379
angular 67 (low Reynolds number) 311 stationary 45, 62, 74, 81, 116, 140,
large 65, 71 (rotating reference frame) 247 146
small 65, 108 (turbulent flows) 451 turbulent (in a circular tube) 471
density variation (horizontal) 124 ergodicity 450 turbulent (near a wall) 466
detonation 411 Ergun’s equation 354 turbulent (between two parallel
deviator (strain tensor) 68 Escherichia coli 326 plates) 469
diffusion Eulerian (description/ uniform 170, 197, 206, 364
abnormal 15 viewpoint) 61, 138 vortex 171, 197, 211
molecular 12, 19, 42, 54, 225, 311, Euler’s equation 97 fluctuations, turbulent 350, 450, 454, 467,
398, 404, 408, 453 expansion, volume rate of 68 477, 483
momentum 44, 55, 121, 397
fluid
thermal 6, 13, 19, 39, 44, 55, 268, 397 F
ideal 97, 101, 146, 166, 184, 217, 270
dilatant fluid 104 Falkner-Skan equation 376
particle 60, 64, 191, 219, 392, 423,
dipole flow 173, 198, 206 Fick’s equation 12
458
direct numerical simulations 459 first-order transitions 437, 447
perfect, see ideal fluid
dispersion (waves) 189 flame 406
power law 104, 130
downwelling 269 diffusion 407, 409
fluidized bed 341
drag front 411, 414
Forbes’ bands 309
coefficient 120, 244, 332, 373, 383, instability of a plane, premixed 414
force
473 premixed 407, 411
on a cylinder (low Reynolds
crisis 478 flow
number) 338, 340
force 177, 183, 242, 246, 320, 331, around a corner 198
340, 364, 390 of a jet on a plane (perfect fluid) 153
around a cylinder 57, 174, 340, 420
drainage 356 around a liquid sphere 335 on a solid body (low Reynolds
drop around a sphere 58, 178, 327 number) 321
of fluid in motion 335 axially symmetric 79, 207 on a sphere at low Reynolds
(spread of) 293, 294 creeping 53, 309 number 331
dynamic pressure 43, 146, 321, 373 curved 150, 439 on a 3D obstacle (ideal fluid) 187
dynamic viscosity 19, 21, 42, 45 cylindrical Couette 125, 127 on a 2D obstacle (ideal fluid) 181
dynamo effect 224 dipole 173, 198, 206 on the walls of a container
elongational 113, 231, 343 emptying 156
E laminar 56, 81, 120, 278, 310, 363, forced convection 397, 424
earth mantle 309 408 Forcheimer approximation 349
eddy viscosity 458, 464 liquid films (of ) 289 Fourier’s equation 8
Einstein one-dimensional 115, 128, 148, 348, fourth sound 271
convention 66, 92, 138, 451 411, 458 free convection 424
relation 19 oscillating 121, 132, 380 free surface 100, 155, 187, 214, 289, 300,
Ekman parallel 53, 111, 115, 124, 128, 170, 349, 433
layer 263, 269 466 frictional velocity (turbulent) 468
number 250, 266 plane Couette 45 friction factor, see drag coefficient
spiral 265 plug 104, 132, 366 friction, see drag
elasto-hydrodynamic forces 283 porous media (in) 345 Froude number 159, 162, 164
electrical analog 194 potential 75, 147, 166, 213, 272, 350 frozen turbulence hypothesis 483
Index 509

G incident onto a plane 152 flow between two moving planes 281
geostrophic flow 252, 263 laminar 392 force 283, 288
glacier flow 309 swelling 112
Görtler instability 439 turbulent 460, 465 M
gravity waves 158, 188 Joukovski mapping 201 Mach number 74, 159, 162
Jurin’s law 29 magnetic Reynolds number 224
H magnetohydrodynamic forces 222
heat transfer 8, 20, 396 K Magnus force 183, 238, 244, 253, 274,
Hele-Shaw cell 176, 267, 350 Kelvin-Helmoltz instability 440, 486 326, 381
helix 325 Kelvin’s theorem 218, 227, 244, 251 Marangoni
Helmholtz Kelvin-Voigt’s solid 110 effect 23, 100, 296
analogy 215 Kelvin waves 257 number 434
equation 226 kinetic theory 1, 16, 48, 452 marginally stable mode 421
Herschel-Bulkley fluid 105 Knudsen regime 19, 60 marginal stability 430, 444
Hill’s vortex 229 Kolmogorov matched asymptotic expansion 340, 470
homogeneous turbulence 479 constant 484 material derivative 62
hot-wire anemometer 85, 397 energy cascade 232, 449, 479 Maxwell
hurricane 211 laws 484 analogy 218, 273
hydraulic jump 158, 162 length 481 liquid 109, 132
hydrodynamic instabilities 33, 102, 357, theory 479 Maxwell-Boltzmann 50
375, 417 velocity 481 meander 267
hydrostatic pressure 27, 90, 149, 225, Kozeny-Carman relation 353 mean field 418
289, 331, 357 Kutta condition 204 mean free path 14, 48, 60, 458
L micelles 111
I
Lagrangian microfluidics 88, 309
ideal fluid 97, 101, 146, 166, 184, 217,
chaos 315 minimum cross-section 155
270
derivative 62 mixing
imbibition 356, 359
description 61 chaotic 315
incompressible 66, 73, 94, 226
mixing 311 Lagrangian 311
inertial
laminar flow 56, 81, 120, 278, 310, 363, layer 232, 441, 486
sublayer 466
408 length 459
subrange 481
Landau low Reynolds number (at) 310
instability
expansion 419 turbulent 453
absolute 440
model 417, 420, 433 mobility 19, 51
closed box 433
convective 440 Landau-Darrieus instability 414 molecular diffusion 12, 20, 42, 54, 310,
mode 427 Laplace 398, 408, 453
plane Couette flow (of ) 447 equation 167, 174, 194, 200, 329 molecular dynamics simulation 51
plane, premixed flame (of ) 414 force 222, 255 momentum
Poiseuille flow (of ) 447 large eddy simulation 460 conservation 139, 452
subcritical 433, 437 laser flux tensor 140
supercritical 437, 446 Doppler anemometry 41, 83 transport (convective) 52
threshold 424, 426, 432, 440 induced fluorescence 83, 460, 475 transport (diffusive) 43, 52
interfacial sheet 81 multipole expansion 174, 329
energy 25 Levich equation 403
tension 22, 444 Lewis number 55, 413 N
intermittency 433, 486 lift force 181, 205, 244, 381 Navier length 99
inviscid fluid, see ideal fluid liquid state 1 Navier-Stokes equation 97, 115, 126, 134,
loss modulus 109 135, 221, 247, 278, 311, 339, 361,
J lubrication 423, 451
jet approximation 277 Newtonian
exiting from a reservoir 154 equation of motion 280 fluid 93, 97, 115
falling liquid 300 flow between two cylinders 286 plateau 104
510 Index

non-Newtonian fluid 101, 114, 127 velocity 75, 167, 170, 196, 206, scallop theorem 326
normal stress 91, 100, 111, 451 234, 441 scattering
difference 113 power law fluids 130 Brillouin 40
nozzle (de Laval) 162 Prandtl elastic 35, 37
numerical simulations boundary layer theory 366 inelastic 36, 40
direct 459 number 42, 54, 394, 425, 430 light 34
large eddy 460 pressure 92 Rayleigh 37, 40, 89
Nusselt number 396, 431 pressure waves 34, 74 Schlieren technique 82
propulsion 86, 184, 243, 246, 326 Schmidt number 55, 393, 398
O sedimentation 81, 316, 332, 344
optical tomography 81, 86 R self-similar(ity) 47, 368, 380, 463
order parameter 417, 432 random walk 13 self-similar velocity profile/
oscillating plane 121, 380 Rankine field 369, 376, 463
in a viscoelastic fluid 132 solid 179 separation
Oseen’s equation 338, 340, 387 vortex 212, 231, 449, 480 boundary layer 244, 316, 364, 376,
Ostwald equation 105 Rayleigh 381
number 426, 429, 435 point 380
scattering 37, 40 turbulent boundary layer 477
P
scattering (forced) 38, 89 shallow water 158
packing fraction 2, 4, 346
Rayleigh-Bénard instability 423, 432, 438 waves 188
particle
Rayleigh-Plateau instability 114, 302 shear
image velocimetry (PIV) 86, 437, 483
Rayleigh-Taylor instability 31 rate 67, 77, 101
micro anemometry 88
reattachment of a boundary layer 479 stress 45, 50, 91
pathlines 63
recirculation flow 344, 385, 479 thickening fluid 104, 114, 127
Péclet number 54, 311, 342, 404
representative elementary volume 15, 346 thinning fluid 103, 114, 127
thermal 54
reversibility (flow) 57, 288, 313, 326, 334 waves 122, 133
turbulent 453
Reynolds shear flow
penetration depth 121
decomposition 449 pure 78
percolation 359
equation (lubrication flows) 284 simple 45, 71, 77, 141, 298
period doubling 433 shock wave 74, 159, 162, 345
equation (turbulent flows) 451, 457
permeability 348, 352, 354 experiment 56 silly putty 107
relative 356 number 52, 98, 308, 363 sink (flow) 172, 180
persistent currents 271 number (magnetic) 224 slip length 99
photon correlation 37 tensor 452, 458, 462, 489 soft matter 115
Pitot’s tube 86, 148 rheology 5, 101, 342 solitary waves 192
planetary waves 259 rheometer, see viscometer source (potential flow) 172, 197, 206
plastic fluid 104 rheopexy 107 specific area (porous medium) 346, 353
plasticity 5 rigidity, complex modulus of 108 spectral analysis 433, 483
plug flow 104, 132, 366 Rollin film 272 spectral decomposition 482
Poiseuille Rossby sphere
cylindrical flow 118 number 249, 255 drag coefficient 332
law 119 waves 259, 261 dropping toward a plane 285
oscillating flow 122 rotating flow behind 58
plane flow 117 disk 401 moving (creeping flow) 327
polarography 89, 397, 403 flows 247 rotating (creeping flow) 333
porosimetry (mercury) 355, 358 rotational flow 75, 211 in uniform potential flow 178
porosity 346, 352, 358 rotation (local) 69 spherical coordinates 135
porous medium 5, 16, 55, 271, 309, 345 rough wall 474 spin-up 268
saturation 356 spreading parameter 25
potential S stability
flow 75, 147, 166, 213, 272, 328, scale separation 459 diagram 419, 430, 435, 444
350, 364 scaling laws (turbulent flow) 480 exchange principle 429
Index 511

stagnation symmetry breaking 419 particle image 86 (see also

point 319, 376 synchrotron radiation 34 anemometry)
pressure 146 velocity
stalling (wing) 244, 381 T circulation 168, 184, 212, 221, 244,
stationary flow 45, 62, 74, 81, 116, 140, Tanner’s law 292 274
146 Taylor complex 196, 234, 264
stereology 343 bubble 167, 193 gradient tensor 64, 74, 211
Stokes column 254 potential 75, 166, 181, 189, 194, 206,
equation 288, 311 dispersion 403 234
flow 116, 331, 340 number 438 potential, complex 196
law 331, 336 Taylor-Couette instability 127, 437 potential, uniqueness 168
Stokesian dynamics 337 Taylor-Proudman theorem 253 terminal 331
Stokeslet 336 teapot effect 152 vector potential 76, 218
stopping distance 310 tears of wine 299 vena contracta 155
storage modulus 109, 111 temperature inversion 424 Venturi gauge 149
thermal viscoelasticity 107, 108–111
strain tensor (rate of) 65, 96, 318
conductivity 7, 396, 431 viscometer 101, 108
streaklines 63, 80
convection 82, 124, 225, 423, 436 cone-plate 102
stream function 75, 170, 194, 206, 230
diffusivity 8, 18, 42, 44, 54, 397, 453 Couette 102, 127
Stokes 79, 330
thermocapillary 296, 433 falling sphere 332
streamline 63, 146, 171, 195, 199, 253,
thixotropic fluid 106, 114 viscosity
266
anti 107 bulk 94
stress 90
thrust due to an emission of vortices 241 dynamic 42, 45, 48, 94, 133
normal 91, 100, 111, 128, 158, 283, tidal bore 159 eddy 458, 460, 464
331 tomography (PIV) 88 elongational (Trouton) 113
tangential 91, 100, 291, 296, 328 tornadoes 211, 248 of the gas 48
tensor 91, 111, 126, 134, 141, 312, torque on a body at low Reynolds kinematic 42, 46, 48, 121, 226, 365,
331, 452 number 315–326 397, 423
stretching (rate of) 66 tortuosity of a porous medium 347, 354 of the liquids 49
Strouhal number 58, 123, 237 train (high-speed) 385 second 94, 97
structure factor 36 trajectory (fluid particle) 62, 180, 262, shear 94
subcritical 314, 423 of a suspension 342
flow 158 turbulence viscous
instability 433, 437, 447 frozen 483 dissipation 144, 296, 322, 454, 481
sublayer two dimensional 232, 487 stress 92, 100, 300, 321
inertial 466 weak 433 sublayer 467, 471, 474
viscous 466 turbulent visualization 56, 80, 87, 245, 332, 385,
subrange cascade 232, 449, 479 412, 420
inertial 481 fluctuations 375, 450, 477 von Kármán constant 468
viscous 481 inverse cascade 488 vortex
suction 316, 326, 379, 386, 401 puffs 433, 447, 486 filament 210, 215, 232, 238, 272, 445
supercritical stress tensor 452 lines 213, 216, 232, 272, 445
flow 161 transport 452 ring 86, 217, 232, 239, 274
instability 437, 446 viscosity 458 shedding 237, 420
superfluid helium 97, 167, 211, 270 sheet 234, 445
films 271 U starting 244
surface upwelling 270 street 57, 232, 235, 241, 486
tension 21, 31, 100, 188, 296 trailing edge 245
waves 158, 187 V tube 211, 220, 228, 249, 368, 456
surfactant 23 Van der Waals 4, 342, 417 wing tip 244, 246, 384
suspension 38, 63, 81, 101, 288, 341 Vaschy-Buckingham method 55 vorticity 69, 75, 86, 210
swimming 243 velocimetry absolute 249
512 Index

vorticity(continued) wall stress 128, 467, 473 wetting 25

planetary 247, 249 wavelet transform 483 dynamic 288
potential 250, 260 waves
wind tunnel 385, 485
transport equation 227 breaking 158, 187
wine legs 299
transport equation, in a rotating inertial (in a rotating fluid)
frame 249 255 wing flaps 382
transport equation (turbulent Kelvin 257
flow) 455 wave velocity
Y
tube 211, 220 group 240, 256, 262
yield stress fluid 104, 114
phase 188, 256, 261
Young-Dupré’s law 26, 289
W weir (flow over) 160
wake 364 Weissenberg Young-Laplace’s law 23, 100, 190, 303,
laminar 386, 389 effect 112 358
turbulent 460, 465 number 106 Young’s modulus 304

Common questions