Weld Defects and

Discontinuities

Dr.K.Prasad Rao
Professor
Department of Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering
IIT Madras Chennai – 600 036
Weld Joint Discontinuities
• • Misalignment (hi-lo)
 Porosity
Inclusions
Slag • Undercut
 Uniformly
Scattered Wagontracks • Underfill
 Cluster • Concavity or Convexity
 Linear Tungsten
 Piping
• Excessive reinforcement
Spatter
• Improper reinforcement
Arc Craters
• Cracks • Overlap
• Heat-affected zone
• Longitudinal • Burn-through
• Transverse
microstructure alteration
• Crater • Base Plate laminations • Incomplete or Insufficient
• Throat • Size or dimensions
Penetration
• Toe • Incomplete Fusion
• Root
Base Metal Discontinuities • Surface irregularity
• Underbead and
Heat-affected Lamellar tearing – Overlap
zone Laminations and • Arc Strikes
• Hot Delaminations
• Cold or delayed Laps and Seams
Cracks
• Longitudinal
• Transverse
• Crater
• Throat
• Toe
• Root
• Underbead and Heat-affected zone
• Hot
• Cold or delayed
 Longitudinal Crack
• Definition: A crack running in the direction of the weld
axis. May be found in the weld or base metal.
• Cause: Preheat or fast cooling problem. Also caused by
shrinkage stresses in high constraint areas.
• Prevention: Weld toward areas of less constraint. Also
preheat to even out the cooling rates.
• Repair: Remove and reweld
 Transverse Crack
• Definition: A crack running into or inside a weld,
transverse to the weld axis direction.
• Cause: Weld metal hardness problem

• Prevention:

• Repair:
 Crater Crack
• Definition: A crack, generally in the shape of an “X”
which is found in a crater. Crater cracks are hot cracks.
• Cause: The center of the weld pool becomes solid before
the outside of the weld pool, pulling the center apart
during cooling
• Prevention: Use crater fill, fill the crater at weld
termination and/or preheat to even out the cooling of the
puddle
• Repair:
 Throat Crack
• Definition: A longitudinal crack located in the weld throat
area.
• Cause: Transverse Stresses, probably from shrinkage.
Indicates inadequate filler metal selection or welding
procedure. May be due to crater crack propagation.
• Prevention: Correct initial cause. Increasing preheat may
prevent it. be sure not to leave a crater. Use a more ductile
filler material.
• Repair: Remove and reweld using appropriate procedure.
Be sure to correct initial problem first.
 Toe Crack
• Definition: A crack in the base metal beginning at the
toe of the weld
• Cause: Transverse shrinkage stresses. Indicates a HAZ
brittleness problem.
• Prevention: Increase preheat if possible, or use a more
ductile filler material.
• Repair:
 Root Crack
• Definition: A crack in the weld at the weld root.

• Cause: Transverse shrinkage stresses. Same as a throat

crack.
• Prevention: Same as a throat crack

• Repair:
 Underbead Crack
• Definition: A crack in the unmelted parent metal of the
HAZ.
• Cause: Hydrogen embrittlement

• Prevention: Use Lo/Hi electrodes and/or preheat

• Repair: (only found using NDT). Remove and reweld.

 Hot Crack
• Definition: A crack in the weld that occurs during
solidification.
• Cause: Micro stresses from weld metal shrinkage
pulling apart weld metal as it cools from liquid to solid
temp.
• Prevention: Preheat or use a low tensile filler material.

• Repair: Remove and reweld, correct problem first,

preheat may be necessary, increase weld size.
 Cold Crack
• Definition: A crack that occurs after the metal has
completely solidified
• Cause: Shrinkage, Highly restrained welds,
Discontinuities
• Prevention: Preheat, weld toward areas of less
constraint, use a more ductile weld metal
• Repair: Remove and reweld, correct problem first,
preheat may be necessary.
Repairs to Cracks

• Determine the cause

• Correct the problem
• Take precautions to prevent
reoccurrence
• Generally required to repair
using a smaller electrode
Porosity

• Single Pore
• Uniformly Scattered
• Cluster
• Linear
• Piping
Single Pore

• Separated by at least their own

diameter along the axis of the
weld
SINGLE PORE
Uniformly Scattered
Porosity

• Typically judged by diameter and

proximity to a start or stop
• often caused by low amperage or
short arc gap or an unshielded
weld start
Cluster Porosity

• Typically viewed as a single large

discontinuity
Linear Porosity

• being linear greatly affects the

severity of this discontinuity
Porosity

• preheat will help eliminate

• may need an electrode with more
deoxidizers
• Use run-on/run-off taps
• restart on top of previous weld and
grind off lump
Inclusions

• Slag
• Wagontracks
• Tungsten
 Slag Inclusion
• Definition: Slag entrapped within the weld

• Cause: Low amperage, improper technique, Trying to weld

in an area that is too tight. Slow travel in Vertical
Down
• Prevention: Increase amperage or preheat, grind out
tight areas to gain access to bottom of joint.
• Repair: Remove by grinding. Reweld.
 Tungsten Inclusion
• Definition: A tungsten particle embedded in a weld.
(Typically GTAW only)
• Cause: Tungsten electrode too small, amperage too high,
AC balance on +, Upslope too high, electrode tip not
snipped, electrode dipped into the weld pool or touched
with the fill rod, electrode split.
• Prevention: Eliminate the cause

• Repair: Grind out and reweld

Inclusions

• Fix when you see it. Otherwise

grind out & fix.
SLAG INCLUSION AT CORNER
BETWEEN BACKING BAR & PLATE
PROCESS - FCAW-g
 Incomplete or Insufficient
Penetration
• Definition: When the weld metal does not extend to the
required depth into the joint root

• Cause: Low amperage, low preheat, tight root opening,

fast travel speed, short arc length.

• Prevention: Correct the contributing factor(s).

• Repair: Back gouge and back weld or remove and

reweld.
 Incomplete Fusion

• Definition: Where weld metal does not form a cohesive

bond with the base metal.
• Cause: Low amperage, steep electrode angles, fast travel
speed, short arc gap, lack of preheat, electrode too small,
unclean base metal, arc off seam.
• Prevention: Eliminate the potential causes.

• Repair: remove and reweld, being careful to completely

remove the defective area. This is sometimes extremely
difficult to find.
 Undercut
• Definition: A groove cut at the
toe of the weld and left
unfilled.

• Cause: High amperage, electrode

angle, long arc length, rust
• Prevention: Set machine on scrap metal. Clean metal
before welding.
• Repair: Weld with smaller electrode, sometimes must be
low hydrogen with preheat. Sometimes must gouge first.
Undercut
(cont......)

Undercut typically has an allowable

limit. Different codes and standards
vary greatly in the allowable amount.
Plate - the lesser of 1/32” or 5% (typ.)
ODOT - 0.010” ( <1/64”)
 Reinforcement
The amount of a groove weld which extends beyond the
surface of the plate

• Excessive Face Reinforcement

• Insufficient
• Improper
contour

Root Reinforcement
 Excessive Reinforcement
• Definition: Specifically defined by the standard.
Typically, Reinforcement should be flush to 1/16”(pipe)
or flush to 1/8” (plate or structural shapes).

• Cause: Travel speed too slow, amperage too low

• Prevention: Set amperage and travel speed on scrap

plate.
• Repair: Remove excessive reinforcement and feather the
weld toes to a smooth transition to the base plate.
 Insufficient Reinforcement
• Definition: Specifically defined by the standard.
Typically, Underfill may be up to 5% of metal thickness
not to exceed 1/32” as long as the thickness is made up in
the opposite reinforcement. Not applied to fillet welds.
• Cause: On root reinforcement - Too little filler metal
will cause thinning of the filler metal. In OH position,
too hot or too wide will cause drooping of the open root
puddle.
• Prevention: Use proper welding technique. Use backing
or consumable inserts. Use back weld or backing.
• Repair: Possibly simply increase the face reinforcement.
If backwelding is not possible, must remove and reweld.
 Improper Weld Contour
• Definition: When the weld exhibits less than a 135 0
transition angle at the weld toe. 1350

• Cause: Poor welding technique

• Prevention: Use proper techniques. A weave or whip

motion can often eliminate the problem.
• Repair: The weld face must be feathered into the base
plate.
 Overlap

• Definition: When the face of the weld extends beyond

the toe of the weld
• Cause: Improper welding technique. Typically,
electrode angles and travel speed.
• Prevention: Overlap is a contour problem. Proper
welding technique will prevent this problem.
• Repair: Overlap must be removed to blend smoothly
into the base metal. Be careful of deep grind marks that
run transverse to the load. Also be careful of fusion
discontinuities hidden by grinding. Use NDT to be sure.
 Overlap
Overlap is measured with
a square edge such as a
6” rule. No amount of
overlap is typically
allowed.
 Burn-through (non-standard)

• Definition: When an undesirable open hole has been

completely melted through the base metal. The hole may or
may not be left open.
• Cause: Excessive heat input.

• Prevention: Reduce heat input by increasing travel speed,

use of a heat sink, or by reducing welding parameters.
• Repair: Will be defined by standards. Filling may suffice.
Otherwise, removal and rewelding may be required. Some
standards may require special filler metal and/or PWHT.
 Arc Strike

• Definition: A localized coalescence outside the weld zone.

• Cause: Carelessness
• Prevention: In difficult areas, adjacent areas can be
protected using fire blankets.
• Repair: Where applicable, arc strikes must be sanded
smooth and tested for cracks. If found, they must be remove
and repaired using a qualified repair procedure and
inspected as any other weld.
 Spatter

• Definition: Small particles of weld metal expelled from the

welding operation which adhere to the base metal surface.
• Cause: Long arc length, severe electrode angles, high
amperages.
• Prevention: Correct the cause. Base metal can be protected
with coverings or hi-temp paints.
• Repair: Remove by grinding or sanding. Sometimes must be
tested as if it were a weld.
 Arc Craters

• Definition: A depression left at the termination of the weld

where the weld pool is left unfilled.
• Cause: Improper weld termination techniques

• Prevention:

• Repair: If no cracks exist, simply fill in the crater. Generally

welding from beyond the crater back into the crater.
Base Metal Discontinuities

• Lamellar tearing
• Laminations and Delaminations
• Laps and Seams
 Laminations

•Base Metal Discontinuity

•May require repair prior to welding
•Formed during the milling process
Lamination effects can be reduced by joint design:
Delaminations
 Laps and Seams

A mill-induced discontinuity in which results from a lump of metal

being squeezed over into the surface of the material.
If beyond acceptable limits, must be removed and repaired or
discarded.
Heat-affected zone
microstructure alteration

• grain refinement
• grain growth
• hardened areas
• softened areas
• precipitate susceptible areas.