Spring water tapping

by Dr Ing. Kinfe Kassa

 Introduction
A spring defined

 defined as a place where a natural outflow of groundwater

occurs

 is found at mountainous or hilly terrain

 Spring water is usually fed from a sand or gravel water-

bearing aquifer, or a water flow through fissured rock.

 may emerge either in the open as a spring, or invisibly as an

outflow into a river, stream, lake or the sea
 Introduction

proper feasibility study, application of some basic design

principles and vigilance in protecting the spring and its
catchment area will usually lead to improvements in the
quantity, quality and sustainability of many springs.
 Types of spring sources

Springs are classified according to the conditions under which

water flows to them

Spring

Artesian Gravity

Depression Overflow Fissure Depression Overflow

 • Gravity springs occur in unconfined
aquifers. Where the ground surface dips
below the water table, any such depression
will be filled with water

• Gravity depression springs usually have a

small yield and a further reduction occurs
when dry season conditions

Fig: Gravity depression spring Gravity overflow springs

• A larger and less variable yield from gravity
springs is obtained where an outcrop of
impervious soil, such as a solid or clay fault
zone, prevents the downward flow of the
groundwater and forces it up to the surface.

• Even so, an appreciable fluctuation of the

discharge may occur and in periods of
drought some springs may cease to flow
completely.

Fig: Gravity overflow spring

Artesian depression spring
• Artesian groundwater is prevented from rising to its free
water table level by the presence of an overlaying
impervious layer.
• Artesian springs are the sites where the groundwater
comes to the surface under pressure.

Artesian depression springs

are similar in appearance to
gravity depression springs.
 Artesian fissure spring
• the water emerges under pressure, this time through a fissure
in the impervious overburden.
• Fissure springs exist in many countries and are widely used for
community water supplies.
 Artesian overflow spring
• often have a large recharge area,
• The water is forced out under pressure;
• the discharge is often considerable and shows little or no seasonal
fluctuation.
• Suitable for community water supply purposes.
• Artesian springs have the advantage that the impervious cover protects
the water in the aquifer against contamination.
• The water is usually bacteriologically safe.
 GROUNDWATER
More Kinds of Springs

a spring forming a river or lake a spring gushing out

from cracks
 GROUNDWATER

springs from springs from faults

limestone aquifers or fractures etc.

spring from water

forced up
encountering a less
or non permeable
rock
 A spring related to a perched water table
(this arises when there is groundwater in the zone of
aeration above the main or regional water table)
 Feasibility study
• The feasibility study of a spring source aims to investigate the
– quantity and quality of the water,
– its reliability, current and future uses,
– socio-cultural acceptability for a domestic water supply,
– possible environmental impacts.

• A representative feasibility study is therefore best done

together with a team of community members.
 Feasibility study

1. Rapid environmental assessment

2. The spring water quantity

3. The spring water quality

4. Estimating the spring yield

 Rapid environmental assessment

• It is the first step.

• To identify possible potential environmental impact as a
consequences of developing a spring. Such as
– risks of landslides,
– erosion,
– contamination of the source,
– the flow direction of surface run-off above the spring,
– human activities and water uses (e.g. farming and grazing )
in the catchment area,
– the type of plants growing in the catchment or recharge
area.
• Eucalyptus tree with draws a lot of water so it has to be
removed
• If people are living the area there is a possibility of
contamination- so relocation required

Spring water quality

• In general, spring water is of good quality
• Variation of water temperature during the day and
colouration of water shortly after rains are indications of a
poor quality spring source. Needs treatment and control of
the recharge area
• Pathogenic contamination is unlikely if the following criteria
are met the thickness of the soil layer, the type of soil and the
velocity of infiltration of the surface water
 The spring water quantity (yield)
• Yield is studied in terms of flow rate and consistency.
• If the ratio between the highest yield in the rainy season and the
yield in the dry season is below 20, then the spring has an
acceptable consistency and can be regarded as a reliable source
in both wet and dry seasons.
• Take into account that the highest and the lowest yield do not
occur at the beginning of the rainy season and at the end of the
dry season but typically a couple of weeks (or even months) later,
depending on the soil characteristics.
• A proper feasibility study of a spring source should last for at least
one year.
– the maximum, minimum and estimated average flow
• A participatory study increases the people’s sense of ownership
and the appreciation for proper water management
 The spring water quantity (yield)

• Under time constraints (if there is no time), critical study

periods are used to give a rapid estimation of the yield.

– The best time to use is the transition period of dry and

rainy seasons when the flow is minimal.

– The ”critical” study should extend for about four months

into the rainy season to identify the peak yield.
 Estimating spring yield
• A spring yield is measured in litres per second (l/s).
• The measurement process involves two selected trained villagers who
measure the discharge from the spring over the study period.
1. Put a pipe in a temporary soil dam to be able to measure the flow
2. One collects water with known volume container and the other follows
the time of fill
3. Four readings are taken during the day and day averages are
calculated, in l/s.
4. This is repeated once every week for the measuring period. In this
way, the minimum and maximum yields are determined.
• The designer needs to study the flow characteristics of any collection
chambers or pipes and ensure that each spring outlet flows freely.
• Spring yield vary from a few lit/minute to several thousands lit/per
minute.
 Design and construction

The design and construction of a spring-fed water supply for a

specific location must
(i) be appropriate for the specific local conditions,
(ii) prevent pathogenic contamination and pollution,
(iii) be reliable in terms of quantity, and
(iv) have no adverse environmental consequences.
• gravity depression springs is not be recommended for
community water supplies because of their small yield and the
difficulty of providing adequate sanitary protection.
• gravity depression springs indicates shallow groundwater that
may be withdrawn using drains or dug wells. These can be
covered and protected against contamination.
 Design
The major components in the design of a spring-source water
supply system include
• the actual spring water collection area – where water from the
aquifer is actually being channeled to a single discharge point
• the supply pipe, the collection chamber, and the outlet to a
storage tank
 The collection area is a critical part and
involves the tapping of water from the
aquifer.
Two methods: by dry stone masonry
and by perforated pipes

• Two supply pipes are used in the

collection area to channel the drain water
to the collection chamber.
• The first pipe channels all the discharge
during times of low yield.
• The second ensures that no excess water
backing up in the collection area during
maximum yields, as this could obstruct
the natural flow in the aquifer and create
back pressure.
 Tapping of gravity springs

• The spring collection area is the heart of a water supply system

that uses a spring source.

• Once constructed and backfilled, access to collection area, for

instance to correct errors, is very cumbersome. Thus, care and
experience is needed for proper spring construction.

• Figure below illustrates a detailed view of a spring collection

area design.
Fig:
Detailed
design of
spring
collection
area
• The major parts of the construction at the spring collection area
are
– the permeable construction
– and the barrage (dam)

• The permeable construction is a package of filter material

made of rocks, stones and gravel that allows water to drain
into the supply pipes. Perforated pipes surrounded by a
gravel filter package are sometimes used instead of dry
stone masonry but the latter is preferable.
• The barrage can be a concrete dam or a stone masonry
construction controlling the drain and directing water into
the supply pipes. It also carries the load of the backfilling.
• The floor of the permeable construction and the
perforated pipes slopes at about 2%.
• Construction of the collection chamber (Spring box) should take
into consideration that it acts as a sedimentation tank as well. Thus,
access must be provided for regular cleaning.
• Construction starts with excavation from where the spring emerges
to the surface.
• done carefully done to avoid disturbing the natural flow of water
from the spring.
• regular drainage during the digging should be there. Decreasing
flow during the digging is an indication of different springs from
different directions. In such a case, digging should be extended to
catch all the springs (Fig. below)
 Tapping artesian springs

• Externally, artesian depression springs are quite similar to

gravity depression springs but their yield is greater and less
fluctuating, as the water under pressure.

Fig:
Excavation
and
construction
of artesian
springs is
shown below
 Artesian depression springs
• To tap water from an artesian depression spring, a wall
extending a little above the maximum level to which the water
rises under static conditions should surround the seepage area.
For sanitary protection the spring collection area or spring
“eye” should be covered (Fig. below)
• For artesian depression springs that cover a large area, a
system of drains is commonly used to channel the collected
water into a storage chamber.

• To protect the water quality, the recharge area should be

cleared and kept clear of all debris.

• For granular top layers, it may be necessary to cover the

recharge area with layers of graded gravel to trap fine
suspended solids.
 Fissure springs
• Fissure springs are similar to artesian depression springs, but
the water rises from a single opening, so that the intake works
can be small (Fig. below).
• To increase in capacity remove obstacles from the mouth of the
spring or by enlarge the outflow opening (Fig. next slide).
• The localised outflow of water from the spring makes sanitary
protection easy to arrange.
• Where the outflow of water occurs at only one point, the
spring water can be tapped in a small intake construction.

• For a large lateral spring, a retaining wall should be

constructed over its full width, with the borders extending
into the overlying impervious layers and the base of the wall
reaching into the bedrock.
• In this way, leakage of water and any risks of erosion and
collapse are avoided.
 Protection of catchment and direct spring surroundings
Catchment protection
• Protection of the catchment has two main objectives:
– (i) to improve the recharge of the aquifer, and
– (ii) to prevent contamination of the groundwater.
• Catchment protection therefore involves
– planning, implementation and motivation to refrain
• from or substantially reduce human and economic activities
that affects the quality and quantity of the water from the
spring.
• Production of fodder grass and crops with out chemicals are
permitted, but the feeding of animals should be done outside the
catchment area.
• Protection rules and other decisions are preferably made by the
local (user) communities after analysing the situation
 Protection of catchment and direct spring surroundings

• Although plants stabilise the soil and reduce erosion, they

should be selected to avoid those that will compete or
pollute for water (e.g. eucalyptus).

• Other associated catchment protection problems theat

cause conflict in the community are:

– land ownership, (some believe it is fertile)

– change of habits and traditional beliefs (some link it to

their ancestors’ origins, and regard it as sacred)
 Protection of the spring surrounding

• The immediate area around the spring (at least with a 50 m

radius) must be fenced with barbed wire or an alternative
barrier decided by the community.

• In this area no human activities such as farming, grazing and

hunting are allowed.

• Protection activities here include soil conservation, erosion

control, drainage work and planting of trees, shrubs and
grasses.
Thank you