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AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS

In an axial flow compressor, the flow proceeds throughout the compression in a direction parallel to
the axis of the machine.
In its simplest form, it consists of a number of rotating blade rows fixed to a rotating drum. The drum
rotates inside an air tight casing. The fixed stator blade rows are attached to the casing as shown in
the Figure. The blades are made of aerofoil section to reduce the loss caused by turbulence and
boundary separation. The static blades also redirect the air into an angle suitable for entry to the
succeeding set of moving blades.

Fig.1 Axial Flow Compressor

The mechanical energy is provided to the rotating shaft, which rotates the drum. The air enters from
the left side of the compressor. As the drum rotates, the air flows through the alternatively arranged
stator and rotor. A row of moving blades with a succeeding set of stationary blades is called a stage
of axial flow compressor. Generally, the maximum pressure ratio achieved in a stage of an axial
compressor is about 1.12 to 1.2, hence to obtain pressure ratio of 12, attainable by an axial
compressor, 15 to 20 stages are required.
The rotor as well as the stator blade channels are of diverging type (i.e., area increases from inlet to
outlet). As the air flows from one set of stator and rotor to another, it gets compressed. Thus
successive compression of the air, in all the sets of stator and rotor, the air is delivered at a high
pressure at the outlet point.
The blades are so designed that the losses due to shock and turbulence are prevented and blades are
free from stalling troubles. (The blades are set to be stalled when the air stream fails to follow the
blade contour).
The angular area is usually reduced from inlet to outlet of the compressor to keep the flow velocity
constant throughout the compressor. That means Cf1 = Cf2.
The fixed blades serve the following two purposes (i) convert a part of the KE of the fluid into
pressure energy. This conversion is achieved by deceleration process carried out in the diverge blade
passages. (ii) Guide and redirect the fluid flow to the next stage without shock.
Working: The work input to the rotor shaft is transferred from the moving blades to the air, thus
accelerating it. The blades are so arranged that the spaces between them form diffuser passages and
so there is a rise in pressure. The air is then further diffused in the stator blades. It is usually arranged
to have an equal temperature rise in the moving and fixed blades and to keep the actual velocity of
air constant throughout the compressor.
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Comparison of Centrifugal and Axial Flow Air Compressors

Centrifugal Compressors Axial Compressors
1 The air enters the impeller axially and leaves The flow is axial throughout.
the vanes radially.
2 It has low manufacturing and running cost It has high manufacturing and running cost
3 It requires low starting torque. High
4 Pressure ratio per stage: High about 4.5:1. Pressure ratio per stage: Low about 1.2:1. This
Thus the unit is compact. is due to the absence of centrifugal action.
5 More compact Less compact
6 Part load operation :Better Part load operation :poor
7 Delivery pressure possible upto 400 bar Upto 20 bar
8 Efficiency (vs) Speed : More flat Less flat
9 It requires large frontal area for a given rate ofIt requires less frontal area for a given rate of
flow flow. It makes the compressor suitable for air
crafts.
10 Isothermal efficiency : about 80% About 85%
11 Centrifugal compressors have a wide range of Axial compressors have a narrow range of
operation between surging and choking limits. operation between surging and choking limits.
The pressure ratio vs mass flow rate curve is
flat.
12 When working with the contaminating fluids, The accumulation of deposits on the surface of
the accumulation of deposits on the surface of flow passages affect adversely the
flow passage do not adversely affect the performance of axial flow compressors.
performance.
13 It is used in steel mills, low pressure Due to higher efficiency and smaller frontal
refrigeration, big central air conditioning area, axial flow compressors are mostly used
plants, fertilizer industry, supercharging in jet engines. Axial flow compressors are also
I.C.engines, gas pumping in long distance pipe preferred in GT power plants and steel mills.
line, petrochemical industries etc. Previously it
is used in jet engines.
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Velocity triangle and workdone of a stage of Axial Flow Compressors

The Fig.2 shows the velocity triangle of axial flow compressor. Assume that air approaches the rotor
blade with an absolute velocity C1 at an absolute angle α1 with axial direction. Combining with the
peripheral velocity Cbl of the blades, the relative velocity of the air will be Cr1 at an angle of β1 with
the axial direction. The axial component of absolute velocity C 1 is Ca. Air after passing from the
diverging passage formed between the rotor blades which does work on air and increase its absolute
velocity, will emerge with relative velocity Cr2 at an angle β2 (β2 less than β1 due to camber of the
blades). Due to diffusion action the relative velocity Cr2 at rotor outlet is less than Cr1. Therefore,
some pressure rise will be accomplished in the rotor. The velocity C r2 in combination with Cbl gives
the absolute velocity C2 at the exit from the rotating blades making an angle of α2 with the axial
direction velocity Ca. Here the axial component of velocity Ca (or flow velocity Cf) is constant
throughout the stage.
The air then passes through the passages formed by the stator blades where its pressure is further
increased due to diffusion action and the air comes out with the velocity C3 (less than C2) inclined at
an angle of α3 with the axial direction. The stator blades are designed such that C 3 = C1 and α3 = α1
so that the air enters the next stage without shock. Note that unlike centrifugal machines, the angles
here are measured from the axial and not from the tangential direction.
α1 and α2 – flow angles measured from the axial direction at entry and exit of the blades (or) the
absolute angle of C1 and C2 with axial direction.
β1 and β2 - blade angles measured from the axial direction at entry and exit of blades.

(β2 < β1 and Cr2 < Cr1)

Fig.2 Axial Flow Compressor Stage

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By use of velocity triangle and cosine theorem

2 − 𝐶2
𝐶𝑟1 𝐶22 − 𝐶12
𝑟2
wst = +
2 2

Here, C1 = C3.
The above equation is graphically represented on h-s diagram shown in Fig.3. The first term
on the right side of the above equation introduces the part of the work supplied by a rotor which is
converted into pressure due to diffusion action in rotor itself.
The second term represents the increment of kinetic energy in rotating cascade that has to be
converted into pressure energy in stationary cascade.
Comparing this equation to the work input to centrifugal compressor, we find that the term
2 2
𝐶𝑏𝑙2 − 𝐶𝑏𝑙1
centrifugal action is missing in axial flow compressors. Due to this reason the pressure ratio
2
per stage in axial flow compressor is much less than that of centrifugal compressor.

Fig.3 Velocity Triangle of an Axial Flow Compressor Stage

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Polytropic efficiency
The concept of isentropic efficiency cannot be used to compare the performance of different
compressors. If there are many compressors which are working at different pressure ratios with
different isentropic efficiencies, then we can compare them with their polytropic efficiency to identify
the better compressor. The work input to compressor is given by
′
Wactual = cp (𝑇02 − 𝑇𝑜1 )
′ −𝑇 )
(𝑇02 𝑜1
= cp (𝑇𝑜2 − 𝑇𝑜1 )
(𝑇𝑜2 − 𝑇𝑜1 )

1 𝑇
= cp η 𝑇𝑜1 . (𝑇𝑜2 − 1)
isen 𝑜1

1 𝑝 (𝛾−1)⁄
= cp η 𝑇𝑜1 . [(𝑝𝑜2 ) 𝛾 − 1] --------- (eq.1)
isen 𝑜1

From above equation, it follows that for the same isentropic efficiency ηisen and pressure ratio po2/po1,
the work input to the compressor is proportional to the initial temperature. This means that in a
compressor of several stages having equal isentropic efficiency, each succeeding stage will have to
do much more work because it has to deal with a fluid of increased temperature delivered to it from
the preceding stage. Obviously, the overall isentropic efficiency which is a very good measure of
overall performance of machine is not suitable to compare two compressors having different pressure
ratio or stage. The concept of polytropic efficiency is used for such a comparison among
compressors.
Polytropic efficiency is nothing but the isentropic efficiency of one small stage of a multistage
compressor. This small stage efficiency is supposed to be constant for all the stages of a compressor
with infinite number of stages.
The Fig.4 is the presentation of a compressor having small stages of infinite number on T-s diagram.
For simplicity, let us assume that the gas is compressed from stagnation pressure p o1 to po2 in four
small stages of equal pressure ratio.

Fig.4 Polytropic Efficiency

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By definition, the overall isentropic efficiency

𝛥𝑇
(𝜂𝑜 )𝑖𝑠𝑒 = (𝛥𝑇 ′𝑜 )𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑜

𝑑𝑇
Isentropic efficiency for one stage is given by 𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑒 = (𝑑𝑇 ′𝑜 )𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑜

Note:
𝛴 (𝑑𝑇𝑜′ ) = 𝛥𝑇 ′ 𝑜

But 𝛴 (𝑑𝑇𝑜 ) > 𝛥𝑇𝑜 Proof is discussed below.

The total actual temperature is given by

(𝛥𝑇𝑜 )𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝛴(𝑑𝑇𝑜)𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝛥𝑇𝑜′ = =
𝜂𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑒

𝜂𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 (𝛥𝑇𝑜 )𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒

Therefore, =
𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝛴(𝑑𝑇𝑜)𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

From Fig.4,
𝛥𝑇𝑜 = (a-1) + (b-a) + (c-b) + (2-c)
𝛴(𝑑𝑇𝑜)𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = (𝑎 − 1) + (𝑏" − 𝑎′ ) + (𝑐 " − 𝑏′ ) + (𝑑 " − 𝑐 ′ )

We know that on T-s diagram, the pressure lines diverge towards the right, hence
(𝑏" − 𝑎′ ) > (𝑏 − 𝑎) , (𝑐 " − 𝑏′ ) > (𝑐 − 𝑏) and (𝑑 " − 𝑐 ′) > (𝑏 − 𝑎)

Therefore,
𝛴(𝑑𝑇𝑜)𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 > (𝛥𝑇𝑜 )𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒

i.e., 𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑒 > 𝜂𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒

Thus the small stage isentropic efficiency, ηise which is constant for all the stages is called the
polytropic efficiency ( ηp) and is greater in magnitude than overall isentropic efficiency of the
machine.
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Work done factor (λ): It is difficult to draw the actual velocity triangles at root, mean and tip because
the contraction of main stream cannot be estimated accurately. The axial velocity at the mean section
is known to be greater than the mean axial velocity and the mean blade section (and most of the span)
will do less work than is estimated from velocity triangles based on the mean axial velocity. The tip
and root sections might be expected to do more work because of the low values of axial velocity at
entry to these sections, but local stalling of the blades will reduce this work. This means that the
average temperature rise across the stage will be less than as estimated from velocity triangles based
on the mean through flow velocity. Howell suggested that the stagnation enthalpy rise across a stage
may be given by
cp. 𝛥𝑇𝑜 = λ. Cbl. (Ca2. tan α2 - Ca1. tan α1), where λ is a work done factor which may be
taken as approximately 0.85.
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Surging and Choking

Surging: Surge is the occurrence of backflow of the gas in a centrifugal or axial compressor. Surge
is bad because it can damage the compressor.

Fig.5

Fig.6
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Fig.7

Fig.8

Surge-Definition and introduction:

There is an unstable limit of operation of centrifugal and axial flow compressors, known as surging.
Surging is caused due to unsteady, periodic and reversal of flow through the compressor when the
compressor has to operate at less mass flow rate than a predetermined value (a value corresponding
to maximum pressure). As the flow is drastically reduced than this predetermined value, this surge
can reach such a magnitude as to endanger the compressor and in many cases mechanical failures
may result. The alternating stresses to which the rotor of the machine is subjected during this irregular
working condition, may damage compressor bearings, rotor blading and seals. Severe surges have
been known to bend the rotor shaft.
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Fig.13
A is the condition when the valve is completely closed.
B is the Maximum pressure ratio point. That is also the maximum efficiency point.
E is the choking point (M=1) i.e, actual maximum flow rate point
F is the condition when the valve is completely opened. It is the theoretical maximum flow rate point.

Explanation of positive and non-positive slopes:

The pressure ratio (vs) mass flow rate curve of a centrifugal or axial flow compressor is shown in
Fig. 13. This curve consists of two portions, portion AB having a positive slope and a portion BF
having a negative slope. A and F are the two extreme points of the curve. Point A corresponds to the
flow condition when the discharge valve is fully closed and point F corresponds to the flow rate
condition when then discharge valve is fully open. In the case of fully closed discharge valve (Point
A), the flow rate is zero and the static pressure developed is termed as shut-off head. In the case of
fully open discharge valve, the mass flow rate is maximum, but the pressure developed is zero. (or
pressure ratio is 1). This means that the compression efficiency is zero.
Opening the valve (point A to point F)
Initially, let the valve is closed and the condition is represented by point A. Now consider the case
when the discharge valve is opened slightly, the delivery of fluid will commence and the static
pressure will rise. As the discharge valve is further opened, the pressure goes on increasing till the
maximum pressure rise represented by point B is attained. This is the point of maximum efficiency
for a given speed; inlet pressure and temperature. With the further opening of the discharge valve
beyond point B, the mass flow rate increases but the pressure rise and efficiency decreases. Finally,
when the pressure ratio approaches unity (Point F), the mass flow rate would be maximum but the
compression efficiency would be zero.
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Closing the valve (Point F to point A)

The opening and closing of the discharge valve can be treated as the external load on the compressor.
This means that the compression has to operate in conjunction with external load on the compressor.
Point F is the maximum mass flow rate condition. Now suppose that external load is increased due to
the partial closing of the discharge valve. This will increase the back pressure in the discharge line.
As a result, the point of operation will shift to point D. The new operating point D is possible and
stable because the compressor will produce more head which will take care of increased back pressure
in the discharge line. With the further increase in external load due to closing of the valve, the
operating point shifts say between the region AB. Under this condition of operation, the mass flow
rate will be less than the predetermined value, a value corresponding to point B. The compressor
produces less head and consequently the delivery will not be possible since high pressure would be
existing in the discharge line. This will result momentarily in the reversal of flow. After a lapse of
time, the fluid from the delivery pipe would leave and the back pressure would fall. The compressor
would again start delivering fluid and the cycle would be repeated with instability occurring again.
Thus when the flow through the compressor is less than a predetermined value, a surge or pulsation
begins and the air surges to and fro through the whole compressor instead of giving a steady stream
in one direction. This gives rise to surging and it may damage the compressor.
Choking :
The maximum mass flow rate condition, shown by Point E is called the choking condition.

Fig. 14 Surging and Choking

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Fig.9

Fig.10
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Fig.11

Stalling
Stalling of a stage of axial flow compressor is defined as the aerodynamic stall or the breakaway of
the flow from suction side of the blade aerofoil. The breakaway of the flow from the suction side
may be due to lesser mass flow rate than designed value or due to non-uniformity in the blade profile.
Thus stalling is ahead phenomenon of surging. A multi-stage compressor may operate stable in the
unsurged region with one or more of the stages stalled and the rest of stages unstalled. In other words,
stalling is a local phenomenon whereas surging is a complete system phenomenon.
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