Book 5 Module 11A

CATEGORY B1.1
CABIN CONDITIONING
PRESSURISATION &
OXYGEN SYSTEMS

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Licence By Post © Copyright B1.1 EASA 66 11.4 11.15 ISSUE 06 0815

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AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording,
report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines
as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety
authorities and national governments.
CONTENTS

Page

Air conditioning 1
Un-pressurised aircraft (ram air systems) 2
Pressurised aircraft 4
Mass flow control 7
Cooling 11
Pressurisation 28
Pressurisation control 34
The VC10 system 37
A Boeing system 41
The A320 system 45
The B747 system 45
Cabin sealing 49
Pressurisation systems testing 54
Oxygen systems 58
Boeing 777 mask – example 70
Maintenance 70
Safety precautions 73
Portable oxygen equipment 75
Portable oxygen set and smoke mask 76
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

There are parts of the book that are reasonably complicated so you may have
to read through these more than once, but having said that, you should be
able to understand most of the book after the first read without too much
difficulty.

You should understand the relationship between ‘Cabin Conditioning’ and

‘Pressurisation’ – the clean charge air is forced into the cabin at the correct
temperature and humidity (air conditioning) and pressurisation is achieved by
controlling the rate at which it is allowed to leave the cabin. Air leaving the
cabin also provides ventilation – which is part of air conditioning.

You should be able to describe:

* The different sources of charge air.

* The charge air supply system to the cabin.
* A temperature control method.
* An air distribution system.
* A cabin pressurisation control system – mechanical – electrical
and electronic.
* Emergency and standby methods of pressure control.
* The various methods of cabin sealing.
* The different types of oxygen systems.
* The need for cabin conditioning.
* The need for pressurisation.
* The need for oxygen systems.
* A cabin pressurisation test, fault-finding and rectification.
* Oxygen system testing and fault-finding.

The book on Pneumatics should be studied in conjunction with this book,

though the subject is covered here in sufficient depth to make this book self
standing in terms of cabin conditioning and pressurisation.

Several aircraft systems are described. These are included to help reinforce
information already learnt. The individual details of the systems need not be
committed to memory.
 AIR CONDITIONING

Air Conditioning is the process of maintaining the cabin air in a suitable

condition for human use. Air Conditioning includes the control of Ventilation,
Temperature, Humidification and Filtration.

Ventilation

This is achieved by controlling the rate at which the Charge Air enters the
cabin and the rate at which it is allowed to leave. Charge air is the air pumped
into the cabin, and if allowed to leave at a slower rate than it is pumped in
then the cabin becomes pressurised. The supply system should be able to
supply the charge air at a minimum rate of 0.4lb (0.18 kg) per person per
minute (EASA CS 25) in the event of loss of one source of supply for a period
exceeding 5 minutes. This ensures a minimum oxygen content and ventilation
(not less than 10 cubic feet per minute per person).

Temperature Control

This is achieved by controlling the temperature of the air supply, normally by

varying the proportions of hot and cold air available. Hot air comes from the
compressed air supplied for pressurisation (charge air) and cold air comes
from Ram Air from outside the aircraft. The cabin temperature is maintained
at a selected figure, normally between 60°F to 80°F (15°C to 27°C).

Humidity

The amount of water vapour in cabin air should result in a Relative Humidity
(RH) of between 30% to 40%. A low RH would cause dry throats, dry eyes etc,
whereas a high RH would be uncomfortable for passengers, cause
condensation on cabin windows, bulkheads and the inner surface of the
fuselage skin.

High RH can make for a “sticky” or “close” atmosphere whilst a low RH can
make the temperature seem colder than it really is.

Filtration

Simple filters in the air supply system ensure that the air is free from debris.

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 UNPRESSURISED AIRCRAFT (RAM AIR SYSTEMS)

Ram air systems are normally fitted to smaller aircraft and Ram Air is that air
that comes from outside the aircraft at normal ambient pressure – usually
from a forward facing air scoop.

Small aircraft are usually ventilated by ram air (similar to an automobile),

which may be filtered and heated prior to entering the cabin. The flow may be
assisted by electric fans and ducted around the cabin to emerge via face level
and foot level vents. It is allowed overboard either via gaps in doors, windows
etc (very small aircraft) or via extractor vents in more sophisticated small
aircraft. The biggest problem is heating and this may be achieved by using an
engine exhaust heat exchanger, or a combustion heater.

Exhaust Heat Exchanger (Piston Engine Aircraft) (Figure 1)

The ram air is taken in through a forward facing air duct (fan assisted on the
ground) and passed around a heat exchanger through which passes the hot
piston engine exhaust gases.

After heating, the air passes into the cabin via a chamber through which cold
air
also flows from an intake situated either on the fuselage or on the wing
depending on the installation. Mechanically operated valves are provided to
control the mixing of the hot and cold airflows and so regulate the
temperature.

Fig. 1 HEATER MUFF

QUESTION Can you list any advantages and disadvantages with this type of
heater? (10 mins)

ANSWER Advantages – cheap and efficient.

Disadvantages – will not work when the aircraft is stationary
(unless fan assisted) and presents a major hazard if an internal
leak occurs. This can cause carbon monoxide poisoning and
consequently carbon monoxide detectors are fitted in the cockpit.

-2-
Combustion Heating (Figure 2)

Air for combustion is obtained from a blower or by direct ram air and the fuel
is metered from the aircraft fuel system by a solenoid-operated control valve. A
filter and safety valve are also incorporated in the fuel supply line to the
combustion chamber.

The fuel-air mixture is ignited by a spark plug, the burning gases travelling the
length of the combustion chamber and passing through transfer passages to
an exhaust outlet. Ventilating air from the ram air intake passes through the
outer chamber of the heater and is heated by contact with the outer surfaces
of the combustion chamber.

Blower operation and supply of fuel is normally controlled by a single switch in

the cockpit. Regulation of the cabin temperature is carried out by manual
setting of a mechanically controlled valve situated in the ducting downstream
of the heater.

Fig. 2 UNPRESSURISED AIRCRAFT COMBUSTION

HEATER SYSTEM

Gas Turbine Exhaust Heat Exchanger

On some turboprop aircraft air may be heated by an exhaust heat exchanger

in the jet efflux. Some of the jet efflux is ducted to a surface heat exchanger
which has ram air ducted around the exchanger and then into the cabin.

The efflux air is ducted back into the jet pipe whilst the (clean, hot) ram air is
ducted into the cabin.

-3-
QUESTION Why do you think the jet engine exhaust gas heat exchanger is not
fitted to pure jet engines? (5 mins)

ANSWER The turbo prop engine relies on the propeller for about 90% of its
propulsive efficiency. The pure jet engine relies 100% on the
exhaust gases. So they should not be disturbed.

PRESSURISED AIRCRAFT

Simplified System

Figure 3 shows an air supply system for a pressurised aircraft and all the
necessary valves for pressurisation. It contains all the components necessary
for the pressurisation and air conditioning of an aircraft but in a simplified
and understandable form.

Fig. 3 SIMPLIFIED PRESSURISATION

& AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

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Whilst studying the text, follow the system, understand how it works and note
the components using the legend below.

Legend for Figure 3

1 AIR SUPPLY (CHARGE AIR)

2 HOT AIR TO DEMIST AND ANTI-ICING SYSTEMS
3 ONE WAY VALVE (NON RETURN VALVE)
4 FILTER (NOT FITTED TO SOME AIRCRAFT)
5 ELECTRICALLY OPERATED SHUT-OFF VALVE
6 MASS AIRFLOW CONTROL
7 CATALYTIC OZONE CONVERTER (NOT FITTED TO SOME AIRCRAFT)
8 ELECTRICALLY OPERATED TEMPERATURE CONTROL VALVE (INPUTS
FROM TEMPERATURE SENSING BRIDGE OR MANUAL CONTROL)
9 PRECOOLER
10 COLD AIR UNIT OR AIR CYCLE MACHINE
11 INTERCOOLER
12 MIXING CHAMBER
13 DUCT PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
14 WATER EXTRACTOR
15 HUMIDIFIER
16 NON-RETURN VALVE
17 DUCT THERMOSTAT
18 HOT AIR TO WINDSCREEN DEMIST
19 DOOR SEAL SYSTEM PRESSURE TEST CONNECTION (IF FITTED)
20 DOOR SEAL CONTROL VALVE (IF FITTED)
21 INFLATABLE DOOR SEAL (IF FITTED)
22 COLD AIR TO PASSENGER AND CREW FRESH AIR LOUVRES
23 STATIC PRESSURE SENSOR
24 CABIN PRESSURE SENSOR
25 CABIN PRESSURE CONTROLLER
26 DISCHARGE OR OUTFLOW VALVE
27 EMERGENCY CABIN INWARD AND OUTWARD PRESSURE RELIEF VALVES
28 MANUAL DUMP VALVE
29 CABIN PRESSURE TEST POINT
30 CABIN GROUND PRESSURISATION CONNECTION

The system in figure 3 shows a pressurisation and air conditioning system

loosely based on the Hawker Harrier system. It has been chosen because of its
simplicity and because it incorporates much of the basic systems/components
and principles used on most of the world’s civil aircraft.

You should be able to commit the details of the drawing to memory.

Once we have completed all the components in the system we will look at some
actual passenger aircraft systems.

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The air supply (charge air) can be from a jet engine bleed (compressor stage) –
which is common, or from an engine driven compressor or blower. The
compression of the air is adiabatic which means the air gets hot during
compression, so it needs cooling before it is allowed to enter the cabin. This
can be achieved by Air Cycle Cooling systems or by Vapour Cycle Cooling
systems.

If additional heating is needed it can be by air compression (the VC10), ie

increasing the pressure in the air supply ducts by using a restrictor valve and
hence causing the temperature to rise. In some aircraft electrical heater
elements are used, though these are not common.

Air Supply (Charge Air)

Charge air is obtained in one of two ways:

(a) From an engine driven compressor or blower driven by the engine

auxiliary gearbox. Output temperature about 200°C.
(b) Tapping air directly from the compressor of the jet engine - also at
about the same temperature. This is the most common method.
On many engines there are two (and sometimes more) tappings,
one at about the 8th stage and the other about the 13th stage. The
supply from the higher stage is modulated (reduced) at higher
engine rpm.

On multi engined aircraft the air conditioning systems (from the supply to the
cabin) are usually duplicated or triplicated and a supply is taken from each
engine and from the APU. This means, for example, that on a four engined
aircraft there is a total of 5 supplies (not including any ground cart
connections) to the air conditioning packs.

Non-Return Valves

Fitted in various parts of the system to hold pressure should the system fail
up-stream of the valve.

Solenoid Operated Supply Shut-Off Valve

Fitted to allow the pilot to shut the system off, eg in the event of an engine fire.
Automatic in operation when the fire handle is pulled (sets off the fire bottles).

-6-
Silencer

Noise from blowers and compressors is such that on some aircraft silencers
are fitted.

MASS FLOW CONTROL

The rate of air entering the cabin is kept reasonably constant by some form of
mass flow control. Thus with varying engine/compressor speed the rate of
supply to the cabin is kept constant. Can be achieved by the use of a Spill
Valve when the air is being supplied by an engine driven compressor, and a
Variable Orifice type valve for systems where the charge air is tapped from the
engine compressor itself.

The spilling of unwanted air will reduce the compressor load and therefore the
load on the engine, thus saving fuel.

However, if the supply of air is tapped directly from the compressor section of
the jet engine, spilled air would represent a loss from the engine. Thus
unwanted air is prevented from leaving the engine by the use of a variable flow
type control valve situated in the ducting. This means that only the mass flow
required at any one time would be tapped from the engine.

Variable Orifice Type Valve (Figures 4 and 6)

The flow control valve embodies a variable orifice, the outlet area of which is
set by the pressure of the airflow entering the valve. The valve consists of a
body housing a combined spring-loaded piston and an acorn-shaped valve
assembly. The latter aligns with an orifice plate in the outlet connection.

Fig. 4 VARIABLE ORIFICE VALVE

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With the aircraft engine stationary and the air supply zero, the piston is
pushed to its limit of its travel by the spring (to the right in the drawing). In
this position, the annular space between the acorn valve and the orifice plate
is at a maximum. When the aircraft engine starts and the air starts to flow,
system pressure starts to build up which overcomes the spring to move the
acorn valve to the left. The outlet area reduces and the airflow progressively
reduces. The faster the air flows the more the valve closes – thus keeping the
air supply reasonably constant to the cabin.

With most modern aircraft the modulation of the air supply from the jet engine
compressor casing is via electrically operated valves signalled by pressure
sensors in the duct and controlled by computers (see the book in this series
entitled Pneumatics). Figure 4 shows a simple mechanical valve used on some
smaller aircraft and for the purpose of these notes is shown only to represent
the principle of mass flow control for systems employing engine tapings.

Flow Control Spill Valve (figures 5 and 7)

Used on systems that employ engine driven compressors/engine driven

blowers.

The flow controller controls the operation of the spill valve when ‘Pressurised
Flight’ and/or ‘Automatic’ airflow control is selected on the flight-deck.

Fig. 5 SPILL VALVE SYSTEM

-8-
Compensation for change in air density (which is related to altitude) is
provided by the absolute capsule stack. The stack will change length with a
change in altitude (on ascent it will expand, on descent it will contract) and
positions contact Y closer to one or other of the contacts X or Z, so biasing the
system to allow for density change.

The contacts X and Z are moved by the diaphragm. This moves in response to
air pressures within the venturi. An increase in air velocity will cause a greater
suction on the right of the diaphragm and cause it to move to the right.

This combination of density and velocity signals provides mass airflow

information to open/close contacts X/Z and Y. This will send an electrical
signal to the phase reversing contactor to cause the spill valve actuator to open
more or close more depending on the phase of the signal.

If the mass flow controller fails, the airflow switch can be used by the flight
crew to ‘inch’ the spill valve actuator towards an ‘increase air’ or ‘decrease air’
position. The switch is spring loaded to return to OFF from these two
positions.

As a general overview the following two drawings show the basics of the two
mass flow control systems.

Fig. 6 RESTRICTIVE TYPE FLOW CONTROL FOR A

JET ENGINE TAPPING

-9-
 Fig. 7 SPILL VALVE SYSTEM FOR AN ENGINE
DRIVEN COMPRESSOR

Catalytic Converter (not shown in figure 3)

Fitted in the supply ducting from the jet engine (on the BAe146 - those fitted
with this option]. It is between the engine tapping and the isolation/pressure-
reducing valve. It removes contaminates/odours from the air supply by a
reaction process between the metal plates and the hot air – enhancing
passenger comfort.

The converter consists of special metal elements fitted within a metal container
covered with a fireproof material. It is connected into the ducting using ‘V’
clamps and seals.

Fig. 8 CATALYTIC OZONE CONVERTER

Temperature Control

This may be manually or automatically controlled (on many aircraft by

computers and on large aircraft the cabin is split into zones and each zone is
temperature controlled separately).

- 10 -
The desired temperature is achieved by allowing a certain quantity of hot air
(say at 200°C) to go direct to the mixing chamber while the rest of the air goes
via the cooling system which may cool it to as low as –20°C (on Concorde but
with most aircraft it is about 0°C).

When set to ‘automatic’ the valve is controlled either by a bridge system or by

a computer. Sensors are placed in the system and in the cabin to send signals
to the bridge system/computer. The signal from the temperature control
system will control the valve so that a certain amount of hot air is sent to the
mixing unit to be mixed with a certain amount of cold air ensuring the
temperature of the air to the cabin is ‘just right’.

COOLING

This is a major part of the pressurisation system. Cooling of the charge air
may be achieved using either an Air Cycle System or a Vapour Cycle System.

QUESTION What system is your aircraft fitted with? (1 minute)

ANSWER Of course, I don’t know what system your aircraft has but some
examples are:

AIR CYCLE SYSTEM VAPOUR CYCLE

Concorde VC10
Boeing
Airbus

Fig. 9 COOLING

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Vapour Cycle Cooling (Figure 10)

The principle of vapour cycle cooling is based on the ability of a refrigerant to

absorb heat in the process of changing state from a liquid to a gas. The main
components of a typical system are a liquid receiver, a thermostatic expansion
valve, an evaporator, a sensing bulb, a turbo-compressor, a condenser and a
condenser fan. The function of the fan is to induce air through the condenser
when the cooling system is used during ground operations. Figure 10
illustrates a typical system, and the components are generally mounted
together to form a refrigeration pack.

Fig. 10 VAPOUR CYCLE COOLING SYSTEM

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The liquid receiver provides storage for the refrigerant, which passes from the
receiver to the thermostatically controlled expansion valve and is then released
into the evaporator. The hot charge air passes across the evaporator, giving up
its heat to the liquid refrigerant (which boils) and passes to the cabin at a
much lower temperature. The vaporised refrigerant is drawn into the
compressor of the coupled turbine (in this case driven by a tapping from the
pneumatic system). In some systems it may be an electrically driven
compressor. The gas leaves the compressor at high pressure and high
temperature and passes through the matrix assembly of the condenser in
which it is cooled by ram air. The refrigerant gas condenses into a liquid at
high pressure and is pumped back into the receiver to continue the
refrigeration cycle.

The sensing bulb senses the temperature of the evaporator and modulates the
position of the expansion control valve. If the evaporator is too hot it will cause
the expansion valve to open more and allow more (cold) refrigerant through. If
it is running too cool then the expansion valve will close a little so reducing the
flow of the refrigerant.

The vapour cycle system is fully automatic in operation with maintenance

confined to inspections, component replacements and topping up with
refrigerant (ensuring that the liquid is air free).

Note that in the system shown the air supply is hot and temperature control is
achieved by the use of the temperature control valve. This ducts more or less
hot air directly into the cabin supply mixing with the cold air from the
evaporator, This mixing of the hot and the cold air produces an air
temperature that is “just right”.

It is also interesting to note that the air that passes through the evaporator
has lost some of its heat already when passing through the turbine – it
expands across the turbine and loses heat.

Air Cycle Cooling (Bootstrap System) (Figure 11)

There are several different systems employing an Air Cycle Machine (ACM) or
Cold Air Unit (CAU). The most usual configuration is the Bootstrap System but
other systems exist such as the Brake Turbine and Turbo Fan systems. We
shall concentrate on the Bootstrap with a brief mention of the Brake Turbine.
In all cases the cold air unit (the Americans call it an air cycle machine) is the
heart of the system.

The cold air unit consists of a turbine driving a centrifugal compressor and
operates in conjunction with a secondary heat exchanger (inter-cooler) fitted
between the compressor and the turbine.

- 13 -
The charge air from the pre-cooler enters the unit at the compressor inlet, is
compressed (with a temperature increase) and passed to the inter-cooler where
its temperature is reduced before it passes into the turbine which it drives;
more heat is extracted as the air expands and drives the turbine and the
cooled air passes out of the unit into the ducting to the cabin.

Only a limited amount of heat can be extracted from the air by direct heat
exchange (pre-cooler and inter-cooler) and the heat imparted to the air by
compression raises its temperature to a level where this heat exchange in the
intercooler is more efficient. Further reduction of temperature is obtained
across the turbine to produce a temperature close to zero. The correct
temperature for the cabin is obtained by mixing the correct ratios of hot and
cold air using the temperature control valve.

Fig. 11 THE BOOTSTRAP SYSTEM

QUESTION How is ram air provided? (2 mins)

ANSWER When the aircraft is flying it is provided by ram effect. When it is

stationary, air is drawn through the coolers by fans which can be
driven by:

a) Air from an engine tapping.

b) The cold air unit.
c) Electric motors – rare.

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The Brake Turbine Air Cycle System (Figure 12)

Charge air from the pre-cooler enters the CAU to rotate the turbine. The
charge air expands across the turbine and the pressure and temperature drop.
The cold air from the turbine outlet enters the cabin via the mixing chamber.
The air from the compressor is dumped overboard and may be used to induce
an airflow through the pre-cooler (for ground running).

Fig. 12 THE BRAKE TURBINE

The compressor is nothing more than a brake (air brake) – hence the name
Brake Turbine.

The Turbo Fan system is similar to the above but the pre-cooler is fitted in
front of the compressor so when it is running it draws ram air across the pre-
cooler.

It is interesting to note that of all the systems the bootstrap system is the most
efficient.

QUESTION Were does the heat in the bootstrap system go? (5 mins)

ANSWER Heat can only be transferred, it cannot be ‘destroyed’. The only

heat leaving the system is via the heat exchangers. The cold air
unit increases the efficiency of the inter-cooler (so much so that
temperatures well below freezing can be obtained at the outlet of
the turbine).

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The Cold Air Unit (Figure 13)

The cold air unit consists of an inward flow turbine driving a centrifugal
compressor on a common shaft. The assembly is contained in two casings, the
turbine volute casing and the compressor volute casing. These are clamped
together by a two-piece clamping ring and enclose a bearing housing. Two ball
bearing races sit in the bearing housing and support the rotor shaft. The
turbine and compressor wheels are similar, each consisting of an aluminium
alloy wheel casting. The turbine wheel rotates within a nozzle ring and the
compressor wheel within a diffuser ring.

Rotational speeds are high and the unit has it's own oil sump, filter and
dipstick.

Fig. 13 COLD AIR UNIT

Pre-Cooler and Intercooler

These are air to air surface heat exchangers which transfer heat from one
medium (charge air) to another (ram air). In the turbo-compressor or bootstrap
layout the two heat exchangers can be fitted as a single unit (figure 14).

- 16 -
 Fig. 14 SURFACE HEAT EXCHANGER

The pre-cooler reduces the charge air temperature to a reasonable level and
also ensures more efficient operation of the cold air unit by reducing the
temperature loads on the unit, while the intercooler is necessary to reduce the
temperature of the air from compressor to turbine of the cold air unit.

Duct Pressure Relief Valve

Operates automatically if excessive duct pressure is generated. Are normally

simple spring loaded flap valves that relieve pressure to atmosphere.

Water Extractor (Figure 15)

This removes excess moisture in the air supply before it reaches the cabin.
Because the air has been cooled it has less ability to hold moisture and if
something was not done about it the air would enter the cabin with a high
relative humidity, possibly showing up as a mist in the air supply.

This would make the cabin atmosphere uncomfortable.

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The cooled air enters the extractor at the inlet end and passes through a
coalescing chamber made of fabric/fine-wire mesh/coarse-wire mesh. At the
outlet end it passes through a combined swirl and collecting chamber. A relief
valve permits a straight-through flow if the coalescer becomes blocked. In
operation, the moisture in the charge air is caused to coalesce (come together)
in the coalescer into small water droplets. These water droplets are separated
from the air by the centrifugal force created by the swirling action of the air -
by the action of the swirl vanes (ring vanes).

In some extractors the water droplets are separated out by the action of
impingement. This uses many vertical aluminium tubes fitted in the unit after
the coalescer which cause the water droplets to impinge on them and run
down to be collected at the bottom.

Some water extractors work on the principle of condensation where the charge
air is passed through a condenser where the air passes over cold metal
surfaces and the moisture condenses out.

The water collects at the bottom of the unit and passes through holes in the
wall at the outlet end where it runs down into a sump between the casings and
out through drain holes into a pipe which discharges overboard below the
fuselage.

On some aircraft this water may be organised to drip onto a surface heat
exchanger – thus increasing its efficiency.

The water extractor is always “on-line”. If the charge air has excess moisture
then it will be extracted. If it does not have excess moisture then non will be
extracted.

Fig. 15 WATER EXTRACTOR

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Maintenance entails, amongst other things, a check to see if the drain holes
are clear and the renewal/cleaning of the coalescer bag. It acts similar to a
filter and associated with the moisture can get very dirty. If it is cleaned it
should be cleaned with a soapy solution in warm water, rinsed well and dried –
all in accordance with the AMM of course.

Humidifier (Figure 16)

For aircraft operating for long periods at high altitudes it is necessary to

increase the moisture content of the charge air in order to overcome physical
discomfort arising from low relative humidity levels. Various methods may be
used but a typical system consists of a humidifier unit supplied with water
(from an individual tank or the aircraft’s domestic water system) and air under
pressure to produce a fine water spray
.

Fig. 16 HUMIDIFIER

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The water and air supplies (controlled by electromagnetic valves) pass through
a spray nozzle within the humidifier in such a way that the water is atomised
and enters the distribution ducting in the form of a fine mist. On some aircraft
the humidifier is controlled automatically by a humidistat, on other aircraft
the unit is switched on manually.

If the unit is fitted it is always downstream of the water extractor and it is

usual to switch it on as the aircraft climbs through 10,000 feet and switched
off as it descends through this altitude.

Temperature Control

Control of air temperature in passenger cabins, flight crew and other

compartments, is accomplished by modulating the valves installed in the air
ducting of heating and cooling sections of the air conditioning system. The
methods of control vary and depend on the type of aircraft and the air
conditioning system employed.

In general control can be:

a) Manual (mechanical).
b) Electrical – automatic with manual option.
c) Computerised – automatic with manual option.

A mechanical method consists of valves which are manually positioned to

regulate the temperature by varying the proportions of hot and cold air passing
through a mixing chamber before delivery to the cabin.

In a combustion heating system (using a combustion heater with fuel coming

from the aircraft fuel system – used on some unpressurised aircraft) the
electrical power supply to the solenoid valve is automatically controlled by a
duct thermostat. When the temperature of the air flowing from the heater
exceeds the thermostat setting, the thermostat de-energises the solenoid valve
to isolate the fuel supply to the heater. As the heater cools, the thermostat
opens the valve to restore the fuel flow and the combustion process. By cycling
on and off, the heater maintains an even temperature in the cabin.

In systems utilising compression heating and air cycle methods of cooling, the
temperature control system is designed to automatically modulate valve
actuators. A typical system comprises a duct temperature sensing element, a
temperature selector, cabin temperature sensing elements and an automatic
control unit (Figure 17). These components are electrically interconnected to
form a resistance bridge circuit which is only in balance when the cabin air
temperature is at the selected value.

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If the bridge circuit becomes un-balanced by a resistance change in either of
the sensing elements due to temperature variation, or by varying the selector
switch setting, an error signal is produced which is fed to the amplifier of the
control unit. The amplified signal is fed to the Temperature Control Valve
Actuator which positions the valve to adjust the air flows and so correct the
temperature change until the bridge circuit is restored to a balanced condition
(the duct sensor picking up the change initially, followed by the cabin sensors).

When the bridge is balanced the actuator stops moving and the temperature
control valve is held at its new position.

Manual controls are provided to permit overriding of the automatic circuit. Low
temperature and high temperature limit control devices are also provided and
ensure that upper and lower limits of air temperature are not exceeded.

Fig. 17 A TEMPERATURE CONTROL CIRCUIT

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The temperature control valve actuator could be a dc split-field series motor or
an induction motor. Manual control is usually available at either the stewards
or flight-deck systems panel if the automatic system fails.

A cabin selector at the stewards/flight-deck systems panel will allow small

changes of temperature to be made while the system remains under auto-
control.

Modern controllers are static devices consisting of transducer and/or semi-

conductor circuits (computers) with a discrimination and simplifier function to
provide an output to drive the temperature control valve motor in either
direction.

Some aircraft have a standby air conditioning system to provide heated air to
the flight deck if the normal air supply fails. Large aircraft have the cabin
divided into zones with separate temperature controls for each.

An Actual Air Supply System - Example

Figures 18 and 19 show the air supply system for the Airbus A320. Note the
following:

* Two engine tappings.

* APU supply.
* Anti-icing/de-icing connections.
* Ground supply.
* Control valves.

Fig. 18 THE A320 PNEUMATIC SYSTEM

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 Fig. 19 A320 PNEUMATIC SYSTEM SCHEMATIC

With reference to figure 19 note:

* The use of a manifold with inputs from the two air conditioning
packs; recycled air from the cabin; air from a ram-air scoop and
air from a ground supply when on the ground.
* The ability to by-pass the manifold with hot air and control that
air separately for the flight deck/passenger compartments.

- 23 -
Distribution Systems

In large aircraft the air conditioning equipment is normally grouped together in

its own compartment or bay. The conditioned air is distributed to passenger
zones through under-floor and hat-rack ducting, the latter containing outlet
grilles and the requisite number of individual adjustable cold air louvers which
are supplied from a cold air source.

Air to flight crew compartments may be through separate ducting or it may be

through ducting tapped into the passenger cabin ducting. Typical locations for
the air outlets are at floor and roof levels and in sidewalls. Tappings are taken
from the cabin and flight crew compartment ducting systems for supplying
warm air to cabin windows and windshields for demisting purposes.

After circulation the air is exhausted to atmosphere through the discharge or

outflow valves (part of the pressurisation system). On larger aircraft zone
distribution and control is employed.

Materials used in the manufacture of ducting systems include light-alloy,

plastic, fibreglass reinforced plastic and stainless steel, the latter normally
being used for the hot air sections of engine bleed air supply systems.

Figure 20 shows a typical distribution system (B747).

Fig. 20 B747 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

- 24 -
Various methods of joining the duct sections are used including joints made
by flanges and ring clamps of V-section and by rubber sleeves fitted over the
ends of duct sections and secured either by adjustable clamps or by a rubber
adhesive and by bolted flanges.

Fibreglass formed into blanket sections using a covering of nylon, is used for
the lagging of duct sections. To permit lengthwise movement of ducting as it
expands and contracts, expansion bellows, sliding clamps and gimbal
mountings are used.

Figure 21 shows the distribution of the air within the A320 aircraft cabin. Note
that it is supplied via under-floor ducting to side-wall ducts then to ceiling and
side vents. Used air moves out of the cabin via extractor floor level vents.

Fig. 21 CABIN AIR DISTRIBUTION - A320

Engine Bleed Air System – Examples

The following figures (22 and 23) are bleed air systems used on the Boeing and
DC10 aircraft.

You should study these drawings and be able (with reference to the system
shown in figure 3) to understand how they work.

You don’t need to remember the specific details but you would be required to
be able to describe a modern multi-engined aircraft system.

- 25 -
In general:

1. The supplies can be isolated by the pilot and on some aircraft are
monitored by computers.
2. At low engine rpm air is bled from the HP stage of the engine, at
high rpm the air is taken from the IP or LP stage.
3. Air is pressure regulated to say 40psi by a pressure Regulating
Valve (some aircraft have a Mass Flow Controller that performs a
similar function). Air may be shut-off automatically during:
* Engine start.
* APU air supply operation.
* Over pressurisation.
* Over heat.
* Fire push button operation.
4 The air conditioning cooling packs use air cycle systems – the
bootstrap system.

Fig. 22 PNEUMATIC BLEED AIR SYSTEM – DC10

- 26 -
Note with the DC10 system the components are given the ATA100 manual
reference and the pneumatic system also includes the air start system. Note
also the triplication of the air conditioning packs.

Fig. 23 PNEUMATIC BLEED AIR & BOOTSTRAP

SYSTEM - BOEING

With the Boeing system make sure you can follow the flow of the charge air
from the engine tappings to the duct leading to the cabin. Note the pre-cooler
using fan air and the air cleaner with a facility to purge (clean) the unit with
debris being dumped out at the ram air exhaust. Note the pneumatic driven
cooling fan for the secondary (intercooler) and primary (pre-cooler) heat
exchangers ram air supply.

- 27 -
Note also the system for defrosting the water extractor – the 35F sensor that
allows hot air to bypass the cold air unit and defrost the water extractor. After
a short period the valve shuts to allow the system to work as normal.

So far we have dealt with the conditioning of the charge air which includes
temperature, humidity and filtration. We have not covered ventilation. This is
because ventilation is closely connected with pressurisation.

PRESSURISATION

To stay alive the human body requires oxygen. Insufficient oxygen in the blood
stream, a condition known as hypoxia, will result in loss of consciousness and
eventually death.

Hypoxia and Anoxia are both medical terms associated with lack of oxygen in
the body. Symptoms are progressive and start with:

* Poorer vision – particularly night vision.

* Lack of concentration.
* A feeling of drunkenness.
* Inability to correct or recognise incorrect actions.
* Unconsciousness.
* Death.

Air density and air pressure decrease with altitude. The effect of altitude is
two-fold:

1. The body absorbs oxygen through the lung walls during normal
breathing and this process is assisted by the atmospheric air
pressure (which causes a partial pressure drop across the lung
tissues). The lower the atmospheric pressure, the lower the partial
pressure drop and, therefore, the more difficult it becomes for the
lungs to perform their function of getting oxygen into the blood
stream.

2. With decreased air density at altitude the proportions of the gases

remain constant, but they are less in total quantity, so the actual
amount of oxygen is reduced.

Note. The oxygen content of the atmosphere is about 21% with about 78%
being nitrogen. Even if the oxygen content supplied to the body was increased
to 100% there would still have to be pressure to allow the lungs to function
correctly. Up to about 3.3km (10,000ft) altitude, there is sufficient air pressure
and oxygen content to support comfortable human life, but most modern
aircraft fly up to, and above 13km (40,000 ft).

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It follows then, that some artificial method must be employed to obtain cabin
conditions of less than 3.3km (10,000 ft) when the aircraft is flying at its
operational altitude. A cabin altitude of 2.6 km (8,000 ft) is usually selected as
the standard and to achieve this a process known as pressurisation is used.

It is sometimes known as the 8,000 Feet Standard. In fact most civil

pressurised aircraft will have a variation of this.

Why is this standard adopted and not sea level?

Consider the following values of pressure based on the ICAO standard

atmosphere:

Height (above sea level) Air Pressure (absolute)

Sea Level 1013mb (14.7psi)

2.4km (8,000ft) 753mb (11psi)
4.9km (16,000ft) 549mb (8.6psi)
5.5km (18,000ft) 506mb (7.3psi) (half sea level
pressure)
7.3km (24,000ft) 393mb (5.7psi)
9.7km (32,000ft) 274mb (3.9psi)
12km (40,000ft) 187mb (2.7psi)

The temperature lapse rate is linier at about 2°C per thousand feet from sea
level (15°C) to 36,000ft where it is about minus 56°C. Hence the need for
heating.

The change in pressure (and density) is non-linier with the greater losses being
at the lower altitudes. For example, about 6.1psi is lost in the first 16,000 feet
of altitude (sea level to 16,000ft) and only about 4.7psi is lost in the next
16,000 feet (16,000ft to 32,000ft). So as the altitude increases so the rate of
pressure loss get less.

At altitude if the cabin altitude was kept at sea level and the aircraft altitude
was 12km (40,000ft) then the differential pressure across the fuselage would
be 1013mb less 187mb = 826mb (14.7psi – 2.7psi = 12psi).

If, on the other hand, the cabin altitude was kept at 2.4km (8,000ft) and the
aircraft altitude was 12km (40,000 ft) then the differential pressure would be
753mb less 187bm = 566mb (11psi – 2.7psi = 8.3 psi).

It can be seen from the above examples that to maintain sea level conditions
within the cabin at an altitude of 13km (40,000 ft) a much greater internal
pressure would be felt on the fuselage structure than if the cabin altitude was
maintained at 2.6 km (8,000 ft). This would necessitate a stronger fuselage
structure which in turn would incur a weight penalty.

- 29 -
Because human life can be supported comfortably at 2.6km (8,000 ft) altitude
this standard is selected on most modern airliners. The maximum differential
pressure is normally about 0.621 bar (9psi).

In general there are three standards of pressurisation:

1. Maintaining ground level conditions within the cabin up to its

operational ceiling. Rare.
2. Maintaining a cabin pressure equivalent to 8,000ft, (with oxygen
for emergency use), when flying between that height and the
operational ceiling. Common for civil aircraft.
3. Maintaining a cabin pressure equivalent to an altitude of 25,000ft
between that height and the operation ceiling, the differential at
50,000ft would be 3¾psi. Oxygen would be required by the crew.
Fighter aircraft.

CS25 states that the pressurisation system must provide a pressure altitude of
not more than 8,000ft at maximum aircraft altitude.

The Inter-Relationship of Pressurisation and Cabin Conditioning

Pressurisation is the process of arranging that the maximum cabin altitude

does not exceed that which will support comfortable human life regardless of
aircraft altitude.

Air Conditioning is the process of arranging that the cabin air is clean and is of
the correct humidity and temperature. This air is supplied to the cabin at such
a rate that at all times there is sufficient for some to be exhausted to
atmosphere thus providing ventilation. The rate at which this air is ventilated
to atmosphere controls the pressure in the cabin (figure 24).

Fig. 24 PRESSURISATION PRINCIPLE

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Pressurisation – Theory

Figure 25 show a simplified graph of the cabin pressurisation process. When

the cabin is pressurised the pressure will be higher than Ambient Pressure.
This cabin pressure is often called Cabin Altitude. Cabin Altitude is the
pressure in the cabin that would be felt at the ambient altitude – which will
normally be equal to or lower than the Aircraft Altitude.

So, for example if the aircraft was flying at 40,000ft (ambient pressure 2.7psi)
and the cabin was pressurised to 11psi, it is said that the cabin altitude is
8,000ft.

QUESTION What does ambient pressure mean? (1 min)

ANSWER It is the pressure of the atmosphere outside the aircraft at the

altitude the aircraft is at.

Fig. 25 SIMPLIFIED PRESSURISATION PROFILE

With reference to figure 25. Note the aircraft altitude from take-off to altitude,
then back to landing again. In this simple description note the cabin altitude
at::

A Aircraft on the ground with the doors open. Cabin altitude is the
same as aircraft altitude. The pressure on both sides of the
fuselage is the same and the pressure differential is zero.
B The aircraft doors are shut and the aircraft is on the take-off run.
In our simple system the same conditions apply as at A.
C During climb the cabin altitude climbs at the same rate as the
aircraft altitude – with the cabin differential remaining at zero.
This will continue until pressurisation commences (at D - say
8,000ft).

- 31 -
 D Here pressurisation has started. Effectively, as the aircraft
continues to climb so the pressure is being increased in the cabin
to keep the cabin at a constant pressure equivalent of 8,000ft. The
cabin is then kept at a constant pressure while the aircraft
continues to climb. As ambient pressure is going down the
pressure differential (across the cabin wall) will be increasing. It
will continue to increase (as the aircraft climbs) until maximum
differential (max diff) pressure is reached.

QUESTION What governs the maximum differential pressure? (10 mins)

ANSWER Structurally it is the strength of the fuselage that limits max diff
and this is controlled automatically by the pressure controller
controlling the discharge valve (American – outflow valve).

E At this point the system is at maximum differential (say 9psi).

Cabin altitude is still 8,000ft and aircraft altitude is 40,000ft.

QUESTION With the max diff as it is, what would happen to cabin altitude (or
cabin pressure) if the aircraft continued to climb? (5 mins)

ANSWER Maximum Differential by definition cannot be exceeded. So if the

aircraft continued to climb (if that were possible) then the
maximum differential would be maintained. That is, the cabin
altitude would climb at the same rate as the aircraft rate of climb,
or to put it another way, the cabin pressure would go down.

A More Realistic System (Profile Figure 26)

In reality, variations will occur with the simple arrangement shown above.
These changes may be summarised as follows:

a) The cabin is usually pressurised before take-off – to about a

quarter of a psi.
b) The cabin climb rate is selectable and is lower than the aircraft
climb rate.
c) The same applies with descent rates.
d) Landing airfield altitude is selected prior to landing.
e) Cabin remains pressurised after landing (about 1/20 psi).
f) The differential pressure for this aircraft is 9.4psi.
g) The isobaric range is where the cabin altitude is kept constant.

- 32 -
All the above is automatic, and rate changes are selectable within a range.

Study figure 26 and make sure you understand what the graph represents and
the terms used.

Fig. 26 TYPICAL PRESSURISATION PROFILE

Figure 27 shows a pressurisation graph for the A320. Note the following:

* Max diff of 8.06psi.

* High cabin altitude (low pressure) warning for cabin alt of 9,000 to
11,000feet.
* Max over-pressure of 9psi (safety outward valve kicks in)
* Max aircraft alt 39,000ft and max negative pressure of minus
1.02psi (safety inward valve kicks in). More of these valves later.

- 33 -
 Fig. 27 PRESSURISATION GRAPH A320

PRESSURE CONTROL

Pressure control is usually achieved by using a pressure controller and a

discharge valve or outflow valve. These may be mechanical, electrical or
electronic in operation. Control is automatic within pre-set limits but manual
override is provided, (figure 41) and inward and outward relief valves are
available should under or over pressurisation occur.

The pressure controller will send signals to the discharge or outflow valve and
controls:

a) When pressurisation commences.

b) The rate of which the cabin pressure changes and
c) The cabin differential pressure (the difference between the ambient
and the cabin pressure).

NB. In many aircraft a cabin altitude selector is also available.

The maximum differential pressure values vary between types of aircraft, but
in general they are such that the cabin pressure does not fall below that
equivalent to an altitude of 8,000ft. The rate of pressure or cabin altitude
change can be controlled within a small predetermined range, the values are
selected on the flight-deck. Typical values are between 300 and 500 feet per
minute (fpm).

- 34 -
Pneumatic Method of Pressure Control (Figure 28)

Used on older smaller aircraft but the principles involved are similar for all
aircraft. When reading the description that follows you should refer to figures
25 and 26 as well as figure 28.

The pressure controller is mounted inside the cabin, it comprises a sealed

chamber which houses two capsules, a beam operated control valve and a
contact assembly (warning device). The two capsule assemblies, one an
absolute capsule and the other a differential capsule, are linked by a
summation beam, the centre of which bears against the stem of a spring-
loaded control valve. The spring-loaded control valve varies its opening as the
capsules expand or contract.

The control valve and differential capsule are vented to atmosphere via a static
pipeline. The sealed chamber is linked by a pipeline to the diaphragm chamber
of the discharge valve and there is a metered orifice between the sealed control
valve and the cabin itself (with a suitable filter to prevent the ingress of any
debris).

Fig. 28 MECHANICAL PRESSURE CONTROL

- 35 -
The diagram shows the units in the aircraft’s take-off condition, with both
capsules at nominal length. The control valve is held open, its orifice being
larger than the metered orifice, so no build up of pressure in the control valve
and the discharge valve is loaded solely by its light spring. As a result, air can
spill freely from the cabin via the discharge valve, giving atmospheric pressure
conditions therein.

For the present, ignore the airport altitude selector and assume the static pipe
connects the pressure controller direct to atmosphere.

As the aircraft climbs, falling atmospheric pressure causes the absolute

capsule to expand and the differential (or atmospheric) capsule to collapse.
The largest movement is the expansion of the absolute capsule stack which
causes the control valve to begin to close and the effect is felt at 8,000ft. At
this altitude the control valve orifice is smaller than the metered orifice.

A slight pressure rise is thus caused in the capsule chamber, which is

communicated to the discharge valve diaphragm chamber. This pushes the
diaphragm onto its seat, so causing a pressure build-up in the cabin, until
sufficient cabin pressure overcomes the pressure in the diaphragm chamber
against the diaphragm, thus giving a discharge of air from the discharge valve
and a limit to the pressure build-up in the cabin.

With further increase in altitude, the change in capsule lengths reduces the
control valve orifice thereby increasing the pressure in the capsule chamber
and in the diaphragm chamber. Thus the cabin pressure build-up continues.

At a predetermined altitude, the beam reaches the altitude stop, preventing

further expansion of the absolute capsule. At this altitude the maximum
pressure differential is reached.

Should the aircraft continue to climb further contraction of the differential

capsule moves the beam to open the valve orifice a-little to maintain the max
diff pressure – ie with further aircraft climb the cabin altitude rises.

The Airport Altitude Selector allows the selection of the altitude of the arrival
airport. It does this by interrupting the air signal from the pressure controller
to static and hence causing it to pressurise/depressurise early or later as
necessary.

Note. This system has been selected as it is simple and embodies the basics of
any pressurisation system. Note also that the discharge or outflow valve
incorporates both an inward and outward safety valve – should all else fail.
More of these later.

- 36 -
An Electrical Method of Pressure Control

* Absolute, differential and rate capsules have their positions

transduced into electrical signals by E & I bars.
* These signals are sent to summation units and the output from
these are sent to discharge valves.
* The discharge valves are operated by small electric motors which
allow cabin air pressure to operate the discharge valve directly.
* Potentiometers in the discharge valves send feed-back signals to
the summation units.

The following is a good example based on the VC10.

THE VC10 SYSTEM

The Vickers VC10 is no longer in service but the system is a good example of
an electro/mechanical pressurisation system. It is automatic in operation,
with crew provision to select the cabin altitude and the rate of cabin altitude
change.

In the event of failure of the normal system, maximum differential pressure is

limited by two independent and automatic safety valves.

Automatic emergency pressure controllers will prevent excessive loss of cabin

pressure and control maximum cabin altitude, unless the pressure loss is due
to a leak by-passing the discharge valves.

Normal controls are electro-pneumatic. Safety valves and emergency pressure

controllers are purely pneumatic in operation.

The cabin selector consists of a case containing an absolute sensing element,

for controlling the selected cabin altitude and a variable potentiometer to
regulate the rate of altitude change (figure 29). Three selector knobs allow
selection of:

a) Desired cabin altitude (within the range 2,000 to 9,000ft).

b) Rate of cabin altitude change (between 200 and 800 feet/minute).
c) Pointer position to the prevailing barometric pressure before
selecting the cabin altitude.

The dial on the instrument indicates the cabin altitude selected, with
barometric correction scales, in millibars and inches of mercury, shown
adjacent.

- 37 -
 Fig. 29 CABIN SELECTOR

Transducers and Amplifier Pack (Figure 30)

Consists of an ATR case housing 3 sensing elements and amplifiers. One

sensing element is for the rate of cabin altitude change and comprises a
casing, the interior of which is open to cabin pressure through a calibrated
needle valve orifice. In the casing is a single capsule linked to the pivoting ‘I’
armature of the integrally mounted E and I transducer. The interior of the
capsule is open to cabin pressure.

The second sensing element controls max diff pressure and comprises a casing
the interior of which is open to cabin pressure. A capsule stack is located in
the casing and is connected to the ‘I’ armature of an E & I transducer. The
interior of the capsule stack is connected to sense static pressure via an
adapter and pipeline. A flexible pipe leads from the adapter to a locally
mounted water drain and then from the drain to static vents (not shown in the
drawing).

The third sensing element is an absolute capsule and controls normal

differential pressure. It is connected to an E and I bar in a similar way to the
other two.

The rate of change sensing element is pre-calibrated to select a maximum rate

of altitude change and the differential sensing element is calibrated to control
the cabin/atmosphere differential pressure to approximately 9psi (max).

- 38 -
 Fig. 30 TRANSDUCER/AMPLIFIER PACK

The main amplifier sums the electrical signals from the sensing elements and
amplifies any resultant in-phase signal to operate the torque motors of two
electro-pneumatic relays, one on each discharge valve. The flow equalising
amplifier corrects any inequality in the opening of the two discharge valves to
obtain a balanced flow of air from the cabin. A ground test switch and
electrical test sockets are provided on the pack case. An interference bar
prevents the test switch access cover being replaced unless the switch is in the
‘FLT’ position. Selection of the switch to the ground test position isolates the
absolute and rate of change sensing elements to enable maximum differential
pressure checks to be carried out on the ground.

Fig. 31 E & I BAR TRANSDUCER

- 39 -
The Discharge Valves (Figure 32)

These regulate the discharge of cabin air in response to pressure signals from
the amplifier pack.

Mounted on the valve casing is an electro-pneumatic relay which consists of a

pad valve driven by a torque motor that is energised from the amplifier pack.
Each torque motor is a dc operated electro-mechanical transducer. The
amplifier output current causes a magnetic unbalance within the torque motor
which results in armature rotation.

Depending on the pad valve position a controlled pressure is established in the

upper chamber. The lower chamber is directly open to cabin pressure.

With the upper chamber at cabin pressure the load across the diaphragm plus
the spring pressure holds the valve head towards the closed position. With the
upper chamber at low pressure the cabin pressure in the lower chamber opens
the valve against the spring.

With the pad valve controlling the pressure in the upper chamber, the
discharge valve head assumes a position where the pressure in the upper
chamber, supplemented by the spring loading, is balanced by the cabin
pressure in the lower chamber and so regulates the flow of the air from the
cabin to atmosphere.

When there is no output from the amplifier pack the torque motor will position
the pad valve to close the static bleed and the discharge valve will shut.

Cabin pressure to the upper chamber of the discharge valve is piped via an air
drier and a filter to protect their delicate mechanisms.

A triple wound potentiometer is mounted on top of the discharge valve case

and is operated by movement of the valve head.

The three potentiometers each provide one of the following functions:

1. To operate a valve position indicator on the engineer’s control

panel.
2. To provide a signal to the flow equalising amplifier.
3. To give a valve rate of movement signal to the main amplifier pack
for overall system stability.

An emergency pressure controller is mounted on top of the discharge valve

casing and the bleed to static from the pad valve is piped through the
controller cover.

An absolute pressure-sensing unit is mounted inside the cover and is

calibrated to control the static bleed if ever the cabin altitude exceeds 9,000ft.

- 40 -
A solenoid valve is also mounted on the top of the discharge valve casing and
the static bleed line from the emergency pressure control is piped through it.
The solenoid is energised when the appropriate ‘DISCHARGE VALVES’ switch
on the engineer’s panel is selected ‘SHUT’. With the solenoid valve energised
the static bleed is closed and the discharge valve shuts.

Fig. 32 ELECTRICALLY CONTROLLED DISCHARGE VALVE

Modern aircraft systems are electronically controlled and have all the
pressurisation control and air conditioning functions controlled by computers.
The following is a typical system based the Boeing aircraft.

A BOEING SYSTEM

With reference to figure 33. Study the drawing and note the operation of the
following components:

Cabin Selector. (figure 34) The pilot can select:

(a) Auto or manual control, and control the pressure manually.

(b) The rate of pressurisation.
(c) The landing altitude.

- 41 -
 The selector provides a ‘crew alert’ to the EICAS computer when:

(a) There is electrical power failure.

(b) The rate of pressure change is too high.
(c) Cabin pressure gets too high.

EICAS Computer. (Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System). This provides
images to be displayed on the flight-deck CRTs/flat screen displays.

Pressure Controller. (figure 35). Has an inbuilt computer that converts

analogue
to digital (A to D) and digital to analogue (D to A) data signals. It also senses
cabin pressure. The pressure controller modulates the outflow valve when the
cabin selector is set to ‘auto’.

Fig. 33 COMPUTER CONTROLLED

PRESSURISATION SYSTEM – BOEING

- 42 -
ADC (Air Data Computer). This stores data on ambient and barometric
pressures which it sends as a digital signal to the controller.

Throttle Switch. Operates on the take-off throttle setting. It sends a digital

signal to close the outflow valve so reducing the air demand from the engines.

Weight Switch. Sends a digital signal on take-off to change the controller from
take-off mode to flight mode.

Outflow Valve. (figure 36). Has both dc and ac actuators and is of the thrust
recovery type. That is, the discharged air is discharged backwards so providing
a small amount of thrust. (Most aircraft use thrust recovery systems).

BITE (Built-In Test Equipment). This is fitted to the controller:

(a) Press to test. Check lamps.

(b) BITE switch pressed. Faults will be displayed or ‘no fault’ lamp
lights.
(c) RESET switch pressed. System is reset and fault memory erased.

Note. Many of the components are duplicated.

Fig. 34 CABIN PRESSURE SELECTOR – BOEING

- 43 -
Fig. 35 PRESSURE CONTROLLER – BOEING

Fig. 36 CABIN OUTFLOW VALVE – BOEING

- 44 -
THE A320 SYSTEM (Figure 37)

This shows a simple schematic of the A320 system. Note:

* Direct manual control of the outflow valve in an emergency.

* Duplicate pressure controllers.
* Thrust recovery type of outflow valve.
* Safety valves.
* The pressurised areas and the pressure bulkheads.

Fig. 37 A320 SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC

THE B747 SYSTEM

Figure 38 shows a schematic of the 747 control system. Study the drawing
and note the 10,000ft cabin altitude warning and the warning for excessive
rate of cabin climb/descent. Note the normal max diff (8.5psi and the
emergency pressure relief valve settings – about 1psi greater than normal max
diff.

- 45 -
 Fig. 38 B747 PRESSURE CONTROL SCHEMATIC

Flight Deck Indications (Figures 38, 39, 40)

The cabin altitude to be selected and the corresponding aircraft altitude are
indicated by an analogue system which can form part of the pressure
controller.

Also, pressure-sensing instruments can be provided on the pressurisation

control panel to indicate prevailing cabin differential pressure, cabin altitude
and cabin rate of pressure change (rate of climb).

- 46 -
Altitude switches sensitive to cabin pressure are provided in some installations
and are connected to lights or horns which give warning of low pressure
conditions (high cabin altitude).

Instruments of the remote transmitting type may also be provided in some

aircraft systems to indicate the position of certain valves, eg spill valves and
safety valves.

Where the instrument system is of the CRT/flat screen display type, cabin
conditioning and pressurisation data is displayed on the appropriate page.
When selected the page shows, in colour, details of pressures, temperatures,
valve positions etc.

Fig. 39 LANDING ELEVATION SELECTION PANEL

Fig. 40 CABIN PRESSURE CONTROL PANEL

- 47 -
Safety and Inward Relief Valves

Safety valves are provided to relieve excess cabin pressure in the event of a
failure of the pressure controller and/or discharge valves, back-up systems
and duplicate systems. Inward relief valves are provided to limit any possible
negative differential pressure to a safe value.

Depending on the system, the valves may either be in the form of separate
units, single integrated units or they may be combined with the discharge
valves. The valves vary in construction and operation but those most
commonly used are either of the type utilising diaphragm control similar to a
discharge valve or of the spring-loaded hinged flap or plate type. (Usual
settings for most aircraft are about 1psi above max diff for emergency outward
relief valves and 1psi negative pressure for emergency inward relief valves).

QUESTION When could a negative pressure occur, that is, when could the
pressure be greater outside the aircraft than inside? (5 mins)

ANSWER It could be possible during a steep dive. With a high aircraft

descent rate the ambient pressure will build up quicker than the
cabin pressure leading to the possibility of a higher pressure
outside than in. Under these circumstances the fuselage would
quickly crumple as it is not designed for this sort of stress.

Filters and Air Dryers

Filters are connected in the cabin air pressure sensing lines to the pressure
controllers and discharge valves and normally consists of a housing holding a
replaceable filter cartridge and fitted with appropriate inlet and outlet
connections.

In some aircraft installations, air driers are provided to eliminate the

possibility of ice forming in the pressure control system and are connected in
the cabin air pressure sensing lines to discharge valves, safety valves and
inward relief valves.

Two types of driers are used; one utilising the properties of a silica gel drying
agent and the other consisting of a baffle box mounted on the inside of the
fuselage skin and utilising the skin temperature to condense any water vapour
present in the cabin air. The moisture deposited in the box drains away
through an outlet in the box and aircraft skin.

- 48 -
Manual Control (Figure 41)

If the automatic control systems fail and the electrical/manual control systems
fail, as a last resort, the pilot can control the discharge/outflow valve
manually. It is crude compared to the automatic systems but is only used in
emergencies.

The system shown consists of a manually operated outflow valve control wheel
which will open/close the outflow valve using a system of cables and pulleys.

Fig. 41 MANUAL PRESSURE CONTROL

CABIN SEALING

Air leakage is possible wherever the pressure cabin skin is discontinuous, thus
every rivet, skin seam, pressure-bulkhead to skin joint, every connection (or
passage) of a stringer through pressure bulkheads, every inspection door or
entrance door and all controls and cables passing through pressure
bulkheads, and windows is a potential source of leakage. To reduce air leakage
of the skin, sealing material may be inserted into the joints or a liquid
compound may be sprayed or brushed in or over the joints from the inside.
Wet assembly (normally used to combat galvanic corrosion) aids the air sealing
properties of riveted skin panels.

- 49 -
Door Deals (Figures 42 and 43)

For outward opening doors an inflatable rubber seal can be used. Mounted on
the door (figure 42) and when in the closed position is located opposite a
shaped bead on the frame. When pressure is applied to the inside of the seal,
it expands onto the bead closing the gap and providing an airtight joint. This
type of seal requires an air pressure of about 8psi – but check the specific
AMM.

The tube is inflated by a connection to the main cabin air supply line and as
the door is closed a micro-switch (or proximity switch) is selected to operate a
valve in the pneumatic system. On operating the door handle the valve is
selected to exhausted and the seal deflates.

The sealing of inward opening doors (or plug type doors) presents less difficulty
owing to the assistance given by the cabin differential pressure in holding the
door against its seal. This type of door can have soft rubber seals attached
around the door which contacts the door frame when the door is closed and
locked. Alternatively the seals may be attached to the door frame. Plug type
doors are common and figure 43 shows two types of seals.

Fig. 42 SEALING AN OUTWARD OPENING DOOR

Fig. 43 SEALING AN INWARD OPENING DOOR

- 50 -
Transparencies (Figure 44 and 45)

Figure 44 shows a typical method of mounting a windscreen. To prevent

internal misting, dry-air sandwich construction may be used. This consists of
fitting a spacer between two transparent panels, thus forming a cavity which
insulates the rear panel from the front panel; the complete transparency is
usually mounted on, or in, a rubber or polymer seal and secured from the
outside with a clamping strip and screws.

The rubber or polymer mounting provides sealing; a method of protecting the

glass/plastic from airframe vibrations (which could cause crazing or cracking)
and a method of allowing for the different rates of thermal expansion between
plastic, glass and the metal airframe. In reducing order of magnitude the
coefficients are (per °K x 10-6)

Plastic (Perspex) 85
Aluminium alloy 23
Glass 9

Fig. 44 WINDSCREEN MOUNTING

- 51 -
 Fig. 45 TYPICAL WINDOW MOUNTING

This means, for example, that Perspex will expand 85 units (very small units)
whilst Al alloy will expand 23 and glass 9 per degree K (or degree C) change in
temperature. So there needs to be some provision made to cope with the
different expansion rates.

Note that the window shown in figure 45 (which is typical) is of air sandwich
construction with the differential cabin pressure being felt on the outer pain.

Aircraft Controls/Engine Controls (Figures 46, 47 and 48)

Control rods/torque tubes and cables passing through pressure bulkheads

must be sealed against air leakage whilst allowing movement and self-
alignment with a minimum of control system friction. One such device consists
of a bellows made of a rubber like material (figure 46) which is connected to
the bulkhead at its larger end and connected to the cable at the smaller end.

- 52 -
This arrangement is used with control systems using two cables (one pushing
and one pulling), as the cabin pressure acting on the bellows causes a load on
the control system which must be balanced by an equal opposing load.

An alternative method of permitting the control rod or cable to pass through a

pressure bulkhead is to allow them to slide through some form of gland (figure
47). These are popular and several types have been developed. Some rely on
grease pack rings to provide the airtight joint, others rely on a dry gland. For
grease packed glands it is essential to keep them well greased but clean from
dust to ensure good sealing and to keep the friction loads small.

The cable or rod that passes back and forth through the gland must be kept
clean and both gland and control must be checked regularly for wear.

Fig. 46 CONTROL CABLE SEAL USING RUBBER BELLOWS

Fig. 47 FRICTION SEAL

A good seal can be affected if the movement through the bulkhead is rotary
rather than linear. Figure 48 shows a rubber seal, clipped to and rotating with
the control tube. Air pressure acting on the splayed outer end of the rubber
seal forms an airtight joint. This presses against a special rubbing strip which
must be kept clean.

- 53 -
 Fig. 48 ROTATING CONTROL TUBE SEALING GLAND

Ditching

If the aircraft has to ditch in an emergency then the cabin must be made as
water-tight as possible. If the aircraft makes a successful ditching, which is
difficult for the pilot, and the cabin stays in-tact, then ideally it should stay
afloat long enough for the passengers to get into the life-rafts. To help it stay
afloat all skin apertures to the cabin must be securely shut. These include:

* Ram air vents for cooling air to:

Avionics bays.
Ventilation systems.
Cold air units/air cycle machines.
* Return ducts from any of the above services.
* Outflow valves/discharge valves.
* Emergency inward flow valves.
* Dump valves.

The Ditching Switch is situated on the flight-deck pressurisation control panel.

When operated it selects all valves shut and its operation is part of the pilot’s
ditching procedure.

PRESSURISATION SYSTEMS TESTING

Pressurisation systems are tested to ensure that there are no leaks (to the
pressure hull and system pipe-work) and that pressure control equipment and
pressure limiting devices function correctly to maintain correct cabin
differential pressure. The test also should check the air supply systems and
the Ditching system should also be tested for correct functioning. The periods
at which functionals and leak tests should be made are specified in aircraft
Maintenance Schedule and tests are carried out in accordance with the AMM.
Tests may also be necessary after repairs or modifications which affect the
structural strength of the pressure hull, or after suspected damage to the
fuselage, doors or windows, or after system component replacement.

- 54 -
Precautions

The aircraft structure and all systems must be complete and fit for flight before
attempting to carry out any ground test. Configure the aircraft as per the AMM
and place warning signs and keep all personnel clear of the area.

Personnel taking part within the pressurised hull must be certified medically
fit to comply with the pressure test and this would include freedom from colds,
flu and sinus problems. Personnel should not fly for 24 to 48 hours after being
pressurised.

A minimum of two test operators should be inside the pressurised area during
the test where an external ground test unit is used. When using engines for
the air supply a third qualified operator to run the engines is required. When
running engines also take the normal precautions applicable to engine
running.

When using an external ground test unit as the supply source, communication
between test personnel inside the pressurised area and those operating the
test unit must be established. (A socket for the connection of an interphone
system is normally provided in aircraft for this purpose and is located in an
area such as a nose gear bay).

Unless otherwise stated in the repair scheme, a proof pressure test and leak
rate test must be carried out on completion of repairs to the pressure hull.

Where any disturbance of cabin air ducting has occurred, checks should be
made for correct alignment, security and freedom from foreign matter. Air
tightness should be checked as necessary by blanking local sections of ducting
and subjecting them to pressure tests.

Any seals, glands or expansion joints should be checked for correct fitting, and
where controls pass through glands they should be lubricated (or cleaned –
AMM) as necessary and in the manner specified.

Detachable blanking plates used when testing should not be sealed with
jointing compound.

Functioning Test and Leak Rate Tests

The functional testing of pressurisation system components and leak rate

testing of a fuselage can be performed either by running the engines, by
connecting a ground air supply unit to an adapter provided in the aircraft for
test purposes or, in aircraft employing an auxiliary power unit (APU), obtaining
the air supply from this. It is recommended that functioning tests be done by
running the engines and utilising bleed air or air supplied from engine-driven
blowers, as this enables a more complete test of all components in the system.

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Ensure that static pressure and Pitot pressure pipelines, within the
pressurised area, are complete and connected to their relevant instruments
and components such as autopilot coupling units and height lock units.

Generally, a portable vertical speed indicator and mercury manometer or

pressure gauge are required, together with a stopwatch and a Pitot-static test
set. The test set is normally used for checking for leaks from pressure
controllers, pressure signal and static pressure pipelines and also for checking
the function of discharge valves in response to selected pressure signal
settings from pressure controllers. All test equipment must have a valid test
certificate

Functional Test

After entering the aircraft, the entrance doors, emergency external exits and
hatches, toilet servicing connections, sliding and direct vision windows in the
crew compartment should all be closed. Where specified in the AMM, other
apertures such as toilet ventilation bleed outlets should be blanked off.

Configure aircraft for test as per the AMM.

Where externally fitted windows are fitted (windscreens for example), a check
for security should be made and, where applicable, services for window de-
misting purposes should also be checked to ensure freedom from leaks and for
correct operation.

All external doors closed (check any electrical indicators) and set Ditching
Switch to ‘test’ to set ditching valves closed.

All internal doors should be opened. These include:

* Galley doors.
* Flight deck entrance doors.
* Toilet doors.
* Oven doors.
* Cooler/refrigerator doors, etc.

QUESTION Why (2 mins)

ANSWER If the door, once closed, provides an airtight seal the oven,
refrigerator etc could be crushed by the pressure – or more
dangerously, if the pressure got in and could not get out it is
possible that the pressure inside the unit could be maintained
after the pressure test is over. The unit might later blow up.
Incidentally, this has happened.

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Electrical power should be switched on and the controls of the appropriate
cabin air temperature control system and pressurisation system units selected
to the settings specified in the AMM. Computers and indications should be
checked for correct function (BITE etc) and correct indications.

The cabin pressure should be allowed to increase (at the rate indicated in the
AMM) until it stabilises at the maximum working differential pressure and a
check should be made to ascertain that the pressure remains constant with
any increase in air supply. If the differential pressure stabilises at a figure
above or below the maximum value, the pressure controlling system should be
investigated and rectified as necessary after the conclusion of the test. After
such rectification a further test should be made.

Where multiple pressure control units are provided, each unit should be
selected in turn and checks made to ensure that the differential pressure
builds up and stabilises at the relevant maximum value.

Whilst the cabin is pressurised all flying controls and engine controls (if of the
mechanical type) should be operated to their full range of movement to test the
efficiency of bulkhead seals.

Operation of safety valves should be checked during pressurisation tests with

the discharge valves isolated from pressure signal sources. Air should be
supplied to the cabin at the specified rate and a check made on the pressure
at which the valves open. The cabin should then be allowed to depressurise
slowly until the valves close and the corresponding pressure noted. The
pressures at which valves open and close should be as laid down in the AMM.

If during a pressure test the leak rate increases unduly, as denoted by both a
sudden fall in differential pressure and a sudden ascent indication on the
cabin rate of altitude change indicator, the pressure must be released and the
pressure control system/fuselage examined for the cause before continuing
the test.

Leak Test

After the pressure has stabilised the air supply should be shut off and the
pressure allowed to fall by normal fuselage leakage. The time taken for the
pressure to fall over the range must not be less than that quoted in the AMM.

If the leak rate is excessive, an inspection of the fuselage pressurised area

should be carried out with the cabin pressure held. Escaping air may be
detected by ear, but a soapy water solution (or special solution) may be used to
trace leaks and this should be cleaned off after testing.

When inspecting the outside of the aircraft, personnel should exercise caution
when entering nose gear bays or similar breaks in the pressurised area.

- 57 -
Check the operation of any system valves such as non-return valves (NRVs),
outflow valves (to check they are closed properly) etc. Check all pressure hull
seals – flying controls, engine controls, any other moving controls, wiring,
domestic systems (toilets, sink drains, water supply pipes) etc.

During the test check operation of temperature selectors by selecting both high
a low temperatures and noting the temperature change. Check as far as
possible the operation of humidifiers and water extractors.

At the conclusion of the tests the air supply should be shut off and the cabin
pressure allowed to fall gradually at a controlled rate. If the pressure is
released too quickly then moisture precipitation may occur wetting cabin
furnishings, electrical equipment, cables, cabin installations etc.

Check that the cabin has depressurised completely by opening the dv window
(only opens inwards)/dump valve before trying to open any exit doors. Ensure
all external doors, windows and hatches operate correctly. Close all internal
doors.

Carry out any compensation calculations (for ambient temperatures and

pressures) as stated in the AMM. Re-configure the aircraft to its normal
status. Record all readings in the logbook and sign for the test.

OXYGEN SYSTEMS

On some aircraft - mostly military - oxygen is supplied continuously to crew

face masks, even though the aircraft might be pressurised. On civil aircraft
oxygen is supplied for emergency purposes only. Situations which might call
for oxygen include:

* Failure of the pressurisation system at altitude.

* Fumes or smoke in the pneumatic system supply to the cabin.
* Medical - having a baby - difficulties in breathing – fits - heart
attacks etc (portable oxygen sets).

With increase in altitude the pressure of the atmosphere and the partial
pressure across the lungs and the total oxygen content decreases. If this effect
is felt on the body it will result in a deficiency of oxygen in the blood and in the
tissues. This condition, known as ‘anoxia’ impairs the physical and mental
abilities and prolonged exposure can prove fatal. The purpose, therefore, of
oxygen systems in aircraft, is to offset the effects of anoxia by supplying
oxygen through a breathing mask at a controlled rate.

If the cabin altitude is maintained at 8,000ft oxygen is not normally needed. In

some smaller and medium size aircraft designed without a cabin
pressurisation system, oxygen equipment may be installed for use by
passengers and crew when the aircraft is flown above 10,000ft.

- 58 -
 Physiological Effects of Altitude Feet

Maximum altitude without oxygen at which mental efficiency

is not seriously impaired. 8,000

Altitude at which the incidence of decompression sickness

increases rapidly with exposures exceeding ten minutes. 25,000

Maximum altitude at which sea level mental conditions can

be maintained by breathing 100% oxygen. 33,000

Maximum allowable altitude without pressure breathing. 40,000

TABLE 1

Oxygen Supplies

Oxygen (O2) can be supplied in several ways, ie:

Gaseous. Stored in oxygen bottles at pressures between 1000 and 2000psi and
put through pressure reducing valves to the regulator valves/oxygen masks.

Chemical. Stored as a chemical (sodium chlorate and iron block) but released
as a low-pressure gaseous supply to the mask.

Liquid. Stored in its liquid state at very cold temperatures and as it gases-off is
supplied as gaseous O2 to the oxygen system. Military aircraft.

Sieve System. A special type of filter system that filters O2 out of the ram air for
crew use. Military aircraft.

We will concentrate on two – gaseous and chemical.

Gaseous Systems

These can be divided into two broad categories:

* Continuous flow.
* Pressure demand.

The systems must comply with CS25. Regulations include:

* Pipe lines and equipment not being allowed in fire zones.

* Means to show the crew that, when oxygen is selected, it is being
delivered (except for chemical oxygen generators).
* If the aircraft is to fly above 30,000 feet oxygen masks must be
automatically presented to passengers before the cabin altitude
reaches 15,000 feet. If the automatic system should fail the masks
should be able to be deployed manually.

- 59 -
 * There should be at least 10% extra (above normal seating capacity)
dispensing units spread evenly throughout the cabin.
* Flight-deck crew have a pressure demand regulator. Installed so
that the mask can be fitted to the face in 5 seconds with one hand
without disturbing eyeglasses. The mask should cover the face,
nose, mouth and eyes. Provision includes the ability to allow the
crew member to perform his/her normal duties and allow normal
communication. The supply should last at least 15 minutes at a
pressure altitude of 8,000 feet at 30 litres per minute.
* Toilets and galleys etc should have at least two outlets and masks.
* Portable oxygen equipment should be available to all cabin crew.
* Where oxygen to passengers and crew come from the same supply
system there must be provision to select the system to give the
minimum supply to the crew.

Continuous Flow Systems (Figure 49)

Figure 49 shows a simplified gaseous system supplied from one oxygen bottle.
Fine for small aircraft but for large aircraft a bank of bottles would be used
suitably connected into the system. When the line valve and cylinder valve are
turned ON oxygen will flow from the cylinder through the high pressure pipe to
the pressure reducing valve which reduces the pressure to that required at the
mask connection points.

Fig. 49 CONTINUOUS FLOW SYSTEM

Pressure reducing valves may be fitted directly to cylinders together with shut-
off valves, or they may be separate units. A calibrated orifice is normally
provided in the sockets to control the flow of oxygen delivered to the mask.

- 60 -
The passenger system may consist of a series of supply sockets with mask
plug-in connections at each passenger seat group, or it may be the ‘drop-down’
mask arrangement (typical of most large aircraft) where, in the event of
pressurisation system failure, individual masks drop down automatically to
each passenger from overhead service units.

When the mask is pulled by the passenger to the face level position, a cord
attached to the mask causes a valve to open which causes oxygen to flow to
the mask, the flow being indicated by a simple flow indicator within each mask
hose.

Any automatic control (eg barometric control valve) in the ring main supply
can be overridden manually by a member of the crew. Service units may also
be provided with a plug-in receptacle for attaching a separate mask for
therapeutic use. The flow of oxygen in this system is continuous both during
the breathing in and breathing out cycles.

The system is fitted with line valves that allow for replacement of components
and maintenance operations. The bottle valve allows the bottle to be shut off
for replacement purposes. Under normal circumstances the bottle is
fitted/removed pressurised. This helps to ensure that there is no moisture
precipitation within the bottle when it becomes un-pressurised - with possible
oxygen contamination.

A bursting disc is fitted to the bottle or pressure. This prevents the bottle
exploding if the pressure gets too high for any reason. If the pressure gets too
high the disc ruptures and allows all the bottle contents overboard via an
indicator disc. This disc must be checked before each flight to see that it is in
place.

The system has provision for external charging and gauges are fitted for
maintenance purposes. The NRV (Non Return Valve) is fitted to prevent any
“blow-back” of oxygen when charging. If pressure/flow rates are indicated on
the flight-deck then these parameters will be transduced
electrically/electronically and the gauge in the flight-deck will be a moving coil
type instrument or flat screen display.

The requirements for the pressure to be supplied on a continuous flow system

for flight crew members are laid down in CS25. These requirements are that a
mean tracheal (part of the lungs) partial pressure of 149mm Hg when
breathing 15 litres per minute with a tidal volume of 700cc for altitudes
between 10,000 feet and 18,500 feet.

For passengers and flight attendants the rates are 100mm Hg for 15 minutes
at 700cc up to 18,500 feet. Above this altitude the figures are 83.8mm Hg at
30 litres per minute and 1,100 cc.

- 61 -
Demand System (Figure 50)

The actual supply system is not too unlike that of the continuous flow system.
The main difference is that oxygen is supplied to Pressure Demand Regulators
and not a simple outlet to a mask as in the previous system.

The Diluter Demand or Pressure Demand system is one where the oxygen is
diluted with air (or supplied neat depending on selection) by the demand
regulator. The mixture is then supplied only when the user inhales, ie as
demanded by an individual’s respiration cycle. There is a regulator for each
crew member who can control the regulator according to his/her
requirements.

Fig. 50 PRESSURE DEMAND SYSTEM

The system is more expensive as regulators are reasonably complicated.

Depending on the demand regulator the following provisions may be available:

1. Diluted supply. Using a mixture of cabin air and O2. Used at low
altitudes.
2. Un-diluted supply. Neat oxygen at little or no pressure.
3. Un-diluted supply at a positive pressure. Used at altitude.
- all on demand (ie when the user breaths in only). The mask
MUST be a good fit on the user’s face.

- 62 -
Oxygen Regulator

The requirements (CS25) that a demand regulator has to meet are that it must
supply oxygen at a tracheal partial pressure on inspiration of 122mm Hg up to
35,000 feet and 95% oxygen between 35,000 and 40,000 feet when breathing
20 litres per minute. Provision must be made to select 100% oxygen.

Regulators vary in design and a typical one is described below (figure 51).

The controls on the front allow the crew member to select various options
relative to the different conditions he/she may encounter, such as:

* Flow supply (ON/OFF).

* Emergency lever – to give a pressure supply regardless of
demand.
* 100% or NORMAL – for 100% oxygen, or diluted (normal).
* Flow indicator – to show when oxygen is flowing to the
mask.

Fig. 51 SCHEMATIC OF A DILUTER/DEMAND REGULATOR

When selected ON the regulator relies on the movement of the demand

diaphragm. The top side of which is subjected to mask pressure. The demand
valve is opened by the movement of the diaphragm and closed by spring
pressure.

- 63 -
With the supply lever in the ON position, oxygen enters the regulator as far as
the demand valve at a pressure of approximately 70psi. With the emergency
lever in the OFF position (as shown), when the mask wearer inhales, a
pressure drop will be felt via the mixing valve and on top of the diaphragm.

Because the higher cabin pressure is beneath it, the diaphragm will rise,
opening the demand valve.

With the oxygen lever in the NORMAL position (as shown), a supply of oxygen
will pass round the mixing valve as well as some cabin air, which is
progressively modulated by the capsule that is open to cabin pressure. With a
high cabin altitude (pressure lower than normal) the capsule will contract and
the mixing valve covers the port from the cabin, restricting the amount of air
dilution so the mask wearer will get a higher concentration of oxygen. A check
valve in the line prevents any oxygen escaping into the cabin.

The air inlet can be closed by placing the lever to the 100% position. This will
close the dilution line allowing nothing but oxygen into the mask regardless of
cabin altitude. This could be done when:

* Fumes or smoke pass into the flight-deck.

* A crew member feels he/she is suffering from low oxygen
intake.
* Oxygen starvation occurring during rapid ascent.

When the emergency lever is placed in the ON position, it will override the
demand diaphragm’s commands and lift the demand valve off its seat. Oxygen
will then flow under pressure to the mask regardless of demand.

A functional check of the regulator is carried out prior to flight by the crew
member and regulators are left supply ON and 100% ready for an emergency
donning of the mask.

Demand regulators may be fitted to aircraft for passenger use where passenger
numbers are small. For large aircraft continuous flow systems are used for
passengers.

The demand regulator has to sense the reduced pressure from the wearer to
work efficiently. Because this reduced pressure is very small it can soon be
“lost” if:

1. The mask is a poor fit on the face (a beard does not help).
2. The length of tubing from the regulator valve to the mask is long.

Early regulators were fitted to the side of the flight-deck with a long flexible
hose to the mask. Later regulators were miniaturised and attached to the lapel
of the flying tunic (to shorten the hose length) and most modern regulators are
actually fitted to the mask – so making the tube length effectively zero.

- 64 -
Chemical Oxygen Generator System (Figure 52)

In these systems, oxygen is provided by a chemical generator and dispenser

unit, which are contained within service panels above each group of passenger
seats and also at other essential locations.

It consists of a generator, a ‘drop-out’ mask and hose. The generator is

comprised of a corrosion resistance steel cylinder containing a thermal
insulating liner, a compressed block of sodium chlorate and iron powder, a
filter and a percussion operated firing cap mechanically connected to the mask
by a lanyard. The release of the panel and masks is via a 28V dc operated
solenoid connected electrically to an aneroid capsule operated switch set at
14,000ft. At this altitude the switch operates and the panel opens
automatically and the masks drop out on their lanyards.

Fig. 52 CHEMICAL OXYGEN GENERATOR

- 65 -
When the mask is pulled downwards towards the user, the lanyard trips the
firing cap which ignites the sodium chlorate charge block. As the temperature
of the block is raised a chemical reaction takes place, which produces a supply
of low pressure oxygen, which flows through the filter to the mask. This
process continues until the charge block is expended.

Oxygen normally flows for a period of about 15 minutes and although high
temperatures are generated (about 300°C), the temperature of the oxygen
delivered at the masks does not exceed 10°C above cabin temperature.

Oxygen generators are made in various sizes depending on the number of

masks to be supplied. A pressure relief valve is fitted and an indication of an
expended generator is also provided by a change in colour of a band of thermal
paint around the outside of the case. Normal colour can be green, pink, orange
or yellow depending on the manufacturer and it turns black when heated.

Remember, these units are considered as hazardous when transported as

cargo.

Portable Oxygen Sets

A typical portable oxygen set consists of an alloy steel lightweight oxygen

cylinder fitted with a combined flow control/reducing valve and a pressure
gauge. A breathing mask, with connecting flexible tube and a carrying bag
with straps for the wearer completes the set. The charged cylinder pressure is
usually 1,800psi. The capacities of sets vary, a common size being 120 litres.

Depending on the type of set, it is normally possible to select two rates of flow,
Normal and High. With some sets three flow rate selections are possible, ie
Normal, High and Emergency, which would correspond to 2, 4 and 10 litres
per minute (lpm) with an endurance under these flow rates of 60, 30 and 12
minutes respectively for a cylinder of 120 litre capacity.

The EASA requirements are that they meet the pressure and flow rates as
specified for demand and continuous systems for aircrew fixed systems.

First Aid Oxygen Equipment

If fitted must supply oxygen at a rate of not less than 4 lpm per person with
provision to decrease the rate down to 2 lpm.

- 66 -
Oxygen Storage Cylinders

Made from drawn high tensile alloy steel and normally have a manual stop
valve and, in many cases, a pressure regulator and a pressure gauge threaded
into the neck of the cylinder. The charged pressure is usually 1,800psi and
capacities vary from 80 litres for portable sets to 2250 litres for large
installations.

Cylinders for use in aircraft are colour coded and there are two codes presently
adopted. (1) Black for the main body and white for the top hemispherical
portion (the valve end) and (2) green for cylinders on American aircraft. As a
further means of identification, it is also necessary for the name of the gas and
its chemical formula to be marked at the valve end of cylinders in accordance
with British Standard 2N 100 and International Organisation for
Standardisation recommendation ISOR448 eg Breathing Oxygen.

In addition, the following information is painted or stencilled on the bodies of

the cylinders:

1. In red letters on a white background the words: ‘Use No Oil’.

2. In white letters on the black cylindrical portion:
Name of manufacturer.
Drawing Assembly No.
Capacity …….. Litres.
Test pressure ……..
Working pressure ……..
Test date ……..

Filters

Filters, usually of the gauze or sintered bronze type are provided at points
downstream of oxygen cylinders and in some cases immediately after the
ground charging connection. In many systems a sintered bronze filter is fitted
in the supply connection of a particular component, eg a regulator or a
reducing valve. In some instances the charging connection is fitted with a slug-
type sintered bronze filter, which also acts as a restrictor to guard against too
rapid charging.

Pressure Reducing Valves

These reduce the high pressure from the cylinders to the pressure required in
the low pressure side of the system. In a continuous flow system the reduced
pressure is supplied to the mask connection points. In a pressure demand
system the pressure from the reducing valve is higher than that for a
continuous flow system and further pressure regulation is necessary at each
regulator.

- 67 -
Flow Indicators

Flow is often indicated by a direct type of flow indicator, eg a float inside a

transparent hose of a mask, or by a pressure operated blinker type
instrument, or a pointer type gauge.

Cylinders

Rapid opening of valves allowing a sudden release of oxygen pressure from

the outlet should be avoided.

Cylinders must be checked to ensure that the date of the last pressure test has
not expired and that the storage pressure is not below the minimum specified
in
the relevant manual. A minimum pressure of 200 to 300psi is typical.

Pipe Lines

Pipes and fittings should be inspected for damage, cleanliness and signs of
corrosion. If a pipe is damaged or deformed it should be removed and a new
pipe fitted. The security of pipe attachments and the conditions of electrical
bonding connections should be checked.

Masks

The procedure for the installation of masks depends largely on whether they
are of the plug-in type or automatic drop-out type and full details should,
therefore, be obtained from the AMM. In general the following points should be
observed:

1. Masks should be stored without kinking or twisting of the hoses.

2. Masks and hoses should be free from damage. Plug-in couplings
should be checked for proper insertion and removal.
3. Stowage compartments should be inspected for cleanliness and
general condition.
4. Reservoir bags (fitted to some drop-down masks) must be correctly
positioned and folded to ensure efficient drop-out.
5. Masks should be cleaned and disinfected before installation and
also whenever the oxygen system has been used, and at the
periods specified in the approved Maintenance Schedules.

Oxygen masks vary in design and are compatible only with the system for
which they have been designed. All masks should be easy and quick to fit;
flexible, to stop leaks and to fit various sizes and shapes of face and easy to
disinfect to enable them to be used again.

- 68 -
Fig. 53 PASSENGER DROP-DOWN MASK

Fig. 54 CREW O2 & SMOKE MASK

- 69 -
Crew Masks – These have a microphone fitted to maintain contact by the
aircraft’s radio/intercom system whilst the mask is being worn. They maybe of
the oronasal type, which means they fit over the nose and mouth but most fit
over the whole face (acts as a smoke hood). Attachment round the head is by
straps that are adjusted to fit comfortably or by oxygen inflated tubes.

Passenger Masks – Are normally simple cup shaped devices held in place by
an elasticated strap. Made from flexible plastic to enable them to fit any face
shape.

Supplemental Masks – Are fitted to portable oxygen cylinders that are installed
in the cabin to allow crew to move around with oxygen masks worn and for
therapeutic use. They are similar to passenger masks. Most aircraft also carry
a smoke set which is portable with a full face mask for use in smoke
conditions.

BOEING 777 MASK - EXAMPLE

Figure 55 shows the details of the B777 crew oxygen mask and stowage.

The mask assembly consists of a smoke visor and oxygen regulator which is
housed in its storage box and removed by opening the front doors. The
regulator is of the dilute/demand type with provision for 100% oxygen supply
if necessary.

MAINTENANCE

Whenever a system component has been removed, re-installed or the system

has in any way been disconnected, tests for leakage should be carried out. The
system pressure should be at its normal maximum value.

Leaks should be located using a leak detecting solution free from any
combustible substances unless, of course, particular leaks are large enough to
be heard or felt. Solutions recommended for this purpose are those
conforming to specifications MIL-L-25567 ‘B’ and MIL-L-25567 ‘C’ Type 1.

Pressure Tests

Pressure testing of oxygen cylinders is required at stated periods (eg every four
years) normally indicated in the relevant manuals and schedules. The date of
a pressure test is usually stamped on the neck ring of a cylinder or painted on
the top hemispherical portion.

Note. The dates of any previous pressure tests should not be over-stamped or
obliterated.

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 Fig. 55 B777 OXYGEN MASK & STOWAGE

Flow Testing

Where the testing of flow rates is required at various points in a system (eg at
mask socket connections) special oxygen flow meters should be used in
accordance with the AMM. These flow meters generally consist of a float inside
a glass cylinder graduated for the appropriate flow ranges in litres per minute.

Cleaning

Cleaning is important since contamination can produce noxious or toxic fumes

to the user, prevent system components from operating properly, or cause fires
and explosions.

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Contamination of the exterior surfaces of components may also cause fires in
the presence of leaking oxygen and possible sources of ignition (electrical
equipment).

Functional Testing

The functional testing of systems ‘in-situ’ should be carried out at the periods
specified in the Maintenance Schedules and whenever a component has been
changed. The methods of conducting tests and the equipment required vary
and reference should always be made to the AMM. In general, the methods
include tests for leakage, flow checks at mask connections and, where
appropriate, the simulation of the automatic drop-out action of masks.

Charging Oxygen Systems

For the charging, breathing oxygen to British Standard N3 (or equivalent) must
be used. Oxygen produced for other applications, eg welding, may contain
excess water, which could freeze and obstruct pipelines and valves. Also
moisture may cause the oxygen to become contaminated and noxious.

Oxygen Contamination

At specified periods, or if for any reason the system is thought to be

contaminated (eg smell), the oxygen should be tested and if necessary the
system purged. Purging should always be carried out if it is known that a
system has become empty.

The main cause of contamination is moisture in the system and this may be
due to damp charging equipment, charging of cylinders when their initial
pressure is below a certain minimum and the small amount of moisture
contained in breathing oxygen may, due to repeated charging especially in very
cold weather, also cause contamination.

Although moisture ingress into the aircraft oxygen system can be kept to a
minimum by using the correct charging procedure, cumulative condensation
in the system cannot be entirely avoided.

Oxygen Moisture Tests

To test the moisture content of oxygen in the aircraft system a hydrometer,

based on the dew-point principle, is used.

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By determining the dew-point of oxygen (ie the temperature at which the gas
becomes saturated and dew or mist is produced) and referring this to a
conversion chart the moisture content of the oxygen can be established.

Hydrometer type test sets vary. One such apparatus uses the flow of oxygen
(at a constant rate and pressure) impinging on the surface of a mirror, the
temperature of which is gradually lowered (by means of a carbon dioxide
supply) until a film of moisture is formed on the mirror thus determining the
dew-point.

An electrical type gauge senses when the dew is formed and moves an
indicator. At this point the temperature of the mirror is noted (temperature
gauge attached) and this is referenced on a graph to give the relative humidity
of the oxygen. (Breathing oxygen dew-point is -40°C at 300psi with a flow rate
of 15 litres per minute. This corresponds to a moisture content of 0.0056
grammes per cubic metre at Standard Temperature and Pressure.)

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

When carrying out any work on oxygen systems or components and when
charging/purging, the following precautions should be taken:

1. Fire-fighting equipment must be provided.

2. Display ‘No-Smoking’ and other appropriate warnings outside the
aircraft.
3. If lighting is required, use explosion-proof lamps and hand
torches, (eg equipment complying with BS229 and BS889).
4. All unnecessary electrical/electronic systems OFF.
5. Ensure aircraft is properly earthed.
6. Ensure that charging or servicing units, appropriate to oxygen
systems are used and that they, and all other necessary tools, are
serviceable and free of dirt, oil, grease or any other contaminants.
7. Where work on an oxygen system is to be performed in a confined
space within the aircraft, adequate ventilation must be provided to
prevent a high concentrations of oxygen.
8. Pipe and component connections should be wiped clean and dry
before connections are made.
9. Oxygen contamination of clothing can take place when a person
has been exposed to an oxygen-rich atmosphere for a period of
time. In this state clothes will catch fire very quickly. Clothing
which has been saturated by oxygen should be kept away from
naked lights or any other source of heat for a period of 15
minutes.
10. A clean area, with bench surfaces and tools free of dirt and grease,
should be used whenever it is necessary to carry out work on
oxygen system components. Remember grease and O2 can cause
explosions.

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 11. Clean, white, lint-free gloves should be worn by servicing
personnel when working on components.
12. Before installing a component, it must be cleaned in accordance
with the instructions laid down in relevant manuals. Protective/
blanking caps should not be removed until immediately before
installation. When caps are removed, the fittings of the component
should be checked to ensure they are clean and free of
contaminants.
13. Shut-off valves should be opened slowly to minimise the possibility
of heat being generated by sudden compression of high-pressure
oxygen within the valves or regulators.
14. Before uncoupling a connection, the oxygen supply must be
turned off. Connections should be unscrewed slowly to allow any
residual pressure in the line or component to escape.
15. Some components are stored in polythene bags which should not
be opened until immediately prior to installation.
16. All open pipe ends or component apertures should be kept capped
or plugged at all times, except during installation or removal. Only
protection caps or plugs designed for the purpose should be used.
17. On replacement of a component requiring electrical bonding or
power supply connections the electrical circuit should be tested.
18. For leak testing, only those solutions specified in the relevant
manuals must be used. Care must be taken to prevent a solution
from entering any connection, valve or component.
19. For the testing of components, clean dry filtered air or nitrogen
may be used instead of oxygen. On completion of the tests,
components should be purged with breathing oxygen.

Note. Guidance on the requirements for gases to be used for

testing is given in Appendix ‘C’ to British Standard 2N 100.

Soldering

If soft soldering or silver soldering is required on any part of an oxygen system

it is important that only specified materials are used, particularly in the case
of fluxes. After soldering/silver soldering, it is important to ensure that all
traces of flux or scale are completely removed by thorough cleaning. A trace of
flux or a minute piece of scale inside a pipe or component could cause an
explosion when in contact with high-pressure oxygen. Resin-based soldering
fluxes should never be used for soldering nipples, connections, etc.

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Thread Lubrication

With the exception of Teflon sealing tape to specification MIL-T-27730,

lubricants or anti-seize compounds on threads of pipe or component
connections must be avoided. Remember grease or oil in contact with
pressurised oxygen can cause explosions.

Chemical Oxygen Generators

Unexpended generators should be handled with care to prevent inadvertent

removal of the firing pin. A blanking cap is normally fitted over the pin and
this should remain in position until the generator is finally installed and the
lanyard is tied to the disconnect ring of the mask. If a generator should
become activated it should be immediately placed on a non-combustible
surface.

A minimum clearance of ⅝” (16mm) must exist between a generator and its

heat shield to allow cooling when the generator is activated.

Oil or grease must not be used to lubricate the hinges or latch mechanism of
the service panel door. When closing the door of a service panel it should be
checked that the hoses between the generator and mask fold without kinking
or twisting.

PORTABLE OXYGEN EQUIPMENT

The requirements are set out in scale ‘L’ of the ANO and in CS25.

In addition to the permanently installed emergency oxygen system, there is a

requirement for portable oxygen equipment when the aircraft is operating
above flight level 350. Equipment must be sufficient to treat two people at the
same time. It must also allow a crew member free use of his/her hands whilst
using the equipment in an aircraft decompression emergency.

These sets are sometimes called Therapeutic Oxygen Kits. The set consists of
an oxygen storage cylinder, its storage bag, straps, a flexible tube and a
facemask. The equipment must be CAA approved.

There are three different sizes of oxygen cylinder available with capacities
varying from 30 to 120 minutes supply of oxygen. The oxygen is pressurised to
1800psi. The cylinder is retained in a bag, which has straps which go round
the neck and waist of the user to allow free use of the hands.

The pressurised oxygen passes through a pressure-reducing valve in the

control head to provide a steady flow of 2 to 4 litres per minute depending on
the setting of the control.

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There are two bayonet fittings for tubes, one of which is normally blanked off
with a plug head, which gives a visual indication of the approximate amount of
oxygen left in the cylinder.

The supply tube can be an integral part of the set or supplied as a separate
item. It is a 4-foot length of reinforced, non-kinkable, plastic tubing. It has a
bayonet fitting connection to the control head and a simple push-on
connection on the facemask. The mask is plastic with a strap provided to go
around the head to keep the mask in position. The mask is kept in a carrying
bag.

Maintenance

All servicing must be carried out in accordance with the approved

manufacturer’s maintenance schedule. The following points should be noted.

(a) Changing of cylinders must only be by an approved organisation.

(b) Care must be taken not to crush the mask face piece when the
equipment is stowed or stored. This is because the plastic
material will split if left in a crushed position.
(c) If the equipment has been used the mask must be sterilised before
being put back into service.

PORTABLE OXYGEN SET & SMOKE MASK (Crew Smoke Mask)

The requirements are set out in scale ‘R’ of the ANO and in CS25. This
equipment must be sufficient to protect the pilot in command and at least one
other member of the crew from smoke, CO2 and other harmful gases while on
the flight-deck or when fire-fighting. The equipment must allow the crew
member using it to communicate with other persons and to use the internal
radio equipment.

The mask covers the whole face, excluding the ears. It is held in airtight
contact with the face by an adjustable harness which goes round the back of
the head. The mask is made of flexible plastic and rubber. There is a large,
transparent visor with a demisting facility. Inside there is a microphone
connected to an external socket. This is turn, can be connected to the aircraft
intercom system. There is also a speech diaphragm, which enables the user to
speak to another person without removing the mask. Incorporates an oxygen
demand regulator.

There is a reinforced, non-kickable, plastic tube connecting the face mask to

the control head, which is on top of the oxygen cylinder. The control head has
a simple ON/OFF knob and a contents gauge. The oxygen cylinders are in two
sizes containing either 310 or 530 litres of oxygen at 1800psi.

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All servicing is carried out in accordance with the approved manufacturer’s
maintenance schedule. Always remember that oils and or greases are an
explosive combination when in contact with pressurised O2.

All portable oxygen equipment must be fitted with an over temperature

/overpressure relief device.

”””””””””

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