Cement and Concrete Research 158 (2022) 106837

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Cement and Concrete Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cemconres

On sustainability and digital fabrication with concrete

Robert J. Flatt *, Timothy Wangler
Institute for Building Materials, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Digital fabrication with concrete has been touted as an avenue to more sustainable construction through more
Digital fabrication material efficient design, but notably has produced materials with higher carbon footprints and a strong like­
Sustainability lihood of reduced durability compared to standard construction. In this short article, a relationship to give a
Environmental footprint
sense of the environmental impact of a structure is introduced, and it is emphasized that shape efficiency is the
Accelerator
3D printing
only unique environmental benefit that digital concrete brings. However, efforts should still continue to bring
digital concrete more in line with standard concrete, especially through incorporation of large aggregates and
better characterizing the durability. Finally, it is shown that while most 3D printed concretes appear to be
overdesigned due to processing requirements, the use of aluminum based accelerators in a 2K system can be
beneficial in decoupling buildability from structural strength, allowing greater freedom to lower carbon foot­
prints in mix design.

1. Introduction savings [6,14,25–27]. However, for concrete, this argument faces the
problem that digitally produced concrete typically has a much higher
The field of digital fabrication with concrete has made remarkable environmental footprint per unit volume than ordinary concrete
progress over the past years, with several different processes having [14,16,27–29]. In addition, the printing process itself may carry some
been developed [1–8] and many large-scale demonstrators realized additional environmental impacts through either the production of the
[1,9–12]. In fact, a recent assessment shows 3D concrete printing, the printing cell or its operational energy. These process-related impacts
most widely studied and available of these technologies, is at a tech­ were shown to strongly depend on printing parameters such as resolu­
nology readiness level (TRL) of 6–7, similar to polymer fused deposition tion and printhead velocity [19]. These known and currently being
modeling technology [13], placing it on the cusp of widespread appli­ investigated issues, together with the fact that past digital fabrication
cation. However, the sustainability of such processes remains debated demonstrators have more often aimed at “production prowess” than
[13–20] and often leads to rather polarized and unproductive discus­ material savings, can lead to unproductive and sterile exchanges in
sions. In this context, and with the upcoming conference Digital Con­ discussions of the technology's sustainability. It is therefore an objective
crete 2022, this short paper presents a critical look at this very important of this paper to underline the real opportunities and challenges with
question. regard to sustainability in digital fabrication with concrete, hopefully
The impetus behind the development of these processes by pioneers fostering productive debates on the subject as the technology becomes
such as Berokh Khoshnevis [21] was to address productivity issues in the more widespread.
construction sector. In recent years, however, to a large extent digital Our short paper begins by introducing a simple equation that en­
fabrication in construction has been driven by the desire to open the compasses the main factors of concern for the environmental footprint of
design spaces of architects, making it affordable to build increasingly a structure: 1) Shape efficiency (or amount of material used), 2) Foot­
complex structures made possible through computer aided design. With print of the material used, and 3) Service life (durability). This is fol­
this possibility, digital fabrication has increasingly been promoted as a lowed by a brief discussion of each of these terms. After that, the
means of reducing the environmental footprint of the construction material itself is elaborated upon in the context of concrete extrusion
sector in addition to enhancing its productivity [22–25]. (3D printing), the most widely applied of the technologies, and it is
A key argument for this is that digitally fabricated structures would underlined that in many cases, printed concrete is overdesigned and that
only use material where it is needed, thus enabling substantial material well-chosen accelerators can address that issue quite effectively.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (R.J. Flatt).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2022.106837
Received 18 April 2022; Received in revised form 12 May 2022; Accepted 12 May 2022
Available online 21 May 2022
0008-8846/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
R.J. Flatt and T. Wangler Cement and Concrete Research 158 (2022) 106837

2. Main factors of concern dfab House [34–37], HiLo [38,39], a topologically optimized concrete
girder [40], and the Striatus bridge [41].
The environmental footprint of a concrete structure is mainly The production of bespoke concrete structures is expensive due to
affected by: 1) total material usage, 2) embodied CO2 of the material, the aforementioned material and labor cost inversion within the past
and 3) durability. In first order it would be the product between the 100 years. This increased labor cost comes from the production of single
amount of material used and the environmental footprint per unit vol­ use formworks, so clearly digital fabrication also allows for a reduction
ume of that material, divided by the service life, as expressed with the in formwork waste, another potential benefit. Finally, a relatively un­
equation in Fig. 1. It is emphasized that this first order estimation is valid explored option for reducing total material impact could come from
for comparing structures of equivalent load-bearing capacities and does understanding how digital fabrication techniques can enhance (or
not take into account differences that could arise from variations in this. decrease) reusability of concrete structures [42].
Also, the environmental impacts of associated concrete processing
changes, such as use of formwork, or the previously mentioned opera­ 2.2. Material footprint
tional energy, are not explicitly considered in this relation.
The main claim of digital fabrication is that it can reduce the amount Despite the potential benefit of material savings, digital concrete
of material used. However, this generally goes along with an increase of often has a higher environmental footprint than ordinary concrete, at
the environmental footprint of the material, as well as a possible least for the most widely used technology of concrete extrusion
shortening of the service life, although the impact on durability is still [6,14–16,27,28]. This can be mitigated by reducing OPC in cement
being investigated. Such antagonisms imply that the outcome of envi­ through substitutions or use of recycled materials, exploring the use of
ronmental balances will generally not be trivial and certainly case spe­ alternative, lower CO2 binders, or reduction of paste content (increasing
cific. It calls for a more rigorous discussion of the subject, recognizing aggregate content). Each of these measures, however, do not apply
the real potential of material savings, without forgetting the negative uniquely to digital concrete and are explored for concrete in general.
aspects of the material composition and durability. In the following sub- Digital concrete's higher environmental footprint is primarily linked to
sections brief statements are provided on the role of each of the three its increased level of processing, including pumping, which typically
factors identified in Fig. 1. increases the volume of paste. Indeed, digital “concrete” should more
accurately be called digital “mortar” due to the fact that mix designs are
2.1. Shape efficiency usually without coarse (>4 mm) aggregate, although coarse aggregates
are starting to make a showing both academically and industrially
A main argument for digital fabrication is that it reduces the cost of [10,43–45]. In any case, the smaller maximum aggregate size limits the
producing structures that require less material to deliver a given load maximum packing fraction of aggregates, increasing the paste volume,
bearing capacity. Thereby it could enable very effective, but all too often which implies higher cement contents and carbon footprints. Table 1
marginalized, approaches to structural design [30]. In this regard, it is shows relevant characteristics of typical “standard” (non-digital) con­
worth looking back at the ribbed floor systems introduced by Pier Luigi cretes, and compares these same characteristics with some digital con­
Nervi, of which an example is shown in Fig. 2 [31–33]. cretes, subdivided into 1-component (1K) and 2-component (2K)
At the time these structures were built, concrete was expensive, but systems [46]. The cement contents are clearly much higher for the
labor was cheap. Today it is the opposite, which means that it has digital concretes, unless there is a significant amount of cement substi­
become cheaper to produce uniform floor slabs, using much more con­ tution, or a low paste volume (high aggregate content). Notably, for a
crete than is really needed [31]. This is a particularly meaningful comparable level of substitution, none of the digital concretes come
example since floors consume large volumes of concrete in buildings and close to cement contents of any of the standard concretes, except for
the savings are easy to imagine through the cavities seen in Fig. 2. Rushing et al. [47] and Mechtcherine et al. [43], which are the only “real
Making it again cost effective to produce such structures therefore concretes”, having coarse aggregates.
represents a good example of what digital fabrication claims about Also of note is that while digital concretes feature water to binder
sustainability could aspire to. Some recent examples where shape effi­ ratios more in line with infrastructure and high performance concrete,
ciency is specifically targeted through digital fabrication include: The its use has been primarily in a non-load bearing capacity, either as a lost

Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of the main factors affecting the environmental impact of a structural element with a given load-bearing capacity per year of ser­
vice life.

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Fig. 2. Ribbed floor system by Per Luigi Nervi at the Gatti Wool Factory [31,33].

Table 1
Characteristics of standard and digital concrete mixes, including ordinary Portland cement (OPC) content, paste volume, OPC substitution, and maximum aggregate
size Dmax. Digital concretes subdivided into 1K (1-component) and 2K (2-component) systems.
Concrete type/study w/b OPC [kg/m3] Paste volume [L/m3] OPC substitution [%] Dmax [mm]
1
Standard concretes Normal 0.60 ~250 ~275 ~20 32
Concrete masonry unit 0.65 ~180–250 ~240 ~20 10
Infrastructure 0.42 ~350 ~325 ~20 32
High performance 0.35 ~400–450 ~375 ~20 8–16
Digital concrete – 1K Le et al. [51] 0.28 579 532 30 2
Kazemian et al. [52] 0.43 540 489 10 4.75
Tay et al. [53] 0.46 558 639 30 2
Nerella et al. [54] 0.33 391 525 45 2
Chen et al. [55] 0.30 331 532 60 1
Rushing et al. [47] 0.44 419 437 10 9.5
Mechtcherine et al. [43] 0.30 350 438 41 8
Digital concrete – 2K Gosselin et al. [56] 0.23 800 612 18 <1
Anton et al. [57] 0.42 540 530 23 2
Boscaro et al. [58] 0.45 303 476 50 2
1
Numbers are estimated based off of various personal communications with industrial experts, practitioners, and from well-known textbooks [48,49]. CMU numbers
estimated from [50].

formwork for cast reinforced concrete, or as a replacement of concrete based on the research and experience of the authors and other published
masonry [10]. Thus, considering their current use, digital concrete research, that aluminum based accelerators offer an efficient way of
mixes often have double the cement content that is really required, ac­ using low-clinker cements in digital fabrication, thus opening a large
cording to Table 1. scope from reducing the environmental footprint similarly as in ordinary
The increased material impact can further be compounded by the concrete.
fact that the concrete 3D printing industry has been trending towards
drymix materials to better guarantee process performance, even if they
2.3. Durability
are more expensive [59]. These drymix mortars, besides having a small
maximum aggregate size, also require shipping to the printer location,
A final important factor to consider when discussing the sustain­
which can substantially raise the carbon footprint in a global market.
ability of digital concrete is its durability. In this regard, a matter of
The development of solutions that utilize local materials is an important
concern is that the dominant technology of extrusion printing can lead
goal for the field, and dovetails well with the goal of incorporation of
to cold joints between the layers [62,63]. How they form is a continued
coarse aggregate into digital concretes.
topic of research, but generally it depends on the material properties and
Finally, as further developed in Section 3, the processing of digital
condition of the extruded material and the previously deposited layer. It
concrete puts substantial requirements in terms of very early strength
is therefore affected by the time interval (contour length and printing
development [6,60,61]. It is argued that water reduction is not a very
speed), and appears also to be strongly affected by surface drying of the
effective way of dealing with those issues, while unnecessarily
substrate over the layer time interval [53,64–66]. If formed, cold joints
increasing the ultimate strength and embodied carbon. It is also argued,
can reduce the interlayer cohesion, but more importantly with respect to

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R.J. Flatt and T. Wangler Cement and Concrete Research 158 (2022) 106837

durability, they provide pathways for accelerated ingress of aqueous 3. The 2K approach
species and/or CO2 [67–72]. The behavior of digital concrete with
respect to freezing and thawing cycles is currently a topic of investiga­ At this stage, the argument made in Section 2.2, that a large number
tion, but preliminary evidence indicates a poor comparison with stan­ of digital concretes are often unnecessarily overdesigned, is elaborated
dard concretes as well [71–73]. With respect to open pathways for upon. To illustrate the argument, the reader is referred to Fig. 3. This
aggressive agents, digital concrete also has the additional challenge of shows schematically the strength development needed in 3D printing of
curing while completely exposed, essentially losing the formwork as a concrete, which we focus on in this section as the most widely applied
“skin” and placing it at a much higher risk of shrinkage cracking [74]. form of digital fabrication with concrete. It highlights three strength
Research on shrinkage problems unique to digital concrete are only now levels, each shown by a horizontal line:
being examined [75,76] but certainly will need to be increased in the
future. It is worthwhile to note that reduction of paste content is a simple 1. A printing strength, that conditions the stability of a single printed
way to mitigate shrinkage, so increasing maximum aggregate size is layer (tens to hundreds of Pascals).
useful not just for reducing material footprint, but also increasing 2. A building strength, which is critical and represents the make or
durability. break of most concrete 3DP. It implies strength having to reach tens
As for ordinary concrete, durability refers to the performance of a to hundreds of kPa over a production time up to several hours.
material under specific exposure conditions and for a specific use. Here 3. The design strength for the structure in service. It is desirable to go
it is important to distinguish structural applications, where reinforce­ slightly above this, but not too much, as this would mostly lead to a
ment is needed, from other cases, as the presence of reinforcement is higher environmental footprint.
responsible for most (but not all) concern with respect to ingress of
aggressive species. It is also worth highlighting the remarkable perfor­ Wangler et al. [6] highlighted that having a printable cement-based
mance of the Pantheon, a non-reinforced concrete structure, of which mix that is stable over more than about 0.5–1 m during production re­
the performance is conditioned by good structural design. Thus, digital quires more than just flocculation and should rely on the hydration of
fabrication can also aid in key design related aspects with respect to tricalcium silicate. In Fig. 3, this is highlighted by the building strength
durability, such as through designs that can minimize reinforcement level only being reached in the acceleration period (black continuous
[11,77]. line representing ordinary concrete). Reaching this under normal cir­
It is then essential to determine where digital fabrication technolo­ cumstances takes too much time, but once the acceleration period starts,
gies may best be applied and whether they require steel reinforcement. there is very little, to no open time remaining. Therefore, in practice,
One option is to largely give up on structural concrete and continue concrete is most often prepared with a retarder (discontinuous blue
competing with masonry, or only using printed concrete as a lost line). This alone, however, does not solve the problem unless an accel­
formwork [10]. This removes the complex challenge of reinforcing erator is used, typically delivered close to the printing head [80–82].
digital concrete. Alternatively, if structural applications are targeted, the Alternatively, concrete can be continuously mixed up-stream, but such
issue of reinforcement must be dealt with, and this encompasses a large solutions have a limited rate of early strength gain, making them most
amount of ongoing research [11,78,79]. Despite this, substantial prog­ suitable for structures with long contour lengths and limited re­
ress is still needed for most reinforcement strategies to be easily adopted quirements of vertical building rates. Such 1K approaches may also
and certified in practice. require periodic interruptions to allow the material to gain enough
strength before resuming the printing.
Various types of accelerators may be considered [61,80,82–86].
They must at least cancel any induced retardation. Moreover, it is

Fig. 3. Schematic representation of the key strength levels and time frames for digital fabrication with concrete. The different curves represent respectively Ordinary
Concrete, Retarded Concrete, Concrete (previously retarded or not) with addition of a C3S accelerator (a similar case, with an additional W/B reduction is also
shown) and finally the ABC solution for sustainable digital concrete (Aluminate Boosted Concrete). The initial area highlights the zone where most ABC benefits arise
in terms of high printing and building strength. The lighter colored shows the development of final strength, very much in line with that of ordinary concrete.

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R.J. Flatt and T. Wangler Cement and Concrete Research 158 (2022) 106837

beneficial for them to have a thixotropic effect, but this is not effective technology to this end. This is especially critical as the current incentives
over more than a few layers. To achieve a true acceleration of the main for implementation of digital concrete processes seem to be primarily
phase in cement (tricalcium silicate, or C3S), various calcium salts, or a cost driven, related to formwork and masonry labor, meaning that
suspension of C-S-H seeds may be used. As illustrated in Fig. 3 this can adoption of the technology based only on this is essentially accepting a
substantially shorten the induction period (black dotted line). However higher carbon footprint in exchange for reduced labor costs. There may
as also schematically shown in that figure, such accelerators do not offer yet be other societal benefits (or disadvantages) to these technologies,
a fast enough strength gain in the critical period where buildability is but those are beyond the scope of this paper, which is purely examining
most needed. They may also reduce the extruded strength because of the the environmental aspect.
water (and sometimes superplasticizers) they contain. The footprint of digital concrete itself is larger than that of ordinary
In a more general sense and for other approaches, it is tempting to concrete for various reasons. One concerns the use of a higher paste
remedy the lack of buildability by reducing the water content. This is volume, and can be addressed through material improvements to in­
illustrated in Fig. 3 for the case of an already accelerated concrete crease the maximum aggregate size, which also has other potential
(discontinuous and dotted line). While this improves the situation, it is benefits such as reduced shrinkage and greater incentive to use local
not very efficient and leads to a substantial increase in final strength. For materials. Another reason for the high carbon footprint appears to be
most purposes this leads to overdesigning the final strength and un­ from overdesign of final strengths and using high clinker cements. Both
necessarily increasing the CO2 footprint of 3D printed concrete. are a result of inefficiently aiming to fulfill the building strength re­
A much more satisfactory approach consists of using an aluminum- quirements. In contrast, using aluminum-based accelerators can deliver
based accelerator. These may be aluminum salt solutions, of similar strength gain when needed, while both avoiding the overdesign of final
nature to some shotcrete accelerators, or suspensions of calcium strength and enabling the use of carbon lean cements. Such compounds
aluminate cements [58,80,81,85–87]. In both cases, these compounds could therefore not only be considered for fast vertical building rates of
lead to a rapid precipitation of calcium aluminate hydrates, consuming slender (and more shape efficient) structures but also as a means of
large amounts of water and providing a rapid strength gain. As sche­ potentially lowering the environmental footprint of digital concrete.
matically illustrated in Fig. 3 (discontinuous red line), this cancels the However, when using such compounds, additional care must be taken,
retardation, but only slightly shortens the induction period for silicate as otherwise cold joints may form, and this could compromise dura­
hydration. Most important, however, is the very rapid strength gain that bility. Indeed, the impact of digital fabrication processes on concrete
is obtained in the production period, delivering a very good buildability durability must be further examined in light of durability's relationship
without either material or buckling failures [6,80,88–90]. It bears to environmental impact.
noting that this buildability is essential to be able to produce significant
cantilevering, a great benefit in the design and production of material CRediT authorship contribution statement
efficient structures. Equally important is that the final strength is not
much affected, so that printed concrete does not have to be overdesigned Robert J. Flatt: Conceptualization, Writing Original Draft, Review
to reach the requirements set out by its processing. The paradox is that and Editing.
these aluminum-based products have very little effect on C3S hydration. Timothy Wangler: Conceptualization, Writing Original Draft, Re­
They may be more accurately called “set accelerators” rather than view and Editing.
“hardening accelerators”, as the hardening accelerators tend to act on
the silicates, the primary strength-giving phase [82,91]. For the purpose
of this paper, these systems are called “aluminate boosted concrete”, and Declaration of competing interest
their greatest benefit is in this decoupling of the buildability needed
during production and the strength needed for structural service. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
The fundamental implication of the above is that the early strength interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
gain needed during digital fabrication is best delivered by aluminum- the work reported in this paper.
based accelerators that may be used without having to additionally
overdesign the final concrete strength. This greatly simplifies the opti­ Acknowledgements
mization of mix designs to use low clinker cements, as those de­
velopments are then to focus on strength levels of one day and beyond The authors are thankful to the Swiss National Science Foundation
[58]. The 2 K approach to digital concrete should therefore not only be for funding of the National Center for Competence in Research on Digital
viewed as a means of achieving high vertical build rates, but also as one Fabrication (Agreement # 51NF40-141853).
enabling a broader use of blended cements. The printable design space is
also much increased with this greater material control, which means References
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