Mobile Radio

Propagation
Models
Contents
 Free space propagation
 Basic Propagation models
o Reflection
o Diffraction
o Scattering
 Path Loss and Shadowing Models
Channel models for Wireless Communication
Physical models: Considers exact profile of the propagation
environment.
oModes of propagation considered: Free-space or LOS, reflection, and
diffraction.
oLine of sight (LOS) is the level of obstruction on the path between
two points. The level of obstruction in a LOS determines not only the
visibility from one point to another but also the quality of signal
reception for wireless transmissions, such as Wi-Fi.
 Statistical models: Takes an empirical approach.
oThe model is developed on measuring propagation characteristics in a
variety of environments. They are easy to describe and use than physical
models.
 Propagation models
Large-scale propagation models
o Characterize signal strength for large T-R separation (several hundreds
or thousands of meters)
o Compute local average received power by averaging signal measurements
over a track of 5
 to 40 
o Received signal decrease gradually
o Useful for estimating the coverage area of transmitters
Small-scale propagation models
o Characterize rapid fluctuations in the received signal strength over
very short travel distances (a few wavelengths)
o Signal is the sum of many contributors coming from different directions.
Thus phases of
received signals are random and the sum behave like a noise (Rayleigh
fading)
o Received power may vary by as much as 3 or 4 orders of magnitude (30 or
40 dB)
Free-Space Propagation Model
 Predict the
received signal strength when transmitter and receiver have clear, unobstructed LOS
path between them.
o Ex: Satellite communication system, microwave LOS system

 The received power decays as a function of T-R separation raised to some power.
 Free space power received by a receiver antenna is given by Friis free-space equation
𝑃𝑟(𝑑) = (𝑃𝑡𝐺𝑡𝐺𝑟𝜆2) / ((4𝜋)2𝑑2𝐿)
o Pt is transmitted power o Pr(d) is the received power
o Gt, Gr is the Tx, Rx antenna gain o d is T-R separation distance in meters
(dimensionless quantity) o  is wavelength in meters
o L is system loss factor not related to propagation (𝐿 ≥ 1). L = 1 indicates no loss in system
hardware (we consider L = 1 in our calculations)
 Aperture- the measure of the ability of the
antenna to effectively receive the power radiated
towards it.

Free-Space Propagation Model (cont.)

 The gain of an antenna G is related to its affective aperture Ae , by G = 4Ae / 2 where
o Ae is related to the physical size of the antenna
o  is related to the carrier frequency ( = c/f = 2c / c ) where
o f is carrier frequency in Hertz o c is speed of light in
meters/sec
o c is carrier frequency in radians per second
Isotropic radiator generally considered an reference antenna in wireless systems; radiates power
with unit gain uniformly in all directions.
Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is the amount of power that a theoretical isotropic
antenna emits to produce peak power density in the direction of maximum antenna gain.
EIRP = PtGt
 Antenna gains are given in units of dBi (dB gain with respect to an isotropic antenna)
What is Decibel (dB)
A logarithmic unit used to describe a ratio between two values of a physical
quantity (usually measured in units of power or intensity)
oThe ratio of two values 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 in dB is
 10 log (𝑃1/𝑃2) dB
oExample: 𝑃1 = 100 𝑊 and 𝑃2 = 1 𝑊
The ratio is 10 log(100/1) = 𝟐𝟎 𝒅𝑩
 dB unit is generally used to describe ratios of numbers with modest size.
dBm
 Indicates power ratio in dB with 1mW as the reference power
 Example: Transmit power = 100𝑊 in dBm is
Transmit power (dBm) = 10 log(100 𝑊 / 1 𝑚𝑊)
= 10 log(100,000)
= 50 𝑑𝐵𝑚
 Similarly

1 mW = 0 dBm 1 W = 30 dBm 10 W = 40 dBm

100 W = 50 dBm 106 W = 90 dBm

Free-Space Path Loss
Path loss is defined as the difference (in dB) between the effective transmitted
power and the received power
 Free-space path loss is defined as the path loss of the free-space model
𝑃𝐿(𝑑𝐵) = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑃𝑡/𝑃𝑟) = −10 𝑙𝑜𝑔[(𝐺𝑡𝐺𝑟𝜆2)/(4𝜋)2𝑑2]
Friis equation holds when distance 𝑑 is in the far-field of the transmitting
antenna
 The far-field or Fraunhofer region of a transmitting antenna is defined as the
region beyond the far-field distance 𝑑𝑓 given by:
o 𝑑𝑓 = 2𝐷2/𝜆  𝐷 is the largest physical dimension of the antenna
o Additionally 𝑑𝑓 >> 𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑓 >> 𝜆
Reference Distance, 𝑑0
 Friis free space eq. does not hold for 𝑑 = 0
 Received power reference point, 𝑑0 is used
𝑑𝑓 ≤ 𝑑0 ≤ 𝑑
𝑑0 should be smaller than any practical distance a mobile system uses
 The power received in free space at a distance greater than d0 is
Pr(𝑑) = Pr(𝑑0)(𝑑0/𝑑)𝑛 where 𝑑𝑓 ≤ 𝑑0 ≤ 𝑑
 Reference distance d0 for practical systems:
o For frequncies in the range 1 to 2 GHz
 1 m in indoor environments
 100 m to 1 km in outdoor environments
 Radio propagation mechanisms

Source: Radio Frequency and Wireless Communications - Scientific Figure on Research Gate
Reflection
Reflection occurs when wave impinges upon an obstruction
much larger in size compared to the wavelength of the signal
o Example: reflections from earth and buildings
Reflected waveform may interfere with the original signal
constructively or destructively
Reflection (cont.)
When a radio wave propagating in one medium impinges upon another medium having
different electrical properties, the wave is partially reflected and partially transmitted
o Perfect dielectric:
Part of the energy is transmitted into the second medium and part of the energy is reflected
back into the first medium
 no loss of energy in absorption
o Perfect conductor:
 All incident energy is reflected back into the first medium
 No loss of energy.

The fraction that is reflected is described by the Fresnel equation and is dependent upon the
incoming light's polarization and angle of incidence.
Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model
In a mobile radio channel, a single direct path between the BS and a
mobile is seldom the only physical means for propagation and the
Free space propagation model is inaccurate in most cases when used
alone. Two-ray model is
Based on geometric optics and it considers both the direct path and
a ground reflected propagation path
Reasonably accurate for predicting the large scale signal strength
over distances of several kilometers for mobile radio systems that use
tall towers.
Two-ray model (cont.)
The total received E-field, ETOT
is a result of the direct LOS
component 𝐸𝐿𝑂𝑆 and the ground
reflected component 𝐸𝑟
𝐸𝑇𝑂𝑇 = 𝐸𝐿𝑂𝑆 + 𝐸𝑟
Two-ray Model (cont.)
Using the method of images, path difference
between LOS and ground reflected path can be
calculated.
 For 𝑑 ≫ ℎ𝑡 + ℎ 𝑟 , path difference Δ is
2ℎ ℎ
Δ = 𝑑 ′′ − 𝑑′ ≈ 𝑡 𝑟
𝑑
Phase difference 𝜃∆ between the two E-field
components and the time delay between arrival
of the two components is
2𝜋∆ 4𝜋ℎ𝑡ℎ𝑟
𝜃∆ = ≈
𝜆 𝑑𝜆
Diffraction
Diffraction occurs when radio
wave is obstructed by an
impenetrable body or a
surface with sharp
irregularities (edges)
Due to bending of radio
waves it enables
communication between
devices with no line-of-sight
path
Diffraction (cont.)
Consider a transmitter-receiver pair in
free space
Obstacle of effective height h with
infinite width is placed between Tx and
Rx
o distance from transmitter = d1
o distance from receiver = d2
LOS distance between transmitter &
receiver is 𝑑 = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2
Scattering
Scattering occurs when obstacle size is less than or of the
order of the wavelength of propagating wave
Causes the transmitter energy to be radiated in many
directions
Occur due to small objects, rough surfaces, and other
irregularities of the channel.
For example: Lamp posts and street, etc.
 Number of obstacles are quite large
 Scattering follows same principles as diffraction
Scattering (cont.)
Received signal strength is often stronger than that predicted
by reflection/diffraction models alone
The EM wave incident upon a rough or complex surface is
scattered in many directions and provides more energy at a
receiver
Energy that would have been absorbed is instead reflected to
the receiver
o flat surface → EM reflection (one direction)
o rough surface → EM scattering (many directions)
Outdoor Propagation Model
Path Loss Models
Log-distance path loss model
 Average large scale path loss is
d 
PL(dB)  PL(d 0 ) 10n log  
 d0 

PL is ensemble average of all possible path loss values for

given value of d
On log-log scale path loss is a straight line with slope
equal to 10 n dB/decade
Path Loss Models
Log-Normal Shadowing Model
 Log normal
oIf 𝑌 is Gaussian RV and 𝑍 is defined such that 𝑌 = log 𝑍, then 𝑍 is log-
normal RV
 Shadowing
o Also called slow-fading
oAccounts for random variations in received power observed over
distances comparable to the widths of buildings
oExtra transmit power (a fading margin) must be provided to compensate
for these fades
Surrounding environment clutter may be vastly different at two different
locations having same T-R separation
References
1T. S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice (2nd edition), Pearson
Education, 2010.
2 S. Haykin and M. Moher, Modern Wireless Communications, Pearson Education, 2005.