SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND

ENVIROMENTAL ENGINEERING

Transport Engineering
CENG 3201

Chapter 3
Traffic Engineering
Tamru T.

2012 EC (2019/20 GC)

1st Sem
 Lecture Overview
 Traffic engineering studies
 Spot speed studies
 Volume studies
 Travel time and delay studies
 Parking studies

 Fundamental principles of traffic flow

 Traffic flow elements

 Flow-density relationships

 Fundamental diagram of traffic flow

 Mathematical relationships describing traffic flow

 Shockwaves in traffic stream 2

 Traffic Engineering Studies
 To reduce the negative impact of highways,
it is necessary to adequately collect
information that describes the extent of the
problems and identifies their locations.
Such information is usually collected by
organizing and conducting traffic surveys
and studies.
 Spot speed studies
 Volume studies
 Travel time and delay studies
 Parking studies 3
 Traffic Engineering Studies Cont…
 Traffic studies may be grouped into three
main categories
 Inventories:- provide a list or graphic display of existing
information, such as street widths, parking spaces, transit
routes, traffic regulations, and so forth.
 Administrative studies:- use existing engineering records,
available in government agencies and departments.
 Used to prepare an inventory of the relevant data.

 Dynamic studies:- collection of data under operational

conditions and include studies of speed, traffic volume,
travel time and delay, parking, and accidents.
4
 Spot speed studies
 Conducted to estimate the distribution of speeds of
vehicles in a stream of traffic at a particular location on a
highway.
 Uses to:-
 Establish speed zones
 Determine whether complaints about speeding are valid
 Establish passing and no-passing zones
 Design geometric alignment
 Analyze accident data
 Evaluate the effects of physical improvements
 Determine the effects of speed enforcement programs and
speed control measures
 Determine speed trends 5
 Spot speed studies Cont…

 Locations for Spot Speed Studies:- Depend on the

anticipated use of the results
1. Locations that represent different traffic conditions on
a highway or highways are used for basic data collection.
2. Mid-blocks of urban highways and straight, level
sections of rural highways are sites for speed trend analyses.
3. Any location may be used for the solution of a specific
traffic engineering problem.

6
 Spot speed studies Cont…
 Definitions of values that are used to describe
speed characteristics:
 Average speed

 Median speed
 Modal speed
 The ith-percentile spot speed
 Pace
 Standard deviation of speeds

7
 Spot speed studies Cont…
Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies
 The minimum sample size depends on the precision level desired.
 The confidence level is commonly given in terms of the level of significance (α),
where α= (100 - confidence level).
 Normal distribution have been used to develop an equation relating the sample size
to the number of standard variations corresponding to a particular confidence level,
the limits of tolerable error, and the standard deviation.

 Where: N= minimum sample size; Z = number of standard deviations corresponding

to the required confidence level 1.96 for 95 percent confidence level; σ = standard
deviation (mph); d = limit of acceptable error in the speed estimate (mph)
8
 Example 1
Determine the minimum sample size required for a spot
peed study on a rural highway if the confidence level for
the study is 95.0 percent and the tolerance 1.0mph Assume
a standard deviation of + 5.30mph.

Solution
Solve for N:-
N = [(1.96 x 5.3)/1]2
=108
The sample size should therefore be at least 108
9
 Spot speed studies Cont…

 Methods for Conducting Spot Speed Studies

1. Those that use road detectors,
2. Those that use Doppler principle meters (radar
type), and
3. Those that use the principles of electronics

10
 Road Detectors
 Classified into two general categories: pneumatic road tubes
(air impulse) and induction loops (electric resonance
circuit).
 Devices can be used to collect data on speeds at the same
time as volume data are being collected.
 The advantage of the detector meters is that human errors
are considerably reduced.
 The disadvantages are that
(1) these devices tend to be rather expensive, and
(2) when pneumatic tubes are used, they are rather
conspicuous and may, therefore, affect driver behavior,
resulting in a distortion of the speed distribution. 11
Road Detectors Cont…

pneumatic road tubes

12
Road Detectors Cont…

induction loops 13
 Doppler-Principle Meters

 Work on the principle that when a signal is

transmitted onto a moving vehicle, the change in
frequency between the transmitted signal and the
reflected signal is proportional to the speed of the
moving vehicle.
 The difference between the frequency of the
transmitted signal and that of the reflected signal is
measured by the equipment, and then converted to
speed in kmph or mph.
 The value of the speed recorded depends on that
angle.
14
Doppler-Principle Meters Cont…

RADAR/LIDAR Technology

15
 Electronic-Principle Detectors

 The presence of vehicles is detected through electronic

means, and information on these vehicles is obtained,
from which traffic characteristics such as speed, volume,
queues, and headways are computed.
 Not necessary to physically install loops or any other type
of detector on the road.
 Electronics is video image processing, sometimes referred
to as a machine-vision system.

16
 Electronic-Principle Detectors Cont…

Autoscope Systems
17
 Car No. Speed (kmph) ,ui
1 47
2 49
3 42
4 41

Example 2 5
6
7
45
48
42
8 51
9 58
10 32
For the data shown 11 32
above determine 12
13
53
46
Arithmetic mean 14 30
speed 15
16
41
47
Standard deviation 17 38
18 43
Median speed 19 45
Pace 20
21
55
60
Modal speed 22 47
85th percentile 23
24
49
41
25 44
26 51
27 37
28 40
29 55
18
30 38
 Cum %age
%age of
Ui Frequency of
Example… 30 1
Frequency
3%
Frequency
3%
32 2 7% 10%
37 1 3% 13%
38 2 7% 20%
40 1 3% 23%
41 3 10% 33%
42 2 7% 40%
43 1 3% 43%
44 1 3% 47%
45 2 7% 53%
46 1 3% 57%
47 3 10% 67%
48 1 3% 70%
49 2 7% 77%
51 2 7% 83%
53 1 3% 87%
55 2 7% 93%
58 1 3% 97%
60 1 3% 100% 19
 Example…
cumlati fr
120%
Cum %age of Frequency

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Speed (Ui) 20
Class Exercise

For the data shown below determine

 Arithmetic mean speed
 Standard deviation

 Median speed

 Pace

 Modal speed

th
 85 percentile

(You can use in class of 2mph )

21
Table 1 DATA COLLECTED FROM THE FIELD
(SPOT SPEED)
Speed
Car No. Car No. Speed (mph) Car No. Speed (mph) Car No. Speed (mph)
(mph)
1 35.1 24 54.2 47 34.8 70 56.4
2 44 25 52.3 48 52.4 71 48.5
3 45.8 26 57.3 49 39.1 72 45.4
4 44.3 27 46.8 50 37.1 73 48.6
5 36.3 28 57.8 51 65 74 52
6 54 29 36.8 52 49.5 75 49.8
7 42.1 30 55.8 53 52.2 76 63.4
8 50.1 31 43.3 54 48.4 77 60.1
9 51.8 32 55.3 55 42.8 78 48.8
10 50.8 33 39 56 49.5 79 52.1
11 38.3 34 53.7 57 48.6 80 48.7
12 44.6 35 40.8 58 41.2 81 61.8
13 45.2 36 54.5 59 48 82 56.6
14 41.1 37 51.6 60 58 83 48.2
15 55.1 38 51.7 61 49 84 62.1
16 50.2 39 50.3 62 49.8 85 53.3
17 54.3 40 59.8 63 48.3 86 53.4
18 45.4 41 40.3 64 45.9
19 55.2 42 55.1 65 44.7
20 45.7 43 45 66 49.5
21 54.1 44 48.3 67 56
22 54 45 47.8 68 49.1
23 46.1 46 47.1 69 49.2
22
 Volume studies
 Are conducted to collect data on the number of vehicles and/or
pedestrians that pass a point on a highway facility during a
specified time period.
 The data collected may also be put into subclasses which may
include directional movement, occupancy rates, vehicle
classification, and pedestrian age.
 Volume characteristics
 Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)

 Average Daily Traffic (ADT)

 Peak Hour Volume (PHV)

 Vehicle Classification (VC)

Standard Cars Minibus/Vans Bus truck /Large bus

23
 Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT)
 Volume studies Cont…
 Methods of Conducting Volume Counts
 Manual Method
Disadvantages of the manual count method are that
(1) it is labor-intensive and can therefore be expensive,
(2) it is subject to the limitations of human factors, and
(3) it cannot be used for long periods of counting.
 Automatic Method
Involves the laying of surface detectors (such as pneumatic
road tubes) or subsurface detectors (such as magnetic or
electric contact devices) on the road.
24
 Volume studies Cont…

Jamar Technologies
25
 Volume studies Cont…
Types of Volume Counts:- Depends on the anticipated use of the data to be
collected.
 Cordon Counts :- When information is required on vehicle
accumulation within an area, such as the central business district
(CBD) of a city, particularly during a specific time, a cordon count is
undertaken.
 Screen Line Counts:- In screen line counts, the study area is divided into
large sections by running imaginary lines known as screen lines,
across it. Traffic counts are then taken at each point where a road
crosses the screen line.
 Intersection Counts:- Intersection counts are taken to determine vehicle
classifications, through movements and turning movements at
intersections.
 Pedestrian Volume Counts
26
 Volume studies Cont…
 Expansion Factors from Continuous Count
Stations
 Hourly expansion factors (HEFs)

 Daily expansion factors (DEFs)

 Monthly expansion factors (MEFs) are computed as

27
 Example 4
A traffic engineer urgently needs to determine the AADT
on a rural primary road that has volume distribution
characteristics shown in tables shown below. She
collected the data shown below on Friday during the
month of February. Determine the AADT of the road.
7:00-8:00a.m 500
8:00-9:00a.m 635
9:00-10:00a.m 750
10:00-11:00a.m 810
11:00-12:00p.m 675

28
29
QUESTIONS?

30
 Travel time and delay studies
 Determines the amount of time required to travel from one point to another on a
given route.
 Information may also be collected on the locations, durations, and causes of delays.
 Applications of Travel Time and Delay Data
 Determination of the efficiency of a route with respect to its ability to carry traffic

 Identification of locations with relatively high delays and the causes for those

delays
 Performance of before-and-after studies to evaluate the effectiveness of traffic

operation improvements
 Determination of relative efficiency of a route by developing sufficiency ratings or

congestion indices
 Determination of travel times on specific links for use in trip assignment models

 Compilation of travel time data that may be used in trend studies to evaluate the

changes in efficiency and level of service with time 31

 Travel time and delay studies
Definition of Terms Related to Time and Delay Studies
•Travel time:- is the time taken by a vehicle to traverse a given section of a
highway
•Running time:- is the time a vehicle is actually in motion while traversing a give
section of a highway.
•Delay:- is the time lost by a vehicle due to causes beyond the control of the driver.
•Operational delay:- is that part of the delay caused by the impedance of other
traffic.
•Stopped-time delay :- is that part of the delay during which the vehicle is at rest.
•Fixed delay:- is that part of the delay caused by control devices such as traffic
signals.
•Travel-time delay :- is the difference between the actual travel time and the time
that will be obtained by assuming that a vehicle traverses the study section at an
average speed equal to that for an uncontested traffic flow in the section being
studied. 32
 Travel time and delay studies

 Methods for Conducting Travel Time

and Delay Studies
 Those using a test vehicle and
 Those not requiring a test vehicle.

33
 Those using a test vehicle
 Floating-Car Technique. In this method, the test car is driven by an observer along
the test section so that the test car "floats" with the traffic. This is repeated, and the
average time is as the travel time.
 The minimum number of test runs

 Average-Speed Technique. This technique involves driving the test car along the
length of the test section at a speed that, in the opinion of the driver, is the average
speed of traffic stream.
 Determines the amount of time required to travel from one point to another on a
given route.
 Information may also be collected on the locations, durations, and causes of delays.
 Applications of Travel Time and Delay Data
34
 Those using a test vehicle Cont…
 Moving-Vehicle Technique. In this technique, the observer makes a round trip on a
test section like the one shown in below, where it is assumed that the road runs east-
west.
 The time it takes to travel from X-X to Y-Y (Te), in minutes

 The time it takes to travel from Y-Y to X-X (Tw), in minutes

 The number of vehicles traveling west in the opposite lane while the test car is
traveling east (Ne)
 The number of vehicles that overtake the test car while it is traveling from Y-Y to
X-X, that is, traveling in the westbound direction (Ow)
 The number of vehicles that the test car passes while it is traveling from Y-Y to
X-X, that is, traveling in the westbound direction (Pw)
 The volume (Vw) in the westbound direction can then be obtained from the
expression

35
 Those using a test vehicle Cont…

 Similarly, the average travel time Tw in the

westbound direction is obtained from

Tw Tw Ow  Pw
 
60 60 Vw
60 * (Ow  Pw )
Tw  Tw 
Vw

36
 Example 5
The data below were obtained in travel time study
on a section of road using the moving –vehicle
technique. Determine the travel time and volume
in each direction at this section of the road.
East Test vehicle

West 37
 Run Travel No.Of veh. No.Of veh. That No.Of veh.
direction/ time Traveling in overtook test Overtaken by
no. (Min) opposite dir. vehicles test vehicles
Eastward
1 2.75 80 1 1
2 2.55 75 2 1
3 2.85 83 0 3
4 3 78 0 1
5 3.05 81 1 1
6 2.7 79 3 2
7 2.82 82 1 1
8 3.08 78 0 2
Westward
1 2.95 78 2 0
2 3.15 83 1 1
3 3.2 89 1 1
4 2.83 86 1 0
5 3.3 80 2 1
6 3 79 1 2
7 3.22 82 2 1
8 2.91 81 0 1
38
 Class Exercise
The data below were obtained in travel time study
on a section of road using the moving –vehicle
technique. Determine the travel time and volume
in each direction at this section of the road.
North Test vehicle

South 39
 Run Travel No.Of veh. No.Of veh. That No.Of veh.
direction/ time Traveling in overtook test Overtaken by
no. (Min) opposite dir. vehicles test vehicles
Northbound
1 55.1 712 11 7
2 61.7 677 3 4
3 55.3 681 7 10
4 52.4 733 4 5
5 57 660 10 9
6 56.6 685 9 8
7 50.5 704 5 2
8 51.8 698 11 13
9 52.1 710 10 5
10 54.9 695 9 9
Southbound
1 53 801 9 12
2 58.9 930 13 7
3 54.8 872 8 10
4 61.2 903 9 15
5 57 917 14 10
6 60.1 861 11 13
7 59.7 829 12 11
8 60.4 935 10 10
9 56.3 956 11 5
10 61.2 898 12 9
40
 Methods Not Requiring a Test Vehicle

 License-Plate Observations. The license-plate method requires

that observers be positioned at the beginning and end of the
test section. Each observer records the last three or four
digits of the license plate of each car that passes, together
with the time at which the car passes.

 Interviews. The interviewing method is carried out by

obtaining information from people who drive on the study
site regarding their travel times, their experience of delays,
and so forth.

41
 Parking studies

 On-Street Parking Facilities:- These are also

known as curb facilities. Parking bays are
provided alongside the curb on one or both
sides of the street.
 Off-Street Parking Facilities:- These facilities
may be privately or publicly owned; they
include surface lots and garages.
42
 Parking studies Cont…
 Definitions of Parking Terms
• A space-hour:- is a unit of parking that defines the use of a single parking
space for a period of 1 hr.
• Parking volume:- is the total number of vehicles that park in a study area
during a specific length of time, usually a day.
• Parking accumulation:- is the number of parked vehicles in a study area at
any specified time. These data can be plotted as a curve of parking
accumulation against time, which shows the variation of the parking
accumulation during the day.
• The parking load:- is the area under the accumulation curve between two
specific times.
• Parking duration :- is the length of time a vehicle is parked at a parking bay.
• Parking turnover:- is the rate of use of a parking space. It is obtained by
dividing the parking volume for a specified period by the number of parking
spaces. 43
Parking studies Cont…

On- Street
Parking
44
Parking studies Cont…

Off- Street
Parking 45
 Methods Parking studies
• A Inventory of existing parking facilities
• Collection of data on parking sites
• Identification of parking generators
• Information of parking demand and also
information of parking factors such as financial,
legal, administrative …

46
 Analysis of Parking Data
• The space-hours of demand for parking are obtained from the
expression
N
D   ( ni ti )
i 1

• Where: D= space vehicle-hours demand for a specific period of time;

N = number of classes of parking duration ranges;
ti = mid parking duration of the ith class;
ni= number of vehicles parked for the ith duration range

47
 Analysis of Parking Data
• The space-hours of supply are obtained from the expression
N
S  f  (t i )
i 1

• Where: S = practical number of space-hours of supply for a specific

period of time;
N = number of parking spaces available;
ti = total length of time in hours when the ith space can be
legally parked on during the specific period;
f= efficiency factor

48
 Example 6
The owner of a parking garage has observed that 20% of those
wishing to park are turned back every day during the open hours of
8 a.m. to 6 p.m. because of lack of parking spaces. An analysis of
data collected at the garage indicates that 60% of those who park are
commuters, with an average parking duration of 9 hr, and the
remaining are shoppers, whose average parking duration is 2 hr.
If 20% of those who cannot park are commuters and the rest are
shoppers, and a total of 200 vehicles currently park daily in the
garage, determine the number of additional spaces required to meet
the excess demand. Assume parking efficiency 0.9

49
QUESTIONS?

50
 Lecture Overview
 Fundamental principles of traffic flow
 Traffic flow elements
 Flow-density relationships
 Fundamental diagram of traffic flow
 Mathematical relationships describing traffic flow
 Shockwaves in traffic stream

51
 Fundamental Principles of Traffic Flow
 Traffic flow theory involves the development of mathematical
relationships among the primary elements of a traffic stream: flow,
density, and speed.
 Help the traffic engineer in planning, designing, and evaluating the
effectiveness of implementing traffic engineering measures on a
highway system.
 Uses:-
 To determine adequate lane lengths for storing left-turn vehicles on separate left-
turn lanes,
 The average delay at intersections and freeway ramp merging areas, and
 changes in the level of freeway performance due to the installation of improved
vehicular control devices on ramps
 Simulation, where mathematical algorithms are used to study the complex
interrelationships that exist among the elements of a traffic stream or
network and
 To estimate the effect of changes in traffic flow on factors such as accidents, travel
time, air pollution, and gasoline consumption. 52
 Traffic Flow Elements
 Flow (q):- is the equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles pass
a point on a highway during a time period less than 1 hr. It
can be determined by

Where: n = the no. of vehicles passing a point in the roadway in T secs

q = the equivalent hourly flow.
 Density (k):- sometimes referred to as concentration, is the
number of vehicles traveling over a unit length of highway at
an instant in time. The unit length is usually 1 Km or mile
thereby making vehicles per km or mile (vpk or m) the unit
of density.
53
 Traffic Flow Elements

 Speed (is the distance traveled by a vehicle

during a unit of time.)
o Time mean speed (ut ) is the arithmetic mean of the
speeds of vehicles passing a point on a highway during
an interval of time. n
1
ut   ui
n i 1
Where: n =number of vehicles passing a point on the highway;
ui = speed of the ith vehicle (m/sec)
54
 Traffic Flow Elements
o Space mean speed (us) is the harmonic mean of the
speeds of vehicles passing a point in a highway during an
interval of time. It is obtained by dividing the total
distance traveled by two or more vehicles on a section of
highway by the total time required by these vehicles to
travel that distance. n nL
us  n
 n

 (1 / u
i 1
i ) t
i 1
i

Where: ti = the time it takes the ith vehicle to travel across a

section of highway (see);
Ui =speed of the ith vehicle (ft/sec); L = length of section
of highway (ft) 55
 Traffic Flow Elements cont..
 The time-space diagram is a graph that describes the relationship between
the location of vehicles in a traffic stream and the time as the vehicles
progress along the highway.

 Time headway (h) is the difference between the time the front of a vehicle
arrives at a point on the highway and the time the front of the next vehicle
arrives at that same point.
 Space headway (d) is the distance between the front of a vehicle and the
front of the following vehicle. It is usually expressed in meter / feet.
56
 Spacing (s)
 Front bumper to front bumper distance between
successive vehicles
3 1
2

S2-3 S1-2

57
Headway (h)
 Time between successive vehicles passing a fixed
point
1
2

T=3sec

h1-2=3sec

58
 spacing

headway

59
 Speed (v) – ft/sec or mph ( m/sec or kmph)
 Flow (q) – veh/sec or vph
 Density (k) – veh/ft or vpm (veh/m or vpkm)
 Spacing (s) – ft/veh (m/veh)
 Headway (h) – sec/veh
 Clearance (c) – ft/veh (m/veh)
 Gap (g) – sec/veh
Remember, units are critical!
60
 Fundamental Relationships
 q=kv ………Flow

(veh/hr) = (veh/mi)  (mi/hr)

 h=1/q ………Headway

(sec/veh) = 1 / (veh/hr)  (3600)

 s=1/k ………Spacing

(ft/veh) = 1 / (veh/mi)  (5280)

61
 Example 7
i. A volume of 1650 vehicle per hour is observed at
intersection approach. Find the peak rate of flow
within the hour for the peak hour factor of
0.875.
ii. A traffic stream has an average head way of 2.2
seconds at 80km per hour. Calculate the rate of
flow and density.
iii. Determine the PHF for the given volume of
traffic in 1hr (15min interval)
 At T1=900vh at T2= 1200vh
 At T3= 1100vh at T4=1000vh
62
 Example 8

 A set of 10 vehicles has been observed for Vehicle Arrival Departure

80 sec on a road segment that is 300m. long. Numbers time (to) time (t) end
beg. of seg. of seg.
The vehicles enter at beginning of segment
1 0 41
and leave the end of segment as per the data 2 2 46
recording shown below. 3 3 49
Determine:- 4 5 50
5 10 53
a. Draw time space diagram (Time distance
6 13 55
plot) 7 15 75
b. Time mean speed 8 20 77

c. Space mean speed 9 25 79

10 35 80

63
 Flow-density relationships

 Flow = (density) x (space mean speed)

q  k * us
 Space mean speed = (flow) x (space headway)
us  q * d
 Density = (flow) x (travel time for unit distance)
k  q *t
 Average space headway = (space mean speed) x
(average time headway)
d  us * h
 Average time headway = (average travel time for unit
h  t *d distance) x (average space headway)64
 Fundamental diagram of traffic flow
 When the flow is very low, there is little interaction between individual
vehicles.
 The absolute maximum speed is obtained as the flow tends to zero, and it is
known as the mean free speed (Uf). slopes of lines OB, OC, and OE in
Figure (a) represents the space mean speeds at densities kb, kc, and ke,
respectively.
 The slope of line OA is the speed as the density tends to zero and little
interaction exists between vehicles. The slope of this line is therefore the
mean free speed (Uf)

65
 Mathematical relationships describing traffic flow
 Mathematical relationships describing traffic flow can be
classified into
 The macroscopic approach:- Considers traffic streams and
develops algorithms that relate the flow to the density and space
mean speeds.
 Green shields Model. Green shields carried out one of the earliest recorded
works, in which he studied the relationship between speed and density. He
hypothesized that a linear relationship existed between speed and density
 Greenberg Model. Use the analogy of fluid flow to develop macroscopic
relationships for traffic flow. He hypothesized that a natural logarithmic
relationship existed between speed and density.
 The microscopic approach:- which is sometimes referred to as
the car following theory or the follow-the-leader theory, considers
spacing between and speeds of individual vehicles.
66
 Green Shields Model

 He hypothesized that a linear relationship existed between

u
speed and density, which he expressed as u  u  * k s f
f

k j
u us
 Since q  u s k there for u  u .u  * q
s
2
f s
f

kj

u f dq
 Differentiating q with respect to we obtain 2u s  u f 
k j dus
k uf
 For maximum flow,  0 =>
dq k  2u
u
=> u
j s
j
at max flow 
du s f 2

67
 Green Shields Model
uf uf
us  u f 
k
, since q  u s k then
*k q  u f .k  *k2
j kj
 Differentiating q with respect to k,
dq uf
 u f  2k
dk kj

 we obtain for maximum q

dq u k
 0 => u  2k
k =>
f

j
f k at max flow
dk 2j

 The maximum flow can therefore be

k ju f
q max 
4
68
 Greenberg Model

 Using the fluid-flow analogy was developed by Greenberg in

the form u  c ln ks q  ck ln
j k
j
k k

kj
 Differentiating q with respect to k, we obtain dq
 c ln c
dk k
 For maximum flow dq  0 ln k  1 j

dk k
 Giving
ln k j  1  ln k o

kj kj
 That is, k
ln
o
and Substituting 1 for k gives uo  c
1 ln
o

 Thus, the value of c is the speed at maximum flow.

69
 Calibration of Macroscopic Traffic Flow
Models
 If a dependent variable y and an independent variable x are
related by an estimated regression function, then
y  a  bx
 The constants a and b could be determined from
 Where: n = number of sets of observations; xi = ith
observation for x; yi = ith observation for y
n
1 n  n 
1 n b n  xi y i    xi   y i 
a   y i   x i  y  bx b 
i 1 n  i 1  i 1
2

n i 1 n i 1 n
1 n 

i 1
xi    xi 
2

n  i 1 

70
 Calibration of Macroscopic …..

 The coefficient of determination (or square of the estimated

correlation coefficient) , which is given by
n

 i
(Y  y ) 2

R2  i 1
n

 i
( y
i 1
 y ) 2

Where: Yi is the value of the dependent variable as computed from the regression
equations.
The closer R 2 is to 1, the better the regression fir

71
 Example 9
 A study of freeway flow at a particular site has
resulted in calibrated speed-density relationship as
follow:-
U  57.5(1  0.008K )
 For this relationship determine
i. The free-way speed
ii. Jam density
iii. The speed-flow relationship (draw the graph)
iv. The flow-density relationship (draw the graph)
v. Capacity 72
 Example 9
q vs u
70
u q
60
0 0 50
10 1032.6 40

u
20 1630.4 30
30 1793.4 20
10
40 1521.6 0
50 815 -500 0 500 1000 1500 2000
57.5 -0.2875 q

k q
0 0
10 531 q vs k
15 762 2000
20 970
1500
25 1155
30 1317 1000
50 1735 q
60 1806 500 q vs k

100 1170
0
125 25 0 50 100 150
125.2 13.5216 -500
125.3 7.7686 k
125.6 -9.5456 73
 Exercise

I. Find the equation of the following relationship and which fit is better
among the two.
• linear relationship (Y=ax + b)
• logarithmic relationship (Y=aln(x) + b)
II. Transform these formulas to show the model of Green shields and
Greenberg and find Vo, Vf, Ko and Kj.
Data
III. Find k = k (u), q = q (u) and q = q (k) set` Speed u(km/hr) Density K (veh/km)
1 71 13
IV. Make a graph of v (k), q (v) & q (k) 2 62 22
3 41 45
4 13 96
5 22 75
6 31 58
7 49 33
74
 Introduction to Shock waves in traffic
streams.
 The sudden reduction in capacity due to accidents, reduction in the
number of lanes, restricted bridge sizes, work zones, a signal turning
red, and so forth, creating a situation where the capacity on the
highway suddenly changes from C1 to a lower value of C2, with a
corresponding change in optimum density from a value of k to a a
o

value of k b
o

 An observer will see that this point moves upstream as traffic continues
to approach the vicinity of the bottleneck, indicating an upstream
movement of the point at which flow and density change.
This phenomenon is usually referred to as a shockwave
in the traffic stream.
75
 Shock waves cont….

Kinematic and Shock Wave Measurements Related to Flow-Density Curve

76
 Shock waves cont…

 Types of shock waves

 Frontal stationary shock wave

 Backward forming shock waves

 Backward recovery shock waves

 Rear stationary and forward recovery shock waves

77
Shock waves cont….
The queue length at the
signalized intersection
during red signal length
r= length of red signal
RM  r * 13

The maximum queue

length. (ST)
r1334
ST 
34  13

78
Shock waves cont….

79
Shock waves cont….

80
Shock waves due to bottle neck
Shock waves cont….

q 2  q1
uw   12
k 2  k1

81
 Example 10
The traffic situation at some segment of the road section having
A volume of 1000veh/hr and the density about 16veh/km.
A truck entered at point P which is 1km from an upstream
bench mark at a speed of 16km/hr due to decrease speed the
the vehicles increase 75veh/km after 10min the truck leave the
stream. At a capacity condition flow1400veh/hr and density
44veh/km,
a) Determine the speed of all shock waves.
b) The point that shockwave start dissipating
c) The point that shockwave totally dissipating
d) Max queue length 82
 Example 11
Consider a case in one leg of a signalized intersection approach
in a city, whose traffic stream can be described by Greenshield
model, having a density of 55 vh/km/ln , a free flow speed of
80 km/h and the space mean speed of 50km/hr with a stop red
signal duration of 60sec.
a) Draw the flow – density (show only the two points) and
time- distance diagram of the shock wave.
b) What is the shock wave speed in the two scenarios?
c) How much queue length will be resulted in 60sec of red
signal time?
83
 Exercise

The southbound approach of a signalized intersection carries

a flow of 1000 veh/h/ln at a velocity of 50 mi/h. The
duration of the red signal indication for this approach is 15
sec. If the saturation flow is 2000 veh/h/ln with a density of
75 veh/mil/ln, the jam density is 150 veh/mi/ln, determine
the following:
a. The length of the queue at the end of the red phase
b. The maximum queue length

84
85