ANATOMY OF THE FOOT AND FOOTWEAR

Sobur Ahmed
Associate Professor
ILET, University of Dhaka

Any foot covering in the form of shoes, boots, sandals, slippers or hoses used for utility and/or
dress wear is termed as footwear. The term ‘footwear’ should not synonymous with ‘shoes’,
which are simply one category of footwear. Footwear can be protective, accommodative,
functional, therapeutic, standard, decorative, or a combination. Footwear is an envelope of foot,
which protect the foot and provide comfort to the user. The footwear is designed for foot care and
supports the entire body weight keeping the body erect, propels the body forward as in walking,
standing, running or working, etc.
Footwear is mainly two types- 1. Open type and 2. Close type footwear.
Close type footwear is also two types- a) Shoes and b) Boots.
Any foot coverings with a sturdy sole are called footwear. In case of shoes, the topline is always
staying under the ankle bone, whereas in case of boot topline is always above the ankle bone.

Bones of the foot:

Bones give strength, support body weight and protect the foot. In the foot there are short bones
and long bones. The short bones of the foot are mainly associated with weight bearing and the
long bones with movement.
The foot has 26 bones which are arranged in three groups- Tarsus, metatarsus and phalanges. All
held together by
ligaments, tendons,
nerves, muscles, tissues
and blood vessels.
The tarsus consists of 7
chunky bones form the
rear foot. They are
oscalsis (calcaneum),
talus (astragalus),

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navicular (scaphoid), cuboid and 3 cuneiforms.

 The tarsus contain the largest bone of the foot i.e. Oscalsis (calcaneum) known as heel bone.
 Metatarsus composed of 5 long thin bones comprises the mid foot, the first 3 connected to the
cuneiform and last 2 to the cuboids. Each metatarsal bone consists of a head in front, shaft in
middle and a base at the rear.
 There are 14 phalanges constituting toe bones. The big toe has two bones while each of the
other toes has three. The big toe bone is relatively large, because the big toe itself is the
workhorse of the toe group and thereby need more size and strength.
Sesamoid bones are the two extra pea size bones situated on the under surface of the big toe joint,
actually under the metatarsal head. They protect an important tendon that passes between them
and that attaches to the tip of the big toe. Most anatomists count 26 bones and called the
sesamoids extras.

Weight is distributed on the foot as follows-

 49% on the heel
 5% over the mid foot
 41% over the metatarsals
 5% over the phalanges

Joints of the foot

 A joint is the site where two or more
bones butt together. A foot has almost 38
joints.
 There are ankle joint, metatarso-
phalangeal joint and interphalangeal joint
in a foot.
 The ankle joint is formed by the bottom
part of tibia and fibula and upper part of the
Talus bone. It is the largest and most
important joint of the foot.

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Ligaments of the foot
 Ligaments are made up of strong, fibrous tissue placed around the joints to prevent the bones
from separating and protecting
them from other than normal
movement.
 When a joint has pressure
on it to move within its
normal range the ligaments
help to prevent this
movement.
 If the pressure is continued
the ligaments may stretch and
the bone may displace from its correct position.

Arches of the foot

A structure of the foot curved to resemble an arc or bow.
 Inner longitudinal arch
 Outer longitudinal arch
 Transverse arch
 Anterior metatarsal arch

Muscles of the foot

 Muscles provide the force to move the bones. They are only able to contract or relax so there
must be at least two antagonistic muscles controlling the movement at each joint and holding the
joint in balance.

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 One end of the muscle is connected to a bone but at the other end is extended and becomes a
tough non-elastic cord called tendon.

Footwear refers to garments worn on the feet, which originally serves to purpose of protection
against adversities of the environment, usually regarding ground textures and
temperature. Footwear in the manner of shoes therefore primarily serves the purpose to ease the
locomotion and prevent injuries.

According to McPhoil (1988) the structure of a shoe can be divided into two parts: an upper and
lower (or bottom part). Sections of the upper are made up of the vamp, quarter, toe cap, throat,
insole board, and topline. The sections of the lower shoe consist of an outsole, shank and heel.

The Upper of the Shoe

The upper of a shoe consists of all parts or sections of the shoe above the sole. These are attached
by stitches or more likely molded to become a single unit then the insole and outsole are attached.
The upper of the shoe consists of the vamp (or front of the shoe), the quarters (i.e. the sides and
back of the shoe), and the linings.

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Uppers are made in a variety of different materials, both natural and synthetic. Leather became
the obvious choice because it allowed air to pass through to and from the skin pores (breath) keep
feet at a constant temperature. The plastic properties of animal skins mould shoe leather to the
foot beneath. The ability for leather to crease over flexor surfaces further facilitates the function
of the foot. Ironically synthetics used as uppers display elastic properties, which mean shoe
uppers never quite adjusts to the
foot shape in the same way as
natural leather. Synthetics are
cheaper to mass-produce and are
now found in most footwear.
Synthetic surfaces provide
waterproofing and most leather
today has synthetic components.
An alternative shoe cover is
cotton corduroy woven fabrics
which provide lightweight breathable surfaces.

Vamp
The vamp covers the top (dorsum) of the foot (includes the tongue piece) and superior aspects
over the toes. The toe puff is reinforced and serves to give the shoe a shape as well as protect the
digits. The vamp is often made of more than one piece creating a decorative pattern. There are
various types of vamps suited to different styles of shoes.

Quarters
Quarters are the complete upper part of the shoe behind the vamp line covering the sides and
back part of the shoe. The top edge of the sides and back of the quarter describes the topline. In
athletic shoes the topline is usually padded and referred to as a collar. The medial and lateral
sections join in a seam at the posterior end of the shoe. In Oxford style lacing shoes, the eyelet
section is formed by the superior part of the quarter (while the underlying tongue is part of the
vamp). In the Gibson style the lacing segment forms part of the vamp. The heel section of the
quarter is frequently reinforced with a stiffener to help support the rear foot.

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The counter is a component of the quarter that stabilizes the hind foot in the shoe and retains the
shape of the posterior portion of the shoe. Counters are usually made from fiberboard or heat
molded plastic. Foxing (Rossi 2000, p68) is an additional piece of leather that covers the counter
externally. Sometimes a counter will extend medially to support the heel and prevent prolonged
pronation. In some children's shoes and athletic footwear, the stiffener is extended on the medial
of the arch to provide an anti-pronatory wedge.

Toe cap
Many shoes incorporate a toecap into the upper of the shoe. Toecaps are either stitched over or
completely replace the distal superior aspect of the vamp and can be made into a decorative
feature referred to as toe tips. The toe box refers to the roofed area over and around the part of the
shoe that covers the toes. The function of the toe box is to retain the shape of the forefoot and
allow room for the toes. The height and width of the toe box is dictated by shape of the last used
to construct the shoe. Certain types of non-athletic and athletic footgear will offer extra depth in
the toe box.

Lining
In quality shoes the quarters and vamps are lined to enhance comfort and durability. Linings may
consist of various materials i.e. leathers, fabrics, and manmade synthetics. The lining on the
insole segment is called 'the sock' and may be full-length, three-quarter or just the heel section.
Many linings are made of synthetic material and are usually confined to the quarters and the
insock.

The Sole
The term sole derives from 'solea' a Latin word meaning soil or ground.

Insole (inner sole)

A layer of material shaped to the bottom of the last and sandwiched between the outsole (and
midsole) and the sole of the foot inside the shoe. The insole covers the join between the upper

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and the sole in most methods of construction and provides attachment for the upper, toe box
linings and welting. This provides a platform upon which the foot can operate and separates the
upper from the lower. The insole board is necessary in shoes that are constructed using cemented
or Goodyear welt techniques because it is the attachment for upper and lower components. The
majorities of insole boards are made of cellulose and are treated with additives to inhibit bacterial
growth. Athletic footwear will often have a sock liner, a piece of material placed over the top of
the insole board.
Outsole
This is the outer most sole of the shoe, which is directly exposed to abrasion and wear.
Traditionally made from a variety of materials, the outsole is constructed in different thickness
and degrees of flexibility. Ideal soling materials must be waterproof, durable and possess a
coefficient of friction high enough to prevent slipping. Leather has poor gripping capabilities and
synthetic polymers are much preferred. There are also an infinite variety of surface designs. Extra
grip properties can be incorporated in the form of a distinctive sole pattern with well-defined
ridges. Alternatively they can be molded with cavities to reduce the weight of the sole. These
cavities need to be covered with a rigid insole or can be filled with light foam to produce a more
flexible sole. In some cases two or more materials of different densities can be incorporated into
the sole to give a hard wearing outer surface and a softer, more flexible midsole for greater
comfort. Synthetic soling materials will off the physical property of dampening down impact
levels (shock attenuation).

Shank
The shank bridges between the heel breast and the
ball tread. The shankpiece can be made from wood,
metal, fibreglass or plastic and consists of a piece
approximately 10 cm long and 1.5 cm wide. The
shank spring lies within the bridge or waist of the
shoe, i.e. between heel and ball corresponding to the
medial and lateral arches. The shankpiece reinforces
the waist of the shoe and prevents it from collapsing
or distorting in wear. The contour of the shank is determined by heel height. Shoes with low

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heels or wedged soles do not require a shank because the torque between the rear and forefoot
does not distort the shoe.

Heel
The heel is the raised component under the rear of the shoe. Heels consist of a variety of shapes,
heights, and materials and are made of a series of raised platforms or a hollowed section. The part
of the heel next to sole is usually shaped to fit the heel, this is called the heel seat or heel base.
The heel breast describes front face of the heel. The ground contact section is called the top piece.
Heels raise the rear of the shoe above the ground. A shoe without a heel or midsole wedge may
be completely flat. When the heel section sits lower than the forefoot the style is called a
'negative heel'.

Terminology of footwear
The following is a list of terms used to describe parts of the shoe. Some terms refer to parts that
all shoes have such as the sole, while other terms may only apply to certain types or style of shoe.
Upper: The entire part of the shoe that
covers the foot. This is the part of the
shoe above the sole and covers the foot
when worn. Together, the sole and
upper make up the entire shoe.

Toe cap: Shoes may have a toe cap in

the front upper of the shoe. Toe caps
can take various forms, but the distinct
types are: complete replacements for
the front upper of the shoe; stitched
over toecaps that add an extra layer to the upper; solid toe caps for protection, such as steel toe
caps. Stitch over toe caps may be decorative in nature. Toe caps help add strength to the upper
front of the shoe, an area that receives a lot of stress and wear from use.

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Vamp: The section of upper that covers the front of the foot as far as the back as the join to the
quarter.

Topline: The top edge of the upper.

Throat: The front of the vamp next to the toe cap. For shoes were the vamp and quarter panels
are one piece the throat is at the eye-stay.

Counter: A stiff piece of material at the heel of a shoe positioned between the lining and upper
that helps maintain the shape of the shoe. The counter helps strengthen the rear of the shoe.

Feather edge: The part of the shoe where the upper’s edge meets the sole.

Lining: Most shoes include a lining on the inside of the shoe, around the vamp and quarter.
These linings improve comfort, and can help increase the lifespan of the shoe.

Toe puff: A reinforcement material attached inside the upper toe area which provide support and
permanent shape of toe of the shoe. A toe cap is used in safety shoes instead of toe puff which
provide more protection to the users.

Quarter: The quarter is the upper part that covers the heel, rear and sides of the upper behind the
vamp. The heel section of the quarter is often strengthened with a stiffener, which helps support
the rear of the foot. Some shoe designs use a continuous piece of leather for the vamp and
quarter.

Sole: The entire part of the shoe that sits below the wearer’s foot. The upper and sole make up
the whole of the shoe. It is usually constructed of several layers:
Insole
The insole is the part of the sole that sits directly beneath the wearer’s foot. Its purpose is
to provide a comfortable layer above the joining of the upper to the sole.

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 Mid-sole
A mid-sole can be found on some shoes, and is a layer between the in-sole and the
outsole.
Outsole
The outsole is the layer of sole that is exposed to the ground. Due to the amount of wear
and stress this part of the shoe receives it is usually made of a very durable material. It is
also important that it provides enough friction with the floor to prevent the wearer from
slipping.

Heel: The heel is the part of the sole that raises the rear of the shoe in relation to the front. The
heal seat is the top of the heel that touches the upper; this is typically shaped to match the form of
the upper. The part of the heel that comes in contact with the ground is known as the top piece.

Top Piece: The part of the heel that comes in contact with the ground. Top piece is made of a
durable material that helps maintain friction with the ground.

Seat: Where the heel of the fit sits in the shoe. It normally matches the shape of the heal for
comfort and support.

Breast: The forward-facing part of the heel, under the arch of the sole.

Shank: A piece of metal inserted between the sole and the insole lying against the arch of the
foot.

Waist: The arch and in-step of the foot.

Welt: A strip of material that joins the upper to the sole. Often only found on better-constructed
shoes, this is a strip of leather found on the perimeter of the outsole. It works to connect the upper
to the outsole.

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LAST
The material of footwear upper is shaped to its required size and fitting on a mould which is
known as last.
Last design based on-
 The foot parameters
 Materials used in shoe fabrication
 Fashion and style
 Comfort parameters of the foot
 The types of construction

Relation between foot and last/Differences between foot and last-

1. Surface- Last surfaces are smooth to enhance better shape of shoe whereas the foot surfaces are
irregular and vary with individuals.
2. Outline: The outline of a last is regular and continuous wit a sharp feather edge. The foot has
no feather edge.
3. Substance- The last is hard and firm, while the foot is softer and more flexible.
4. Toes- The foot has separate toes; the toe end of a last is solid.
5. Heel curve- Greater on the last to help the upper grip the foot.
6. Heel pitch- not present in the foot.
7. Comb area- thinner on the last to help the grip the foot around the quarters.
8. Joint girth- greater on the last to allow the foot to flex in the shoe.
9. Length- the last is longer than the foot.
10. Toe spring- not present on the foot.
11. Dimension- identical on a pair of lasts; rarely identical on a pair of feet.

Materials used in last making

 Wood- Beech, Pine, Shal, Balsa, Maple
 Metal- Iron, Aluminum alloy
 Plastic- High density Polyethylene (HDPE)

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The material should shape to the dimensions and contours of the last and unaffected by humidity,
heat and withstand the stresses and strains during shoe fabrication.

The shoe is fabricated on the last and the last removed from the completed shoe.
 Solid block last
This last is usually made of wood. It is used for making chappal and sandal.
 Scoop block last
This last is used for making different types of footwear. The last has a wedge cut on the top
which can be detached from the main body of the last by a split pin after making footwear in it.
 Thong last
This last has a cut in front part and is used for making strap sandal.
 V-hinge last
This is vertical hinge last where the forepart and back part is attached by a spring. During
delasting, the last is bent in vertical direction. It is used for all types of shoe construction.
 C-hinge last
This is conventional last usually made of HDPE. With the c-hinge last the forepart and back part
is attached by a spring. During delasting, the last is bent in inward direction. It is used for all
types of shoe construction like oxford, derby, etc.
 Telescopic last
This is the last which is used for sophisticated shoes like court shoe, moccasin shoes, etc. where
top line is very tight fitted.

Metal bottom plate is attached under the last surface to ensure the protection of last bottom and
foot from the lasting tacks and nails. Different size bottom plate are used as-
 Lasts with complete bottom plate-- Vulcanised
 Lasts with half plated-- Moccasin
 Heel plated-- Welted, Moccasin, slip lasted
 No metal plate-- Veldtschoen, cemented, slip lasted

Terminology of last

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 Measurements: The majority of measurements are volume rather than the traditional length
and width associated with shoe fit.

 Throat opening: The distance from the vamp point to the back seam tuck.

 Length: The length measurement of the foot from the back of the heel to the tip of the longest
toe.

 Forepart of last: The portion of the last extending forward from the break of the joint to the
toe.

 Backpart of last: The portion of the last extending rearward from the break of the joint to the
back of the last.

 Tread line: The line on the bottom

of the last at the widest part. The foot
flexes during walking and the sole of
the shoes bent about this line.

 Heel height (pitch): The vertical

height between the underside of the
extreme end of the last and the ground
surface when the last is supported at
its tread line.

 Joint girth: The greatest dimension

around the last, passing through the
joint break.

 Instep girth: The dimension around

a last, passing through the instep point, i.e. the circumference around the foot at the instep.

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 Ball girth: This is the girth measurement around the ball of the last to determine the width and
volume allowance inside the shoe.

 Heel girth: The distance around the foot from the rear base of the heel to the top of the instep.

Waist girth: The smallest dimension around a last between the instep girth and joint girth, i.e. the
girth at the waist on the last.

 Long heel girth: The dimension around a last passing through the instep and heel featherline
point.

 Toe recede: This is the part of the last, which projects beyond the tip of the toes forming the
rounded contour of the front of the shoe. A tapering recede as in sharp toed shoes increases the
overall length of the shoe.

 Toe spring: The vertical distance between the base plane and the toe point of a last having the
desired heel elevation.

 Heel elevation: With the last position on the base plane, the vertical distance between the base
plane and the heel point is the heel elevation.

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Relation between toe spring and heel height:
Toe spring Heel height
12 mm 10 mm
11 mm 20 mm
10 mm 30 mm
9 mm 40 mm
8 mm 50 mm
7 mm 60 mm

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