Handbook of

Traffic Engineering Practices

For Small Cities

Kansas Department of Transportation

Kansas State University
Second Edition 2005
 2003
Disclaimer
The contents of these handbooks, Handbook of Traffic Control for Low-
Volume Rural Roads and the Handbook of Traffic Control Devices for Small
Cities primarily reflect the views of the Kansas State University project director,
who is responsible for the facts and accuracy of the data presented in them. The
contents do not necessarily reflect the views of the Kansas Department of
Transportation, nor any local agency in Kansas. The handbooks are meant
primarily to supplement the 2003 Manual Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD
2003) and assist in the proper applications of MUTCD 2003. Should there be
any discrepancy, actual or implied, MUTCD 2003 should be followed. These
handbooks do not constitute a standard, specification or regulation.

i
Handbook of
Traffic Engineering Practices
for Small Cities
The original 1983 edition of this handbook relied heavily on the Illinois Department
of Transportation Handbook of Traffic Engineering Practice for Small Cities (August
1980) and the Missouri Highway Commission handbook of the same name (April 1979).
The original handbook was a highway safety project sponsored by the Kansas
Department of Transportation (KDOT), Office of Traffic Safety in cooperation with the
Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation.

This revised, second edition was funded by the KDOT, K-TRAN program.

Project Director: Principal co-authors:

Dr. Eugene R. Russell Andy Haney
Professor Emeritus of Civil Engineering, Larry Mangan
Kansas State University. Bruce Remsberg
Eugene Russell
Assistant:
Vijay Kumar Kornala E.I.T.
Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering
Kansas State University

Project Monitors:
Lee Holmes, P.E. and Lynn Berges, P.E.
Kansas Department of Transportation
Bureau of Local Projects

ii
 Table of Contents

Ch. Title Page

Introduction ....................................................................................vi

1 Ordinances .....................................................................................1-1

2 Traffic Signs ..................................................................................2-1

3 Stop Signs ......................................................................................3-1

4 Speed Limits ..................................................................................4-1

5 Pavement Markings .......................................................................5-1

6 School Crossings ...........................................................................6-1

7 Traffic Signals ...............................................................................7-1

8 Flashing Beacons ...........................................................................8-1

9 Traffic Sign Inventory ...................................................................9-1

10 Traffic Crashes...............................................................................10-1

11 Roadway Lighting .........................................................................11-1

12 Railroad Crossings.........................................................................12-1

13 Parking...........................................................................................13-1

14 Driveways......................................................................................14-1

15 Commercial Development .............................................................15-1

16 Temporary Traffic Control ............................................................16-1

APPENDIX – A, Traffic Calming .................................................17-1

APPENDIX – B, Manage Roadway Access..................................18-1

APPENDIX – C, Modern Roundabouts ........................................19-1

APPENDIX – D, Retroreflective Sheeting ....................................20-1

iii
 List of Tables

Page
Table 2-1. Guideline for Advance Placement of
Warning Signs…………………………………………2-6
Table 3-1. Visibility Requirements for Stop Signs……………………..3-4
Table 4-1. Frequency Distribution Table…………………………….…4-6
Table 10-1. General Countermeasures for Accident Patterns and
Their Probable Causes………………………………....10-5
Table 12-1. Minimum Sight Distances for Combinations of
Highway and Train Vehicle speeds……………………12-7
Table 13-1. Parking Requirements by Land Use……………………….13-2
Table 13-2. Parking Layout Dimensions for Varying
Degrees of Angle Parking……………………….……..13-7
Table 13-3. Number of Spaces Required to Satisfy
ADA Regulations………………………….……….….13-10
Table 15-1. Summary of Trip Generation Rates…………………..……15-2

iv
 List of Figures
Page
Figure 2-1. Height and Lateral Location of
Sign Typical Installation…………………….2-4
Figure 4-1. Cumulative Speed Distribution Curve………………...4-7
Figure 5-1. Typical Two-Lane, Two-Way
Marking Applications……………………….5-4
Figure 5-2. Typical Types of Crosswalk Markings………………..5-7
Figure 5-3. Typical Crosswalk Markings for Exclusive
Pedestrian Phase that Permits
Diagonal Crossing…………………………..5-7
Figure 6-1. Standard School Signs…………………………….…...6-6
Figure 7-1. Maximum Mounting Height of Signal Faces
Located Between 12 Meters and
16 Meters From Stop Line………………….7-5
Figure 7-2. Horizontal Location of Signal Phases…………………7-6
Figure 7-3. Example Intersection…………………………………..7-10
Figure 10-1. Typical Collision Diagram…………………………….10-4
Figure 11-1. Typical Luminaire Mounting Arrangements…………..11-4
Figure 11-2. Typical Lightning Plan for Intersections…………..…..11-6
Figure 12-1. Typical Pavement Markings at Railroad-Highway
Grade Crossing………………………….…..12-4
Figure 12-2. Typical Highway-Railgrade Crossing Pavement
Markings…………………………………….12-5
Figure 12-3. Sight Distance Triangle for
Railroad Crossings…………………………..12-6
Figure 13-1. Curb Parking Configuration……………………………13-6
Figure 16-1. Construction Signs……………………………………..16-4
Figure 16-2. Typical Work Zone Signing……………………..……..16-5
Figure 16-3. Use of Hand Signaling Devices by Flaggers…….…..…16-10
Figure 18-1. Corridor Overlay………………………………….…….18-2
Figure 18-2. Inadequate Corner Clearance…………………………...18-3
Figure 18-3. Joint and Cross Access………………………....……….18-3
Figure 18-4. Cross Access…………………………………………….18-4
Figure 18-5. Shared Access…………………………………………..18-5
Figure 18-6. Reverse Frontage…………………………………….….18-5
Figure 18-7. Avoid Flag Lots………………………………………....18-6
Figure 18-8. Lots of Frontage Requirements…………………………18-6
Figure 18-9. Driveway spacing standards……..……………………...18-8

v
 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this handbook is to assist local officials in the application of

Traffic Engineering practices within their community. The traffic problems
encountered by local officials are not unique within their jurisdiction. Common
problems will generally have common solutions. The solutions to these
problems can, therefore, be identified from examples generated from the
experience of others. It is recognized that local officials receive questions
relative to traffic concerns on a daily basis. It is also recognized that most
communities in Kansas will not have constant access to professional traffic
engineering expertise. This handbook is written in a question and answer format,
answering key questions considered relevant to small city personnel. This
handbook will provide answers to those questions. It will provide methods for
developing the answers to other questions. It will also provide direction to other
sources of information.

The local official must also recognize that, regardless of the size of the
organization, there will be traffic-engineering issues beyond local abilities. The
local authorities must use judgment to determine when the use of outside help is
necessary. This handbook should be helpful in making that determination.

The primary resource for this handbook is the 2003 Manual on Uniform
Traffic Control Devices. It will often be referred to within the handbook as the
MUTCD 2003. The MUTCD 2003 is an essential tool for any agency concerned
with the placement and maintenance of traffic control devices. This manual can
be obtained from several commercial sources. It can also be accessed on the
Internet site at the following address:
http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/
The documents can be viewed there and are provided in a printable format.
The 31st Edition of the Standard Traffic Ordinance for Kansas Cities
(commonly referred to as the STO) was also used as a reference. It is
recommended that all Kansas Cities adopt this document by reference. The
League of Kansas Municipalities produces this document annually and will
provide assistance with its adoption.
Other references used are noted within the handbook.
The user of this handbook should recognize that the source documents
referenced might, and probably will, be revised. If any conflicts arise between
this handbook and the MUTCD 2003 or the STO, those documents shall govern.
Traffic control guidelines contained in this handbook do not necessarily
represent those used by the Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT) on
the State Highway System. All traffic control devices used on the State Highway
System within cities must comply with the policies of KDOT. Additions or
alterations cannot be made to traffic control devices on the State Highway

vi
System without prior approval of the Secretary of Transportation. The (KDOT)
District Engineer should be contacted when questions relative to state routes
arise.

Who can apply engineering practices?

According to KSA 74-7001, the practice of engineering is limited to those who
are “qualified . . . by reason of special knowledge and use of the mathematical,
physical, and engineering sciences and the principles and methods of
engineering analysis and design, acquired by engineering education and
engineering experience, who is qualified as provided in this act to engage in the
practice of engineering and who is licensed by the board” (Kansas Board of
Technical Professions) Also, KSA 74-7035 holds that individuals acting under
the direct supervision of a licensed person need not be licensed if the work
performed does not include “final designs or decisions”.

vii
 INDEX

INTRODUCTION

WHO CAN APPLY ENGINEERING PRACTICES? Page vii

CHAPTER 1: TRAFFIC ORDINANCES

ARE THERE LIMITS TO THE LOCAL CONTROL AND REGULATION OF

TRAFFIC? Page 1-1

IS AN ORDIANCE NECESSARY FOR EACH LOCATION IN THE CITY

HAVING SOME TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICE? Page 1-2

WHAT TYPES OF TRAFFIC CONTROL SIGNS, SIGNALS, AND DEVICES

REQUIRE AN ORDINANCE? Page 1-2

CAN A MUNICIPALITY REGULATRE ON PRIVATE PROPERTY? Page 1-

3

DO WARNING AND ADVISORY SIGNS, NEED TO BE COVERED BY

ORDIANCE? Page 1-3

WHAT STEPS SHOULD A MUNICIPALITY TAKE TO MAKE SURE

ORDINANCES ARE PROPER AND ENFORCEABLE? Page 1-3

CHAPTER 2: TRAFFIC SIGNS

WHAT DO “STANDARD, GUIDANCE, OPTION AND SUPPORT” MEAN?

Page 2-2

WHAT TYPES OF SIGNS ARE AVAILABLE FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL

AND MANAGEMENT? Page 2-2

ARE THERE A SPECIFIC MOUNTING HEIGHT AND LOCATION

REQUIREMENTS FOR SIGNS? Page 2-3

DO ALL SIGNS HAVE TO MEET CERTAIN SPECIFICATIONS IN SIZE,

SHAPE AND COLORING? Page 2-3

WHAT IS RETROREFLECTIVITY? Page 2-3

ARE THERE REQUIREMENTS FOR STREET NAME SIGNS? Page 2-5

21-1
DO NEW SIGN INSTALLATIONS HAVE TO BE APPROVED BY
ANOTHER AUTHORITY BEFORE A LOCAL JURISDICTION CAN
INSTALL SIGNS? Page 2-5

WHERE SHOULD WARNING SIGNS BE LOCATED? Page 2-5

ARE THERE REQUIREMENTS FOR STREET NAME SIGNS? Page 2-5

DO NEW SIGN LOCATIONS HAVE TO BE APPROVED BY ANOTHER

AUTHORITY BEFORE A LOCAL JURISDICTION CAN INSTALL SIGNS?
Page 2-5

WHAT ARE SUPPLEMENTAL SIGN PROCEDURE POLICIES? Page 2-7

CHAPTER 3: STOP SIGNS

WHEN SHOULD A STOP SIGN BE USED AT AN INTERSECTION? Page 3-

1

DO STOP SIGNS REALLY PROVIDE MORE EFFECTIVE INTERSECTION

CONTROL THAN YIELD SIGNS? Page 3-2

WHEN IS IT PERMISSABLE TO INSTALL A MULTI-WAY STOP? Page 3-2

THERE IS A STOP SIGN IN TOWN THAT DRIVERS SEEM TO MISS.

WHAT SHOULD BE DONE ABOUT IT? Page 3-3

CAN A STOP SIGN BE USED TO CONTROL EXCESSIVE SPEED? Page 3-

4

SHOULD A STOP SIGN BE PLACED NEXT TO A TRAFFIC SIGNAL IN

CASE THE POWER FAILS? Page 3-4

IF TRAFFIC VOLUME IS LOW AT AN INTERSECTION BUT THE

STREETS ARE CROSSED FREQUENTLY BY PEDESTRIANS, SHOULD A
STOP SIGN BE USED? Page 3-5

SHOULD A STOP SIGN BE USED AT A RAILROAD CROSSING? Page 3-5

ARE TURNABLE OR ROLL OUT STOP SIGNS PERMISSIBLE? Page 3-5

WHAT SHOULD BE DONE IF A STOP SIGN IS TO BE ADDED OR

REMOVED? Page 3-5

21-2
IS THERE A TRUE ENERGY SAVINGS REALIZED WHEN UNNEEDED
STOP SIGNS ARE REMOVED FROM AN INTERSECTION? Page 3-6

CHAPTER 4: SPEED LIMITS

IS THERE A MAXIMUM SPEED LIMIT ESTABLISHED BY THE STATE

OF KANSAS? Page 4-1

HOW CAN A LOCAL AUTHORITY CHANGE THE SPEED LIMIT FOR ITS
JURISDICTION? Page 4-2

WHERE SHOULD SPEED LIMIT SIGNS BE LOCATED? Page 4-2

HOW FAR APART SHOULD SPEED LIMIT SIGNS BE INSTALLED

ALONG THE ROADWAY? Page 4-3

IF RESIDENTS OF A NEIGHBORHOOD ARE REPORTING THAT CARS

ARE SPEEDING ON THEIR STREETS, SHOULD THE SPEED LIMITS BE
LOWERED TO SLOW THE DRIVERS DOWN? Page 4-3

HOW IS AN ENGINEERING STUDY IN ACCORDANCE WITH

ESTABLISHED TRAFFIC ENGINEERING PRACTICES CONDUCTED? Page
4-3

ARE THERE OTHER WAYS TO CONTROL VEHICLE SPEED? Page 4-7

WHAT IS TRAFFIC CALMING? Page 4-8

CHAPTER 5: PAVEMENT MARKINGS

WHAT TYPES OF PAVEMENT MARKINGS ARE USED? Page 5-1

WHAT COLORS CAN BE USED FOR PAVEMENT MARKINGS? Page 5-1

WHAT WIDTH AND SPACING REQUIREMENTS ARE USED FOR

LONGITUDINAL PAVEMENT MARKINGS? Page 5-2

WHEN SHOULD A BROKEN LINE BE USED? Page 5-2

WHAT TYPES OF LONGITUDINAL PAVEMENT MARKINGS (LINES)

SHOULD BE USED ON TWO-LANE ROADS? Page 5-3

SHOULD ALL ROADS HAVE A CENTERLINE? Page 5-3

21-3
UNDER WHAT SITUATIONS ARE PAVENENT EDGE LINES USED? Page
5-5

WHEN SHOULD STOP LINES BE USED? Page 5-5

WHERE ARE CROSSWALK MARKINGS NECESSARY? Page 5-5

WHAT COLOR AND WIDTH OF LINES ARE USED FOR CROSSWALKS?
Page 5-6

IF THE MOTORIST FAILS TO YIELD TO PEDESTRIANS AT A

CROSSWALK, CAN THE CROSSWALK'S VISIBILITY BE IMPROVED?
Page 5-7

CHAPTER 6: SCHOOL CROSSINGS

WHERE SHOULD SCHOOL CROSSINGS BE LOCATED? Page 6-1

WHO SHOULD BE INVOLVED IN DEVELOPING A SAFE SCHOOL

CROSSING PLAN? Page 6-2

HOW CAN ONE TELL IF A SCHOOL CROSSING IS UNSAFE? Page 6-2

WHAT ARE THE ALTERNATIVES FOR PROTECTING SCHOOL

CROSSINGS? Page 6-2

WHEN IS AN OVERPASS (OR UNDERPASS) JUSTIFIED AT A SCHOOL

CROSSING? Page 6-3

WILL A REDUCED SPEED LIMIT BE HELPFUL IN SAFEGUARDING

PEDESTRIANS AT SCHOOL CROSSINGS? Page 6-3

ARE THERE SITUATIONS WHERE SCHOOL SPEED LIMITS SHOULD

NOT BE POSTED? Page 6-3

WHEN SHOULD ADULT GUARDS OR STUDENT PATROLS BE USED

AT A SCHOOL CROSSING? Page 6-4

WHAT STANDARD TRAFFIC CONTROL SIGNS SHOULD BE USED FOR

SCHOOLS? Page 6-5

SHOULD PAVEMENT MARKINGS BE USED FOR CROSSINGS? Page 6-7

SHOULD A TRAFFIC SIGNAL BE INSTALLED AT A BUSY

INTERSECTION IF SCHOOL CHILDREN WILL CROSS THERE
FREQUENTLY? Page 6-7

21-4
CHAPTER 7: TRAFFIC SIGNALS

WHAT IS A TRAFFIC SIGNAL WARRANT? Page 7-1

WHAT WARRANTS MUST BE SATISFIED FOR A TRAFFIC SIGNAL

INSTALLATION? Page 7-1

WHAT DATA SHOULD BE COLLECTED FOR AN ENGINEERING

STUDY? Page 7-2

HOW IS THE DATA FOR AN ENGINEERING STUDY COLLECTED? Page

7-3

IN WHAT CASES WOULD A TRAFFIC SIGNAL NOT BE INSTALLED IF

A WARRANT IS MET? Page 7-3

HOW ARE THE NUMBER AND LOCATION OF SIGNAL FACES

DETERMINED? Page 7-4

WHAT IS MEANT BY CYCLE LENGTH? Page 7-7

WHAT IS MEANT BY SIGNAL PHASE? Page 7-7

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PRETIMED, SEMI-TRAFFIC

ACTUATED AND FULLY-TRAFFIC ACTUATED SIGNALS? Page 7-7

WHEN CAN PRETIMED SIGNALS BE USED? Page 7-8

WHAT CYCLE LENGTH SHOULD BE SELECTED FOR A PRE-TIMED

SIGNAL? Page 7-8

WHAT IS THE DESIRABLE LENGTH FOR THE YELLOW CHANGE

INTERVAL? Page 7-8

HOW IS THE TIMING OF A PEDESTRIAN SIGNAL DETERMINED? Page

7-9

HOW MUCH TIME SHOULD BE ALLOCATED TO EACH RIGHT-OF-

WAY (GREEN) INTERVAL? Page 7-9

HOW IS THE PHASE TIMING DETERMINED FOR TRAFFIC ACTUATED

SIGNALS? Page 7-12

WHAT IS A “DILEMMA ZONE”? Page 7-12

21-5
WHAT IS “STRETCH”? Page 7-13

WHAT IS “PASSAGE”? Page 7-13

ARE THERE ALTERNATIVES TO THE USE OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS? Page

7-13

CHAPTER 8: FLASHING BEACONS

WHEN SHOULD FLASHING BEACONS BE CONSIDERED? Page 8-1

USE AND MISUSE OF BEACONS Page 8-1

ENGINEERING STUDY Page 8-2

OVERHEAD BEACONS Page 8-2

IN SUMMARY Page 8-3

CHAPTER 9: TRAFFIC SIGN INVENTORY

WHAT INFORMATION SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN A SIGN

INVENTORY? Page 9-1

HOW SHOULD THE INVENTORY INFORMATION BE RECORDED AND

FILED? Page 9-2

HOW CAN THE CITY BENEFIT BY USING A SIGN INVENTORY

SYSTEM? Page 9-2

WHAT TYPE OF SYSTEM IS RECOMMENDED? Page 9-3

WHAT PREPARATION IS NECESSARY PRIOR TO CONDUCTING A

SIGN INVENTORY? Page 9-3

WHAT ARE THE FIELD DATA COLLECTION STEPS TO TAKE? Page 9-4

HOW CAN THE INVENTORY BE UPDATED? Page 9-5

CHAPTER 10: TRAFFIC CRASHES

WHY IS THIS CHAPTER TITLED TRAFFIC CRASHES INSTEAD OF

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS? Page 10-1

21-6
HOW SHOULD LOCAL CRASH RECORDS BE FILED? Page 10-1

HOW LONG SHOULD CRASH RECORDS BE RETAINED? Page 10-2

WHAT IS A SPOT MAP? Page 10-2

WHAT IS A COLLISION DIAGRAM? Page 10-3

WHAT IS A CONDITION DIAGRAM? Page 10-3

WHAT OTHER RECORDS SHOULD BE MAINTAINED? Page 10-3

WHAT MEASURES CAN BE EMPLOYED TO LOWER THE CRASH RATE

AT A LOCATION? Page 10-5

WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION OF THIS TYPE? Page 10-7

CHAPTER 11: ROADWAY LIGHTING

WHAT ILLUMINATION LEVELS SHOULD BE USED IN STREET

LIGHTING? Page 11-1

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PARTIAL VS. CONTINUOUS

LIGHTING? Page 11-2

WHAT IS THE MOST EFFECTIVE LIGHT SOURCE? Page 11-2

WHERE SHOULD STREET LIGHTING BE INSTALLED? Page 11-3

WHAT TYPE OF LUMINAIRE SPACING SHOULD BE USED? Page 11-3

WHAT MOUNTING HEIGHT SHOULD BE USED? Page 11-4

WHAT ADVANTAGE/DISADVANTAGES EXIST WITH VARIOUS

LUMINAIRE SUPPORTS? Page 11-4

WHAT IS A TYPICAL LAYOUT FOR INTERSECTION LIGHTING? Page

11-5

WHAT PROBLEMS ARE CAUSED BY GLARE? Page 11-5

WHAT TYPE OF ROUTINE MAINTENANCE IS REQUIRED FOR

LIGHTING INSTALLATIONS? Page 11-5

21-7
WHAT TYPES OF CRASHES MAY BE CORRECTABLE BY STREET
LIGHTING? Page 11-6

CHAPTER 12: RAIL-HIGHWAY CROSSINGS AT GRADE (GRADE

CROSSINGS)

WHAT FACTORS DETERMINE WHETHER A RAILROAD CROSSING IS

SAFE? Page 12-1

WHAT SIGNS AND MARKINGS SHOULD BE USED TO WARN

MOTORISTS OF A RAILROAD CROSSING? Page 12-3

WHAT CONTROL DEVICES AND SIGNALS ARE AVAILABLE FOR USE

AT A RAILROAD CROSSING? Page 12-3

HOW MUCH DISTANCE DOES A MOTORIST NEED TO SIGHT AN

APPROACHING TRAIN IN ORDER TO EITHER CLEAR THE TRACKS OR
TO STOP SAFELY? Page 12-5

CHAPTER 13: PARKING

HOW CAN THE NUMBER OF PARKING SPACES NEEDED IN VARIOUS

PARTS OF THE CITY BE DETERMINED? Page 13-1

WHAT CAN BE DONE IF PARKING IS INADEQUATE? Page 13-4

HOW MUCH SPACE IS NEEDED FOR EACH PARKING STALL? Page 13-4

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ON-STREET AND OFF-

STREET PARKING? Page 13-5

WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ON-

STREET PARKING? Page 13-5

WHERE SHOULD ON-STREET PARKING ALWAYS BE PROHIBITED?

Page 13-8

WHAT TYPES OF NO PARKING SIGNS CAN BE USED? Page 13-9

WHAT ARE THE REQUIREMENTS RELATIVE TO HANDICAP

ACCESSIBLE PARKING? Page 13-10

21-8
CHAPTER 14: DRIVEWAYS

WHAT FACTORS SHOULD A LOCAL AUTHORITY TAKE INTO ACCOUNT IN

PROVIDING GUIDELINES FOR DRIVEWAY CONSTRUCTION? Page 14-1

WHAT CRITERIA SHOULD BE USED IN DETERMINING WHERE

DRIVEWAYS CAN BE SAFELY LOCATED? Page 14-2

WHAT ARE THE DESIGN STANDARDS FOR A RESIDENTIAL

DRIVEWAY? Page 14-3

WHAT ARE THE DESIGN STANDARDS FOR A COMMERCIAL

DRIVEWAY? Page 14-3

WHAT ARE THE DESIGN STANDARDS FOR INDUSTRIAL

DRIVEWAYS? Page 14-4

WHAT IS THE RECOMMENDED GRADE FOR A DRIVEWAY? Page 14-4

HOW CLOSELY CAN DRIVEWAYS BE SPACED? Page 14-4

CAN A DRIVEWAY BE SHARED JOINTLY BY TWO ADJACENT

PROPERTY OWNERS? Page 14-5

ARE THERE GUIDELINES FOR DRIVEWAYS FOR SPECIAL USES? Page

14-5

CHAPTER 15: PRIVATE PROPERTY DEVELOPMENT

HOW MUCH TRAFFIC WILL BE GENERATED BY A NEW COMERCIAL

DEVELOPMENT? Page 15-1

HOW MANY ACCESS DRIVES ARE NEEDED TO ACCOMMODATE A

DEVELOPMENT? Page 15-2

WHAT ARE THE GUIDELINES TO DETERMINE IF A DEVELOPMENT

WILL NEED ADDITIONAL TRAFFIC LANES ALONG AN ADJACENT
STREET? Page 15-3

ARE THERE GUIDELINES FOR STREET AND AREA LIGHTING IN

COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT? Page 15-4

WHAT PROCESS MUST A DEVELOPER FOLLOW TO OBTAIN

NECESSARY PERMITS? Page 15-4

21-9
WHAT TYPES OF COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENTS HAVE SPECIAL
ACCESS REQUIREMENTS? Page 15-4

CHAPTER 16: TEMPORARY TRAFFIC CONTROL

WHAT ARE THE LOCAL RESPONSIBILITIES FOR WORK ZONE

TRAFFIC CONTROL? Page 16-1

WHAT TYPES OF SIGNS ARE AVAILABLE FOR WORK ZONE TRAFFIC

CONTROL? Page 16-1

IS THERE A SPECIFIC MOUNTING HEIGHT AND LOCATION FOR

THESE SIGNS? Page 16-2

WHICH WARNING SIGNS SHOULD BE USED FOR A TYPICAL WORK

ZONE SITUATION? Page 16-2

WHAT IS THE BEST PROCEDURE FOR INFORMING A CONTRACTOR

AS TO WHICH DEVICE TO USE FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL AT A WORK
ZONE? Page 16-3

HOW FAR IN ADVANCE OF THE WORK ZONE SHOULD THE

WARNING SIGNS BE PLACED? Page 16-3

WHAT TYPE OF DEVICES ARE MOST USEFUL FOR CHANNELIZING

TRAFFIC? Page 16-6

WHAT TYPES OF WARNING LIGHTS ARE AVAILABLE AND HOW

SHOULD THEY BE USED? Page 16-6

WHAT LENGTH OF TAPER SHOULD BE SELECTED TO CHANNELIZE

TRAFFIC FLOWS AROUND A REDUCTION IN PAVEMENT WIDTH?
Page 16-7

IS THERE A PROPER SEQUENCE FOR INSTALLING OR REMOVING

TRAFFIC CHANNELIZING DEVICES AND WARNING SIGNS? Page 16-7

IF FLAGGERS ARE NEEDED, WHAT SIGNALING TECHNIQUES

SHOULD THEY USE IN DIRECTING TRAFFIC? Page 16-8

ARE THERE CERTAIN RULES OF SAFETY WHICH A FLAGGER

SHOULD FOLLOW IN HIS / HER JOB? Page 16-8

21-10
WHAT TYPE OF RECORDS SHOULD BE KEPT OF THE SIGNS AND
OTHER DEVICES USED AT A WORK ZONE? Page 16-9

HOW OFTEN SHOULD AN INSPECTION BE MADE OF TRAFFIC

CONTROLS IN WORK ZONES? Page 16-11

WHAT ARE THE MOST COMMON DEFICIENCIES ENCOUNTERED

DURING INSPECTIONS? Page 16-11

DOES TEMPORARY TRAFFIC CONTROL HAVE TO BE ACCESSIBLE AS

DEFINED BY THE AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT (ADA)? Page
16-12

APPENDIX – A: TRAFFIC CALMING MEASURES

CLOSURES, DIVERSIONS, AND SEMI-DIVERSIONS, Page 17-2

MEDIANS AND ISLANDS, Page 17-3

SPEED BUMPS, HUMPS, TABLES, AND RUMBLE STRIPS, Page 17-3

CHOKERS AND BULB-OUTS, Page 17-3

CHICANES, Page 17-5

ROUNDABOUTS AND TRAFFIC CIRCLES, Page 17-6

APPENDIX – B: TEN WAYS TO MANAGE ROADWAY ACCESS

IN YOUR COMMUNITY

LAY THE FOUNDATION FOR ACCESS MANAGEMENT IN YOUR

LOCAL COMPREHENSIVE PLAN, Page 18-1

RESTRICT THE NUMBER OF DRIVEWAYS PER LOT, Page 18-2

LOCATE DRIVEWAYS AWAY FROM INTERSECTIONS, Page 18-2

CONNECT PARKING LOTS AND CONSOLIDATE DRIVEWAYS, Page 18-

3

PROVIDE RESIDENTIAL ACCESS THROUGH NEIGHBORHOOD

STREETS, Page 18-4

INCREASE MINIMUM LOT FRONTAGE ON MAJOR ROADS, Page 18-6

21-11
PROMOTE A CONNECTED STREET SYSTEM, Page 18-7

ENCOURAGE INTERNAL ACCESS TO OUTPARCELS, Page 18-7

REGULATE THE LOCATION, SPACING, AND DESIGN OF DRIVEWAYS,

Page 18-8

COORDINATE WITH THE DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION, Page

18-8

APPENDIX – C: MODERN ROUNDABOUTS

MODERN ROUNDABOUTS, Page 19-1

APPENDIX D: RETROREFLECTIVE SHEETING IDENTIFICATION

GUIDE

RETROREFLECTIVE SHEETING IDENTIFICATION GUIDE, Page 20-1

21-12
 APPENDIX – A

TRAFFIC CALMING MEASURES1

INTRODUCTION

Too much speed and too many vehicles are common complaints in many
urban communities. To address these public concerns, many jurisdictions are
tempted to adopt apparently easy solutions, such as lowering speed limits and/or
installing Stop signs. However, without consistent and increased enforcement,
speed limits lower than the 85th percentile are ineffective and not recommended.
Installation of Stop signs without proper warrants is never recommended.
Traffic calming offers an alternative solution.

Traffic calming is defined by the Institute of Traffic Engineers as “the

combination of mainly physical measures to reduce the negative effects of motor
vehicle use, alter driver behavior, and improve conditions for non-motorized
street users.”

The concept of traffic calming involves physical alterations to a road or

street, which cause or invite motorists to decrease driving speed and pay
increased attention to the driving task. Some results include reduced speeds and
volumes, reduced collision severity, reduced need for extraordinary law
enforcement, improved safety for pedestrians and bicyclists, and improved
access for all modes of traffic.

The cost of traffic calming measures can vary from a few thousand dollars
for closures, speed humps, and bulb-outs to $50,000 or more for extensive
roundabout designs.

Parts 2 and 3 of the MUTCD include recommendations for the signing and
marking of certain traffic calming measures. This resource should be consulted
for appropriate traffic control. Chapter 2C contains description of new signs for
traffic calming use, such as Speed Hump (W17-1) and Circular Intersection
(W16-12p).

When considering implementation of any traffic calming initiatives, it is

recommended to seek appropriate public input and support. Temporary
measures such as removable curbs and islands can be used to gauge public
reaction and support for any permanent implementation under consideration.

Common traffic calming measures include the following practices.

1
Reproduced with permission from "Iowa Traffic Control Devices and Pavement
Markings: A Manual for Cities and Counties", Iowa DOT, Ames, IA 2001

17-1
Closures, Diversions, and Semi-Diversions

These steps would have an obvious effect on reducing traffic volume on a

given road or street, but effects to adjacent routes must also be considered.

17-2
Medians and Islands

These installations can separate opposing traffic, prevent undesirable turns,

and reduce road or street width.

Speed Bumps, Humps, Tables, and Rumble Strips

These devices usually vary from 12 to 20 feet in length and consist of a

vertical displacement in pavement surface or, with rumble strips, an audible and
physical sensation to gain motorist attention.

Chokers and Bulb-Outs

These measures involve semicircular or longer extensions of curb or

roadside landscaping to invite drivers to slow down. Narrowing of the street to
permit easier pedestrian usage is also a potential benefit.

17-3
17-4
Chicanes

Chicanes are short, horizontal displacements in alignment that encourage

slower speeds

17-5
Roundabouts and Traffic Circles

While generally not considered a traffic calming measure, roundabouts

involve an intersection design that can often improve operation, reduce crashes,
and eliminate signal need. Extensive design recommendations are available for
roundabouts in particular. Traffic circles are small islands placed in
intersections. They are meant to reduce traffic speeds by requiring through
vehicles to navigate around the circle.

Still other measures such as landscaping, fencing, pedestrian crossings, and

lighting can have beneficial effects in slowing traffic and providing a safer
environment for all roadway users.

Traffic calming measures may also have negative impacts on snow removal,
bus and commercial traffic, and emergency response, etc., which should be
considered. Effects on surrounding routes should also be considered by viewing
potential traffic calming projects as part of the entire roadway network. Advice
from the Iowa Department of Transportation, ITE publications, and other
jurisdictions with traffic calming experience is also advisable.

Refer to Parts 2 and 3 of the MUTCD and “Pavement Markings” (D1) in

this manual for advice on signing and marking for certain traffic calming
measures.

17-6
17-7
This Page has been intentionally left blank

17-8
 APPENDIX - B

Ten Ways to Manage Roadway Access

In Your Community1
Costly improvements are not always the solution to safety and congestion
problems. Roads, like other resources, also need to be carefully managed.
Corridor access management strategies extend the useful life of roads at little or
no cost to taxpayers. Following are ten ways that you can make the most out of
your transportation system.

n
Lay the foundation for access management
in your local comprehensive plan.

To assure that your roadways are managed properly, your comprehensive

plan needs to address certain key issues. First, include goals, objectives, and
policies related to access management in the plan. Tailor policy statements to
advance the access management principles in this brochure. For example, a
policy could be adopted promoting interconnection of adjacent developments
along major roadways.

Second, make sure that your local transportation plan classifies roadways
according to function and desired level of access control. This hierarchy of
roadways is reinforced through roadway design and access standards in your
land development code. For example, arterials require a much higher level of
access control and different design standards than collectors or local streets.
Some roadways require special attention because of their importance, the need
for additional right-of-way, or due to significant access problems. These areas
may be designated for special treatment in the comprehensive plan.

Third, provide for a greater variety of street types with varying design
standards. Options could include access lanes, alleys, variations in on-street
parking, and so on. This reduces development costs, promotes compact
development, increases opportunities to interconnect streets, and helps save your
major thoroughfare system. Many communities have only a few residential

1
Reproduced with permission from Center for Urban Transportation Research,
University of Southern Florida, Tampa, Florida.

18-1
street design options that apply whether a subdivision has 8 homes or 80. Lack
of design flexibility impedes infill development and results in a monotonous
street layout. It can also cause a proliferation of substandard and inadequately
maintained private streets.

o
Restrict the number of driveways per lot.

Establish a basic requirement that driveways are limited to one per parcel,
with special conditions for additional driveways. Lots with larger frontages, or
those with needs for separate right and left-turn entrances, could be permitted
more than one driveway, in accordance with driveway spacing standards.
Limitations on new driveways may be established using a “corridor overlay”
approach, which adds new requirements onto the underlying zoning (see Figure
1). It is necessary to first identify and map the boundaries of all existing lots and
parcels along the corridor. Then you could assign one driveway to each mapped
parcel by right. This land may be further subdivided, but all new lots would need
to obtain access from the existing access point.

Original

Without Overlay

With Overlay

FIGURE 18-1. Corridor overlay

p
Locate driveways away from intersections.

Setting driveways and connections back from intersections reduces the

number of conflicts and provides more time and space for vehicles to turn or
merge safely across lanes. This spacing between intersections and driveways is
known as corner clearance. Adequate corner clearance can also be assured by
establishing a larger minimum lot size for corner lots. You could impose

18-2
conditional use limitations where adequate corner clearance cannot be obtained.
This helps assure that corner properties do not experience access problems as
traffic volumes grow.

FIGURE 18-2. Inadequate corner clearance

q
Connect parking lots and consolidate driveways.

Internal connections between neighboring properties allow vehicles to

circulate between businesses without having to re-enter the major roadway (see
Figure 3 and 4). Joint and cross access requirements in your land development
code can help to assure connections between major developments, as well as
between smaller businesses along a corridor.

FIGURE 18-3. Joint and cross access

Cross access also needs to be provided for pedestrians. Sidewalks are

typically placed far away from buildings on the right-of-way of major roadways,
or are not provided at all. Pedestrians prefer the shortest distance between two
points and will walk if walkways are provided near buildings. Joint and cross
access strategies help to relieve demand on major roadways for short trips,
thereby helping preserve roadway capacity. They also help to improve customer
convenience, emergency access, and access for delivery vehicles.

18-3
 FIGURE 18-4. Cross access

r
Provide residential access through neighborhood streets.

Residential driveways on major roadways result in dangerous conflicts

between high-speed traffic and residents entering and exiting their driveway. As
the number of driveways increase, the roadway is gradually transformed into a
high speed version of a local residential street. Subdivisions should always be
designed so that lots fronting on major roadways have internal access from a
residential street or lane (also known as “reverse frontage” – see Figures 5 and
6). Minor land division activity can be managed by establishing a restriction on
new access points and allowing land to be further subdivided, provided all new
lots obtain access via the permitted access point. A variation of this approach is
to allow lot splits on major roadways only where access is consolidated. Another
steps to prohibit “flag lots” along major thoroughfares. Some property owners
subdivide their land into lots shaped like flags to avoid the cost of platting and
providing a road. Instead, the flag lots are stacked on top of each other, with the

18-4
 FIGURE 18-5. Shared access

FIGURE 18-6. Reverse Frontage

18-5
 FIGURE 18-7. Avoid flag lots

“flag poles” serving as driveways to major roads (see Figure 7). This results in
closely spaced driveways that undermine the safety and efficiency of the
highway. Eventually, residents may petition for construction of a local public
road passing the cost of providing a subdivision road onto the community.

s
Increase minimum lot frontage on major roads.

Minimum lot frontages need to be larger for lots that front on major
roadways, than those fronting on local roads. Narrow lots are a problem on
major roads because they result in closely spaced driveways. Lots need to be
deeper and wider along arterials to allow adequate flexibility in site design and
to increase separation of access points (see Figure 8). Assuring an adequate lot
size also protects the development potential and market value of corridor
properties.

FIGURE 18-8. Lot frontage requirements

18-6
 t
Promote a connected street system.

As communities grow and land is subdivided for development, it is

essential to assure continuation and extension of the existing local street system.
Dead end streets, cul-de-sacs, and gated communities force more traffic onto
collectors and arterials. Fragmented street systems also impede emergency
access and increase the number and length of automobile trips. A connected
road network advances the following growth management objectives:
• fewer vehicle miles traveled
• decreased congestion
• alternative routes for short, local trips
• improved accessibility of developed areas
• facilitation of walking, bicycling, and use of transit
• reduced demand on major thoroughfares
• more environmentally sensitive layout of streets and lots
• interconnected neighborhoods foster a sense of community
• safer school bus routes

Connectivity can be enhanced by a) allowing shorter blocks (600 ft.) and

excluding cul-de-sacs from the definition of intersection; b) requiring stub
streets to serve adjacent undeveloped properties; c) requiring street connections
to nearby activity centers; d) requiring connections to or continuation of existing
or approved public streets; and e) requiring bicycle/pedestrian access-ways at
the end of cul-de-sacs or between residential areas and parks, schools, shopping
areas or other activity centers. It is also important to allow a greater variety of
street types.

u
Encourage internal access to outparcels.

Shopping center developments often include separate lots or “outparcels”

fronting on the major roadway. The outparcels are leased or sold to businesses
looking for highly valued corridor locations. Access to these outparcels should
be incorporated into the access and circulation system of the principal retail
center. This reduces the need for separate driveways on the major road, while
maintaining overall accessibility to the site. To accomplish this, establish that
development sites under the same ownership or those consolidated for
development will be treated as one site for the purposes of access management.
Then require a unified traffic circulation and access plan for the overall
development site.

18-7
 v
Regulate the location, spacing, and design of driveways.

Driveway spacing standards establish the minimum distance between

driveways along major thoroughfares (see Figure 9). These standards help to
reduce the potential for collisions, as travelers enter or exit the roadway. They
also encourage the sharing of access for smaller parcels, and can improve
community character by reducing the number of driveways and providing more
area for pedestrians and landscaping. The location of driveways affects the
ability of drivers to safely enter and exit a site. If driveways do not provide
adequate sight distance, exiting vehicles may be unable to see oncoming traffic.
In turn, motorists on the roadway may not have adequate time to avoid a crash.
Driveway design standards assure that driveways have an adequate design so
vehicles can easily turn onto the site. Standards also need to address the depth of
the driveway area. Where driveways are too shallow, vehicles are sometimes
obstructed from entering the site causing others behind them to wait in through
lanes. This blocks traffic and increases the potential for rear-end collisions.

FIGURE 18-9. Driveway spacing standards

w
Coordinate with the Department of Transportation.

The Florida Department of Transportation is responsible for access permits

along state roadways. [In Kansas, KDOT has this same responsibility – See page
14-1, Driveways.] Local governments oversee land use, subdivision, and site
design decisions that affect access needs. Therefore, State and local coordination
is essential to effective access management. Lack of coordination can undermine
the effectiveness of regulatory programs and cause unnecessary frustration for
permit applicants.

Timely communication is key to an effective review procedure. Begin by

establishing a coordinated process for review of access permits along state
highways. The state permitting official could have applicants send a copy of the
complete permit application to the designated local reviewing official. Prior to

18-8
any decision or recommendation, the state permitting official could then discuss
the application with the local reviewing official.

Property owners also may be required to submit the necessary certificates of

approval from other affected regulatory agencies, before a building permit is
issued. In Florida, this should include a “notice of intent to permit” from the
Florida Department of Transportation where access to the state highway system
is requested.

An effective method of coordinating review and approval between

developers and various government agencies is through a tiered process. The
first stage is an informal meeting and “concept review” period, which allows
officials to advise the developer about information needed to process a
development application. This includes information on required state and local
permits, and any special considerations for the development sites.

The concept review provides the developer with early feedback on a

proposal, before the preliminary plat or site plan has been drafted. Once the
preliminary plan is drafted, it can be checked to determine if additional
conditions are required for approval. The final plan that is formally submitted
should then require only an administrative review.

Local governments could also request a response from the FDOT prior to
approval of plats on the state highway system. Applicants could be required to
send a copy of the subdivision application to the state access permitting official.
This should occur early in the plat review process, preferably during conceptual
review. Early monitoring of platting activity would allow the Department of
Transportation an opportunity to identify problems and work on acceptable
alternatives.

Intergovernmental agreements or resolutions can facilitate coordination

between the state and local governments on access management. These tools can
be used to clarify the purpose and intent of managing access along major
thoroughfares, roadways that will receive special attention, and state and local
responsibilities for advancing access management objectives.

Additional References
“Model Land Development Regulations that Support Access Management,”
Center for Urban Transportation Research, 1994.
Williams, K., Marshall, M. “Managing Corridor Development,” Center for
Urban Transportation Research, 1996.
Williams, K., Forrester, R., “NCHRP Synthesis 233: Land Development
Regulations that Promote Access Management.” Transportation Research
Board, Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1996.

18-9
 Training Opportunities
“Access Management: Site Planning,” FDOT 1997 (A Training Unit), available
through Gary Sokolow.
“Land Development Regulations that Support Access Management,” FDOT
1997 (A Training Unit), available through Gary Sokolow.

Visit our Web Page at:

http://www.cutr.eng.usf.edu

For More Information, Contact:

Kristine M. Williams, AICP, Senior Research Associate
Center for Urban Transportation Research
(813) 974-9807
e-mail [email protected]

Gary Sokolow, Systems Planning Office

Florida Department of Transportation
(850) 488-9747
e-mail [email protected]

18-10
 APPENDIX – C

MODERN ROUNDABOUTS

The modern roundabout is the safest, most efficient form of intersection

traffic control available today. In this section, the term modern roundabout is
used to stress that these modern traffic control devices (TCDs) are distinctly
different from the big, high speed, generally confusing, circular intersections
built in the early 1900's. Some of these circular intersections, sometimes called
rotaries, still exist in the eastern USA. But they are not modern roundabouts.
The first modern roundabout was built in the USA in 1990. Keep in mind
anything built prior to that is probably not a modern roundabout and most likely
won’t have the characteristics that make them safe and efficient.

There is no doubt that modern roundabouts are much safer than all other
forms of intersection traffic control. This is a proven fact based on both USA
studies and worldwide studies. A USA study of intersections where modern
roundabouts replaced stop signs and traffic signals showed the roundabouts
reduced all crashes by about 40% and injury crashes by about 80%. Also, fatal
crashes can be expected to be reduced by 90%.

In regard to efficiency, modern roundabouts require less stopping and they

reduce delay to motorists. Studies of several roundabouts in Kansas by KSU
have shown that in regard to total stopping and delay they are comparable to
two-way stop controlled intersection, and have significantly less stopping and
delay (up to 80%) than four-way stop control and traffic signals.

In spite of the proven safety record and operational efficiency, there is often
unwarranted opposition by some persons. Usually the opposition is due to lack
of understanding of exactly what a modern roundabout is and/or confusing them
with the big, old traffic circles from years past or small traffic circles that may
be used for speed control at residential intersections. Thus, it is important that
people understand what a modern roundabout is and what it isn’t. The following
definitions from the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Roundabout
Guide are a good start (FHWA, 1999).

A roundabout is a type of circular intersection, but not all circular

intersections can be classified as roundabouts. In fact, there are at least three
distinct types of circular intersections:

19-1
 • Rotaries are old-style circular intersections common to the United
States prior to the 1960's. Rotaries are characterized by a large
diameter, often in excess of 100 m (300 ft). This large diameter
typically results in travel speeds within the circulatory roadway that
exceed 50 km/h (30 mph). They typically provide little or no
horizontal deflection of the paths of through traffic and may even
operate according to the traditional “yield-to-the-right” rule, i.e.,
circulating traffic yields to entering traffic.

• [Small] Neighborhood traffic circles are typically built at the

intersections of local streets for reasons of traffic calming and/or
aesthetics. The intersection approaches may be uncontrolled or stop-
controlled. They do not typically include raised channelization to guide
the approaching driver onto the circulatory roadway. At some traffic
circles, left-turning movements are allowed to occur to the left of
(clockwise around) the central island, potentially conflicting with other
circulating traffic.

• Roundabouts are circular intersections with specific design and traffic

control features. These features include yield control of all entering
traffic, channelized approaches, (i.e., raised splitter islands) and
appropriate geometric curvature to ensure that travel speeds on the
circulatory roadway are typically less than 50 km/h (30 mph). Thus,
roundabouts are a subset of a wide range of circular intersection forms.

Key features in the figure above are described below (Source FHWA, 1999).

19-2
Central island The central island is the raised area in the center of a
roundabout around which traffic circulate.

Splitter island A splitter island is a raised or painted area on an

approach used to separate entering from exiting traffic,
deflect and slow entering traffic, and provide storage
space for pedestrians crossing the road in two stages.

Circulatory The circulatory roadway is the curved path used by

roadway vehicles to travel in a counter-clockwise fashion around
the central island.

Apron If required on smaller roundabouts to accommodate the

wheel tracking of large vehicles, an apron is the
mountable portion of the central island adjacent to the
circulatory roadway.

Yield line A yield line is a pavement marking used to mark the

point of entry for an approach into the circulatory
roadway and is generally marked along the inscribed
circle. Entering vehicles must yield to any circulating
traffic coming from the left before crossing this line into
the circulatory roadway.

Accessible Accessible pedestrian crossings should be provided at all

pedestrian roundabouts. The crossing location is set back from the
crossings yield line, and the splitter island is cut to allow
pedestrians, wheelchairs, strollers, and bicycles to pass
through.

Bicycle Bicycle treatments at roundabouts provide bicyclists the

treatments option of traveling through the roundabout either as a
vehicle or as a pedestrian, depending on the bicyclist’s
level of comfort.

Landscaping Landscaping buffers are provided at most roundabouts to

buffer separate vehicular and pedestrian traffic and to encourage
pedestrians to cross only at the designated crossing
locations. Landscaping buffers can also significantly
improve the aesthetics of the intersection.

Inscribed The inscribed circle diameter is the basic parameter used

circle to define the size of a roundabout. It is measured
diameter between the outer edges of the circulatory roadway.

19-3
Circulatory The circulatory roadway width defines the roadway
roadway width width for vehicle circulation around the central island.
It is measured as the width between the outer edge of
this roadway and the central island. It does not include
the width of any mountable apron, which is defined to
be part of the central island.

Approach width The approach width is the width of the roadway used
by approaching traffic upstream of any changes in
width associated with the roundabout. The approach
width is typically no more than half of the total width of
the roadway.

Departure width The departure width is the width of the roadway used
by departing traffic downstream of any chances in
width associated with the roundabout. The departure
width is typically less than or equal to half of the total
width of the roadway.

Entry width The entry width defines the width of the entry where it
meets the inscribed circle. It is measured
perpendicularly from the right edge of the entry to the
intersection point of the left edge line and the inscribed
circle.

Exit width The exit width defines the width of the exit where it
meets the inscribed circle. It is measured
perpendicularly from the right edge of the exit to the
intersection point of the left edge line and the inscribed
circle.

Entry radius The entry radius is the minimum radius of curvature

of the outside curb at the entry.

Exit radius The exit radius is the minimum radius of curvature of

the outside curb at the exit.

19-4
 A modern roundabout has yield control on all entries. Vehicles in the circle
- on the one-way circulating roadway - have the right of way. It is no different
than a driver entering a through one-way roadway with traffic traveling left to
right from a street with a yield sign at the intersection. The driver looks to the
left and enters the roadway immediately if there is a sufficient gap; or if there is
not a sufficient gap yields until there is one. The only difference in entering a
modern roundabout compared to a one-way roadway is that the one-way
roadway being entered is curved.

In summary, compared to other forms of intersection traffic control, modern

roundabouts - different than older traffic circles or rotaries built prior to 1990 -
are safer, require less delay or stopping and have lower life cycle costs. The
costs associated with constructing and operating a modern roundabout are
considerably less than the costs of a traffic signal. In short, use of modern
roundabouts for intersection traffic control can save lives and money while
cutting air pollution, and motorists’ frustration by reducing stopping and delay.

19-5
This Page has been intentionally left blank

19-6
 APPENDIX – C

MODERN ROUNDABOUTS

The modern roundabout is the safest, most efficient form of intersection

traffic control available today. In this section, the term modern roundabout is
used to stress that these modern traffic control devices (TCDs) are distinctly
different from the big, high speed, generally confusing, circular intersections
built in the early 1900's. Some of these circular intersections, sometimes called
rotaries, still exist in the eastern USA. But they are not modern roundabouts.
The first modern roundabout was built in the USA in 1990. Keep in mind
anything built prior to that is probably not a modern roundabout and most likely
won’t have the characteristics that make them safe and efficient.

There is no doubt that modern roundabouts are much safer than all other
forms of intersection traffic control. This is a proven fact based on both USA
studies and worldwide studies. A USA study of intersections where modern
roundabouts replaced stop signs and traffic signals showed the roundabouts
reduced all crashes by about 40% and injury crashes by about 80%. Also, fatal
crashes can be expected to be reduced by 90%.

In regard to efficiency, modern roundabouts require less stopping and they

reduce delay to motorists. Studies of several roundabouts in Kansas by KSU
have shown that in regard to total stopping and delay they are comparable to
two-way stop controlled intersection, and have significantly less stopping and
delay (up to 80%) than four-way stop control and traffic signals.

In spite of the proven safety record and operational efficiency, there is often
unwarranted opposition by some persons. Usually the opposition is due to lack
of understanding of exactly what a modern roundabout is and/or confusing them
with the big, old traffic circles from years past or small traffic circles that may
be used for speed control at residential intersections. Thus, it is important that
people understand what a modern roundabout is and what it isn’t. The following
definitions from the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Roundabout
Guide are a good start (FHWA, 1999).

A roundabout is a type of circular intersection, but not all circular

intersections can be classified as roundabouts. In fact, there are at least three
distinct types of circular intersections:

19-1
 • Rotaries are old-style circular intersections common to the United
States prior to the 1960's. Rotaries are characterized by a large
diameter, often in excess of 100 m (300 ft). This large diameter
typically results in travel speeds within the circulatory roadway that
exceed 50 km/h (30 mph). They typically provide little or no
horizontal deflection of the paths of through traffic and may even
operate according to the traditional “yield-to-the-right” rule, i.e.,
circulating traffic yields to entering traffic.

• [Small] Neighborhood traffic circles are typically built at the

intersections of local streets for reasons of traffic calming and/or
aesthetics. The intersection approaches may be uncontrolled or stop-
controlled. They do not typically include raised channelization to guide
the approaching driver onto the circulatory roadway. At some traffic
circles, left-turning movements are allowed to occur to the left of
(clockwise around) the central island, potentially conflicting with other
circulating traffic.

• Roundabouts are circular intersections with specific design and traffic

control features. These features include yield control of all entering
traffic, channelized approaches, (i.e., raised splitter islands) and
appropriate geometric curvature to ensure that travel speeds on the
circulatory roadway are typically less than 50 km/h (30 mph). Thus,
roundabouts are a subset of a wide range of circular intersection forms.

Key features in the figure above are described below (Source FHWA, 1999).

19-2
Central island The central island is the raised area in the center of a
roundabout around which traffic circulate.

Splitter island A splitter island is a raised or painted area on an

approach used to separate entering from exiting traffic,
deflect and slow entering traffic, and provide storage
space for pedestrians crossing the road in two stages.

Circulatory The circulatory roadway is the curved path used by

roadway vehicles to travel in a counter-clockwise fashion around
the central island.

Apron If required on smaller roundabouts to accommodate the

wheel tracking of large vehicles, an apron is the
mountable portion of the central island adjacent to the
circulatory roadway.

Yield line A yield line is a pavement marking used to mark the

point of entry for an approach into the circulatory
roadway and is generally marked along the inscribed
circle. Entering vehicles must yield to any circulating
traffic coming from the left before crossing this line into
the circulatory roadway.

Accessible Accessible pedestrian crossings should be provided at all

pedestrian roundabouts. The crossing location is set back from the
crossings yield line, and the splitter island is cut to allow
pedestrians, wheelchairs, strollers, and bicycles to pass
through.

Bicycle Bicycle treatments at roundabouts provide bicyclists the

treatments option of traveling through the roundabout either as a
vehicle or as a pedestrian, depending on the bicyclist’s
level of comfort.

Landscaping Landscaping buffers are provided at most roundabouts to

buffer separate vehicular and pedestrian traffic and to encourage
pedestrians to cross only at the designated crossing
locations. Landscaping buffers can also significantly
improve the aesthetics of the intersection.

Inscribed The inscribed circle diameter is the basic parameter used

circle to define the size of a roundabout. It is measured
diameter between the outer edges of the circulatory roadway.

19-3
Circulatory The circulatory roadway width defines the roadway
roadway width width for vehicle circulation around the central island.
It is measured as the width between the outer edge of
this roadway and the central island. It does not include
the width of any mountable apron, which is defined to
be part of the central island.

Approach width The approach width is the width of the roadway used
by approaching traffic upstream of any changes in
width associated with the roundabout. The approach
width is typically no more than half of the total width of
the roadway.

Departure width The departure width is the width of the roadway used
by departing traffic downstream of any chances in
width associated with the roundabout. The departure
width is typically less than or equal to half of the total
width of the roadway.

Entry width The entry width defines the width of the entry where it
meets the inscribed circle. It is measured
perpendicularly from the right edge of the entry to the
intersection point of the left edge line and the inscribed
circle.

Exit width The exit width defines the width of the exit where it
meets the inscribed circle. It is measured
perpendicularly from the right edge of the exit to the
intersection point of the left edge line and the inscribed
circle.

Entry radius The entry radius is the minimum radius of curvature

of the outside curb at the entry.

Exit radius The exit radius is the minimum radius of curvature of

the outside curb at the exit.

19-4
 A modern roundabout has yield control on all entries. Vehicles in the circle
- on the one-way circulating roadway - have the right of way. It is no different
than a driver entering a through one-way roadway with traffic traveling left to
right from a street with a yield sign at the intersection. The driver looks to the
left and enters the roadway immediately if there is a sufficient gap; or if there is
not a sufficient gap yields until there is one. The only difference in entering a
modern roundabout compared to a one-way roadway is that the one-way
roadway being entered is curved.

In summary, compared to other forms of intersection traffic control, modern

roundabouts - different than older traffic circles or rotaries built prior to 1990 -
are safer, require less delay or stopping and have lower life cycle costs. The
costs associated with constructing and operating a modern roundabout are
considerably less than the costs of a traffic signal. In short, use of modern
roundabouts for intersection traffic control can save lives and money while
cutting air pollution, and motorists’ frustration by reducing stopping and delay.

19-5
This Page has been intentionally left blank

19-6
APPENDIX D

20-1
20-2
 CHAPTER 1

TRAFFIC ORDINANCES

INTRODUCTION

Municipalities have the authority to adopt ordinances for control of traffic

on their street systems. Ordinances may not, of course, conflict with State
Statutes, and they must be within the scope of those matters specifically
authorized by the State legislature. All municipalities have an obligation as well
to periodically review their ordinances and to update them as conditions change
and new needs arise.

The latest edition of the Uniform Vehicle Code (UVC) developed and
published by the National Committee on Uniform Traffic Laws and Ordinances
(NCUTLO), 1977 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036, may
serve as a useful reference in drafting local traffic ordinances.

ARE THERE LIMITS TO THE LOCAL CONTROL AND REGULATION

OF TRAFFIC?

Local governments may exercise control only over those portions of the
local streets or highway systems over which they have jurisdiction. If the
traveled portion of a street is under state jurisdiction, for instance, the
municipality may not regulate the speed. On the other hand, if the municipality
is responsible for maintaining the parking lanes on the same street, it may
regulate such parking. Most state Vehicle Codes permits local regulation of the
following traffic elements:

1. Standing or parking.

2. Traffic regulation by police officers or traffic signals.

3. Processions or assemblages on highways.

4. Designation of one-way streets.

5. Speed regulation in public parks.

6. Designation of "through" streets and Stop signs at intersections.

7. Permits for excess size and weight.

8. Regulation of bicycles, including licensing.

1-1
 9. Turn movements at intersections.

10. Speed regulations on city streets (see Chapter 4 for information on

setting speed limits).

11. U-turns

12. Jaywalking (establishment of pedestrian crossings).

13. Parking restrictions during snow removal.

14. Handicapped parking.

Other sections of the law permit local authorities to establish temporary or

permanent weight restrictions and to limit the use of highways by vehicle type
(establishment of truck routes). Any local regulation is effective and enforceable
only when the appropriate signs or other regulatory devices are in place.

IS AN ORDINANCE NECESSARY FOR EACH LOCATION IN THE

CITY HAVING SOME TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICE?

An ordinance must be passed which restricts or prohibits a specific traffic

operation. This ordinance must specify each location, street, or section within
the municipality to which it applies. In other words, if a city passes an ordinance
that prohibits parking at all times, the language of the ordinance must include
the names of all streets in the city and the specific locations where parking will
be prohibited. This underscores the need not only for making an initial
assessment of the location in the city that must be covered by ordinance, but also
the need for a periodic review of these locations to determine if changes are
necessary.

WHAT TYPES OF TRAFFIC CONTROL SIGNS, SIGNALS, AND

DEVICES REQUIRE AN ORDINANCE?

The MUTCD 2003 illustrates most of the standard devices now available
and details their appropriate uses. However, not all devices require an
ordinance. The following is a list of those, which should have ordinance
authority:

1. Stop Signs

2. Weight Limit Signs

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 3. Yield Signs

4. Truck Route or Truck Regulations

5. Speed Limit Signs

6. Prohibition Signs

7. Parking Signs

8. Loading Zone Signs

9. One-Way Street Signs

DO WARNING AND ADVISORY SIGNS, NEED TO BE COVERED BY

ORDINANCE?

Warning and advisory signs do not require ordinances, but all such signs do
need to conform to the shape, size and color indicated in the MUTCD 2003.

CAN A MUNICIPALITY REGULATE ON PRIVATE PROPERTY?

Normally, “no”. However, local government agencies may enter into

agreements with school boards, hospitals, shopping centers and apartment
complexes to establish and enforce traffic regulations in parking areas associated
with those facilities.

WHAT STEPS SHOULD A MUNICIPALITY TAKE TO MARE SURE

ORDINANCES ARE PROPER AND ENFORCEABLE?

A municipality should take steps to ensure that:

1. The ordinance deals with an activity over which the municipality has
jurisdiction and that it does not conflict with state statutes.

2. The ordinance is clear and specific in defining the activity being

regulated and the nature of the restriction or limitation.

3. The public is adequately notified through appropriate regulatory

devices.

4. All regulatory signs and other devices comply with the requirements of
the MUTCD 2003 and that any MUTCD 2003 specified warrants are,
in fact, met.

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1-4
 CHAPTER 2

TRAFFIC SIGNS

INTRODUCTION

Traffic signs are the most commonly used traffic control devices. They
provide regulatory, warning and directional information to motorists. The use of
traffic signs should be limited to those locations where they are needed. Traffic
signs are not needed to confirm rules of the road. To be effective, a traffic
control device should meet five basic requirements:

1. Fulfill a need.

2. Command Attention.

3. Convey a clear, simple meaning.

4. Command respect of road users.

5. Give adequate time for proper response.

Unfortunately, traffic signs are too often misused. In many instances the
wrong sign is used for an application. In many more, signs are used where none
should be. The need for standards in signs and their use was recognized many
years ago. The first such standard was published in 1927. These standards have
been perfected and expanded over the ensuing years to meet evolving traffic
conditions. The current standards are set out in the Manual on Uniform Traffic
Control Devices, 2003 Edition, referred to hereafter as MUTCD 2003. Local
authorities need to recognize their responsibilities in meeting these standards in
the traffic signs and other control devices they install. The following paragraph
is quoted from the MUTCD 2003 and is provided to emphasize the importance
of complying with these accepted standards.

“The Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) is

incorporated by reference in 23 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Part 655,
Subpart F and shall be recognized as the national standard all for traffic control
devices installed on any street, highway or bicycle trail open to public travel in
accordance with 23 U.S.C. 109(d) and 402(a).” Source: MUTCD 2003, page 1-
1.)

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WHAT DO “STANDARD, GUIDANCE, OPTION AND SUPPORT”
MEAN?

MUTCD 2003 has a new format. The old “shall,” “should” and “may”
statements have been replaced by sections labeled “standard,” “guidance” and
“option,” respectively, and sections labeled “support” have been added for
background material.

As defined in the MUTCD 2003, these are:

1. Standard: a statement of required, mandatory, or specifically

prohibitive practice regarding a traffic control device. All standards are
labeled, and the text appears in bold type. The verb shall is typically
used.

2. Guidance: a statement of recommended, but not mandatory, practice in

typical situations, with deviations allowed if engineering judgment or
engineering study indicates the deviation to be appropriate. All
Guidance statements are labeled. The verb should is typically used.
Guidance statements are sometimes modified by Options.

3. Option: a statement of practice that is a permissive condition and

carries no requirement or recommendation. Options may contain
allowable modifications to a Standard or Guidance. All Option
statements are labeled. The verb may is typically used.

4. Support: an informational statement that does not convey any degree of

mandate, recommendation, authorization, prohibition, or enforceable
condition. Support statements are labeled. The verbs shall, should, and
may are not used in Support statements.

WHAT TYPES OF SIGNS ARE AVAILABLE FOR TRAFFIC

CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT?

There are three (3) types of signs. These are classified according to their use.

1. Regulatory Signs give the driver notice of traffic laws and regulations
that apply at a given place or on a given roadway. To disregard these
signs is punishable by law. Examples: Stop Signs, Yield Signs, and
Speed Limits.

2. Warning Signs call attention to conditions in or around a roadway,

which are potentially hazardous to traffic operation. Examples are:
Curve, Signal Ahead, Stop Ahead, Slippery When Wet.

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 3. Guide Signs show route destinations, directions, distances, points of
interest and other geographical or cultural information including street
names and parking areas.

DO ALL SIGNS HAVE TO MEET CERTAIN SPECIFICATIONS IN

SIZE, SHAPE AND COLORING?

All regulatory and warning signs are required to conform to the MUTCD
2003. These guidelines are published by the Federal Highway Administration,
and are the law in the State of Kansas. There is more flexibility with the design
of guide signs and object markers, but where indicated in the MUTCD 2003,
some guide signs must meet certain specifications.

1. Table 2B-1 of the MUTCD 2003 provides information on the various

sizes of regulatory signs.

2. Table 2C-2 of the MUTCD 2003 provides information on the various

sizes of warning signs.

3. Table 2C-3 of the MUTCD 2003 provides information on the various

sizes of warning plaques.

WHAT IS RETROREFLECTIVITY?

Retroreflectivity is defined in the MUTCD 2003 as a property of a surface

that allows a large portion of the light coming from a point source to be returned
directly back to a point near its origin. Unless, specifically stated otherwise, all
signs shall be either retroreflective or illuminated to show the same size and
shape at night as in the daylight. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
is expected to publish guidelines on minimum sign retroreflectivity in the near
future. Illumination of a sign must be specific to that sign. The requirements
for illumination cannot be satisfied by general street lighting.

A guide to identification of types of retroreflective sheeting is contained in

Appendix D.

ARE THERE A SPECIFIC MOUNTING HEIGHT AND LOCATION

REQUIREMENTS FOR SIGNS?

1. Location - Signs should be located on the right hand side of the

roadway where drivers are in the habit of looking for them. Signs are
normally erected individually on separate posts or mountings, except
where one sign supplements another or they must be grouped. In urban

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 areas, two signs should generally not be located closer together than
100 feet along the street, except at intersections. All signs should be
located so motorists can see them without obstruction for a distance of
at least 200 feet.

Supplemental signs may be erected in a raised median

2. Height - Signs on roadsides in rural suburban areas should be mounted

at least five (5) feet above the level of the pavement or roadway edge
measured to the bottom of the sign. In an area where parking might
occur or where obstructions may block the motorist's view, the
clearance to the bottom of the sign should be a minimum of seven (7)
feet. If a secondary sign is mounted below a sign, the bottom of the
major sign shall be a minimum of eight feet and the bottom of the
secondary sign shall be a minimum of five (5) feet above the level of
the pavement edge. See Figure 2-1.

FIGURE 2-1. HEIGHT AND LATERAL LOCATION

OF SIGN TYPICAL URBAN INSTALLATION

3. Lateral Clearance - Signs need to be readily visible to motorists but

should not be so close to the roadway that they are a hazard to drivers
who leave the road. The minimum lateral offset from the edge of the
shoulder (or if no shoulder exists, from the edge of the pavement) to the
near edge of a roadside-mounted sign shall be six (6) feet. However, in
urban areas where lateral offsets are limited, a minimum lateral offset
of two (2) feet may be used. In addition, a minimum offset of one (1)
foot from the face of the curb may be used where sidewalk width is
limited or where existing poles are close to the curb. Stop and Yield
signs should not be placed more than ten (10) feet from the edge of the
pavement. The presence of underground utilities must be considered
when installing signs; however the minimum clearances may not be
violated due to location of such utilities.

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 4. Erection Details - Signs are normally mounted at right angles to the
direction of, and facing, the traffic they are intended to serve. The
installation of Parking signs, which may be installed at an angle of
between 30 degrees and 45 degrees to the line of traffic, is the only
exception to this standard. Should the mirror reflection of the sign
reduce its legibility, the sign may be turned slightly away from the road
(2 to 5 degrees). On curves, the sign should face approaching traffic
rather than be aligned with the road. Sign faces are normally vertical
but they can be tilted forward or backward on grades to improve the
viewing angle.

WHERE SHOULD WARNING SIGNS BE LOCATED?

Warning signs should be placed at locations on the basis of expected

vehicle speed and the action required on the part of the driver. Table 2-1 lists
the recommended distances at which these signs should be located in advance of
the condition of which they are warning (stop, curve, etc.). The two basic
criteria to determine the advance sign's placement are the approach speed and
the reduction in speed (or stop) required to comply with the sign message.

ARE THERE REQUIREMENTS FOR STREET NAME SIGNS?

Ground-mounted street name signs should be erected to identify every street

intersection. The lettering on ground-mounted street name signs should be white
on a green background with the letters at least six (6) inches high in capital
letters on six (6) inches upper case letters with 4.5-inch lower case letters. For
other types of signs the latest edition of the MUTCD should be studied. The
sign shall be retroreflectorized for nighttime visibility.

Street name signs should be mounted a minimum of seven (7) feet above
the pavement and normally not in conjunction with any other sign on the same
post. In residential districts at least one cross street sign is recommended at each
intersection. In business districts or on major arteries, street name signs should
be placed on diagonal corners so that they are located on the near left-hand and
far right-hand side of the intersection for traffic on the major street.

DO NEW SIGN INSTALLATIONS HAVE TO BE APPROVED BY

ANOTHER AUTHORITY BEFORE A LOCAL JURISDICTION CAN
INSTALL SIGNS?

According to K.S.A. 8-2005, placement of traffic control devices on local roads

is the responsibility of the local authorities having jurisdiction over said system.
Others wishing to place devices along roadways should receive approval,

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preferably written, from the appropriate authority. State authorities must
approve signs on a State highway in a city or local jurisdiction. Parking control
signs can be erected without state approval.

TABLE 2-1. Guidelines for Advance Placement of Warning Signs

(Source MUTCD 2003, Table 2C-4)
Advance Placement Distance1
Condition A:
Posted or Speed reduc- Condition B: Deceleration to the listed advisory
85th- tion and lane Speed (mph) for the condition4
Percentile changing in
Speed heavy 03 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
traffic2
5 5
20 mph 225 ft N/A N/A --- --- --- --- --- ---
25 mph 325 ft N/A5 N/A5 N/A5 --- --- --- --- ---
30 mph 450 ft N/A5 N/A5 N/A5 --- --- --- --- ---
35 mph 550 ft N/A5 N/A5 N/A5 N/A5 --- --- --- ---
40 mph 650 ft 125 ft N/A5 N/A5 N/A5 --- --- --- ---
45 mph 750 ft 175 ft 125 ft N/A5 N/A5 N/A5 --- --- ---
50 mph 850 ft 250 ft 200 ft 150 ft 100 ft N/A5 --- --- ---
55 mph 950 ft 325 ft 275 ft 225 ft 175 ft 100 ft N/A5 --- ---
60 mph 1100 ft 400 ft 350 ft 300 ft 250 ft 175 ft N/A5 --- ---
65 mph 1200 ft 475 ft 425 ft 400 ft 350 ft 275 ft 175 ft N/A5 ---
70 mph 1250 ft 550 ft 525 ft 500 ft 425 ft 350 ft 250 ft 150 ft ---
75 mph 1350 ft 650 ft 625 ft 600 ft 525 ft 450 ft 350 ft 250 ft 100 ft
Notes:
1
The distances are adjusted for a sign legibility distance of 175 ft for Condition
A. The distances for Condition B have been adjusted for a sign legibility
distance of 250 ft, which is appropriate for an alignment warning symbol sign.
2
Typical conditions are locations where the road user must use extra time to
adjust speed and change lanes in heavy traffic because of a complex driving
situation. Typical signs are Merge and Right Lane Ends. The distances are
determined by providing the driver a PIEV time of 14.0 to 14.5 seconds for
vehicle maneuvers (2001 AASHTO Policy, Exhibit 3-3, Decision Sight
Distance, Avoidance Maneuver E) minus the legibility distance of 175 ft for
the appropriate sign.
3
Typical condition is the warning of a potential stop situation. Typical signs are
Stop Ahead, Yield Ahead, Signal Ahead and Intersection Warning signs. The
distances are based on the 2001 AASHTO Policy, Stopping Sight Distance,
Exhibit 3-1, providing a PIEV time of 2.5 seconds, a deceleration rate of 11.2
ft/second2, minus the sign legibility distance of 175 ft.
4
Typical conditions are locations where the road user must decrease speed to
maneuver through the warned condition. Typical signs are Turn, Curve,
Reverse Turn or Reverse Curve. The distance is determined by providing a 2.5
second PIEV time, a vehicle deceleration rate of 10 ft/second2, minus the sign
legibility distance of 250 ft.
5
No suggested distances are provided for these speeds, as placement location is
dependent on site conditions and other signing to provide an adequate advance
warning for the driver.

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WHAT ARE SUPPLEMENTAL SIGN PROCEDURE POLICIES?

The general guidance given in the MUTCD 2003 for many signs,
particularly warning signs may be difficult to apply in urban situations. A literal
interpretation of the MUTCD 2003 may result in the placement of unnecessary
and excessive signs. A local authority should consider the adoption of
Supplemental Sign Procedure Policies. Such a policy will provide a basis for
reasonable signing actions taken by the local authority and demonstrates that
prior thought was given to these actions. The local authority should keep in
mind that these policies can not be used to violate standards set out in the
MUTCD 2003 and that the best protection from liability in signing actions is to
follow the latest version of the MUTCD.

EXAMPLE:
SUPPLEMENTAL SIGN PROCEDURES
CITY OF ____________________

The following standard signing procedures are not intended to circumvent

specific requirements of the Uniform Manual on Traffic Control Devices
(MUTCD). They are intended to provide guidance for installation of
certain signs, which may require some type of interpretation of the
MUTCD.

These procedures will be followed uniformly throughout the community

and, when there is no supplemental procedure outlined for a particular sign,
the City’s policy will be to follow procedures outlined in the MUTCD.

GENERAL NOTE:

In most instances it will not be necessary to install more than one warning
sign to warn of the same condition. It will also not be necessary to install
warning signs for a condition a vehicle will encounter after proceeding from
a location controlled by a stop sign, (R1-1).

Review and Approved:

(Signed by City Manager/Administrator, City Engineer, Director of Public

Works, Chief of Police or other applicable City Officials.)

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 TYPICAL SUPPLEMENTAL PROCEDURE:

SIGN SUPPLEMENTAL PROCEDURE 1

DATE:

Curve (W1-2); Reverse Turn (W1-3); Reverse Curve (W1-4) Curve,

Reverse Turn and Reverse Curve signs will be installed, as per the
MUTCD, on all arterial streets. (Note: A list of these streets should be
attached to the Policy Statement) On all other streets, where the speed limit
is 30 M.P.H. or lower, these sign will not be installed unless one or more of
the alignments contain a curve of 90 degrees or more.

Reviewed and approved:

Date:

Title:

It should be kept in mind that MUTCD 2003 states that the decision to use a
particular device at a particular location should be made on the basis of an
engineering study or the application of engineering judgment, and that
jurisdictions with responsibility for traffic control devices that do not have
engineers on their staffs should seek engineering assistance from others, such as
the State transportation agency, their county, a nearby large city or a traffic
engineering consultant. (MUTCD 2003 Section 1A.09)

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 CHAPTER 3

STOP SIGNS

INTRODUCTION

Stop signs have generally been used by authorities as a catch-all remedy for
a host of vehicle management problems. It is not difficult to figure out why they
are used so frequently. A stop sign is a low-cost device, easy to install and its
message is clear and universally understood. This chapter will help you
determine if stop sign control should be used.

The authorization and erection of stop signs shall be in accordance with the
applicable State Statute and the latest edition of the Manual on Uniform Traffic
Control Devices.

WHEN SHOULD A STOP SIGN BE USED AT AN INTERSECTION?

Stopping frequently at intersections can create problems for traffic flow. It

is irritating to motorists, particularly when they are stopped at locations with
little or no conflicting traffic. It also causes vehicles to use more fuel. It is
important therefore, that stop signs only be used where they are needed. The
question becomes, what situations and problems at an intersection are best
solved by installing a stop sign?

1. A stop sign is appropriate when a less frequently traveled road

intersects with a highly traveled road where application of the normal
right-of-way rule would not be reasonably safe.

2. A stop sign should be used on the minor street when it intersects a

through street, highway or road.

3. A stop sign can be used at “T” intersections, where the minor street
forms the base of the “T”.

4. Stop signs should be used facing a minor street at an unsignalized

intersection where several of the intersections along the intersecting
roadway are signalized.

5. Stop signs should be used at other intersections where high speed

traffic, a restricted view or frequent crashes indicate the need for stop
sign control.

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 Illogical installations should be avoided, such as stopping only one leg of a
four-legged intersection, or three legs at a four-legged intersection, or one of the
through legs of a “T” intersection. These illogical installations violate driver
expectations.

DO STOP SIGNS REALLY PROVIDE MORE EFFECTIVE

INTERSECTION CONTROL THAN YIELD SIGNS?

No! If there is adequate sight distance at an intersection and stop signs are
not warranted by volume, the use of yield signs is more effective as well as more
economical and energy efficient.

The use of stop signs where they are not needed causes disrespect for the
sign message among drivers, who will not stop unless they feel that there is a
reason to do so.

WHEN IS IT PERMISSABLE TO INSTALL A MULTI-WAY STOP?

Multi-way stops should only be used where justified and where traffic on
the intersecting roads is approximately equal. Multi-way stops can be used at a
location where a traffic signal is justified as a temporary measure until the signal
is in place.

An Engineering Study should be performed to determine if one of the

following conditions exist:

1. A crash record shows five (5) or more right-turn, left-turn, right-angle

and similar types of collisions, subject to correction by a multi-way
stop, have occurred within a 12-month period.

2. The total number of vehicles entering the intersection from both

approaches of the major street must average at least 300 vehicles per
hour for any eight (8) hours of an average day, and the combined count
of vehicles, pedestrians and bicycles entering from the minor street
equals at least 200 units per hour for the same eight (8) hours. The
average delay to the traffic entering from the minor road must be at
least 30 seconds during the highest hour.

3. If the 85th percentile approach speed of the major road is 40 miles per
hour or more, the minimum vehicular volume criteria is 70 percent of
the above.

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 4. If conditions 1 and 2 are met at 80 % of the full criteria, a multi-way
stop is justified. However, the reduction of 70% for the higher speed
approach cannot be included in this calculation.

Other criteria that may be considered are:

1. The need to control left-turn conflicts.

2. The need to control vehicle/pedestrian conflicts near locations that

generate high pedestrian volumes.

3. Locations where a road user, after stopping, cannot see conflicting

traffic and is not able to safely negotiate the intersection unless
conflicting traffic is also required to stop.

4. An intersection of two residential neighborhoods through streets of

similar design and operating characteristics, where multi-way stop
control would improve the traffic operation of the intersection.

THERE IS A STOP SIGN IN TOWN THAT DRIVERS SEEM TO MISS.

WHAT SHOULD BE DONE ABOUT IT?

Possibly the stop sign has been mounted in the wrong location, has very
poor reflectivity or is of insufficient size to be properly visible. The following
are some guidelines for selecting the proper size and location for these signs.

1. The normal stop sign is 30" x 30" in size. On low-volume local streets
and secondary roads with low approach speeds, a 24" x 24" size may be
used. For expressways or roads having a speed limit of 40 miles per
hour (mph) or greater, the sign size should be increased to 36" x 36", or
even 48” X 48” in special cases.

2. The proper location for a stop sign is illustrated elsewhere in following

sections of this handbook and MUTCD 2003 2b.06.

The STOP sign shall be located as close as practical to the intersection

it regulates, while optimizing its visibility to the road user it is intended
to regulate.

3. If your signs are of correct size and in the proper location, it is possible
that motorists are not being adequately warned of the need to stop. On
certain occasions, objects along the approach may be obscuring the
sign’s visibility, like trees or shrubs. Table 3-1 gives the minimum
distance back from the intersection that the sign should be visible for
various approach speeds. (Also refer to MUTCD 2003 Table 2C-4)

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 TABLE 3-1. Visibility Requirements for Stop Signs
(Based on MUTCD 2003 Table 2C-4)

Approach Speed Minimum Distance (Feet)

20 MPH a.
30 MPH a.
40 MPH 125
50 MPH 250
55 MPH 325

a. No suggested distances are provided for these speeds as the

placement location is dependent on site conditions and other signing to
provide an adequate advance warning to the driver (MUTCD, Table
2C-4, footnote 5.)

4. If the stop sign is not visible for the minimum distance shown in Table
3-1, and if the obstructing items cannot be removed, a "Stop Ahead"
sign should be used. The proper location for a "Stop Ahead" sign is
illustrated elsewhere in this handbook.

CAN A STOP SIGN BE USED TO CONTROL EXCESSIVE SPEED?

If the only reason for placing a stop sign at an intersection is to control

vehicle speed, it should not be used. Where stop signs have been used in an
attempt to control speeds, it has been observed that speeds downstream are
higher than if the stop signs were not there. Better options are available
including speed control signs, expanded enforcement and warning signs as
appropriate. Also, MUTCD 2003 states that stop signs should not be used for
speed control. (MUTCD 2003, Section 2B.05)

SHOULD A STOP SIGN BE PLACED NEXT TO A TRAFFIC SIGNAL

IN CASE THE POWER FAILS?

Stop signs should never be used in conjunction with a traffic signal. When
the traffic signal is operational, motorists will become confused about which
control device to obey. It is important that no more than one type of traffic
control sign or signal be used at any given location.

In case of power failure, stop signs may be installed as a temporary means

of controlling traffic. When power is restored, the stop signs are to be removed.

3-4
IF TRAFFIC VOLUME IS LOW AT AN INTERSECTION BUT THE
STREETS ARE CROSSED FREQUENTLY BY PEDESTRIANS,
SHOULD A STOP SIGN BE USED?

If traffic volumes are low, adequate traffic gaps should be available for
pedestrians to safely cross the roadway without the aid of stop signs. Stop signs
should not be used under such circumstances. More information concerning
traffic controls for pedestrians can be found elsewhere in this handbook.

SHOULD A STOP SIGN BE USED AT A RAILROAD CROSSING?

Stop signs are permissible at railroad crossings if visibility is insufficient to

see trains approaching the crossing and the crossing is not signal controlled.
Elsewhere in this handbook, there is information suggesting minimum sight
distance required. Under Kansas Statute 8-1552, the Secretary of Transportation,
and local authorities with approval of the Secretary, may erect stop signs at
grade crossings. Note that local authorities in Kansas cannot erect stop signs at
grade crossings without approval of the Secretary.

ARE TURNABLE OR ROLL OUT STOP SIGNS PERMISSIBLE?

Portable or part-time STOP signs shall not be used except in an emergency.

These types of signs are subject to vandalism (being turned at the wrong time or
in the wrong direction or of being removed). Consequently, driver expectations
can be easily violated, creating dangerous situations.

WHAT SHOULD BE DONE IF A STOP SIGN IS TO BE ADDED OR

REMOVED?

1. Prearrange a target date for the removal or addition of the sign.

2. Publicize the impending removal or addition through whatever media is

available (newspaper, radio, television, etc.). Make sure that the
publicity is widespread and is at least a week or two in advance.

3. If adding a sign, several days immediately preceding the target date,

erect the sign but keep it covered. Mount flags on the sign to begin
attracting the public’s attention to it.

4. If going from a multi-way stop to a two-way stop, it will be necessary

to place informational signs at the approaches which retain stop signs to
indicate that cross traffic does not stop. If going from multi-way stop

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 to uncontrolled, it will be necessary to place informational signs on all
the approaches that cross traffic does not stop. If going from a two-
way stop to uncontrolled, it will be necessary to place informational
signs on all the approaches that cross traffic does not stop. These
warning signs should be kept covered until the stop signs are removed
on the target date.

5. In the early morning hours of the target date, the signs can be removed
or added and informational signs uncovered, if applicable. It is
advisable to have law enforcement personnel present during the
removal or addition to direct traffic if necessary.

6. Leave the informational signs in place for 90 days so that local drivers
may fully adjust to the new conditions.

7. Conduct follow-up studies on the effects of the stop sign removal or

addition to include citizens' response and possible increase/decrease in
traffic accidents.

IS THERE A TRUE ENERGY SAVINGS REALIZED WHEN

UNNEEDED STOP SIGNS ARE REMOVED FROM AN
INTERSECTION?

Yes! Each time a vehicle slows, stops and accelerates, it consumes more
fuel (at a cost to the driver) than if it had been permitted to maintain its original
speed. Therefore, if it is possible for fewer vehicles to slow or to stop, the result
will be a true savings in energy and its cost.

3-6
 CHAPTER 4

SPEED LIMITS

INTRODUCTION

Speed limits are among the most important tools one can use to create and
maintain a safe traffic environment. But, as in all regulatory procedures, the
limits imposed must be reasonable and appropriate to the situation. Most drivers
tend to regulate their own speed according to traffic, road and weather
conditions. It is the normal driver's speed, which is used by traffic engineers as
a guide in setting speed limits.

Other factors must also be taken into account in setting appropriate speed
limits. School zones, for example, create special conditions and require special
consideration. The important point to remember is that speed regulations inform
the driver of the limits in which one can safely operate a vehicle under normal
circumstances and within which the driver can be expected to react safely to
driving problems. Setting speed limits at appropriate levels will create a
reasonably uniform flow of traffic, discourage violation of the law and help keep
streets and highways safe.

IS THERE A MAXIMUM SPEED LIMIT ESTABLISHED BY THE

STATE OF KANSAS?

The latest edition of the Standard Traffic Ordinance for Kansas Cities states
the following maximum speed limits, except in special cases as defined in the
State Statutes:

1. Twenty, (20) miles per hour in any business district.

2. Thirty, (30) miles per hour in any urban district.

3. Seventy, (70) miles per hour on any separated multilane

highway, as designated and posted by the secretary of
transportation.

4. Fifty-five, (55) miles per hour on any county or township highway.

5. Sixty-five, (65) miles per hour on all other highways.

These maximum speed limits may be altered as authorized by K.S.A. Supp.

8-1559 and K.S.A. Supp. 8-1560 and amendments thereto.

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HOW CAN A LOCAL AUTHORITY CHANGE THE SPEED LIMIT FOR
ITS JURISDICTION?

There are limitations in changes to which a local authority is restricted.

Authorization from KDOT is needed to change the speed limit on a city

street which is a state highway.

For local authorities to change the speed limit on a highway or street within
their jurisdiction, they must first conduct an engineering study in accordance
with established traffic engineering practices. From this study, the speed limit
may be established by the authorized agency.

When a speed limit is to be posted, it should be the 85th percentile speed of

free-flowing traffic, rounded up to the nearest five (5) mph increment. Other
factors that may be considered when establishing speed limits are the following:

1. Road characteristics, shoulder condition, grade, alignment and sight

distance;

2. The pace speed;

3. Roadside development and environment;

4. Parking practices and pedestrian activity; and

5. Reported crash experience for at least a 12-month period.

WHERE SHOULD SPEED LIMIT SIGNS BE LOCATED?

Speed limit signs, indicating speed limits for which posting is required by
law, shall be located at the points of change from one speed limit to another.

At the end of the section to which a speed limit applies, a Speed Limit sign
showing the next speed limit shall be installed. Additional Speed Limit signs
shall be installed beyond major intersections and at other locations where it is
necessary to remind road users of the speed limit that is applicable.

Speed Limit signs indicating the statutory speed limits shall be installed at
entrances to State and jurisdictional boundaries of metropolitan areas.

Speed Limit signs indicating the maximum speed in a business district shall
be installed at the entrance into any business district. There should also be a sign
at the end of the business district.

4-2
HOW FAR APART SHOULD SPEED LIMIT SIGNS BE INSTALLED
ALONG THE ROADWAY?

The following general guidelines are recommended for roads and streets
under local jurisdictions:

Speed limit Minimum Maximum

(MPH) Distance Distance

30 or Less 660 Ft. or 2 Blocks 1320 Ft. or 4 Blocks

35 or 40 990 Ft. or 3 Blocks 1900 Ft. or 6 Blocks
45 or 50 1320 Ft. or 4 Blocks 2640 Ft. or 8 Blocks

IF RESIDENTS OF A NEIGHBORHOOD ARE REPORTING THAT

CARS ARE SPEEDING ON THEIR STREETS, SHOULD THE SPEED
LIMITS BE LOWERED TO SLOW THE DRIVERS DOWN?

For a speed limit regulation to be effective, at least 85 percent of the drivers

should voluntarily comply with the law. The first action one should take if
speed violations are being reported is to undertake a study of vehicle speeds.

The basis for the proper speed on any stretch of highway or street is the
nationally recognized "85th percentile speed." This is the speed at or below
which 85 percent of the observed free flowing traffic is moving. The experience
of traffic engineers has been that posting higher or lower speed limits does not
significantly change the 85th percentile speed. Moreover, raising the speed limit
to the 85th percentile should not result in an increase in the frequency or severity
of accidents and should reduce maximum speeds observed. It is good practice to
monitor streets where the speed limit has been changed to determine if the
incidence of accidents has actually increased or decreased.

Adoption of the 85th percentile speed recognizes that a small minority of

highway users drive at speeds in excess of that considered safe by the majority
of drivers. Obviously, enforcement action should be directed toward that
minority.

HOW IS AN ENGINEERING STUDY IN ACCORDANCE WITH

ESTABLISHED TRAFFIC ENGINEERING PRACTICES CONDUCTED?

The prevailing speed of free-flowing traffic should be used in establishing

the speed limit. Three methods for conducting the engineering study may be
used:

4-3
 1. Eighty-fifth percentile speed (the preferred method). This is the speed
at or below which 85 percent of the free-flowing vehicles observed on
the roadway under study are traveling.

2. Upper limit of the 10 miles per hour pace. Observation of vehicles on

the roadway will determine the 10-mile per hour range at which most
of the vehicles are traveling.

3. Average Test Run Speed. This method is optional on low-volume

roadways and is only applicable for determining the prevailing speed of
passenger cars.

To determine either the 85th percentile or the 10-mile pace, a spot speed
study must be conducted. A spot speed study is made by measuring the
individual speeds of a sample of the vehicles passing a given point (spot) on a
street or highway. These individual speeds are used to estimate the speed
distribution of the entire traffic stream at that location. Location of the study at
the mid-point of the area usually will provide viable data.

Study Location

1. General Location depends upon the purpose of the study. For

determining speed trends, stations are usually established at a central
location on open stretches of straight, rural highways or at mid-block
locations on urban streets away from the influence of Stop signs and
signals.

2. The specific site is selected within the general location to reduce or

eliminate the influence of the observer and measuring equipment on
vehicle speed. Equipment should be concealed, the observer and his
vehicle should be as inconspicuous as possible and on-lookers must be
kept from the area.

3. Variables, which might influence the study, should be minimized. Do

not locate the site on curves, grades, rough stretches of road, or near
construction unless the study requires these conditions. Other factors
such as environment (weather, visibility) and traffic volumes should be
taken into consideration if these conditions are not normal.

Time of Study

Off-peak hours are normally used in conducting a spot speed study although
the purpose of the study should determine the time. It is important that trend
studies and "before and after" studies be made during the same hours under
comparable conditions. Bad weather and unusual traffic conditions should be
avoided.

4-4
Size and Selection of Sample

The speeds of 100 free flowing vehicles in each direction should be

obtained for any one location. On low volume roads where it would be difficult
to obtain a sample of 100 vehicles in each direction, the study may be
terminated after a study period of three (3) hours in each direction. Vehicles
should be selected at random from the free flow of a traffic stream to avoid bias
in the results. The following provides some guidelines for selecting vehicles:

1. Always select the first vehicle in a platoon, because that is an indication

of the speed that the first driver wants to travel. Others in the platoon
may want to travel faster, but how much faster cannot be determined;
therefore, should not be part of the study sample.

2. Do not select too large a portion of trucks - their speeds may not be
representative of the rest of the sample. Attempt to obtain about the
same proportion of trucks in the sample as exists in the traffic stream.

3. The selection must be made at random of only free flowing vehicles,

for example, every fourth free flowing vehicle's speed. Do not select
too large a proportion of higher speed vehicles or the results will be
biased toward the upper range of speeds.

To Determine the 85th Percentile

To make use of the data collected, the next step is the analysis. The best
way to summarize the data is to chart the speeds collected on a frequency
distribution table. Table 4-1, used as an example of a frequency distribution
table, includes the speeds of 100 vehicles. The speeds are grouped into 3-mph
increments (groups of 1, 2, 4, or 5 mph may be used) with the second column
indicating upper-limits for each 3-mph increment. The upper limits are needed
later for plotting a curve. All of the speeds collected in the example range from a
low of 13.6 miles per hour to a high of 49.5 miles per hour. The third column
lists the number of vehicles observed operating within each of the 3-mph
groups.

The cumulative frequency (column 4) is the total of each of the numbers

(frequencies) in column 3 added together row by row from the top down. The
last column is a running percentage of the cumulative frequency from the top
down.

Once the frequency distribution table has been constructed, the best way to
determine the 85th percentile is to plot the speed distribution on a graph. Take
the upper-limit of each grouping (column 2) and plot that speed on the graph
where it corresponds with the cumulative percent of vehicles observed (column

4-5
5). Where the curve intersects the 85th percent line, is the 85th percentile speed.
In the example given, the curve intersects at 37 miles per hour (Figure 4-1).

The actual speed limit posted should be this 85th percentile speed rounded
up to the nearest five miles per hour increment; in this case 40 mph.

TABLE 4-1. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE.

1 2 3 4 5
Groupings Frequency
of Speeds Upper- of Cumulative Cumulative
Row Observed Limits Vehicles Frequency Percent*

1 13.6 to 16.5 16.5 1 1 1%

2 16.6 to 19.5 19.5 2 3 3%
3 19.6 to 22.5 22.5 6 9 9%
4 22.6 to 25.5 25.5 12 21 21%
5 25.6 to 28.5 28.5 13 34 34%
6 28.6 to 31.5 31.5 20 54 54%
7 31.6 to 34.5 34.5 18 72 72%
8 34.6 to 37.5 37.5 14 86 86%
9 37.6 to 40.5 40.5 6 92 92%
10 40.6 to 43.5 43.5 6 98 98%
11 43.6 to 46.5 46.5 1 99 99%
12 46.6 to 49.5 49.5 1 100 100%
100 Vehicles

Cumulative Frequency
*Cumulative Percent =
Total Number of VehiclesX 100

4-6
 FIGURE 4-1. CUMULATIVE SPEED DISTRIBUTION CURVE.

To Determine the 10 Mile Pace

The same distribution of vehicle speeds in Table 4-1 can be used to

determine the 10-mile pace or the 10 miles per hour range containing the most
vehicles. By dividing the vehicle speeds into 10-mile ranges (15 to 25 mph, 26
to 35 mph, etc.), it becomes evident that the largest numbers of vehicles
(approximately 51 vehicles) were traveling at speeds between 25 and 35 miles
per hour. The upper limit of this range is 35 mph and this study would,
therefore, result in the same speed limit being established as the 85th percentile
method: 35 mph.

To Determine the Average Test Run Speed

Average test run speeds are determined on the basis of five runs in each
direction over the length of the proposed zone. The most important part of the
test run is to determine the maximum permissible speed. Time periods are
disregarded and while making the test run, the driver should try to "float" in the
traffic stream (drive as an average or typical vehicle in the traffic stream).

ARE THERE OTHER WAYS TO CONTROL VEHICLE SPEED?

The following are other methods of controlling vehicle speed:

1. Signals can be timed in progression to have motorists on a given street

move at or near a predetermined speed.

4-7
 2. Advisory speed limit plates (in multiples of 5 miles per hour) can be
used on curves and at hazardous locations to indicate the advisory
maximum speed. These speeds should be determined through accepted
traffic engineering procedures and periodically checked and corrected
if necessary. They are always posted in conjunction with another
warning sign and are not required if the critical speed is less than 5
miles per hour below the posted speed limit.

3. Side friction in the form of on-street parking or reduced width roadway

sections tend to slow the traffic speed. Speed “humps” are another
alternative in certain situations. These physical forms of speed control
will not be popular with everyone.

4. Consistent enforcement of the speed limits is critical. Signals, signs

and other warning devices will not be truly effective unless motorists
are aware that violation of these rules will result in penalties.
Municipalities should draw on local, county and state law enforcement
agencies for assistance in regulating traffic. Motorists usually tend to
act more lawfully if a law enforcement vehicle is observed on a
roadway. Consistent monitoring of a roadway by law enforcement
agencies will lead to a reduction in speeding violations and other unsafe
driving practices.

5. Traffic calming measures – covered in a later chapter in this handbook.

WHAT IS TRAFFIC CALMING?

Many communities are using traffic calming to reduce speeds in residential

areas. Some common traffic calming measures are discussed and illustrated in
Appendix A.

4-8
 CHAPTER 5

PAVEMENT MARKINGS

INTRODUCTION

Pavement markings can provide a very useful function in overall traffic

control either as a supplement to other devices or used alone. They serve very
effectively in conveying certain regulations and warnings that could not
otherwise be made as understandable to the motorist. Moreover, they can be
used to advise the motorist without diverting his attention from the roadway.
But markings do have significant limitations. Visibility of the markings can be
limited by snow, debris and water on or adjacent to the markings. Marking
durability is affected by material characteristics, traffic volumes, weather and
location. Pavement markings can enhance roadway delineation with the
addition of audible features such as bars, differential surface profiles, raised
pavement markers and other devices intended to alert the motorist that a
delineation on the roadway is being traversed.

WHAT TYPES OF PAVEMENT MARKINGS ARE USED?

Pavement markings are normally used as follows:

1. Centerlines
2. Edge Lines
3. No Passing Zones
4. Lane Lines
5. Stop Lines
6. Crosswalk Lines
7. Railroad Crossing Markings, Arrows, and Other Lane Messages

WHAT COLORS CAN BE USED FOR PAVEMENT MARKINGS?

The colors for pavement markings are yellow, white, red or blue. Black in
conjunction with one of the above colors shall be a usable color for object
markers and may be used in combination with the above colors where a light-
colored pavement does not provide sufficient contrast with the markings.

Yellow lines delineate the separation of traffic traveling in opposite

directions (center lines) or mark the left edge of the roadway on divided
highways and one-way highways and ramps. Yellow lines also delineate the
separation of two-way left turn lanes and reversible lanes from other lanes.

5-1
 White lines delineate the separation of traffic flows in the same direction
(lane lines) or mark the right edge of the roadway.

Red lines delineate roadways that shall not be entered or used.

Blue lines delineate parking spaces for persons with disabilities.

WHAT WIDTH AND SPACING REQUIREMENTS ARE USED FOR

LONGITUDINAL PAVEMENT MARKINGS?

1. A solid line prohibits or discourages crossing.

2. A normal line is four to six inches wide.

3. A wide line is at least twice the width of the normal line.

4. A double line consists of two normal width lines separated by a

discernible space.

5. A broken line consists of normal line segments separated by gaps,

usually in the ratio of one to three.

6. A dotted line consists of noticeably shorter line segments, separated by

shorter gaps than used for a broken line.

WHEN SHOULD A BROKEN LINE BE USED?

Broken lines are permissive in character and constitute a guide for the
motorist. For example, a broken white line is used as the lane line on a multi-
lane roadway. The motorist is allowed to change lanes and cross the broken line
if traffic conditions permit. Other uses for broken lines are:

1. A normal broken yellow line is used as a centerline of a two-lane, two-

way road where passing is permitted.

2. A double line indicates maximum or special conditions. It can consist

of a normal broken yellow line and a normal solid yellow line, is used
as a separation between travel paths in opposite directions to regulate
passing. (Note: If both lines are solid, passing is prohibited in both
directions.)

3. A dotted line provides guidance. It can be used to delineate the

extension of a line through an intersection or interchange area.

5-2
 4. Reversible lane markings (double broken lines) are used for lanes
specified to have traffic traveling in the opposite direction at different
periods of the day. (Will be supplemented with appropriate directional
signing.)

WHAT TYPES OF LONGITUDINAL PAVEMENT MARKINGS (LINES)

SHOULD BE USED ON TWO-LANE ROADS?

1. Where passing is permitted, a normal broken yellow line is used.

2. Where passing is permitted in one direction only, a double line,

consisting of a normal broken yellow center line and a normal solid
yellow line in the lane from which passing is prohibited, is used.

3. Where passing is prohibited in both directions, a double line, consisting

of two normal solid yellow lines, is used.

4. A normal solid white line is used to delineate the edges of the

pavement.

Figure 5-1 on page 5-4 depicts the typical centerline and edge line
markings on a two-lane road.

SHOULD ALL ROADS HAVE A CENTERLINE?

1. Centerline markings shall be placed on all paved urban arterials and

collectors that have a traveled width of 20 feet or more and an ADT of
6,000 vehicles per day or greater.

2. Centerline markings shall also be placed on all paved two-way streets

or highways that have three or more traffic lanes.

3. Centerline markings can be placed on all paved urban arterials and

collectors that have a traveled width of 20 feet or more and an ADT of
4,000 vehicles per day or greater.

4. Centerline markings can be placed on all rural arterials and collectors

that have a traveled width of 18 feet or more and an ADT of 3,000
vehicles per day or greater.

5. Centerline markings can be placed on other traveled ways where an

engineering study indicates a need for them.

5-3
FIGURE 5-1. TYPICAL TWO-LANE, TWO-WAY
MARKING APPLICATIONS.

5-4
UNDER WHAT SITUATIONS ARE PAVENENT EDGE LINES USED?

1. Edge line markings shall be placed on paved streets or highways that

are freeways, expressways and rural arterials with a traveled way 20
feet or more in width and an ADT of 6,000 vehicles per day or greater.

2. Edge line markings can be placed on rural arterials and collectors with
a traveled way 20 feet or more in width and an ADT of 3,000 vehicles
per day or greater.

3. Edge line markings can be used when it is desirable to delineate the

right or left edges of a roadway as a guide for drivers, particularly
during adverse weather and visibility conditions.

4. Edge line markings can be used where it is desirable to reduce driving

on paved shoulders or refuge areas of lesser structural strength than
adjacent pavements.

5. Edge line markings can be used where an engineering study indicates a

need for them.

Edge lines shall not be continued through intersections but should not
be broken for driveways.

WHEN SHOULD STOP LINES BE USED?

Stop lines shall consist of solid white lines extending across approach lanes
to indicate the point behind which vehicles are required to stop, in compliance
with a Stop sign or traffic control signal.

Stop lines are solid white and are normally 12 to 24 inches wide.

Stop lines should normally be placed at least four (4) feet in advance of and
parallel to the nearest crosswalk line. In the absence of a marked crosswalk, the
stop line should be placed at the desired stopping point but no more than 30 feet
nor less than four feet from the nearest edge of the intersecting roadway. Stop
lines should be placed to allow sufficient sight distance for all approaches to an
intersection. Stop lines should always be placed perpendicular to the flow of
traffic being stopped.

WHERE ARE CROSSWALK MARKINGS NECESSARY?

Marked crosswalks are necessary at all signalized intersections where

pedestrian indications are used. Crosswalks should also be marked at all stop

5-5
sign controlled intersections where there are substantial conflicts between
vehicle and pedestrian movements. Crosswalks should be used with caution at
other locations. Unless a signal or Stop sign is present, drivers tend to ignore a
marked crosswalk. Pedestrians will be given a false sense of security at these
locations. Marked crosswalks away from traffic signals or stop signs, whether
mid-block or at uncontrolled intersections, are particularly dangerous for older
pedestrians. Studies have shown that fatal accidents involving older pedestrians
are 3.5 times more likely to occur at a marked crosswalk than at an unmarked
one.

Adequate visibility on the approach to any marked crosswalk must be

provided by parking prohibitions. The STO prohibits parking within 20 feet of a
crosswalk at an intersection. This distance should be used as guidance at all
marked crosswalks.

WHAT COLOR AND WIDTH OF LINES ARE USED FOR

CROSSWALKS?

Crosswalk lines shall be solid white lines that mark the crosswalk. The
lines shall not be less than six (6) inches nor greater than twenty-four (24) inches
in width and should not be less than six (6) feet apart.

Crosswalk lines, if used on both sides of the crosswalk, should extend

across the full width of the pavement to discourage diagonal walking between
crosswalks.

For added visibility, the area of the crosswalk may be marked with white
diagonal lines at a 45-degree angle to the line of the crosswalk or with white
longitudinal lines parallel to the traffic flow. These lines should be
approximately 12" to 24" wide and spaced 12" to 24" apart. When diagonal or
longitudinal lines are used to mark a crosswalk, the transverse crosswalk lines
may be omitted. This type of marking is intended for use at locations where
substantial numbers of pedestrians cross without any other traffic control device,
at locations where physical conditions are such that added visibility of the
crosswalk is desired or at places where a pedestrian crosswalk might not be
expected.

5-6
 Spacing of lines selected
to avoid wheel path

FIGURE 5-2. TYPICAL TYPES OF CROSSWALK MARKINGS.

*Inside Markings
Optional

FIGURE 5-3. TYPICAL CROSSWALK MARKINGS FOR EXCLUSIVE

PEDESTRIAN PHASE THAT PERMITS DIAGONAL CROSSING.

IF THE MOTORIST FAILS TO YIELD TO PEDESTRIANS AT A

CROSSWALK, CAN THE CROSSWALK'S VISIBILITY BE
IMPROVED?

Motorists may be failing to yield to pedestrians at certain crosswalks

because the crosswalk is not readily visible or it is unexpected. This usually

5-7
occurs when a crosswalk is located in the middle of a block or on a narrow street
with parked cars and other physical obstructions blocking the motorist's view.

The following are possible solutions to this problem:

1. The width of the lines could be increased up to 24 inches.

2. The area of the crosswalk could be marked with diagonal or

longitudinal lines to make the walkway more visible.

3. Parking should be prohibited on both sides of the crosswalk for some

distance in both directions.

4. Warning signs should be installed to alert motorists to the upcoming

crosswalk.

The main reasons for pedestrian-vehicular conflicts at crosswalks are that

most drivers, as well as pedestrians, are ignorant of the laws governing the
situation and police enforcement of these laws is rare.

5-8
 CHAPTER 6

SCHOOL CROSSINGS

INTRODUCTION

School areas often require special traffic control treatment because of the
danger to children, who are generally less likely to be able to judge traffic
situations. The question facing traffic managers is how to best handle the school
safety problem in light of the many issues and factors involved. Parents and
school officials will often make demands based on emotions rather than a factual
set of circumstances. City officials will be equally concerned with the safety of
the children but will be required to work within budget constraints and the
demands of the total driver population. What is needed is a program that is
acceptable and utilized by educators, enforcement officials, parent-teacher
groups, the children and others involved.

WHERE SHOULD SCHOOL CROSSINGS BE LOCATED?

The best approach to locating school crossings is to establish a coordinated

school traffic safety program. The first step in the coordinated approach is to set
up a school traffic safety committee of governmental and school board officials
with the authority to implement the program. The committee's first task is to
develop a suggested school route plan for each school serving elementary and
kindergarten students. The plan should consist of a simple map showing streets,
sidewalks, the school, existing controls and, by arrow markings, the school
routes for the children. The school route plan should be designed to provide
maximum protection for children at a reasonable cost. This can be
accomplished by selecting routes that take advantage of the protection afforded
by existing traffic controls. Some children may also need to walk longer
distances to avoid hazardous crossings.

When developing the plan, officials may find the route crosses a major
highway or goes through an intersection with particularly heavy traffic. These
locations could be particularly hazardous. Each of these locations should be
studied to determine if adequate gaps in the traffic stream exist to allow the
children to cross safely. If the delay time between adequate gaps is too long, the
children may get impatient and attempt to cross under unsafe conditions. There
are publications available from the Kansas Department of Transportation the
Institute of Transportation Engineers on developing a school traffic safety
program and crossing plan.

6-1
WHO SHOULD BE INVOLVED IN DEVELOPING A SAFE SCHOOL
CROSSING PLAN?

For the crossing plan to be effective and acceptable, school administrators,

teachers, parents, the local police department and governmental agencies such as
the city engineering traffic department (or the Kansas Department of
Transportation for crossings on State routes) should be involved in developing
and implementing the plan. The pupils themselves should become involved,
some on school safety patrols in directing other children at crossings, and all of
them in being the recipients of thorough instruction on the purpose and use of
the school route plan.

HOW CAN ONE TELL IF A SCHOOL CROSSING IS UNSAFE?

The number of safe crossing gaps in the traffic stream needs to be

calculated.

The gap time is the time it would take a student to cross a road using an
average walking speed of 3.5 feet/second and a perception and reaction time of
three seconds. The formula is W/3.5 + 3 where W is the width of the road in
feet. For example, a 24 feet wide road has a gap time of about 10 seconds. (Note
– Add two seconds of pedestrian clearance time for each additional row of
students).

The number of safe gaps, then, for a 24 feet wide road, is the number of 10-
second spaces between vehicles. When the delay between the occurrence of
adequate gaps becomes excessive, students might become impatient and
endanger themselves by attempting to cross the street during an inadequate gap.
Generally, if the safe gaps are less frequent than one per minute, it is an
indication that some form of traffic control is needed to create gaps.

For further information on gap studies refer to publications by the Kansas

Department of Transportation and The Institute of Transportation Engineers.

WHAT ARE THE ALTERNATIVES FOR PROTECTING SCHOOL

CROSSINGS?

There are basically four types of measures available for reducing traffic
hazards to children at school crossings:

1. Adult crossing guards and student patrols

2. Traffic control devices including signs, pavement markings and signals

6-2
 3. Overpasses and underpasses

4. One-way streets.

WHEN IS AN OVERPASS (OR UNDERPASS) JUSTIFIED AT A

SCHOOL CROSSING?

An overpass or underpass is a major investment. The following conditions

should be met before considering this measure:

1. The obstacle the school children must cross is permanent, such as a

freeway.

2. The cost of an overpass or underpass is less costly over time than other
measures.

3. The location is appropriate for this kind of structure.

4. The funds spent on the structure won't limit money available for other
school crossing protection.

5. The structure will serve other pedestrians besides school children.

6. There is no likelihood that re-planning the school route will eliminate

the need for the overpass or underpass.

7. Traffic conditions are such that children feel the need to use it.

WILL A REDUCED SPEED LIMIT BE HELPFUL IN SAFEGUARDING

PEDESTRIANS AT SCHOOL CROSSINGS?

The speed of vehicles can be a contributing factor to the incidence of

accidents involving vehicles and pedestrians. Local authorities may want to set
a speed limit appropriate for school zones.

ARE THERE SITUATIONS WHERE SCHOOL SPEED LIMITS

SHOULD NOT BE POSTED?

It should be recognized that school speed limit signs are not a "cure-all"
because of the difficulty in enforcement, particularly in rural areas. School
speed limit signs would be unnecessary under any of the following conditions:

6-3
 1. School children are protected by other traffic control devices such as
Stop signs and signals, where motorists are required to come to a
complete stop. An exception may be made when the speed zone serves
to protect children walking on or adjacent to the roadway in the school
area.

2. The school or school grounds are completely isolated from the roadway
by means of a fence or other barrier, and no access to the roadway is
provided.

3. An underpass or overpass has been provided.

4. Entrance to and exit from the school grounds are by school bus or other
vehicle only.

WHEN SHOULD ADULT GUARDS OR STUDENT PATROLS BE USED

AT A SCHOOL CROSSING?

There are two types of school crossing supervision. There is adult control
of pedestrians and vehicles by adult guards or police officers and there is student
control of only pedestrians by student patrols.

Adult crossing guards should be considered if:

1. Traffic volumes are near the level required to warrant traffic signals
and gaps in traffic are so short and infrequent that an adult is required
to select adequate gaps and to control waiting children.

2. The costs of a guard are more economical than a pedestrian grade

separation structure or a traffic control signal.

3. There are special hazards such as fog, complicated intersections, or

high vehicle speeds that can be properly handled only by adult
supervision.

4. A change in school routes or districts is imminent and protection is

needed only for a limited time.

A student patrol is most useful at locations where some supervision of

children using the crossing is desirable but the conditions do not require the
actual direction of motor vehicles. They should be assigned to locations
adjacent to school grounds only where adequate gaps in traffic occur frequently
enough for safe crossings without stopping traffic. Student patrols should not be
permitted to halt or direct vehicular traffic. Refer to the MUTCD 2003 Section
7E.07 for further information on this topic.

6-4
WHAT STANDARD TRAFFIC CONTROL SIGNS SHOULD BE USED
FOR SCHOOLS?

The following traffic control signs are used for schools. Refer also to the
MUTCD 2003, part 7B. which shows additional signs.

1. The School Advance Warning sign (S1-1) shall be used in advance of

any installation of the School Crossing sign, in advance of the school
grounds or in advance of the first installation of the School Speed Limit
sign assembly. It shall be supplemented with the legend “AHEAD” or
the distance ahead.

2. The School Crossing Warning assembly (S1-1 with diagonal downward

pointing arrow) (W1B-7) shall be installed as close as possible to the
marked School Crosswalk. The School Crossing Warning assembly
shall not be installed on approaches controlled by a Stop sign. Only
crossings adjacent to schools and those on established school pedestrian
routes shall be signed in this manner.

3. The School Bus Stop Ahead sign (S3-1) should be installed in advance
of locations where a school bus, when stopped to pick up or discharge
passengers, is not visible for a distance of 500 feet in advance and
where there is no opportunity to relocate the bus stop to provide 500
feet of visibility.

4. School Speed Limit signs (S4-1, S4-2, S4-3, S4-4, S4-6, S5-1) shall be
used to indicate the speed limit where a reduced speed zone for a
school area has been established (in accordance with law based on an
engineering study) or where a speed limit is specified for such areas by
statute.

The School Speed Limit assembly shall be either a fixed-message sign

assembly or a Speed Limit Sign Beacon may be used, with a “WHEN
FLASHING” legend to identify the time periods that the school speed
limit is in effect.

5. No Parking and Stopping signs may be used to prevent parked or

waiting vehicles from blocking pedestrian’s views and driver’s views
of pedestrians, and to control vehicles as a part of the school traffic
plan.

6-5
FIGURE 6-1. STANDARD SCHOOL SIGNS.

6-6
SHOULD PAVEMENT MARKINGS BE USED FOR CROSSINGS?

Pavement markings can be used in conjunction with traffic signals and signs
or used solely as a crossing safeguard. One should be aware, however, that
pavement markings have limitations because they can be hidden by snow and
may be worn off by heavy traffic. The following are typical applications of
pavement markings at school crossings.

1. Crosswalk Markings are solid white parallel lines marking both edges
of the crosswalk. They shall not be less than six (6) inches nor greater
than twenty-four (24) inches in width, spaced not less than six (6) feet
apart and extend from curb to curb. As an option, the area of the
crosswalk may be marked with white diagonal lines at a 45 degree
angle to the line of the crosswalk or with white longitudinal lines
parallel to traffic flow.

Crosswalks should be marked at all intersections on established routes

to school where there is substantial conflict between drivers, bicyclists
and pedestrian movements, where students are encouraged to cross
between intersections, or where students would not otherwise recognize
the proper place to cross.

2. Stop Line Markings are solid white lines, 12 to 24 inches wide,

extending across approach lanes to indicate the point at which the stop
is intended or required to be made, in compliance with a Stop sign or
traffic signal. Stop lines, if used, should be placed four (4) feet in
advance of the nearest crosswalk line.

3. Curb Markings for Parking Regulations are used to restrict parking near
school crossings in order to allow both drivers and pedestrians adequate
sight distance. Curb markings are normally yellow and may
supplemented with signs.

4. Pavement Word and Symbol Markings are used to supplement standard

signs. They shall be white in color and six feet or more in height, not
exceeding three lines of information.

SHOULD A TRAFFIC SIGNAL BE INSTALLED AT A BUSY

INTERSECTION IF SCHOOL CHILDREN WILL CROSS THERE
FREQUENTLY?

School signals can be erected at established school crossings in order to

create gaps in traffic to allow children to safely cross a roadway. Depending
upon conditions, they may be installed either at intersections or at mid-block
crossings.

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 The School Crossing signal warrant is intended for application where the
fact that school children cross the major street is the principal reason to consider
installing a traffic control signal.

The need for a traffic control signal shall be considered when an

engineering study of the frequency and adequacy of gaps in the vehicular traffic
stream indicates there are inadequate gaps in the traffic stream to allow children
to safely cross the street. In order to warrant traffic signals at school crossings,
each of the following conditions must be met:

1. During daily school crossing periods, the number of adequate gaps in

traffic is insufficient to permit children to safely cross the street.

2. There must be a minimum of 20 students crossing during the highest

crossing hour.

3. Consideration must be given to the implementation of other remedial

measures, such as warning signs and flashers, school speed zones,
school crossing guards, or a grade-separated crossing.

4. The warrant shall not be applied at locations where the distance to the
nearest traffic control signal along the street is less than 300 feet.

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 CHAPTER 7

TRAFFIC SIGNALS

INTRODUCTION

Traffic signals are used to alternately direct traffic to stop and to proceed.
This Chapter will provide information on determining when the use of a traffic
signal is appropriate and on the various types of traffic signals available for use.

WHAT IS A TRAFFIC SIGNAL WARRANT?

The term Traffic Signal Warrant is used to cover a set of conditions which,
if they exist, indicate that a traffic signal may be an appropriate control device at
a location.

On page 1A-14 of the MUTCD 2003 the following definition of “warrant”

is given. “A warrant describes threshold conditions to the engineer in evaluating
the potential safety and operational benefits of traffic control devices and is
based upon average or normal conditions. Warrants are not a substitute for
engineering judgment. The fact that a warrant for a particular traffic control
device is met is not conclusive justification for the installation of the device.”

WHAT WARRANTS MUST BE SATISFIED FOR A TRAFFIC SIGNAL

INSTALLATION?

Sections 4C.01 through 4C.09 of the MUTCD 2003 provide information on

eight traffic signal warrants. That information is lengthy and is therefore not
repeated here. The following information is provided for emphasis.

The MUTCD 2003 sets the following Standard:

1. An engineering study of traffic conditions, pedestrian characteristics,

and physical characteristics shall be performed to determine whether
installation of a traffic control signal is justified at a particular location.

2. The satisfaction of a traffic signal warrant or warrants shall not in itself

require the installation of a traffic control signal.

3. Minimum traffic and pedestrian volume requirements may be reduced

in the built-up areas of isolated communities having a population of
less than 10,000 or if the posted or statutory speed limit or the 85th –

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 percentile speed on the major street exceeds 40 mph. Check the latest
MUTCD warrants for details.

WHAT DATA SHOULD BE COLLECTED FOR AN ENGINEERING

STUDY?

The Engineering study data should include the following:

1. The number of vehicles entering the intersection in each hour from

each approach during 12 hours of an average day. It is desirable that
the hours selected contain the greatest percentage of the 24-hour traffic
volume.

2. Vehicular volumes for each traffic movement from each approach,

classified by vehicle type (heavy trucks, passenger cars and light
trucks, public-transit vehicles, and, in some locations, bicycles), during
each 15-minute period of the 2 hours in the morning and 2 hours in the
afternoon during which total traffic entering the intersection is greatest.

3. Pedestrian volume counts on each crosswalk during the same periods as

the vehicular counts in Paragraph B above and during hours of highest
pedestrian volume. Where young, elderly, and/or persons with physical
or visual disabilities need special consideration the pedestrians and
their crossing times may be classified by general observation.

4. Information about nearby facilities and activity centers that serve the
young, elderly, and/or persons with disabilities, including requests from
persons with disabilities for accessible crossing improvements at the
location under study. These persons may not be adequately reflected in
the pedestrian volume count if the absence of a signal restrains their
mobility.

5. The posted or statutory speed limit or the 85th-percentile speed on the

uncontrolled approaches to the location.

6. A condition diagram showing details of the physical layout, including

such features as intersection geometrics, channelization, grades, sight-
distance restrictions, transit stops and routes, parking conditions,
pavement markings, roadway lighting, driveways, nearby railroad
crossings, distance to nearest traffic control signals, utility poles and
fixtures, and adjacent land use (existing and proposed).

7. A collision diagram showing crash experience by type, location,

direction of movement, severity, weather, time of day, date, and day of
week for at least one (1) year.

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 The following data, which are desirable for a more precise understanding of
the operation of the intersection, may be obtained during the periods specified in
Paragraph B above.

1. Vehicle-hours of stopped time delay determined separately for each

approach to be consistent with the Peak Hour Warrant.

2. The number and distribution of acceptable gaps in vehicular traffic on

the major street for entrance from the minor street.

3. The posted or statutory speed limit or the 85th-percentile speed on

controlled approaches at a point near to the intersection but unaffected
by the control.

4. Pedestrian delay time for at least two 30-minute peak pedestrian delay
periods of an average weekday or like periods of a Saturday or Sunday.

5. Queue length on stop-controlled approaches.

HOW IS THE DATA FOR AN ENGINEERING STUDY COLLECTED?

Automatic counters should measure the number of vehicles entering the

intersection over long periods of time. Traffic volumes are an essential piece of
information for any decision regarding traffic control. Automatic counters are
relatively inexpensive and can be used in many situations by local governments.
The cost and use can be shared among a number of local agencies if necessary.

Turning movements and pedestrian counts can only be obtained through

visual counts. A minimum of two individuals is required for the collection of
this data.

The method for the determination of the 85th-percentile speed is discussed

in Chapter 4.

Condition and Collision Diagrams are discussed in Chapter 10.

IN WHAT CASES WOULD A TRAFFIC SIGNAL NOT BE INSTALLED

IF A WARRANT IS MET?

Many public officials and certainly the general public believe that a traffic
signal will solve all problems at an intersection. This is not the case. In some
instances the installation of a traffic signal will trade one problem for another.
Right angle crashes may be replaced by rear end collisions. Drivers may select

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alternate routes to avoid the signal, thus creating problems elsewhere on the
street system. In addition, signalization may also increase traffic levels on the
side street by making access to the major street easier. Therefore, as part of the
required engineering study the following should be determined:

1. Will the overall safety and/or operation of the intersection be

improved?

2. Will the signal seriously disrupt progressive traffic flow?

A much more serious issue is the commitment of the local authority to the
installation of properly designed and maintained traffic signals. If the
responsible agency is not willing to spend the funds necessary for an installation
that meets the need of a particular location, and for the proper maintenance of
the signal, they should not proceed. A traffic signal that does not meet the needs
of a location will result in a decrease in the overall safety and operation.
Modern traffic signals are specialized equipment. Maintenance personnel must
receive specific training. The local agency must be committed to providing
these trained employees for as long as the signals are in place.

HOW ARE THE NUMBER AND LOCATION OF SIGNAL FACES

DETERMINED?

The first step is to consider the number and type of signal phases. An
example would be the need for, and type of, left turn control. The information
gathered during the engineering study will provide guidance on this.

An accurate topographic survey of the intersection is essential. The

location of the signal faces is governed by rules; however, these locations are
also governed by the physical characteristics of the intersection. Geometric
changes to the intersection may be required for a proper traffic signal
installation. The survey will provide the installing agency a better
understanding of the total scope of the project.

There are some basic rules governing the layout of a traffic signal
installation. These are:

1. A minimum of two signal faces shall be provided for the major

movement on each approach, even if the major movement is a turning
movement.

2. One and preferably both of the required signal faces shall be located
not less than 40 feet and not more than 150 feet beyond the stop line;
and shall be as near as practical to the line of the driver’s normal view
(if mounted over the roadway). Refer to Figure 7-2.

7-4
 3. At least one and preferably both of the required signal faces shall be
located within a 40 degree cone with the sides of the cone extending 20
degrees left and right of the center of the approach extended. Refer to
Figure 7-2.

4. The signal heads must also fall within a range of heights. These
heights vary based on the horizontal distance from the stop line. Refer
to Figure 7-1.

5. Pedestrian signal heads may be required as discussed below. Refer to

Section 4E.03 of the MUTCD 2003. Pedestrians can be guided by
vehicular signal indications. However, the pedestrian indications,
whether vehicular signals or pedestrian heads, must be placed so that
they are visible to pedestrians. Separate pedestals may be required to
ensure that proper visibility is attained. Engineering judgment must be
applied to every installation to determine if conditions merit the use of
pedestrian signal heads.

FIGURE 7-1. MAXIMUM MOUNTING HEIGHT OF SIGNAL FACES

LOCATED BETWEEN 40 FEET AND 53 FEET FROM STOP LINE.
(Source MUTCD 2003, Figure 4D-1)

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FIGURE 7-2. HORIZONTAL LOCATION OF SIGNAL PHASES.
(Source: MUTCD 2003, Figure 4D-2)

Pedestrian signal heads shall be used if:

1. If the signal installation is justified by meeting Warrant 4, Pedestrian

Volume or Warrant 5, School Crossing

2. If an exclusive signal phase is provided or made available for

pedestrian movements in one or more directions, with all conflicting
vehicular movements being stopped.

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 3. At an established school crossing.

4. When multi-phase signal indication would tend to confuse pedestrians

guided only by vehicular signal indications.

Pedestrian signal heads should be used under any of the following

conditions:

1. If it is necessary to assist pedestrians in making a safe crossing or if

engineering judgment determines that pedestrian signal heads are
justified to minimize vehicle-pedestrian conflicts.

2. If pedestrians are permitted to cross a portion of a street, such as to or

from a median of sufficient width for pedestrians to wait, during a
particular interval but are not permitted to cross the remainder of the
street during any part of the same interval; and/or

3. If no vehicular signal indications are visible to pedestrians, or if the

vehicular signal indications that are visible to pedestrians starting or
continuing a crossing provide insufficient guidance for them to decide
when it is safe to cross, such as on one-way streets, at T-intersections,
or at multiphase signal operations.

WHAT IS MEANT BY CYCLE LENGTH?

The cycle length is the total time required for one complete sequence of
signal indications.

WHAT IS MEANT BY SIGNAL PHASE?

Signal Phase refers to the right-of-way (green time), yellow change and red
clearance intervals in a cycle that are assigned to an independent traffic
movement or combination of movements.

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PRETIMED, SEMI-

TRAFFIC ACTUATED AND FULLY-TRAFFIC ACTUATED SIGNALS?

The term “Pre-timed Signal” refers to one in which the cycle lengths and
phase times are preset. These are also referred to as fixed time signals.

7-7
 A Semi-Traffic Actuated Signal is one in which at least one but not all of
the phases function through the use of a detector. The most common example of
this is for the initiation and/or extension of a minor street traffic phase.

A Fully-Traffic Actuated Signal is one in which all phases are initiated

and/or extended through the use of detectors.

WHEN CAN PRETIMED SIGNALS BE USED?

Advances in technology have made the use of traffic-actuated signals

economical for most installations. The controller modules in use today are all
capable of receiving input from a traffic detector. A variety of detector types
allow for an inexpensive installation of these devices.

A location where a pre-timed signal could be considered is at an

intersection with a high volume of traffic on the minor approaches during a
majority of the day. Fixed time signals are often appropriate in Central Business
Districts. However, a series of pre-timed signals placed along a street should be
interconnected to allow for progression timing. Pre-timed signals may be
programmed to change to allow for automatic flashing modes at night or other
low use periods.

WHAT CYCLE LENGTH SHOULD BE SELECTED FOR A PRE-TIMED

SIGNAL?

The shortest practicable cycle lengths are the most desirable. Cycle lengths
longer than necessary to accommodate the existing traffic or pedestrian volumes
produce unnecessary delays. This results in driver impatience and, therefore,
potential reduction of the overall safety and/or operation of the intersection. The
following paragraphs provide instructions for the calculation of the various
components of the signal cycle.

WHAT IS THE DESIRABLE LENGTH FOR THE YELLOW CHANGE

INTERVAL?

The yellow change interval advises the motorist that the right-of way
interval is about to end. The motorist is also thereby informed that the red
clearance interval is about to commence. This interval should be of sufficient
length to permit the motorist to bring his vehicle to a safe stop if he has not
entered the intersection. The motorist past the point of a safe stop needs
sufficient time to clear the far edge of the intersection within the yellow change
interval.

7-8
 The length of the yellow change interval is a function of the approach
speed, acceptable deceleration rates, driver perception/reaction times, vehicle
length, intersection width and street grades. The yellow change interval is
normally between three (3) and six (6) seconds in length. If times longer than
six (6) seconds are necessary, extend the time with the use of an all-red
clearance interval of 1 to 3 seconds in length. The all-red clearance interval
should not exceed six (6) seconds in length. The following equations should be
used for determining the timing for yellow change intervals and all-red
clearance intervals.

y = t + (v/(2a+64.4g))
where y = yellow interval, in seconds
t = reaction time (use 1.0 seconds)
v = 85th percentile approach speed in feet per second
a = deceleration rate (use 10 feet/second/second)
g = grade of approach over the breaking distance in percent/100

Example: For 30 mph and street grade of +1%

y = 1.0 + (44/(2X10+64.4X1/100))= 3.13 seconds
Note that grade of –1% results in 3.28 seconds for yellow interval.
r=(w+L)/v
where r = all-red interval, in seconds
w = width of intersection, in feet
v = 85th speed of vehicle in feet per second

HOW IS THE TIMING OF A PEDESTRIAN SIGNAL DETERMINED?

The WALK Interval should be at least four (4) but no more than seven (7)
seconds in length.

The FLASHING DON’T WALK Interval should be long enough for a

pedestrian to leave the curb and travel to the center of the farthest traveled lane.
A walking speed of 3.5 seconds is often used. This is a median between 4
seconds for an active adult and 3 seconds for the elderly and very young.

HOW MUCH TIME SHOULD BE ALLOCATED TO EACH RIGHT-OF-

WAY (GREEN) INTERVAL?

The right-of-way interval can be calculated using the following formula.

Right-of-way interval = (2.1) n + 3.7”

2.1 is the amount of time allocated for each vehicle to clear the
intersection in seconds.
n is the number of vehicles per interval

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 3.7 is the initial delay at the beginning of the interval.

The following is an example of a signal timing calculation.

FIGURE 7-3. EXAMPLE INTERSECTION.

1. Step 1-Determine Yellow Change and All-Red Intervals

From the equations, we determine that the yellow change and all-red
intervals for the major street is 5.6 seconds. For the minor street these
are determined to be 4.0 seconds.

2. Step 2-Assume A Minimum Cycle Length

Assume a 55-second cycle length

Therefore: Cycles per Hour =3600 seconds/55 seconds

= 65 cycles

3. Step 3-Calculate Minimum Right-of-Way Intervals Based on Assumed

Cycle Length

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 Major Street
Critical Volume = 880 vehicles/hour
Vehicles/Interval = 880/65 = 13.5 vehicles/interval

Minimum Interval = (2.1)*(13.5)+3.7 = 32.1 seconds

Minor Street
Critical Volume = 324 vehicles/hour
Vehicles/Interval = 324/65 = 5.0 vehicles/interval

Minimum Interval = (2.1)*(5.0)+3.7 = 14.2 seconds

4. Step 4-Calculate Pedestrian Crossing Times

Major Street
Crossing Time = 40 ft./3.5 ft./second = 11.4 seconds
Start Time = 3 seconds
Total Time = 14.4 seconds

This is greater than the Minimum Right-of-way Interval for the Minor
Street (remember that the pedestrian crossing the Major Street does so
during the Minor Street Right-of-way Interval). The larger value must
be used for the total cycle time calculation.

Minor Street
Crossing Time = 30 ft./3.5 ft./second = 8.6 seconds
Start Time = 3 seconds
Total Time = 11.6 seconds

The Major Street Right-of-way Interval will govern.

5. Step 5-Calculate The Minimum Cycle Length

Major Street Right-of-way Interval = 32.1 seconds

Major Street Yellow Change Interval = 5.6 seconds
Minor Street Right-of-way Interval = 14.4 seconds
Minor Street Yellow Change Interval = 4.0 seconds
Total = 56.1 seconds

6. Step 6-Adjust Cycle Length As Required

The calculated minimum cycle length is reasonably close to the

assumed cycle length. Had the calculated cycle length been
considerably different, Steps 2-5 should be repeated using a more
appropriate cycle length.

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 7. Step 7-Review Actual Conditions At The Operating Signal

The signal should be closely monitored during the first days of

operation. The observer should determine if the calculated cycle
lengths are appropriate for the conditions in the field. The signal
should be checked thereafter on a regular basis to determine if
conditions have changed over time.

HOW IS THE PHASE TIMING DETERMINED FOR TRAFFIC

ACTUATED SIGNALS?

The major difference between the pre-timed and the actuated signal is that
the cycle length is not fixed for the actuated signal. A phase will not provide a
Right-of-way Interval unless traffic is present. The Right-of-way Interval can
vary in length depending on the traffic volume present during each use of a
phase. As stated earlier, the shortest cycle time is the most desirable. This is the
major benefit of using this type of signal.

A minimum of six (6) to eight (8) seconds initial Green Time is usually
provided. This interval will be allowed to extend to a maximum number. The
calculation of the maximum number is based on anticipated traffic volume and
can be performed as shown previously for the pre-timed signal. The maximum
Green Time should be established at 1.25 to 1.5 times the value calculated for
pre-timed signals. The Yellow Change Interval and All-Red Clearance Interval
are determined in the manner described previously.

WHAT IS A “DILEMMA ZONE”?

At intersection where the speeds of approaching traffic are greater than 30

mph, drivers are frequently faced with a dilemma. This dilemma occurs at the
beginning of the yellow change interval as to whether to stop or to proceed.
Dilemma zone problems at a pre-timed signal can be controlled through
appropriate adjustment of the yellow change interval and the all-red clearance
interval. Proper placement of advance detection loops will control dilemma
zone concerns at an actuated signal. The correction of a dilemma zone problem
requires expertise. Local agencies that believe a dilemma zone problem may
exist at an intersection, and who do not have Staff experienced in correcting this
problem, should use the resources of a consulting engineer or of the Kansas
Department of Transportation.

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WHAT IS “STRETCH”?

This term is normally associated with detectors. It refers to the amount of

time that a detection call will be presented to the controller after the vehicle has
departed the detection zone. In other words, when a vehicle is detected, a
detection call will be registered with the controller. Once the vehicle exits the
detection zone, the call will continue to be registered with the controller for an
additional amount of time as determined by the stretch timer setting.

WHAT IS “PASSAGE”?

This term is normally associated with unit time settings. It refers to the
amount of time a green indication will be extended after all detectors associated
with that particular phase have ceased to register calls, assuming the maximum
green time setting has not been reached. Passage times are calculated to allow a
vehicle to pass over the advance detector at the 85th percentile speed to clear the
far curb line or crosswalk at or before the completion of the clearance interval.

ARE THERE ALTERNATIVES TO THE USE OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS?

The cost of operating and maintaining traffic signals can be a major

expense. Malfunctions of signals cause serious traffic delays and a high
potential for an unsafe situation. Studies are currently underway in the United
States on the safety and operational benefits of Roundabouts. While similar in
appearance to Traffic Circles, Roundabouts have a number of geometric and
operational differences that address problems experienced at Traffic Circles.

The initial cost of Roundabout construction may be as much or more than

that of a traffic signal installation. However, the long-term operational costs for
both the local agency and the driving public will be less. The use of a
Roundabout may not be appropriate at all locations, but local agencies should be
aware of their potential and should consider their use as the need for improved
traffic control arises.

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7-14
 CHAPTER 8

FLASHING BEACONS

WHEN SHOULD FLASHING BEACONS BE CONSIDERED?

TYPES OF BEACONS

There are two general types of beacons:

1. Sign beacons - These beacons are mounted on a STOP sign, speed limit
sign, or warning sign to supplement the sign message. The beacons call
attention to an unusual intersection or condition.

2. Overhead beacons (sometimes called intersection control beacons) -

These beacons are intended to be installed over a roadway where a
traffic study indicates the intersection has an unusual traffic or physical
condition.

An engineering study or engineering judgment should be used.

USE AND MISUSE OF BEACONS

Beacons serve a useful purpose where the flashing light is used to alert
drivers of unusual conditions that are not readily apparent, such as obstructions
in the roadway, uncommon roadway conditions, narrow bridges, or unusual
conditions hidden from motorists’ view. At intersections, the MUTCD states:
“Beacons are intended for use . . . where traffic or physical condition do not
justify conventional traffic signals but where high crash rates indicate a special
hazard.”

For any beacon to be effective, it must command the respect of the

motoring public. In other words, immediately after seeing the beacon, the driver
must consistently see an unusual condition that is being singled out for attention.
Furthermore, the motorist should view the condition as serious enough to justify
the special treatment provided by the beacon.

When beacons are used improperly or installed at too many locations they
soon lose much of their effectiveness. They simply cease to command the
respect of the drivers. After continually being alerted to a condition, which
seldom, if ever, appears unusual, drivers actually stop “seeing” the beacon.
When this happens, beacons which are truly needed may well be disregarded by
drivers who have become conditioned to believe that beacons are just “window
dressing.” Because of this normal human reaction, even one improper

8-1
installation greatly reduces the effectiveness of beacons at locations where they
may be beneficial in increasing driver awareness. When seen with a system-
wide perspective, it is apparent that the needless or excessive installation of
beacons tends to "water-down" the effectiveness of this important traffic control
device.

The Kansas Department of Transportation strives for standardization of

traffic control, thus meeting driver expectations. When drivers see beacons at
locations that do not have any unusual characteristics, beacons begin to lose
their effectiveness in the minds of drivers.

In school zones beacons may also give pedestrians, children and their
parents a false sense of security. Quite often communities request beacons in
the belief that they will improve crossing safety, rather than attempting to solve
the underlying problems. For example, there may be no established route to and
from school, no pedestrian safety program, or no adult crossing guards. Some
parents and school districts believe the entire responsibility for crossing safety
lies in the traffic control devices and not in themselves or the children. Children
will not automatically be more visible to drivers merely because a beacon is in
place. Choosing an appropriate time to cross is the pedestrian’s responsibility.

A common misconception is that a beacon, when used alone or in

conjunction with a speed or warning sign, will slow down traffic. Drivers tend
to drive at a speed that they perceive to be safe based on their surroundings, such
as width of pavement, roadway features, (i.e. curves) and type and number of
developments.

ENGINEERING STUDY

Before deciding to install a new beacon or remove an existing beacon, an

engineering study should be conducted. The traffic engineering study should
include: reviewing the location; its accident history; roadway features, such as
type of pavement, number of lanes, lane width; vehicle speeds; vehicle volumes;
number of pedestrians and school children; and sight restrictions.

OVERHEAD BEACONS

Overhead beacons may be installed at an intersection with unusual traffic or

physical conditions. They should be used sparingly so as to indicate to the driver
that “this is an intersection where I need to use extra caution.”

8-2
IN SUMMARY

When beacons are properly located, they serve a useful function. When
they are used improperly and installed at locations where they are not needed,
they soon lose much, if not all, of their effectiveness. More seriously, improper
usage greatly reduces the effectiveness of other beacons installed in areas where
there is a real need.

MUTCD 2003, Chapter 4K, page 4K-1, also has a section on flashing
beacons.

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8-4
 CHAPTER 9

TRAFFIC SIGN INVENTORY

INTRODUCTION

The overall purpose of a traffic sign inventory is to allow local governments

to keep a current file on record of all signs in their jurisdiction. Having an
inventory will help to maintain the local sign system in the following ways:

1. It will establish a basis for the upgrading of traffic signs through a

planned program of modernization.

2. It will establish the location and condition of all signs within the
jurisdiction.

3. It will provide written evidence that inspection of signs has been

conducted with regularity. This will help to protect against liability
claims.

WHAT INFORMATION SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN A SIGN

INVENTORY?

Information which should be included in a sign inventory includes a record

of:

1. Type of sign and support system.

2. Size of sign.

3. Location of sign.

4. Time, date, and by whom the sign was installed or inventoried.

5. Condition of sign and support:

a. What is the sign’s retro-reflectivity condition?

b. Is sign peeling or faded?

c. Has the sign been vandalized?

d. Is sign reasonably clean (i.e., can it be read)?

9-1
 6. Date and by whom maintenance was performed may be marked on the
sign; however, a separate record should also be kept. Care should be
taken to insure that all records are updated whenever maintenance is
performed on a sign, since signs are sometimes stolen.

HOW SHOULD THE INVENTORY INFORMATION BE RECORDED

AND FILED?

After determining what types of information need to be included in the sign

inventory, a convenient way to record and file the information must be provided.
There are several different methods currently in use. Remember, having a
system that works for you is more important than what system it is.

1. Sign Inventory Card Systems – Although old and possibly outdated,

these systems allow the user to group and arrange data into any form
that is desired, thus allowing sign information to be located by type.
These cards are easily filed in that there is no order necessary for
storing the cards. These sign inventory card systems are inexpensive,
simple, and adaptable to all levels of roads, and are available from
commercial sources. These same commercial sources probably have
newer, computerized versions available.

2. Location - Identification Map - This system utilizes color-coded pins to

represent different type signs. A large size map of the jurisdiction, or
sections of the jurisdiction, can be used. Appropriate pins are then
placed on the map at the sign locations, with each pin having a slip of
paper attached to it identifying the sign, its exact location, and the last
date of maintenance and inspection.

3. Computer Systems – Data collected may be stored within computers

for easy access and data comparison with associated accounting tables,
maintenance information and locations. Several sign companies and/or
suppliers can provide these types of systems.

HOW CAN THE CITY BENEFIT BY USING A SIGN INVENTORY

SYSTEM?

With the initiation of a sign inventory system, the city can likely reduce the
number of liability claims resulting from traffic accidents. Many times these
accidents occur at locations where signs have been stolen, vandalized, or are
well past their life and in need of replacement. By using a sign inventory system
most of these problem areas can be spotted and proper action can be taken to
upgrade the signing.

9-2
 A traffic sign inventory also can help the engineer evaluate other areas of
concern and interest. For example, as vandalism rates increase all around, these
increased rates can be seen in the sign system. By analyzing sign inventories,
costs of replacing signs that have been vandalized can be estimated. Also, other
signing costs could be estimated in a similar fashion. By making these
estimations the engineer will be able to make a more precise budget for the
signing needs of the city.

WHAT TYPE OF SYSTEM IS RECOMMENDED?

Whatever system works for a local jurisdiction. Currently there are any
number of sophisticated computer systems available. It is suggested that the
local jurisdiction contact KDOT, their county, a large city, sign companies, sign
distributors, etc. to get advice on the latest, available systems.

As a minimum, each local jurisdiction should have some record of keeping

track of their signs, the age of the signs, and when they were last inspected. In
the near future (expected in 2003) FHWA will publish minimum
retroreflectivity standards and a sign inventory system will be beneficial in
meeting whatever standards are published.

WHAT PREPARATION IS NECESSARY PRIOR TO CONDUCTING A

SIGN INVENTORY?

No matter what system is used, before a sign inventory can be made, care
should be taken to organize and plan all aspects. The following guidelines may
be helpful for getting started.

1. Divide the geographical area of interest into, say ten control sections
and number them 1-10. (A control section is a small area within which
a sign inventory is performed. The number will vary according to the
size of the city.)

2. Plot the ten control sections on a reproducible mylar master map.

3. Be sure that road names or numbers are on the reproducible mylar

master map. As added options, the following things could be done:

a. Produce one map of each control section for field data collection
purposes. Sign inventory crews should then color the road
segments, as the sign survey is completed, with a red or yellow
marker to avoid duplication and to aid in planning the work effort.

9-3
 b. One copy of the complete master map should be reproduced for
official purposes and should be mounted on a wall near the card
storage area to aid in cataloging and for reference.

4. Develop a sign code list for each of the survey teams. Use state sign
codes as a basis for developing the list. Unique numbers should be
assigned for each sign type, including special signs and pavement
markings.

5. To aid survey teams in identifying sign age, samples from existing

signs should be made. Small samples (i.e. 1" x 3") for each color and
material type should be produced. These samples should then be rated
as either "good", "average" or "bad", and their age marked on the
backside.

6. Train all applicable employees. This training should include an

understanding of the fundamentals of retroreflectivity and acceptable
methods of meeting minimum retroreflectivity values. This includes not
only the survey teams, but other employees who may aid in the survey
during their regular routine. Some possibilities include:

a. City road crews.

b. Law enforcement officers.

c. Water meter readers.

d. Electric meter readers.

WHAT ARE THE FIELD DATA COLLECTION STEPS TO TAKE?

This depends upon what system the local jurisdiction adopts. Whatever
system is adopted, a periodic schedule of day and night inspection and data
collection should be developed and followed. A permanent record of the data
obtained should be kept.

9-4
HOW CAN THE INVENTORY BE UPDATED?

After the initial inventory of signs, updating of the inventory will be

required. The frequency of updating will depend upon various factors such as
employee availability and funding and meeting MUTCD standards. To aid in
updating process, certain city employees could be trained to watch for and report
problems noted during their normal routine. Possible employees that could be
utilized in a system like this include the following:

1. City road crews could perform inventory on slow workdays, and also in
going to and from job sites.

2. Law enforcement officers.

3. Utility company field personnel.

9-5
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9-6
 CHAPTER 10

TRAFFIC CRASHES

INTRODUCTION

Establishment of a record system, which permits the accurate retrieval and

analysis of traffic crash records is of utmost importance to all governmental
jurisdictions. Good records will facilitate the planning of crash prevention
measures through engineering, education and enforcement.

Local agencies needing assistance in setting up a records system are

encouraged to contact The Bureau of Local Projects of The Kansas Department
of Transportation. An excellent guide to traffic crash report filing is The
Manual on Identification, Analysis and Correction of High Accident Locations
(HAL Manual) written by Kansas State University (KSU) which is available
from the Kansas Department of Transportation or KSU. KSU also developed
training courses based on the HAL Manual which are offered periodically to
Kansas public officials and employees.

WHY IS THIS CHAPTER TITLED TRAFFIC CRASHES INSTEAD OF

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS?

Webster’s Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary defines an accident as “an

event occurring by chance or from unknown causes.” With this definition in
mind, this handbook will refer to traffic collisions and crashes rather than traffic
accidents. It is important for both public officials and the traveling public to
realize that traffic crashes do not happen by chance or from unknown causes.
Although some persons disagree – sometimes adamantly – there is a current
national trend to accept the term “crash” in place of “accident.”

HOW SHOULD LOCAL CRASH RECORDS BE FILED?

To facilitate analyses, the original reports of crashes should be filed by year

and by location of occurrence. As a less desirable alternative, the original reports
could be filed chronologically and a location cross-reference index file could be
developed to permit retrieval of data for specific locations.

In cities, and in counties that have developed an address system with road
names, the location file can be set up according to an easily understood and
followed system. Such a system could be based upon the following criteria:

10-1
 1. Intersection Crashes:
Major Street (alphabetized)/Lessor Major Street (alphabetized)
Major Street (alphabetized)/Minor Street (alphabetized)
Minor Street (alphabetized)/Lessor Minor Street (alphabetized)

2. Block Crashes
Streets (alphabetized) by Range of Blocks North, East, West and South

It is very important that all crashes at an intersection be recorded in a

consistent manner. A common practice is to establish file folders for each
intersection or length of street based on the above criteria. Copies of the reports
are kept within these file folders over a calendar year period. At the end of each
year, the copies are removed and the folders reused. This allows for easy and
uniform recording of locations over a period of time. The copies can then be
stored in bulk folders in the same order for easy retrieval.

The HAL Manual, mentioned previously, gives details in setting up a

filing system that could be very beneficial for a local agency that does not
have one. Contact Kansas State University for more information.

HOW LONG SHOULD CRASH RECORDS BE RETAINED?

Changes to traffic control devices should only be made after a long-term

study. The accepted practice is to base decisions to revise traffic control
measures on a three year basis as a minimum.

WHAT IS A SPOT MAP?

A Spot Map is a tool that can be used to pinpoint problem locations. In

particular, a spot map furnishes a quick visual index of the location of crash
concentrations, thus supplementing the location file system discussed above.

The most common spot map is one showing crashes by color-coded pins,
spots or symbols on the map at the location of each occurrence. This map is
updated as reports are received and filed. The legend should be as simple as
possible, using not over four or five types, sizes or colors of spots. These should
represent, at a minimum, property damage only crashes, injury crashes and
fatalities.

Traffic crash spot maps are normally maintained for the calendar year. The
map should be filed with the copies of that year’s reports or a copy, such as a
photograph, is taken and it filed for future reference. If the public agency has
computer-mapping capabilities, the spot map for each year can be maintained as
a computer file as well as printed and filed.

10-2
 With the aid of a spot map and the crash location file, locations of high
accident frequency are readily detectable. Annual or more frequent periodic
listing of these locations can then be compiled for purposes of analysis and
correction.

WHAT IS A COLLISION DIAGRAM?

A Collision Diagram, along with a Condition Diagram, is one of the most

effective tools for analyzing traffic crash patterns to determine probable causes
for unusually high rates of crashes at a location.

A Collision Diagram illustrates graphically, by means of directional arrows

and symbols, the paths of vehicles and the nature of collisions. These diagrams
are schematic and, therefore, are seldom drawn to scale. As is shown in Figure
10-1, a set of arrows is used to represent each accident. The date, time of day,
the Accident Report Reference Number and other special information are
written next to one of the arrows depicting that particular crash.

WHAT IS A CONDITION DIAGRAM?

A Conditions Diagram is a scaled drawing showing the physical

characteristics of the location being studied. The type of information
traditionally shown includes; but is not limited to:

1. Curb Lines 8. Drainage structures

2. Traffic Controls 9. Street names
3. Property Lines 10. North arrow
4. Buildings and Other Structures 11. Above ground utilities
5. Sidewalks and Driveways 12. Other pertinent information
6. Trees and Shrubbery
7. View Obstructions

This drawing can be used in conjunction with the collision diagram to

identify the reason for a particular type of crash. For instance, a high incidence
of right angle collisions may be caused by a visibility obstruction at one corner
of the intersection.

WHAT OTHER RECORDS SHOULD BE MAINTAINED?

Each Governmental Agency should maintain a record of citizen

comments/concerns received regarding traffic issues. These records should be
kept separately from the Crash Records but can be indexed in the same manner.
As much information regarding the comment as possible should be recorded.

10-3
The date, person filing the comment, the nature of the comment and actions
taken are example of essential information. The agency should respond to all
citizen concerns. A record of the information gathered and reviewed and any
response should be kept on file.

FIGURE 10-1. TYPICAL COLLISION DIAGRAM

(Source Northwestern University Center for Public Safety, Traffic and
Transportation Engineering Seminar Student Workbook, September 2000)

10-4
WHAT MEASURES CAN BE EMPLOYED TO LOWER THE CRASH
RATE AT A LOCATION?

The Spot Map, Collision Diagram and Condition Diagram will be helpful in
identifying the crash pattern and possible causes for these at a particular
location. Selection of the appropriate countermeasure to alleviate the crash
problem is the next step. Table 5 is a summary of some of the countermeasures
that can be employed to deal with the more typical crash causes. If these
measures do not prove effective for a particular location, the local agency is
encouraged to seek the help of a professional traffic engineer.

TABLE 10-1
GENERAL COUNTERMEASURES FOR ACCIDENT
PATTERNS AND THEIR PROBABLE CAUSES

Accident Pattern Probable Cause General Countermeasure

Right Angle Poor Signal Install 12” signal lenses

Collisions Visibility Install mast arm mounted signals
(Signalized Install backplates, visors
Intersection) Install advance warning signs
Improve signal head locations
Add signal heads

Inadequate Signal Adjust yellow phase

Timing Provide all-red clearance
Retime signals

Right Angle Restricted Sight Remove sight obstructions

Collisions Distance Restrict parking
(Unsignalized Install Stop signs
Intersection) Install warning signs
Reduce speed limit
Install signals

Heavy Traffic Install signals

Volume

High Approach Reduce speed limit

Speed Install rumble strips for stop
condition

10-5
TABLE 10-1 (Cont.)
Rear End Collisions Poor Signal Install advance warning signs
(Signalized Visibility Install overhead signals
Intersections) Install 12” signal lenses
Install backplates, visors
Relocate signals
Add signal heads
Improve signal head location

Inadequate Signal Adjust yellow phase

Timing

Slippery Surface Overlay pavement

Groove Pavement
Reduce speed limit

Large Turning Create turning lanes

Volumes Prohibit turns
Increase curb radii

Rear End Collisions Driver Not Aware of Install/improve warning signs

(Unsignalized Intersection
Intersection)

Slippery Surface Overlay pavement

Groove pavement
Reduce speed limit

Fixed Object Objects Near Remove obstacles

Collisions Traveled Way Install barrier curbing
Protect objects with guardrail

Slippery Surface Overlay pavement

Groove pavement
Reduce speed limit

Night Accidents Poor Visibility Install/improve street lighting

Install/improve warning signs
Install/improve delineation
markings

Left-Turn Large Volume of Provide left turn signal phase

Collisions Left Turns Prohibit left turns
Channelize intersection
Create one-way streets

10-6
WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION OF THIS TYPE?

Contact KDOT or KSU, Department of Civil Engineering for the latest

edition of the High Accident Location (HAL) Manual or request a course
covering HAL manual techniques.

10-7
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10-8
 CHAPTER 11

ROADWAY LIGHTING

INTRODUCTION

Roadway lighting helps provide for the safe movement of traffic during
darkness, reduces night crashes, and reduces night crime in urban areas. Proper
lighting will provide the visibility necessary for drivers to make decisions
concerning the safe operation of their vehicles.

The principal objectives of roadway lighting are:

1. To supplement vehicle headlights by extending the visibility range

beyond their limits both laterally and longitudinally.

2. To improve the visibility of objects and features on or near the

roadway.

3. To delineate the roadway.

4. To provide visibility of the environment.

5. To reduce the apprehension of those using the roadway.

In most municipalities, street lighting is installed either by the public or

private utility company or by a private electrical contractor. When lighting is
desired on a roadway under the jurisdiction of the Kansas Department of
Transportation (KDOT), the District Engineer should be contacted before
proceeding with any work. The District Engineer will advise the local
governmental agency as to the specific requirements for lighting installations on
rights-of-way under KDOT jurisdiction.

WHAT ILLUMINATION LEVELS SHOULD BE USED IN STREET

LIGHTING?

The function of the roadway should always be considered when

determining lighting needs. The recommended values for roadway illumination
levels have been developed by the Illuminating Engineering Society (IES).

The publication, American National Standard Practice for Roadway

Lighting RP-8, published by IES, is an excellent reference for the design of
lighting installations.

11-1
 The IES recommends average-to-minimum uniformity ratios of 3:1 for all
roadways except local residential streets, which should have a ratio not
exceeding 6:1. The uniformity ratio on the pavement area is the ratio of the
average lumens of illumination to the foot-candles at the point of least
illumination. The average foot-candles of illumination depend upon the type of
luminaire and lamp used, the age of the lamp, lamp maintenance (cleaning),
luminaire location and spacing and width of road lighted. Details of the design
procedure and other pertinent information are found in the IES publication
previously mentioned.

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PARTIAL VS. CONTINUOUS

LIGHTING?

Partial lighting refers to illumination at designated sections of the roadway

such as at intersections, isolated curves, or rail-highway crossings where
increased visibility is needed. Continuous lighting refers to uninterrupted
illumination along the roadway. Continuous lighting is more expensive to
install, operate, and maintain. By gradually increasing the light intensity to its
maximum level and gradually phasing it back to darkness, the eye adaptation
problem can be reduced.

WHAT IS THE MOST EFFECTIVE LIGHT SOURCE?

The selection of the most effective light source should increase safety.
Existing light sources have unique advantages and disadvantages that should be
considered in the selection of lighting equipment. Uniformity of lighting is
more important than intensity.

High Pressure Sodium: excellent luminous effect, low power costs, good
lumen maintenance, long life, and acceptable color, but has a higher lamp
cost and more expensive ballast.

Metal Halide: excellent color, higher effect than mercury lamps and good
for high-mast lighting; but has a short life and is sensitive to lamp
orientation.

Low Pressure Sodium: exceptionally high luminous effect; but has

monochromatic color and a large fixture.

Mercury: good luminous effect, fair to good color, small in size, and long
dependable life; but has a relatively low luminous effect, and poor lumen
maintenance. Generally not used.

11-2
 Tungsten-Halogen: good color, no need for ballast, and "instant-on"
characteristics; but has a high lamp cost; poor optical control, low luminous
effect, and short life.

Incandescent: low initial cost, good color, "instant-on" characteristics, and

no need for ballast; but has a low luminous effect, high power costs, and a
short life. Generally not used.

Fluorescent: good color, good luminous effect, and long life; but has a
large size, poor optical control, and susceptibility to cold temperatures.

WHERE SHOULD STREET LIGHTING BE INSTALLED?

Crash experience is a primary factor in determining street lighting location:

Major arterials in urban areas or sections of streets or highways in

residential areas may need lighting where four or more night crashes have
occurred in one year or six night crashes in two years (provided the cause of the
crashes was attributed to improper lighting) or where the ratio of nighttime to
daytime crash rates is higher than the statewide average for similar locations.
However, these numbers are very general and each jurisdiction should use
engineering judgment in applying them or in developing their own, which may
be more applicable.

Crosswalks should be illuminated if a study indicates a need.

WHAT TYPE OF LUMINAIRE SPACING SHOULD BE USED?

The safest luminaire support location is one that is protected from traffic
such as upon or behind an existing barrier or retaining wall. If the support is not
protected, the probability of a vehicle-object collision is greater as the number of
supports increases or the distance from the roadway edge decreases. If a support
must be installed less than 30 feet from the roadway edge in rural areas,
breakaway devices should be considered. In urban areas an engineering study or
engineering judgment should be used to determine the best type and location of
luminaires. Breakaway supports should not be used when the hazard of a falling
support is greater than a vehicle-object collision (such as in pedestrian areas).

Luminaire spacing is based upon the average intensity of illumination

required.

Figure 11-1 shows typical luminaire mounting arrangements. Staggered

spacing is the preferred arrangement as there are fewer supports adjacent to the
edge of roadway, which could result in a vehicle-object collision. Opposite

11-3
spacing would be appropriate where the width of street exceeds twice the
mounting height. Median spacing is more commonly used on freeways or
divided highways in urban areas. One-side spacing should only be used on
narrow roadways.

FIGURE 11-1. TYPICAL LUMINAIRE MOUNTING ARRANGEMENTS.

WHAT MOUNTING HEIGHT SHOULD BE USED?

The mounting height is determined by lamp output, desired average

illumination, and uniformity of distribution. Light sources should be mounted at
a minimum height of 30 feet. The higher the luminaire is mounted the better the
uniformity.

WHAT ADVANTAGE/DISADVANTAGES EXIST WITH VARIOUS

LUMINAIRE SUPPORTS?

There are five types of poles used for luminaire supports:

Steel: should be galvanized in new construction. Galvanized steel poles are

expensive and have a long life; painted steel poles require extensive
maintenance. Many breakaway devices have been developed for steel poles.

11-4
 Aluminum: Aluminum poles are relatively maintenance-free, lighter than
steel poles, but higher in cost. Breakaway devices are available for
aluminum poles.

Stainless steel: Stainless steel poles are relatively maintenance free,

lightweight, but more expensive than the previous two types. Breakaway
devices have been developed for stainless steel poles.

Wood: Wood is the most economical lighting pole, can be treated to prevent
rotting, and may be painted to improve its appearance. One wood pole can
be used for several utility functions such as supporting telephone and power
lines. However, wood poles have no breakaway characteristics.

Concrete: Concrete poles are economical in certain geographic locations.

They can be set on a break-away base, or can be direct buried similar to
wooden poles. Direct buried concrete poles will not break away.

It is suggested that KDOT be contacted regarding their experience with the

above luminaire supports.

WHAT IS A TYPICAL LAYOUT FOR INTERSECTION LIGHTING?

Figure 11-2 shows a typical layout.

WHAT PROBLEMS ARE CAUSED BY GLARE?

Glare reduces visibility and causes eye discomfort. Glare can be

diminished by reducing luminaire brightness, by increasing mounting height and
by increasing the effective luminaire area.

WHAT TYPE OF ROUTINE MAINTENANCE IS REQUIRED FOR

LIGHTING INSTALLATIONS?

Proper maintenance of the system insures continued levels of illumination

at the original design value. It also minimizes repair cost and protects the
capital investment.

The responsible department or agency should establish a luminaire cleaning

and washing schedule. Based upon the surrounding conditions, glassware
should be washed at least once a year. It is also necessary to set up an
inspection system to insure replacement of burnt out lamps.

11-5
 FIGURE 11-2. TYPICAL LIGHTING PLAN FOR INTERSECTIONS.

WHAT TYPES OF CRASHES MAY BE CORRECTABLE BY STREET

LIGHTING?

Street lighting may assist in preventing nighttime accidents involving:

• Obstacles located within the roadway (islands, medians, bridge piers).

• Single vehicle crashes at locations where the geometrics of the road (or
intersection) may contribute to the cause of the accident ("T"
intersection, curve, with poor horizontal alignment).

• Right angle collisions.

• Turning movement crashes due to limited visibility (of pedestrians,

vehicles and obstacles) around corners in the absence of lighting.

11-6
 CHAPTER 12

RAIL-HIGHWAY CROSSINGS AT GRADE (GRADE CROSSINGS)

INTRODUCTION

Each year, a number of rail-highway crossings at grade (grade crossings)

are improved with signals, gates and other more sophisticated warning devices.
A large number of crossings, however, primarily located in rural areas, remain
marked only by crossbuck and advance warning signs and on paved roads,
pavement markings.

Unsignalized crossings in rural areas are among those crossings, which can
be particularly dangerous, although it is a fact that most rail-highway crashes
accidents occur at busier urban locations with active warning devices where
vehicular traffic is much higher. Train-car collisions may not be the most
frequent type of crash, but when these crashes do occur, they often result in
fatalities. In Kansas, the responsibility for grade crossing safety and safety
improvements at grade crossings rests with the coordinating Section in the
KDOT Bureau of Design. However, the local jurisdiction that has control of the
approach road or street is responsible for various warning signs and markings on
the approaches, and have a responsibility for maintaining adequate sight
distances insofar as removable obstructions (e.g., brush) are concerned.

WHAT FACTORS DETERMINE WHETHER A RAILROAD CROSSING

IS SAFE?

Various formulas have been developed for use by traffic engineers in

evaluating railroad crossings. Most formulas look at three variables if a crossing
is suspected to be hazardous.

1. Are the warning devices now on the crossing approach appropriate and
sufficient to warn motorists of approaching trains?

2. What is the probability of a conflict between vehicles and trains at a

crossing? This is usually measured by exposure which is the number of
trains per day multiplied times the number of vehicles crossing the
tracks per day. An engineering study may also consider how often do
trains frequent a crossing; how long do they occupy the right-of-way;
and is the traffic volume at the crossing particularly heavy?

3. Do motorists have sufficient sight distance in approaching the crossing

to avoid collisions?

12-1
 A study of typical railroad-highway grade crossings identified the following
10 conditions as major contributors to unsafe crossings:

1. Pavement markings were missing, improperly located, or in need of

maintenance.

2. Vehicles required by law to stop at all crossings presented a hazard to

other vehicles by blocking traffic lanes and obstructing the protective
signs and signals.

3. The driver's visibility of a railroad approach was obstructed by

vegetation growth.

4. There was a lack of illumination at night.

5. The driver's attention was distracted by traffic conditions and other

traffic controls on adjacent roads.

6. Advance warning signs were missing, improperly located or in need of

maintenance.

7. No appropriate areas were available for the driver to take evasive

action.

8. The driver's view of the crossing signs or signals was obstructed by

highway signs and fixed objects.

9. Legally parked vehicles blocked the motorist's view of the warning

devices.

10. Fixed-mount warning devices (e.g. crossing gate arms) were

themselves a hazard to vehicles.

The local jurisdiction could greatly improve grade crossing safety, thereby
reducing risk of death or injury to their own citizens by observing and
improving conditions indicated by the first nine (9) conditions above. Local
jurisdictions should pay particular attention to numbers 1, 3, 5, 6, 8 and 9 above.
KDOT should be consulted if there is any questions of the local jurisdiction’s
responsibility or any doubt regarding the safety of any grade crossing within the
local jurisdiction.

12-2
WHAT SIGNS AND MARKINGS SHOULD BE USED TO WARN
MOTORISTS OF A RAILROAD CROSSING?

Signs and markings are passive traffic control devices and serve to alert the
motorist of the existence of a railroad crossing and to take appropriate action.

Railroad Crossing Markings are placed in advance of a railroad crossing

and they consist of an "X", the letters "RR", a "No Passing" marking and certain
transverse lines. They should be placed on all paved approaches to grade
crossings where signals or gates are located, at crossings where the prevailing
speed of traffic is 40 miles per hour or greater and at crossings where
engineering studies indicate a significant potential for train-vehicle accidents
(see Figure 12-1).

The signs to be used at a railroad crossing consist of the Railroad Advance

Warning sign (W10-1), the Railroad Crossing sign (R15-1,2), more commonly
known as the "crossbuck", and if there are two (2) or more tracks, the number of
tracks is to be indicated on an auxiliary sign mounted below the crossbuck. (See
MUTCD 2003, Section 8B.03 and pictures on page 8B-4)

Where a road or street parallels the track such that there is less than 100 feet
on an approach to the track fro the parallel road or street, warning signs W10-2,
W10-3 or W10-4 should be used. (See MUTCD 2003, Section 8B.04 and
pictures on page 8B-5 and/or consult the Coordinating Section in the Bureau of
Design at KDOT.)

WHAT CONTROL DEVICES AND SIGNALS ARE AVAILABLE FOR

USE AT A RAILROAD CROSSING?

Because there are so many variables involved in evaluating a grade

crossing, there is no single standard system of traffic control devices universally
applicable for grade crossings. An engineering and traffic investigation must be
made to determine which signals and devices are appropriate for each site.

The appropriate device(s) is normally determined jointly by KDOT and the

Railroad Company involved. Key persons from the local jurisdiction are often
involved. The KDOT, Railroad and local persons constitute what is called a
diagnostic team.

When a grade crossing has automatic warning devices present and is located
within 200 feet of the near side of a signalized highway intersection, the control
of the intersection traffic signal should be preempted by the railroad crossing
signal controller upon the approach of a train to avoid entrapping vehicles in the
crossing. This is not something any local jurisdiction should attempt to do on
their own. KDOT should be contacted.

12-3
FIGURE 12-1. TYPICAL PAVEMENT MARKINGS AT
RAILROAD-HIGHWAY GRADE CROSSING.
(Source: MUTCD 2003, Figure 8B-6)

12-4
 FIGURE 12-2. TYPICAL HIGHWAY-RAILGRADE
CROSSING PAVEMENT MARKINGS.
(Source: MUTCD 2003, Figure 8B-7)

HOW MUCH DISTANCE DOES A MOTORIST NEED TO SIGHT AN

APPROACHING TRAIN IN ORDER TO EITHER CLEAR THE
TRACKS OR TO STOP SAFELY?

As a driver approaches a railroad crossing, he has to decide whether or nor

it is safe to cross. In the absence of signals or gates, he must be able to observe
any approaching train and make a judgment involving his own speed, that of the
approaching train, and their respective distances from the crossing. At a
minimum, he must be able to observe the approaching train while he is still far
enough from the crossing to bring his vehicle to a safe stop, if necessary. This is

12-5
a complex task for the average driver and he/she needs adequate clear sight
distance.

Figure 12-3 illustrates the distance (Y) required to react to the situation,
apply the brakes, and decelerate to a stop at a safe distance in advance of the
crossing. This distance, of course, varies with the speed of the vehicle, the
driver's reaction time, and the braking characteristics of the vehicle, which may
in turn be affected by the roadway surface. The accompanying table (see Table
12-1) is based on some reasonably conservative assumptions with regard to the
vehicle, driver and roadway, and establishes distance (Y) for various driving
speeds. Distance (X) in the table is the distance the train will travel at various
speeds during the same time that the driver is reacting and stopping. By
comparing distances (X) and (Y) for any given combination of vehicle and train
speeds, one can define the "line of sight" that must be clear of obstacles for safe
operations at the crossing. It is particularly important that advance warning
signs, markings and crossbucks be well placed and maintained in cases where
sight distances are limited. (Note: Although crossbucks are the railroad’s
responsibility, deficiencies should be brought to the attention of KDOT or the
railroad.)

VISIBILITY TRIANGLE
Legend

X Minimum Distance along

Railroad from Crossing
Y Minimum Distance along
Highway from Crossing
AB Distance Traveled during
Think-Reaction Time
(assumed to be 3 seconds)
BC West Pavement Braking
Distance at Posted Speed
Limit
FIGURE 12-3. SIGHT DISTANCE TRIANGLE
FOR RAILROAD CROSSINGS.

12-6
 TABLE 12-1
MINIMUM SIGHT DISTANCES
FOR COMBINATIONS OF HIGHWAY AND TRAIN VEHICLE SPEEDS
(In Feet)

HIGHWAY SPEED IN MPH

Train 0 10 20 30 40 50 55
Speed MINIMUM DISTANCE ALONG RAILROAD FROM CROSSING (X)
10 162 126 94 94 99 107 113
20 323 252 188 188 197 214 225
30 484 378 281 281 295 321 337
40 645 504 376 376 394 428 450
50 807 630 570 470 492 534 566
60 967 756 562 610 590 642 675
70 1,129 882 656 704 684 750 786
80 1,290 1,008 752 752 788 856 900
90 1,450 1,134 844 844 884 964 1,010

MINIMUM DISTANCE ALONG HIGHWAY FROM CROSSING (Y)

20 65 125 215 330 470 560

(Source: Federal Highway Administration, Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing

Handbook, FHWA-TS-86-215, Washington, D.C., 1986)

12-7
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12-8
 CHAPTER 13

PARKING

INTRODUCTION

Parking is one of the essential elements of any workable transportation

system. Poorly planned and sized parking facilities can result in safety concerns
for the general public and economic hardship for those they are meant to serve.
Parking characteristics are influenced by the size of the city, whether it is a
regional center, the other modes of transportation available to commuters and
the size of traffic generators and their location within the community relative to
other larger scale uses.

Every city should consider controlling parking issues through Zoning

Regulations by requiring off-street parking be provided. Even parking within a
single-family residential area can become a problem if some off-street parking is
not provided at each residence.

This chapter provides basic information on how to determine parking needs,

the dimensions of parking spaces and appropriate signs. As with all traffic
management questions, one should take advantage of reference materials for
assistance in developing the best possible system for a municipality.

Every City Official must also be aware that the Americans with Disabilities
Act (ADA) requires that certain actions must be taken in regards to provision of
parking. These requirements are discussed within this chapter.

A reference for parking issues in Central Business Districts is “The Parking

Handbook for Small Cities” produced by the National Main Street Center of the
National Trust for Historic Preservation and The Institute of Traffic Engineers.
This document should be used as a guide for any City contemplating revisions to
their downtown parking system.

HOW CAN THE NUMBER OF PARKING SPACES NEEDED IN

VARIOUS PARTS OF THE CITY BE DETERMINED?

Parking space requirements vary by city and land use. This variability
means that no magic numbers exist to precisely define the exact amount of
parking required for a certain land use in a certain city. Table 13-1 defines
ranges in the amount of parking that have been found adequate in sample
locations. These ranges coupled with local judgment can be used to develop off-
street parking requirements for Zoning Regulations.

13-1
 TABLE 13-1
PARKING REQUIREMENTS BY LAND USE

Building Type Range Mode

Commercial and Industrial (spaces per 100 sq. ft.)

Office Buildings, Banks 0.08 – 1.33 0.25

Business and Professional Services 0.08 – 1.33 0.33
Commercial Recreational Facilities 0.16 – 2.00 1.00
Shopping Goods (Retail) 0.06 – 3.00 0.50
Convenience Goods (Retail) 0.10 – 1.33 0.50
Restaurants 0.06 – 2.00 1.00
Personal Services and Repairs 0.08 – 1.00 0.50
Manufacturing 0.08 – 1.00 0.20
Warehouses 0.02 – 0.67 0.10
Wholesale 0.03 – 1.33 0.15

Residential (spaces per unit)

Single Family Dwelling 0.50 – 3.00 1.00

Duplexes 0.50 – 2.00 1.00
Multiple Family Dwellings 0.50 – 2.00 1.00
Apartment Hotels, Rooming Houses 0.25 – 1.50 1.00
Hotels (spaces per bedroom) 0.16 – 2.00 1.00
Motels (spaces per bedroom) 0.25 – 1.25 1.00

Public Buildings (spaces per 100 sq. ft.)

Museums and Libraries 0.10 – 3.33 0.33

Public Utilities 0.10 – 1.00 0.33
Welfare Institutions 0.10 – 0.67 0.25

Medical Buildings (spaces per 100 sq. ft.)

Medical and Dental Offices 0.08 – 1.33 0.50

Hospitals 0.10 – 2.00 1.00
Convalescent Homes 0.08 – 1.00 0.50

Auditoriums (spaces per seat)

General Auditoriums and Theaters 0.06 – 0.33 0.25

Stadiums and Arenas 0.05 – 0.33 0.25
School Auditoriums 0.05 – 0.25 0.10
University Auditoriums 0.06 – 0.25 0.10

13-2
 While parking issues tend to occur more often in new developments, these
can be addressed with the requirement that sufficient off-street parking is
provided by the developer. Problems within existing built-up areas can be
persistent and more difficult to solve. As an example, it is common for Cities
not to require individual owners to provide off-street parking in a Central
Business District (CBD). Conflicts often arise in the CBD between businesses
that require parking for shoppers and those that require long-term parking for
employees. Solving these problems requires an efficient and effective use of
existing facilities.

An accurate understanding of the parking needs in a city requires some

basic demand and supply evaluations. Parking demand results from the
necessity to “store” vehicles while the vehicle’s occupants complete their trips.
This “demand” can vary with the type of trip and the time of day, week and
month. The key demand factors to be evaluated are: the amount of demand, the
distributions of demand with time and the rate of turnover.

The supply, or “storage”, is the amount of on-street and off-street parking

that is available to meet demand. In areas where parking needs are an issue,
supply can be increased by providing more area for parking use or by reducing
the length of time a vehicle may be in a given space, thereby increasing the
turnover rate within parking stalls. This action will allow more individuals to
utilize a given area. Either of these decisions can have significant impact and
must be well thought out before implementation.

Among the techniques to examine parking supply and demand

characteristics are:

Supply:

Parking Inventories- This involves a comprehensive cataloguing of all

public and private parking spaces within a given area and the manner in
which these spaces are managed. The basic information should include the
location, the ownership, if it is available for public use and any time
restrictions.

Demand:

Parking Usage Studies- This is an analysis of the number of times a parking

space is used in a given time period as well as the average length of stay of
a parked vehicle.

Parking Accumulation Studies- This is a determination of which days of the

week and hours of the day parking areas are most used.

13-3
 Methods:

License Plate Checks: This is a technique for determining parking duration

and turnover. It is a labor-intensive operation requiring the recording of the
license plate of each car in each stall and a follow-up over the course of a
day at regular intervals to record changes. The data obtained will assist in
determining if the balance between long-term and short-term parking is
appropriate in an area. The data developed can also be useful in
determining if enforcement of parking regulations will help alleviate
complaints.

Bulk Counts: This involves the counting of vehicles within a defined area
on a daily basis over a longer period. This data is used for parking
accumulation studies and can be useful in determining whether problems
are perceived or real.

Parking Interviews: This is a method of determining trip origin, destination,

purpose and walking distance through interviews of motorists by mailed
questionnaire or personal interview.

WHAT CAN BE DONE IF PARKING IS INADEQUATE?

If the studies discussed above indicate that parking is inadequate, then a

municipality must turn to public or privately financed parking facilities.
Financing of private parking areas is usually through merchant efforts in the
immediate vicinity. Public facilities can be financed by General Obligation
Bonds, Revenue Bonds or by Improvement Districts. Public-private efforts can
include tax incentives, technical advice or the use of City-owned land by the
private operator.

HOW MUCH SPACE IS NEEDED FOR EACH PARKING STALL?

A parking car requires approximately an 8.5-foot by 19-foot area. There

are, however, variables resulting from the type of parking stall that will require
actual space size to differ. These are discussed below.

Parallel Parking

Three kinds of stalls are used when allocating space for parallel parking:
end stalls, interior stalls and paired parking stalls. Since a vehicle can be
driven directly into and out of an end stall, only the length of the vehicle
needs to be accommodated. Interior stalls require room for a car to
maneuver and, therefore, should be no less than 23 feet and need not be

13-4
 more than 26 feet in length. The stalls should be delineated by painted
markings.

Paired parking stalls are laid out such that two vehicles are parked bumper
to bumper with each pair of stalls separated by a maneuver area of between
8 and 10 feet. This method is best when a double parking meter is installed
between each pair of vehicles so they do not encroach upon the maneuver
area. (See Figure 13-1)

Angle Parking

Parking at an angle of 45 degrees or less is more commonly used for on-

street parking or in lots with narrow traveled ways. Angles equal to or
greater than 45 degrees are more often used in off-street parking lots.
Ninety (90) degree parking gives the greatest number of parking spaces per
lineal foot of lot (nearly 2-1/2 times more spaces than parallel parking) but
as the angle increases, the width of road or access way necessary for
maneuvering into and out of the stall also increases. Within off-street
parking lots the use of 90-degree parking also allows the motorist to travel
either direction away from the stall.

Stall Marking

Marking of parking stalls creates additional maintenance costs. It also

requires that the parking area be paved with a material capable of receiving
and holding paint. However, marking is justified where high usage and
turnover rates are experienced. The absence of markings will cause an
inefficient use of available space.

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ON-STREET AND OFF-

STREET PARKING?

On-street parking is that which falls on the sides of public streets. Off-
street parking is on property owned by either a public entity or a private
concern. The parking stalls within this property should not be accessed directly
from the street.

WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ON-

STREET PARKING?

The advantage of on-street parking is that it allows for full use of the street
system. Where traffic volumes are low or where additional street width is
available for the purpose, on-street parking gives convenient access to homes
and businesses.

13-5
FIGURE 13-1. CURB PARKING CONFIGURATIONS.
(Source: Carter and Homburger, 1978)

13-6
 TABLE 13-2
PARKING LAYOUT – DIMENSIONS FOR
VARYING DEGREES OF ANGLE PARKING.

13-7
 Conversely, where traffic volumes are higher, on-street parking can result in
traffic congestion, delays and increased crashes. On-street parking may increase
the number of traffic crashes for the following reasons:

1. Parking, parked, stopped and backing vehicles are obstacles for moving
traffic.

2. Parking maneuvers often occur with inadequate warning to other

traffic.

3. Parked vehicles reduce the sight distance at locations where pedestrians

cross or cross traffic must enter the roadway.

4. Former occupants of parked vehicles create unexpected mid-block

conflicts while near their vehicles.

The use of parallel parking results in fewer crashes than angle parking. It is
preferred when streets are narrow and the volume of traffic is high. However, it
takes almost three times as long to parallel park as it does to angle park. While
angle parking is easier for the motorist to maneuver in to and out of, it has the
disadvantage that the driver’s vision is often impaired as he exits the space.
Drivers traveling in a through lane will tend to keep about two (2) feet further
away from angle spaces than parallel spaces.

WHERE SHOULD ON-STREET PARKING ALWAYS BE

PROHIBITED?

The Standard Traffic Ordinance defines three terms for use in parking
prohibitions, park, stand, and stop, as follows:

Park: the standing of a vehicle, whether occupied or not, otherwise

than temporarily for the purposed of and which actually engaged in loading
or unloading property or passengers.

Stand: the halting of a vehicle whether occupied or not, otherwise than

temporarily for the purpose of/and while actually engaged in receiving or
discharging passengers.

Stop: when prohibited means any halting even momentarily of a

vehicle, whether occupied or not, except when necessary to avoid conflict
with other traffic or in compliance with the directions of a police officer or
traffic-control sign or signal.

The following provisions of the Standard Traffic Ordinance pertain to the

layout of on-street parking.

13-8
 “Except when necessary to avoid conflict with other traffic or in compliance
with the directions of a police officer or official traffic-control device, no person
shall stand or park a vehicle:

In front of a public or private driveway;

Within 15 feet of a fire hydrant;

Within 20 feet of a crosswalk at an intersection;

Within 30 feet upon the approach to any flashing signal, stop sign or traffic-
control signal located at the side of a roadway;

Within 20 feet of the driveway entrance to any fire station and on the side of
a street opposite the entrance to any fire station within 75 feet of said
entrance, when properly sign-posted.

No person shall park a vehicle, except temporarily for the purpose of and
while actually engaged in, loading or unloading property or passengers within
50 feet of the nearest rail of a railroad crossing.”

WHAT TYPES OF NO PARKING SIGNS CAN BE USED?

There are a wide variety of no parking situations and each must be analyzed
separately as to how it should be treated. All no parking signs must conform to
the MUTCD 2000 in shape, color, location and use. The regulations that will be
displayed on each sign should be listed from top to bottom in the following
order:

1. Restriction or prohibition.

2. Time of day applicable, if not at all hours.

3. Days of week applicable, if not every day.

Parking prohibition signs are used where parking is prohibited at all times
or at specified times. These signs shall have red letters and border printed on a
white background.

Parking restriction signs are used where limited time parking or parking in a
particular manner is permitted. These signs shall have green letters and border
printed on a white background. Various styles of signs are permitted. (See
MUTCD 2003, Section 2B.40)

13-9
 In rural districts special parking prohibition signs may be used to emphasize
that no person shall stop, park or leave standing any vehicle on the paved or
traveled part of the highway.

Refer to Table 2B-1 of the MUTCD 2003 for the required size of each type
of No Parking Sign in various applications.

Parking signs with arrows are used to indicate the limits of a restricted zone.
The signs should be set at an angle of not less than 30 degrees and no more than
45 degrees to the line of traffic flow so that they are visible to approaching
drivers. If the zone is unusually long (a block or longer), signs with a double
arrow should be set at intermediate points within the zone. To minimize the
number of parking signs, blanket prohibitions and/or restrictions which apply to
an entire district can be posted at municipal boundary lines.

WHAT ARE THE REQUIREMENTS RELATIVE TO HANDICAP

ACCESSIBLE PARKING?

There are many variables that must be considered in the layout of accessible
facilities. The basic requirements for accessible parking are set out below. The
information was derived from the “Americans with Disabilities Act
Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities (ADAAG)”. This is
published by the Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board;
1331 F Street, NW; Suite 1000; Washington, DC 20004-1111. Their Website is
http://www.access-board.gov.

The following table gives the minimum number of spaces required when
parking is provided.

TABLE 13-3
NUMBER OF SPACES REQUIRED TO SATISFY ADA REGULATIONS.

TOTAL PARKING IN LOT REQUIRED MINIMUM NUMBER OF

ACCESSIBLE SPACES
1 to 25 1
26 to 50 2
51 to 75 3
76 to 100 4
101 to 150 5
151 to 200 6
201 to 300 7
301 to 400 8
401 to 500 9
501 to 1000 2 percent of total
1001 and over 20, plus 1 for each 100 over 1000

13-10
 One in every eight, but not less than one, of these spaces must be Van
Accessible.

Note that all accessible spaces must be signed as such. If the space is Van
Accessible, a supplementary sign giving that information must be used.

Size Of Spaces

Accessible parking spaces shall be at least 96 inches wide. An additional

area must be provided adjacent to the space. This area must be a minimum of
60 inches wide. For a space to be considered as Van Accessible the access aisle
must be a minimum of 96 inches wide.

Two spaces may share the same access aisle.

The parking space and access aisle must be level with surface slopes not
exceeding 1:50 (2%) in all directions.

Location Of Spaces

Spaces must be located on the shortest accessible route of travel to an

accessible entrance. It is easier to know where to locate space in a lot
constructed for a specific use. Public parking lots are meant to serve a number
of uses; therefore, best judgment should be used in the layout of spaces in a
public lot. Many communities have found it useful to receive input from local
handicapped citizens in the layout of spaces in public lots.

A factor for consideration in the location of spaces is that accessible routes

must be provided for all accessible spaces. In general, this route must be at least
60 inches and have no more than a 1:12 slope. If the 1:12 slope extends for
more than 30 feet, a level landing of at least 60 inches shall be provided.

13-11
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13-12
 CHAPTER 14

DRIVEWAYS

INTRODUCTION

Driveways are privately owned roads, which connect buildings, parking lots
and other areas with public roads and highways. Although driveways are
essential to provide access to these facilities, they can produce hazardous
highway conditions. Engineering studies have shown that as commercial
establishments become more frequent along a public road, crash rates increase.
The objective, therefore, is to regulate the design and frequency of driveways
and other private access roads so as to minimize the incidence of crashes and
thereby maintain a reasonable traffic flow along the highway. Appendix 2
provides some practical guidelines for managing access. Access to the State
Highway System is governed by KDOT’s, Corridor Management Policy.
KDOT should be contacted regarding any access to a state highway.

A permit is required for the construction of any new access driveway or the
revision of any existing driveway within the right-of-way along a State highway.
The permit is issued by the appropriate district office of the Kansas Department
of Transportation and all construction work performed is subject to the condition
of the permit with accompanying plans, drawings, sketches or other attachments.

WHAT FACTORS SHOULD A LOCAL AUTHORITY TAKE INTO ACCOUNT

IN PROVIDING GUIDELINES FOR DRIVEWAY CONSTRUCTION?

Any policies established at the local level related to driveways should be

consistent with policies governing zoning, subdivision regulations, or other
appropriate policy documents.

Driveways accessing major streets and highways require more stringent

requirements than those accessing secondary roads or streets. Standards for all
driveways, however, should minimize potential conflicts between through
vehicles and those entering and leaving the driveway. Some of the objectives to
be achieved through the use of proper driveway design standards are:

1. Minimize the speed differential between through vehicles and those

using the driveway.

2. Eliminate encroachment of turning vehicles on adjacent lanes.

3. Prohibit motorists from using the road or highway as a means of

circulating between parking rows.

14-1
 4. Provide sufficient space between driveways to reduce interference from
traffic using adjacent driveways.

5. Discourage motorists from parking on streets or backing out onto the

highway or road.

6. Preserve the original intent of the roadway, pedestrian walkway and

drainage facilities.

7. Provide adequate sight distance for motorists exiting the driveway so

that they can see on-coming traffic.

8. Where possible, driveways should access private property from the

lowest classified adjacent street/highway in order to provide for
entry/exit into slower, less dense traffic.

9. Consider corridor management policies that can minimize the effect of

driveways. (KDOT has a publication; KDOT’s “Corridor Management
Policy” and can provide guidance on corridor management.)

WHAT CRITERIA SHOULD BE USED IN DETERMINING WHERE

DRIVEWAYS CAN BE SAFELY LOCATED?

When considering a proposed driveway, the following four criteria should

be used in determining that its construction will not endanger lives and property.

1. The driveway should be located where motorists using the proposed

drive and abutting road will have adequate sight distance, and where
grade and alignment conditions are favorable.

2. There should be no unnecessary interference with the free and safe

movement of highway/arterial street traffic.

3. The safety and convenience of pedestrians and other users of the

roadway should not be compromised.

4. Driveways serving commercial, industrial and high-density residential

developments can affect the efficiency and safety of the street or
highway onto which they enter and exit. Perhaps the single most
important factor in developing a safe access plan for these
developments is a determination of the potential traffic volumes
generated (see Chapter 15).

14-2
WHAT ARE THE DESIGN STANDARDS FOR A RESIDENTIAL
DRIVEWAY?

The following standards are recommended for single-family residences:

Width of Drive: Single-family residential driveways should have a width

between 12 and 24 feet with appropriate flares at the curb or pavement
edge.

Flare Radii: The recommended radii for flares at residential drives is three
feet (3'), minimum and five feet (5'), maximum.

Angle of Driveway: The driveway center line should generally be at a right

angle (90 degrees) to the pavement edge and follow this angle from the
roadway to the right-of-way line.

The following standards are recommended for multi-family residences:

Width of Drive: Multi-family residential driveways should have a width

between 24 and 44 feet with appropriate flares at the curb or pavement
edge.

Flare Radii: The recommended radii for flares at residential drives is three
feet (3'), minimum and five feet (5'), maximum.

Angle of Driveway: The driveway centerline should generally be at a right

angle (90 degrees) to the pavement edge and follow this angle from the
roadway to the right-of-way line.

WHAT ARE THE DESIGN STANDARDS FOR A COMMERCIAL

DRIVEWAY?

The following standards are recommended:

Width of Drive: Commercial two-way driveways should be no less than

twenty-four feet (24') wide, and should be limited to a maximum width of
40 feet measured at right angles to the centerline of the drive and exclusive
of flares.

Flare Radii: In urban areas the radii should no less than fifteen feet (15'),
and no more than twenty-five feet (25').

Angle of Driveway: Generally, the driveway should be at a right angle to

the roadway or parallel to the side property line.

14-3
WHAT ARE THE DESIGN STANDARDS FOR INDUSTRIAL
DRIVEWAYS?

Please refer to the Commercial Driveway standards previous section for

geometric guidelines. In addition, there should be separate entrances for
employee parking and for industrial (truck) access.

WHAT IS THE RECOMMENDED GRADE FOR A DRIVEWAY?

To prevent difficulty with vehicular ground clearance, changes in driveway

grade over the length of a vehicle (20 feet +/-) should not exceed a twelve
percent (12%) increase or an eight percent (8%) decrease.

In urban areas, the slope should be compatible with the drainage of the area
but should not exceed six (6) and eight (8) percent, respectively, for commercial
and non-commercial driveways. Driveways in urban areas should rise to a point
at least as high as any adjacent curb in order to contain storm water runoff
within the curb and gutter.

HOW CLOSELY CAN DRIVEWAYS BE SPACED?

Residential Driveways

Normally, only one driveway should be permitted for each residential

property. For residential drives near intersections the minimum distance
between the drive and the nearest public road should be no less than 50 feet,
measured from the back of curb or edge of pavement.

Commercial and Industrial Driveways

These entrances should be from collector/local streets, as far removed from

arterial traffic as possible. Commercial developments should be required to plan
such traffic patterns where possible.

A minimum distance of 440 feet, and preferably 660 feet, should be

required between the centerlines of entrances into shopping centers and similar
developments that generate high traffic volumes. If these requirements cannot
be accommodated, designs with deceleration lanes may be effective. However,
service drives into these centers which are not used by the general public may be
closer than 440 feet as long as they do not encroach on turning lanes. The
minimum separation distance of 440 feet is also desirable between major
commercial/industrial entrances and the nearest public road.

14-4
CAN A DRIVEWAY BE SHARED JOINTLY BY TWO ADJACENT
PROPERTY OWNERS?

If two or more property owners have a legal agreement describing their

joint right to property access, the only barrier to allowing such a driveway would
be the safety and traffic flow issues already addressed in this chapter. Many
jurisdictions, however, discourage this practice in residential areas in order to
avoid possible problems.

ARE THERE GUIDELINES FOR DRIVEWAYS FOR SPECIAL USES?

Along with traffic volumes, other critical factors to be examined include the
number of entrances, the size of the parking area, the length of storage lanes for
traffic entering and leaving these establishments, and the internal traffic
circulation pattern. Different kinds of developments also demand special
conditions.

• Office Space. The exits should be designed to accommodate heavy

traffic during peak hours.

• Drive-in Service Establishments. The layout of the site must provide

that all waiting vehicles are off the right-of-way and not concentrated
on the entrance driveway.

• Fueling Stations. The site should be laid out so that the minimum
distance from the right-of-way line to the near edge of the pump island
is 13 feet. A greater distance is recommended to permit easier
movement of larger vehicles and to ensure they are entirely off the
street.

14-5
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14-6
 CHAPTER 15

PRIVATE PROPERTY DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION

Changes in land use can greatly modify the traffic patterns of an area. These
changes are particularly significant if the property undergoes change from a
relatively undeveloped parcel to one having commercial usage.

The traffic impact of such development proposals should be carefully

reviewed. Of particular importance are the following two issues:

1. Will this project cause congestion or create an unsafe traffic condition?

2. Is sufficient off-street parking being provided?

This chapter examines issues relative to congestion as well as other

questions, which may arise concerning this type of project. Chapter 13
examined parking issues.

HOW MUCH TRAFFIC WILL BE GENERATED BY A NEW

COMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT?

Because of the many variables affecting traffic generation, it is difficult to

predict the precise amount of traffic, which will be generated by a given project.
However, transportation studies have quantified, in general terms, the volume of
traffic generated for different types of projects.

Table 15-1 presents a tabulation of generation values, which may be

expected for both residential and commercial developments. Daily and PM peak
hour forecasts are given for each type of project.

In addition, for large commercial developments, many communities require

the developer to have a traffic engineering study prepared, submitted and
approved. The developer may also be required to pay all or at least a share of
roadway improvement costs necessitated by the development.

15-1
 TABLE 15-1
SUMMARY OF TRIP GENERATION RATES

Average weekday Vehicle Trip Ends (1)

Land Use Daily P.M. Peak Hour

Residential
Single Family Unit 10 per unit 1 per unit
Apartment 6 per unit 0.7 per unit

Retail
0 to 50,000 GSF 5 per 1000 GSF (2) 15 per 1000 GSF
50,000 to 100,000 GSF 0 per 1000 GSF per 1000 GSF
100,000 to 200,000 GSF 60 per 1000 GSF 6 per 1000 CSF

Office
General Office 12 per 1000 GSF 2.5 per 1000 GSF
Medical Office 75 per 1000 GSF 6.5 per 1000 GSF

Restaurant
Fast Food 550 per 1000 GSF 30 per 1000 GSF
High Turnover, Sit Down 165 per 1000 GSF 10.5 per 1000 GSF

Industrial
Per Employee 3 0.6
Per 1000 GSF 5.5 1
Per Acre 60 12

1. A trip end is one trip either entering or exiting the development.

2. GSF = Gross Square Feet of floor area in the building.

* REFERENCE – TRANSPORTATION & TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

HANDBOOK, 2nd Edition, ITE 1982

HOW MANY ACCESS DRIVES ARE NEEDED TO ACCOMMODATE A

DEVELOPMENT?

Access requirements will depend upon the volume traffic on the main road,
the number of trips generated by the development, existing roadway conditions,
property dimensions, etc. One rule of thumb, which can be used as a guideline,
is that the volume of traffic in the predominant direction of travel along the
adjacent highway (measured in vehicles per lane per hour) plus that exiting from
the development (measured in vehicles per lane per hour) should not exceed
1,200. When this volume is exceeded, additional lanes (or additional access

15-2
points) must be provided. As a practical point, it is generally a good policy to
provide two access driveways (at least 440 to 660 feet apart) if the size of the
commercial development exceeds 25,000 square feet.

The following are other guidelines, which should be considered:

• Access driveways should generally be designed with two exiting lanes

when the left turn volume exceeds 100 vehicles per hour.

• A left-turn storage lane should be provided along the adjacent highway

when left-turning movements into the site exceed 100 vehicles per hour
at any given location.

• Where at all possible, align the proposed access drives directly opposite
existing driveways or streets so that offset intersections can be avoided.

WHAT ARE THE GUIDELINES TO DETERMINE IF A

DEVELOPMENT WILL NEED ADDITIONAL TRAFFIC LANES
ALONG AN ADJACENT STREET?

The critical lane analysis is useful in determining if additional traffic lanes will be
needed. Count peak hour volumes on the adjacent street. If the volume of traffic in the
heaviest direction of travel (expressed in vehicles per lane per hour) plus that exiting
from the access road to the development (vehicles per lane per hour) exceeds 1,200
vehicles, additional lanes will be required.

Example

• Main Street
Has two traffic lanes (one in each direction)
Peak hour traffic volume:
Northbound – 800 Southbound – 400

• Driveway to the Proposed Development

Has two traffic lanes (one in each direction)
Peak hour exiting traffic volume - 500

• Critical Lane Analysis

Main Street 800 Vehicles per lane per hour
Driveway 500 Vehicles per lane per hour

Total Volume 1,300 Vehicles per lane per hour

15-3
 The total volume exceeds 1,200 vehicles per lane per hour; therefore,
additional lanes will be required on Main Street or additional exiting lanes (or
driveways) should be built to the proposed development.

ARE THERE GUIDELINES FOR STREET AND AREA LIGHTING IN

COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT?

Lighting on commercial properties is normally the responsibility of the

property owner(s) and must be located on private property unless special permits
allow location on the right-of-way. Lights on commercial properties should not
be a nuisance to passing motorists and cannot be similar to traffic control
devices. No flashing, oscillating or rotating lights visible from any public
highway should be permitted to be placed on any building or structure within
200 feet of and visible from the highway, and no illuminated signs should be
allowed to have unshielded lights which might impair the vision of passing
motorists on the adjacent street. Local codes generally control the type of
lighting and signs.

WHAT PROCESS MUST A DEVELOPER FOLLOW TO OBTAIN

NECESSARY PERMITS?

The developer of a commercial property which accesses State and/or

municipal roads must comply with local building codes, setback requirements,
minimum lot sizes, density of building, provision for adequate parking and other
regulations. Access to the State Highway System is governed by the Kansas
Department of Transportation “Corridor Management Policy”, effective July 1,
1997. Subdivision development of properties abutting the State Highway System
must have KDOT review and approval with regard to access to the highway
prior to final plat approval, otherwise the subdivision properties will not be
considered for access to the State highway System.

WHAT TYPES OF COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENTS HAVE SPECIAL

ACCESS REQUIREMENTS?

Some extensive developments, such as major truck stops, industrial

parks/complex, regional malls, neighborhood shopping centers, convenience
stores, discount stores, specialty department stores, office and medical centers,
fast food strip developments, and other high traffic generators that generate 50
or more vehicles in the peak hour will require special access and geometric
consideration such as added lanes, compound curves, channelizing median
islands, etc.

15-4
 CHAPTER 16

TEMPORARY TRAFFIC CONTROL

INTRODUCTION

Because of varying construction conditions, the safe and expeditious

movement of traffic through work zones is a difficult problem. Studies of crash
patterns in work zones show there is almost always an above-average crash rate
during those periods when a construction or maintenance activity is taking place.

This chapter answers some of the basic questions concerning the design,
application, installation and maintenance of various types of traffic control
devices required for road or street construction, maintenance and utility
operations. More detailed information on this subject is contained in Part 6 of
the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD 2000).

WHAT ARE THE LOCAL RESPONSIBILITIES FOR WORK ZONE

TRAFFIC CONTROL?

The MUTCD 2003 includes the following Standard “Temporary traffic

control plans and devices shall be the responsibility of the authority of a public
body or official having jurisdiction for guiding road users. There shall be
adequate statutory authority for the implementation and enforcement of needed
road user regulations, parking controls, speed zoning, and incident management.
Such statutes shall provide sufficient flexibility in the application of temporary
traffic control to meet the needs of changing conditions in the temporary traffic
control zone.”

It is clear from this that local agencies must take actions to ensure the safety
of the public and workmen in work zones on public streets within their
jurisdiction. This is true whether the project is being performed by agency
employees, companies under contract to the agency or by those under the
employ of others.

WHAT TYPES OF SIGNS ARE AVAILABLE FOR WORK ZONE

TRAFFIC CONTROL?

Regulatory Signs: Regulatory signs (Stop, Yield, Speed Limit, etc.) will be
of the same size, shape and color as for normal use. Because of the legal
obligations imposed by these signs, it is essential that their use be authorized by
the public body or official having jurisdiction.

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 Warning Signs: Warning signs (Road Work Ahead, Detour 1000 Feet,
Flagger Ahead, etc.) are also of the same size and shape as regular warning
signs. However, they have one distinguishing difference; the background for
warning signs for work zones is orange, not yellow as for normal application.
Where any part of the roadway is obstructed or closed, the approach warning
signs should have a standard size of 48" x 48". Where speeds are low (30 mph or
less), 36" x 36" signs may be used.

Guide Signs: Guide signs have a number of purposes and, consequently,

may have messages and shapes other than the standard orange diamond. "End
Road Work" and "Pilot Car Follow Me" are two examples, where these signs are
used, they shall have a black symbol or message on an orange background and
shall be rectangular in shape. Figure 16-1 illustrates many of the signs used in
construction and maintenance activities.

IS THERE A SPECIFIC MOUNTING HEIGHT AND LOCATION FOR

THESE SIGNS?

The standards for positioning these signs are the same as for normal signs.
Chapter 2 discusses typical applications of warning signs in urban areas. (See
also, MUTCD 2003, Part 2, Signs.)

WHICH WARNING SIGNS SHOULD BE USED FOR A TYPICAL

WORK ZONE SITUATION?

No one standard sequence of signs or other control devices can be set up as

an inflexible arrangement for all situations due to the variety of conditions
encountered. In general, however, warning signs are used to achieve three
objectives:

1. To warn the motorist of unusual activity;

2. To inform the motorist of conditions that will be encountered; and

3. To guide the motorist through the area.

Warning signs are generally used in this sequence.

Approach warning signs such as "Road Work Ahead" (W20-1) warn

motorists of an upcoming work zone. These signs would be the first in the
sequence of traffic control devices employed.

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 Signs such as "Right Lane Closed Ahead" (W20-5) are specific warning
signs and follow next in the sequence. These signs tell the motorist in greater
detail what to expect.

Finally, signs such as "Lane Ends Merge Left" (W9-2) or (W4-2) (See
Figure 16-1) and other devices such as cones or barricades help guide the
motorist through the area. (Note: A Lane Ends Merge Left (W9-2) must never
be used on a two-lane, two-way road or street.)

Figure 16-2 illustrates a typical application of these signs on a 2-lane, two-

way highway, for further illustrations, refer to the MUTCD 2003.

WHAT IS THE BEST PROCEDURE FOR INFORMING A

CONTRACTOR AS TO WHICH DEVICE TO USE FOR TRAFFIC
CONTROL AT A WORK ZONE?

The use of a traffic control plan (TCP) is the best technique for informing
the contractor (or the project engineer) specifically which devices to use. This
TCP should provide for the safe and efficient movement of traffic through the
work zone in a manner conducive to the safety of both motorists and workers.
The TCP should include, but not be limited to, such items as signing; application
and removal of pavement markings; construction scheduling; methods and
devices for delineation and channelization; placement and maintenance of
devices; roadway lighting; traffic regulations; and surveillance and inspection.

Public agencies should always include a TCP in project plans issued under
their authority. They should also require reference to the MUTCD 2003, if not a
TCP, on utility company plans and private development plans affecting public
streets within their jurisdiction.

Whether a formal TCP is provided or not, the MUTCD 2003 should be

followed to the maximum practicable extent.

HOW FAR IN ADVANCE OF THE WORK ZONE SHOULD THE

WARNING SIGNS BE PLACED?

Where open highway conditions prevail on the approach to the work site,
advance warning signs should be placed approximately 1,500 feet in advance of
the condition to which they are calling attention. Where a series of advance
warning signs are used, the warning sign nearest the work site should be placed
approximately 500 feet from the point of restriction with additional signs at 500-
1,000 foot intervals. On expressway and limited access facilities, the advance
warning distance should be increased to one-half mile or more.

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FIGURE 16-1. CONSTRUCTION SIGNS.

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FIGURE 16-2. TYPICAL WORK ZONE SIGNING.

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 On city streets, where more restrictive conditions generally prevail on the
approach to the work area, signs in the immediate vicinity of the work may be
placed at closer spacings of 150 to 300 feet. Warning signs will also be required
on side streets in urban areas.

WHAT TYPE OF DEVICES ARE MOST USEFUL FOR

CHANNELIZING TRAFFIC?

Cones, vertical panels, drums, barricades, pavement markings, and

temporary concrete barriers may all be used to channelize traffic flows through
work zones. The device to use depends upon the type of project, the length of
time during which the work activity will take place, and the volume and speed
of traffic.

For example, cones are easiest to install and remove and, therefore, best
suited for short term projects during daytime. Conversely, if the project will be
of some duration, will require nighttime channelization, or is on a high volume
(or high speed) road, barricades or drums would provide more permanent
protection and would be more appropriate. Barriers are generally used to
channelize or separate traffic on high-speed roads such as freeways.

As would be expected, channelizing devices for nighttime use shall be

retroreflectorized and may be supplemented with warning lights.

More information concerning the design and application of these devices is

contained in Part 6 of the MUTCD 2003.

WHAT TYPES OF WARNING LIGHTS ARE AVAILABLE AND HOW

SHOULD THEY BE USED?

Warning lights are normally used to supplement and draw attention to other
warning or channelizing devices during the hours of darkness.

Most of the warning lights in common use are portable, battery-powered,

lens directed, enclosed units and may be used on channelizing devices and signs.
The color of the light emitted shall be yellow.

The principal types and uses of warning lights are:

Type A: Low intensity flashing lights, Type A, are appropriate for use on a
channelizing device to warn of an isolated hazard at night.

Type B: High intensity flashing lights, Type B, are appropriate to use on

advance warning signs day and night.

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 Type C: Steady-burn lights, Type C, are appropriate for use on a series of
channelizing devices which either form the taper to close a lane or shoulder
or keep a section of lane or shoulder closed, and are also appropriate on the
channelizing device alongside of the work area at night. Flashing lights
shall not be used in such applications.

Type A and Type C lights may have either one or two directional faces.

WHAT LENGTH OF TAPER SHOULD BE SELECTED TO

CHANNELIZE TRAFFIC FLOWS AROUND A REDUCTION IN
PAVEMENT WIDTH?

The single most important element of a traffic control plan in a work zone is
the taper used for channelization. The minimum desirable taper length for
construction and maintenance purposes should be computed by the formula L =
S x W, for all roadways having a posted speed of 45 MPH or greater. The
formula L = WS2/60 should be used for streets having a posted speed of 40
MPH or less. In these formulas, L is the taper length in feet, W the width of
offset in feet, and S the posted speed or off-peak 85th percentile speed. Where
the terrain is hilly or sight distance is limited, some adjustments may be required
to provide sufficient visibility.

The following calculations illustrate the application of these formulas.

Example 1 Posted Speed = 50 MPH

W = 12 feet
Taper = 50 x 12 = 600 Feet

Example 2 Posted Speed = 30 MPH

W = 11 Feet
Taper = 11 x 30 x 30/60 = 165 Feet

IS THERE A PROPER SEQUENCE FOR INSTALLING OR REMOVING

TRAFFIC CHANNELIZING DEVICES AND WARNING SIGNS?

All traffic signs and channelizing devices should be installed so that they
will be seen by an approaching motorist, i.e., the sign farthest from the work
zone would be installed first. Where one lane of a two-lane, two-way roadway
is to be closed and all motorists must use the other lane the sign farthest from the
work zone but on the opposite side of the road (the lane open to traffic) would
be placed first. The remaining signs and devices along that side of the roadway

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would then be placed in the order seen as one approaches the work zone. The
same procedure would then be repeated for the opposing traffic lane.

When work is completed, the devices should be removed but in the opposite
order of installation by starting with the devices closest to the work area and
continuing away from the area. Use flashing arrow panels, high-level warning
devices, flaggers, or flashing vehicle lights to protect the workers removing the
devices.

IF FLAGGERS ARE NEEDED, WHAT SIGNALING TECHNIQUES

SHOULD THEY USE IN DIRECTING TRAFFIC?

Flaggers use Stop/Slow paddles to control traffic in work areas, as is

described in the Kansas Traffic Control Handbook for Flaggers. Figure 16-8
shows how both the flag and the paddle are used, but the following technique
using the paddle is much more positive and easily understood by the motorist.

To Stop Traffic. The flagger shall face traffic and extend the paddle in a
vertical position so the full STOP face is visible. For greater emphasis, the
free arm may be raised with the palm toward approaching traffic to indicate
that the vehicle is required to stop.

When it is Safe for Traffic to Proceed. The flagger shall move to a safe
position on the shoulder. He shall face traffic and extend the paddle in a
vertical position so the full SLOW face is visible. He then waves traffic
forward by moving his free arm across his body.

Where It Is Desired to Alert or Slow Traffic. Where it is desired to alert or

slow traffic the flagger shall stand in a safe position on the shoulder. He
shall face traffic and extend the paddle in a vertical position so the full
SLOW face is visible. For added emphasis the free arm may be extended
horizontally away from the body and raised and lowered.

To flag traffic at night, the flagger's station should be adequately

illuminated.

ARE THERE CERTAIN RULES OF SAFETY WHICH A FLAGGER

SHOULD FOLLOW IN HIS / HER JOB?

Flaggers are responsible for the safety of motorists and workers. Because
of the importance of this job, there are certain safety rules, which they should
observe:

• Be alert.

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 • Always look towards traffic.

• Stand clear of other workers so that the flagger is always clearly visible
to motorists.

• Don't block or be blocked by signs.

• Avoid standing in the pavement. An exception to this rule is when the

flagger must stand on the, pavement to be seen around vehicles already
stopped by the fIagger.

• Don’t stand inside of obstacles, which could restrict the flagger's ability
to avoid an oncoming vehicle.

• Wear appropriate clothing (which includes such items as an orange

hard hat or cap and orange jacket, shirt or vest for visibility.

WHAT TYPE OF RECORDS SHOULD BE KEPT OF THE SIGNS AND

OTHER DEVICES USED AT A WORK ZONE?

Good records are a key to minimizing an organization's legal liability in the

event a traffic accident occurs at the work zone site. A careful record of job-
related activities will document the efforts made to provide good traffic control
at the work site. The record system should reflect priorities and a planned safety
program and may include any of the following types of records:

• Traffic control plan.

• Notes on the construction plans showing the placement of devices.

• Photographs at key project stages and for unusual situations.

• A daily diary.

• Inspection sheet or checklist showing the status of the devices in place.

• Copies of reports of all crashes occurring within the work zone.

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FIGURE 16-3. USE OF HAND-SIGNALING DEVICES BY FLAGGERS
(Source: MUTCD 2003, page 6E-3, figure 6E-1.)

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HOW OFTEN SHOULD AN INSPECTION BE MADE OF TRAFFIC
CONTROLS IN WORK ZONES?

There are no set standards for frequency of inspection. At a minimum

however, these inspections should be of such frequency as to assure the
continuity and quality of the traffic control system. An inspection each morning
as work is commencing for the day may suffice. However, nighttime inspection
of work zone traffic controls in place is appropriate. Other guidelines to use in
establishing inspection intervals include:

• Traffic volumes.

• Frequency of observed deficiencies.

• Frequency of crash experience.

• Severity of hazards.

• Size of project.

WHAT ARE THE MOST COMMON DEFICIENCIES ENCOUNTERED

DURING INSPECTIONS?

The type of deficiencies may vary depending upon whether it is a daytime

or nighttime inspection.

Typical daytime deficiencies include:

• Lack of a taper or insufficient taper length.

• Channelizing devices out of place.

• Inappropriate sign messages.

• Inadequate flagging protection.

• Inadequate sign placement.

The most commonly experienced nighttime deficiencies include:

• Warning lights not working.

• Warning lights misaimed.

• Retroeflectivity not sufficient.

• Unmarked hazards.

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Temporary Traffic Control

Does have to be accessible as defined by the American with Disabilities Act

of 1990 (ADA)

Yes! (See MUTCD Standard below)

Standard (MUTCD 2003, 63.01)

The needs and control of all road users (motorists, bicyclists, and
pedestrians within the highway, including persons with disabilities in
accordance with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), Title
II, Paragraph 35.130) through a TTC zone shall be an essential part of
highway construction, utility work, maintenance operations, and the
management of traffic incidents.

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