GEODETIC SURVEYING TECHNIQUES
Four traditional surveying techniques:
astronomic positioning
triangulation
trilateration, and
traverse
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GEODETIC SURVEYING TECHNIQUES
ASTRONOMIC POSITION DETERMINATION
The position of a point can be obtained directly by observing the
stars.
Astronomic positioning is the oldest positioning method.
It has been used for many years by mariners and, more recently,
by airmen for navigational purposes.
Explorers have often used the astronomic method to locate
themselves in uncharted areas.
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Geodesists must use astronomic positions along with other types
of survey data such as triangulation and trilateration to establish
precise positions. Single astronomic positions not interconnected
by geodetic surveys cannot be related to each other with
sufficient accuracy for the computation of distance and direction
between points.
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astronomic positions are obtained by measuring the angles
between the plumb line at the point and a star or series of stars
and recording the precise time at which the measurements are
made. After combining the data with information obtained from
star catalogues, the direction of the plumb line (zenith direction)
is computed.
the simplest method, in the northern hemisphere, is to measure
the elevation of Polaris above the horizon of the observer.
ASTRONOMIC AZIMUTH
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angle between the meridian plane of point P and the plane
containing both Q and the perpendicular to the geoid at P. This
angle is reckoned from north at P clockwise from O° to 360°.
ASTRONOMIC LATITUDE
the angle between the perpendicular to the geoid and the plane of
the equator
ASTRONOMIC LONGITUDE
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the angle between the plane of the meridian at Greenwich (Prime
Meridian) and the astronomic meridian of the point.
It is measured by determining the difference in time-the
difference in hours, minutes, and seconds between the time a
specific star is directly over the Greenwich meridian and the time
the same star is directly over the meridian plane of the point.
SHORTWAVE RADIO
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equipment used to obtain time signals which can be referred to
Greenwich Mean Time
CHRONOMETERS
(very accurate clocks) used to measure the time at the point.
NOTE:
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astronomic positions are referenced to the geoid. Since the geoid is an
irregular, nonmathematical surface, astronomic positions are wholly
independent of each other.
TRIANGULATION
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positions established by triangulation are mathematically related
to each other.
consists of the measurement of the angles of a series of triangles.
is extended over large areas by connecting and extending series of
arcs and forming a network or triangulation system.
TRIANGULATION
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network is adjusted in a manner which reduces the effect of
observational errors to a minimum.
a denser distribution of geodetic control is achieved in a system
by subdividing or filling in with other surveys.
FOUR GENERAL ORDERS OF TRIANGULATION:
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FIRST-ORDER (Primary Horizontal Control) most accurate
triangulation. It is costly and time-consuming using the best instruments
and rigorous computation methods. It is usually used to provide the basic
framework of horizontal control for a large area such as for a national
network. It has also been used in preparation for metropolitan expansion
and for scientific studies requiring exact geodetic data. Its accuracy should
be at least 1/100,000.
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SECOND-ORDER, CLASS I (Secondary Horizontal Control) includes
the area networks between the First-Order arcs and detailed surveys in
very high value land areas. Therefore, this class also includes the basic
framework for further densification. The internal closures of Second-
Order, Class I triangulation should indicate an accuracy of at least
1/50,000.
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SECOND-ORDER, CLASS II (Supplemental Horizontal Control). This
class is used to establish control along the coastline, inland waterways and
interstate highways. The minimum accuracy allowable in Class II of
Second-Order is 1/ 20,000.
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THIRD-ORDER, CLASS I AND CLASS II (Local Horizontal Control) is
used to establish control for local improvements and developments,
topographic and hydrographic surveys, or for such other projects for
which they provide sufficient accuracy. The work should be performed
with sufficient accuracy to satisfy the standards of 1/ 10,000 for Class I
and 1/ 5,000 for Class II.
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FOURTH-ORDER triangulation – positions be located without any
appreciable errors on maps compiled on the basis of the control.
TRILATERATION
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Only distances are measured in trilateration and each side is
measured repeatedly to insure precision. The entire network is
then adjusted to minimize the effects of the observation errors.
The angles of the triangles are computed so the geodetic positions
are obtained as in triangulation.
TRAVERSE
distances and directions are measured
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the surveyor starts at a known position with a known azimuth
(direction) to another point and measures angles and distances
between a series of survey points.
consists of a series of high-precision length, angle and astronomic
azimuth determinations running approximately east-west and
north-south through the conterminous states, forming somewhat
rectangular loops
VERTIACL POSITIONING
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the process of determining heights-elevations above the mean sea
level surface.
Precise geodetic leveling is used to establish a basic network of
vertical control points. The mean sea level surface used as a
reference (vertical datum) is determined by obtaining an average
of the hourly water heights for a period of several years at tidal
gauges.
NOTE:
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geoid corresponds to the mean level of the open sea. In geodetic surveys
executed primarily for mapping purposes, geodetic positions are referred
to an ellipsoid and the elevations of the positions are referred to the geoid.
However, geodetic data for missiles requires an adjustment in the elevation
information to compensate for the undulations of the geoid above and
below the regular mathematical surface of the ellipsoid.
LEVELING TECHNIQUES:
DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING
the most accurate. With the instrument locked in position, readings are made on
two calibrated staffs held in an upright position ahead of and behind the
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instrument. The difference between readings is the difference in elevation between
the points. The optical instrument used for leveling contains a bubble tube to adjust
it in a position parallel to the geoid. When properly "set up" at a point, the telescope
is locked in a perfectly horizontal (level) position so that it will rotate through a 360
arc. The exact elevation of at least one point in a leveling line must be known and
the rest computed from it.
TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING
involves measuring a vertical angle from a known distance with a
theodolite and computing the elevation of the point. With this method,
vertical measurements can be made at the same time horizontal angles are
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measured for triangulation. It is, therefore, a somewhat more economical
method but less accurate than differential leveling. It is often the only
practical method of establishing accurate elevation control in mountainous
areas.
BAROMETRIC LEVELING
differences in height are determined by measuring the difference in
atmospheric pressure at various elevations. Air pressure is measured by
mercurial or aneroid barometers, or a boiling point thermometer.
Although the degree of accuracy possible with this method is not as great
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as either of the other two, it is a method which obtains relative heights very
rapidly at points which are fairly far apart. It is widely used in the
reconnaissance and exploratory surveys where more exacting
measurements will be made later or are not required.
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