TREATISE ON AWAKENING MAHĀYĀNA FAITH

OXFORD CHINESE THOUGHT

Series Editors
Eric L. Hutton and Justin Tiwald

Zhu Xi: Selected Writings

Edited and translated by Philip J. Ivanhoe

Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith

Edited and translated by John Jorgensen, Dan Lusthaus, John
Makeham, and Mark Strange
 TREATISE ON AWAKENING
MAHĀYĀNA FAITH
                              
            

Edited and translated by John Jorgensen, Dan

Lusthaus, John Makeham

AND

Mark Strange
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Jorgensen, John, 1952– translator.
Title: Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith /
translated by John Jorgensen, Dan Lusthaus, John Makeham and Mark Strange.
Other titles: Dasheng qixin lun. English
Description: New York, NY, United States of America :
Oxford University Press, [2019] | Series: Oxford Chinese thought |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018052190 (print) | LCCN 2019013667 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780190297725 (updf) | ISBN 9780190297732 (epub) |
ISBN 9780190297701 (cloth : alk. paper) | ISBN 9780190297718 (pbk. : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Mahayana Buddhism. | Dasheng qixin lun.
Classification: LCC BQ7374 (ebook) | LCC BQ7374.D3713 2019 (print) |
DDC 294.3/42042—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018052190
 CONTENTS

List of Maps
Series Editors’ Preface
Acknowledgments
Editors and Translators
List of Abbreviations
About the Companion Website

Introduction
Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith

English-to-Chinese Glossary
Chinese-to-English Glossary
Bibliography
Index
 MAPS

1 States of Northern Wei and Liang in the first third of sixth-

century China
2 States of Chen, Northern Zhou, and Northern Qi in mid-sixth-
century China
 SERIES EDITORS’ PREFACE

ERIC L. HUTTON AND JUSTIN TIWALD

Chinese writings from premodern times constitute a vast body of

texts stretching back over 2,500 years, and while Western studies of
China have been growing, many riches from the Chinese tradition
have remained untranslated or have been given only partial
translations, sometimes scattered across multiple publication
venues. This situation obviously poses a problem for those who want
to learn about Chinese thought but lack the ability to read Chinese.
However, it also poses a problem even for scholars who specialize in
Chinese thought and can read Chinese, because it is not easy to
read across all the time periods and genres in the Chinese corpus.
Not only did the Chinese language change over time, but in some
genres particular vocabularies are developed and familiarity with
certain earlier texts—sometimes quite a large number of texts—is
presumed. For this reason, scholars who focus on one tradition of
Chinese thought from a given era cannot simply pick up and
immediately understand texts from a different tradition of thought in
another era. The lack of translations is thus an impediment even to
specialists who can read Chinese but wish to learn about aspects of
Chinese thought outside their normal purview. Furthermore, scholars
are often hampered in their teaching by the lack of translations that
they can assign to students, which then becomes a barrier to
promoting greater understanding of Chinese history and culture
among the general public.
By offering English translations of Chinese texts with philosophical
and religious significance, Oxford Chinese Thought aims to remedy
these problems and make available to the general public, university
students, and scholars a treasure trove of materials that has
previously been largely inaccessible. The series focuses on works
that are historically important or stand to make significant
contributions to contemporary discussions, and the translations seek
to strike a reasonable balance between the interests of specialists
and the needs of general readers and students with no skills in
Chinese. Translators for the series are leading scholars and experts
in the traditions and texts that they render, and the volumes are
meant to be suitable for classroom use while meeting the highest
standards of scholarship.
The present volume, Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith, is
itself a treasure trove of historical, philosophical, and religious
insight. The avowed aim and purpose of the Treatise is to establish
faith in the soundness and efficacy of the Mahāyāna Buddhist path,
which it accomplishes in part by setting forth a framework for much
of Buddhist metaphysics and psychology, reconciling what had
largely been competing views about the nature of mind,
consciousness, the buddha-nature, the phenomenal world of arising
and ceasing, and the sources of ignorance and falsehood. The
Treatise is without question one of East Asia’s most influential
philosophical and religious texts. From the late sixth century CE to
the present day, it has been the subject of over three hundred
commentaries and has been invoked by countless Buddhist thinkers
as an authority on doctrine and practice. It is often credited with
shaping the schools and lineages of Buddhism that are most
distinctively East Asian, including Huayan and Chan (in Japanese,
Zen). This translation was conducted by a team of leading
Buddhologists and specialists in Chinese thought, and is
accompanied by a substantial introduction as well as several other
supporting tools, including glossaries, that should be of use both to
novice learners and established scholars of Buddhism alike. We
hope and expect that students and scholars and even non-academic
Buddhist practitioners will find it an indispensable window into some
of the most stimulating and important developments in the history of
Buddhism.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This translation began as an ANU Literary Chinese Reading Group

exercise in 2012. Since then, the project has grown considerably in
scope and complexity. We would like to thank John Powers for his
contributions to the Reading Group; Jason Clower for his input at the
workshops; and the Chiang Ching-kuo Foundation for International
Scholarly Exchange for funding our research on the doctrinal and
exegetical strategies employed in key commentaries on the Treatise.
We extend a particular note of gratitude to Keng Ching for his
generous contributions to the introduction and his valuable
constructive feedback on the draft translation.
 EDITORS AND TRANSLATORS

John Jorgensen is a senior research associate in the China Studies

Research Centre at La Trobe University. A specialist in Chinese,
Japanese, and Korean Chan Buddhism, he taught at Griffith
University in Queensland and was a researcher at The Australian
National University before taking up his current role at La Trobe
University.
Dan Lusthaus, a leading scholar of Yogācāra Buddhism, has
published extensively on Indian, Chinese, and Japanese philosophy.
He has taught at UCLA, University of Illinois Champaign-Urbana,
and Boston University, and has been a research associate at
Harvard University since 2005.
John Makeham is chair and director of the China Studies Research
Centre at La Trobe University. He is a specialist in the intellectual
history of Chinese philosophy. Educated in Australia, China, Taiwan,
and Japan, he has held academic positions at Victoria University of
Wellington, University of Adelaide, National Taiwan University,
Chinese University of Hong Kong, and The Australian National
University.
Mark Strange is a senior lecturer at The Australian National
University. Before moving to Australia, he taught at the University of
Warwick, University of Oxford, and University of Cambridge. His
research focuses on the intellectual and political history of medieval
China.
 ABBREVIATIONS

T Taishō shinshū Daizōkyō 大正新修大藏經 (Taishō Revised

Tripiṭaka), edited by Takakusu Junjirō 高楠順次郎 and Watanabe
Kaigyoku 渡邊海旭 et al. (Tokyo: Taishō issaikyō Kankōkai,
1924–1934)
X Dai Nihon zokuzōkyō 大日本續藏經 (Kyoto Supplement to the
Canon), CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripiṭaka Collection edition,
Taipei, www.cbeta.org
 ABOUT THE COMPANION WEBSITE

http://global.oup.com/us/companion.websites/9780190297718
Oxford has created a website to accompany the Treatise on
Awakening Mahāyāna Faith, where the full Chinese text is provided.
The reader is encouraged to consult this resource in conjunction with
the English translation.
 Introduction
Appearing in sixth-century China, the Dasheng qixin lun 大 乘 起 信 論 ,
Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith, has been one of the most
important texts of East Asian Buddhism between the late sixth century—
soon after it started to circulate—and the present. Conceptual structures
derived from the Treatise became a shared resource for East Asian
philosophers and religious theorists over centuries. Over three hundred
commentaries were written on it in East Asia before 1900. It was crucial in
the development of the Sinitic Buddhist schools of Huayan and Chan
(Japanese Zen), and had some importance in Tiantai and Pure Land. The
text was attractive because it was concise and relatively comprehensive. It
seemed to resolve tensions and disparities between competing forms of
Buddhist doctrine and practice, providing a model for later schools to
harmonize teachings and sustain the idea that, despite different
approaches, there was only one doctrine, or Dharma. It provided a
theoretical basis for practice and stressed the importance of faith for
beginners or those not yet committed to Mahāyāna Buddhism.1

1. THE TITLE OF THE TEXT

As indicated by the title, Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith, this text
is about the first steps a Mahāyāna Buddhist needs to take, namely an
initiation of faith, a conviction that Mahāyāna teachings are correct and
effective and therefore should be practiced. Without this faith, there would
be no grounds for practice. The Treatise outlines a theoretical framework
of the psychological mechanisms that enable a deluded person to become
enlightened.
The title Dasheng qixin lun comprises three components: Dasheng 大乘
(Great Vehicle); qixin 起 信 (giving rise to faith or trust); and lun 論
(treatise). Dasheng is the Chinese translation of Mahāyāna, a Sanskrit
term designating the schools of Buddhism that center their concerns on
becoming a bodhisattva, with the possibility of eventually becoming a
buddha in some future life. Mahāyāna texts speak of the practitioners of
three different vehicles, or methods of practice: (1) Śrāvakas (hearers)
who, according to Mahāyāna understanding, follow the teachings of
disciples of the Buddha who heard his earlier, simplified, low-level
teaching. Their goal is to become arhats, awakened beings who attain
nirvana but are not buddhas. (2) Pratyekabuddhas (solitary buddhas), who
become fully awakened on their own, outside any Buddhist lineage. (3)
Bodhisattvas (beings pursuing awakening).
The Mahāyāna claim was that the enlightened people of the Lesser
Vehicle,2 such as arhats, worked only for their own salvation, while
enlightened people of the Greater Vehicle, bodhisattvas, worked for the
salvation of others. Bodhisattvas reached their goal by practicing the
pāramitās (perfections, or in a Chinese understanding, those practices that
deliver one to the other shore of enlightenment or buddhahood). The
Treatise explains that Mahāyāna is the comprehensive teaching that
provides a practical pathway to enlightenment. Those capable of
becoming buddhas first need to arouse the aspiration for awakening, and
the author claims to target beginners who have not yet aroused that basic
aspiration.
The implication of the term qixin, awakening or giving rise to faith, is key
to understanding the project that the text lays out for itself. To become a
bodhisattva, in pursuit of full awakening, one must embark upon the
Mahāyāna bodhisattva path. In sixth-century China, this was mapped onto
ten levels of practice, or bhūmis (see the discussion of Ten Bhūmis below).
At various points the Treatise directly alludes to these levels and indicates
which practices and achievements occur at which levels.
Qixin is an invitation to enter the early bodhisattva levels. According to
the Treatise, to enter the first level of the bodhisattva path one must aspire
to proper faith. From that moment on, practice replaces faith with
knowledge, as one confirms what had been merely hypothetical at the
faith level. One aspires to enlighten oneself and to enlighten all sentient
beings, and that remains one’s primary concern. This aspiration is first
articulated in the Treatise in its Prayer of Homage:
I wish to have sentient beings
Eliminate doubts and abandon wrongly-held views
And give rise to correct Mahāyāna faith,
Leaving the buddha-lineage uninterrupted.
The author’s main purpose is to instill faith, xin 信 (a common translation
of the Sanskrit term śraddhā), in the minds of neophytes. Modern scholars
have debated the meaning of “faith” in Buddhism, and in particular how
best to understand the significance and role of the term śraddhā. Two
basic ideas have predominated. One is that Buddhism, since its inception,
was an ehipaśyika— “come and test it”—tradition. Śraddhā was the initial
attitude needed to test it earnestly. It is a hypothetical stance with which
one tests claims in order to confirm or to deny them. Once confirmed, the
hypothetical stance is replaced with the knowledge that what was
previously believed to be a probability is now certain. A Buddhist
practitioner might believe that Buddhist tenets are true and effective; a
buddha knows that they are so because he has confirmed their veracity.
The other interpretation of śraddhā is that, like the Chinese term xin 信
with which it is rendered, its meaning is closer to “trust” than to western
religious ideas of faith as something other than knowledge of matters
intrinsically immune from rational proof. The Treatise explicitly states that it
is addressing those who are currently undecided, attempting to instill in
them the desire to pursue the path. In sum, giving rise to, or awakening,
Mahāyāna faith refers to having the initial faith or trust that the methods
and practices of the Mahāyāna Buddhist path will work and are worth
pursuing.
A lun 論 is a “treatise.” Any text that did not purport to be a sutra or a
record of a discourse given by the Buddha could be called a lun. Although
the term lun roughly overlaps with the Sanskrit śāstra, which also means
“treatise,” many Indian texts that did not include śāstra in their title still
received the label lun in their Chinese translations.
Finally, we return to the term dasheng, Mahāyāna, in the title. The titles
of many texts in the Chinese Buddhist canon begin with dasheng as a
classifier, even when that was not part of an actual Sanskrit title. It informs
a reader of the affiliations that a particular text holds, and it indicates to
archivists where in the library they should store that text. Similarly, there
are titles that begin with xiaosheng 小 乘 , which no non-Mahāyāna
Buddhists would attach to the titles of their own texts. When Mahāyāna
does appear in a Sanskrit title, translators took care to distinguish this
actual appearance of Mahāyāna in the title from other titles in which
dasheng was merely added as a classifier. So the Chinese title for
Asaṅga’s (fourth century CE) Mahāyānasaṃgraha-śāstra is She dasheng
lun 攝 大 乘 論 (Compendium of Mahāyāna), sandwiching the dasheng
between she (= saṃgraha, “compendium”) and lun, “treatise.”
The author of the Treatise appears to have been unaware that dasheng
was used as a classifier. Instead, he explicitly treats it in the body of his
treatise as an intrinsic part of the text’s title and program. This is one of
many strong hints that the Treatise was not a translation of an Indian
original, but a Chinese creation pretending to be a translation by a
prominent translator of an Indian text by an Indian figure who had
assumed major importance at the time.

2. THE AUTHENTICITY AND AUTHORSHIP OF THE

TEXT
The authorship of the Treatise was attributed to Aśvaghoṣa (ca. first
century CE).3 It was supposedly translated by Paramārtha, an Indian
translator-monk who arrived in south China in 546 and stayed south of the
Yangzi River until his death in 569.4 An early skeptic was the Baekje
monk, Hyegyun 慧 均 (fl. 570s), who claimed that the work had been
forged by Dilun masters (on the Dilun school see “Debates between
Shelun and Dilun Schools” below), in North China, probably at Ye 鄴
(modern Anyang, northern Henan Province).5 In 594, a cataloguer
questioned whether the Treatise had been translated by Paramārtha.6
After 594, however, the attributions to Aśvaghoṣa and Paramārtha
remained largely unchallenged. It was not until the first decade of the
twentieth century that the attributions were again seriously questioned and
there began a sustained debate over the provenance of the text.
There is now wide consensus that the author of the Treatise was
strongly influenced by the terminology and language of Bodhiruci (d. ca.
535), a translator-monk who came to north China in 508.7 Where
Bodhiruci and Paramārtha use different Chinese equivalents for a Sanskrit
term or phrase, the Treatise tends to follow Bodhiruci. Between 508 and
around 535, Bodhiruci and Ratnamati (fl. early sixth century), another
monk from India, translated Yogācāra and Tathāgatagarbha texts from
Sanskrit into Chinese under an imperially sponsored project.8 Bodhiruci
translated the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra (Ru Lengqie jing 入楞伽經), a fluid and
evolving text that mixed Yogācāra and Tathāgatagarbha themes; and
Vasubandhu’s Daśabhūmi-vyākhyāna/Daśabhūmika-sūtra-śāstra (Shidi
jing lun 十地經論; Commentary on the Discourse on the Ten Levels [of the
Bodhisattva Path]),9 or Dilun 地論 for short. Both translations contributed
to the teachings found in the Treatise.
One theory is that the Treatise was written by someone in Bodhiruci’s
circle. Some contemporary Japanese scholars maintain that the author of
the Treatise used ideas and terms from the Jin’gangxian lun 金 剛 仙 論
(Treatise of *Vajrarṣi), a lecture series probably composed by Bodhiruci
around 534.10 One scholar argues that Huiyuan quoted the Treatise
around 549.11 If so, that would date the composition of Treatise to
between approximately 535 and 549, place its origins in Ye, and identify its
author as a member of Bodhiruci’s translation team. One candidate for
authorship under this theory is Tanlin 曇 林 (d.u.), an amanuensis of
Bodhiruci and a scholar of Tathāgatagarbha material.
Debates continue over the provenance of the Treatise, and even over
whether it was a translated Indian text or a Chinese composition. It is,
however, now clear that the text was strongly influenced by the works of
Bodhiruci and was in existence by the 580s in north China.

3. HISTORICAL AND INTELLECTUAL CONTEXTS

In the first third of the sixth century, China was divided into the states of
Northern Wei in the north, and Liang in the south (see Map 1). The
Buddhism of the north is frequently characterized as focused on
meditation and devotion, and that of the south as scholastic. The main
texts studied in the south were the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra (Da banniepan
jing 大般涅槃經; Nirvana Sutra), which introduces the buddha-nature and
Tathāgatagarbha doctrines, and Harivarman’s (c. fourth century CE),
*Tattvasiddhi-śāstra or Satyasiddhi-śāstra (Chengshi lun 成實論; Treatise
on the Demonstration of the Truth), a work amenable to Madhyamaka and
especially Yogācāra concepts. In the north, from the early 500s, the main
texts studied were the Avataṃsaka-sūtra (Huayan jing 華 嚴 經 ; Flower
Garland Sutra)—a foundational text of the Huayan school of Mahāyāna
Buddhism—and from 508, the Dilun.
Map 1 States of Northern Wei and Liang in the first third of the sixth-century. Credit:
CartoGIS Services, ANU College of Asia and the Pacific, The Australian National
University

By the 530s, the political situation had deteriorated. North China had split
into the rival states of Western and Eastern Wei, followed several decades
later by Northern Zhou and Northern Qi (see Map 2). In the southern state
of Liang, civil war erupted in the late 540s and was followed by the
founding of the state of Chen. Conflict was frequent and widespread in
both the north and the south. The monastery site of the massive
translation project headed by Bodhiruci in Luoyang, the former capital of
Northern Wei, was repeatedly occupied by troops. This led to the project
being forced to move from Luoyang to Ye, the capital of Northern Qi.
Map 2 States of Chen, Northern Zhou, and Northern Qi in the mid-sixth-century. Credit:
CartoGIS Services, ANU College of Asia and the Pacific, The Australian National
University

In 574, in order to strengthen his military and his budget, the emperor of
Northern Zhou outlawed Buddhism and Daoism. The following year, the
Northern Zhou emperor launched a conquest of Northern Qi, during which
many monks were killed, conscripted into the army, or laicized. Those who
escaped hid in the mountains or fled south to Chen, where some
encountered the works and pupils of Paramārtha. Among the earliest
commentators on the Treatise, for example, Tanyan 曇延 (516–588) lived
in the mountains near Chang’an (modern Xi’an), the capital of Northern
Zhou. Another monk, Tanqian 曇 遷 (542–607), lived in Northern Qi and
fled south in 574, later bringing the ideas of Paramārtha to Chang’an when
China was united by Yang Jian 楊堅 (541–604), who made the capital of
his Sui dynasty at Chang’an. This Sui emperor, later known as Emperor
Wen 文 帝 , established major Buddhist centers of scholarship under
Tanqian and other eminent monks. Tanyan attended lectures by Tanqian
on the Mahāyānasaṃgraha, one of the signature texts translated by
Paramārtha. Huiyuan 慧 遠 (523–592), another commentator on the
Treatise, also attended these lectures.

Debates between Shelun and Dilun Schools

In the sixth century, two major doctrinal approaches were developed on
the basis of ideas about the tathāgatagarbha (rulaizang 如 來 藏 ), on the
one hand, and the system of Yogācāra enunciated principally by
Vasubandhu, on the other. These approaches were identified with the
Dilun and Shelun “schools.” Each was named after one of its core texts,
the Daśabhūmika-vyākhyāna (as noted above, abbreviated in Chinese as
Dilun) and the Mahāyānasaṁgraha (abbreviated in Chinese as Shelun 攝
論).12
After the Dilun masters had become active, others distinguished two
branches (dao 道), Northern and Southern. Sui and Tang authors identified
these as “lineages” (zong 宗 ) headed by the Indian monk-translators
Bodhiruci (Northern) and Ratnamati (Southern). The two men had
disagreed over doctrine when they started to translate the Dilun in
Luoyang in 508.13 Due to a paucity of information, especially about
Northern Dilun, scholarly opinion had been divided about whether the
divisions between the Southern and Northern Dilun first emerged in
Luoyang between 508 and 534, or only after Bodhiruci’s death in about
534.14 Research from the 1990s, however, suggested that the differences
did not emerge until after Bodhiruci’s death.15
Core disagreements between the Northern and Southern Dilun
branches concerned the relationship of the tathāgatagarbha and the
ālayavijñāna (store consciousness; see the discussion below).16 As
Robert Gimello has argued, students of the day would have found the
Dilun (Bodhiruci’s translation) “equivocal to the point of seeming self-
contradictory” on the question of whether the store consciousness is
identical to the tathāgatagarbha or whether it is “a mere reservoir of
illusion and thus impure.”17 Another disagreement concerned the number
and roles of the different consciousnesses. The crucial questions in these
debates were: What is the origin of ignorance and what is the basis for
enlightenment? And is the basis for awakening a disclosure model (one
that is already present) or a development model (the mechanism for
awakening must be produced by practice)?18
It was at the height of these debates that Paramārtha arrived in south
China in 546 and remained there until his death in 569. He translated
many texts, among them the Shelun, translated in about 563.19 The
Shelun taught that there are eight consciousnesses: five sense-
consciousnesses;20 a sixth consciousness (manovijñāna), which
coordinates sensory data; a seventh continuity- and ego-positing
consciousness (manas); and the eighth, store consciousness
(ālayavijñāna), which exists only as the sum of transient seeds that arise
from previous deeds and influence future deeds.21 Paramārtha, however,
identified what he refers to as the mind (xin 心) with the manas (yi 意) or
kliṣṭa-manas (stained mind; ranwu shi 染 污 識 ) and also with the store
consciousness. He thus presented mind as having two referents. He also
introduced the term ādānavijñāna (grasping consciousness; atuona shi 阿
陀那識), which he identified both with the kliṣṭa-manas and with the store
consciousness. This use of the same term for different mental processes
in different contexts would also have led to some confusion.22
The Shelun maintains that the store consciousness is the basis (āśraya)
only for the dependent arising of imaginative constructions (abhūta-
parikalpa) of the delusory world.23 Northern Dilun is held to have adopted
a similar view, and therefore claimed that the buddha-nature comes to
exist only as result of practice; it must be developed.24 Moreover, the
Shelun itself is quite explicit that the supramundane mind (chushi xin 出世
心), the mind of enlightenment, is not internal to the store consciousness;
rather, the transformation of the store consciousness into the mind of
enlightenment requires that it is “perfumed” externally by “the most pure
dharma realm.”25 Southern Dilun is said to have championed the idea that
the dependent arising of purity and impurity was based on the dharma
nature (or suchness, pure consciousness), a view that in turn was related
to the assertion that the buddha-nature exists innately.26 Whereas
Northern Dilun seems to have been in accord with mainstream Yogācāra
theory, of which the Shelun was the most representative text at that time in
China, Southern Dilun was closer to Tathāgatagarbha doctrine.27
 At the time of the composition of the Treatise, the relationship between
the tathāgatagarbha and the store consciousness remained a core topic to
debate. If the tathāgatagarbha were to be taken as something that existed
innately, it would contradict the Yogācāra doctrine of “nothing but
consciousness,” which claimed that everything that can be perceived is a
product of mental processes and is substantially unreal. For the Treatise,
the tathāgatagarbha is functionally equivalent to suchness (zhenru 真 如 ;
tathatā). The tathāgatagarbha is therefore taken to provide the ontological
grounding for the store consciousness. The store consciousness
represents external defilements, which cover or obscure realization of the
tathāgatagarbha.28
Sui and Tang commentators and doxographers identified the main
doctrinal difference between the Northern and Southern branches of the
Dilun school to have been whether defiled phenomena arise from the
ālayavijñāna (the Northern position) or from suchness (the Southern
position). If these accounts are taken as accurate, then the Treatise
appears both consistent with the Northern branch in presenting the
ālayavijñāna, identified with the gateway of arising and ceasing in the
Treatise, as the basis for defiled phenomena; and also consistent with the
Southern branch in presenting suchness or the tathāgatagarbha, which
exists in the defiled ālayavijñāna, as the basis of everything, no matter
defiled or undefiled.29

The Influences of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra

The Tathāgatagarbha tradition with which the Treatise is closely aligned is
associated with a cluster of texts that focus on the potential to become a
tathāgata (buddha), on the innate capacity for buddhahood. One text from
this tradition, the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra, has long been identified as having a
particularly close connection with the Treatise. Already in the sixth century,
for example, Huiyuan had commented that the Treatise was produced on
the basis of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra.30
Composed in India in the fourth or fifth century, there are three surviving
Chinese translations of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra: Guṇabhadra’s (394–468)
partial translation of 443; Bodhiruci’s of 513; and Śikṣānanda’s (d.u.) of
700. Bodhiruci’s translation has been identified as most likely to have
influenced the author of the Treatise.31 For example, the modern Chinese
scholar Lü Cheng 呂澂 (1896–1989) argued that Bodhiruci’s mistranslation
of a number of key ideas in the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra influenced the author of
the Treatise. So whereas the author of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra treated the
tathāgatagarbha as synonymous with the ālayavijñāna, Bodhiruci instead
understood relevant passages to differentiate the tathāgatagarbha from
the ālayavijñāna. Lü Cheng asserted that this in turn led the author of the
Treatise to claim, “The arising-and-ceasing mind exists because of
dependence on the tathāgatagarbha” [576b].32 Lü maintained that this
claim is doctrinally incoherent—because it presents the unconditioned
(which is not subject to the laws of cause and effect) as the basis of the
conditioned—and became the basis for a slew of problematic ideas
proposed in the Treatise.33
Guṇabhadra’s partial translation of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra adheres most
closely to the extant Sanskrit version. An alternative view to that advanced
by Lü Cheng is that the section of Guṇabhadra’s translation corresponding
to the beginning part of chapter 6 of the Sanskrit version may have
provided inspiration for some early interpreters of the Treatise—if not for
the author of the Treatise—in understanding the relationship between the
tathāgatagarbha and the mind that arises and ceases. Insofar as it is
concealed, tathāgatagarbha (rulaizang 如 來 藏 ) is associated with the
ālayavijñāna (shizang 識藏), which is the mixture of purity and afflictions
produced by ignorance. The term zang 藏 therefore referred both to the
repository of a tathāgata (tathāgatagarbha; rulaizang) and to the
concealed tathāgata (shizang).34 Guṇabhadra maintains that the
tathāgatagarbha is the conveyor of suchness because it carries potential
tathāgata-hood, buddhahood.35 For Guṇabhadra, tathāgatagarbha and
ālayavijñāna are neither exactly the same nor entirely different.

4. IGNORANCE AND PRACTICE

Ignorance
In the Treatise, suchness remains concealed due to ignorance (wuming 無
明):
How does habituation [by ignorance] give rise to defiled dharmas without
interruption?36 Because it is based on the dharma of suchness, there is
ignorance. Because there are the defiled dharmas of ignorance as cause, these
 then habituate suchness. Because of this habituation, there is the false mind
and, since there is the false mind, it then habituates ignorance. Because [the
false mind] does not fully discern the dharma of suchness, it is non-awakened
and so conceiving arises, presenting false perceptual fields. Because there are
the defiled dharmas of false perceptual fields as conditions, these then habituate
the false mind, so that conceiving and attachments generate all kinds of karmic
action and one experiences all the sufferings of body and mind. [578a]

By claiming that suchness is somehow habituated by ignorance and that

the unconditioned is acted upon causally by the conditioned, the Treatise
stands apart from other texts associated with the Tathāgatagarbha
tradition—not to mention from the Indian understanding of the relation
between unconditioned dharmas (wuwei fa 無 為 法 ) and conditioned
dharmas (youwei fa 有 為 法 ). Some early commentaries (see Section 6)
maintained that the Treatise asks us to accept that although suchness can
be habituated (and so, the unconditioned, per impossibile, becomes
conditioned), this is merely suchness adapting to conditions (sui yuan 隨
緣); in fact, suchness only appears to be habituated and does not change
at all.37
The author of the Treatise uses a series of analogies to explain the
relationship between ignorance and awakening: the dynamic between the
wind and the ocean; a disoriented person; the reflections of a mirror.
Support for the early commentators’ apologist interpretation is readily
found in the Treatise’s analogy of the wind and the ocean, which attracted
particularly close attention from later commentators. Although the wind
stirs up the phenomenal appearance of waves and motion, the wet nature
of the ocean is not affected and does not change, whether the wind blows
or not:
. . . because all the characteristics of the mind and consciousnesses are
ignorance and, since the characteristic of ignorance is not separate from the
nature of awakening, the mind and consciousnesses are indestructible and
destructible.38 This is like the great ocean, where water moves in waves due to
the wind. The characteristics of the water and the wind [as waves] are not
separate from one another. Since it is not in the nature of water to move [by
itself], its characteristic of movement will cease if the wind ceases, without its
wetness ever being destroyed. [576c]

In the Treatise’s use of this metaphor, water stands for the mind; the wind
stands for ignorance; the wetness of the water stands for the nature of the
mind; and the shapes of the waves stand for the characteristics of the
mind. When the wind stops, the water is still and there are no waves;
when ignorance is dispelled, the mind no longer has characteristics. Here
the author tries to resist collapsing ignorance and awakening: he presents
them as inseparable but not the same.39 Wind’s characteristic is to move,
while the nature of water is wetness. Although the deluded mind is stirred
into making erroneous distinctions, in fact its self-nature—suchness—is
constant and unchanging. Only ignorance prevents us from realizing
this.40
If the characteristic of movement is exclusively connected to wind, and
the wind ceases to blow, then the characteristic of movement was never
an actual characteristic of water. Water does not move in waves except
when moved by wind. As such, the example is not intended to be an
ontological statement about eternities, but about temporary situations—or
else movement would be a permanent characteristic of water and not
something absent from its nature.
This analogy of the ocean and the wind is also found in Bodhiruci’s
translation of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra, but there are significant differences
between the use of the analogy in the two works. In the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra,
the ocean is represented by the eighth, store consciousness, which is
unchanging. The waves are associated with the first seven
consciousnesses (the five sense consciousnesses, the sixth
consciousness, which coordinates sensory data, and the seventh
continuity- and ego-positing consciousness), with a focus on the sixth and
seventh. The wind is associated with perceptual fields, which are a
function of consciousness and so internal.41 In the Treatise, by contrast,
influential commentators from Wonhyo 元 曉 (617–686) on identified the
wind as an external factor, acting on water to create waves. In so doing,
they turned the analogy into a dualist ontology.42
The real concern of the Treatise, however, is to demonstrate that
ignorance can be overcome. Like suchness, ignorance is seen to be
without origin; it is simply a given. Ignorance operates at the level of
momentary expressions of cognitive functioning. As described in the
Treatise, “This is explained as beginningless ignorance because thought-
moment after thought-moment have always followed one another in a
continuous flow and [sentient beings] have never been free from
conceiving” [576b–c].43 As the text explains, ignorance amounts to
breaking the constancy of the mind into discrete, successive moments.
Beginningless ignorance means that this has always happened—there is
no point at which conceiving starts—but that does not preclude one from
becoming aware of this and severing one’s continuous agitation by
ignorance.
 In the Treatise, the analysis of ignorance concludes by exposing
differences between authentic non-empty qualities and inauthentic
“characteristics” (xiang 相). Suchness is characterized as both empty and
non-empty. On the one hand, it is truly empty because it is free of false
conceptual and verbal discriminations, and it can disclose what is real
when defilements caused by ignorance are removed. Emptiness renders
delusion unreal and so discloses the reality of “non-emptiness.” On the
other hand, suchness is truly non-empty because it is “constantly
unchanging and replete with pure dharmas” [576b]. Overturning delusion
enables the practitioner to become aware of what is ultimately real. What
is important to note is the pragmatic instructiveness of the false. If it were
not for delusion, the practitioner would not awaken to what is real, to the
fact that the practitioner is already inherently awoken.44

Calming and Discernment

The Treatise lists five of the perfections (which it refers to as “gateways”)
that enable one to “perfect faith.” It provides only minimal explanations of
the first four of these five perfections, probably because these were well
known and relatively straightforward.45 The fifth perfection, however, deals
with what broadly speaking might be called meditation, and it is explained
in some detail.46 It consists of calming (zhi 止; śamatha) and discernment
(guan 觀; vipaśyanā). One calms the mind by focusing and so achieves an
alert, calm awareness. This is śamatha. Vipaśyanā is analytical,
observational. With alert focus, one calmly contemplates objects and
concepts—compassion, anger, arising, or ceasing, for example—until one
understands them as they truly are. Calming and discernment are
inseparable and so they form a single perfection.47 This was probably
emphasized in the Treatise because, according to Zhiyi (538–597), some
meditators practice only calming and others only discernment, which leads
to failure.48 In most Mahāyāna literature, however, calming and
discernment are paired.
The Treatise describes calming as “stopping the characteristics of all
perceptual fields” [582a]. This begins with the removal of all concepts in
the thought-moment in which they arise and even rejects the concept of
removing concepts. Through this practice one can enter meditative
absorption (samādhi). This is directed at creating a spontaneous power to
habituate or “perfume” sentient beings (as in the analogy of scent and
clothing), enabling them to see and hear what they need to see and hear,
including various buddhas.
The Treatise describes discernment as “discriminating the causes and
conditions of arising and ceasing” [582a]. Discernment analyzes how
memories and present states are fleeting. This form of examination may
be linked to an understanding of the characteristics of thought-moments
[576b–c], in which there really are no characteristics of arising, enduring,
changing, and ceasing.
Calming and discernment are both necessary for enlightenment, and
should be practiced at all times. Not all practitioners are able to be so
committed, however, and so an allowance is made for them. They are
asked to be mindful of the buddhas and their promises to assist sentient
beings, and also to practice single-minded meditation on Amitābha’s
western paradise.49 This will aid in improving one’s behavior and bring
one to rebirth in a buddha-land.

5. KEY MODELS

One Mind Two Gateways

The Treatise presents the mind, or the so-called One Mind, as the ultimate
source of reality. The One Mind has two modalities or aspects, which the
text calls “gateways”:
There are two gateways based on the dharma of the One Mind. What are they?
The first is the gateway of the mind as suchness. The second is the gateway of
the mind as arising and ceasing. Each of these two gateways contains all
dharmas. Why? Because these two gateways are not separate from one
another. [576a]

The gateway of the mind as suchness (xin zhenru men 心真如門) is the
true mind. It is quiescent, unchanging, unconditioned, and it neither arises
nor ceases. It is free of false conceptualizing and distinction making. The
gateway of the mind as arising and ceasing (xin shengmie men 心生滅門)
is cyclic existence (saṃsāra), in which the mind’s propensity to awaken
struggles against the mental and physical behaviors that arise from the
mind’s defilement by ignorance.
The Treatise explains that the combination or integration of the non-arising
and non-ceasing aspect with the arising-and-ceasing aspect constitutes
the ālayavijñāna. The ālayavijñāna represents the adaptation of
tathāgatagarbha, the mind of suchness, to phenomenal conditions and to
ignorance. Crucially, tathāgatagarbha/suchness—the unconditioned—
remains constant, unchanged, undiminished, and undefiled by these
phenomenal conditions.
Both the mind as suchness and the mind as arising and ceasing are
ultimately the One Mind. Because ignorance obscures realization of the
One Mind, however, deluded beings create false perceptions and so
become mired in suffering. The mind as arising and ceasing then
generates false perceptual distinctions, which in turn provide new
conditions for the ongoing defilement of the mind and for the suffering
caused by taking the wrong sorts of actions.

The Three Greats

Early in the Treatise, the author introduces two aspects of Mahāyāna:
dharma and meanings. Dharma refers to the mind of sentient beings,
since the mind of sentient beings contains all dharmas, as well as the
mind as suchness and as arising and ceasing.
The meanings of Mahāyāna are revealed through the mind of sentient
beings. The Treatise identifies these as intrinsic reality (ti 體 ),
characteristics (xiang 相), and function (yong 用). They are presented as
the three “Greats” denoted by mahā- in the word Mahāyāna, “Great
Vehicle.” This is the first time in the tradition that we find the three used
together, and represents a significant modification of the traditional pairing
of ti and yong. This distinction of intrinsic reality, characteristics, and
function stands in contrast to the traditional pair of intrinsic reality (ti) and
function (yong).
In the Treatise, intrinsic reality refers to the quality of something being
so of itself, without relying on anything more fundamental to be what it is.
As one of the three Greats it refers to the One Mind and to suchness. It
can be experienced only through its characteristics and its functions.
With the mind as suchness, the intrinsic reality of the mind of sentient
beings is realized. This intrinsic reality, also known as the One Mind, is the
focus of Mahāyāna as a teaching. When suchness adapts to and accords
with phenomenal reality, the functioning of the One Mind is revealed. In
other words, suchness (ti) is realized through phenomenal arising and
ceasing (xiang, yong).

Three Bodies
The three bodies (san shen 三 身 ; trikāya), or “threefold embodiment of
buddhas,” doctrine was a development from an earlier Buddhist doctrine of
two bodies, the dharma body (fashen 法 身 ; dharmakāya), and the form
body (seshen 色身; rūpa-kāya). The dharma body referred to the corpus of
teachings the Buddha bequeathed to his monastic community (saṃgha);
the form body denoted the Buddha’s physical body. The development of a
doctrine of three bodies occurred in the Yogācāra school associated with
the fourth-century CE Indian thinkers Asaṅga and Vasubandhu.50
The three bodies are typically presented as the dharma body (fashen 法
身 ; dharmakāya), the recompense body or bodies (baoshen 報 身 ;
saṃbhogakāya), and the response body or bodies (yingshen 應 身 ;
nirmāṇakāya). In the Treatise, however, the three bodies are introduced in
an unconventional order: the response body precedes the recompense
body.
The Treatise describes the dharma body as “eternal, blissful, Self, and
pure” [579a]. This set of qualities indicates that the text belongs to the
Tathāgatagarbha tradition, since Tathāgatagarbha texts invariably invoke
this formula. The dharma body is a buddha’s embodiment and
understanding of the ultimate. As described in the Treatise, it is the
realization “there are no perceptual fields; there is only cognition of
suchness, which is called the dharma body” [581a]. This realization is
beyond what might be achieved even by a bodhisattva, limited only to
buddhas. The Treatise also describes how the dharma body experiences
the dharma realm (fajie 法界; dharmadhātu), the full range of experiential
fields. Experiencing, seeing, and perceiving the dharma realm just as it is
constitutes an unobstructed way of being in an unobstructed world.
The text goes on to explain that “awakening” means to have an
unobstructed mind that pervades everything. The dharma realm and the
dharma body are therefore understood to be “pervaded” by the same
uniformity of the mind and understanding. When awakening, one
eliminates the obstructions hindering one’s ability to perceive and to
interact with the dharma realm. The unhindered mind, free from delusions
and misconceptions, permeates everywhere. This is based on the
Treatise’s earlier claim that “ ‘dharma’ refers to the mind of sentient beings”
[575c]. It is also a commentary of sorts on the opening to the text’s
discussion of the mind as suchness:
. . . the nature of the mind neither arises nor ceases. It is solely due to false
thoughts that there are distinctions between every dharma; if one is free from
false thoughts, then there are none of the characteristics of perceptual fields.
Therefore, all dharmas have always been free from the characteristics of
language, naming, and mental perceptions. They are ultimately uniform,
invariant, and indestructible. [576a]

A recompense body is sometimes also called a reward body.51 Buddhas

begin their careers by taking vows to attain buddhahood, perhaps many
eons away, and then work for the benefit of others. One culmination of this
process is that they receive a recompense body as the fruition of, or
reward for, countless eons of cultivation of good karma. These buddhas
continue to work for the benefit of others.
The Treatise’s main focus is to urge potential bodhisattvas to complete
the levels of the bodhisattva path in order one day to see the recompense
body in its entirety:
. . . bodhisattvas who have newly aroused the aspiration to awakening are
capable of perceiving [the recompense body] to a small extent because they
have profound faith in the dharma of suchness. . . . These bodhisattvas still
construct their own distinctions, however, because they have yet to enter the
stage of the dharma body. If they attain [the level of] pure mind, then what they
perceive will be subtle and marvellous and its function will be all the more
efficacious, until the bodhisattva levels are completed and they perceive [the
recompense body] in its entirety. [579c]

Ordinary people are able to see a recompense body only in its coarse
form. Because they each experience it differently, what they actually
experience is a response body. Response bodies are the innumerable
physical manifestations created by buddhas as a spontaneous response
to what will most benefit individuals or specific groups of sentient beings
unable to apprehend or relate to the pure forms of recompense bodies.
They take on the characteristics of their audiences. For example, humans
relate to other humans, and so buddhas will generally create humanoid
manifestations for them.

Four Characteristics of Awakening

Mind is, by nature, awareness. Only when the mind is aware of its own
aware nature does it coincide with its inherent nature. It is aware not of the
abstract notion that something called “a thought-moment” arises, but of
actual thought-moments (of anger, passion, or intellectual clarity) as they
present themselves. To be aware of these thought-moments, and to
recognize that they have no distinct moment in which they initially arise or
finally cease, is to be aware of the mind. This is final awakening.
This is not a momentary epiphany, but a continuous, ongoing
awareness. For the author of the Treatise, the mind has been awakening,
within the conditions of conventional reality, from the beginning;
awakening is not something subsequently acquired. It coincides with the
initial moment of every thought-moment and is simultaneous with the full
arising, enduring, changing, and ceasing of each and every thought-
moment. Accordingly, the author approaches the process of awakening
through the model of the four characteristics of all conditioned things,
although he reverses its standard order [576b]:
Four Type of Insight Resultant Type of
Characteristics Person Situation Awakening
1. Ceasing 滅 Ordinary Become aware Will be able to Although
people 凡夫 that previous stop thought- they may
人 thought- moments from still call this
moments gave subsequently “awakening,”
rise to bad arising 能止後 it is precisely
[consequences] 念令其不起 non-
覺知前念起惡 awakening
復名覺即是
不覺
2. Changing異 Those of the Awaken to the Have This is
Two Vehicles fact that as abandoned called
with thought- the “semblance
discerning moments characteristics of
cognition and [appear to] of coarse awakening”
bodhisattvas change, they discriminations 名相似覺
who have do not have the and
newly characteristic of attachments
aroused the change 覺於念 捨麤分別執著
aspiration to 異念無異相 相
awakening 二
乘觀智初發意
菩薩等
3. Enduring 住 Dharma-body Awaken to the Are free from This is
bodhisattvas fact that as the called
法身菩薩等 thought- characteristics “partial
moments of awakening”
[appear to] discriminations 名隨分覺
endure, they do and coarse
not have the thought-
characteristic of moments 離分
enduring 覺於 別麤念相
念住念無住相
Four Type of Insight Resultant Type of
Characteristics Person Situation Awakening
4. Arising 生 Those who Awaken to the Are far The mind
have fact that as the removed from constantly
completed mind [appears subtle thought- enduring is
the to] arise initially, moments 遠離 called “final
bodhisattva it has no 微細念 awakening”
levels, fully characteristic of 心即常住名
accomplished initial [arising] 究竟覺
skillful 覺心初起心無初
means, and 相
accorded
with
[suchness] in
a single
thought-
moment 菩薩
地盡滿足方便
一念相應

Five Names for Mentation and Six Types of Defiled Mind

The Treatise distinguishes five names for mentation (yi 意; manas). They
are set in a cyclical sequence. The author revisits this core model several
times in the text. The first name given for mentation is karmic
consciousness. This refers to the unawakened mind’s being set in motion
by the force of ignorance. Second, once set in motion, the mind becomes
a perceiver. This is the operating consciousness. Third, this leads to the
presenting consciousness, in which a perceptual field is created. Fourth,
the discerning consciousness discriminates the pure from the impure in
that perceptual field. Fifth, the continuing consciousness generates new
karma, which returns us to the beginning of the cycle. These five functions
of mentation are conventionally associated with the ālayavijñāna or store
consciousness; their association with manas in the Treatise highlights an
idiosyncratic understanding of standard Yogācāra philosophy.
The author of the Treatise also explains six types of defiled mind. Here,
he reverses the structure associated with mentation, and adds to it a sixth
item, attachment [577c]:
Five names for Six types of defiled mind
意
mentation (yi )
1. Karmic 6. Dissociated defilement of fundamental karmic
consciousness action
業識 根本業不相應染
2. Operating 5. Dissociated defilement of the perceiving mind
consciousness 轉識 能現心不相應染
3. Presenting 4. Dissociated defilement of presented form 現色不
consciousness 現識 相應染
4. Discerning 3. Associated defilement of discriminating cognition
consciousness 智識 分別智相應染
5. Continuing 2. Associated defilement of the uninterrupted [flow
consciousness 相續 of thought moments] 不斷相應染
識
1. Associated defilement of attachment 執相應染

The six types of defiled mind are presented as stages of progression along
the bodhisattva path, moving from coarse forms of defiled mind to subtle
ones. It is only on the basis of first constructing a distinction between
cognizer and what is cognized that the first three types of defiled mind can
associate cognizer and cognized as being identical. In contrast, the three
“dissociated” types of defiled mind are identified as being “without
differentiation” because they do not uphold an initial distinction between
cognizer and what is cognized. There is no longer any active engagement
in false discrimination. The sixth type of defiled mind, the dissociated
defilement of fundamental karmic action, is the most subtle. (In light of
this, the first of the five types of mentation, karmic consciousness, is the
most subtle; those that follow are increasingly coarse.) To rid oneself of
this sixth type of defiled mind is to attain buddhahood.

Ten Bhūmis
To become a bodhisattva, in pursuit of awakening (bodhi), one must enter
the bodhisattva path. Like many other Mahāyāna texts in sixth-century
China, the Treatise describes the bodhisattva path in terms of levels (di 地;
bhūmi).52 As already noted, in 508, Bodhiruci and Ratnamati together
translated a commentary by the Yogācāra master Vasubandhu, titled
Daśabhūmi-vyākhyāna (Shidi jing lun 十 地 經 論 ; Commentary on the
Discourse on the Ten Levels [of the Bodhisattva Path]). That translation,
popularly called the Dilun 地 論 (Treatise on Levels), came to dominate
much of sixth-century Chinese Buddhist thinking about the levels of the
bodhisattva path.
To enter the first level, ordinary people and non-Mahāyāna Buddhists
first need to arouse the aspiration both for their own awakening and also
for the awakening of all sentient beings, so that all can attain nirvana. The
Sanskrit terms for this are bodhicitta or cittotpāda.53 The Chinese term
often used as an equivalent is faxin 發 心 . For those familiar with
Mahāyāna Buddhist usage, this foundational term would have been taken
to mean “arousing the aspiration to awakening.” But since xin 心 is also
the standard rendering for citta, “mind,” its appearance here encouraged
some Chinese Buddhists to conflate “mind” and the “aspiration to progress
on the path.” In a text such as the Treatise, grounded in a theory of the
mind as the foundation of reality, the affinity between aspiration and mind
expressed by citta and xin would have encouraged such a conflation.
The Treatise advances its own particular list of bodhisattva levels. The
first is the “level of pure mind.” Progress is made by advancing through
subsequent levels, each of which comprises a variety of practices and
realizations. The eighth level is especially significant, because it is here
that one achieves a type of awakening from which one will not regress.
The tenth level is the highest that a bodhisattva achieves as a bodhisattva;
after the tenth level, one becomes a buddha. The Treatise describes the
buddha level in terms of the three types of buddha bodies described
above: a dharma body, a response body, and a recompense body.
The section dealing with the topic of “six kinds of defiled mind” provides
the Treatise’s most sustained account of the bodhisattva levels. Elsewhere
in the text, there are direct references to these levels and indications of
which practices and achievements occur at which levels. The major
commentators are even more fastidious than the text’s author in
connecting items in the Treatise with the various levels.

6. EARLY COMMENTARIES
Our understanding of the historical and intellectual contexts of the
Treatise’s composition (see Section 3) has informed our translation of the
text. Our exegesis has paid particular attention to how the text was
interpreted in early commentaries, especially sixth-century commentaries.
We have also drawn attention to the interpretations of seventh-century
commentaries, which were extremely influential on subsequent
interpretations of the Treatise.

Tanyan’s Qixin lun yishu

Tanyan 曇 延 (516–588) was a sixth-century monk who achieved high
official position under the early Sui state (581–618). He was originally from
an area in present-day Shanxi and later lived at the Taihang Baiti
Monastery 太行百梯寺. There he composed commentaries on a number of
seminal Mahāyāna texts, including his Niepan jing shu 涅 槃 經 疏
(Commentary on the Nirvana Sutra). He later did further exegetical work
on the Śrīmālādevī-siṃhanāda-sūtra (Shengman shizi hou yisheng da
fangbian fangguang jing 勝鬘師子吼一乘大方便方廣經; Sutra on the Lion’s
Roar of Queen Śrīmālā) and the Ren wang jing 仁王經 (Sutra for Humane
Kings).
Only one of two fascicles of Tanyan’s Qixin lun yishu 起 信 論 義 疏
(Elucidation of the Meaning of the Treatise on Awakening [Mahāyāna]
Faith; X45.755) survives. Some scholars have doubted that Tanyan
composed this work. They have argued that if Tanyan wrote this
commentary he could only have done so during the last year of his life,
because it refers many times to Paramārtha’s translation of the
*Mahāyānasaṃgraha-bhāṣya (She dasheng lun shi 攝 大 乘 論 釋 ;
Commentary on the Compendium of the Great Vehicle), which Tanqian
began to teach only in 587.54 A further argument is that neither Daoxuan’s
道宣 (596–667) Xu Gaoseng zhuan 續高僧傳 (Supplementary Biographies
of Eminent Monks) nor any Tang catalogue makes reference to a
commentary on the Treatise written by Tanyan. Instead, the earliest
reference to a commentary on the Treatise by “Master Yan” 延法師 is in a
Shōsōin 正 倉 院 document dated 751.55 Similar descriptions appear in
later Japanese Buddhist catalogues edited in 914 and in 1094.56
Against this view, the modern scholar Kashiwagi Hiroo suggests that
this is the earliest extant commentary on the Treatise, and that its author
may well be Tanyan.57 His main reason is that, according to the Xu
Gaoseng zhuan, the earliest transmitters of the Treatise also taught
Paramārtha’s translation of the *Mahāyānasaṃgraha-bhāṣya. Based on
the frequent references to *Mahāyānasaṃgraha-bhāṣya in this
commentary, Kashiwagi claims that its author probably belonged to the
earliest group of those who read the Treatise in the light of Paramārtha’s
*Mahāyānasaṃgraha-bhāṣya. We follow Kashiwagi in accepting that
Tanyan is the probable author of Qixin lun yishu.58
Tanyan emphasizes the identity of the tathāgatagarbha with inherent
awakening (benjue 本覺). The tathāgatagarbha is without conceiving (wu
nian 無念) and its illuminating nature (zhaoxing 照性) never changes.59 He
likens inherent awakening to a mirror: when images of defiled objects are
reflected in a mirror, they never defile the mirror itself.60 Commenting on
the Two Gateways paradigm, Tanyan claims that when suchness, as the
tathāgatagarbha, combines with the arising-and-ceasing store
consciousness it merely accords with or accommodates habituating
conditions (suixun 隨薰). It therefore only appears (xiangsi 相似) to arise
and cease without actually doing so.61

Huiyuan’s Dasheng qixin lun yishu

Another important early commentary on the Treatise is the Dasheng qixin
lun yishu 大乘起信論義疏 (Elucidation of the Meaning of the Treatise on
Awakening Mahāyāna Faith; T44.1843). It was traditionally attributed to
the Sui monk Huiyuan 慧遠 (523–592), whose later scholarship centered
on works seminal to the Dilun and Tathāgatagarbha traditions.
Modern scholars have come to doubt that Huiyuan wrote Dasheng qixin
lun yishu.62 They cite two internal reasons. First, the text refers to
“Dharma Master Yuan” 遠法師, which suggests that it was written not by
Huiyuan himself, but by a disciple or admirer. Second, Huiyuan’s other
works adopt a prosody of four-character units. This commentary breaks
that stylistic habit. There is also other, circumstantial evidence against
Huiyuan’s authorship. For example, the Xu Gaoseng zhuan reports that
Huiyuan was the most senior monk in the audience when Tanqian taught
Paramārtha’s *Mahāyānasaṃgraha-bhāṣya, but it does not mention that
Huiyuan wrote a commentary on the Treatise. The earliest catalogue
listing a commentary on the Treatise by Huiyuan is dated 1091.63
Yoshihide Yoshizu 吉津宜英, however, claims that similarities between
this commentary on the Treatise and Huiyuan’s other works suggest a
common authorship.64 Huiyuan is the purported author of a number of
exegetical works on major scriptures and at least nine extant works are
attributed to him. These include the encyclopedic Dasheng yizhang 大乘義
章 (A Compendium of the Great Vehicle; T44.1851), in twenty fascicles.65
The commentary evidences doctrinal agreement with these other works of
Huiyuan and may at least be treated as the work of someone close to him
and part of the same Southern branch of the Dilun school. With these
considerations in mind, we will continue to refer to the author of Dasheng
qixin lun yishu as Huiyuan.
Like the commentary attributed to Tanyan, the main doctrinal feature of
this commentary is a strict distinction between suchness as unconditioned
and phenomena as conditioned. Huiyuan reprises a classic analogy of a
rope mistaken to be a snake. In darkness, one mistakenly sees a rope as
a snake but in daylight one realizes that it is just a rope; the appearance of
a snake arises and ceases, but the rope remains as it is. Huiyuan
associates true consciousness (zhenshi 真 識 ) with the rope, and false
consciousness (wangshi 妄 識 ) with the illusion of a snake.66 Similarly,
when discussing the metaphor of ocean and waves in the Treatise,
Huiyuan insists that true consciousness never changes even if it combines
with the winds of ignorance.67
Possibly adapting the relationship described in the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra
between the eighth, store consciousness and the seven other
consciousnesses (qi shi 七 識 ),68 he further maintains that the
tathāgatagarbha serves as the basis of the eighth consciousness and the
eighth consciousness in turn serves as the basis for the seventh
consciousness (di qi shi 第七 識). He describes this relationship between
the eighth and the seventh consciousnesses as one resembling a body
and its shadow. In turn, he identifies the seventh consciousness as the
mind that arises and ceases and the eighth consciousness as that which
accords with the flow of falsehood generated by arising and ceasing.69
Huiyuan also employs the idea of a ninth consciousness in this
commentary. He associates the gateway of suchness and the gateway of
arising and ceasing with the ninth and eighth consciousnesses,
respectively. When the ninth consciousness, the gateway of suchness,
changes by adjusting to conditions, it comes to be identified as the eighth
consciousness.70 The idea of the ninth consciousness does not appear in
Tanyan’s commentary, but in the preface to the Treatise attributed to Zhikai
智 愷 (d. 568)71 there is reference to a two-fascicle work titled Jiushi
yizhang 九 識 義 章 (Essays on the Idea of the Ninth Consciousness),
claiming Paramārtha as its translator. The Hane commentary (see
discussion of Hane 333V) also attributes a text titled Jiushi zhang 九識章
(Essays on the Ninth Consciousness) to Paramārtha.72

HANE 333V
A manuscript of this commentary on the Treatise was discovered in the
collection of Dunhuang manuscripts collected by Haneda Tōru 羽 田 亨
(1882–1955). It is therefore abbreviated as Hane 333V. The extant
manuscript is incomplete and carries neither a title nor reference to its
author or the date of its composition. It has recently been edited by Ikeda
Masanori.73
Hane 333V stands in close relation to Tanyan’s commentary: some
sentences are identical in the two texts. According to Ikeda, this text
predates Tanyan’s commentary because Tanyan at one point criticizes it. If
Ikeda were right, and if Tanyan’s commentary were genuine, then Hane
333V would have to pre-date Tanyan’s death in 588. Yet Hane 333V does
not seem to be Tanyan’s particular focus in the passage on which Ikeda
bases his argument (X45.755, 165a1–6), leaving his conclusions tentative
at best. Our research on the manuscript and its contents remains
preliminary at this point and more work needs to be done to confirm
whether or not Hane 333V is the oldest commentary on the Treatise, as
Ikeda suggests.

Wonhyo’s Gisil lon so and Daeseung gisil lon byeolgi

The Silla commentator Wonhyo 元 曉 (617–686) wrote two important
commentaries on the Treatise: Gisil lon so 起信論疏 (Commentary on the
Treatise on Awakening [Mahāyāna] Faith; T44.1844) and Daeseung gisil
lon byeolgi 大乘起信論別記 (Further Notes on the Treatise on Awakening
Mahāyāna Faith; T44.1845). He deemed it uniquely able to reconcile all
Buddhist doctrinal debates74 and to avoid what he presented as an
excessive focus on negation or affirmation of the existence of dharmas,
which he associated with Madhyamaka and Yogācāra teachings,
respectively.75 Wonhyo also attempted to overcome some of the internal
tensions that had developed in Sinitic Buddhism after the pilgrim and
monk Xuanzang 玄奘 (596–664) had returned to China from India in 645,
bringing new texts of the Yogācāra school as well as retranslating texts
originally translated by Bodhiruci, Paramārtha, and others.76
 Throughout the sixth century, commentators on the Treatise had been
troubled by the relationship between the tathāgatagarbha and the store
consciousness, in particular the claim made in the Treatise that when the
mind as suchness combines with the mind as arising and ceasing, this
constitutes the store consciousness [576b]. This claim was seen to bear
upon two related doctrinal issues. First, could suchness, an unconditioned
dharma—one not subject to the laws of cause and effect—be acted upon
causally? In other words, could the mind as suchness, represented by
tathāgatagarbha, change when combined with the mind as arising and
ceasing, represented by the store consciousness? Second, could
unconditioned suchness act causally?
Some of the earliest commentators were committed to the fundamental
principle of Indian Buddhism that unconditioned dharmas cannot be acted
upon casually and so do not change. Huiyuan was particularly prominent
in adopting this position, as we have seen. The problem with these
accounts, however, is the lingering ambiguity introduced by the term sui
隨 , variously meaning to follow, to accord with, to accommodate, to
respond to, to adapt to. Although early commentators sought to
emphasize the non-changing nature of suchness and, by implication, to
uphold the doctrinal claim that unconditioned dharmas cannot be causal,
their use of the term sui carries a connotation of change associated with
adaptation.
Wonhyo’s intervention marks a watershed in this commentarial tradition.
He was perhaps the earliest commentator explicitly to endorse the view
that the Treatise in fact stated that suchness could be acted upon causally.
His understanding of the analogy of the wind acting on the ocean to stir up
waves is instructive. He claims that it is not in the self-nature of the ocean
to move, yet the ocean moves at the level of waves (representing
phenomenal appearance) in response to the wind (ignorance). For
Wonhyo, this creates arising and ceasing.77 He states that the sense in
which there is production or generation is an attribute of the gateway of
the mind as arising and ceasing, not the gateway of the mind as
suchness.78 He also makes it clear that the tathāgatagarbha is associated
with both gateways. In the gateway of the mind of suchness, he identifies
it as that which neither arises nor ceases.79 He describes its role in the
gateway of the mind of arising and ceasing as follows:
Although this One Mind is inherently awoken, in according with ignorance it
generates arising and ceasing. Hence, in this gateway [of arising and ceasing]
the tathāgata’s nature is hidden and not revealed; it is called the
 tathāgatagarbha. As the [Laṅkāvatāra-] sūtra says: “The tathāgatagarbha is the
cause of good and bad. It is able to create rebirth in all types of existence,
everywhere. It is like an actor transforming to appear as all manner of sentient
existence.”80 These are the meanings to be found in the gateway of arising and
ceasing. Hence, what the [Laṅkāvatāra-]sūtra terms “the One Mind, called the
tathāgatagarbha” is expressed in the [the Treatise] as the gateway of arising and
ceasing.81

Wonhyo also emphasizes that what arises or ceases shares an intrinsic

reality (ti) with what does not arise and cease. The former is simply the
mode in which the latter is manifest as phenomenal appearance, in
response to the winds of ignorance.82

Fazang’s Dasheng qixin lun yiji

Fazang 法藏 (643–712) was regarded as the third patriarch of the Huayan
lineage. He initially based himself at Mount Taibai 太白山, in the southwest
of present-day Shaanxi. He later became the disciple of the Huayan
master Zhiyan 智 儼 (602–668). In 670, two years after Zhiyan’s death,
Fazang formally entered the monastic community at Taiyuan Monastery 太
原 寺 in Chang’an. He subsequently became a peripatetic, spreading
Huayan doctrines and contributing to various translation projects. He even
served as a teacher to Empress Wu Zetian (r. 690–705).
Fazang wrote two commentaries on the Treatise: Dasheng qixin lun yiji
大 乘 起 信 論 義 記 (Notes on the Meaning of the Treatise on Awakening
Mahāyāna Faith; T44.1846) and Dasheng qixin lun bieji 大乘起信論別記
(Further Notes on the Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith; T44.1847).
Dasheng qixin lun yiji, in particular, had a substantial influence on later
commentators. In it, he cited and adopted much from Wonhyo’s Gisil lon
so; both were students of Zhiyan. Fazang was also a close acquaintance
of the Silla monk Uisang 義 湘 (625–702), founder of Huayan in Korea,
who in turn was a friend of Wonhyo.
Inspired by the Treatise’s teaching that the mind as suchness retains its
own identity when merging with the mind as arising and ceasing, the
Huayan master Dushun 杜 順 (557–640) had introduced the idea of the
non-obstruction suchness and phenomena (li shi wu ai 理 事 無 礙 ).83
Fazang subsequently identified this doctrine as the characteristic teaching
of what he termed “the lineage of the dependent arising out of the
tathāgatagarbha” (rulaizang yuanqi zong 如來藏緣起宗), one of the four
Buddhist lineages (zong 宗 ) that he recognized.84 The doctrine of “the
dependent arising out of the tathāgatagarbha” effectively turned the theory
of dependent arising (pratītya-samutpāda)—everything arises from causes
and conditions and has no inherent self-nature—into an ontology. It
supported the idea that the unconditioned dharma of suchness
(tathāgatagarbha) is the basis of conditioned and defiled phenomena.
By drawing on analogies that present ignorance as external to
suchness, the Treatise leaves itself vulnerable to the charge that it
introduces a dualist analogy into a monistic ontology. In failing to account
for the origin of ignorance, the Treatise can be construed as also failing to
provide a satisfactory account of how badness and suffering arise, thus
undermining its own soteriological goal. Fazang advanced an explanation
of why it is not possible for ignorance to exist separately from suchness as
the intrinsic reality of badness. He did so in response to the Treatise’s
statement that “all the characteristics of the mind and consciousnesses
are ignorance, and the characteristic of ignorance is not separate from the
nature of awakening” [576c]. Fazang commented:

The karmic and other defiled consciousnesses (xin)85 are called cognitive
characteristics. Since they are all characteristics of non-awakening [the Treatise]
states that “all the characteristics of the mind and consciousnesses are
ignorance.”86 This remark is not made with respect to the intrinsic reality of the
mind (xin).

This, however, presents a further objection. Since it is said that the

characteristics of all these are ignorance, then the explanation for the cessation
of ignorance would be that there is an additional intrinsic nature separate from
that of suchness. This is the objection that there is an intrinsic nature that exists
apart from suchness.

The response to this objection is as follows. The characteristic of non-

awakening [associated with] these consciousnesses is not separate from the
nature of inherent awakening as it accords with defilements. It is for this reason
that [the Treatise] says: “[The characteristic of ignorance] is not separate from
the nature of awakening.” The characteristic of ignorance and the nature of
inherent awakening are neither the same nor different. Because they are not
different, [their nature] is not destructible. Because they are not the same, [the
characteristic aspect] is not indestructible.

The idea that [their nature] is not destructible [because] they are not different
explains why ignorance is identical to true understanding. So the Nirvana Sutra
says: “The nature of true understanding and that of ignorance is non-dual. The
nature of this non-duality is true nature.”87 The idea that [the characteristic of
 ignorance] is destructible [because] they88 are not the same explains why
ignorance ceases but the nature of awakening is not destroyed. The meaning of
extinguishing delusion can be understood in the light of this.89

Although Fazang identifies ignorance as a characteristic associated with

the first seven consciousnesses, he interprets the Treatise to mean that
ignorance is not associated with the intrinsic reality of the mind, with
suchness.90
This claim introduces a potential difficulty, however: it implies that if
ignorance is able to cease, as it must if there is to be initial awakening, it
does so due to the cessation of the intrinsic nature (tixing 體 性 ) of
ignorance. To claim this is to acknowledge the existence of “a nature that
exists apart from suchness,” opening up the problem of the origin of
ignorance.
Following the lead of the Treatise, Fazang presents ignorance as a
characteristic (xiang 相 ). He emphasizes that ignorance is therefore an
appearance devoid of self-nature. He claims that awakening consists of
the realization of this idea, such that “ignorance is identical to true
understanding.” Ignorance is indestructible only as long as the deluded
mind sustains and supports it. This is analogous to the situation where
waves (representing the deluded mind) continue to exist only as long as
the ocean moves in response to the wind (ignorance). In this analogy, the
characteristic of ignorance and the nature of inherent awakening are said
not to be different in the same way that the wind is never separated from
the ocean, the nature of which is wetness. Once the ocean stops moving,
however, the waves cease to exist, and it becomes apparent that the
waves and the wetness of the ocean are not the same, since only the
ocean has an enduring self-nature. Similarly, ignorance ceases to exist
with the realization that one has always been awoken, and so it differs
from awakening because it lacks an enduring self-nature.
Fazang further makes the point that ultimately there is only one nature,
not two, by citing the Nirvana sutra— “The nature of true understanding
and of ignorance is non-dual. The nature of this non-duality is true nature.”
The nature of true understanding and of ignorance is non-dual because
there is only one nature. True understanding is the realization that
ignorance has no self-nature.
7. A CASE STUDY IN COMMENTARIAL
DIFFERENCES: THE MOVEMENT OF SUCHNESS
The issue of whether suchness changes or moves underscores
differences between interpretations of the Treatise proposed by Wonhyo
and Fazang and those articulated in earlier commentaries. Commentaries
on three key passages in the Treatise evidence these differences.

THE GATEWAY OF ARISING AND CEASING

In the Treatise, we find the claim that “the arising-and-ceasing mind exists
because it is based on the tathāgatagarbha. That is to say, non-arising
and non-ceasing combine with arising and ceasing: they are neither the
same nor different. This is called the ‘ālaya consciousness’ ” [576b]. The
issue is whether the tathāgatagarbha, the unconditioned, changes when
combined with the arising-and-ceasing mind, the conditioned.
Commentators expressed different opinions on this claim.
Tanyan, Huiyuan, and Hane 333V all emphasized that the
tathāgatagarbha does not change. Tanyan maintained that the
tathāgatagarbha is the inherent awakening in which there is no conceiving.
Precisely because there is no conceiving, it can adjust to defilements (sui
wang liuzhuan 隨妄流轉). Yet the tathāgatagarbha merely appears to arise
and cease when, in fact, its nature (which is to illuminate) never
changes.91 Huiyuan identified the tathāgatagarbha as the eighth
consciousness—the ālayavijñāna or store consciousness—and
maintained that the tathāgatagarbha “constantly abides” (chang zhu 常住;
nitya) as the intrinsic reality (ti 體 ) of defilement. It remains constant
despite its apparent defilement as it adjusts to conditions.92 For Hane
333V, the tathāgatagarbha refers to the state where the nature of the mind
remains as it is and does not change.93
In contrast, both Wonhyo and Fazang clearly state that the
tathāgatagarbha—the non-arising and non-ceasing mind—moves as a
whole when combined with arising and ceasing. In other words, they allow
that the unconditioned is subject to conditioning.94

THE METAPHOR OF THE WIND AND WAVES

The Treatise addresses the issue of whether the tathāgatagarbha moves
or changes with an analogy:
 . . . since the characteristic of ignorance is not separate from the nature of
awakening, the mind and consciousnesses are indestructible and destructible.
This is like the great ocean, where water moves in waves due to the wind. The
characteristics of the water and the wind [as waves] are not separate from one
another. Since it is not in the nature of water to move [by itself], its characteristic
of movement will cease if the wind ceases, without its wetness ever being
destroyed. And it is because, in the same way, the intrinsically pristine mind of
sentient beings is moved by the wind of ignorance. Both the mind and ignorance
lack characteristics of shape, and they are not separate from one another. Since
it is not in the nature of the mind to move [by itself], its continuous flow will cease
if ignorance ceases, without the nature of cognition ever being destroyed. [576c]

For Huiyuan, Tanyan, and Hane 333V, the text’s statement that water
retains its wetness, whether calm or agitated, emphasizes the idea that
the tathāgatagarbha never changes.95
By contrast, Wonhyo and Fazang interpret this analogy to mean that the
tathāgatagarbha changes from a calm to an agitated state. They navigate
the difficulty of how the tathāgatagarbha can move by explaining that it
changes not out of its own self-nature but because it adjusts to, or accords
with, ignorance.96 This reading was made possible by an ambiguity in the
formulation of this analogy in the Treatise. On the one hand, the text states
that the wetness that is the nature of water—and, by analogy, the
tathāgatagarbha—does not change, whether the water is smooth or
agitated. Yet, on the other hand, the Treatise also says that “it is not in the
nature of water to move [by itself].”

THE HABITUATION OF SUCHNESS

In his Mahāyānasaṃgraha-śāstra, the fourth-century Yogācāra master
Asaṅga maintains that for something to be habituated, it must be: (1)
enduring; (2) indeterminate, giving rise neither to good nor bad; (3) able to
be habituated; and (4) exist at the same time and locus as that which
habituates.97 In the seventh century, both Xuanzang and Wonhyo drew
attention to the third item on this list, insisting that Asaṅga’s implication is
that because suchness is an unconditioned dharma therefore it cannot be
habituated.98 In contrast, the Treatise recurrently uses the phrase
“habituate suchness” (xunxi zhenru 熏 習 真 如 ) [578a, 578b, 579a]. This
seems to run counter to the basic Yogācāra idea that suchness is
unconditioned.99
Commenting on this phrase, Tanyan states: “When ignorance has
arisen, it does not have the power to sustain itself, and so it must depend
on suchness to habituate [something else].”100 The phrase “habituate
suchness,” however, also leaves room for Wonhyo and Fazang to suggest
that suchness itself can be habituated; once agitated, it becomes karmic
consciousness (yeshi 業 識 ). As Fazang says: “[T]he mind as karmic
consciousness arises because ignorance habituates and moves
suchness.”101
These three examples highlight contrasts between two lines of
interpretation of the Treatise, but they leave several problems unresolved.
For example, in the interpretations of earlier commentators such as
Tanyan and Huiyuan, what exactly does it mean to claim that the
tathāgatagarbha, which constantly abides and does not change, adjusts to
conditions? One explanation is that the tathāgatagarbha remains
unchanged despite serving as the basis of false conceptualization. This is
where the classic analogy of the rope and the snake has a role to play. So
when Tanyan comments on the phrase in the Treatise that “the mind
constantly endures” (心即常住) [576b], he states: “[The mind] has always
relied upon habituation by false conceptualizing and [appears to be]
impermanent and non-enduring, just as water relies upon wind [and
appears to have waves]. When the energy of false conceptualizing is
depleted, then ‘the mind constantly endures,’ just as when the wind
ceases, then the water is calm.”102 This line of interpretation is consistent
with the doctrine of Indian Yogācāra.
If interpreted in this way, however, the Treatise still presents a
fundamental conundrum. The text seeks to establish a close relation
between defiled phenomena and the undefiled (suchness,
tathāgatagarbha). It therefore posits the store consciousness as merely an
intermediate state in which suchness is combined with ignorance. In this
model, the store consciousness cannot be considered a consciousness in
the usual sense because suchness is unconditioned. Being unconditioned
it cannot be causal and therefore cannot serve the function of producing
defiled phenomena. Yet the Treatise is clear that the store consciousness
is “the collector and producer of all dharmas” [576b]. As a result, it
appears as unconditioned yet also conditioned, introducing a sharp
aporia.103 For this model to work, the store consciousness has to be taken
to be a real consciousness, since a real consciousness serves as the
basis for producing phenomena. In the analogy of the ocean waves that
the text introduces to discuss this model, the store consciousness should
therefore be likened not to the water of the ocean but to the wetness that
is the nature of water. The metaphor in the Treatise would then lack
anything that might correspond to water, and so the only way to make the
model work is to concede that the store consciousness plays the roles of
both the water and the wetness that is its nature. By extension, it must be
understood as both unconditioned (identical with suchness) and
conditioned (serving the function of producing phenomena).
Wonhyo and Fazang correctly discerned this conundrum. They
addressed it by abandoning the distinction between unconditioned and
conditioned dharmas and, as a result, their interpretation is less
problematic than that of earlier commentators. After Fazang, Chengguan
澄 觀 (557–640), and Zongmi 宗 密 (780–841), this line of interpretation
emerged as the dominant reading of the Treatise. As a result, the
interpretations of Tanyan and Huiyuan fell into disuse and the distinction
between unconditioned and conditioned was effaced.

1. For a convenient, introductory overview of such topics as traditional and modern

commentaries, Western-language translations, and modern philological and historical
studies on the Treatise, see Jason Clower, “The Awakening of Faith,” in Richard K.
Payne, ed., Oxford Bibliographies in Buddhism (New York: Oxford University Press,
2013).
2. Xiaosheng 小乘 (Lesser Vehicle), signifying Hīnayāna, was the pejorative label with
which Mahāyānists branded non-Mahāyāna Buddhists. In India, Mahāyāna believers
were a minority. In China, however, Mahāyāna was introduced by the translator
Lokakṣema between 166 and 188 CE and was confirmed as the dominant form of
Buddhism in China by the translations of Kumārajīva (344–413) between 401 and 409. It
was almost unheard of for anyone other than visiting Indian monks in East Asia to claim
to be a follower of the Lesser Vehicle from this time on, even though many of the
meditative practices and monastic regulations (vinaya) used were in fact those of the
mainstream Lesser Vehicle in India. On the introduction of Mahāyāna in the second
century CE, see Erik Zürcher, The Buddhist Conquest of China: The Spread and
Adaption of Buddhism in Early Medieval China (Leiden: Brill, 1959), p. 35. The term
Hīnayāna does not appear in the Treatise and we use it only to clarify the standard
doxography.
10. Ōtake Susumu 大竹晋, “Yugagyōha bunken to Daijō kishin ron” 瑜伽行派文献と
大 乗 起 信 論 (Yogācāra Documents and the Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith),
Tetsugaku shisō ronsō 哲 学 ・ 思 想 論 叢 (Chikuba daigaku tetsugaku shisō gakkai), 20
(2002): pp. 49–62, esp. p. 49. This lecture series recorded in Jin’gangxian lun is on
verses attributed to Vasubandhu concerning the Diamond Sutra (Jin’gang bore boluomi
jing 金剛般若波羅蜜經; Vajracchedikā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra).
11. Okamoto Ippei 岡本一平, “Jōyō ji Eon ni okeru shoki no shikiron” 淨影寺慧遠におけ
る初期の識論 (Early Theories of the Consciousnesses by Huiyuan of Jingying Monastery)
in Geumgang Daehak bulgyo munhwa yeon’guso 金 剛 大 学 佛 教 文 化 研 究 所 , comp.,
 Jironshū no kenkyū 地 論 宗 の 研 究 (Studies of the Dilun School) (Tokyo: Kokusho
kankōkai, 2017), pp. 533–535, 541, 547.
3. In China, Aśvaghoṣa was widely thought of as a bodhisattva—an epithet closely
associated with Mahāyāna in the Chinese tradition—who could bridge the chronological
chasm between the historical Buddha and sixth-century China. See, for example,
Stuart H. Young, Conceiving the Indian Buddhist Patriarchs in China (Honolulu:
University of Hawaii Press, 2015), pp. 130–134, 221, passim. The historical Aśvaghoṣa,
however, seems to have been unaware of even the existence of Mahāyāna. Indeed,
Aśvaghoṣa has no Mahāyāna tendencies in his attested writings.
4. Diana Y. Paul, Philosophy of Mind in Sixth-Century China: Paramārtha’s “Evolution
of Consciousness” (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1984), pp. 22–37. A
thorough study can be found in Funayama Tōru 船山徹, “Shintai sanzō no katsudō to
chosaku no kihonteki tokuchō” 真 諦 三 蔵 の 活 動 と 著 作 の 基 本 的 特 徴 (Fundamental
Characteristics of the Activities and Works of Paramārtha), in Funayama Tōru, ed.,
Shintai sanzō kenkyū ronshū 真諦三蔵研究論集 (Studies of the Works and Influence of
Paramārtha) (Kyoto: Kyōto daigaku jinbunkagaku kenkyūshō, 2012), pp. 1–86.
5. Hyegyun, Daseung saron hyeonui gi 大 乘 四 論 玄 義 記 (Record of the Profound
Meanings of the Four Treatises of Mahāyāna), cited in Chinkai 珍海 (1092–1152), Sanron
genso bungi yō 三論玄疏文義要 (Essentials of the Meaning of the Profound Commentary
on the Three Treatises). T70.2299, 228c18–24.
6. Fajing 法 經 (fl. 594) et al., Zhongjing mulu 衆 經 目 錄 (Catalogue of Scriptures).
T55.2146, 142a16.
7. Our annotations to the translation identify specific examples.
8. Yogācāra (Yuqie xing pai 瑜珈行派; yogic practice) is one of the two most influential
philosophical systems of Indian Buddhism, along with Madhyamaka. Other names for the
Yogācāra school include the Way of Consciousness (Vijñānavāda), and Nothing but
Consciousness (Vijñapti-mātra). Tathāgatagarbha means the repository of a buddha, the
potential to achieve buddhahood; and the tathāgatagarbha doctrine is the idea that
buddha-nature exists in all sentient beings. The doctrine had a profound influence on the
development of East Asian Buddhism but its origins lie in India. The Tathāgatagarbha
tradition in Mahāyāna Buddhism is associated with a cluster of texts, central to which is
the tathāgatagarbha doctrine. For an overview of these texts, see Michael Radich,
“Tathāgatagarbha Sūtras,” in Jonathan Silk, Oskar von Hinüber, and Vincent Eltschinger,
eds., Brill’s Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Volume One: Literature and Languages (Leiden:
Brill, 2015), pp. 261–273.
9. The ten levels through which a bodhisattva proceeds on the way to buddhahood.
This work, translated by Bodhiruci and Ratnamati, is a commentary on the “Shidi pin” 十
地品 (Ten Levels) chapter of the Huayan jing 華嚴經.
12. The names Shelun and Dilun were not used by contemporaries. They were used
with mostly derogatory overtones by later critics of these approaches, such as members
of the Sanlun, Tiantai, and Faxiang schools of the seventh and eighth centuries. Ishii
Kōsei 石 井 公 成 , “Jironshū kenkyū no genjō to kadai” 地 論 宗 研 究 の 現 状 と 課 題 (The
Present Situation and Issues of Dilun School Studies) in Geumgang Daehak bulgyo
munhwa yeon’guso, comp., Jironshisō no keisei to hen’yō 地論思想の形成と変容 (The
Formation and Transformation of Dilun Thought) (Tokyo: Kokusho kankōkai, 2010), p. 41;
 Ishii Kōsei, Kegon shisō no kenkyū 華 厳 思 想 の 研 究 (Studies on Huayan Thought)
(Tokyo: Shunjūsha, 1996), p. 71.
13. Daoxuan 道 宣 (596–667), Xu Gaoseng zhuan 續 高 僧 傳 (Supplementary
Biographies of Eminent Monks). T50.2060, 482c1–4. For a variant story, see T50.2060,
429a12–16. The most comprehensive description of the two lineages is in Yang
Weizhong 楊維中, Zhongguo Weishizong tongshi 中國唯識宗通史 (General History of the
Chinese Vijñānavāda School) (Nanjing: Fenghuang chubanshe, 2008), vol. 1, pp. 64–
168.
14. See Yang Weizhong, Zhongguo Weishizong tongshi, pp. 58–64; Lü Cheng 呂澂,
Zhongguo Foxue yuanliu lüejiang 中 國 佛 學 源 流 略 講 (Brief Lectures on the Origin and
Development of Chinese Buddhism) (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, rpt. 1979), pp. 140–141.
15. Ōtake Susumu 大 竹 晋 , “Jironshū no busshinsetsu” 地 論 宗 の 佛 身 説 (The Dilun
Theory of the Buddha Bodies), in Geumgang Daehak bulgyo munhwa yeon’guso, comp.,
Jironshū no kenkyū, p. 125.
16. Robert Michael Gimello, “Chih-yen and the Foundation of Hua-yen Buddhism”
(Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1976), pp. 284–307. This consciousness, one of eight
or nine identified by Buddhists, retains the impressions of past experiences and
permeates or “perfumes” new experiences on the basis of that previous conditioning.
17. Gimello, “Chih-yen and the Foundation of Hua-yen Buddhism,” pp. 289–292.
18. For these two models, see Michael Zimmermann, “The Process of Awakening in
Early Texts on Buddha-Nature in India,” in Chen-kuo Lin and Michael Radich, eds., A
Distant Mirror: Articulating Indic Ideas in Sixth and Seventh Century Chinese Buddhism
(Hamburg: Hamburg University Press, 2014), pp. 515–517.
19. Diana Y. Paul, Philosophy of Mind in Sixth-Century China, p. 32.
20. The visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and tactile consciousnesses.
21. “Seeds” is used as a metaphor. In standard Yogācāra doctrine, the store
consciousness is understood to store both pure and impure seeds (bīja), just as the
memory stores good and bad memories. These seeds are due to past actions or
experiences from time without beginning. They influence sentient beings in the same way
that perfume pervades a cloth, infusing it with a scent while its basic fabric remains
essentially unchanged. As John Powers explains, seeds “are the latent residua of a
person’s actions. Every volitional action deposits a predisposition within one’s mental
continuum, which represents a propensity to perpetuate that sort of action and also
guarantees the karmic repercussions of one’s moral choices. As the metaphor of seeds
implies, they lie dormant until the proper conditions for their manifestation are present
and then give rise to mental states that resemble the original impulses that led to their
creation.” See his “Yogācāra: Indian Buddhist Origins,” in John Makeham, ed.,
Transforming Consciousness Yogācāra Thought in Modern China (New York: Oxford
University Press, 2014), p. 46.
22. She dasheng lun shi. T31.1595, 157b21–159b20. For more detailed discussion,
see Ōtake Susumu, “Yugagyōha bunken to Daijō kishin ron,” pp. 49–62, esp. p. 49.
23. Gimello, “Chih-yen and the Foundation of Hua-yen Buddhism,” pp. 232–235.
Dependent arising (pratītya-samutpāda; yuanqi 緣 起 ) is the fundamental Buddhist
doctrine that everything arises from causes and conditions and has no inherent self-
nature. According to the Shelun, the store consciousness is the basis for the imaginative
construction of the delusory world through a continuing chain of causes and conditions.
 24. Lü Cheng, Zhongguo Foxue yuanliu lüejiang, pp. 142–143. Yang Weizhong,
Zhongguo Weishizong tongshi, pp. 169–173 traces this contrast back to earlier debates
in China about whether the buddha-nature “innately exists” (benyou 本有) or “exists for a
first time” (shiyou 始有).
25. T31.1593, 117a8–9. See Robert Gimello’s discussion of this point, “Chih-yen and
the Foundation of Hua-yen Buddhism,” pp. 262–265.
26. Ibuki Atsushi 伊吹敦, “Jironshū Hokudōha no shinshikisetsu ni tsuite” 地論宗北道
派の心識説について (On the Mind and Consciousness Theory of the Northern Faction of
the Dilun School), Bukkyōgaku 佛教学 40 (1999): pp. 47–50; Aoki Takashi 青木隆, “Tonkō
shahon ni miru Jiron kyōgaku no keisei” 敦煌写本にみる地論教学の形成 (The Formation
of the Doctrines of the Dilun School as Seen in Dunhuang Manuscripts), in Geumgang
Daehak bulgyo munhwa yeon’guso, comp., Jiron shisō no keisei to hen’yō, pp. 47–48;
Ōtake Susumu, “Jironshū no busshinsetsu,” pp. 109–110, 126.
27. The Tiantai master Zhiyi 智 顗 (538–597) is recorded as identifying a distinction
between the Dilun school and the Shelun school, with the former advocating that “dharma
nature” (faxing 法性; *dharmatā)—the functional equivalent of suchness—is the basis for
all dharmas, and the latter maintaining that everything arises from ālayavijñāna. See
Zhiyi, Mohe zhiguan 摩訶止觀 (The Great Calming and Discernment). T46.1911, 54a23–
b8. A problem here is that Zhiyi’s works were edited by his disciples, most importantly by
Guanding 灌 頂 (561–632), and the versions that have come down to us were filtered
through Zhanran’s 湛 然 (711–782) commentaries. There is therefore a question of how
much of the information reflects Zhiyi’s views and how much came from Guanding or
Zhanran.
28. Well before the engagement with the Yogācāra concept of the ālayavijñāna, we can
discern the genesis of these ideas in the Tathāgatagarbha-sūtra (Dafangguang rulaizang
jing 大 方 廣 如 來 藏 經 ), written in the second half of the third century. Although the
Tathāgatagarbha-sūtra was not fully translated into Chinese until the eighth century, its
main content—nine analogies illustrating how the tathāgatagarbha is covered over by
defilements—was already cited in the mid-third century Ratnagotravibhāga-
mahāyānottaratantra-śāstra, translated into Chinese in 511 by Ratnamati (fl. 508) under
the title Foxing fenbie dasheng jiujing yaoyi lun 佛性分別大乘究竟要義論 or Baoxing lun
寶 性 論 (Treatise on the Jewel Nature). Seven of these nine analogies present the
tathāgatagarbha as fully formed but obscured by defilements.
29. Zhanran, Fahua xuanyi shiqian 法 華 玄 義 釋 籤 (Comments on the Profound
Meaning of the Lotus Sutra). T33.1717, 942c16–24. See also Keng Ching, “Yogācāra
Buddhism Transmitted or Transformed? Paramārtha (499–569) and His Chinese
Interpreters” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 2009), pp. 344–345; and Robert M. Gimello,
“Chih-yen and the Foundations of Hua-yen Buddhism,” pp. 146–147, 211, 294–297.
30. Huiyuan 慧遠 (523–592), Dasheng qixin lun yishu 大乘起信論義疏 (Elucidation of
the Meaning of the Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith). T44.1843, 176a8.
31. As we indicate in a note to the translation, there is evidence that the author of the
Treatise possibly also drew on Guṇabhadra’s translation of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra, albeit
to a much lesser extent.
32. Numerical references in square brackets are to the text of the Treatise in the Taishō
Tripiṭaka (Taishō Revised Tripiṭaka).
 33. See Lü Cheng, “Chanxue shuyuan” 禪 學 述 源 (Tracing the Origins of Chan
Learning), in Lü Cheng Foxue lunzhu xuanji 呂澂佛學論著選集 (Lü Cheng on Buddhism:
Selected Works) 5 vols. (Jinan: Qilu shushe, 1991), vol. 1, 401–403. See also his “Qixin
yu Chan—duiyu Dasheng qixin lun laili de tantao” 起信與禪—對於大乘起信論來歷的探討
(Awakening Faith and Chan: An Investigation into the Historical Origins of the Treatise on
Awakening Mahāyāna Faith), reprinted in Xiandai Fojiao xueshu congkan 現代佛教學
術叢刊 (Modern Buddhist Scholarship Series), vol. 35, Zhang Mantao 張曼濤, ed. (Taipei:
Dasheng wenhua chubanshe, 1978), pp. 302–304.
34. Lengqie abaduoluo baojing 楞 伽 阿 跋 多 羅 寶 經 (Laṅkāvatāra Sutra), trans.
Guṇabhadra (394–468). T16.670, 510b26–c10, passim.
35. See, for example, Wonhyo 元曉 (617–686), Gisil lon so 起信論疏 (Explanation of
the Treatise on Awakening [Mahāyāna] Faith). T44.1844, 208b8.
36. Xunxi 熏 習 (habituation, permeation) is the standard Chinese translation of the
Sanskrit term vāsanā. The Treatise uses the following metaphor: “ ‘Habituation’ is like an
ordinary piece of clothing that in reality has no scent; but it will acquire a fragrance if
someone perfumes it.” [578a]
37. See, for example, Tanyan 曇延 (516–588), Qixin lun yishu 起信論義疏 (Elucidation
of the Meaning of the Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith). X45.755, 159b6–22.
38. It is destructible because it is ignorance; it is indestructible because it is not
separate from the nature of awakening. Huiyuan and Hane 333V use the term “the mind”
to refer to the seventh consciousness and the term “consciousnesses” to refer to the first
six consciousnesses. They claim that both are inherently mired in ignorance.
39. From the time of Wonhyo and Fazang, writing in the seventh century, this
distinction was collapsed.
40. As described elsewhere in the Treatise, “the nature of the mind neither arises nor
ceases. It is solely due to false thoughts that there are distinctions between every
dharma; if one is free from false thoughts, then there are none of the characteristics of
perceptual fields.” [576a]
41. Ru Lengqie jing 入楞伽經 (Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra), T16.671, 523b19–c19.
42. The earlier commentator, Huiyuan (T44.1843, 185a25–26), had attempted to
explain the discrepancies between the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra’s use of the analogy and that
found in the Treatise by arguing that the association of wind with perceptual fields in the
Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra is unimportant. According to Huiyuan, the author of the Treatise was
concerned with the basis of perceptual fields, which is ignorance. Huiyuan does not,
however, explain the source of the wind.
43. Nian 念, translated in this context as conceiving, is an important term with multiple
meanings, several of which are used in the Treatise. First, it means either “mindfulness”
or “memory.” Second, it denotes a thought-moment. In Buddhist psychology, thoughts are
momentary. Each follows from its predecessor and is conditioned by it. In turn, the
successive series tends to perpetuate patterns of thought and conceptual distinctions.
Third, nian refers to conceiving, a prominent theme in the Treatise. In the work, this use
of the term has a negative implication because conceiving leads to attachment to
perceptual fields as something real through false conceptualization rather than through
correct cognition.
44. The non-duality of emptiness and non-emptiness in the Treatise follows a
distinction similar to that drawn in an earlier Tathāgatagarbha text, the *Śrīmālādevī-
siṃhanāda-sūtra (Shengman shizi hou yisheng da fangbian fangguang jing 勝鬘師子吼一
乘 大 方 便 方 廣 經 ; Sutra on the Lion’s Roar of Queen Śrīmālā), trans. Guṇabhadra.
T12.353, 221c17–19.
45. Elsewhere, the Treatise sets out the more standard list of six perfections
(pāramitās): giving, discipline, forbearance, vigorous exertion, meditative concentration,
and wisdom [582b].
46. See Alan Sponberg’s caution over the use of the word “meditation” in his
“Meditation in Fa-hsiang Buddhism,” in ed. Peter N. Gregory, Traditions of Meditation in
Chinese Buddhism (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986), pp. 18–19.
47. Geshe Sopa, “Śamathavipaśyanāyudanaddha: The Two Leading Principles of
Buddhist Meditation,” in Minoru Kiyota, ed., Mahāyāna Buddhist Meditation: Theory and
Practice (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1978), pp. 46–65. The author of the
Treatise seems to have been influenced in his ideas on the topic by Bodhiruci’s
translations of the Laṅkāvatarā-sūtra, the Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra, and the
Dharmasaṁgīti-sūtra. See Takemura Makio 竹 村 牧 男 , Kaiteiban Daijō kishin ron
dokushaku 改訂版大乗起信論読釈 (Revised Edition of An Interpretative Reading of the
Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith) (Tokyo: Sankibō busshorin, 1993), pp. 465,
497, 500.
48. Mohe zhiguan. T46.1911, 59a16–21.
49. The Amitābha Buddha is the primary deity of the Pure Land school. He is attributed
with infinite merits and is said to expound the Dharma in his pure paradise in the West.
Although the Treatise neither makes statements about chanting Amitābha’s name nor
uses the term “pure land,” it does talk about a single-minded meditation on Amitābha’s
western paradise in the context of receiving a transference of merit to be reborn there.
These nian fo 念佛 (buddha-anusmṛti) practices are more likely to be the elaborate rituals
and meditations described in the sutras that became foundational for Pure Land, rather
than the bare name recitation that came to be synonymous with Pure Land practice.
50. Gadjin M. Nagao, Mādhyamika and Yogācāra: A Study of Māhāyana
Philosophies, trans. and ed. Leslie S. Kawamura (Albany: State University of New York
Press, 1991), p. 107. The earliest text to use the terminology of three bodies is found in
the “Bodhi” chapter of the Mahāyāna-sūtrālaṃkāra, an early Yogācāra work of the fourth
or perhaps the third century. See John J. Makransky, Buddhahood Embodied: Sources
of Controversy in India and Tibet (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997), p.
42.
51. The Treatise uses the term baoshen 報 身 , meaning “recompense body.” The
Sanskrit term saṃbhoga means “complete enjoyment” or “delight.” It is perhaps better
reflected in another Chinese translation, shouyong shen 受 用 身 , the “enjoyment body.”
Both Chinese renderings have their justification: baoshen emphasizes the “reward body”
aspect; shouyong shen follows the Sanskrit in emphasizing that this is a thoroughly
enjoyable experience for this Buddha and those who interact with it.
52. The bhūmis later came to be subdivided into multiple sub-levels, most prominently
the 52- (or 53-) level model adopted by the Huayan school.
53. In Buddhist usage, citta usually means “mind,” but here it means “aspiration” or “to
aspire to.” Bodhi means “to be awakened.” Bodhicitta therefore means “to aspire for
awakening.” In all forms of Mahāyāna Buddhism, having the life-changing experience of
bodhicitta is the distinguishing feature of entering the Mahāyāna path.
 54. Kashiwagi Hiroo 柏木弘雄 cites examples of scholars who maintain that the Qixin
lun yishu was written by Tanqian and not Tanyan. Kashiwagi provides evidence to refute
these views. See his Daijō kishin ron no kenkyū: Daijō kishin ron no seiritsu ni kansuru
shiryōronteki kenkyū 大 乗 起 信 論 の 研 究 : 大 乗 起 信 論 の 成 立 に 関 す る 資 料 論 的 研 究
(Studies on the Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith: Document-Based Studies on the
Dating of the Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith) (Tokyo: Shunjūsha, 1981), pp.
185–186.
55. Kashiwagi Hiroo, Daijō kishin ron no kenkyū, p. 27.
56. Kashiwagi Hiroo, Daijō kishin ron no kenkyū, p. 27.
57. Kashiwagi Hiroo, Daijō kishin ron no kenkyū, p. 194.
58. Kashiwagi Hiroo, Daijō kishin ron no kenkyū, pp. 203–204.
59. Tanyan, Qixin lun shu. X45.755, 159b12–16.
60. X45.755, 162c20–23.
61. X45.755, 159b15–16.
62. See, for example, Kenneth K. Tanaka, The Dawn of Chinese Pure Land Buddhist
Doctrine: Ching-ying Hui-yuan’s Commentary on the Visualization Sutra (Albany: State
University of New York Press, 1990), pp. 29–30.
63. Sinpyeon jejong gyojang chongnok 新 編 諸 宗 教 藏 總 錄 (Newly Compiled
Comprehensive Record of the Canonical Works of the Various Schools), edited by the
Goryeo monk Uicheon 義 天 (1055–1101). T55.2184, 1175a2. The commentary is listed
as two fascicles. Tōiki dentō mokuroku 東域傳燈目錄 (Record of the Transmission of the
Lamp to the Eastern Regions), by the Japanese monk Eichō 永 超 (1014–1095), also
attributes a commentary on the Treatise in two fascicles to Huiyuan; T55.2183, 1158c25.
64. Yoshihide Yoshizu, “Eon Daijō kishin ron gisho no kenkyū” 慧遠『大乗起信論義
疏 』 の 研 究 (A Study of Huiyuan’s Elucidation of the Meaning of the Treatise on
Awakening Mahāyāna Faith), Komazawa daigaku Bukkyō gakubu ronshū kenkyū kiyō 駒
沢大学仏教学部研究紀要 34 (1976): pp. 151–173.
65. For a list and study of Huiyuan’s works, see Okamoto Ippei, “Jōyō ji Eon no
chosaku no zengo kankei ni kansuru shiron” 淨影寺慧遠の著作の前後関係に関する試論
(On the Chronological Relationship of Writings by Huiyuan of Jingying Monastery), in
Geumgang Daehak bulgyo munhwa yeon’guso, comp., Jiron shisō no keisei to hen’yō,
pp. 162–183.
66. Huiyuan, Dasheng qixin lun yishu. T44.1843, 197a6–9.
67. T44.1843, 185a7–11.
68. T16.670, 484b11–16; T16.671, 523b22–23c1.
69. Huiyuan, Dasheng qixin lun yishu. T44.1843,182b28.
70. T44.1843, 179a20–27.
71. Zhikai was one of Paramārtha’s foremost students and amanuenses; see Xu
Gaoseng zhuan. T50.2060, 430a19, 430c3–11, 431b2–23. The preface to the Treatise is
unlikely to have been written by Zhikai. It states that Paramārtha was invited to China by
the Liang Emperor Wu, who had sent a delegation to Magadha, but there is no record of
such a delegation. Rather, there was a delegation sent to Funan (in present-day southern
Cambodia and southern Vietnam); see Xu Gaoseng zhuan, T50.2060, 429c11–13. There
is evidence that Paramārtha was in Funan, and not India, at this time. This suggests that
Tanqian had only a partial grasp of the truth or was trying to give Paramārtha and the
Treatise more Indic credentials. It is possible that the preface was written by Tanqian,
who went to south China when the persecution of Buddhism began in 574, studied
Paramārtha’s theories and translations, and began to teach them in North China in 587.
The reference to the Jiushi yizhang in the preface, and a similar reference in Hane 333V,
further supports speculation that Tanqian was the author of both the preface and Hane
333V.
72. Ikeda Masanori 池 田 將 則 (이케다 마사노리), “Kyō’u shōku shozō Tonkō bunken
Daijō kishin ron sho (gidai, Hane 333V) ni tsuite” 杏雨書屋所藏敦煌文獻大乘起信論疏 (擬
題, 羽333V) について (On the Dunhuang Manuscript Dasheng qixin lun shu Held in the
Kyō’u Library [provisional title Hane 333 Verso]), Bulgyohak ribyu 불교학리뷰 (Critical
Review for Buddhist Studies) 12 (2012): p. 122.
73. Ikeda Masanori, “Kyō’u shōku shozō Tonkō bunken Daijō kishin ron sho (gidai,
Hane 333V) ni tsuite,” pp. 45–167.
74. T44.1845, 226b12.
75. T44.1845, 226b5–9.
76. Yoshizu Yoshihide, “Hōzō no Daijō kishin ron gigi no seiritsu to tenkai” 法 蔵 の
「大 乗 起 信 論 義 記 」の成 立 と展 開 (Date and Development of Fazang’s Notes on the
Meaning of the Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith) in ed., Hirakawa Akira 平 川 彰 ,
Nyoraizō to Daijō kishin ron 如来蔵と大乗起信論 (Tathāgatagarbha and the Treatise on
Awakening Mahāyāna Faith) (Tokyo: Shunjūsha, 1990), p. 396.
77. T44.1844.208b13; 211b8–9.
78. T44.1844, 208c20–24.
79. T44.1844, 208b12.
80. Guṇabhadra trans. T16.670, 510b4–6.
81. T44.1844, 206c19–22.
82. T44.1844, 208b13.
83. In Sinitic Buddhist contexts, li 理 is synonymous with suchness (tathatā) when
contrasted with shi 事 (phenomena). It denotes reality as it truly is, without any
conceptual overlay.
84. In his system of doctrinal classification of Buddhist scriptures translated into
Chinese, Fazang distinguished four lineages: (1) attachment to dharmas through their
characteristics (suixiang fazhi zong 隨相法執宗), associated with Hīnayāna scriptures; (2)
real emptiness without characteristics (zhenkong wuxiang zong 眞空無相宗), associated
with Prajñā and Madhyamaka scriptures; (3) nothing but consciousness or, alternatively,
dharma characteristics (weishi faxiang zong 唯 識 法 相 宗 ), associated with Yogācāra
scriptures; and (4) the dependent arising out of the tathāgatagarbha, associated with the
Laṅkāvatāra and the Ghana-vyūha (Dasheng miyan jing 大乘密嚴經; Sutra of the Secret
Adornment) sutras, as well as the Treatise and the Ratnagotravibhāga.
85. As noted above, in the Treatise, karmic consciousness is one of the five names of
mentation (yi 意), the seventh consciousness: “Mentation has five names. What are they?
The first is karmic consciousness, because this means that the unawakened mind is set
in motion because of the force of ignorance” [577b].
86. As noted above, early commentators on this passage understood the term “the
mind” (xin 心) to refer to the seventh consciousness and the term “consciousnesses” (shi
識) to refer to the first six consciousnesses.
 87. Based on the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra (Da banniepan jing 大 般 涅 槃 經 ; Nirvana
Sutra). T12.374, 410c21–22.
88. True understanding and ignorance.
89. Dasheng qixin lun yiji 大 乘 起 信 論 義 記 (Notes on the Meaning of the Treatise on
Awakening Mahāyāna Faith). T44.1846, 260a19–29.
90. Here he draws on views expressed in the Treatise, such as “ ‘Awakening’ means
that the intrinsic reality of the mind [as suchness] is free from conceiving” [576b].
91. X45.755, 159b12–16.
92. T44.1843, 182b28–c4.
93. Ikeda Masanori, “Kyō’u shōku shozō Tonkō bunken Daijō kishin ron sho (gidai,
Hane 333V) ni tsuite,” p. 122.
94. Wonhyo, T44.1844, 208b12–26; Fazang, T44.1846, 254b24–c26.
95. Huiyuan, T44.1843, 185a9–11; Tanyan, X45.755, 161c24–162a4; Ikeda, “Kyō’u
shōku shozō Tonkō bunken Daijō kishin ron sho (gidai, Hane 333V) ni tsuite,” p. 135.
96. The key phrase here is 非自性動, 但 隨 他 動 . See Wonhyo, T44.1844, 211b8–10;
Fazang, T44.1846, 260b5–8.
100. X45.755, 168b11–12.
101. T44.1846, 270c5–6.
102. X45.755, 160c21–22.
103. Huiyuan’s proposal to take the store consciousness as “true consciousness”
(zhenshi 真識) on the one hand, and as ocean water on the other, is problematic. In the
analogy, ocean water is transformed into waves. By contrast, the store consciousness as
true consciousness cannot be transformed into the seven consciousnesses; see
T44.1843, 185a7–11.
97. She dasheng lun 攝大乘論 (Compendium of the Great Vehicle), trans. Paramārtha.
T31.1593, 115c5–6.
98. Xuanzang, Cheng weishi lun 成 唯 識 論 (Demonstration of Nothing but
Consciousness). T31.1585, 9c13–15; Wonhyo, Daeseung gisil lon byeolgi. T44.1845,
239a21–26.
99. In abhidharma (“higher doctrine”) literature, which Yogācāra follows, there are two
unconditioned dharmas: nirvana and space (ākāśa). Nirvana is freedom from all affliction
and suffering. Space neither displaces nor is displaced by any object; it permeates rather
than obstructs. Something conditioned is subject to causes and conditions and is
impermanent. Unconditioned dharmas are not, and that is what makes them
unconditioned.
 Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna
Faith
Preface to the Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna
Faith

COMPOSED BY THE MONK ZHIKAI OF YANGZHOU1

[575a] The Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith is an extremely

profound and recondite scripture of the ultimate Great Vehicle. It
discloses the meaning of dependent arising as it really is.
[Dependent arising] is deep and expansive in import; tranquil, it is
without characteristics. It is extensive and vast in application; broad,
it is without bounds.2 It is the basis for ordinary people and sages,
and the foundation of the multitude of dharmas.3 Yet very few had
faith since the texts of the Great Vehicle are profound and their
import is remote. Therefore, for over six hundred years after the
Tathāgata’s decease,4 various paths emerged in chaotic profusion
and māra demons vied to stir things up, incessantly maligning the
True Dharma of the Buddha.5
At that time, a certain monk of eminent virtue, named Aśvaghoṣa,
was in profound accord with the Great Vehicle and had a thorough
comprehension of the dharma nature.6 He was suffused with great
compassion and revealed [the True Dharma] in accordance with the
varying capacities of [his audience]. Because he took pity on beings
who had long since strayed, he composed this treatise. He caused
the Three Jewels to flourish and the Buddha’s Sun to rise once
more,7 giving rise to faith so that before long people turned away
from what was wrong and entered true understanding. He caused
the true scriptures of the Great Vehicle to be revealed again to his
contemporaries and the profound principle of dependent arising to
be made evident again to later ages. The masses who had strayed
and those with heterodox views abandoned them and took refuge in
[the Three Jewels]; the benighted and the biased abandoned the
attachments that they had and rallied to [the Three Jewels].
From early times, [the Treatise] has long been hidden in the
Western Regions, without being transmitted to Xia of the East.8 The
time was just right for it to be propagated in translation, so the late
Emperor Wu of Liang (r. 502–549) dispatched an emissary on an
official visit to the state of Magadha in central India9 to collect
scriptures and Dharma masters. The emissary met the Tripiṭaka
master Kulānanda, known by the Chinese name Zhendi
(Paramārtha).10 In his youth, this man had widely collected and
thoroughly read the scriptures, but his understanding of the Great
Vehicle had been particularly incisive, profound, and far-reaching. So
now the king of that state [Magadha] responded by immediately
sending him [to Liang]. The Dharma master vehemently declined,
but to no avail, so he boarded a sailing ship. With Gautama and
many attendants and followers,11 they all delivered a storax Buddha
image to the [Liang] court.12
Within ten days of their arrival, they encountered Hou Jing’s
invasion and uprising.13 The flow of the Dharma master’s splendid
accomplishments was obstructed before he had yet spoken of the
treasures that he held within himself. With the Sun of Wisdom
temporarily eclipsed, he wished to return [to Magadha].
In due course, he was called on to meet the brilliant and worthy
men of the capital: Huixian; Zhishao; Zhikai; Tanzhen; Huimin; and
the Commander Commissioned with the Golden Axe and Grand
Protector, Xiao Bo. In the third year of the chengsheng period of
Great Liang, a guiyou year, on the tenth day of the ninth month,14
the Dharma master was respectfully invited to expound the Great
Vehicle in the Jianxing Temple of Shixing Commandery in
Hengzhou,15 in order to promulgate its recondite scriptures and to
instruct and guide disciples who had strayed into confusion. In due
course, he translated this treatise in one scroll and, to clarify the
meaning of the treatise, [he also composed] a “profound text”
commentary in twenty scrolls,16 a “profound text” commentary on the
Great Perfection of Wisdom Discourse in four scrolls,17 the Twelve
Links of Dependent Arising Scripture in two scrolls, and Essays on
the Idea of the Ninth Consciousness in two scrolls.18[575b] The oral
translators included Upaśūnya,19 from the Indic regions, and others.
The scribes included Zhikai and others. From beginning to end, it
was completed only after two full years.
When Aśvaghoṣa’s capacious purpose shone forth again at that
time, those with wrong views submitted to the true persuasion.
Although I lament not having met the sage [Aśvaghoṣa], I rejoice in
having come across his profound purpose. I extol his subtle tenets.
My affection and adoration are without end. I have casually written
this record without heed to my own ignorance. Should a wise man
come across it, may he deign to correct what I have written.

1. As discussed in the introduction, the Treatise is a Chinese apocryphon but it

has been widely accepted as an authentic Indian text in East Asia. The purported
author of its preface, Zhikai 智 愷 (518–568), claims to provide an account of its
composition in India and its subsequent transmission to and translation in China.
In so doing, he imitates prefaces appended to texts actually written in India and
later translated into Chinese. He refers to real historical events but misconstrues
others.
2. An understanding of dependent arising constituted the core of the Buddha’s
awakening. It was classically summarized as “if this arises, that comes to be; in the
absence of this, that ceases,” and was presented as a chain of twelve causal links
beginning with ignorance and ending with death. It explains the arising of suffering
and supplies its antidote, the elimination of ignorance. The Treatise largely ignores
the twelve-link presentation of dependent arising. Instead, the text introduces its
own dynamic version of the idea as a conflict between ignorance and habituation
on the one hand, and the purifying power of the tathāgatagarbha and the capacity
of sentient beings to become buddhas on the other.
3. Dharma (fa 法 ) is an important and recurring term in the Treatise. It has a
wide range of connotations in Buddhist literature. These include: Buddhist
doctrine, the basic factors of experience, mental and physical constituents, good
qualities, principles, rules or laws, practices, ways of understanding reality, and
truth. In its most expansive sense, it can encompass all reality. These and other
possible meanings may be simultaneously at work in the Treatise in any given
instance.
4. This interval of six hundred years after the Buddha is linked to Aśvaghoṣa
(first century CE) on the testimony of Kumārajīva. See Stuart H. Young,
Conceiving the Indian Buddhist Patriarchs in China, pp. 45–46.
5. Māras, literally “causing death,” are demons who tempt Buddhist practitioners
to deviate from the path that leads to enlightenment.
6. The dharma nature (faxing 法 性 ) refers to the true nature of reality. It is
equivalent to suchness (zhenru 真如). The following Prayer of Homage makes this
connection.
7. The Three Jewels are the Buddha, Dharma, and Monastic Community. One
becomes a Buddhist by formally “taking refuge” in these three.
8. “Xia of the East” here refers to what we would now recognize as China.
9. Magadha was a major region of India in Buddha’s time, roughly
corresponding to the southern part of present-day Bihār. It was considered to have
been Buddha’s home for much of his life. In the time of Emperor Wu, in the first
half of the sixth century, Magadha was an important region of the Gupta Empire.
Zhong Tianzhu 中 天 竺 , translated here as “central India,” refers specifically to
Madhyadeśa, the area of north central India bounded by the Himālayas to the
north and the Vindhya mountains to the south.
10. Mochizuki Shinkō 望月信亨 argues that Paramārtha was not in India, but in
Funan, in the area of present-day southern Cambodia and southern Vietnam.
Mochizuki therefore suggests that the preface conflates two events here. See
Kōjutsu Daijō kishin ron 講 述 大 乘 起 信 論 (An Account of the Treatise on
Awakening Mahāyāna Faith) (Tokyo: Fuzanbō, 1938), sec. 2, p. 12. On
Paramārtha’s residence in Funan and the circumstances of his invitation to Liang,
see also Diana Y. Paul, Philosophy of Mind in Sixth-Century China, p. 23. See also
the discussion in the introduction to this volume on the issue of Paramārtha
relationship to the Treatise. Tripiṭaka refers to the traditional division of the Indian
Buddhist canon into three “baskets”: 1) monastic discipline (vinaya); 2) discourses
(sūtra); and 3) abhidharma, a general term referring to scholastic presentations of
Buddhist doctrine based on discourses attributed to the Buddha.
11. Gautama appears to be the name of a Buddhist monk, but his exact identity
is unclear.
12. Storax is a fragrant resin made from the small tree styrax officinalis. It was
used to make medicines, perfumes, and incense.
13. Hou Jing 侯景 (d. 552) was a general from the state of Eastern Wei. Having
fled south to Liang, he led a rebellion and captured its capital in 549. Two months
after Hou Jing’s victory, the Liang ruler, Emperor Wu, died in captivity. On January
1, 552, Hou Jing proclaimed himself emperor, but on February 28, Liang troops
forced him to flee the capital. He was murdered on May 26.
 14. No such date exists in the Chinese calendar. If one were to take this as the
second, not the third, year of the chengsheng period, then the equivalent date
would be October 2, 553.
15. Shixing Commandery was near modern Shaoguan, in northern Guangdong
Province. First established as a commandery in 265, it was abolished in 581 when
the northern state of Sui conquered its southern rival, Chen.
16. Possibly a reference to Dasheng qixin lun xuanwen 大 乘 起 信 論 玄 文 (A
“Profound Text” Commentary on the Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith). A
work in twenty scrolls under this title appears both in the Kegonshū shōsho
narabini inmyō roku 華嚴宗章疏并因明録 (A Record of Commentaries and Logic
Texts of the Huayan School) by Enchō 圓 超 (fl. early tenth century); and in the
eleventh-century Tōiki dentō mokuroku, by the Japanese monk Eichō. It is
attributed to Paramārtha in both. See T55.2177, 1133a9; T55.2183, 1158c14.
17. Possibly a contracted form of the title Mahāprajñāpāramitā-sūtra (Dapin bore
jing 大品般若經).
18. None of the texts in this list has been firmly identified, or associated with
Paramārtha, except by the author of this preface and by those who subsequently
cited it. With the final item, there is a reference to a Jiu shi zhang 九 識 章 (Essay
on the Ninth Consciousness) in Hane 333V; see Ikeda Masanori, “Kyō’u shōku
shozō Tonkō bunken Daijō kishin ron sho (gidai, Hane 333V) ni tsuite,” p. 122, col.
43; see also pp. 81–82, 88–90. But there is ongoing scholarly debate about the
exact identity of the Treatise’s reference to Jiu shi yi zhang.
19. This identification follows Mochizuki Shinkō, who suggests that yuezhi
shouna 月 支 首 那 should read yuepo shouna 月 婆 首 那 ; see Mochizuki Shinkō,
Kōjutsu Daijō kishin ron, sec. 2, p. 12. Upaśūnya was a prince of Ujjain in Central
India. In the mid-sixth century, he worked as a translator first in the Eastern Wei
capital of Ye, then in the Liang capital of Jiankang, and finally in Jiangzhou. See
Da Tang neidian lu 大唐內典錄 (Record of Buddhist Scriptures in the Great Tang),
T55.2149, 274a11–26.
 Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna
Faith, in One Fascicle
COMPOSED BY THE BODHISATTVA AŚVAGHOṢA.TRANSLATED
BY THE WESTERN INDIAN TRIPIṬAKA DHARMA MASTER
PARAMĀRTHA, OF LIANG.

PRAYER OF HOMAGE

I take refuge in [the Buddha] who pervades all ten directions,20

Whose actions are supreme, who is omniscient,21
Whose form is unhindered and unimpeded—
The One of Great Compassion who saves the world.
And I take refuge in the intrinsic reality and characteristics of his
body,22
The ocean of suchness—the dharma nature—23
And the store of countless merits.24
And I take refuge in those who practice in accordance with what
is real.
This is because I wish to have sentient beings
Eliminate doubts and abandon wrongly held views,
And give rise to correct Mahāyāna faith,
Leaving the buddha-lineage uninterrupted.

OUTLINE OF THE TREATISE

The Treatise states: There is a Dharma able to give rise to the roots
of Mahāyāna faith.25 It therefore ought to be explained. The
explanation has five parts. What are they?
Part 1. Reasons [for composing the treatise]
Part 2. Establishing the meaning
Part 3. Elucidation
Part 4. Cultivation of the commitment to faith
Part 5. Exhortation to practice and to reap the benefits

PART 1: REASONS FOR COMPOSING THE

TREATISE
First, I will explain the “reasons [for composing the treatise].”
Question: What are the reasons for composing this treatise?
Answer: There are eight reasons. What are they?
The first is the main reason—that is to say, to free sentient beings
from all suffering in order to attain ultimate happiness, and not to
seek fame, profit, respect, or honor in the mundane world.
The second is that I wish to elucidate the Tathāgata’s fundamental
meaning in order to enable sentient beings to have a true
understanding of it and not to make mistakes.
The third is to cause sentient beings whose virtuous roots have
reached maturity to remain firm in the Mahāyāna Dharma, without
relapsing in their faith.26
The fourth is to cause sentient beings of few virtuous roots to
cultivate a commitment to faith.
[575c] The fifth is to show skillful means to eliminate the
hindrances of evil karmic actions, to protect the mind well, to set
misconception and arrogance at a far remove, and to escape from
the net of wrong doctrines.27
The sixth is to show how to practice calming and discernment,
which are antidotes to the mental faults of ordinary people and
adherents of the Two Vehicles.28
The seventh is to show the skillful means of concentrated
mindfulness so that one will be born in the presence of a buddha and
inevitably establish a non-relapsing commitment to faith.29
 The eighth is to show the benefits of practice and to encourage it.
It is for such reasons that I have composed this treatise.
Question: The sutras are replete with these dharmas. Why must
you expound them again?
Answer: Although the sutras contain these dharmas, [I expound
them again here] since sentient beings are not equal in their
capacities and cultivation, and vary in their predispositions for
receiving and understanding. That is to say, when the Tathāgata was
in the world, sentient beings had keen faculties and the Teacher
excelled in actions of body and mind. There was no need for a
treatise since his perfect voice had only to sound once for the
different kinds of beings to have an equal understanding.30
Ever since the Tathāgata’s decease, there have been some
sentient beings who, entirely through their own powers, have been
able to gain an understanding by listening extensively [to sutras].
There have been some sentient beings who, also through their own
powers, have heard a little yet understood much. And there have
been some sentient beings who, without any intrinsic mental powers,
have attained an understanding from expanded treatises.31 Of
course, there have also been sentient beings who, finding the
wordiness of expanded treatises frustrating, have been able to gain
understanding because their minds have taken pleasure in drawing
out much meaning from aide-memoires and succinct texts.32
Because a treatise such as this aims to summarize the idea that the
Tathāgata’s extensive, great, and profound dharma is boundless, I
ought to expound it.

PART 2: ESTABLISHING THE MEANING

Having explained the “reasons [for composing the treatise],” I will
next explain “establishing the meaning.”
In general terms, there are two aspects of Mahāyāna. What are
they?
The first is Dharma.
The second is the meanings.
 “Dharma” refers to the mind of sentient beings. This mind includes
all mundane and supramundane dharmas. The meaning of
Mahāyāna is disclosed on the basis of this mind. Why? Because the
aspect of this mind as suchness directly reveals Mahāyāna’s intrinsic
reality; and because the aspect of this mind as the cause and
condition of arising and ceasing is the revealer of Mahāyāna’s own
intrinsic reality (ziti), characteristics (xiang), and function (yong).33
There are three “meanings” [of mahā-, “great,” in the word
Mahāyāna, “Great Vehicle”]. What are they?
The first is that Mahāyāna’s intrinsic reality is great because the
suchness of all dharmas is uniform, neither increasing nor
decreasing.
The second is that its characteristics are great because the
tathāgatagarbha is replete with countless merits.
The third is that its functions are great because it is the producer
of all good causes and effects, both mundane and supramundane.
That is why Mahāyāna [the “Great Vehicle”] is that on which all
buddhas have always ridden and why all bodhisattvas ride on this
Dharma until they arrive at the level of tathāgatas.34

PART 3: ELUCIDATION
[576a] Having explained “establishing the meaning,” I will next
explain the “elucidation.”
The elucidation is threefold. What are its three sections?
The first discloses the correct meaning.
The second is on the antidotes to wrongly held views.
The third discriminates characteristics for embarking on the Way.

SECTION 1: THE CORRECT MEANING OF

MAHĀYĀNA DOCTRINE: ONE MIND TWO
GATEWAYS
With disclosing the correct meaning, there are two gateways based
on the dharma of the One Mind.35 What are they?
The first is the gateway of the mind as suchness.
The second is the gateway of the mind as arising and ceasing.
Each of these two gateways contains all dharmas. Why? Because
these two gateways are not separate from one another.36

1.1 The Mind as Suchness

The mind as suchness is precisely the dharma-gate reality,37 which

is the overarching characteristic of the unified dharma realm.38 That
is to say, the nature of the mind neither arises nor ceases. It is solely
due to false thoughts that there are distinctions between every
dharma; if one is free from false thoughts, then there are none of the
characteristics of perceptual fields.39 Therefore, all dharmas have
always been free from the characteristics of language, naming, and
mental perceptions.40 They are ultimately uniform, invariant, and
indestructible. They are nothing but this One Mind and are therefore
called “suchness.” [By contrast,] all [dharmas] designated by
language lack real referents because they follow only from false
thoughts and cannot be apprehended.
“Suchness” (zhenru) is also devoid of characteristics. That is to
say, it is at the point where language runs out. We use words to
refute words, but there is nothing in suchness itself that might be
refuted because all dharmas are entirely “real” (zhen). There is also
nothing in suchness itself that might be posited because all dharmas
are equally “as such” (ru). One should know that all dharmas are
called “suchness” because it is impossible to speak of or conceive of
them.41
Question: This is the meaning of “suchness.” To what should
sentient beings conform in order to be able to obtain entry [through
this gateway]?
Answer: If one knows that, although all dharmas are spoken of
and conceived, there are in fact no speakers and nothing that might
be spoken of, and no conceivers and nothing that might be
conceived, it is called “conforming.” And if one is free from
conceiving, it is called “obtaining entry.”
Moreover, two senses of suchness are distinguished through
language. What are they?
The first is empty in accordance with what is real. This is because
it is ultimately able to reveal what is real.
The second is non-empty in accordance with what is real. This is
because it has its own intrinsic reality, which is replete with untainted
qualities.42
Suchness is “empty” because it has always been dissociated from
all defiled dharmas. That is, it is free from the characteristics that
differentiate all dharmas because it has none of the thoughts that the
false mind has. One should know that the self-nature of suchness is
not existent, non-existent, both existent and non-existent, [576b] or
neither existent nor non-existent; and it is not the same, different,
both the same and different, or neither the same nor different.43 So,
in general terms, it is said to be empty because it is dissociated from
any of the discriminations that sentient beings, with their false minds,
create with each thought-moment. This is because there is really
nothing to be emptied when one is free from a false mind.
Suchness is “non-empty” because dharmas are intrinsically empty
and without falsity, as has already been shown. It is precisely the
true mind—constantly unchanging and replete with pure dharmas—
and so it is called non-empty. It also has no characteristics to be
grasped because it is only by being free from conceiving and [the
characteristics of] perceptual fields that realization accords with
[suchness].

1.2 The Mind as Arising and Ceasing

The arising-and-ceasing mind exists because it is based on the
tathāgatagarbha.44 That is to say, non-arising and non-ceasing
combine with arising and ceasing: they are neither the same nor
different.45 This is called the “ālaya consciousness.”46 As the
collector and producer of all dharmas, this consciousness has two
senses. What are they?
The first is awakening.
The second is non-awakening.

1.2.1 AWAKENING
“Awakening” means that the intrinsic reality of the mind [as
suchness] is free from conceiving. To be free from the characteristics
of conceiving is to be identical to the realm of space: it is to be all-
pervasive.47 The unitary characteristic of the dharma realm is
precisely the uniform dharma body of tathāgatas.48 It is on the basis
of this dharma body that one speaks of inherent awakening. Why?
The meaning of “inherent awakening” is spoken of in relation to the
meaning of initial awakening since initial awakening is precisely the
same as inherent awakening.49 The meaning of “initial awakening” is
this: because of inherent awakening, there is non-awakening; and
because of non-awakening, one speaks of there being initial
awakening.50 In addition, it is called final awakening because one
has awoken to the fountainhead of the mind; but it is not final
awakening if one has still not awoken to the fountainhead of the
mind. Why? It is because ordinary people will be able to stop
thought-moments from subsequently arising because they become
aware that previous thought-moments gave rise to bad
[consequences]. Although they may still call this “awakening,” it is
precisely non-awakening.51
As for those of the Two Vehicles with discerning cognition and
bodhisattvas who have newly aroused the aspiration to awakening,
because they have abandoned the characteristics of coarse
discriminations and attachments, they awaken to the fact that as
thought-moments [appear to] change, they do not have the
characteristic of change. This is called “semblance of awakening.”52
As for dharma-body bodhisattvas, because they are free from the
characteristics of discriminations and coarse thought-moments, they
awaken to the fact that as thought-moments [appear to] endure, they
do not have the characteristic of enduring. This is called “partial
awakening.”53
As for those who have completed the bodhisattva levels, fully
accomplished skillful means, and accorded with [suchness] in a
single thought-moment, because they are far removed from subtle
thought-moments, they awaken to the fact that as the mind [appears
to] arise initially, it has no characteristic of initial [arising]. They
manage to see the nature of the mind, which is that the mind
constantly endures. This is called “final awakening.”54
A sutra therefore states: “When there are sentient beings capable
of discerning without conceiving, it is because they are headed
towards buddha wisdom.”55
In addition, the arising of the mind has no characteristic of initial
[arising] to be known, so to speak of knowing the characteristic of
initial [arising, which is that there are no characteristics of initial
arising,] means precisely being “without conceiving.” [As the sutra
infers,] therefore, not all sentient beings are called “awakened.” This
is explained as beginningless ignorance because thought-moment
after thought-moment [576c] have always followed one another in a
continuous flow and [sentient beings] have never been free from
conceiving. If they manage to be without conceiving, then they will
recognize the mind’s characteristics as arising, enduring, changing,
and ceasing. Because they are without conceiving and so on, there
is really no difference from initial awakening. This is because the four
characteristics exist simultaneously and are not established by
[sentient beings] themselves; they have always been uniform and
are one and the same awakening.56
Moreover, when inherent awakening accords with defilements, it
produces two kinds of characteristic through discrimination. They are
not separate from inherent awakening. What are they?
The first is the characteristic of purity of cognition.
The second is the characteristic of inconceivable karmic action.57
“The characteristic of purity of cognition” means that one practices
in accordance with what is real, based on habituation by the power
of the Dharma, because one has fully accomplished skillful means.
And one destroys the characteristics of the combined
consciousness58 and extinguishes the characteristics of the
continuously flowing mind because one has revealed the dharma
body and one’s cognition has become unadulterated and pure.59
Why? It is because all the characteristics of the mind and
consciousnesses are ignorance and, since the characteristic of
ignorance is not separate from the nature of awakening, the mind
and consciousnesses are both indestructible and destructible.60 This
is like the great ocean, where water moves in waves due to the wind.
The characteristics of the water and the wind [as waves] are not
separate from one another. Since it is not in the nature of water to
move [by itself], its characteristic of movement will cease if the wind
ceases, without its wetness ever being destroyed. And it is because,
in the same way, the intrinsically pristine mind of sentient beings is
moved by the wind of ignorance. Both the mind and ignorance lack
characteristics of shape, and they are not separate from one
another. Since it is not in the nature of the mind to move [by itself], its
continuous flow will cease if ignorance ceases, without the nature of
cognition ever being destroyed.61
“The characteristic of inconceivable karmic action” is the creator of
all sublime perceptual fields [as it accords with the defilements of
sentient beings], based on the purity of cognition. That is to say, the
characteristics of countless qualities are constantly uninterrupted.
This is because the characteristic of inconceivable karmic action
accords with the capacities of sentient beings as a matter of course.
It manifests itself in all kinds of ways, from which sentient beings
obtain benefit.
Moreover, there are four significant senses of the characteristic of
awakening as intrinsic reality, in which it is identical to space and like
a clear mirror.62 What are the four senses?
First, it is a truly empty mirror. Because it is not awakening that
illuminates [dharmas], awakening is far removed from all images of
the mind’s perceptual fields and no dharma may appear in it.
Second, it is a mirror as cause for habituation. This means that it is
truly non-empty. All mundane perceptual fields appear in it without
leaving or entering, disappearing or being destroyed. They
constantly endure in the One Mind because all dharmas are
precisely the nature of reality. In addition, [awakening] is something
that no defiled dharma is able to defile because the intrinsic reality of
cognition does not move and, replete with untainted dharmas, it
habituates sentient beings.63
Third, it is a mirror in which dharmas transcend and leave behind
[obstructions]. This means that, because it is unsullied, clear, and
bright, non-empty dharmas [of suchness] transcend the afflictive and
cognitive obstructions, leaving behind images of the combined.64
Fourth, it is a mirror as condition for habituation. This means that,
because [non-empty] dharmas have transcended and left behind
[obstructions], it universally illuminates the minds of sentient beings,
revealing in every thought-moment the roots of the cultivation of
virtue.65

1.2.2 NON-AWAKENING
[577a] “Non-awakening” means that a non-awakened mind arises
and has its thought-moments because one does not know the
unitary nature of the dharma of suchness in accordance with what is
real. Its thought-moments lack intrinsic characteristics and are not
apart from inherent awakening.66 This is just like a disoriented
person, who becomes disoriented because there are directions.
Once apart from directions, there is no becoming disoriented.67
Sentient beings are also like this: they become disoriented because
there is awakening. Once apart from awakening, there is no non-
awakening. [Sentient beings] are only able to presume that names
and definitions serve to explain true awakening because there is the
non-awakened and falsely conceptualizing mind. Once apart from
the non-awakened mind, there is no intrinsic characteristic of true
awakening to be spoken of.
Moreover, three kinds of characteristics are produced because of
non-awakening. They are associated with, and not apart from, non-
awakening.68 What are they?
The first is the characteristic of the karmic action of ignorance. The
mind moves because of non-awakening, and this is termed “karmic
action.” When awakened, it does not move. When it does move,
there is suffering because effect is not separate from cause.69
The second is the characteristic of the perceiver. There is a
perceiver because of movement [in the mind].70 When it does not
move, there is no perceiving.
The third is the characteristic of perceptual fields.71 Perceptual
fields falsely appear because of the perceiver. When apart from
perceiving, there are no perceptual fields.
Because there are perceptual fields that serve as conditions, six
further characteristics are produced.72 What are they?
The first is the characteristic of cognition because, based on
perceptual fields, the mind gives rise to discriminating likes and
dislikes.73
The second is the characteristic of continuous flow because,
based on the production of pain and pleasure due to cognition,
sensations give rise to thought-moments, which are associated with
[those sensations] without interruption.74
The third is the characteristic of attachment and grasping because,
based on continuous flow, one takes perceptual fields as cognitive
objects, endures pain and pleasure, and the mind gives rise to
attachments.
The fourth is the characteristic of devising names because, based
on falsely held views, one discriminates between the characteristics
of names and words that have only been provisionally designated.75
The fifth is the characteristic of giving rise to karmic action
because, based on names and labels, one pursues those names
and words and becomes attached to them, creating all kinds of
karmic action.
The sixth is the characteristic of suffering through the bondage of
karmic action because, based on karmic action, one experiences the
effects [of one’s actions] without any control over them.
[In sum,] one should know that ignorance is the producer of all
defiled dharmas because all defiled dharmas are characteristics of
non-awakening.76
1.2.3 THE RELATIONSHIP OF AWAKENING AND
NON-AWAKENING
Moreover, the relationship of awakening and non-awakening has two
characteristics. What are they?
The first is the characteristic of sameness.
The second is the characteristic of difference.
The characteristic of sameness can be compared to various kinds
of pottery vessels, which all share the intrinsic characteristic of being
[composed of] atoms.77 In the same way, various kinds of illusion of
karmic action,78 whether untainted or ignorant, all share the intrinsic
characteristic of being [composed of] suchness.
On the basis of this idea of suchness, a sutra therefore says that
all sentient beings have always constantly abided in and entered
nirvana.79 The dharma of bodhi (awakening) is neither a
characteristic that can be cultivated nor one that can be constructed.
It is ultimately inapprehensible and, indeed, has no perceptible
characteristics of form.80 Where there are characteristics of
perceptible form, they are constructed only by illusions of karmic
action in accordance with defilements; they are not cognition of the
non-empty nature of form [that is suchness]. This is because none of
the characteristics of the cognition [of suchness] is perceptible.
[577b] The characteristic of difference is like various kinds of
pottery vessels, each of which is not the same. In the same way the
untainted and ignorance are differentiated by according with
defilement and illusion. This is because their natures are
differentiated [on the basis of] defilement and illusion.81

1.2.4 THE CAUSE AND CONDITION OF ARISING

AND CEASING
Moreover, “the cause and condition of arising and ceasing”82 refers
to sentient beings, because mentation (manas) and mental
consciousness (manovijñāna) operate on the basis of the mind.83
 What does this mean? It is talked about as mentation because it is
said that on the basis of the ālaya consciousness there is ignorance
and non-awakening, which give rise to the perceiver, the presenter,
and the apprehender of perceptual fields. These in turn give rise to
thought-moments in a continuous flow.
In addition, mentation has five names. What are they?
The first is karmic consciousness because this means that the
non-awakened mind is set in motion by the force of ignorance.84
The second is called the operating consciousness because there
is the characteristic of a perceiver based on the moving mind.
The third is called the presenting consciousness because this
means that it is the presenter of all perceptual fields.85 And just as a
bright mirror presents the images of visible forms, so too the
presenting consciousness directly presents the five kinds of sensory
objects as they come before it, without any sequence of before and
after; it spontaneously arises whenever [an object] is before it.
The fourth is called the discerning consciousness because it
discriminates defiled and pure dharmas.
The fifth is called the continuously flowing consciousness because
thought-moments are associated with [karmic action] without
interruption; because it sustains the good and bad karmic action of
countless past times, preserving that karmic action without loss; and,
moreover, because it is able to bring to maturity the recompense of
pain and pleasure in the present and future without disparity or
contradiction. It is able to cause one suddenly to conceive of past
and present events and to have non-awakened and false concerns
about future events.
Therefore, the three worlds are illusory constructs, created by the
mind alone.86 The perceptual fields of the six sensory and
conceptual fields do not exist apart from the mind.87 Why? There are
no characteristics to be apprehended for the mind does not see the
mind, since all dharmas are produced from the mind’s giving rise to
false thoughts and since all discriminations are precisely the mind’s
discriminating itself.88
One should know that all mundane perceptual fields can be
sustained based only on the ignorance and false minds of sentient
beings. Therefore, all dharmas, like images in a mirror, have no
intrinsic reality that can be apprehended. They are nothing but
falsehoods of the mind. This is because when the mind arises, all
kinds of dharmas arise; and when the mind ceases, all kinds of
dharmas cease.
Moreover, what is termed the “mental consciousness” is really
none other than the continuously flowing consciousness since, as
ordinary people become ever more profoundly attached [to the
mind’s own discriminations], they posit “self” and “what pertains to
self” and, through all manner of falsely held view, they follow after
things and take them as cognitive objects. In discriminating the six
sensory and conceptual fields, [the continuously flowing
consciousness] is called “mental consciousness;” it is also called the
“separating consciousness.”89 In addition, it is further termed the
“phenomena-discriminating consciousness” because of the idea that
it intensifies due to afflictions of views and cravings.90 This
consciousness, which arises on the basis of habituation by
ignorance, is something that neither ordinary people are capable of
knowing, nor the insights of the Two Vehicles are aware of.
It is said that [577c] if bodhisattvas directly experience the dharma
body, they manage to do so to a small extent, based on the fact that
they arouse the aspiration to awakening and investigate [how
ignorance produces these consciousnesses] from the first stage of
correct faith. Even when they reach the final bodhisattva level, they
are unable to know it completely, since only buddhas discern it
thoroughly. Why? The mind has always been intrinsically pristine, yet
there is ignorance. When defiled by ignorance, there is the defiled
mind. Yet, although there is the defiled mind, [the nature of the mind]
is constantly unchanging. Therefore, only buddhas are capable of
knowing what this means.91 That is to say, the nature of the mind is
called “unchanging” because it is constantly without conceiving. The
minds [of beings other than buddhas] do not accord with it, and
suddenly give rise to conceiving, because they do not comprehend
the unified dharma realm. This is termed “ignorance.”92
There are six kinds of defiled mind.93 What are they?
 The first is the associated defilement of attachment. This is
because [the defiled mind of novice practitioners] is far removed
even from the liberation of the Two Vehicles or the level associated
with faith.94
The second is the associated defilement of the uninterrupted [flow
of thought-moments]. This is because [bodhisattvas] are eventually
able to abandon this defilement through the cultivation of skillful
means at the level associated with faith and they become finally free
from it on attaining the level of pure mind.95
The third is the associated defilement of discriminating cognition.
This is because [bodhisattvas] gradually free themselves from this
defilement at the level of being in full possession of monastic
precepts and they become finally free from it by the time they reach
the level of skillful means devoid of characteristics.96
The fourth is the dissociated defilement of presented form. This is
because [bodhisattvas] are able to become free from this defilement
only at the level of unimpeded form.97
The fifth is the dissociated defilement of the perceiving mind. This
is because [bodhisattvas] are able to become free from this
defilement only at the level of the sovereign mind.98
The sixth is the dissociated defilement of fundamental karmic
action. This is because [bodhisattvas] are able to become free from
this defilement only when they obtain entry into the level of
tathāgatas from the ultimate bodhisattva level.
“[Beings other than buddhas] do not fully comprehend the
meaning of a unified dharma realm” means that they investigate
[defilements] and cut them off through study at the level associated
with faith.99 On entering the level of pure mind, they manage to free
themselves partially [from defilements], according to their
accomplishments, until they reach the level of tathāgatas because
they have been able to become finally free from them.
“Associated” is so-called because [in the first three kinds of defiled
mind] the cognizing aspect and the aspect taken as cognitive object
are identical,100 even though these [kinds of] mind differ from the
dharmas that they conceive based on differentiations in their
degrees of defilement and purity.
 “Dissociated” is so-called because [the fourth, fifth, and sixth kinds
of] defiled mind, being non-awakened, are constantly without
differentiation and do not posit identity between the cognizing aspect
and the aspect taken as cognitive object.101
In addition, “the defiled mind” is called an “afflictive obstruction”
because it impedes fundamental cognition of suchness. “Ignorance”
is called a “cognitive obstruction” because it impedes cognition of
how karmic action operates as a matter of course in the mundane
world.102 Why? Because one cannot conform with any kind of
[conventional] knowledge of any of the mundane perceptual
fields.103 This is because, being based on the defiled mind, the
perceiver, the presenter, and the apprehender of perceptual fields
run counter to the uniformity [of suchness].104 And it is because all
dharmas are always quiescent and have no characteristic of arising,
and the falsehoods of ignorance and non-awakening run counter to
those dharmas.105

1.2.5 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF ARISING AND

CEASING
Moreover, there are two distinguishable characteristics of arising and
ceasing. What are they?
The first is coarse because it is associated with the mind.
The second is subtle because it is dissociated from the mind.
In addition, the coarsest of the coarse is the perceptual field of
ordinary people. The subtlest of the coarse and coarsest of the
subtle are the perceptual fields of bodhisattvas [as they progress].
The subtlest of the subtle is the perceptual field of buddhas.
These two kinds of arising and ceasing [578a] exist on the basis of
habituation by ignorance—that is, on the basis of causes and on the
basis of conditions.106 [Arising and ceasing] exists on the basis of
causes because of non-awakening. It exists on the basis of
conditions because of falsely constructed perceptual fields.107 If
causes cease, then conditions cease.108 Because causes cease, the
mind dissociated from [the subtle characteristics of arising and
ceasing] ceases. Because conditions cease, the mind associated
with [the coarse characteristics of arising and ceasing] ceases.
Question: If the mind ceases, then how can it continuously flow?
Or, if it continuously flows, then how can it be said ultimately to
cease?109
Answer: What we have talked about as “ceasing” is only cessation
of the mind’s characteristics; it is not cessation of the intrinsic reality
of the mind. It is like the wind, which has the characteristic of
movement based on [there being water]. If water were to cease [to
be], then the wind’s characteristic would be eliminated, having no
basis. But since water does not cease [to be], the wind’s
characteristic continues. It is only because the wind ceases that the
characteristic of movement accordingly ceases. It is not that water
ceases [to be]. It is the same with ignorance, which is based on the
intrinsic reality of the mind to move. If the intrinsic reality of the mind
were to cease [to be], then sentient beings would be eliminated,
having no basis [for sentience]. But since the intrinsic reality of the
mind does not cease [to be], the [arising-and-ceasing] mind can
continue. It is only because delusion ceases [to be] that the
characteristics of the [arising-and-ceasing] mind accordingly cease
[to be]. It is not that the mind’s [nature of] cognition ceases [to be].110

1.2.6 HABITUATION
Moreover, defiled and pure dharmas arise without interruption
because there is habituation by four kinds of dharma.111 What are
they?
The first is the pure dharma, called suchness.
The second is the cause of all defilements, called ignorance.
The third is the false mind, called karmic consciousness.112
The fourth is falsely [constructed] perceptual fields—that is, the six
sensory and conceptual fields.
“Habituation” is like an ordinary piece of clothing that in reality has
no scent; but it will acquire a fragrance if someone perfumes it. This
is just the same. The pure dharma of suchness in reality has no
defilements; it only has defiled characteristics because of habituation
by ignorance.113 The defiled dharma of ignorance in reality has no
pure karmic action; it has a purifying function only because of
habituation by suchness.114
How does habituation [by ignorance] give rise to defiled dharmas
without interruption? Because it is based on the dharma of
suchness, there is ignorance. Because there are the defiled dharmas
of ignorance as causes, they then habituate suchness. Because of
this habituation, there is the false mind and, since there is the false
mind, it then habituates ignorance. Because [the false mind] does
not fully discern the dharma of suchness, it is non-awakened and so
conceiving arises, presenting false perceptual fields.115 Because
there are the defiled dharmas of false perceptual fields as conditions,
these then habituate the false mind, so that conceiving and
attachments generate all kinds of karmic action and one experiences
all the sufferings of body and mind.116
There are two senses of habituation by false perceptual fields.
What are they?
The first is habituation that increases conceiving.
The second is habituation that increases grasping.
There are two senses of habituation by the false mind. [578b]
What are they?
The first is fundamental habituation by the karmic consciousness,
because one experiences the sufferings of the births and deaths of
arhats, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas.117
The second is habituation that increases the phenomena-
discriminating consciousness, because one experiences ordinary
people’s sufferings of the bondage of karmic action.
There are two senses of habituation by ignorance.118 What are
they?
The first is fundamental habituation, because it is able to bring the
karmic consciousness to realization.119
The second is habituation by [false] views and cravings that are
aroused, because it is able to bring the phenomena-discriminating
consciousness to realization.120
How does habituation give rise to pure dharmas without
interruption? Because there is the dharma of suchness, it is able to
habituate ignorance. Because of the power of [suchness] to
habituate causes and conditions, [sentient beings’] false minds are
made to weary of the sufferings of [the cycle of] birth and death and
to take pleasure in seeking nirvana.121 Because there are causes
and conditions for these false minds to weary of [the cycle of birth
and death] and to seek nirvana, they then habituate suchness.122
By trusting in one’s own nature, one knows that the mind moves
falsely [even] when there are no perceptual fields before it and so
one cultivates the dharma of being far removed from [habituation by
ignorance]. All sorts of skillful means give rise to practices that
conform to [this dharma] because, in accordance with what is real,
one knows that there are no perceptual fields before [the mind]. One
neither grasps nor conceives until at last ignorance ceases because
of the power of long habituation [by suchness]. Because ignorance
has ceased, the mind has no arising. Because it has no arising,
perceptual fields subsequently cease. Because the causes and
conditions [of ignorance and perceptual fields] have both ceased, the
mind’s characteristics all end. This is called attaining nirvana and
achieving [cognition of how] karmic action operates as a matter of
course.
There are two senses of habituation by the false mind. What are
they?
The first is habituation by the phenomena-discriminating
consciousness. Because ordinary people and followers of the Two
Vehicles weary of the sufferings of [the cycle of] birth and death they
gradually advance toward the peerless Way in accordance with the
capacities of their respective abilities.
The second is habituation by mentation. Because bodhisattvas’
aspiration to awakening is courageous they rapidly advance toward
nirvana.123
There are two senses of habituation by suchness. What are they?
The first is habituation by [suchness’] own intrinsic reality and
characteristic.
The second is habituation by its function.124
Habituation by its own intrinsic reality and characteristics [means
that] from beginningless time [suchness] has been endowed with a
full complement of untainted dharmas, has possessed inconceivable
karmic action, and has created the nature of [purified] perceptual
fields.125 Based on these two senses, there is perpetual habituation.
Because [suchness] has this power, it is capable of inducing sentient
beings to weary of the sufferings of [the cycle of] birth and death and
take pleasure in seeking nirvana, to believe that they themselves
have the dharma of suchness, and to arouse the aspiration to
awakening and cultivate practice.
Question: If these are the senses [of habituation by suchness],
then all sentient beings have suchness and all are equally
habituated.126 Why, then, are there countless distinctions of
precedence among those with faith and those without faith?127 They
all ought to know at the same time that they themselves have the
dharma of suchness [and so] strive to cultivate skillful means and
equally enter nirvana.
Answer: Although suchness is intrinsically uniform, there are
nevertheless countless and boundless [forms of] ignorance because
there have always been differences in the degrees and grades of
[sentient beings’] self-nature. [578c] On the basis of ignorance,
severe afflictions more numerous than the sands of the Ganges give
rise to distinctions. And, also on the basis of ignorance, afflictions of
the view of self and the defilement of craving give rise to distinctions.
All such afflictions arise on the basis of ignorance because there are
countless distinctions of prior and subsequent [karmic action], which
only buddhas are capable of knowing.
In addition, the dharmas of buddhas have causes and conditions;
only when replete with causes and conditions can those dharmas be
brought to maturity. It is like the combustible nature of wood being
the direct cause of fire.128 If there is no one who knows this, then
people will have no recourse to the means necessary [to ignite the
wood]—and it is impossible that the wood will be able burn by itself.
It is just the same with sentient beings. Even though they may
possess the power of habituation by the direct cause [of suchness], it
will be impossible for them to be able to eliminate afflictions or enter
nirvana by themselves unless they encounter buddhas,
bodhisattvas, or good teachers and use them as conditions.129 And
even though they may have the power of external conditions, those
whose internal pure dharmas still lack the power to habituate will
ultimately be incapable of wearying of the sufferings of [the cycle of]
birth and death or of taking pleasure in seeking nirvana.
“Replete with causes and conditions” means that [sentient beings]
are capable of arousing a mind weary of suffering, have faith that
nirvana exists, and cultivate virtuous roots because they themselves
possess both the power of habituation [by the intrinsic reality and
characteristics of suchness] and the compassionate vows of
protection by buddhas and bodhisattvas. They encounter the
benefits and joys of the instructions of buddhas and bodhisattvas
because their virtuous roots are cultivated to maturity. Only then are
they able to advance along the path to nirvana.130
Habituation by the function [of suchness]131 is precisely the power
of external conditions [exerted on] sentient beings. Such external
conditions have countless meanings, but in general terms there are
two kinds. What are they?
The first is the conditions of differentiation.132
The second is the conditions of uniformity.
The conditions of differentiation refer to the period of time from
when a person, relying on buddhas and bodhisattvas, expresses an
intention to begin to seek the Way right through to when they attain
buddhahood. During this period, if that person should perceive or be
mindful of [buddhas and bodhisattvas], some [of these buddhas and
bodhisattvas] will take the form of that person’s kinsmen, parents, or
relatives, some of their attendants, some of their good friends, and
some of their enemies. Others will employ the four methods for
winning people over, right through to all of the conditions produced
for countless practices.133 This is because these conditions give rise
to the power of habituation by compassion and are able to cause
sentient beings to increase their virtuous roots and to obtain benefits
if they should see or hear [buddhas and bodhisattvas].
These conditions [of differentiation] are divided into two kinds.
What are they?
The first is proximate conditions, which enable one to attain
salvation rapidly.
 The second is remote conditions, which enable one to attain
salvation over a long period.134
These two conditions, the proximate and the remote, are further
divided into [579a] two kinds. What are they?
The first is conditions that promote practice.
The second is conditions for receiving the Way.
The conditions of uniformity are that all buddhas and bodhisattvas
vow to liberate all sentient beings and never to abandon
spontaneous habituation.135 They manifest deeds and actions in
accordance with what sentient beings see and hear because of the
power of their cognition that they share an intrinsic reality [with all
sentient beings]. This means that sentient beings manage uniformly
to perceive buddhas on the basis of samādhi (meditative
absorption).136
Habituation by the function of the intrinsic reality [of suchness] is
further divided into two kinds. What are they?
The first does not yet accord [with the intrinsic reality of suchness].
This means that even though ordinary people, followers of the Two
Vehicles, and bodhisattvas who have newly aroused the intention to
awaken are habituated by mentation and the mental consciousness,
nevertheless they are capable of cultivating practice because of the
power of faith.137 This is because they have not yet attained a mind
free from discrimination or yet accorded with the intrinsic reality of
[suchness]. And it is because they have not yet attained mastery
over the cultivation of karmic action or yet accorded with this function
[of the intrinsic reality of suchness].138
The second already accords [with the intrinsic reality of suchness].
This means that dharma-body bodhisattvas attain a non-
discriminatory mind and accord with the function of buddha wisdom,
based on nothing but the power of the Dharma to cultivate practice
as a matter of course.139 This is because they have been habituated
by suchness and have extinguished ignorance.
Moreover, from beginningless time habituation by defiled dharmas
has never been interrupted; there is only interruption after one has
become a buddha. Habituation by pure dharmas has never been
interrupted [either], and it will not be exhausted in the future. Why?
The false mind ceases and the dharma body appears because the
dharma of suchness constantly habituates. And there is no
interruption because suchness gives rise to habituation by its
function.

1.2.7 THE FUNCTIONING OF SUCHNESS IN THE

MIND AS ARISING AND CEASING
Moreover, suchness’ own intrinsic reality and characteristics neither
increase nor decrease for any ordinary people, hearers (śrāvaka),
solitary realizers (pratyekabuddha), bodhisattvas, or buddhas. It is
neither that suchness arose in a former time, nor that it will cease at
some future time. It is absolutely constant. It has always been
inherently replete with all qualities. It means this because of the idea
that [suchness’] own intrinsic reality is imbued with the light of great
wisdom; that it pervasively illuminates the dharma realm; that it is the
recognition of reality; that it is the intrinsically pristine mind; that it is
eternal, blissful, Self, and pure;140 and that it is cool, unchanging,
and sovereign [that is, nirvana]. And it is because [suchness’ own
intrinsic reality] is replete with inconceivable buddha dharmas more
numerous than the sands of the Ganges, which are not separate, not
cut off from, and not different from it, to the extent that it is perfect
and lacks nothing. It is called the tathāgatagarbha; it is also called
the dharma body of tathāgatas.141
Question: Earlier, you stated that the intrinsic reality of suchness is
uniform and free from all characteristics.142 How, then, can you also
state that this intrinsic reality has such various kinds of qualities?
Answer: Although suchness truly has these qualities, it has no
characteristics of differentiation. It is homogeneous and of one taste:
there is only one suchness.143 Why? Since it is without any
discriminating [function], and so free from the characteristics of
discrimination, it is therefore non-dual.
[Question:] So how can you also talk of differentiation?
[Answer:] Since the characteristics of arising and ceasing are
revealed on the basis of the karmic consciousness. How are they
revealed? Since there is the false mind, which, being unawakened,
gives rise to conceiving and perceives perceptual fields. This is
despite the fact that all dharmas have always been nothing but the
mind, which in reality is devoid of conceiving. One therefore talks of
ignorance.
The nature of the mind is not subject to arising, precisely because
it is the light of great wisdom. If the mind were to give rise to
perceiving, then there would be characteristics [of cognitive objects]
that it does not perceive. But the nature of the mind [579b] is free
from perceiving, precisely because it pervasively illuminates the
dharma realm.144 If the mind were to move, then it would not be the
recognition of reality; it would not have self-nature; it would not be
eternal, blissful, Self, or pure; it would be tormented, it would decay,
and so it would no longer be sovereign, to the extent that it would be
endowed with falsehoods and defilements more numerous than the
sands of the Ganges. Because, conversely, the nature of the mind
has no movement, the many characteristics of its pure qualities,
more numerous than the sands of the Ganges, are revealed.
If the mind were subject to arising and if it were also to perceive
the dharmas in front of it as things that could be conceived, then it
would be deficient. [By contrast,] such countless qualities of pure
dharmas are precisely this One Mind, and there is nothing further to
conceive. Therefore, the mind is complete and it is called the dharma
body or the store of tathāgatas (tathāgatagarbha).145
Moreover, the function of suchness refers to the buddhas—the
tathāgatas—who, when they were originally at the causal levels,146
gave rise to great compassion [for practitioners], cultivated the
pāramitās (perfections),147 converted sentient beings, and took the
great vow—all with the intention of liberating the realms of sentient
beings equally. They neither impose a limit on the number of future
kalpas (eons) required to complete this, because they regard all
sentient beings as just like themselves, nor become attached to the
characteristics of sentient beings.148 Why? It means that this is
because, in accordance with what is real, they know that all sentient
beings and they themselves are true suchness, uniform and without
difference. Since they have such wisdom of great skillful means, they
eliminate ignorance and reveal the inherent dharma body. As a
matter of course, they perform various kinds of inconceivable karmic
function. That is, being the same as suchness, they are all-
pervading. In addition, they also lack any characteristics of function
that can be apprehended.149 Why? Because the buddhas—the
tathāgatas—are nothing but the dharma body, the body of the
characteristic of wisdom. To be at [the level of] ultimate truth is to be
devoid of the perceptual fields of conventional truth and free from
actively bestowing benefit; it is only by their according with what
sentient beings see and hear that sentient beings acquire benefit.150
One therefore talks of function.
There are two kinds of function. What are they?
The first is based on the phenomena-discriminating
consciousness. What the minds of ordinary people and the followers
of the Two Vehicles perceive is called the response body.151 This is
because they perceive this body as coming from outside because
they do not know that it is a manifestation of the operating
consciousness.152 And it is because, being attached to boundaries
of form, they are incapable of knowing all [of the buddha bodies].
The second is based on the karmic consciousness. That is, what
is perceived by the minds of bodhisattvas from the initial intention
[for awakening] right up to the final bodhisattva level is called the
recompense body. This body has countless forms, the forms have
countless [major] characteristics, and the characteristics have
countless [minor] features.153 Based on the effects [of karmic
action], its abode also has countless kinds of ornamentation,
according to whatever form it displays. The [body] itself is boundless,
is inexhaustible, is free from the characteristic of boundaries, and
accords with whatever it encounters. It is able to be sustained
constantly; it neither is destroyed nor disappears.154 All such
qualities are established due to habituation by the untainted activity
and the inconceivable [karmic action] of the pāramitās (perfections).
[579c] Because [the body] is replete with the countless
characteristics of unlimited pleasure, it is said to be the recompense
body.155 In addition, what ordinary beings perceive are the coarse
forms [of the buddha body]. What they each perceive will differ,
depending on which of the six paths they are on.156 Because these
various different kinds of being do not experience [the recompense
body’s] characteristics of [unlimited] pleasure, what they do
experience is said to be the response body.
Moreover, bodhisattvas who have newly aroused the aspiration to
awakening are capable of perceiving [the recompense body] to a
small extent because they have profound faith in the dharma of
suchness. They know that its characteristics of form and its
ornamentations are without coming or going, and free from
boundaries. And they know that these characteristics appear only on
the basis of the mind and are inseparable from suchness.157 These
bodhisattvas still construct their own distinctions, however, because
they have yet to enter the stage of the dharma body. If they attain
[the level of] pure mind,158 then what they perceive will be subtle
and marvellous and its function will be all the more efficacious, until
the bodhisattva levels are completed and they perceive [the
recompense body] in its entirety. Once they free themselves from the
karmic consciousness, there are no characteristics to be perceived
because the dharma body of buddhas does not have characteristics
of any particular form that might enable them to perceive one
another.
Question: How is the dharma body of buddhas able to appear
through a characteristic of form if it is free from any characteristic of
form?
Answer: It is able to appear through form because precisely this
dharma body is the intrinsic reality of form. That is to say, form and
mind have always been non-dual. The intrinsic reality of form is
shapeless because the nature of form is cognitive; it is termed the
cognitive body.159 And it is termed the dharma body because the
nature of cognition is form.160 The dharma body pervades
everywhere and the forms in which it appears have no boundaries. It
is capable of revealing at will the countless bodhisattvas, the
countless recompense bodies, and the countless ornamentations of
the worlds of the ten directions.161 Each is differentiated yet none
impedes the others for they have no boundaries. This is not
something that the distinctions of mind and consciousnesses are
capable of knowing because it is the sovereign functioning of
suchness.162
Moreover, I will disclose how to enter directly into the gateway of
suchness from the gateway of arising and ceasing. That is to say,
when one inquires after the five aggregates, there are aggregates of
form and mental aggregates. In the final analysis, there is nothing to
be conceived in the perceptual fields of the six sensory and
conceptual fields. The mind can never be apprehended, even if one
seeks it in the ten directions, because it lacks the characteristic of
shape. It is like a person who has become disoriented and therefore
deems east to be west, when in reality the directions have not been
reversed.163 Sentient beings are the same. Being ignorant and
disoriented, they will therefore deem the mind to be [the activity of]
conceiving but, [unlike conceiving,] the mind really does not move. If
they are able to investigate, they will know that the mind is without
conceiving. Then they will readily enter the gateway of suchness.

SECTION 2: ANTIDOTES TO WRONGLY HELD

VIEWS
With “antidotes to wrongly held views,” all wrongly held views are
based on views of self. One will have no wrongly held views if one
frees oneself from [views of] self. There are two kinds of view of self.
What are they?
The first is the view of an inherently existing self.
The second is the view of inherently existing dharmas.164
There are five kinds of view of an inherently existing self as
expressed by ordinary people.165 What are they?
The first is they think that empty space is the nature of tathāgatas.
This is because, when they hear the sutra explain that [580a] the
dharma body of tathāgatas is ultimately quiescent and like empty
space, they do not know that this is said to destroy attachments.166
What is the antidote? It is to make it clear that the characteristics
of space are false dharmas; they embody nothing and are not real,
but exist only because they are contrasted with [the characteristics
of] form. These characteristics [of form], which might be perceived,
cause the mind to arise and cease. In reality, however, there are no
external forms, since all material dharmas have always been mental.
If there are no forms, then there will be no characteristics of space.
That is to say, all perceptual fields exist only because the mind
falsely arises; all perceptual fields will cease if the mind is free from
false movement. Only the One True Mind is all-pervasive. This refers
to the ultimate extent of a tathāgata’s extensive and great wisdom,
which is not like the characteristics of space.167
The second is they think that the nature of suchness and nirvana
is nothing but emptiness. This is because, when they hear the sutra
explain that the ultimate reality of mundane dharmas is empty, that
even the dharmas of nirvana and suchness are ultimately empty, and
that they have always been intrinsically empty and free from all
characteristics, they do not know that this [is said] to destroy
attachments.168
What is the antidote? It is to make it clear that the dharma body of
suchness’ own intrinsic reality is not empty, but replete with
countless qualities.
The third is they think that the store of a tathāgata has distinctions
in its intrinsic characteristics [associated with] material and mental
dharmas. This is because, when they hear the sutra explain that the
store of a tathāgata neither increases nor decreases and intrinsically
has a full complement of all dharmas of [good] qualities, they do not
understand it.169
What is the antidote? It is to demonstrate and explain distinctions
through the doctrine of the defilements of arising and ceasing
because [the sutra] explains things only on the basis of the doctrine
of suchness.
The fourth is they think that the tathāgatagarbha’s own intrinsic
reality possesses all the dharmas of birth and death in the mundane
world. This is because, when they hear the sutra explain that all
defiled dharmas of birth and death in the mundane world exist on the
basis of the tathāgatagarbha and that none of the dharmas is
separate from suchness, they do not understand it.170
 What is the antidote? It is to explain that it would be an
impossibility for the tathāgatagarbha to be intrinsically replete with
false dharmas and yet be capable of causing realization and forever
putting an end to falsity. This is because the tathāgatagarbha has
always been nothing but pure qualities more numerous than the
sands of the Ganges, which are not separate from, cut off from, or
different from suchness. And it is because afflictions and defiled
dharmas more numerous than the sands of the Ganges only have a
false existence, their natures are intrinsically non-existent, and they
have never had an association with the tathāgatagarbha from
beginningless time.
The fifth is they think that sentient beings have a beginning. This is
because, when they hear the sutra explain that both [rebirth in the
cycle of] birth and death and the attainment of nirvana are also
based on the tathāgatagarbha, they do not understand it.171 And
they further think that the nirvana attained by buddhas has an end,
after which [buddhas] return to become sentient beings, because
they perceive [that sentient beings have] a beginning.
What is the antidote? It is to explain that the characteristics of
ignorance have no beginning because the tathāgatagarbha has no
starting [580b] point. If one were to claim that there are other
sentient beings who first arise outside the three realms, this would
be precisely what non-Buddhist scriptures claim. In addition, the
tathāgatagarbha has no endpoint. Given this, the nirvana attained by
buddhas, which is associated with it, also has no endpoint.
With the view of inherently existing dharmas, the Tathāgata merely
taught that people do not have an inherent self [and not that all
dharmas lack inherent existence] because of the dull faculties of
followers of the Two Vehicles. Since this doctrine is not definitive,
followers of the Two Vehicles perceive the arising-and-ceasing
dharmas of the five aggregates, fearing birth and death and falsely
grasping nirvana.
What is the antidote? It is to explain that is there is no cessation of
the self-nature of dharmas, which is the five aggregates, since that
self-nature does not arise; it has always been nirvanic.
Moreover, those who have completely freed themselves from
falsely held views should know that all defiled and pure dharmas are
mutually dependent and do not have intrinsic characteristics that
might be spoken of. Therefore, no dharma has ever been material or
mental, [the subject of] cognition or consciousness, existent or non-
existent—ultimately, dharmas cannot be spoken of. And [those who
have completely freed themselves from falsely held views] should
know that when language is used [it is because] the Tathāgata, who
was accomplished in skillful means, was guiding sentient beings by
provisional means of this language. His intentions all served to free
them from conceiving and return them to suchness, because
conceiving of any dharma causes the mind to arise and cease,
preventing it from cognizing things as they really are.

SECTION 3: THREE KINDS OF ASPIRATION TO

AWAKENING
“Discriminating the characteristics for embarking on the Way” is so-
called because it refers to the idea of the Way realized by all
buddhas, which all bodhisattvas aspire to awaken, to cultivate, and
to progress towards. In general terms, there are three kinds of
aspiration to awakening. What are they?
The first is the aspiration to awakening through the
consummation of faith.
The second is the aspiration to awakening through understanding
and practicing [the Way].
The third is the aspiration to awakening through realizing [the
Way].

3.1 Aspiration to Awakening through the

Consummation of Faith
With the aspiration to awakening through the consummation of faith,
what sort of person, doing what sort of practices, manages to
consummate faith and is capable of arousing the aspiration to
awaken? They are sentient beings of the group not certain to
achieve awakening.172 Because they have the power of the virtuous
roots to which they have been habituated, they believe in the
retributive effects of karmic action; they are capable of giving rise to
the ten kinds of wholesome behavior;173 they are weary of the
sufferings of [the cycle of] birth and death; they arouse the aspiration
to supreme bodhi (awakening); they manage to encounter buddhas,
become their attendants and make offerings to them; and they
cultivate a commitment to faith.174 Because [these sentient beings]
have been consummating their commitment to faith for ten thousand
kalpas (eons), buddhas and bodhisattvas instruct them in arousing
their aspiration to awakening. Some will be capable of arousing this
aspiration on their own because of great compassion. Others will be
capable of arousing this aspiration on their own to preserve the
causes and conditions of the true Dharma as it is on the verge of
ceasing.175 Those who consummate a commitment to faith and
manage to arouse the aspiration to awakening like this will join the
group of beings certain to achieve awakening and will ultimately not
regress.176 They are referred to as being associated with the correct
cause through abiding in the lineage of tathāgathas.
[By contrast,] if there are sentient beings with scant virtuous roots,
who have had profound afflictions for a long time, they will only
produce either seeds [for rebirth as] a human or god,177 or seeds
[for becoming an adherent of] the Two Vehicles, even if they
encounter a buddha and also manage to make offerings. Should
there be some who seek the Great Vehicle, they may either progress
or regress because their roots are indeterminate.178[580c] Some
who make offerings to buddhas for less than ten thousand kalpas
(eons) may also arouse the aspiration to awakening if they
encounter the right conditions during this time. That is to say, they
will arouse this aspiration by seeing the physical image of a
buddha.179 Some will arouse their aspiration to awakening by
making offerings to the monastic community. Some will arouse this
aspiration through the instruction of followers of the Two Vehicles.
Some will arouse this aspiration by learning from others. Since all
these kinds [of sentient being who] arouse the aspiration to
awakening are of the indeterminate group, some may regress and
fall to the level of the Two Vehicles on meeting with bad causes and
conditions.180
Moreover, when one arouses the aspiration to awakening (faxin)
through the consummation of faith, what sorts of mind (xin) does one
arouse (fa)? Briefly explained, there are three kinds of mind. What
are they?
The first is a directly focused mind, because one is true in one’s
mindfulness of the dharma of suchness.181
The second is a profound mind, because one takes pleasure in
amassing all good deeds.
The third is a mind of great compassion, because one wishes to
eliminate the sufferings of all sentient beings.182
Question: Earlier you explained the unitary characteristic of the
dharma realm and the non-duality of buddhahood. So why is it not
enough simply to be mindful of suchness? Why is there the further
need to seek to learn from good deeds?
Answer: It is like a great maṇi, a jewel, which has been encrusted
with impurities of ore although it is bright and pure by its own
nature.183 Even if someone were mindful of its precious nature, he
would ultimately fail to recover its purity without using the skillful
means of various kinds of polishing. In the same way, the dharma of
suchness in sentient beings has countless afflictions and impurities
although it is empty and pure by its own nature. Even if someone
were mindful of suchness, he too would nevertheless fail to recover
its purity without using the skillful means of various kinds of
habituation and practice. Because impurities are countless and
pervade all dharmas, one should use all good deeds as an antidote.
This is because, as a matter of course, one will return to the dharma
of suchness if one practices all good dharmas.184
Briefly explained, there are four kinds of skillful means. What are
they?
The first is skillful means that are the fundamentals of practice.
That is to say, by discerning that the self-nature of all dharmas is
non-arising, one frees oneself from false views and does not abide in
[the cycle of] birth and death. And, by discerning that the causes and
conditions of all dharmas are combinations and that the effects of
karmic action are unfailing, one gives rise to great compassion,
cultivates beneficial qualities, converts sentient beings, and does not
abide in nirvana.185 This is because one conforms to the dharma
nature without abiding in it.
The second is the skillful means that are able to stop [all bad
dharmas]. That is to say, feeling ashamed of and repenting one’s
transgressions, one is able to stop all bad dharmas and prevent
them from increasing. This is because one conforms to the dharma
nature and frees oneself from transgressions.
The third is the skillful means by which the virtuous roots that have
been initiated increase. That is to say, one diligently makes offerings
to and worships the Three Jewels, and one praises, rejoices in, and
implores buddhas. One’s faith manages to increase and one is then
able to fix one’s resolve to seek the unsurpassed Way because one
reveres the Three Jewels with a sincere mind. In addition, one is
able to extinguish the hindrances of karmic actions and one’s
virtuous roots do not regress because one is protected by the power
of the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Monastic Community. This is
because one conforms to the dharma nature and frees oneself from
the obstacles of nescience.186
The fourth is the skillful means of the great vow to [save all beings]
uniformly. [581a] That is to say, one vows forever to liberate all
sentient beings, without exceptions, causing all to attain nirvana
without remainder.187 This is because one conforms to the dharma
nature, which is never cut off.188
The dharma nature is extensive and vast and it pervades all
sentient beings. This is because it is uniform and non-dual, cannot
be conceived in terms of distinctions between this and that, and is
ultimately quiescent. Because bodhisattvas arouse this aspiration to
awakening, they manage to perceive the dharma body to a small
extent. And because they perceive the dharma body according to the
power of their vows, they are capable of displaying the eight stages
of a buddha’s life for the benefit of sentient beings. That is to say, [a
bodhisattva] descends from the Tuṣita Heaven, enters the womb,
stays in the womb, leaves the womb, leaves the home life, attains
awakening, turns the wheel of Dharma, and enters nirvana.189
However, these bodhisattvas are not yet called the dharma body
because they have not yet been able definitively to eliminate [the
residue of] their contaminated karmic actions from countless past
ages; they still have an association with mild suffering according to
the circumstances of their birth.190 This is not the bondage of karmic
action, however, because they have the power of mastery of the
great vow. As it is explained by some of the sutras, there are
[bodhisattvas] who regress and fall into the bad destinies.191 It is not
that they actually regress. Instead, it is meant only for those novice
bodhisattvas who have become lazy, not yet having entered the
correct stage, because they are spurred on to heroic efforts through
fear.192 In addition, these bodhisattvas become far removed from
timidity as soon as they have aroused the aspiration to awakening
until, in the end, they are no longer afraid that they may fall to the
level of the Two Vehicles. Indeed, even if they hear that it will take
countless, boundless asaṃkhyeya-kalpa (incalculable eons) of
painful, difficult practice before attaining nirvana, they will not be
timid because they [now] believe and know that all dharmas have
always been intrinsically nirvanic.

3.2 Aspiration to Awakening through Understanding

and Practicing the Way
With the aspiration to awakening through understanding and
practicing [the Way], one should know that it is a change for the
better.193 This is because, from the first stage of correct faith, these
bodhisattvas intend to complete this level in the first asaṃkhyeya-
kalpa (incalculable eon). Through the dharma of suchness, they
profoundly understand what appears before them, since what they
cultivate is free from characteristics. They conform to and practice
dāna-pāramitā (the perfection of giving) because they know that the
dharma nature is intrinsically devoid of greed. They conform to and
practice śīla-pāramitā (the perfection of discipline) because they
know that the dharma nature is devoid of defilement and free from
the errors of the five desires [for the objects of the senses]. They
conform to and practice kṣānti-pāramitā (the perfection of
forbearance) because they know that the dharma nature is devoid of
suffering and free from vexation. They conform to and practice vīrya-
pāramitā (the perfection of vigorous exertion) because they know
that the dharma nature is devoid of the characteristics of body and
mind and free from laziness. They conform to and practice dhyāna-
pāramitā (the perfection of meditative absorption) because they
know that the dharma nature is constant and fixed and intrinsically
devoid of confusion. They conform to and practice prajñā-pāramitā
(the perfection of wisdom) because they know that the dharma
nature is intrinsically awakened and free from ignorance.

3.3 Aspiration to Awakening through Realizing the

Way
With the aspiration to awakening through realizing [the Way], what
perceptual field is realized from the level of pure mind up to the final
bodhisattva level? It is suchness. It is explained as a perceptual field
based on the operating consciousness. With this realization,
however, there are no perceptual fields; there is only cognition of
suchness, which is called the dharma body.194[581b] These
bodhisattvas are able to reach all realms of the ten directions without
exception in a single thought-moment. They make offerings to
buddhas and request that they turn the wheel of Dharma solely to
guide and bring benefit to sentient beings, all without recourse to
words. Some show how one may skip over the levels and rapidly
accomplish true awakening, because they act for the benefit of timid
sentient beings.195 Some explain how even they themselves will
accomplish the way of a buddha only after countless asaṃkhyeya-
kalpa (incalculable eons), because they are acting for the benefit of
complacent sentient beings. Their ability to teach such countless
skillful means is inconceivable, but in reality the capacities of those
in the bodhisattva lineage are equal, their aspirations to awakening
are equal, and what they realize is also equal. There is [in fact] no
method for skipping over [the levels] because all bodhisattvas take
three asaṃkhyeya-kalpa (incalculable eons) [to accomplish true
awakening]. It is just that there are dissimilarities in what sentient
beings see and hear, and in the nature of their capacities and
desires, following differences between their worlds. As a result, there
are also distinctions in what [the bodhisattvas] teach them to
practice.
In addition, with this aspiration to awakening by bodhisattvas there
are three subtle characteristics of mind. What are they?
The first is [the characteristic of] the true mind, because it is free
from discrimination.
The second is [the characteristic of] the mind of skillful means,
because it spontaneously operates everywhere and benefits sentient
beings.
The third is [the characteristic of] the mind of karmic
consciousness, because it subtly arises and ceases.196
In addition, these bodhisattvas, who have perfected their merit in
the Ultimate Realm of Form, display the greatest, tallest bodies of all
the mundane realms.197 In other words, ignorance is suddenly
extinguished since they accord with insight in a single thought-
moment. This is called “omniscience.”198 Endowed as a matter of
course with inconceivable karmic action, they are able to appear in
the ten directions and benefit sentient beings.
Question: Because space is boundless, worlds are boundless.
Because worlds are boundless, sentient beings are boundless.199
Because sentient beings are boundless, differentiations in mental
activities are also boundless. So perceptual fields cannot be
bounded, which makes them difficult to comprehend and to explain.
If ignorance is eliminated, however, there is no conceptualizing, and
so how is it be possible for there to be a [mental] discernment [of
unbounded perceptual fields] called “omniscience”?
Answer: All perceptual fields have always been the One Mind and
are free from conceptualizing and conceiving. The minds of sentient
beings have boundaries because they falsely perceive perceptual
fields. They are incapable of discerning the dharma nature
definitively because they falsely give rise to conceptualizing and
conceiving and fail to correspond with it. Free from perceiving and
conceptualizing, [the cognition of] buddhas—tathāgatas—is all-
pervasive. [What they cognize] is precisely the nature of dharmas
because their minds are true and real. Their minds’ own intrinsic
reality reveals and illuminates all false dharmas. With the function of
great wisdom and countless skillful means, they are all able to
elucidate the meaning of all kinds of dharma in accordance with what
sentient beings ought to be capable of understanding. Therefore, it
can be called “omniscience.”200
Another question: Given that buddhas benefit sentient beings by
having [cognition of how] karmic action operates as a matter of
course and by being capable of appearing everywhere, all sentient
beings would obtain that benefit without exception if they were to
perceive the bodies [of buddhas], to look at their divine
transformations, or to hear their preaching. [581c] How is it, then,
that most in the mundane world are unable to perceive [the bodies of
buddhas]?
Answer: It is because the dharma body of buddhas—tathāgatas—
pervades everywhere uniformly, without there being anything on
which [sentient beings] might focus.201 As a result, it is said to
operate as a matter of course, yet it only actually appears on the
basis of the minds of sentient beings. The minds of sentient beings
can be likened to mirrors. If mirrors are sullied, images of forms do
not appear. In the same way, if the minds of sentient beings are
sullied, the dharma body does not appear.

PART 4: CULTIVATION OF THE COMMITMENT TO

FAITH
Having explained the “elucidation,” I will next explain the “cultivation
of the commitment to faith.”
Here I will explain cultivation of the commitment to faith because I
am concerned with sentient beings who have not yet entered the
group certain to achieve awakening. What is the commitment to faith
and how is it cultivated?

SECTION 1: FOUR KINDS OF COMMITMENT TO

FAITH
Briefly stated, there are four kinds of commitment to faith. What are
they?
The first is faith in what is fundamental, which is because one
takes pleasure in being mindful of the dharma of suchness.
The second is faith that the Buddha has countless qualities. This is
because one is constantly mindful of drawing close to him, of making
offerings to him, of venerating him, of initiating virtuous roots, and of
vowing to seek omniscience.
The third is faith that the Dharma has great benefits. This is
because one is constantly mindful of cultivating the pāramitās
(perfections).
The fourth is faith that the Monastic Community is able to practice
correctly what benefits itself and others. This is because one
constantly takes pleasure in drawing close to the assembly of
bodhisattvas and in seeking instruction in practices that accord with
what is real.202

SECTION 2: FIVE GATEWAYS OF PRACTICE

There are five gateways of practice by which one is able to
accomplish these commitments to faith. What are they?
The first is the gateway of giving.
The second is the gateway of moral discipline.
The third is the gateway of forbearance.
The fourth is the gateway of vigorous exertion.
The fifth is the gateway of calming and discernment.203
 Why does one practice the gateway of giving? If one sees anyone
coming in search of alms, one will give them one’s possessions and
wealth according to one’s capacity, so divesting oneself of greed and
making them happy. Or if one sees someone in hardship, fear, or
adversity, one will give them courage to the best of one’s ability. Or if
there are sentient beings who come in search of the Dharma, one
will explain it for them with skillful means to the best of one’s
understanding. All this is because one ought not to crave or seek
fame, profit, or veneration; instead, one should be mindful only of
benefitting oneself and others and of being dedicated to bodhi
(awakening).
Why does one practice the gateway of moral discipline? Because
it means that one does not kill, steal, engage in sexual misconduct,
speak duplicitously, speak ill of others, speak falsely, or exaggerate;
and one keeps avarice and envy, deceit, flattery, malice, and wrong
views at a far remove. Also, because one leaves the home life to
subdue the afflictions, one ought to keep hustle and bustle at a far
remove, and always remain in calm and solitude, cultivating such
practices as having few desires, satiety, and dhūta (austerity) until
one even reaches the point of feeling trepidation, shame, and
repentance over minor transgressions and cannot take lightly any of
the prohibitions instituted by the Tathāgata. And one should guard
against making disparaging remarks and prevent sentient beings
from making the mistake of committing errors and transgressions.
Why does one practice the gateway of forbearance? Because it
means that one ought to endure vexations caused by other people
without harboring feelings of revenge; and that one should also
endure such things as profit and loss, [582a] insults and praise,
honor and slander, or pain and pleasure.
Why does one practice the gateway of vigorous exertion? It means
that one’s mind does not slacken or give up when doing good deeds,
and one resolves to be firm and strong, keeping timidity at a far
remove. One should be mindful that one has experienced in vain
great sufferings of body and mind for a long time past, without any
benefit. Therefore, one ought to be diligent in cultivating merits,
benefitting oneself and others, and keeping the many kinds of
suffering at a far remove.204
 Moreover, people may be plagued by māra demons despite
cultivating a commitment to faith. This is because they are hindered
by many evil karmic actions due to grave transgressions from past
lives. Some may become entangled in various kinds of mundane
affairs. Some may be afflicted by the suffering of illness. There is a
multitude of such impediments. Therefore, they should be
courageous and diligent, and they should worship buddhas, repent
to them with a sincere mind, implore them, rejoice in them, and aim
for bodhi (awakening) at all hours of the day and night. This is
because, if they never give up, they will manage to escape the
impediments and their virtuous roots will increase.
Why does one practice the gateway of calming and discernment?
“Calming” means stopping the characteristics of all perceptual
fields because one conforms to the doctrine of śamatha
meditation.205
“Discernment” means discriminating the characteristics of the
causes and conditions of arising and ceasing because one conforms
to the doctrine of vipaśyanā meditation.
Why should one conform to them? Because these two will be
experienced together only by cultivating them gradually, without
separating one from the other.206
When cultivating calming, one stays in a quiet place, sits upright,
and sets one’s thinking straight without dwelling on the breath, on
shapes or forms, on space, on earth, water, fire, or wind, until one
even reaches a point where one does not dwell on sensory or
cognitive awareness. One removes all concepts in the thought-
moment that they arise. Indeed, one rejects the concept of removing
[concepts]. Since all dharmas have always been without
characteristics, they neither arise in successive thought-moments
nor cease in successive thought-moments. Indeed, one will not
follow the mind in conceiving of perceptual fields as external or
subsequently [attempt to] remove the mind with the mind.207 If the
mind races away, one should rein it back in immediately and stay in
correct mindfulness. With this correct mindfulness, one should know
that there is only mind; there are no external perceptual fields. That
is, moreover, this mind certainly has no characteristics of its own and
is imperceptible in successive thought-moments. If at all times, in
whatever one does—whether sitting or standing, coming or going,
moving forward or staying put—one remains constantly mindful of
skillful means and conforms to [the practices of calming and
discernment] when carrying out investigations, and if one practices
these for a long time until fully proficient, then one’s mind will
manage to stay focused. Because one’s mind stays focused, one
conforms to [these practices] with increasing fervor, readily obtaining
entry to samādhi (meditative absorption) on suchness. One
thoroughly subdues the afflictions, one’s commitment to faith
increases, and one quickly attains non-regression. The only
exceptions are doubters, disbelievers, slanderers, those with serious
wrongs or karmic hindrances, the conceited, or the lazy: no such
person will be able to enter.
[582b] Moreover, based on this samādhi, one knows the unitary
characteristic of the dharma realm. That is, the dharma body of all
buddhas and the bodies of sentient beings are uniform and non-dual,
so it is called the samādhi of unifying practice.208 One should know
that suchness is the root of this samādhi. If people practice, they will
eventually be capable of producing countless samādhis.209 [By
contrast,] if there are some sentient beings who lack the power of
virtuous roots, they will be deluded and confused by māras, non-
Buddhists, ghosts, and spirits. The māras and the others may even
strike terror into them if the māras manifest themselves in physical
form while such sentient beings are sitting [in meditation]. Some
māras may appear with the characteristics of a righteous man or
woman, but [these sentient beings] should be mindful that these are
only the perceptual fields of the mind and, once they have ceased,
[these sentient beings] will never again be bothered by them. Some
māras may manifest themselves as the image of a god or of a
bodhisattva, or even of a buddha replete with the major and minor
physical characteristics.210 Some may teach211 dhāraṇīs (spells), or
some may teach giving, discipline, forbearance, vigorous exertion,
meditative absorption, and wisdom.212 Some may teach that true
nirvana is undifferentiated, empty, devoid of characteristics, wishes,
aversion, attachment, cause or effect, and ultimately empty and
tranquil. Some may cause people to know things from past lives and
even from the future, or to attain insights into others’ minds or
irrefutable eloquence.213 They may be capable of causing sentient
beings to yearn for, and grow attached to, matters of fame and profit
in the mundane world. In addition, they may cause people’s natures
to vacillate with recurring feelings of hate or joy. Some of these
people will become too compassionate, too sleepy, or too sick, or
their minds will grow lazy. Some will have a sudden burst of vigorous
exertion only to give up later and, having brought about a lack of
faith, they will be riddled with doubts and anxiety. Some people will
abandon their original superior practices and instead cultivate
random karmic actions. If they grow attached to worldly affairs, then
all kinds of entanglement will bind them. Māras may also be capable
of making people attain a part or a semblance of a samādhi,
although none of these will be a true samādhi but rather is of the
kind attained by non-Buddhists. Some māras will also make people
stay in [meditative] absorption for one, two, three, or even seven
days, in which they will obtain delicious food and drink that appears
spontaneously. These people will become satisfied in body and
mind, without hunger or thirst, which will make them develop
cravings and attachments. Some māras may also make people eat
without moderation, either too much or too little, so that their
appearance will change.
For these reasons, practitioners always ought to investigate wisely
and not allow their minds to fall into the net of wrong doctrines. They
should strive for correct mindfulness, neither grasping nor clinging,
and then they will be capable of keeping these various hindrances of
karmic action at a far remove. One ought to know that none of the
samādhis possessed by non-Buddhists is free from the mentalities of
wrong views, cravings, or conceit. This is because they desire and
are attached to fame, profit, and veneration in the mundane world.
With the samādhi of suchness, [practitioners] do not stay focused on
the characteristics of what is to be perceived or grasped. So even
when they emerge from absorption, they will still have no indolence
or conceit, and whatever afflictions they may have will gradually
diminish.214 Under no circumstances will ordinary beings obtain
entry to the lineage of the tathāgatas unless they practice this
method (dharma) of samādhi. By practicing mundane meditations
and samādhis, they will mostly give rise to appetites and cravings.
Based on the view of self, they will become enmeshed in the three
realms along with non-Buddhists. [582c] This is because they will
give rise to non-Buddhist views if they become separated from the
protection of good teachers.215
Moreover, those who apply themselves single-mindedly to
cultivating and learning this samādhi will obtain ten kinds of benefit in
this world. What are they?
First, they will always be protected and cared for by the buddhas
and bodhisattvas of the ten directions.
Second, they will be incapable of being terrified by māras and evil
ghosts.
Third, they will not be deluded or confused by the ninety-five kinds
of non-Buddhists or by ghosts and spirits.
Fourth, they will keep any denigration of the extremely profound
Dharma at a far remove, and their serious wrongs and karmic
hindrances will eventually diminish.
Fifth, they will eliminate all doubts and any detrimental
investigation and analysis.
Sixth, their faith in the realm of tathāgatas will manage to increase.
Seventh, they will set sorrow and regret at a far remove, and they
will be courageous and undaunted amid [the cycle of] birth and
death.
Eighth, their minds will be gentle, they will abandon arrogance and
haughtiness, and they will not be annoyed by others.
Ninth, they will be capable of decreasing their afflictions and not
taking pleasure in the mundane world even if they have not yet
attained [meditative] absorption at all times and in all perceptual
fields.
Tenth, they will not be alarmed by external conditions or by any
sounds if they attain samādhi.
Moreover, people’s minds will sink into [inattention] or give rise to
laziness if they cultivate only calming. They will not take pleasure in
manifold virtues and will set great compassion at a far remove. They
will therefore [also need to] cultivate discernment.
When cultivating and practicing discernment, one should discern
that no conditioned dharma of the mundane world manages to
remain stable for long, but all change and perish in an instant; and
that all mental activities arise and cease in successive thought-
moments. It is because of this that people suffer. One ought to
discern that dharmas remembered from the past are vague, like a
dream. One ought to discern that dharmas conceived in the present
are just like flashes of lightning. One ought to discern that dharmas
conceived in the future will be just like [formations] that suddenly
arise in clouds. One ought to discern that all things with bodies in the
mundane world are impure, and that no kind of impurity is
pleasurable.
So one should be mindful that the mind is made to arise and
cease because all sentient beings have been habituated by
ignorance from beginningless time. Having already experienced all
the great sufferings of body and mind, they now face countless
torments in the present, and their sufferings will also be unbounded
in the future. Yet they fail to be aware of this, finding it difficult to
abandon or free themselves from [these sufferings]. What a great
pity it is that sentient beings are like this!
Having reflected on this, then one ought to make the great vow
with courage: “I will cultivate all good merits throughout the ten
directions because I vow to free my mind from constructing
distinctions. I will save all suffering sentient beings in perpetuity
through countless skillful means, enabling them to attain the
supreme pleasure of nirvana.” Because one will have initiated such a
vow, [583a] one’s many virtues will, as far as one is able, prevent
one from abandoning cultivation and learning, and one’s mind will
not grow lazy at any time or in any place. The sole exception is
sitting in meditation, when one should concentrate on being mindful
of calming. In all other circumstances, one should investigate what
ought and ought not to be done. One ought to practice both calming
and discernment whether walking or standing, lying down or getting
up. That is, even when one is mindful that the self-nature of dharmas
does not arise, one is also mindful of the combination of causes and
conditions, of good and bad karmic action, of the recompense of
pain and pleasure, and of how they neither are lost nor perish.216
And even when one is mindful of causes and conditions, of good and
bad karmic actions, and of their recompense, one is also mindful that
their nature cannot be apprehended.
Cultivating calming is an antidote to ordinary people’s abiding
attachments to the mundane world.217 [With it,] one is able to
abandon the timid views of the Two Vehicles. Cultivating
discernment is an antidote to the Two Vehicles’ faults of not giving
rise to great compassion and narrow-mindedness.218 [With it,] one
sets oneself at a far remove from ordinary people, who do not
cultivate virtuous roots. For this reason, each of the two gateways of
calming and discernment helps the other to develop, without one
being separated from the other. One would be unable to enter the
way of bodhi (awakening) without full possession of both calming
and discernment.

SECTION 3: BEING MINDFUL OF AND

VISUALIZING AMITĀBHA
Moreover, the minds of sentient beings are timid when they are still
in the early stages of studying this Dharma and desire to have
correct faith. Since they reside in this Sahā realm, they fear that they
will be unable to encounter buddhas all the time, or to serve and
make offerings to them.219 Those who, filled with fear, think that a
commitment to faith is difficult to accomplish and that their
commitment will likely regress should know that tathāgatas have
excellent skillful means for protecting the commitment to faith. This
means that those sentient beings attain rebirth in other buddha lands
in accordance with their vows by concentrating on the causes and
conditions for being mindful of buddhas. They will eternally be free
from the bad paths [of rebirth] by constantly perceiving buddhas.220
As a sutra states: “If one concentrates on being mindful of Amitābha
—the buddha of the western paradise—the virtuous roots that one
cultivates will be directed to one’s vow to be born in his realm, and
then one will attain rebirth there. Because one constantly perceives
the buddha, in the end there will be no regression.”221 If one
visualizes this buddha’s dharma body of suchness and constantly
strives to cultivate and practice, then one will ultimately attain rebirth
and stay in correct meditative absorption.

PART 5: EXHORTATION TO PRACTICE AND TO

REAP THE BENEFITS
Having explained the “cultivation of the commitment to faith,” I will
next explain “exhortation to practice and to reap the benefits.”
So I have now provided a general explanation of Mahāyāna, the
recondite treasury of the buddhas. If there are sentient beings who
wish to arouse correct faith in the extremely profound realms of
tathāgatas, and to set denigration of the Great Vehicle at a far
remove and instead enter into it, then they should uphold this
treatise, reflect on it, and cultivate it, until they are ultimately able to
arrive at the unsurpassed Way. If a person does not become timid
after hearing this Dharma, one should know that this person will
definitely carry on the buddha lineage and will inevitably be given a
prediction of awakening by the buddhas. Even if there were a person
able to convert the sentient beings who fill the great trichiliocosm
realm and to cause them to practice the ten kinds of wholesome
behavior, this person would not be equal to someone who thinks
truly of this dharma for just one mealtime.222[583b] It is impossible
to convey how far the latter’s merit surpasses that of the former.
Moreover, if someone retains, investigates, and practices this
treatise, if only for just one day and night, then their merits will be
countless, limitless, and inexpressible. And even if this person’s
merits were extolled by each of the buddhas of the ten directions for
countless, boundless asaṃkhyeya-kalpas (incalculable eons), that
would still be unable to do the person full justice. Why? Because the
merits of the dharma nature are inexhaustible and, in the same way,
this person’s merits would also be boundless.
When there are sentient beings who slander what is in this treatise
and lack faith in it, the retribution for their sin will be great suffering
for countless kalpas (eons). Sentient beings therefore simply ought
to revere and have faith in it. They ought not to denigrate it; to do so
would profoundly harm themselves and others, and would sever all
of the lineages of the Three Jewels. This is because all tathāgatas
attain nirvana on the basis of this Dharma, and because all
bodhisattvas depend on it to cultivate practice and enter into buddha
wisdom.
One should know that bodhisattvas of the past have managed to
accomplish pure faith on the basis of this Dharma; bodhisattvas of
the present now manage to accomplish pure faith on the basis of this
Dharma; and bodhisattvas of the future will also manage to
accomplish pure faith on the basis of this Dharma. Sentient beings
therefore ought to strive to cultivate and learn it.
Now, to the best of my ability, I have provided a summary
account for retention
Of the extensive and great import of the buddhas, so extremely
profound and vast.
I transfer the merits from this, in accordance with the dharma
nature,
For the universal benefit of all realms of sentient beings.
Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith, in One Fascicle.

20. Before this time, the phrase “I take refuge in [the Buddha] who pervades all
ten directions” (guiming jin shifang 歸命盡十方) is attested only in the translation of
Vasubandhu’s *Sukhāvatīvyūhōpadeśa that Bodhiruci made under the title
Wuliangshou jing youbotishe 無 量 壽 經 優 波 提 舍 (Commentary on the Sutra of
Limitless Life). T26.1524, 230c17–18.
21. In his Dasheng qixin lun yishu (T44.1843, 176b27–176c2) the sixth-century
commentator Huiyuan understands this line as a reference to three of the ten
epithets of the response body, one of the three bodies of buddhas. See
introduction for a discussion of the three bodies.
22. The author plays on the connotations of several terms with overlapping
associations. This part of the prayer refers to the Dharma, which comprises the
corpus—the body—of teachings and practices of the Buddha. The term ti 體 also
has connotations of a body and, as translated here, can further refer to the intrinsic
reality of something. The term xiang 相 can refer to the characteristics of
something. When applied to the bodies of buddhas, it refers specifically to the 32
major and 80 minor distinctive marks that indicate their supreme attainments. For
Huiyuan, this line indicates veneration of the three kinds of buddha body: “And his
[body]” (ji bi 及 彼 ) refers to the response body; the “intrinsic reality of the body”
(shen ti 身 體 ) refers to the dharma body; and the “characteristics of the body”
(xiang 相) refers to the recompense body. See T44.1843, 176c15–20. By contrast,
Wonhyo comments in his seventh-century Gisil lon so that “this refers to the
bodies of the Tathāgata. These bodies are precisely the recompense [bodies] of
the Buddha, and are exactly the dharma realm, which serves as its own intrinsic
reality.” See T44.1844, 203c27–28. In other words, the dharma realm is the
intrinsic reality (ti) of the Buddha, and the recompense bodies are its phenomenal
characteristics (xiang).
23. This is a key term in the Treatise and in Mahāyāna generally. The text later
describes the dharma nature: “The dharma nature is extensive and vast and it
pervades all sentient beings. This is because it is uniform and non-dual, cannot be
conceived in terms of distinctions between this or that, and is ultimately quiescent”
[581a].
24. “Store” here translates zang 藏, one of the several meanings of the term. It is
part of rulaizang 如 來 藏 , tathāgatagarbha, a central term in the Treatise (see
introduction). “Merit” translates gongde 功 徳 , which is typically used as an
equivalent of either puṇya (merit) or guṇa (qualities). Gongde is often understood
in medieval Chinese literature as something acquired. That is how Huiyuan
glosses its use in this passage of the Treatise. T44.1843, 177a7. However, later
commentators on the Treatise generally take it to refer to innate qualities in the
mind of all sentient beings. These are the qualities of buddhas.
25. Huiyuan comments: “Faith is the root of practices, so it says that one should
‘give rise to correct Mahāyāna faith. ’ . . . Faith is a necessary cause for becoming
a reward buddha.” T44.1843, 177b29–177c4. Wonhyo understands the use of
“Dharma” here in the Treatise to refer to the One Mind teaching. T44.1844, 204c9.
26. In the agricultural metaphor of virtuous roots, one sows or stores seeds for
future actions by engaging in wholesome activities. Like seeds, these activities
mature over time to produce fruitful consequences and virtues such as
compassion, generosity, and patience.
27. “Skillful means” (fangbian 方 便 ) refers to the ability of buddhas and
advanced bodhisattvas to assist sentient beings by adapting Buddhist teachings to
their specific capacities, needs, and proclivities.
28. Calming and discernment are two central practices in Buddhist meditation.
Calming involves cultivating a state of fixed attention on a meditative object,
without restless agitation or sleepiness. Discernment refers to meditative analysis
of an object or concept to understand what it truly is and what its implications
might be. The reference to the “Two Vehicles” here alludes to the division of
Buddhist teachings into various “vehicles.” As noted in the introduction, Mahāyāna
Buddhists speak of three vehicles. In this scheme, the “Two Vehicles” are the
“Lesser Vehicles” (Hīnayāna) of hearers (śrāvaka) and solitary realizers
(pratyekabuddha).
 29. For a discussion of nian 念 , see the introduction. Here, it refers to
mindfulness of Amitābha, the buddha of the Western Paradise.
30. The Buddha’s “perfect voice” refers to an idea, found in many Buddhist
works, that he was like a skilled physician who correctly diagnosed the spiritual
maladies of each person he encountered and prescribed the ideal antidote in his
teachings. When he spoke to a crowd, each person heard exactly what would be
most beneficial.
31. “Expanded treatises” refers both to large canonical texts, which elaborate
details abbreviated in shorter works, and to commentaries on sutras.
32. Zong chi 總持, rendered here as “aide-memoires,” is often used to translate
the Sanskrit term dhāraṇī. These are condensed formulas that summarize complex
doctrinal ideas. They were probably designed to facilitate memory, and so the
Chinese preserves the idea of “retention” that is part of the Sanskrit etymology.
33. This anticipates the two aspects, or “gateways,” of the One Mind that appear
later in the text: the aspect of the mind as suchness; and the aspect of the mind as
arising and ceasing. The aspect of the mind as suchness reveals the intrinsic
reality of Mahāyāna directly. The aspect of the mind as arising and ceasing reveals
it indirectly. To reinforce the idea that the intrinsic reality of Mahāyāna is constant
in both aspects, the text introduces the term “its own intrinsic reality” (zi ti). This
indicates that the meaning of Mahāyāna remains unchanged in its arising-and-
ceasing aspect although it is revealed only indirectly. This would have been
important to the author of the Treatise. Since this teaching can occur only in the
aspect of the mind as arising and ceasing, if it is to be genuine, he needed to
emphasize that it still gives access to the intrinsic reality of Mahāyāna.
In his Dasheng qixin lun yishu, the sixth-century commentator Tanyan explains
that Mahāyāna “has its own intrinsic reality (zi ti 自體), characteristics (xiang 相 ),
and functions (yong 用 ).” He identifies Mahāyāna with the eighth, store
consciousness. The eighth consciousness enables the other consciousnesses to
have characteristics and functions; the other consciousnesses do not have their
own intrinsic reality to produce characteristics and functions. Mahāyāna cannot be
revealed until the intrinsic reality associated with the eighth consciousness causes
characteristics and functions to be expressed through the other consciousnesses.
X45.755, 156b22–156c3. Huiyuan frames this distinction instead in terms of the
eighth and ninth consciousnesses. T44.1843, 179a20–179b1. See the discussion
of this point in the introduction.
For Wonhyo, the mind that “reveals Mahāyāna’s own intrinsic reality (zi ti)” refers
to what he calls the “inherently awoken mind” (benjue xin 本 覺 心 ). This is in the
gateway of arising and ceasing. Wonhyo further identifies this inherently awoken
mind as the One Mind. “It is both the intrinsic reality and the cause of arising and
ceasing and, for this reason, it is in the gateway of arising and ceasing,” he says.
“In the gateway of suchness, Mahāyāna as intrinsic reality (ti) is spoken of directly;
but in the gateway of arising and ceasing, it is spoken of as ‘its own intrinsic reality’
(zi ti).” In other words, the referent of ti in the gateway of suchness and of zi ti in
the gateway of arising and ceasing is the same—the One Mind. T44.1844,
206b13–15. In his Dasheng qixin lun yiji, Fazang follows this distinction between
“intrinsic reality” (ti) and “its own intrinsic reality” (zi ti). T44.1846, 250c25–251a6.
34. Having explained mahā- of Mahāyāna, this passage explores the
connotations of yāna, meaning “a vehicle” or “to ride.” Mahāyāna is a teaching, a
method, or a set of illuminating instructions. It is the “vehicle” to transport all
bodhisattvas to buddhahood.
35. The doctrine of the One Mind was highly influential in East Asia, but it has no
clear Sanskrit antecedent. The closest Sanskrit terms, ekacitta or cittaikāgratā,
generally refer to concentrated mental focus, not to the expansive notion of a
unified consciousness that pervades the universe, which we find in the Treatise.
Huiyuan comments that reference to the two “gateways” here denotes the aspects
(xiang 相) of the One Mind. T44.1843, 180a10–12.
36. There would be an apparent doctrinal inconsistency if this passage were
read literally: it would imply that conditioned dharmas are contained in the
unconditioned realm of suchness. For the attempts by various commentators to
explain this problem in terms of the relationship between intrinsic reality,
characteristics, and functions, see note 33.
37. In the Jin’gangxian lun, a translation traditionally attributed to Bodhiruci
(although a number of modern scholars contest this claim), dharma (fa 法 ) is
defined as a rule that prevents people from falling into evil and so allows them to
reach buddhahood. The gateway (men 門 ) allows beings to pass through and
reach buddhahood. Its reality (ti 體) is principle and teaching, and is the Dharma
jewel. T25.1512, 799a28–30, 799b6–12. Bodhiruci’s translation of the
Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra, titled Ru Lengqie jing, combines these ideas into the term
“dharma-gate reality,” which denotes all the teachings of Buddhism. T16.671,
524b7–8. As the Treatise here refers to the dharma realm and to all dharmas, it is
playing on the word “dharma” to mean both teaching or principle and the
constituents of existence. For a brief discussion of the term “dharma gate” and its
Sanskrit equivalent, dharma-paryāya, see Gadjin M. Nagao, Mādhyamika and
Yogācāra: A Study of Māhāyana Philosophies, p. 132.
38. The dharma realm (dharma-dhātu) denotes the field of sensory and mental
experience. Initially, Buddhists listed eighteen components, dhātu: six sense
faculties (the five senses and the mind); six kinds of cognitive fields (visible,
auditory, gustatory, olfactory, tactile, and ideational); and six kinds of
corresponding “consciousnesses” (vision, hearing, taste, smell, touch, and
thinking). In later Mahāyāna discourse, these were subsumed under the dharma
realm. The present passage similarly reduces the multiplicity of realms in Buddhist
cosmology to a single, absolute reality. Huiyuan (T44.1843, 180a24–25) and
Wonhyo (T44.1844, 4.207a25) identify the absolute dharma realm with the One
Mind. Huiyuan (T44.1843, 186b07–08) draws an analogy between suchness and
the fine particles of clay that constitute all earthen vessels. These particles
pervade all such vessels; without them, there would be no pottery. In this sense,
they are a general characteristic, just as suchness is the general characteristic of
the mind and pervades cyclic existence.
39. Huiyuan draws a common analogy to a defect of the eyes: “It is like spots
before the eyes, which exist because of damage to the eyes. If the eyes are cured
then the spots will not exist.” For Huiyuan, the spots are superimposed on what is
actually there. Huiyuan further states that it is only through practice that one “will
know that the false does not exist and will clearly comprehend the truth.”
T44.1843, 180b10–14.
40. Bodhiruci’s translation of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra carries an identical
reference to being “free from the characteristics of language and naming.” It
continues this list not with cognitive objects, but with the characteristics of
perceptual fields and of phenomena. T15.671, 527c13–14.
41. This passage attempts to supply an etymology of the Chinese term zhenru
真 如 , by dividing it into two constituent parts. To “refute” (qian 遣 ) something
suggests that one or more of its qualities is deemed to be not real or true. Because
the Treatise tells us that all dharmas are suchness, it is impossible to reject any
dharma as being unreal or untrue. To “posit” (li 立) has the sense of affirming one
or more dharmas over other dharmas. But because all dharmas are
undifferentiated—all dharmas are suchness—there is no dharma that might be
posited as distinct from, or in preference to, another dharma.
42. A distinction between the empty and the non-empty aspects of the
tathāgatagarbha appears in the translation of the *Śrīmālādevī-siṃhanāda-sūtra
made by Guṇabhadra (394–468) in 436. T12.353, 221c16–18.
43. This invokes the Indian logical formula known as the “four-cornered”
negation, or tetralemma (catuṣkoṭi).
44. Tanyan writes that the tathāgatagarbha adapts to, or accords with, the
arising and ceasing of phenomena. It neither arises nor ceases itself but only
appears to do so. See X45.755, 159b13–16. Huiyuan comments that the mind as
arising and ceasing and the tathāgatagarbha are simultaneous. He likens their
relationship to that of a shadow and the shape that it casts. T44.1843, 182b29–c1.
Wonhyo here glosses the tathāgatagarbha as the “intrinsically untainted mind,” a
term that the main text of the Treatise introduces below. T44.1844, 208b8.
45. Tanyan claims that “combine” refers to the combination of suchness with the
store consciousness; the former is non-arising and non-ceasing, the latter arises
and ceases. He links this to the analogy of the wind and the waves, which appears
later in the main text. X45.755, 159b15–16, 19–22. In his Gisil lon so, Wonhyo
comments: “The mind that is non-arising and non-ceasing moves as a whole, and
so this mind is not separate from the characteristics of arising and ceasing. All the
characteristics of arising and ceasing are intuited, and so arising and ceasing are
not separate from the characteristics of the mind. Not being apart, they are said to
be ‘combined.’ This is the combination of the mind that is non-arising and non-
ceasing with [the characteristics of] arising and ceasing; it does not mean that
arising and ceasing and non-arising and non-ceasing combine. ‘Neither the same
nor different’: the mind that is non-arising and non-ceasing moves as a whole, and
so it never loses its nature of non-arising and non-ceasing, although it is not
different from arising and ceasing. So arising and ceasing and the mind are not the
same.” T44.1844, 208b17–22.
46. See the introduction for a discussion of this key term.
47. The “realm of space” is a frequent image in Buddhist texts. The equivalent
Sanskrit term, ākāśa, does not refer to simple physical “space,” in which objects
cannot share the same space at the same time. Rather ākāśa neither displaces
nor is displaced by any object; it permeates rather than obstructs. Here, the
Treatise suggests that when the mind is freed from obstructive notions, it
permeates everything.
48. On the relationship between the dharma realm and the dharma body, see
the introduction. There are echoes of Bodhiruci’s phrasing in this sentence. There
is reference to “the uniform dharma body of tathāgatas” in his translation of the
Saddharmapuṇḍarīkopadeśa, titled Miaofa lianhua jing youbotishe 妙 法 蓮 華 經 憂
波提舍 (Commentary on the Lotus Sutra). For example, T26.1519, 7c7.
49. Huiyuan states that the intrinsic reality of initial awakening and inherent
awakening is the same. The only difference is whether awakening is hidden or
revealed. He cites the *Śrīmālādevī-siṃhanāda-sūtra to suggest that when
awakening is hidden it is the tathāgatagarbha, and when it is revealed it is the
dharma body. He indicates that the transition from hidden to revealed awakening
requires antidotes to ignorance, and so the process is not a purely spontaneous
occurrence. T44.1843, 183b12–22.
50. The first move in this logical sequence from inherent awakening to non-
awakening appears paradoxical. Yinshun 印順 (1906–2005) explains it through the
analogy of defective eyesight—a commonplace in Buddhist literature, and also
evident in its recurring use in commentaries on the Treatise. See his Dasheng
qixin lun jiangji 大 乘 起 信 論 講 記 (Lecture Notes on the Treatise on Awakening
Mahāyāna Faith) (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 2010), pp. 73–74. In the present
application of the analogy, eyesight is the capacity to see, analogous to being
inherently awoken. If one’s eyesight were harmed, one would no longer be able to
see. This is analogous to being non-awoken. For a capacity such as eyesight to be
damaged, however, that capacity (such as the capacity to see) must have existed
in the first place. To extend Yinshun’s analogy, just as a damaged eye begins to
return to a state of normal function after treatment, so too there is a sense in which
awakening “initially” occurs on the basis of non-awakening.
51. As Huiyuan suggests in his commentary, however, to have hindsight is not to
be awakened. T44.1843, 183c3. For example, after being angry, one may think
that it would have been better not to have become angry and decide that in the
future one will avoid doing so. This may sound like an enlightened attitude. In
reality, however, resolving to avoid anger does not make one immune from the
triggers of one’s anger.
 52. Although thought-moments are perceived to change, in fact each thought-
moment is instantaneous and so has no capacity for change. Thought-moments
therefore lack any characteristic of change. In terms of ethical awareness, and the
example given in the preceding note, it is like the point at which one’s anger
diminishes and one decides to calm down. By recognizing that a thought-moment,
like being angry, is non-enduring and could instantaneously be otherwise, one can
quickly eliminate it. Like the previous example, however, this is not true
awakening; it is only a semblance of awakening because it occurs only after the
anger has already begun to subside, not as it starts or during its peak.
53. A dharma-body bodhisattva is one who has achieved the level (bhūmi) of
seeing the dharma body. The dharma body is suchness directly perceived at the
first level, and so a dharma-body bodhisattva refers to a bodhisattva above the first
level. “Partial awakening” varies for bodhisattvas in this group according to the
degrees of their individual accomplishment.
54. The preceding passage describes a sequence of practice. Each stage in the
sequence corresponds to the four characteristics (lakṣaṇa), which appear in the
reverse of the standard order: cessation; change; endurance; and arising.
55. Huiyuan (T44.1843, 184b16) identifies this as a passage from the
Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra. No such phrasing can be found in extant versions of either
Guṇabhadra’s or Bodhiruci’s translations of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra, however.
Wonhyo interprets this to mean that sentient beings “are incapable of discerning
the principle of non-conceiving.” T44.1844, 210b27.
56. This traces a trajectory from initial awakening to more advanced levels of
realization. A bodhisattva who attains initial awakening recognizes that the mind is
unitary and that all reality has a single nature, despite appearances of multiplicity.
Although there appear to be the four characteristics of arising, enduring, changing,
and ceasing, in reality there is only the One Mind, which is coextensive with final
awakening. In his Daeseung gisil lon byeolgi, Wonhyo draws on a variation of the
analogy of the ocean and waves to make the point: “It is just like the movement of
the ocean water, which is said to be waves. Because waves have no self-nature,
however, there is no movement of waves. Because water has self-nature, there is
movement of water. The mind and the four characteristics are also like this.”
T44.1845, 232c19–21.
Huiyuan states that all awakening, both inherent and initial, is the same; like
suchness, it is uniform. The four characteristics appear to have sequence and
continuity, but this is merely their functioning as characteristics. If there were a
sequence, it would mean that awakening (and, by extension, suchness) is
differentiated. However, these characteristics must be simultaneous and, “not
being established by themselves,” they lack intrinsic reality, like a dream. This can
only be known through the absence of conceiving. T44.1843, 184b18–184c8. In
his version of the Treatise, Śikṣānanda (fl. 700) makes a similar point. T32.1667,
585a26–29.
 57. Huiyuan identifies these two characteristics with the dharma body and
recompense bodies, respectively. T44.1843, 184c15–18.
58. In his Daeseung gisil lon byeolgi, Wonhyo glosses the “combined
consciousness” as “the combination of [the mind of] arising and ceasing and [the
mind of] non-arising and non-ceasing.” T44.1845, 208c18–19. Hane 333V
corresponds with Wonhyo; see Ikeda Masanori, “Kyō’u shōku shozō Tonkō bunken
Daijō kishin ron sho (gidai, Hane 333V) ni tsuite,” p. 122, cols. 39–41.
59. This passage offers a response to the key question in the Treatise: How
might sentient beings be intrinsically awakened yet also enmeshed in ignorance?
Its central elements are likely to have derived from Bodhiruci’s translation of the
Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra. In particular, that text discusses “the extinction of
characteristics” (xiang mie 相 滅 ) and “the extinction of continuous flow” (xiangxu
mie 相 續 滅 ). With “the extinction of characteristics,” the operations of the sense
faculties cease when habituation of the ālaya (store) consciousness by the false
discriminations ceases. Reference to “the extinction of continuous flow” in
Bodhiruci’s translation parallels the idea discussed here of “extinguishing the
characteristics of the continuously flowing mind.” T16.671, 521c23–522a27.
60. Following Tanyan in taking this to mean that the nature aspect of the mind
and the consciousnesses—inherent awakening—are indestructible, but the
characteristic aspect of mind and the consciousnesses—ignorance—are
destructible. X45.755.161c16–17. Huiyuan (T44.1843, 184c27–185a6) and Hane
333V (Ikeda Masanori, “Kyō’u shōku shozō Tonkō bunken Daijō kishin ron sho
(gidai, Hane 333V) ni tsuite,” p. 134, col. 143) use the term “the mind” to refer to
the seventh consciousness and the term “consciousnesses” to refer to the first six
consciousnesses. They claim that both are inherently mired in ignorance. Tanyan
makes a similar identification. By associating “the mind” with the seventh
consciousness, he identifies two aspects—nature and characteristics—that enable
him to describe nature as pure mind and characteristics as false discrimination.
X45.755, 161c11–13. Wonhyo draws a similar distinction between nature and
characteristics. T44.1844, 211a29–b3.
61. The metaphor of the ocean and the wind appears in Bodhiruci’s translation
of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra, although with significant differences in its application.
T16.671, 538c8–9. See also the introduction for a further discussion of this point.
Wonhyo comments on the Treatise: “In the analogy it is stated that ‘it is not in the
nature of water to move.’ This shows that, although the water may be moving now,
it is not the self-nature of water to move. Rather, it is merely according with
external conditions. If it were in the nature of water to move, then when the
characteristic of movement ceased, its wetness would accordingly cease. Yet it
merely accords with external conditions and so its wetness is not destroyed, even
when the characteristic of movement ceases.” T44.1844, 211b8–10.
62. There is reference to “the characteristic of awakening as intrinsic reality” (jue
ti xiang 覺 體 相 ) in the Tipo pusa po Lengqie jingzhong waidao xiaosheng sizong
lun 提婆菩薩破楞伽經中外道小乘四宗論 (The Critique of Deva Bodhisattva of the
Four Tenets of the Non-Buddhists and Hīnayānists in the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra), a
translation that Bodhiruci made between 508 and 535. T32.1639, 155b3–4. The
term jing 淨, rendered here as “clear,” is used elsewhere in the Treatise to refer to
dharmas, cognition, and the mind. In these cases, it has been translated as “pure.”
Its use here draws a connection between the analogy of the mirror and the
“purified mind.”
63. Following the metaphor of the wind and the waves, the idea that “the intrinsic
reality of cognition does not move” means that the intrinsic reality of the mind—
suchness—remains undisturbed by ignorance or afflictions. Tanyan argues that
defiled objects can never tarnish a clear mirror. Although images in the mirror may
change, the nature of the mirror itself never changes. X45.755, 162c20–163a1.
For a related interpretation by a later commentator, see Hanshan Deqing 憨山德清
(1546–1623), Qixin lun zhijie 起 信 論 直 解 (Direct Interpretation of the Treatise on
Awakening Mahāyāna Faith), X45.766, 493b15–493c3.
64. Reference to “the combined” is shorthand for the combined consciousness.
As noted above, Wonhyo glosses this as “the combination of [the mind of] arising
and ceasing and [the mind of] non-arising and non-ceasing,” T44.1845, 208c18–
19. “The afflictive and cognitive obstructions” are technical terms in Buddhist
soteriology. They have to be overcome to attain full awakening. The afflictive
obstructions are primarily emotions and attitudes that obscure how one
understands and reacts to situations. The cognitive obstructions prevent one from
seeing things as they truly are. They are often summarized as the false attachment
to the view of selfhood. They are considered to be more problematic than the
afflictive obstructions. Some Mahāyāna polemical literature allows that Hīnayāna
practitioners can overcome the afflictive obstructions, but only Mahāyāna
bodhisattvas can fully extirpate cognitive obstructions. The Treatise offers a
positive vision here: There is something true and positive to be known, and there
are countless undefiled dharmas that can be cultivated and habituated, removing
the veils that prevent one from seeing everything as it is.
65. This passage traces a sequence by which the awakening dimension of the
ālaya (store) consciousness develops. Through the analogy of the mirror, it
describes how this awakening process works in the case of a bodhisattva. It starts
with a mind in which cognition does not operate and so reflects nothing—a blank
mirror. It then moves to a mind aligned with the perception of all things as they
truly are. Next is a mind that transcends the obstructions that seem to prevent the
accurate and complete reflection of reality as it truly is. It concludes with an
awakened mind, which has developed to the point of providing conditions
conducive to the enlightenment of other sentient beings.
66. “Intrinsic characteristics” is a technical term for the specific features that
distinguish something as belonging to a defined class. A recurring example in
Indian Buddhist literature is the dewlap of a cow, which only a cow would have.
67. Commentators have differed in their interpretations of this phrase. Hane
333V, for example, takes it to mean that a person is disoriented with respect to the
correct direction; see Ikeda Masanori, “Kyō’u shōku shozō Tonkō bunken Daijō
kishin ron sho (gidai, Hane 333V) ni tsuite,” p. 142, cols. 210–212. Others have
suggested that a person is disoriented with respect to direction in general—that is,
the very idea of direction is the precondition for being disoriented. Wonhyo
(T44.1844, 212a5–8) and Hanshan Deqing (X45.766, 494a7–8) adopt this
interpretation.
68. Wonhyo identifies what follows as a list of subtle and coarse characteristics.
The first three are subtle, the following six coarse. T44.1844, 212a19.
69. In his translation of the Dazhidu lun 大 智 度 論 (Treatise on the Great
Perfection of Wisdom), Kumārajīva uses identical phrasing to suggest that the
perfection of wisdom occurs when “effect is not separate from cause” (果不離因)
and cause not separate from effect, when conditioned and unconditioned are not
separate, and when the perfection of wisdom (prajñāpāramitā) and all dharmas are
not separate. T25.1509, 520a19–23. Commenting on the present passage in the
Treatise, Wonhyo explains that ignorance causes suffering and so, as soon as
ignorance ceases, suffering gives way to pleasure, and this is when awakening
begins. T44.1844, 212a27–b1.
70. This interpretation is supported by a textual variant, which reads 以依心動故
能 見 . Elsewhere, 以 is replaced by 心 . See T32.1666, 577a10–11; Frédéric
Girard, trans., Traité sur l’acte de foi dans le Grand Véhicule (Tokyo: Keio
University Press, 2004), p. 42.
71. In his translation of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra, Bodhiruci frequently uses the
term “the characteristic of perceptual fields” in relation to misperception. See, for
example, T16.671, 544b4–5.
72. Much of the following argument seems to derive from a discussion in
Bodhiruci’s translation of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra of three kinds of consciousness—
the consciousnesses of continuity, of the characteristics of karmic action, and of
the characteristics of cognition—and of the cessation of consciousness. T16.671,
521c25–522a1.
73. Wonhyo gives an alternative reading of this line: “Arising on the basis of
perceptual fields, the mind discriminates likes and dislikes.” T44.1844, 212c5–10,
esp. 212c7.
74. Part of this argument seems to stand in relation to Bodhiruci’s translation of
the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra. See, especially, T16.671, 545a24–545b1. Wonhyo
suggests that “the characteristic of continuous flow” refers to how attachments
continue from past to future due to illusory discrimination. T44.1844, 213a7–9. We
have followed Yinshun in understanding juexin 覺 心 here to mean “sensations.”
Dasheng qixin lun jiangji, p. 104.
75. The contrast here is between what exists only nominally (prajñapti) and what
exists in reality (dravya).
76. The preceding six characteristics appear here in a cyclical sequence. First,
there is cognition of perceptual objects. Then, one becomes attached to those
objects and names them because of the perception of continuous flow. This gives
rise to karmic action, which in turn produces suffering. This cycle resembles the
model of the links of dependent arising, which also operates in a cyclical way.
77. In this analogy, pieces of pottery are seen to have various shapes and sizes
and so appear to be different entities. Since they are all composed of clay,
however, they share the same nature.
78. The term “illusion of karmic action” (yehuan 業 幻 ) is rare in texts that pre-
date the Treatise. It appears only in Bodhiruci’s translation of the Laṅkāvatāra-
sūtra (T16.671, 528a13–17); in Bodhiruci’s translation of Vasubandhu’s
Daśabhūmi-vyākhyāna, or Dilun (T26.1522, 139c14–15); and in the translation of
the Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna-sūtra made by Gautama Prajñāruci (fl. 538–543),
titled Zhengfa nianchu jing 正法念處經 (Sutra on the Bases of Mindfulness of the
True Dharma; T17.721, 148b17–18, 202a24–26, 231a4–5).
79. Fazang associates this scriptural reference with the Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa-
sūtra, a translation of which was made by Kumārajīva in 406, under the title
Weimojie suoshuo jing 維摩詰所說經 (The Sutra Preached by Vimalakīrti). Fazang
comments that buddha wisdom is not newly acquired; sentient beings have been
buddhas since beginningless time. T44.1846, 263c29–264a15. For the source of
Fazang’s quotation from the Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa-sūtra, see T14.475, 542b17–19.
By contrast, Wonhyo traces the scriptural quotation to the translation of the
Mahāprajñāpāramitā-sūtra by Kumārajīva, titled Mohe bore boluomi jing 摩訶般若
波 羅 蜜 經 . T44.1844, 213b9. For its appearance in the Mohe bore boluomi jing,
see T8.223, 379a18–22, 401b7–10.
80. This phrasing echoes two passages in the Jin’gangxian lun, attributed to
Bodhiruci. T25.1512, 856c25–26 and 858c13–14.
81. The idea that suchness adapts to phenomenal conditions is discussed in the
introduction.
82. This follows the majority of early commentators, who identify “the cause and
condition” as singular. Tanyan claims, for example, that “the seeds internal to the
store consciousness are the cause, and the unreal appearances of the three
realms [i.e., the Form Realm, the Formless Realm, and the Desire Realm] are the
condition.” X45.755, 164c23. By contrast, Fazang identifies two causes and two
conditions. According to Fazang, the first cause of arising and ceasing is that the
suchness aspect of the ālaya, or store, consciousness does not preserve its self-
nature. The second cause is entrenched ignorance (wuming zhudi 無 明 住 地 ;
*avidyāvāsa-bhūmi). The two conditions that Fazang identifies are habituation of
the suchness aspect of the ālaya consciousness by fundamental ignorance
(genben wuming 根本無明); and the stirring of cognitive activity by false perceptual
fields. As with other early commentators, Fazang emphasizes that the “causes and
conditions” are based solely on the intrinsic reality of the mind. T44.1846, 264b15–
23.
83. Following the interpretation of Tanyan on the relationship between the mind,
mentation, and mental consciousness. X45.755, 164c24–165a6. This reading was
taken up by such later commentators as Huiyuan, Hane 333V, Wonhyo, and
Fazang.
84. This reading follows such commentators as Tanyan (X45.755, 165a24–
165b2) and Huiyuan (T44.1843, 187a2–3).
85. The term “presenting consciousness” (xianshi 現 識 ), an equivalent of the
Sanskrit term khyāti-vijñāna, appears in the translation of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra
that Guṇabhadra made in 443. T16.670, 483a15–20. By contrast, it does not occur
in Bodhiruci’s translation of the same text. This is consistent with the possibility
that the author of the Treatise drew on both translations of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra,
not only Bodhiruci’s.
86. The three realms (traidhātuka) are the Desire Realm (kāma-dhātu), the Form
Realm (rūpa-dhātu), and the Formless Realm (ārūpya-dhātu). They appear in
several, slightly different formulations, which have produced much controversy. On
the one hand is a position of metaphysical idealism, which holds that the mind
creates the three realms. On the other hand is a position that lends itself to an
epistemic interpretation by claiming that the mind “is” the three realms. The
Treatise here adopts the first position. An early statement of this position appears
in the earliest translation of the Daśabhūmika-sūtra, the Jianbei yiqie zhide jing 漸
備一切智德經 (Sutra on Gradually Obtaining the Virtue of Omniscience), made by
Dharmarakṣa (c. 230–316) in 297. T10.285, 476b9–10. A close parallel of both the
doctrinal perspective and the phrasing of the Treatise appears in the translation of
the Avataṃsaka-sūtra by Buddhabhadra (358–429), titled Dafangguangfo huayan
jing 大 方 廣 佛 華 嚴 經 (Flower Garland Sutra). T9.278, 558c10. Bodhiruci’s
translation of the Di lun quotes this sutra with only minor variation, and gives an
explanation of it. T26.1522, 169a15–20.
87. The six sensory and conceptual fields, ṣaḍ-viṣaya in Sanskrit, refer to the
five sensory fields and the mental field.
88. This echoes Bodhiruci’s translation of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra. T16.671,
522b12–13.
89. On the basis of a sense of “self,” the “mental consciousness” imputes false
interpretations to the six sensory and conceptual fields (liu chen 六 塵 )—visual,
auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, and mental objects. In standard Yogācāra
doctrine it is the sixth consciousness (manovijñāna) that brings together, and
differentiates, sensory impressions from the five sensory consciousnesses. It can
think about what the other five consciousnesses perceive; the five
consciousnesses themselves do not have this reflexive capacity. The seventh
consciousness (manas) is the source of self-attachment.
90. The earliest extant use of the term “the phenomena-discriminating
consciousness” (fenbie shi shi 分 別 事 識 ) is in Bodhiruci’s translation of the
Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra, where it appears in relation to cause and habituation. T16.671,
522a1–7. “Afflictions of views and cravings” probably denotes the afflictive and
cognitive obstructions to which the Treatise refers above.
 91. The phrasing of this passage contains several verbal echoes from the
explanation of the tathāgatagarbha given in the translation of the Aṅgulimālīya-
sūtra by Guṇabhadra, titled Yangjuemoluo jing 央掘魔羅經 (Sutra of Aṅgulimāla).
T2.120, 538b20–27. In his commentary on the Treatise, Huiyuan suggests that
true consciousness, or suchness, becomes false if it follows conditions. He
therefore argues that ignorance is a kind of consciousness. Huiyuan goes on to
state: “Even when there is a defiled mind, [the nature of the mind] is constantly
unchanging. Even when the characteristics [of the nature of the mind] become
defiled, its true nature does not alter. In the *Śrīmālādevī-siṃhanāda-sūtra, it
therefore says: ‘It is difficult to comprehend fully that the intrinsically pristine mind
is defiled by afflictions.’ [The mind] is true [i.e., suchness] but becomes false; but
actually it only appears to be false and is always true [i.e., suchness]. This
principle is thoroughly comprehended by buddhas; it is not something that
cognition can discern.” T44.1843, 187b28–c9. For the original phrase in the
*Śrīmālādevī-siṃhanāda-sūtra, see T12.353, 222b28–29.
92. This passage elaborates on the claim made earlier in the Treatise that “the
unitary characteristic of the dharma realm is precisely the uniform dharma body of
tathāgatas” [576b].
93. The following explanation traces advancement along the bodhisattva path,
moving from coarse minds to subtle ones. See the introduction, under “Five
Names for Mentation and Six Kinds of Defiled Mind,” for a more detailed account
of this sequence.
94. For Tanyan (X45.755, 166c18–21) and Huiyuan (T44.1843, 187c20–22), this
kind of defiled mind is associated with practitioners who have not yet reached the
first of the ten bodhisattva levels. The Treatise engages in polemic by implying that
the highest achievement of those who follow the path of the Two Vehicles—their
liberation—is equal only to the achievement of those at the initial stage of the
Mahāyāna path.
95. Tanyan (X45.755, 166c24) and Huiyuan (T44.1843, 187c22–24) identify “the
level of pure mind” with the first of the ten bodhisattva levels. Later commentators,
such as Wonhyo (T44.1844, 215a19–21) and Fazang (T44.1846, 267b28–267c1),
follow this identification.
96. Tanyan (X45.755, 167a2–3) and Huiyuan (T44.1843, 187c24–25) identify
“the level of being in full possession of monastic precepts” with the second
bodhisattva level, and “the level of skillful means devoid of characteristics” with the
seventh level. Wonhyo (T44.1844, 215a22–27) and Fazang (T44.1846, 267c2–12)
offer a similar account.
97. Tanyan (X45.755, 167a3–7) and Huiyuan (T44.1843, 187c26–27) identify
“the level of unimpeded form” with the eighth bodhisattva level. Wonhyo
(T44.1844, 215a27–215b2) and Fazang (T44.1846, 267c13–19) follow the early
commentators. They further comment that bodhisattvas at this level are free from
delusions relating to external objects and their minds are like clear mirrors that
manifest forms.
 98. Tanyan (X45.755, 167a7–10) and Huiyuan (T44.1843, 187c28) identify “the
level of the sovereign mind” with the ninth bodhisattva level. Wonhyo (T44.1844,
215b2–4) and Fazang (T44.1846, 267c20–26) make the same identification.
99. This revisits the phrase “they do not comprehend the unified dharma realm”
不達一法界 [577c].
100. It is only on the basis of first making a distinction between cognizer and
what is cognized that the first three kinds of defiled mind can associate them as
identical. So Huiyuan states that “identical” here means that “the [defiled] mind
itself is the cognizer and its defiled function is also the cognizer.” They stand in a
ti–yong relationship. See T44.1843, 188a14.
101. The three “dissociated” kinds of defiled mind are not actively engaged in
false conceptual construction, unlike the three “associated” kinds of defiled mind.
The “dissociated” kinds of defiled mind are identified as being “without
differentiation” because they do not uphold an initial distinction between cognizer
and what is cognized. This interpretation of the discussion of “associated” and
“dissociated” follows Tanyan (X45.755, 163c6–11, 167b16–22) and Huiyuan
(T44.1843, 188a8–18).
102. According to Wonhyo, the Treatise’s presentation of the two obstructions
diverges from that generally found in Buddhist scriptures and treatises. In the
standard account, afflictive obstructions inhibit the training of both Hīnayānists and
Mahāyānists. Cognitive obstructions are particularly problematic for Mahāyānists
because they prevent the attainment of omniscience, a core quality of
buddhahood. In the Treatise, by contrast, the associations of these two kinds of
affliction are reversed. Wonhyo questions this move. T44.1845, 237c18–28.
103. This interpretation has been informed by Huiyuan. T44.1843, 191b27–28.
104. Reading 能 取 for 妄 取 , based on the earlier use of the phrase “the
perceiver, the presenter, and the apprehender of perceptual fields” 能見能現能取
境 界 [577b]. The defiled mind runs counter to uniformity because it produces a
false dichotomy between the perceiver and what is perceived.
105. Ignorance and non-awakening run counter to the quiescent state of
dharmas because they are active and moving.
106. This passage has a possible source in Bodhiruci’s translation of the
Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra, where coarse defilements, ignorance, and stages of practice
receive mention. T16.671, 526c14–17.
107. Huiyuan interprets “conditions” as a reference to the six sensory and
conceptual fields and their objects. He adds: “There being these causes and
conditions, arising and ceasing come to be established.” T44.1843, 191c14–15.
Huiyuan seems to have drawn this idea from a later passage in the Treatise, which
refers to “the defiled dharmas of false perceptual fields as conditions” [578a].
108. When the causes of something are eliminated, cooperating conditions
become irrelevant and are no longer effective in contributing to its production. With
a seed that sprouts, for example, the seed is the cause of the sprout and such
conditions as rain and sun contribute to its burgeoning. Without a seed, however,
there is no possibility for rain or sun to assist in the growth of a sprout.
109. This question introduces an explication of a claim made earlier in the
Treatise: “If one manages to be without conceiving, then one will recognize the
mind’s characteristics as arising, enduring, changing, and ceasing. Because one is
without conceiving and so on, there is really no difference from initial awakening.
This is because the four characteristics exist simultaneously and are not
established by themselves; they have always been uniform and are one and the
same awakening” [576c]. From this point on, the text makes it increasingly explicit
that the problem under consideration is the overlay of conceiving (nian) on the
mind. Conceiving prevents one from perceiving the underlying uniformity and unity
of the two gateways of mind. It obscures this uniformity by applying conceptual
characteristics (xiang). It starts with the four characteristics of all conditioned
things: arising, enduring, changing, and ceasing. Conceiving and conceptual
characteristics therefore need to be eliminated.
110. Cf. the earlier statement that “since it is not in the nature of the mind to
move [by itself], its continuous flow will cease if ignorance ceases, without the
nature of cognition ever being destroyed” [576c]. Huiyuan comments: “The
complete loss of false consciousness does not stop true [consciousness] from
existing. Because true consciousness always exists, it is not that sentient
existence is cut off. And because false consciousness ultimately ceases, sentient
beings attain true consciousness. ‘Wind’ is a metaphor for ignorance. ‘Water’ is a
metaphor for true consciousness. ‘Movement’ is a metaphor for false
consciousness.” T44.1843, 191c28–192a1.
111. For a comparable idea, see the discussion of seeds and habituation in the
translation of Asaṅga’s fourth-century Mahāyānasaṃgraha-śāstra (She dasheng
lun 攝大乘論; Compendium of the Great Vehicle) made in 531 by Buddhaśanta (fl.
525–539). T31.1592, 98b21–24.
112. This refers to the first of the five names for mentation [577b].
113. As Wonhyo notes in his Daeseung gisil lon byeolgi, Paramārtha’s
translation of the Mahāyānasaṃgraha-śāstra, the so-called Shelun, states that
unconditioned dharmas cannot be habituated. T44.1845, 239a21–26. See the
introduction for an account of Wonhyo’s view that the Treatise is in fact stating that
suchness can be acted upon causally. Fazang elaborates Wonhyo’s apologist
account in his Huayan yisheng jiaoyi fenqi zhang 華嚴一乘教義分齊章 (Essay on
the Five Teachings of Huayan). Commenting on the Treatise, Fazang refers to
suchness as “constant,” but he qualifies this by suggesting that “it is not what is
meant by ‘constant’ in ordinary speech.” He emphasizes that suchness remains
unchanged even as it adapts to conditioned realities. Fazang refers to suchness
as “the inconceivable constant” since the unconditioned and the conditioned
merge to be neither the same nor different. T45.1866, 485a9–15.
114. Here, suchness is given a role in the arising-and-ceasing aspect of the One
Mind, but it is not the static, immobile role expounded in much of the literature on
which the author of the Treatise drew. Instead, it actively infiltrates the arising-and-
ceasing aspect of the One Mind and rights everything that is wrong there.
Suchness makes its appearance at this point in the Treatise not in terms of its
intrinsic reality (ti), but in terms of its function (yong)—the countless positive
qualities of non-empty suchness. In what follows, both suchness as intrinsic reality
and its functions are retained as a solution to the problem of ignorance, but its
characteristics (xiang) are eliminated. The tension between habituation by
suchness and habituation by ignorance shapes the “dynamic” version of
dependent arising that the author of the Treatise introduces.
115. Wonhyo explains this as follows: “Due to habituation by ignorance there is
the mind of karmic consciousness. Because this deluded mind then habituates
ignorance, increasing it without end, [the deluded mind] becomes the operating
consciousness and the manifesting consciousness, and so on. So it is said: ‘it is
non-awakened and so conceiving arises, presenting false perceptual fields’.”
T44.1844, 217b15–17.
116. Before the Treatise, the phrase “all the sufferings of body and mind” is
attested only in the translation of Śuddhamati’s *Pratītyasamutpāda-śāstra (Shier
yinyuan lun 十二因緣論; Treatise on the Twelve Links of Dependent Arising) made
by Bodhiruci between 508 and 535. T32.1651, 481c20–21.
117. These are the three main kinds of Buddhist adepts according to Mahāyāna.
Arhats are practitioners destined to attain nirvana in their present lives. The arhats
described in the Pāli canon are mainly disciples of the Buddha who heard his
words. They eliminated afflictions and cultivated wisdom through meditation. Their
path ends with a personal nirvana. Pratyekabuddhas, literally “solitary buddhas,”
are born in a time when there is no buddha. They attain nirvana through their own
efforts. Their path is longer and more difficult than that of the arhats, and so they
are superior in wisdom and supernatural powers. Bodhisattvas are Mahāyānists.
Because of their “great compassion” they reject the paths of arhats and
pratyekabuddhas. Their path aims to attain buddhahood for the benefit of other
sentient beings. This passage indicates that they still have residual karma, which
leads them to experience suffering as a result of past actions.
118. The only two attested uses of the phrase “habituation by ignorance”
(wuming xunxi 無明熏習) before the Treatise both appear in Bodhiruci’s translation
of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra. The most apposite refers to the inability of the śravakas
to divorce themselves from “habituation by ignorance.” T16.671, 526c15–16; see
also T16.671, 568b3.
119. This is because the non-awakened mind is set in motion on the basis of the
force of ignorance.
120. “[False] views and cravings” are two fundamental categories of affliction,
considered root causes of suffering. Similar reference to “habituation by [false]
views and passions” appears in connection with a discussion of the ālaya, or store,
consciousness in the translation of Vasubandhu’s fourth-century
Mahāyānasaṃgraha-bhāṣya made by Paramārtha in the fifth century, under the
title She dasheng lun shi. T31.1595, 178b17–19.
121. This phrase appears in Guṇabhadra’s translation of the *Śrīmālādevī-
siṃhanāda-sūtra: “If there were no tathāgatagarbha, one could not weary of
sufferings or take pleasure in seeking nirvana” 不 得 厭 苦 樂 求 涅 槃 . T32.353,
222b14–15. The same basic idea also appears elsewhere in the *Śrīmālādevī-
siṃhanāda-sūtra.
122. This echoes the phrasing of the translation of the Ratnagotravibhāga-
mahāyānottaratantra-śāstra made by Ratnamati (fl. 508) in 511, under the
abbreviated title Baoxing lun. That text makes the same connection to the
tathāgatagarbha as the Treatise. T31.1611, 831a9–10.
123. Fazang states that bodhisattvas realize that all dharmas are aspects of
cognition, and so they overcome the belief that they are external. They
comprehend suchness through this, which leads them to attain nirvana quickly.
Because bodhisattvas are aware of the store consciousness, they understand the
origin of the phenomena of experience, and so they are farther along the path than
other beings. T44.1846, 271b12–271c2.
124. Huiyuan identifies this with the power to motivate sentient beings to
cultivate good qualities through understanding that buddhas and boddhisattvas
have personally experienced suchness. T44.1843, 193b27–29.
125. For Huiyuan, these untainted dharmas are associated with the dharma
body and inconceivable activity is associated with the recompense body/bodies.
He notes that delusion becomes severed because of the habituating power of
these two buddha bodies. T44.1843, 193a12–14.
126. In the Jin’gangxian lun we find a similar claim that all sentient beings have
buddha-nature, which is suchness. T25.1512, 841c16–17.
127. “Precedence” refers to the fact that some practitioners are more advanced
than others.
128. Wood has the capacity to burn, but this will only happen if that capacity is
realized. The capacity to burn is described here as the direct cause of fire.
Similarly, all sentient beings equally have buddha-nature. This inherent buddha-
nature is the direct cause of buddhahood and of the good qualities of buddhas and
bodhisattvas. Yet it is not a sufficient cause for realizing buddhahood. In order to
be sparked, sentient beings need to encounter buddhas or bodhisattvas, who will
employ skillful means to enable sentient beings to realize their potential. For
Fazang, this means that there must be a sufficiency of conditions for the constant
operation of suchness to have a positive effect. The obstacle to this is the mental
afflictions of sentient beings. T44.1846, 272a18–24.
129. The idea that good teachers serve as external conditions appears also in
the translation of Vasubandhu’s Viśeṣacintābrahmaparipṛcchā-śāstra that
Bodhiruci made in 531, titled Sheng siwei fantian suowen jinglun 勝思惟梵天所問
經 論 (Treatise on the Sutra of the Questions of Viśeṣacintābrahma). T26.1532,
341b9–10.
 130. The emphasis of this passage is on sentient beings’ continuous effort,
which, as it yields fruit, encourages and helps them to advance further. Buddhas
and bodhisattvas compassionately protect sentient beings and promise them that
there is such a thing as nirvana. Yet it is only by continuous practice and effort that
sentient beings strengthen the good roots with which they are endowed. As
sentient beings’ good roots mature, the buddhas’ promises are shown to be
genuine. This encourages sentient beings to strive further for nirvana.
131. Huiyuan identifies this with response bodies (nirmāṇa-kāya). T44.1843,
193b29.
132. All sentient beings have an equal capacity for buddhahood, but they differ
in terms of whether they encounter buddhas, bodhisattvas, and good teachers.
They also differ in terms of their relative level of ignorance, which affects how they
respond to such encounters. Fazang comments that all people encounter various
kinds of beings who have the potential to have a positive effect on them. He states
that this is part of the pervasive conditioning of suchness. T44.1846, 272c1–7.
133. The four means of winning people over (saṃgraha-vastu) are methods
used by Buddhist teachers to attract and motivate students. They are: 1)
generosity (dāna), which can involve giving material things as well as Dharma
(teachings), or anything that might be of benefit; 2) speaking kindly (priya-vacana),
in a reassuring and beneficial manner; 3) beneficial conduct (artha-kṛtya), which
involves benefitting others through actions of body, speech, and mind, and acting
in accordance with one’s own words; and 4) acting together (samānārthatā), in
which one puts oneself on the same level as others and works alongside them.
134. The terms “proximate conditions” (jinyuan 近 緣 ) and “remote conditions”
(yuanyuan 遠緣) refer to how close one is to achieving full awakening. They also
appear, in the context of a discussion of discernment (guan 觀 ), in Gautama
Parajñāruci’s translation of the Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna-sūtra, titled Zhengfa
nianchu jing. T17.721, 192c15–16. Unlike in the Treatise, however, there is no
clear association in that text between the two conditions and the time taken to
attain salvation.
135. “Spontaneous” here does not have the sense of being sporadic or arbitrary.
Instead, it means that buddhas and bodhisattvas constantly work for the benefit of
sentient beings in countless ways. During their training, bodhisattvas become so
conditioned to this sort of activity that it becomes wholly spontaneous and does not
require any deliberation on their part.
136. The virtuous roots of sentient beings mature through constant habituation
by buddhas and bodhisattvas. Buddhas and bodhisattvas respond to sentient
beings in ways that enable them to receive benefits. As a result, sentient beings
gain greater insight into their innate nature, which is suchness. This is an important
sense of the One Mind. When sentient beings are sufficiently advanced, they can
successfully engage in meditation and attain progressively greater wisdom and
insight.
 137. The author of the Treatise seems to draw on Bodhiruci’s translation of the
Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra here: “Ordinary people discriminate good and bad dharmas
because they rely on habituation of the mind, mentation, and mental
consciousness [by suchness].” T16.671, 559b19–20.
138. This refers to meditative absorption as a function of suchness. It is effective
precisely because all sentient beings are innately endowed with buddha-nature.
They can then engage in effective meditative practice on the basis of habituation.
According to Fazang, the Treatise is referring here to beginners who are incapable
of comprehending the essence of the dharma body and do not have “post-
enlightenment cognition” 後 得 智 (pṛṣṭha-labdha-jñāna)—or “cognition of how
karmic action operates as a matter of course” 自 然 業 智 in the phrasing of the
Treatise. Fazang goes on to state that these beginning practitioners are unable to
benefit fully from the activities of buddhas’ recompense bodies due to their own
inadequacies. T44.1846, 273a13–16.
139. Fazang comments that these bodhisattvas are in harmony with the
essence of suchness, and so they no longer need to rely solely on faith. T44.1846,
273a16–24.
140. This refers to the four results of meritorious activity (guo de 果 德 )
mentioned in texts associated with the Tathāgatagarbha tradition. In this tradition,
the motto characterizes the true nature of dharmas and reality. The locus classicus
is the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra; see, for example, T12.374, 377c3.
141. This echoes a discussion in Guṇabhadra’s translation of the *Śrīmālādevī-
siṃhanāda-sūtra: “World-Honored One! When inconceivable buddha dharmas
more numerous than the sands of the Ganges, which are not separate, not apart,
and not different [from the dharma body], are perfected, they are called the
dharma body of tathāgatas. World-Honored One! As such when the dharma body
of tathāgatas is not separate from the store of afflictions, it is called the
tathāgatagarbha.” T12.353, 221c9–11. This is consistent with the One Mind Two
Gateways model of the Treatise, in which suchness in its unconditioned mode
corresponds to the dharma body of tathāgatas.
142. This refers to an earlier passage in the Treatise, which reads: “. . . all
dharmas have always been free from the characteristics of language, naming, and
mental perceptions. They are ultimately uniform, invariant, and indestructible. They
are nothing but this One Mind and are therefore called ‘suchness’.” [576a]
143. See also the reference to “only one suchness” (weiyi zhenru 唯一真如) in
the Jin’gangxian lun. T25.1512, 873b23–24.
144. Here the Treatise contrasts limited perception, which applies to all sentient
beings, with omniscience, which applies only to fully awakened beings. The nature
of the mind is potentially omniscient, but its usual mental functions, including
perception, are not.
145. The present passage is similar in both theme and phrasing with the
Jin’gangxian lun. T25.1512, 859a23–859b1.
 146. This refers to the training period following their resolve to attain
buddhahood in order to benefit sentient beings. They take vows to pursue the path
before cultivating the perfections and engaging in various meritorious acts and
meditative practices to fulfill their aspiration to awakening.
147. The pāramitās, or perfections, are the six—sometimes ten—qualities in
which bodhisattvas train on the path to buddhahood. They are: giving, moral
discipline, forbearance, vigorous exertion, concentration, and wisdom. See also
the introduction.
148. In the Jin’gangxian lun, a line in the Diamond Sutra is taken to “show that
tathāgatas have no attachment to the characteristics of sentient beings, yet wish to
liberate them.” T25.1512, 862b22–23. Huiyuan comments that if buddhas are
attached to the characteristics of sentient beings they will be unable to save them.
T44.1843, 195b7–8.
149. Similarly in the Jin’gangxian lun we find the statement that “the dharma
body does not show the excellent characteristics of function that constitute it.”
T25.1512, 856b6–7.
150. Buddhas accommodate the needs of each sentient being as a matter of
course, without plan or calculation, yet always appropriately and effectively.
151. For a discussion of the “response body” (yingshen 應 身 ), see the
introduction. A similar distinction between the three bodies identified in what
follows—the dharma body, the response body, and the recompense body—
appears in the Jin’gangxian lun. See, especially, T25.1512, 855a18–855b9.
152. The operating consciousness is one of the five names for mentation [577b].
153. For Fazang, these are the characteristics (lakṣaṇa) that adorn buddhas’
bodies as a result of their past cultivation of virtue. They attract beings, who then
draw close to buddhas and become their disciples. T44.1846, 275b8–11.
154. For a similar description of the recompense body, see the Jin’gangxian lun.
T25.1512, 829a28–829b6.
155. Cultivation of the perfections is an integrated process. Practice of each
affects the others and enhances them. This appears to be the function of
habituation: as one improves cultivation of ethics, for example, one improves one’s
ability to cultivate the other perfections.
156. These are the six paths (gati) onto which sentient beings are reborn: gods,
demigods, humans, animals, hungry ghosts, and hell beings. None is a final
destination; one is repeatedly reborn on one of these until attaining final liberation.
157. In the Jin’gangxian lun there is the similar claim that bodhisattvas will “know
that they are not separate from the dharma realm of suchness” once they have
“made up their minds to practice and liberate sentient beings to enter nirvana” and
have “cultivated the Pure Land Practice.” T25.1512, 850b29–850c1.
158. This is the first of the ten bodhisattva levels.
159. The “nature of form” is understood to be cognitive because form is
reducible to cognition—it is visible, touchable, and so on. Like cognition, it is
shapeless and permeates everywhere. Form and mind are conceived as non-dual.
In his version of the Treatise, Śikṣānanda writes that “the inherent nature of form is
termed the cognitive body, since it is precisely the self-nature of the mind.”
T32.1667, 588a13–14.
160. “Form,” se 色 (rupa), is used in Buddhist literature in a more general sense
than simply material form, although that is also included in its meaning. It refers to
all the physical things that one senses—the visible, the audible, the gustatory, the
olfactory, and the tactile. According to the Treatise, although we experience these
as sensory, and so in some sense physically, they are in fact cognitive. Since
cognition requires a medium for it to exist, there is no cognition without “form.”
161. In Bodhiruci’s translation of the Dilun, those receptive to teaching are seen
to “reveal the buddha body at will.” T26.1522, 140c18–19.
162. As discussed previously, early commentators take “the mind” to refer to the
seventh consciousness and “consciousnesses” to refer to the first six
consciousnesses. The phrasing that the author of the Treatise uses here is
redolent of the Jin’gangxian lun. That text refers twice to “the sovereignty of
suchness” (zhenru zizai 眞如自在) in discussions of how the mind of the Buddha is
in all sentient beings. T25.1512, 804c12, 806a11.
163. This simile also appears in Buddhabhadra’s fifth-century translation of the
Avataṃsaka-sūtra. T9.278, 721a2–3.
164. A hallmark of Mahāyāna is the claim that not only persons lack selfhood
(ren wu wo 人無我; pudgala-nairātmya), but dharmas are also devoid of self (fa wu
wo 法 無 我 ; dharma-nairātmya). Non-Mahāyāna Buddhists sometimes argued for
non-self (anātman) by reducing a person to the dharmas that constitute that
person, such as the aggregates. Mahāyāna, by contrast, went on to insist dharmas
also lack selfhood.
165. Buddhism has a long and detailed discourse on the problems of the view of
an inherently existing self (wo jian 我見; ātma-dṛṣṭi). The five views listed here are
unusual in that discourse, however. They have mostly been drawn from texts
related to the Tathāgatagarbha tradition.
166. Here, ordinary people think that the nature of buddhas is permanent, like
empty space: they take it to be an affirming quality. Ōtake Susumu 大 竹 晋
suspects that the sutra referred to here is Ru zhufo jingjie zhiguangming
zhuangyan jing 入 諸 佛 境 界 智 光 明 莊 嚴 經
(Sarvabuddhaviṣayāvatārajñānālokālaṃkāra-sūtra; The Ornament of the Light of
Awareness that Enters the Domain of All the Buddhas), as cited by Ratnamati in
his Baoxing lun (T31.1611, 842a28–842b1). See Ōtake Susumu, “Daijō kishin
ron no inyō bunken” 大 乗 起 信 論 の 引 用 文 献 (Sources Cited in the Treatise on
Awakening Mahāyāna Faith), Tetsugaku shisō ronsō 哲学・思想論叢 22 (2004): p.
55.
167. Here space is presented as a mental concept constructed in contrast to
material forms. For example, east and west are mutually entailing constructs and
do not exist independently of one another. Perceived physicality and space are
ultimately mental constructions and so they are reduced to the mind, which is a
synonym for buddhas’ omniscient cognition. There are frequent comparisons
between the dharma body and space in the Jin’gangxian lun; but the antidote
suggested there differs from that proposed in the Treatise. See, for example,
T25.1512, 855a12, 855a24–25, 858c11–17, inter alia.
168. Ordinary people think that emptiness is an affirming quality of the nature of
suchness. A possible source for this scriptural reference is the
Mahāprajñāpāramitā-sūtra. T8.223, 224b28–c1, 276b7. A similar reference to the
intrinsic emptiness of dharmas (citing the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-sūtra) appears in a
discussion of the self in the Jin’gangxian lun. T25.1512, 813c20–814a4, 869a13–
14. See Ōtake Susumu, “Daijō kishin ron no inyō bunken,” pp. 56–57.
169. Takemura Makio traces this scriptural reference to Foshuo buzeng bujian
jing 佛 說 不 增 不 減 經 . T16.668, 467a19–21, 467c7–10. See Takemura Makio,
Kaiteiban Daijō kishin ron dokushaku, pp. 356–357, 400. There is also reference to
“intrinsically having a full complement of” good qualities in the Jin’gangxian lun.
T25.1512, 819c19–20.
170. Takemura Makio traces the first part of this scriptural reference to
Guṇabhadra’s translation of the *Śrīmālādevī-siṃhanāda-sūtra (T12.353, 222b5–
12) and Bodhiruci’s translation of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra (T16.670, 556b22–25).
Ōtake Susumu notes that Ratnamati’s Baoxing lun cites the relevant passage from
the *Śrīmālādevī-siṃhanāda-sūtra (T31.1611, 839b1–3). The Baoxing lun seems
most pertinent to the Treatise. Its citation of the *Śrīmālādevī-siṃhanāda-sūtra
claims that birth and death depend on the tathāgatagarbha. If the tathāgatagarbha
did not exist, there would be no motivation to hate suffering and pursue nirvana. In
suggesting that the tathāgatagarbha is free of differentiation, like the dharma body,
it further addresses themes already covered in this section of the Treatise. See
Takemura Makio, Kaiteiban Daijō kishin ron dokushaku, p. 400; Ōtake Susumu,
“Daijō kishin ron no inyō bunken,” pp. 59–60.
171. Takemura Makio traces this scriptural reference to the quotation of the
*Śrīmālādevī-siṃhanāda-sūtra that appears in Ratnamati’s Baoxing lun (T31.1611,
839b3–4). See Takemura Makio, Kaiteiban Daijō kishin ron dokushaku, pp. 400–
401.
172. These beings are not fixed in their commitment to Mahāyāna and may
revert to Hīnayāna tendencies unless they encounter the sorts of conditions that
will keep them on the bodhisattva path.
173. The ten kinds of wholesome behavior are: not killing living beings, not
stealing, not engaging in sexual misconduct, not speaking falsely, not slandering,
not speaking divisively, not gossiping, not being greedy, not feeling anger, and not
subscribing to wrong views.
174. Mahāyāna texts propose various ways of “encountering buddhas” when
none is alive during one’s own lifetime. One fervently practices in order to be
reborn in the presence of a buddha, either when a buddha is on earth once more,
or through rebirth in a buddha land, such as Amitābha’s Pure Land. Additionally,
the tathāgatagarbha signifies a capacity to project response-body buddhas who
can respond in various ways to the needs of a practitioner, including appearing in
physical form. Another way to “encounter buddhas” is by being “mindful of
buddhas” (nian fo 念 佛 ; buddhānusmṛti), through such practices as visualizing
buddhas, reciting their names, and so on.
175. There are various predictions in Buddhist literature of the decline and
eclipse of the true Dharma. See Jan Nattier, Once Upon a Future Time: Studies
in a Buddhist Prophecy of Decline (Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press, 1991).
176. A similar division, between the group of beings certain to achieve
awakening and those who are still not certain of achieving awakening, appears in
Ratnamati’s Baoxing lun. T31.1611, 829a12–15.
177. The consequence of meeting buddhas and making offerings is positive:
rebirth as a human or god is desirable because it provides additional opportunities
to increase the roots of good virtues and so advance on the Way. Such
opportunities are limited for these sentient beings, however; they are not sufficient
for rebirth as a bodhisattva, for example.
178. Fazang cites the She dasheng lun shi, which indicates that many novice
practitioners on the bodhisattva path still lack sufficient compassion for sentient
beings and so they willingly abandon the basic Mahāyāna vows in favor of the
Hīnayāna path. T44.1846, 278c17–19. For the section of the She dasheng lun shi
to which Fazang refers, see T31.1595, 265a4–7.
179. This refers either to seeing an image of a buddha, such as a painting or
statue, or to visualization practices.
180. The use of “level” (di 地 ) here does not refer to one of the ten levels, or
bhūmis, on the bodhisattva path; it precedes entry into Mahāyāna faith. One who
has aroused the aspiration to awakening may regress, but only to the level of the
Two Vehicles.
181. In his translation of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra, Bodhiruci identifies being
mindful of suchness as one of the four forms of meditative absorption. T16.671,
533a3; see also the discussion at T16.671, 533a14–17.
182. In his translation of the Dilun, Bodhiruci refers to different kinds of mind—
the upright mind (zhixin 直心), the profound mind (shenxin 深心), the mind of great
compassion (dabei 大悲)—in identical phrasing to the Treatise, although not as a
list. T26.1522, 135b2–4.
183. The maṇi jewel is commonly associated with the tathāgatagarbha in
Buddhist literature. This image is similar in language and theme to its use in
Ratnamati’s Baoxing lun. T31.1611, 834b5–7.
184. This final phrase echoes Bodhiruci’s translation of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra.
T16.671, 573c18.
185. By “not abiding in nirvana” (apratiṣṭhita-nirvāṇa), one is free from the cycle
of birth and death (saṃsāra) while still able to act within it. In Mahāyāna, this is
one way in which the highest-level bodhisattvas could voluntarily continue to assist
sentient beings without advancing to final nirvana.
 186. Nescience (chi 癡; moha) is the third of the three poisons, considered more
deep-seated and harder to extirpate than the other two. A consistent theme of the
Treatise is how ignorance is the root cause of suffering and so needs to be
remedied.
187. This skillful means enables the transition to nirvana without remainder
(nirupadhiśeṣa-nirvāṇa), in which all residue of one’s karmic actions is
extinguished.
188. The Treatise reminds its readers that dharma nature is never extinguished,
and that nirvana never ends, to avoid the misconception that nirvana without
remainder entails annihilation or absolute nonexistence.
189. This list of the main episodes in the life of the Buddha is close to that found
in Bodhiruci’s translation of the Dilun. T26.1522, 197c24–25. These eight episodes
later became standard in visual depictions of the Buddha’s life.
190. This may refer to traditions relating to the Buddha’s past lives as a
bodhisattva, according to which negative events in his final life were attributed to
the residual effects of bad karma from his past. See Mary E. Lilley, ed., The
Apadāna of the Khuddaka Nikāya (London: Pali Text Society, 1925), pp. 299–301.
191. These “bad destinies” are animals, hungry ghosts, and hell beings.
192. Huiyuan says that this refers to the “indeterminate group.” T44.1843,
199c16. When discussing this passage in his Daeseung gisil lon byeolgi, Wonhyo
draws a connection with the Pusa yingluo benye jing 菩 薩 瓔 珞 本 業 經 (Sutra on
the Primary Activities that are the Necklaces of the Bodhisattvas), traditionally
attributed to Zhu Fonian 竺 佛 念 (fourth century). T44.1845, 240b20–24. For the
relevant passage in Pusa yingluo benye jing, see T24.1485, 1014c4–5, 1014c7–
11. Takemura Makio and Ōtake Susumu claim that this scriptural allusion comes
from the translation of the Bodhisattvabhūmi-sūtra by the Central Indian translator-
monk Dharmakṣema (385–433), titled Pusa dichi jing 菩 薩 地 持 經 (Bodhisattva
Levels Sutra). T30.1581, 889b8. This, in turn, seems to derive from Jin’gangxian
lun. T25.1512, 803b27–29. See Takemura Makio, Kaiteiban Daijō kishin ron
dokushaku, pp. 426–428; Ōtake Susumu, “Daijō kishin ron no inyō bunken,” pp.
60–63.
193. Bodhiruci identifies four stages of aspiration to awakening in his translation
of the Gayāśīrṣa-sūtra, titled Jiaye shanding jing 伽耶山頂經 (Summit of Mt. Gaja
Sutra). The second is the stage of understanding and practice (jie xing 解 行 ).
T14.467, 490c1–4. “A change for the better” (zhuansheng 轉 勝 ) indicates
progressive improvement, which is the core import of the heroic effort expected of
bodhisattvas, as mentioned above. In his translation of the Dilun, Bodhiruci states
that the sixth bodhisattva level is “a change for the better” because it offers a
means of practice superior to those that precede it. T26.1522, 167c16–21.
194. The euphemism “suchness” here means that one simply sees everything
just as it is: an omniscient, pervasive cognition replaces the fields of discrete
perceptions. Bodhiruci’s translation of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra also refers to
“cognition of suchness” (zhenru zhi 眞如智). T16.671, 569a4–7.
 195. The phrase “timid sentient beings” (qieruo zhongsheng 怯 弱 眾 生 ) occurs
only three times in extant texts before the Treatise, all translations attributed to
Bodhiruci: the Dilun, T.26.1522, 190a4; the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra, T16.671, 560c5;
and the Jin’gangxian lun, T25.1512, 800b8–9.
196. Wonhyo (T44.1844, 220c7–12) and Fazang (T44.1846, 280c12–20)
comment that the first of these three kinds of mind refers to non-conceptual
cognition (nirvikalpa); the second refers to subsequent cognition (pṛṣṭhalabdha-
jñāna), which is the way awakened beings cognize after they have achieved
awakening in the eighth bodhisattva level; the third supports the first two kinds of
mind but, unlike them, does not form part of the pure qualities of buddhas, since it
remains subject to arising and ceasing. Their glosses are questionable, however.
For example, their gloss of the second mind offers an idiosyncratic interpretation of
subsequent cognition.
197. The Ultimate Realm of Form (Akaniṣṭha) is the highest level of the last of
the four meditation heavens in the realm of form. Huiyuan identifies “the greatest,
tallest bodies of all the mundane realms” as recompense bodies. T44.1843,
200a28–29.
198. The idea that omniscience (yiqie zhongzhi 一切種智) “accords with insight
in a single thought-moment” appears several times, with identical phrasing, in
Kumārajīva’s translation of the Dazhidu lun. See, for example, T8.223, 378b20–22.
199. The same claim, in similar phrasing, appears in Dharmakṣema’s early fifth-
century translation of the Upāsakāśīla-sūtra, titled Youposai jie jing 優 婆 塞 戒 經
(Sutra on the Precepts for Laymen). T24.1488, 1037c26–27.
200. For Fazang, the attainment of omniscience is the natural result of
eliminating all false concepts. T44.1846, 281a4–9. For Yinshun, the idea of
omniscience developed in this passage of the Treatise has two senses. The first is
the realization that all deluded dharmas are not apart from suchness. The second
is the capacity of buddhas to save sentient beings by explaining dharmas in a way
that accords with different individual capacities. In so doing, buddhas themselves
remain aware that deluded dharmas are no different from ultimate truth, or dharma
nature. Dasheng qixin lun jiangji, pp. 223–224.
201. What is ubiquitous cannot offer a point of focus precisely because it is
ubiquitous—like a fish unable to know that it is in water.
202. Following fundamental faith, the next three kinds of commitment to faith are
versions of the three refuges with which the text began and which serve as the
foundation for Buddhist thought and practice.
203. As discussed in the introduction, this list covers the first five of the six
pāramitās.
204. Reading yuan li 遠離 for su li 速離 (“rapidly freeing oneself from [the many
kinds of suffering]”), based on the recurrence of this phrase elsewhere in the text.
205. The phrase “in conformity with śamatha” appears in the Saṃdhinirmocana-
sūtra made by Bodhiruci in 514, under the title Jie shenmi jing 解 深 密 經 (Sutra
Explaining the Profound and Esoteric Doctrine). T16.675, 674c11–12.
 206. This echoes phrasing that Bodhiruci uses in his translation of the Dilun,
where he writes that “the two practices of śamatha and vipaśyanā are experienced
together in a single thought-moment.” T26.1522, 175b21–22. See the introduction
for a discussion of śamatha and vipaśyanā meditation practices.
207. This is because the mind cannot self-reflexively conceive of itself.
208. In the Jin’gangxian lun the buddha-natures of both the buddhas and
sentient beings are said to be “of a unitary body, uniform, non-dual, and without
differentiation.” T25.1512, 804c5–8. There is a similar statement in the
Saptaśatikā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra, translated by *Mandra 曼陀羅仙 (fl. 503) in the
early sixth century as Wenshushili suoshuo Mohe bore boluomi jing 文殊師利所說
摩 訶 般 若 波 羅 蜜 經 (The Large Prajñāpāramitā Sutra as Explained by Mañjuśrī):
“With the unitary characteristic of the dharma realm, one takes the dharma realm
as an object of contemplation. This is called the samādhi of unifying practice.”
T8.232, 731a26–27. In his commentary on the Treatise, Wonhyo draws attention to
this similarity. T44.1844, 233b14–19.
209. Wonhyo understands the focus of this practice to be suchness. T44.1844,
233b24–25.
210. Buddhas are endowed with the physical characteristics of a great man
(mahāpuruṣa-lakṣaṇa), such as a cranial lump (uṣṇīṣa) and a cakra design on
their palms and the soles of their feet. They have thirty-two “major characteristics”
and eighty “minor characteristics,” which uniquely attest to their attainment of
buddhahood. For a discussion of this idea, see John Powers, A Bull of a Man:
Images of Masculinity, Sex, and the Body in Indian Buddhism (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 2009), pp. 1–66.
211. Following the variant huo shuo 或說, for ruo shuo 若 說 , which appears in
the versions of the text in several editions of the Tripiṭaka, and also in the 754
manuscript edition preserved in Kyōto’s Kanchi in 觀 智 院 . The same variant
appears in the following phrase. See T32.1666, 582b8; Ui Hakuju 宇井伯寿 and
Takasaki Jikido 高崎直道, trans. and eds., Daijō kishin ron 大乗起信論 (Treatise on
Awakening Mahāyāna Faith) (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, rpt. 2013), p. 98; Frédéric
Girard, trans., Traité sur l’acte de foi dans le Grand Véhicule, p. 148.
212. These are the six pāramitās set out earlier in the Treatise under a
discussion of “the aspiration to awakening through understanding and practicing
the Way” [581a].
213. Huiyuan comments that these are all supernatural powers that may create
confusion. T44.1843, 201a20–21.
214. The final phrase of this sentence echoes Bodhiruci’s translation of the Mile
pusa suowen jinglun 彌 勒 菩 薩 所 問 經 論 (Treatise on the Sutra of the Questions
Asked by Maitreya), a commentarial treatise on the *Maitreya-paripṛcchōpadeśa-
sūtra. T26.1525, 238c11–13.
215. “Good teachers” (shan zhishi 善知識) is a technical term, equivalent to the
Sanskrit kalyāṇa-mitra. It refers to people who provide help and advice on the path
and who also bolster practitioners’ enthusiasm and commitment.
 216. It is a basic Buddhist tenet that all karmic actions will come to fruition
sometime in the future, without any loss of karmic consequences between the time
of the initial action and its eventual maturation. Ōtake Susumu identifies in the
phrasing of this passage an echo of Kumārajīva’s translation of the Vimalakīrti-
nirdeśa-sūtra; see Ōtake Susumu, “Daijō kishin ron no inyō bunken,” p. 63. For the
parallel in Kumārajīva’s original work, see T14.475, 537c15–16.
217. This relates to the sixth reason given for composing the treatise: “. . . to
show how to practice calming and discernment, which are antidotes to the mental
faults of ordinary people and adherents of the Two Vehicles” [575c].
218. In this account, practitioners of the Lesser Vehicle feel that the path of the
bodhisattva, who vows to save all sentient beings, is too difficult and so opt for the
easier path of personal salvation. For Fazang, śamatha meditation counteracts
ordinary beings’ indulgence in worldly pleasures based on their belief that things
have an intrinsic nature. It also counteracts the fear that adherents of the Two
Vehicles feel because they witness suffering—their main obstacle to great
compassion. T44.1846, 286b10–13.
219. The Sahā realm refers to our world. Since Śākyamuni died, buddhas do not
occupy our world. The next buddha, Maitreya, is not due to arrive for a long time.
As a result, it is impossible to fulfil the stipulation of meeting a buddha. The
solution of being mindful of buddhas was a crucial Mahāyāna innovation.
220. As noted above, the “bad paths” of rebirth are those of animals, hungry
ghosts, and hell beings.
221. At the time of the Treatise’s composition, the practice of “being mindful of
buddhas” (buddha-anusmṛti) mainly comprised elaborate visualizations of buddhas
and their realms, sometimes accompanied by recitations for the buddhas and
physical actions. This passage is a truncated version of earlier visualization sutras
that elaborate how and why one engages in such visualizations. Amitābha is the
buddha of the western paradise, Sukhāvatī. According to later East Asian Pure
Land traditions, one cultivates the karmic conditions for being reborn there by
constantly reciting his name. See the introduction for an outline of these practices
and their development. Ōtake Susumu identifies the source of this scriptural
quotation as Saṃghavarman’s third-century translation of the Sukhāvatīvyūha-
sūtra, titled Wuliang shou jing 無 量 壽 經 (Sutra of Limitless Life); see Ōtake
Susumu, “Daijō kishin ron no inyō bunken,” p. 62. The locus classicus is T12.360,
272b11–13.
222. A great trichiliocosm realm denotes the whole domain of the Buddha. In
ancient Indian cosmology, it also serves figuratively to indicate the vastness of the
universe. As Ōtake Susumu notes, this content and phrasing find parallels in the
Sarvadharmapravṛttinirdeśa-sūtra, translated by Kumārajīva in 401 under the title
Zhufa wuxing jing 諸 法 無 行 經 (Sutra Denying Practice in Various Methods); see
Ōtake Susumu, “Daijō kishin ron no inyō bunken,” p. 64. The locus classicus is
T15.650, 753b19–22.
 ENGLISH-TO-CHINESE GLOSSARY

accommodate: sui 隨.
accord with: sui 隨.
adapt to conditions: sui yuan 隨緣.
adapt to: sui 隨.
ālaya consciousness: aliye shi 阿梨耶識 (Skt. ālayavijñāna).
arising-and-ceasing: shengmie 生滅.
arouse the aspiration (for awakening): faxin 發心 (Skt. bodhicitta or
cittotpāda).
associated: xiangying 相應.
awakening (to have an unobstructed mind that pervades everything):
jue 覺.
awakening: puti 菩提 (Skt. bodhi).
awareness: jue 覺.
bodhisattva (being that pursues awakening): pusa 菩薩.
boundary: fenqi 分齊.
a buddha, the Buddha (Tathāgata): rulai 如來 (Skt. tathāgata).
Buddhist doctrine: fa 法 (Skt. Dharma).
the basic factors of experience: fa 法 (Skt. dharma)
calming: zhi 止 (Skt. śamatha).
characteristics: xiang 相.
cognition, cognitive: zhi 智.
combine: hehe 和合.
commitment to faith: xinxin 信心.
conceive: nian 念.
conceptual and sensory fields: chen 塵.
conceptualize: xiang 想.
conditioned dharmas: youwei fa 有為法.
consciousness: shi 識 (some early commentators also used the term
to refer to the first six consciousnesses).
constantly abiding: chang zhu 常住 (Skt. nitya).
continuing consciousness, one of the five names for mentation (yi
意): xiangxu shi 相續識.
correct mindfulness: zheng nian 正念.
dependent arising: yuanqi 緣起.
dharma body: fashen 法身 (Skt. dharmakāya).
dharma nature (the true nature of reality; suchness): faxing 法性.
dharma realm (the full range of experiential fields): fajie 法 界 (Skt.
dharmadhātu).
differentiate: chabie 差別.
discern: zhi 智.
discerning consciousness: zhi shi 智識.
discernment: guan 觀 (Skt. vipaśyanā).
discriminate, discrimination: fenbie 分別.
dissociated: bu xingying 不相應.
distinctions: chabie 差別.
eighth consciousness: alaiye shi 阿賴耶識 (Skt. ālayavijñāna).
faith: xin 信 (Skt. śraddhā).
false thoughts: wang nian 妄念.
final awakening: jiujing jue 究竟覺.
free from: li 離.
good qualities: fa 法 (Skt. dharma).
Great Vehicle: dasheng 大乘 (Skt. Mahāyāna).
habituation: xunxi 熏習 (Skt. vāsanā).
hindrance: zhang 障.
ignorance: wuming 無明.
incalculable eons: asengqi jie 阿僧祇劫 (Skt. asaṃkhyeya-kalpa).
inherent awakening: ben jue 本覺.
initial awakening: shi jue 始覺.
intrinsic characteristics: zixiang 自相.
intrinsic nature: tixing 體性.
intrinsic reality (the quality of something being so of itself, without
relying on anything more fundamental to be what it is): ti 體.
itself: ti 體.
karmic consciousness, one of the five names for mentation (yi 意 ):
ye shi 業識.
laws: fa 法 (Skt. dharma).
level of practice: di 地 (Skt. bhūmi).
Mahāyāna: moheyan 摩訶衍.
meditative absorption: sanmei 三昧 (Skt. samādhi).
memory: nian 念.
mental and physical constituents: fa 法 (Skt. dharma).
mental consciousness; the sixth consciousness (manovijñāna): yi shi
意識.
mental perceptions: xinyuan 心緣.
mentation: yi 意 (manas).
merit: gongde 功徳 (Skt. puṇya).
mind: xin 心 (some early commentators also used the term to refer to
the seventh consciousness).
mindfulness: nian 念.
mundane: shijian 世間.
nature of the mind: xinxing 心性.
non-awakening: bu jue 不覺.
non-dual: wu’er 無二.
operating consciousness, one of the five names for mentation (yi 意):
zhuan shi 轉識.
own intrinsic reality: ziti 自體.
perceptual fields: jingjie 境界.
perfections (practices that deliver one to the other shore of
enlightenment or buddhahood): boluomi 波羅蜜 (Skt. pāramitā).
permeation: xunxi 熏習 (Skt. vāsanā).
the potential for awakening (buddhahood): rulaizang 如 來 藏 (Skt.
tathāgatagarbha).
presenting consciousness, one of the five names for mentation (yi
意): xian shi 現識.
principles: fa 法 (Skt. dharma).
qualities: gongde 功徳 (Skt. guṇa).
recompense body or bodies: baoshen 報身 (Skt. saṃbhogakāya).
relapse: tui 退.
response body or bodies: yingshen 應身 (Skt. nirmāṇakāya).
rules: fa 法 (Skt. dharma).
sensory and conceptual fields: chen 塵.
separate from: li 離.
set at a distance: yuan li 遠離.
skillful means: fangbian 方便.
sovereign: zizai 自在.
store consciousness: alaiye shi 阿賴耶識 (Skt. ālayavijñāna).
store: zang 藏.
suchness (reality as it truly is without any conceptual overlay):
zhenru 真如 (Skt. tathatā).
supramundane: chu shijian 出世間.
sutra/s: xiuduoluo 修多羅 (Skt. sūtra).
thought-moment: nian 念.
trust: xin 信 (Skt. śraddhā).
Two Gateways (the two aspects of the One Mind): er men 二門.
unconditioned dharmas: wuwei fa 無為法.
understanding: jie 解.
uniform: pingdeng 平等.
untainted: wulou 無漏.
ways of understanding reality: fa 法 (Skt. Dharma/dharma).
wisdom: zhi 智.
 CHINESE-TO-ENGLISH GLOSSARY

alaiye shi 阿 賴 耶 識 (Skt. ālayavijñāna) : store consciousness; the

eighth consciousness.
aliye shi 阿梨耶識: ālaya consciousness (= ālayavijñāna).
asengqi jie 阿僧祇劫 (Skt. asaṃkhyeya-kalpa): incalculable eons.
baoshen 報身 (Skt. saṃbhogakāya): recompense body or bodies.
ben jue 本覺: inherent awakening.
boluomi 波 羅 蜜 (Skt. pāramitā): perfections (practices that deliver
one to the other shore of enlightenment or buddhahood).
bu jue 不覺: non-awakening.
bu xingying 不相應: dissociated.
chabie 差別: distinctions; differentiate.
chang zhu 常住 (Skt. nitya): constantly abiding.
chen 塵: sensory and conceptual fields.
chu shijian 出世間: supramundane.
dasheng 大乘: Great Vehicle (Skt. Mahāyāna).
di 地 (Skt. bhūmi): level of practice.
er men 二門: Two Gateways (the two aspects of the One Mind).
fa 法 (Skt. Dharma/dharma): 1. Buddhist doctrine. 2. the basic
factors of experience, mental and physical constituents. 3. good
qualities, principles, rules or laws, practices. 4. ways of
understanding reality, truth.
fajie 法 界 : (Skt. dharmadhātu): dharma realm (the full range of
experiential fields).
fangbian 方便: skillful means.
fashen 法身 (Skt. dharmakāya): dharma body.
faxin 發 心 (Skt. bodhicitta or cittotpāda): arouse the aspiration (for
awakening).
faxing 法性: dharma nature (the true nature of reality; suchness).
fenbie 分別: discriminate; discrimination.
fenqi 分齊: 1. boundary, bounded. 2. in moderation.
gongde 功徳: 1. merit (Skt. puṇya). 2. qualities (Skt. guṇa).
guan 觀 (Skt. vipaśyanā): discernment.
hehe 和合: combine.
jie 解: understanding.
jingjie 境界: perceptual fields.
jiujing jue 究竟覺: final awakening.
jue 覺 : awakening, awareness (to have an unobstructed mind that
pervades everything).
li 離: free of/from; separate (from).
moheyan 摩訶衍: Mahāyāna.
nian 念: 1. mindfulness or memory. 2. thought-moment. 3. conceive,
conceiving.
pingdeng 平等: uniform, uniformity.
pusa 菩薩: bodhisattva (being that pursues awakening).
puti 菩提: bodhi (awakening).
rulai 如來 (Skt. tathāgata): a buddha; the Buddha (Tathāgata).
rulaizang 如來藏 (Skt. tathāgatagarbha): the potential for awakening
(buddhahood).
sanmei 三昧 (Skt. samādhi): meditative absorption.
shengmie 生滅: arising-and-ceasing.
shi 識: consciousness (some early commentators also used the term
to refer to the first six consciousnesses).
shijian 世間: mundane.
shi jue 始覺: initial awakening.
sui 隨 : to accord with; to accommodate; to follow; to respond to; to
adapt to.
sui yuan 隨緣: adapt to conditions.
ti 體 : 1. intrinsic reality: the quality of something being so of itself,
without relying on anything more fundamental to be what it is.
(Alternative translations: substance, essence). 2. itself.
tixing 體性: intrinsic nature.
tui 退: relapse.
wang nian 妄念: false thoughts.
wu’er 無二: non-dual.
wulou 無漏: untainted.
wuming 無明: ignorance.
wuwei fa 無為法: unconditioned dharmas.
ye shi 業 識 : karmic consciousness, one of the five names for
mentation (yi 意).
youwei fa 有為法: conditioned dharmas.
yuan li 遠離: set at a distance; far removed from.
xiang 相: characteristics.
xiang 想: conceptualize.
xian shi 現識 : presenting consciousness, one of the five names for
mentation (yi 意).
xiangxu shi 相續識: continuing consciousness, one of the five names
for mentation (yi 意).
xiangying 相應: associated.
xin 心 : the mind (some early commentators also used the term to
refer to the seventh consciousness).
xin 信 (Skt. śraddhā): faith, trust.
xinyuan 心緣: mental perceptions.
xinxin 信心: commitment to faith.
xinxing 心性: the nature of the mind.
xiuduoluo 修多羅 (Skt. sūtra): sutra/s.
xunxi 熏習 (Skt. vāsanā): habituation, permeation.
yi 意 (manas): 1. mentation. 2. the continuity- and ego-positing
consciousness.
yingshen 應身 (Skt. nirmāṇakāya): response body or bodies.
yi shi 意 識 : mental consciousness; the sixth consciousness
(manovijñāna).
yuanqi 緣起: dependent arising.
zang 藏: store.
zhang 障: hindrance.
zhenru 真如 (Skt. tathatā): suchness (reality as it truly is without any
conceptual overlay).
zheng nian 正念: correct mindfulness.
zhi 止 (Skt. śamatha): calming.
zhi 智: 1. wisdom. 2. cognition, cognitive. 3. discern.
zhi shi 智識: discerning consciousness.
zhuan shi 轉識: operating consciousness, one of the five names for
mentation (yi 意).
ziti 自體: own intrinsic reality.
zixiang 自相: intrinsic characteristics.
zizai 自在: sovereign.
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 INDEX

For the benefit of digital users, indexed terms that span two pages
(e.g., 52–53) may, on occasion, appear on only one of those pages.
abhidharma (higher doctrine), 53n99
afflictive obstructions, 78–79n64, 89n102
ākāśa (realm of space). See realm of space
ālayavijñāna (store consciousness). See store consciousness (ālayavijñāna)
Amitābha Buddha, 24n49
mindfulness and visualization of, 135–36n221, 135–36
arhats, 88n98, 94
arising and ceasing
cause and condition of, 83
characteristics of, 90–92
commentarial differences in relation to, 50–51
gateway of mind as, 16, 25–26, 43, 44–45, 46, 66n33, 68, 71–72, 108–9
and intrinsic reality, 91–92
and karmic consciousness, 103
suchness in the gateway of the mind as, 25, 102–8n163, 102–9
Asaṅga, Yogācāra master, 5, 27, 52–53
aspiration to awakening, 113–24
consummation of faith, 114–19n192, 114–20
and fear, 118–20, 119n192
and mind, 116–17, 122
through realizing the Way, 121–24n201, 121–24
through understanding and practice, 120n193, 120–21
Aśvaghoṣa, putative author of Treatise, 5–6n3, 5–6
and origins of Treatise, 57–58, 60
attachment and grasping, 81
awakening
and analogy of defective eyesight, 73n50
and analogy of ocean and wind, 75n56
aspiration to, 113–24
description of, 28, 72–73
final awakening, 74n54, 74
 four characteristics of, 29–30
and ignorance, 19–20, 46–49
implication of term, 3
inherent awakening, 72n49, 98n128, 98n129, 103
initial awakening, 72n49, 74–75
as intrinsic reality, 77–78n62
levels of, 75n56
and mind, as arising and ceasing, 72–79n65, 72–79
and mind, characteristics of, 122
non-awakening, 79–83n81, 79–83, 81–82n76
partial awakening, 74
process of, 79n65
relationship of awakening and non-awakening, 82–83
resemblance to a mirror, 38
semblance of, 73
senses of, 77–79
and thought-moments, 73–74n52 See also qixin (awakening or giving rise to
faith)

bhūmis (levels), 3, 34–36

bodhicitta, and bodhisattva path, 35, 41n72
Bodhiruci, translator-monk, 6–8
on aspiration to awakening, 120n193
on bodhisattvas' powers of perception, 107n157
on characteristic of perpetual fields, 80n71
Daśabhūmi-vyākhyāna, translation of, 34–35
on the dharma body, 72n48
on discriminating good and bad dharmas, 87
on kinds of consciousness, 80–81n72
on kinds of mind, 116n182
Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra, translation of, 17, 21, 76n59
on meditative absorption, 116n181
and northern branch of Dilun school, 12
on sovereignty of suchness, 108n162
bodhisattvas
dharma body bodhisattva, 74n53, 107–8
encountering in life, 114–15
episodes of life, 118–20, 119n189
experiences of the dharma body, 86–87
and habituation, 94n117
as Mahāyāna practitioners, 2
powers of perception, 107
sentient beings, response to, 101n136
 ten levels of path, 3, 34–36
Buddha
domain of, 136–37n222
home of, 58n9
"perfect voice" of, 65n30
buddha-nature
practice required for, 14–15
of buddhas and sentient beings, 129n208
buddhas
characteristics of, 129–30n210
dharmas of, 97–98
perceiving bodies of, 124
sentient beings, response to, 101n136 See also three-bodies doctrine
Buddhism
doctrinal classification of Buddhist texts, 46n84, 46–47
of northern and southern China, 8
in Northern Zhou state, outlawing of, 10–11
Three Jewels of, 57n7

Calming (zhi; samādhi)

and perfections, 23–24, 64n28
cultivating and practicing, 132–34
and discernment, 127–29, 133–34
causal levels, of tathāgatas, 104n146, 104–5
causes and conditions, 91n108
of arising and ceasing, 83
proximate conditions, 100n134, 100
remote conditions, 100n134, 100
characteristics
extinction of, 76n59
of non-awakening, 80, 81–82n76
subtle vs. coarse, 80n68, 90–91
Chen state, sixth-century China, 9–10
cognition
characteristics of, 81
and form, 108n160
purity of, 75n57, 76–77
cognitive fields, kinds of, 69n38
cognitive obstructions, 78–79n64, 89n102
cognizer and cognized, 89n100
combined consciousness, 76n58, 78–79n64
commentarial differences
on analogy of ocean and wind, 51–52
 on gateway of arising and ceasing, 50–51
on habituation of suchness, 52–55
commentaries on Treatise, 36–49
Daeseung gisil lon byeolgi, commentary by Wonhyo, 42–45
Dasheng qixin lun yiji, commentary by Fazang, 45–49
Dasheng qixin lun yishu, commentary by Huiyuan, 38–41
Gisil lon so, commentary by Wonhyo, 42–45
Hane 333V, 42
Qixin lun yishu, commentary by Tanyan, 36–38
conceiving (nian)
and characteristics of awakening, 91n109
definitions of, 39n62
consciousnesses
combined, 76n58, 78–79n64
continuously flowing, 84
discerning, 84
eight, 13–14
grasping, 13–14
karmic, 84
kinds of, 69n38
mind and, 102–3, 107–8
operating, 84
phenomena-discriminating, 86n90, 96, 105–6
presenting, 84
relationships among, 40–41 See also mentation and seventh consciousness and
store consciousness
consummation of faith, and aspiration to awakening, 114–19n192, 114–20
continuous flow
characteristic of, 61, 81n74, 81
extinction of, 76n59
mind and, 91–92, 92n110
cravings, and false views, 95n120

Daeseung gisil lon byeolgi, commentary on Treatise, 42–45

on analogy of ocean and wind, 75n56
on combined consciousness, 76n58
Daoism, outlawing of in Northern Zhou state, 10–11
Daśabhūmi-vyākhyāna, translation of, 34–35
Dasheng (Great Vehicle; Mahāyāna). See Great Vehicle (Dasheng; Mahāyāna)
Dasheng qixin lun. See Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith
Dasheng qixin lun yiji, commentary on Treatise, 45–49
Dasheng qixin lun yishu, commentary on Treatise, 38–41
Dazhidu lun, 80n69
defiled mind
associated vs. disassociated, 89n101, 89–90
six types of, 33–34, 87–90
dependent arising, 14–15, 21n42, 56–57n2
devising names, characteristic of, 81
dharma
characteristics of, 113
dharma of suchness and habituation of ignorance, 95
dharmas of buddhas, 97–98
habituation by, 92, 102
and lack of selfhood, 109n164
meaning of, 57n3, 66–67n34, 66, 68n37
of the One Mind, 68
self-nature of, 112–13
unconditioned dharmas, 53n99, 54–55
untainted dharmas, 96–97, 97n125
dharma body (fashen), 27–28, 72n48, 74n53, 102–3, 103n141, 104
bodhisattvas experience of, 86–87, 107–8
and dharma realm, 72n48
dharma nature (faxing), 14–15, 23n46, 57n4, 57n6, 118n188, 118–20
dharma realm (fajie), 60n19, 72n48
Dilun school of Buddhism
consistency of Treatise with, 16
emergence of, 11n12, 11–16
northern and southern branches of, 12–13
and requirements for buddha-nature, 14–15
discerning consciousness, 84
discernment (guan; vipaśyanā)
and calming, 127–29, 133–34
and perfections, 23–24, 64n28
cultivating and practicing, 132–33
disorientation, 79n67, 79–80
doctrinal classification of Buddhist texts, 46–47, 54n103

emptiness, vs. non-emptiness, 39n63

eyesight, analogy of defective, 73n50

faith (xin; śraddhā)

awakening of, 4
kinds of commitment to, 117n183, 125
false mind, habituation by, 94, 96
false views, and cravings, 95n120
Fazang, commentator on Treatise, 45–49
 on analogy of ocean and wind, 52
on beginning practitioners, 101n138
on bodhisattvas, 96n123
on cause and condition of arising and ceasing, 83n82
doctrines and doctrinal classification of, 46–47, 54n103
on gateway of arising and ceasing, 51
on habituation of suchness, 53, 55
on inherent buddha-nature, 98n128, 98n129
life of, 45–46
on recompense body (baoshen), 106n153
on sentient beings, 82n79
fear, and the aspiration to awakening, 118–20, 119n192
final awakening, 29–30, 72–73, 74n54, 74
form
characteristics of, 110
and space, 110n167
nature of, 107–8n159, 108n160
form body (seshen), 27

Gisil lon so, commentary on Treatise, 42–45

good deeds, 117
grasping consciousness (ādānavijñāna), 13–14
Great Vehicle (dasheng; Mahāyāna)
as component of Dasheng qixin lun title, 2
use and significance of term, 5
Guṇabhadra, translator, 17–18

habituation, 18–19, 92–102n139, 92–102

commentarial differences on, 52–55
by defiled dharmas, 102
and external conditions, 99–101
by false mind, 94, 96
by false perceptual fields, 94
by four kinds of dharma, 92
by function of intrinsic reality, 101–2
by ignorance, 92–95, 93n115, 94–95n118
by mentation, 96
perpetual habituation, 96–97
by phenomena-discriminating consciousness, 96
by pure dharmas, 102
spontaneous habituation, 100–1n135, 100–1
by suchness, 92–93, 95–97
of suchness, 18–19, 52–55
Hane 333V, commentary on Treatise, 42
on analogy of ocean and wind, 52
on gateway of arising and ceasing, 50–51
Huiyuan, commentator on Treatise, 10–11
on analogy of ocean and wind, 38n61, 40, 52
on bodhisattvas, 96n124
on characteristics of awakening, 75n57
and Dasheng qixin lun yishu, 38–41
on falsely constructed perceptual fields, 90–91n107
on gateway of arising and ceasing, 50–51
on habituation of suchness, 18–19, 52–55
on initial and inherent awakening, 72n49
Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra, influence of, 40–41, 74n55
on levels of awakening, 75n56
other works by, 39–40
on Prayer of Homage, 62n22
on analogy of rope and snake, 40
on store consciousness, 40–41, 50, 53n103
on true consciousness, 86–87n91
on untainted dharmas, 98n128
Hyegyun, sixth-century Baekje monk, 5–6

Ignorance, 19–20, 20n38

and awakening, 46–49
and defilement of dharmas, 81–82n76
forms of, 97
habituation by, 92–95, 93n115, 94–95n118
karmic action of, 80
overcoming, 21–22
significance in Treatise, 18–22
Ikeda Masanori, 42
intrinsic characteristics, 79n66
intrinsic reality
and arising and ceasing, 91–92
and awakening, 77–78n62
and characteristics (xiang) and function (yong), 66
of suchness (zhenru; tathatā), 102–3
of tathāgatagarbha, 111–12

jewel (maṇi), 117, 125n202

karmic action
coming to fruition of, 134n216
 giving rise to, 81
of ignorance, 97n125
illusion of, 88n97
inconceivable, 77, 81–82n76
residual effects of, 118–20, 119n190
suffering through bondage of, 81
karmic consciousness, 84, 106–7
Kashiwagi Hiroo, 37–38
Kumārajīva, translator, 80n69

Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra
on analogy of ocean and wind, 19–21, 21n42
and characteristic of perceptual fields, 80–81n72
in commentary by Huiyuan, 40–41
on discriminating good and bad dharmas, 87
influence of, 16–18, 69n40, 74n55
on kinds of consciousness, 80–81n72
Lesser Vehicle, 2–3n2, 2–3
Liang state, sixth-century China, 8, 9–10
Lokakṣema, translator, 2–3n2
Lü Cheng, 17–18

Magadha, India, 58n9

Mahāyāna, and the meaning of dharma, 66–67n34, 66 See also Great Vehicle
(dasheng; Mahāyāna)
Mahāyānasaṃgraha-bhāṣya, 37–38
Mahāyānasaṃgraha-śāstra (Asaṅga), 52–53
Mahāyāna teachings
introduction of, 2–3n2
on methods of Buddhist practice, 2–3
revelation of, 26
Makio Takemura, 111n170, 112n171
maṇi (jewel). See jewel
māra
definition of, 62n24
manifestation of, 127, 129–31
meditative absorption (zhi; samādhi)
attainment of, 23–24, 128–29
and discernment (guan; vipaśyanā), 23–24
forms of, 116n181
and suchness, 101n138, 129–31
and perceiving buddhas, 100–1 See also calming
mental consciousness, 83, 86n89
habituation by, 101
as name of the continuously flowing consciousness, 85–86
mentation
five names for, 33–34, 83–84
habituation by, 96 See also seventh consciousness and consciousnesses
methods
of Mahāyāna practice, 2
for winning people over (saṃgraha-vastu), 99–100n133, 99–100
mind (xin)
as arising and ceasing, 71–72n46, 71–72
and awakening, 72–79n65, 72–79, 116–17
characteristics of, 122n196, 122
and consciousnesses, 102–3, 107–8
and continuous flow, 91–92
directly focused mind, 116
kinds of, 116n182, 116, 122n196, 122
nature of, 38n59, 104n144, 104
non-awakened mind, 79–80, 84, 89, 93–94
purified mind, 77–78n62
six types of defiled mind, 33–34
as suchness, 68–69 See also seventh consciousness
moral discipline, 126

names, devising, 81
nescience, 118n186, 118
nirvana
attaining, 95–96, 118n187, 118–20
nature of, 110–11
not abiding in, 117n185, 117
seeking, 95n121, 95
as unconditioned dharma, 52n99
Northern Qi state, sixth-century China, 9–11
Northern Wei state, sixth-century China, 8
Northern Zhou state, sixth-century China, 9–11

ocean and wind, analogy of, 19–21, 38n61, 44, 76–77

commentarial differences on, 51–52, 77n61
Huiyuan, commentary on, 40, 53n103
in relation to ignorance and inherent awakening, 49
and levels of awakening, 75n56
and Wonhyo, commentator on Treatise, 44
omniscience, 122–23, 123n198, 123–24n200
One Mind
 and levels of awakening, 75n56
and revelation of Mahāyāna teachings, 26
as source of reality, 25–26
and two gateways, 68
operating consciousness, 84

Paramārtha, purported translator of Treatise, 5–7

arrival in China, 59
portrayal in Preface to Treatise, 48n90, 58–59, 64n29
and Shelun school of Buddhism, 13–14
works and pupils of, 10–11
pāramitās (perfections). See perfections
partial awakening, 74
perceiver, characteristic of, 80
perceptual fields
characteristics of, 80n71, 80
as conditions and characteristics, 80–81
existence of, 85
falsely constructed, 90–91n107
and omniscience, 123–24n200, 123
perfections (pāramitās), 23, 39n64, 104n147, 104–5, 106n155, 106–7, 120–21
phenomena-discriminating consciousness, 86n90, 96, 105–6
political divisions, in sixth-century China, 8–10
practice
aspiration to awakening through, 120n193, 120–21
exhortation to, 136–38
gateways of, 125–34, 126–34n218
pratyekabuddhas (solitary buddhas), 2, 94n117, 94
presenting consciousness, 84
Pure Land School of Buddhism, 40n68, 135–36
purity of cognition, 75n57, 76–77

qixin (awakening or giving rise to faith)

as component of Dasheng qixin lun title, xvi, 2
implication of term, 3
Qixin lun yishu, commentary on Treatise, 36–38

Ratnamati, translator-monk, 6–7

Daśabhūmi-vyākhyāna, translation of, 34–35
and southern branch of Dilun school, 12
rebirth, 101n137
recompense body (baoshen), 27, 28n51, 28–29, 106n156, 106–7
regression, 118–20, 119n191
response body (yingshen), 27, 29, 106–7
rope and snake, analogy of, 40

Sahā realm, definition of, 135n219

samādhi (meditative absorption). See meditative absorption
sameness, characteristic of, 82n77, 82
seeds, as metaphor in store consciousness, 13–14, 20n40
self
dharmas and lack of, 109n164
inherently existing, 59–60n16, 109–12
views of, 109–13
semblance of awakening, 73
sentient beings
beginnings of, 112
buddha-natures of, 97–99, 98n128, 98n129, 129n208
continuous effort of, 98–99, 99n130
disorientation of, 108n162
role of tathāgatas in lives of, 104–5, 105n150
timid sentient beings, 121n195, 121–22
virtuous roots of, 101n136
seventh consciousness
mind as, 108n162 See also mentation
Shelun school of Buddhism
consciousnesses in, 13–14, 20n39, 20n40
and dependent arising, 14–15, 21n42
emergence of, 11n12, 11–16
Śikṣānanda, translator, 17, 107–8n159
skillful means, 117n185, 117–18
snake and rope, analogy of, 40
sovereign mind, 88n98
space
characteristics of, 110
material forms and, 110n167
realm of, 72n47
tathāgatas and, 109–10n166, 109
as unconditioned dharma, 52n99
śrāvakas (hearers), 2
store consciousness (ālayavijñāna)
and buddha-nature, 14–15
definition of, 18n35
and suchness, 54–55
Huiyuan, commentary on, 40–41, 50, 53n103
and relationship with other consciousnesses, 40–41
 and seed metaphor, 13–14, 20n40
tathāgatagarbha and, 12–13, 15, 43
of tathāgatas, 111n170, 111
suchness (zhenru; tathatā)
characteristics of, 102–3, 103n142
commentarial differences on, 52–55
concealment of, 18–19
empty vs. non-empty, 22, 110–11n168
function of, 104–7
gateway of mind as, 25, 68, 70, 108–9
habituation by, 92–93, 95–97
habituation of, 18–19, 52–55
intrinsic reality of, 102–3
meditative absorption as function of, 101n138
the mind as, 68–71n43, 68–71
nature of, 110–11
and realizing the Way, 121n194, 121–22
and store consciousness, 54–55
Susumu Ōtake, 116n179

Tanqian, monk
and establishment of Buddhist centers, 10–11
and Preface to Treatise, 48n90
Tanyan, commentator on Treatise, 10–11
on analogy of ocean and wind, 52
on cause and condition of arising and ceasing, 83n82
on the two gateways, 38
on habituation of suchness, 53–54
life of, 36–37
on Mahāyāna Buddhism, 59n14
on mind and consciousness, 66n33
Qixin lun yishu, 36–38
similarities of commentary to Hane 333V, 42
tathāgatagarbha, 12–13, 18n35
and analogy of ocean and wind, 51–52
and awakening, 38
and debates between Shelun and Dilun schools, 11–16
doctrine, 7n8
and gateway of arising and ceasing, 50–51
intrinsic reality of, 111–12
store consciousness and, 12–13, 15, 43
suchness and, 102–3
Tathāgatagarbha texts and tradition, 6–7, 7n8, 16–18, 23n47
tathāgatas
causal levels of, 104n146, 104–5
and sentient beings, 104–5, 105n150
space and nature of, 109–10n166, 109
teachers, definition of good, 131n215, 131
thought-moments (nian)
and awakening, 73–74n52
awareness of, 29–30
and beginningless ignorance, 74–75
coarse and subtle, 74
characteristics of, 24, 74
and mind, 73–74n52
and non-awakening, 79–80, 84
stopping, 73
three-bodies doctrine, 27–29, 41n69
Three Jewels, of Buddhism, 57n7
treatise (lun)
as component of Dasheng qixin lun title, 2
use of term, 4
Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith
authenticity and authorship of text, 5–8
commentarial differences on, 50–55
conceptual structures derived from, 1
consistency with Dilun school of Buddhism, 16
dating of, 7–8
early commentaries on, 36–49
historical context of, 8–18, 36
importance among Buddhist texts, 1
influences on, 6–8
journey from India to China, as described in Preface, 58–59
key models in, 25–36
Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra, influence of, 16–18
Mahāyāna teachings, revelation of, 26
origins of, 57–58, 60
purported authorship of Preface, 48n90
title, 2–5
translation of, as described in Preface, 59–60, 68n37
Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom, 80n69
Twelve Links of Dependent Arising Scripture, 59–60

Ultimate Realm of Form, 122n197, 122–23

uniformity, conditions of, 99, 100–1
virtuous roots, agricultural metaphor of, 64n26, 114–16

Western and Eastern Wei states, sixth-century China, 9–10

wholesome behavior, 114n173, 114–15
wind and ocean, analogy of. See ocean and wind, analogy of
Wonhyo, commentator on Treatise, 42–45
on analogy of ocean and wind, 52, 75n56, 77n61
on combined consciousness, 76n58
on gateway of arising and ceasing, 44–45, 51
on habituation of suchness, 52–53, 55
on Mahāyāna, 66n33
on ocean and wind analogy, 44
on perfection of wisdom, 80n69
on Prayer of Homage, 62n22
reconciliation of tensions in Buddhism, 42–44
"wrongly held views," antidotes to, 109–12n171, 109–13

Xuanzang, pilgrim and monk, 42–43

on habituation of suchness, 52–53

Yogācāra 6–7, 7n8

doctrine of seeds, 20n40
and Northern Dilun school, 14–15
and “nothing but consciousness” doctrine, 15
and three bodies doctrine, 27
and Shelun school, 11
and monk Xuanzang, 42–43 See also store consciousness (ālayavijñāna)
Yoshihide Yoshizu, 39–40

Zhikai, purported author of Preface to Treatise, 48n90, 56–57, 61n20