College of Engineering Education

2nd Floor, B&E Building

Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO
College of Engineering Education
Civil Engineering Program

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for

Self-Directed Learning (SDL)

Course/Subject: BCE 222 (Mechanics of Deformable Bodies)

Name of Teacher: Engr. Michelle A. Daarol

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR REPRODUCTION AND
DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE. THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE
USE OF THE STUDENTS WHO ARE OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Course Outline: BCE 222 - (MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES)

Course Coordinator: Abo Yasser L. Manalindo, RCE, RMP

Email: [email protected]
Student Consultation: By appointment (thru SMS, email and LMS)
Mobile: ---
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Effectivity Date: May 2020
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-line with face to face or virtual sessions)
Time Frame: 90 hours
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Pre-requisite: CEE 117 (Statics of Rigid Bodies)
Co-requisite: CEE 118 (Dynamics of Rigid Bodies)
Credit: 5.0 units lecture
Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all
scheduled Virtual or face-to-face sessions

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact Hours This 5-unit course self-instructional manual is designed
for blended learning mode of instructional delivery
with scheduled face to face or virtual sessions. The
expected number of hours will be 90 including the face-
to-face or virtual sessions. The face-to-face sessions
shall include the summative assessment tasks (exams)
since this course is crucial in the licensure examination
for civil engineers.
Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 3rd, 5th, 7th
and 9th week of the term. The assessment paper shall be
attached with a cover page indicating the title of the
assessment task (if the task is performance), the name
of the course coordinator, date of submission and name
of the student. The document should be emailed to the
course coordinator. It is also expected that you already
paid your tuition and other fees before the submission
of the assessment task.

If the assessment task is done in real time through the

features in the Blackboard Learning Management
System, the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time by
the course coordinator.

Since this course is included in the licensure

examination for civil engineers, you will be required to
take the Multiple-Choice Question exam inside the
University. This should be scheduled ahead of time by

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

your course coordinator. This is non-negotiable for all

licensure-based programs.
Turnitin Submission To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment
(if necessary) tasks are required to be submitted through Turnitin
with a maximum similarity index of 30% allowed. This
means that if your paper goes beyond 30%, the
students will either opt to redo her/his paper or explain
in writing addressed to the course coordinator the
reasons for the similarity. In addition, if the paper has
reached more than 30% similarity index, the student
may be called for a disciplinary action in accordance
with the University’s OPM on Intellectual and Academic
Honesty.

Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

and commissioning other students or people to
complete the task for you have severe punishments
(reprimand, warning, expulsion).
Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the possible
maximum score for that assessment item for each day
or part day that the assessment item is late.

However, if the late submission of assessment paper

has a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be
submitted and approved by the course coordinator. If
necessary, you will also be required to present/attach
evidences.
Return of Assignments/ Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2) weeks
Assessments after the submission. This will be returned by email or
via Blackboard portal.

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will

require some or few of the students for online or virtual
sessions to ask clarificatory questions to validate the
originality of the assessment task submitted and to
ensure that all the group members are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an
assessment task. The resubmission is premised on the
student’s failure to comply with the similarity index and
other reasonable grounds such as academic literacy
standards or other reasonable circumstances e.g.
illness, accidents financial constraints.
Re-marking of Assessment You should request in writing addressed to the program
Papers and Appeal coordinator your intention to appeal or contest the
score given to an assessment task. The letter should
explicitly explain the reasons/points to contest the
grade. The program coordinator shall communicate
with the students on the approval and disapproval of
the request.

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

elevate your case to the program head or the dean with
the original letter of request. The final decision will
come from the dean of the college.
Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional
contact
Course discussions/exercises – 30%
1st formative assessment – 10%
2nd formative assessment – 10%
3rd formative assessment – 10%

All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):

Final exam – 40%

Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

University system and procedures.
Preferred Referencing Style Depends on the discipline; if uncertain or inadequate,
use the general practice of the APA 6th Edition.
Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account
which is a requirement to access the BlackBoard
portal. Then, the course coordinator shall enroll the
students to have access to the materials and resources
of the course. All communication formats: chat,
submission of assessment tasks, requests etc. shall be
through the portal and other university recognized
platforms.

You can also meet the course coordinator in person

through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise
your issues and concerns.

For students who have not created their student email,

please contact the course coordinator or program
head.
Contact Details of the Dean Dr. Charlito L. Cañesares
Email: [email protected]
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Contact Details of the Program Engr. Showna Lee T. Sales
Head Email: [email protected]
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Students with Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate with the
course coordinator about the nature of his or her
special needs. Depending on the nature of the need, the
course coordinator with the approval of the program
coordinator may provide alternative assessment tasks
or extension of the deadline of submission of
assessment tasks. However, the alternative assessment
tasks should still be in the service of achieving the
desired course learning outcomes.
Help Desk Contact CEE Blackboard Administrator
Jetron J. Adtoon
[email protected]
09055267834
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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

CEE
Frida Santa O. Dagatan
[email protected]
09562082442
082-2272902

GSTC
Ronadora E. Deala, RPsy, RPm, RGC, LPT
[email protected]
09212122846

Silvino P. Josol
[email protected]
09060757721

Library Contact LIC

Brigida E. Bacani
[email protected]
09513766681

Course Information- see/download course syllabus in the BlackBoard LMS

CC’s Voice: Hello future engineer! Welcome to this course BCE 222 - (Mechanics of
Deformable Bodies). By now, I am confident that you really wanted to become a
civil engineer. Thus, by taking this subject, you will be equipped with the
necessary knowledge needed for all further structural subjects of Civil like
structural analysis and structural design. The application of Mechanics of
Deformable Bodies also includes other subjects like geotechnical engineering,
transportation engineering. You must be able to master this subject since this is
a basic subject for advanced civil engineering courses.

CO: Upon completion of the course, you are expected to:

CO 1. Explain the concepts of stress and strain in relation to material

deformation caused by the applied loads.
CO 2. Compute stresses due to bending, shears, and torsion under plain and
combined loadings.
CO 3. Analyze statically determinate and indeterminate structures in relation to
the beam criteria in terms of shear, moment, and deflection.
CO 4. Determine the elastic stability of columns generally subdivided into three
types: Short, Long, and Intermediate columns.
Let ug begin!

Big Picture

Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes-Unit 1 (ULO-1): At the end of the unit, you are expected to

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a. Develop a working knowledge and understanding concepts of internal

force systems and stresses which includes:
• Stress distribution on axially loaded bars
• Axial, shear and bearing stresses
• Stress on thin-walled pressure vessels
b. Develop a working knowledge and understanding on concepts of strain and
deformation of bars due to axial loadings and temperature changes which
includes:
• Stress – strain diagrams
• Deformations on axially loaded bars
• Working stress and factor of safety
• Generalized Hooke’s Law
• Statically Indeterminate problems
• Thermal stresses

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a. Develop a working knowledge and understanding

concepts of internal force systems and stresses which includes: stress
distribution on axially loaded bars, axial, shear and bearing stresses and stress
on thin-walled pressure vessels.

Metalanguage

These are the frequent terms that you may encounter as you go along the course:

Mechanics It is the mathematical analysis of a body under rest or motion.

Rigid body A body is considered rigid if there is no change in the body even
though external or internal forces have already been applied to
it.
Deformation Changes in an object's shape or form due to the application of a
force or forces.

For example: A rubber band may stretch after you applied a

pulling force on it. As it stretches, the rubber band lengthens, so
there is “deformation” taking place.
Beam A structural element that most of the time supports floors
and/or roofs.
Deflection Synonymous with Deformation
Normal Load The Load is called “Normal” if it acts perpendicularly or at 90° on
any given cross-sectional area.
Shear Load The Load is called “Shear” if it acts parallel or tangential on any
given cross-sectional area.
Torque An external effect that tends to rotate or twist the material.
Bending (Moment) An external effect that tends to bend the material, whether
concave upward or concave downward.
Stress It is the result of internal forces, or forces that result when
internal particles react to each other.
Normal Stress Stresses caused by “normal load”.
Tension, Tensile A type of normal force that specifically directed away from the
body/material. It tends to stretch the material.
Compression, A type of normal force that specifically directed towards the
Compressive body/ material. It tends to shrink the material.

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Truss It is a structural system that is a combination of triangle patterns

that is used to support loads.
Reactions (Support) If a support prevents translation of a body in a given direction, a
force is developed on the body in that direction.
Shear Stress Stresses caused by “shear load”.
Working (Allowable) It is the maximum stress that a material can sustain or carry.
Stress
Bearing Stress It is a special type of normal stress that results from the contact
pressure between separate bodies.
Tangential or It is a stress developed across the transverse section of the pipe.
circumferential stress
Longitudinal stress It is a stress developed along the longitudinal section of the pipe.
Spherical stress It is a stress developed inside the sphere.

Essential Knowledge

Introduction to the subject matter:

There are three fundamental areas of engineering mechanics. These are statics,
dynamics, and mechanics of materials. Statics and dynamics are studies of the external effects
upon rigid bodies, without considering the change in shape or deformation resulted from these
effects. On the other hand, strength of materials or mechanics of deformable bodies studies the
internal effects on the bodies as well as considers the deformation that are caused by the
applied loads or forces.

Illustration:

These considerations are important in design. For example, for designing beams, it is
important that the beam is able to withstand or carry the applied load on it without breaking,
and at the same time, the deformations or deflections must not be excessive. Both factors should
be satisfied.

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Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Before we start the discussion, it is imperative that we review the units used in the
calculation. These are the commonly used units:

Now consider an undeformed bar. The applied loads on a structure may appear as one of
the following:

1. Normal Load/Force. In the figure, normal load applied is denoted as force P. The normal
load is a force perpendicular to the plane of cross-sectional area of the bar. The effects of
applying normal load may be to elongate or shorten the bar. In this case, P would
elongate or stretch the bar, since P is directed away from the bar. In contrast, if P is applied
towards the bar, it would shorten or compress the bar.

2. Shear Load/Force. In the figure, the shear load applied is denoted by force V. The shear
force V is a force parallel to the plane of the cross-sectional area of the bar. The effect of
applying shear load may be to shear off or tear off the bar relative to the other segment.

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2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

3. Torque. In the figure, the torque applied is denoted by T. Torque is a twisting moment that
tends to rotate the member.

4. Bending. In the figure, the bending moment applied is denoted by M. M is a bending

moment that tends to bend the bar.

These applied loads cause stress in the member. Stress is one of the most common causes
of structural failure. Stress is the result of internal forces, or forces that result when internal
particles react to each other.

There are numerous of ways to compute the stress, depending on the load applied. Let us
start first with the most basic:

Part 1: Normal Stress

A. ACTUAL STRESS. (In this section, the examples are about solving the actual stress acting on
the member).

Normal Stress, 𝝈 is the stress resulting from the load applied to the perpendicular cross-
sectional area. Normal stress is computed by:

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Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴

If P is directed away from the body, then the normal stress is Tensile or “Tension”.
If P is directed towards the body, then the normal stress is Compressive or “Compression”.

SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS:

Example 1a-1. The cross-sectional area of each member of the truss is 1000 mm2. Calculate the
stresses in the members DF, CE and BD. Support A is hinged while support is a roller.

Solution:

Step 1. We have to determine the reactions present in the figure. The directions of the reactions
are assumed:

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∑ 𝑀𝐹 = 0; 𝐶𝑊(+) 𝐴𝑦 (10) − 100(6) − 200(3) = 0

𝐴𝑦 = 120 kN
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0; 𝐶𝐶𝑊(+) 𝐹𝑦 (10) − 100(4) − 200(7) = 0
𝐹𝑦 = 180 kN
Step 2. By method of joint or method ∑
of𝐹𝑥
section,
= 0 ; 𝐴𝑥 = 0

Step 2. By methods of joints or sections, determine the forces of members DF, CE and BD.

𝑃𝐷𝐹 = -225 kN (negative - , denotes compression)

𝑃𝐶𝐸 = 135 kN
𝑃𝐵𝐷 = -96.15 kN

Step 3. Since the cross-sectional area of ALL the members are already given at A = 1000 mm2,
we can solve for the stresses for members DF, CE and BD:

𝑃𝐷𝐹 − 225 𝑘𝑁
For member DF: 𝜎 = 𝐴𝐷𝐹
= 1000 𝑚𝑚2
Since the resulting unit is not standard, we have to convert it so that it would be expressed as
𝑁
standard unit for stress which is MPa or 𝑚𝑚2

1000 𝑁
𝑃𝐷𝐹 − 225 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( ) 𝑁
Thus, : 𝜎𝐷𝐹 = 𝐴𝐷𝐹
= 1000 𝑚𝑚
1 𝑘𝑁
2 = −225 𝑚𝑚2
or MPa → 𝟐𝟐𝟓 MPa (C) Ans.

1000 𝑁
𝑃𝐶𝐸 135 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( ) 𝑁
For member CE: 𝜎𝐶𝐸 = 𝐴𝐶𝐸
= 1 𝑘𝑁
1000 𝑚𝑚2
= 135 𝑚𝑚2
or MPa → 𝟏𝟑𝟓 MPa (T) Ans.

1000 𝑁
𝑃𝐵𝐷 −96.15 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( ) 𝑁
For member BD: 𝜎𝐵𝐷 = 𝐴𝐵𝐷
= 1000 𝑚𝑚2
1 𝑘𝑁
= −96.15 𝑚𝑚2
or MPa → 𝟗𝟔. 𝟏𝟓 MPa (C)
Ans.

Example 1a-2. A simple pin-connected truss is loaded and supported as shown in the figure.
All members of the truss are aluminum pipes that have an outside diameter of 42 mm and a
wall thickness of 2.5 mm. Determine the normal stress in each truss member. Support A is
hinged and support B is roller.

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Solution:

Step 1. Recall what you have learned in statics to solve for reactions. The reactions should be:

𝐴𝑦 = 30 kN
𝐴𝑥 = 34.821 kN
𝐵𝑥 = −19.821 kN (The sign is negative because the assumed direction in the figure above is the
opposite of the correct direction).

Step 2. Solve for the forces of each member using method of joints.

𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 17.619 kN
𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 36.957 kN
𝑃𝐵𝐶 = −26.520 kN
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Step 3. Solve for the area of the members. Since it was not directly given in the problem, we
have to determine it using the hint “…all members of the truss are aluminum pipes that have an
outside diameter of 42 mm and a wall thickness of 2.5 mm”:

Illustration:

So, from the illustration, we can say that the Area is hollow. To solve for the shaded region:
𝜋
𝐴𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 = 𝐴𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 − 𝐴𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 or 4
[(𝑑𝑜 )2 − (𝑑𝑖 )2 ]

Where 𝑑𝑜 is outside diameter and 𝑑𝑖 is the inside diameter and t is for wall thickness.

𝑑𝑖 = 𝑑𝑜 − 2𝑡 = 42 − 2(2.5) = 37 𝑚𝑚
𝜋
𝐴𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 = [(42)2 − (37)2 ] = 310. 232 𝑚𝑚2
4

Step 4. We can now solve for the normal stresses:

1000 𝑁
𝑃𝐴𝐵 17.619 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( ) 𝑁
𝜎𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴𝐵
= 1 𝑘𝑁
310.232 𝑚𝑚2
= 56.793 𝑚𝑚2
or MPa → 𝟓𝟔. 𝟕𝟗𝟑 MPa (T) Ans.
1000 𝑁
𝑃𝐴𝐶 36.957 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( ) 𝑁
𝜎𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴𝐶
= 310.232 𝑚𝑚2
1 𝑘𝑁
= 119.127 𝑚𝑚2
or MPa → 𝟏𝟏𝟗. 𝟏𝟐𝟕 MPa (T) Ans.
1000 𝑁
𝑃𝐵𝐶 −26.520 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( ) 𝑁
𝜎𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵𝐶
= 310.232 𝑚𝑚
1 𝑘𝑁
2 = −85. 484 𝑚𝑚2
or MPa → 𝟖𝟓. 𝟒𝟖𝟒 MPa (C) Ans.

Example 1a-3. The cross-sectional area of bar ABCD is 500 𝑚𝑚2 . Determine the maximum
actual normal stress in the bar.

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Solution:

Step 1. We must solve first the net force acting on each segment of the bar. This can be done by
making a force diagram acting on the segments. You can assign right forces (positive, or go up)
and left forces (negative, or go down). For problems like this always start at the free end, in this
case at D. See illustration:

a. At D, since the load acting on it is 30 kN to the right, then the graph goes up by 30 kN. The
graph is horizontal from point D to point C.
b. At C, the load acting on it is 20 kN to the left. Take note that there was a net force from D
(30 kN to the right). Then 20 kN is subtracted from 30 kN, the result is 10 kN to the right.
Since it still directing at the right direction, then the diagram remains above 0. The graph is
horizontal upon reaching point B.
c. At B, the load acting on it is 25 kN to the right. Since the net force from B is also 10 kN at the
right direction, then 25 kN is added to 10 kN to the right. Thus, the result is 35 kN right
direction. The graph is horizontal upon reaching point A.

Thus, the loads acting on each segment are:

𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 35 kN
𝑃𝐵𝐶 = 10 kN
𝑃𝐶𝐷 = 30 kN

Step 2. Since the area of each members is already given at A = 500 𝑚𝑚2 , we can now solve the
normal stresses acting on each:

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1000 𝑁
𝑃𝐴𝐵 35 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( ) 𝑁
𝜎𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴𝐵
= 500 𝑚𝑚
1 𝑘𝑁
2 = 70 𝑚𝑚2
or MPa → 70 MPa (T)
1000 𝑁
𝑃𝐵𝐶 10 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( ) 𝑁
𝜎𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵𝐶
= 500
1 𝑘𝑁
𝑚𝑚2
= 20 𝑚𝑚2
or MPa → 20 MPa (T)
1000 𝑁
𝑃𝐶𝐷 30 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( ) 𝑁
𝜎𝐶𝐷 = 𝐴𝐶𝐷
= 500 𝑚𝑚2
1 𝑘𝑁
= 60 𝑚𝑚2
or MPa → 60 MPa (T)

Since the problem asks for the maximum actual normal stress, we should choose the largest
numerical value among the stresses computed.

B. WORKING (ALLOWABLE) STRESS 𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 = DESIGN.

𝟕𝟎 MPa (In this section,
Ans. the examples are about solving
the maximum force applied or minimum area/dimension for the design, given that the
allowable stress of the material is indicated).

Working (Allowable) Stress is the maximum stress that a material can sustain. When assembling
a structure or a machine, the materials’ allowable capacity has already been indicated by the
manufacturer. What is left for you is to adjust the other elements of the design so that you may
able to satisfy the requirement of what is only allowed stress that you can induce to the material.

For working stress design the principle should be:

Actual Stress ≤ Allowable Stress *for safe design

The allowable stress dictates the magnitude of the force and the area that should be adopted in
the design. If the magnitude of the force and the area have been determined from allowable
stress, then by computing the actual stress, the resulting stress should be lower than that of the
allowable stress. Otherwise the structure would fail, and no designer wants that.

To further understand the concept, study the following examples:

Example 1a-4. The figure shows a two-member truss supporting a block of weight W. The
cross-sectional areas of the members are 800 𝑚𝑚2 for AB and 400 𝑚𝑚2 for AC. Determine the
maximum safe value of W if the working stresses are 110 MPa for AB and 120 MPa for AC.

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Solution:

Step 1: Analyze the given. Here in this problem, the area of the members and the working
stresses are already indicated. Since these parameters are already set, what is left for us is to
determine the maximum load W that the system can carry so that we would not exceed the
working or allowable stresses for each. It is important that we express the load sustained by
each member in terms of W, as illustrated:

By drawing the free-body diagram:

At joint A: ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0: ↑ +∶ 𝑃𝐴𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛40° + 𝑃𝐴𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛60° = 𝑊 →1

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0: → +∶ 𝑃𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠40° = 𝑃𝐴𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠60°

𝑐𝑜𝑠60°
𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠40° (𝑃𝐴𝐶 ) → 2

𝑐𝑜𝑠60°
Subst. 2 to 1: (𝑃 )[ 𝑠𝑖𝑛40°] +
𝑐𝑜𝑠40° 𝐴𝐶
𝑃𝐴𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛60° = 𝑊
𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 0.778W

𝑐𝑜𝑠60°
Thus: 𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠40°
(0.778W) = 0.508W

Step 2: Now that we have already expressed the loads in terms of W, we shall substitute it into
the formula:

For member AC: For member AB:

A = 400 𝑚𝑚2 A = 800 𝑚𝑚2

𝑁 𝑁
𝜎 ≤ 120 MPa or 𝑚𝑚2 𝜎 ≤ 110 MPa or 𝑚𝑚2
𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 0.778W 𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 0.508W

𝑃𝐴𝐶 𝑃𝐴𝐵
𝜎𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴𝐶
𝜎𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴𝐵

𝑁 0.778W N 𝑁 0.508W N
120 𝑚𝑚2
= 400 𝑚𝑚2
110 𝑚𝑚2
= 800 𝑚𝑚2

W = 61,696. 658 N or 61.7 kN W = 173, 228.247 N or 173. 228 kN

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As you can see, there are two recommended maximum value of W as per the capacity of each
member of a truss. BUT THERE MUST ONLY BE ONE ANSWER. Which one should you choose?

Step 3: Choose the correct answer.

𝑃
Remember that the as the load increases, the stress increases too → 𝜎 =
𝐴
So then, we must adopt the least numerical value of W for the system, so that we can
accommodate the weakest member of the structure. The weakest member is AB. Why? Take
note that its allowable stress is only 110 MPa, as compared to AC, 120 MPa.

Proof:

If we adopt W = 61. 7 kN

Then 𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 0.778W = 0.778(61.7) =48 kN and 𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 0.508W = 0.508(61.7) = 31.344 kN

Now substitute this to the formula to solve for the actual stress if W = 61.7 kN

48 x 1000 N 31.344 x 1000 N

𝜎𝐴𝐶(𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) = 400 𝑚𝑚2
𝜎𝐴𝐵(𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) = 800 𝑚𝑚2

𝜎𝐴𝐶(𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) = 120 MPa 𝜎𝐴𝐵(𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) = 39.18 MPa

𝜎𝐴𝐶(𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) ? 𝜎𝐴𝐶(𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒) 𝜎𝐴𝐵(𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) ? 𝜎𝐴𝐵(𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒)

120 MPa ≤ 120 MPa (safe!) 39.18 MPa ≤ 110 MPa (safe!)

BOTH members do not exceed the allowable stresses!!!

What if we adopt W = 173.228 kN ???

Then 𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 0.778W = 0.778(173.228) = 134.771 kN and

𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 0.508W = 0.508(173.228) = 88.0 kN

Now substitute this to the formula to solve for the actual stress if W = 173.228 kN

134.771 x 1000 N 88.0 x 1000 N

𝜎𝐴𝐶(𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) = 400 𝑚𝑚2
𝜎𝐴𝐵(𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) = 800 𝑚𝑚2

𝜎𝐴𝐶(𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) = 336.93 MPa 𝜎𝐴𝐵(𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) = 110 MPa

𝜎𝐴𝐶(𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) ? 𝜎𝐴𝐶(𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒) 𝜎𝐴𝐵(𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) ? 𝜎𝐴𝐵(𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒)

336.93 MPa > 120 MPa ( not safe!) 110 MPa ≤ 110 MPa (safe!)

As you can see, only one member is safe should we adopt W = 173. 228 kN. It does not make
sense because in reality if member AC fails, then the whole structure would fail
tremendously too like a domino effect.

Thus, THE FINAL ANSWER should be W = 61.7 𝒌𝑵

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Now, you understand the importance of accommodating the weakest member of the structure.
Should any similar problem ask for maximum safe value for LOAD, then you must choose the
least numerical value.

The final system is:

W = 61.7 kN

Example 1a-5. Six steel cables support a circular molding of diameter 2 m. The cables are placed
equally along the perimeter of the moulding. The moulding weighs 2.50 kN/m.

a. Compute the tension in each cable.

b. What is the minimum diameter of each cable if the allowable stress is 124 MPa?

Solution:

For a:

Since you really cannot visualize the forces on the system, you must draw the free body
diagram.

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From the free body diagram,

3
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ; ↑ + ∶ 6𝑇 ( )=𝑊
√10
𝑘𝑁
Where W = 2𝜋 𝑚 (2.50 𝑚
) = 5𝜋 kN

3
6𝑇 ( ) = 5𝜋
√10

𝑻 = 2.76 kN Ans.

For b:

Given: If T = 2.76 kN from (a) and 𝜎 ≤ 124 MPa

Substitute into the formula:

𝑃 𝑇
𝜎= =
𝐴 𝐴
𝑁 2.76 𝑥 1000 𝑁
124 2
=
𝑚𝑚 𝐴

𝐴 = 22. 258 𝑚𝑚2

Since the cross-sectional area is a circle, then,

𝜋 2
𝐴= (𝐷 ) = 22. 258 𝑚𝑚2
4

𝑫 = 𝟓. 324 mm Ans.

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Part 2: Shear Stress

A. ACTUAL STRESS. (In this section, the examples are about solving the actual stress acting on
the member).

Shear Stress, 𝛕 is the resisting force offered by the body per unit area of cross-section, when a
tangential force is applied on the body.

Consider the figure:

Two plates are connected by a bolt. If the two plates are to be pulled by force P tangentially as
in the figure, the bolt will suffer a tear, as shown.

There are two ways that a bolt can be sheared off. One way is single shear; it is when a
connector (may be bolts, pin or rivets) is teared off once only. Another way is double shear, it is
when a connector (may be bolts, pin or rivets) is teared off twice. The way the bolt is sheared
depends on the type of connection the system has. It is important that the way of shearing be
determined since this could affect calculations if not analyzed thoroughly.

Illustration:

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Figure (a) shows single shear. As we can see, the resistance force occurs at the connection, 𝑽 is
just equal to force P that is applied parallel to the area of the bolt.

Thus, solving for the shear stress induced in the bolt is given by this formula:

𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑉
𝜏= = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉 = 𝑃
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴

Figure (b) shows double shear. As we can see, there are two resistance force that occurs at the
connection, 𝑽 since (double connection). Hence the value of resistance V at each location is just
half the force P applied.

Thus, solving for the shear stress induced in the bolt is given by this formula:

𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑉 𝑃
𝜏= = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉 =
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 2

Example 1a-6. For the clevis connection shown in the figure determine the shear stress in the
22-mm diameter bolt for an applied load of P = 90 kN.

Solution:

Step 1: Analyze the figure. We should determine first whether it is single or double shear. From
the figure, we can say that this is a double shear.

Step 2: Substitute the given to the formula for the double shear:

Given: P = 90 kN and D = 22 mm
𝑃
𝑉 (2)
𝜏= =
𝐴 𝐴𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡

90 1000 𝑁
2 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( )
𝜏= 1 𝑘𝑁
𝜋
(222 ) 𝑚𝑚2
4

𝝉 = 𝟏𝟏𝟖. 𝟑𝟖 MPa Ans.

Example 1a-7. A rivet is used to join two plates as shown in the figure. If the diameter of the
rivet is 20 mm and the load P is 30 kN, what is the average shearing stress developed in the
rivet?

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Solution:

Step 1: Analyze the figure. We should determine first whether it is single or double shear. From
the figure, we can say that this is a single shear.
Step 2: Substitute the given to the formula for the single shear:

Given: P = 30 kN and D = 20 mm
𝑉 𝑃
𝜏= =
𝐴 𝐴𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡

1000 𝑁
30 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( )
𝜏= 𝜋 1 𝑘𝑁
(202 ) 𝑚𝑚2
4

𝝉 = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟒𝟗𝟑 MPa Ans.

Example 1a-8. The pin at A has a diameter of 50 mm. If it is subjected to double shear,
determine the average shear stress in the pin.

Solution:

Step 1: Analyze the problem. The problem asks for the shear stress at pin A. Therefore, you must
determine the reaction at A because that reaction would be the one responsible to shear off pin
at A. Thus, draw the free body – diagram of the structure:

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∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0; 𝐶𝑊+ ; 600(4) - 𝐵𝑥 (3) = 0

𝐵𝑥 = 800 kN

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0; 𝐶𝑊+ ; 600(4) + 𝐴𝑥 (3) = 0

𝐴𝑥 = −800 kN

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0; ↑+; 𝐴𝑦 = 600 kN

𝑅𝐴 = √𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 = √(−800)2 + (600)2 = 1000 kN

Step 2: Substitute the determined the values to determine the shear stress at A. Take note that
the problem already indicated that the pin at A is double shear.

𝑅𝐴 = 1000 kN and D = 50 mm

𝑅𝐴
𝑉
𝜏= = 2
𝐴 𝐴𝑝𝑖𝑛
1000 𝑁
1000 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( )
𝜏= 1 𝑘𝑁
𝜋 2
4 (50 )

𝝉 = 254. 648 MPa Ans.

B. WORKING (ALLOWABLE) STRESS DESIGN. (In this section, the examples are about solving
the maximum force applied or minimum area/dimension for the design, given that the
allowable stress of the material is indicated).

Example 1a-9. The bell crank, which is in equilibrium under the forces shown in the figure, is
supported by a 20-mm-diameter pin at D.

Determine:

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a. the required diameter of the connecting rod AB, given that its tensile working stress is 100
MPa; and
b. the shear stress in the pin.

Pin at D

Solution:

For a:

Step 1: Since the problem asks for the required diameter of the connecting rod AB, given that
the working stress is 100 MPa. Then we must determine the value of 𝑃𝐴𝐵 by statics:

∑ 𝑀𝐷 = 0 ; CCW+ ; 𝑃𝐴𝐵 (200) = 30𝑠𝑖𝑛60°(240)

𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 31. 177 kN
𝑃𝐴𝐵
If 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 ≤ 100 MPa → 𝜎=
𝐴𝐴𝐵

1000 𝑁
𝑁 31.177 𝑘𝑁 ( )
1 𝑘𝑁
100 = 𝜋
𝑚𝑚2 (𝐷𝐴𝐵 )2
4
𝑫𝑨𝑩 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟗𝟐𝟒 mm Ans.

For b:

Step 1: Since the problem asks for the shear stress in the pin, at D. Therefore, we must first
determine the reaction at D by statics:

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∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ; ↑ + ; 𝐷𝑦 − 30𝑠𝑖𝑛60° = 0
𝐷𝑦 = 25. 981 kN

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 ; → + ; 𝐷𝑥 − 30𝑐𝑜𝑠60° − 𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 0
𝐷𝑥 − 30𝑐𝑜𝑠60° − 31.177 = 0
𝐷𝑥 = 46.177 kN

2
𝑅𝐷 = √(𝐷𝑦 ) + (𝐷𝑋 )2 = √25.9812 + 46.1772 = 52.984 kN

Step 2: Determine whether single or double shear. Looking at the connection detail, it can be
concluded that the connection is indeed a double shear. Now we can substitute it into the
formula:

With 𝐷𝑝𝑖𝑛 = 20 𝑚𝑚 and 𝑅𝐷 = 52.984 kN and (double shear)

𝑅𝐷 52.984 1000 𝑁
𝑉 2 kN x ( )
𝜏= = 2 = 1𝑘𝑁
𝐴𝑝𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑝𝑖𝑛 𝜋
(202 ) 𝑚𝑚2
4

𝝉 = 𝟖𝟒. 𝟑𝟐𝟕 MPa Ans.

Example 1a-10. Compute the maximum force P that can be applied to the foot pedal. The 6-
mm.-diameter pin at B is in single shear, and its working shear stress is 28 MPa. The cable has
a diameter of 3 mm attached at pin C and the cable has also a working normal stress of 140 MPa.

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Solution:

Step 1. Analyze the problem. Since the given in the problem are allowable stresses at pin B
and at the cable, we start there. Based on the working stresses, we can determine the capacity
of the pin 𝑅𝐵 and tension at the cable, T.

At pin: (the problem mentioned single shear):

Given : 𝐷𝑝𝑖𝑛 = 6 𝑚𝑚 and 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 ≤ 28 MPa 𝐷𝑝𝑖𝑛 = 3 𝑚𝑚 and 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 ≤ 140 MPa

𝑉 𝑅𝐵 𝑃𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑇
𝝉= = 𝝈= =
𝐴 𝐴𝑝𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

𝑁 𝑅𝐵 𝑁 𝑁 𝑇 𝑁
28 2
= 𝜋 140 2
= 𝜋
𝑚𝑚 (62 ) 𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚 (3 ) 𝑚𝑚2
2
4 4

𝑅𝐵 = 252𝜋 N T = 315𝜋 N

Step 2. But the problem asks for the maximum force P that can be applied in the system. Now
we shall solve the forces 𝑅𝐵 and T in terms of what was asked in the system, which is P,
through statics:

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∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0 ; CCW + ; 𝑃(200) − 𝐵𝑦 (50) = 0

𝐵𝑦 = 4𝑃

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 ; CW + ; 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛(10°)(50) − 𝑃 (150) = 0
𝑇 = 17. 276𝑃
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 ; → + ; 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠10° + 𝐵𝑥 = 0
𝐵𝑥 = −𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠10 or (17.276P)cos10 = 17.014P

𝑅𝐵 = √𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 = √(4𝑃)2 + (17.014𝑃)2 = 17. 478𝑃

Step 3. Now that we have expressed 𝑅𝐵 and T in terms of the unknown P, we shall solve for
the maximum P considering the capacity of both:

𝑅𝐵 = 17. 478𝑃 N 𝑇 = 17. 276𝑃

But from step (1) the capacity of 𝑅𝐵 = 252𝜋 N But from step (1) the capacity of 𝑇 = 315𝜋 N

Thus, equate: Thus, equate:

17. 478𝑃 = 252𝜋 17. 276𝑃 = 315𝜋

𝑃 = 45. 296 N 𝑃 = 57. 282 N

Now, since this is a working design problem, we yield two results for P. From analysis, we shall
choose the least numerical value for P, for safety. [ Read Example 1.4 to have an in-depth
explanation why must we choose the least numerical value for these types of problem].

Thus, the maximum safe value of P that should be applied is P = 45. 296 N Ans.

Part 3: Bearing Stress

A. ACTUAL STRESS. (In this section, the examples are about solving the actual stress acting on
the member).

Bearing Stress, 𝜎𝑏 , is a special type of normal stress that results from the contact pressure
between separate bodies.

𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑃
𝜎𝑏 = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 (𝐷)(𝑡)

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where: P = force applied; D = diameter of the connector and t is the thickness of the plate

If the two plates are consistently pulled in opposite directions as in the figure above, it
will come to a time that the hole around the connector (bolt, rivet, pin) will become very large
and it would no longer fits the hole. This is especially true when the connector is strong enough
not to fail first in shearing. The pictures below are examples of failure in bearing. The bearing
stress is large enough that the hole becomes very large like that below:

Example 1a-11. The lap joint is connected by three 20-mm-diameter rivets. Assuming that the
axial load P = 50 kN is distributed equally among the three rivets, find:

a. the shear stress in a rivet;

b. the bearing stress between a plate and a rivet; and
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c. the maximum average tensile stress in each plate.

Solution:

For a:

Step 1. Analyze the figure. Each bolt is sheared singly. But there are three of them so then it
becomes:

Single shear
𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑡𝑠 = 20 𝑚𝑚
𝑉 𝑃
𝜏= =
𝐴 3𝐴𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑡𝑠
There are 3 rivets

1000 𝑁
𝑃 50 𝑘𝑁 ( )
𝜏= = 1 𝑘𝑁
3𝐴𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝜋
3 𝑥 4 (202 ) 𝑚𝑚2

𝝉 = 53.052 MPa Ans.

For b:

Step 1. Analyze the figure. There are three bolts that will experience bearing stress. Thus:

𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑡𝑠 = 20 𝑚𝑚 ; 𝑡 = 25 𝑚𝑚
𝑃 𝑃
𝜎𝑏 = =
𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 3(𝐷)(𝑡)

There are 3 rivets

1000 𝑁
𝑃 50 𝑘𝑁 ( )
𝜎𝑏 = = 1 𝑘𝑁
3(𝐷)(𝑡) 3(20)(25) 𝑚𝑚2

𝝈𝒃 = 33.333 MPa Ans.

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For c:

Step 1. Analyze the question. The problem asks for the tensile stress, a classification of normal
stress. So, if we are to compute the normal stress, then we must determine the area of the plane
at which the force P will be perpendicular onto. See illustration below:

Thus: 𝑃 = 50 𝑘𝑁 and 𝐴 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 = 25(110) = 2750 𝑚𝑚2

1000 𝑁
Applied force 50 𝑘𝑁 ( )
𝝈𝒃 = Area of contact
= 1 𝑘𝑁
25 𝑚𝑚(110 𝑚𝑚)
= 𝟏𝟖. 𝟏𝟖𝟐 MPa Ans.

B. WORKING (ALLOWABLE) STRESS DESIGN. (In this section, the examples are about solving
the maximum force applied or minimum area/dimension for the design, given that the
allowable stress of the material is indicated).

Example 1a-12. The lap joint shown in the figure is fastened by four rivets of 3/4-in. diameter.
Find the maximum allowable load P that can be applied if the working stresses are 14 ksi for
shear in the rivet and 18 ksi for bearing in the distributed evenly among the four rivets, and
neglect friction between the plates.

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Solution:

Step 1. Since the working stresses for shear and bearing are given, we must first get the capacity,
P of the material in terms of each of these parameters.

By shearing: By bearing:

𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 ≤ 14 ksi or 𝑖𝑛2
𝜎𝑏[𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒] ≤ 18 ksi or 𝑖𝑛2

3 3 7
𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑡𝑠 = in 𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑡𝑠 = in; 𝑡𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 = in
4 Single shear 4 8

𝑉 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
𝜏= = 𝜎𝑏 = =
𝐴 4𝐴 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 4(𝐷)(𝑡)

There are 4 rivets

𝑃 𝑃
𝜏= 𝜎𝑏 =
4𝐴 4(𝐷)(𝑡)

𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 𝑃 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 𝑃 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠

14 = 𝜋 3 2
18 = 3 7
𝑖𝑛2 (4) 𝑥 ( ) 𝑖𝑛2 𝑖𝑛2 4(4)(8) 𝑖𝑛2
4 4

𝑃 = 24.74 kips 𝑃 = 47.25 kips

Step 2. Choose which must be adopted. As we can see, the system is weak in shearing because it
would not be able to carry any applied load greater than 24.74 kips.

Thus, choose the least numerical value. Adopt 𝑷 = 24.74 kips Ans.

Part 4: Stresses on Inclined Planes

A. ACTUAL STRESS. (In this section, the examples are about solving the actual stresses acting
on the member).

Stress on inclined planes, states of stress at points located on inclined sections or planes under
axial loading (normal and shear stress at any given direction).

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Conversely, there is no general formula in determining the normal and shear stress
acting on an inclined plane. It is still advisable that the we must determine it using what we
have learned in statics.

Example 1.13. Determine the normal and shear stress on plane AB. The dimension of the bar is
50 mm x 10 mm and the P applied is 80 kN.

Solution:
Step 1. We must first “slice” the figure along the plane of consideration. See illustration:

Determine the perpendicular component, N and tangential component, V of the axial force P
applied on the bar. It does not matter which section you would consider. For example, if we
consider section a, the free body diagram would look like this:
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Thus, by the force triangle we have created, we can determine the components N and V.
From the given, P = 80 kN.

𝑵 = 𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛60° = 80(𝑠𝑖𝑛60°) = 69.282 kN

𝑽 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠60° = 80(𝑐𝑜𝑠60°) = 40 kN

Step 2. Determine the inclined area at plane AB.

Area = Area’ 𝑠𝑖𝑛60°

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 50 𝑥 10 𝑚𝑚2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎′ = = = 577. 35 𝑚𝑚2
𝑠𝑖𝑛60° sin 60°

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Step 3. Determine the normal stress and shear stress at inclined plane AB.

For normal stress:

1000 𝑁
𝑃 𝑁 69.282 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( )
𝜎𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴𝐵
= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎′
= 577.35 𝑚𝑚2
1 𝑘𝑁
= 120 MPa Ans.

For shearing stress:

1000 𝑁
𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑉𝐴𝐵 40 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( )
𝜏𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴𝐵
= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎′
= 577.35 𝑚𝑚2
1 𝑘𝑁
= 69.282 MPa Ans.

Example 1a-14. A compression load of P = 80 kips is applied to a 4 in. by 4 in. square post.
Determine the normal stress perpendicular to plane AB and the shear stress parallel to plane
AB.

Solution:
Step 1. We must first “slice” the figure along the plane of consideration. See illustration:

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Determine the perpendicular component, N and tangential component, V of the axial force P
applied on the bar.

Thus, by the force triangle we have created, we can determine the components N and V.
From the given, P = 80 kips.

𝑵 = 𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛35° = 80(𝑠𝑖𝑛35°) = 45.886 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠

𝑽 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠35° = 80(𝑐𝑜𝑠35°) = 65.532 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠

Step 2. Determine the inclined area at plane AB .

Area = Area’ 𝑠𝑖𝑛60°

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 4 𝑥 4 𝑖𝑛2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎′ = = = 27.895 𝑖𝑛2
𝑠𝑖𝑛60° sin 35°

Step 3. Determine the normal stress and shear stress at inclined plane AB.

For normal stress:

𝑃 𝑁 45.886 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝜎𝐴𝐵 = = = = 1.645 ksi Ans.
𝐴𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎′ 27.895 𝑖𝑛2

For shearing stress:

𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑉𝐴𝐵 65.532 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠

𝜏𝐴𝐵 = = = = 2. 349 ksi Ans.
𝐴𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎′ 27.895 𝑖𝑛2

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B. WORKING (ALLOWABLE) STRESS DESIGN. (In this section, the examples are about solving
the maximum force applied or minimum area/dimension for the design, given that the
allowable stress of the material is indicated).

Example 1a-15. A 90 mm wide bar will be used to carry an axial tension load of 280 kN. The
normal and shear stresses on plane AB must be limited to 150 MPa and 100 MPa, respectively.
Determine the minimum thickness t required for the bar.

Solution:
Step 1. We must first “slice” the figure along the plane of consideration. See illustration:

Determine the perpendicular component, N and tangential component, V of the axial force P
applied on the bar.

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Thus, by the force triangle we have created, we can determine the components N and V.
From the given, P = 280 kN.

𝑵 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠50° = 280(𝑐𝑜𝑠50°) = 179. 98 𝑘𝑁

𝑽 = 𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛50° = 280(𝑐𝑜𝑠50°) = 214. 492 𝑘𝑁

Step 2. Determine the inclined area at plane AB .

Area = Area’ cos 50 °

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 90 𝑥 𝑡 𝑖𝑛2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎′ = = = 140.015t 𝑚𝑚2
𝑐𝑜𝑠50° cos 50°

Step 3. Determine the minimum thickness t based on the working stress.

By normal stress: By shear stress:

𝜎𝐴𝐵 ≤ 150 MPa 𝜏𝐴𝐵 ≤ 100 MPa

Area’ = 140.015t Area’ = 140.015t

𝑁 𝑁 𝑉 𝑉
𝜎𝐴𝐵 = = 𝜏𝐴𝐵 = =
𝐴𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎′ 𝐴𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎′

1000 𝑁 1000 𝑁
𝑁 179.98 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( ) 𝑁 214.492𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( )
150 𝑚𝑚2 = 140.015𝑡
1 𝑘𝑁
𝑚𝑚 2 100 𝑚𝑚2 = 140.015𝑡
1 𝑘𝑁
𝑚𝑚 2

𝑡 = 8.57 𝑚𝑚 𝑡 = 15. 319 𝑚𝑚

As we can see we yield two answers for t. This is expected because this is a design problem.
Now what should we adopt for t? Take note that the relationship between stress and area varies
inversely. Meaning stress increases when area decreases. When area decreases, it just denotes
that the dimensions are small. Thus, for these types of problems, we should choose the
largest numerical value for dimensions so that area is bigger. When area is bigger, then the
stress decreases to avoid failure.

Proof:

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If we adopt 𝑡 = 15.319 𝑚𝑚 If we adopt 𝑡 = 15.319 𝑚𝑚

𝜎𝐴𝐵(𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒) ≤ 150 MPa 𝜏𝐴𝐵(𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒) ≤ 100 MPa

We must solve for the actual stress: We must solve for the actual stress:
1000 𝑁 1000 𝑁
179.98 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( ) 214.492 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( )
1 𝑘𝑁 1 𝑘𝑁
𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 140.015𝑡 𝑚𝑚2
𝜏𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 140.015𝑡 𝑚𝑚2

1000 𝑁 1000 𝑁
179. 98 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( ) 214. 492 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( )
𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 1 𝑘𝑁 𝜏𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 1 𝑘𝑁
140.015(15.319 ) 𝑚𝑚2 140.015(15.319 ) 𝑚𝑚2

𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 83.911 MPa 𝜏𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 100 MPa

𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ? 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝜏𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ? 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

83.911 MPa ≤ 150 MPa (safe!) 100 MPa ≤ 100 MPa (safe!)

No failure both for normal stress and shear stress!

But how about if we adopt 𝑡 = 8.57 𝑚𝑚 ?

If we adopt 𝑡 = 8.57 𝑚𝑚 If we adopt 𝑡 = 8.57 𝑚𝑚

𝜎𝐴𝐵(𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒) ≤ 150 MPa 𝜏𝐴𝐵(𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒) ≤ 100 MPa

We must solve for the actual stress: We must solve for the actual stress:
1000 𝑁 1000 𝑁
179.98 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( ) 214.492 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( )
1 𝑘𝑁 1 𝑘𝑁
𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 140.015𝑡 𝑚𝑚 2 𝜏𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 140.015𝑡 𝑚𝑚 2

1000 𝑁 1000 𝑁
179. 98 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( ) 214. 492 𝑘𝑁 𝑥 ( )
𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 1 𝑘𝑁 𝜏𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 1 𝑘𝑁
140.015(8.57 ) 𝑚𝑚2 140.015(8.57) 𝑚𝑚2

𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 150 MPa 𝜏𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 178.754 MPa

𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ? 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝜏𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ? 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

150 MPa ≤ 150 (safe!) 178.754 MPa > 100 MPa (not safe!)

Safe in normal stress but Failure in shear!!

It does not make sense if not all parameters are satisfied. It is important that the designer
ensures that all parameters are safe, because if one fails, then the whole system crumbles like a
domino effect, and no designer wants that.

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Step 4. Choose the correct answer.

From discussion above, it can be concluded that the thickness that must be adopted should be:

𝒕 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟑𝟏𝟗 𝒎𝒎 Ans.

Part 5: Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels

A pressure vessel is a pressurized container, often cylindrical or spherical. The pressure

acting on the inner surface is resisted by tensile stresses in the walls of the vessel. If the wall
thickness t is sufficiently small compared to the radius r of the vessel, these stresses are almost
uniform throughout the wall thickness.

There are two main stresses acting on a pressurized cylindrical container, like a pipe
holding a pressurized water supply. One main stress is called the Tangential or
circumferential stress which is a stress developed across the transverse section of the pipe.
See illustration:

Elevation View Iso View

When the pressure threatens to rip apart or separate the pipe in transverse direction,
there is a resistance developed inside the pipe, 𝜎𝑇 or the tangential stress.

Force inside the pipe, 𝐹 = Tensile force in the pipe (in transverse direction)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 Force = (Pressure 𝑜𝑟 Stress) (Area)
𝑝(𝐿)(𝐷) = 𝜎𝑇 (𝐿)(𝑡)(2)

Thus, 𝜎𝑇 can be expresses in terms of pressure and thickness of pipe:

𝒑𝑫
𝝈𝑻 =
𝟐𝒕
Where:
𝜎𝑇 = tangential stress
p = pressure or 𝑝𝑜 − 𝑝𝑖
D = internal diameter
t = thickness

Another main stress is called the Longitudinal stress. When the pressure threatens to rip apart
or separate the pipe in longitudinal direction, there is a resistance developed inside the pipe,
𝜎𝐿 or the longitudinal stress.

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Force inside the pipe, 𝐹 = Tensile force in the pipe (in longitudinal direction)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 Force = (Pressure 𝑜𝑟 Stress) (Area)
𝜋
𝑝 ( 𝐷 2 ) = 𝜎𝐿 (𝜋)(𝐷)(𝑡)
4

Thus, 𝜎𝑇 can be expresses in terms of pressure and thickness of pipe:

𝒑𝑫
𝝈𝑳 =
𝟒𝒕
Where:
𝜎𝐿 = longitudinal stress
p = pressure or 𝑝𝑜 − 𝑝𝑖
D = internal diameter
t = thickness

If the container is a spherical tank, then the stress developed is:

𝒑𝑫
𝝈𝒔 =
𝟒𝒕
Where:
𝜎𝑠 = spherical tank stress
p = pressure or 𝑝𝑜 − 𝑝𝑖
D = internal diameter
t = thickness

Example 1a-16. A cylindrical steel pressure vessel 400 mm in diameter with a wall thickness
of 20 mm, is subjected to an internal pressure of 4.5 MN/𝑚2 .

a. Calculate the tangential and longitudinal stresses in the steel.

b. To what value may the internal pressure be increased if the stress in the steel is limited
to 120 MPa?
c. If the internal pressure were increased until the vessel bursts, sketch the failure.

Solution:

For a:

The problem asks for the actual stress using the given: 𝐷 = 400 𝑚𝑚 , 𝑡 = 20 𝑚𝑚 , 𝑝 = 4.5 MPa

For tangential stress: For longitudinal stress:

𝑝𝐷 𝑝𝐷
𝜎𝑇 = 𝜎𝐿 =
2𝑡 4𝑡

𝑁 𝑁
4.5 ( 2 ) (400 𝑚𝑚) 4.5 ( 2 ) (400 𝑚𝑚)
𝜎𝑇 = 𝑚𝑚 𝜎𝐿 = 𝑚𝑚
2(20 𝑚𝑚) 4(20 𝑚𝑚)

𝝈𝑻 = 𝟒𝟓 MPa Ans. 𝝈𝑳 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓 MPa Ans.

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For b:

This is a working design question. Since the stress steel is limited to 120 MPa, we must find the
maximum pressure p that can both satisfy both the tangential resistance and longitudinal
resistance.

For tangential stress: For longitudinal stress:

𝜎𝑇 ≤ 120 MPa 𝜎𝐿 ≤ 120 MPa

𝑝𝐷 𝑝𝐷
𝜎𝑇 = 𝜎𝐿 =
2𝑡 4𝑡

𝑁 𝑝 (400 𝑚𝑚) 𝑁 𝑝 (400 𝑚𝑚)

120 2
= 120 2
=
𝑚𝑚 2(20 𝑚𝑚) 𝑚𝑚 4(20 𝑚𝑚)

𝑝 = 12 MPa 𝑝 = 24 MPa

As we can see, we have two results. In choosing the final answer, we shall recall that as the
pressure increases so does the stresses. Thus, we should adopt the least numerical value of
pressure to avoid failure.

Final answer: 𝒑 = 𝟏𝟐 MPa Ans.

For c:

Since, we have adopted the pressure from tangential stress (𝑝 = 12 MPa) then it just means
that the impending failure would be in transverse direction.
Sketch of the failure:

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Example 1a-17. A pipe carrying steam at 3.5 MPa has an outside diameter of 450 mm and a wall
thickness of 10 mm. A gasket is inserted between the flange at one end of the pipe and a flat
plate used to cap the end. How may 40-mm diameter bolts must be used to hold the cap on if the
allowable stress in the bolts is 25 MPa? What circumferential stress is developed in the pipe?

Solution:

This is a working design problem. Analyze the figure. As we can see, the pipe is being
held in longitudinal direction by a flange that is reinforced with n bolts. The pipe is carrying a
steam pressure of 3.5 MPa.

We must derive our own formula in determining the no. of bolts n needed. Recall the
principle?

Force inside the pipe = Tensile force in the pipe (in longitudinal direction)
since Force = (Pressure or Stress) x Area
𝜋 𝜋
𝑝 ( (𝐷𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 )2 ) = 𝜎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 ( (𝐷𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 2 )) (𝑛)
4 4

𝑝(𝐷𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 )2
𝑛=
𝜎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 (𝐷𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 2 )
Given:
𝑝 = 3.5 MPa ; 𝐷𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 40 𝑚𝑚 ; 𝐷𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 = 430 𝑚𝑚 ; 𝜎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 25 MPa

𝑁 2 2
𝑝(𝐷𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 )2 3.5 2 (430 )𝑚𝑚
𝑛= = 𝑚𝑚
𝜎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 (𝐷𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 2 ) 𝑁
25 (402 )𝑚𝑚2
𝑚𝑚2

𝑛 = 16.18 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 ≅ 𝟏𝟕 𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 Ans.

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*Self-Help! You can also refer to the sources below to help

you further understand the lesson:

*Pytel, A., Kiusalaas J. (2010). Mechanics of Materials. Phil. Edition, Cengage Learning

*R. C. Hibbeler (2008). Mechanics of Materials. (7th Ed). Pearson Prentice Hall

Let’s Check!

Activity 1. Now that you know the most essential terms in this course, let us try to check your
understanding of these terms. In the space provided, write the term/s being asked in the
following statements:

_________________________1. It is a study of the external effects upon rigid bodies at rest, without
considering the change in shape or deformation resulted from these
effects.
_________________________2. It is a study of the external effects upon rigid bodies in motion, without
considering the change in shape or deformation resulted from these
effects.
_________________________3. It is a study of the internal effects on the bodies as well as considers the
deformation that are caused by the applied loads or forces.
_________________________4. A body is considered ______________ if there is no change in the body even
though external or internal forces have already been applied to it.
_________________________5. Changes in an object's shape or form due to the application of a force or
forces.
_________________________6. It is the mathematical analysis of a body under rest or motion.
_________________________7. The Load is called “Shear” if it acts _____________ on any given cross-
sectional area.
_________________________8. An external effect that tends to rotate or twist the material.
_________________________9. An external effect that tends to bend the material, whether concave
upward or concave downward.
_________________________10. It is the result of internal forces, or forces that result when internal
particles react to each other.
_________________________11. Stresses caused by “normal load”.
_________________________12. Tension is a type of normal force that specifically directed ___________.
It tends to stretch the material.
_________________________13. Compression is a type of normal force that specifically directed
______________. It tends to shrink the material.
_________________________14. If a support prevents translation of a body in a given direction, a force
is developed on the body in that direction.
_________________________15. Stresses caused by “shear load”.
_________________________16. It is the maximum stress that a material can sustain or carry.
_________________________17. It is a special type of normal stress that results from the contact
pressure between separate bodies.
_________________________18. It is a stress developed along the longitudinal section of the pipe.
_________________________19. It is a stress developed across the transverse section of the pipe.
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_________________________20. It is a stress developed inside the sphere container.

Activity 2. Concept of stress. A steel strut is subjected to a compressive force P. The strut has a
hollow square cross section with a wall thickness t. The pin hoists the strut with two gusset
plates with thickness tG.

gusset

strut

pin

1. What is the area defined by force P for computing the normal stress acting on the strut?
2. The pin is subjected to a _________________ shear.
3. What is the total area defined by force P for computing the bearing stress between the
gusset and the pin?

Activity 3. From a bar subjected by an axial force P, Draw the components of P acting on the
inclined plane.

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Activity 4. A pipe is carrying a pressurized air pipe p. Determine the sketch of failure in
transverse direction as well as in the longitudinal direction.

Let’s Analyze!

Activity 1. In this activity, you will have to reinforce your understanding of the concept of stress
so that you may be able to answer the problems below:

1.1 A steel strut S serving as a brace for a boat hoist transmits a compressive force 𝑃 = 60
kN to the deck of a pier (see figure a.). The strut has a hollow square cross section with
a wall thickness 𝑡 = 12 𝑚𝑚 (see figure b) and the angle θ between the strut and the
horizontal is 40°. A pin through the strut transmits the compressive force from the strut
to two gussets G that are welded to the base plate B. Four anchor bolts fasten the base
plate to the deck. The diameter of the pin is 𝑑𝑝 = 18 𝑚𝑚, the thickness of the gussets is
𝑡𝐺 = 15 𝑚𝑚, the thickness of the base plate is 𝑡𝑏 = 8 𝑚𝑚, and the diameter of the
anchor bolts is bolt 𝑑𝑏 = 12 𝑚𝑚. Determine the following stresses:

(a) The compressive stress in the strut.

(b) The shear stress in the pins.
(c) The shear stress in the anchor bolts.
(d) the bearing stress between the anchor bolts and the base plate.
(e) The bearing tress between the pin and the gusset.

1.2 The bell-crank mechanism shown in the figure is in equilibrium under the forces 𝑃1 =
5 𝑘𝑁 and 𝑃2 applied at A and D respectively. Determine:
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(a) The diameter if the connecting rod CD, given that the normal stress is limited to 140
MPa.
(b) The shear stress in the d = 8 mm diameter pin at B.
(c) The bearing stress in the bracket in the bracket supports at B.
(d) The bearing stress in the crank at B.

1.3 Calculate the allowable load 𝑃 for the bolted connection as shown. The material
strength for tension is 210 MPa, the shearing strength of the bolt at C is 140 MPa and
the bearing strength is 210 MPa. Dimensions are w = 50 mm; t = 6 mm ; and d = 12
mm.

Activity 2. Analyze and answer the given stress on inclined plane problem: The two pieces of
wood, 2 in. by 4 in., are glued together along the 40° joint. Determine the maximum safe axial
load P that can be applied if the shear stress in the glue is limited to 250 psi.

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Activity 3. The tank shown is fabricated from t = 4 − 𝑚𝑚 steel plate. Calculate the maximum
longitudinal and circumferential stress caused by an internal pressure of 865 kPa. ℎ =
46 𝑐𝑚; 𝑏 = 60 𝑐𝑚 and L = 1 m.

In a Nutshell!

This section presented the concept of stress and an introduction to the approaches used for the
analysis and design of load carrying components. Emphasis has been placed on the use of the
free-body diagram to determine equations of equilibrium that are solved for unknown reactions
and internal forces in the structures. The stresses due to axial (normal), direct shear and general
loadings on plane and inclined planes have also been discussed. Furthermore, stress in thin-
walled pressure vessels have also been thoroughly tackled.

Design of engineering structures have also been dealt in detail. The failure load, allowable load
of members was sufficiently described; this also explained the principle of design, what value
should be adopted that would satisfy the material strength. To further reinforce understanding
and inculcate analytical skill on the topics matter, answer the following exercises:

Selected Problems and Review Problems found on Chapter 1 of *Pytel, A., Kiusalaas J.
(2010). Mechanics of Materials. Phil. Edition, Cengage Learning

Big Picture

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1b. Develop a working knowledge and understanding

on concepts of strain and deformation of bars due to axial loadings and
temperature changes which includes stress – strain diagrams, deformations
on axially loaded bars, working stress and factor of safety, Generalized Hooke’s
Law, statically indeterminate problems, thermal stresses.

Metalanguage

These are the frequent terms that you may encounter as you go along the course:

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These are the changes of a body caused by a normal load/force

Normal Strain, 𝜀 or
Axial strain
It is always computed by deformation over original length.
Axial The direction along the longitude of the body
Tensile testing is a destructive test process that provides
Tensile Test
information about the strength of the material.
The last point on the stress vs strain diagram where stress is still
proportional to strain.
Proportional Limit
or simply, the last point of the linear graph stress vs strain
diagram.
In a universal condition, stress is always proportional to strain.
Hooke’s Law
“As stress increases, so does the strain”
Modulus of Elasticity The coefficient of proportionality of Hooke’s Law.
Elastic Limit The stress beyond which the material is no longer elastic.
Point where we can locate the yield stress on the stress vs. strain
Yield Point
diagram.
The stress level where the material starts to strain plastically.

“Plastically” refers to the permanent distortion that occurs when

Yield stress
a material is subjected to tensile, compressive, bending, or torsion
stresses that exceed its yield strength and cause it to elongate,
compress, buckle, bend, or twist.
The highest stress attained by the material before the graph
Ultimate Stress
begins to slope down.
Rupture Stress This is the stress at which failure occurs, or the strain becomes 0.
Uniaxial Loading The application of load is only in one direction.
The ratio of strain between transverse direction and the strain
Poisson’s ratio
along the direction of the force.
Biaxial Loading The application of load is in two directions simultaneously.
Triaxial Loading The application of load is three-dimensional, simultaneously.
It is the ratio of the change in deformation to its original length
Shear strain
perpendicular to the axes of the member due to shear stress.
The unknown forces on the structure can be solved through the
Statically Determinate
three equilibrium equations sufficiently.
The unknown forces on the structure cannot be solved through
Statically the three equilibrium equations alone. These structures need to
Indeterminate determine other relationships to match the number of unknown
forces acting on it.
Compatibility Relationship of strains.
Equation
This is caused by the free expansion or contraction due to a
thermal deformation
change in temperature.
This is the stress developed due to the restriction of thermal
thermal stress
expansion or contraction of a body.

Essential Knowledge

Introduction to the subject matter:

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The strength of a material is not only the only criterion that must be considered when
designing machine parts or structures. We now turn to deformation, the analysis of which is as
important as that of stress. Deformation, rather than stress, may be the controlling factor in the
design of a member.

Part 1: Normal (Axial) Strain

Normal Strain, 𝜺 refers to the quantification of changes of a body caused by a normal

load/force. The normal strain 𝜀 is defined as the deformation per unit length. Therefore, the
normal strain in the bar in the axial direction, also known as the axial strain,

𝛿 𝐿 − 𝐿0
𝜀= =
𝐿0 𝐿0

where:
𝛿 = deformation (displacement)
𝐿 = final length
𝐿0 = initial length

Examples 1b-1. A pin-connected frame ABCD consists of three bars and a wire. After a
horizontal load 𝑃 is applied at joint 𝐵, joint C moves 10 mm to the right. Determine the normal
strain in the wire.

Solution:

Step 1: From the definition of normal strain, we must find the value of deformation and as well
as determine the original length and final length of the wire.
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[Assumption: the bar members are rigid; hence their own deformation is not considered.]

Based from the figure:

For original length of wire, 𝐿𝐶𝐵 : √1.32 + 22 = 2.385 𝑚

For final length of wire, 𝐿𝐶𝐵 ′ ∶ √(1.3 + 0.01)2 + 22 = 2.391 𝑚

Thus: 𝛿 = 2.391 – 2.385 = 0.006 m

𝛿 0.006 m
𝜀= = = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 Ans.
𝐿𝐶𝐵 2.385 𝑚

Tension Test. To perform the tensile test, a specimen of the material is made into a standard
shape and size. Before testing, two small punch marks are placed along the length, located away
from the end of the specimen. In a tensile test, a specimen of the material is mounted in the
grips of a testing machine and subjected to a tensile loading, applied slowly and steadily or
statically at room temperature. The ends of the specimen may be of any geometric form to fit
the test machine in such a way that the load is axial.

Measurements are taken of both the specimen’s initial or original cross-sectional-area,

𝐴0 and the gage length 𝐿0 between punch marks. Often, when a metal bar is used in a tensile
test, it has an initial diameter 𝑑0 = 0.5 𝑖𝑛. and a gage length of 𝐿0 = 2.0 𝑖𝑛. A tensile-test machine
with automatic control and data processing systems is shown. The machine is designed to sense
the load and maintain a uniform stretching of the specimen until it breaks.

For further visualization of the test, visit the YouTube Video:

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8U4G5kcpcM

During the test, continuous readings are taken of the applied load and the elongation of
the gage length. These data are then converted to stress and strain. The stress is obtained from
𝑃
𝜎 = 𝐴, where P is the load and A represents the original cross-sectional area, 𝐴0 of the specimen.
𝛿
The strain is computed from 𝜀 = 𝐿 , where 𝛿 is the elongation a dimensionless quantity.
However, ‘‘units’’ such as in./in. or mm/mm are frequently used for normal strain.

After converting the data into stress and strain stress-strain diagram will be generated.

Proportional Limit and Hooke’s Law. As seen on the figure, the stress-strain diagram is a straight
line from the origin O to a point called the proportional limit. This plot is a manifestation of
Hooke’s Law. Hooke’s Law states that from the beginning of the test up to proportional limit stress
is proportional to strain; that is,
𝜎𝛼𝜀

where the coefficient of the proportionality is 𝐸 (modulus of elasticity) also known as the
Young’s modulus.

Thus, 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀
𝜎
𝐸=
𝜀

The units of 𝐸 are the same as the units of stress – that is, 𝑃𝑎 or psi. For steel 𝐸 = 29𝑥 106 psi
or 200 GPa.

Elastic Limit. As name implies, the stress beyond which the material is no longer elastic.

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Yield Point. This is the point where the stress-strain diagram becomes almost horizontal. The
corresponding stress is known as the yield stress or yield strength. To determine the yield stress,
use the offset - method. This method consists of drawing a line parallel to the initial tangent of the
stress-strain curve; this line starts at a prescribed offset strain, usually 0.2% ((𝜀 = 0.002). The
intersection of this line with the stress-strain curve, shown in the figure, is called the yield stress
at 0.2% offset.

Ultimate Stress. This is called the highest stress on the stress-strain curve.

Rupture Stress. This is the stress at which failure occurs.

• Nominal rupture strength – this is computed by dividing the load at rupture by the
original cross-sectional area or at “fracture”.
• True rupture strength – this is calculated using the reduced area of the cross-
section where the fracture occurred.

The difference between two is necking. As failure approaches, the material stretches very
rapidly, causing the cross-section to narrow, as shown.

Rupture Stress. This is the stress at which failure occurs.

Examples 1b-2. The following data were recorded during a tensile test of a 14.0 mm diameter
mild steel rod. The gage length was 50.0 mm.

Plot the stress-strain diagram and determine the following mechanical properties:

(a) proportional limit;

(b) modulus of elasticity;
(c) yield stress;
(d) ultimate stress; and
(e) nominal rupture stress

Load (N) Elongation (mm)

0 0
6310 0.010
12600 0.020
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18800 0.030
25100 0.040
31300 0.050
37900 0.060
40100 0.163
41600 0.433
46200 1.25
52400 2.50
58500 4.50
65400 7.50
69000 12.50
67800 15.50
65000 20.00
61500 Fracture

Solution:

Step 1: Convert the load into stress and elongation to strain.

𝐷 = 14 mm and 𝐿 = 50 mm

Load (N) Stress, 𝝈 Elongation Strain, 𝜀

(mm)
𝑷 [MPa] 𝜹
𝑷 𝜺=
𝑳
𝑨
0 0.00 0 0
6310 40.99 0.010 0.0002
12600 81.85 0.020 0.0004
18800 122.13 0.030 0.0006
25100 163.05 0.040 0.0008
31300 203.33 0.050 0.001
37900 246.20 0.060 0.0012
40100 260.49 0.163 0.00326
41600 270.24 0.433 0.00866
46200 300.12 1.25 0.025
52400 340.40 2.50 0.05
58500 380.02 4.50 0.09
65400 424.85 7.50 0.15
69000 448.23 12.50 0.25
67800 440.44 15.50 0.31
65000 422.25 20.00 0.4
61500 399.51 0 , “Fracture” 0

Step 2: Plot the stress (ordinate) vs. strain (abscissa) diagram.

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Stress vs. Strain Diagram

500
450
400
350
300
Stress,

250
200
150
100
50
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Strain

Step 3: Determine the parameters by looking at the graph.

(a) proportional limit;

The “last stress” of the straight – line, 𝝈𝑷𝑳 → 246.20 MPa

(b) modulus of elasticity;

𝜎 246.20 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐸= 𝜀
= 0.0012
= 𝟐𝟎𝟓, 𝟏𝟔𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 MPa or 205. 17 GPa Ans.

(c) yield stress;

The next stress after the “last stress” of the straight – line,

𝝈𝒀 → 260.49 MPa Ans.

(d) ultimate stress;

The highest stress on the diagram, 𝝈𝑼 → 448.23 MPa Ans.

(e) nominal rupture stress;

The stress on the diagram right before fracture, 𝝈𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 → 399.51 MPa Ans.

Part 2: Working Stress and Factor of Safety

Working stress 𝝈𝒘 , also called the allowable stress. This is the maximum safe axial stress used
in design. In most designs, the working stress should be limited to values not exceeding the
proportional limit so that the stresses remain in the elastic range (the straight-line portion of
the stress-strain diagram). However, because the proportional limit is difficult to determine
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accurately, it is customary to base the working stress on either the yield stress 𝜎𝑦 or the ultimate
stress 𝜎𝑢𝑙𝑡 , divided by a suitable number N, called the factor of safety. Thus,

𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒖𝒍𝒕
𝝈𝒘 = OR 𝝈𝒘 =
𝑵 𝑵

𝜎𝑦 → yield stress is used for structural steel

𝜎𝑢𝑙𝑡 → ultimate stress is used for other materials

Example 1b-3. Two steel plates A and B are joined by one bolt carrying an axial load 𝑃. Find the
permissible value of 𝑃 that the joint will safely support if the maximum stress 𝜏 = 160 MPa
(shear), 𝜎𝑏 = 390 MPa in bearing and 𝜎𝑡 = 210 MPa in tension. Assume that the factor safety,
𝑁 = 1.5 is to be used.

Solution:

Step 1. Since factor of safety, 𝑁 is given, we can determine the allowable shear, bearing and
tension stress to be used in the design.

160 390 210

𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 = ≅ 106. 67 MPa; 𝜎𝑏(𝑎𝑙𝑙) = ≅ 260 MPa; 𝜎𝑡(𝑎𝑙𝑙) = ≅ 140 MPa
1.5 1.5 1.5

Step 2. Determine the 𝑃 allowed using the computed allowable stresses:

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By shearing:
𝜋 𝑁
𝑃 = 𝐴𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 ) = 4
(12)2 𝑚𝑚2 (106.67) 𝑚𝑚2 = 12,064,09 N or 12.064 kN

By bearing:
𝑁
𝑃 = 𝐴𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝜎𝑏(𝑎𝑙𝑙) ) = 𝑑(𝑡𝑏 )(𝜎𝑏(𝑎𝑙𝑙) ) = (12)(10)𝑚𝑚2 (260) = 31,200 N or 31.2 kN
𝑚𝑚2

By tension in plates:
𝑁
𝑃 = 𝐴𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝜎𝑡(𝑎𝑙𝑙) ) = (𝑤 − 𝑑)(𝑡𝑏 )(𝜎𝑡(𝑎𝑙𝑙) ) = (60 − 12)(10)𝑚𝑚2 (140) 𝑚𝑚2 = 31,200 N or 31.2 kN

Step 3. By following the working stress design principle, determine the final P to be adopted.

𝑃 = 12.064 kN Ans.

Part 3: Relationship Between Normal Stress and Normal Strain

If the stress or strain in the bar is uniform,

𝑃 𝛿 𝜎
𝜎= ; 𝜀= and 𝐸=
𝐴 𝐿 𝜀

𝑃
( ) 𝑷𝑳
𝐴
𝐸= 𝛿 → 𝜹=
𝑨𝑬
𝐿
where:
𝛿 = deformation or displacement
𝑃 = normal or axial load
𝐿 = Length of the member
𝐴 = cross sectional area of the member
𝐸 = modulus of Elasticity of the member

In the case where the axial strain varies with the x-coordinate, the elongation of the bar can be
obtained by integration,
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𝐿𝜎 𝐿 𝑃
𝜀 = ∫0 𝑑𝑥 ; 𝜀 = ∫0 𝑑𝑥
𝐸 𝐴𝐸

Note that a positive (tensile) 𝑃 results in + 𝜹 (elongation); conversely, a negative P

(compression) gives - 𝜹 (shortening).

Example 1b-4. The steel propeller shaft ABCD carries the axial loads shown in the figure. What
is the general effect of the loads applied to the shaft? Take 𝐸 = 29 𝑥 106 psi.

Solution:

Step 1. Determine the net force acting on each bar segment:

𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 2000 lb ; 𝑃𝐵𝐶 = - 4000 lb ; 𝑃𝐶𝐷 = 2000 lb

Step 2. Determine the area on each bar segment:

𝜋
𝐴𝐴𝐵 = (0.5)2 𝑖𝑛2 = 0.1963 𝑖𝑛2
4

𝜋
𝐴𝐵𝐶 = (0.75)2 𝑖𝑛2 = 0.4418 𝑖𝑛2
4
𝜋
𝐴𝐶𝐷 = (0.75)2 𝑖𝑛2 = 0.4418 𝑖𝑛2
4

Step 3. Convert the length of each bar segment per units used on the bar segment:

𝑙𝑏
Since the area is expressed in 𝑖𝑛2 and the Elasticity is in 𝑖𝑛2 , convert ft to in:

12 𝑖𝑛
𝐿𝐴𝐵 = 5 𝑓𝑡 ( 1 𝑓𝑡 ) = 60 in
12 𝑖𝑛
𝐿𝐵𝐶 = 4 𝑓𝑡 ( 1 𝑓𝑡 ) = 48 in
12 𝑖𝑛
𝐿𝐶𝐷 = 4 𝑓𝑡 ( 1 𝑓𝑡 ) = 48 in

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Step 3. Determine the accumulated deformation in the bar:

𝑃𝐿
𝛿= ∑
𝐴𝐸
𝑃𝐴𝐵 𝐿𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐵𝐶 𝐿𝐵𝐶 𝑃𝐶𝐷 𝐿𝐶𝐷
𝛿= + +
𝐴𝐴𝐵 𝐸𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵𝐶 𝐸𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐶𝐷 𝐸𝐶𝐷

(2000 𝑖𝑛) (60 𝑖𝑛) (−4000 𝑖𝑛) (48 𝑖𝑛) (2000 𝑖𝑛) (48 𝑖𝑛)
𝛿= + +
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
( 0.1963 𝑖𝑛2 )(29 𝑥 106 ) ( 0.4418 𝑖𝑛2 )(29 𝑥 106 ) ( 0.4418 𝑖𝑛2 )(29 𝑥 106 )
𝑖𝑛2 𝑖𝑛2 𝑖𝑛2

𝜹 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟗 in Ans.

Since the resulting answer is positive, the end result is elongation.

Example 1b-5. The rigid bar BC in the figure is supported by the steel wire AC of cross-sectional
area 0.25 in2. Find the vertical displacement of point C caused by the 2000-lb load. Neglect the
weight of the bar. Use E = 29 x 106 psi for steel wire.

wire

Solution:

Step 1. Draw the FBD to determine the reactions at B and Tension of wire at C.

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∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 ; 𝑇𝐶 (sin 40°)(8 𝑓𝑡) = 2000 𝑙𝑏(8 𝑓𝑡)

𝑇𝐶 = 3111.448 𝑙𝑏

Step 2. Draw what will happen to the structure when 2000 lb. downward force is applied at C.
Note that BC is rigid, it just rotates but it will not elongate nor shrink. The wire at C will elongate
if this downward force will be applied. The purpose of doing this is to find the relationship
between the deformation of the wire and the vertical displacement of C. A deformation triangle
will be formed, it will look like this:

where:
𝛿𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 = deformation of the wire

∆𝐶 = vvertical displacement of C of
point C

∆𝑪

The deformation of the wire, 𝛿𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 is a result of Tension at C. We can compute it by:

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𝑃𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸

where:
P = 𝑇𝐶 = 3111.448 𝑙𝑏
𝐿 = length of the wire: 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠40° = 8 ft
12 𝑖𝑛
𝐿 = 10.443 𝑓𝑡 ( ) = 125. 316 𝑖𝑛
1 𝑓𝑡
𝐴 = 0.25 𝑖𝑛2
𝐸 = 29 x 106 psi

(3111.448 𝑙𝑏)(125. 316 𝑖𝑛)

𝛿𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 =
𝑙𝑏
(0.25 𝑖𝑛2 )(29 𝑥 106 ) 2
𝑖𝑛

𝛿𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 = 0.05378 𝑖𝑛

Step 3. From the deformation triangle, we can determine or get the relationship between the
deformation of the wire and the vertical displacement of C.

𝛿𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒

40°

𝛿
Thus: 𝑠𝑖𝑛40° = 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
∆𝐶
𝛿𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
∆𝐶 =
(𝑠𝑖𝑛 40°)
0.05378 𝑖𝑛
∆𝐶 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛 40°)
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟑𝟒 𝒊𝒏 ↓ Ans.

Example 1b-6. The rigid bar AB, attached to aluminum and steel rods, is horizontal before the
load P is applied. Find the vertical displacement of point C caused by the load P = 50 kN. Neglect
the weight of the bar.

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Solution:

Step 1. Draw the FBD of the structure to determine the tension of aluminum and steel bars:

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ; ↑ + ; 𝑃𝐴𝐿 + 𝑃𝑆𝑇 = 50 → 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟏

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 ; 𝐶𝑊 + ; (𝑃𝐴𝐿 𝑘𝑁)(6 )𝑚 − 50 𝑘𝑁(2.5 𝑚) = 0

𝑃𝐴𝐿 = 20.833 𝑘𝑁 → 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡. 𝑡𝑜 equation 𝟏

20.833 + 𝑃𝑆𝑇 = 50

𝑃𝑆𝑇 = 29.167 𝑘𝑁

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Step 2. Draw what will happen to the structure when 50 kN downward force is applied at C. Note
that AB is rigid, it just rotates/swings but it will not elongate nor shrink. The aluminum and
steel rods will elongate if this downward force will be applied. The purpose ofdoing this is to
find the relationship between the deformation of the aluminum rod and the steel rod. A
deformation triangle will be formed, it will look like this:

𝜹𝑺𝑻
∆𝑪
𝜹𝑨𝑳
∆𝑪 - 𝜹𝑺𝑻
𝜹𝑨𝑳 − 𝜹𝑺𝑻

By looking at the diagram, we can get a deformation relationship:

3.5 m 2.5 m
∆𝑪 - 𝜹𝑺𝑻
𝜹𝑨𝑳 − 𝜹𝑺𝑻

𝛿𝐴𝐿 − 𝛿𝑆𝑇 ∆𝐶 − 𝛿𝑆𝑇

=
6 𝑚 2.5 𝑚

2.5(𝛿𝐴𝐿 − 𝛿𝑆𝑇 ) = 6(∆𝐶 − 𝛿𝑆𝑇 ) → equation 2

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Step 3. Compute the deformation of aluminum and of steel.

Deformation of aluminum:

1000 𝑁 1000 𝑚𝑚
𝑃𝐴𝐿 (𝐿𝐴𝐿 ). 20.833 𝑘𝑁( ) (3 m ( ))
𝛿𝐴𝐿 = = 1 𝑘𝑁 1𝑚
𝑁
𝐴𝐴𝐿 (𝐸𝐴𝐿 ) 1,000
300 𝑚𝑚2 (70 𝐺𝑃𝑎 ( 𝑚𝑚2 ))
1 𝐺𝑃𝑎

𝛿𝐴𝐿 = 2.976 mm
Deformation of steel:

1000 𝑁 1000 𝑚𝑚
𝑃𝑆𝑇 (𝐿𝑆𝑇 ). 29.167 𝑘𝑁 ( ) (4 m ( ))
𝛿𝑆𝑇 = = 1 𝑘𝑁 1𝑚
𝑁
𝐴𝑆𝑇 (𝐸𝑆𝑇 ) 1,000
500 𝑚𝑚2 (200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 ( 𝑚𝑚2 ))
1 𝐺𝑃𝑎

𝛿𝑆𝑇 = 1.167 mm

Step 4. Substitute the computed values to equation 2 to determine the vertical displacement of
point C.

2.5(𝛿𝐴𝐿 − 𝛿𝑆𝑇 ) = 6(∆𝐶 − 𝛿𝑆𝑇 )

2.5(2.976 𝑚𝑚 − 1.167 mm) = 6(∆𝐶 𝑚𝑚 − 1.167 mm)

∆𝑪 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟐𝟏 𝒎𝒎 Ans.

Example 1b-7. The rigid bar ABC is supported by a pin at A and a steel rod at B. Determine the
largest vertical load P that can be applied at C if the stress in the steel rod is limited to 35 ksi and
the vertical movement of end C must not exceed 0.12 in. Neglect the weights of the members.

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Steel

Solution:

Step 1. Analyze the problem. This is an example of Working Stress/Strain Design. Not only that
the limiting stress of the steel is a consideration, but also how long is point C allowed to deflect
or displace. To start, always draw the FBD of the figure to determine the forces involved.

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 ; 𝐶𝑊 +: 𝑃(5 𝑓𝑡) = 𝑃𝑠𝑡 (2 𝑓𝑡)

𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝑷𝒔𝒕 → equation 1

Step 2. Draw what will happen to the structure when downward force 𝑃 is applied at C. Note
that AC is rigid, it just rotates/swings but it will not elongate nor shrink. The steel rod will
elongate if this downward force will be applied. The purpose of doing this is to find the
relationship between the deformation of the steel rod and displacement at C. A deformation
triangle will be formed, it will look like this:

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𝜹𝒔𝒕
∆𝑪

𝛿𝑠𝑡 ∆𝐶
=
2 𝑓𝑡 5 𝑓𝑡

𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 0.4∆𝐶 → equation 2

Since “vertical movement of end C must not exceed 0.12 in”, then ∆𝐶 = 0.12 𝑖𝑛,

𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 0.4∆𝐶 = 0.4(0.12) = 0.048 𝑖𝑛

Step 3. Correlate the computed deformation of steel to formula.

𝑃𝑠𝑡 (𝐿𝑠𝑡 )
𝛿𝑠𝑡 =
𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝐸𝑠𝑡 )
Substitute the known values:
12 𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑠𝑡 (4 𝑓𝑡 𝑥 ( ))
1 𝑓𝑡
0.048 in =
𝑙𝑏
0.5 𝑖𝑛2 (29 𝑥 106 ) 2
𝑖𝑛

𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 14,500 lb

Step 3. Solve the largest P that can be applied according to parameters:

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𝐵𝑦 allowable deformation at C, 𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 14,500 lb

From equation (1), 𝑃 = 0.4𝑃𝑠𝑡

𝑃 = 0.4(14,500) = 5,800 𝑙𝑏

𝑙𝑏
𝐵𝑦 allowable stress of steel 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 ≤ 35,000 𝑖𝑛2

𝑃𝑠𝑡
𝜎=
𝐴𝑠𝑡
𝑙𝑏 𝑃𝑠𝑡
35,000 2
=
𝑖𝑛 0.5 𝑖𝑛2
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 17,500 𝑙𝑏

From equation (1), 𝑃 = 0.4𝑃𝑠𝑡

𝑃 = 0.4(17,500) = 7,000 𝑙𝑏

Thus, the final P that should be adopted is P = 5,800 lb. Ans.

Part 4: Normal Strain (Uniaxial Loading and Deformation in all Directions)

Experiments show that when a bar is stretched by an axial force, there is a contraction in the
transverse dimensions, as illustrated. Simeon D. Poisson showed that the ratio of the transverse
strain to the axial strain is constant for stresses within the proportional limit, hence the
Poisson’s ratio.

Poisson's ratio, 𝑣 𝑜𝑟 𝜇 is a measure of the Poisson effect, that describes the expansion or
contraction of a material in directions perpendicular to the direction of loading.

If the force is applied in one direction only,

−𝜀𝑦 −𝜀𝑧 Strain in transverse direction

𝑣 = or or
𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑥 Strain in the direction of the force

The negative sign in the formula signifies that in transverse direction and in the direction of the
force have opposite effects. For example, if the force in 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 is tensile, then the length
along x direction would elongate, as compared to the effect in the other directions 𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑧, in
which the cross-sectional area becomes much smaller.

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Since no force applied at y or z (the transverse direction) then 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎𝑧 = 0.

𝝈𝒙
and an axial force 𝑃 is applied along the x direction, so, 𝜺𝒙 = 𝑬

−𝜀𝑦
Since 𝑣 = 𝜀𝑥
, thus, 𝜀𝑦 = −𝑣𝜀𝑥
𝝈
𝜺𝒚 = −𝒗 ( 𝑬𝒙)
𝝈
𝜺𝒛 = −𝒗 ( 𝑬𝒙)

Example 1b-8. A 100-mm-long rod has a diameter of 15 mm. If an axial tensile load of 10 kN is
applied to it, determine the change in its diameter. E = 70 GPa, 𝑣 = 0.35.

Solution:

Step 1. Analyze the problem. The load is applied along its length or 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, thus, we can
actually solve the stress in this direction, 𝜎𝑥 .

𝑃𝑥 10, 000 𝑁
𝜎𝑥 = = 𝜋 = 56. 588 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴 (15)2 𝑚𝑚2
4

Note that this is a uniaxial loading, only one direction of applied load, thus,

𝜎𝑦 = 0 ; 𝜎𝑧 = 0

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Step 2. The problem asks for the “change in the diameter”. Naturally, we can see this as change
in transverse direction. So, we have to solve the strain in this direction.

𝝈 𝝈
𝜺𝒚 = −𝒗 ( 𝑬𝒙) or 𝜺𝒛 = −𝒗 ( 𝑬𝒙) [both define change in diameter]

Since 𝐸 = 70 𝐺𝑃𝑎 , 𝑣 = 0.35 and 𝐷0 = 15 𝑚𝑚:

56. 588 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜀𝑦 = −0.35 ( )
1,000 𝑀𝑃𝑎
70 𝐺𝑃𝑎 ( 1 𝐺𝑃𝑎 )

𝜀𝑦 = −2. 829 𝑥 10−4

Thus, the change of diameter, ∆𝐷 is:

∆𝐷
𝜀𝑦 =
𝐷0

∆𝐷
−2. 829 𝑥 10−4 =
15 𝑚𝑚

∆𝑫 = −𝟒. 𝟐𝟒𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎𝒎 Ans.

Part 5: Normal Strain (Biaxial Loading and Strain in all Direction)

If the force is applied in two directions simultaneously, as in the figure:

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𝑃𝑦 𝑃𝑥 𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒙
𝜖𝑦 = -v 𝑜𝑟 𝝐𝒚 = -v
𝐴𝑥𝑧 𝐸 𝐴𝑦𝑧 𝐸 𝑬 𝑬

𝑃𝑥 𝑃𝑦 𝝈𝒙 𝝈𝒚
𝜖𝑥 = -v 𝑜𝑟 𝝐𝒙 = -v
𝐴𝑦𝑧 𝐸 𝐴𝑥𝑧 𝐸 𝑬 𝑬

𝑃𝑧 𝑃𝑦 𝑃𝑥 (𝝈𝒚 + 𝝈𝒙 )
𝜖𝑧 = - v -v Since 𝑃𝑧 = 0; 𝝐𝒛 = - v
𝐴𝑥𝑦 𝐸 𝐴𝑥𝑧 𝐸 𝐴𝑦𝑧 𝐸 𝑬

Part 6: Normal Strain (Triaxial Loading and Strain in all Direction)

If the force is applied in all directions simultaneously, as in the figure:

𝑃𝑦 𝑃𝑥 𝑃𝑧 𝝈𝒚 (𝝈𝒙 + 𝝈𝒛 )
𝜖𝑦 = 𝐴 -v𝐴 - v𝐴 or 𝝐𝒚 = -v
𝑥𝑧 𝐸 𝑦𝑧 𝐸 𝑥𝑦 𝐸 𝑬 𝑬
𝝈𝒙 (𝝈𝒚 + 𝝈𝒛 )
𝑃𝑥 𝑃𝑦 𝑃𝑧 𝝐𝒙 = -v
𝜖𝑥 = 𝐴 - v𝐴 - v𝐴 or 𝑬 𝑬
𝑦𝑧 𝐸 𝑥𝑧 𝐸 𝑥𝑦 𝐸

𝝈𝒛 (𝝈𝒚 + 𝝈𝒙 )
𝜖𝑧 = 𝐴
𝑃𝑧
- v𝐴
𝑃𝑦
-
𝑃
v 𝐴 𝑥𝐸 or 𝝐𝒛 = -v
𝑥𝑦 𝐸 𝑥𝑧 𝐸 𝑦𝑧
𝑬 𝑬

Example 1b-9. A rectangular steel block is 3 inches long in the x direction, 2 inches long in the
y direction, and 4 inches long in the z direction. The block is subjected to a triaxial loading of
three uniformly distributed forces as follows: 48 kips tension in the x direction, 60 kips
compression in the y direction, and 54 kips tension in the z direction. If ν = 0.30 and E = 29 ×
106 psi, determine 𝜖𝑥 , 𝜖𝑦 , 𝜖𝑧 .

Solution:

Step 1. Analyze the problem. The loads are applied in all directions; thus, we can compute the
stress in these directions.

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z direction
3 ‘’
x direction

4 ‘’

𝑃𝑥 48 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝜎𝑥 = = = 6 𝑘𝑠𝑖
𝐴(𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟) 2 (4)𝑖𝑛2

𝑃𝑦 −60 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝜎𝑦 = = = −5 𝑘𝑠𝑖
𝐴(𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟) 3 (4)𝑖𝑛2

𝑃𝑧 54 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝜎𝑧 = = = 9 𝑘𝑠𝑖
𝐴(𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟) 2 (3)𝑖𝑛2

Step 2. Compute the strains 𝜖𝑥 , 𝜖𝑦 , 𝜖𝑧 according to the formula:

𝝈𝒙 (𝝈𝒚 + 𝝈𝒛 ) 1 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝜺𝒙 = -v = [6,000 2 − (0.30)(−5,000 2 + 9,000 2 ) ]
𝑬 𝑬 𝑙𝑏 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛
29 𝑥 106 ( 2 )
𝑖𝑛
𝜺𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟓𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 Ans.

𝝈𝒚 (𝝈𝒙 + 𝝈𝒛 ) 1 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝜺𝒚 = -v = [−5,000 2 − (0.30)(6,000 2 + 9,000 2 ) ]
𝑬 𝑬 𝑙𝑏 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛
29 𝑥 106 ( 2 )
𝑖𝑛
𝜺𝒚 = −𝟑. 𝟐𝟕𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 Ans.

𝝈𝒛 (𝝈𝒙 + 𝝈𝒚 ) 1 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝜺𝒛 = -v = [9,000 2 − (0.30)(6,000 2 − 5000 2 ) ]
𝑬 𝑬 𝑙𝑏 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛
29 𝑥 106 ( 2 )
𝑖𝑛
𝜺𝒛 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 Ans.

Example 1b-10. A 2-in.-diameter steel tube with a wall thickness of 0.05 inch just fits in a rigid
hole. Find the tangential stress if an axial compressive load of 3140 lb is applied. Assume ν =
0.30 and neglect the possibility of buckling.

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Solution:

Step 1. Analyze the problem. The tangential direction is the x direction. Further, the P is applied
along the length of the steel tube, thus, this is 𝜎𝑦 .

𝑃𝑦 3140 𝑙𝑏
𝜎𝑦 = = = 9994. 93 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝐴 (𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟) 𝜋(2)(0.05) 𝑖𝑛2

Step 2. Since the problem mentioned that “neglect the possibility of buckling”, then the strain in
this direction must be zero. 𝜀𝑥 = 0.

Thus, compute the tangential stress, 𝜎𝑥 if 𝜎𝑦 = 9994.93 psi, ν = 0.30, 𝐸 = 29 𝑥 106 psi and .
𝜀𝑥 = 0:

𝜎𝑥 ν (𝜎𝑦 )
𝜀𝑥 = −
𝐸 𝐸
1
𝜀𝑥 = [𝜎 − ν(𝜎𝑦 )]
𝐸 𝑥

0 = [𝜎𝑥 − 0.3(9994.93 𝑝𝑠𝑖)]

𝝈𝒙 = 2998. 479 psi Ans.

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Example 1b-11. A 150-mm-long bronze tube, closed at its ends, is 80 mm in diameter and has
a wall thickness of 3 mm. It fits without clearance in an 80-mm hole in a rigid block. The tube is
then subjected to an internal pressure of 4.00 MPa. Assuming ν = 1/3 and 𝐸 = 83 𝐺𝑃𝑎,
determine the tangential stress in the tube.

Solution:

Step 1. Analyze the problem. The tangential direction is the x direction. The longitudinal stress
is the x direction. This stress is caused by the internal pressure; thus, we can solve it like this:

𝑝𝐷
𝜎𝑦 (𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠) =
4𝑡

4 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (80 𝑚𝑚)

𝜎𝑦 = = 26.67 𝑀𝑃𝑎
4(3 𝑚𝑚)

Step 2. Since the problem mentioned that the walls around the bronze tube is rigid with no gap,
then we can say that 𝜀𝑥 = 0.

Thus, we can solve the tangential stress, 𝜎𝑥, , with 𝜎𝑦 = 26.67 MPa, ν = 1/3 and 𝐸 = 83 𝐺𝑃𝑎 and
𝜀𝑥 = 0.
1
𝜀𝑥 = (𝜎𝑥 + ν𝜎𝑦 )
𝐸
1 1
0= (𝜎𝑥 − (26.67 𝑀𝑃𝑎) )
𝐸 3

𝜎𝑥 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟗 𝑴𝑷𝒂 Ans.

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Part 7: Shear Strain

The shearing strain or shear strain is the tangent of the total change in angle occurring between
two originally perpendicular lines in a body during deformation. To illustrate, consider the
deformation involving a change in shape or distortion of a rectangular plate. We note that the
deformed state is shown by the dashed lines in the figure, where 𝜃′ represents the angle
between two rotated edge lines. Since the displacements considered are small, we can set the
tangent of the angle of distortion equal to the angle.

Thus, the shear strain, 𝜸,

𝝅
𝜸= 𝟐
− 𝜽′

The shear strain is positive if the right angle between the reference line decreases, as in the
figure, otherwise, the shearing strain is negative.

Just like the normal strain, the shear strain also follows the Hooke’s law for shear. The coefficient
equivalent in shear is the material constant G, the shear modulus of elasticity (or simply shear
modulus), or the modulus of rigidity. The shear modulus has the same units as the modulus of
elasticity (Pa or psi).

𝝉
𝑮=
𝜸

Correlation between 𝐺 and 𝐸:

𝑬
𝑮 =
𝟐(𝟏 + 𝒗)

Example 1b-12. An initially rectangular element of material is deformed as shown in the figure
(note that the deformation is greatly exaggerated). Calculate the normal strains 𝜀x and 𝜀y, and
the shear strain 𝛾 for the element.

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Solution:

Step 1. Compute the normal strains 𝜀x and 𝜀y using the definition for normal strain:

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

For 𝜀x:
0.7 𝑥 10−4 𝑖𝑛
𝜀𝑥 = = 𝟐. 𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 Ans.
0.25 𝑖𝑛
For 𝜀y:
1.2 𝑥 10−4 𝑖𝑛
𝜀𝑦 = 0.2 𝑖𝑛
= 𝟔. 𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 Ans.

Step 2. Compute the total shear strain:

1.5 𝑥 10−4 𝑖𝑛 1.8 𝑥 10−4 𝑖𝑛

𝛾𝑇 = +
0.2 𝑖𝑛 0.25 𝑖𝑛

𝛾𝑇 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 Ans.

Example 1b-13. An initially rectangular element of a material is deformed into the shape shown
in the figure. Find 𝜀𝑥 and 𝜀𝑦 , and the shear strain 𝛾 for the element.

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Solution:

Step 1. Compute the normal strains 𝜀x and 𝜀y using the definition for normal strain:

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

For 𝜀x:
0.1992−0.2 𝑚𝑚
𝜀𝑥 = = −𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 Ans.
0.2 𝑚𝑚
For 𝜀y:
0.1515−0.15 𝑚𝑚
𝜀𝑦 = 0.15 𝑚𝑚
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 Ans.

Step 2. Compute the total shear strain:

𝛾𝑇 = tan(16.6° − 15.7°)

𝛾𝑇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟕 Ans.

Part 8: Statically Indeterminate Beams

• If the equilibrium equations are sufficient to calculate all the forces (including support
reactions) that act on a body, these forces are said to be statically determinate.

• In statically determinate problems, the number of unknown forces is always equal to the
number of independent equilibrium equations. If the number of unknown forces exceeds
the number of independent equilibrium equations, the problem is said to be statically
indeterminate.

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Procedure in Solving Statically Indeterminate Beams:

1. Draw the required free-body diagrams and derive the equations of equilibrium.
2. Derive the compatibility equations. To visualize the restrictions on deformation, it is
often helpful to draw a sketch that exaggerates the magnitudes of the deformations.
3. Use Hooke’s law to express the deformations (strains) in the compatibility equations
in terms of forces (or stresses).
4. Solve the equilibrium and compatibility equations for the unknown forces.

Example 1b-14. The figure shows a rigid bar that is supported by a pin at A and two rods, one
made of steel and the other of bronze. Neglecting the weight of the bar, compute the stress in
each rod caused by the 50-kN load, using the following data:

Solution:

Step 1. Draw the required free-body diagrams and derive the equations of equilibrium.

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∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0; 𝐶𝑊+ ; 𝑃𝑠𝑡 (0.6) + 𝑃𝑏𝑟 (1.6) = 50(2.4) → equation 1

Step 2. Derive compatibility equations. To visualize the restrictions on deformation, it is often

helpful to draw a sketch that exaggerates the magnitudes of the deformations:

𝛿𝑠𝑡
𝛿𝑏𝑟

Determine the compatibility equation through the relationship of the deformations:

By similar triangles,
𝛿𝑠𝑡 𝛿𝑏𝑟
=
0.6 𝑚 1.6 𝑚

𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 0.375𝛿𝑏𝑟

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Step 3. Use Hooke’s law to express the deformations (strains) in the compatibility equations in
terms of forces (or stresses).

𝑃𝐿
But 𝛿= 𝐴𝐸
𝑃𝑠𝑡 (𝐿𝑠𝑡 ) 𝑃𝑏𝑟 (𝐿𝑏𝑟 )
= 0.375
𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝐸𝑠𝑡 ) 𝐴𝑏𝑟 (𝐸𝑏𝑟 )

1000 𝑚𝑚 1000 𝑚𝑚
𝑃𝑠𝑡 (1 𝑚 𝑥 ( 1 𝑚 )) 𝑃𝑏𝑟 (2 𝑚 𝑥 ( 1 𝑚 ))
= 0.375
𝑁 𝑁
1000 2 1000 2
2 𝑚𝑚
600 𝑚𝑚 [200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 𝑥 ( 1 𝐺𝑃𝑎 )] 2 𝑚𝑚
300 𝑚𝑚 [83 𝐺𝑃𝑎 𝑥 ( 1 𝐺𝑃𝑎 )]

𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 3.614𝑃𝑏𝑟 → equation 2

Step 4. Solve the equilibrium and compatibility equations for the unknown forces.

Substitute eq. 2 to eq. 1

(3.614𝑃𝑏𝑟) (0.6) + 𝑃𝑏𝑟 (1.6) = 50(2.4)

𝑃𝑏𝑟 = 31.844 𝑘𝑁

and 𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 3.614𝑃𝑏𝑟

𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 3.614(31.844 𝑘𝑁) = 115.084 𝑘𝑁

Thus, the stresses in steel and bronze are:

𝑃𝑠𝑡 115.084 𝑥 1000 𝑁

𝜎𝑠𝑡 = = = 𝟏𝟗𝟏. 𝟖𝟏 MPa Ans.
𝐴𝑠𝑡 600 𝑚𝑚2

𝑃𝑏𝑟 31.844 𝑥 1000 𝑁

𝜎𝑏𝑟 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟔. 𝟏𝟓 MPa Ans.
𝐴𝑏𝑟 300 𝑚𝑚2

Example 1b-15. The three steel rods, each of cross-sectional area 250 𝑚𝑚2 , jointly support the
7.5-kN load. Assuming that there was no slack or stress in the rods before the load was applied,
find the force in each rod. Use E = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 for steel.

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Solution:

Step 1. Draw the required free-body diagrams and derive the equations of equilibrium.

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 ; → + ; 𝑃𝐴𝐷 (sin 25°) = 𝑃𝐴𝐵 (sin 25°)

𝑃𝐴𝐷 = 𝑃𝐴𝐵

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ; ↑ + ; 𝑃𝐴𝐷 (cos 25°) + 𝑃𝐴𝐵 (cos 25°) + 𝑃𝐴𝑐 = 7.5

Since 𝑃𝐴𝐷 = 𝑃𝐴𝐵

2[ 𝑃𝐴𝐵 (cos 25°)] + 𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 7.5 →equation 1

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Step 2. Derive compatibility equations. To visualize the restrictions on deformation, it is often

helpful to draw a sketch that exaggerates the magnitudes of the deformations:

𝛿𝐴𝐶

By symmetry,
𝛿𝐴𝐷 = 𝛿𝐴𝐵

By LOOKING AT THE FORCE TRIANGLE ABOVE,

𝛿𝐴𝐵
cos 25° =
𝛿𝐴𝐶
Compatibility equation:

𝛿𝐴𝐵 = 𝛿𝐴𝐷 = 𝛿𝐴𝐶 (cos 25°)

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Step 3. Use Hooke’s law to express the deformations (strains) in the compatibility equations in
terms of forces (or stresses).

𝑃𝐿
But 𝛿= 𝐴𝐸
𝛿𝐴𝐵 = 𝛿𝐴𝐶 (cos 25°)

2.75 1000 𝑚𝑚 1000 𝑚𝑚

𝑃𝐴𝐵 ( 𝑚 𝑥 ( 1 𝑚 )) 𝑃𝐴𝐶 (2.75 𝑚 𝑥 ( 1 𝑚 ))
𝑐𝑜𝑠25°
= cos 25°
𝑁 𝑁
1000 1000
250 𝑚𝑚2 [200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 𝑥 ( 𝑚𝑚2 )] 250 𝑚𝑚2 [200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 𝑥 ( 𝑚𝑚2 )]
1 𝐺𝑃𝑎 1 𝐺𝑃𝑎
{ }

𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 𝑃𝐴𝐷 = 0.8214𝑃𝐴𝐶 → equation 2

Step 4. Solve the equilibrium and compatibility equations for the unknown forces.

Substitute eq. 2 to eq. 1

2[ 0.8214𝑃𝐴𝐶 (cos 25°)] + 𝑃𝐴𝑐 = 7.5

𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟏𝟑 𝒌𝑵 Ans.

and 𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 𝑃𝐴𝐷 = 0.8214𝑃𝐴𝐶

𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 𝑃𝐴𝐷 = 0.8214(3.013) = 2.47 𝑘𝑁 Ans.

Part 9: Thermal Deformation and Stress

Consider the consequences of increasing or decreasing the uniform temperature of an

unconstrained isotropic body. The resultant expansion or contraction occurs in such a way as to
cause a cubic element of the element of the solid to remain cubic while undergoing changes of
length om each of its sides.

The strain due to a 1° temperature change is denoted by 𝛼 and is called the coefficient of thermal
expansion. Thermal strain caused by a uniform increase in temperature ∆𝑇 is therefore,

𝜺𝒕 = 𝜶 ∆𝑻

The coefficient of expansion, 𝛼 is approximately constant over a moderate range of temperature

1 1
change. It represents a quantity per degree Celsius °𝐶 or per degree Fahrenheit °𝐹

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Thermal deformation is caused by the free expansion or contraction due to a change in

temperature. While thermal stresses are stresses due to the restriction of thermal expansion or
contraction of a body.

𝜹𝑻 = 𝜶𝑳(∆𝑻)
Where:

𝜹𝑻 = deformation caused by temperature change

𝜺𝒕 = strain due to temperature
𝜶 = coefficient of thermal expansion
∆𝑻 or ( 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 ) = change in temperature

It is well known that changes in temperature cause dimensional changes in a body:

• An increase in temperature results in expansion,
• whereas a temperature decrease produces contraction.

Example 1b-16. A steel tube of length L and cross-sectional area A is secured between two
walls, as seen in the figure. In operation, the tube is uniformly heated throughout and its
temperature increases by ∆𝑇. The data are:

𝐿 = 5 𝑓𝑡 𝐸 = 30 𝑥 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝛼 = 6.5 𝑥 10−6 /°𝐹
𝜎𝑦 = 36 𝑘𝑠𝑖 ∆𝑇 = 80°𝐹

Calculate the stresses for the two cases:

a. The walls are immovable.

b. The walls move apart a total distance of 𝛿𝑤 = 0.01 𝑖𝑛.

Solution:

a. The walls are immovable:

Step 1. Determine the forces that are acting on the structure. The supports exert equal and
opposite axial forces 𝑃 on the rod following a temperature increase in order to prevent
elongation.

Step 2. Allow one of the supports to release, in this case, support B. When it is released, the rod
expands freely due to a positive temperature change. We call this expansion 𝛿𝑇 (deformation
due to temperature).
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EXPAND FREELY
𝜹𝑻 𝛿

𝜹𝑷 𝛿
GO BACK

Step 2. But then, since in the beginning, the rod is fully restrained and no movement is
supposedly be allowed, the axial force on the surface will bring back this expansion into rod’s
original length. We call this 𝛿𝑃 (deformation due to force). Since this is like contraction
𝛿𝑃 becomes (−)𝛿𝑃 :

Thus,
𝛿𝑇 + (−𝛿𝑝 ) = 0

[𝑒quated to zero because the rod is fully restrained in the first place]

𝛿𝑇 = 𝛿𝑝

𝑷𝑳
𝜶𝑳(∆𝑻) =
𝑨𝑬
𝑷𝑳
𝑬𝜶𝑳(∆𝑻) =
𝑨
𝑃
Since →𝜎
𝐴
𝜎= 𝑬𝜶(∆𝑻)

𝑙𝑏 10−6
𝜎= 30 𝑥 106 (6.5 𝑥 )(80°𝐹)
𝑖𝑛2 °𝐹

𝝈 = 15,600 psi Ans.

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a. The walls move apart a total distance of 0.01 in.

Step 1. In this case, the bar can expand an amount of 0.01 in, and hence, the geometric
compatibility should be:

Thus,
𝛿𝑇 + (−𝛿𝑝 ) = 0.01

[𝑒quated to 0.01 because the wall moved by 0.01 in]

𝛿𝑇 − 𝛿𝑝 =0.01

𝑷𝑳
𝑬𝜶𝑳(∆𝑻) − = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏
𝑨𝑬
𝑃
And since 𝜎 =
𝐴

𝟏𝟐 𝒊𝒏
10−6 𝟏𝟐 𝒊𝒏 𝟓 𝒇𝒕( )
𝟏 𝒇𝒕
6.5 𝑥 (𝟓 𝒇𝒕 𝒙 ) (80°𝐹) − 𝝈 𝑙𝑏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 in
°𝐹 𝟏 𝒇𝒕 30 𝑥 106 2
𝑖𝑛

𝝈 = 10,600 psi Ans.

*Self-Help! You can also refer to the sources below to help

you further understand the lesson:

*Pytel, A., Kiusalaas J. (2010). Mechanics of Materials. Phil. Edition, Cengage Learning

*R. C. Hibbeler (2008). Mechanics of Materials. (7th Ed). Pearson Prentice Hall

Let’s Check!

Activity 1. Explain the following terms based on your own understanding and own words.
You can use figures to emphasize your point.

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a. Factor of Safety.
b. Hooke’s Law.
c. Proportional Limit.
d. Elastic Stress.
e. Yield Stress.
f. Ultimate Stress.
g. Rupture Stress.
h. Nominal rupture strength.
i. True rupture strength.
j. Necking.
k. Statically Indeterminate.
l. Thermal Deformation.
m. Thermal Stress.

Activity 2. Should the downward 10-kip force be applied at A, draw the exaggerated deformation
of the members. Reflect also the deformation triangle.

Activity 3. Consider the pipe shown. Answer the questions that follow. Circle your choice.

i. What is considered to be the tangential stress of the bar?

a. 𝜎𝑥 b. 𝜎𝑦 c. 𝜎𝑧 d. 𝜎𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝜎𝑧

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ii. What is considered to be the longitudinal stress of the bar?

a. 𝜎𝑥 b. 𝜎𝑦 c. 𝜎𝑧 d. 𝜎𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝜎𝑧

iii. If the pipe is rigidly fitted just like in the figure below, what can you appropriately
assume?

a. 𝜀𝑥 = 0
b. 𝜀𝑧 = 0
c. 𝜀𝑦 = 0
d. 𝜎𝑥 = 0
e. 𝜎𝑦 = 0
f. 𝜎𝑧 = 0

Activity 4. Investigate the figure, is this a determinate structure? Why or why not? Prove your
point.

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Activity 5. Referring to the figure of Activity 4, draw the behavior of the structure should the
force P is applied at the free end of the structure.

Activity 6. Two 1.75-in.-thick rubber pads are bonded to three steel plates to form the shear
mount shown. Draw the exaggerated behavior of the rubber pads should force P is applied on
the system.

Activity 7. A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 in2 is stretched between two fixed
points. The tensile load at 70°F is 1200 lb. Draw the behavior of the rod and the deformation.

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Let’s Analyze!

Activity 1. The following data were obtained during a tension test of an aluminum alloy. The
initial diameter of the test specimen was 0.505 in., and the gage length was 2.0 in.

Plot the stress-strain diagram and determine the following mechanical properties:

(a) proportional limit;

(b) modulus of elasticity;
(c) yield stress at 0.2% offset;
(d) ultimate stress; and
(e) nominal rupture stress.

Activity 2. The rectangular concrete block has the following dimensions: 200 mm along x direction,
100 mm along y direction, and 50 mm along z direction. The force applied in the x direction is 100
kN, in y direction is 150 kN and in z direction is 50 kN. 𝐸 = 24 𝐺𝑃𝑎 and 𝑣 = 0.2

(a) Changes in the lengths of the block.

(b) The value of a single force system of compressive forces applied only in y direction
that would produce the same deformation as do the initial forces.

Activity 3. A welded steel cylindrical drum made of a 10-mm plate has an internal diameter of 1.20
m. Compute the change in diameter that would be caused by an internal pressure of 1.5 MPa.
Assume that Poisson's ratio is 0.30 and E = 200 GPa.

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3
Activity 4. The length of the 32-inch diameter steel wire CD has been adjusted so that with no
1
load applied, a gap of 16-in. exists between the end B of the rigid beam ACB and a contact point
E. Knowing that E = 29 × 106 psi, determine where a 50-lb block should be placed on the beam in
order to cause contact between B and E.

Activity 5. The rigid bar is supported by the pin-connected rod CB that has a cross-sectional area
of 14 mm2 and is made from aluminum. Determine the vertical deflection of the bar at D when
the distributed load is applied. 𝐸 = 68.9 x 109 Pa.

Activity 6. A thin rectangular plate is uniformly deformed as shown. Determine the total shear
strain.

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Activity 7. The horizontal steel rod, 2.5 m long and 1200 mm2 in cross-sectional area, is secured
between two walls as shown in the figure. The rod is stress-free at 20°C, compute the stress when
the temperature has dropped to 20°C. 𝜶 =11.7𝑥10-6/°C and E = 200 GPa.

In a Nutshell!

This section presented the concept of deformation and strain in loaded bodies under the action
of static loads, the relationships between stress and strain in various types of materials, as well
as the effect temperature. The normal strain is the deformation per unit length of a bar. The
shear strain represents the change from a right angle between two perpendicular small line
segments. In general, the strain components and rate of change displacements at points within
bodies are related.

Plotting the stress versus strain as the load increases in a simple tension test, we obtain the
𝜎 𝑣𝑠 𝜀 diagram for the material used. Mechanical properties including yield stress, ultimate
stress, and fracture stress are determined from such diagram. For a linearly elastic material, the
slope of the curve within the elastic region is termed as the modulus of elasticity, E. The
relationship of 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀 is known as Hooke’s Law. The generalized Hooke’s Law is applicable to
most structural materials for stresses in linear-elastic region. To further reinforce
understanding and inculcate analytical skill on the topics matter, answer the following
exercises:

Selected Problems and Review Problems found on Chapter 2 of *Pytel, A., Kiusalaas J.
(2010). Mechanics of Materials. Phil. Edition, Cengage Learning

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