Azolla Characteristics and

Production technology
 Content
1. Introduction and Characteristics of Azolla.
2. Structure of Azolla.
3. Classification of Azolla.
4. Economic value of Azolla.
5. Requirements For Azolla Culture.
6. Cultivation & Steps of Azolla culture.
7. Limitations of Azolla Culture.
 INTRODUCTION
• Azolla /mosquito fern/
duckweed fern/ fairy moss/
water fern is a free floating
aquatic ferns and is genus
which belongs to family
Salviniaceae.
• It grows in fresh water and is
naturally available mostly on
moist soils, ditches marshy
ponds and is widely distributed
in tropical belts of India.
 Azolla – Characteristics/Habit
The sporophyte of Azolla is extremely small when
compared with Marsilea and Salvinia.
It is distinguishable into stem, leaves and roots. The stem
is often called the rhizome.
It is profusely branched and on its upper surface is
covered with dense leaves.
The leaves are alternate and are arranged in two rows.
Each leaf has two lobes, the upper lobe being aerial and
green in color.
The lower lobe is thin and colourless, and is completely
submerged in water.
The dorsal lobe encloses large mucilage filled cavities.
Inhabiting these mucilage cavities is found a
Cyanophycean alga, Anabaena azollae.
 STRUCTURE OF AZOLLA
• Shape of Indian species is typically triangular measuring
about 1.5 to 3.0 cm in length 1 to 2 cm in breadth.
• Roots emanating from growing branches remained
suspended in water.
• The dorsal lobe which remains exposed to air is having a
specific cavity containing its symbiotic partner, a Blue
Green Algae (BGA), the Anabaena azollae.
• The fern is capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen in the
soil in the form of NH4+ and becomes available as a
soluble nitrogen for the cultured species.
 Classification
Kingdom : Plantae
Division : Pteridophyta
Class : Pteridopsida
Order : Salvinales
Family : Salvinaceae
Genus : Azolla
 Economic Value
• On dry weight basis Azolla contains the following chemical compositions:
Nitrogen 5.0 %
Phosphorous 0.5 %
Potassium 2.0-4.5%
Calcium 0.1-1.0%
Magnesium 0.65 %
Manganese 0.16 %
Iron 0.26 %
Crude Fat 3.0-3.3 %
Sugar 3.4-3.5 %
Starch 6.5 %
Chlorophyll 0.34-0.55 %
Ash 10.0 %
 REQUIREMENTS FOR AZOLLA GROWTH
• Water: 10-15 cm fresh current water is necessary in multiplication pond.
Maintenance of adequate water level (at least 4 inches in the pond) is
essential.
• Temperature: Day/night temperatures ranging between 32ºC and 20ºC have
found to be most favorable. The optimum temperature for luxurious growth of
Azolla is 25-30˚C.

• Light: It prefers to grow well under partial shade.

• Relative Humidity: The optimum relative humidity requirement is 85 to 90 per
cent.

• Soil pH: Azolla grows well in slightly acidic soil having 5.2 to 5.8 pH.
• Nutrition: Being an N fixing fern Azolla does not require nitrogenous fertilizer
for its growth. Phosphorous @20 kg/ha is desirable for good bio-mass
production.
 CULTIVATION OF AZOLLA
Growing of Azolla is done
basically by two types:
1. Azolla in situ (grown with
standing crop within the
field)
2. Azolla ex situ (grown in an
area by accumulating
sufficient water)
• There is also another
method of culturing Azolla
in polythene.
 Steps of Azolla Culture
1. Selection of pond location
2. Pond size and construction
3. Production of Azolla
4. Maintenance of the pond
5. Harvesting and feeding
6. Yield of Azolla
7. Economics of Azolla
Cultivation
 1. Selection of pond location

− It is better to select an area near to the house to ensure regular

upkeep and monitoring of the pond.
− A suitable water source should be nearby for regular water
supply.
− The site under partial shade is ideal or else, shade has to be
created to reduce the evaporation of water and also, for better
growth of Azolla.
− The floor area of the pond should be free of pointed stones, roots
and thorns that can puncture the sheet and cause leakage of
water.
 2. Pond size and construction

– Size of pond depends on factors like number of cultured species,

quantity of supplemental feed required and availability of
resources.
– For small holders, an area of 6 X 4 feet for Azolla cultivation can
produce about one kg of supplemental feed per day.
– Selected area should be cleaned and levelled. The side walls of the
pond can be of either bricks or raised embankment with the
excavated soil.
– After spreading the durable plastic sheet (silpauline, a polythene
tarpaulin) in the pond, all the sides have to be secured properly by
placing bricks over the side walls.
– After the inoculation of culture, the pond needs to be covered with a
net to provide partial shade and also, to prevent the fall of leaves
and other debris into the pond.
– Thin wooden poles or bamboo sticks are to be placed over the pond
walls to support the shade net.
– Bricks or stones can be used as weights on the edges for securing
the plastic sheet and also, the net over the pond area.
 3. Production of Azolla

• Sieved fertile soil mixed with cow dung and water need to
be spread uniformly in the pond.
• About 1 kg of fresh Azolla culture is needed for a pond of
6 X 4 feet size which need to be applied uniformly in the
pond.
• Biogas slurry can also be used instead of dung.
• The depth of water should be four to six inches.
• During the monsoon season, if rain water can be harvested
from the roof tops and used for cultivation of Azolla, it will
ensure its excellent and faster growth.
• If the total salt content of the water used for growing Azolla
is high, it will adversely affect the growth.
 4. Maintenance of the pond
• Application of about one kg
of cow dung and about
100 grams of super
phosphate once in two
weeks will ensure better
growth of Azolla.
• Any litter or aquatic
weeds seen in the pond
should be removed
regularly.
• The pond needs to be
emptied once in six months
and cultivation has to be
 5. Harvesting and feeding of Azolla
• Depending on the initial quantity of culture added,
environmental conditions and nutrition, Azolla growth in
the pond will be complete in about two to three weeks
time.
• It can be harvested daily after the full growth. Plastic sieves
can be used to harvest the biomass from the pond's surface.
• About 800 to 900 grams of fresh Azolla (mean yield per
day in a season) can be produced from an area of 6 X 4
feet.
• Azolla can be fed to the livestock either in fresh or dried
form. It can be given directly or mixed with concentrates.
• Azolla has to be washed thoroughly with fresh water to
remove the smell of dung.
 6. Yield of Azolla
Azolla produces around 8-10 tonnes of Green
mass which is equal to 25-30 kg N2 which is again
equal to 55-66 kg of urea).
 7. Economics of Azolla
Cultivation
• The expenditure on preparing a
6
× 4 feet pond is minimal at
Rs.500 (sheet plus labour
cost).
• A farmer can realize a net profit
of over Rs. 4000 per annum
from the additional fish
production and reduced usage
of concentrates' feeding for
cultured fish species.
LIMITATIONS OF AZOLLA CULTIVATION
Water is pre-requisite for it’s multiplication . so it is not suitable
for upland crop.
Huge quantity of inoculums is required which is difficult for
transplanting action during rainy days.
Temperature more than 35°C is not suitable.
Extreme low temperature is also not suitable.
Non availability of technology to use Azolla as dry inoculum.
Non availability of varieties suitable for higher temperature with
low pH application.
Initial cost of cultivation is high.
Market for azolla is not so
popular.
Ignorance of people about benefit of Azolla.
 Mycorrhizae

Characteristics and Production Technology

 Introduction
Mycorrhizae are the symbiotic associations between plant
root and fungi, with bidirectional nutrient exchange
between the partners.
Vitadini (1842) was the first to recognise the possible
beneficial role of fungal mycelia which mantle the root of
higher plants.
This association is named as mycorrhiza (pl. mycorrhizae)
i.e., the fungal root, by Frank (1885).

The autotrophic host plant acts as the carbon source for

the fungus, while the fungus supplies mineral nutrients to
the plant. About 90% of all land plants are associated with
mycorrhiza. The mycorrhizal association is not available in
Cruciferae, Chenopodiaceae and Resedaceae.
 Characteristics of Mycorrhizae
• (i) Absence of any phytopathological symptoms in
the partners during the active phase of mutualism.
• (ii) Presence of complex interfaces between cells of
the partners with a predominant type of
perisymbiotic membrane, surrounding intracellular
symbionts.
• (iii) Presence of various types of phagocyte like
structures during establishment of symbionts and
during harvesting phase to control the symbiotic
population by the host.
 Types of Mycorrhiza
Peterson and Farquhar (1994) classified the
mycorrhizae into seven (7) distinct types.
• These are :
• (1) Ectomycorrhizae,
• (2) Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae,
• (3) Ectendomycorrhizae (Arbutoid),
• (4) Ericoid mycorrhizae,
• (5) Centianoid mycorrhizae,
• (6) Orchidoid mycorrhizae, and
• (7) Monotropoid mycorrhizae.
Ectomycorrhizae:
• Ectomycorrhiza is commonly called “sheathing mycorrhiza”. They occur
in 3% of all seed plants in forests of temperate regions, especially on pine,
beech, spruce, birch etc.

Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM):

• It is a type of endomycorrhizal association, where both vesicles and arbuscles
are developed together. VAM is by far the commonest of all mycorrhizae and
has been reported in more than 90% of land plants.
• They are found in bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperm (except Pinaceae)
and most of angiosperms, commonly in Leguminosae (Fabaceae), Rosaceae,
Gramineae (Poaceae) and Palmae (Arecaceae). VAM has even been reported
in Lower Devonian plant, Rhynia.
• VAM is produced by aseptate mycelial fungi belong to Endogonaceae under
Mucorales of Zygomycotina and those members produced zygospores. The
important genera involved in VAM are Glomus, Gyrospora, Acaulospora etc.
Most of the members are not culturable.
The AM fungi are important to their hosts as they enhance the
ability of plants to absorb phosphorus from soil, which is
relatively inaccessible to the plants. However, the AM
association may also increase the phytoavailability of
micronutrients, e.g., copper and zinc. In a study, absorption of
trace elements, such as boron and molybdenum, was thought
to be enhanced by VA mycorrhizae. In addition, it has been
suggested that some AM associations are able to mobilize
organically bound nitrogen, which the plants are unable to
absorb.
Symbiotic association of AM fungi with the plants seems
influence the composition of bacterial communities in the
mycorrhizosphere due to changes in root exudation patterns
induced by AM colonization
• Definition

• Vermicomposting is a simple biotechnological process of

composting, in which certain species of earthworms are
used to enhance the process of waste conversion and
produce a better product.

• Vermicomposting is a method of preparing enriched

compost with the use of earthworms. It is one of the
easiest methods to recycle agricultural wastes and to
produce quality compost.
• Decomposable organic wastes such as animal
excreta, kitchen waste, farm residues and forest litter
are commonly used as composting materials.
• In general, animal dung mostly cow dung and dried
chopped crop residues are the key raw materials.
• Mixture of leguminous and non-leguminous crop
residues enriches the quality of vermicompost.
Biological advantages In many soils, these play major role in converting large
pieces of organic matter into rich humus and thus
improving soil fertility

Burrowing activities The earthworm is of great value in keeping soil structure open,
creating multitude of channels that allow processes of both
aeration and drainage to occur

Earthworm castings In home garden, the presence of earthworm castings provide 5

to 11 times more nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium as the
surrounding soil

Secretions in intestinal tracts of This help in making nutrients more concentrated as well as
earthworms readily available for plant uptake including micro nutrients
Species of
earthworms
Red earthworm is
preferred because of
its high multiplication
rate and thereby
converts the orag nic
matter into
vermicompost within
45-50 days.
Since it is a surface
feeder it converts
organic materials into
vermicompost from top.
• Characters Eisenia foetida
• Body length 3-10cm
• Body weight 0.4-0.6g
• Maturity 50-55days
• Conversion rate 2.0 q/1500worms/2 months
• Cocoon production 1 in every 3 days
• Incubation of co coon 20-23days
Amount of production and composting structures.
• Small-scale vermicomposting:
personal requirement (5-10 tonnes of
vermicompost annually).
• large-scale vermicomposting:
commercial scale (50 – 100 tonnes
annually)
• Bed method :
Composting is done on the pucca / kachcha
floor by making bed (6x2x2 feet size) of organic
mixture. This method is easy to maintain and to practice

• Pit method:
Composting is done in the cemented pits of size
5x5x3 feet. The unit is covered with thatch grass or
any other locally available materials. This method is not
preferred due to poor aeration, water logging at bottom,
and more cost of production.
Bed composting
PIT COMPOSTING
Phase 1 Processing involving collection of wastes, shredding, mechanical
eparation of the metal, glass and ceramics and storage of organic
wastes.
Phase 2 Pre digestion of organic waste for twenty days by heaping the material
along with cattle dung slurry. This process partially digests the material and
fit for earthworm consumption. Cattle dung and biogas slurry may be used
after drying. Wet dung should not be used for vermicompost production.

Phase 3 Preparation of earthworm bed. A concrete base is required to put the waste
for vermicompost preparation. Loose soil will allow the worms to go into soil
and also while watering, all the dissolvable nutrients go into the soil along
with water.

Phase 4 Collection of earthworm after vermicompost collection. Sieving the

composted material to separate fully composted material. The partially
composted material will be again put into vermicompost bed.
Phase 5 Storing the vermicompost in proper place to maintain moisture and allow
the beneficial microorganisms to grow.
• Vermicomposting unit should be in a cool, moist and
shady site .
• Cow dung and chopped dried leafy materials are
mixed in the proportion of 3: 1
• kept for partial decomposition for 15 – 20 days.
• A layer of 15-20cm of chopped dried leaves/grasses
should be kept as bedding material at the bottom of
the bed.
• Beds of partially decomposed material of size 6x2x2 feet
should be made
• Each bed should contain 1.5-2.0q of raw material
and the number of beds can be increased as per raw
material availability and requirement.
• Red earthworm (1500-2000) should be released on the
upper layer of bed.
• Water should be sprinkled with can immediately after the
release of worms.
• Beds should be kept moist by sprinkling of water
(daily) and b y covering with gunny bags/polythene
• Bed should be turned once after 30 days for
maintaining aeration and for proper decomposition.
• Compost gets ready in 45-50 days.
• The finished product is ¾ of the raw materials used.
• When raw material is completely decomposed it
appears black and granular.
• Watering should be stopped as compost gets ready.
• The compost should be kept over a heap of partially
decomposed cow dung so that earthworms could
migrate to cow dung from compost.
• After two days compost can be separated and sieved for
use.
• The floor of the unit should be compact to prevent
earthworms’ migration into the soil.
• 15-20 days old cow dung should be used to avoid
excess heat.
• The organic wastes should be free from plastics,
chemicals, pesticides and metals etc.
• Aeration should be maintained for proper growth
and multiplication of earthworms.
• Optimum moisture level (30-40 %) should be maintained
18-25°C temperature should be maintained for proper
decomposition.
• Death of worms
• They are getting enough food----- food should be burried
into the bedding
• Food may be too dry---- moisture
• Food may be too wet--- bedding
• Worms may be too hot--- put bin in shade
• Bad smells
• No enough air circulation
• Dry bedding under and over the worms
• Turning of the food
• The level of nutrients in compost depends upon the
source of the raw material and the species of
earthworm. A fine worm cast is rich in N P K
besides other nutrients.
• Nutrients in vermicompost are in readily available
form and are released within a month of application.
• Parameters Content
• pH 6.8
• OC% 11.88
• OM% 20.46
• C/N ration 11.64
• Total Nitrogen (%) 1.02
• Available N (%) 0.50
• Available P (%) 0.30
• Available K (%) 0.24
• Ca (%) 0.17
• Mg (%) 0.06
nutrient element vermicompost garden compost

organic carbon 9.8-13.4 12.2

nitrogen 0.51-1.61 0.8

phosphorus 0.19-1.02 0.35

potassium 0.15-0.73 0.48
calcium 1.18-7.61 2.27

magnesium 0.093-0.568 0.57

sodium 0.058-0.158 0.01

zinc 0.0042-0.110 0.0012

copper 0.0026-0.0048 0.0017

iron 0.2050-1.3313 1.169

mangnese 0.0105-0.2038 0.0414

• Vermicompost is rich in all essential plant nutrients.
• Provides excellent effect on overall plant growth, encourages the growth of new
shoots / leaves and improves the quality and shelf life of the produce.
• Vermicompost is free flowing, easy to apply, handle and store and does not have
bad odour.
• It improves soil structure, texture, aeration, and water holding capacity and
prevents soil erosion.
• Vermicompost is rich in beneficial micro flora such as a fixers, P- solubilizers,
cellulose decomposing micro-flora etc in addition to improve soil environment.
• Vermicompost contains earthworm cocoons and increases the population and
activity of earthworm in the soil.
• It neutralizes the soil protection.
• It prevents nutrient losses and increases the use efficiency of chemical
fertilizers.
• Vermicompost is free from pathogens, toxic elements, weed seeds etc.
• Vermicompost minimizes the incidence of pest and diseases.
• It enhances the decomposition of organic matter in soil.
• It contains valuable vitamins, enzymes and hormones like auxins, gibberellins