UNIT I

INTRODUCTION TO MICROWAVE SYSTEMS AND ANTENNAS

Microwave frequency bands, Physical concept of radiation, Near-

and far-field regions, Fields and Power Radiated by an Antenna,
Antenna Pattern Characteristics, Antenna Gain and Efficiency,
Aperture Efficiency and Effective Area, Antenna Noise
Temperature and G/T, Impedance matching, Friis transmission
equation, Link budget and link margin, Noise Characterization of a
microwave receiver.
 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING
INTRODUCTION
• Microwave Frequencies
• The term microwave refers to alternating current
signals with frequencies between 300 MHz (3108 Hz)
and 30 GHz (31010 Hz), with a corresponding
electrical wavelength between 1 m and 1 cm
• Three major bands:
1. Ultra High Frequency (UHF) – 0.3 GHz to 3 GHz
2. Super High Frequency (SHF) – 3 GHz to 30 GHz
3. Extra High Frequency (EHF) – 30 GHz to 300 GHz
EM Spectrum
US New Military Microwave Bands
IEEE Microwave Frequency Bands
Microwave Applications
 Advantages
• Can carry large quantities of information (High
Operating Frequency)
• High frequency → Low Wavelength → Small
Antennas
• Easily propagated
• Fewer repeaters are necessary for amplification
• Increased bandwidth available
 Disadvantages
• Difficult to analyze and design
• Measuring techniques are more difficult
• Difficult to implement conventional components at
microwave frequencies (Resistors, Capacitors,
Inductors ……)
• Transit time is more critical at microwave frequencies
Antenna Basics
1. Introduction to antenna
2. Characteristics
3. Types
 ANTENNA INTRODUCTION
An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of conductors
• Transmission - Radiates electromagnetic energy into free space

• Reception - Collects electromagnetic energy from free space

The role of antennas
Antennas serve four primary functions
• Spatial filter
directionally-dependent sensitivity
• Polarization filter
polarization-dependent sensitivity
• Impedance transformer
transition between free space and transmission line
• Propagation mode adapter
from free-space fields to guided waves
(e.g., transmission line, waveguide)

12
Spatial filter
Antennas have the property of being more sensitive in
one direction than in another which provides the ability
to spatially filter signals from its environment.

Directive
13 antenna. Radiation pattern of directive antenna.
Polarization filter
Antennas have the property of being more sensitive to
one polarization than another which provides the
ability to filter signals based on its polarization.
Dipole antenna Dipole antenna
   
V = hE V = hE
Incident  
E-field h = ẑ h Incident h = ẑ h
E-field
vector + +
_ V=0
 _ V = h E0 vector

E = ẑ E 0 E = ŷ E 0

z z
x x
y y

In this example, h is the antenna’s

effective height whose units are
14 expressed in meters.
Impedance transformer
Intrinsic impedance of free-space, E/H
0 =  0  0
= 120 
 376.7 

Characteristic impedance of transmission line, V/I

A typical value for Z0 is 50 .

Clearly there is an impedance mismatch that must be addressed

by the antenna.

15
Propagation mode adapter
During both transmission and receive operations the
antenna must provide the transition between these
two propagation modes.

16
Antenna types

17
Helical antenna Horn antenna Parabolic reflector antenna
Antenna Characterization
• Directivity
• Power Pattern
• Antenna Gain
• Effective Area
• Antenna Efficiency
Characteristics
Radiation pattern
Radiation pattern – variation of the field intensity of an antenna as an
angular function with respect to the axis

Three-dimensional representation of the

radiation pattern of a dipole antenna
19
 Radiation pattern

20
Characteristics
Radiation pattern

21
Fields from /2 Dipole
• To take account of the phase
differences of the contributions
from all the elements dl we
need to integrate over the
entire length of the antenna as
shown by the figure (from
Skilling, 1948)
E = ∫±/4 ( Io sine/2 re ) cos
kx cos [t-(re/c)] dx
• Integral is from -/4 to /4, i.e.
over the antenna length
• Result of integration
E = (Io/2 r) cos [t-(r/c)]
{cos [( /2) cos] / sin}
• We know that Er = E = 0 as for
the Hertzian dipole
/2 and  Dipole Antenna Pattern (E-field)
Yagi - Uda
• Driven element induces currents in
parasitic elements
• When a parasitic element is slightly
longer than /2, the element acts
inductively and thus as a reflector --
current phased to reinforce
radiation in the maximum direction
and cancel in the opposite direction
• The director element is slightly
shorter than /2, the element acts
inductively and thus as a director --
current phased to reinforce
radiation in the maximum direction
and cancel in the opposite direction
• The elements are separated by ≈
0.25 
3
Element
Yagi
Antenna
Pattern
2.4 GHz Yagi with 15dBi Gain
• G ≈ 1.66 * N (not dB)
• N = number of
elements
• G ≈ 1.66 *3 = 5
= 7 dB
• G ≈ 1.66 * 16 =
27 = 16 dB
 Log-Periodic Antennas

• A log periodic is an extension of the Yagi idea to a broad-band,

perhaps 4 x in wavelength, antenna with a gain of ≈ 8 dB
• Log periodics are typically used in the HF to UHF bands
Parabolic Reflectors
• A parabolic reflector
operates much the same
way a reflecting
telescope does
• Reflections of rays from
the feed point all
contribute in phase to a
plane wave leaving the
antenna along the
antenna bore sight (axis)
• Typically used at UHF and
higher frequencies
Stanford’s Big Dish
• 150 ft diameter dish on
alt-azimuth mount
made from parts of
naval gun turrets
• Gain ≈ 4  A/2
≈ 2 x 105 ≈ 53 dB
for S-band (l ≈15 cm)
Patch Antennas

After Kraus & Marhefka, 2003

• Radiation is from two “slots” on left and right edges of patch where
slot is region between patch and ground plane
• Length d = /r1/2 Thickness typically ≈ 0.01 
• The big advantage is conformal, i.e. flat, shape and low weight
• Disadvantages: Low gain, Narrow bandwidth (overcome by fancy
shapes and other heroic efforts), Becomes hard to feed when
complex, e.g. for wide band operation
Patch Antenna Pattern
Array Antennas
Patch Antenna Array for Space Craft
• The antenna is composed
of two planar arrays, one
for L-band and one for C-
band.
• Each array is composed of
a uniform grid of dual-
polarized microstrip
antenna radiators, with
each polarization port fed
by a separate corporate
feed network.
• The overall size of the SIR-C
antenna is 12.0 x 3.7
meters
• Used for synthetic aperture
radar
Very Large Array
Organization: National Radio
Astronomy Observatory
Location:Socorro NM
Wavelength:
radio 7 mm and larger
Number & Diameter
27 x 25 m
Angular resolution: 0.05
(7mm) to 700 arcsec

http://www.vla.nrao.edu/
 Antenna arrays
Antenna array composed of several similar radiating elements
(e.g., dipoles or horns).
Element spacing and the relative amplitudes and phases of the
element excitation determine the array’s radiative properties.

Linear array examples

Two-dimensional array of
microstrip patch antennas
35
Satellite Antennas (TV)
PHYSICAL CONCEPTS OF RADIATION

• Charge moving with uniform velocity along a straight conductor

does not radiate .

• Charge moving back and forth –Harmonic motion

- The conductor is subject to

acceleration and radiates.

RADITAION FROM DIPOLE ANTENNA:

• Two equal charges of opposite sign of oscillating(up & down

harmonic)

• The motion with instantaneous separation “l” (max separation 𝑙0 ) –

focusing attention on electric filed.

• Consider single electric filed.

Single electric filed line

• At time t=0

-at minimum separation

-maximum acceleration v

Reverse direction.

- current line l=0

 𝟏
• At time t= 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝
𝟖

-The charge moving each

other direction.
 𝟏
• At time t= 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝
𝟒

• They pass the mid point

• The filed line detach and new one of

opposite sign are formed.

• l= maximum =charge acceleration= 0

 𝟏
• At time t= 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝
𝟐
• The filed continue to move out.
• t=5 instant time

• Image shows –capability of

making ring smoke.

• Ring moves farther –size

increases.

• Maintenance of shape -bigger

ring size, lesser smoker density
Near- and far-field regions
ANTENNA REGION

• It classified into two types

• Fresnel region –Near filed

• Fraunhofer region –Far filed

• The boundary between the two may be arbitrarily taken to be at a
radius

𝟐𝑳𝟐
R=
𝜆

• Where

L=Maximum dimension of the antenna

𝜆=Wavelength
FAR (or) FRAUNHOFER REGION

• The filed components are transverse to the radial direction from the
antenna.

• All the power flow is directed radially outward

• The shape of files pattern is “independent of the distance”

FRESNEL REGION –NEAR FILED

• longitudinal component of the electric filed

• Power flow is not entirely radial

• The shape of the filed pattern depends on the distance.

• Antenna in an imaginary boundary
sphere.
• Near filed –reflector
• Wave expending perpendicular to the
dipole in equatorial region-power leakage
through the sphere
• Oscillating energy –outer flow equatorial
region.
• outer flow-power radiated by an antenna,
while reciprocating energy represent
reactive power that is trapped near the
antenna –resonator.
Friis Transmission equation

• A general radio system link,

• The transmit power is 𝑷𝒕 ,

• The transmit antenna gain is 𝑮𝒕 ,

• The receive antenna gain is 𝑮𝒓 ,

• The received power (delivered to a matched load) is 𝑷𝒓 .

• The transmit and receive antennas are separated by the distance R.

Basic radio system
• The Friis Equation, consider two antennas in free space (no
obstructions nearby) separated by a distance R:

• Assume that ( 𝑷𝑻 )Watts of total power are delivered to the

transmit antenna.

• Assume that

1.The transmit antenna is omnidirectional, lossless

2. The receive antenna is in the far field of the transmit antenna.

➢The power density radiated by an isotropic antenna (D =1 = 0 dB) at
a distance R is given by

𝑷𝑻
Savg = 𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝑹
➢Able to recover all of the radiated power by integrating over a sphere of radius R
surrounding the antenna

➢The power is distributed isotropically, and the area of a sphere is 𝟒𝝅𝑹𝟐

➢If the transmit antenna has a directivity greater than 0 dB

➢Directivity is defined as the ratio of the actual radiation intensity to the

equivalent isotropic radiation intensity.

➢ In addition, if the transmit antenna has losses→ Radiation efficiency

factor→ Converting directivity to gain.

➢Thus, the general expression for the power density radiated by an arbitrary

transmit antenna is

𝑷𝑻
Savg = 𝟐 𝑮𝑻
𝟒𝝅𝑹
• The gain term factors in the directionality and losses of a real antenna.
• Assume: The receive antenna has an effective aperture given by 𝑨𝒆 Then the
power received 𝑷𝒓 by this antenna

𝑷𝒓 = 𝑨𝒆 Savg

𝑷𝑻
𝑷𝒓 = 𝟐 𝑮𝑻 𝑨𝒆
𝟒𝝅𝑹

• The effective aperture for any antenna can also be expressed as:

𝝀𝟐
𝑨𝒆 = G
𝟒𝝅
• The resulting received power can be written as:

𝑷𝑻 𝑮𝑻 𝑮𝑹 𝝀𝟐
𝑷𝒓 = 𝟐 -----------------(1)
(𝟒𝝅𝑹)

• This is known as the Friis Transmission Formula.

• It relates the free space path loss, antenna gains and wavelength to the
received and transmit powers.

𝑷𝑻 𝑮𝑻 𝑮𝑹 𝒄𝟐
𝑷𝒓 = -----------------(2)
(𝟒𝝅𝑹𝒇)𝟐

(Since wavelength and frequency f are related by the speed of light c)

• Equ.(2) shows that more power is lost at higher frequencies.

• The path loss is higher for higher frequencies.(friss equ)

• The antennas are not polarization matched, the above received

power could be multiplied by the Polarization Loss Factor (PLF) to
properly account for this mismatch.

• Equ.(2) Includes polarization mismatch

𝑷𝑻 𝑮𝑻 𝑮𝑹 𝒄𝟐
𝑷𝒓 =(PLF).
(𝟒𝝅𝑹𝒇)𝟐
 Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP):
• The Friis formula, received power is proportional to the product 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡
• These two factors—the transmit power and transmit antenna gain
• EIRP =𝑷𝒕 𝑮𝒕 W
• For a given frequency, range, and receiver antenna gain, the received power is
proportional to the EIRP of the transmitter and can only be increased by
increasing the EIRP.
• This can be done by increasing the transmit power, or the transmit antenna
gain, or both.
• In terms of decibel -Friis Transmission Formula:

𝑷𝑻 𝑮𝑻 𝑮𝑹 𝝀𝟐
𝑷𝒓 =
(𝟒𝝅𝑹)𝟐

• To convert this equation from linear units in Watts to decibels, we take the logarithm of
both sides and multiply by 10

𝑷𝑻 𝑮𝑻 𝑮𝑹 𝝀𝟐
10 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝑷𝑹 =10 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 ( )
(𝟒𝝅𝑹)𝟐

• i. e log10 𝐴𝐵 = log10 𝐴 + log10 (𝐵)

Above equation ,
𝝀 𝟐
• 10𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝑷𝑹 = 10𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 (𝑷𝑻 ) + 10𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 (𝑮𝑻 ) + 10𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 (𝑮𝑹 ) + 10𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 ( )
𝟒𝝅𝑹
• Using the definition of decibels, the above equation becomes a
simple addition equation in dB:

𝝀 𝟐
[𝑷𝑹 ]𝒅𝑩 =[𝑷𝑻 ]𝒅𝑩 +[𝑮𝑻 ]𝒅𝑩 +[𝑮𝑹 ]𝒅𝑩 + [( ) ]𝒅𝑩
𝟒𝝅𝑹
Link budget and link margin
Link budget
 Link budget
• Link budget is a way of quantifying the link performance.

• One of the terms in a link budget is the path loss, accounting for the
free-space reduction in signal strength with distance between the
transmitter and receiver

• Path loss is defined (in dB) as

𝟒𝝅𝑹
𝑳𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎 log >𝟎
𝜆
• Path loss depends on wavelength (frequency), which serves to
provide a normalization for the units of distance
• we can write the remaining terms of the Friis formula as shown in the
following link budget:
• Transmit power 𝑃𝑡

• Transmit antenna line loss (−) 𝐿𝑡

• Transmit antenna gain 𝑃𝑡

• Path loss (free-space) (−)𝐿0

• Atmospheric attenuation (−) 𝐿𝐴

• Receive antenna gain 𝐺𝑟

• Receive antenna line loss (−)Lr

• Receive power Pr
• Assuming that all of the above quantities are expressed in dB (or dBm, in the case
of 𝑷𝒕

𝑷𝒓 (dB m) = 𝑷𝒕 − 𝑳𝒕 + 𝑮𝒕 − 𝑳𝒐 − 𝑳𝑨 + 𝑮𝒓 − 𝑳𝒓

• Due to impedance mismatch will reduce the received power

2
by the factor (1 − Γ )

Impedance mismatch loss,

𝟐
𝑳𝒊𝒎𝒑 (dB) = −10 log(1 − Γ ) ≥ 0, (14.28)

• It can be included in the link budget to account for the reduction in received
power.
• Link budget relates to the polarization matching : both antennas to be polarized
in the same (tx&Rx)
• If a transmit antenna is vertically polarized,
for example,
❖ Maximum power will only be delivered to a vertically polarized receiving
antenna,
❖While zero power would be delivered to a horizontally polarized receive
antenna,
❖ Half the available power would be delivered to a circularly polarized antenna.
❖So Determine the polarization loss factor
Link Margin
 Link Margin
• Referred to as fade margin

• The received power level > the threshold level required for the minimum

acceptable quality of service (mini. CNR, or mini SNR).

• This design allowance for received power is referred to as the link margin
• It is defined as the difference between the design value of received power

and the minimum threshold value of receive power.

(𝐦𝐢𝐧)
Link margin (dB) = LM = 𝑷𝒓 − 𝑷𝒓 > 0,

• where all quantities are in dB

• Link margin should be a positive number(3 to 20 dB)

• link margin provides a level of robustness to the system to account
for variables.
➢Signal fading due to weather,

➢Movement of a mobile user,

➢Multipath propagation problems,

➢Unpredictable effects

➢System performance and quality of service.

• It is used to account for fading effects is sometimes referred to as

fade margin.
• Satellite links operating at frequencies above 10 GHz, for example, often require fade

margins of 20 dB or more to account for attenuation during heavy rain.

• For a given communication system

➢Can be improved by increasing the received power

➢By reducing the minimum threshold power

➢Increasing link margin

∴Increase in cost and complexity, so excessive increases in link margin are usually

avoided.
Noise Characterization of a
Microwave Receiver
Noise analysis of a microwave receiver front end, including antenna and
transmission line contributions.
• In this system the total noise power at the output of the receiver 𝑁0 ,
▪ Due to contributions from the antenna pattern,

▪ The loss in the antenna,

▪ The loss in the transmission line,

▪ The receiver components.

• This noise power will determine

▪ The minimum detectable signal level for the receiver end,

▪ The maximum range of the communication link.

• The receiver components consist of
❖RF amplifier with gain 𝑮𝑹𝑭

❖Noise temperature 𝑻𝑹𝑭

❖A mixer with an RF-to-IF conversion loss

factor 𝑳𝑴

❖Noise temperature 𝑻𝑴 ,

❖IF amplifier with gain 𝑮𝑰𝑭

❖Noise temperature 𝑻𝑰𝑭

• The component noise temperatures can be related to noise figures as

T = (F − 1)𝑻𝟎 . -----(1)

• The equivalent noise temperature of the receiver can be found as

𝑻𝑴 𝑻𝑰𝑭 𝑳𝑴
𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑪 =𝑻𝑹𝑭 + + −−−− −(𝟐)
𝑮𝑹𝑭 𝑮𝑹𝑭

• The transmission line connecting the antenna to the receiver has a loss 𝑳𝑻 , and is

at a physical temperature 𝑻𝑷

𝑻𝑻𝑳 = (𝑳𝑻 − 1)𝑻𝑷 -------(3)

• The noise temperature of the transmission line (TL) and receiver (REC)

cascade is

𝑻𝑻𝑳+REC = 𝑻𝑻𝑳 + 𝑳𝑻 𝑻REC

Substitute equation (3) in above

𝑻𝑻𝑳+REC =(𝑳𝑻 − 1)𝑻𝑷 + 𝑳𝑻 𝑻REC

• This noise temperature is defined at the antenna terminals (the input to

the transmission line).

 NOISE POWER
• If the antenna has a reasonably high gain with relatively low side lobes
Assume
• All noise power comes via the main beam, so that the noise temperature of
the antenna is given
𝑻𝑨 = ηrad 𝑻𝑩 + (1 − ηrad ) 𝑻𝑷
where
ηrad = Efficiency of the antenna,
𝑇𝑃 = Physical temperature,
𝑇𝐵 = Equivalent brightness temperature of the background(main beam)
• The noise power at the antenna terminals, which is also the noise

power delivered to the transmission line, is

𝑵𝒊 = KB𝑻𝑨 = KB [ηrad 𝑻𝑩 + (1 − ηrad ) 𝑻𝑷 ]

𝑵𝒊 == KB [ηrad 𝑻𝑩 + (1 − ηrad ) 𝑻𝑷 ]

where B = system bandwidth

• If 𝑺𝒊 is the received power at the antenna terminals→the input SNR at
𝑺𝒊
the antenna terminals is
𝑵𝒊

• The output signal power is

𝑺𝒊 𝑮𝑹𝑭 𝑮𝑰𝑭
𝑺𝑶 = =𝑺𝒊
𝑳𝑻 𝑳𝑴

𝑺𝑶 =𝑺𝒊 𝑮𝑺𝒀𝑺

where 𝑮𝑺𝒀𝑺 = defined as a system power gain.

The output noise power is
𝑁𝑂 = (𝑁𝑖 + kB𝑇 𝑇𝐿++REC ) 𝐺𝑆𝑌𝑆

= KB(𝑇𝐴 + 𝑇 𝑇𝐿++REC ) 𝐺𝑆𝑌𝑆

= KB[ηrad 𝑇𝑏 + (1 − ηrad ) 𝑇𝑃 + (𝐿 𝑇 − 1) 𝑇𝑃 + 𝐿 𝑇 𝑇𝑅𝐸𝐶 ] 𝐺𝑆𝑌𝑆

𝑵𝑶 = KB𝑻𝑺𝒀𝑺 𝑮𝑺𝒀𝑺

where 𝑻𝑺𝒀𝑺 has been defined as the overall system noise temperature
The output SNR is
𝑆𝑂 𝑆𝑖 𝐺𝑆𝑌𝑆
=
𝑁𝑂 kB𝑇𝑆𝑌𝑆 𝐺𝑆𝑌𝑆

𝑆𝑖
=
kB𝑇𝑆𝑌𝑆

𝑆𝑂 𝑺𝒊
=
𝑁𝑂 kB[ηrad 𝑻𝒃 + (1 − ηrad ) 𝑻𝑷 + (𝑳𝑻 − 1) 𝑻𝑷 + 𝑳𝑻 𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑪 ]