HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF INDIA

Water Science and Technology Library

VOLUME 57

Editor-in-Chief

V.P. Singh, Texas A&M University, College Station, U.S.A.

Editorial Advisory Board

M. Anderson, Bristol, U.K.

L. Bengtsson, Lund, Sweden
J. F. Cruise, Huntsville, U.S.A.
U. C. Kothyari, Roorkee, India
S. E. Serrano, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
D. Stephenson, Johannesburg, South Africa
W. G. Strupczewski, Warsaw, Poland

The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume.
HYDROLOGY AND WATER
RESOURCES OF INDIA

by

SHARAD K. JAIN
National Institute of Hydrology,
Roorkee, India

PUSHPENDRA K. AGARWAL
National Institute of Hydrology,
Roorkee, India
and

VIJAY P. SINGH
Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering,
Texas A & M University,
College Station, Texas, U.S.A.
A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN-10 1-4020-5179-4 (HB)

ISBN-13 978-1-4020-5179-1 (HB)
ISBN-10 1-4020-5180-8 (e-book)
ISBN-13 978-1-4020-5180-7 (e-book)

Published by Springer,
P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

www.springer.com

Cover Illustration: Map of India

Printed on acid-free paper

Disclaimer: The facts and opinions expressed

in this work are those of the authors
and not necessarily those of the publisher

All rights reserved

© 2007 Springer
No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording
or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception
of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered
and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.
 Dedicated to
SKJ: My family, with respect and affection
PKA: My late father
VPS: Anita, Vinay and Arti

v
 Saraswati saryuh sindhurmibhirma ho
maheervasa yantu vakshinih 
Devirapo matarah sudaytnavo
ghravatpayo madhumanno archat 
Yajur Veda (X,64.9)

Water from wells, rivers, rain, and

from any other source on earth
should be used wisely as it is gift of nature,
for well-being of all.

PREFACE

India is truly a country of continental scale in every respect – topography, climate,

culture, and of course water resources. Currently, India is one of the fastest
growing economies of the world. Needless to say, the water sector has a crucial
role to play in the social well-being and the quality of life.
The need for a book describing India’s hydrological practices and water resources,
problems in their exploitation, and prospects for their solution has long been felt.
A book of somewhat similar nature was published more than three decades ago.
During this intervening time a lot of changes have occurred in India not only in
the practice of hydrological and water resources technology but also in the
environment, society, landscape and land use, agricultural practices, and even
climate. Thus, this book attempts to provide a more up-to-date account of water
resources of India. It is aimed at students, practitioners, mangers, planners,
administrators, and anyone who may be interested in the development and
management of water resources in India.
The book is organized in four sections. The first section Introduction has one
chapter, Physical Environment of India, which gives a broad overview of the
country. The second section, Hydrology and Hydrometeorology, is comprised of
five chapters dealing with the major components of the hydrologic cycle for India.
Water Budget and Population of India are discussed in Chapter 2, followed by a
discussion of Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data in Chapter 3; Evaporation
and Other Meteorological Data in Chapter 4; Runoff and Streamflow in
Chapter 5; and Groundwater in Chapter 6. These chapters describe instruments
and measurement techniques, and the techniques of analysis that are used in India
in order to measure and analyze the components of the hydrologic cycle. Maps,
vii
viii Preface

figures, and tables are extensively used to illustrate the quantities of concern and
their spatial and temporal variations.
The third section, comprising 10 chapters, focuses on River Basins of India.
Beginning with an overview of the various river basins and their water resources
in Chapter 7 entitled ‘River Basins of India’, it goes on to discuss individual
basins or a group of basins. Chapter 8 discusses Ganga Basin; Chapter 9
Brahmaputra Basin; Chapter 10 Indus Basin; Chapter 11 Narmada Basin;
Chapter 12 Tapi, Sabarmati, and Mahi Basins; Chapter 13 Mahanadi,
Subernarekha, and Brahamani Basins; Chapter 14 Krishna and Godavari Basins;
Chapter 15 Cauvery and Pennar Basins; and Chapter 16 Other Basins and Islands.
The fourth section entitled Water Uses, Projects, Problems and Governance is the
final section of the book and is comprised of 8 chapters. Chapter 17 describes the
Major Uses of Water in India. It discusses at length the water uses for irrigation,
hydropower, municipal and industrial uses, environment flow, recreation,
navigation, etc. Problems Related to Water Resources form the subject matter of
Chapter 18, followed by Chapter 19 on Reservoirs and Lakes in India, and
Chapter 20 on Water Quality Related Aspects. A practitioner should also be
conversant with legal aspects and this perspective is presented in Chapter 21
entitled Constitutional Provisions, Inter-state Water Disputes and Treaties. Inter
Basin Water Transfer is becoming a major initiative in India these days in order to
overcome problems due to spatial and temporal mismatch between water
availability and demands. A detailed description of the present proposals being
debated in India and other related aspects are presented in Chapter 22. A brief
discussion of the Institutions in the Field of Hydrology and Water Resources in
India forms the subject matter of the Chapter 23. The final Chapter 24 is devoted
to Water Governance in India.
Water Resources of India is a vast subject and despite this voluminous book,
several aspects could not be covered here. We hope that the book will be helpful
to those who have interest in the water resources of India. For this book, data was
compiled from a very large number of sources and at times data from different
sources were quite different. We have attempted to present a consistent and the
most likely status of things. It is, however, likely that there are some mistakes in
the book and we request the alert readers to bring these to our notice.
Sharad Jain
Pushpendra Agarwal
Vijay Singh
April 2006
Roorkee/College Station
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A large number of colleagues helped us at various stages of preparation of the

manuscript. We had long consultations with them and many of our colleagues
shared the data and figures that they had. Mr. C. P. Kumar and Dr. Sanjay Jain
provided a lot of information, relevant books, photographs, addresses of
web-pages, etc. Dr. Sanjay Jain also provided the photo for book cover and his
help is thankfully acknowledged. Useful data were also provided by many of our
colleagues from National Institute of Hydrology, including Dr. Pratap Singh, Dr.
M. K. Goel, Dr. P. K. Bhunya, Dr. K. S. Ramasastri, Dr. K. D. Sharma, and Mr.
A. K. Lohani. Dr. Nagesh Kumar of Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore,
reviewed a chapter and gave data for some basins. We are thankful to Mr. Hemant
Chowdhary, Dr. S. K. Mishra, Prof. G. C. Mishra, Dr. M. L. Kansal, Dr. Vijay
Kumar, Mr. S. S. Kanwar, Mr. Pankaj Garg, Mr. A. R. Senthil Kumar, and Mr.
Yatveer Singh for the useful information provided by them.
The staff of NIH library, particularly Mohd. Furqanullah, were always very
cooperative. Mr. N. K. Varshney prepared excellent drawings at short notice, and
Mr. T. P. Panicker and Mr. Rajesh Agarwal provided help with editing.
Completion of a book of this nature requires work till late at night and on
weekends over a long time span. Our families not only had to put up with the
inconvenience on numerous occasions but also helped a lot and kept us free from
other responsibilities. Their support is gratefully acknowledged.
SKJ, PKA, VPS
Disclaimer
The facts and opinions expressed in this work are those of the authors and not
necessarily of their respective organizations.

ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication v
Preface vii
Acknowledgements ix
List of Figures xiii
List of Tables xxiii

SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1. Physical Environment of India 3

SECTION 2: HYDROLOGY AND HYDROMETEOROLOGY 63

2. Water Budget and Population of India 65
3. Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 87
4. Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data 155
5. Runoff and Streamflow 193
6. Groundwater 235

SECTION 3: RIVER BASINS 295

7. River Basins of India 297
8. Ganga Basin 333
9. Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 419
10. Indus Basin 473
11. Narmada Basin 513
12. Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi Basins 561
13. Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 597
14. Krishna and Godavari Basins 641
15. Cauvery and Pennar Basins 701
16. Other Basins and Islands 743

xi
xii Table of Contents

Eminent water resources professionals who have made

outstanding contributions in India 791

SECTION 4: WATER USES, PROJECTS, PROBLEMS,

AND GOVERNANCE 797
17. Major Uses of Water in India 799
18. Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 871
19. Reservoirs and Lakes 937
20. Water Quality and Related Aspects 997
21. Constitutional Provisions, Inter-State Water Disputes and Treaties 1035
22. Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1065
23. Institutions in the Field of Hydrology and Water Resources 1111
24. Concepts of Water Governance for India 1155

References 1191

Appendix A. Abbreviations 1215

Appendix B. Conversion Factors 1217
Appendix C. National Water Policy 1219
Appendix D. Indian Standards related to Hydrology and Water Resources 1231

Index 1239
LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter 1. Physical Environment of India 3

Figure 1. Location of India in the world 4
Figure 2. Major mountain ranges in India 8
Figure 3. Political map of India 11
Figure 4. Average annual rainfall over India 14
Figure 5. Normal dates of onset of monsoon 16
Figure 6. Normal dates of withdrawal of monsoon 17
Figure 7. Location map of Gangotri Glacier 24
Figure 8. Soil map of India 29
Figure 9. Land use classification of India 33
Figure 10. Agro-climatic Zones of India 47
Figure 11. Loktak Lake, Manipur, India 52
Figure 12. Figure showing important wetlands of India 54

Chapter 2. Water Budget and Population of India 65

Figure 1. Atmospheric Water Balance 72
Figure 2. Hydrologic Water Balance 73
Figure 3. Water Use Balance for India 74
Figure 4. Ground water balance 76
Figure 5. India –approximate distribution of average annual
water resources as in 1974, 2000, 2025 AD
(million ha-m). The numbers in brackets are those
for the year 2000. 77

Chapter 3. Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 87

Figure 1. Symon’s raingauge 88
Figure 2. Float and siphon type-recording raingauge 90
Figure 3. Standard snow gauge being used in India 94
Figure 4. Weighing type snow gauge 96
Figure 5. Coefficient of variation of monsoon rainfall 108
Figure 6. Map of Winter Season Rainfall of India
(January–February) 112
Figure 7. Map of Pre-Monsoon Season Rainfall of India
(March–May) 112
xiii
xiv List of Figures

Figure 8. Map of Monsoon Season Rainfall of India

(June–September) 113
Figure 9. Map of Post Monsoon Season Rainfall of India
(October–December) 113
Figure 10. All India summer monsoon rainfall 1871–1990 114
Figure 11. Highest 1-day rainfall for India 119
Figure 12. Highest 2-day rainfall for India 120
Figure 13. Highest 3-day rainfall for India 121
Figure 14. Tracks of cyclonic storms from 1891–1960 123
Figure 15. Tracks of cyclones in the month of October 124
Figure 16. Tracks of cyclones in the month of November 124
Figure 17. Generalized one day probable maximum precipitation
map 134
Figure 18. Generalized two-day PMP map 135
Figure 19. One day storm isohyetal map of 30 August 1982 over Lower
Mahanadi 136
Figure 20. A typical set of DAD curves for a storm 138
Figure 21. Main Centers of Rainstorms 140
Figure 22. Rainfall depth-duration relation for the world’s greatest
observed rainfall events 143
Figure 23. Maximum (observed) rainfall depths (cm) over plains
of north India 144
Figure 24. Typical variation of the maximum rainfall depth of various
durations with return period 146
Figure 25. Departure of rainfall amounts and Wright’s Southern
Oscillation Index (June–August) from 100 year
mean 151

Chapter 4. Evaporation and other Meteorological Data 155

Figure 1. Annual mean potential evapotranspiration (cm) over
India 159
Figure 2. U.S. Weather Bureau class A land pan 163
Figure 3. Map showing annual evaporation (cm) (From IMD
Evaporation data of observatories of India) 165
Figure 4. Temperature variation with latitude, altitude, and proximity
to oceans 170
Figure 5. Mean daily temperature  C for January, reduced to sea
level at ad-hoc lapse rate of 6  C/km 171
Figure 6. Mean daily temperature  C for April, reduced to sea level
at ad-hoc lapse rate of 6  C/km 171
Figure 7. Mean daily temperature  C for July, reduced to sea level
at ad-hoc lapse rate of 6  C/km 172
Figure 8. Mean daily temperature  C for October, reduced to sea
level at ad-hoc lapse rate of 6  C/km 172
List of Figures xv

Figure 9. Map showing the highest maximum annual temperature

contours of the country 173
Figure 10. Map showing the lowest minimum annual temperature
contours of the country 174
Figure 11. Mean temperature of India for January 178
Figure 12. Mean temperature of India for April 179
Figure 13. Mean temperature of India for July 180
Figure 14. Mean temperature of India for October 181
Figure 15. All – India mean surface temperature (1901–2000) 182
Figure 16. Maximum persisting 24-hr dew point temperature  C
in India 183
Figure 17. Amount of water vapour in the atmosphere at different
temperatures. 184
Figure 18. Relative humidity over India in the month of July 185
Figure 19. Mean upper winds over India and neighbourhood at 200 mb
during April and July 187
Figure 20. Daily Solar radiation in Wm−2 incident on a unit horizontal
surface at the top of the atmosphere as a function of latitude
and date 190
Figure 21. Daily totals of Solar Radiation in langleys cal/cm2 /day
at five different latitudes over the northern hemisphere
for a transparent atmosphere 191

Chapter 5. Runoff and Streamflow 193

Figure 1. Sectional staff gauge 197
Figure 2. Stilling well for the float-type recorder 198
Figure 3. Schematic sketch for a velocity-area station 199
Figure 4. Price current meter 200
Figure 5. Moving boat method of discharge measurement 201
Figure 6. Channel reach for the slope-area method 204
Figure 7. Plot of stage and discharge at a gauging station 206
Figure 8. A river channel with flood plains on either side 207
Figure 9. A compound rating curve 208
Figure 10. Hydro-meteorologically homogenous sub-zones
of India 223
Figure 11. Number of CWC flood forecasting stations in different
basins 234
Figure 12. Statewise number of flood forecasting stations 234

Chapter 6. Groundwater 235

Figure 1. Hydrogeological map of India 237
Figure 2. Schematic representation of components of ground water
assessment 269
xvi List of Figures

Chapter 7. River Basins of India 297

Figure 1. Important rivers of India 300
Figure 2. Coastal and inland drainage rivers of India 302
Figure 3. Ganga descending from the heaven in the locks
of Lord Shiva 306
Figure 4. A view of Bhagirathi River 307
Figure 5. Sangam at Allahabad where Ganga and Yamuna meet. Photo
courtesy http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganga 313
Figure 6. Total available replenishable ground water and ground water
balance left in the basins for Exploitation. Source: Based
on data from Ministry of Water Resources 331

Chapter 8. Ganga Basin 333

Figure 1. Index map of Greater Ganga basin 334
Figure 2. Index map of Ganga basin under Tracing 337
Figure 3. Gomukh which is considered as the source of Ganga
River 337
Figure 4. Devprayag where Bhagirathi (coming from left)
and Alaknanda (flowing from right) join to form
Ganga 338
Figure 5. Ganga River at Varanasi 340
Figure 6. Line diagram of Ganga and its major tributaries. Numbers
are average annual flows (MCM) 341
Figure 7. Annual discharge of Ganga at Farakka 342
Figure 8. A view of the Yamunotri temple (Source:
www.yap.nic.in) 344
Figure 9. The bed of Yamuna River near Dak Pathar 345
Figure 10. The Tajmahal, Agra 346
Figure 11. Ghaghra River at Tanda (Photo courtesy
Dr Sanjay Jain) 356
Figure 12. A pictorial view of Haridwar. Ganga is flowing in the upper
part and the UGC at the middle 364
Figure 13. Old Solani aqueduct of the Upper Ganga Canal near
Roorkee 365
Figure 14. Network of canals in upper Ganga basin under
Tracing 368
Figure 15. A view of Tehri dam (under construction) 378
Figure 16. Line diagram of the DVC system 393
Figure 17. Schematic diagram of Greater Ganga System 407

Chapter 9. Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 419

Figure 1. The Brahmaputra basin. 420
Figure 2. Flow Diagram of the Brahmaputra. The numbers represents
average flow in cumec 423
Figure 3. Brahmaputra River near Guwahati 425
List of Figures xvii

Figure 4. Climatic zones 430

Figure 5. Cherrapunjee (locally names as ‘Shora’), the wettest place
on Earth 431
Figure 6. A tea garden in Brahmaputra valley in Assam 439
Figure 7. Discharge hydrographs of the Brahmaputra River at different
sites 450
Figure 8. Gauge hydrographs of the Brahmaputra River at four sites
within the middle reach 456
Figure 9. The Great Indian One Horn Rhino in its natural habitat
at KNP 469

Chapter 10. Indus Basin 473

Figure 1. Index map of Indus Basin 474
Figure 2. Kandi belt in Jammu and Kashmir 476
Figure 3. Contour cultivation in Indus basin 477
Figure 4. Flow Diagram of Indus Basin 479
Figure 5. Confluence of Satluj and Beas Rivers near Harike (photo
courtesy Dr. Sanjay Jain) 485
Figure 6. Schematic Diagram of Bhakra Beas System 491
Figure 7. The Bhakra Dam 492
Figure 8. Nangal Barrage on Satluj River 492
Figure 9. A view of the main Indira Gandhi Canal 497

Chapter 11. Narmada Basin 473

Figure 1. Index map of the Narmada basin [Source: NCA
(2000)] 514
Figure 2. Kapildhara water fall on Narmada, about 8 km
from its origin 515
Figure 3. Dhuandhara falls on Narmada River near Jabalpur
city 515
Figure 4. Stream Network of Narmada basin
(Source: NIH 1999) 531
Figure 5. Ground water level fluctuation for pre- and post-monsoon
seasons (NIH, 1999) 533
Figure 6. Simulated and observed hydrograph for the calibration period
(1983–85) at Satrana gauging site, Kolar sub-basin 537
Figure 7. Main Sardar Sarovar dam (Under construction) 541
Figure 8. Configuration of Narmada Canal based water supply
system 545
Figure 9. Indira Sagar Project (Under construction) 547

Chapter 12. Tapi, Sabarmati and Brahmani Basins 561

Figure 1. Index map of Tapi basin 562
Figure 2. Stream network of Tapi basin 564
xviii List of Figures

Figure 3. A view of Tapi basin up to Ukai dam from NOAA

Satellite. Ukai reservoir can be clearly seen near the top
left edge 568
Figure 4. Index map of Sabarmati basin 580
Figure 5. Stream network of Sabarmati basin 582
Figure 6. A view of Dharoi dam 585
Figure 7. Index map of Mahi basin 590
Figure 8. Stream network of Mahi basin 591

Chapter 13. Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani

Basins 597
Figure 1. Index map of Mahanadi basin 598
Figure 2. Flow Diagram of Mahanadi Basin. The numbers represent
average annual flow in cumec 600
Figure 3. A view of Hirakud dam 606
Figure 4. Index map of Subernarekha basin 612
Figure 5. Flow Diagram of Subernarekha basin 613
Figure 6. Index map of Brahmani and Baitarni basin 624
Figure 7. Flow diagram of Brahmani basin 625

Chapter 14. Krishna and Godavari Basins 641

Figure 1. Index map of Krishna Basin 642
Figure 2. Flow Diagram of Krishna basin 644
Figure 3. Line diagram of Bhima system 646
Figure 4. Valley of Krishna River in Eastern Ghats 650
Figure 5. Gross flow of Krishna River at Vijayawada 651
Figure 6. A view of Narayanpur dam 654
Figure 7. A view of Almatti dam 655
Figure 8. A view of the Srisailam dam and reservoir 656
Figure 9. A view of Nagarjunasagar dam 658
Figure 10. A view of Raja Lakhamgowda dam (Hidkal dam) 659
Figure 11. A view of Tungabhadra dam 661
Figure 12. A view of Malprabha dam 667
Figure 13. Index map of Godavari basin 675
Figure 14. Flow diagram of Godavari River 677
Figure 15. A view of Indravati Project 690
Figure 16. A view of Balimela dam 691

Chapter 15. Cauvery and Pennar Basins 701

Figure 1. Index map of Cauvery basin 702
Figure 2. Flow Diagram of Cauvery River 704
Figure 3. A view of KRS dam 716
Figure 4. Vrindavan garden of Mysore. This place is a major tourist
attraction of South India 717
List of Figures xix

Figure 5. Nugu dam in Cauvery basin 720

Figure 6. A view of Harangi dam 722
Figure 7. A view of Hemavathi dam 723
Figure 8. A view of Kabini dam 724
Figure 9. Index map of Pennar Basin 728
Figure 10. Flow Diagram of Pennar Basin 729

Chapter 16. Other Basins and Islands 743

Figure 1. Panoramic View of Jog Falls. 760
Figure 2. The majestic Idukkidam 762
Figure 3. Index map showing Periyar-Vaigai System 781
Figure 4. Index map of Andaman & Nicobar islands 787
Figure 5. A view of the Andaman Island 787

Chapter 17. Major Uses of Water in India 799

Figure 1. Cumulative irrigation potential created under various
plans 805
Figure 2. Impact of Bhakra dam on crop production
in Punjab 837
Figure 3. Basin wise hydroelectric potential of Indian rivers 60% load
factor 847
Figure 4. Grouth of installed capacity of hydropower generation
in India 849

Chapter 18. Problems Related to Water Resources

Management in India 871
Figure 1. Basin-wise per-capita water availability 873
Figure 2. Flood prone areas of India 875
Figure 3. Area affected by floods in India 876
Figure 4. Population affected by floods in India 876
Figure 5. Crop damages by floods in India 877
Figure 6. Human lives affected by floods in India 877
Figure 7. Flood prone area of Bihar 879
Figure 8. Inundation in Mumbai city in July 2005 when nearly 95 cm
of rain fell in 24 hours 881
Figure 9. The concept of flood plain zoning 885
Figure 10. Mokama group of Tals 891
Figure 11. A field during drought 893
Figure 12. Drought prone area of the country 898
Figure 13. Actual production of food grains in India since 1975–76
and the dips in the production 907
Figure 14. Arid zone in India 908
Figure 15. Over-exploitation of groundwater in India. The hatched
portions show areas where, due to extraction of groundwater,
xx List of Figures

especially for irrigation, the groundwater levels have

in general fallen by more than 4 m @ > 20 cm/yr
during 1981–2000 912
Figure 16. People queuing for water for domestic use 914

Chapter 19. Reservoirs and Lakes 937

Figure 1. Distribution of dams and their age 941
Figure 2. Number of days of average flows that can be
stored in reservoirs in various river basins in India.
For comparison, the data of Colorado River (USA) has
also been plotted 950
Figure 3. Per capita reservoir storage space in selected
countries of the world 950
Figure 4. A picturesque lake of Udaipur 974
Figure 5. The holy lake of Amritsar with the Golden Temple 977
Figure 6. The Brahma Sarovar, in Kurushetra city (Haryana) 977

Chapter 20. Water Quality and Related Aspects 997

Figure 1. Number, population, water supply, and wastewater – growth
in Class-1 cities for three past years. Note that the variables
represent different features and the Y-axis scale should
be viewed accordingly 1004
Figure 2. Number, population, water supply, and wastewater – growth
in Class-2 cities for three past years. Note that the variables
represent different features and the Y-axis scale should be
viewed accordingly 1005

Chapter 22. Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1065

Figure 1. Per capita per year water availability for selected
Indian basins 1067
Figure 2. National water grid proposed by Dr. K. L. Rao 1075
Figure 3. The Garland Canal proposal of Capt. Dastur 1076
Figure 4. Overview of links of river linking scheme 1082
Figure 5. Diagram showing the effect of IBWT on utilization
(Curve for the future depict expected scenario) of water
resources. 1083
Figure 6. Himalayan component of the ILR scheme 1085
Figure 7. Peninsular component of the ILR scheme 1090

Chapter 24. Concepts of Water Governance for India 1155

Figure 1. The states covered under Hydrology Project 1
(total area of 1.7 million sq. km) and location
of data centers 1158
Figure 2. Overall structure of HIS and flow of data 1159
List of Figures xxi

Figure 3. A typical hydro-met observatory set-up

under HP-1 1160
Figure 4. Measurement of discharge using moving boat
method 1160
Figure 5. Flow of data between HIS and users 1162
Figure 6. Per capita water availability in India for some past
and future years. Note that the ordinates on x-axis
are not even-spaced 1166
Figure 7. A conceptual framework for IWRM 1177
LIST OF TABLES

Chapter 1. Physical Environment of India 3

Table 1. Area of Himalayas above various contour heights 5
Table 2. Area and population of Indian states and union
territories 10
Table 3. Selected climatic variables at important cities of
India 12
Table 4. Maximum and minimum summer and winter temperatures for
various states and union territories in India 13
Table 5. Normal dates of onset and withdrawal of monsoons 18
Table 6. Snow covered areas of Himalayas lying between 70 and
100  E and south of 40  N during different months 22
Table 7. Principal Glacier fed river system of Himalayas 24
Table 8. Physical characteristics of the glaciers with snout ages and
average flow rates 27
Table 9. Meteorological sub-divisions of India 28
Table 10. Land use classification of India 33
Table 11. Statewise forest coverage in India 36
Table 12. All India Cropping Pattern for 1993–94 43
Table 13. The production of the principal crops according to
1991–92 44
Table 14. Agro-climatic Classification of India 44
Table 15. Agro-climatic zones of India 46
Table 16. Food Demand assuming a 5% GDP growth at constant
prices 48
Table 17. Ramsar Wetlands in India 55
Table 18. Number and areas of inland wetlands 56
Table 19. Coastal wetlands of India 56
xxiii
xxiv List of Tables

Chapter 2. Water Budget and Population of India 65

Table 1. World Water Reserves 70
Table 2. Annual water balance of oceans 70
Table 3. Annual Water Balance of Continents 71
Table 4. Per capita availability of water 71
Table 5. Atmospheric Water Balance of India (All components
in million ha-m) 73
Table 6. Hydrologic Water Balance of India (All components in million
ha-m per year) 74
Table 7. Ground water balance of India (All components
in million ha-m) 77
Table 8. Population of Indian states and union territories
(2001 census) 78
Table 9. Population statistics of India, 1901–1991 79
Table 10. Classification of Indian urban areas 80
Table 11. Total urban population and share of class I & II
cities 80
Table 12. Projections of India’s population 81
Table 13. Population projections by different sources 82
Table 14. Urban and rural population projections for India 82
Table 15. Food demand estimates 83
Table 16. Projected foodgrain and feed demand for India 84

Chapter 3. Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 87

Table 1. Raingauge Stations in Himalayan Region 91
Table 2. The Snow-cover and runoff characteristics 98
Table 3. Values of coefficients K and n for storms of different
durations 103
Table 4. Annual normals of rainfall (cm) for major river basins
of India 104
Table 5. Coefficient of skewness of annual extreme series at selected
stations 104
Table 6. Statistical estimates of annual extreme series at some
stations 106
Table 7. Average monthly rainfall for selected stations
in India 109
Table 8. Normal monthly and annual rainfall (mm) at selected places
in Himalayas 111
Table 9. Table showing seasonal normals of rainfall (cm) for major
river basins of India 114
Table 10. Mean seasonal and annual rainfall (cm) for different
sub-divisions of India using data of period
1891 to 1970 115
Table 11. Sub-division wise monthly, seasonal, and annual rainfall (cm)
normal (based on data 1901–50) 116
List of Tables xxv

Table 12. Observed extreme rainfall events of the world 118

Table 13. Distribution of past severe rainstorms over India 122
Table 14. Details of meteorological disturbances which have caused
severe rainstorms 122
Table 15. Summary of some important world-wide precipitation
distribution studies 125
Table 16. Seasonal distribution of average rainfall in different ranges
of Himalayas in the Satluj basin 126
Table 17. Seasonal distribution of average rainfall in different
ranges of Himalayas in the Beas basin 126
Table 18. Spatial correlation function for different Himalayan ranges
of Satluj and Beas basins 127
Table 19. Variation of precipitation with altitude 128
Table 20. Variation of Precipitation with Elevation in Beas
Catchment 129
Table 21. Depth-Area-Duration analysis computation for one-day storm
(30.08.1982) 136
Table 22. DAD values (cm) of severe rainstorms over India 139
Table 23. Typical values of constants in equation 13 141
Table 24. Maximum 24-hour rainfall magnitudes observed
in India 144
Table 25. Representative values of constants in eq. (25) 147
Table 26. Computation of rainfall depths and intensities for various
return periods (Example 3.1) 147
Table 27. Variables of long range monsoon forecast
model 149
Table 28. Parameters of long range monsoon forecast
model 150
Table 29. Terms defined by Kane (2004) for ENSO
phenomena 150
Table 30. Occurrence of droughts in India 152
Table 31. Occurrence of droughts in India (additional data). 152
Table 32. Occurrence of floods in India 153

Chapter 4. Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data 155

Table 1. Variation of Pan Coefficient values with month 164
Table 2. Typical features of evaporation for various months 166
Table 3. Observed Evaporation Losses from reservoirs 167
Table 4. Water losses due to evaporation (in km3 ) 168
Table 5. Table showing minimum/maximum temperatures of major
cities in India 175
Table 6. Monthly Mean values of the extra-terrestrial radiation, Lp a t
the top of the atmosphere in the unit W/m2 190
Table 7. Monthly Mean values of possible sunshine hours, N 192
xxvi List of Tables

Chapter 5. Runoff and Streamflow 193

Table 1. WMO recommended minimum density of streamflow
stations 194
Table 2. Basin-wise hydrological and sediment observation sites
of CWC 195
Table 3. Bed Load Correction Table 209
Table 4. Classification of storage projects based on gross storage
and hydraulic head 214
Table 5. Guidelines for selecting design floods 215
Table 6. Recommended design criteria for flood control
schemes 217
Table 7. Commonly used empirical formulae 219
Table 8. Values of coefficient C in Dicken’s formula used to compute
the maximum flow for some catchments in UP 219
Table 9. Coefficient C in Dicken’s formula corresponding to different
return periods for some of the catchments in UP used for
maximum flood flow computation 220
Table 10. Coefficient C in Dicken’s formula depending
upon the catchments topography 220
Table 11. Coefficient C in Ryve’s formula for some of the catchments
in UP used for peak flow computation 220
Table 12. Value of the coefficient C for different types
of areas 222
Table 13. Hydro-meteorologically homogenous sub-zones of
the country 224
Table 14. Recommended -index values for application
to PMP 226
Table 15. Typical values of Co-efficient a 226
Table 16. Values of Baseflow during flood season 231

Chapter 6. Groundwater 235

Table 1. Major Geological Formations of India 238
Table 2. District wise infiltration rates in India at the selected
locations 253
Table 3. Range of infiltration rates in selected basins in India 254
Table 4. Status of Ground Water Hydrograph Network
Stations 257
Table 5. Static fresh ground water resource – Basinwise 261
Table 6. Static fresh ground water resources-Statewise 262
Table 7. Specific capacity of dug wells in different hard rocks
formation 264
Table 8. Well Spacing in Different Formations 265
Table 9. Area Underlain by Saline Ground water in Different
States 277
Table 10. Norms for Specific Yield 280
List of Tables xxvii

Table 11. Norms for Recharge from Rainfall 281

Table 12. Norms for Recharge due to seepage from canals 281
Table 13. Recharge as percentage of application 282
Table 14. Average Annual Gross Draft for Ground Water Structures
in Different States 283
Table 15. CWC (1995) Guidelines for ground water extraction 288

Chapter 7. River Basins of India 297

Table 1. Catchment area, average annual water yield and length
of selected major rivers of the World 298
Table 2. Principal Himalayan rivers of India 301
Table 3. Classification of Indian river basins based on size 313
Table 4. Major river basins of the country 314
Table 5. Medium river basins of India 315
Table 6. Surface water resources potential of river basins km3 
of India 318
Table 7. Monthly discharge of selected rivers as percentage of annual
discharge 320
Table 8. Ground Water Potential in River Basins of India (Pro Rata
Basis) (Unit: km3 /year) 321
Table 9. Ground Water Resource of India as on March 2003
(unit km3 /year) 322
Table 10. Total utilizable ground water resource of India 323
Table 11. Categorization of Areas of Ground Water
Development 325
Table 12. Categorization of blocks/taluks/watersheds as over exploited
and dark on all India basis 326
Table 13. India: State wise Ground water Structures (in thousands)
and Ground Water Draft (ham) 328
Table 14. Number of groundwater wells and created irrigation potential
from 1950 onwards 328

Chapter 8. Ganga Basin 333

Table 1. Area of the GBB basin by countries and geographical
regions 334
Table 2. Areas of different countries (thousand sq. km)
in the basin 335
Table 3. State-wise distribution of the drainage area of Ganga River
in India 339
Table 4. Drainage area of different tributaries of Ganga 343
Table 5. The catchment of Yamuna River in various states 347
Table 6. Statewise allocation of utilizable flows of Yamuna
River 347
Table 7. Different Segments of Yamuna River 348
Table 8. Salient features of Eastern Yamuna Canal 371
xxviii List of Tables

Table 9. Parameters of Aquifer Groups of WYC area 373

Table 10. Salient features of the Tehri Dam Project 379
Table 11. Catchment area intercepted up to various structures 388
Table 12. Storage in the Gandhisagar dam on various dates 389
Table 13. Salient features of Chambal Canal System 390
Table 14. Salient features of the Maithon Reservoir 395
Table 15. Salient features of Panchet Reservoir 395
Table 16. Salient features of some existing projects in Ganga
Basin 399
Table 17. Salient features of some projects under construction in Ganga
Basin 403
Table 18. Hydroelectric Projects Proposed or being executed in
Uttaranchal 405
Table 19. Important Irrigation Schemes in the Ganga Basin 409
Table 20. Desired and Existing (at various times) Water Quality Levels
for Ganga 414
Table 21. Desired and Existing (at various times) Water Quality Levels
for Yamuna 417
Table 22. Groundwater potential Mm3  in Indo-Nepal basins 418

Chapter 9. Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 419

Table 1. Water Resources Potential in Northeastern Region 420
Table 2. Reachwise distribution of length, catchment area, gradient
of the Brahmaputra River and nature of topography through
which the river flows 421
Table 3. Statewise Distribution of the Indian part of the Brahmaputra
catchment area 422
Table 4. Topographic distribution of Brahmaputra basin area 422
Table 5. Some parameters of major north bank tributaries
of the Brahmaputra River in the middle reach in Assam
(India) 426
Table 6. Some parameters of the south bank tributaries of Brahmaputra
confluencing in the middle reach in the Assam State 427
Table 7. Statewise distribution of drainage area of Barak
River 429
Table 8. Annual weather phenomenon at some stations within
the Brahmaputra basin 434
Table 9. Temperature and mean relative humidity at some stations in
the Brahmaputra basin 434
Table 10. Monthly mean of daily maximum and minimum temperature
(in  C) of some stations located in the Brahmaputra
basin 435
Table 11. Ground water potential (BCM) NE Region 442
Table 12. Production and productivity of four major crops
of Assam 444
List of Tables xxix

Table 13. Mean monthly rainfall and rainy days of four stations
in the Brahmaputra Basin 446
Table 14. Average rainfall of some north bank tributary basins
of the Brahmaputra in the middle reach 447
Table 15. Average rainfall of some south bank tributary basins
of the Brahmaputra in the middle reach 447
Table 16. Maximum recorded 24-hour rainfall in different months
at four stations 449
Table 17. Contributions to the annual yield at Guwahati by the main
river at Pasighat and main tributaries 451
Table 18. Recorded maximum and minimum discharge
of the Brahmaputra River at different sites 451
Table 19. Observed maximum and minimum discharge of some major
tributaries of the Brahmaputra River in its middle reach
(in India) 452
Table 20. Tentative assessment of flood damage of Assam during
1953 to 1995 453
Table 21. Maximum observed floods at Pandu (Guwahati) 453
Table 22. Works completed as part of flood management during the last
three decades 453
Table 23. Occurrences of floods in the Brahmaputra River in the valley
reach during monsoon months 454
Table 24. Number and duration of floods of some major tributaries
of the Brahmaputra at its middle reach 455
Table 25. Observed highest flood level of the Brahmaputra River
in the valley reach 456
Table 26. Observed highest flood level and danger level of some
tributaries of the Brahmaputra River within the valley reach
(middle reach) 457
Table 27. Reachwise travel time (time lag) of flood wave
of the Brahmaputra River from Pasighat to Dhubri
in the valley (middle reach) portion 457
Table 28. Average annual suspended sediment load of some important
tributaries of the Brahmaputra River 458
Table 29. Width of the Brahmaputra River in different reaches
from Kobo to the Indo-Bangladesh border 460
Table 30. Sub-basin wise estimated hydro potential of Brahmaputra
basin 462
Table 31. Status of major hydropower projects in North Eastern Region
of India 462
Table 32. Identified small hydropower schemes in NE Region 463
Table 33. Projects under construction in NE region 466
Table 34. Some project proposals that are under investigation
in north-east region 468
Table 35. Types of Wetland in Assam 470
xxx List of Tables

Chapter 10. Indus Basin 473

Table 1. Statewise drainage area of Indus basin (in Indian
Territory) 475
Table 2. Crop Area and Production in J & K 475
Table 3. Salient climatic features of Jammu Division in Indus
basin 478
Table 4. Monthly rainfall and pan evaporation at Jammu 478
Table 5. The hydropower potential of Beas River in the Himachal
Pradesh state 482
Table 6. Hydropower potential of Ravi Basin 483
Table 7. Salient features of Satluj catchment 486
Table 8. Hydropower Potential in Satluj Basin 488
Table 9. Seasonal flow of Indus River
and its tributaries 489
Table 10. The installed capacity of hydropower plants under Bhakra
system 495
Table 11. Details of Water bodies in Jammu & Kashmir
(Area wise) 504
Table 12. Brief summary of the main projects 506
Table 13. Salient features of the Mangala dam 507
Table 14. Status of Water Quality of rivers of Punjab 510
Table 15. Details of Hydroelectric projects being given to private sector
by Govt. of HP 510

Chapter 11. Narmada Basin 513

Table 1. Statewise drainage area of Narmada basin 514
Table 2. Maximum and minimum temperatures at Khandwa and Punasa
towns 519
Table 3. Maximum and Minimum temperature in Jamtara
Sub-basin 520
Table 4. Details of selected tributaries of Narmada 523
Table 5. List of Observatories in and around
Narmada Basin 525
Table 6. Monthly distribution of normal annual rainfall 525
Table 7. Seasonal normals of rainfall (cm) for Narmada
basin 526
Table 8. Average monthly rainfall for selected stations in Narmada
basin 526
Table 9. Maximum and Minimum Temperature for a few cities in/near
Narmada Basin 527
Table 10. Monthly potential evaporation for Kolar sub-basin in Narmada
Basin 527
Table 11. Land-use details in the Narmada Basin
(area in km2  529
List of Tables xxxi

Table 12. Some details of the cross section of Narmada River at selected
gauging sites 529
Table 13. The parameters defining rating curves for various
sites 530
Table 14. Annual average observed runoff at selected CWC sites
in Narmada basin 532
Table 15. Desired and existing water quality levels
for Narmada 535
Table 16. Soil depth in Kolar basin 536
Table 17. Particle size distribution 536
Table 18. Thirty-one projects envisaged in the Narmada Basin 538
Table 19. Utilisation by Major Water Resources Projects in Narmada
Basin, MP 539
Table 20. Design storms recommended for Sardar Sarovar 540
Table 21. Salient features of Sardar Sarovar Project 546
Table 22. Salient features of Narmadasagar Project 547
Table 23. Design storms recommended for Narmada Sagar 548
Table 24. Salient features of Omkareshwar Project 549
Table 25. Salient features of Maheshwar Hydel Project 549
Table 26. Salient features of selected existing projects in Narmada
Basin 552
Table 27. Salient features of selected Under Construction Projects
in Narmada Basin 553
Table 28. Salient features of various catchments of the sub-zones
3(b) and 3(c) 553

Chapter 12. Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi Basins 561

Table 1. State-wise distribution of the Tapi basin 562
Table 2. Area (%) of different districts within three
sub-basins 563
Table 3. Area covered by various soils in Tapi basin 567
Table 4. Major land uses in Tapi basin (for the year
1995–96) 568
Table 5. Meteorological data and evapo-transpiration estimation
for sub-basins of Tapi 569
Table 6. Average flow (in 109 m3 ) at different CWC gauging stations
(Catchment area > 5000 km2 ) 570
Table 7. Major/Medium existing Projects
in Tapi basin 571
Table 8. Water utilized for power generation at Ukai Dam 573
Table 9. Rule levels recommended by Task group for Ukai
Reservoir 576
Table 10. Salient features of selected existing projects in Tapi
basin 577
xxxii List of Tables

Table 11. Salient features of selected projects under construction in Tapi

basin in Maharashtra 577
Table 12. Ground water recharge and potential for three sub-basins of
Tapi 578
Table 13. Desired and existing water quality levels for Tapi 579
Table 14. Statewise drainage areas of Sabarmati basin 579
Table 15. Salient features of selected existing projects in Sabarmati
basin 588
Table 16. Desired and existing water quality levels for
Sabarmati 588
Table 17. Statewise drainage area of Mahi River 589
Table 18. Salient features of selected existing projects in Mahi
basin 594
Table 19. List of the Projects under construction in Mahi
Basin 594
Table 20. Desired and existing water quality levels for Mahi 595

Chapter 13. Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani

Basins 597
Table 1. Statewise distribution of drainage area of Mahanadi
River 598
Table 2. Important sub-basins of Mahanadi and their catchment
areas 600
Table 3. Pan evaporation data (cm) of two stations in Mahanadi
Basin 603
Table 4. Gauge-Discharge sites on Mahanadi River and its
tributaries 604
Table 5. Estimates of water availability for various sites in Mahanadi
Basin 605
Table 6. Salient features of Hirakud reservoir 606
Table 7. Salient features of selected existing projects in Mahanadi
basin 609
Table 8. Salient features of selected projects under construction in
Mahanadi basin 610
Table 9. Desired and existing water quality levels for
Mahanadi 610
Table 10. Statewise distribution of drainage areas of Subernarekha
system 611
Table 11. Rivers in Subernarekha system and their catchment
areas 612
Table 12. Annual average observed runoff at selected CWC sites
in Subernarekha basin 615
Table 13. Salient Features of Reservoirs in Subernarekha River
Basin 616
List of Tables xxxiii

Table 14. Subernarekha Multipurpose project (Phase I): direct benefits

pertaining to the entire scheme when complete 618
Table 15. Salient features of selected existing projects in the
Subernarekha system 618
Table 16. Salient features of selected projects under construction in
Subernarekha basin 619
Table 17. Highlights of Tripartite Agreement up to Kokpara (UK) and
Below Kokpara (BK) 619
Table 18. Tripartite Agreement for water at Icha Dam 620
Table 19. Tripartite Agreement Features at Galudih Barrage 620
Table 20. Culturable commanded areas and capacities of important
canals in Subernarekha system 621
Table 21. Upstream and Downstream Annual Irrigation and
Municipal and Industrial Water Supply Requirements
(in MCM) 622
Table 22. Desired and existing water quality levels for
Subernarekha 623
Table 23. Geographical Area and Population within Basin 623
Table 24. Land Use Details of Brahmani Basin (area in km2 ) 626
Table 25. Annual Ground Water Availability in Brahmani
Basin 627
Table 26. Monthly average runoff at three gauge stations in the
basin 628
Table 27. Water withdrawals and uses Mm3 /Year for various uses in
Brahmani Basin 628
Table 28. Arable land & Irrigated land in Brahmani basin 630
Table 29. Gross Area (in km2 ) under Different Crops in Brahmani
Basin 630
Table 30. Current withdrawals of water for domestic use in Brahmani
basin 631
Table 31. Water demand & waste water generation from major industries
in Brahmani Basin 632
Table 32. Current withdrawal of water for industrial use 632
Table 33. Desired and existing water quality levels for
Brahmani 633
Table 34. Irrigation & Water Need by 2025 in Brahmani
Basin 634
Table 35. Annual average observed runoff at CWC sites in Brahmani
and Baitarni basin (Catchment area > 5000 km2 ) 634
Table 36. Salient particulars of the existing Projects in Brahmani and
Baitarani basin 638
Table 37. Salient particulars of the Projects Under construction in
Brahmani and Baitarni basins 638
Table 38. Desired and observed water quality classes for
Baitarani 639
xxxiv List of Tables

Chapter 14. Krishna and Godavari Basins 641

Table 1. Statewise area of Krishna Basin 642
Table 2. Details of major tributaries of Krishna River 643
Table 3. Annual average observed runoff at some CWC sites in Krishna
basin 651
Table 4. Desired and existing water quality status of Krishna River
(1997–2001) 652
Table 5. Salient features of Narayanpur dam 653
Table 6. Salient features of Almatti dam 655
Table 7. Salient features of the Ghatprabha (Hidkal) dam 660
Table 8. Salient features of the Tungabhadra project 661
Table 9. Salient features of Vanivilas Sagar project 662
Table 10. Salient features of Bennihora Project 663
Table 11. Salient features of Bhadha Reservoir Project 663
Table 12. Salient features of Bhima Project 664
Table 13. Salient features of Hipparagi Barrage 665
Table 14. Salient features of Malprabha Project 666
Table 15. Salient features of Upper Tunga project 668
Table 16. Salient features of Markendaya Project 669
Table 17. Salient features of Singatalur Lift
Irrigation Project 669
Table 18. Salient features of Osmansagar Reservoir 670
Table 19. Salient features of selected existing projects in Krishna
basin 671
Table 20. Salient features of selected Under construction projects
in Krishna basin 673
Table 21. Distribution of catchment area in Godavari basin 674
Table 22. Important Tributaries of Godavari 677
Table 23. Rainfall Pattern in the Sub-basins of Godavari 681
Table 24. Desired and existing water quality levels of Godavari River
(1997–2001) 682
Table 25. Annual average observed runoff at Important CWC sites
in Godavari basin 683
Table 26. Salient features of Inchampally Project 685
Table 27. Salient features of Polavaram Project 685
Table 28. Salient features of Karanja Project 686
Table 29. Salient features of Sriramsagar Project 688
Table 30. Salient features of selected existing projects in Godavari
basin 695
Table 31. Salient features of selected under construction projects in
Godavari basin 697
Table 32. Flood stages at various gauging sites of Godavari River during
August 1986 698
Table 33. Normal average depth of rainfall and actual flood period
rainfall depths in various sub-basins of the Godavari River
basin 698
List of Tables xxxv

Chapter 15. Cauvery and Pennar Basins 701

Table 1. Statewise distribution of drainage area of Cauvery
basin 702
Table 2. Salient features of tributaries of Cauvery River 703
Table 3. Sub-basin wise Area, average annual Rainfall, Runoff at
75% Water Year Dependable Flow and Ground Water
Potential 705
Table 4. Annual average observed runoff at CWC sites in Cauvery
basin (Catchment area >5000 km2 ) 705
Table 5. Sub basin wise ground water potential at Cauvery River Basin
in India 714
Table 6. Utilization, area irrigated by completed major and medium
projects in Cauvery basin 715
Table 7. Salient features of KRS Project 716
Table 8. Salient features of Nugu Reservoir Project 719
Table 9. Salient features of Harangi dam 721
Table 10. Salient features of the Hemavathi project 722
Table 11. Salient features of the Kabini Reservoir Project 723
Table 12. Utilization, area irrigated and benefits under completed
medium projects in the Cauvery basin 724
Table 13. List of the Completed projects in Cauvery Basin 725
Table 14. List of the Under Construction projects in Cauvery
Basin 725
Table 15. Desired and existing water quality levels for
Cauvery 726
Table 16. Statewise drainage areas of Pennar basin 728
Table 17. Monthly Temperature Data of Nellore 730
Table 18. Areas of various sub-basins under Pennar basin 731
Table 19. Annual average observed runoff at some CWC sites in Pennar
basin 736
Table 20. Land use in Pennar basin 736
Table 21. Withdrawals for Domestic and Industrial needs (MCM) in
Different Sub-basins (Year 1999–2000) 737
Table 22. Water Availability and Demand in Pennar Basin 738
Table 23. Desired and existing water quality classes for
Pennar 739
Table 24. Some features of Somasila Project 740
Table 25. List of the Completed projects in Pennar Basin in Andhra
Pradesh 740
Table 26. List of the Projects under construction in Pennar Basin in
Andhra Pradesh 741

Chapter 16. Other Basins and Islands 743

Table 1. West flowing rivers and their tributaries 744
Table 2. Statewise catchment areas of west flowing rivers of Kachchh
and Saurashtra 745
xxxvi List of Tables

Table 3. Salient features of selected existing projects in West

Flowing Rivers of Kutch And Saurashtra Including Luni
basin 752
Table 4. Salient features of selected under construction projects in West
Flowing Rivers of Kutch and Saurashtra Including Luni
basin 753
Table 5. Statewise catchment areas of west flowing rivers South
of Tapi 754
Table 6. Salient features of west flowing rivers south of Tapi 754
Table 7. Salient features of selected existing projects across West
flowing Rivers South of Tapi 763
Table 8. Salient features of selected under construction projects in West
flowing Rivers South of Tapi 764
Table 9. Statewise catchment areas of east flowing rivers between
Mahanadi and Godavari 765
Table 10. Salient features of selected existing projects in existing east
flowing Rivers from Mahanadi to Godavari and Krishna to
Pennar basin 772
Table 11. Salient features of selected under construction projects in
existing east flowing Rivers from Mahanadi to Godavari and
Krishna to Pennar basin 772
Table 12. Statewise catchment areas of east flowing rivers, between
Pennar and Cauvery 773
Table 13. Salient features of selected existing projects in east flowing
Rivers Between Pennar and Kanyakumari 783
Table 14. Salient features of selected under construction projects in east
flowing Rivers Between Pennar and Kanyakumari 784
Table 15. State-wise distribution of drainage area of minor rivers of
Tripura and Mizoram 784
Table 16. Annual average observed runoff at selected CWC
sites in East & West flowing Rivers (Catchment area
> 5000 km2  785
Table 17. Population statistics for the Andaman and Nicobar
islands 788

Chapter 17. Major Uses of Water in India 799

Table 1. Basic water requirements for human needs 802
Table 2. Recommended norms for water supply 802
Table 3. Cost of unreliable supply and poor
quality water 804
Table 4. Planwise Cumulative Irrigation Potential Created and Utilized
(in M-ha) 806
Table 5. Statewise Details of Irrigation Potential created and Gap
(all in 1,000 ha) 807
List of Tables xxxvii

Table 6. Statewise Irrigation potential from ground water (as on

1996–97) 809
Table 7. Irrigation development from different sources
(in thousand ha) 811
Table 8. Irrigation related projections for three years 811
Table 9. Area sown and irrigated from 1950–51
to 1997–98 812
Table 10. Area irrigated under principal crops during the year
1997–98 813
Table 11. Productivity of selected crops in India 813
Table 12. Crop water productivity in some states of India 814
Table 13. Constraints in rainfed areas 814
Table 14. Water requirement for irrigation 815
Table 15. Summary of field studies on sprinkler – water saving and
productivity 823
Table 16. Water used and yield for various crops in micro and
conventional methods 824
Table 17. Cumulative achievements of CAD programme as of 2000
and targets for a year 829
Table 18. The number of water user’s associations formed
and the command area covered by 1998 832
Table 19. Financial results of WRD projects (All India)
(in crore rupees) 836
Table 20. Irrigation project – working expenses, gross receipts,
and range of water rates in 1991–92 836
Table 21. World Electricity Generation by Source (2003) 842
Table 22. Continent-wise percentage of developed hydropower
potential 842
Table 23. Hydropower generation by major producers
of the world 843
Table 24. Hydro Composition Vs Total Electricity Generation 843
Table 25. Capacity and Production of Global Regional
Hydropower 844
Table 26. Hydropower capacity additions during 10th and 11th
plans 844
Table 27. Estimated energy and peak load requirement 845
Table 28. Basin-Wise of Hydroelectric Potential of Indian River
System 846
Table 29. Hydro electrical potential of Nepal 848
Table 30. Hydropower stations in operation (IC of 50 MW
and above) 850
Table 31. Hydropower stations under construction (IC range – 50 MW
and above) 853
xxxviii List of Tables

Table 32. Status of Hydro Electric Potential Development (region wise)

by 2005 854
Table 33. Status of Hydro Electric Potential Development (State Wise)
As on 31.08.1998 855
Table 34. Classification of Micro, Mini & Small Hydel Schemes
in India 856
Table 35. Identified Small Hydro Projects (Up to 25 MW
Capacity) 856
Table 36. Pumped storage development in India 858
Table 37. Water consumption by industries (year 1996–97) 860
Table 38. Water requirements for different industries for 2010, 2025,
2050 861
Table 39. Waste water generation from different types of industries and
achievable reuse 862
Table 40. Annual Water requirement for different uses
(in km3 ) 866
Table 41. Summary of Basin-wise total water requirement for
2050 867
Table 42. State wise net water requirement in 2010, 2025 &
2050 868
Table 43. Water use – Changing trends of the future 868
Table 44. Virtual water contents of a few selected products 869
Table 45. Top ten virtual water importing and exporting
countries 870

Chapter 18. Problems Related to Water Resources

Management in India 871
Table 1. Flood prone and protected area in India 875
Table 2. Social, environmental, and economic impacts of
droughts 895
Table 3. Drought years in the past centuries 896
Table 4. Details of droughts since independence 896
Table 5. Probability of occurrence of drought in different
meteorological sub division 897
Table 6. Drought Prone Area of India 897
Table 7. Percentage occurrence of drought of class moderate and above
in the Kharif season 899
Table 8. Statewise area of arid and semi–arid zones 899
Table 9. Drought classification based on PDSI 902
Table 10. Statewise Irrigation Status of Drought Prone and other states
(in ha) 906
Table 11. Arid agro-climatic zones of India 909
Table 12. Blocks with intensive exploitation of groundwater 911
List of Tables xxxix

Table 13. Annual availability and withdrawal of water for drinking

purpose in Delhi 916
Table 14. Norms for Categorization of Waterlogged Areas in Some
States 918
Table 15. Extent of Waterlogged Area in India 920
Table 16. Criteria adopted to classify salt-affected soils 922
Table 17. State-Wise Salt Affected Area in India
(Thousand ha) 923
Table 18. The number of resettlers from some major projects 924
Table 19. Retreat of selected Himalayan glaciers 931
Table 20. Ground water pollution in Hard Rock Region 935

Chapter 19. Reservoirs and Lakes 937

Table 1. Classification of dams 939
Table 2. Distribution of large dams according to age 940
Table 3. Storage projects in river basins of India 942
Table 4. Storage capacities km3  in different states 943
Table 5. Distribution of dams in India 943
Table 6. Statewise and riverwise distribution
of large dams 944
Table 7. Distribution of small reservoirs and irrigation tanks in
India 947
Table 8. Distribution of medium, large and total reservoirs in
India 947
Table 9. Fifty highest Indian dams 948
Table 10. Comparative advantages, limitations, and key issues associated
with groundwater, small surface reservoir, and a large surface
reservoir 951
Table 11. Contrast of characteristics of the High Aswan Dam, Dharoi
reservoir, and a minor tank in Sri Lanka 953
Table 12. Number of major dam failures up to 1965 961
Table 13. Design floods and observed highest floods for a few
projects 962
Table 14. Sedimentation of Reservoirs in India (10% of storage and
above) 967
Table 15. Comparison between actual and design rate of sedimentation
in some Indian reservoirs 970
Table 16. Annual percentage loss in gross, live and dead
storages 970
Table 17. Values of K and n in Murthy’s Equation 971
Table 18. Reduction of Sedimentation Rate with Time – Indian
Reservoirs 973
Table 19. Important differences between natural lakes and man-made
reservoirs 975
xl List of Tables

Table 20. Salient features of some of the important lakes in

India 988
Table 21. Lakes in the Uttaranchal State 996

Chapter 20. Water Quality and Related Aspects 997

Table 1. Designated best uses of water 999
Table 2. Water Quality standards in India (Source IS
2296:1992) 1000
Table 3. Guidelines for evaluation of irrigation water quality 1001
Table 4. Drinking water specifications (IS 10,500:1991) 1001
Table 5. Categories of major sources of ground water
contamination 1002
Table 6. Increasing urbanization in India 1003
Table 7. Growth of metro cities in India 1003
Table 8. Water supply and sanitation status in Class-1 and Class-2
cities in three years 1005
Table 9. Average chemical composition (ppm) of some Indian
Rivers 1013
Table 10. Some polluted river stretches in India 1014
Table 11. Ground water provinces based on hydro-chemical
quality 1016
Table 12. Common ground water contaminants and their
effects 1017
Table 13. Permissible limit of fluoride in drinking water prescribed by
various organizations 1019
Table 14. Land-use activities & their potential threat to ground water
quality 1022
Table 15. State wise details of contamination of ground water in some
areas of the districts due to various contaminants 1023
Table 16. Results of chemical analysis carried by CPCB 1026
Table 17. Water related diseases and Causative factors 1031
Table 18. Relevant laws to protect water and environment in
India 1032

Chapter 21. Constitutional Provisions, Inter-State Water Disputes

and Treaties 1035
Table 1. Allocation of Godavari water by GWDT among three
states 1043
Table 2. Allocation of Krishna water by KWDT among three
states 1047
Table 3. Allocation of Narmada water by NWDT among four
states 1049
Table 4. Allocation of water of Satluj-Yamuna link by Eradi tribunal in
1987 1057
List of Tables xli

Chapter 22. Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1065

Table 1. Water Resources Potential of River Basins of India 1066
Table 2. Skewed distribution of water resources in India 1067
Table 3. Annual water requirement km3  for different uses 1068
Table 4. Overview of IBWT schemes world wide 1073
Table 5. Allocation of water of Indus basin among the Indian
states 1079
Table 6. Proposed Fourteen Links in the Himalayan
Component 1085
Table 7. Status of proposed existing and additional irrigation facilities
under the Ghagra – Yamuna link project 1087
Table 8. Proposed links in the Peninsular Component 1091
Table 9. Salient features of the Peninsular Components 1092
Table 10. Some broad details of works involved in ILR 1097

Chapter 23. Institutions in the Field of Hydrology and Water

Resources 1111
Table 1. Responsibilities for water sector functions by
organizations 1112
Table 2. Major waterways projects in progress 1116
Table 3. Indicative list of development and deployment of Indian
satellites 1120
Table 4. Atmospheric monitoring networks 1127
Table 5. Sectional committees of the Water Resources Department of
BIS 1131
Table 6. List of WALMIs in India with years of
establishment 1142
Table 7. R and D activities in the Ministry of Water
Resources 1153
Table 8. Various Indian National Committees (INCs) and their subject
domains 1153

Chapter 24. Concepts of Water Governance for India 1155

Table 1. Water availability and potential for enhanced
recharge 1175
Table 2. Hierarchical coding of watersheds by AISLUS. 1178
 SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF INDIA

Earth is also known as a blue planet because more than three-fourths of the surface
area is covered by water. According to estimates, the total amount of water on earth
is 1.4 million cubic km and if this is uniformly spread around the earth as a layer,
the thickness of this layer will be nearly 3 km. However, about 97% of earth’s water
is contained in oceans and sea and fresh water is only 2.7% of the total available
water. Out of this, nearly three quarter (75.2%) is frozen in polar regions and about
22.6% is buried as ground water. A considerable part of ground water, known as
static water, is too deep underground for easy exploitation. A small proportion of
the remaining water is available in rivers, lakes, soil, etc. Thus only a very small
fraction of earth’s water is utilizable by the mankind.
If the water use data are viewed on a global scale, more than 3 240 km3 of fresh
water are used annually. There is considerable variation in sector-wise water use
throughout the world. Agriculture is the primary user in Asia, while municipal and
industrial sectors are major users in most of Europe and North America. Overall,
agriculture is the main consumer of water and accounts for 69% of the use followed
by 23% for industries and 8% for domestic use. The use of water for various
purposes has significantly risen during the last century and the trend continues. This
has led to focus the attention on sustainable use of water resources and maintenance
of environmental quality. The first and necessary step in this endeavour is inventory
of water resources of a region.
The objective of the present book is to explain hydrology and water resources of
India. To that end, it is helpful to get familiarized with the physical environment
of India.

1.1. TOPOGRAPHY
India occupies the south-central peninsula of the Asian continent. Besides the
mainland, there are two groups of islands, namely Lakshadweep in the Arabian
Sea and Andaman & Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. The mainland of India
lies between 8 4 N and 37 6 N latitude and 68 7 E and 97 25 E longitude. The
Andaman and Nicobar islands lie to the south east of the mainland and Lakshadweep
to the southwest. A world map showing the location of India is given in Figure 1.
3
4 Chapter 1

Figure 1. Location of India in the world

Note that the country completely lies in the northern hemisphere. India has a long
coastline, extending to about 7,500 km which permits numerous ocean routes to the
rest of the world for trade and travel.
India is endowed with almost all the important topographical features, such as
high mountains, extensive plateaus, and wide plains traversed by mighty rivers.
The country is bounded by Himalayas in the North and has a large peninsular
region tapering towards the Indian Ocean. The Himalayas in the north are the major
mountain ranges of the world. The other prominent mountains of India include
the Aravallis, the Vindhyachals, the Satpuras, the Eastern Ghats, and the Western
Ghats. The mountains are the primary source of rivers which derive their flow from
rainfall and snow and glacier melt. The plateaus are another striking feature of
topography in India and they range in elevation from 300 to 900 m.
With a geographical area of 3,287,263 sq. km, India is the seventh largest country
in the world. The countries whose area is larger than India are: Russia, Canada,
China, United States of America, Brazil and Australia. India occupies about nearly
2.42% of the land area of the earth. The latitudinal and longitudinal extent of India
is almost of the same magnitude in degrees, about 30 . The distance between the
extreme north to south tip is about 3,200 km while the east-west extent is 3,000 km.
The Indian Standard Time (IST) corresponds to the Meridian of 82 30 E. Thus,
IST is 5 hours 30 minutes ahead of G.M.T. Due to vast extent in the longitudinal
direction, the difference between local times of the two extreme points in the east
and the west is about two hours. The Tropic of Cancer divides the country into
two nearly equal parts. The northern part mainly consists of the Himalayas and the
plains of Indus and Ganga. The southern part is of triangular shape.
Physical Environment of India 5

To the north of the mainland of India lies the mountain chain of Himalayas. The
word Himalayas is formed by him (snow) with alaya (abode), meaning thereby that
Himalayas are the abode of snow. The presence of Himalayas has an important
bearing on the climate and water resources of the country.
The current land features of India have evolved over a period of millions of years
due to tectonic movements below the crust of the earth as well as external natural
agents. Millions of years ago, India was a part of a great continent known as the
Gondwanaland which included the continent of Australia, Africa, South America
and Antarctica. In the course of time, this continent got split into a number of
plates and the Indo-Australian plate began to slowly drift towards North. This plate
collided with the Eurasian plate millions of years ago and was pushed beneath it.
Due to the impact of collision force, the sedimentary rocks of the area folded to
form Himalayas.
The major physiographic divisions of India are described in the following.

1.1.1. The Himalayas

The Himalayas mountain region extends all along the northern border of the country.
From the eastern border of West Pakistan to the frontiers of Burma, the Himalayas
run for a distance of about 2,400 km in the east-west direction in the shape of an
arc. The width of the mountains varies from 400 km in the west to 150 km in the
east. Himalayas cover an area of about 500 000 km2 . The average elevation of the
eastern half portion is greater than that of the western half.
Mountainous area in India occupies 96.06 M-ha divided into: Himalayas
51.43 M-ha, Vindhya region 9.27 M-ha, Eastern Ghats 18.02 M-ha, Western Ghats
7.74 M-ha, and Satpura Ranges 6.60 M-ha. The area of Himalayas above various
contour heights is given in Table 1.
The Himalayas, which are geologically young mountains, consist of three main
series running parallel to each other. The northern most range is known as the
Great Himalayas or the Himadri. In this range, the average altitude is about 6,000 m
and this range contains a number of high peaks including the Mount Everest
height = 8 848 m which is the highest peak in the world. This peak is located in
Nepal where it is known as Sagarmatha. The second highest peak of Hamalayas is
Kanchenjunga (8,598 m) which is the highest peak in India. Other prominent peaks
are Nanga Parbat (8,126 m) and Nanda Devi (7,817 m).

Table 1. Area of Himalayas above various contour heights

Contour height Area (million km2 ) Percent

1,500 4.6 100

2,100 3.90 85
3,000 3.20 69
3,600 to 4,500 2.10 45
5,400 to 6,000 0.56 12
6 Chapter 1

The second range, the Middle Himalayas or Himachal, lies to the south of
Himadri. Here, the altitude is between 3,700 to 4,500 m and the width is about 50 km.
Popular hill stations of North India, such as Darjeeling, Dharamshala, Dalhousie,
Shimla, and Mussorrie are located in this range.
The southern most range is the outer Himalayas or the Shivaliks. Here the altitude
ranges from 900 to 1,100 m and the width varies between 10 and 15 km. In between
the Himachal and Shivalik ranges are plateaus and flat bottom valleys of thick
gravel and alluvium. Locally, these are known as duns, e.g., Dehradun.
In the east-west direction, Himalayas can be divided into four parts. The Western
Himalayas cover the state of Jammu & Kashmir and a part of Himachal Pradesh.
The part between Satluj River and the Kali River is known as Kumaon Himalayas
and the Nepal Himalayas lie between the Kali River and the Tista River. The area
between the Tista and the Brahmaputra Rivers is known as the Assam Himalayas.
The major rivers of north India that originate from Himalayas are the Indus, Satluj,
Ganga, and the Brahmaputra. Being snowfed, these rivers are perennial and carry
large amount of water and sediments. The origin of the Indus, the Satluj and the
Brahmaputra is near the Kailash Mansarovar region.
Besides the snow covered peaks, glaciers and pristine rivers, Himalayas are
known for beautiful valleys the world over. The valleys of Kashmir, Kulu, Kangra,
and Khasi and Garo hills are known for their scenic beauty and salubrious climate
attracting millions of tourists every year.

1.1.2. The Northern Plains

The Himalayas are young mountains and the rivers originating from them carry
large volumes of sediments. As these rivers enter plains, their velocity and hence
the sediment carrying capacity reduces which forces them to dump the sediment.
The north Indian plains of Indus and Ganga were formed by the alluvium that was
carried by the rivers originating from Himalayas. This has led to the formation of
vast northern plains of thick and fertile alluvium in north India. This coupled with
favorable climate and adequate water supply has made this region highly fertile.
No wonder that this region was the birthplace of the most ancient and enduring
civilization on earth, known as the Indus valley civilization.
The northern plains extend from the mouths of the Indus in the west to the
mouths of the Ganga-Brahmaputra in the east, a distance of about 3,200 km. The
width of the plains varies between 300 km to 150 km.
The western part of these plains has five rivers – the Indus and its tributaries,
the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj. Locally, the land between two rivers
is known as the Doab (Do means two and ab means water). [Readers may recall
the equivalent Greek word Mesopotamia, which also means the land between two
rivers. The famous Mesopotamian civilization arose in the valley of Euphrates and
Tigris, modern Iraq, about 5,000 BC.] By the same analogy, the plain formed by
five rivers in north India is known as Punjab (Punj means five). After the partition
of India in 1947, a large part of Punjab is now in Pakistan.
Physical Environment of India 7

The plains of Ganga valley can be divided into four parts based on relief.A narrow
belt of land near the foot of the Shivaliks is known as Bhabar. Its width is about
8–16 km and it is covered with pebbles. A wet and marshy belt known as the Terai
lies south of Bhabar. This belt supports forests and wildlife. The older alluvium
of the plain is known as Bhangar. The continuous deposition of alluvium leads
to the formation of terrace-like features on the flood plains which are known
as Khadar.

1.1.3. The Peninsular Region

This is a triangular shaped region whose vertex is near Kanyakumari at the southern
tip and base is near the line joining Calcutta to Saurashtra in Gujarat. In this
region, the elevation varies between 300 and 1,800 m. The peninsular region may be
further subdivided into two parts: the central highlands and the Deccan Plateau. The
northern part of the peninsular region which consists of low mountain ranges and
igneous rocks forms the central islands. The north-western part of this area is dotted
with very old mountains, known as the Aravallis. The southern boundary of this
highland is formed by Vindhyachal mountain range. Further west to Aravallis lies
the Thar desert. The Malwa plateau lies between the Aravallis and the Vindhyachal
range. The area east to Malwa plateau is known as Bundelkhand. The valley of
Narmada River lies to the south of Bundelkhand. To the east of Narmada valley
is the Chottanagpur plateau whose major part comes under the newly formed
Jharkhand state.
The southern part of the peninsular region is known as the Deccan plateau which
extends southward from the Satpura range. The western boundary of this plateau
is formed by a mountain chain known as Western Ghats. This is a low mountain
range near the western coast of India. In the Maharashtra state, these mountains
are known as Sahyadri, in Tamil Nadu they are known as Nilgiri, and in Kerala
they are known as Cardamom hills. The hills near the eastern boundary of the
plateau are known as Eastern Ghats. The general slope of the peninsular plateau is
towards east as evidenced by the flow direction of major rivers. But the north part
of the plateau slopes towards west. The Major mountain ranges in India are given in
Figure 2.

1.1.4. The Coastal Plains

The coastal plains lie between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea on the west
coast and the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal on the east coast. These are
narrow strips of land which are desiccated by a number of rivers. The northern
part of the west coast plains is known as the Konkan Coast and the southern part
as the Malabar Coast. The western coast has a number of big seaports, such as
Mumbai and Cochin. The eastern coastal plains are wider than the western plains
and the alluvial deposits are thicker. A number of rivers, such as the Mahanadi, the
Godavari, the Krishna, and the Cauvery, have the deltas on the eastern coast.
8 Chapter 1

Figure 2. Major mountain ranges in India

1.1.5. The Islands

The Andaman and Nicobar islands consist of a total of 572 picturesque islands in
the South Eastern part of the Bay of Bengal. They lie along an arc in long and
narrow broken chain, approximately North-South over a distance of nearly 800 km.
Most of these islands are of small size, less than 50 km in length.
The other group of islands known as the Lakshadweep group is in the Arabian
Sea. This tiniest Union Territory of India with an area of 32 sq. km is an
archipelago mainly consisting of ten inhabited islands and 17 uninhabited islands.
The inhabited islands are Kavaratti, Agatti, Amini, Kadmat, Kiltan, Chetlat, Bitra,
Physical Environment of India 9

Andrott, Kalpeni and Minicoy. The islands are located in the Arabian Sea between
8 to 12 13 North latitude and 71 to 74 East longitude, 220 to 440 km away from
the coastal city of Kochi in Kerala.

1.2. POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF INDIA

The Republic of India is a Union consisting of 28 states and 7 union territories.
New Delhi is the capital of India. The area of each state and union territory is
presented in Table 2. In terms of area, Rajasthan is the largest state followed by
Maharashtra; Goa is the smallest state in terms of area. The political map of India
is shown in Figure 3.

1.3. CLIMATE
The presence of mighty mountains in the north, extensive plateaus and the ocean
in the south has an important influence on the climate of India. Geographic and
physiographic characteristics have greatly influenced the climatic characteristics
of the country. India is a country with extremes of climates. The Indian sub-
continent experiences tropical monsoon climate in general due to the Himalayas
which function as an effective meteorological barrier. Here temperature varies from
more than 47 C at some places in summer to below −40 C at many places in
Himalayas; rainfall varies from almost negligible to about 11,000 mm per annum.
Cherrapunji in India has the distinction of receiving the highest rainfall in the
world, caused by the interplay of the vigorous sweep of monsoon currents and the
funnel shaped alignment of the adjoining ranges. This wide range of climatic condi-
tions working in conjunction with a range of topographic and soil/rock properties
produces a complex and interesting pattern of water resources distribution over the
country.
According to an accepted definition, a place is classified as arid if it lacks
sufficient rainfall to support agriculture. The moisture availability index (MAI) is
defined as:

MAI = 75% of probable rainfall P75/ET0 (1)

where ET0 is the reference crop evapotranspiration. MMI is also widely used to
classify climate. Based on MMI, most places in India are arid during Oct. to May.

1.3.1. Temperature
Temperature and rainfall are two important variables that characterize climate. In
India, the hottest months are April, May and June. With the onset of monsoons,
the maximum temperature drops significantly, although the weather can be quite
humid at times. Temperatures start falling from October onwards and are at the
lowest during December-January. With the passage of vernal equinox in March,
cool weather gives way to hot summer.
10 Chapter 1

Table 2. Area and population of Indian states and union territories

S. N. States/Union Territory Capital Area in sq. km Rank in terms

of area

States
1 Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 275068 4
2 Arunachal Pradesh Itanagar 83743 14
3 Assam Dispur 78438 16
4 Bihar Patna 94163 12
5 Chattisgarh Raipur 135194 10
6 Goa Panaji 3702 28
7 Gujarat Gandhinagar 196024 7
8 Haryana Chandigarh 44212 20
9 Himachal Pradesh Shimla 55673 17
10 Jammu & Kashmir Srinagar 222236 6
11 Jharkhand Ranchi 79714 15
12 Karnataka Bangalore 191791 8
13 Kerala Thiruvananthapuram 38863 21
14 Madhya Pradesh Bhopal 308252 2
15 Maharashtra Mumbai 307690 3
16 Manipur Imphal 22327 23
17 Meghalaya Shillong 22429 22
18 Mizoram Aizawl 21081 24
19 Nagaland Kohima 16579 25
20 Orissa Bhubaneshwar 155707 9
21 Punjab Chandigarh 50382 19
22 Rajasthan Jaipur 342239 1
23 Sikkim Gangtok 7096 27
24 Tamil Nadu Chennai 130058 11
25 Tripura Agartala 10486 26
26 Uttar Pradesh Lucknow 241068 5
27 Uttaranchal Dehradun 53343 18
28 West Bengal Kolkata 88752 13

Union territories
1 Andaman & Nicobar Islands Port Blair 8249 1
2 Chandigarh Chandigarh 114 5
3 Dadra & Nagar Haveli Silvassa 491 4
4 Daman & Diu Daman 112 6
5 Lakshadweep Kavaratti 32 7
6 Pondicherry Pondicherry 492 3
7 National Capital Territory Delhi 1483 2

Total 3287263

Eastern parts of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and some parts of Gujarat and
Orissa are the warmest parts of the country. Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttaranchal, and Arunachal Pradesh are the coolest states. Over the central parts
of India, the maximum recorded temperatures often exceed 45 C while along the
west coast, the maximum temperatures fall in the range between 35−40 C. Smaller
values of maximum temperatures of around 25 C are recorded in parts of Himachal
Physical Environment of India 11

Figure 3. Political map of India

Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir. Low temperature dropping to the vicinity of −40 C
have been recorded in the northern most parts of India at Kargil.
Table 3 gives the maximum and the minimum temperatures in the months of
January and July, rainfall, and mean wind speed for important cities of India. The
maximum and minimum summer and winter temperatures for various states and
union territories in India is given in Table 4.
12 Chapter 1

Table 3. Selected climatic variables at important cities of India

Station Temperature  C Annual rainfall Annual mean

January July (mm) wind speed
km/hour
Max. Min. Max. Min.

Aizawl 234 80 282 173 2,263.8 7.3

Ahemadabad 324 93 375 237 823.1 6.9
Amritsar 226 02 414 219 649.1 8.6
Balasore 305 103 342 241 1,688.6 7.6
Bangalore 296 123 302 181 923.7 11.5
Bhopal 296 55 353 213 1,208.9 8.3
Chennai 303 181 378 232 1,215.3 11.8
Cherrapunji 189 47 260 169 11,418.7 8.9
Darjeeling 139 00 219 127 2,758.4 3.1
Dehradun 231 27 347 207 2,313.7 3.2
Guwahati 265 82 349 241 1,637.2 3.2
Hyderabad 319 107 340 210 764.4 12.6
Jaipur 268 27 395 229 648.1 12.4
Kolkata 299 99 346 245 1,581.8 4.9
Lucknow 274 48 383 239 992.4 3.1
Margaon 329 191 297 222 2,611.7 13.6
Mumbai 330 161 318 231 2,099.2 10.5
New Delhi 270 30 403 236 714.2 9.8
Patna 271 70 365 244 1,109.8 6.8
Port Blair 307 220 307 221 3,180.5 13.5
Raipur 310 95 349 217 1,388.2 7.8
Ranchi 277 59 325 209 1,462.7 5.0
Shillong 190 03 266 163 2,415.3 4.1
Shimla 143 −33 250 128 1,480.6 3.6
Sibsagar 256 69 356 233 2,504.3 4.4
Silchar 282 88 356 239 3,225.4 1.8
Srinagar 94 −67 355 145 664.0 4.0
Thiruvananthapuram 333 201 312 217 1,839.3 7.9

1.3.2. Precipitation

The annual precipitation over the country including snowfall is about 4,000 cubic
kilometers which is equivalent to about 120 cm of rainfall depth. This amount is
the largest anywhere in the world for a country of a comparable size. The annual
rainfall however fluctuates widely. Over the Khasi and Jaintia Hills it is 1,100 cm,
while towards the north, in the Brahmaputra valley, the rainfall drops to 200 cm.
Cherrapunji, which has an elevation of 1,330 m records a rainfall of the order of
1,142 cm in a year and as much as 104 cm in a day. Out of this, seasonal rainfall is
of the order of 3,000 cubic kilometers. In India, rainfall is received through South-
West and North-East monsoons, cyclonic depressions, and western disturbances.
Physical Environment of India 13

Table 4. Maximum and minimum summer and winter temperatures for various states and union territories
in India

States/ Union Summer Winter

territories
Max.  C Min.  C Max.  C Min.  C

States
Andhra Pradesh 41 20 32 13
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam 35 18 26 17
Bihar 47 20 28 04
Chhattisgarh
Goa 32 21
Gujarat 41 27 29 14
Haryana 46 35 14 02
Himachal Pradesh 33 14 15 00
Jammu & Kashmir
Jharkhand
Karnataka 35 26 25 14
Kerala 35 21
Madhya Pradesh 48 22 23 04
Maharashtra 39 22 34 12
Manipur 29 14 25 07
Meghalaya 25 15 16 04
Mizoram 29 18 24 11
Nagaland 18 29 24 11
Orissa 49 27 16 05
Punjab 45 35 14 00
Rajasthan 47 17 32 07
Sikkim
Tamil Nadu 43 18
Tripura 35 24 27 13
Uttar Pradesh 45 11 32 02
Uttaranchal
West Bengal 40 24 26 07

Union territories
Andaman & Nicobar Islands 33 22 31 22
Chandigarh 43 35 14 7
Dadra & Nagar Haveli 41 27 29 14
Daman & Diu 32 21
Lakshadweep
Pondicherry 43 18
National Capital Territory of Delhi 45 35 20 07

Most of the rainfall takes place under the influence of South-West monsoon between
June and September, except in Tamil Nadu where it occurs under the influence
of North-East monsoon during October-November. Rainfall in India shows great
variations, unequal seasonal distribution, unequal geographical distribution, and
frequent departure from the normal.
14 Chapter 1

In the parlance of the India Meteorological Department (IMD), a day with a

rainfall of 2.5 mm or more is known as a rainy day. The mean annual number of
rainy days over India varies from less than 20 over the northwestern parts (West
Rajasthan and Kutchh region of Gujarat), to more than 180 in the north-east parts.
In the southern parts of the West Coast also, the annual number of rainy days
is quite high, about 140 days. The annual number of rainy days is around 40–60
over central parts of India. From the observed spatial pattern, the mean intensity
of rainfall is found to vary between 10 and 40 mm per rainy day. In the extreme
northern parts, the lowest value is below 10 mm/day. The intensity is near about
10 mm/rainy day over north-western India. Along the West Coast as well as in
some parts of north-eastern India, the highest value is about 40 mm/day.
The average annual rainfall over the country is shown in Figure 4. As seen
from the figure, there exists a considerable amount of areal variation in the annual

Figure 4. Average annual rainfall over India

Physical Environment of India 15

rainfall in India. The annual rainfall varies from about 100 mm in western deserts
to about 1,100 mm in north-eastern parts of the country. The wettest states of
India are Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, sub-Himalayas, West Bengal,
Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Konkan, Coastal Karnataka and Kerala also receive
rainfall in the range 250–400 cm per year. More than half of the precipitation takes
place in about 15 days and that too in about 100 hours in a year. The number of
rainy days varies from about 5 in western deserts to 150 in the north-east. Such a
wide variation makes the task of water resources engineers very challenging indeed.
On the west coast of India, heavy rainfall occurs along the slopes of the Western
Ghats on the windward side, rapidly decreasing on the leeward side. On the east
coast of India, rainfall is the highest near the coast and decreases inland. In the
northern plains, rainfall decreases from 150 cm in West Bengal to nearly 10 cm in
extreme west Rajasthan.
In the Himalayas, annual rainfall in the eastern Himalayas is more than that in
the western side, being more than 200 cm in eastern Himalayas and only about
70 cm in the western Himalayas. It is also higher in the lower foothills and rapidly
decreases in the upper ranges.

1.3.3. Monsoons

The word ‘monsoon’ is an Arabic word which means winds changing directions.
It is commonly used to denote the seasonal reversal of the wind direction along
the shores of the Indian Ocean. In Indian sub-continent, the winds generally blow
from the southwest during half of the year and from the northeast during the other
half. The reversal of direction is due to the effects of differential heating as the
Himalayan plateau heats up during the summer, causing the air to rise and be
replaced by the warm, moist air from over the Indian Ocean. Towards the end of
May when the weather is the hottest in India, the south-east trade winds from the
south Indian Ocean cross the equator and after deflecting, due to the rotation of
the earth, extend rapidly into the north Indian Ocean, the Bay of Bengal and the
Arabian Sea as South-Westerlies. These deflected trade winds first enter the south
Bay of Bengal early in May and later get established over both the sea areas. This
westerly current which extends from the Arabic coast to the China Sea across India
is called the Indian south-west monsoon.
The SW or the summer monsoon is the single most noteworthy feature of the Indian
climate. This monsoon starts from the equatorial belt and hits the Indian subcon-
tinent in two distinct currents. These are known as the Bay of Bengal branch that
sets in the North-eastern part of the country and the Arabian Sea branch that hits
at the southern part of the peninsula. The first branch moves westwards, and the
second northwards, and they together cover the whole country. Andaman & Nicobar
Islands receive rains from the Bay of Bengal branch which normally sets in by 20th
May. Monsoon reaches Kerala by June 1 and advances along the Konkan coast in
early June. Normally, monsoon sets over the entire country by the middle of July.
16 Chapter 1

During the monsoon season, sky is generally cloudy and there are frequent spells
of intense rainfall. Figure 5 shows the dates on onset of monsoon over the country.
As the summer monsoon heralds the major rainy season, its arrival is eagerly
awaited by all sections of Indian society, the leaders, the planners, the decision
makers, the farmers, the traders, and so on, with great expectations. Monsoon rains
give relief from sweltering heat and trigger the beginning of sowing operations on
a large scale.
The Bay of Bengal is a source of cyclonic systems of low pressure called
‘monsoon depressions’ during this season. They form in the northern part of the
Bay of Bengal with an average frequency of about 2 to 3 per month. Further they
move in a northward or north-westward direction and bring well-distributed rainfall
over the central and northern parts of the country. The distribution of rainfall
over northern and central India is critically influenced by the path taken by these
depressions. During the latter half of the month of September, the SW monsoon
current becomes feeble and begins withdrawing from the north-western parts of
India. It withdraws from almost all parts of the country by the end of September,
and is slowly replaced by a northerly continental airflow. The retreating monsoon
winds cause occasional showers along the east coast of Tamil Nadu, but decrease
towards the interior.
During the monsoon season, it does not rain every day. There are some periods
known as ‘breaks in the monsoon’, when rainfall activity is absent and weather
is uncomfortably hot and humid. The usual duration of breaks is 3–7 days and
they are frequent in August. Prolonged breaks may cause severe damages to the

Figure 5. Normal dates of onset of monsoon

Physical Environment of India 17

crops. Global features like El Nino, northern hemispheric temperatures and snow
cover influence the year-to-year variability of monsoon rains. Heavy rainfall in
the mountainous catchments during monsoon causes floods over the plains. The
withdrawal of monsoon takes place in the month of September. Figure 6 shows the
normal dates of withdrawal of monsoon.
Although the SW monsoon covers the entire country for four monsoon months,
its actual stay at a specific place depends on the dates of its onset and withdrawal.
Over Western Rajasthan, monsoon may last for about 70 days while the duration
may be more than 120 days over the south-western peninsula.
The post-monsoon or north-east (NE) monsoon season is known as a transitional
season. During this transitional season the north-easterly airflow becomes estab-
lished over the subcontinent and produces the winter or NE monsoon rains over the
southern tip of the country. During this season tropical cyclones form in the Bay
of Bengal and result in heavy rainfall along their path. Due to these storms, rainfall

Figure 6. Normal dates of withdrawal of monsoon

18 Chapter 1

has been received mainly in many parts of Tamil Nadu and some parts of Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka. Due to high-velocity winds and tidal waves of these storms,
widespread damages also occur in the coastal regions.
During the monsoon season the day temperatures all over the country begin
falling sharply. Over north-western India the mean temperatures fall from about
38 C in October, to 28 C in November. Decrease in humidity levels and clear skies
also found over most parts of north and central India after mid-October.
As the south-west monsoon withdraws, a north-easterly flow of air begins. This
air picks up moisture from the low-pressure areas in the Bay of Bengal and hits the
coastal areas of Orissa and Tamil Nadu to cause rainfall. During this period, severe
tropical cyclones are also formed in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. These
cyclones are responsible for intense rainfall in the coastal areas. Table 5 gives the
normal dates of onset and withdrawal of monsoons.

Table 5. Normal dates of onset and withdrawal of monsoons

Year South West Monsoon North East monsoon North East monsoon Year

May June October November November December January

1934 8 24 18 1934
1935 12 13 28 1935
1936 19 22 22 1936
1937 4 27 19 1937
1938 26 27 9 1938
1939 5 14 17 1939
1940 14 27 9 1940
1941 23 21 19 1941
1942 10 1 5 1942
1943 29 5 13 1943
1944 3 20 24 1944
1945 5 12 10 1945
1946 29 16 8 1946
1947 3 19 4 1947
1948 11 16 3 1948
1949 23 20 1 1949
1950 27 15 16 1950
1951 31 6 2 1951
1952 20 15 15 1952
1953 7 14 13 1953
1954 31 15 11 1954
1955 29 20 10 1955
1956 21 26 28 1956
1957 1 16 · 3 1957
1958 14 29 19 1958
1959 31 21 4 1959
1960 14 21 18 1960
1961 18 24 15 1961
1962 17 9 13 1962
1963 31 20 10 1963
1964 6 29 27 1964
Physical Environment of India 19

1965 26 15 12 1965
1966 1 6 22 1966
1967 9 15 20 1967
1968 8 15 21 1968
1969 17 14 3 1969
1970 26 14 12 1970
1971 27 19 19 1971
1972 18 21 27 1972
1973 4 17 31 1973
1974 26 5 30 1974
1975 31 25 20 1975
1976 31 15 26 1976
1977 29 10 6 1977
1978 29 21 1 1978
1979 11 22 15 1979
1980 1 10 6 1980
1981 31 23 24 1981
1982 29 18 19 1982
1983 13 24 18 1983
1984 30 3 7 1984
1985 28 29 17 1985
1986 4 26 30 1986
1987 2 20 26 1987
1988 27 3 6 1988
1989 3 29 10 1989
1990 28 18 27 1990
1991 2 19 23 1991
1992 5 2 9 1992
1993 28 13 1 1993
1994 28 18 24 1994
1995 8 23 13 1995
1996 3 10 19 1996
1997 8 13 23 1997
1998 2 28 4 1998
1999 25 4 12 1999
2000 1 5 2 2000
2001 23 16 2001

The water vapor carried by the monsoon during June-September is about 1,110 M
ha-m. About 300 M ha-m (= 27% of the total) of this moisture precipitates in the
form of rainfall. During the remaining eight months of the year, there is a substantial
amount of moisture over the country. The precipitation during this eight-month
period is of the order of 100 M ha-m. In South India covering Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, and Kerala States, north-eastern monsoon also significantly contributes to
precipitation.
In the beginning of December, weather disturbances originating in the
extra-tropical region enter India from Afghanistan and Pakistan. These are known
as western disturbances and cause moderate to heavy rain and snowfall in the
Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh States. Light to moderate rainfall is also
experienced in the northern plains.
20 Chapter 1

1.3.4. Seasons in India

Based on the temperature and precipitation variations, there are four distinct seasons
in India.
(i) The Cold Weather Season
The cold weather season starts in early December and is over by the end of February.
January and February are the coldest months. In these months the temperature
remains cool and dry. The temperature varies between 10 C–15 C in the northern
India as well as about 25 C in the southern India. Due to the western disturbances,
heavy rainfall on the coast of Tamil Nadu occurs in this period. The north-west
part of India also receives some rainfall or snowfall in this season. In other parts
of the country, the months of January and February are cloudless and rainless and
the weather remains pleasant.
(ii) The Hot Weather Season
The hot season starts in the month of March and lasts till mid June. Weather is
very hot during this season due to vertical sunshine over India. The highest day
temperature reaches close to 50 C in some places. Pre-monsoon showers are found
to occur in Chottanagpur, Kerala, and Western Ghats due to low-pressure moist
winds from Arabian Sea. The northern plains remain dry and hot winds called loo
blow during the day. Sometimes dust storms occur in Punjab, Haryana and Uttar
Pradesh followed by light rain and cool breeze, thereby lowering the temperature
to a great extent.
Thunderstorms associated with light rain are frequently formed in this season.
Hails also fall at some places in this season and at times these cause damage to
crops. Over the northern plains a few dust storms, locally known as andhis, also
occur. Strong winds accompany these storms which carry substantial quantity of
dust whose erosion is aided by the dry weather. Winds carry large quantity of loose
material such as papers, dry leaves, polythene bags etc. This material settles down
soon only if the winds are followed by showers. Over the eastern and north-eastern
regions in the states of Bihar, West Bengal and Assam, violent thunderstorms with
strong winds and rain lasting for short durations also occur.
(iii) The Advancing Monsoon Season
As already described above, this season runs from mid June to September. Heavy
rainfall in the whole of India occurs due to monsoon winds starting from Bay of
Bengal and Arabian Sea. Sometimes one can observe rainfall almost non-stop for
several days at various intensities. The weather becomes hot and sultry when there
is a break in monsoon.
(iv) The Retreating Monsoon Season
This season runs from October to November. In this season sky is usually clear and
humidity is low. Monsoon starts retreating in late September to early October. The
months of October and early November form a period of transition from hot rainy
season to dry winter season.
Physical Environment of India 21

The period of transition when low-pressure area is transferred from north-west

of India to Bay of Bengal is marked by the formation of cyclones. Sometimes these
cyclones attain such a great speed that they become devastating. Normally these
cyclones affect coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, and Bangladesh. Great loss
of life and property due to these havocs took place in Bangladesh in 1970, Andhra
Pradesh in 1977 and 1997. The recent disaster in 1999 in Orissa is unforgettable,
when more than 10,000 people were killed.

1.3.5. Number of Rainy Days

A day on which 2.5 mm or more of rain falls is counted as a rainy day. The pattern
of rainy days generally follows the annual rainfall pattern described earlier.The
Western Ghats, Assam, portions of sub-Himalayan West Bengal and some higher
elevations of the Himalayas up to Punjab have more than one hundred rainy
days. In extreme west Rajasthan the number of rainy days is less than ten. As in
the case of rainfall distribution, the number of rainy days in the northern plains
decreases from east to west. In the peninsula, between 40 and 50 rainy days occur
over the semi-arid regions extending from mid Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu. Over
Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and adjoining Andhra Pradesh, there are between 50 to
75 rainy days. On the west coast, the number of rainy days is as high as 137 at a
few places.
The rainfall regions may be divided into four parts as mentioned below:
(i) Heavy Rainfall Regions
These rainfall regions receive more than 200 centimeter of rainfall annually. Assam,
Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Sikkim, West Bengal, and southern slopes of
Eastern Himalayas fall under this category. Western Coastal regions and Western
Ghats also receive heavy rainfall from the Arabian Sea monsoon. The heaviest
rainfall in the world (more than 1,142 cm) is found at Mawsynram (near Cherra-
punji) in Meghalaya. It should be noted that Mawsynram is a new station established
near Cherrapunji. It was found that the rainfall at Mawsynram is higher than that
at Cherrapunji.
(ii) Areas of Moderate Rainfall
The areas where the annual rainfall is between 100–200 cm come under this
category. Bengal, Bihar, Eastern U.P. and Sub-mountain regions of Punjab, Orissa,
Madhya Pradesh, and the east coast of Tamil Nadu receive moderate rainfall.
(iii) Regions of Low Rainfall
These areas receive an annual rainfall between 50–100 cm. Most of the Deccan
region, Gujarat, Eastern Rajasthan, Western U.P., Haryana and Northern Punjab are
the areas of low rainfall.
(iv) Areas of Scanty Rainfall
These areas receive less than 50 cm annual rainfall. Scanty rainfall is found mostly
in Kutch and Western Rajasthan. Due to Aravalli hills, Western Rajasthan remains
22 Chapter 1

dry. Scanty rainfall is also found in Southern Haryana, South-West Punjab, Ladakh
in Kashmir, and Lahul-Spiti in Himachal Pradesh.

1.3.6. Snow and Glaciers

Precipitation occurring in the Himalayas at heights of 2,450 m and above usually
gets solidified as snow. All the great peaks of Himalayan mountains are, therefore,
covered with snow. The mountainous area covered by snow is about 80% of the
total area of Himalayas. In Himalayas, the western part gets more snow than the
eastern and gets it earlier. The snowline, the lowest line on a mountain at which
snow exists throughout the year, is about 5,490 m at the equator and 610 m in
Greenland. In temperate zones, it is about 3,050 m. In winters, the snow line can
descend to altitudes as low as 2,500 m.
As successive snowfalls occur, pressure on the lower layers increases and the
snow becomes a granular ice. When the weight of ice increases, the depth of ice
being more than 76 m, it begins to move and is known as a glacier. The rate of
movement varies from 0.3 m to several metres a year. Table 6 shows snow covered
areas of Himalayas lying between 70 and 100 E and south of 40 N in different
months during 1979–82.
(i) Indian Himalayan Glaciers
Glaciers can be conceived as natural reservoirs which store precipitation in the
winter season and gradually release it as melt water in summers, thereby augmenting
flows into the rivers. Himalayas are the home to a multitude of glaciers and are the
largest reservoir of snow and ice outside the polar regions. Snowmelt runoff and
glacier melt runoff makes these rivers perennial in nature. In the rivers originating
from Himalayas, significant snow and glacier melt runoff contribution begins in
April when seasonal snow cover starts ablating. This contribution continues till
October/ November depending upon the climate conditions.
The principal glaciers in Himalayas can be divided in four groups:
a. Punjab Himalaya Group,
b. Garhwal Himalaya Group,
c. Nepal Himalaya Group, and
d. Assam Himalaya Group.

Table 6. Snow covered areas of Himalayas lying between 70 and 100  E and south of 40  N during
different months (after Dhanju, 1983)

Month Snow covered area 106 km2  Remarks

September, 1979 0.93 Minimum snow cover

January, 1980 2.11 Maximum snow cover
September, 1980 0.74 Minimum snow cover
March, 1981 3.67 Maximum snow cover
September, 1981 0.55 Minimum snow cover
January, 1982 2.44 Maximum snow cover
Physical Environment of India 23

(a) Punjab Himalaya Group of Glaciers. Under the Punjab Himalaya Group,
the major glaciers are: Rakhiot Glacier, Kolhai Glacier, Neh-Nar Glacier, Sarbal
Glacier, Kangriz Glacier, Brahma Glacier, Drung Drung Glacier, Mulkila Group
Glaciers, Barashigri Glacier, Dibi Bokri Glacier, Gara Glacier and Gorgarang
Glacier.
(b) Garhwal Himalaya Group of Glaciers. Garhwal Himalaya Group of Glaciers
includes Gangotri Glacier, Santopath Glacier, Kedarnath Glacier, Milam Glacier,
Pindari Glacier, Shankulapa Glacier, and Poting Glacier.
(c) Nepal Himalaya Group of Glaciers. Yaling Glacier, Chong Kumadan Glacier,
Rundun Glacier, Glaciers adjoining to Dhaulagiri and Annapurna Peaks, Kang
Shung Glacier, Rupal Glacier, Khumbu Glacier, Glaciers adjoining to Makalu Peak,
and Zemu Glaciers fall under this group.
(d) Assam Himalaya Group of Glaciers. Glaciers adjoining Kanchenjunga peak,
Sanlung Glacier and Glaciers adjoining Gyara Pari peak falls under the Assam
Himalaya Group of glaciers.
(ii) Principal Glacier fed river systems of Himalayas
Since the snow glacial melt is a significant part of the flow in Himalayan rivers,
estimation of the melt rate of these bodies and the total volume of water expected
in the melt season is of vital use for water resources planning and management.
Due to paucity of detailed hydrological studies on Himalayan glaciers, database of
Indian glaciers is poor.
A number of important major rivers, namely, Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra and
their tributaries originate from Glaciers of Himalayas. The important features of
principal glacier fed river systems of Himalayas are shown in Table 7.
Snow and glaciers melt during hot months (March to June) and yield large summer
flows in the Himalayan rivers, such as the Indus, the Ganga, the Brahmaputra,
and their tributaries. Table 7 contains data of principal glacier-fed river systems of
Himalayas.
Detailed investigations have been conducted only on a few glaciers. In the
following, summary information about selected glaciers is given.
Gangotri Glacier: Gangotri Glacier is one of the largest glaciers in the Himalayas.
The glacier is located in the Uttarkashi District of Uttaranchal State (U.A.) falling
in the Garhwal Himalayan Region. The location of Gangotri Glacier is shown in
Figure 7. The snout of the Gangotri Glacier is known as ‘Gomukh’ and a proglacial
melt water stream, known as Bhagirathi River, emerges out from Gomukh at an
elevation of 4,000 m. To reach at the Glacier, one has to trek for about 18 km from
the Gangotri town. Rough estimate based on the topography of the area and some
field observations suggest that the depth of the glacier is about 200 m. Gangotri
Glacier contains a large number of crevasses spread all over the ablation zone.
These crevasses are well exposed when seasonal snow accumulated in the ablation
zone is depleted.
Gangotri glacier system is a cluster of many glaciers comprising of main Gangotri
glacier (length: 30.20 km; width: 0.20–2.35 km; area: 8632 km2 ) as trunk part of
24 Chapter 1

Table 7. Principal Glacier fed river system of Himalayas

Major river system Name of Catchment area (sq. km) covered by Percentage
river/tributary glaciation
Mountains Glaciers

Indus Indus 268482 8,790 3.3

Jhelum 33670 170 5.0
Chenab 27195 2,944 10.0
Ravi 8029 206 2.5
Sutlej 47915 1,295 2.7
Beas 14504 638 4.4
Yamuna 11655 125 1.1
Ganga 23051 2,312 10.0
Ramganga 6734 3 0.04
Ganga
Kali 16317 997 6.01
Karnali 53354 1,543 2.9
Gandak 37814 1,845 4.9
Kosi 61901 1,318 2.1
Tista 12432 495 4.0
Raidak 26418 195 0.7
Manas 31080 528 1.7
Brahmaputra
Subansiri 18130 725 4.0
Brahmaputra 256928 1,080 0.4
Dibang 12950 90 0.7
Lohit 20720 425 2.01
Gross 1001294 25,724 2.6

Source: NIH (1991)).

Figure 7. Location map of the Gangotri Glacier

Physical Environment of India 25

the system. It flows in the northwest direction. The major glacier tributaries of
the Gangotri Glacier system are Raktvarn Glacier 5530 km2 , Chaturangi Glacier
6770 km2 , Kirti Glacier 3314 km2 , Swachand Glacier 1671 km2 , Ghanohim
Glacier 1297 km2 , Meru Glacier 611 km2 , Maindi Glacier 476 km2  and few
other having glacierised area of about 308 km2 . The elevation area of the Gangotri
Glacier varies from 4,000–7,000 m. The Gangotri Glacier area also has several high
peaks around it, notably the majestic snow clad Shivling peak ≈ 6500 m.
The Gangotri Glacier lies in the central crystalline zone. The Himalayan
crystallines along the Bhagirathi valley are composed of Pelitic and semi-pelitic
meta-sediments with acid and basic intrusive. The area is situated north of Main
Central Thrust (MCT) which separates the metamorphics from the underlying very
low grades of unmetamorphosed sedimentary sequence of the lesser Himalaya. Mica
schists are the predominant rock found over the MCT. Further, northeast of Gangotri
these schists are intruded by hard and massive granite known as Gangotri granite.
From Gangotri town towards Gomukh, the Gangotri granite gradually changes
into fine grained, well-foliated, garnetiferrous gneiss and augen gneiss intruded by
fine-grained aplitic veins.
The Bhagirathi river valley is a broad U-shaped with high sidewalls, which is a
characteristic of its glacial origin. The lower part of the ablation zone of the glacier
is covered with thick supraglacial moraine and shows development of few lakes.
Due to the recession, the location of Gomukh has also moved upstream with time.
Morainic material present between Chirwasa and Gomukh in the form of tillite
hillocks are considered as evidences of the extent of Gangotri Glacier. It is NW-SE
trending valley within the granitic terrain. The prominent geomorphic landforms
formed by the glacial environment are different levels of lateral, and recessional
moraines, U-shaped glacial troughs, terraces and outwash plains.
Thick vegetation is found from Gangotri town to Deo Gad. Deo Gad, located
about 5 km upstream to the Gangotri town, is a tributary to the Bhagirathi River.
The vegetation gradually reduces beyond Deo Gad. There is little vegetation around
Chirwasa, a place between Deo Gad and Gomukh, but beyond Chirwasa, the
vegetation is significantly reduced up to Gomukh. As such there is very little
vegetation between Chirwasa and Gomukh. Common flora found in the area are
Himalayan cedar (Botanical name: Cedrus deodara) which dominate on the slopes
along with few Spruce (Picea smitbiana), Silver fir (Abies pindrow) and Blue pine
(Pinus wallichiana). The Indian birch (Betula utilis) is the only tree found in and
around the Bhojwasa. The important faunas include leopard, musk deer and varau
deer. Many different species of birds also found in the area.
A preliminary analysis of limited rainfall data showed that the average summer
season rainfall (May-October) was about 260 mm. Mean monthly temperatures
for May, June, July, August, September and October were 8.8, 10.3, 11.7,
10.8, 7.7 and 53 c, respectively, suggesting that July is the warmest month.
Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures over the summer season was
146 C and 39 C, respectively. Day-time wind speed is about 4 times stronger
than the night-time wind speed. Mean daily sunshine hours were 5.6 hours.
Monthly pan evaporation was 150.6, 113.4, 106.9, 85.5, 92.0 and 97.6 mm for the
26 Chapter 1

month from May to October respectively. Meteorological conditions represent dry

weather conditions in the study area.
The mean daily discharge ranges between 5 and 194 m3 /s. The mean monthly
discharge near the snout for May, June, July, August, September and October was
27.3, 74.1, 121.8, 105.7, 57.0 and 19.7 m3/s, respectively; the maximum discharge
occurs in July. The months of July and August contribute about 57% to the total
summer discharge. The strong storage characteristics of the Gangotri Glacier are
reflected by the comparable magnitude of runoff observed during day-time and
night-time. Mean monthly suspended sediment concentration for May, June, July,
August, September and October during the study period were 1,942, 2,063, 3,658,
2,551, 646 and 160 mg/l, respectively. Mean monthly suspended sediment load for
corresponding months was found to be 6,002, 14,113, 39,371, 24,075, 4,371 and
267 tones, respectively.
A detailed description of the glacier system as well as observed data for the same
are given in NIH (2003).
The Dokriani Glacier: The Dokriani Glacier is a valley type glacier located in
Garhwal region of Himalayas. This glacier lies between latitudes 31 49 to 31 52 N
and longitudes 78 47 to 78 51 E. The glacier originates in the vicinity of Janoli
(6,633 m) and Draupadi ka Danda (5,716 m) peaks. It is situated about 30 km ENE
of Bhukki village. A small stream, known as Din Gad, originates from the Dokriani
Glacier. It follows a narrow valley and meets Bhagirathi River at Bhukki. The
total drainage area of this glacier is about 23 km2 out of which about 103 km2
is glaciated (the remaining part has rock outcrops, slopes, etc.). The elevation of
glacier varies from about 3,950–5,800 m and its length is about 5.5 km whereas its
width varies from 0.1–2.0 km from snout to the accumulation zone. The middle part
of the glacier is highly fractured and consists of crevasses, moulins, glacier table,
and ground moraines. The crevasses are mainly transverse type which is wide and
long. Sometimes longitudinal crevasses are also seen along the sides of the glacier.
The snout of glacier is situated at an elevation of about 4,000 m and is covered by
huge boulders and debris. The lower portion of the glacier is almost completely covered
by debris. The material of these moraines has been derived from the side of valley.
This glacier is bounded by two large lateral moraines which are about 200 m in height.
Besides these, several other lateral moraines are present at different altitudes. These
different levels of moraines are indicative of the past extension of the glacier.
The Kolhai Glacier (Jammu & Kashmir): This glacier is situated in the Lidder
Valley in Jammu & Kashmir State and extends from 75 19 N to 75 22 N latitude
and 34 8 E to 34 12 E longitude. The elevation of the glacier ranges from 3,650 m
to 4,800 m. On the basis of orientation and its location in adjoining valleys around
the Kolhai peak, the entire glacier can be divided into four parts. The average width
of 3 parts of the glacier is approximately 1 km and that of the other part is about
0.75 km. The length of the glacier varies from 2.5 km to 6 km. The glaciated area
has been assessed to be around 24 km2 .
Deep and wide crevasses exist all along the snout and ablation zone of the glacier.
Some of these crevasses are quite large – at a few places, the cracks in the ice
Physical Environment of India 27

Table 8. Physical characteristics of the glaciers with snout ages and average flow rates
32
Glacier Location Altitude (m) Length Si Post Modern
of Model flow flow
glacier age rate rate
(km) (yr.) (m/yr) (m/yr)

Nehnar (Kashmir) 34 09 N 75 31 N 3,920–4,925 3.4 500 6 > 12
Chhota Shigri (H.P.) 32 15 N 77 31 N 4,050–5,000 9.0 250 28 23
Gara (H.P.) 31 30 N 78 26 N 4,710–5,600 6.0 200 20 60
Gorgarang (H.P.) 31 26 N 78 24 N 4,765–5,360 3.5 160 18 NA
Zemu (Sikkim) 27 43 N 88 17 N 4,260–6,000 26.0 120 200 NA
Chang me Khangpu 27 58 N 88 42 N 4,850–5,800 5.8 100 40 13
(Sikkim)

are more than 10 m wide. A small but deep lake exists on the southern side of the
glacier. This lake is known as Doodhnag Lake. It is oval shaped with elevation
about 3,750 m and surface area about 2 km2 .
The Chhota Shigri Glacier: The Chhota Shigri Glacier lies on the northern slope
of the main ridge of the Pir Panjal Range in the east of the Rohtang Pass (H.P.).
The high, steep ridges and mountain terrain provide an ideal condition for the
development of this glacier. The Chhota Shigri Glacier is located at 32 15 N and
77 31 E, covering about 10 km2 area. The total drainage area of Chhota Shigri
Glacier stream is approximately 45 km2 . There is very high gradient from accumu-
lation to ablation area and snout. The glacier melt drains out in a single confined
stream and meets the Chandra River. Lateral moraines are present all along the
body of the glacier up to the accumulation zone.
(iii) Radio Isotope Study of glaciers
Isotopic techniques are increasing being applied to study diverse glaciological
problems on selected Himalayan glaciers. Problems related to ice dynamic
(movement of glaciers ice, accumulation ratio of ice) based on natural and artificial
radio isotopes like 32 Si 210 Pb 197 Cs etc. and climatic variations in the Himalayan
environment based on stable isotopes have been studied. These isotopes provide
ages (residence time of snow/ice in the glacier) of the glacier ice all along the glacier
and provide time index to study various processes and glaciological parameters of
different time scales. The physical characteristics of the glaciers with snow ages
and average flow rates have been given in Table 8.

1.4. METEOROLOGICAL SUB DIVISIONS

The entire country has been divided into twenty two meteorological sub-divisions
as detailed in Table 9. These sub-division are used in computations, such as weather
forecasting, and estimation of mean rainfall. The Table also gives the information
about the average annual and seasonal rainfall in the various meteorological sub-
divisions.
28 Chapter 1

Table 9. Meteorological sub-divisions of India

SN Sub divisions Area km2  Average Average Average

annual seasonal seasonal
rainfall rainfall rainfall/average
(mm) (June- annual
Sep.) (mm) rainfall (%)

1 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 8249 2964 1600 54

2 Arunachal Pradesh 82578 2997 2085 70
3 Assam & Meghalaya 101012 2497 1824 73
4 Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram and 70447 2314 2092 90
Tripura
5 Sub Himalayan West Bengal and 28924 2779 2172 78
Sikkim
6 Gangetic West Bengal 66228 1429 1079 76
7 Orissa 155782 1484 1143 77
8 Bihar
Jharkhand (Bihar Plateau) 79638 1371 1125 82
Bihar Plains 94238 1204 1023 85
9 Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh East 146509 1014 893 85
Uttar Pradesh West 96732 836 726 88
Uttaranchal (Hills of West Uttar 51122 1750 1409 81
Pradesh)
10 Haryana, Chandigarh and Delhi 45821 556 463 83
11 Punjab 50362 611 467 76
12 Himachal Pradesh 55673 1518 993 65
13 Jammu & Kashmir 222236 997 458 46
Rajasthan
14 Rajasthan West 195086 310 275 89
Rajasthan East 147128 700 647 92
Madhya Pradesh
15 Madhya Pradesh West 229550 1043 945 91
Madhya Pradesh East 213291 1398 1227 88
Gujarat
16 Gujarat Region 86597 967 920 95
Saurashtra & Kachchh 109990 515 479 93
Maharashtra
Konkan & Goa 34095 2881 2705 94
17 Madhya Maharashtra 115306 940 788 94
Marathawada 64525 794 660 93
Vidarbha 97537 1102 960 97
Andhra Pradesh
Coastal Andhra Pradesh 93045 1008 572 57
18
Telangana 114726 931 759 82
Rayalseema 69043 676 367 54
19 Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry 130549 1007 301 30
Karnataka
Coastal Karnataka 18717 3292 2886 88
20
Interior Karnataka North 79895 685 447 65
Interior Karnataka South 93161 1271 868 68
21 Kerala 38864 2978 1998 67
22 Lakshadweep 32 1496 943 63

Source: CWC (2002).

Physical Environment of India 29

1.5. SOILS OF INDIA

The soils on which the society depends so much have evolved over thousands of
years. From the agricultural point of view, soil may be defined as the material
comprising weathered rock minerals, which, together with organic matter, water
and air, provides a medium for the growth of plants. This medium is the basic
source of all human and animal food.
Indian soils are generally classified into four major types: (i) the Indo-Gangetic
alluvium soils; (ii) the black cotton or regur soils; (iii) the red soils lying on
metamorphic rocks; and (iv) the laterite soils. Figure 8 contains a soil map of
India.

Figure 8. Soil map of India

30 Chapter 1

1.5.1. Indo-Gangetic Alluvium

The Indo-Gangetic alluvium is by far the largest and most important of the soil
groups of India. The soils of this group cover about 777,000 square kilometres.
They are distributed mainly in the northern, north-western and north-eastern parts,
including the Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal, and parts of Assam
and Orissa.
Although there are local variations in properties, the basic characteristics of these
soils depend on the fact that these have been deposited by the numerous tributaries
of the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra River systems. While draining the
Himalayas, these rivers bring down the products formed by the weathering of rocks.
According to their age, these soils are classified as old alluvium and new alluvium.
At times, layers of hard pans are observed in the soil profile at various levels.
Layers of pebbles or kankar in the Indo-Gangetic alluvium of Uttar Pradesh and
West Bengal, and those composed of impure iron oxides are instances of these
hard pans.
A majority of the soils of the Punjab and Haryana plains are loams or sandy
loams, with a soil crust of varying depth. Soluble salts are present in considerable
quantities. The lower layers contain kankar nodules. The soil character is generally
alkaline due to the presence of sodium in the clay complex. The soils are rich in
phosphorus and potash, but are deficient in organic matter and nitrogen.
Two broad divisions are distinguished in Bihar: (i) the alluvium found north
of the Ganga and (ii) the alluvium found south of the Ganga. The soils in the
first group are clayey, loam to sandy loam, neutral to alkaline, rich in potash, and
deficient in phosphorous, while those in the second group are heavier and finer in
texture, with higher potassium oxide and of acidic pH in the southernmost parts.
In West Bengal, there is hardly any regularity in the manner of deposition of
river-borne materials. Some of the early deposits display considerable diversity on
account of their long subjugation to climatic and other controls. The presence of
arsenic in the soil profile is a cause of concern here.
The alluvial soils of Tamil Nadu are transported soils, found mainly in the deltaic
areas and on the coastal line. A section of the profile shows alternate layers of sand
and silt. The composition of the strata varies with the nature of the silt brought by
rivers which, in turn, varies with the catchment areas and the tracts through which
rivers flow.

1.5.2. Black Cotton Soils

The typical soil of the Deccan Trap is the regur or black cotton soil. It is common
in Maharashtra, western parts of Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, and some parts
of Tamil Nadu. Generally, black soil areas have high fertility, although some
areas in the uplands display low productivity. The soils on the slopes and the
uplands are thin and somewhat sandy, but those in the plains are darker, deeper
and richer. Moreover, these are constantly enriched by deposits washed down from
the hills.
Physical Environment of India 31

Black soils are highly argillaceous, fine-grained, and dark with a high proportion
of calcium and magnesium carbonates. They are very tenacious of moisture, and are
exceedingly sticky when wet. Owing to considerable contraction on drying, large
and deep cracks are formed in dry season. The soils contain much iron and fairly
high quantities of lime, magnesia, alumina, and potash. However, they are poor
in phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter. In all regur soils, in general, there is
a layer rich in kankar nodules formed by the segregation of calcium carbonate at
some depth below the surface and above the weathered rocks.
In Maharashtra, the soils derived from the Deccan Trap occupy quite a large
area. On the uplands and on the slopes, the soils are light coloured, thin and poor.
On the lowlands and in the valleys, relatively clayey black soils are found. Along
the Ghats, the soils are very coarse and gravelly. The soil is often some 6 metres
deep in the valleys of the Tapi, the Narmada, the Godavari and the Krishna. The
subsoil contains a good deal of lime. Outside the Deccan Trap area, the black cotton
soil predominates in the Surat and Broach districts of Gujarat. In Madhya Pradesh,
two distinct kinds of black soils are found: (i) deep heavy black soil covering the
Narmada valley, and (ii) shallow black soil. The cotton-growing areas generally
have deep and heavy black soils, although soils of lighter texture are also found.
The black soils of Karnataka are fairly heavy, with a high salt concentration. They
are generally rich in lime and magnesia.

1.5.3. Red Soils

Red soils extend practically over the whole Archaean basement of Peninsular India,
from Bundelkhand to the extreme south, covering 2,072,000 square kilometres,
embracing south Bengal, Orissa, parts of Madhya Pradesh, eastern Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and a major part of Tamil Nadu. These soils also occur in Santhal
Parganas in Bihar, and in the Mirzapur, Jhansi and Hamirpur districts of Uttar
Pradesh. They were produced as a result of meteoric weathering of ancient
crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
As the name suggests, the colour of these soils is generally red, grading sometimes
into brown, chocolate, yellow, grey and even black. The redness is due more to a
general diffusion than to a high proportion of iron content. Red soils can be divided
into two broad subgroups: (i) red loams of argillaceous character with a cloddy
structure and possessing a few concretions, and (ii) red earths with loose and friable
topsoil. The light sandy red and yellow soils found in the Mahanadi basin are of
alluvial origin. The formations in the north and on the west coast of Kerala consist
mostly of the sands deposited from the sea.
In the upland regions the soils are poor, thin, gravelly and light-coloured, while
in the plains and valleys these are of much more fertile, deep, dark varieties. They
are generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorus, and humus. Compared with regur, they
are poor in potash and iron oxide, and are also uniformly low in phosphorus.
More than two-thirds of the cultivated area in Tamil Nadu is covered by red soils.
They are in-situ formations, produced from the rock below under the influence of
32 Chapter 1

climatic conditions. The rocks are acidic, consisting of mica or red granites. The
soils are shallow and open in texture. They have a low exchange capacity and are
deficient in organic matter and plant nutrients. The predominant type in the eastern
tract of Karnataka is the red soil overlying granite. It is rich in potash, iron and
alumina. The acidic soils in the south of Bihar are red soils. In West Bengal, the
red soils are the transported soils from the hills of the Chhota Nagpur plateau.

1.5.4. Laterites

Laterite is a soil type peculiar to India and some other tropical countries, charac-
terized by the intermittent occurrence of moist climate. In formation it varies from
compact to vesicular rock composed essentially of a mixture of hydrated oxides of
aluminium and iron, with small quantities of manganese oxides, titania, etc. It is
produced by the atmospheric weathering of several types of rocks. Laterites may
break and be carried to lower levels by streams. When redeposited, they become a
compact mass by the segregate action of hydrates. Thus there are high-level laterites
resting on rocks, and low-level laterites formed in the usual way of detrital deposits.
Laterites are especially well developed on the summits of the hills of Karnataka,
Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, coastal region of Orissa, south Maharashtra, Malabar and
part of Assam. All lateritic soils are generally very poor in lime and magnesia, and
deficient in nitrogen. Occasionally, the Phosphorus content may be high, but there
is deficiency of K2 O.
In Tamil Nadu, there are both high-level and low-level laterites which are formed
from a variety of rock materials under certain climatic and weather conditions. They
are both in-situ and sedimentary formations, and are found along the coastal region
where rainfall is heavy and the climate humid. The laterites at lower elevations grow
rice, whereas those at higher elevations grow tea, cinchona, rubber, and coffee. The
soils are rich in nutrients and contain 10 to 20 per cent organic matter.
In Kerala, in between the broad sea belt consisting of sandy soil and sandy loams
and the eastern regions comprising forest and plantation soils, the mainland contains
residual laterite. It is poor in total and available P2 O5 , available K2 O and CaO. The
laterite soils of Karnataka are comparable with the laterites found in Malabar, the
Nilgiris, etc. The soils have very low lime content on account of severe leaching
and erosion. In West Bengal, the area between the Damodar and the Bhagirathi is
interspersed with some basaltic and granitic hills with a laterite capping. The laterites
of Orissa are largely found capping hills and plateaus, occasionally in considerable
thickness. Two types of laterites have been distinguished: (i) the laterite murrum,
and (ii) the laterite rock. These are also found occurring together.

1.6. LAND USE AND LAND MANAGEMENT

The land is used for agriculture, for growing forests, for grazing animals, for mining,
for installing industries and for construction of houses, roads, railways, etc. For
sustainable development and prosperity of any country, the proper and wise use of
Physical Environment of India 33

Table 10. Land use classification of India

S. N. Classification Area (M-ha)

1 Total geographical area 32873

2 Total cultivated area 18438
3 Total gross cropped area 18815
4 Net sown area 14282
5 Gross irrigated area 7064
6 Net irrigated area 5300
7 Area under forest 6839
8 Uncultivable area
(i) Area put to non-agricultural uses 2251
(ii) Barren land 1877
(iii) Permanent pastures and other grazing lands 1124
(iv) Cultivable waste 1421
9 Fallow land
(i) Current fallow 1353
(ii) Other fallow land 977

the land is required. The land use depends on the kind of land, its depth, fertility,
water retention capacity, available mineral contents, and means of transportation,
etc. The use of land for agriculture depends on soil type, irrigation facilities, and
climate.
In India, about 51.09% of the land is under cultivation, 21.81% under forest and
3.92% under pasture. Built up areas and uncultivated land occupy about 12.34%
(Kundra, 1999). About 5.17% of the total land is uncultivated waste, which can
be converted into agricultural land. The other types of land comprises up o 4.67%.
The land use classification of India is given in Table 10. The land use classification
of the country has also been presented in Figure 9.

Land Area
329 m ha

Barren & Snow covered Productive Urban & Related Inaccessible

21 m ha 266 m ha 18 m ha 24 m ha

Agriculture Forest Tree crops, Pastures Culturable Fallow

143 m ha 67 m orchards 13 m ha waste 23 m
ha 3 m ha 17 m ha ha

Figure 9. Land use classification of India

34 Chapter 1

In India, the subject of land is under the exclusive jurisdiction of States.

There is no national legislation which restricts transfer of agricultural land to
other uses. However, State Governments have enacted legislation on the subject,
which provides restriction on use of land for non-agricultural purposes. Statutory
environmental clearance under Environment (Protection) Act is required for the
following types of agricultural development projects and human settlement projects:
• Agricultural Development Projects: Major irrigation projects with command area
of 10,000 ha and more.
• Human Settlement Projects: Located in the Coastal Regulation Zone.
If the land involved is forestland, prior clearance is to be obtained under Forest
(Conservation) Act to use forests for non-forest purposes. In case some activity
involves National Parks or Sanctuaries and if it is not beneficial to the wildlife, it
cannot be taken up in those areas. Regarding buildings in the coastal regulation zone,
there are restrictions on height, plinth area, withdrawal of groundwater, disposal
of waste, etc. Construction of buildings is prohibited in the sensitive areas within
Coastal Regulation Zone. Further, land type and local surface and ground water
conditions are increasingly being taken into account in selecting sites and techniques
for waste disposal. This has been found to have a positive impact on land use.
Land inventories are being generated on the basis of various characteristics
of the soil such as soil type, slope characteristics, climatic and hydrological
data, vegetation cover, land capability, land irrigability etc. These are updated
regularly. The organizations/agencies are involved in maintaining and updating
the land inventories are: National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning
(Indian Council for Agricultural Research); All India Soil and Land Use Survey
Organization (Ministry of Agriculture); National Remote Sensing Agency; Indian
Space Research Organization; Department of Land Resources (Ministry of Rural
development); Ministry of Environment and Forests; and Survey of India. The
National Land Use and Conservation Board (NLCB) in the Ministry of Agriculture
is the national level policy planning, coordinating and monitoring agency for issues
concerning land resources management.
Land and water are mutually reinforcing resource systems. However since the
land use pattern has perceptible influence on hydrological characteristic and the
soil erosion factors, there is an urgent need to have an integrated water-land
management.

1.7. FORESTS

India is rich in bio-diversity – the country is one of the 12 mega-diversity nations.

The country has 7 % of the world’s biodiversity and supports 16 major vegetation
types. About 200 million people in India depend on forests for their livelihoods –
directly or indirectly. Forests are important in environmental and economic sustain-
ability, provide numerous goods and services, and maintain life-support systems.
The Indian forests ranges from evergreen tropical rain forests in the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, the Western Ghats, and the north-eastern states, to dry alpine
Physical Environment of India 35

scrub that are found in the Himalayas. Interspersed between these two extremes are
semi-evergreen rain forests, deciduous monsoon forest, thorn forests, subtropical
pine forests, and montane zone forests.
The Forest Survey of India (FSI) assesses the forest cover of the country using
satellite imageries and ground verification and publishes The State of Forests Report
(www.fsiorg.net) is published after every two year. India’s total forest and tree
cover for the year 2003 has been assessed by FSI to be 778 229 km2 . This consists
of 51,285 sq. km of very dense forest, 339,279 sq. km of moderately dense forest,
287,769 sq. km of open forest, and 99,896 sq. km of tree cover. This implies that
forest cover occupied 20.64 % of country’s geographic area, tree cover occupied
3.04% area, yielding total 23.68 % of the covered area. Madhya Pradesh accounts
for the largest forest cover of the country at 76,429 sq. km followed by Arunachal
Pradesh (68,019 sq. km), and Orissa (48,366 sq. km). Table 11 gives statewise forest
coverage of India.
Realizing the role of forests in controlling soil erosion, moderation of floods,
recharging of ground aquifers, as habitat for wildlife, conservation of bio-diversity
and gene pool, etc., several programmes have been launched.
The forest coverage of the country has shown a net increase of 33,896 sq. km
during the period from 1997 to 1999 (FSI, 1999). The area of dense forest has
increased by 10,098 sq. km; that of mangroves by 44 sq. km. While some states have
registered a net gain in the forest area, others show a declining trend. For instance,
in Andhra Pradesh, the net increase of 939 sq. km in forest cover has occurred in 5
years (1993–98), whereas in Mizoram, the loss of 437 sq. km has occurred in 4 years
(1994–98). Other states where gains have been recorded are: Arunachal Pradesh,
Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra
Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan Tripura, U.P., West Bengal and Delhi. The states where
forest cover has declined are Assam, Bihar, Goa, Mizoram, Kerala, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Forests in the
northeast of India spread over 14000 sq. km of the Himalayas foothills north of the
Brahmaputra River has been described as ‘extraordinary’ and ‘a jewel in the crown
of Indian forests’ by the WWF. The targets about forests are to achieve 25 % forest
cover by 2007 and 33 per cent by 2012 but this appears to be difficult.
The reasons for gains and losses are varied and many. The inclusion of established
large block plantations in the forest cover, improvement in the density of forest
due to joint forest management and natural regeneration of mangroves have been
instrumental in the increasing of forest area. Negative growths are attributed to
shifting cultivation, encroachment and tree felling.
The forests of India provide the fuel and fodder for rural people, raw material
for industries, a habitat for plants and animals, a sink for CO2 emissions, and a
protective cover for soils. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, amended in 1988,
stipulates a massive afforestation programme involving public to establish reserves
and re-vegetate degraded lands through joint forest management. In 1979, large-
scale afforestation programmes began with the establishment of Forest Development
Corporations in the states and launching of Social Forestry Projects. The annual
36 Chapter 1

Table 11. Statewise forest coverage in India

SN States/Union Territories Forest cover km2  Tree cover km2  Total km2 

1 Andhra Pradesh 44419 12120 56539

2 Arunachal Pradesh 68019 363 68382
3 Assam 27826 935 28761
4 Bihar 5558 1620 7178
5 Chhattisgarh 55998 6723 62721
6 Goa 2156 136 2292
7 Gujarat 14946 10586 25532
8 Haryana 1517 1415 2932
9 Himachal Pradesh 14353 491 14844
10 Jammu & Kashmir 21267 3826 25093
11 Jharkhand 22716 5012 22728
12 Karnataka 36449 5371 41820
13 Kerala 15577 1903 17480
14 Madhya Pradesh 76429 7250 83679
15 Maharashtra 46865 9320 56185
16 Manipur 17219 136 17355
17 Meghalaya 16839 352 17191
18 Mizoram 18430 130 18560
19 Nagaland 13609 217 13826
20 Orissa 48366 6381 54747
21 Punjab 1580 1608 3188
22 Rajasthan 15826 8638 24464
23 Sikkim 3262 22 3284
24 Tamil Nadu 22643 4991 27634
25 Tripura 8093 116 8209
26 Uttar Pradesh 14118 7715 21833
27 Uttaranchal 24465 571 25036
28 West Bengal 12343 1731 14074

Union Territories
1 Andaman & Nicobar 6964 33 6997
2 Chandigarh 15 8 23
3 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 225 35 260
4 Daman & Diu 8 6 14
5 Delhi (NCT) 170 98 268
6 Pondicherry 40 35 75
7 Lakshadweep Islands 23 2 25
Total 678333 99896 778229

Source: www.fsiorg.net

planting rates were about 10 000 km2 (1980–1985), 17 800 km2 (1985–1990) and
about 15 000 km2 after 1991 (NATCOM, 2003). These steps have definitely helped
India to conserve its forests and put some check on the diversion of forest land to
non-forest uses. But despite such measures, the average growing stock in India is
74 m3 /ha, much lower than the global average of 110 m3 /ha.
Physical Environment of India 37

Due to fuel wood and timber extraction, livestock grazing, and fires, forests in
India face continues threat of degradation. The projected climate change is likely
to further enhance the stresses on the forest ecosystems and will adversely affect
their ability to provide good and services to the society. However, the good news
is that due to various conservation measures, the forest cover of India has been
increasing steadily over the years. It is noteworthy that this increase is despite
the diversion of about 43 200 km2 of forestland for non-forest purposes such as
agriculture 26 200 km2 , and developmental activities, urbanization, industrial-
ization, and road construction. Between the years 1994 and 2000, a net increase of
42 141 km2 in the forest cover has been recorded. An increase of 46 690 km2 in
dense forest (> 40% tree canopy cover) is mainly due to the enhancement of many
open forest areas to the dense forest category. World’s Forests Report (1999) had
acknowledged that India was the only developing country in the world where the
forest cover was actually increasing.
Uncontrolled grazing by livestock in forest areas is one of the most important reasons
for forest degradation in India. Basically, this destroys the seedlings and young recruits.
Estimates show that about 78% of India’s forests are affected by grazing. Continued
illegal felling many times aided by connivance between officers and mafia, extraction
of fuel-wood and non-timber products, invasion by weeds, and forest fires (some of
which may not be natural) are the other factors responsible for degradation of forests.
Another reason for the degradation of forests is shifting cultivation or jhumming (slash,
burn, cultivate and abandon) which is mostly practiced in the northeastern states.
According to various estimates, the North-East region accounts for a major share of the
2.75 million hectares of land in India that is under jhumming. Half a million families
are already dependent on it and the pressure on land and ecology will increase manifold
in the coming years. Fire has affected about 53% of forests in India, out of which 9%
are frequent incidences of fires.

1.7.1. Classification of Forests

For administrative purpose, the forest area of India has been classified as Reserve
Forests, Protected Forests, and Unclassified Forests. According to the latest
assessment for 2001 the area under reserve forest accounts for about 42 M-ha. Some
experts have divided the variety of Indian forests into 16 major types.
The forests of India may be divided into major vegetation regions as described
in the following.
(i) Tropical Rain Forests
Being a warm and wet region throughout the year, trees available in the forests
of this region do not have a distinct season of shedding leaves. These forests are
known as evergreen forests and are found in the areas where rainfall in the dry
season is more than 200 centimetres. Hence, these forests are also known as typical
rain-forests and are found in the rainy slopes of the Western Ghats, Plains of West
Bengal and Orissa and North Eastern India. Trees grow very vigorously in these
areas and the height of the trees can be up to 60 meters and above. The number
38 Chapter 1

of species is too large and too mixed to exploit each one of them commercially.
Some of the useful commercial trees found in these forests are Ebony, Mahogany
and Rosewood.
(ii) Tropical Deciduous Forests
Because of the formation of natural cover almost all over India, especially in the
regions having rainfall between 75–200 centimetres, these forests are monsoon
forests par excellence. Economically these forests are of great importance. These
are called deciduous because they shed leaves for about 6–8 weeks in summer.
Being less fire resistant, these forests require a lot of care. Tropical deciduous
forests may be divided into two groups: (i) moist and (ii) dry deciduous.
(a) Moist Deciduous Forests. Moist Deciduous Forests are found on the eastern
slopes of the Western Ghats. Teak is an important species found in this region. This
type of forests is also found in the north-eastern part of the peninsula, i.e., around
Chhotanagpur plateau covering east Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, West Orissa and
South Bihar. These forests are common along the Shiwalik hills in north India.
(b) Dry Deciduous Forests. Dry Deciduous Forests Sal is the most important tree
found in dry deciduous forests. It has been noticed that the dry deciduous forests
are replacing the moist deciduous forests.
(iii) The Thorn and Scrub Forests
These forests are found in the areas where rainfall is under 75 centimetres. These
forests are found in the north-western part of the country, from Saurashtra in the
west to Punjab in the north. In the eastern part of the country, these forests are also
found in Malwa Plateau of northern Madhya Pradesh and Bundelkhand Plateau of
South west Uttar Pradesh. Some of the useful trees found in this type of forests are
Kikar, Babul, Khair and Date Palms. These forests gradually fade away into scrubs
and thorny bushes, which constitute typical desert vegetation.
(iv) Tidal Forests
The tidal forests are generally found along the coasts and the rivers. The noteworthy
characteristic of tidal forests is that they can survive in both fresh and salty water.
Mangrove trees cover large areas of tidal forests. Sundari is a well-known tidal
tree. The Sundarban forests in Ganga-Brahmaputra delta have got this name due to
dominance of Sundari tree.
On the basis of topography and climate, the forests of India have been broadly
classified into the following categories:
• Tropical forests;
• Montane sub-tropical forests;
• Montane temperate forests;
• Sub-alpine forests; and
• Alpine forests.
Physical Environment of India 39

The dominant forest types are the tropical dry deciduous forest (38%) and tropical
moist deciduous forest (32%). The other important forest types are tropical
evergreen, tropical thorn, sub-tropical pine and alpine forest.
Following a different classification, the forest cover can be divided into three
types, namely: dense forest, open forest and mangroves. There are 4.73 M-ha of
scrubland in addition to the reported forest cover.
Dense forest
If the canopy density is 40 per cent and above, the forests are termed as dense
forest.
Open forest
If the canopy density is between 10–40 per cent, the forests are termed as Open
forest.
Indian Mangroves
Mangroves are salt-tolerant forest ecosystems found mainly in the tropical and sub-
tropical inter-tidal regions in estuaries and coasts. They are reservoirs of a large
number of plant and animal species. Mangroves exhibit remarkable capacity for
salt tolerance, stabilize the shoreline, and act as a barrier against encroachments by
the sea.
India is home to some of the best mangroves in the world and these occur all along
the Indian coastline in sheltered estuary, tidal creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and
mud flats covering a total area of 4,827 sq km. Mangroves are mainly distributed
along the east coast of the country and to a lesser extent, along the west coast. The
Sunderbans, covering an area of about 10 000 km2 along the Ganges-Brahmaputra
delta, constitute the largest mangrove wetland in the world. The Mahanadi mangrove
in Orissa, the Godavari and Krishna mangroves in Andhra Pradesh, the Pichavaram
and Muthupet mangroves in the Cauvery delta of Tamil Nadu, the mangroves in
the Gulf of Kutchh in Gujarat, and those in the Andaman and Nicobar islands are
the other important mangroves in India.
For conservation and management of mangroves, 15 mangroves have been
identified for intensive conservation and management. These are: Northern
Andaman and Nicobar, Sunderbans (West Bengal), Bhitarkanika (Orissa), Coringa,
Godavari Delta and Krishna Estuary (Andhra Pradesh), Mahanadi Delta (Orissa),
Pitchavaram and Point Calimer (Tamil Nadu), Goa, Gulf of Kutch (Gujarat),
Coondapur (Karnataka), Achra/ Ratnagiri (Maharashtra) and Vembanad (Kerala).
Unfortunately, the mangroves of the country except those of the Andaman and
Nicobar, are considerably degraded and shrunk in area. Shrinkage of the mangrove
areas have been due to large development of agriculture in the deltas of the
major rivers, the reclamation of the coastal wetlands for human settlement and the
exploitation of mangroves for products such as fuel. The mangrove cover of the
country has been estimated to have reduced by 35 percent during 1985 to 1995.
Mangroves are also under threat due to climate change related phenomenon such
as sea-level rise, storm surges, and precipitation and temperature changes. Sea-level
rise would submerge additional mangrove areas. Natural disasters such as tsunami
waves of 2004 also cause damages to mangroves.
40 Chapter 1

Coral reefs are shallow-water tropical marine ecosystems. These are characterized
by high biomass production and rich diversity of flora and fauna. Four coral areas
have been identified for conservation and management. These are: Gulf of Mannar,
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep Islands, and Gulf of Kuchch.

1.7.2. Additional Zones of Vegetation in Mountainous Region

(i) The Eastern Himalayan Region

This region includes hills in upper Assam, Sikkim, Bhutan and Nepal. Rainfall is
heavy in the outer ranges and there are thick forests of Sal trees. This area is famous
as a tea-growing area. Tea lovers all over the world consider Darjeeling tea to be
the best tea in the world. Cultivation of rice is done in some places. Forests are the
main source of wealth in this sub-region.
(ii) The Western and Kumaon Himalayan Region
This region includes Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir.
As compared with the eastern Himalayas, the climate here is dry. Northern parts
receive more of winter rainfall and the climate is almost of the Mediterranean type.
Horticulture occupies a prominent place in the agricultural economy of this region,
the major produce being apples, cherries, apricots, peaches, pears, and plums.
Apples from Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh are exported to many countries. Other
cultivated crops are potato, wheat, maize and rice. Thick forests of Deodar and Pine
are found in this region. This area also houses the famous ‘valley of flowers’.

1.7.3. Indian Forestry Policy

India is one of the few countries which have a forest policy since 1894. The
main plank of the revised Forestry Policy of 1988 is protection, conservation and
development of forest. Its aims are:
• maintenance of environmental stability through preservation and restoration of
ecological balance;
• conservation of natural heritage;
• check soil erosion and denudation in catchments area of rivers, lakes and reser-
voirs;
• check extension of sand dunes in desert areas and along coastal tracts;
• increase in forest tree cover through afforestation and social forestry programmes;
• take steps to meet requirements of fuel wood, fodder, minor forest produce and
soil timber of rural and tribal populations; and
• increase in productivity of forest to meet the national needs.
Under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, prior approval of the central government
is necessary to divert forest lands for non-forest purposes.
Participatory Forest Management is an effective means of regenerating degraded
forests and it has found widespread use in India. This approach promotes active
participation and involvement of the people in forest conservation and development,
including the development of micro-level plans and their implementation. In 1990, the
Physical Environment of India 41

guidelines were issued highlighting the need and the procedure for the involvement
of village communities and voluntary agencies in the protection and development of
degraded forests. Majority of the States have created mechanisms for public partici-
pation in the management of degraded forests. Approximately 10 M ha of forest area
is being maintained through Village Forest Protection Committees.

1.7.4. Importance of Forests in India

Some of the major life-support systems of economic and environmental importance
of forests are as follows:
(i) Biodiversity
A wide variety of flora and fauna consisting of more than 5,150 species of plants,
16,214 species of insects, 44 mammals, 42 birds, 164 reptiles, 121 amphibians and
435 fish, is found in the Indian forests (NATCOM, 2003). However, many plant and
animal species are under various degrees of threat recently due to heavy pressures
on natural resources. To conserve biodiversity of the country, about 14.8 M-ha area
of forests comprising 80 National Parks and 441 Wildlife Sanctuaries have been
converted into protected area.
(ii) Biomass supply
The forests meet nearly 40% of the energy needs and 30% of the fodder needs of
India. Many tribals of India live in close proximity of forests and largely depend
on them for their fuel requirement. It is estimated that approximately 270 Mt of
fuelwood, 280 Mt of fodder, over 12 million m3 of timber, and several non-timber
forest products (such as fruits, nuts, edible flowers, medicinal herbs, rattan and
bamboo, honey and gum) are annually harvested from forests.
(iii) Livelihoods to forest dependent communities
About 15,000 plant species are found in India; about 20% of these species yield non-
timber products. Millions of forest dwellers and agricultural communities depend
on forests for a range of non-timber forest products. Moreover, all forest related
activities are labour intensive and lead to rural employment generation.
(iv) Gross Domestic Product
The forest sector provides a range of goods and services whose value is pegged at
Rs. 26,000 crores annually. Nearly half of it is from fuelwood.
Concerns have been raised about the impact of deforestation in Himalayas on
floods in the Ganga basin. Results of some studies have sown that the deforestation
of the Himalayas is not likely to have a significant effect on the extent of the floods
in the plains and the delta below.

1.8. AGRICULTURE
Traditionally, India is as agriculture based country. The agriculture sector has a
vital place in the economic development of India as it contributes 23% of GDP
and employs about 64% of the workforce. Of course, in the recent times, the share
42 Chapter 1

of agriculture in the GDP has been continuously declining and it is expected that
this trend will continue in near future. Even then, agriculture will have important
bearings on India’s economy, as it helps to feed a growing population, employs a
large labour force, and provides raw material to agro-based industries. India is one
of the few developing countries that has the potential to produce crops in almost
all land class types namely: dry, semidry, moist, and (sub)humid.
In the 1960s, remarkable improvement in grain yield was realized through the
‘green revolution’ and later with improved agricultural practices and inputs. These
practices include improved mechanized farming, increased net area under irrigation
(31 M-ha in 1970–1971; 53 M-ha in 1994–1995; and 57 M-ha in 1998–1999) and
net sown area (119 M-ha in 1950–1951 that has increased and is almost stabilized at
143 M-ha over the past decade). Fertilizer consumption, which was 2.6 Mt in 1970–
1971, grew to 16.6 Mt in 2000–2001. Food grain production grew at an annual rate
of 3% from 1984–85 to 1994–95 and since the 1950s, India’s food grain production
has increased by four times. Randhawa (1980) has compiled an exhaustive history
of agriculture in India.
Three cropping systems are followed in India depending upon rainfall and other
climatic conditions. At places where rainfall is in the range 375 to 625 mm, mono-
cropping or single crop is grown. Where rainfall is in the range 650 to 750 mm,
farmers go for intercropping. When the annual rainfall is 750 mm or more, two or
more crops are harvested.

1.8.1. Agriculture Seasons in India

India has mainly two agricultural seasons, namely, the Kharif and the Rabi and the
crops grown in these seasons are known as Kharif and Rabi crops, respectively.
(i) The Kharif Season
This season begins with the arrival of monsoon in June or in early July. The
crops are sown in June-July and harvested in September-October. The Kharif crops
include rice, millets, maize, groundnuts, jute and cotton. Pulses are also grown
during this season.
(ii) The Rabi Season
This season follows Kharif. Crops are sown in November and are harvested in
April-May. The Rabi season production largely depends upon subsoil moisture. The
major crops are wheat, gram, oil seeds like mustard and rapeseed.
Besides these two main seasons, farmers in irrigated areas are able to reap a
third harvest during May to July. This season is known as hot weather or Jayad.
Moong and Urad are popular crops of this season. Watermelon and Cucumber are
also grown in this season.
In addition to food crops, India also produces a large number of non-food or
cash crops like, Sugarcane, Tea, Coffee, Cotton, Tobacco, Rubber, and Spices, etc.
Sugarcane is a perennial crop that occupies land year around. Table 12 gives the
crop area of major crops for 1993–94 and percentage share of the various crops.
In India, wet agriculture is practiced in areas of high rainfall or irrigated areas.
With sufficient availability of moisture and suitable soil, farmers may be able to
Physical Environment of India 43

Table 12. All India Cropping Pattern for 1993–94

Crop Area (1000 Hectares) Percentage share to gross cropped

area

Rice 42624 2290

Wheat 25135 1350
Jowar 12768 680
Maize 6079 330
Bajra 9899 530
Rabi 2045 110
Barley 809 040
Other Cereals 1943 110
Coarse Cereals 33543 1800
Total Cereals 101302 5440
Gram 6265 340
Tur 3469 180
Other Pulses 13643 730
Total Pulses 23377 1250
Total Foodgrains 124679 6690

Sugarcane 3851 210

Condiments and Species 2876 150
Total Fruits 2908 160
Vegetables 4266 230
Oilseeds 28260 1520
Fibers 8479 450
Tobacco 430 020
Other Crops 10671 570

Gross Cropped Area 186420 10000

reap three crops. Dryland agriculture refers to those areas where rainfall is low
and irrigation inadequate. In these areas, conservation of moisture is important and
crops grown include Jowar, Bajra, and pulses which need less moisture.
India is famous all over the world for high quality tea, such as the Darjeeling tea.
Tea plants thrive in hot and humid climate. Tea is mainly grown in West Bengal,
Assam, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala. The crop requires 150 to 300 cm of annual rainfall
and 20–30 C temperature. Coffee is a related crop that also requires similar climatic
conditions albeit lesser rainfall. It is grown mainly in Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil
Nadu and large production of the crop has made India a leading coffee exporter.
Table 13 shows the production of the principal crops according to 1991–92.

1.8.2. Agro-Climatic Zones

India presents a large number of complex agro-climatic situations. The Planning

Commission after examining the earlier studies at the regionalization of the agricul-
tural economy has recommended that agricultural planning be done on the basis
44 Chapter 1

Table 13. The production of the principal crops according to 1991–92

Crops Production in
lakh ton

Bajra 4644
Cotton 9836
Jowar 8357
Jute 8851
Maize 7083
Oil Seeds 18277
Pulses 12051
Rice 73664
Sugarcane 249256
Wheat 55087

of agro-climatic regions. For resource development, the country has been broadly
divided into fifteen agricultural regions based on agro-climatic features, particu-
larly soil type, climate including temperature and rainfall and its variation and
water resources availability. This classification forms the basis for agricultural
planning in the country. These 15 regions are given in Table 14 (Chowdhary
et al., 1993). This zone based planning aims at the scientific management of
regional resources without adversely affecting the natural resources and the
environment.
Another agro-climatic classification divides the country in 20 zones as described
in Table 15. These zones are shown in Figure 10.

Table 14. Agro-climatic Classification of India

SN Name of the Area covers Rainfall in the Soil type in the Main crop in
agro-climatic under the zone zone the zone
zone agro-climatic
zone

1 Northern most Jammu & 50–75 cm Podsolic type Maize & Paddy
zone Kashmir
2 Eastern Areas of About 250 cm Alluvial and Paddy
Himalayan Eastern deep black soils
zone Himalayas
3 Western Hilly region of Much diversity Brown hilly Paddy
Himalayan Western from Eastern and alluvial soil
zone Himalayas Himalayan zone
(Outside
Ladakh) and its
foothills
4 Lower Assam Tripura, About 250 cm – Paddy
hills Mizoram,
Manipur
Physical Environment of India 45

5 Sutlej Haryana, Low rainfall Alluvial and Paddy, Cotton

Yamuna Punjab, zone calcarious soil
alluvial plains adjoining areas
of Jammu &
Kashmir &
Uttar Pradesh
6 The arid west Areas of Thar Low rainfall Sandy soil Jowar, Bajra
zone desert, Western (20–30 cm
Rajasthan and annually)
adjoining areas
7 The Central Eastern Over 75 cm Medium black Sorghum,
semi-arid zone Rajasthan, West to red-black soil Jowar, Maize
Madhya
Pradesh and
adjoining areas
of Uttar
Pradesh and
Gujarat
8 Lower Ganga Ganga basin in 100–150 cm Medium black Paddy
basin Uttar Pradesh, to red-black soil
hills & plain of
east Madhya
Pradesh
9 Eastern Ganga Gangetic plains Moderate Rich alluvial Paddy & Jute
and Mahanadi in Buhar and rainfall intercepted by
basin West Bengal, red, yellow and
The Bhihar laterite soils
plateau and
Mahanadi Basin
10 Gujarat & Parts of Gujarat Low rainfall Sandy loam to Groundnut,
neigh- & Maharashtra (50–70 cms) loamy soil jowar, bajra &
bourhood cotton
11 The northern Coastal areas of Heavy rainfall Acidic soil Paddy
and central Maharashtra & pH ≤ 3
Western Ghats Karnataka
12 Central Leeward side of Drought prone Medium black Jowar, Cotton,
highlands Western Ghats area in north and red Ground nut,
sandy in south
13 Godavari Andhra Pradesh High rainfall Sandy coastal Paddy,
basin alluvial to red groundnut,
soil jowar
14 Lower Kerala, High rainfall – Topioca and
Western Ghats adjoining hills Paddy
of Tamil Nadu
and Karnataka
15 Semi-arid Areas of Tamil High rainfall Red sandy to Jowar,
Tamil Nadu Nadu deltaic alluvial groundnut
tract soils

Source: Chowdhary et al. (1993).

46 Chapter 1
Table 15. Agro-climatic zones of India

Zone Name Area km2  Annual average

No. precipitation (mm)

1 Western Himalayas 142844 638

2 Western Plain 338612 612
3 Karnataka Plateau 47968 1,018
4 Northern Plain and Central 327968 946
Highland
5 Central Highlands, Gujarat Plain 181696 924
6 Deccan Plateau 314404 1,080
7 Deccan Plateau and Eastern Ghats 166908 918
8 Eastern Ghats and Tamil Nadu 186400 1,163
uplands
9 Northern Plain 116412 1,189
10 Central Highland 237672 1,258
11 Moderately to Gently sloping 148968 1,346
12 Eastern Plateau and Eastern Ghats 280968 1,355
13 Eastern plain 114176 1,359
14 Western Himalayas 190016 1,083
15 Assam and Bengal Plain 123020 2,248
16 Eastern Himalayas 100372 2,546
17 North Eastern Hills 104620 2,914
18 Eastern Central Plain 64292 1,148
19 Western Ghats and Coastal Plains 122960 1,763
20 Islands of Andaman Nicobar 8281 2,964 and 1,496
and Laksha Dweep groups

Agriculture scenario in India

Due to the Green Revolution, food grain production in India has dramatically
increased from 50 Mt in 1951 to 212 Mt in 2002. Also, the mean cereal productivity
has increased from 500 kg/ha to almost 1800 kg/ha. Between 1950 and 2000, annual
cereal production per capita rose from 121.5 kg to 191.0 kg. These increases in
productivity have been largely due to area expansion, large-scale cultivation of new
high yielding semi-dwarf varieties, increased application of irrigation, fertilizers
and biocides, and support by government policies. But even with this rise, there is
much scope for increase in land productivity.
Presently, India has 190 M-ha gross sown area, 142 M-ha net sown area, and
40% of the area is being irrigated. Similar revolutions have also been found in the
production of milk (operation flood), fish, eggs, sugar, and a few other crops. Conse-
quently, India is now the largest producer of milk, fruits, cashew nuts, coconuts and
tea, the second largest producer of wheat, vegetables, sugar and fish, and the third
largest producer of rice in the world. As a consequence, the per capita availability
of food grains has risen in the country from 350 g in 1951, to about 500 g per
day, availability of milk from less than 125 g to 210 g per day; all this despite the
increase in population from 350 million to 1.04 billion. This growth in agricultural
production has also led to comfortable position of surplus food stocks with the
Physical Environment of India 47

98° E
37° N

1 N

14

New Delhi
9 16

2 4
13 17
Kolkata
15

5 10
11

12
6
Chennai
Mumbai

3 18
Bangalore
19
8

Agro-climatic zone number (Description given in Table 15)

4° N

68° E

Figure 10. Agro Ecological Region of India

government. Of course, it is a serious concern that some sections of population

remain malnourished. Due to the availability of buffer stocks, the nation could
manage the severe droughts of 1987, 1999–2000, and 2002–2003 without large
import of food and did not face problems of food security.
It is to be noted that the benefits of the green revolution in India were
largely confined to the irrigated areas. Despite laudable progress in irrigation and
48 Chapter 1

agriculture, food production is still considerably dependent on monsoon rainfall –

both amount and distribution. Around 15 major droughts have occurred in the country
in the past 50 years and have adversely affected the productivity of rainfed crops.
Food security of India may again be put at risk in future due to rapid growth of
population. India’s population is likely to be around 1.6 billion by the end of 2050.
Table 16 gives projections of demand of various food items for the year 2010 and 2020.
Naturally, a greater demand for food is forecasted. Assuming medium income growth,
the demand for rice and wheat, the predominant staple foods, is likely to increase to
122 and 103 Mt, respectively, by 2020. This will be accompanied by a sharp increase
in the demand for pulses, fruits, vegetables, milk, meat, eggs and marine products.

1.8.3. Agriculture Strategies, Policies and Plans

The national strategy on sustainable agriculture and rural development (SARD)

essentially aims at food security and alleviation of hunger. A regionally differen-
tiated strategy, based on agro climatic regional planning which takes into account
agronomic, climatic and environmental conditions, is necessary to realize the
potential of growth in every region of the country. The guiding principle should be
ecological, sustainable use of basic resources such as land, water, and vegetation.
For the Ninth Five Year Plan (1997–2002), an agricultural growth rate of 4.5% per
annum is expected. Allied sectors such as horticulture including fruit and vegetables,
fisheries, livestock, and dairy have registered greater growth. At the macro level, the
agriculture development strategy is differentiated by broad regional characteristics
of an agro-economic character. The northwestern high productive regions grow
diversification and high value crops. The Eastern region, with abundant water has to
show improvement of irrigation facilities and increase productivity. The peninsular
region needs to focus on efficient water harvesting and conservation methods and
technologies based on a watershed approach and appropriate farming systems.

Table 16. Food Demand assuming a 5% GDP growth at constant prices

Production (Mt) Demand (Mt)

Items
1999–2000 2010 2020

Rice 854 1036 1221

Wheat 710 858 1028
Coarse grains 299 349 409
Total cereals 1847 2243 2658
Pulses 161 214 278
Fruits 411 563 770
Vegetables 845 1127 1497
Milk 753 1037 1427
Meat and eggs 37 54 78

Source: NATCOM (2003).

Physical Environment of India 49

A multi-prong approach is being employed to address problems of land

degradation:
• Prevention of soil loss from the catchments,
• Integrated approach to catchment treatment,
• Land use to match land capability,
• Reduction of run-off from the catchments to reduce peak flow into the river
system,
• Execution of watershed development programme,
• Generation of data on land suitability, soil and capability for regulating land use,
• Capacity building in soil and water conservation.
Being predominantly an agricultural country, agriculture is the backbone of the
economy of India. About 70% of the Indian population is engaged in agriculture.
Agriculture provides food as well as raw materials for industries. Several agricultural
products like tea, coffee, cotton, oilseeds etc. are exported to other countries.
National information on sustainable agriculture is disseminated to decision-makers,
advisory organizations and farmers via the Internet: http://goidirectory.nic.in/.

1.9. FLORA OF INDIA

Plants of a particular region, which have several species, are referred to as flora.
About 49,000 species of plants have already been found in India, which represents
the widest range for any country of the world. Out of 49,000 species of flora, about
5,000 species are found exclusively in India including flowering and non-flowering
plants. The assemblage of plant species living in association with each other in
a given environmental framework is known as vegetation. Climatic conditions,
natural vegetation, and soil are closely interrelated with each other. The original
vegetative cover of India consisted of forest, grassland and scrubs.
Surveys of the floral and faunal resources in the country are carried out by
the Botanical Survey of India and the Zoological Survey of India. The National
Institute of Oceanography and other specialized institutions and universities further
strengthen the taxonomic database. The diversity of the country’s biological
resources is yet to be fully surveyed. Approximately 65% of the total geographical
area has been surveyed to date. Based on this, over 47,000 species of plants and
81,000 species of animals have been recorded. The biological diversity of the
country is so rich that it may play a very important and crucial role in the future
survival of mankind if it is conserved and used with the utmost care. Today, two
hot spots in biological diversity have been identified in the country, namely, the
Eastern Himalayan region and the Western Ghats.

1.10. FAUNA OF INDIA

Fauna refers to species of animals. With an extreme wide variety of flora, fauna
in India are equally rich and varied. About 81,000 species of fauna are found in
India. In the fresh and marine water of the country, about 2,500 species of fish are
50 Chapter 1

available. Likewise, more than 1,200 species of birds are also found in the country.
In addition, there are reptiles, amphibians, mammals, and small insects and worms.
A wide variety of mammals, e.g., Elephant, Lion, Tiger, Camel, Wild assess,
Nilgai, Gazal, Deer, etc., are found in the country. Elephant is found in the jungles
of Assam, Uttaranchal, Kerala, and Karnataka. Camels and wild asses are found
in extremely hot and arid deserts. Among the animals of prey, the Indian lion
distinguishes itself as the only species found anywhere in the world. Its natural
habitat is the Gir forests of Saurashtra in Gujarat. Lion is considered to be the
most majestic animal in Indian jungles and is known as the king of forests. In
addition, tiger is one of the most powerful species in Indian jungles. Tiger has
been designated as the national animal of India. The famous Bengal tiger (which
is also the mascot of the Louisiana State University, USA) is found in the tidal
forests in the Sundarbans. The other important animals belonging to the cat family
are leopards, clouded leopards, and snow leopards. The snow leopard is found in
the upper reaches of the Himalayas along with Lesser Panda. Several species of
interesting animals, including wild sheep, mountain goats, shrew etc., are found in
the Himalayan ranges. India has several species of monkeys. Langoor is the most
common amongst them. Red-faced monkeys roam around in populated areas of
north India.
There are more than 1,200 species of birds found in the country. These include
peacock, pheasants, geese, ducks, munahs, parakeets, pigeons, crane, hornbills and
sunbirds, and Indian cuckoo. Peacock is the national bird of India.

1.10.1. Biodiversity

Establishment of a Protected Areas Network, under the Wildlife (Protection) Act,

1972, comprising of Biosphere Reserves, National Parks and Sanctuaries, both
terrestrial and aquatic, has been a positive step towards conservation of animal
genetic resources. This Network today comprises of 10 Biosphere Reserves, 89
National Parks, 504 Sanctuaries, along with dedicated conservation programmes
such as Project Tiger, Crocodile Rehabilitation and project Elephant.
Eight biodiversity rich areas of the country have been designated as Biosphere
Reserves applying the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organi-
zation’s Man and the Biosphere (UNESCO MAB) criteria. India is one of the 12
mega biodiversity centres in the world. The country is divided into 10 biogeographic
regions: Trans-Himalayan, Himalayan, Indian Desert, Semi-Arid, Western Ghats,
Deccan Peninsula, Gangetic Plains, North-East India, Islands, and Coasts.

Biosphere reserves
Biosphere reserves are multi-purpose protected areas to preserve the genetic
diversity in representative eco-systems. The major objectives of biosphere reserves
are: (i) to conserve diversity and integrity of plants, animals and micro-organisms;
(ii) to promote research on ecological conservation and other environmental aspects.
Physical Environment of India 51

Approximately 5.3% of the total geographical area of country has been earmarked
for extensive in situ conservation of habitats and eco-systems through a protection
area network of 80 National Parks and 44 Wildlife Sanctuaries. The Central and
State Governments together run and manage 33 Botanical Gardens. In addition,
universities have their own Botanical Gardens.
Special efforts are being made in India to preserve the wild life of birds and
animals. To preserve tigers, project tiger has been implemented which has been a
great success. Steps have also been taken for the protection of biological diversity
of our land. Under this scheme so far eleven biosphere reserves have been set up
namely: (i) Nilgiri biosphere reserve in Karnataka; (ii) Nanda Devi biosphere reserve
in Uttar Pradesh; (iii) Nokrek biosphere reserve in Meghalaya; (iv) Great Nicobar
in Tamil Nadu; (v) Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu; (vi) Manas biosphere reserve
in Assam; (vii) Sunderbans biosphere reserve in West Bengal; (viii) Similipal
biosphere reserve in Orissa; (ix) Dibru Saikhowa; (x) Dehong Deband and (xi)
Pachmarhi. In these biosphere reserves, plant and animal species are being protected
so that this natural heritage can be transmitted to future generation in all its natural
vigour and glory. Today in the country there are 84 national parks and 447 wild life
sanctuaries covering an area of 150,000 sq. km. Some important wildlife sanctuaries
are Jim Corbett National Park, Kaziranga National Park in Assam, Rajaji national
park, Manas, Bandipur, and Sariska. Some important bird sanctuaries are Bharatpur
Bird Sanctuary, Sultanpur, and Vedanthangal. Well known biosphere reserves are
at Nanda Devi, Nilgiri, Rann of Kutch, and Valley of Flowers.

1.11. WETLANDS

The natural resources of a country constitute its greatest wealth and India is fortunate
in this respect. Its rich flora and fauna have made the World Bank declare India
as one of the twelve ‘megadiversity’ countries of the world. Many people consider
wetlands as waste areas and hence destroy or use them for other development
activities. Obviously, this is a short-sighted view.
Wetlands are areas of land where the water level remains near or above the
surface of the ground for most of the year. The wetlands cover about 6 per cent
of the earth’s land surface. There are several kinds of wetlands, such as marshes,
swamps, lagoons, bogs, fens, and mangroves. They are home to some of the richest
and most diverse and fragile of natural resources. As they support a variety of plant
and animal life, biologically they are one of the most productive systems in the
world. Figure 11 shows a view of Loktak Lake, Manipur, India.
The richness and usefulness of the wetlands was first brought to the notice of
the world by a convention on wetlands held in 1971 in Ramsar, an Iranian city
situated on the shores of the Caspian Sea. The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands is
an inter-governmental treaty with 135 contracting parties. To mark the date of the
signing of the convention on wetlands, 2nd February of each year is observed as
World Wetlands Day (WWD). There are 1,235 wetland sites totaling 106.6 million
hectares, designated for inclusion in the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International
52 Chapter 1

Figure 11. Loktak Lake, Manipur, India

Importance. India too is a signatory to the Ramsar Convention. As a part of conser-

vation strategy a data book called Montreaux Record is kept of all those wetlands
which require international help for conservation.
Wetlands perform many useful functions. They help check floods, prevent coastal
erosion and mitigate the effects of natural disasters, such as cyclones and tidal
waves. They also store water for long periods. Many wading birds and water fowl
like ergets, herons and ibises nest in wetlands. These areas also provide food and
shelter for mammals, such as mink, otters and swamp antelopes like sitatunga. They
also act as natural filters and help remove a whole range of pollutants from water,
such as viruses from sewage works or heavy metals from industrial plants. In short,
the terrestrial, marine and atmospheric ecosystems interact in complex, dynamic
and often unknown ways.
The natural wetland ecosystems of India can be classified in three main groups:
a) marine ecosystems, e.g., coral reefs, b) coastal ecosystems, e.g., mangroves,
and c) inland freshwater ecosystems, e.g., rivers, lakes and marshes. A wetland
inventory of India was prepared by the Space Application Centre (SAC) for the
years 1991–1992 using satellite imageries. Total 27,403 wetlands occupying an
area of 75 819 km2 have been listed in this inventory. Of these, 53% wetlands fall
under the category of coastal wetlands and the rest are inland wetlands.

1.11.1. Indian Wetlands

Wetlands are widely regarded as natural filters. In India a total area of 40,494 sq. km
is classified as wetlands. This includes 14.05 sq. km natural wetlands and balance
Physical Environment of India 53

is man-made. Thus wetlands area consists only 1.21 per cent of the total land
surface. Most of the wetlands in India are directly or indirectly linked with
major river systems. Nearly 28% of the area of 93 wetlands is under total
protection.
India has a wealth of wetland eco-systems distributed in different geographical
regions, for example, cold arid zone of Ladakh in the North, the wet humid climate
of Imphal in the East, the warm arid zone of Rajasthan, and the wet and humid zone
of Southern Peninsula. About 20 wetlands have been identified for conservation
and management.
A directory on wetlands in India has been published which gives information
on location, area and ecological categorization of wetlands in different parts of
the country. India is a signatory to the Convention on Wetlands of international
importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) and six Indian
Wetlands, viz., Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur and Sambar (Rajasthan), Chilka
(Orissa), Loktak (Manipur), Wullar (Jammu & Kashmir), and Harike (Punjab) have
been designated under this Convention.
The Ministry of Environment and Forests is the nodal agency for the conser-
vation, regeneration and protection of natural resources. Wetlands, which have
an important role in the environmental development programmes, did not receive
enough attention until recently. Efforts to conserve wetlands in India began in 1987
and the main focus of efforts is on biological methods of conservation rather than
adopting engineering options. A national wetland mapping project has also been
initiated for an integrated approach on conservation.
Recently, eleven wetlands in India have been categorized for seeking interna-
tional assistance to save them from distress (Vasantha, 2003). These include Point
Calimere in Tamil Nadu, Astamudi, Sasthamkolta Lake and Vembanad wetlands
in Kerala, Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh, Bhitrakanika mangroves in Orissa,
Pong Dam Lake in Himachal Pradesh, East Calcutta wetlands in West Bengal, Bhoj
wetlands in Madhya Pradesh, Tsomoriri in Jammu and Kashmir, and Deepor Beel
fresh water Lake in Assam.
Due to its importance in the socio-economic and cultural life, Loktak Lake
(surface area = 26 sq km) is considered to be the lifeline of Manipur. This lake
is the largest natural freshwater lake in north-eastern part of India. The southern
portion of Loktak Lake forms the Keibul Lamjao National Park, which is the only
floating wildlife sanctuary of the world. This park is a mass of floating islands,
locally called phumdis, and is the habitat of endangered mammal, the brow-antlered
deer (cervas eldi eldi) locally known as Sangai. The Loktak Development Authority
has been created to restore and develop resources of this lake.
Chilika is the largest brackish water lagoon that sprawls along the east coast of India
in the Mahanadi delta. Its water-spread area varies between 906 and 1,105 sq. km.
Identified as one of the hotspots of biodiversity of India, it is the largest wintering
ground for migratory water fowl in the country. The Chilika Development Authority
was created to conserve and restore the Chilika lagoon eco-system with its rich
biodiversity and aquatic resources for the benefit of all stakeholders.
54 Chapter 1

Ramsar wetlands in India

Significance of wetlands was globally recognized as exclusive habitats for waterfowl
at a convention held at Ramsar in February, 1971. With Increase in understanding
it is now considered that wetlands have considerable contribution towards national
economies by providing fish and wildlife habitats, water quality improvement, flood
protection, natural products, hydrological control, recreation and aesthetics, etc.
Ramsar Convention is one of the most important international treaties for conser-
vation of nature and natural resources. It has identified a list of specific parameters

Figure 12. Figure showing important wetlands of India

Physical Environment of India 55

& based on these parameters a list of wetlands of international importance is being

maintained. These wetlands meet at least one of the criteria points of this Ramsar
Convention. The location of the important wetlands is shown in Figure 12. The
area of each wetland is presented in Table 17.

1.11.2. Inland or Freshwater Wetlands

This category includes natural lakes, swamps, marshes, man-made reservoirs, and
tanks etc. In the inventory prepared by the Space Application Centre (SAC), the
number of relevant natural inland wetlands is 14,657; the total wetland area of India
is 7.58 M-ha. Of this 5.3 M-ha is covered by natural wetlands whereas 2.26 M-ha
is occupied by man-made wetlands (NATCOM, 2003). Some of the man-made
wetlands such as the one at Bharatpur in Rajasthan are exceptionally rich in
bird species. However, many inland wetlands of India have been reclaimed for
urban settlement, agriculture, construction of roads, and have severely degraded
by pollution from a variety of sources. According to the studies made by the
Wildlife Institute of India, 70-80 percent of freshwater marshes and lakes in the
Gangetic floodplains have been lost over the past five decades mostly due to
reasons stated previously. Table 18 summarizes the number and areas of inland
wetlands.

Table 17. Ramsar Wetlands in India

S. N. Name of Wetland State Area (ha)

1 Ashtamudi Wetland Kerala 61 400

2 Bhitarkanika Mangroves Orissa 65 000
3 Bhoj Wetland Madhya Pradesh 3 201
4 Chilika Lake Orissa 116 500
5 Deepor Beel Assam 4 000
6 East Calcutta Wetlands West Bengal 12 500
7 Harike Lake Punjab 4 100
8 Kanjli Punjab 183
9 Keoladeo National Park Rajasthan 2 873
10 Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh 90 100
11 Loktak Lake Manipur 26 600
12 Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Tamil Nadu 38 500
13 Pong Dam Lake Himachal Pradesh 15 662
14 Ropar Punjab 1 365
15 Sambhar Lake Rajasthan 24 000
16 Sasthamkotta Lake Kerala 373
17 Tsomoriri Jammu & Kashmir 12 000
18 Vembanad-Kol Wetland Kerala 151 250
19 Wular Lake Jammu & Kashmir 18 900

Source: http://www.water-mgmt.com/en/wetlands.htm
56 Chapter 1

Table 18. Number and areas of inland wetlands

Inland Wetland Category Number Area (sq. km)

Natural
Lakes/Ponds 4 646 6 795
Ox-bow lakes 3 197 1 511
Waterlogged (Seasonal) 4 921 2 857
Playas 79 1 185
Swamps/Marshes 1 814 1 978
Man-made
Reservoirs 2 208 14 820
Tanks 5 549 5 583
Waterlogged 892 773
Abandoned Quarries (water) 105 58
Ash ponds/Cooling ponds 33 29
Total Inland Wetlands 23 444 35 589

1.11.3. Coastal Wetlands

As stated earlier, the Indian coastline including the islands is nearly 7,500 km long.
In the inventory prepared by SAC, there are 3,959 coastal wetlands which have
been classified under 13 major wetland types as shown in Table 19. These wetlands
cover a geographical area of 40 230 km2 .

1.12. LAKES

The hydrology of lake has attracted the attention of Indian Hydrologists after
1980’s. Lakes play a significant role in shaping the socio-cultural, socio-economic,
ecological and hydrological balance of a region. Lakes are storage elements of a

Table 19. Coastal wetlands of India

SN Types of Coastal Wetlands Area (sq. km)

1 Tidal Mudflats 23 621

2 Mangroves 4 871
3 Estuaries 1 540
4 Lagoons 1 564
5 Sand Beaches 4 210
6 Marshes 1 698
7 Other Vegetated Wetlands 1 391
8 Coral Reefs 841
9 Creeks 192
10 Backwaters 171
11 Rocky Coasts 177
12 Salt-Pans 655
13 Aquaculture Ponds 769
Physical Environment of India 57

local or regional hydrologic system. They alter the quantity and quality regime of
the water flowing through the system. Although, there are some differences in the
geometrical, hydraulic and biological characteristics of natural lakes and reservoirs,
similar concepts, principle, and models are used for planning, and development of
lakes and reservoirs. Moreover, lakes and reservoirs are in most cases being used
for similar purposes. The recorded significant differences between natural lakes and
man made inland water reservoirs are:
• Reservoirs have both larger drainage areas and larger surface areas associated
with them than natural lakes;
• Reservoirs have both larger mean and maximum depths than natural lakes;
• Reservoirs have shorter hydraulic detention times than natural lakes;
• Reservoirs have lower total phosphorus and chlorophyll concentrations than
natural lakes- despite the fact that reservoirs in general receive higher total
phosphorus and nitrogen loadings:
• Reservoirs also exhibit longitudinal density and concentration gradients which
are phenomena not usually observed in natural lakes.
In many respects, lakes, can be considered as “little ocean”. Like oceans they
receive inf1ow from rivers, exhibit vertical stratification, undergo cycling and
sedimentation, lose water through evaporation and so forth. In freshwater lakes,
water also leaves via surface or subsurface outlet. Due to these characteristics, a
lake is considered as a portion of a drainage system where water is retained for
considerably larger periods than in normal river channels.
Lakes in general, represent additional storage capacity of hydrologic systems.
Natural or artificial changes in the storage either on quantity or quality of alter not
only the streamflow regime but also the water balance in the region. These effects
may be of particular significance in arid and semi-arid regions.
Quantitatively, lakes constitute only about 0.1% of the total water at the earth’s
surface. They have received proportionately greater attention because of their impor-
tance to humans. In many places, lakes are used as sources of drinking water, as
a receptacle for sewage and agricultural runoff, for recreation, and for industrial
purposes. Because of their generally small size, they can be severely altered by
human activities.
Natural and artificial lakes are a major source of water in many regions in India.
Excessive siltation, withdrawals from contributing streams upstream, and changing
land use in the watersheds has contributed to depletion or shrinking of these water
bodies. The water quality in lakes is affected by run-off loaded with fertilizers,
insecticides, pesticides coupled with discharges from industries as well as human
settlements. Other threats to lakes include encroachments and weed infestation.
When the lake system begins to deteriorate, the birds and fishes begin to die or
move, fauna is spoiled, and obnoxious weeds proliferate.
Lakes either smaller or larger in size, depending upon their depth of water
available and purpose of uses, are known in different names in different parts like,
Jheels, Bheels, Marshes, and Tanks etc. However, purposes for which they are being
used for are being provided services, and problems faced by them are identical in
58 Chapter 1

nature. A national inventory of wetlands was prepared in 1980s. In India, 1,193

wetlands, covering an area and the remaining of 3,904,543 ha were recorded. Out of
these, 572 were natural wetlands, 542 were man-made habitats. Some 938 wetlands
were freshwater, 134 brackish and 19 coastal.
Major interventions for improving the lake systems in the country include
watershed management, dredging operations, treatment of effluents before discharge
into the lakes and disposal of solid wastes away from the lakes. A National Lake
Conservation Programme has been launched to revitalize natural lakes. In the first
phase, the programme aims to cover nine lakes: Hussain Sagar (AP), Sukhuna
(Chandigarh), Dal and Nagin (J & K), Bhoj (MP), Powai (Maharashtra), Udiapur
Lake (Rajasthan), Kodaikanal and Ooty (TN), Nainital (UA), and Rabindra Sagar
(WB). Further details about lakes are given in Chapter 19.

1.13. HYDROLOGY IN ANCIENT INDIA

Natural entities and forces, such as Sun, Earth, Rivers, Ocean, Wind, Water, etc.
have been worshipped in India as Gods since time immemorial. Perhaps it is
not a sheer coincidence that the King of these Gods is Indra, the God of Rain.
Clearly, ancient Indians were aware of the importance of rain and other hydro-
logic variables for the society. The ancient Indian literature contains numerous
references to hydrology and a reading of it suggests that those people knew the
basic concepts of hydrological processes and measurements. Important concepts of
modern hydrology are scattered in various verses of Vedas, Puranas, Meghmala,
Mahabharat, Mayurchitraka, Vrhat Sanhita and other ancient Indian works. Biswas
(1969) has rightly remarked that the growth of modern science in Europe would
have been hardly possible without the background of pioneering contributions from
India, China and Arabian countries, well up to the 12th century A.D. This section
contains a brief compilation of information pertaining to hydrology in ancient Indian
literature. A detailed treatment on this subject is available in NIH (1990).
In Vedic age, Indians had developed the concept that water gets divided into
minute particles due to the effect of sunrays and wind. In various places in Puranas, it
is stated that water cannot be created or destroyed, only its state is changed in various
phases of the hydrologic cycle. Evaporation, condensation, cloud formation, precip-
itation and its measurement were well understood in India in Vedic times. Effects
of Yajna, forests, reservoirs, etc. on rainfall; classification of clouds, their colour,
rainfall capacity, etc.; forecasting of rainfall on the basis of natural phenomena, such
as colour of sky, clouds, wind direction, lightening, and the activities of animals; all
these were well developed in India even before the 10th century B.C. Contrivance
to measure rainfall was developed during the time of Kautilya (4th century B.C.)
which had the same principle as that of modern hydrology except that the weight
measure of Drona was adopted instead of modern depth measurement of rainfall.
The knowledge of monsoon winds and height of clouds along with the division
of atmosphere was well developed in the Vedic age. These people also developed
technique of knowing the slope of an area by means of a flowing river.
Physical Environment of India 59

Variation in the height of water table with place, hot and cold springs, ground
water utilization by means of wells, well construction methods and equipment are
fully described in 54th chapter of Vrhat Sanhita named as ‘Dakargala’. Sunrays,
wind, humidity, vegetation, etc., as the major causes of evapotranspiration were
well realized.
It is very interesting to learn that Varahamihira in as early as 550 A.D. presented
a simple method for obtaining potable water from a contaminated source of water.
Various plant materials along with solar heating, aeration, quenching of water with
fire heated stones, gold, silver, iron or sand were suggested for this purpose. The
change in the quality of water with the months of year and suitability of water from
different sources for various uses were described.
Efficient water use, lining of canals, construction of dams, tanks, essential require-
ments for the construction of good tanks, bank protection methods, spillways and
other minor aspects were given due consideration in ancient times in India. Well
organized water pricing system was prevalent during the time of Kautilya. Various
references are available in the Vedas emphasizing the importance of efficient water
use so as to reduce the intensity of water scarcity and drought, etc.
The Vedic texts which are more than 3,000 years old contain valuable references
on hydrologic cycle. The most important concepts, on which the modern science
of hydrology is founded, are scattered in Vedas in various verses which are in the
form of hymns and prayers addressed to various deities. Likewise, other Sanskrit
literature has valuable discourses regarding hydrology.

Atisthanteenam viveshnanam kashthanam madhyaey nihitam shareeram,

Bratrasya nidyam vi varantyapo deerghatam aashaydindrashatruha.

Verse I, 32, 10 says that the water is never stationary, but it continuously gets evapo-
rated and due to smallness of particles we ca not see the upgoing water particles.
In the Varahamihira’s Vraht Sanhita (550 A.D.), three Chapters are devoted to
hydrometeorology comprising Pregnancy of clouds (Chapter 21), Pregnancy of air
(Chapter 22) and quantity of rainfall (Chapter 23). Slokas 1 and 2 of Dakargelam
(Chapter 54 of Vraht Samhita) state the importance of science of ground water
exploration which helps man to ascertain the existence of water. These are as
follows:

Dharmyam yashashyam va vadabhaytoham dakargalam yen jaloplabdhiha

Punsam yathagdeshu shirastathaiva chhitavapi pronnatnimnasanstha.
Ekayna vardayna rasayna chambhyashchyutam namasto vasudha vishayshanta
Nana rastvam bahuvarnatam cha gatam pareekshyam chhititulyamayva.

The water veins beneath the earth are like vein’s in the human body, some higher
and some lower. The water falling from sky assumes various colours and tastes
from differences in the nature of the earth.
In Linga Purana a full fledged chapter (I, 36) has been devoted to the science of
hydrology. It scientifically explains evaporation, condensation, rainfall with suitable
examples and says that the water cannot be destroyed, only its state is changed:
60 Chapter 1

Dandhaymanayshu charachayshu godhoombhootastvabha nishkramantee

Ya ya oordhva mastraynayrita vai tastastvabhamyagnivayucha.
Ato dhoomagnivatanam sanyogstavamuchyatay
Vareeni varshteetyabhrambhrasyeshah sahastradrik.

i.e. “after being heated by sun, water contained in most of the materials on earth
gets converted to smoke (vapour) and ascends to sky with the air and subsequently
gets converted to cloud. Thus the combination of smoke, fire and air is the cause
of cloud formation. These clouds cause rainfall under the guidance of Lord Indra,
having thousand eyes.
Vayu (51. 14-15-16) states like this:

Aadityapateetam suryaganeha somam sankramatay jalam

Nadeebhirvayuyuktabhirlokadhanam pravartatay.
Yatsomatstravatay surya tadbhayshvavatishthatay
Megha vayunighatain visrajant jalam bhuvi.
Evamutikshapyatay chaiva patatay cham punarjalam
Na nashmu udkasyasti tadev parivartatay.

i.e. the water evaporated by sun ascends to atmosphere through the capillarity of
air, and there gets cooled and condensed. After formation of clouds it rains by the
force of air. Thus, water is not lost in all these processes but gets converted from
one form to other continuously.
Verses of Rigveda (I, 27.6; I, 32.8):

Vibhaktasi chitrabhano sindhoroorma upak aa

Sagho dashushay chharasi.
Nadam na bhinnamuya shayanam mano ruhana atim yantyapah
Yashchidwatro mahina paryatishthattasamhih patsutah shirbbhoova.

This verse explains that all water that goes to the sky with wind by the heat of
Sun rays gets converted to clouds and then again after the penetration by sunrays
it rains and gets stored into rivers, ponds, ocean, etc. Two verses (V, 54, 2 & V,
55, 5) explain the cloud-bearing winds as the cause of rainfall, viz.:

Pra vo marootaststavisha udnyavo vayovridho ashwayujah parijayah

San vighuta dadhati vashati tritah swarntyapoivana parijayah.
Udeeryatha marootah samudrato youam vrishtim varshyatha pureeshidam
Na vo dastra up dasyanti dhanayvah shubam yatamanu ratha avratsat.

“O cloud-bearing winds, your troops are rich in water, they are strengtheners of life,
and are your strong bonds, they shed water and augment food, and are harnessed
with waves that wander far and spread everywhere. Combined with lightning, the
triple-group (of wind, cloud and lightning) roars aloud, and the water falls upon the
earth.”
By the time of Kautilya (4th century B.C.), Indians had developed the method
and instrumental devices for measuring rainfall. This raingauge was known as
Varshaman. Kautilya describes its construction in these words “In front of the store
house, a bowel (Kunda) with its mouth as wide as an aratni (nearly 18 inches) shall
Physical Environment of India 61

be set up as rain gauge,” (Arthasastra, Book II, Chapter V). Kautilya was acquainted
with the distribution of rainfall in various areas. He furnishes a very accurate
scientific description of the same with statistics. The quantity of rain that falls in
the country of Jangala (desert countries) is 16 dronas (4 Adak = 1 drona and one
adak equals nearly 7 lb, 11 oz), half as much in moist countries (the countries which
are fit for agriculture), 13.5 dronas in the countries of Asmakas (Maharashtra); 23
dronas in Avanti, and an immense quantity in the western countries, the border
of the Himalayas and the countries where water channels are used in agriculture.
From this it is evident that the spirit of the methodology of the measurement of
rainfall given by Kautilya is the same as we have today, the only difference is that
he expresses it in weight measures while we use a linear measure nowadays (Arth,
Chapter XXIV, Book II, P. 130).
Further discussing the geographical details of rainfall, he observes “when one
third of the requisite quantity of rain falls both during the commencement and
closing months of the rainy season, and two third in the middle, then the rainfall is
considered very even.”
Discussing the classification of clouds and interrelationship of rainfall and
agriculture, the celebrated author adds “there are the clouds which continuously
rain for seven days; eighty are they that pour minute drops; and sixty are they that
appear with the sunshine”. When rain, free from wind and unmingled with sunshine
falls so as to render three turns of ploughing possible, then the reaping of good
harvest is certain.
The Vrhat Sanhita and Mayuracitraka by Varahamihira are two very important
treatises which are replete with climatological and meteorological information,
although they abound in astrological guesses, they contain sufficient scientific facts
also. The Vrhat Samhita has three chapters (21st , 22nd , and 23rd  on climatology
and meteorology.
The Jains have made considerable contribution in the field of meteorology. The
‘Prajnapana’ and ‘Avasyaka Curnis’ provide outstanding studies of the various
types of winds. This tradition must have been far older than these treatises. The
‘Prajnapana’ makes reference of snowfall and hailstorm. The ‘Trilokasara’ of
Nemichandra says that there are seven types of periodic clouds. They rain for seven
days each in the rainy season. Then there are twelve species of white clouds. They
also bring rain for seven days each. Thus the season of rainfall extends over 133
days in all.
Buddhists too, at least before 400 B.C., have attempted at a very scientific
classification of clouds and four species mentioned by them can be compared with
the most important four species enumerated in modern meteorology. So much of
subtle observation at such an early date is an achievement of the finest order.
Verses (184. 15–17) of Mahabharata state that the plants drink water through
their roots. The mechanism of water uptake by plants is explained by the example
of water rise through a pipe. It is said that the water uptake process is facilitated
by the conjunction of air. This clearly reveals the knowledge of capillary action of
soil in the movement of water up and down the plant.
62 Chapter 1

Two Mantras of Atharvaveda say that if the water source is on mountains, then
the river formed will be perennial and will flow with high speed (AV.I., 15.3) and
(AV.11, 3.1). Similarly Verse (II, 3.1) reveals the same fact saying that the rivers
originating from snowclad mountains will keep on flowing in summers also.
The Vishnu Purana (II, 5.3) classified the soils of subterranean region in seven
categories, (i) Black (2) White or Yellowish (3) Blue or Red (4) Yellow (5) Gravelly
(6) Hilly or boulder and (7) Golden hued.
Regarding the occurrence of ground water, it says: “If there is a termite mound
nearby to the east of a Jambu tree, plenty of sweet water, yielding for a long time
occurs at a depth of two Purushas, at a distance of three hastas (cubit) to the south
of the tree (Vr.S.54.9). Similarly, an Arjuna tree with a termite mound to the north
shows water at a depth of 3.5 Purushas at a distance of 3 hastas to the west”.
Yajurveda also contains some knowledge about evaporation along with transpi-
ration. Verse 28.43 states that the vegetation attracts water from earth and evaporates
it to the atmosphere due to heat, wind, etc. to form clouds.
 SECTION 2
HYDROLOGY AND HYDROMETEOROLOGY
CHAPTER 2
WATER BUDGET AND POPULATION OF INDIA

The hydrologic cycle can be quantitatively represented by an equation which

represents the continuity of mass. Many forms of this expression, called the water
balance or water budget equation, are possible by sub-dividing, consolidating, or
eliminating some of the terms, depending upon the purpose of computation. The
water balance approach enables a quantitative evaluation of water resources and
changes therein. The study of the water balance of lakes, river basins, unsaturated
zone, and ground-water basins forms a basis for planning of projects and rational
use of water resources in time and space (e.g., inter-basin transfer, stream flow
regulation, irrigation scheduling, etc.).
Current information on the water balance of river and lake basins for short time
intervals (season, week, and day) is used for operational management. For instance,
the mean annual rainfall of 117 cm over the country is equivalent to a volume of
water of about 3840 × 109 m3 . About 49 percent of annual rainfall is converted
into surface runoff and ground water and the remaining 51 percent is lost to the
atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration.

2.1. THE WATER BALANCE EQUATION

Water balance equation evolves from the principle of conservation of mass, often
referred to as the continuity equation. According to this equation, for a given
volume of space and during any period of time, the difference between total input
and output equals the change of water storage within the volume. Therefore, the
use of a water-balance technique implies the availability of both measured storage
and fluxes. However, by judicious selection of the control volume and period of
time for which the balance equation will be applied, some measurements may be
eliminated (Ferguson and Znamensky, 1981).
Consider the water balance equation for a water body. The input may comprise
precipitation (P) which may be rainfall, snow, or both; surface inflow QSI ; and
ground water inflow QGI . The outflow part of the equation includes evaporation
from the catchment surface (E), surface water outflow QSO , and ground water
outflow QGO . When inflow exceeds outflow, the total water stored in the basin
65
66 Chapter 2

S increases; an inflow less than the outflow results in decreased storage. As
the components of water balance equation are subject to measurement errors, the
equation includes a discrepancy term . Consequently the general form of the
water balance equation may be written as:

P + QSI + QGI − E − QSO − QGO − S −  = 0 (1)

The components of a water balance equation may be expressed as a mean depth

of water for the control volume (mm), or as volume of water m3 .
The hydrologic budget or water balance of a drainage basin is a mathematical
statement of its hydrologic cycle. It is expressed by equating the difference between
inflow, I, and outflow, O, of a drainage basin to the rate of change of storage
within the basin, S, for a specified period of time, t. When the basin is
considered as a black-box system or as a reservoir, its hydrologic budget can be
expressed as

S
= I −O (2a)
t
S2 − S1 I +I O + O1
= 2 1− 2 (2b)
t 2 2

where I and O are, respectively, the average inflow and the average outflow for
the time interval t, which is assumed to be small to justify averaging of inflow
and outflow. Subscripts 1 and 2 correspond to the values of the variables at the
start and the end of the time interval t = t2 − t1 . If I and O vary continuously with
time t, then eq. (2.2) can be written as

dSt
= It − Ot (3)
dt

Implied in eq. (2) or (3) is that I, O, and S do not vary in space or are spatially
lumped. Eq. (3) is also referred to as the spatially lumped continuity equation, or
sometimes as the water budget.
All hydrologic analyses of drainage basins must satisfy eq. (3), or else the
analysis is incomplete and is therefore not reasonable. The appearance of this
equation is deceiving in its simplicity. For most hydrologic problems, more than
one variable is unknown and, therefore, eq. (3) cannot be solved without additional
information. Without an extra relation between S(t) and O(t) with or without I(t),
O(t) cannot be evaluated. Furthermore, I and O are not known as continuous explicit
functions of time. The difficulty of this equation lies in evaluating the component
variables.
In eq. (3), I and O are expressed as rates having the dimensions of L3 /T/L2
= L/T or L3 /T. By integrating, eq. (3) can also be written with quantities
expressed in volumetric units as
Water Budget and Population of India 67
 
dSt = It − Otdt

t t
St − S0 = Itdt − Otdt (4)
0 0

=V1 t − V0 t

in which S(0) is the initial storage or storage at t = 0VI t and VO t are volumes
of inflow and outflow at time t having the dimensions of L3 /L2 = L or L3 . Eq. (3)
or its variant in eq. (2b) or (4) is the fundamental governing equation for hydrologic
analysis and synthesis.
For a drainage basin, the inflow may be comprised of rainfall, snowfall, hail, and
other forms of precipitation. Surface runoff, subsurface runoff, groundwater runoff,
evaporation, transpiration, and infiltration may constitute outflow. The compo-
nents of storage may include surface storage (over the ground, including storage
in channels and reservoirs, depression and detention storage), subsurface storage
(within the rootzone), groundwater storage (within the aquifers), and interception
(over vegetation, buildings, etc.). Eq. (3) can be rewritten by including all these
components as

d
S + Sm + Sg + Si  = Ir + Isn − Osr − Osb − Og − e − et − f (5)
dt s
where S with a subscript denotes a component of storage with the subscript s for
surface storage, m for soil-moisture storage, g for groundwater storage, and i for
interception storage; Ir is rainfall intensity, Isn is rate of snowfall, Osr is surface
runoff, Osb is subsurface runoff, Og is groundwater runoff, e is rate of evaporation,
et is rate of transpiration, and f is infiltration rate. Eq. (5) can be written, analogous
to eq. (4), in volumetric units as

Ss t − Ss O + Sm t − Sm O + Sg t − Sg O + Si t − Si O

= P − VQ − E − T − F (6)

t t
in which P = Ir + Isn dt = volume (or depth) of precipitation, VQ = Osr + Osb
0 0
t
+ Og dt = volume (or amount) of runoff, E = edt = amount of evaporation,
0
t t
T= edt = transpiration (volume of water transpired), t and F = fdt =
0 0
cumulative infiltration. The term VQ provides the estimate of basin yield. The terms
E, T, F, and S constitute what are frequently known as hydrologic abstractions.
Eq. (1) may be simplified or made more complex, depending upon several factors.
These are the available data, the purpose of computation, the type and size of
water body (river basin, an administrative district, lake or reservoir, etc.) and its
68 Chapter 2

hydrographic and hydrologic features. In large river basins, QGI and QGO are small
compared with other terms and may be ignored. Usually, there is no surface water
inflow into a river basin with a distinct watershed divide (assuming no artificial
diversions from other basins), and therefore, QSI may not be included in the water
balance equation. Thus, for a river basin eq. (1) can be simplified as:

P − E − QSO − S −  = 0 (7)

Depending on the specific problem, the terms of eq. (7) may be further subdivided.
For example, in compiling the water balance for short time intervals, the change
in the total water storage S in a river basin may be subdivided into several
parts. These could typically be the changes of moisture storage in the soil M,
in aquifers G, in lakes and reservoirs L, in river channels SC , in glaciers
SG , and in snow cover SS . Thus, S can be expressed as:

S = M + G + L + SC + SG + SS (8)

Special features of the water balance equation for different time intervals.
The computation of the mean annual water balance is one of the simplest
problems, since it is possible to disregard the changes in water storage in the basin
S, which are difficult to determine. Over a long period, positive and negative
variations in water storage for individual years tend to balance out, and their net
value at the end of a long period may be assumed to be zero.
The reverse situation occurs when computing the water balance for short
time intervals. The shorter the time interval, the more precise are the require-
ments for measurement or computation of the water balance components and the
more subdivided should be the values of S and other elements. This results in
a complex water balance equation which is difficult to close within acceptable
errors.
The accuracy of water balance computations generally increases with an increase
in the river basin’s area. This is due to the fact that the smaller is the basin
area, the more complicated is its water balance equation. The reason is that it
is difficult to estimate some components of the balance, such as ground water
exchange with adjacent basins, water storage in lakes, reservoirs, swamps, and
glaciers, the dynamics of the water balance of forests, and irrigated and drained
land. The effect of these factors gradually decreases with an increase in the river
basin area.
The complexity of the computation of the water balance of lakes, reservoirs,
ground water basins and mountain-glacier basins tend to increase with increase in
area. This is due to the increased difficulty of accurately measuring and computing
the numerous important water balance components of large water bodies, such
as lateral inflow and variations in water storage in large lakes and reservoirs,
precipitation on their water surface, etc.
Water Budget and Population of India 69

2.1.1. Closing of the Water Balance Equation

To close the water balance equation, it is essential to measure or compute all the
water balance elements using independent methods, wherever possible. Measure-
ments or estimation of water balance elements usually involves errors due to short-
comings in the techniques used. The water balance equation, therefore, usually does
not balance and the discrepancy  is included as a residual term of the water
balance equation. A low value of  does not necessarily mean that all the compo-
nents have been estimated accurately, because the errors may cancel each other.
If the value of a water balance component cannot be obtained by direct measurement
or computation, it may be evaluated as a residual term in the equation. In this case,
the term includes an unknown error which may even be larger than the value of the
component. Similar considerations apply when the measured values of one component
are used to estimate the values of another component. The estimated value will
include errors due to the imperfections of the formula and in the measured component.

2.2. WORLD WATER INVENTORY

The total quantity of water in the world is around 1,357.5 million cubic km M km3 .
Over 97% of the world’s water is in the oceans and seas and is too salty for most
productive uses. Two third of the remaining water is found in the form of ice, caps,
glaciers, permafrost, swamps and deep aquifers. About 108000 km3 precipitates
annually on the earth surface. About 60% 61000 km3  evaporates directly back
into the atmosphere, leaving 47000 km3 flowing towards the sea. If this quantity
were evenly distributed, it would have amounted to approximately 9000 m3 per
person per year in the year 1990.
Thus an amount of only 35 M km3 fresh water is available on the earth. Out of
this about 21 6 M km3 is Antarctica ice and 10 5 M km3 is fresh ground water. The
distribution of fresh water on the earth is given in Table 1.
The total amount of water received on the earth in the form of precipitation is
about 0 42 M km3 . Out of which 0 32 M km3 is received on the oceans and seas
the rest 0 10 M km3 is on the earth. The water carried by the rivers and springs to
the sea each year is about 0 038 M km3 . However, only 4% of this total river flow
is used for irrigation and the rest flows to the sea unusable.
The water balance of the oceans is shown in Table 2. It is found from the table
that there is considerable water transfer between the oceans and the evaporation
and precipitation values vary from ocean to ocean.
Shiklomanov (2000) estimated the mean global renewable water resources at
42750 km3 /year. The water balance of the continental land mass is shown on
Table 3. From the table one can see that Africa is the driest continent in the world
where only 20% of the precipitation is going as runoff, whereas the continents of
North America and Europe have the highest runoff rates. In absolute terms, Asia
has the largest water resources.
Every year the rivers of the world discharge about 40000 km3 of water into the
sea. Nearly half of it 20000 km3  is discharged into the Atlantic ocean where four
70 Chapter 2

Table 1. World Water Reserves

Item Area 106 km2 Volume Depth of Percent of Percent of

1000 km3 run-off (m) total fresh water
water

World ocean 361.3 1,338,000 3700 96.5 –

Ground water
Gravitational, capillary 134.8 234001 174 1.7 –
Fresh 134.8 10,530 78 0.76 30.1
Soil moisture 82.0 16.5 0.2 0.001 0.05
Antarctica ice 13.98 21,600 1546 1.56 61.7
Other ice and snow 2.25 2,464 1848 0.179 7.04
Ground ice in permafrost 21.0 300.0 14 0.022 0.86
Lakes
Fresh 1.2 91 73.6 0.007 0.26
Saline 0.8 85.4 103.8 0.006 –
Marshes 2.7 11.47 4.28 0.0008 0.03
Rivers 148.8 2.12 0.014 0.0002 0.006
Biological water 510.0 1.12 0.002 0.0001 0.003
Atmospheric water 510.0 12.9 0.025 0.001 0.04
Total water 510.0 1,385,984.6 2718 100 –
Fresh water 148.8 35,029.21 235 2.53 100

Ignoring ground water reserves in Antarctica, estimated at 2 million km3 .

Source: UNESCO (1978).

large rivers (Amazon, Congo, Orinoko and Parana) fall. The total annual average
flow of the total rivers of the world is 1.2 million m3 /s. The average discharge of
the Amazon, which is the largest river of the world, is 200000 m3 /s. The India’s
largest river Brahmaputra and the second largest river Ganga have an average
discharge of 16200 m3 /s and 15600 m3 /s respectively.

2.3. WATER BALANCE FOR INDIA

The average annual precipitation received in India is 4000 km3 , out of which
700 km3 is immediately lost to the atmosphere, 2150 km3 soaks into the ground

Table 2. Annual water balance of oceans

Ocean Area Precipitation Inflow Evaporation Water

M km2  (mm) through rivers (mm) Exchange
km3  with other
oceans (mm)

Atlantic 92.373 780 20,000 1,040 –60

Arctic 14.09 240 4,400 120 350
Indian 73.92 1,010 4,800 1,380 –300
Pacific 179.68 1,210 10,800 1,140 130
Water Budget and Population of India 71

Table 3. Annual Water Balance of Continents

Continent Area Precipitation Total Average Runoff as Evaporation

106 km2  (mm) Runoff water % of
(mm) resources Precipi-
km3  tation

Africa 30 3 686 139 4050 20 547

Asia 44 5 726 293 13510 40 433
Australia & Oceania 8 6 736 226 2400 30 510
Europe 9 9 734 319 2900 43 415
North America 24 2 670 287 7850 43 383
South America 17 8 1648 583 12030 35 1,065

and 1150 km3 flows as surface runoff. The total water resources in the country
have been estimated as 1953 km3 . Nearly 62% or 1202 km3 of the total water
resources is available in the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin. The remaining 23
basins have 751 km3 of the total water resources.
The annual water availability in terms of utilizable water resources in India is
1122 km3 . Besides this, the quantity of 123 km3 to 169 km3 additional return flow
will also be available from increased use from irrigation, domestic and industrial
purposes by the year 2050. The per capita availability of utilizable water, which
was about 3000 m3 in the year 1951, has been reduced to 1100 m3 in 1998 and is
expected to be 687 m3 by the year 2050 (see Table 4).
The following discussion gives various components of water balance for India.
Note that the magnitudes of various terms go on changing as new projects come
up and as the pattern of water use changes. Further, differences are expected in the
figures given by different investigators.

2.3.1. Atmospheric Water Balance

The atmospheric water balance equation for India can be written by equating inflow
with outflow plus the change in storage (see Figure 1):

VI + ET + VAI = P + V0 + VAE +  (9)

where VI represents the inflow of water vapour to the Indian atmosphere from
land routes and sea routes, ET is the total evap otranspiration, VAI is the initial

Table 4. Per capita availability of water

Year 1951 1991 2010 2025 2050

Population 106  361 846 3 1,157 1,333 1,581

Average Water Resources 3,008 128 3 938 814 687
m3 /person/year)

Source: WG (1999a).
72 Chapter 2

Inflow of Outflow of
Atmosphere
moisture moisture

ET P

INDIA

Figure 1. Atmospheric Water Balance

water vapour present in the atmosphere, P is the total precipitation, V0 is the

outgoing water vapour, VAE is the water vapour present at the end of period under
consideration.
Components of climatic water balance for India in terms of water surplus and
deficit show wide regional variations. Western Ghats have considerable surplus
of water as are the Mahanadi and Godavari rivers. The rest of the Peninsula and
leeward side of Western Ghats does not have much surplus water, except in monsoon
months.
On the basis of observations, the average annual values for inflow of water
vapour from the Arabian Sea has been estimated as 770 million ha-m and from the
Bay of Bengal as 370 million ha-m of water. Note that 1 ha-m = 1 hectare × 1 m =
100 m × 100 m × 1 m = 10000 m3 . This unit is frequently used in India. The inflow
of water vapour from land routes during non-monsoon months has been estimated as
300 million ha-m of water which also includes winter rains in South India. This has
been arrived at by considering non-monsoon rainfall of 100 million ha-m and the
possibility of 33 percent of water vapour precipitating as rain during non-monsoon
months. The water vapour present at the beginning and end of the year has been
assumed to be the same and it has been estimated from available data of Indian
Meteorological Department (IMD) as equivalent to 40 mm of precipitable water
over the total area of the country. This comes to 13 million ha-m of water. The
average annual precipitation, including rain as well as snow, has been estimated as
400 million ha-m. The total evapotranspiration has been estimated on the basis of
detailed estimates of water use balance at 278 million ha-m.
Substituting the estimated values of VI  ET  VAI , P and VAE in the equation
of atmospheric water balance, the outgoing water vapour Vo has been estimated
as 1,264 million ha-m which includes the discrepancy term . The results of
atmospheric water balance are given in Table 5.

2.3.2. Hydrologic Water Balance

The equation for hydrologic water balance of the country for average annual condi-
tions can be written as:

P + I = QS + ET + Qg + S +
(10)
Water Budget and Population of India 73

Table 5. Atmospheric Water Balance of India (All components in

million ha-m)

Inflow Value Outflow Value

Term Term

VAI 13 P 400
VI 1,440 Vo 1,318
ET 278 VAE 13
Total 1,731 Total 1,731

where P is the total precipitation, ET is total evapotranspiration, I is the total inflow

as surface water Is  and ground water Ig  Qs is the outflow as surface water
to oceans and other countries, Qg  is the ground outflow, and S represents the
change in soil moisture storage. A diagrammatic representation of the hydrologic
water balance for India is shown in Figure 2.
The surface water inflow Is  in the country is supplied by northern rivers, such
as the Brahmaputra, the Teesta, the Kosi, the Kamla, the Bagmati, the Gandak, the
Ghaghra, the Gomati, and other small streams. This flow has been estimated as 20
million ha-m by the Irrigation Commission (1972). The ground water inflow has
been assumed as 20 percent of surface water inflow, i.e., 4 million ha-m. The surface
water outflow Qs was estimated as 150 million ha-m by Irrigation Commission
(1972) for 18 river basins of the country. Considering the latest runoff and water
utilization data, it is estimated that the surface water outflow from the country is
about 126 million ha-m.
The ground water outflow has been assumed to be about 13 percent of the surface
water outflow on the basis of a general pattern and thus Qg has been estimated as
20 million ha-m. The values for total precipitation P and total evapotranspiration ET
were estimated for atmospheric water balance also. The change in storage has been
assumed as zero for average conditions. The results of annual hydrologic water
balance are given in Table 6.

Atmosphere

Is India surface Qs

Ig India sub surface Qg

Figure 2. Hydrologic Water Balance

74 Chapter 2

Table 6. Hydrologic Water Balance of India (All components in

million ha-m per year)

Inflow Value Outflow Value

Term Term

P 400 ET 278
Is 20 Qs 126
Ig 4 Qg 20
Total 424 Total 424

2.3.3. Water Use Balance

The equation of water use balance for an irrigated land for average annual conditions
can be written as:

ETI = RS + DS − NS  + Tp − Ng  + PE (11)

where ETI is evapotranspiration from irrigated areas, RS is diversion from river

sources, DS is supply from detention storage, Tp is withdrawal from ground water
zone, PE is the effective precipitation which is consumptively used by irrigated
crops, and NS is the non-irrigation use of surface water and Ng for ground water.
The term is the consumptive use efficiency for surface water and  is that for
ground water. On the basis of experiments and field experience, can be taken
as 33 percent for unlined canals. For ground water after accounting for losses in
water courses and field application efficiency,  has been estimated as 50 percent.
A diagrammatic representation of the water use balance equation is shown in
Figure 3.
The component ETI was estimated by the National Commission on Agriculture
(1976). It was assumed that the consumptive use of irrigated crops is equal to
the irrigation water requirement. Singh (1995) estimated the component ETI as

Atmosphere

P ETI

Subsurface
Surface source Irrigated area source

Ground water

Figure 3. Water Use Balance for India

Water Budget and Population of India 75

26 million ha-m. Nag and Kathpalia (1975) had estimated non-irrigation use for
industrial, domestic and other purposes as 3 million ha-m. However, this use over
the last 30 years has significantly increased and the current estimates place it at 12
million ha-m. The estimated non-irrigation use from surface water sources NS  is
8 million ha-m and from ground water sources Ng  is 4 million ha-m. The water
diverted from rivers RS  has been estimated as 50 million ha-m. The live storage
capacity created in the country up to 1997 has been estimated as 17.7 million ha-m.
Assuming evaporation losses at 15% of live storage, the losses come out to be
2.655 million ha-m and the balance 15.045 million ha-m is release for irrigation
and non-irrigation uses DS .
The National Commission on Agriculture (1976) estimated 6.10 million open
wells in the country in 1971. During the fourth plan, there were 21,000 state tube
wells having electric pumps and 782,000 private wells were used for irrigation
with diesel or electric pumps. Assuming reasonable running time of 2,000 to 3,000
hours per annum for state tube wells and 500 to 1,000 hours per annum for private
wells; and their average discharges as 135,000 litres/hour and 30,000 litres/hour,
respectively, the total draft from ground water Tp  was estimated as 13 million
ha-m per annum. By the end of 1990s, the number of dug wells has increased
to 10.51 million, shallow tube wells to 6.74 million, and public tube wells to
90,000. The amount of water utilized to irrigate about 74 million ha is estimated at
80 million ha-m.

2.3.4. Water Use Balance for Other Areas

The equation for water use balance considering all areas can be expressed as:

ET = ETI + EL + EF + EUC + EW + ETg + ER +

(12)

where EL represents the immediate evaporation from land surfaces, EF represents

the transpiration from forests and vegetation, EUC represents the evapotranspiration
from un-irrigated crops, EW represents the evaporation from water bodies, ETg repre-
sents the evapotranspiration from ground water, and ER represents the evaporation
from remaining areas. All these components can be expressed in million ha-m of
water.
The component ETI has been estimated in the water use balance of irrigated areas
as 26 million ha-m. The component EL has been estimated as 128 million ha-m
of water by considering meteorological data. This consists of 70 million ha-m that
is immediate evaporation and another 58 million ha-m evaporation from soil. It
has been estimated that about 64 million ha of land is under forest and assuming
that from this area, evapotranspiration occurs at a rate of 0.85 m per year, the
component EF comes to be 55 million ha-m. The net area under un-irrigated crops
has been estimated as 87 million ha and assuming that 43 cm of effective rainfall
is used consumptively, the component EUC comes out to be 37 million ha-m. The
76 Chapter 2

evaporation from water bodies EW occurs at the potential rate throughout the year
and it has been estimated as 7 million ha-m. For waterlogged area, estimates vary
from 2.5 to 4.0 million ha and from this area, evapotranspiration occurs at a potential
rate. Loss under this head are estimated at 6 million ha-m.
Addition of all these components gives a total of 259 million ha-m. ET repre-
senting the total evapotranspiration was estimated under hydrological water balance
as 278 million ha-m. The remaining component ER representing evaporation from
the remaining areas works out to be 19 million ha-m which includes the discrepancy
term .

2.3.5. Ground Water Balance

The equation for ground water balance for average year may be written as:

RR + RF + RI + Ig = Tp + ETg + SE + Sg + Qg +  (13)

where RR is the recharge due to rainfall, RF is the flood flow recharge when the
river is in high stage, RI is the recharge due to irrigation, Ig is the groundwater
inflow from outside, Tp is the withdrawal by wells, ETg is the evapotranspiration
from waterlogged areas, SE is the effluent seepage, Sg is the net change in ground
water storage, and Qg is the ground water outflow. The various components are
shown in Figure 4.
The component RF for all rivers has been estimated as 8 million ha-m. The
recharge due to irrigation RI  can be obtained from the water use data as
the difference between water from surface and ground water sources and the
consumptive water use for irrigation. This component has been estimated as 18
million ha-m. The component Ig has been taken as 4 million ha-m and Qg as 20
million ha-m in hydrological water balance. Considering baseflows of rivers, the
effluent seepage SE has been estimated as 45 million ha-m. In the absence of any
data the change in ground water storage Sg has been assumed as zero. This should

Atmosphere

Other countries
Other countries India surface
and sea

India sub-surface

Figure 4. Ground water balance

Water Budget and Population of India 77

Table 7. Ground water balance of India (All components in million ha-m)

Inflow Value Outflow Value

Term Term

RR 61 TP 13
RF 58 ETg 13
RI 18 SE 45
Ig 4 Qg 20
Total 91 Total 91

Total precipitation 400

Monsoon months Non-monsoon months *
300 100
Percolation into soil Surface Water
215 Immediate evaporation from soil
70
From rainfall From snowfall
To soil moisture To ground water 105 10
165 50 115
Add flow from irrigation Add flow from streams
(+) 5(11) 15 (+) 5 (8) 10
Add flow from irrigation (Add) Flow received from outside India
Total soil moisture
(+) 12 (18) 25 + 20
170 (176) 180 Total surface water
Total ground water 135
67 (76) 85 (Deduct) To ground water from flood flows
Evapotranspiration Evaporation
–5(–8)–10
110 (118) 125 60 (58) 55 Balance Surface water
From From 130(127)125
From Evaporation Extraction Regeneration Flow from ground water + Flow from irrigated area
forests un-irrigated irrigated and raising of for use in streams (+)45 (+)5(11)15
and crops crops water table 13(25)35 45 Total surface flow
other 42(37)55 13(26)35 9(6)5 180(183)185
vegetation Storage in reservoirs and tanks Flow in streams and rivers
55 15(23)35 165 (160) 150

Other uses Irrigation

2(4)9 11(21)26 Evaporation Utilisation Utilisation To sea and out of India
5(7)10 10(16)25 15(34)45 150(126)105
Total Irrigation 25(50)70
13(25)35 35(63) 77
Irrigation Other Uses
Total Utilisation 24(42)51 25(50)70 1(8)19
38(75)105

Figure 5. India –approximate distribution of average annual water resources as in 1974, 2000, 2025 AD
(million ha-m). The numbers in brackets are those for the year 2000

be reasonable for long-term data. By knowing all the components of ground water
balance the remaining component RR representing the recharge due to rainfall has
been evaluated as 61 million ha-m. This also includes the discrepancy term . The
results of the ground water balance are given in Table 7.
The overall water balance for India showing all the components is shown in
Figure 5.

2.3.6. Hydrologic Water Balance

The equation for hydrologic water balance of the country for average annual condi-
tions can be written as:

P + I = QS + ET + Qg + S +
(14)
78 Chapter 2

2.4. POPULATION AND NUTRITION REQUIREMENTS

The demographic data forms an important input in planning in general and this is
also true for the water sectors. The demand for the municipal water use directly
depends upon population. In India, the major water use is for agriculture and these
demands depend upon population and nutritional requirements. Furthermore, the
population size is directly or indirectly related to demands for electric energy,

Table 8. Population of Indian states and union territories (2001 census)

S. N. States/Union Territory Capital Population

(thousands)

States
1 Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 75 728
2 Arunachal Pradesh Itanagar 1091
3 Assam Dispur 26638
4 Bihar Patna 82879
5 Chhatisgarh Raipur 20796
6 Goa Panaji 1344
7 Gujarat Gandhinagar 50597
8 Haryana Chandigarh 21083
9 Himachal Pradesh Shimla 6077
10 Jammu & Kashmir Srinagar 10069
11 Jharkhand Ranchi 26909
12 Karnataka Bangalore 52734
13 Kerala Thiruvananthapuram 31839
14 Madhya Pradesh Bhopal 60385
15 Maharashtra Mumbai 95752
16 Manipur Imphal 2389
17 Meghalaya Shillong 2306
18 Mizoram Aizawl 891
19 Nagaland Kohima 1989
20 Orissa Bhubaneshwar 36707
21 Punjab Chandigarh 24289
22 Rajasthan Jaipur 56473
23 Sikkim Gangtok 540
24 Tamil Nadu Chennai 62111
25 Tripura Agartala 3191
26 Uttar Pradesh Lucknow 166053
27 Uttaranchal Dehradun 8480
28 West Bengal Kolkata 80221
Union territories
1 Andaman & Nicobar Islands Port Blair 356
2 Chandigarh Chandigarh 901
3 Dadra & Nagar Haveli Silvassa 221
4 Daman & Diu Daman 158
5 Lakshadweep Kavaratti 61
6 Pondicherry Pondicherry 974
7 National Capital Territory of Delhi Delhi 13782
Total 1027015
Water Budget and Population of India 79

maintenance of environment, recreation, etc. Due to these reasons, the information

about population in India and its projections as well as nutritional requirements is
being provided here.

2.4.1. Population of India

After China, India is the second most populous country in the world. In India,
census is carried out every 10 years in the year ending with 1, such as 1991, 2001,
and so on. The population of India based on the last census (2001) was 102.7015
crore. Among the states, U.P. with a population of 16.6053 crore had the largest
population while Sikkim was the state with the smallest population. Only five
countries of the world namely, China, India, United States, Indonesia, and Brazil
have more people than does U.P. The population of the various states and union
territories is given in Table 8.
To give a historical perspective of the population growth in India, the data of
population at various times during the last century is given in Table 9. During
the last three decades of the 20th century, there has been a very high growth of
population with the average annual growth often exceeding 2%. India has seen a
rapid decline in crude, death rate in the last century as a result of improved medical
facilities and sanitation.
From the point of water resources development, urbanization is of particular
interest since it influences demand of water for municipal uses. For urban areas,
the per capita demand for domestic use is much larger than for rural areas. The
relevant norms are discussed later. The criteria for classification of urban areas in
India and the number of such areas in 1991 is given in Table 10.
Table 11 lists urban population for census operations carried during the last
century and the percentage of urban population for class-I & class-II cities. Table 8

Table 9. Population statistics of India, 1901–1991

Census year Total Average annual Crude birth rate Crude death
population growth rate (per 1,000) rate (per 1,000)
(million)

1901 238 4 0 30 – –
1911 252 0 0 56 49.2 42.6
1921 251 2 −0 03 48.1 47.2
1931 278 9 1 06 46.2 36.3
1941 318 5 1 34 45.2 31.2
1951 361 0 1 26 39.9 27.4
1961 439 1 1 98 40.9 22.8
1971 548 2 2 20 40.0 17.8
1981 683 3 2 24 37.8 15.4
1991 846 3 2 14 32.5 11.4
2001 1027 0

Source: Working group (1999) water requirements.

80 Chapter 2

Table 10. Classification of Indian urban areas

Class of urban area Population size Number in 1991

Class I > 100000 300

Class II 50,000–99,999 345
Class III 20,000–49,999 945
Class IV 10,000–19,999 1,167
Class V 5,000–9,999 740
Class VI < 5000 197
All India 3,678∗

Source: Working Group (1999) Water Management.

Table 11. Total urban population and share of class I & II cities

Census year Urban Urban Percent of Urban Percent of urban

population population of urban population of population of
class – I cities population of class – II class – II cities
class – I cities cities

1901 25616051 6586347 25.7 2892094 11.3

1911 25580199 6955756 27.2 2682565 10.5
1921 27691306 8142241 29.4 2873264 10.4
1931 32976018 10090279 30.6 3941183 11.9
1941 43558665 16519922 37.9 4970555 11.4
1951 61629646 27308404 44.3 6130907 9.9
1961 77562000 39380309 50.7 8535706 11.0
1971 106966534 60123375 56.2 12029893 11.2
1981 156188507 94292998 60.3 18191847 11.6
1991 217611000 13880200 63.7 23309000 10.7

Source: WG (1999a).

extends this information by providing projections of urbanization up to the year

2050 by which the population of India is expected to stabilize. Of special importance
is the rapid rise of urbanization in India which shows the stress on infrastructure
development, including water supply and sanitation.
The projection of population as per the UN medium variant and the urban
population for the various years is given in Table 12.
India’s population is growing with such a high rate that it has nearly doubled in
the last 35 years. The population of the country has already crossed the landmark
of 1 billion. Today, after China, India is the second most populous country in the
world and if the present trend of population increasing continues, India will be
the most populous country of the world by the middle of the current century. The
population growth is putting additional pressure on natural resources as well as
complicating the development works. This is a cause of worry for planners and
developers. Arguably, the control of population should be the top priority of the
nation.
Water Budget and Population of India 81

Table 12. Projections of India’s population

Year Population as per medium Percent urban population for

variant (million) medium variant

2010 1,189 33.8

2020 1,327 37.2
2030 1,455 41.2
2040 1,564 45.3
2050 1,640 74∗

Source: WG (1999a).

2.4.2. Population Projections by Different Sources

The long-term planning has to take into account the population growth. A
number of individuals and agencies have estimated the likely population of
India by the year 2025 and 2050. According to the estimates adopted by
National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development (NCIWRD,
1999), by the year 2025 the population is expected to be 1,333 million in
high growth scenario and 1,286 million in low growth scenario. For the year
2050, the high rate of population growth is likely to result in about 1,581
million people while the low growth projections place the number at nearly 1,346
million.
To control the rapid population growth rate, the several efforts are being made
by the government. Due to the continuous efforts, a visible fall has been observed
in the rate of population growth. In the past, the average number of children born to
an Indian couple was around six and the birth rate was around 40–45 per 1,000 (up
to 1971). Due to various efforts of the government, the birth rate has considerably
reduced and the average number of children born to an Indian woman during her
reproductive life has decreased from 6 to 3.3.
While the average birth rate in the country is declining, its spatial distribution
is uneven. Some states, such as Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Goa, have achieved a
goal of an average of two children per family, whereas in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh, the average number of children per family still is
between four to six.
Projections of population by several agencies and individuals are given in
Table 13.
Table 14 shows the projected urban and rural population of India for various
years up to year 2050, by which time the population is likely to stabilize.
NCIWRDP (1999) has accepted the higher limit of population as 1,581 million
and the lower limit as 1,345.9 million for the year 2050. The recent trends in the
Indian society show that most couples in urban areas go for two children while the
families in rural areas are also of smaller size these days. Expectedly, this trend
will accelerate. Hopefully then, the population of the country shall stabilize before
2050 at a lower level.
82 Chapter 2

Table 13. Population projections by different sources

S. N. Reference Population (in million) in the year

2010 2025 2050

1 UN 1994 Revised
A Low variant 1,156.6 1286 3 1,345.9
B Middle variant 1,189.0 1392 0 1,640.0
C High variant 1,221.7 1501 5 1,980.0
2 Registrar general of India (1996) 1,162.0
3 Visaria & Visaria (standard) 1996 1,146.0 133 0 1,581.0

Source: WG (1999a).

Table 14. Urban and rural population projections for India

Scenario Year 2010 Year 2025 Year 2050

Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural

UN medium variant 402 787 630 762 1,007 633

Source: WG (1999b).

2.4.3. Nutrition Requirements

The Indian economy has traditionally been agriculture-based. At the time of

independence, it was crucial to develop irrigation to increase agricultural production
to make the country self-sufficient in food grains and for poverty alleviation.
Accordingly, irrigation sector was assigned a very high priority in the 5-year plans.
Giant schemes, such as the Bhakra Nangal, Hirakud, Damodar Valley, Nagarju-
nasagar, Rajasthan Canal project, etc., were taken up to increase irrigation potential
and maximize agricultural production.
In 1990–91, India’s production of food grain was 176.4 million tones, including
162.1 million tones of cereals and 14.3 million tones of pulses. In the last two
decades, it has been found that the requirement of cereals in urban areas is about
135 kg/capita/year which is stationary, whereas the requirements of cereals in rural
areas have shown a declining trend from 185 to 175/capita/year. The consumption
of milk, eggs and live stock products have shown a rapid growth rate.
Keeping in view the level of consumption, the estimated food grain require-
ments per capita per year has been estimated to be 198 kg for the year 2010,
218 kg for the year 2025 and 284 kg for the year 2050 (See Table 15). After
considering factors, such as feed requirement, losses in storage and transport, seed
requirement, and buffer stock, the projected food grain and feed demand for 2025
would be 320 million tons (high demand scenario) and 308 million tons (low
demand scenario). The requirement for the year 2050 would be 494 million tons
(high demand scenario) and 420 million tons (low demand scenario).
Water Budget and Population of India 83

Table 15. Food demand estimates

Item Unit/year 1993–96 2010 2025 2050

Assumptions:
Population – Total Million 939.6 1,168 1,370.1 1,622.9
Population – Urban Million 247.4 370.4 504.5 752.8
Population – Rural Million 692.2 797.6 865.6 870.1

A. Growth rate of aggregate Percentage 4 4 4

expenditure
i. Food grain Million tons 154.16 214.79 276.92 395.44
ii. Milk & Milk products Million tons 48.97 94.16 160.68 357.15
ii. Edible oils Million tons 4.33 7.13 10.94 21.76
iv. Meat & Fish Million tons 3.69 6.57 10.7 23.02
v. Sugar & Gur Million tons 9.25 15.61 24.15 46.28
vi. Fruits & vegetable Million tons 38.58 67.44 110.62 249.46
Total of foodgrain & feed Million tons 158 221 288 419
Food grain & feed per head Million tons 168 189 210 258
B. Growth rate of aggregate Percentage 4.5 4.5 4.5
expenditure
i. Food grain Million tons 219.35 287.26 434.58
ii. Milk & Milk products Million tons 101.38 181.47 445
ii. Edible oils Million tons 7.49 11.99 26.42
iv. Meat & Fish Million tons 6.99 11.91 28.4
v. Sugar & Gur Million tons 16.55 26.74 56.21
vi. Fruits & vegetable Million tons 71.55 123.33 311.08
Total of foodgrain & feed Million tons 226 299 464
Food grain & feed per head Million tons 194 218 286
C. Growth rate of aggregate Percentage 5 5 5
expenditure
i. Food grain Million tons 223.8 298.42 485.39
ii. Milk & Milk products Million tons 108.84 204.32 558.61
ii. Edible oils Million tons 7.86 13.16 32.47
iv. Meat & Fish Million tons 7.41 13.25 35.36
v. Sugar & Gur Million tons 17.51 29.58 69.04
vi. Fruits & vegetable Million tons 75.82 137.94 390.99
Total of foodgrain & feed Million tons 231 312 522
Food grain & feed per head Million tons 198 228 321

Source: WG (1999a).

Estimates of food grain requirements for various years have been given by
NCIWRD (1999) for various growth scenarios, viz., 4, 4.5, and 5%. The commission
accepted the scenario of a 4.5% growth rate of aggregate expenditure and computed
future foodgrain requirements.
Furthermore, assuming feed requirements, the losses in storage and transportation,
seed requirement, and carryover for years of monsoon failure at 12.5%, the final
demands are given in Table 16.
84 Chapter 2

Table 16. Projected foodgrain and feed demand for India

Demand Year

2010 2025 2050

High Demands (million tones) 224 291 449

Low Demands (million tones) 222 280 382
With addition of seed, feed, wastage, etc.
High Demands (million tones) 247 320 494
Low Demands (million tones) 245 308 420

Source: WG (1999a).

2.5. WATER POVERTY INDEX

We live in a water-challenged world where freshwater crisis is deepening with

time, because each year about 80 million additional people stake their claims to the
earth’s limited water resources. Sadly, nearly all the projected three billion people
who world be added over the next half of the century will be born in countries that
are already experiencing water shortages. By 2050, India is projected to add 613
million people and China another 211 million.
Even with today’s six billion people, the world has a huge water deficit. Using
data on overpumping occurring in China, India, Saudi Arabia, North Africa and
the U.S., Postel (1999) calculates an annual depletion of aquifers to be 160 billion
cubic metres or 160 billion tons. Assuming that it takes 1,000 tons of water to
produce one ton of grain, this 160 billion ton water deficit is equal to 160 million
tons of grain. At an average world grain consumption of nearly 300 kg per person
per year, this would feed 480 million people. Stated differently, 480 million of the
world’s six billion people are being fed with grain produced with the unsustainable
use of water.
Data show that nearly 70 percent of the water consumed worldwide is used
for irrigation. In the increasingly intense competition for water among sectors,
agriculture almost always loses. The 1,000 tons of water used in India to produce
one ton of wheat worth about (Rs. 8,000) can also be used to expand industrial
output by (Rs. 400,000) or 50 times.
In addition to population growth, urbanization and industrialization also expand
the demand for water. As villagers, who are traditionally reliant on the village wells,
move to urban life, their residential water use can easily triple. Industrialization
takes even more water than urbanization. Rising affluence generates additional
demand for water.
Two options immediately come to mind to control water demand: stabilize
population or raise water productivity. Another management strategy is to raise
the price of water to reflect its cost and minimize wastage. Shifting to more
water-efficient technologies and crops offer a huge potential to raise water produc-
tivity. These shifts will accelerate if the price of water closely reflects its true
value.
Water Budget and Population of India 85

2.5.1. Water Poverty Index for India

The Water Poverty Index (WPI) provides a framework to understand how water can
best be managed to meet the needs of people. This is a holistic approach to water
resource evaluation, in keeping with the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach used
to evaluate development progress. The approach to calculate WPI is based on the
formulation of a framework, which incorporates a wide range of variables. A team
of researchers from the UK’s Centre for Ecology and Hydrology and experts from
the World Water Council have developed WPI. The WPI demonstrates that it is not
the amount of water resources available that determine poverty levels in a country,
but the effectiveness of how these resources are used. The scores of the index range
on a scale of 1 to 100, with the total being generated as a weighted additive value
of five components which are:
Resource
This is a measure of ground and surface water availability, adjusted for quality and
reliability.
Access
This indicates the effective access to water that people have for their survival.
Use
This captures some measure of how water is used, including sectoral shares.
Capacity
This variable represents human and financial capacity to manage the system.
Environment
This tries to capture an evaluation of ecological integrity related to water.
The WPI assigns a value of 20 points as the best score for each of its five
categories. A country that completely meets the criteria in all five categories would
have a score of 100. The highest-ranking country, Finland, has a WPI of 78 points,
while Haiti has a WPI of just 35.
The WPI reveals that some of the world’s richest nations, such as the United
States and Japan, fare poorly in water ranking, while some developing countries
score in the top ten. According to the WPI, the top 10 water-rich nations in the world
in descending order are: Finland, Canada, Iceland, Norway, Guyana, Suriname,
Austria, Ireland, Sweden and Switzerland. The 10 countries lowest on the WPI are
all in the developing world namely: Haiti, Niger, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Malawi, Djibouti,
Chad, Benin, Rwanda, and Burundi. The WPI demonstrates a strong connection
between ‘water poverty’ and ‘income poverty.’
For India, the scores on various parameters have been provided by Lawrence
et al. (2003) as follows: Resource – 6.8; Access – 11.0; Capacity – 12.1; Use = 13 8;
Environment = 9 5; and WPI = 53 2. Since the scores are low on almost all counts,
a holistic and concerted long-term strategy is necessary. Furthermore, scores on
parameters, such as resource, are likely to dwindle rapidly in view of rapidly
increasing population and industrial growth.
CHAPTER 3
RAINFALL AND ANALYSIS OF RAINFALL DATA

In India, rainfall is mainly dependent on the southwest and northeast monsoons,

western disturbances, shallow cyclonic depressions, and violent local storms. Most
of the rainfall in India takes place under the influence of southwest monsoons
between June and September. An exception is Tamil Nadu where rainfall is under
the influence of northeast monsoons during October to November.
Modern metrological observations in India began in 1793 with the establishment
of the first Indian meteorological observatory in Chennai (the then Madras). When
the India Meteorological Department (IMD) was set-up in 1875, a network of nearly
90 weather observatories was created.
The rainfall in India shows great variations of all types: seasonal (temporal) and
geographical. It generally exceeds 1,000 mm in areas to the East of Longitude 78  E.
It extends to 2,500 mm along almost the entire West Coast and Western Ghats and
over most of Assam and Sub-Himalayan West Bengal. In the western part of the
nation, rainfall diminishes rapidly from 500 mm to less than 150 mm in the extreme
west. The peninsular part has large areas of rainfall below 600 mm with pockets of
even 500 mm.
India has a long history of rainfall measurement. The Calcutta observatory
possesses the longest rainfall records in India going back to 1784. At the time of
independence there were about 2,750 rainfall stations in India. India Meteorological
Department (IMD) has prepared rainfall maps with rainfall data of 2,700 raingauge
stations during the period 1901–1950. Maps of annual rainfall and coefficient of
variation have also been prepared (IMD, 1981).

3.1. MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL

The amount, intensity and areal distribution of precipitation are essential in many
hydrological studies. The total amount of precipitation, which reaches the ground in
a stated period is expressed as the depth to which it would cover in liquid form on
a horizontal projection of the earth’s surface. Similarly, snowfall is also expressed
as the snow water equivalent of fresh snow in a stated time period covering an even
horizontal surface (WMO, 1983).
87
88 Chapter 3

The units of precipitation are linear and daily amounts of precipitation should
be read to the nearest 0.1 mm. Weekly, fortnightly and monthly amounts should,
however, be read to the nearest 1 mm at least.
All observations of rain are taken in India at 08:30 hours IST to ensure standard-
ization and inter-comparison of rainfall from different rain gauge stations. The
rainfall measured at 08:30 hours on any particular date is entered against that date
and it is understood that the rainfall so registered has been received in 24 hours
preceding 08:30 hours of the day of observation.

3.1.1. Precipitation Gauges

A rain gauge basically consists of a collector for delineating the area of the rain and
a funnel leading to a storage device. The precipitation thus collected is measured
by transferring the contents to a graduated measuring jar, which goes along with
the particular rain gauge. Different types of gauges are used to measure rainfall
and snowfall. Since the size, shape and exposure affect the precipitation caught by
a gauge, it is desirable to use a standard gauge. The Symon’s raingauge has been
adopted as the standard in India. This raingauge is shown in Figure 1.
The Symon’s raingauge consists of a funnel which has an accurately turned
and beveled gunmetal rim 127 mm in diameter, cylindrical body, a receiver with a
narrow neck and a splayed base which is fixed in the ground. This gauge is now
being replaced by a fiber glass reinforced plastic (FRP) rain gauge. The collector

Figure 1. Symon’s raingauge

Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 89

area of the FRP gauge is 200 cm2 . In heavy rainfall areas, a gauge with a smaller
orifice (usually 100 cm2  area is preferred to allow collection of less volume (more
depth) of rainfall.
The raingauge shall be fixed on a masonry concrete foundation 60 × 60 × 60 cm3
sunk into the ground. The gauge should be cemented into the platform in such
a way that the rim of the gauge is approximately 30 cm above the ground level.
This height is necessary to prevent the splashing of water into the gauge. The
Indian Standard IS: 4,986–1983 emphasizes the following points while installing
a gauge:
i) The gauge should be placed on the level ground. The gauge should not be
placed on the slope or terrace and never on a wall or roof.
ii) The distance between the raingauge and the nearest object should be generally
four times the height of the nearest object/obstruction but in no case the distance
should be less than twice the height of the object/obstruction.
iii) Great care should be taken for mountainous and coastal stations such that the
gauges are not unduly exposed to the sweep of the wind. A belt of trees or a
wall on the side of the prevailing wind at a distance as mentioned in (ii) above
is recommended as an efficient wind shelter.
iv) In the hills where it is difficult to find a level space, the site for the gauge shall
be chosen with a minimum level area of 6 m × 6 m where it is best shielded
from high winds and where the wind does not cause eddies.

3.1.2. Recording Gauges

Three types of recording precipitation gauges are in general use. They are the float
type, the tilting or tipping bucket type and the weighing type. In India, the float and
siphon type-recording rain gauge, usually referred to as Self Recording Rain Gauge
(SRRG), is most commonly used as part of the measurement network. The tipping
and weighing type are used by some organizations at their experimental stations.
This raingauge is shown in Figure 2.
The float and siphon recording raingauge consists of a collector and rainfall
recording mechanism mounted on a base. The recording mechanism consists of
a float chamber and a siphon chamber. The siphon is fixed to the float chamber
with provision for adjusting to enable correct siphoning. The lower end of the float
chamber is provided with a hexagonal cap, which can be removed for cleaning the
float chamber. A wire gauge filter is provided which fits into the inlet tube to check
the entry of other material. The recording pen is mounted on the stem of the float.
The time is marked by a horizontally rotating drum driven by a clock. The clock
mechanism may be mechanical or quartz type.
The gauge generally has a capacity of 10 mm of rainfall for each siphoning
and has a collector having a rim area of 325 cm2 (203.4 mm diameter). To record
the precipitation at stations where heavy rainfall with high intensity is experi-
enced, it is preferable to have a raingauge with a collector having a rim area of
90 Chapter 3

Figure 2. Float and siphon type-recording raingauge

130 cm2 (128.6 mm diameter). With this collector, the raingauge would have a
capacity of 25 mm of rainfall for each siphoning.
The float and siphon recording raingauge gives a continuous record of rainfall.
The instrument can record the total amount of rain with the times of start
and cessation. The recording raingauge is generally used in conjunction with a
non-recording raingauge installed close by for use as a standard by means of
which the readings of the recording raingauge could be checked and if necessary
adjusted.

3.1.3. Installation and Use of Recording Raingauge

The recording raingauge should be placed at a distance of at least 2 m from the non-
recording raingauge and preferably 3 m away. An appropriate chart is wrapped on
the clock drum while ensuring that corresponding horizontal lines on the overlapping
portions are coincident and that the bottom of the chart is as near the flange at the
bottom as possible.
The clock is wound and the pen is set after putting enough ink. Water is poured
gradually into the inlet tube until the water begins to be siphoned off. After siphoning
is complete the pen should rest against the zero line on the chart. The chart is
changed at the same time every day, usually between 08:00 and 09:00 IST. For
more details on the installation and use of the recording raingauge BIS code IS:
8,389–1983 may be referred to.
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 91

3.1.4. Design of Raingauge Networks

Since precipitation is one of the most important inputs in hydrological analysis,

it is necessary to ensure that the network is adequate to obtain representative
observations of precipitation. Scientific planning of the network design is necessary
so that rainfall is estimated with desired accuracy at the minimum cost. However,
the design of networks has been a rather neglected subject and most networks are
inadequate. Even in areas with relatively large numbers of long established stations,
there are usually gaps and deficiencies.
A precipitation network is a system for collection of data with due consideration
to the needs as well as the economy. The problem of network design is to determine:
i) how many stations are required? ii) where they are to be located? and, iii) how
long they are to be operated?
The optimum density of a precipitation network, i.e., the number of gauges
per unit area depends on the purposes to which the observed data are to be put.
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) ISI: 4,987–1994 recommended that one
raingauge for 520 km2 shall be sufficient. However, if the catchment lies in the
path of low-pressure systems, which cause precipitation in the area during their
movement, their network should be denser particularly in the upstream. In not too
elevated regions with an average elevation of one kilometer above sea level, the
network density shall be one raingauge in 260 km2 to 390 km2 . In predominantly
hilly areas, where very heavy rainfall is experienced, the network density should
be at least one raingauge for every 130 km2 . If, however, the catchment is in the
rain shadow region of high mountains, such a dense network may not be necessary.
Table 1 gives the desired and actual network density in some basins in Himalayan
region.
Clearly, the network is not dense enough and many more stations need to be
installed to adequately measure the rainfall and its variation. Another aspect of
concern is that at higher altitudes, the network density is still low.
Installation of SRRGs has to be commensurate with the requirements. The BIS
standard recommends that at least 10% of the raingauge stations should be equipped
with SRRGs.
Recognizing the need for increasing the network of raingauges for hydro-
logic purposes, IMD in collaboration with Central Water and Power Commission

Table 1. Raingauge Stations in Himalayan Region

Altitude range Desired Actual density

(m) network
density Total Ganga Brahmaputra Indus

<1 500 370 86 43 10 33

1,500–2,100 460 57 28 9 20
2,100–3,000 470 35 18 13 4
3,000–5,000 730 28 17 8 3
92 Chapter 3

reviewed the network of ordinary raingauges in the country in 1956–57. They

recommended one raingauge for every 500 km2 area. The raingauge network at
present comprises about 5,000 stations whose data are archived by IMD. This gives
one raingauge in about every 600 km2 and the average distance between adjacent
raingauge stations is from 20 to 30 km. In addition, about 4,650 raingauges are
being maintained by the Railways, Forest, Agricultural and Irrigation Departments,
etc. About 522 self-recording raingauge are being maintained by Railways, Forest,
Agriculture and Irrigation Departments. The hourly, daily and monthly rainfall data
of IMD stations are available in the National Data Center, IMD, Pune, on computer
media. Daily rainfall records for about 3,000 stations spread over the country are
available for a period of over 95 years.

3.1.5. Optimum Network Design

The main objective of rainfall network is to provide estimates of rainfall during a

particular interval at a specified point or over an area. The optimum network should,
therefore, be such that by interpolation between values of different stations, it should
be possible to determine the required characteristics of the precipitation data with
sufficient accuracy. The BIS Standard and the IMD (1972) have recommended a
statistical procedure for estimating the optimum number of raingauges required for
a network of raingauges over a basin.
 2
Cv
N= (1)
P

where N = optimum number of raingauge stations, Cv = coefficient of variation

of the rainfall values of the existing raingauge stations, and P = desired degree of
percentage error in the estimate of the basin mean rainfall. The percentage error
P is generally taken as 10% for working out the optimum number. Obviously a
decrease in the percentage error would mean an increase in the number of gauges
required.

3.2. MEASUREMENT OF SNOW

Solid precipitation is far more difficult to measure than liquid precipitation.

Compared to rainfall, snowfall over an area is more uniform, but its accumulation
and retention on the ground are highly heterogeneous because of the buoyancy of
snow. Snow measurement consists of the actual depth of snow unaffected by wind
and water content of such a depth. Except for special applications, the water content
of snow is more useful than the actual depth of snow. The data on snow depth and
the average density are used to estimate the water equivalent of snow. In the earlier
days, the necessity for undertaking snow and glacier studies arose for forecasting
runoff from the Himalayan rivers in the critical summer months of April, May,
and June.
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 93

The depth of snowfall is the amount of fresh snow deposited over a given period
(generally one day); the water equivalent of fresh snow is the amount of liquid
precipitation represented by that snowfall. The depth of fresh snowfall is generally
measured by depth probes (graduated rulers) by inserting them vertically in the
snow. The measurements are made on a snowboard whose surface is kept free of
snow before snowfall. A snowboard (at least 40 cm∗ 40 cm) is a piece of plywood or
light weight metal which provides a reference level for measurement. Snowboards
should be located where the effect of wind is the minimum.
A non-recording snow gauge consists of open receptacles with vertical sides,
usually in the form of cylinders. For small snowfalls, non-recording rain gauges are
used for rain as well as snow measurement and often give satisfactory results. In
the case of snowfall measurement, the funnel receiver is removed. The amount of
snow collected in the cylindrical gauge is melted either by wrapping the snow gauge
with a warm cloth or by adding an adequate and accurately measured quantity of
warm water. Under conditions of heavy snowfall, the snow accumulated over the
collector is carefully pressed into the gauge, melted and measured.
Various sizes of the gauge orifice and height are used in different countries. The
non-recording snow gauge adopted for use in India consists of a simple cylindrical
collector having a diameter of 23 cm. Now these gauges are being replaced by snow
gauges with 500 cm2 collectors. The gauge is normally exposed at a height of about
2 m above the ground, and mounted on a metal stand. A standard snow gauge being
used in India is shown in Figure 3.
The storage gauges are used to measure total seasonal water equivalent of
snowfall in remote areas where daily observations are impractical. Such gauges
have capacities to store large snowfall during periods as long as a year.
Like recording rain gauges, there are also snow gauges for continuous recording
of snow water equivalent. These are used in locations where continuous records are
required and where gauges cannot be regularly attended by the observer. Weighing
type snow gauges are most commonly used to measure both rain and snow. The
capacity of weighing type recording snow gauges ranges from 300–600 mm water
equivalent and the time resolution capability may vary from 5 minutes to several
hours. Two most common weighing recording type gauges are Fischer and Porter
and Universal snow gauges.
A snow pillow is a device to measure the water equivalent of snow. Pressure
pillows are filled with antifreeze liquid and a pipe connects the pillow to a stilling
well. The liquid is pressed into the stilling well by the weight of falling snow and
this liquid level in the well is related to the water equivalent of snow accumulated
over the pillow. The variation in load on pillow may be recorded by an automatic
water level recorder. A snow pillow gives a point value of water equivalent of the
snow cover accumulated on its surface. Snow pillows are of various shapes and
sizes, and different materials are used to construct them.
Snowfall in the Western Himalayas is being monitored by IMD, Central Water
Commission (CWC), Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB), and Snow and
Avalanche Study Establishment (SASE). IMD measures snowfall by using snow
94 Chapter 3

Figure 3. Standard snow gauge being used in India

gauge and snow depth is measured by snow stakes. CWC has a network of 33
snow gauges in the Chenab basin and 9 stations in Yamuna basin with a snow
pillow installed at Jubbal. BBMB has a network of 21 snow gauge stations in Satluj
basin above Rampur where snow gauges and snow stakes are used to monitor
snow. SASE has a good network of snow gauges at very high elevations in the
Himalayas, extending from Kashmir to the hills of Uttaranchal. At some of the
locations, weighing type precipitation gauges or snow stakes are used; snow pillows
are being used at a few locations.

3.2.1. Recording Snow Gauges

Like recording rain gauges, there are also snow gauges for continuous recording of
snow water equivalent. Recording snow gauges are designed for use in locations
where continuous records are required and for locations where gauges cannot
be regularly attended by the observer. The following snow recording gauges
are used.
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 95

Weighing type snow gauge

The gauges most commonly used to measure both rain and snow are the weighing
type snow gauges, in which a pen arm continuously records the weight of accumulated
snowfall on a clock-turned drum. The continuous recording may be either by means of a
spring mechanism or with a system of balance weight. The spring after accommodation
of precipitation compresses and activates the recording mechanism. The mechanical
displacement of the spring can be converted to a digital output signal, which can be
recorded in situ or telemetered by a suitable device to the desired destination. This
type of gauge normally has no provision for emptying itself but by a system of livers,
it is possible to make the pen traverse the chart any number of times. The capacity
of weighing type recording snow gauges ranges from 300–600 mm water equivalent
and the time resolution capability may vary from 5 minutes to several hours. The main
advantage of this type of instrument is its capability to record snow, hail and mixture
of snow and rain. It does not require the solid precipitation to be melted before it can
be recorded because it functions on the weighing principle.
The two most common weighing recording type snow gauges are Fischer and
Porter, and Universal snow gauges. The Fischer and Porter gauge has an orifice
diameter of 20.3 cm, and a collector capacity of 630 mm water equivalent. The
Universal snow gauge also has an orifice of the dimension of 20.3 cm. However,
it has a standard maximum capacity of about 300 mm water equivalent, including
antifreeze. A weighing type snow gauge is shown in Figure 4.

Electrically heated tipping bucket snow gauge

In principle, a tipping bucket snow gauge is similar to the tipping bucket rain gauge,
except that an additional device is employed to melt the solid precipitation. Usually,
to heat the funnel and orifice, a nichrome wire is embedded in the double wall
case. The wire is densely packed at the top of the gauge in order to concentrate
the heat at the funnel. A second heater is mounted under the gauge to provide heat
to the tipping bucket mechanism and to prevent freezing of water collected in the
bucket. For most snow conditions, satisfactory melting is achieved when thermostat is
set at 5  C.
A bucket will tip when it accumulates a standard amount, usually 0.25 mm,
of precipitation. The tipping of one bucket will cause an empty bucket to
come into position to be filled. Each tip is recorded through an event recording
mechanism.

3.2.2. Snow Pillow

High cost of obtaining samples by having personnel travel to snow areas and the
need for more rapid acquisition of information have led to the development of
sensors that can be read remotely and automatically. One of these sensors is snow
pillow. A snow pillow is a device to measure the water equivalent of snow. Pressure
pillows are filled with antifreeze liquid and a pipe connects the pillow to stilling
well. The antifreeze solution used in the storage type of snow gauges can be used
96 Chapter 3

Figure 4. Weighing type snow gauge

in the pillow. The liquid is pressed into the stilling well by the weight of falling
snow and this liquid level in the well is directly related to the water equivalent
of snow accumulated over the pillow. The variation in load on pillow may be
recorded by means of an automatic water level recorder. On site and/or telemetry
data acquisition system can be installed to provide continuous measurements of the
water equivalent through the use of a standpipe and float actuated charts or digital
recorders. Alternatively, the pressure changes in the pillow can be monitored by
a transducer, whose electrical output can be interfaced with the telemetry system.
The snow pillow assumes that snow acts as a perfect fluid and unusual conditions
can affect the accuracy of measurements.
A snow pillow gives a point value of the average water equivalent of the snow
cover accumulated on its surface. It is a fair indicator of the actual water equiv-
alent of snow in many heavy snow areas, especially during the primary snow
accumulation period. Sometimes, pressure plates are also used rather than original
butyl rubber pillow. The size of the pressure plate or snow pillow necessary for
best accuracy depends upon the amount of snow cover normally expected. Greater
depths of snow require large pillow sizes.
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 97

Snow pillows are designed in various shapes and sizes, and different materials are
used to construct them. Now-a-days, the pillows are fabricated from butyl rubber,
neoprene rubber, sheet metal or stainless steel. A 3.66 m diameter snow pillow is
enough for most snow cover depths.

3.2.3. Relationship between Snow Covered Area and Runoff

In many studies, regression analysis has been carried out to correlate snow-
cover area and runoff. Efforts have also been made to correlate winter snowfall
and snowmelt runoff. The snow cover area can be easily assessed from satellite
imageries. Dey and Goswami (1983) presented the results of studies involving the
utilization of satellite snow cover observations for seasonal streamflow estimates in
Western Himalayas. A regression model relating seasonal flow from April through
July 1974 to early April snow-cover explained 73% of variance of measured f1ows
in Indus River. Remotely sensed snow-cover area data provides the best available
input in empirical snowmelt prediction techniques for remote Himalayan basins.
The study has also indicated high correlation of concurrent flows, in adjoining
Himalayan basins like Indus and Kabul.
A regression model of snow-cover area versus runoff was evaluated by Dey
and Goswami (1984), using data of Satluj, Indus, and Chenab rivers. The mean
seasonal snowmelt runoff (April to June) in Indus, Satluj and Chenab rivers are
4,027, 735, and 1,508 cumec, respectively, for catchment areas of 162,100, 38,000
and 26 155 km2 . The following relationship between snow-cover area and seasonal
runoff were established:

Y = 006493 X − 0363325 for Satluj River (2)

Y = 0472 X + 473895 for Indus River (3)

where Y = Seasonal run-off (April–July) in 109 m3 and X = Average percent of

snow-cover of the basin.
A conceptual snowmelt runoff model (SNOWMOD) was developed by Singh
and Jain (2003) has been extensively tested using the data of Himalayan
rivers.
The importance of permanent snow-covered area in any study of snowmelt
in Himalayan basins was realized long ago. Studies were carried out in 1980s
for glacierized mountains (upper Indus in Pakistan) and a model was developed
for annual variation of run-off and it’s forecasting. The approach is based on
identification of a number of glaciological and climatological factors other than
snow-covered area. Neglecting rainfall, runoff and ground water discharge and
also losses, the total melt water runoff has been assumed to be the sum of three
components: (i) complete melting of a glacier snow pack, (ii) complete melting of
glacier ablation snow cover, and (iii) glacier ice melt from a contributing fraction
of area, The useful information is provided about characteristics of high mountain
98 Chapter 3

Table 2. The Snow-cover and runoff characteristics

S.N. River basin Area km2  Mean run-off Snow-cover Ice cover
(mm) (%) mean
Apr-Aug. estimates (%)

1 Hunza 13 000 763 88 38

2 Gilgit 26 000 578 86 27
3 Indus 16 0000 303 83 11
4 Shyok 33 000 292 93 9
5 Jhelum 25 000 644 74 2

basins in the Himalayan region based upon 1975–1978 data. The details of the
results are given in Table 2.
Limited studies on snowmelt processes and simulation of snowmelt runoff have
been completed for Himalayan basins. This is mainly because of poor network in
the Himalayan catchments. In the recent years, the condition of the network in
several Indian snowbound catchments has improved.

3.3. STORAGE OF RAINFALL DATA

India has a long tradition of systematic observations, dating back centuries in

different fields, including meteorology, geology, agriculture, sea level and land
survey. Specialized institutes are carrying out these observations since the early
19th century. Changes/improvements have been made in observational networks
according to needs; networks have evolved and have been modernized although
more efforts in this direction are needed. With rapid advances in satellite technology
in India, space-based systems have contributed considerably to enhancing observa-
tional capabilities.
In India, rainfall data collected by state organizations is generally stored only in
the form of printed records. Systematic computerization of the data has begun in
some states only recently. As IMD maintains a large network of observatories, it
collects a huge volume of data. The computerization, quality control and archival
of this data in electronic media is being done by the National Data Centre of IMD
at Pune.

3.3.1. Daily Rainfall Data

During the initial period of storing data on computer compatible media, IMD was
storing data on punched paper cards. The daily rainfall data were punched in a
31-card format until 1970. From 1971 onwards, IMD switched over to a 24-card
format. In the 31-card format, the data of 12 months for each day were punched on
each card together with station related information, year and date. In the 24-card
format, each month’s rainfall data were punched on 2 cards, 16 days data on the
first card and 15 days data and monthly total on the second card.
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 99

3.3.2. Hourly Rainfall Data

Data of hourly rainfall recorded at the self-recording raingauges maintained by

either India Meteorological Department or other organizations were rarely published
in printed form. IMD however, used to store the data of self-recording raingauge
on punched cards and magnetic tapes. Besides station code, the first card would
contain year, month, date and card number data of hourly rainfall corresponding to
1st to 16th hour. The second card, besides station code and other details, contains
data of hourly rainfall, time of maximum rainfall occurrence and total rainy duration
in the day, given in hours and minutes.

3.3.3. Computerization of Data Under the Hydrology Project

In the 1990s, an ambitious project, known as the Hydrology Project Phase I was
launched in eight states of peninsular India. Among the objectives of the project
was computerization of hydrological data in these states. Huge amounts of historical
data have been computerized in the form of a Hydrological Information System
(HIS). More details of this project and its achievements are given in a later
chapter.

3.4. ESTIMATION OF MISSING DATA

While working with rainfall data, one often comes across missing data situations.
Data for the period of missing rainfall data could be filled using estimated value.
The length of the period up to which the data could be filled is dependent on
individual judgment. Rainfall for the missing period is estimated either by using
the normal ratio method or the distance power method.

3.4.1. Normal Ratio Method

In the normal ratio method, the rainfall RA at station A is estimated as a function

of the normal monthly or annual rainfall of station A and those of the neighbouring
stations for the period of missing data at station A:


n
NRA
NRi
− Ri
i=1
RA = (4)
n

where RA is the estimated rainfall at station A, Ri is the rainfall at surrounding

station i, NRA is the normal monthly or seasonal rainfall at station A, NRi is the
normal monthly or seasonal rainfall at station i, and n is the number of surrounding
stations whose data are used for estimation.
100 Chapter 3

3.4.2. Adjustment of Data

Adjustment of data has two principal objectives. The first is to make the record
homogeneous with a given environment and the second is to eliminate or reduce
extraneous influences by correcting for changes in gauge location or exposure.
Adjustment for these errors is made by ‘Double Mass Analysis’. This is a graphical
method to identify and adjust inconsistencies in a station’s data by comparing with
the trend of reference stations’ data. As the name itself implies, a double mass
curve’s both axis are accumulated precipitation values. Usually, the accumulated
seasonal or annual precipitation values of reference station(s) is taken as abscissa
and those of the station under test as ordinate.
A change in the regime of the raingauge, such as a change in exposure, change
in location is revealed by a change in the slope of the straight line fit. The older
records are adjusted by multiplying the precipitation values by the ratio of the slope
of the later period to the slope of the earlier period.

3.5. DISAGGREGATION OF DAILY DATA

The network of recording raingauges in India being sparse in comparison to that of

daily (non-recording) rain gauges, many times it is necessary to convert the daily
rainfall into shorter period intervals. The information of short interval rainfall is
used together with information of daily rainfall from nearby non-recording (daily)
gauges.
Mass curve is a graphical display of accumulated rainfall versus time. Mass curve
of accumulated rainfall at (non-recording) daily stations and recording stations
(SRRG) are prepared by plotting the accumulated rainfall values against time for
the storm duration under analysis. A comparison of the mass curves of the recording
raingauge stations with those of the non-recording stations would help in deciding
which recording raingauge or group of gauges could be considered as representative
of which of the non-recording raingauge for purposes of distributing daily rainfall
into hourly rainfall.
The hourly rainfall data at each of the two SRRG stations is plotted on a graph
to prepare the mass curve of hourly rainfall. The daily rainfall data at each of the
four stations is cumulated and plotted on a graph. The points are joined to form
the mass curve of daily rainfall. The mass curves of daily rainfall are compared
with those of hourly rainfall to determine which of the daily rain gauge stations are
represented by which of the SRRG stations.
To convert daily rainfall into hourly rainfall, the hourly rainfall from 08:00
hours to 08:00 hours for consecutive days is accumulated and the rainfall during
each hour is expressed as a ratio of the total rainfall during 24 hours (08:00 to
08:00). These ratios are used to distribute the daily rainfall for the corresponding
duration at those non-recording raingauge stations, which are represented by
the SRRG.
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 101

3.5.1. Aggregation of Precipitation Data in Time

For the estimation of design flood using the unit hydrograph approach short incre-
ments of design storm would be required. In India, in view of the rather limited
length of hourly rainfall data and the sparse network of SRRG stations, it is not
possible to derive the PMP estimates of less than 1 observational day duration
directly. As such, recourse is taken to determine the short interval design rainfall
increments by applying a time distribution based on the hourly rainfall data as
described above. Also, for developing intensity – duration – frequency (IDF)
relationships, determination of maximum rainfall intensities for different durations
by aggregation would be required.
The steps involved in deriving the time distribution are indicated below:
Step 1: Select all such storm spells whose 24 hour totals have exceeded at least
150 mm and 48 hour totals 200 mm.
Step 2: Compute the maximum hourly rainfall totals for 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18,
21, 24, …48 hours using only consecutive hourly rainfall data.
Step 3: Express the maximum rainfall totals computed in step 2 as percentage to
the total rainfall amount of the 24-hour duration or 48-hour duration.
Step 4: Repeat the procedure in step 2 and step 3 for all selected storm spells.
Step 5: Plot the percentages of different durations from each spell on a graph paper
and draw smooth curves. Separate graphs are plotted for 24 hour and 48
hours as needed.

3.5.2. Estimation of Mean Areal Precipitation

Precipitation observations from gauges are point measurements. But the precipi-
tation process exhibits appreciable spatial variation over relatively short distances.
An accurate assessment of mean areal precipitation is a pre-requisite and basic input
in hydrological analysis. Numerous methods of computing areal rainfall from point
raingauge measurements have been proposed. The most commonly used methods
are the Arithmetic average method, the Thiessen polygon method, and the Isohyetal
method. The choice of a method is dependent on the quality and nature of data, the
importance of use and required precision, the availability of time and skills of the
analyst. Some commonly used methods are describe below.
The simplest technique to compute the average precipitation depth over a
catchment area is arithmetic average of the values at gauges within the area for
the period of concern. If the gauges are relatively uniformly distributed over the
catchment and the values do not greatly differ, this technique yields reliable results.

3.5.3. Thiessen Polygon Method

The Thiessen Polygon method is used with non-uniform station spacing and gives
weights to station’s precipitation data according to the area, which is closer to that
station than to any other station. This area is found by drawing the perpendicular
102 Chapter 3

bisectors of the lines joining the nearby station so that the polygons are formed
around stations. The polygons thus formed around each station are the boundaries
of the effective area assumed to be controlled by station. The area governed by
each station is planimetered and expressed as a percentage of the total area, the
weighted average precipitation for the basin is computed by multiplying each station
precipitation amount by its assigned percentage of area and totaling.
The weighted average precipitation is given as:


n
Pi W i
i=1
P= (5)

n
Wi
i=1

where P is the average catchment precipitation, Pi is the precipitation at stations 1

to n, and Wi the weights of respective stations. The advantage of this method is
that stations outside the catchment may also be used to assign weights of marginal
stations within the catchment. A drawback is that it assumes that precipitation
between two stations varies linearly and does not make allowance for variation due
to orography. Also, whenever a set of stations are added to or removed from the
network, a new set of polygons has to be drawn. If a few observations are missing,
it is convenient to estimate the missing data than to construct a new set of polygons.
Besides the above, there are many other methods, such as kriging, that are used
for estimation of the mean areal precipitation. For further details of processing of
precipitation data, reference may be made to Singh (1992), WMO (1994), Singh
and Singh (2001), and Jain and Singh (2003).

3.5.4. Relationship between Point and Areal Rainfall

Rainfall varies temporally as well as spatially. An isohyet is a contour line showing

the locus of equal rainfall depth. An individual storm may have a spatial distribution
or pattern in the form of concentric isohyets, leading to the formation of a storm
eye that depicts the center of the storm. In general, storm patterns are not static,
rather they move gradually in the direction of prevailing winds. For regional rainfall
mapping, isohyets are commonly referred to as isopluvials. These maps show
contours of equal rainfall depth, applicable for a range of durations, frequencies,
and catchment sizes. For large catchments, intense storms (or thunderstorms) may
cover only a part of the whole area.
The maximum intensity of rainfall occurs at the center of the storm and the
intensity gradually decreases radially away from the center. A large number of
formulae have been developed which relate storm point rainfall to storm areal
rainfall. For a rainfall of a given duration, the average depth decreases with increase
in area exponentially as:

p̄ = p0 exp−KAn  (6)
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 103

Table 3. Values of coefficients K and n for storms of different durations

Duration K n Remark

1 day 00008526 06614

2 days 00009877 06306
3 days 0001745 05961
1 day 0004472 0599 For Brahmaputra basin
2 days 0009152 050683

where p̄ is the average depth (cm) over an area A (km2 ), p0 is the highest amount
of rainfall (cm) at the storm center, and K and n are constants for a given region.
On the basis of 42 severe most storms in North India, the values of K and n were
obtained by Dhar & Bhattacharya (1975) for storms of different durations as shown
in Table 3.
Since it is unlikely that the storm center falls over a raingauge station, the exact
determination of p0 is rare. Hence, while analyzing large area storms, the highest
rainfall is taken as the average depth of central zone of 25 km2 . IMD has suggested
the following relation to determine the reduction factor for rainfall over areas up to
300 km2 for durations varying from 30 minutes to 24 hrs:

P = exp−A1/3 /8T05  (7)

where P is the areal to point rainfall ratio, A is the basin area in sq. miles, and T
is the storm duration in hours.

3.6. RAINFALL OF VARIOUS DURATIONS

Here we discuss some features of rainfalls of various durations for the country. Apart
from being of statistical interest, these data are of considerable interest in planning
and management of water resources projects, ecological planning, environmental
systems management, agriculture and irrigation planning, forestry, public health
engineering, and so on.

3.6.1. Annual Rainfall

Table 4 shows annual normal rainfall for some basins of India. Among basins,
rainfall is the maximum in the Brahmaputra basin which also has the highest number
of rainy days. The Luni basin receives the least rainfall and has only 20 rainy days.
Table 5 gives the coefficient of skewness of observed rainfall at these stations.
Also shown in the table are the numbers of years of data used. The skewness is
highest in the dry regions of the country.
Some statistical properties of annual extreme rainfall series at selected stations in
various meteorological sub-divisions are given in Table 6. The annual rainfall over
104 Chapter 3

Table 4. Annual normals of rainfall (cm) for major river basins of India

River basin Annual normal

Rainfall (cm) No. of rainy days

Brahmaputra 2687 112

Cauvery 1198 65
Ganga 1158 52
Godavari 1161 59
Indus 887 46
Luni 406 20
Mahanadi 1422 69
Mahi & Sabarmati 840 37
Narmada 1231 50
Tapi 797 46

Source: Rakhecha and Soman (1992).

Table 5. Coefficient of skewness of annual extreme series at selected stations

S. N. Station (State/Sub-division) No. of years Skewness

of record

1. Pasighat Arunachal Pradesh 50 0.75

2. Guwahati (Assam) 61 1.21
3. Sekoni (Assam) 58 1.39
4. Deemapur (Nagaland) 57 0.88
5. Berhampore (West Bengal) 70 1.28
6. Sambalpur (Orissa) 69 0.92
7. Deogarh (Bihar) 62 1.30
8. Darbhanga (Bihar) 68 1.00
9. Kundra (west U.P.) 69 0.91
10. Okhimmath (west U.P.) 68 1.28
11. Hydergarh (east U.P.) 68 0.65
12. Panipat (Haryana) 68 1.06
13. Dasuyia (Punjab) 70 1.66
14. Hamirpur (H.P.) 69 1.60
15. Kangra (H.P.) 62 0.59
16. Kothai (H.P.) 70 1.27
17. Baramula (J&K) 66 0.64
18. Shri Ranbir Singh Pura (J&K) 65 1.08
19. Barmer (west Rajasthan) 69 1.93
20. Bikaner (west Rajasthan) 69 1.00
21. Pali (east Rajasthan) 70 0.56
22. Phalodi (east Rajasthan) 69 2.30
23. Kota (east Rajasthan) 69 0.85
24. Sagar (M.P.) 70 1.08
25. Shahpur (M.P.) 66 1.27
26. Raipur (M.P.) 70 1.67
27. Janakpur (M.P.) 30 0.79
28. Bhuj (Gujarat) 70 2.86
29. Tharad (Gujarat) 69 1.60
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 105

30. Dahanu (Maharashtra) 69 1.13

31. Brahmpuri (Maharashtra) 69 0.67
32. Nanded ( Maharashtra) 70 1.69
33. Chintalapudi (A.P.) 69 1.02
34. Borlan (A.P.) 46 1.15
35. Kodanur (A.P.) 45 0.81
36. Madurai (Tamil Nadu) 70 1.28
37. Mangalore (Karnataka) 70 1.64
38. Virajpet (Karnataka) 70 1.28
39. Bijapore (Karnataka) 70 1.28
40. Adur (Kerala) 70 0.74

Source: Mukeerjee et al. (1991).

India has been shown in Figure 4 of Chapter 1. Figure 5 shows the co efficient of
variation of monsoon rainfall in India.

3.6.2. Monthly Rainfall

The average monthly rainfall for selected stations in India is given in Table 7.
As explained earlier, around 80% of annual rainfall is received in four monsoon
months at most places. Of interest here is high rainfall in winter months at stations
in Tamil Nadu.
Table 8 lists the normal monthly and annual rainfall at selected places in
Himalayas. Data given in this table are useful to get an idea of the spatial and
temporal variation in rainfall in this region.

3.6.3. Seasonal Rainfall

The winter season rainfall (January–February) of India has been shown in Figure 6.
The pre-monsoon (March-May), monsoon (June-September) and post-monsoon
(October-December) rainfall of India have been presented in Figure 7, 8 and 9
respectively.
Further, the percent departure in all India summer monsoon rainfall for the period
1871 to 1990 has been plotted in Figure 10. In the years 1877, 1899, 1918, and
1972, the deficit in rainfall was more than 20% while in 1917 and 1961, the percent
departure was close to 20%.
Table 9 gives seasonal normal values of rainfall for selected river basins in
India. Note that the duration of seasons in the table is not equal. Further, Table 10
gives the mean seasonal rainfall and annual rainfall for different meteorological
sub-divisions of the country.
On the basis of rainfall distribution and other meteorological parameters, the
country has been divided by IMD into different meteorologically homogeneous
subdivisions, as described in Chapter 1. Using rainfall data for the years 1891–1970,
 106

Table 6. Statistical estimates of annual extreme series at some stations

S. N Station Mean Standard deviation Max. recorded Return periods along with their standard errors SExT 

x5 S.E. x50 S.E. x100 S.E. x1000 S.E.

1. Pasighat 2135 82.50 467.9 2842 1852 4589 3617 5097 4157 6775 59.68
2. Guwahati 1025 36.20 232.9 1277 633 1937 1237 2129 1421 2763 20.41
3. Sekoni 993 29.00 198.4 1175 482 1664 941 1807 1082 2277 15.53
4. Deemapur 977 33.80 197.1 1197 593 1795 1159 1968 1332 2542 19.12
5. Berhampore 1089 44.32 286.3 1375 689 2145 1347 2368 1548 3108 22.22
6. Sambalpur 1487 56.38 312.4 1872 923 2895 1804 3193 2073 4176 29.76
7. Deogarh 1005 46.63 264.2 1024 707 1766 1380 1981 1586 2694 22.76
8. Darbhanga 1275 46.70 266.7 1585 755 2415 1474 2956 1694 3453 24.31
9. Okhimath 1049 35.00 208.3 1251 513 1816 1002 1980 1152 2523 16.54
10. Kundra 1141 58.39 315.0 1593 1038 2743 2027 3077 2329 4182 33.44
11. Hydergarh 1125 40.45 233.2 771 597 1427 1166 1618 1340 2249 19.23
12. Panipat 965 45.10 254.0 1271 738 2083 1442 2319 1657 3100 23.79
13. Dasuyia 951 36.30 245.9 1188 561 1814 1095 1995 1258 2597 18.07
14. Hamirpur 1163 50.00 351.0 1487 773 2344 1510 2593 1735 3416 24.91
15. Kangra 1566 44.03 306.3 1915 851 2809 1662 3069 1910 3927 27.41
16. Kothai 723 27.65 182.9 903 433 1386 845 1526 971 1990 13.95
17. Baramula 5897 17.70 107.4 721 316 1065 618 1165 711 1495 10.21
18. Sri R.S. Pura 1035 34.30 207.0 1284 588 1913 1148 2097 132 2704 18.9
19. Barmer 6695 46.90 285.8 915 628 1611 1228 1814 141 2483 20.26
Chapter 3

20. Bikaner 6196 32.50 165.6 838 521 1419 1018 1589 1170 2148 16.79
21. Pali 8535 37.09 206.6 11522 681 1912 1330 2133 1528 2863 21.94
22. Phalodi 5505 35.44 225.0 719 457 1226 893 1374 1027 1861 14.74
23. Kota 1030 42.00 249.2 1344 732 2155 1430 2391 154 3170 23.59
24. Sagar 1352 59.64 381.5 1673 843 2614 1647 2888 1893 3792 27.18
25. Shahpur 1116 42.20 289.6 870 629 1552 1229 1750 1413 2406 20.28
26. Raipur 1291 51.60 370.3 950 744 1780 1453 2021 1669 2819 23.96
27. Janakpur 980 25.67 165.1 780 589 1211 1151 1336 1323 1749 18.99
28. Bhuj 883 74.94 467.0 1194 826 2115 1612 2383 1853 3268 26.60
29. Tharad 1167 78.96 370.3 1587 1095 2801 2139 3154 2459 4320 35.30
30. Dahanu 2036 77.50 481.0 2574 1278 3990 2496 4402 2868 5762 41.17
32. Brahmpuri 1489 61.25 323.6 1047 889 2033 1736 2319 1995 3265 28.64
32. Nanded 934 38.01 254.0 1151 538 1752 1051 1926 1208 2504 17.35
33. Chintalapudi 866 26.36 160.8 1034 410 1489 801 1621 912 2058 13.23
34. Borlan 1149 47.67 243.8 1442 901 2258 1760 2495 2022 3278 29.04
35. Kodanur 794 53.90 298.2 604 1016 1439 1985 1692 2281 2485 32.75
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data

36. Madurai 902 4.86 229.0 1165 600 1836 1173 2031 1348 2675 19.36
37. Mangalore 1590 41.55 360.9 1890 691 2661 1350 2886 1551 3626 22.27
38. Virajpet 1563 60.35 366.5 1938 912 2956 1780 3252 2046 4229 29.37
39. Bijapur 687 26.68 181.1 882 448 1382 876 1528 1007 2009 14.45
40. Adur 1139 34.00 223.5 1381 573 2020 1118 2206 1507 2820 18.45

Source: Mukeerjee et al. (1991).

107
108 Chapter 3

Figure 5. Coefficient of variation of monsoon rainfall

Dhar and Rakhecha (1979) estimated the monthly and annual depth of rainfall on
different subdivisions for each of the years. Table 10 gives the mean seasonal and
annual average rainfall depth obtained on the basis of 80 years of data for different
subdivisions. The amount of summer and winter monsoon rainfall expressed as
a percentage of annual rainfall and the coefficient of variability (CV) of annual
rainfall have also been included in the table. Among the different subdivisions of
the country the mean annual rainfall is highest in the Coastal Karnataka and lowest
in western Rajasthan. Low CV values are obtained over high rainfall regions and
high CV over low rainfall regions. The amount of seasonal rainfall during four
months of June to September is more than 75% of the annual rainfall in almost
all the subdivisions, excepting Assam, Jammu and Kashmir and some subdivisions
of peninsular India, lowest being for Tamil Nadu. The average annual rainfall for
the country on the basis of 80-year data has been estimated as 117 cm. The CV
was found to be 9.5% thereby indicating stable nature of Indian rainfall. Monthly,
seasonal and annual rainfall values for major river basins of the country using 50
years data are given in Table 11.
Table 7. Average monthly rainfall for selected stations in India

City Elevation Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Mount Abu 1,219 m 70 60 40 30 240 1180 5580 6290 2380 190 60 130
Agra 169 m 130 125 80 50 100 620 2170 2060 1160 180 40 80
Ahmedabad 56 m 05 20 10 10 100 930 3100 2040 1060 90 40 10
Amritsar 91 m 295 315 240 150 150 480 1610 1550 710 100 30 130
Aurangabad 579 m 70 40 50 60 180 1880 1710 1220 1700 455 24 70
Bangalore 921 m 60 70 100 410 1060 730 1004 1265 1690 1490 680 110
Bhopal 501 m 60 40 90 60 145 1735 5010 2780 2650 420 260 50
Bodhgaya 113 m 180 300 125 60 240 1640 3355 3490 1905 490 125 50
Bombay 11 m 40 20 10 40 165 4840 1655 3400 2640 645 135 20
Calcutta 64 m 90 300 355 445 1395 2715 1250 3280 2530 1140 210 50
Chandigarh 61 m 520 90 265 100 110 710 2690 2530 1880 520 80 240
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data

Cherrapunji 131 m 190 540 1850 6660 12810 26940 24470 17800 11010 4930 600 125
Cochin Sea level 230 200 510 1255 2970 7230 5920 3530 1950 3400 1780 410
Darjeeling 2,134 m 135 300 480 1050 2450 6140 8350 5750 4800 2390 210 70
Dehradun 682 m 590 630 320 165 370 2170 6680 7310 2700 820 90 260
Guwahati 55 m 100 360 505 1450 2360 3120 3120 2610 1670 710 140 40
Goa 1.022 m 110 90 40 40 70 800 2333 2480 2280 110 40 87
Haridwar 290 m 660 300 270 70 420 1240 5390 360 2230 1360 35 380
Indore 564 m 60 40 20 30 130 1470 2820 2070 1640 310 155 70
Jaipur 431 m 110 80 90 40 145 570 1970 2050 820 120 40 80
Jaisalmer 225 m 21 12 26 15 52 68 895 858 139 13 49 22
Jodhpur 221 m 40 60 30 30 100 360 1010 1230 610 80 30 30
Khajuraho 280 m 45 44 32 72 13 889 3484 5379 1154 1067 18 34
Kargil 3,048 m 452 516 863 312 236 103 56 102 76 48 43 258
Leh 3,170 m 118 86 119 65 65 43 157 195 122 71 29 80
Lucknow 120 m 190 199 90 60 200 1130 3050 2923 1880 325 60 80
Chennai 26 360 100 70 150 260 470 910 1160 1190 3060 3550 1380

(Continued)
109
 110

Table 7. (Continued)

City Elevation Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Madurai 107 m 200 135 180 550 700 400 495 1040 1190 1800 1450 510
Mussorie 2,006 m 69 870 570 340 420 2230 6975 6940 2530 290 40 350
Mysore 767 m 40 60 130 580 420 625 680 840 1260 1490 700 100
Nagpur 311 m 90 165 155 155 190 224 3710 2900 2035 550 200 120
Nainital 1,939 m 700 750 530 219 760 3630 720 6920 3320 590 110 250
New Delhi 239 m 250 210 130 80 130 770 1790 1840 1230 100 25 110
Ootacamund 2,286 m 330 130 325 770 1600 1670 2120 1440 1480 2030 1610 440
Patna 53 m 150 190 110 70 360 1810 2940 3320 2180 580 93 60
Pune 559 m 15 15 15 15 270 1140 1670 900 1340 900 270 40
Puri 6m 100 230 130 150 730 1890 2620 2770 2300 1830 810 67
Shillong 1,496 m 130 270 500 1290 2610 3470 3470 3170 2995 1710 410 74
Shimla 2,205 m 660 740 600 460 640 1530 4140 4280 4240 300 130 335
Srinagar 1,768 m 740 720 920 930 165 360 593 615 395 300 110 335
Tiruchirapalli 78 m 250 125 90 460 840 410 340 970 1209 2720 1480 710
Trivandrum 61 m 200 190 390 1160 2240 3340 1970 1206 1145 2725 1770 635
Udaipur 577 m 50 40 25 30 180 770 2170 1780 980 145 30 30
Varanasi 81 m 20 20 25 50 120 150 120 40 45 10 10 —
Chapter 3
Table 8. Normal monthly and annual rainfall (mm) at selected places in Himalayas

Station J F M A M J J A S O N D Annual

Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal

Mussorie 793 897 668 371 549 2083 7823 8003 3294 411 125 361 2 5378
Dehra Dun 579 668 379 196 358 1844 6556 7130 3045 419 76 249 2 1490
Rajpur 693 658 432 244 394 2461 9680 10587 3924 439 91 257 2 3869
Nanital 699 731 526 381 841 3909 7694 7501 3627 610 129 254 2 6902
Mukteswar 569 620 485 363 564 1760 3160 3063 2017 434 89 246 1 3370
Almora 429 493 422 279 483 1438 2649 2342 1303 323 74 213 1 0448
Pithoragarh 442 564 404 282 726 1829 2997 2873 1493 333 69 218 1 2230
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data

Ranikhet 541 620 462 310 500 1440 3315 3444 1659 335 74 229 1 2929
Pawi 607 668 551 320 516 1323 3261 3599 1483 338 81 282 1 3029
Srinagar 551 561 368 221 427 1184 2441 2233 973 249 56 218 9482
Joshimath 658 927 985 544 351 889 1763 1847 1085 282 122 274 9727
Jammu and Kashmir
Dras 1039 1079 1468 1028 564 165 132 170 152 196 165 579 6730
Kargil 368 383 597 424 249 66 69 97 97 58 31 206 2645
Leh 109 76 89 61 53 48 127 165 91 31 18 58 926
Himachal Pradesh
Kotgarh 699 813 869 615 676 1052 2393 2103 1077 249 125 358 1 1029
Kotkhai 671 825 673 483 511 925 2121 1826 1054 216 99 310 9714
West Bengal
Darjeeling 109 317 541 1130 2314 5971 7922 6434 4455 1422 246 63 3 0924
Kalimpong 99 236 292 813 1448 4092 6129 5044 3122 1044 155 66 2 2540

Source: Chandra (1988).

111
112 Chapter 3

Figure 6. Map of Winter Season Rainfall of India (January–February)

Although India is endowed with abundant renewable water resources, the avail-
ability in time is restricted to a period of 4 months of the southwest monsoon
season. Above 80–90% of the flow in the rivers is confined to the southwest
monsoon season. For the rest of the year, except for snow fed rivers there is
inadequate flow in the rivers. Further, the distribution of rainfall varies widely
from one part of the country to another. These factors limit the scope for easy
management of water resources. One way to make an efficient use of the available
water resources is by the conservation of the monsoon flow through storage
reservoirs.
Using long period rainfall data, several workers have estimated the mean depth
of rainfall for various regions and river basins. IMD (1970a; 1971; 1977) has
calculated the mean monthly and annual values of rainfall for different basins.

Figure 7. Map of Pre-Monsoon Season Rainfall of India

Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 113

Figure 8. Map of Monsoon Season Rainfall of India

Using rainfall data of stations for the period 1901–1950 IMD (1981) has published a
comprehensive Rainfall Atlas of India, which contains 98 maps on different aspects
of rainfall distribution.

3.6.4. High Rainfall

Cherrapunji is located in the northeastern part of our country in the Khasi hills on
the Shillong plateau. It is known all over the world for a heavy rainfall – an average
of about 1,143 cm in a year, second only to 1,168 cm recorded in Hawaii. In the
year 1860–61, Cherrapunji had the highest recorded total rainfall in a twelve month
period – 2,647 cm. Also, a record rain of 930 cm fell in a month in July 1861.

Figure 9. Map of Post Monsoon Season Rainfall of India. (October-December)

114 Chapter 3

Figure 10. All India summer monsoon rainfall 1871–1990

The observed maximum rainfall events of the world for selected durations are
given in Table 12. It is seen from this table that for durations of 15 days and higher,

Table 9. Table showing seasonal normals of rainfall (cm) for major river basins of India

River basin Jan–Feb Mar–May Jun–Sep Oct–Dec

Rainfall No. of Rainfall No. of Rainfall No. of Rainfall No. of

1(cm) rainy 1(cm) rainy 1(cm) rainy 1(cm) rainy
days days days days

Indus 12.6 8 13.8 9 56.4 25 5.9 4

Brahmaputra 5.4 5 56.6 31 188.7 67 18.0 9
Ganga 4.0 3 7.8 5 97.3 41 6.7 3
Narmada 2.9 1 2.7 5 110.8 36 6.7 8
Godavari 3.6 2 5.3 5 95.9 47 12.3 6
Mahanadi 4.0 3 7.3 6 120.5 54 10.4 6
Tapi 1.6 1 2.0 2 68.9 39 7.2 4
Cauvery 3.0 2 18.3 11 64.0 33 34.5 19
Mahi & 0.5 0 1.1 1 80.3 35 2.1 1
Sabarmati
Luni 0.9 1 1.4 1 37.3 17 0.9 1

Source: Rakhecha & Soman (1992).

Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 115

Table 10. Mean seasonal and annual rainfall (cm) for different sub-divisions of India using data of
period 1891 to 1970

Sub-divisions Jan– Mar– Jun– Oct– Annual % of annual CV

Feb May Sep Dec
Jun-Sep Oct-Dec

North Assam 53 577 1497 154 2281 66 7 11

South Assam 55 734 1808 236 2833 64 8 11
Sub-Himalayan west 28 425 2191 155 2799 78 5 15
Bengal
Gangetic west 36 174 1078 131 1419 76 9 15
Bengal
Orissa 38 127 1125 196 1486 76 13 14
Bihar Plateau 46 89 1104 97 1336 83 7 13
Bihar Plains 32 72 1016 7 1192 85 6 16
East Uttar Pradesh 33 30 894 59 1016 88 6 20
West Uttar Pradesh 53 43 883 51 1030 86 5 19
Haryana, 36 29 457 25 547 83 5 28
Chandigarh & Delhi
Punjab 59 48 479 34 620 77 5 34
Himachal Pradesh 165 152 1345 83 1745 77 5 21
Jammu & Kashmir 172 226 506 93 997 51 9 22
West Rajasthan 09 15 270 09 303 89 3 40
East Rajasthan 14 18 615 24 671 92 3 23
West Madhya 22 21 940 50 1033 91 5 20
Pradesh
East Madhya 38 48 1193 73 1352 88 5 15
Pradesh
Gujarat 04 09 922 31 966 95 03 29
Saurashtra & Kutch 03 09 489 21 522 94 4 37
Konkan 03 34 2765 134 2936 94 5 18
Madhya 05 42 853 104 1004 85 10 23
Maharashtra
Marathwada 12 35 701 79 827 85 9 25
Vidarbha 25 36 938 72 1071 87 7 19
Coastal Andhra 19 84 577 315 995 58 32 18
Pradesh
Telangana 15 56 745 95 911 82 10 21
Rayalseema 12 75 382 208 677 56 31 20
Tamil Nadu 46 143 346 471 1006 34 47 14
Coastal Karnataka 03 167 2897 261 3328 87 8 15
North Interior 05 95 467 146 713 65 20 19
Karnataka
South Interior 08 168 744 225 1145 65 20 20
Karnataka
Kerala 03 408 2005 503 2949 68 17 14
India as a whole 39 124 890 119 1172 76 10 10

Source: Rakhecha & Soman (1992).

 116

Table 11. Sub-division wise monthly, seasonal, and annual rainfall (cm) normal (based on data 1901–50)

SN Sub-Division Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan– Mar– Jun– Oct– Annual
Feb May Sep Dec

1 Bay Islands 48 33 30 68 349 527 379 402 468 286 232 171 81 447 1777 689 2994
2 Assam 18 38 81 213 338 484 447 396 317 144 31 09 56 632 1644 184 2516
3 Sub- 10 20 36 118 329 675 683 575 504 158 15 04 30 483 2436 177 3126
Himalayan
West Bengal
4 Gangetic 13 26 27 43 108 241 318 319 207 109 22 03 39 178 1084 134 1435
West Bengal
5 Orissa 14 26 21 35 71 213 352 336 237 132 40 06 40 127 1137 178 1482
6 Bihar Plateau 21 31 20 19 51 196 358 354 218 83 16 05 52 90 1126 104 1372
7 Bihar Plains 14 20 11 16 48 172 311 314 23 59 09 03 34 74 1023 72 1203
8 Uttar Pradesh, 16 19 09 07 15 101 302 296 191 42 06 06 35 30 889 54 1008
East
9 Uttar Pradesh, 24 25 14 09 15 94 289 288 168 26 04 10 49 37 839 39 964
West,
10 Punjab (Incl. 27 26 21 12 12 48 179 172 101 11 03 13 53 45 500 27 625
Delhi &
Haryana)
11 Jammu & 96 96 108 78 52 55 167 175 75 26 15 51 192 238 472 93 995
Kashmir
12 Rajasthan, 09 06 05 03 09 68 243 228 112 12 04 05 15 16 652 21 704
East
13 Rajasthan, 05 06 04 03 08 29 99 110 40 04 01 03 11 15 277 08 311
West
14 Madhya 13 10 07 04 09 127 350 294 176 29 17 07 23 21 947 53 104
Chapter 3

Pradesh, West
15 Madhya 18 26 17 16 17 189 429 395 215 59 15 05 44 50 1229 79 1402
Pradesh, East
16 Gujarat 02 02 01 03 07 130 400 241 158 23 08 01 04 11 930 32 977
Region
17 Saurashtra & 02 02 01 03 06 74 206 104 66 13 04 01 04 10 450 18 482
Kutch
18 Konkan 03 01 01 06 29 617 1076 630 373 103 29 03 04 36 2696 136 2872
19 Madhya 05 02 03 11 24 148 281 179 161 68 31 06 07 38 770 105 921
Maharashtra
20 Marathwada 06 06 07 08 16 138 171 140 196 48 29 08 12 31 645 86 774
21 Vidarbha 12 19 11 11 12 175 343 258 181 48 21 07 31 35 957 77 1100
22 Coastal 10 14 12 25 51 104 153 148 166 189 117 21 24 88 570 326 1008
Andhra
Pradesh
23 Telangana 05 15 12 22 23 133 241 190 193 64 25 04 20 57 757 93 927
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data

24 Rayalaseema 09 06 07 20 50 58 81 96 134 112 83 22 15 77 369 217 678
25 Tamil Nadu 37 16 23 51 73 61 69 96 106 193 196 87 53 147 332 476 1008
26 Coastal 03 02 05 30 109 844 1100 634 284 175 66 13 05 144 2862 254 3265
Mysore
27 Interior 03 03 07 28 51 88 127 98 127 95 39 09 06 85 441 143 675
Mysore, North
28 Interior 05 05 11 49 103 177 311 209 145 150 67 13 10 163 842 230 1245
Mysore, South
29 Kerala 19 20 46 115 245 667 678 417 240 306 191 51 39 406 2003 548 2996
30 Arabian Sea 32 12 13 38 152 345 275 213 154 160 115 63 44 203 987 338 1572
Islands

Normals for Himachal Pradesh are not available.

117
118 Chapter 3

Table 12. Observed extreme rainfall events of the world

Location Date Rainfall depth Duration

(cm)

Plumb Point, Jamaica May 12, 1916 198 15 min

Belouve, Reunion Feb. 28, 1964 1087 9 hrs
Belouve, Reunion Feb. 28–29, 1964 1340 12 hrs
Cilaos, Reunion Mar. 15–16, 1952 1870 1 day
Cilaos, Reunion Mar. 15–17, 1952 2500 2 days
Cilaos, Reunion Mar. 15–18, 1952 3240 3 days
Cherrapunji, India Sept. 12–15, 1974 3721 4 days
Cilaos, Reunion Mar. 13–18, 1952 3854 5 days
Cherrapunji, India June 24–30, 1931 4798 15 days
Cherrapunji, India July 1861 9300 31 days
Cherrapunji, India May–July 1861 1 6370 3 months
Cherrapunji, India Apr.–Sept. 1861 2 2450 6 months
Cherrapunji, India Aug. 1860–July 1861 2 6460 1 year
Cherrapunji, India 1860–1861 4 0770 2 years

Source: Singh (1982).

Cherrapunji, India, has the world record of the highest rainfall. This station received
4,077 cm of rainfall during 1860–61.
Based on the rainfall records available for different raingauge stations in the world
(Subramanya, 1984), a list of world’s greatest recorded rainfall of various durations
can be assembled. While plotting this data on a log-log paper an enveloping straight
line drawn to the plotted points obeys the following equation:

Pm = 4216 D0475 (8)

where Pm is the extreme rainfall depth in cm, and D is the duration in hours. The
results of the above equations are useful for the PMP estimation.
Large parts of India receive heavy rainfalls associated with certain meteorological
situations. Rainfall by a depression can be as high as 30 to 40 cm a day. Information
regarding the greatest rainfall for a particular duration that has occurred or is likely
to occur at a place is of great practical utility in the design of hydraulic structures. It
enables the designer in evaluating the largest quantity of water that will be caught
over an area from which he can derive the amount of water that will run off,
depending upon the land characteristics.
Several workers have studied rainfall records to determine the magnitude of the
largest rainfall that had occurred over different stations. Using daily rainfall data of
about 300 stations from 1875 to 1982, Rakhecha (1992) prepared a generalized map
of the highest point rainfall for 24 hours duration in India. Figures 11, 12, 13 give
the highest 1-day, 2-day, and 3-day rainfall for India. These maps give information
about the maximum rainfall that can be expected over small areas in any part of
the country.
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 119

Figure 11. Highest 1-day rainfall for India

3.6.5. Severe Rainstorms Over India

Normally, in India severe rainstorms are associated with meteorological systems,

such as active low pressure areas, depressions and cyclonic storms. Generally these
systems originate from the neighboring seas of the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian
Sea and after crossing the respective coastal areas these move inland. Their lifespan
is, on average, 3 to 6 days over land. Associated with these disturbances heavy
to very heavy rainfall occurs over a wide area of the country through with which
these disturbances travel. Generally the duration of a rainstorm over a given area
of region associated with these disturbances is of the order of about 2 to 3 days.
During the period of 110 years from 1880 to 1990, about 97 severe rainstorms
of 2 to 3 days duration affected the country. Their distribution over different states
of the country is given in Table 13. Figure 14 shows the tracks of cyclonic storms
from 1891–1960 for the July month.
120 Chapter 3

Figure 12. Highest 2-day rainfall for India

The break up of meteorological disturbances which caused these 97 severe

rainstorms is given in Table 14.
Figure 15 gives the tracks of cyclones in the month of October and Figure 16
gives similar map for the month of November.

3.6.6. Precipitation Distribution in Mountainous Areas

Mountains have a strong impact on spatial distribution of precipitation. Knowledge

of precipitation distribution is a basic and important requirement for planning and
managing water resources, simulation of runoff and preparation of precipitation
maps of the basin/region. In large mountainous basins, weather systems interact with
topography and result in highly non-uniform precipitation. The uplift of moisture-
laden air currents striking against a mountainous barrier provides good rainfall on
the windward side. Gradients in the amount and intensity of precipitation depend
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 121

Figure 13. Highest 3-day rainfall for India

upon several factors, such as topography, strength of moisture bearing wind, its
moisture content and orientation of the mountain range with respect to the prevailing
wind direction. Depending on the relief of a mountain, there may not be continuous
increase in precipitation with altitude: above a particular altitude, it may begin to
decrease.
A summary of important precipitation distribution studies carried out in
Himalayas is given in Table 15. The precipitation distribution for Himalayas is
poorly known as compared with many other mountains of the world. Singh et al.
(1995) and Singh and Kumar (1997) studied the distribution of precipitation with
altitude for some important basins in the western Himalayan region, encompassing
the outer, middle and greater Himalayan ranges.
These studies show that rainfall increases linearly with elevation for basins in the
outer Himalayan range. In some cases, more number of rainy days are responsible
122 Chapter 3

Table 13. Distribution of past severe rainstorms over India

States/Union Pre-Monsoon Monsoon Post- Row

SN
Territory Monsoon sum

May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov

1 Andhra Pradesh 1 – 2 1 3 2 – 9
2 Bihar – 2 1 1 2 2 – 8
3 Gujarat – 2 6 1 – – – 9
4 Punjab & Haryana – – – 1 4 1 – 6
5 Karnataka 1 – 1 1 5 – 1 9
6 Madhya Pradesh – 3 3 8 1 – – 15
7 Maharashtra – 4 2 5 1 – – 12
8 Orissa – 3 2 2 1 – – 8
9 Rajasthan – 1 4 – – – – 5
10 Tamil Nadu 1 – – – – – – 1
11 Uttar Pradesh – – 1 2 4 1 – 8
12 West Bengal – 2 1 1 2 2 – 8
Total 3 16 23 23 24 7 1 97

Table 14. Details of meteorological disturbances which have caused severe rainstorms

SN Cause of rainstorms Number

1 Severe cyclonic storms 14

2 Cyclonic storms 19
3 Depressions 40
4 Low pressure areas and other weather disturbances 24
Total 97

for higher rainfall at higher altitudes, while in some cases higher rain intensity is
responsible for increasing rainfall with altitude in the outer Himalayan range.
The middle Himalayan range of the Beas basin has exceptionally heavy rainfall on
the windward side and much less (less than half) rain on the leeward side. Rainfall
gradients are 106 mm/100 m on windward and 13 mm/100 m on leeward of this
range. Dharamshala, located on the windward side, experiences exceptionally heavy
rainfall (average 1,972 mm) during the monsoon season due to the orographic effect.
A sudden rise in the altitude of the middle Himalayan range near Dharamshala
behaves as a giant mountain barrier and increases rainfall very significantly on the
windward side of this range.
Different trends of rainfall variation with elevation are observed in different
seasons in the middle Himalayan range with a linear increase in annual rainfall.
Seasonal analysis indicates that rainfall varies linearly with altitude for the post-
monsoon and monsoon seasons in the middle Himalayan range; annual rainfall also
follows a similar distribution. But, for winter and pre-monsoon seasons, rainfall first
increases and then decreases after a certain elevation. A second-order polynomial fits
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 123

Figure 14. Tracks of cyclonic storms from 1891–1960

reasonably well for these two seasons. There is little rain in the greater Himalayan
range because most of the moisture is precipitated over the outer and middle
Himalayan ranges.
Rainfall follows an exponentially decreasing trend with altitude in the greater
Himalayan range. The average annual rainfall decreases from outer Himalayas to
greater Himalayas in the Satluj basin. In greater Himalayas, it is about one-sixth of
outer Himalayas rainfall. The maximum rainfall occurs in the middle Himalayan
range in the Beas basin. Spatial correlation is higher in the outer Himalayas range
than in other ranges, which may be because of lesser relief in the outer Himalayan
range than in other ranges.
Snowfall increases linearly with elevation in greater Himalayas. Snowfall
gradients for the Spiti and Baspa sub-basins are 43 mm/100 m and 10 mm/100 m,
respectively. The ratio of snowfall to annual precipitation varies linearly with
altitude. All station records show more than 60% snow contribution to annual
124 Chapter 3

Figure 15. Tracks of cyclones in the month of October

Figure 16. Tracks of cyclones in the month of November

precipitation. An extrapolation of the relationship indicates that snow and rain

contribute equally at about 2,000 m, and all the precipitation occurs as snow above
5,000 m.
An evaluation of seasonal contribution to the annual rainfall suggests that
monsoon rainfall contributes most to the annual rainfall, 45–71% in the Satluj basin,
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 125

and 39–71% in the Beas basin, over all Himalayan ranges, as shown in Table 16
and 17. Minimum rainfall occurs in the post-monsoon season in the outer and
middle Himalayas because of the lower moisture content in this season. But, in the
greater Himalayan range, minimum rainfall is in winter because most of the precip-
itation falls as snow over this range. The contribution of pre-monsoon rainfall to
annual rainfall increases from outer Himalayas to greater Himalayas and becomes
significant to annual rainfall in the greater Himalayan range. Winter rainfall is also
significant in the middle Himalayan range for both basins.

Spatial correlation function

Spatial correlation of rainfall appears to be higher in outer Himalayas than in other
ranges. It may be because of lesser relief in the outer Himalayan ranges compared
with middle and greater Himalayan ranges. Spatial correlation of rainfall is better on
the leeward side than on the windward side in the middle Himalayan range. A study
of spatial correlation for annual rainfall and snowfall for both Satluj and Beas basins
revealed that spatial correlation functions followed an exponential form:

rd = r0 exp−d/do  (9)

Table 15. Summary of some important world-wide precipitation distribution studies

Authors/ Study area/basin Type of Relationship with Other specific

reference precipitation altitude/gradients conclusions

Central Himalayas Rain polynomial of 4th Maximum rainfall

Dhar and (Nepal Himalayas) degree occurs at
Rakhecha (1981) 2,000–2,400 m
Nepal Himalayas Rain – Rainfall decreased
Higuchi et al. with altitude in the
(1982) range from
2,800–4,500 m
Chenab basins, Rain, snow Second order Spill over effect
Singh et al. (1994; western Himalayas polynomial for was noticed in the
1995) annual rainfall on outer Himalayas.
windward of outer Maximum rainfall
Himalayas, was in the outer
windward and Himalayas
lee-ward of middle
Himalayas. Linear
increase on
leeward of outer
Himalayas and
exponential
decrease in the
greater Himalayas.
Linear increase in
snow with altitude.

(Continued)
126 Chapter 3

Table 15. (Continued)

Authors/ Study area/basin Type of Relationship with Other specific

reference precipitation altitude/gradients conclusions

Satluj and Beas Rain, snow Rainfall increase

Singh and Kumar basins, western linearly in outer
(1997) Himalayas Himalayas. In the
middle Himalayas
second order
polynomial trends
for winter and
pre-monsoon, and
linear increase for
post monsoon and
monsoon seasons.
Rainfall
exponentially
decreases in
greater Himalayas.

Source: Adapted from Singh and Singh (2001).

Table 16. Seasonal distribution of average rainfall in different ranges of Himalayas in the Satluj basin

Himalayan Side Rainfall (mm)

range
Winter Pre-monsoon monsoon Post-monsoon Annual

Outer Windward 155 (10.9%) 146 (10.3%) 1,010 (71.3%) 105 (7.4%) 1,416
Leeward 172 (14.3%) 201 (16.7%) 725 (60.3%) 106 (8.8%) 1,203
Average 164 (12.5%) 174 (13.3%) 868 (66.2%) 106 (8.0%) 1,312
Middle Leeward 209 (28.0%) 128 (17.2%) 336 (45.0%) 73 (9.8%) 746
Greater Leeward 6 (3.0%) 75 (37.5%) 105 (52.5%) 14 (7.0%) 200

Source: Singh and Kumar (1997).

Table 17. Seasonal distribution of average rainfall in different ranges of Himalayas in the Beas basin

Himalayan Side Rainfall (mm)

range
Winter Pre-monsoon Monsoon Post-monsoon Annual

Outer Leeward 179 (12.8%) 148 (10.6%) 985 (70.6%) 83 (5.9%) 1,395
Middle Windward 346 (13.6%) 323 (12.7%) 1,740 (68.3%) 140 (5.5%) 2,549
Leeward 327 (31.1%) 210 (19.9%) 413 (39.2%) 102 (9.7%) 1,052
Average 337 (18.7%) 267 (14.8%) 1,077 (59.8%) 121 (6.7%) 1,801

Source: Singh and Kumar (1997).

Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 127

Table 18. Spatial correlation function for different Himalayan ranges of Satluj and Beas basins

Basin Himalayan Type of Spatial correlation function Distance for

range precip. r = 075

Spiti sub-basin Greater Snow rd = 1200 exp−00277 d 17 km

(Leeward)
Baspa sub-basin Greater Snow rd = 1039 exp−00280 d 12 km
(Leeward)
Beas Outer Rain rd = 0877 exp−00035 d 43 km
(Leeward)
Middle Rain rd = 1231 exp−00441 d 5 km
(Leeward)
Middle Rain rd = 0851 exp−00037 d 34 km
(Leeward)

Source: Singh and Kumar (1997).

where r(d) is the spatial correlation coefficient, d is the distance between two stations
and do is the correlation radius (the distance at which the correlation reduces e times)
and r(0) is the correlation function at zero distance). Correlation coefficient (r) for
rainfall and snowfall series as determined for different ranges. Spatial correlation
functions obtained for different ranges and types of precipitation, and distance for
which spatial correlation coefficient is greater than 0.75 are given in Table 18.

3.6.7. Variation of Precipitation with Elevation

Dhar and Bhattacharya (1977) studied the variation of precipitation with elevation
in central Himalayas and a relationship between precipitation and elevation was
obtained using 15 to 20 years data of more than 50 stations in this region. It was
found that there are two zones of maximum precipitation: one near the foot of the
Himalayas and other at an elevation of 2.0 to 2.4 km. For higher elevations beyond
2.4 km, precipitation was found to decrease sharply as one move across central
Himalayas.
Statistically significant relationships between annual rainfall and elevation have
been derived for some parts of the lesser Himalayas. However, such relationships
have only a local predictive value and hold for a certain range in altitude. Above
a critical elevation (2,500–3,500 m), a reduction in precipitation is observed. North
of the Greater Himalayas, precipitation decreases rapidly to less than 500 mm
annually. Equally low amounts of precipitation have been reported for Tibetan
Plateau. The annual precipitation at Lhasa has been reported to be 350 mm. A
similar overall pattern was observed for the Kumaon and Garhwal Himalayas where
annual precipitation of 2,000 mm was reported.
Upadhyay and Bahadur (1982) carried out a study of the variation of precipitation
in Himalayas. The Himalayas Mountain system was conceived to be constituted of
three parallel longitudinal ranges:
128 Chapter 3

1. The outer Himalayas or Shiwalik ranges with a height from 1,000–1,300 m and
width from 10 to 50 km.
2. The lesser or middle Himalayas with a height ranging from 2,000–3,300 m and
width between 60 to 80 km.
3. The greater Himalayas with a height of 6,100 m and average width of about
200 km.
Data of rainfall from seven sub-regions in Western Himalayas having homogeneous
topographic aspects were used to study the variation of precipitation with altitude.
Table 19 shows the annual precipitation in different sub-zones. It has been seen that
the precipitation gradient decreases or even becomes negative when a considerable
increase of wind speed occurs with increasing elevation; this partly explains the
decrease of precipitation after a certain elevation in the Himalayas. This elevation
is noticed to be generally around 2,000 m.
Based on the study, it was found that participation is influenced by altitude in
three ways:

Table 19. Variation of precipitation with altitude

Station Latitude (N) Longitude (E) Height (m) Annual precipitation

(cm)

Kangra 32  06 76  15 733 196.6

Palampur 32  7 76  32 1250 263.7
Dharamsala 32  13 76  19 1387 300.9
Doon Valley
Dehradun 30  19 78  02 679 207.5
Raipur 30  18 78  05 750 209.7
Rajpur 30  24 78  05 914 300.7
Mussoorie 30  27 78  05 2042 247.0
Almora 29  36 79  40 1572 105.4
Ranikhet 29  38 79  26 1810 133.7
Mukteshwar 29  28 79  39 2311 132.5
Kumaon Region
Haldwani 29  13 79  31 440 199.5
Kathgodam 29  17 79  32 513 209.2
Nainital 29  3 79  27 1934 253.9
Joshimath 30  16 79  15 769 142.3
Ukhimath 30  30 79  15 1220 201.1
Birangkhal 30  15 69  15 1530 122.8
Joshimath 30  33 79  35 1840 95.4
Kulu 31  57 77  7 1215 100.6
Benjar 31  38 77  20 1524 110.6
Kathoi 31  1 8 77  32 1608 101.2
Keylong 32  35 77  4 3166 61.4
Ksauli 30  53 76  58 1844 163.7
Kotgarh 31  18 77  29 1949 115.3
Shimla 31  06 10 77  10 2202 159.0
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 129

1. The amount of precipitation increases with altitude up to a certain level and

decreases thereafter. The level of maximum varies greatly from place to place
depending on local topography. It is generally observed to be between altitudes
of 1,500 to 2,500 m.
2. Average variability of precipitation generally increases with elevation.
3. At higher altitudes, the period of maximum precipitation is generally earlier than
that on foothills.
Rao (1990) has provided data of the variation of precipitation with elevation in the
Beas catchment which is given in Table 20.

Table 20. Variation of Precipitation with Elevation in Beas Catchment

Station Elevation (m) Mean annual Standard Coeff. of

precipitation deviation variation %
(cm)

Dharamsala 1211 366 184 54

Palampur 1217 256 96 38
Hamirpur 786 142 55 40
Kangra 701 196 53 27
Kulu 1236 100 30 30
Mandi 752 157 25 16
Jogindernagar 1221 223 56 25
Sundernagar 1193 159 27 17
Banjar 1522 109 28 26

3.7. RAIN STORM ANALYSIS

Hydrometeorological analysis of severe rainstorms is important for planning and

designing water resources projects. In the absence of actual records of stream
flow, rainfall data are useful for assessing the flood potentialities as well as the
design flood of a project. The information required is the depth of rain which
falls in different durations of time and over specified area. A rainstorm has three
hydrologic dimensions and their relationships are of vital importance for assessing
flood potential of a region. These are Depth-Area-Duration (DAD) curves.
Rainfall data are employed to estimate the design storm for use with a suitable
rainfall runoff model to estimate design flood. Rainstorm analysis is a first step in
the design storm estimation procedure. The design storm (rainfall) is a magnitude of
rainfall and its distribution, which is developed for the design of hydraulic structures.
It has three components, namely, the rainfall amount, the areal distribution of
rainfall, and the time distribution of rainfall. The duration of design rainfall is
determined, considering the size of the drainage basin, duration of the flood, and
the type of structures.
130 Chapter 3

3.7.1. Types of Design Storms

Design storms are derived on the basis of (i) statistical analysis and (ii) physical
approach. Two types of storms are considered for design purposes. They are the
Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) and the Standard Project Storm (SPS).
The PMP is defined as “the theoretically greatest depth of precipitation for a
given duration that is physically possible over a given station or a specified area”
(WMO, 1986). Estimates of PMP for different durations over an area are required to
calculate the probable maximum flood (PMF) hydrograph. The use of PMP or SPS
depends upon the degree of safety required for the structure. The PMP is an estimate
of the greatest depth of rainfall for a given duration that is physically possible
over a drainage basin. The PMF hydrograph is used in the design of spillways of
large dams. According to prevailing norms, the major reservoirs with a capacity of
60 million m3 and more should be designed for PMF derived from PMP. SPS is
defined as that rainstorm which is reasonably capable of occurring in the region of
the problem basin. It is generally the most severe rainstorm which has occurred in
the region of the basin.

Design storm
Abnormally high floods with very low probability of occurrence are caused by
extreme storms. Consequently, flood flow estimates have to be based on data of
extreme rainfall events. Extreme rainfall events are few and to enable consideration
of not only the storms which have occurred over the catchment but also those which
could have occurred, methods based on transposition of storms, transposition of
depth-area-duration relationships and maximization of storms have been developed.
For maximization of storms, methods of moisture maximization and spatial
maximization are employed. Moisture maximization attempts to estimate the
maximum possible moisture content of the air mass at a given location, temperature
and humidity and purports to represent the upper estimate of the possible depth of
precipitation. Usually rain storm efficiency is less than 25% and all the moisture
flowing into the storm region is not precipitated. Actual precipitation is always
much smaller. This gave rise to the concept of “maximum possible precipitation”
but it needs to be highlighted that data available on extremes are few and the
process causing such events is still poorly understood. The term probable maximum
precipitation (PMP) has come into wide use but it does not mean that precipitation
exceeding PMP cannot take place. Cost of protection from the maximum possible
flood (if such a flood existed) would be too high to justify the project and hence a
lower level of protection is generally accepted. Therefore, terms PMP and probable
maximum flood (PMF) are now generally understood to cover this lower level of
protection. Of course, this lower level may vary from project to project and country
to country.

Rationalization of PMP procedures

The assumptions made or implied in storm transposition and moisture maximization
procedures may be valid for extra tropical regions where precipitation is chiefly
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 131

due to fronts (warm moist air rising over cold dry air). In a semi-arid country, such
as India where severe rainfall storms are invariably associated with low-pressure
systems such as depressions and cyclones in combination with other rain causing
phenomena, validity of the assumption of pseudo-adiabatic atmosphere is often
questioned.
The storm transposition and maximization method has thus serious limitations
in its application to catchments in India. An alternative method to arrive at PMP
estimates is a statistical procedure developed by Hershfield and Wilson (1960) and
modified by Dhar et al. (1983) to suit the prevailing conditions in India. WMO
(1986) have noted that the procedure is used mostly for making quick estimates
for basins of no more than 1,000 km2 but has been used for much larger areas.
Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM, 1989) has published the atlas giving
isolines of 1-day PMP values estimated by this statistical procedure. By using
depth-area relationships based on Indian data, the point PMP values can be adjusted
to various sizes of catchment areas.
Dhar & Nandargi (1989) have documented severe rainfall storms of 1-day, 2-day
and 3-day durations and presented Depth-Area envelope curves for 13 plain regions
of the country. These can be converted into percent depth-area curves for use with
atlas to obtain areal 1-day, 2-day and 3-day PMP values. The methods by Dhar
et al. (1983) with IITM atlas gives reasonable PMP values comparable to those
obtained by the traditional meteorological method for catchments of area not more
than 10,000 km2 . Most of the dams in the country have catchment areas less than
10,000 km2 . In-depth storm and flood studies are necessary for dams with large
catchment areas, such as Narmada Sagar.

Temporal distribution of design storm rainfall

Procedure for arriving at temporal distribution of severe rainfall storms has been
reviewed by Rao (1990) who concluded that the effect of chronological distribution
of PMP on PMF hydrograph peak and shape would be large and hence needs
serious consideration. To arrive at a realistic chronological distribution of PMP,
the following principles enunciated in WMO (1986) for estimation of PMP may be
followed:
1. The sequence should be in accordance with the storm characteristics of the area.
A study of self-recording rain gauge data of severe storms indicated that heavy
rainfall spells generally vary from 9 to 18 hrs with a clear break from the next
spell. Patterns of chronological distribution with “one bell” for each day of the
storm is thus realistic and may be adopted for catchments in India.
2. The sequence should be such that the maximum summation of increments for
any given duration may be less than or equal to but not more than the PMP for
the same duration.
3. Increments of rainfall should be areal and not point values. Temporal distri-
bution provided by IMD as percentages of 24-hour point rainfall obtained from
maximum rainfall depth duration data by fitting the mean curve (or envelope if
132 Chapter 3

conservative values are desirable) may be corrected for the area by multiplying
with an appropriate correction factor.
On the basis of data from 12 dense networks, Rao (1990) concluded that it is
possible to represent the relationship between areal-point rainfall ratio (P), area A
(sq. km) and duration T (hours) as:

P = exp−A0333 /11∗ T05  (10)

Rao (1990) recommended that eq. (10) may be adopted for applying the areal
correction to the temporal distribution pattern of point rainfall or adopt the simpler
chronological distribution pattern of “one rectangle” instead of “one bell” for each
day of PMS.

3.7.2. Storm Selection and Analysis

The first step in the rainstorm analysis is a thorough understanding of the meteo-
rology of large storms in the region of analysis. This requires a detailed study of the
synoptic and dynamic features of all major storms. A judicious selection of a few
storms, which are representative of the whole catchment, needs to be made. Before
deciding the appropriate storm depth for design purposes, either basin centered or
storm centered storm analysis is carried out.
By reviewing relevant records, such as daily or multi-hourly rainfall data,
depression/ storm tracks, recent and historical storm details, and flood data, a prelim-
inary selection of storm is made. Based on these, a list of all rain periods is made. The
next step is to fix an appropriate threshold value for storm selection after considering
the following:
• If the catchment lies in a semi-arid region a lower depth of rainfall is adopted
as a threshold while a higher depth is adopted for humid regions. A suitable
threshold would be 5 cm in humid regions and 2.5 cm in semi-arid regions.
• For smaller catchments, a higher threshold and for larger catchments, a smaller
threshold is used. An average catchment depth of 10 cm for catchment areas up
to 5,000 km2 , 5 to 8 cm for catchment areas between 5,000 and 10,000 km2 , and
5 cm for catchment areas greater than 10,000 km2 may be appropriate.
For the storms periods listed, the average rainfall using data of stations located
within and around the basin is determined and compared with the threshold value.
All the storms whose daily depth equals or exceeds the threshold are considered
for further analysis.
For the short listed storms, isohyetal maps are prepared. The scale generally used
for the isohyetal maps is 1 cm = 10 km. A common practice is to prepare total
storm depth maps of 1 day, 2 days, and 3 days, depending on the storm duration
and requirement of design storm duration. Where the movement of storm over
elongated catchments is involved, daily isohyetal maps may have to be prepared.
The design storm studies by Rakhecha & Soman (1992) revealed that in the
most severe 3-day rainstorm, 50% of basin rainfall is obtained on the heaviest of
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 133

the 3 days, 30% on the second heaviest day, and only 20% on the third day. Further,
3-day maximum basin rain depths varies from 20–30% in many basins, thereby
showing that more than one fifths of the annual rainfall over a basin can occur
in the course of three days. The spillway design storm of a river basin does not
depend upon the mean annual rainfall, as a low annual rainfall basin could have
high design storm and vice versa.

3.7.3. Estimation of PMP

Two main approaches are followed to estimate PMP. The first is the physical
approach in which PMP is derived by analysis of a number of major rainstorms in
and near the basin and then transposing the severest storm pattern over the basin to
obtain the maximum rain depths for different durations. The transposed rain depths
are then adjusted for moisture maximization. The areal rainfall values are adjusted
to the highest amount of moisture index corresponding to a maximum persisting
dew point temperature. Rakhecha et al. (1990) have given generalized maps of
highest 24-hour persisting dew point temperatures for individual months in June to
September for India. The PMP estimation by the physical method is described in
IMD (1972).
The second approach is a statistical procedure in which PMP at a particular
location is determined from frequency analysis of the annual maximum rainfall.
Normally, the Gumbel or the log-normal distribution is used. A statistical method
for estimating PMP for small areas was developed by Hershfield (1961, 1965) by
using Chow’s general frequency equation in a modified form:

Xe = X + km  (11)
km = X1 − X n−1 /n−1 (12)

where Xe is the PMP rainfall for a given station for specific duration; km is the
frequency factor and X1 ; X n and are, respectively, the highest, mean and standard
deviation for a series of n annual maximum rainfall values of a given duration;
and X n−1 , n−1 are, respectively, the mean and standard deviation for this series
excluding the highest value from the series. Dhar and Kulkarni (1974) applied the
Hershfield method to about 1,000 stations having long period rainfall data in the
plains of North India and prepared a generalized map of PMP for 1-day duration.
The generalized one-day PMP distribution for India is shown in Figure 17.
The Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM, 1989) has published an atlas
containing generalized charts of PMP estimates based on the Hershfield method for
1-day duration for different states of India. The 1-day PMP for stations in different
states of India varies between 30 and 110 cm.
For design purposes, hydrologists also need PMP values for rainstorms of two
to three days as synoptic scale disturbances, which cause heavy rainfall over India
during monsoons lasting for 2 to 3 days. Rakhecha (1992) carried out a study
on the estimation of PMP for 2-day duration for stations in the Indian peninsula
134 Chapter 3

Figure 17. Generalized one day probable maximum precipitation map

lying between 8 to 20 N. A generalized map showing the spatial distribution

of 2-day PMP is shown in Figure 18. The 2-day PMP estimates over the Indian
peninsula varied from 40 to 95 cm and the average ratio of 2-day PMP to the highest
observed 2-day rainfall was 1.76.

3.7.4. Depth-Duration and Depth-Area-Duration Analysis

Data on volumes of precipitation during severe storms is important to examine

and study storms suitable for design. Such information is generally presented in
the form of maximum average depth of storm precipitation over various areas,
such as 100 km2 , 500 km2 , etc. and is known as Depth-Area-Duration (DAD) data.
The DAD data is presented in tabular as well as graphical form. WMO (1994)
recommends Depth-Duration (D-D) and DAD for storm analysis.
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 135

Figure 18. Generalized two-day PMP map

Design storm depths for different durations are obtained by DD or DAD analysis
of severe rainstorms in and around a river basin on the basis of 70–80 years of
rainfall data. Estimates of PMP for the catchments are obtained by storm trans-
position and moisture maximization techniques. Frequencies of maximum rainfall
of different durations are also worked out by extreme value techniques. The DD
analysis is carried out using the boundary of the catchment up to a desired site to
estimate storm depths over the catchment for both in-situ and transposed storms.
The average depths of precipitation for different durations, 1 day, 2 days, and
3 days, etc. are computed in the same way as in the case of the isohyetal method.
These depths for different durations constitute the DD data.
Where a good network of recording raingauges is available, the DD analysis
could be performed for shorter duration (1-hr, 3-hr, 6-hr, 12-hr, etc.) rainfalls.
Alternatively, analysis can be performed by distributing rainfall observed at non-
recording stations using the data of nearby representative SRRG station. The storm
136 Chapter 3

Figure 19. One day storm isohyetal map of 30 August 1982 over Lower Mahanadi

centered DAD analysis for the total one-day storm isohyetal map of 30th August
1982 storm (shown in Figure 19) is presented in Table 21.
The DAD analysis is carried out using data of storms which have occurred over
different regions and for principal flood seasons. This analysis aims at determining
the maximum depth of precipitation for various size areas during storm periods
of 1-day, 2-days, 3-days durations. Such values, when determined for each of the
transposable storms, provide the requisite data for estimation of the design storm.
The steps of DAD analysis are given below:

Table 21. Depth-Area-Duration analysis computation for one-day storm (30.08.1982)

Isohyetal Area Area in Net Average Volume in mm ∗ km2 Average

value planimetered km2 Area in depth rainfall
(point) in cm2 km2 (mm) depth

Increment Cumulative

488 – – – – – – 4880
450 13.4 1,340 1,340 469 628,460 628,460 4690
400 38.1 3,810 2,470 425 1,049,750 1,678,210 4405
300 91.2 9,120 5,310 350 1,858,500 3,536,710 3878
200 177.1 17,710 8,590 250 2,147,500 5,684,210 3210
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 137

1. The selected storm is assigned a definite beginning and end using rainfall records
of stations in the region. Typically, the storm duration is from a period of no
rain to the next period of no rain. This ensures that the storm totals from all
stations are for the same time interval. Analysis is performed for the period of
the principal burst.
2. For each day of the total storm period, separate isohyetal maps for each duration,
i.e., maximum values for 1-day, 2-days, 3-days, etc. are drawn. Since the greatest
rainfall of one day may not occur simultaneously for areas of all sizes under
consideration, it may be necessary to carry analysis for two alternative days for
establishing the maximum one-day rainfall. Similarly, a two-day duration map
is prepared.
3. In storm centered DAD analysis, the last closed isohyet is taken as boundary and
in case of catchment centred analysis, the catchment boundary is considered.
4. The isohyetal maps are divided into zones to represent principal rainfall centres.
Starting with the central isohyet in each zone, the net area encompassed between
isohyets is determined.
5. The average isohyetal value is multiplied by the area to compute the volume.
The volumes are accumulated for every successive isohyetal range and then
divided by the total area encompassed by a particular isohyet to determine the
maximum depth of the storm for the corresponding area.
6. Analyses are repeated for other durations also. The incremental maps could be
prepared for shorter durations, such as 3, 6, 9, 12 and 18 hours also where
adequate data of recording stations are available.
For further details on DAD analysis, WMO (1969) may be referred to. A step-by-
step procedure for analysis is described in IMD (1972).
The total storm depth-area curve for each duration is constructed by plotting
the average depth against the accumulated area. The starting point on the curve
is the central storm precipitation (highest value). Considering the sparse network
of precipitation stations in India, the probability of recording the highest point
precipitation is small. In the study of most large area storms, it is reasonable to
assume that the highest station precipitation represents the average depth over an
appreciable area rather than the maximum point precipitation. The depth area curves
are plotted for different durations for each of the major rain storms. Conventionally
a logarithmic scale is used for area and the linear scale for precipitation depths.
A typical set of DAD curves for a storm is shown in Figure 20.
Abbi et al. (1970a) made a detailed study of 85 heavy rainstorms over North
Bengal and showed that the 11–13 June 1950 rainstorm contributed the highest
average depth of rainfall for 1–3 day durations. Dhar et al. (1974, 1982) analyzed all
the severe recorded rainstorms of 1-day, 2-day and 3-day durations over different
regions of North Indian plains and over the central parts of Indian peninsula.
The results of DAD analysis of severe rainstorms of different river basins/regions
were published in the proceedings of Workshops on “Unusual storm events and
their relevance to dam safety” by CBIP (1989, 1990). The DAD values for 1-,
2-, and 3-day durations for the most predominant rainstorms obtained by various
138 Chapter 3

100 1-day, 28 July 1965

Average Rainfall Depth in cm

90
2-Day, 28-29 July, 1965
80
70 3-Day, 27-29 July, 1965

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
Area in MCM

Figure 20. A typical set of DAD curves for a storm

workers are given in Table 22. The maximum point rainfall for these 13 rainstorms
varied from 24 to 99 cm for 1-day, from 44 to 127 cm for 2-days, and from 60
to 145 cm for 3-days durations. The main centers of these storms are shown in
Figure 21.

3.7.5. Frequency of Maximum Rainfall of Different Durations

An important problem in hydrometeorology is to determine the maximum values of

rainfall of different durations that may be expected to occur with given frequency.
The return period is the average interval of time after which rainfall of a specified
amount will be equaled or exceeded. Thus, 1-day rainfall with a 10-year return
period is that magnitude of daily rainfall which can be expected to be equaled or
exceeded, on average, ten times in 100 years.
Several investigators have carried out a return period analysis of maximum
one-day rainfall for many stations having long period rainfall data. Dhar and
Kulkarni (1971a) prepared nomograms for different sub-divisions of North India
for estimating maximum 1-day point rainfall for 2 to 25 year return periods. Ayyar
and Prasad (1971) studied maximum 1-hour rainfall of about 100 SRRG stations
having rainfall data of 20 years and prepared generalized maps of 1-hour rainfall
of return periods from 2 to 50 years. Caution should be exercised in determining
rainfall of specified return periods from generalized charts because local conditions
may cause differences in rainfall characteristics. If records are available, it is always
better to analyze the in-situ data.

3.8. RAINFALL INTENSITY – DURATION – FREQUENCY

STUDIES

A rainfall event or storm denotes a period of time having significant rainfall that is
preceded and followed by a period of nil or insignificant rainfall. Rainfall duration
is the time elapsed from the beginning to the end of the rainfall event. It is generally
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 139

Table 22. DAD values (cm) of severe rainstorms over India

Severe Affected Duration Area in km2

rainstorm date region (day)
10 100 1 × 103 5 × 103 10 × 103 20 × 103

17–18 Sept. 1 82 82 78 63 52 40
Uttar Pradesh
1880 2 104 103 99 87 77 62
1 44 43 41 36 33 28
20–22 Sept.
Bengal 2 73 72 67 58 52 44
1990
3 83 82 78 69 62 52
1 36 36 35 33 30 26
19–21 Sept. Madhya
2 65 65 63 57 53 47
1926 Pradesh
3 83 82 81 76 71 62
1 54 53 48 39 33 29
26–28 July,
Gujarat 2 100 94 79 63 56 49
1927
3 129 126 114 94 83 71
1 36 36 31 24 22 19
1–3 July, 1930 Maharashtra 2 71 70 58 40 33 28
3 77 76 66 47 39 35
1 99 97 85 65 54 43
1–3 July, 1941 South Gujarat 2 127 126 118 97 83 66
3 145 143 134 117 105 86
1 42 41 37 29 25 21
17–19 May,
Tamil Nadu 2 72 72 69 55 46 37
1943
3 95 95 91 73 61 49
1 50 47 45 40 35 29
3–5 Oct. 1955 Punjab 2 72 70 64 56 51 44
3 72 71 67 59 53 47
1 37 37 36 32 28 23
1–3 Oct. 1961 Bihar 2 55 54 53 49 44 35
3 58 57 57 44 50 42
1 24 23 23 22 21 19
28–30 Sept.
Karnataka 2 44 43 32 27 25 22
1964
3 62 61 51 38 34 30
1 51 49 39 25 20 16
13–15 July, Andhra
2 54 52 41 27 23 20
1965 Pradesh
3 60 57 45 30 27 23
1 56 56 54 45 37 27
18–20 July,
Rajasthan 2 84 83 76 62 52 40
1981
3 97 95 85 71 61 48
1 52 52 51 45 38 30
28–30 Aug.
Orissa 2 70 70 69 65 59 50
1982
3 88 88 84 74 66 55

Source: Rakhecha & Soman (1992).

measured in hours but it may be of the order of several minutes for small catchments
and days for large catchments.
The rainfall depth and duration vary widely depending on the geographic location,
climate, and time of the year. Rainfall intensity also varies widely in time and
140 Chapter 3

Figure 21. Main Centers of Rainstorms

space. Typically, rainfall intensities range from 0.1 to 30 mm/hr, but at times these
can be as large as 300 mm/hr in extreme cases.
Rainfall frequency refers to the average elapsed time between two rainfall events
of the same depth and duration. The actual elapsed time, however, varies widely
and is, therefore, interpreted statistically. For example, if at a certain location, a
100-mm rainfall event lasting for 6 hours occurs on average once in 50 years, the
100-mm, 6-hour rainfall frequency for this location will be 1 in 50 years or 0.2.
The inverse of the rainfall frequency is its return period or the recurrence interval.
Generally, larger rainfall depths are associated with longer return periods and vice
versa.
A long historical record of rainfall is needed to ascertain the statistical properties
of the annual maximum rainfall. Due to the lack of long rainfall records, extrapo-
lations are usually necessary to estimate rainfall depths associated with long return
periods. Such extrapolations involve a certain amount of risk. When the risk involves
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 141

human life, the concepts of rainfall frequency and return period are no longer
considered adequate for design purposes. Instead, a reasonable maximization of the
meteorological factors associated with extreme rainfall is used.
The rainfall intensities for events of shorter duration (1 hour or less) can be
expressed in terms of the average values. However, for longer events instantaneous
values of rainfall intensity are more important, especially for determination of flood
peaks. Temporal distribution of rainfall depicts the variation of depth (or intensity)
with time. It can be expressed in either discrete or continuous form. The discrete
form is referred to as a hyetograph that represents a histogram of rainfall depth (or
intensity) as ordinates. The continuous form is the temporal rainfall distribution,
a function describing the rate of rainfall accumulation with time.
The intensity of storms decreases with increase in the storm duration. Further,
a storm of any given duration will have a larger intensity if its return period is
large. In other words, for a storm of given duration, storms of higher intensity
in that duration are rarer than storms of smaller intensity. In many design
problems related to watershed management, such as runoff disposal and erosion
control, it is necessary to know the rainfall intensities of different durations
and different return periods. The interdependency between intensity i (cm/h),
duration D (hour) and return period T (years) is commonly expressed in a general
form as
kT n
i= (13)
b + tm

where k, b, m, and n are constants for a given catchment. Typical values of

these for a few places in India based on the reported studies of the Central Soil
and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute, Dehradun, are given in
Table 23.
Extreme point rainfall values of different durations and for different return periods
have been evaluated by IMD and the isopluvial maps covering the entire country

Table 23. Typical values of constants in equation 13

Place k n b m

Bhopal 693 0.189 0.50 0.878

Nagpur 1145 0.156 1.25 1.032
Chandigarh 582 0.160 0.40 0.750
Bellary 616 0.694 0.50 0.972
Raipur 468 0.139 0.15 0.928
New Delhi 52 0.157 0.5 1.107
Nagpur 115 0.156 0.25 0.990
Bhuj 38 0.199 0.25 0.990
Kolkota 59 0.115 0.15 0.924
Bangalore 63 0.126 0.50 1.128

Source: Mishra and Soman (2003) and Rakhecha et al. (1992).

142 Chapter 3

have been prepared. These are available for rainfall durations of 15 min., 30 min.,
45 min., 1 h, 3 h, 6 h, 9 h, 12 h, 15 h and for return periods of 2, 5, 10, 25, 50 and
100 years.
The relationship between intensity (I), frequency (F) and duration (D) at any
location can be determined from an analysis of records obtained from self-recording
raingauges. The magnitudes of rains of various durations, such as 5 min., 15 min.,
30 min., 60 min., and so on, are determined and these data for selected durations
can then be used to determine the magnitudes of rains of various frequencies. For
example, the 10-year frequency of 30 min rainfall can be determined from a record
of annual maximum 30 minutes values. The average rainfall intensity when plotted
against duration for a particular frequency provides an intensity-duration curve
which is an important tool for the prediction of runoff.
Ram Babu et al. (1979) have developed rainfall intensity-duration-frequency
equations and nomographs for 42 stations as well as for different zones of the
country, namely north, central, eastern, western and southern. These equations
and nomograms enable a quick determination of rainfall intensity for any desired
duration and frequency. The rainfall depth increases with storm duration and is
described mathematically as

P = at n (14)

where P is the rainfall depth, t is the storm duration, a is a coefficient, and n is an

exponent, and a positive number less than 1. Typically, n varies from 0.2 to 0.5.
By analyzing storm data, equation (14) can be used to predict the storm depth as
a function of storm duration. The applicability of such an equation is, however,
limited to the regional or local conditions for which it was derived.
For extreme rainfall events (world’s greatest observed rainfall events) given
in Table 12, the resulting enveloping curve can be described as given in
Figure 22.

P = 48685 t04888 (15)

where P is in centimeters and t is in minutes. For eq. (15), the coefficient of

determination is 0.996. A less accurate, but adequate, predictive relation (Mishra
and Singh, 2003) is:
at
P= (16)
b+t

where a = 454 × 103 cm and b = 239 × 105 minutes. Equation (16) fits the
data with a coefficient of determination of 0.96. A comparison of the predicted
rainfall values from equations (15) and (16) shows that low rainfall depths are
less accurately predicted by equation (16). However, eq. (15) over-predicts high
rainfall depths. Equation (15) remains unchanged if the highest two rainfall points
are ignored whereas the constants of equation (16) change and the coefficient of
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 143

4500
P = 4.8658t 0.4888
4000
r 2 = 0.9959
3500

3000
Rainfall depth

2500 P = 4.54 × 103t / (2.39 × 105 + t)

r2 = 0.9630
2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 200000 400000 600000 800000 1000000 1200000
Time duration (min)

Figure 22. Rainfall depth-duration relation for the world’s greatest observed rainfall events

determination improves. The former is somewhat insensitive to very high rainfall

values, whereas the latter is sensitive. It is because the trend of equation (15) is
governed by low rainfall values, in contrast with equation (16). Thus, extrapo-
lation of equation (15) may result in over-prediction of high values and the trend
of equation (16) passing through the middle of the highest two rainfall values
exhibits a mean trend. The advantage of equation (16) is that it is dimensionally
homogeneous.
Maximum observed rainfall depths over the north-central Indian plains were
computed by Subramanya (1984). These depths were computed from observed
data of two most severe recorded rainstorms (storm of 17–18 September 1880
over north-west Uttar Pradesh and storm of 28–30 July 1927 over north Gujarat).
The first storm was more severe but of shorter duration and smaller areal
extent while the storm over Gujarat covered larger areas and was of longer
duration.
Table 24 gives the maximum 24-hour rainfall magnitudes ever observed in India.
Figures 23 gives the maximum (observed) rainfall depths (cm) over plains of north
India. It is interesting to note that on January 07, 1952, Foc in the Reunion Islands
(east of Madagaskar, Indian Ocean) recorded more than 1,800 mm of rainfall. As
far as Asia is concerned, the record of maximum rainfall was set in Paishih, Taiwan
in 1962 when 1,250 mm rain fell. In terms of intensity, the most intense event was
observed in Barot, West Indies, where 38.1 mm of rainfall took place in a single
minute on November 26, 1970 (The Times of India, New Delhi, July 29, 2005). At
Cherrapunji, the rainiest month was July 1861 when 9,300 mm of rain was recorded
while the rainiest year was from August 1960 to July 1861 when 26,461 mm of
rain fell.
144 Chapter 3

130
1-day storm
110 2-day storm
Rainfall depth (cm)

90 3-day storm

70

50

30

10
0 50 100 150
(Area in thousand sq. km)

Figure 23. Maximum (observed) rainfall depths (cm) over plains of north India

Table 24. Maximum 24-hour rainfall magnitudes observed in India

Place 24-hour rainfall (mm) Date of occurrence

Aminidivi (Lakshadweep) 1,168 May 06, 2004

Cherrapunji (Meghalaya) 1,036 June 14, 1876
Cherrapunji (Meghalaya) 998 July 12, 1910
Kasauli (Himachal) 996 June 18, 1899
Mousinram (Meghalaya) 989 July 10, 1952
Dharampur (Gujarat) 987 July 02, 1941
Cherrapunji (Meghalaya) 985 Sep 13, 1974
Mumbai (Maharashtra) 984 July 26, 2005

3.8.1. Storm Intensity and Duration

Storm intensity and duration are inversely related. Division of equation (10) by t
yields the average (uniform) rainfall intensity, io , as follows:

io = at n−1 (17)

or
a
io = (18)
tm

where m = 1 − n. Since n is less than 1, m is also less than 1. Similarly, io can be

derived from equation (16) as:

a
io = (19)
b+t
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 145

where a and b are constants which can be determined by regression analysis.

A general form of the intensity-duration relation combining the features of
equations (14) and (18) is frequently given as
a
io = (20)
b + tm

For b = 0, equation (20) reduces to equation (14) and for m = 1, the former reduces
to equation (19).

3.8.2. Depth-Duration-Frequency
It is often necessary for midsize catchments to determine several depth-duration
curves, each for a different frequency or return period. Depth-duration-frequency
(DDF) curves are plotted with duration on the abscissa, depth on the ordinate, and
frequency (or alternatively, return period) as a third variable. The return period is
attached with constant ‘a’ in equation (14) as

a = kTn (21)

where k is the coefficient, n is the exponent, and T is the return period. Coupling of
equation (21) with equation (14) leads to a relation for the depth-duration-frequency
as:

P = kTtn (22)

Similarly, a relation of the form of equation (12) can be obtained as:

kTn t
P= (23)
b+t
A general form of equation (19), similar to equation (16), can be given as:

kTn t
P= (24)
b + tm

The DDF curves can be constructed using frequency analysis of recorded rainfall
data. The steps are as follows:
1. Select the duration of rainfall, such as 5, 10, 20, 30, 60, or 100 min.
2. For the duration selected, compute the annual maximum rainfall depth for each
year of record. If there are 30 years of data, then there will be 30 annual
maximum depths associated with the selected duration.
3. Fit an appropriate frequency curve to these values. The methods of frequency
analysis are described elsewhere (Singh, 1992).
4. Obtain from the fitted frequency curve the values of rainfall depth for the selected
periods such as 5, 10, 20, 30, 50, 80, and 100 years. Tabulate these values.
146 Chapter 3

5. Repeat steps (ii) and (iii) for different durations.

6. Rearrange the data as rainfall depth against duration for various return periods
or frequencies.
7. For a selected frequency, plot on log-log graph paper rainfall depth values on
the ordinate versus duration on the abscissa, and fit a smooth curve or connect
the points linearly. Do the same for other frequencies. These plots will be a
family of DDF curves.
Typical depth-duration-frequency curves are plotted in Figure 24. It is seen from
this figure that as the return period or duration increases, the rainfall depth increases
and vice versa.

3.8.3. Intensity-Duration-Frequency
Similar to the depth-duration-frequency curves, intensity-duration-frequency (IDF)
curves are plotted with duration on the abscissa, intensity on the ordinate,
and frequency (or alternatively, return period) as a third variable. Coupling of
equation (21) with equation (22) leads to an intensity-duration-frequency relation
as:
kTn
io = (25)
b + tm

For a given catchment, constants k, b, m, and n are evaluated from measured data
or local experience. Typical values of these constants for a few places in India are
given in Table 25. These values are based on the reported studies of the Central
Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute, Dehradun, India. The
values of Table 23 correspond to rainfall intensity, io , measured in cm/h; duration,
t, in hr; and return period, T, in years.
Extreme point rainfall values of different durations and for different return periods
have been evaluated by the Indian Meteorological Department and isopluvial maps

6
Rainfall depth (cm)

2-year
3 5-year
25-year
50-year
2
0 5 10 15
Rainfall duration (hour)

Figure 24. Typical variation of the maximum rainfall depth of various durations with return period
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 147

Table 25. Representative values of constants in eq. (25)

Place k n b m

Bellary 616 0.694 0.50 0.972

Bhopal 693 0.189 0.50 0.878
Chandigarh 582 0.160 0.40 0.750
Nagpur 1145 0.156 1.25 1.032
Raipur 468 0.139 0.15 0.928

covering the entire country have been prepared. These are available for rainfall
durations of 15 min, 30 min, 45 min, 1 h, 3 h, 6 h, 9 h, 12 h, 15 h and for return
periods of 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 years.
Example 3.1 Determine 1-hr and 6-hr maximum rainfall depths and corresponding
intensities having return periods of 2, 10, 20, 50, and 100 years that are likely to
occur in Chandigarh (India).
Solution: Here, t = 1 hr and 6 hrs. For Chandigarh, the values of the constants of
equation (25) are: k = 582, n = 0160, b = 040, and m = 075. As an example, the
rainfall intensity for t = 1 hr and T = 2 years is computed from equation (25) as:

kTn 582 × 20160

io = = = 505 cm/hr (26)
b + tm 040 + 1075

The corresponding maximum rainfall depth is: 505 × 1 = 505 cm. Other compu-
tations are given in Table 26.
Construction of IDF curves is similar to that of DDF curves, except for that
the former utilizes the maximum rainfall intensity and latter the maximum rainfall
depth. From a given maximum rainfall depth and its duration, the maximum rainfall
intensity can be computed by dividing the maximum rainfall depth by the associated
duration. The resulting plots will be a family of IDF curves.

3.8.4. Rainfall Depth-Area-Duration

Generally, the greater the catchment area, the smaller is the spatially averaged storm
depth. This variation of storm depth with catchment area has led to the concept of

Table 26. Computation of rainfall depths and intensities for various return periods (Example 3.1)

Duration Return period

Rainfall
(hr)
2 10 20 50 100

1 505 654 730 846 9.45

Intensity (cm/hr)
6 162 209 234 270 3.02
1 505 654 730 846 9.45
Depth (cm)
6 972 1254 1404 1620 18.12
148 Chapter 3

point depth, defined as the storm depth associated with a given point area. A point
area is the smallest area below which the variation of storm depth with catchment
area is assumed to be insignificant. It is taken of the order of 25 km2 (Ponce,
1989). The point depth applies for all areas less than the point area. For larger
areas, a reduction in the point depth is necessary to account for the decrease of
the storm depth with catchment area. This depth reduction is accomplished with
a depth-area reduction chart, a function relating the catchment area (abscissa) to
the point depth percentage (ordinate). The storm duration is a curve parameter in a
depth-area reduction chart.
The depth-area-duration (DAD) analysis is another way of portraying the
reduction of storm depth with area, with duration as a third variable. To construct
a DAD chart, two methods are used: (1) the mass-curve method and (2) the incre-
mental isohyetal method. Each method portrays the time division of rainfall differ-
ently. The mass-curve method involves construction of mass curves for individual
stations, an average mass curve for the entire area, and the construction of one
isohyetal map for the total storm rainfall. When rainfall measurements are available
at different times of the day, construction of mass curves is fairly easy.
The incremental isohyetal method involves construction of a number of isohyetal
maps. If the isohyetal pattern is simple and rainfall readings are available at a
uniform time each day, then this method is relatively simple. In many cases,
especially in developing countries, rainfall is recorded and reported once a day, and
the standard durations are, therefore, integral multiples of a day, such as 2 days,
3 days, and so on; and hence, the incremental isohyetal method may be preferable.

3.9. LONG RANGE FORECAST OF MONSOON

India was the first country to start a systematic development of long range forecast
techniques to estimate monsoon rainfall. Such developments started more than a
century ago in the 1880s. As noted by Gowariker et al. (1991), Blanford noticed
a negative association of excessive winter and spring snowfalls in Himalayas with
the southwest monsoon over India and issued monsoon forecast from 1882 to 1885
based on the Himalayan snow cover.
Gowariker et al. (1991) developed a power regression model for long range forecast
of monsoon rainfall. This model utilizes signals from 16 parameters which are globally
significant in regional and global forcings for the subsequent monsoon. To determine
the exact form of the power regression model, long-term data were used. Various model
parameters were determined by using step-by-step iteration together with method of
least squares. The model given by Gowariker et al. (1991) is:
 
R +
0 16
Xi +
i pi
= C 0 + Ci (27)
0 i=1 i

where R is the monsoon rainfall over India as a percentage of the long period
average, Xs are variable of the model, s, s, ps, and Cs are model parameters.
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 149

In the first stage of model development, the best suited order of parameters was
determined. The model of eq. (27) was developed by arranging the variables in
order of their decreasing correlation with the monsoon rainfall. The variables of the
model are described in Table 27.
The values of parameters of the power regression model are given in Table 28.
The authors have reported that the forecast rainfall lie roughly within ±4% of
the actual values and the forecasts have been able to explain 94% variance of the
observed rainfall.

3.10. RELATION BETWEEN RAINFALL EXTREMES AND EL

NINO CHARACTERISTICS

Along the coast of Peru-Ecuador in South America there is an ocean current called
Peru or Humboldt current. The El Nino (The Child) is identified with warming of
this ocean current. In some years, the current may extend southwards along the coast
of Peru to Latitude 12  S, killing plankton and fish in coastal waters. The occurrence
of El Nino events is on the basis of disruption of fishery, hydrological data, sea
surface temperature and rainfall along and near the Peru-Ecuador coast. Intensities
can be defined based on the positive sea-surface temperature anomalies along the
coast, viz. Strong in excess of 3  C; Moderate, 20  –30  C; Weak, 10  –20  C. El
Nino is the oceanic component of general El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
phenomenon, while the Southern Oscillation, generally represented by Tahiti minus
Darwin atmospheric difference (T-D), is its atmospheric component. Anomalies in
the two may not always occur simultaneously.

Table 27. Variables of long range monsoon forecast model

Subscript of X Corresponding variable

1 50 hPa wind pattern (winter)

2 Eurasian snow cover (December)
3 500 hPa ridge (April)
4 Central India temperature (May)
5 10 hPa zonal wind pattern (January)
6 East coast of India temperature (March)
7 Northern hemisphere surface pressure anomaly (January to April)
8 Argentina pressure (April)
9 Northern hemisphere temperature (January & February)
10 (Spring) Southern Oscillation Index
11 El Nino (Previous year)
12 North India temperature (March)
13 Indian ocean equatorial pressure (January to May)
14 El-Nino (Same year)
15 Himalayan snow cover (January to March)
16 Darwin pressure (Spring)
150 Chapter 3

Table 28. Parameters of long range monsoon forecast model

i i i pi Ci

0 0 1 01303086 × 102
1 50 10 1.4 −05824688 × 10−1
2 0 10 −20 03026653 × 102
3 0 10 −40 −01733019 × 101
4 0 10 4.0 06958737 × 100
5 50 10 −04 −01956036 × 102
6 0 10 4.0 04374519 × 100
7 0 10 4.0 04687574 × 10−2
8 0 100 −39 −01662928 × 106
9 50 10 −40 −04617612 × 105
10 50 10 4.0 05844691 × 10−1
11 50 10 4.0 −04456572 × 10−2
12 0 10 4.0 −01497441 × 100
13 0 1 000 3.3 −01183124 × 104
14 50 10 4.0 −01344925 × 10−1
15 50 10 −40 01940398 × 105
16 0 1 000 3.3 01257985 × 104

In literature, the term ENSO is used for the general phenomenon of El

Nino/Southern Oscillation. While analyzing the influence of these on droughts and
floods in India, Kane (2004) used the notations given in Table 29.
Various combinations of these were seen in Indian data. In particular, some
prominent events were ENSOW, i.e., El Nino (EN) existed, SOI minima (SO) also
existed and, eastern equatorial pacific SST was warmer (W). The SOI and SST
plots (12 monthly running means) were used to check whether the SOI minima or
SST maxima occurred in the middle of the calendar year (May-August). If so, the
events were termed as ENSOW-U, i.e., Unambiguous ENSOW. If the SOI minima
or SST maxima occurred in the earlier or later part of the year (not in the middle),
the events were termed as ENSOW-A, i.e. Ambiguous ENSOW. The year having
neither an EN nor SO nor W nor C were termed as non-events. Symbols S (Strong),
M (Moderate, W (Weak) indicates strength of the El Ninos involved. Figure 25

Table 29. Terms defined by Kane (2004) for ENSO phenomena

EN Presence of El Nino at Puerto Chicama (8 S, 80 W, Peru Coast) and Nino 1 + 2 region
(0–10 S, 90–80 W).
SO Presence of minimum in the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI). SOI is atmospheric pressure
difference Tahiti between Darwin (T-D), i.e., maximum in (D-T).
W Presence of maximum (positive anomalies) in the sea surface temperature (SST) in the
eastern equatorial pacific (Nino 3 region 5 N − 5 S, 150 W − 90 W and/or Wright SST).
Wright SO index is based on pressure at a number of stations.
C Presence of minimum (negative anomalies) in the sea surface temperature (SST) in the
eastern equatorial pacific (Nino 3 region and/or Wright SST). These are La Ninas.
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 151

shows the departure of monsoon rainfall amounts and Wright’s Southern Oscillation
Index (June-August) from 100 year mean.

3.10.1. Droughts in India

The years when drought occurred in India during 1925–1994 are listed in Table 30,
with the designations of years used in Kane (1997a, b; 1998).
Thus among the 22 droughts (10 mild, d; 12 severe, D), 8 were associated
with Unambiguous ENSOW and 2 with Ambiguous ENSOW. This indicated that
ENSOW (especially ENSOW-U) is a combination favourable for droughts (Kane,
2004). However, it is neither necessary nor sufficient. In half the number of events,
droughts occurred in other categories of years. It may also be noted that the
interactions between El Nino/La Nina and the climate anomalies (droughts, floods
etc.) are non-linear in nature. As such, the distinction d or D or f, F may not be
very meaningful.
In addition to the above, Indian summer monsoon rainfall data is also available
since 1871 and the Wright SST index is also available since then. These are
presented in Table 31.
Out of the above 17 drought events (9 severe and 8 mild), only 7 were associated
with ENSOW-U and 10 were associated with other types of events. This also
confirms favourable but not exclusiveness of ENSOW type events for causing
droughts.

15 Rainfall Departure 3
10 Wright SOI
2
5
1
0
–5 0
–10 –1
–15
–2
–20
–25 –3
–30 –4
1875 1895 1915 1935 1955 1975
Year
Figure 25. Departure of rainfall amounts and Wright’s Southern Oscillation Index (June–August) from
100 year mean
152 Chapter 3

Table 30. Occurrence of droughts in India

Year Drought Associated event Year Drought Associated event

1925 d ENSOW-A (Jan–Dec) 1966 D Non-event

1928 D C (La Nina) 1968 D W
1930 d ENSOW-U (Mar–Dec) 1972 D ENSOW-U (Feb–Dec)
1932 d EN (Feb–Jun) 1974 D SO
1939 d EN (Jan) 1979 D SOW
1941 D ENSOW-U (Jan–Jun) 1982 D ENSOW-U (Oct–Dec)
1951 D ENSOW-U (Mar–Dec) 1985 d Non-event
1952 d Non-event 1986 D W
1957 d ENSOW-U (Feb–Dec) 1987 D ENSOW-U (Jan–Nov)
1962 d Non-event 1991 d ENSOW-A (Jul–Sep)
1965 D ENSOW-U (Mar–Dec) 1992 d ENSOW-A (Jan–Aug)

Source: Kane (2004).

Table 31. Occurrence of droughts in India (additional data).

Year Drought Associated event Year Drought Associated event

1873 D ENSO (W not seen) 1905 D ENSOW-U (Jan–Dec)

1876 d Non-event 1907 d ENC- (W not seen)
1877 D ENSOW-U (Feb–Dec) 1911 D ENSOW-U (Aug–Dec)
1888 d ENSOW-U (Jan–Dec) 1912 d ENSO (Jan–Feb)
1891 d ENSO (Apr–Aug) 1913 d SOW (No data for W)
1899 D ENSOW-U (Jul–Dec) 1915 d Non-event
1901 D Non-event 1918 D ENSOW-U (No data for W)
1902 d ENSOW-U (Jan–Dec) 1920 D W (Jun–Oct)
1904 D SOW(Jul–Dec)

Source: Kane (2004).

3.10.2. Floods in India

The list of the floods from 1871–1996 f = mild F = severe is given in Table 32.
It can be seen from Table 32 that out of 43 events of floods, 21 were associated
with C (basically La Nina), 8 with ENC or SOC (EN or SO in a part of the year,
C in the rest), 5 with ENSOW-A (mostly II year El Nino events, active in January
but disappearing soon after, leaving the rest of the years as C), 5 non-events and
4 other types (ENW, SO, SOW). Thus, La Nina events seem to be better associated
with floods than El Nino events are with droughts probably because La Nina events
run smoothly and last longer.
The All-India area-weighted mean summer monsoon rainfall, based on a homoge-
neous rainfall data set of 306 rain-gauges in India, developed by the Indian Institute
of Tropical Meteorology, is widely considered to be a reliable index of summer
monsoon activity over the Indian region. The alternating sequences of multi-decadal
periods having relatively more frequent droughts and floods is a characteristic of the
Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 153

Table 32. Occurrence of floods in India

1872 F C 1914 F ENSOW-A 1955 f C

1874 F ENC 1916 F C 1956 F C
1875 F C 1917 F ENC 1959 F SO
1878 F ENSOW-A 1926 F ENSOW-A 1961 F Non-event
1879 F C 1933 F C 1964 F C
1882 F C 1934 F C 1970 F C
1884 F ENW 1936 F SOC 1973 f ENC
1887 F ENC 1938 F C 1975 F C
1889 F ENC 1942 F C 1978 f Non-event
1890 f C 1944 f SOW 1983 F ENSOW-A
1892 F C 1945 F Non-event 1988 F C
1893 F C 1946 F SOC 1990 f non-event
1894 F C 1947 F Non-event 1994 F SOW
1908 f C 1949 F SOC
1910 F C 1953 F ENSOW-A

Source: Kane (2004).

well-known epochal pattern of monsoon variability. Analysis associates the rainfall

anomalies with El Niño and La Niña occurrences. It was found that a majority of
the El Niño events are associated with drought years over India, while the La Niña
events are associated with flood years.
CHAPTER 4
EVAPORATION AND OTHER METEOROLOGICAL DATA

This chapter provides a discussion about evaporation and some meteorological

variables that are important in hydrological studies.

4.1. EVAPORATION

Evaporation is the process whereby liquid water is converted to vapor by the

transfer of water molecules to the atmosphere. This process is accompanied by
a transfer of energy. Evaporation tends to reduce water temperature. Latent heat
of vaporization is the heat required (in calories) to convert 1 gram of water at
1 atmosphere (atm) pressure to vapor. It requires 539 cal of heat to evaporate
1 gram of water. About 70 M ha-m of water is estimated to evaporate from water
bodies and land surface in the country. Obviously, evaporation is an important
component of the hydrologic cycle. This discussion is focused on evaporation
from a free water surface. Evaporation also occurs beneath the soil surface as heat
energy penetrates and vaporizes the moisture contained on and between the soil
grains.
Water also evaporates directly from the solid state by the process of sublimation.
A significant amount of water vapor enters the atmosphere by sublimation from
snow and ice. However, this contribution is far less than evaporation from the
liquid water in the oceans, lakes, and rivers. Evaporation is a function of climatic
variables, such as incoming solar radiation, air and water temperature, sunshine
hours, wind speed, and saturation vapor pressure deficit. Pan evaporation provides
an estimate of open water evaporation.
The amount of water vapor that can be held in the air is a function of temperature.
Warm air can hold far more water vapor than cold air. This relation provides the
basis for understanding not only ET but also precipitation. As the vapor pressure of
the air becomes saturated and equals the vapor pressure of the water, evaporation
becomes zero. By the same token, evaporation is a maximum when the vapor
pressure of the air is low, thus producing the maximum gradient between the vapor
pressure of the air and that of water.
155
156 Chapter 4

4.1.1. Factors Affecting Evaporation

The most important factors affecting evaporation are: (a) vapor pressure difference,
(b) temperature, (c) barometric pressure, (d) humidity, (e) wind, (f) water quality,
and (g) water depth and soil type.
Vapor Pressure and Humidity: Vapor pressure and humidity are interdependent.
According to Dalton’s law, the vapor-pressure gradient determines the rate of
evaporation. The greater the vapor pressure gradient, the larger is evaporation. As
the gradient tends to zero, evaporation also tends to zero. But this is complicated
by the temperature of the air and the water. If the water has lower temperature than
the air, evaporation will be low because the vapor pressure of cold water is low.
When air is warmer than water, evaporation continues until the vapor pressure of
air equals that of water.
Temperature
The movement of water molecules increases with temperature. The kinetic energy
of water molecules increases as temperature rises and this permits molecules to
escape from liquid water to the air more rapidly. For this reason, the warmer the
water, the higher is the evaporation. Of course, temperature and other factors are
interrelated, and it is not possible to isolate the effect of each factor on evaporation.
Atmospheric Pressure
Evaporation is greater at lower atmospheric pressures than at higher atmospheric
pressures because fewer air molecules are present in less dense air, there is less
likelihood of escaping water molecules colliding with air molecules. Atmospheric
pressure decreases with altitude and, therefore, evaporation is higher at higher
altitudes. This effect is somewhat offset by decreasing temperatures with increasing
altitude.
Wind
A thin film of saturated vapor exists over a water surface under certain conditions.
If this film were left undisturbed, it would act as an insolating buffer between the
water surface and the unsaturated air above and evaporation would slow down. This
condition seldom exists in nature because wind tends to remove the saturated film
and re-expose the water surface to unsaturated air. Evaporation increases with wind
velocity until the vapor-pressure gradient reaches some nearly constant relation.
At this point, a further increase in wind velocity will not increase evaporation
appreciably. The effect of increased wind velocity on evaporation is believed to be
related to the size of the water body. Wind removes water vapor from small bodies
of water rather quickly, whereas on large water bodies, longer time is required to
accomplish the same effect.
Water Quality
The vapor pressure of water is reduced when solids are dissolved in water. Pure
water has a higher vapor pressure than salt water. A salt content of 1% slows the
rate of evaporation by about 1%. Since the ocean generally has a salt content of a
little over 3%, sea-water evaporation is lower than the freshwater rate by about 3%.
Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data 157

Water Depth and Soil Type

Shallow-water bodies are more rapidly heated than the deep-water bodies and
are, therefore, evaporated more rapidly. Intercepted and ponded precipitation is
evaporated rapidly after rain-fall when insolation provides renewed heating. Soils
have an important role in evaporation: dark soils absorb incoming radiation and
convert it to heat more effectively than lighter-colored soils.
Lake Effect
Water absorbs and stores heat energy. A larger water body stores greater energy
than a smaller one. Lakes and ponds have varying effects on evaporation, depending
on the depth of the water body. Evaporation rates are higher for shallower water
bodies. Further, vapor pressure of the warm lake is much higher than the cold
air thus providing favorable conditions for evaporation. Shallow lakes and ponds
are heated by the sun to the bottom, raising the water temperature quickly,
and increasing evaporation with rising temperature. Such water bodies, including
ponding on a drainage basin, are rapidly evaporated because they have little heat
storage.
Evaporation is small during a runoff event, for the vapor pressure gradient is
low. In general, a runoff event from a convective storm lasts only a few hours, and
this short time, coupled with a low vapor-pressure gradient, would result in very
small evaporation. Although a cyclonic storm has a longer duration, evaporation
occurring over its duration and the duration of runoff is still small and can be
neglected. Evaporation from storage reservoirs in arid areas can be large and is a
direct loss for the project purpose. Evaporation from soils in the drainage basin
is important because this antecedent moisture deficit must be satisfied before any
significant runoff occurs.

4.1.2. Methods to Estimate Evaporation

Evaporation from water bodies can be determined by (1) the water budget, (2) the
energy budget, (3) mass transfer methods, (4) combination methods, and (5) evapo-
ration formulas. In the first method, water balance equation is employed to estimate
evaporation. The energy-budget method for determining evaporation is similar to
the water budget method except that the energy budget deals with the conservation
of energy rather than water. The energy available for evaporation is obtained by
considering the incoming energy, the outgoing energy and the energy stored in the
water body for a given time interval.
In the simplest mass-transfer method, evaporation rate is estimated as a function
of wind speed and the saturation vapor-pressure deficit. Several empirical expres-
sions have been proposed, some simple and some fairly complex. The combi-
nation methods combine the energy-budget and mass-transfer methods. The most
popular combination method for computing evaporation from free water surfaces
is that developed by Penman (1948). This method combines fundamental physical
principles and empirical concepts based on meteorological observations. Singh
(1982) has described this method in detail.
158 Chapter 4

4.1.3. Transpiration

Transpiration is the process by which plants utilize water for their metabolism and
growth. Plants remove water from the soil through their root system and transpire it
to the atmosphere through stomata in their leaves. These stomata actively transpire
water vapour to the atmosphere during daylight but close after darkness begins,
whereupon transpiration ceases.
Transpiration is affected by physiological and environmental factors. Stomata
open and close in response to environmental conditions such as light and dark, heat
and cold, and so on. Stomata allow carbon dioxide to enter the plant in the process
of photosynthesis. Important physiological factors include (a) density and behaviour
of stomata, (b) extent and character of protective coverings, (c) leaf structure, and
(d) plant diseases. All these factors are influenced by the types of plants and the
density of those plants. With adequate soil moisture, the greater the plant density,
the greater the amount of moisture lost by transpiration.
Vapour pressure gradient, temperature, solar radiation, wind, and available soil
moisture are the most important factors affecting transpiration. The vapour-pressure
gradient is a measure of the energy required to move the water from the leaf to
the air. Plants transpire little when the vapour-pressure gradient is low as during
a rainfall event. On the other hand, plants transpire rapidly when warm, dry air
surrounds them and plenty of soil moisture is available.
The rate of transpiration is doubled for approximately each 10  C rise in temper-
ature. Because a leaf is dark colored, it absorbs incoming solar radiation effec-
tively and its temperature becomes higher than the surrounding air. This condition
exists even though evaporation cooling from transpiration lowers the temperature
of the leaf.
Absorption of solar energy by a leaf raises its temperature and its aqueous
vapour pressure. Thus, transpiration increases with increasing insolation. Wind
usually increases transpiration by removing the film of moisture-laden air next to
the leaf and consequently increasing the vapour-pressure gradient. Gentle winds
have been found to be more effective in increasing transpiration than strong winds.
Transpiration is greatly affected by the amount of soil moisture. As the plant uses
moisture from the soil, the capillary forces holding moisture in the soil become
stronger and it is more difficult for the plant roots to remove moisture. Transpiration
ceases when the soil moisture approaches the permanent wilting point.

4.1.4. Measurement of Transpiration

Methods for measuring transpiration are related to the size and nature of the plants.
Small plants are placed in a small closed container and the amount of moisture
transpired is measured. A drying agent is usually placed in the container to absorb
the transpired water vapour. This moisture can be measured by weighing the drying
agent before and after the test. A phytometer is a large vessel, filled with soil,
in which plants are rooted. The soil surface is sealed to prevent evaporation. So
Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data 159

the only moisture escape is by transpiration. The lost moisture can be determined
by weighing the plant and the container before and after the test. This method
yields good results as long as natural environmental conditions are maintained
(Singh 1982).

4.1.5. Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration (ET) and consumptive use include both the transpiration by

vegetation, and evaporation from water surfaces, soil, snow, ice, and vegetation.
Consumptive use differs from ET only in that it includes the water used to make
plant tissue. For all practical purposes, these two terms are synonymous. ET and
consumptive use convert water to vapour which cannot be used again. Some water
consumed by animals is converted to vapour in the metabolic process and, therefore,
is not available for further use. The units of ET and consumptive use are cm of
depth for a specified period. Annual mean potential evapotranspiration over India
is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Annual mean potential evapotranspiration (cm) over India

160 Chapter 4

Despite the widespread application of the ET concept, there has been considerable
ambiguity in the use of various terms such as potential ET and reference crop ET.
To overcome this, the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United
Nations has introduced uniformity and standardization in interpretation and use of
various terms such as potential ET and reference crop ET in the report FAO-56
(Allen et al., 1998). FAO-56 discourages the use of the term potential ET due
to ambiguities in its definition. Moreover, FAO recommended that a hypothetical
reference surface “closely resembling an extensive surface of green grass of uniform
height, actively growing, completely shading the ground and with adequate water”
be adopted as reference surface. In the FAO approach, the surface characteristics
that influence ET are quantified in an unambiguous fashion.
ET from a reference surface, not short of water, is called the reference crop ET
or reference ET and is denoted as ET0 . The reference surface is a hypothetical
grass reference crop with specific characteristics. Further, crop ET under standard
conditions ETc  refers to the ET from excellently managed, disease-free, large,
well-watered fields that achieve full production under the given climatic conditions.
Further, due to suboptimal crop management and environmental constraints that
affect crop growth and limit evapotranspiration ETc  under non-standard conditions
generally requires a correction.

4.1.6. Estimation of Evapotranspiration

Consumptive use can be measured by (a) tanks and lysimeters, (b) using field plots,
and (c) studies of groundwater fluctuations. A lysimeter is essentially a tank with
a pervious bottom. The bottom arrangement is such that excess soil moisture will
drain through the soil, which can be collected and measured. This condition offers
an advantage over a tank because it prevents accumulation of water at the bottom
to cause unnatural growing conditions for the plants. The consumptive use is the
difference between the amount of water applied to the lysimeter and the amount
draining out along with an adjustment for moisture content.
ET from crop areas can be estimated by using lysimeters, physically-based
methods, or by using empirical equations. ET can be directly measured through a
lysimeter. Lysimeters can be divided in three classes:
(a) Weight type,
(b) Hydraulic based, and
(c) Volumetric based.
A weighing type lysimeter uses mechanical balance to determine the change in
the water content of the control volume. The hydraulics-based equipment employs
hydrostatic principles of weighing. In the volumetric based lysimeters, ET is
measured by the amount of water added or removed from the control volume to
keep constant water content. The site selected for installation of lysimeters should
be typical of the surrounding area with respect to soil characteristics, slope, and
vegetative cover. Although lysimeters are difficult to construct and maintain, if
properly maintained, these can provide quite accurate data.
Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data 161

Specially designed field plots are also used to determine ET under field condi-
tions. Surface runoff from these plots is collected and measured; water input in
the form of precipitation or irrigation is measured. Deep percolation is captured
by underground drains. To determine ET, losses as runoff or deep percolation are
subtracted from the water input and a correction is made for soil moisture.
Measurement of ET with a lysimeter is time-consuming and needs careful
planning. Installation and maintenance of a lysimeter requires skilled manpower,
instruments, and finances. Due to these reasons, indirect methods based on climato-
logical data are frequently used for estimation of ET0 . This requires measurements
of meteorological variables which influence evaporation. Empirical equations have
been developed to predict consumptive use for different crops and different condi-
tions. These relations have helped by replacing difficult and expensive measure-
ments. In India, gravimetric/volumetric lysimeters have been installed at nearly
40 stations for ET measurements. Besides, there are some installations maintained
by academic institutes.
To estimate ET from a well-watered agricultural crop, reference ET from a
standard surface ET0  is first estimated. This value is multiplied by an empirical
crop coefficient to obtain the ET from the crop ETc . The crop coefficient accounts
for the difference between the standard surface and the crop. Reference ET is
expressed in the units of depth/time, e.g., mm/day. It is a climatic parameter
expressing the evaporative power of the atmosphere at the given space and time
coordinates. Crop and soil features are not involved in computing it.
Numerous reference ET equations have been developed and are being used
depending upon the availability of weather data. These equations range in sophis-
tication from empirical solar radiation- or temperature-based equations to complex
resistance-based equations. Blaney and Criddle (1962) developed an empirical
relation between ET, mean air temperature, and mean percentage of day-time
hours. This relation has been used extensively. The underlying assumption of this
procedure is that the heating of the air and evaporation share the heat budget in a
fixed proportion. As a result, ET varies directly with the sum of the products of
mean monthly air temperature and monthly percentage of daytime hours with an
actively growing crop with sufficient soil moisture. Both meteorological and crop
effects are included in the Blaney-Criddle method. By accounting for rainfall in
the month or season, one can compute the crop irrigation water requirement for a
given irrigation efficiency.
Thornthwaite (1948) derived an equation to be used especially in the central
U.S. for limited water conditions. This equation produces monthly estimates of ET
as a function of mean monthly temperature, and two coefficients which depend
on the location. The combination approach of Penman (1948) links evaporation
dynamics with the flux of net radiation and aerodynamic transport characteristics
of a natural surface. Based on the observations that latent heat transfer in plant
stems is influenced not only by these abiotic factors, Monteith (1965) introduced
a surface conductance term that accounted for the response of leaf stomata to its
162 Chapter 4

hydrologic environment. This modified form of the Penman equation is widely

known as the Penman-Monteith (PM) equation.
The PM equation is physically based because it attempts to incorporate the
physiological and aerodynamic characteristics of the reference surface. While the
use of the modified Penman method (Doorenbos and Pruit, 1977) was earlier
recommended by FAO, recent studies have suggested that this method overestimates
ET. FAO has now recommended the use of the PM method to compute reference
ET from a grass surface and has specified a grass reference ET equation. Recent
studies have shown that the reference ET computed using the PM equation yields
estimates that are close to observed reference ET values.
FAO-56 Penman-Monteith Method
As described in the Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56 (Allen et al. 1998), the
FAO has adopted the Penman-Monteith equation (named here FAO56-PM) as
the standard technique to compute reference ET. The FAO56-PM can be used
for hourly or daily time steps. For hourly time steps, the equation is stated as
(Allen et al. 1998):
37  
0408Rn − G +  u2 e0 Thr  − ea
Thr + 273
ET0 = (1)
 + 1 + 034u2 
where ET0 is grass reference ET in mm/hour, Rn is the net radiation at the grass
surface in MJ per m2 per hour, G is the soil heat flux density in MJ per m2 per hour,
T is the mean hourly air temperature in  C u2 is the mean hourly wind speed at 2 m
height in m/s, e0 Thr  is the saturation vapour pressure in kPa at air temperature
Thr  ea is the actual hourly vapour pressure in kPa,  is the slope of vapour pressure
versus temperature curve in kPa per  C, and  is the psychrometric constant in
kPa per  C. Allen et al. (1998) have described the procedure and steps for the
application of the Penman-Monteith equation for various time step sizes.

4.1.7. Evaporimeters
The U. S. Weather Bureau Class A pan (modified), is used to measure evaporation
in India as per I.S. 6939–1992. It is a circular pan of 1.22 m diameter and 0.255 m
depth, made out of 1 mm copper sheet painted with white paint. It rests on a white
painted wooden stand (Figure 2) and water is filled in it. Water is added daily to
keep the levels within a limited range.
Measuring cylinder is used to measure the depth of evaporation. The diameter
of the measuring cylinder will be 1/10 that of the pan and the area of the cylinder
is kept 1/100 of that of the pan such that the depth of measurement by measuring
cylinder is magnified 100 times. The cylinder, which is made of brass, is graduated
from 0–200 mm. The 200 mm corresponds to 2 mm of depth of water in the pan.
Evaporation pan readings are taken once (equidistant and accumulative) or twice a
day (cyclic) at standard times at 08:30 and 17:30 hrs. Daily observations are taken
in the morning hours.
Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data 163

Figure 2. U.S. Weather Bureau class A land pan

To prevent drinking of water by birds and animals, either some chemical repel-
lants may be added to water, or the pan may be covered by a galvanised iron wire
mesh (22 s.w.g., hexagonal mesh, 1.5 in between opposite sides). The screen tends to
reduce pan evaporation by about 14% as compared to that from an un-screened pan.
A correction factor of 1.144 is commonly applied to take care of the effect of nets.
The pan is mounted on a wooden platform (100 mm high) to allow air circulation
below the pan. The water level in the pan changes due to evaporation and rainfall and
is used to estimate evaporation. A stilling well with a pointer gauge is installed in the
pan. The amount of evaporation between two observations of water level in the pan is
obtained by:

E = P ± d (2)

where P is the depth of precipitation during the intervening period and d is the
depth of water added + to or removed − from the pan.
Since a pan is a small water body whose material is different from a natural
body, its heat storage characteristics and air dynamics are different from a large
water body. Therefore, evaporation from a pan is higher than a large open water
body. Lake or reservoir evaporation is estimated by multiplying pan evaporation
by a coefficient called pan coefficient:

ER = KP Epan (3)

where KP is the pan coefficient, ER is the depth of evaporation from a reservoir, and
Epan is the pan evaporation, both in mm/day. The value of pan coefficient depends
164 Chapter 4

on climate, location, season, size, and depth of the water body. This coefficient
generally varies from 0.6 to 0.8. The lower values are typical of dry seasons and
arid climates where the pan water temperature is less than the air temperature while
higher values are typical in humid climates where the pan water temperature is
higher than air temperature. In the absence of better estimates, an average value
of 0.7 is generally used. Ramasastri (1987) computed open water evaporation
using pan – lake coefficients for whole of India based on the evaporation data of
104 evaporimeters.
In 1970s, there were 72 evaporimeter stations in India. For 30 stations, data are
available with IMD since 1959 and for 42 stations, data are available since 1961.
IMD has installed a network of 232 evaporimeters (indagrimet.org). Besides, many
evaporimeters are being maintained by project agencies, academic institutions, and
research stations. But detailed information about the number and location of such
evaporimeters is not available.

4.1.8. Pan Evaporation Data

Evaporation records from pans are frequently used to estimate evaporation from
lakes and reservoirs and ET from an area.
Since information about monthly coefficients is not available in India, these
coefficients are decided using the analogy of spatial variation from arid and humid
regions to the conditions that prevail in India during winter and summer months.
During the transition months, the ambient temperature and the pan temperature are
considered to be the same. Also, as it is generally observed that a factor of 0.7 is
accepted the world over as the coefficient on an annual basis, the monthly variation
has to be plus or minus the value of the annual coefficient. According to these
considerations, the monthly coefficients can be adopted as 0.6 in cold dry winter
months, 0.8 in hot summer months and 0.7 in the transition months between the
winter and the summer and the vice-versa. For this purpose, the parallel of 22
latitude has been taken as the demarcating line. The coefficients together with the
months are given in Table 1.
Evaporation rates closely follow climatic seasons, and reach their peak in the
summer months of April and May. The central areas of the country display the
highest evaporation rates during this period. With the onset of monsoon, there is

Table 1. Variation of Pan Coefficient values with month

Location Coefficient

0.6 0.7 0.8


North of 22 latitude November–February March–April and May–August
September–October
South of 22  latitude December–January February–March and May–August
September–November
Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data 165

a marked fall in the rate of evaporation. The annual potential evaporation ranges
from 150 to 250 cm over most parts of the country. Monthly potential evaporation
over the peninsula increases from 15 cm in December to 40 cm in May. In the
North-East, it varies from 6 cm in December to 20 cm in May. It rises to 40 cm in
June in West Rajasthan. After the onset of monsoon, evaporation decreases all over
the country.
India Meteorological Department has published monthly and annual mean evapo-
ration values of 30 stations in India. Rao et al. (1972) have presented monthly
and annual evaporation maps for India based on evaporation observations recorded
with wire mesh covered class A pans at about 80 stations. A map showing annual
evaporation of India is presented in Figure 3. Typical features of evaporation for
various months have been presented in Table 2.

Figure 3. Map showing annual evaporation (cm) (From IMD Evaporation data of observatories of India)
166 Chapter 4

Table 2. Typical features of evaporation for various months

Month/season Evaporation variation over the country

January Evaporation is highest (16 cm) over Saurashtra-Kutch. It is about 14 cm at Jalgaon in

Maharashtra and Raichur–Bellary in North interior Karnataka. It is 8 to 10 cm over
Rajasthan and Peninsular India, 6 cm over Uttar Pradesh and Bihar and less than 6 cm
over Assam.
February There is an increase in evaporation by 2 cm over previous month. The increase is 4 cm
in Saurashtra-Kutch and Jalgaon and 6 cm over Raichur -Bellary.
March The pattern is similar to January and February. Evaporation is 27 to 29 cm over
Saurashtra-Kutch, Jalgaon and Raichur-Bellary. Over Rajasthan it varies from 15 cm to
20 cm and around 15 cm in Uttar Pradesh. Evaporation is less than 10 cm over Assam.
April There is an overall increase in evaporation by 8 to 10 cm over the previous month.
May Evaporation is the highest in this month. It varies from 12 cm over Assam to 50 cm
over Jalgaon. Over Kota and Saurashtra-Kutch it is 40 cm. In north India, it varies
from 20 to 35 cm. Gaya with its characteristic semi-arid climate is isolated with 35 cm.
In the Peninsula it varies from 15 to 35 cm. Over Assam it is less than 15 cm.
June The distribution pattern is similar to May. However, values of evaporation are slightly
less than those in May.
July There is appreciable fall in the evaporation as compared to the June values. Isolated
pockets of 25 cm over Rajasthan and Bellary-Raichur region are noticed. Near
Kovilpatti in Tirunalveli district in Tamil Nadu, the evaporation is more than 30 cm. It
varies from 10 to 25 cm in the peninsula and 12 to 25 cm in north India including
North-east.
August The evaporation varies from 10 cm in Assam and west coast to 20 cm in Rajasthan and
central parts of the Peninsula.
September Over Saurashtra-Kutch, Bellary -Raichur region and the Kovilpatti area the evaporation
is 20 cm and rest of India it varies from 10 to 16 cm. Over Assam, it is less than 10 cm.
October The pattern is similar to September. However, with reduced evaporation by 2 to 5 cm
through out the country.
November The evaporation has decreased further and excepting for pockets over
Saurashtra-Kutch, Jalgaon, Bellary-Raichur and Kovilpatti where it is 15 cm.
Evaporation varies from 10 to 12 cm over Peninsula and 5 to 10 cm in North India and
less than 5 cm in Assam.
December The evaporation pattern is similar to January with high pockets (12–14 cm) over
Saurashtra-Kutch, Jalgaon and Raichur-Bellary. In other parts it is around 6 to 10 cm.
Monsoon The pattern generally resembles those observed during the months of July, August and
(June- September. Evaporation over West-coast and Assam is less than 60 cm. It is more than
October) 100 cm over Rajasthan and adjoining areas of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and parts of
Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. Isolated pockets of high evaporation could be seen around
Kovilpatti in Tamil Nadu and Bellary -Raichur in Karnataka.
Non-monsoon The pattern very much resembles the monsoon. Evaporation is less than 100 cm over
(November- West-coast, East-coast and Assam and is around 125 cm over Rajasthan and adjoining
May) areas. It is more than 100 cm around Kovilpatti in Tamil Nadu. Isolated pockets of
high evaporation of 150 cm are seen around Jalgaon in Maharashtra and Bellary.
Annual As is to be expected, the pattern is broadly similar to the monthly distribution, with
centres of high evaporation over Saurashtra-Kutch, Jalgaon and Kovilpatti in Tamil
Nadu. It is lowest, 100 cm over Assam. The 200 cm isoline covers a narrow strip of
north-south tract from Punjab to Karnataka through Rajasthan and Maharashtra. Parts
of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar States have evaporation ranging from 150 to 200 cm.

Source: Ramasastri (1987).

Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data 167

4.1.9. Evaporation Loss from Reservoirs

Evaporation loss from a water body depends upon climatic parameters of the
area, i.e., temperature, sunshine duration, wind velocity, relative humidity, etc.
Evaporation losses from reservoirs also depend upon the reservoir geometry and
actual water surface area.
The National Commission on Agriculture (1976) estimated the annual evaporation
losses from reservoir surfaces on the order of 50 km2 . The Water Management
Forum, a national body of the Institution of Engineers (India), has indicated that in
the Indian subcontinent the total evaporation loss of water from large, medium and
small storage reservoirs would be around 60 km3 .
The National Water Development Agency (NWDA) has estimated evaporation
losses from 29 reservoirs using live storage data. These data is given in Table 3.

Table 3. Observed Evaporation Losses from reservoirs

Project Live storage Evaporation Evaporation loss as % of

capacity Mm3  loss Mm3  live storage capacity

Koyna 1947 186 10

Yeldar 809 123 15
Chitrakot 478 116 24
Bodhghat 3715 196 5
Kutry I 1360 211 16
Kutry II 1391 370 27
Nugur I 1391 370 27
Inchampalli 4285 1567 37
Andhra Valley 67 19 28
Pench 1088 125 11
Lower Bhawani 777 7388 10
Pykara 1303 1328 10
Parson’s Valley 735 56 8
Upper Bhawani 853 314 4
Avalanche Emerald 1539 328 2
Pillur dam 349 232 7
Nellithorai 1405 283 20
Lower Sileru 380 18 5
Balimela 3823 150 4
Machkund 192 76 40
Nagarjunsagar 6923 536 8
Srisailam 7075 722 10
Sriramsagar 2322 268 12
Tungabhadra 3701 396 11
Somasila 1994 1645 8
Lower Wardha 213 53 25
Jaykwadi 2170 517 24
Vaigai 193 25 13
Polavaram 2100 989 47
Total 48885 7302 15

Source: NWDA.
168 Chapter 4

Table 4. Water losses due to evaporation (in km3 )

Particular Year

1997 2010 2025 2050

Live capacity-major storage 173.73 211.44 249.15 381.47

Live capacity-minor storage 34.7 42.3 49.8 76.3
Evaporation from major reservoirs @15% 26.1 31.7 37.4 57.2
Evaporation from minor reservoirs @25% 8.7 10.6 12.5 19.1
Total evaporation loss 35.0 42.0 50.0 76.0

Source: NCIWRD (1999).

It was found that the average evaporation loss from hydropower reservoirs was
16% of the live storage and it was 14% of live storage for multipurpose projects.
Using these data, a national average value has been estimated and found to be 15%
of the live storage capacity. The evaporation losses from minor reservoirs have
been estimated at 25% of their live storage capacity.
Using the norms of 15% of live storage capacity as evaporation losses by NWDA,
the losses due to evaporation from major and minor storages have been computed.
The details have been presented in Table 4.
Monthly distribution of evaporation loss reveals that potential evaporation is
higher in the month of May over most parts of the country while the month of
January witnesses the lowest value of evaporation. Further, estimates of evaporation
loss in the country show that the annual evaporation from a water surface in the semi-
arid and acid areas is as high as 2,000 mm. Annual average values of evaporation
ranges from 1,400 mm to 1,800 mm over a large portion of the country. An exami-
nation of spatial variations of evaporation reveals that values exceeding 2,000 mm
occur over west Rajasthan and parts of Saurashtra and Tamil Nadu, while less
than 1,400 mm is reported at coastal Mysore, Bihar plateau and east Madhya
Pradesh.

4.2. TEMPERATURE

Temperature directly affects two important hydrologic processes: evaporation

and snowmelt. In hydrological studies, temperature of air, snow pack, soil, and
water bodies is of interest. Temperature is a measure of the ability of the atmosphere
and water to receive and transfer heat from other bodies. The temperature of a water
body is also an indicator of its quality since it influences the amount of dissolved
gases and the rate of chemical and biological activities.
Periodic observations of air temperature are made using thermometers, whereas
continuous record is obtained using thermo graphs. Air temperature is normally
measured 2 m above the earth surface. Four types of thermometers, dry bulb, wet
bulb, maximum and minimum thermometers, are used. The dry bulb thermometer is
used to measure temperature of the surrounding air. The wet-bulb thermometer is
Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data 169

used to measure the temperature of the saturated air for determining the relative
humidity and dew point of the surrounding air. With the help of dry bulb temperature
and wet bulb depression, the relative humidity, vapor pressure or dew point are
determined. In measuring air temperature, thermometers must be shaded from the
sun without restricting natural ventilation. Measurements of air temperature should
be accurate to within ± 03  C.
Maximum and minimum thermometers indicate the maximum and minimum
temperatures attained by the surrounding air since the last measurement. Observa-
tions for these four temperatures are made once or twice a day at standard times
at 08:30 and 17:30 hours (equidistant and instantaneous for dry and wet bulb and
their derivatives; equidistant and statistic for maximum and minimum tempera-
tures). Data from the thermograph is tabulated at hourly intervals (equidistant and
instantaneous). In many hydrological studies, continuous temperature records are
desirable and can be easily obtained using a thermograph in which changes in the
temperature are recorded.
Temperature varies primarily with the magnitude of solar radiation and follows
diurnal and seasonal cycles. It is influenced at particular times by the exchange of
air masses and by cloudiness, which limits incoming radiation. Temperature varies
with latitude which controls solar radiation (Figure 4), altitude, and proximity to
oceans. Temperature of places near a large water body, such as sea, is moderated by
its influence so that the annual and diurnal range is smaller. Generally, temperatures
at nearby stations are strongly correlated. Normally, temperature decreases with
altitude at a rate of approximately 06  C per 100 meters for moist air and 09  C
for dry air. This rate is known as the lapse rate. The lapse rate for mean daily
temperature for the month of January, April, July and October are shown in Figures 5
to 8 respectively.

4.2.1. Temperature Variation in India

Similar to precipitation, temperature also experiences marked variations over the

Indian sub-continent. During the winter season from November to February, the
temperature decreases from South to North due to the effect of continental winds
over most of the country. The mean maximum temperature during the coldest
months of December and January varies from 29  C in some parts of the peninsula to
about 18  C in the North, whereas the mean minimum varies from about 24  C in the
extreme South to below 5  C in the North. In higher Himalayan zones, temperature
remains in sub-zero ranges for many months. The period from March to May is
the time of continuous rise of temperature. The highest temperature in May and
June in North India, particularly in the desert regions of the northwest may exceed
48  C. Temperature of similar order can be expected in parts of Andhra Pradesh
and Orissa. With the advent of southwest monsoon in June, there is a rapid fall in
the maximum temperature all over the country, particularly in the central portions
of the country. The temperature is almost uniform over the area covering two-thirds
of the country, which gets good rains. From late September onwards, there is a fall
170 Chapter 4

Figure 4. Temperature variation with latitude, altitude, and proximity to oceans

in temperature when the monsoon retreats from North India. In northwest India, the
mean maximum temperature is below 38  C and the mean minimum below 10  C in
the month of November. In the extreme North, temperature drops below freezing
point in winter months. The highest maximum annual temperature contours of the
country have been shown in Figure 9 and the lowest minimum annual temperature
contours of the country have been shown in Figure 10.
Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data 171

Figure 5. Mean daily temperature  C for January, reduced to sea level at ad-hoc lapse rate of 6  C/km

Figure 6. Mean daily temperature  C for April, reduced to sea level at ad-hoc lapse rate of 6  C/km
172 Chapter 4

Figure 7. Mean daily temperature  C for July, reduced to sea level at ad-hoc lapse rate of 6  C/km

Figure 8. Mean daily temperature  C for October, reduced to sea level at ad-hoc lapse rate of 6  C/km
Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data 173

Figure 9. Map showing the highest maximum annual temperature contours of the country

The country has a reasonably good network of temperature recording stations

which give a representative good picture of the variation of temperature in space
and time. IMD has a network of 560 surface observatories where temperature is
measured. The climatological tables of observatories in India (1931–60) issued by
the India Meteorological Department contain normals of maximum and minimum
annual temperatures (See Table 5). IMD has published the temperature maps for
the months of January, April, July and October have also been published by IMD
and are presented in Figure 11–14. As the maps of extreme temperatures are based
on the data of 60 years or more, they could also be regarded as the highest, and
lowest temperatures likely to be recorded. These maps and data should be adequate
for getting a general picture of range and the distribution of temperatures in the
country.
Figure 15 shows all-India mean series of seasonal and annual surface air temper-
atures, along with the trend line, based on data during 1901–2000 for a network
of 34 stations. The time series indicates warming of 03  C/100 years in the mean
annual temperatures of the country as a whole. It can be seen that the past 1940,
the cooling reported for the Northern Hemisphere is conspicuously absent in the
Indian temperature data. It can also be seen that the warming in the mean annual
174 Chapter 4

Figure 10. Map showing the lowest minimum annual temperature contours of the country

temperatures is mainly contributed by the post-monsoon and winter seasons. The

monsoon temperatures do no show a significant trend on an all-India scale.

4.2.2. Variation of Temperature with Elevation

Very few studies have been reported on the distribution of temperature in the
mountainous areas. A fixed value of temperature lapse rate (decrease of temperature
with elevation) has been used by some authors for distribution of temperature in
various elevation zones in a snow covered basin.
In a study dealing with the variation of temperature in the hills of Uttaranchal, it
was observed that the lapse rate of temperature observed in both valley bottoms as
well as along mountain slopes, was less than 65  C/km, the mean environmental
lapse rate. It was found that both the diurnal and annual range of temperature
decreases with ascent from plains up to a height of about 2,400 m and thereafter
it again increases attaining the highest value at higher elevations. Variation of
temperature lapse rate ranging from 38  C/km to 96  C/km has been reported in
the month of August on Chhota Shigri Glacier in Himachal Pradesh.
Singh and Singh (2001) studied the temperature lapse rate pattern in the Satluj
catchment using data from three stations Rampur (1,066 m), Kalpa (2,439 m) and
Table 5. Table showing minimum/maximum temperatures of major cities in India

City Elevation Max/Min Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Mount Abu 1,219 m Max 19.3 21.2 25.3 29.4 31.5 29.1 24.3 22.5 24.1 26.6 24.1 21.2
Min 9.3 11.5 15.9 20.0 22.3 20.5 19.3 18.3 18.4 17.4 13.5 11.2
Agra 169 m Max 22.2 25.7 31.9 37.7 41.8 40.5 34.8 32.8 33.2 33.3 29.2 24.1
Min 7.4 10.3 15.7 21.6 27.2 29.5 27.0 25.8 24.6 19.1 12.0 8.2
Ahmedabad 56 m Max 28.7 31.0 35.7 39.7 40.7 38.0 33.2 31.8 33.1 35.6 33.0 29.6
Min 11.9 14.5 18.6 23.0 26.3 27.4 25.7 24.6 24.2 21.2 16.1 12.6
Aurangabad 579 m Max 29.3 31.8 35.6 38.3 39.8 34.7 29.5 29.2 29.8 31.6 30.3 28.9
Min 14.3 16.1 20.1 23.8 25.0 23.2 21.8 21.2 20.9 19.6 16.1 13.8
Bangalore 921 m Max 26.9 29.7 32.3 33.4 32.7 28.9 27.2 27.3 27.6 27.5 26.3 25.7
Min 15.0 16.5 19.0 21.2 21.1 19.7 19.2 19.2 18.9 18.9 17.2 15.3
Bhopal 501 m Max 25.7 28.5 33.6 37.8 40.7 36.9 29.9 28.6 30.1 31.3 28.5 26.1
Min 10.4 12.5 17.1 21.2 26.4 25.4 23.2 22.5 21.9 18.0 13.3 10.6
Bodhgaya 113 m Max 24.2 27.0 33.7 39.0 41.3 38.6 33.5 32.4 32.6 31.2 28.5 25.1
Min 10.1 12.2 17.4 23.0 27.4 28.2 26.3 25.9 25.6 21.7 14.1 9.9
Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data

Bombay 11 m Max 29.1 29.5 31.0 32.3 33.3 31.9 29.8 29.5 30.1 31.9 32.3 30.9
Min 19.4 20.3 22.7 25.1 26.9 26.3 25.1 24.8 24.7 24.6 22.8 20.8
Calcutta 64 m Max 26.8 29.5 34.3 36.3 35.8 34.1 32.0 32.0 32.3 31.8 29.5 27.0
Min 13.6 16.5 21.5 25.0 26.5 26.7 26.3 26.3 26.1 23.9 18.4 14.2
Cherrapunji 131 m Max 15.8 16.9 20.5 22.0 22.1 22.9 22.2 22.5 22.9 22.4 19.7 17.0
Min 7.6 10.5 12.9 15.1 16.3 17.3 18.4 18.4 18.1 15.9 11.9 8.8
Cochin Sea-level Max 30.6 30.7 31.3 31.4 30.9 29.0 28.1 28.1 28.3 29.2 29.8 30.3
Min 23.2 24.3 25.8 26.0 25.7 24.1 23.7 24.0 24.2 24.2 24.1 23.5
Darjeeling 2,134 m Max 9.3 11.1 14.8 18.0 18.6 19.3 19.8 19.8 19.9 18.6 15.3 11.9
Min 3.0 4.3 7.7 10.8 12.9 14.7 15.4 15.4 14.6 11.5 7.4 4.4
Dehradun 682 m Max 19.1 21.4 26.4 32.1 36.2 35.3 30.4 29.5 29.6 28.2 24.7 20.9
Min 6.1 8.2 12.4 17.0 21.5 23.6 23.1 22.7 21.3 16.1 10.3 7.0
Guwahati 55 m Max 23.4 26.7 30.0 31.9 31.1 31.2 31.7 32.1 31.7 30.1 27.5 24.8

(Continued)
175
 176
Table 5. (Continued)

City Elevation Max/Min Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Min 9.8 11.6 16.0 20.1 228 249 257 258 247 22.1 17.3 11.9
Goa 1.022 m Max 31.5 31.8 31.8 32.8 328 305 289 291 294 31.1 32.8 32.7
Min 19.4 16.7 23.1 25.2 268 245 239 240 236 23.4 22.3 21.0
Hyderabad 542 m Max 28.6 31.2 34.8 36.9 387 341 298 295 297 30.3 28.7 27.8
Min 14.6 16.7 20.0 23.7 262 241 223 221 216 19.8 16.0 13.4
Indore 564 m Max 26.0 28.9 33.7 37.7 399 357 295 282 293 31.1 28.8 26.5
Min 9.6 11.0 15.3 20.4 248 244 226 220 210 17.2 12.1 9.9
Jaipur 431 m Max 22.0 25.4 31.0 36.5 406 392 341 319 332 33.2 29.4 24.4
Min 8.3 10.7 15.5 21.0 258 273 256 243 230 18.3 12.0 9.0
Jaisalmer 225 m Max 23.6 28.2 32.6 37.8 416 414 377 359 363 36.1 31.1 26.0
Min 7.9 10.6 16.9 21.4 258 273 265 255 245 20.1 13.0 8.9
Jodhpur 221 m Max 24.6 27.9 33.3 38.3 416 401 357 332 347 35.7 31.4 26.7
Min 9.5 12.0 17.1 22.4 273 285 268 252 241 19.6 13.9 10.7
Kargil 3,048 m Max −42 −16 4.7 14.0 216 257 297 289 249 18.5 10.4 1.2
Min −133 −121 −53 3.4 94 134 177 172 125 15.4 −13 −79
Leh 3,170 m Max −28 0.8 6.4 12.4 171 211 247 244 209 14.2 7.8 1.6
Min −140 −118 −63 −12 28 67 102 96 54 −09 −66 −111
Lucknow 120 m Max 23.3 26.4 32.9 38.3 412 393 336 325 330 32.8 29.3 24.8
Min 8.9 11.5 16.3 21.8 265 280 266 260 251 19.8 12.7 9.1
Madras 26 m Max 28.8 30.6 32.7 34.9 376 373 352 345 339 31.8 29.2 28.2
Min 20.3 21.1 23.1 26.0 278 276 263 258 254 24.4 22.5 21.0
Madurai 107 m Max 30.2 32.4 35.0 36.3 375 367 357 353 350 33.0 30.6 29.7
Min 20.9 21.6 23.4 25.4 263 263 257 252 248 24.0 23.0 21.6
Mussorie 2,006 m Max 10.1 11.9 16.2 21,0 248 240 208 202 200 18.7 15.8 12.7
Min 2.5 3.7 7.2 11.8 150 164 160 155 143 11.1 7.4 4.3
Mysore 767 m Max 28.3 31.2 33.5 34.0 326 290 273 279 287 28.4 27.4 27.0
Chapter 4

Min 16.4 18.2 20.2 21.4 212 202 197 196 193 19.6 18.3 16.5
Nagpur 311 m Max 28.6 32.5 36.4 39.7 428 384 312 304 315 31.9 30.0 28.7
Min 12.7 15.1 19.1 23.9 284 269 240 237 231 21.0 14.1 12.1
New Delhi 239 m Max 21.3 23.6 30.2 36.2 405 399 353 337 340 33.1 28.7 23.4
Min 7.3 10.0 15.1 21.0 266 287 272 260 246 18.7 11.8 8.0
Ootacamund 2,286 m Max 19.9 20.6 21.9 22.0 218 180 164 173 182 18.7 18.9 19.7
Min 5.0 6.3 8.4 10.2 112 110 109 109 104 10.0 8.3 6.3
Patna 53 m Max 23.6 26.3 32.9 37.6 389 367 329 320 323 31.9 28.9 24.9
Min 11.0 13.4 18.6 23.3 260 270 267 266 263 23.0 16.0 11.7
Pune 559 m Max 30.7 32.9 36.0 37.9 379 320 278 277 292 31.8 30.8 30.1
Min 12.0 13.3 16.8 20.6 226 230 220 215 208 19.3 15.0 12.0
Puri 6m Max 27.0 28.3 30.0 30.7 316 317 306 310 314 31.2 29.3 27.2
Min 18.0 20.8 24.6 26.6 277 274 267 268 266 25.0 20.8 17.7
Shillong 1,496 m Max 15.5 17.0 21.5 23.8 237 237 240 241 236 21.8 18.9 16.4
Min 3.6 6.4 10.5 14.0 155 174 180 178 166 13.0 7.7 4.5
Shimla 2,205 m Max 8.5 10.3 14.4 19.2 234 243 210 201 200 18.0 15.0 11.3
Min 2.0 3.1 6.8 11.2 150 162 156 152 138 10.8 7.3 4.2
Srinagar 1,768 m Max 4.4 7.9 13.4 19.3 246 290 308 300 283 22.6 15.5 8.8
Min −23 −08 3.5 7.4 112 144 184 179 127 5.7 −01 −18
Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data

Tiruchirapalli 78 m Max 30.1 32.7 35.1 36.7 371 364 355 350 342 32.3 29.9 29.3
Min 20.6 21.3 22.9 25.8 264 265 259 254 250 24.0 22.7 21.3
Trivandrum 61 m Max 31.3 31.7 32.5 32.4 316 294 291 294 299 29.9 30.1 30.9
Min 22.3 22.9 24.2 25.1 250 236 232 233 233 23.4 23.1 22.5
Udaipur 577 m Max 24.2 27.6 32.3 36.0 386 359 307 293 309 32.0 29.1 26.3
Min 7.8 9.7 15.1 20.2 249 253 239 229 221 18.9 11.0 8.3
Varanasi 81 m Max 23.4 26.6 33.4 38.6 415 391 335 322 327 32.5 28.6 24.4
Min 9.5 12.0 17.2 22.4 270 283 265 260 255 20.7 13.4 9.7

Source: IMD (1981).

177
178 Chapter 4

Figure 11. Mean temperature of India for January

Rakcham (3,130 m) located in a contiguous region. It was observed that mean

monthly lapse rate varied between 67  C/km to 89  C/km for Rampur-Kalpa and
between 30  C/km to 53  C/km for Kalpa to Rakcham. The average values for
the snow melt season (March-June) for Rampur – Kalpa and Kalpa – Rakcham are
85  C/km and 405  C/km. respectively. The conclusions of the study should be
viewed in light of the limited number of stations used in the study.

4.2.3. Water Temperature

Temperature of water is also input in many studies. Several types of thermometers

are used for this purpose: the usual mercury thermometer or thermocouple
thermometers, with voltmeter, with or without recorder. The former is used for
direct temperature observations. Continuous records may be obtained with resis-
tance or thermocouple elements. For most hydrological applications, precision of
±01  C seems to be adequate.
Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data 179

Figure 12. Mean temperature of India for April

4.2.4. Dew-Point Temperature

The temperature to which air must be cooled at constant pressure to reach saturation
is called dew-point temperature or simply dew point, Td . Further cooling will result
in condensation of the excess moisture. Thus, dew point is a direct measure of the
water vapor pressure. The difference between temperature and the dew point is a
measure of the degree of saturation of air. The general application of dew point is
made for estimation of precipitable water, height of cloud base, and forecasting of
dew, fog, and frost. Following Linsley et al. (1989), the dew-point temperature can
be estimated within 03  C in the temperature range 40 to 50  C as

T − Td = 1455 + 0114T1 − RH + 25 + 0007T1 − RH 3

+ 159 + 0117T1 − RH14 (4)

where T is in  C, and RH is the relative humidity expressed as a decimal fraction.

The maximum persisting 24-hour dew point temperature  C in India is shown in
Figure 16.
180 Chapter 4

Figure 13. Mean temperature of India for July

4.3. HUMIDITY

Humidity is a general term used to indicate moisture in the atmosphere. Vapor

pressure and humidity are intertwined. Absolute humidity g/m3  is the mass of
water vapor contained in a unit volume of space, and can be determined from the
equation of state for an ideal gas. The specific humidity (gm/gm) is the mass of
water vapor contained within a unit mass of moist air.

4.3.1. Relative Humidity

Atmospheric humidity has a significant influence on evapotranspiration. The

commonly used term relative humidity (RH) can be defined as the ratio (%) of
the actual vapor pressure of the air to the saturation vapor pressure at the same
pressure and temperature. Direct measurement of relative humidity is accomplished
using a hygrograph. Indirect estimation of relative humidity is accomplished using
Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data 181

Figure 14. Mean temperature of India for October

dry and wet bulb temperature records. Wet-bulb thermometers must be carefully
shielded from radiation. Further, there should be adequate ventilation to obtain
a true wet-bulb temperature. The estimated humidity from the dry and wet bulb
temperatures are obtained daily (equidistant and instantaneous) or twice daily at
standard times at 08:30 and 17:30 hrs. The continuous record obtained from the
hygrograph is tabulated at hourly intervals. Measurements of humidity are made at
the same location where air temperature is measured.
In other words, RH is the ratio of the actual amount of water vapor present in
the sample of air parcel to the maximum possible amount of water vapor in the
sample at a given temperature. Generally, the percent value of relative humidity is
used, i.e., the ratio is multiplied by 100. It may be expressed as

RH = e/es (5)

where es is the saturated vapor pressure. Since most of the atmosphere is unsaturated,
it is useful to estimate the degree of saturation. Saturation deficit is one of the
182 Chapter 4

Source: IITM
Figure 15. All – India mean surface temperature (1901–2000)

important parameters used to compute evaporation. Relative humidity is a function

of temperature because the vapor pressure that determines relative humidity is a
function of temperature.
The relative humidity is not a direct measure of the moisture in the air. It is
possible to have 100% relative humidity at 0  C and 100% relative humidity at
30  C. Even though the relative humidity is the same in both cases, the amount of
water vapour in the atmosphere is far greater at 30  C than at 0  C., as seen from
Figure 17.
In high latitudes, the relative humidity is found to be about 75–85% due to
sustained low temperatures. In the equatorial belt, the relative humidity is also high
(75–80%) because of high vapor pressure. In the subtropical belt which consists
most of the deserts, a low humidity (20–40%) is observed.
Bosen (1958) has given a simple formula for computing RH in percent directly
from air temperature T  C and dew-point temperature Td  C as

RH = 112 − 01T + Td /112 + 09T 8 (6)

In India, RH values have in general increased significantly over the past several
decades. This has been attributed mainly to large increase in irrigated area over the
country.
The relative humidity does not vary much over a short time. Places close to sea
have higher RH and a smaller daily variation than inland locations. RH is assessed
by joint measurements of dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures. The dry bulb refers
Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data 183

Figure 16. Maximum persisting 24-hr dew point temperature  C in India

to an ordinary thermometer. The wet bulb is covered with a clean muslin sleeve,
tied around the bulb by a cotton wick which is dipped in a water container so
that the wick and muslin are kept constantly moist. From these two measurements,
the dew point temperature, and actual and saturated vapor pressures may also be
calculated.
While the actual vapor pressure may vary little during the day, RH has a regular
diurnal pattern with a minimum normally coinciding with the highest temper-
ature. It also shows a regular seasonal variation. RH is calculated from the wet
bulb depression (difference between dry and wet bulb readings). RH may also be
measured continuously by means of a hygrograph in which humidity is registered
on a chart.
Analysis of RH data over the country shows that RH has considerably increased
over last 4–5 decades. One of the reasons behind this increase is tremendous increase
in application of irrigation water over the agricultural area, a large percentage of
which is evaporated. Figure 18 shows the relative humidity over India in the month
of July.
184 Chapter 4

Figure 17. Amount of water vapour in the atmosphere at different temperatures

4.4. SUNSHINE
The sunshine duration is an input variable in the estimation of evapotranspiration in
the absence of radiation measurements. The potential maximum sunshine duration
depends on latitude and season; the actual sunshine hours vary due to clouds, fog,
etc. In urban areas, the amount of bright sunshine may be reduced by atmospheric
pollution and in coastal areas it may be reduced by sea mist.
Observation of sunshine duration is commonly made by Campbell Stokes
sunshine recorder. It is a glass sphere mounted on a section of a spherical bowl.
The sphere focuses Sun’s rays on a card graduated in hours, held in the grooves
of the bowl which burns the card when the Sun is shining. The recorder uses the
movement of the Sun to form the time basis of the record. The card is changed
daily after sunset. The lengths of burnt traces on the card indicate the sunshine
duration and the data at the required resolution is tabulated.
The duration of bright sunshine is an important factor affecting crop growth. It
would, therefore, be useful to have an idea of its distribution (Rao and Ganesan,
1972) which is as follows:
Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data 185

Figure 18. Relative humidity over India in the month of July

1. The daily average in January is more than 7 hours per day except in Kashmir.
The western half of the peninsula and adjoining Gujarat areas have the highest
average of more than 9 hours per day. Only in the extreme north and over
Kashmir, the values are low and average in Srinagar (J & K) is only 2.5 hours per
day. The low values in the extreme north are due to the passage of succession of
western disturbances during the winter season when clouding is also high. With
the advent of summer, the duration of bright sunshine shows a general increase
and the average in April is 9 to 10 hours per day over most of the country. The
highest averages are over Gujarat and the adjoining regions of Rajasthan and
Maharashtra.
2. The pattern changes completely with the onset of the southwest monsoon in June
and July. The West Coast has an average of less than 3 hours a day. Mumbai’s
average is only 2.5 hours. Assam and Bengal and places close to Chennai have
averages of 4 to 5 hours a day.
3. By October, the southwest monsoon has withdrawn from most of the country.
With a maximum of more than 10 hours over Western Rajasthan, sunshine
decreases to less than 6 hours in the extreme northeast and southern parts of the
country.
186 Chapter 4

4. The annual average duration of bright sunshine is 7 to 9 hours a day. The annual
range of sunshine decreases from 5 to 7 hours in the Peninsula to 3 to 4 hours in
northern latitudes. The average monthly duration is maximum in the Peninsula
in February and during April-May in north India; it is minimum in the monsoon
season.
5. Diurnal variation is nearly similar at most stations with flat maxima between
10 to 15 hours local time and least in the monsoon season. Isopleths of hourly
values show two ovals separated by a central zone of low values during monsoon
months; this feature is not noted in Kashmir latitudes.
6. A pronounced inverse relation exists between sunshine and cloudiness. The
correlation coefficient between annual mean cloudiness and sunshine of
57 stations distributed all over the country is 0.76. The highest duration of
sunshine recorded on any day so far is 12.5 to 13.3 hours to the north of latitude
20  N and 11.5 to 12 hours in the peninsula. The frequency of daily duration
exceeding 9 hours is generally least during monsoons. Sunshine is not a serious
limiting factor for crop growth in almost the entire country.

4.4.1. Sunshine Duration

The duration of sunshine is a useful variable for estimation of evapotranspiration.

The instrument commonly employed for observation of sunshine duration is the
Campbell Stokes sunshine recorder. The lengths of burnt traces on the sunshine
card indicate the sunshine duration. Sunshine duration data is tabulated for each
hourly duration in the day and is considered as of equidistant and accumulative
nature.

4.5. WIND

4.5.1. Wind Speed and Direction

Wind speed and direction are inputs for calculation of evapotranspiration. Wind
speeds are controlled by local pressure anomalies which in turn are influenced by
temperature and local topographic features. Wind speed exhibits a wide variation
not only from place to place but also during the day. The wind direction may
influence evaporation if the surrounding environment has different humidity in
different directions. Figure 19 shows the mean upper winds over India and neigh-
bourhood at 200 mb during April and July.
Wind speed and wind direction are measured using anemometer and wind vane,
respectively. Observations are made daily or twice daily at standard times at 08:30
and 17:30 hrs. Wind speed measurement may be instantaneous or, if wind run over
a time interval is observed, then it is accumulative. Wind direction may influence
measured evaporation totals if the surrounding environment in terms of wetness
differs in different directions.
Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data 187

Figure 19. Mean upper winds over India and neighbourhood at 200 mb during April and July

4.5.2. Anemometer

Normally wind speed is measured at a height of 2 m above the ground surface.

In India usually a cup type anemometer has been approved by the IMD and
also specified by the Bureau of Indian Standrads. The number of rotations of
the anemometer over a time interval is displayed by a counter or logged using
a data logger and indicates the average speed over that interval. The data is
useful in estimating the wave height in the reservoirs and for estimation of evapo-
ration as well as estimation of the consumptive use of crops. Normally, the wind
speed over a three-minute period is considered as instantaneous wind speed at that
time. The daily wind run or the average wind speed is calculated from counter
readings on successive days at the principal observation times. Accuracy of wind
measurements by the three-cup anemometers is usually within ± 05 m/s, which is
188 Chapter 4

acceptable for hydrological applications. In a totalizing anemometer, the counter

must be read at fixed intervals (preferably daily).
By the side of the anemometer, a wind direction indicator (wind wane) should
also be fixed. The wind wane consists of a horizontal arm which carries a flat
tail fin at one end and a counter weight at the other end. The horizontal arm is
mounted on a vertical spindle mounted on bearings. Four direction arms are provided
which carry the letters, North, East, South, and West, which shall point towards
the corresponding true directions. The wind direction is reported as 16 points of
the compass either as a numerical figure or an alphabet character. Observations
are made daily in the morning or twice daily in morning and evening. Wind speed
measurements may be instantaneous; these are accumulative if the wind run over a
time interval is observed.
Surface winds in the country are generally weak, mean daily wind speeds being
less than 10 to 15 km per hour, except along the Saurashtra Coast where they
are stronger. Strong or high winds are mainly associated with cyclonic storms,
depressions, thunder or dust storms, squally weather along coasts, etc. Strong winds
due to cyclonic storms along some part or the other of coastal belts are almost a
regular annual feature. In 2001, a storm struck Saurashtra coast, causing severe
damages.
The maximum wind speeds estimated in the cyclonic storms are 150 to 250 km
per hour. The northwesters of Bengal are well known and gust speeds in the squalls
frequently exceed 60 km per hour. In severe thunder squalls, speeds of 160 km per
hour have been recorded. Thunder squalls are generally localized and the very high
winds in gusts last only for a few minutes as compared to storms. Considerable
damage to crops and properties occurs when high speeds winds accompanied with
thunder squalls blow over an area.

4.6. ATMOSPHERE PRESSURE

Atmospheric pressure influences the rate of ET and is a useful, though not a critical
variable in its estimation. At any point it is the weight of the air column that lies
vertically above the unit area. It is usually observed using a mercury barometer
for instantaneous data and can also be continuously recorded using a barograph.
Observations from barometer are made daily (equidistant and instantaneous) or
twice daily (cyclic) at standard times at 08:30 and 17:30 hrs. The thermograph
record is tabulated at hourly intervals corresponding to the standard timing of the
daily observations (equidistant).

4.6.1. Atmospheric Water Vapor and Its Indices

Water vapor is ever present in the atmosphere although its quantum varies greatly
in time and space. This fraction of water vapor is exceedingly important and is
largely responsible for prevailing weather conditions. The amount of vapor in the air
depends on the temperature. It is a maximum at high temperatures and a minimum at
Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data 189

low temperatures. The amount of water in the atmosphere is related to temperature,

as seen from Figure 17. The higher the temperature, the more the water vapor air
can contain and transport. Because the specific gravity of water vapor is 0.622 of
that of dry air, transfer of water vapor in the atmosphere is readily possible. When
air is cooled to −30  C, no water vapor can be carried by the air.
The minimum amount of water vapor that can exist in a space depends on
the temperature and does not depend on the existence of other gases. This space
becomes saturated when it contains the maximum amount of water vapor at a given
temperature. The saturation vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by the vapor in
a saturated space. To that end the vapor pressure over water is used most often.
Corresponding to the given temperature, this is the maximum vapor pressure. The
vapor pressure is expressed as
pcp
e = es − T − Tw  = es − Ta − Tw  (7)
0622Hv a

4.7. RADIATION
Solar radiation is the primary source of energy. The solar constant
is 194 cal/cm2 / min at the edge of the earth’s atmosphere with about
030 cal/cm2 /min reaching the earth’s surface. The position of sun plays a primary
role in determining the intensity of solar radiation to be received at a particular
location at the earth’s surface. The former is represented by the solar altitude or
sun angle 
. The solar altitude is defined as the angle between sun rays and
a tangent to the earth surface at the point of observation. The solar altitude is a
complement to the zenith angle, , i.e.,
= 90 − . The zenith angle is an angle
between the direct beam and the vertical from the ground. The important factors
that determine the sun’s altitude are the latitude of the place, day of the year and
time of the day. Daily value of solar radiation incident on a unit horizontal surface
at the top of atmosphere as a function of latitude are shown in Figure 20, while
the monthly mean values are given in Table 6. Figure 21 shows the daily totals
of Solar Radiation in langleys cal/cm2 /day at five different latitudes over the
northern hemisphere for a transparent atmosphere
A radiometer is employed to observe total radiation received from sun and
sky. Incident short-wave radiation on a horizontal surface can be measured with
the help of a pyranometer. Typically, pyranometers are covered by glass domes
which allow only the radiation in the range 03–30 m to reach the pyranometer
surface. To measure long-wave radiation, flat-plate radiometers are employed. These
instruments measure radiation in all wavelengths. To determine long-wave radiation
at a place, the total radiation received from sun and sky is subtracted from the short-
wave radiation. Of course, measurements have to be carried at the same site. An
instrument, known as net pyrradiometer, can measure the difference between total
(short-wave and long-wave) incoming (downward) and outgoing (upward) radiation.
A net pyrradiometer should be mounted at least 1 m above the representative
vegetation cover (WMO 1994).
190 Chapter 4

Figure 20. Daily Solar radiation in Wm−2 incident on a unit horizontal surface at the top of the
atmosphere as a function of latitude and date

4.7.1. Effect of Cloud Cover on Short Wave Radiation

Clouds have the greatest attenuating effect on transmission of solar radiation through
the atmosphere. They have an important influence on the both direct and diffuse
radiation reaching the ground surface. The influence is highly variable and depends
on the type and extent of cloud cover. However, measurements of characteristics

Table 6. Monthly Mean values of the extra-terrestrial radiation, Lp a t the top of the atmosphere in the
unit W/m2 (after Linacre and Hobbs, 1977)

Lat. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

60  N 40 101 194 319 14 68 450 362 248 133 60 27

50 105 171 259 364 436 475 463 397 304 201 126 89
40 175 239 316 396 453 476 469 423 350 264 195 160
30 245 301 363 423 456 470 466 437 388 321 265 229
20 310 354 400 436 450 453 452 438 413 366 323 296
10 367 398 424 433 431 424 426 429 425 405 376 360
0 416 430 434 421 400 387 390 407 425 429 419 410
10  S 54 450 432 395 357 336 341 375 414 441 450 452
20 480 457 417 357 307 277 286 329 385 440 469 483
30 494 452 388 311 248 215 227 276 350 425 475 502
40 496 432 350 253 185 149 159 216 301 398 468 508
50 487 403 303 189 117 83 94 149 246 361 452 505
60 471 363 242 124 54 26 34 84 181 312 429 497
Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data 191

Figure 21. Daily totals of Solar Radiation in langleys cal/cm2 /day at five different latitudes over the
northern hemisphere for a transparent atmosphere

required to determine the total reflectance and transmittance of cloud are scarce in
literature. It is not yet possible to calculate these parameters directly for use in any
predictive snowmelt model (Male and Granger, 1981). Several empirical regression
relations between daily global radiation and observed fractional clouds or the hours
of sunshine have been developed (Angstrom, 1924; Kimura and Stephenson, 1969;
Paltridge, 1974; Thompson, 1976). Calculations based on these models show an
error on higher side for daily radiation. However, the error is reduced as the number
of days for calculations is increased. The following empirical expression based only
on sunshine hours is widely used in long-term studies because of its simplicity:
 n
G = It a + b (8)
N
where G is global radiation reaching the surface, It is the incident radiation at the
top of the atmosphere, n is the duration of bright sunshine, N is the maximum
possible sunshine duration, and a and b are the constants. In this equation, terms
aIt and It bn/N represent the diffuse and direct radiation, respectively. For an
overcast sky, n/N tends to be zero and only diffuse radiation contributes to global
radiation reaching the surface. Commonly used values for a and b are 0.25 and
0.50, respectively. Accordingly, Equation (8) may be written as
 n
G = It 025 + 050 (9)
N
Under clear sky conditions, G equals 075 It , suggesting a daily mean transmission
equal to 0.75. Several investigators have attempted to explain the attenuation of
192 Chapter 4

Table 7. Monthly Mean values of possible sunshine hours, N (after Linacre and Hobbs, 1977)

Lat. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

60  N 6.8 9.2 11.8 14.4 17.1 18.7 18.0 15.7 12.9 10.2 7.6 6.1
50 8.6 10.1 11.8 13.8 15.4 16.4 16.0 14.5 12.7 10.8 9.1 8.1
40 9.6 10.7 11.9 13.2 14.4 15.0 14.7 13.8 12.5 11.2 10.0 9.4
30 10.4 11.1 12.0 12.9 13.7 14.1 13.9 13.2 12.4 11.5 10.6 10.2
20 11.1 11.5 12.0 12.6 13.1 13.3 13.2 12.8 12.3 11.7 11.2 10.9
10 11.6 11.8 12.1 12.4 12.6 12.7 12.6 12.4 12.9 11.9 11.7 11.5
0 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1
10  S 12.6 12.4 12.9 11.9 11.7 11.5 11.6 11.8 12.1 12.4 12.6 12.7
20 13.2 12.8 12.3 11.7 11.2 10.9 11.1 11.5 12.0 12.6 13.1 13.3
30 13.9 13.2 12.4 11.5 10.6 10.2 10.4 11.1 12.0 12.9 13.7 14.1
40 14.7 13.8 12.5 11.2 10.0 9.4 9.6 10.7 11.9 13.2 14.4 15.0
50 16.0 14.5 12.7 10.8 9.1 8.1 8.6 10.1 11.8 13.8 15.4 16.4
60 18.0 15.7 12.9 10.2 7.6 6.1 6.8 9.2 11.8 14.4 17.1 18.7

short-wave radiation in more detail using hourly cloud observations, but they are
not of much relevance to hydrological studies in general and snowmelt studies in
particular. The values of N are listed in Table 7.

4.8. AUTOMATED WEATHER STATION (AWS)

At inaccessible locations and where frequent visits could not be made, Automated
Weather Stations (AWS) are frequently installed for data observation. Almost all
the parameters needed for hydrological studies excepting pan evaporation can be
monitored by AWS. These AWS monitor and record data at preset time intervals
into a micro processor on board the AWS. Data from these AWS can be either
transmitted in real-time through satellite or line of sight transmission. The data
can also be periodically down loaded on to a computer from the micro processor
on board the AWS. In India, numerous AWS have been installed at many places.
No comprehensive database of these is available and most of the AWS have been
installed for specific purposes. The availability of long-term AWS data, however,
has been a problem since the infrastructure in terms of after-sales support is grossly
inadequate. AWS are specialized devices and once the equipment develops a fault,
it is quite difficult to rectify the fault.
CHAPTER 5

RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW

Rivers have served as the lifeline for mankind and continue to do so. Streamflow
data are the most important hydrological data for surface water analysis. Streamflow
records are primarily continuous records of flow passing through a particular section
of the stream. These data are analysed to determine the magnitude and variability of
surface waters. They constitute input in planning, design, and operation of surface
water projects and are also used in design of bridges and culverts, flood forecasting
systems, and flood plain delineation. Before describing the use of streamflow data,
it is helpful to know how these are observed.

5.1. ACQUISITION AND PROCESSING OF STREAMFLOW DATA

A network of stream gauging stations is established to collect data about surface

water resources. The location of gauging sites depends on the purpose of data
collection. If the site is needed for a specific project, the general location is in the
vicinity of the project. However, if the objective is to study the general hydrology
of a region, careful planning is required to identify locations so that optimum
information is obtained for the resources deployed.
The number of gauging sites depends on the cost of installation and operation,
the value of the data, watershed size, degree of development, objective of data
collection, accuracy, hydrologic characteristics, etc. Some of these factors are inter-
related. For example, large watersheds involve costlier projects and more data are
needed.
River water level (gauge) and discharge are of immense use in water resources
management. Gauge or river stage is the water level of a river at a given location and
time measured with respect to some datum. A continuous observation of the river
water level or stage can be made with comparative ease and economy. Discharge
is the volume of flow passing through a section per unit time.
Measurement of discharge in a natural channel is comparatively difficult, time
consuming, expensive and requires special skills. Therefore, the discharge at a site is
measured less often. Usually, the stage is measured at short intervals while discharge
is measured once each day. A relation between stage and discharge at a section,
termed as rating curve, is used to transform the observed stages into discharges.
193
194 Chapter 5

The Bureau of International Standards (BIS) has brought out standards dealing
with measurement of flow in rivers. WMO and ISO have also brought out many
publications related to streamflow measurement.

5.2. STREAM GAUGING NETWORKS

Every major stream should be gauged at or near its mouth and its major tributaries
should also be gauged. According to WMO, the first gauging station is selected at
the most upstream location where the drainage area is about 1,300 km2 . The second
station is located at a point in the downstream direction where the drainage area
is approximately doubled. The WMO recommendations for a minimum density of
hydrometric stations are given in Table 1.
Stream gauging stations can be classified in the following categories:
Primary stations
Primary stations or key stations are the stations where measurements are continued
for a long time to generate representative flow series of the river system and provide
general coverage of a region.
Secondary stations
Secondary stations are essentially short duration stations that are set up only for
such a length of period, which is sufficient to establish the flow characteristics of
the river relative to those of a basin gauged by a primary station.
Special purpose stations
Special purpose stations are usually set up required for planning and design of
projects or special investigations and are discontinued when their purpose is served.

5.2.1. Hydrological Observations

In India, Central Water Commission (CWC) is the central agency which operates
a network of 877 hydrological observation stations all over the country. These
stations are mostly located on major rivers of the country. The data measured at
these stations are used for a variety of purposes such as estimation of yield of the
river, water allocation, project planning and management, and flood forecasting.
The data observed by field units is processed at various levels and then archived.

Table 1. WMO recommended minimum density of

streamflow stations

Physiographic unit Minimum densities per station

(area in km2 per station)

Coastal 2 750
Mountainous 1 000
Interior plains 1 875
Hilly/undulating 1 875
Small islands 300
Polar/arid 20 000
Runoff and Streamflow 195

For various national needs, several parameters are being monitored as described
in Table 2.
Regarding the frequency of observations, in larger rivers, hourly observation of
stage is usually sufficient. For small upland catchments whose data is needed used
for special purposes or research, 15 or 30 minute observations may be used to
adequately define the hydrograph shape. For the design of minor irrigation schemes
and bridge /culvert on small catchments, 15 minute observations may be necessary.
The frequency of observation also depends on the type of equipment – data at
shorter time intervals may be obtained with automatic equipment while those at
longer intervals are obtained at stations where gauging is manual.

5.2.2. Selection of Gauging Sites

After the general location of a gauging station has been determined, its precise
location is selected to get the best conditions for stage and discharge measurement

Table 2. Basin-wise hydrological and sediment observation sites of CWC

States/Regions Gauge Gauge Gauge GD and GD, Total

discharge discharge water silt, and
(GD) and silt quality water
quality

East-coast rivers of 24 59 0 24 50 157

Andhra Pradesh
Brahmaputra basin 64 27 14 0 12 117
East-coast rivers of 0 3 0 13 14 30
Tamil Nadu
East-coast -rivers of 27 15 0 1 24 67
Orissa and West
Bengal
Ganga basin, 92 110 6 29 89 326
Damodar basin and
Kangsabati
Indus basin 1 15 9 0 0 25
West-coast rivers of 0 0 0 3 16 19
Kerala
Rivers of Meghalaya 0 4 0 0 0 4
West-coast rivers of 18 25 0 9 32 84
Gujarat
Rivers of Mizoram 5 5 1 0 0 11
and Manipur
Barak and other rivers 4 11 11 0 0 26
of Tripura
West-coast rivers of 1 7 0 1 2 11
Maharashtra, Goa and
Karnataka
Total 236 281 41 80 239 877

Source: Central Water Commission.

196 Chapter 5

and to develop a stable discharge rating. The ideal gauge site should satisfy the
following criteria:
(a) The general course of the stream is straight for about 100 m upstream and
downstream from the gauge site;
(b) The river should not be braided at the gauge site and all the flow must be
confined to single stream at all stages;
(c) The stream-bed is not subject to scour and fill and is free of weeds;
(d) Banks are permanent, high enough to contain floods;
(e) The gauge site is far enough upstream from the confluence or from tidal effect
to avoid any variable influence on the stage at the gauge site;
(f) A satisfactory reach for measuring discharge at all stages is available within
reasonable proximity of the gauge site; and
(g) The site is readily accessible for ease in installation and operation of the gauging
station.
An ideal site is rarely found for a gauging station and judgment has to be exercised
in finalizing the site. The detailed guidelines for selection of sites are given in the
BIS standard IS:2,752 and IS:5,119 (Part 1).

5.2.3. Measurement of Stage

Stages are measured with reference to a recognized datum, such as the mean sea
level. The gauge height is usually expressed in thousandths of a meter. The water
level is commonly measured using staff gauges; of late, autographic water level
(chart) recorders, and digital type water level recorders have been installed at many
sites. The non-recording gauges have low initial cost and are easy to install, but
these require an observer and are less accurate. Sometimes, an automatic gauge and
a non-recording gauge are maintained together.
According to the recommendations of Code IS:1,192, depth shall be measured
at intervals close enough to define the cross-sectional profile accurately. Use of 15
verticals means risking introducing errors of importance and it would be safe to use
25 verticals to observe depth. Velocity observations, particularly with current meter,
should be made simultaneously with the depth observations. IS:1,192 prescribes
the detailed procedure to use current meters, their calibration, measurements in
unsteady flow, etc., specifications and use of floats, computation of discharge, and
determining uncertainties.

Staff Gauge
Staff gauges are either vertical or inclined. Vertical staff gauges are normally
porcelain enameled iron sections, graduated every 10 mm. If river stage varies over
a large range, the gauge consists of stepped sections (Figure 1) installed at different
locations in a line normal to the flow. An inclined staff gauge is usually a graduated
surface attached securely to a permanent foundation. The rock outcrops on the river
bank also make good base for inclined staff gauge. The gauges should be located
as close to the measuring section as possible, without affecting the flow conditions.
Runoff and Streamflow 197

Figure 1. Sectional staff gauge

Staff gauges are manually read, generally each day in the morning in lean season
and at (multi) hourly intervals during high flows.

Water Level Recorder

A water level recorder senses and records water level. The recorders can be classified
as either analogue type or digital type, depending on the way the data are recorded.
The analogue type recorders produce a graphic record of fluctuations of the water
level with time.
The water level recorders are generally of shaft-angular-input type, and the
angular rotation of the shaft is recorded. The depth of water surface is sensed for
automatic recording by a float in a stilling well (Figure 2) which follows the rise
and fall of the water level. A gas-purge system that transmits the pressure head of
water in a stream to a manometer is known as a bubble gauge.
A water level recorder gives a continuous record of the water level on a chart
from which values are manually extracted at desired intervals. The data from a
digital water level recorder can either be at equal intervals of time, say at fraction
of an hour, or only when there is a change in water level by more than a pre-set
amount. The digital recorders store data in an electronic memory unit and these are
downloaded to a computer. A large number of gauging stations have been provided
with automatic water level recorders in the recent years.

5.2.4. Measurement of Discharge

Discharge is commonly expressed in cubic metres per second (m3 /s or cumec).

The discharge at a site is a function of the cross-section area and flow velocity.
The cross-section area is a function of the river stage. At most stations,
discharge is measured once a day. Discharge measurement techniques can be
198 Chapter 5

Figure 2. Stilling well for the float-type recorder

broadly classified as: (i) direct determination and (ii) indirect determination.
There are many methods under each category.
i Direct Determination of Discharge
These are the methods, in which either discharge is directly measured or some
variable on which discharge depends is measured. The commonly used methods are:
velocity-area methods, dilution techniques, electromagnetic method, and ultrasonic
method. The first two are described here.
Velocity-Area Methods: These methods involve measuring the flow area and
velocity and these are multiplied to get discharge. Depending on the accuracy
required, the width of the stream is divided into a number of vertical portions
(Figure 3). In each of these, the velocity is measured at one or more points along
the depth to get a representative velocity in that portion. The area of the individual
portion can be easily calculated if the bed profile and stage are known. The velocity
may be measured by a float, current meter, or by a moving boat.
A float is an article that floats on water, such as a wooden log, a bottle partly
filled with water, or branch of a tree. For a float measurement, two cross-sections
sufficiently far apart on a straight reach of channel are selected. A number of floats
Runoff and Streamflow 199

Figure 3. Schematic sketch for a velocity-area station

are introduced uniformly across the stream width a short distance before the actual
upstream cross-section so that they loose inertia and move with the velocity of
water when they reach the upstream cross-section. The position of each float with
respect to distance from the bank is noted. A stopwatch is used to measure their
travel time between the end cross-sections of the reach.
The velocity of the float is equal to the distance between the two cross-sections
divided by the time taken by the float to cover this distance. The mean velocity in
the vertical is equal to the float velocity multiplied by a coefficient whose value
depends on the shape of the vertical-velocity profile of the stream and on the depth
of immersion of the float with respect to depth. A coefficient of 0.85 to 0.90 is
commonly used. The float method is not very reliable and its use is normally
restricted when other methods can’t be used.
Current meter is the most commonly used instrument to measure the velocity
of flowing water. It consists of rotating element (rotor) whose movement is due
to the reaction of the stream current. The angular velocity acquired by the rotor
is proportional to the velocity of water. By placing a current meter at a point in a
stream and counting the number of revolutions of the rotor during a time interval,
the velocity of water at that point is determined. Current meters are of two types:
those having a propeller rotating around a horizontal axis and those having a series
of conical cups mounted around a vertical axis. Both types of current meters are
used in India.
Horizontal-axis meters consist of a propeller mounted at the end of a horizontal
shaft (Figure 4). The horizontal axis rotor with valves causes fewer disturbances
to flow than vertical axis rotors. Furthermore, due to axial symmetry with the flow
direction, the rotor is less likely to be entangled by debris than vertical axis rotors
and the bearing friction is less compared to the vertical axis rotors. The vertical
axis rotor with cups or valves can operate in lower velocities than the horizontal
axis meters.
200 Chapter 5

Figure 4. Price current meter

The current meter measurements are usually classified in terms of the means
used to cross the stream during measurements, such as wading, cableway, bridge,
or boat. Wading is possible in small streams of shallow depth only; the current
meter is held at the requisite depth below the surface by an observer who stands in
the water. In narrow well-defined channels, a cableway is stretched from bank to
bank well above the flood level. A carriage moving over the cableway serves as the
observation platform. Bridges are advantageous from the viewpoint of accessibility
and transportation, although these are not the best locations hydraulically. The
velocity measurement is performed on the downstream of the bridge to minimize
the instrument damage due to drift and knock against bridge piers. Boats are most
satisfactory for measurements in wide rivers.
In addition to the main current meter, a miniature (Pygmy) meter is used which
is best suited for gauging when flow depth is less than 0.5 m and velocity is less
than about 1 m/sec. For rivers greater than 10 m wide, at least 20 verticals be
used for observation such that the discharge in any one segment does not exceed
10% of the total. Four to five verticals are preferred when channel width is about
1.0 m. Generally for most Indian conditions, an exposure time of 60 seconds can
be adopted. If the velocities are very low, the exposure time should be increased
to 100 seconds. Alternatively the time it takes to record 20 revolutions should be
measured.
Moving Boat Method: In the moving boat technique, data are collected while
the observer is aboard a boat traversing the stream along a pre-selected path,
generally normal to the direction of flow. During the traverse, an echo sounder
Runoff and Streamflow 201

records the geometry of the cross-section and a continuously operating current

meter senses the combined stream and boat velocities. The angle between
the current meter, which aligns itself in a direction parallel to the movement
of the water past and the pre-selected path, is also measured.
The velocity observed at each of the observation points in the cross-section
(Figure 5), vv , is the velocity of water past the current meter resulting from both
stream flow and boat movement. It is the vector sum of the velocity of water with
respect to the stream bed (v) and the velocity of the boat with respect to the stream
bed vb . The velocity of streamflow can be obtained by measuring the angle 
between the selected path of the boat and a vertical vane which aligns itself in a
direction parallel to the movement of the water past it.
The flow velocity v, perpendicular to the boat path (true course) at each obser-
vation point 1 2 3   , can be determined from the relationship

v = vv sin  (1)

Equation (1) yields that component of the stream velocity which is perpen-
dicular to the true course even though the direction of flow may not be perpen-
dicular.
Since the current meter is usually immersed at a depth of 0.5 m from the
water surface, the velocity v corresponds to the surface velocity and not the
average velocity in the vertical. This surface velocity is multiplied by a coeffi-
cient ranging from 0.85 to 0.95 to obtain the average velocity of flow at the
section.
Computation of Discharge: After the cross-section has been selected, the width of
the stream is divided into an adequate number of partial sections so as to have lesser
variation between two adjacent verticals. If previous measurements have shown
uniformity of cross-sections and the velocity distribution then fewer verticals may
be taken. It is better if no partial section carries more than 5 to 10 percent of the total
discharge. Figure 5 shows the cross section of a river in which verticals are drawn.

Pre-selected
Boat boat path α
vv
vb
Flow

Vertical

Figure 5. Moving boat method of discharge measurement

202 Chapter 5

The velocity averaged over the vertical at each section is known. Considering the
total area to be divided into (n–1) segments, the total discharge is calculated by the
method of mid-section as:

n
Q= vi ai  (2)
i=1

where Q is the total discharge, ai is an individual partial cross-section area, and vi

is the mean velocity in that area. The area extends laterally from half the distance
from the preceding observation vertical to half the distance to the next and vertically
from the water surface to the sounded depth.
ii. Indirect Determination of Discharge
These methods make use of the relationship between the flow discharge and the
depth at specified locations. The field measurement is restricted to the measurements
of depths only. Two important indirect methods are flow measuring structures and
slope-area method.
Flow measuring structures, such as notches, weirs, flumes, and sluice gates, are
commonly used in laboratories or in field conditions. A typical setup consists of
a reasonably straight approach channel, a downstream channel, and the structure
itself. The structure having smooth surfaces should be rigid, water-tight, normal to
the flow direction, and capable of withstanding peak flows without any damage to
its body.
The basic principle behind the flow measuring structures is that these structures
produce a unique control section in the flow. At these structures, the discharge
Q is a function of the water-surface elevation measured at a nearby upstream
location:

Q = fH (3)

where Q is discharge m3 /s, and H is the head of water (m) at the structure. The
equation for weirs, for example, is

Q = K Hn (4)

where K and n are constants. The flows unaffected by the downstream water are
known as free flows. The flow that is affected by tail water conditions is known as
drowned or submerged flow. Discharge under drowned conditions is obtained by
applying a reduction factor to the free flow discharge. For a two-dimensional weir,
the discharge is estimated as
√
Q = Cd g b H15 (5)

where Cd is the discharge coefficient, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and b is

the crest width (m).
Runoff and Streamflow 203

Slope-Area Method: In the slope-area method, discharge is estimated by observing

the water surface slope and cross-section area. It is an indirect method of discharge
estimation which is used when measurement by more accurate methods, such as
the velocity-area method, is not possible. The accuracy of the slope-area method is
less compared to the velocity-area methods.
A measurement reach is chosen for which three things are known: (i) The cross-
sectional geometry and properties at its ends, (ii) the value of Manning’s n, and
(iii) water-surface elevations at the end sections. In the selected reach, a minimum
of three cross-sections are generally desirable. As far as possible, the length of
the reach should be such that the difference between water levels at the upstream
and downstream gauges is not less than ten times the uncertainty in the difference.
Slope is computed from the gauge observations at either end of the reach.
The mean velocity is established by using known empirical formulae which relate
the velocity to the hydraulic mean depth, the surface slope corrected for the kinetic
energy of the flowing water and the roughness characteristics. The discharge is
computed as the product of the mean velocity and the mean cross-sectional area of
the flow.
The resistance equation for uniform flow in an open channel, e.g., Manning’s
formula, can be used to relate the depths at either ends of a reach to the discharge.
Figure 6 shows the longitudinal section of a river between two sections, 1 and 2.
The head at a section consists of water surface elevation and the velocity head. The
head loss is made up of two parts: (i) frictional loss and (ii) energy loss due to
expansion or contraction. The friction slope can be written as
 2 
V V2
h1 − h2  + 2g1 − 2g2 1 − k
Sf = (6)
L
where L is the reach length, k is the coefficient for energy loss; its value is 1 for
contractions and 0.5 for expansions. According to Manning’s formula, the mean
velocity in reach 1–2 is calculated as

v1−2 = 1/nR2/3 S1/2 (7)

where R is the hydraulic mean depth, n is Manning’s roughness coefficient, and S

is the friction slope. If A is the cross-section area, then the discharge Q is

Q = 1/nAR2/3 S1/2 = K S1/2 (8)

The term 1/nAR2/3 is known as conveyance (K) of the channel and it depends
on channel characteristics. As the flow in the reach may not be truly uniform,
the average conveyance of the reach is expressed as the geometric mean of the
conveyances of the two end sections K1 and K2 :

K= K1 K2 (9)
204 Chapter 5

Figure 6. Channel reach for the slope-area method

The discharge can be calculated by

√ 
Q = K S = K1 K2 S (10)

The slope-area method can be used with some degree of accuracy in open channels
with stable boundaries, or in channels with relatively coarse bed material. This
method may also be used in other cases, such as alluvial channels including channels
with over-bank flow or non-uniform channel cross-sections, subject to the accep-
tance of large uncertainties involved in the selection of the value of the rugosity
coefficient, such as Manning’s roughness coefficient n.
The streamflow data are used for a variety of purposes. Some of these are
computation of flow duration curves, unit hydrograph analysis, flood or low-flow
frequency analysis, computation of the inflow to a reservoir, flow routing, and flood
forecasting.

5.2.5. Stage-Discharge Relationship

Stream flow measurement normally involves: 1) obtaining a continuous record of
river stage (water level) above a datum, 2) establishing the relationship between
Runoff and Streamflow 205

stage and discharge and 3) transforming the record of stage into a record of
discharge. The measurement of discharge at a gauging station is costly and requires
trained manpower, time, and special equipment, and therefore, usually discharge
is not measured. The measurement of river stage is much easier and therefore,
observations of river stage are commonly taken. Equipment are widely available to
automatically measure and store river stage data at pre-determined intervals. The
techniques for measurement of stage and discharge are discussed at length in books
by Herschey (1978) and Rantz (1982), among others. Most countries including
India have developed standards detailing the steps to be followed for such measure-
ments. In addition, several international organizations such as ISO, WMO have also
prepared standards and guidelines for the same.
Fortunately, there exists a relation between river stage and discharge at a cross
section and this relation is known as rating curve or stage-discharge relation. A rating
curve is developed by using the concurrent data of stage and discharge observed
over a period of time. It is important that the data covers the range of stages that are
likely to occur at the gauging station. At many stations, discharge is a function of
river stage as well as other variables, including water surface slope, rate of change
of stage, and bed features. If the stage-discharge relation is presented in tabular
form, it is known as rating table.
The quality of computed stream flow data is determined by the quality of the
stage-discharge relation. Since most hydrologic analyses, such as assessment of
water yield and design of projects, are based on discharge data, the rating curve
has important bearing on water resources planning and management. Therefore,
the establishment of rating curve is important and requires familiarity with basic
principles of stream flow hydraulics.
A channel whose flow characteristics do not change with time is termed as a
stable channel. When these change with time, the channel is termed unstable. The
stage-discharge relation changes in unstable channels. Therefore, sites without a
stable control should be avoided, as far as possible. At a new site, initially discharge
is measured over the expected range of stage to establish a rating curve. Later,
discharge is measured at periodic intervals mainly to verify the established rating
curve.
The factors that influence the rating curve can be broadly classified in two groups:
natural and artificial. The natural factors include the geometry of the cross-section,
the properties of bed and banks, the alignment of channel upstream of the gauging
station, the properties of sediment being transported by the river, etc. The artificial
factors include flow regulation structures, such as a weir, channel improvement
works, a bridge, river training works, etc.
The combination of element(s) that control stage-discharge relation at a station is
known as control. There are different types of controls: section and channel controls;
natural and artificial controls; and complete, partial, and compound controls. When
the geometry of a cross-section downstream of a gage constricts the flow or there
is a break in bed slope (e.g., a fall), a section control is said to be effective. The
constriction of flow may be due to a local rise of stream bed, due to a weir or
206 Chapter 5

dam, or due to reduced width (e.g., a bridge). If the relation is controlled by the
geometry and roughness of a reach downstream, a channel control is said to exist.
The length of the channel reach is directly proportional to discharge and inversely
proportional to slope.
A complete control governs the stage-discharge relation over the entire range of
stages at the gauging station. This is a rare occurrence. More common is a compound
control in which a section control dominates lower discharges and another channel
control dominates higher discharges. A weir or dam that does not get submerged at
high discharges is a complete control. A partial control acts in concert with another
control to influence the stage-discharge relation (Rantz, 1982). Artificial controls, as
the name suggests, are man-made structures. These are section controls, expensive
improvements in a long channel reach just to stabilize the rating curve are not
justifiable. The stability of a rating curve depends on the attributes of controls –
the relationship is stable if the control is stable. These attributes may change due
to change in cross-section (e.g., erosion or deposition), and growth of vegetation.
Most natural channels do not have a unique control for all stages. It is common to
find section control for low-stages of flow and channel control for high stages.
When the stage is uniquely related to discharge, this is known as simple rating
curve. In a compound rating curve, more than one curve is required. To establish a
rating curve, the stage and discharge data are plotted on a graph paper, as shown
in Figure 7, wherein stage is plotted on the Y-axis and discharge on the X-axis.
Ideally, there should be a sufficient number of points, well distributed over the
entire stage and discharge range. If the scatter of the plot is small, a smooth curve
can be drawn through the points. The scatter in the data can be due to several
reasons, including backwater effect, unsteady flow at the gauging site, scour of the
bed and banks at the gauging site, or errors in observations.
A simple rating curve is commonly represented by a power equation that has the
form

Q = aH − cb (11)

where Q is the discharge m3 /s H is the river stage (m), a and b are constants, and
c is the stage (m) at which discharge is nil (known as the datum correction). This

300
298
Stage (m)

296
294
292
290
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Discharge (m3/s)

Figure 7. Plot of stage and discharge at a gauging station

Runoff and Streamflow 207

equation plots as a straight line in the log domain. The method of least squares is
commonly used to estimate the coefficients of the rating curve a and b in eq. (11).
To estimate the datum correction c, iterations are performed by varying c and the
value which yields best results is adopted. A rating curve should be tested for
absence from bias and goodness of fit.

Compound Rating Curve

In many situations, a single curve may not be representative for the entire range of
stages because the influence of roughness and boundary conditions is not the same
at all stages. One may, therefore, require up to three curves – one for lower range
of stages, one for middle range, and another for higher range. These segments may
be combined by short transition curves. Besides, a compound rating curve is also
necessary when the cross section consists of a narrow channel and flood plains on
one or both sides. Such a cross-section is shown in Figure 8. At low water levels,
flow is confined to the main channel but when river water level starts rising, at
certain stage, the flow enters its flood plain. The conveyance characteristics of flood
plains are usually quite different from the main channel and this causes a change in
the slope in the rating curve. In such cases, two rating curves are established, the
first corresponding to the flow in the main channel and the other for flow in the
main channel plus flood plain.
The stage and discharge data are plotted on a log-log graph. The scatter is
manually examined to identify break points. The stage-discharge relation can be
developed following the procedure explained above, using the appropriate data set.
A compound rating curve is shown in Figure 9.
In many situations, a single curve may not be representative for the entire range
of stages – up to three curves may be required. One each for lower range of stages,
for middle range, and for higher range.

Loop Rating Curve

In large rivers with flat bed slopes and significant changes in flow rates, the effects of
unsteady flow on the rating curve may be significant. If a dam/weir or a confluence
with a major river exists in the vicinity of the site downstream, the station may
experience a variable backwater effect and in such conditions, discharge is not a
function of river stage alone but it depends on the slope of the energy line as

Flood Plain

Main river

Figure 8. A river channel with flood plains on either side

208 Chapter 5

10.0
Gage height in m

Higher range

5.0

Transition

Lower range

1.0
1 10 100

Discharge in m3/s

Figure 9. A compound rating curve

well. To measure the water surface slope, an auxiliary gage is installed. During the
rising stage of a hydrograph, the velocity and discharge at a given stage are higher
than the same at steady state flow. During hydrograph recession, the situation is
reverse. This phenomenon is known as hysteresis and it gives a loop rating curve,
i.e., discharge is not a unique function of stage. This happens because the slope of
flood wave front during the rising stage is much steeper than during the steady-
state condition and the situation is reverse during the falling stage. Such unsteady
flow effects are not found in rivers where slopes are steep. Note that the shape
of the loop varies from one station to another and the loop can be a complicated
loop too.
Standards have been developed by many countries for establishing the stage-
discharge relation. The international standard ISO:1,100/2 (see ISO, 1982) deals
with determination of stage-discharge relations. Indian standard IS:15,119 (Part 2)
describes the recommended practices for India.

5.2.6. Measurement of Sediments

Sediment is transported by moving water either as bed load or as suspended load.

In India, bed load measurement is not being carried out as a matter of routine.
Measurement of bed load in large stations is very difficult. In the absence of
detailed measurements, Qb is taken as a certain percentage of suspended sediments
Qs depending on concentration of suspended load and size of bed material and
suspended sediment. To the suspended load must be added Qb the bed load discharge
at that station. Table 3 gives general guidance about this correction.
Since the suspended sediment load is estimated as a product of mean concen-
tration of the sediment in motion and the corresponding discharge, silt measurement
should normally be carried out at the same site where discharge is measured. It is to
Runoff and Streamflow 209

Table 3. Bed Load Correction Table

Suspended load Stream bed Texture of suspended % of bed load in

concentration material material terms of measured
suspended load

Less than 1,000 Sand Similar to bed of 25 to 150

stream
Less than 1,000 Compacted clay Small amount of sand 5 to 12
gravel cobbles,
boulders
1,000–7,500 Sand Similar to bed stream 10 to 35
1,000–7,500 Compacted clay, 25% of sand or less 5 to 12
gravel cobbles,
boulders
Greater than 7,500 Sand Similar to bed stream 2 to 8
Greater than 7,500 Compacted clay, 25% sand or less 5 to 15
gravel cobbles,
boulders
Any concentration Clay & silt Silt & Clay Less than 2
unconsolidated

be noted that the concentration of suspended sediment changes from point to point
in a cross-section and with time at the same point. According to the Indian Code
IS:4,890, the concentration of suspended sediment is to be expressed in kg/m3 of
parts per million (by weight). Broadly, to obtain mean sediment concentration in
motion at a vertical, the velocity distribution and sediment concentration curves
are drawn. Product of concentration and velocity at the corresponding point gives
the rate of sediment discharge curve. The area of the curve gives the sediment
discharge. Division by the depth of flow gives the mean sediment discharge per
unit area at the vertical. If the river is less than 30 m wide, three verticals will be
enough. Fiver verticals should be chosen when river is 30–300 m wide and seven
when the river is more than 300 m wide. Further, in a vertical, measurements can
be taken at a single point or at multiple points. IS:4,890 also recommends use of
depth integrating samplers.
The Indian Code recommends that bed load be estimated as a percentage,
generally ranging from 5 to 20 percent, of the suspended load. However, measure-
ments of bed load need to be undertaken particularly where high bed loads are
anticipated. In India, CWC is carrying out sediment observations at 318 stations and
State Governments are also operating some stations. This data is being published
by CWC as annual sediment year books.
When upstream future development is expected, the projects under construction
or which have the same priority of being taken up and completed as the project
in question are considered for assessing the total sediment yield (IS-12,182-1987).
The MOWR guidelines indicate that allowance shall be made for existing projects
or projects under construction.
210 Chapter 5

5.2.7. Sediment Rating Curve

The assessment of sediments being transported by a river is of vital importance in

the design and management of water resources projects. Sediment rating curves are
used to estimate the sediment load transported by a river. A sediment rating curve is
a relation between the sediment discharge and the water discharge of a river. Stream
gauging or a stage-discharge curve is used to obtain water discharge from measured
stage. To determine sediment discharge of a stream, samples of water-sediment
mixture are collected from the stream. A sampler can be chosen from a wide range
of sediment samplers, depending upon the flow and site conditions. The samples
are then analyzed in the laboratory to determine the sediment concentration.
Although the procedure for establishing a sediment rating curve is the same as
that for a stage-discharge rating curve, there are additional complexities here. The
sediment transported by a stream is influenced by many factors, such as velocity,
depth, slope, and roughness of channel; characteristics of watershed, type; intensity
and amount of precipitation; and properties of sediment. Besides, temperature has
a significant influence on sediment transport – sediment discharge increases with
decrease in temperature. Temperature affects the pick-up rate of sediment from the
river bed. The effect could be so large that the bed material discharge may be twice
as large at a temperature of 40  F as at 80  F.
When the methods and equipment for bed-material sampling were not developed,
only suspended sediment was measured and used to develop the sediment rating
curve. Usually, either the weight of the sediment or the sediment concentration is
related to water discharge. Many times, these two forms are used interchangeably.
McBean and Al-Nassri (1988) examined this issue and concluded that the practice
of using sediment load versus discharge is misleading since the goodness of fit
implied by this relation is spurious. They recommended that the relation be estab-
lished between sediment concentration and discharge. Expectedly, the sediment
concentration in a river is minimum near the water surface and it increases with
depth. Silt and clay particles less than 0.005 mm in diameter are generally dispersed
uniformly throughout the depth, but large grains are more concentrated near the bed.
An important feature of sediment transport is that sediment concentration
increases fairly quickly with water discharge. As a result, the amount of sediment
that is transported during a few days in a high flood may be equal to the amount that
is moved during many months of fair weather. It is, therefore, of vital importance
that representative data of high flood season are used to develop sediment rating
curves.
A sediment rating curve is similar to a discharge rating curve, except that the
relationship is established between water discharge and sediment concentration.
The data of sediment discharge can be easily converted to sediment concentration
if water discharge is known. Usually, the relation is expressed in the form of a
power equation:

C = c Qd (12)
Runoff and Streamflow 211

where C is the suspended sediment concentration (mg/l), Q is discharge m3 /s

and c & d are constants. Conventionally, discharge and sediment concentration
are plotted on a log-log graph paper and a straight line is drawn. A least squares
method can be used to obtain the best fit line. Usually, the power equation is log
transformed, and linear regression is applied to estimate the parameters. Typically,
exponent d in eq. (12) lies in the range 2 < d < 3.
In many situations, it may be difficult to find a simple relation between the
sediment discharge and the water discharge. The reason it that the flow in a river
at a given time may be due to very intense rainfall or due to moderate rainfall, the
rain may be falling over an area of a catchment that might be susceptible to erosion
or otherwise, the flow may be due to snowmelt, etc. and in each of these cases,
the amount of sediment that is eroded and transported will differ. The sediment
discharge and water discharge do not always increase or decrease simultaneously.
For small basins, the peaks of the two may coincide but for large rivers, often
the peak sediment discharge precedes the peak water discharge, depending on the
hydrologic system of the watershed and the water velocity.

5.3. HYDROLOGIC DESIGN OF PROJECTS

Proper hydrologic design of the projects is necessary for better overall utilization
of available resources in general and for better management and safety of struc-
tures. In India, water related projects are investigated, formulated and implemented
by the concerned State Governments. CWC has been entrusted with the responsi-
bility of examination of technical and economic feasibility of projects. Ministry of
Water Resources, Govt. of India, has brought out “Guidelines for preparation of
detailed project reports of irrigation multipurpose projects” in 1980s. This publi-
cation includes the guidelines/criteria which should be followed for preparation of
the hydrology part of detailed project report (DPR). In addition, CWC has also
brought out guidelines for preparation of River Basin Master Plan (1990). Apart
from these guidelines, Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has also prepared a number
of standards and codes of practices
For a storage based water development project, the main aspects of hydrology
which are required to be studied are:
• Water availability study to understand the time series of inflows which can be
expected in the reservoir,
• Flood studies to understand the floods which are likely to enter the reservoir.
The reservoir should be safe while regulating the flood without endangering the
dam,
• Reservoir routing studies to determine the spillway capacity and to fix the
maximum water level of the reservoir,
• Sedimentation studies to determine the sediment inflow into the reservoir and to
study their effect in reducing the reservoir capacity, and
• Simulation studies to study the performance of the reservoir under given inflow
and demand pattern.
212 Chapter 5

For planning any project, the first step is a correct assessment of water availability
at the site of interest. This requires a sufficiently long sequence of data at that
location; requisite length depending upon the type of storage, type of development
and variability of inputs. In general, a longer period of data gives more confidence
about the results. However, comparatively shorter length will suffice for within the
year storage where the spill occurs almost every year and the critical period is of the
duration of a few months. A longer data length is required for over-the-year storages.
Flow duration curves are commonly used to determine water availability. Jain and
Singh (2003) have described the methods to estimate water availability at a given
location as well as the methods to determine required storage capacity of a reservoir.
Regional flow-duration models were developed by Singh et al. (2001) for nearly
1,200 potential micro-hydropower project sites located in 13 states of the Himalayan
region covering almost the complete width of the country from Jammu and Kashmir
in the west to north-eastern states in the east. The Q-quantile of dependability
D QD  for an ungauged watershed was derived assuming the following regional
power relation:

Qmean = CAm (13)

where A = watershed area; and C and m = coefficient and exponent, respectively,

determined using regression. Using this relation, QD for an ungauged watershed of
area A can be determined. Most of the historical flow data were available at 10-day
intervals and were used for developing flow-duration models. At some sites, daily
and monthly flows were available and these were transformed to 10-day flows.
The selection of the 10-day interval in this study was primarily based on data
availability.
Using the developed model, flows of the desired level of dependability can be
estimated for an ungauged watershed located in the identified regions. The adequacy
of the basic structure of the regional model was found to be fairly satisfactory for
the watersheds of the states of Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal, Sikkim, South
Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Nagaland, Mizoram, and Tripura. However, for the
watersheds of Jammu and Kashmir and Uttar Pradesh, the model exhibited less
than satisfactory performance and it performed poorly on the watersheds of Bihar
and North Assam, requiring a cautious application. Note that the regional predictive
relationship for mean flow used only the watershed area as its characteristic, ignoring
many other characteristics because of their non-availability. Nevertheless, these
types of studies are a way out when projects are to be planned in poorly gauged or
ungauged regions.
After ascertaining water availability, the next important step in project planning
is the estimation of design flood.

5.3.1. Design Flood Estimation

A design flood is a hypothetical flood (peak discharge or hydrograph) adopted as
the basis in hydrologic design of project components. Economic, social, and other
Runoff and Streamflow 213

non-hydrologic considerations influence the philosophy of protection, and hence the

design flood. When a sufficiently long flow series is available, frequency analysis
is carried out to determine the floods of various frequencies. The other approach is
to determine the design storm and thereby the design flood. For important projects,
the results of various approaches are compared to finalize the design flood.
In principle, the selection of design flood is an assessment of risk involved
against the cost of failure of a structure which has been designed to prevent any
loss if a flood below the design magnitude arrives. The consequences of failure
depend on the downstream conditions. In case of water resource projects where the
consequences of failure could be catastrophic, design floods should also be estimated
from probability considerations which enable evaluation of risk. Assessment of
the probability of selected flood, however, involves establishing the relationship
between the return period and the magnitude of rare floods. This relationship, if
based on small sample of flood data, could be subject to serious errors. Application
of frequency methods to abnormally high floods which have very low probability
of occurrence should be made with utmost caution.
Hydrologic design of a project based on a flood of return period of 10,000 years
may appear to be safe. Note that there are more than 4,000 dams in India with height
more than 15 m or with storage more than 60 Mm3 . Therefore, a flood of 10,000
years return period could be expected to strike one of these dams every 3-year
on the average. Further, the popular notion that failure cannot be tolerated is not
achievable in real-life. The idea of calculated risk is in-built in structures to manage
environmental systems including flood control projects. The objective should always
be to avoid wasteful over-design and inefficient under-design. In the design of flood
control projects, it is often assumed that death of humans is unacceptable implying
that human life has an infinite value. Although this assumption is laudable, it is not
practical as hundreds of lives are lost due to floods each year.
To find a practical solution to the problem, hydro-meteorologists have developed
the concept of Probable Maximum Flood (PMF). However, this method suffers
from a major disadvantage of giving an estimate of maximum flood based on data
available up to the time of analysis and with no associated probability. Yevjevich
(1972) has characterized the difference between the PMF method and frequency
analysis method as being between “expediency” and “truth”. Estimates through
flood frequency methods are more relevant for lesser flood magnitudes where upper
limits are based on adequate data/experience. Future flood events can exceed the
specified PMF and the only way to better an estimate is to take into consideration
further data available up to the time of review.
Since design floods often mark the difference between safety and disaster, utmost
attention must be given to select and estimate the design flood that is most appro-
priate for a given case. Policy criteria have been laid down by most organizations
for several applications and are followed unless there are compelling reasons for
deviation in a particular case. Computation of design flood is an important part
of hydrologic analysis and this is discussed here. But before that we define some
important terms related to design flood estimation.
214 Chapter 5

Probable Maximum Flood (PMF)

It is the flood discharge that may be expected from the most severe combination
of critical meteorological and hydrological conditions that are reasonably possible
in the region. The PMP is used in the design of projects, for example, dams where
virtually complete safety from potential floods is sought.

Standard Project Flood (SPF)

It is the flood discharge that may be expected from the most severe combination of
meteorological and hydrological conditions that are reasonable characteristic of the
geographic area in which the study basin is located. Extremely rare combinations
of those conditions are not considered. The peak discharge for a standard project
flood is generally about 40 to 60 per cent of that for the probable maximum flood
for the same drainage basin. The SPF is often used where failure of the structure
would have some what less disastrous effect. For example, it is used in the design
of flood control facilities whose failure might be disastrous.
The criteria for classification of dams are based on size of the dam and the
hydraulic head. The classification for the dam is greater of the two indicated by the
two parameters: gross storage and hydraulic head, as described in Table 4.
The criteria used for selecting the design flood for various hydraulic structures
vary from one country to other. Table 5 gives a brief summary of the guidelines
adopted by CWC (1969) to select design floods in India.
The design criteria for flood management schemes have evolved over the
years, pooling the experiences and practices followed by various organizations and
individuals. The prevalent hydrologic design criteria for determining the spillway
capacity for India have been detailed in Indian Standard IS 11,223-1985, “Guide-
lines for fixing Spillway Capacity”. According to these guidelines the inflow design
floods that need to be considered for various functions of spillways are as discussed
below.
(a) Inflow design flood for dam safety
It is the flood for which the dam should be safe against overtopping and structural
failure. The criteria for classification of dams are based on the size and hydraulic
head (see Table 4). A general practice is to adopt PMF as the design flood for large
dams which have high hazard potential.
Spillway design flood is the maximum discharge that can be passed by a hydraulic
structure without any damage or serious threat to its stability. Guidelines being
followed in India in respect of spillway design flood are given in Table 5. For

Table 4. Classification of storage projects based on gross storage and hydraulic head

Classification Gross storage Hydraulic head

Small Between 0.5 and 10 million m3 Between 7.5 m & 12 m

Intermediate Between 10 & 60 million m3 Between 12 m & 30 m
Large Greater than 60 million m3 Greater than 30 m
Runoff and Streamflow 215

Table 5. Guidelines for selecting design floods

S. N. Structure Recommended design flood

1. Spillways for major and medium projects (a) PMF determined by unit hydrograph
with storage more than 60 Mm3 (UH) and probable maximum precipitation
(PMP).
(b) If (a) is not applicable or possible, flood
frequency method with return period
T = 1 000 years.
2. Permanent barrage and minor dams with (a) SPF determined by UH and standard
capacity less than 60 Mm3 project storm (SPS) which is usually the
largest recorded storm in the region.
(b) Flood with a return period of 100 years.
Choose (a) or (b), whichever gives higher
value.
3. Pickup weirs Flood with a return period of 100 or 50
years depending upon the importance of the
project.
4. Aqueducts (a) Waterway: Flood with T = 50 years.
(b) Foundations and free board: Flood with
T = 100 years.
5. Project with very scanty or inadequate data. Empirical formulae.

minor structures, a flood of 50 or 10-year frequency is adopted depending on the

importance of the structure. Floods of larger or smaller magnitudes may be used if
the hazard involved is high or low, respectively. In addition to the size, the relevant
parameters to be considered in judging the hazard are:
• Distance and location of the downstream areas. Due consideration is given to the
likely future developments, and
• The maximum carrying capacity of the downstream channel at a level at which
catastrophic damage is not expected.
(b) Inflow design flood for efficient operation of energy dissipation works
The energy dissipation arrangements for the spillway may be designed for the best
efficiency for a smaller inflow flood than the inflow design flood for the safety of
the dam.
(c) Inflow design flood to check the extent of upstream submergence
The inflow design flood to check the extent of the upstream submergence depends
on local conditions and the type of property and the effects of its submergence.
Except for very important structures in the upstream like power houses, mines, etc.
for which the levels corresponding to SPF or PMF may be used, smaller design
floods and levels attained under these may suffice. In general, a 25-year return
period flood for land acquisition and a 50-year return period flood for the built-up
property acquisition may be adopted.
(d) Inflow design flood for the extent of downstream damage in the valley
The inflow design flood to check the extent of downstream damage depends on local
conditions, the type of property and the effects of its submergence. For important
216 Chapter 5

facilities like power houses, the outflows under the inflow design flood for safety
of dams and all gates operating conditions are relevant. Normally, the discharge
relevant to check the acceptability of the downstream submergence may be smaller
than that for power houses at or near the toe of the dam.
For important projects, dambreak studies are to be undertaken as an aid to
determine the design flood. Where the professional judgment or studies indicate an
imminent danger to present or future human settlements, the PMF should be used
as the design flood. Any departure from the general criteria as above on account of
larger or smaller hazard should be clearly brought out and recorded.
e) Design flood for fixing freeboard
The design of spillways and the size of flood control pool is determined
using reservoir routing. Apart from safety, the economic considerations are
also important. An optimum design criterion can be reached by compro-
mising the cost and the risk factors. A flood of specific frequency is adopted
depending on the functional importance, with judicious combination of safety and
economy.
f) Design flood estimation for barrages
Weirs and barrages usually have small storage capacities and the risk of loss of life
and property downstream would rarely be enhanced by failure of the structure. The
loss of the structures by its failure would disrupt irrigation and communications
that are dependent on the barrage. For barrages, the use of a 100-year return period
flood or standard project flood whichever is higher, is the normal practice.
g) Design Flood Estimation for Road and Railway Bridges
For road bridges, the Indian Road Congress IRC: 5-1970, Section-I General
Features of Design applies. According to this, the discharge for which the waterway
of a bridge is to be designed shall be:
• the maximum flood observed for a period of not less than 50 years; or
• the discharge computed from an another recognized method applicable for that
area; or
• the discharge found by the velocity area method; or
• the discharge found by UH method; or
• the maximum discharge fixed by the judgment of the engineers responsible for
the design.
A comparison of the results of the above mentioned methods is to be made. A
50-year flood can be used for smaller bridges carrying railway lines of lesser
importance. In the case of bridges carrying main and important rail lines, a 100-year
return period flood is to be adopted as per the railway codes.
h) Design Flood Estimation for Cross-Drainage Structures
The cross drainage works can be classified under three broad categories: i) Structure
for a carrier channel over a natural drainage, ii) Structure for a carrier channel
underneath a natural drainage, and iii) Structure for a carrier channel crossing a
natural drainage at the same level. The design flood to be adopted for minor cross-
drainage works depends upon the size of drainage channels, the canals, the cost and
importance of the structure.
Runoff and Streamflow 217

Table 6. Recommended design criteria for flood control schemes

Situation Guideline

Predominantly agricultural areas 25-year return period flood on small tributaries

and 50-year on major rivers
Town protection works 100-year return period flood
Important industrial complexes, assets and 100-year return period flood
lines of communications
Large cities The maximum observed flood or sometimes the
maximum probable flood

The BIS Code of practice for design of cross-drainage works [IS:7,784 (part-I),
1975] recommends that the design (of waterway) in such cases may be based on a
10- to 25-year frequency flood with increased afflux. However, the foundations and
freeboard etc. should be checked for safely for increased afflux and velocities due
to a 50-year or 100-year return period flood. For very large cross-drainage works,
damage to which is likely to affect the canal supplies over a long period, the design
should be based on the maximum probable flood.
As per the CWC criteria, waterways for canal aqueducts should be provided to
pass a 50–100-year return period flood, but their foundations and freeboards should
be safe for a flood of not less than 100-year return period.
Each site is unique in its local conditions, causes, and effects. Thus, the above
mentioned norms may be taken as general guidelines. The designer may deviate
from the norms and the criteria in special cases if justifiable on account of local
conditions. In such cases, reasons be recorded and should have the acceptance of
the approving authority.
Design Criteria for Flood Control Schemes: The design criteria for flood control
schemes broadly recommend have given in Table 6.
The general practice is to adopt the flood corresponding to the applicable
frequency or the observed maximum flood in the recent past, whichever is higher.
In no case, the design High Flood Level (HFL) should be lower than the highest
observed level on record. For small rivers carrying discharge up to 3,000 cumec,
the design HFL should correspond to a 25-year return period flood. For a river
carrying a peak flood above 3,000 cumec, the design HFL should correspond to
50-year return period. However, if the embankments are to protect big township,
industrial areas or other places of strategic importance, the design HFL should
generally correspond to a 100-year return period flood.

5.3.2. Methods of Design Flood Estimation

The following methods are generally used for design flood estimation:
a. Rational method,
b. Empirical method,
c. Flood frequency method,
218 Chapter 5

d. UH technique, and
e. Watershed models.
The rational method, empirical method and flood frequency method are generally
used for estimating the magnitude of flood peak. However, the UH technique
and watershed models can give the design flood hydrograph, in addition to the
magnitude of design flood peak. The use of a particular method depends upon:
(i) the desired objective, (ii) the available data, and (iii) the importance of the
project.
The rational formula is only applicable to small size (50 sq. km) catchments.
The empirical formulae are essentially the regional formulae based on statistical
correlation. The frequency analysis approach is the statistical methods to predict
the flood peaks of a specified return period. The UH method is basically a rainfall
runoff relationship normally applicable to moderate size catchments with area less
than 5,000 sq. km.

5.3.3. Empirical Formulae for Design Flood Estimation

These are essentially regional formulae based on statistical correlation of the

observed peak and important catchment characteristics. These empirical formulae
are applicable only in the region for which they were developed in the range of
flood peaks used; for other areas, they should be applied with caution. Table 7
gives some of the empirical flood formulae used in India along with the values
of constants used and the limitations of the formulae. Although these were origi-
nally developed in FPS units, the equivalent formulas in metric units are given
here.
The coefficient C in Dicken’s formula differs from one region to another. The
values of this co-efficient used for the computation of maximum flow for some of
the catchments in UP are given in Table 8. Further, this coefficient for different
return periods for some of these catchments is given in Table 9. Table 10 contains
suggested values of C for different topographic classes.
The values of coefficient C of the Ryve’s formula, as adopted in some studies
for catchments in UP are given in Table 11.
Some other empirical formulae used in the past are the Craig formula, the Inglis
formula, and the Rhind formula.
Whenever the hydrological records are inadequate for frequency analysis or
UH analysis, the empirical formulae developed for that region are an alternative
to estimate design flood at the project site. The empirical formulae are essen-
tially the regional formulae based on statistical correlation of the observed peaks
and important catchment properties. Most empirical formulae involve only one
or two physical characteristics, of the catchment. Since flood peaks depend on
many physical characteristics, these empirical formulae cannot be expected to
give precise results. The use of empirical formulae is discouraged these days.
Their use should be avoided for the estimation of design flood for the major
structures.
Runoff and Streamflow 219

Table 7. Commonly used empirical formulae

No. Author Formula in metric Values of constants C in Limitations

unit different regions

1. Dickens Q = C A3/4 Q in North-Indian 6.0 Generally applicable for

cumec, A in sq. plains moderate size basins in
km. North-Indian hilly 11–14 North and Central India
regions
Central India 14–28
Coastal Andhra 22–28
and Orissa
2. Ryves Q = C A2/3 Q in Area within 80 km 6.8 Developed
cumec, A in sq. from the east from a study
km. coast of rivers in
Area within 8.3 South India
80–240 km from
the coast
Limited area near 10.2
the hills
Values estimated Up to 40
from observed
data
3. Nawab Jung Q= Yamuna River at 2,500 More suitable
Bahadur CA092−log A/14 Tajewala for areas below
Q in cusec, A in Bhagirithi River 2,100 10000 sq.
sq. miles. at Pala miles.
4. Creagar Q= Yamuna River at 100
46CA0894A−0048 Tajewala
Q in cusec, A in Sarda River at 100
sq. miles. Banbassa

Table 8. Values of coefficient C in Dicken’s formula used to compute the maximum flow for some
catchments in UP

Location Coefficient C in Dicken’s formula in metric

unit

Bhagirathi River at Pala 19.76

Yamuna River at Dakpathar 19.76
Sarda River at Banbassa 12.76
Ganga River at Hardwar 10.23
Ramganga River at Kalagarh 25.69
Yamuna River at Tajewala 14.40
Ken River at Gangao 11.26
Betwa River at Paricha 10.45
Karmnasa River at Silhat 24.65
Rihand River at Pipri 14.17
220 Chapter 5

Table 9. Coefficient C in Dicken’s formula corresponding to different return periods for some of the
catchments in UP used for maximum flood flow computation

Return Values of Dicken’s C in metric unit

Period
(years) Tons at Yamuna at Bhagirathi Ganga at Sarda at Ramganga
Kishau Tajewal at Tehri Haridwar Banbassa at Kalagarh
A B A B A B A B A B

10 854 867 964 975 463 613 594 745 863 933 12.52
20 1075 109 1169 1182 558 1294 695 87 985 1066 14.81
50 1354 1371 1427 1443 678 895 82 1028 1141 1234 17.7
100 1575 1595 1632 1652 772 1021 92 1155 1265 1368 20.00
200 1787 1811 1829 1851 863 1141 1018 1275 1383 1496 22.22
500 2070 2096 2091 2115 984 130 1145 1434 1542 1666 25.16
1,000 2284 2314 2291 2318 1075 1422 1242 1556 1661 1797 27.39

Note: A = When total catchment area is used including snow covered area B = When catchment area
does not include perpetual snow area

Table 10. Coefficient C in Dicken’s formula depending upon the catchments topography

Class of location Conditions Coefficient C in Dicken’s

formula in metric unit

Class I Bare surface with precipitous hills 19.76–28.23

Class II Catchment with hills on the skirts with 14.12–28.23
undulating country up to the outfall
Class III Undulating country with hard 11.29–14.12
indurated clay soils
Class IV Flat, sandy, absorbent or cultivated 2.82–7.06
plains

Table 11. Coefficient C in Ryve’s formula for some of the catchments in UP

used for peak flow computation

Location Coefficient C in Ryve’s formula

in metric unit

River Bhagirathi at Pala 4122

River Yamuna at Dakpathar 4122
River Sarda at Banbassa 3054
River Yamuna at Tajewala 3054

5.3.4. Rational Method

If rainfall of uniform intensity occurs over a basin beyond the time of concentration
of the basin (which is the time taken for a drop of water from the farthest point
Runoff and Streamflow 221

of the catchment to reach the outlet) then the runoff will be constant at the peak
value. The peak value of the runoff is given by the equation

Qp = C i A for t > tc (14)

where Qp = peak discharge in m3 /s, C = co-efficient of runoff, A = Area of the

catchment in sq. km, and i = intensity of rainfall. The above equation is the basic
equation of the rational method. Using the commonly used units in metric system,
the equation is written as:
1
Qp = Ci A (15)
36 tcp
where itcp = the mean intensity of precipitation (mm/hr) for a duration equal to tc
(time of concentration), and an exceedence probability p. The application of the
method for peak flood computation require three parameters, viz., tc , itcp and C,
which can be estimated as follows.

Time of Concentration
The time of concentration can be estimated using an empirical equation of the form:

tc = CtL (16)

where CtL and n are constant, L is the length of the main stream in km, Lca is the
length along the main stream from the outlet to a point opposite the C.G. of the
catchment in km, S is the basin slope.
Another empirical equation, known as the Kirpich equation, is very much in use
to estimate the value of tc . This equation is given as:

tc = 001947 L077 S−0385 (17)

where tc = the time of concentration in minutes, L = the maximum length of travel

of water in metres and S = Slope of the catchment = DH/L, DH = the difference in
elevation between the most remote point on the catchment and the outlet in metres.

Rainfall Intensity (i)

The rainfall intensity – frequency – duration relationship for the given catchment
can be used to obtain the rainfall intensity corresponding to a duration t and the
desired probability of exceedence p (i.e., return period = 1/p).

Runoff Coefficient (C)

The coefficient C represents the integrated effect of the catchment losses and
depends on the nature of the surface slope and rainfall intensity. Some typical values
of C are given in Table 12 where the effect of rainfall intensity is not considered
for the values of C. The rational method is commonly used for peak flow prediction
in small catchments up to 50 km2 in area. This method has found considerable
application in design of urban drainage, small culverts, and bridges.
222 Chapter 5

Table 12. Value of the coefficient C for different types of areas

Area C value

Sandy – soil, flat, 2% 0.05–0.10

Lawns Sandy – soil, steep, 0.15–0.20
7%
Heavy – soil, average, 0.18–0.22
Urban area
2–7%
Single family areas 0.30–0.50
Residential Areas
Multi units, attached 0.60–0.75
Light 0.50–0.80
Industrial
Heavy 0.60–0.90
Streets 0.70–0.95
Cultivated 0.50
Flat: Tight clay
Woodland 0.40
Cultivated 0.20
Flat: Sandy loam,
Agricultural Woodland 0.10
Area Cultivated 0.70
Hilly: Tight clay,
Woodland 0.60
Cultivated 0.40
Hilly: Sandy loam,
Woodland 0.30

5.3.5. Design Flood Estimation Using UH

Taking into account the limitation in adopting the empirical formulae and the devel-
opments in hydrological science, Government of India had constituted a committee
known as the Khosla committee to indicate a rational method to determine design
discharge. The committee recommended systematic and sustained collection of
hydro-meteorological data selected of catchments in different climatic zones of
India to evolve approach for determination of design flood. The committee felt that
design flood should be the maximum flood on record for a period of not less than
50 years. Where records over a period not much less than 50 are available, years the
design flood should be 50-year flood determined from probability considerations
on the basis of observed data. In case the data is inadequate, the design flood was
recommended to be determined based on design storm. Since long term data on
small and medium catchments is not available in the country, the approach based
on design storm is frequently adopted.
The Khosla Committee recommended two schemes: Long Term Plan and Short
Term Plan. Under the Short Term Plan, a method was devised to estimate the
design flood peak based on unit hydrograph principle. Under the Long Term Plan,
the country has been divided into zones which in turn are sub-divided in 26 hydro-
meteorologically homogenous sub-zones of moderate sizes as shown in Figure 10
and listed in Table 13. The data collected from selected representative catchments in
the sub-zone should be studied and analyzed in detail. Design of structures to control
river flows must consider both extremes of runoff (that is, droughts and floods).
Analyses are required to size the capacity of outlet works (spillways, bypasses, etc.)
Runoff and Streamflow 223

Figure 10. Hydro-meteorologically homogenous sub-zones of India

to cater for floods. It is often necessary in hydrologic design to have details of both
the peak flows and the distribution of flow with time. In other words, the computed
hydrograph may be needed, so that the runoff volume can be estimated.
Here the method for the estimation of design flood applicable to small catchments
(less than 5,000 sq. km) based on UH approach is discussed. UH technique along
with routing can be used to estimate the design flood for larger sized basins
(greater than 5,000 sq. km) by dividing the basin into sub-basins. The UH method
of determination of design flood hydrographs involves several steps. Derivation of
design storm has been discussed in Chapter 3.

Basin Response
Under natural conditions of rainfall and drainage basins, the assumptions of linearity
and of uniform distribution of rainfall excess in space are difficult to justify in large
224 Chapter 5

Table 13. Hydro-meteorologically homogenous sub-zones of the country

Number Coverage of the sub-zone

1(a) Luni basin and Thar (Luni and other rivers of Rajasthan & Kutch)
1(b) Chambal basin
1(c) Betwa basin & other tributaries
1(d) Sone basin & right bank tributaries
1(e) Punjab plains including parts of Indus, Yamuna, Ganga and
Ramganga basins
1(f) Gangetic plains including Gomti, Ghagra, Gandak, Kosi & others
1(g) Lower Gangetic plains including Subarnarekha & other east-flowing
rivers between Ganga & Baitarani
2(a) North Brahmaputra basin
2(b) South Brahmaputra basin
2(c) Barak & others
3(a) Mahi including the Dhadhar, Sabarmati & rivers of Saurashtra
3(b) Lower Narmada & Tapi basin
3(c) Upper Narmada & Tapi basin
3(d) Mahanadi basin including Brahmani and Baitarani rivers
3(e) Upper Godavari basin
3(f) Lower Godavari basin except coastal region
3(g) Indravati basin
3(h) Krishna sub-zone including Pennar basin except coastal region
3(i) Cauveri & east flowing rivers except coastal region
4(a) Circars including east flowing rivers between Mahanadi & Godavari
4(b) Coromandal coast including east flowing rivers between Godavari &
Cauveri
4(c) Sandy Coroman belt (east flowing rivers between the Cauveri &
Kanya Kumari)
5(a) Konkan coast (west flowing rivers between the Tapi & Panaji)
5(b) Malabar coast (west flowing rivers between Kanya Kumari & Panaji)
6. Tarai sub-Himalayan foot hills
7. J & K, Kumaon Hills (Indus basin)

catchments. Adaptation of UH Theory or models based on UH Theory to large

catchments of over 5,000 sq. km in area requires special care to ensure that the
assumptions are not seriously violated. Problems encountered in adaptation are:
• Uneven spatial distribution of rainfall is rule rather the than the exception. Storm
events covering the entire catchment available for analyses are few and usually
none the entire catchment whereas the design storm selected covers the whole
catchment.
• Volume of direct surface runoff of observed flood events is comparatively very
much lower than that of the design floods and the error involved in the use of UG
derived from observed floods of smaller volume without adjustment for higher
volume could be large.
• Gauge-Discharge observations of floods are available at only one or two sites.
Consequently, most of the sub-basins into which the catchment may be divided
will have to be considered as ungauged.
Runoff and Streamflow 225

• Gauge-Discharge observations of floods at a site other than the dam site are
available and method to transfer the information to dam site will be needed.
Through innovations and improvisations to suit each individual case keeping in
view the data situation and objective, the above problems are to be effectively
tackled.
For catchments with non-linear behaviour, Rao (1975) found that the practice of
increasing the UG peak by 25% to 50% and modifying the UG when it is derived
from smaller floods and the US Corps of Engineers practice of applying the normal
UG to all unit periods of design storm except the largest to which UG with increased
peak is applied are well known.
a Rainfall Losses: The usual variation in the spatial aerial distribution of storm
rainfall in small basins may be taken into account when selecting infiltration indices
and when deriving the hydrographs which reflect critical conditions. For larger
drainage basins, however, the infiltration during time increments of the storm is
proportional to the areas covered by rainfall intensities that exceed the infiltration
capacity. Therefore, for larger drainage areas, assumptions concerning both the time
and aerial distribution of rainfall intensities during the design storm must be made.
Now, increments of rainfall are first aligned to match the ordinates of the design
UH so that the position of the maximum depth increment is matched with the
maximum UH ordinate, the position of second largest depth increment is matched
with the second largest UH ordinate and so on. The sequence of rainfall increments
is then reversed to get a design sequence of precipitation increments.
Considering the approximations and assumptions involved in estimating the storm
rainfall hyetograph, index approach is adequate for purposes of arriving at rainfall
excess hyetograph in design flood studies. Intensity and temporal and spatial distri-
bution of rainfall affects the index value. index is higher for high intensity
rains not because of increased infiltration but due to the fact that area producing
run off becomes greater as the rainfall intensity increases.
Detailed studies of storm rainfall flood runoff for a large number of drainage
basins, most of them with areas between 50 to 500 sq. km located in various climatic
sub-zones, have been made by Hydrology (Small Catchments) Directorate (CWC.
1973 to 1989). Modal values of -index ranging from 2.0 to 7.5 mm/hr depending
on the climatic sub-zone have been recommended for assessing design floods of 50
year or 100 year return period required for design of railway and highway bridges
across streams draining small to medium size catchments.
In estimating PMF for major structures, however, some conservatism is appro-
priate because of large investments and risk involved. Rao (1990) favoured the
choice of lower -index values with 90% probability of exceedance instead of
mode values and suggested -index values for application to PMP hyetographs of
catchments in India as given in Table 14.
b Calculation of effective rainfall: Generally the infiltration index and the initial
losses are derived from the available rainfall-runoff records for severe storms in
the basin. Assuming the basin would be saturated at the time of design storm, the
minimum infiltration rate and initial losses would be considered. The minimum
226 Chapter 5

Table 14. Recommended -index values for application to PMP

Region -index (mm/hr) for catchment areas (sq. km)

500–5,000 5,000–10,000 above 10,000

1. Luni Basin (Rajasthan) 6.0 7.0 8.0

2. Chambal Basin (Rajasthan) 4.0 5.0 6.0
3. Ganga plains, Sone and Chambal 2.0 3.0 4.0
(MP) basins
4. Western Himalayas 1.0 2.0 3.0
5. Brahmaputra Basin 1.0 2.0 3.0
6. Mahi and Sabarmati Basins 2.5 3.5 4.5
7. Upper Narmada and Tapi Basins 1.5 2.5 3.5
8. Lower Narmada and Tapi Basins 2.0 3.0 4.0
9. Mahanadi Basin 1.5 2.5 3.5
10. Krishna Godavari & 2.0 3.0 4.0
Pennar Basins
11. Cauvery Basin 2.5 2.5 4.5
12. East Coastal region 1.5 3.5 3.5
13. West Coastal region 1.0 2.0 3.0

infiltration rate and minimum initial loss are used to compute the effective rainfall
of a design storm. For this the initial losses must be subtracted first from the rainfall
increments and thereafter a uniform loss rate equal to the minimum infiltration
index is applied.
From a study conducted by CWC (1973) on rainfall-runoff correlation, the
following relationships for the estimation of uniform loss rate (
-index) are
envisaged for flood producing storms and soil conditions prevalent in India:

R = a I12 (18)

= I − R/24 (19)

where R = runoff (cm) from a 24 hour rainfall of intensity I (cm/day), and a =

coefficient which depends upon the soil type. Its typical values are given in Table 15.
In the absence of any other data, an assumption has to be made regarding the
value of
-index. The U.S. Army Crops of Engineers has recommended the use
of infiltration index of 1.0 mm/hour for the first 12 hours, 0.8 mm per hour for the

Table 15. Typical values of Co-efficient a

Types of soil Co-efficient a

Sandy soils and sandy loam 0.17–0.24

Coastal alluvium and silty loam 0.25–0.34
Red soils, clayey loam, grey and brown alluvium 0.42
Black cotton and clayey soils 0.41–0.46
Hilly soils 0.46–0.50
Runoff and Streamflow 227

subsequent 12 hours, and 0.5 mm per hour thereafter. An alternative practice being
used in India recommended by CWC is the use of constant loss rate of 1.0 mm per
hour throughout the storm. The rates adopted for a particular project are primarily
influenced by the soil type and land cover in the basin. Initial losses may be assumed
to be zero during the period of design storm unless some sound evidence suggests
another amount as initial losses.
c Derivation of design UH: Unit hydrographs are derived from the discharge
records or by regional UH relationships. The UH technique based on Clark’s
approach may be preferred over the conventional techniques, such as Collin’s
method, etc. When a number of UHs have been developed for the project basin, a
selection has to be made to determine the UH which will result in the best estimate
of the design flood. Generally a normal UH is developed. Such a UH applies to
normal or average storm patterns, and is considered suitable for use in computing
design floods of all magnitudes but the probable maximum flood. The normal UH
should be tested by reproducing observed hydrographs of major floods.
If the normal UH is computed from a recorded flood hydrograph that represents
rainfall distributions and hydraulic conditions which are not likely to be greatly
different from those during design storms, the derived normal UH can be used
without modification. However, if the UH has been derived from a minor flood
hydrograph, it may be necessary to modify it for use with the design storm due to
differences in the aerial distribution of rainfall and hydrologic conditions between
major and minor floods. Since the data for the determination of UH are usually
limited to relatively minor floods, it is necessary to increase the peak ordinate of
the normal UH to represent higher concentration of runoff. CWC recommended
an increase of 25 to 50 percent in peak ordinate of the normal UH. This increase
necessitates a general modification of the normal UH to preserve the unit volume.
The modified UH is generally assumed to apply to all unit periods of the probable
maximum storm. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers practice, however, is to apply
the normal UH to all unit periods of the probable maximum storm except the largest
to which the modified UH is applied.
(d) The critical sequence of the effective rainfall are applied to the design UH to
obtain the total design direct surface runoff hydrograph effective rainfall (in mm)
in each period and are determined by multiplying by the time unit. The steps are:
• Multiply the first effective rainfall increment successively by each of the UH
ordinates. The resulting quantities represent the ordinates of the direct surface
runoff hydrograph produced by the first increment of effective rainfall.
• Compute the direct surface runoff hydrographs resulting due to second, third etc.
increments of effective rainfall.
• Compute the total direct surface runoff from effective rainfall amounts by adding
the direct surface runoff resulting due to different increments of rainfall in proper
time relation being lagged successively by a time interval equal to the unit
duration of the UH.
228 Chapter 5

(e) To obtain the design flood hydrograph of total runoff, the baseflow expected
during the design storm is estimated and added to the total direct surface runoff
ordinates obtained in the previous step.

5.3.6. Regional UH Studies

Many studies have been undertaken to derive regional UH for various regions of
India.
i. The small catchment directorate of CWC (1980) developed the following
relationships between the one-hour UH parameters and physical characteristics
of the catchments for Godavari basin subzone 3f:
√
tp = 0253LLc / S045 (20)
Qp = 1968tp −0842 (21)
W50 = 230Qp −1108 (22)
−1007
W75 = 1356Qp  (23)
WR50 = 0954Qp −1078 (24)
−1035
WR75 = 0581Qp  (25)
TB = 4572tp 090 (26)

where Qp is the peak discharge of UH in cumec; tp is the time from the center
of unit rainfall duration to the peak of the UH in cubic meter/second; W50 is
the width of the UH measured at a discharge ordinates equal to 50% of Qp in
hours; W75 is the width of the UH measured at a discharge ordinate equal to
75% of Qp in hours; WR50 is the rising side of the UH measured in hours at a
discharge ordinate equal to 50% of Qp in hours; WR75 is the rising side of UH
measured in hours at discharge ordinate equal to 75% of Qp in hours; TB is
the base width of the UH in hours; L is the length of the longest water course;
Lc is the water course length from the outflow point to a point on the stream
nearest to the centroid of the basin and S is the equivalent stream slope of the
longest water-course. The one hour representative UH parameter and pertinent
physiographic characteristics for 22 catchment of Godavari basin subzone 3F
are given in Seth and Singh (1985–86).
ii. CWC (1982) also developed the regional UH relationships for Mahanadi basin
subzone 3d analyzing the data of 16 catchments of the basin. One hour UH param-
eters were considered for developing the following relationships. The represen-
tative one hour UH parameters and pertinent physiographic characteristics for
Mahanadi subzone 3d have been given by Seth & Singh (1985–86) as follows:
√
tp = 197LLc / S024 (27)
Qp = 112tp −066 (28)
Runoff and Streamflow 229

W50 = 2195Qp −11008 (29)

W75 = 1221Qp −095 (30)
−094
WR50 = 0995Qp  (31)
WR75 = 0532Qp −093 (32)
TB = 572tp  077
(33)

iii. Mathur & Kumar (1982) related the following physical parameters of 20 small
and medium catchments with an objective to find out the most effective physical
parameters representing the regional UH relationships.
 2

n
S = L/ Li /Si  1/2
(34)
i=1

where Li is the length of the ith segment of the main stream (km); Si is slope of ith
segment of main stream (km/km); and Si = land slope defined by

n
1i +1i+1
i 2
hi+1 − hi 
i=1
Si = (35)
A
where li is the length of ith contour (km); A is the catchment area km2 , SLC is
the statistical stream slope from a point nearest to centroid, WC is the Minimum
width of the catchment from a point passing through centroid, and D is the drainage
density km−1 .
The above physical parameters for 20 catchments were given by Mathur and
Kumar (1982), and Seth & Singh (1985–86). The multiple linear regression analysis
of a total 31 combinations of physical parameters were considered, dropping one or
several of them singularly and collectively. The relations between each parameter
and basin lag have also been presented by Seth & Singh (1985–86).
iv. Huq et al. (1982) developed generalized synthetic UH relationships analyzing
the data of 21 bridge catchments in Lower Gangetic Plains, Mahanadi Basin,
Krishna Basin and Brahmaputra Basin. They have related the parameters of
the representative UHs with a suitable combination of the following physical
characteristics of the catchments using regression analysis:
 038
LLC A
Ftp = 143 (36)
WC S

Qp = 233A067 S038 (37)

W50 = 233Qp −110 (38)
−122
W75 = 1321Qp  (39)
230 Chapter 5

where, F = the form factor which is the ratio of the square of the length of the main
stream to the total catchment area, i.e., L2 /A.
v. The small catchment directorate of CWC (1982) developed the following
regional UH relationships for Krishna and Pennar Basins (subzone 3 h) relating
the physical parameters of 21 catchments with their one-hour representative UH
parameters:

049
LL
tp = 0258 √ C (40)
S
Qp = 1017tp −052 (41)
W50 = 2396Qp −108 (42)
−108
W75 = 1427Qp  (43)
WR50 = 0750Qp −125 (44)
−112
WR75 = 0557Qp  (45)
TB = 7193tp 053 (46)

The correlation coefficients obtained for the above equations are reasonable.
The physical characteristics and one hour representative UH parameters for 21
catchments of subzone 3 h are given by Seth and Singh (1985–86).
vi. The Small Catchment Directorate of CWC (1984) derived the following relation-
ships relating the physical parameters of the 23 catchments of upper Indo-Ganga
Plains with representative 2-hour UH parameters:


L 0649
Qp = 2030 √ (47)
S
Tp = 1858Qp −1038 (48)
−099
W50 = 2217Qp  (49)
W75 = 1477Qp −0876 (50)
−0907
WR50 = 0812Qp  (51)
WR75 = 0606Qp −0791 (52)
Tb = 7744tp  0779
(53)

In India, a number of studies have been carried out for the estimation of
design floods for various structures by different organizations. Prominent among
these include the studies carried out jointly by the CWC, Research Designs
and Standards Organization (RDSO), and India Meteorological Department
(IMD) using the method based on synthetic unit hydrograph and design rainfall
considering physiographic and meteorological characteristics (CWC 1987).
Runoff and Streamflow 231

Table 16. Values of Baseflow during flood season

Sl. No. Region Baseflow

(cumec/sq. km)

1. Luni, Chambal, Sone, Punjab plain, Gangetic plains, Upper 0.05

Narmada & Tapi basins, Upper Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery,
J&K, Kumaon Hills.
2. Betwa, Mahi, Sabarmati, Lower-Narmada, and Tapi basins, 0.11
Lower Godavari, Indravati Basin, East Coast, Terai (UP).
3. Mahanadi basin, West coast. 0.22
4. Brahmaputra basin 0.44

5.4. BASEFLOW

When computing design flood hydrographs for ungauged areas, the estimated
baseflow rates of similar gauged basins expressed in cumec per sq. km of the
catchment area are used to estimate the design baseflow. However, a study
conducted for baseflow for small catchments revealed that baseflow during flood
season varies from 0.05 cumec/sq. km to 0.44 cumec/sq. km depending upon the
meteorological zones in which the basins are located. The values given in Table 16
were considered reasonable:
It is emphasized here that in terms of magnitude, the contribution of baseflow to
the peak of a flood hydrograph is quite small.

5.5. FLOOD FREQUENCY ANALYSIS

Frequency analysis is performed to determine the chances of the likely occur-

rence of hydrologic events. This information is used to solve a variety of water-
resource problems, for example, design of reservoirs, floodways, bridges, culverts,
levees, urban drainage systems, irrigation systems, stream-control works, water-
supply systems, and hydroelectric power plants, floodplain zoning, setting of
flood-insurance premiums, etc. Although the frequency analysis of virtually every
component of the hydrologic cycle is required, much attention is placed on frequency
analyses of streamflow extremes and rainfall only.
The hydrologic data to be analyzed for frequency analysis must be treated in light
of the objectives of the analysis, length and completeness of record, randomness
of data, and homogeneity. The length of record should be more than 25 years
for the derived distribution to be acceptable. The hydrologic data must have been
controlled by a uniform set of hydrologic and operational factors. For example, the
factors causing a winter rain flood are quite different from those during a spring
snowmelt flood or a local cloudburst flood. These two types of floods should not
be combined into a single record. Sometimes a hydrologic record may have gaps.
Missing data may sometimes be estimated using regional analysis or by correlation
with other hydrologic data in the region.
232 Chapter 5

Hydrologic data are generally presented in chronological order constituting the

complete duration series (CDS). For frequency analysis, CDS is seldom used
because the hydrologic design of a project is normally dictated by only a few critical
events. Therefore, hydrologic data can be selected in two ways: (1) partial duration
series (PDS) and (2) annual duration series (ADS). PDS is comprised of the data
exceeding a specified base level. In ADS, one value (usually the highest) is selected
from each year. The two series are comparable if the record is longer than 10 years
and either can be used.
Chow (1964) proposed the use of a frequency factor in hydrologic frequency
analysis. If a hydrologic variable X is plotted chronologically in time, then a
particular value x is found to be composed of two parts: namely, the mean, x, and
the departure from the mean x:

x = x + x (54)

The variable x can be expressed as the product of the standard deviation S and
the frequency factor K. Therefore,

x = x+S K (55)

where K depends on the return period T and the PDF of X; K literally means the
number of standard deviations above and below the mean to achieve the desired
quantile. For a distribution, a relation between K and T can be derived. For two-
parameter distributions, K varies with T . For skewed distributions, it varies with
the coefficient of skewness Cs  and is very sensitive to the length of record. The
frequency factors for some commonly used distributions have been given by Jain
and Singh (2003).
For many watersheds, streamflow data are either insufficient or non-existent at the
sites of interest. The methods of frequency analysis using data from a single site will
have then limited predictive value because of large sampling errors. To overcome
the data deficiency, a regional frequency analysis is performed. By defining a region
that is hydrologically similar in terms of the variable to be studied, data from several
gauging sites within this homogeneous region are pooled together into a single
regional frequency analysis. Examples of regional frequency analysis are estimation
of design flood from rainfall-runoff relationship, prediction of flood peaks from the
relation between observed values and drainage-basin characteristics, and estimation
of rainfall depths and frequencies in ungauged areas from characteristics at well-
gauged sites in the same area.
The first step in a regional analysis is to define the region itself. The definition of
a region depends on the quantities to be estimated. Many methods are available to
define a region that is homogeneous. For mean annual precipitation, large physio-
graphic regions can be used, whereas for peak flow, the regions may be confined
to drainage basins of certain sizes. Regional boundaries can be defined in terms of
similarity of flood-frequency curves or flow curves. Homogeneity tests are used to
check if flood-frequency curves in a region can be considered homogeneous.
Runoff and Streamflow 233

The frequency distributions that are most commonly used in India include the
normal distribution, log-normal distribution, extreme value distribution, generalized
extreme value distribution, logistic distribution, log Pearson type-III distribution,
exponential distribution, generalized pareto distribution, kappa distribution, and
five parameter Wakeby distribution. RDSO carried out regional flood frequency
studies using the USGS and pooled curve methods (RDSO 1991) for some of
the hydro-meteorological subzones of India. Regional flood frequency studies
have also been carried out at some of the academic and research Institutions.
Kumar et al. (1999) developed regional flood frequency formula for seven hydro-
meteorological subzones of Zone 3 of India: (1) Mahi and Sabarmati—Subzone
3(a); (2) Lower Narmada and Tapi—Subzone 3(b); (3) Upper Narmada and Tapi—
Subzone 3(c); (4) Mahanadi—Subzone 3(d); (5) Upper Godavari—Subzone 3(e);
(6) Lower Godavari—Subzone 3(f); and (7) Krishna and Penner—Subzone 3(h).
For the combined zone 3, the relation proposed them is:

 
1 −0156
QT = −2105 + 2627 − ln 1 − A064 (56)
T

where A is the catchment area in sq. km.

Kumar and Chatterjee (2005) developed regional flood frequency relationships
based on the L-moments approach for the catchments of the North Brahmaputra
region of India. For this region, the GEV distribution was identified as the robust
distribution. The following regional frequency relationship for GEV distribution
was developed by them for the gauged catchments

 
1 −0025
QT = −1167 + 1248 − ln 1 − Q (57)
T

where QT = T -year return period flood estimate (cumec), Q = mean annual flood
peak of the (cumec) catchment. For the ungauged catchments of the regions, the
following relation was proposed by Kumar and Chatterjee (2005)


 
1 −0025
QT = −5105 + 546 − ln 1 − A072 (58)
T

5.6. FOOD FORECASTING

A nationwide flood forecasting and warning system has been established in India
by CWC which has the responsibility of providing flood forecasting at the national
level. CWC issues flood forecasts at 173 stations in the country of which 145
stations are for river stage forecast and 28 for reservoir inflow forecast. Currently,
the system covers 70 rivers basins and 18 states/UTs. Figure 11 shows the number
of CWC flood forecasting stations in different river basins in India.
234 Chapter 5

80
Stations

27
15 13 9 8 3 2

k
i
a
a

i
tra

g
g

ad
ar

ra
hn
g

in
in
an

av

Ba
an
u

ris
w
ap
G

od

ah
flo
flo

K
m

M
G
ah

st
t
es

Ea
Br

Figure 11. Number of CWC flood forecasting stations in different basins

Flood forecasting set-up in the country is proposed to be modernized by installing

telemetry. During the 9th plan, two basins, namely, Chambal and Upper Mahanadi
were covered. During the 10th plan, the basins proposed to be covered are
Krishna, Godavari, Pennar, Lower Mahanadi, Brahmaputra (Siang and Jiadhal),
Ghaghra, Rapti, Damodar, and Yamuna. Figure 12 shows statewise number of flood
forecasting stations.
Regarding the techniques adopted for flood forecasting, gauge-to-gauge corre-
lation is most widely used. Use of mathematical catchment models and statistical
techniques with updating has been attempted in pilot studies for Yamuna basin,
Damodar basin, etc. However, these techniques are still not widely used.

40 35
35 32
30 24
Stations

25
20 16 14
15 12 10 8
10 4 4 3 2
2 2 2 1 1 1
5
0
UP

Assam

AP

WB
Orissa

Gujarat
Maharashtra

Jharkhand

Karnataka
Uttaranchal

MP
D&N Haveli

Delhi

Tripura
Haryana

Chhatisgarh

Rajasthan
Bihar

Figure 12. Statewise number of flood forecasting stations

CHAPTER 6

GROUNDWATER

6.1. INTRODUCTION

Ground water is often referred to as the “hidden” component of the hydrological

cycle because it is not directly observable. Apart from the constraints which the
uncertain knowledge of the ground water system may impose on its development,
ground water has some obvious advantages over surface water: better protection
against pollution; little treatment required before supplying to user; constant temper-
ature; small distances between source and user; and a fairly steady supply due to
large storage capacities. These advantages have stimulated the interest in exploiting
the ground water and its conjunctive use with surface water. In many areas, the
ground water resources are large and their occurrence has important bearings in
water planning and management.
Besides climate and meteorological characteristics, the availability of ground
water depends on the geology of a given area and its geomorphological features.
Ground water is replenished by the precipitation, riverflow and return flow from
irrigated fields. Ground water yield also depends on rock types. Granite and gneiss
are better sources than charnockite. Deeply weathered and fractured zones along
certain lineaments forms potential aquifers. These lineament zones are highly
productive for construction of borewells. Hence, understanding of these factors is
important to understand the occurrence and availability of ground water resources.
Since surface water resources in India are often contaminated, ground water plays
an important role particularly as a source drinking water. Moreover, ground water
has a number of unique features that render it particularly suitable as a water supply
source:
• It is generally uncontaminated and can be applied directly without any treatment;
• It may be available close to place where it is required;
• It is dependable and relatively less affected by drought;
• Large storage, treatment and distribution can be avoided; and
• It is less expensive.
Currently, nearly 85% of India’s population is dependent on ground water for their
domestic demand, particularly as a source of drinking in rural areas. Ground water
also plays an important role in agriculture and nearly 140 billion cubic meters
235
236 Chapter 6

(BCM) of ground water is abstracted annually for use in irrigation. Many industries
prefer to use ground water due to the features stated above.
Development of ground water systems implies pumping and an appropriate
pumping scheme must be designed on the basis of hydrological conditions and
the recharge capability of the system. The hydrogeological input is obtained from
measurements on pumping and observation wells. Since the number of observation
points is finite, the available information has to be interpolated in time and space in a
consistent and reliable way. Hydrogeology of the area has important bearings on the
occurrence, movement, and exploitation of ground water. Hence, the hydrogeology
of India is discussed in the next section.

6.2. HYDROGEOLOGY OF INDIA

India is a vast country with varied hydro-geological situations resulting from diver-
sified geological, climatological and topographic features. The geological history
of India is very complex and diversified. The geological information available in
different parts of the country is of varying reliability and detail (See Figure 1).
Although the major part of the country has been surveyed and mapped, there are
blanks in the geological map of India.
The rock formations which control the occurrence and movement of ground water
range in age from Archaean to Recent and have varied composition and structure.
The Archaeans including Dharwars and the associated gneisses and granites are
the earliest rock systems found in the country. Nearly two-thirds of peninsular
area is covered by these rocks. The Cuddapahs, Vindhyans, Gondwanas and the
Deccan traps, which occupy the major parts of the remaining peninsular area
were formed after the Archaeans. The physiography of India varies from rugged
mountainous terrains of Himalayas, Vindhyachals, Eastern and Western Ghats, and
Deccan plateau to the flat alluvial plains of the northern river valleys, coastal
tracts, and the aeolian deserts in western India (See chapter 1). The evolution of
Himalayas began during the mid-Miocene period and continued in phases up to the
Pleistocene period. Most of the sediments in these mountains are older than this
period.
The Peninsular India is occupied by the ancient shield of Archalan, Proterozoic
and Vindhyan fold zones which extend into the ocean beneath the narrow strip of
sedimentary platform cover. In the East Coast, the platform cover is shallow and with
moderate gradient. The Western Coast of India is characterized by marginal deep
followed by an upward rise. However, towards northeast, the peninsular platform
continues and buckles down below the Bengal basin to great depths. The platform
covers across Garo-Rajmahal stretch is moderately shallow with the basement of
Archaean folded zone, again out cropping in Khasi-Garo and Mikir Hills. The major
stratigraphic divisions of India are shown in the Table 1.
In India, early man is believed to have appeared about 5 lakh years ago, i.e.,
during the Middle Pleistocene period. The major rock systems are discussed in what
follows.
Groundwater 237

Figure 1. Hydrogeological map of India

6.2.1. Pre-Cambrian Era

The Pre-Cambrians of India comprise a great variety of metamorphosed and

sedimentary rocks, some of which probably represent the first formed crust
(Proterozic of the earth). In India, Pre-Cambrians are generally divided into
Archaean (or Pre-Cambrian) and Purana (or Late-Precambrian). Pre-Cambrian
rocks comprise of gneisses, schists, marbles, quartzites, granites, limestone,
dolomites and phyllites.
(a) The Archaean Era
The Archaean rocks are found at many places: (i) the southern Peninsula in the
form of the rocks of the Dharwar system in Karnataka and parts of Andhra Pradesh;
238 Chapter 6

Table 1. Major Geological Formations of India

S. N. System Formation

1. Pre-Cambrian Archean (Dharwar, Aravalli, and Bundelkhand systems);

Purana (Cuddapah and Vindhyan systems);
2. Dravidian Cambrian
3. Aryan Gondwana, Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous
4. Deccan Trap Upper Traps, Middle Traps, and Lower Traps
5. Tertiary Himalayan systems
6. Eocene Jaintia series, Brail series
7. Mid-Miocene Shiwaliks, Cuddalore, and Rajamundri Sandstones
8. Pleistocene Karewas of Kashmir, Pleistocene river terraces
9. Recent Recent alluvium (bangar), New alluvium (khadar)

(ii) Bundelkhand region; (iii) South Bihar, Orissa, and between Godavari and
Mahanadi valley; (iv) the Eastern Ghats, from Mahanadi valley to the Krishna
valley; (v) Aravalli system from the Gulf of Cambay to Delhi; and (vi) some parts
of the central Himalayan ranges.
The rocks of Dharwar System are known by this name since these were first
studied in the Dharwar district of Karnataka. These rocks are believed to have
been deposited between 2,100 and 3,500 million years ago and are considered
to be of sedimentary origin (Krishnan, 1982). They are found in many places in
Karnataka, notably in Shimoga, Chitaldurg, and Mysore districts. The other places
of their occurrence are Ranchi, Gaya and Hazaribagh districts (Bihar), Sundergarh
and Keonjhar districts (Orissa), and Bastar, Balalghat, Rewa, and Jabalpur districts
(MP). These rocks are highly metamorphed into gneisses, schists, marbles, and
quartzites and are rich in iron-ore. As the Dharwar rocks contain a large variety of
important metallic ores of gold, copper, iron, and zinc, abrasives, ceramic minerals,
gems, building stones, etc., they have immense economic importance.
The Aravalli System dates back to 3,500 million years, though some sediments
were possibly incorporated later. The Satpura basin of metamorphosed sediments
and igneous rocks is said to have developed between 860 and 1,000 million
years. These rocks are found in Nagpur, Bhandara and Balaghat districts of
Maharashtra and extend up to Chindwara and Raipur districts of M.P., and
Sambalpur, Sundergarh and Singbhum districts of Orissa.
Bundelkhand gneiss is believed to have been formed more than 2,500 million
years ago. Chiefly, it occurs in Bundelkhand area (Southern Uttar Pradesh), and
Madhya Pradesh. These rocks are also found in Orissa, Bihar, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.
(b) The Purana Era
The rocks of this era can be sub-divided into the Cuddapahs and the Vindhyans. The
Cuddapah System derives its name from the Cuddapah district of Andhra Pradesh
where these types of rocks first developed 600 to 1,400 million years ago. Cuddapah
rocks are found in the Cuddapah and Kurnool districts of Andhra Pradesh. They
Groundwater 239

also occur around Belgaum district, in Chota Nagpur, Gaya, Monghyr and south
Singhbhum districts of Bihar and Jharkhand; in Gwalior, Bastar, Bijawar, Jabalpur,
and Rewa tracts of MP and Chhattisgarh. These rocks are also found in the Aravalli
range. This rock system is rich in copper ore, nickel, jasper, asbestos, cobalt, and
many types of marbles.
The Cuddapah and Kurnool systems of south India as well as Delhi and the
Vindhyan system of North India are believed to belong to the Proterozoic period.
The Cuddapah system consists of sedimentary rocks which have been subjected to
varying grades of metamorphism. The stratigraphical succession of Cuddapah basin
is: (i) Kistna Series, (ii) Nallamalai Series, (iii) Cheyair Series, and (iv) Papaghni
Series.
The Vindhyan system derives its name from the Vindhyan mountains of central
India. The rocks of this system extend from Dehri-on-Sone to Hoshangabad, and
from Chittorgarh to Agra and Gwalior. They are found in Sone valley, Rewa
district of MP, Sambalpur district of Orissa; in the Krishna valley and Palnad
tracts in Andhra Pradesh; in Mahanadi valley in Chhatisgarh, Gulbarga and Bijapur
districts in Maharashtra; Chittorgarh district in Rajasthan; and in the north-west
of the Aravalli. Shales, slates, sandstones and limestones are the chief rocks. The
Vindhyan system contains excellent building stones, limestone, and coal.
Chiefly it is composed of undisturbed sandstones, shales and limestones. The
Vindhayan system stretches from Sasaram and Rohtas in the Western Bihar to
Chittorgarh in Rajasthan. It occupies about 1 lakh km2 area. The thickness of rocks
of this system can reach up to 4,000 m.

6.2.2. The Dravindian (Cambrian to Middle Carboniferous) Era

The Cambrian system is found in the northern slopes of the Central Himalayan range
between Spiti and Kulu, in Lahul, and Garhwal and Kumaon region of Uttaranchal.

6.2.3. The Aryan Era

The Aryan era, which comprises the rock formations from the Upper Carboniferous
to Recent, is preserved fairly completely in the Peninsula, and in a perfect sequence
in the Himalayan range along the entire northern border.
The Gondwana system derives its name from the Kingdom of the Gonds, an
ancient tribe of Central India. The rocks forming Gondwanaland group were
deposited in a series of large river or lake basins, which later sank among the ancient
rocks trough faults. As the sediments accumulated, the loaded basins continued to
subside resulting in thick deposits. In the north, the Gondwana rocks extend from
the Damodar, the Sone, and the Narmada valley while the southern extent goes up
to the Godavari valley. Gondwana group outcrops are found along the Himalayan
foothills in Kashmir, Nepal, Bhutan and Assam. These are also seen in scattered
outcrops in the Eastern Ghats, between Cuttack and Cape Comorin, in the Rajmahal
hills, (Rewa) Madhya Pradesh, Saurashtra, and Kutch. The rocks of the Gondwanas
240 Chapter 6

are rich in coal, iron, copper, uranium, and antimony. Fireclay, sandstones, slates
and conglomerates are used to construct buildings.
Triassic System is well developed in the northern Himalayan zone from Kashmir
to Kumaon, particularly in Spiti-Kumaon belt, where it is termed as the Lilang
system. It comprises of black limestones with shale intercalation and quartzites.
Jurassic System occurs in the Himalaya region (Spiti, Kumaon, Kashmir, Hazara),
in Kutch (Gujarat), and Rajasthan. In the Zanskar range of Spiti, Garhwal and
Kumaon, limestone occurs to a depth of 600 to 900 m. In Rajasthan, outcrops of
Jurassic rocks can be seen in Bikaner and Jaisalmer.
The Cretaceous System was one of the most widely distributed systems in India
and is represented by a variety of rocks, deposited in the land, sea and lakes. There
were also igneous activities and lava flows. Upper Cretaceous system is also found in
the Pondicherry -Tiruchirapalli belt. A number of small detached outcrops of marine
Cretaceous, known as the Bagh beds (in Gwalior), occur along the Narmada valley.

6.2.4. The Deccan Traps

From the end of the Cretaceous till the beginning of the Eocene, there was intense
volcanic activity in the Peninsula. There was an immense pouring of basaltic lava
out of many fissures in the earth’s crust. The first lava flows filled the topographical
irregularities and the area was eventually converted into a volcanic plateau covering
about a million sq. km in area. Lava traps attain their maximum thickness (up to
3,000 m) near the Bombay coast. It is estimated that the volume of molten rocks
which have formed this trap exceed the bulk of the Himalayas.
The Deccan Traps are spread over Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Madhya Pradesh
and parts of Deccan Plateau. They are found as far as Belgaum in the south,
Rajahmundry in the south-east, Amarkantaka, Sarguja, and Jashpur in the east and
Saurashtra, in the north-west. Hills of the Deccan Trap are noted in the Satpura
area and in Rewa. The Deccan Traps can be further sub-divided into three groups:
a) the Upper Traps, with an average thickness of 450 m, found in Maharashtra
and Saurashtra, b) the Middle Traps, spread over Central India and Malwa, with a
thickness of 1,200 m, and c) the Lower Traps, with a thickness of 150 m, found in
Central India and Tamil Nadu.
The close of the Mesozoic era was marked by the outflowing lava, which had
spread over vast areas of Western, Central and Southern India. The lava had
spread as nearly horizontal sheets, the earliest flows filling up the irregularities
of the pre-existing topography. The area occupied by the Deccan traps is about
520000 km2 , including parts of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Kutch, Madhya Pradesh,
Central India and parts of Deccan. The Deccan Traps extend up to Belgaum in
the south, Rajahmundry in the southeast, Amarkantak in the east, and Kutch in the
northwest. Some geologists believe that the traps may have occupied some of the
areas intervening between the main mass and the out lying patches, and that the
original extent may well have over 1.5 million km2 . The Deccan Traps are the most
extensive geological formations of Peninsular India.
Groundwater 241

The traps are a great treat treasure house of quartz, agate, amethyst; fluorspar,
calcite and building stones useful for cement, concrete and road building material.
These are also capped by ferruginous and aluminous laterite. The weathering of
these volcanic rocks has given rise to the black cotton soil, which is very fertile
and suitable for the production of cotton, groundnuts, and castorseeds.

6.2.5. The Tertiary System

This system is of immense significance for the geology of India. The events of the
late Cretaceous period continued into the early Tertiary. The sea withdrew from
various parts of the earth’s surface so that the Tethys began to shrink gradually
and eventually broke up. As a result of great volcanic activity, marine sediments
in the Tethys up-heaved in stages and triggered the outstanding mountain building
activity. It led to the beginning of formation of the Himalayas during the Cretaceous
period.
In India, the Tertiary system is subdivided according to the phase of the
Himalayan upheaval. Tertiary rocks are well developed in the Himalayan foothills
from Kashmir through to the Brahmaputra valley. In Peninsular India, these are
found in comparatively small areas in Saurashtra, Surat, Bharuch, Cambay region
and Kerala on the west coast and in several places Godavari delta, Pondicherry;
Cauvery basin-South Arcot, Thanjavur and Ramnathapuram districts, i.e. from
southern Tamil Nadu to Orissa, and in Bikaner and Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan.
Many great tectonic movements during this period led to the folding of the thick
massive sediments and the rise of Himalayas took place in a series of five major
movements.
1. The first rise (the Karakoram Stage) took place during the Upper Cretaceous
when the Tethys was divided into a series of longitudinal ridges. This movement
was also responsible for sub-division of the eastern gulf into the Assam and the
Burma Gulf.
2. Karakoram Stage followed a period of comparative rest after which another
upheaval took place during the Upper Eocene. This upheaval brought the
deposition of the Murree, Nari, Gaj formations in the area which was marine in
the south and brackish water in the north.
3. The third movement, which was probably the most powerful of all, occurred
during the Middle Miocene times. This resulted in a considerable folding of
the strata laid down in the Tethys into mountain ranges and by large granitic
intrusions. Simultaneously, a long narrow trough (foredeep) was formed between
the rising Himalaya and the Peninsular mass. Sediments from both sides were
deposited in this trough which constitutes the Siwalik system These sediments
are largely of fresh water origin.
4. The fourth upheaval took place towards the close of the Pliocene. This heralded
the beginning of the Pleistocene ice age. During this age, Pir Panjal rose up to its
present height. Besides, some other ranges in the lesser Himalayas also attained
greater heights although there was some subsidence here and there.
242 Chapter 6

5. The final phase of the Himalayan upheaval took place in early Pleistocene when
the Pir Panjal range rose. Some other ranges in the Lesser Himalaya were also
elevated during this period.
Experts feel that the development of Himalayas is yet complete and it seems logical
to infer that in time the alluvial deposits immediately in front of the Siwaliks will
themselves be folded.

6.2.6. Eocene to Middle Miocene System

The upper part of the Eocene together with the Oligocene is present in Gujarat,
western Rajasthan and Assam, where fossiliferous deposits are found. As the sea
withdrew south in the late Oligocene time, marine conditions are replaced by deltaic
conditions with river deposits.
In Assam, Eocene is represented by limestones and coal-bearing sandstones
of]aintia series in the southern and eastern parts of the Shillong plateau. The Brail
series in Assam have wide distribution in Surma valley and in the Naga hills. Such
deposits also occur in the southern flank of the Pirpanjal, in western Rajasthan
and in Gujarat. Coal and limestone are the important minerals which occur in this
system.
Middle Miocene to Lower Pleistocene or the Siwalik System covers long stretches
along the foot of the Himalaya from Haridwar to Brahmaputra valley. The rocks are
made up of sandstones, grits, conglomerates, clays, and silts, which were deposited
to a depth of 4,500 to 6,000 m in the shallow water basins. A major fault and three
major thrusts separate the Shiwaliks from the older rocks. Shiwalik system is noted
for its oil resources, lignite coal, clays, bauxite, and salt deposits.

6.2.7. The Pleistocene and Recent Formations

During the Pleistocene, there was an onset of ice-Age in India. In the Himalayas,
there is an evidence of extensive glaciation up to 1,800 m, while glacial drift and
terminal moraines cover hill-sides and valley floors down to 1,400 m. In Kashmir,
four or five periods of glaciations with three inter-glacial periods, have been distin-
guished. First Glacial and Inter-glacial periods embrace the Lower Pleistocene in
Kashmir. Middle Pleistocene included the Second Glacial and the Second Inter-
glacial periods of erosion. This period was marked by heavy deposition of sediment
in the Kashmir valley, consisting of boulder fans and thick fluvo-glacial deposits.
Upper Karewas are thought to represent the Second Inter-glacial period. Of the
same age are the lower Narmada beds. The upper Pleistocene includes the Third
and Fourth glaciations and the intervening Third Inter-glacial period. Pir Panjal
uplifted during the First and the Third Glacial periods, and the terrace deposits of
Kashmir are marked by the end of the Fourth Glaciations.
The Karewas are considered to be the result of both the lacustrine and the fluvial
deposits between 1,420 m thick in the Lower Karewas and about 600 m in the upper
Karewas. Large stretches of alluvial terraces exist in the Sutlej valley composed
Groundwater 243

of sands, gravels and clays. Pleistocene and recent deposits occur in the Narmada,
the Tapi and Purna river valleys and along the upper Godavari and upper Krishna
valley.
The most important Pleistocene geological formation is the Indo-Gangetic
alluvium filling the great-depression between the foot of the Himalaya and the
edge of the Vindhyan-Kaimur range. The deposits are up to 1,000 m thick. They
are composed of gravels, sands and clays. The other alluvium (bangar) covers the
higher ground, is dark coloured and contains carbonate of lime, usually occurring
in nodules called kankar. The light-coloured new alluvium (khadar) is found near
the present course of the rivers.

6.3. CHARACTERIZATION OF ROCK TYPES OF INDIA

From the view point of ground water characteristics, various rock types occurring
in the country can be categorized in two types: Porous rock formations and Hard
rock/consolidated formations. The description of these formations follows.

6.3.1. Porous Rock Formations

These formations can be further categorized in unconsolidated formations and semi-
consolidated formations.
(a) Unconsolidated formations
The sediments comprising newer alluvium, older alluvium and coastal alluvium
are by and large the important repositories of ground water. These are essen-
tially composed of clays, sand, gravel and boulders, ferruginous nodules, kankar
(calcareous concretions), etc. The beds of sand and gravel and their admixtures
form potential aquifers. The aquifer materials vary in particle size, rounding and
in their degree of assertion. Consequently, their water yielding capabilities vary
considerably.
Extending from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Tripura in the east, the
piedmont zone of the Himalayas is skirted at some places by artesian aquifers under
free flowing conditions. In the Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra basin, the hydro-geological
conditions indicate the presence of large quantities of fresh ground water at least
down to 600 m or more below land surface which can be easily developed. High
rainfall and good recharge conditions replenish ground water in this basin every year.
The alluvial aquifers to the explored depth of 600 m have transmissivity values
from 250 to 4000 m2 /day and hydraulic conductivity from 10 to 800 m/day. Well
yields of 40–100 litres per second (lps) are common but these can be more than
100 lps.
Area underlain by unconsolidated formations includes the Indus-Ganga-
Brahmaputra Alluvial Tract, Bhabar and Tarai Belts, Central Tract, Fringe Belt
Adjoining the Shield, Coastal Alluvial Zone, Gujarat alluvial plain, Ganga Delta,
Intermontane Valleys, Intra-Cratonic Basins, and Aeolian Sand Tract. A brief
description of these formations follows:
244 Chapter 6

(i) Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra Alluvial Tract: This tract occupies the depressed

zone between the mountainous region of the north and the peninsular region of the
south. Its western boundary is at Jammu and its eastern boundary in Assam. This
alluvial is made up of the sediments brought by the Ganga and Brahmaputra River
system. This zone is rich in ground water resources. This depression is considered
to be an orogenic zone of downwarps which is in continuity with the earlier Siwalik
orogeny trough. Recent studies have revealed that the thickness of the alluvial in
the central part of Bihar is about 1,830 m and in the deltaic region near Calcutta, it
is about 200 m.
(ii) Bhabar and Tarai Belts: The northern belt of the Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra
alluvial tract at the Himalayan foothills is characterized by coarse materials (princi-
pally boulder-gravel) in the nature of high level coalescing talus fans forming the
piedmont terrain. It is referred to as Bhabar in UP and Kandi in J & K and
Punjab. This belt is immediately to the south followed by Terai or the Sirowal belt
of stratified alternating extensive bands of dominantly coarse sediments and clay.
Between Bhabar and the confined aquifers of the Terai belt is the vast zone where
prolific recharge takes place due to high rainfall and hilly streams. The presence
of highly porous and permeable nature of fan formations ensures large supplies of
ground water from the Terai belt for agricultural and industrial use. The Bhabar
is characterized by deep water table (30 m or deeper), whereas the Terai has an
upper unconfined aquifer and a lower interconnected system of confined aquifers.
Large ground water reserves in the southern parts of Bhabar belt and the entire
Tarai belt have been instrumental in the development of huge agricultural farms
and associated industries in the Terai region of UP.
(iii) Central Tract: The central tract of the Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra alluvium
constitutes the major part of these three river basins. A series of (almost) parallel
valleys and watersheds are present in Indus and Ganga basins. In the Indus basin,
these valleys run approximately east northeast and west southwest. In the greater
part of the Ganga basin, the valleys are oriented towards north-west south-east.
In the Brahmaputra basin, the thick alluvial deposits are mainly confined in
the flood plains of the rivers and gravel beds in these deposits form the principal
aquifers. In these aquifers, ground water often occurs under confined conditions
and in favourable topographical locations. Th ground water potential of the aquifers
in the Brahmaputra basin is of very high order.
(iv) Fringe Belt Adjoining the Shield: In the belt immediately fringing the penin-
sular shield, the thickness of the sediments is comparatively small: it generally
does not exceed 150 m. The sediments are dominantly clayey, containing lenticular
beds of granular material. Kankarbeds occurring at various depth ranges normally
prove to be potential aquifers. In the western part of this belt, covering parts of
Agra and Mathura districts in U.P., Delhi state, southern part of Rohtak, Gurgaon,
Rewari and Mahenderagarh districts in Haryana, ground water is generally saline.
Fresh water zones occasionally occur either as phreatic aquifers and generally do
not exceed a depth of 20 m below ground level or as alternating beds with saline
Groundwater 245

horizons having limited areal extent. The deeper zones, as a rule, contain highly
mineralized water.
Although the nature of sediments undergoes a change east of Bah, the quality
does not pose a problem. The aquifers are of limited extent and the thickness of
sediments usually does not exceed 100 m. Ground water development problems in
this belt are of two types. First, the non-availability of extensive aquifer horizon and
second, the presence of negative hydrological boundaries limit the yield potential
of the aquifers.
(v) Coastal Alluvial zone: These include the east and west coast alluvial plains
of Gujarat and the delta of Ganga and Brahmaputra. The zone also includes a belt
of alluvial deposits that extends more or less continuously along the east coast from
the Ganga delta to Cape Comorin. This belt is narrow and the maximum width
does not exceed 80 km. At places, e.g., south of Chilka Lake in Orissa and near
Pondicherry the width is considerably reduced. At the mouth of the Mahanadi,
Godavari, Krishna and Cauveri Rivers, broad alluvial delta plains extend inland
for a considerable distance. In this zone, the thickness of the alluvium varies and
averages about 150 m. The sediments comprise sands of various grades which form
promising aquifers. Often these occur under confined conditions.
Along the western coast, the alluvial deposits are discontinuous and are found in
patches, mostly in the valleys of small streams draining Western Ghats. At the
northern end, these plains gradually widen and merge with the alluvial plains of
Gujarat. The thickness of the alluvium is over 100 m at a few places. At a few
places, the alluvium contains pebbles and sand beds.
Gujarat has about 1,600 km long coast line from Lakhpat in Kuchchh district
passing through Saurashtra and finally terminating at Umbergaon in Valsad district.
The coastal tract of Kachchh and Saurashtra comprises a narrow stripe of 200–300 m
thick Tertiary and Quaternary formations. This sequence rests over the Deccan Trap
basalt. Here, limestone formation of 5 to 50 m thickness is the most prominent
unconfined freshwater aquifer at the top. While the deeper aquifers in Gaj formation
mostly hold saline water, the top freshwater aquifer in some parts of Saurashtra
coast is affected by seasonal seawater intrusion at places where exploitation of
ground water by industries and agriculture is high.
The coastal tract of North Goa district spread over about 15 km in length between
Fort Aguada in South to Fort Chapora in the North. The Mandovi River Estuary
in the south and the Chapora River in the North form the boundaries of watershed.
The area is mainly covered by laterites and river alluvium and at some places the
meta-sediments are exposed in the north. The ground water flow direction is in
accordance with the general topography of the area. The aquifer is mainly shallow
unconfined in nature occurring both in river alluvium as well as laterites exposed
in the low lying areas.
Along Kerala coast the thick shallow aquifers in the alluvium are generally fresh
with isolated pockets of saline water developed during summer near backwater
channels and tidal rivers. The underlying aquifers in Tertiary formations, viz.,
246 Chapter 6

Alleppey, Vaikom, Quilon and Warkali hold freshwater with limited brackish water
zones. These aquifers extend westward up to the Arabian Sea (Thambi et al., 2005).
Along Tamil Nadu coast, the sedimentary formations of Mesozoic to recent ages
overlie the crystalline basement. Deeper freshwater aquifers in the Tertiaries and
Cretaceous, overlain by thick inherent saline water zone in South Arcot, Pudukkottai
and Thanjavur districts have been found. In Pondicherry and Karaikal, deeper
aquifers in Tertiaries hold freshwater. In the costal tracts of Pudukkottai district
(Tamil Nadu), freshwater aquifers occur at depths around 250 to 300 m in the
Cretaceous formations overlying the Archaean crystalline basement. The overlying
Tertiary and Quaternary formations are mostly saturated with brackish to saline
ground water.
In the coastal tracts of South Arcot district, Tamil Nadu, mainly occupied by
thick Cuddalore sandstones of Tertiary age, the site at Porto Novo right on the coast
line is located south of a fault zone. Here the crystalline basement is quite deep,
around 2,000 m and the presence of fresh ground water beyond 160 m depth has
been reported.
In the coastal tract of East Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh, towards east of
Gautami Godavari river the subsurface geological sequence is of Tirupati sandstones,
basaltic Traps and the Tertiaries – the Rajahmundry sandstones capped by alluvium.
The depth to the top of Trap in the southern most coastal tract is about 800 to 900 m
(Murthi and Ramakrishna, 1980). The maximum thickness of alluvium and under-
lying Rajahmundry sandstone and clays is about 300 m and 500 m, respectively. The
Tertiaries and the Traps are exposed towards north of Bikkavolu. The sedimentary
sequence in the coastal tract holds numerous potential aquifers but they are mostly
saturated with brackish to saline (Raju et al., 1982; 1983).
In Orissa, the coastal tract occupied by sediments is about 330 km long. Resting
on the Archaean gneisses, the Gondwanas and Tertiaries are overlain by recent to
sub-recent sediments. The thickness of the alluvial capping on an average ranges
from 50 to 150 m. The saline ground water zone has a minimum width of 15 km in
the extreme northeast and maximum of 75 km in the central part of the Mahanadi
delta (Das et al., 2004).
The coastal tract of Midnapur district, West Bengal encompasses a 90 km
long strip between Haldia and Digha in the outfall area of the rivers Kasai
and Subarnarekha. The area is occupied by more than 2,000 m thick column of
Quaternary and Tertiary sediments. The Quaternaries are separated from the Terri-
tories by ’Grey Clay’ marker horizon. Towards the coast there exists a near surface
brackish/saline water saturated zone of thickness varying from 20 to 130 m in
the Quaternary sediments. The aquifers in the underlying territories up to about
300 m hold fresh ground water. In northern parts of the Ganga delta, one can find
productive aquifers at a depth ranging 75 to 120 m. In the central part, such aquifers
occur at depths ranging from 90 to 200 m and near the coast, freshwater aquifers
exist only below 250 m.
(vi) Intermontane Valleys: The Himalayan intermontane valleys are in their early
stages of development. In contrast, the valleys of peninsular region are in a mature
Groundwater 247

stage of development. Except the valleys in the Narmada basin, peninsular valleys
are broad and shallow, have a low gradient and have attained almost the base level
of erosion.
Between the Pir-Panjal and Zanskar ranges lies the Kashmir valley. In this valley,
the bed rock comprises rocks ranging in age from Cambro-Silurian to Jurassic.
One can find thick deposits of Quaternary sediments whose thickness is more than
2,000 m. These sediments are dominated by fine-grained sands, loams and blue
clays, river terraces locally known as Karewas. Also found here are river alluvium,
pebble beds, and recent moraines.
The famous valleys of Paonta, Doon, Bahl and Nurpur are situated in the outer
Himalayas of Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh. These constitute broad expanse
of water-bearing formations, such as boulders, gravels and sand. The aquifers in
central parts of the valley are confined to semi-confined. Good recharge potential
and favourable hydro-geological conditions have led to large ground water storage
in the area.
(vii) Intra-Cratonic Basins: The Narmada, Tapi and Purna basins of central India
fall in this category. Note that there is a wide difference in the thickness of alluvial
material in these basins. In geologic parlance, alluvial deposits comprising chiefly
of sand and gravel have a thickness close to 100 m in the Narmada valley and
there is a distinct possibility of large-scale development of ground water. In view
of inadequate thickness of aquifers, the Purna valley offers limited ground water
development possibilities. In the Tapi basin also, there is moderate ground water
development in places where the aquifer thickness is sufficient.
(viii) Aeolian Sand Tract: Aeolian sands cover large areas in Western Rajasthan
(Thar Desert) as well as some coastal tracts. In Rajasthan, the sand mantle is
extremely thick, the depth is often of the order of 100 m. The height of dune may
be up to about 60 m above the ground level. In coastal areas, the thickness of sand
layer may be around 20–25 m.
(b) Semi-consolidated formations
The semi-consolidated formations are chiefly composed of shales, sandstones and
limestone; sedimentary deposits belonging to Gondwana and tertiary formations are
also included in this category. In Peninsular India, sandstones aquifers have high
local potential. Elsewhere they have only moderate, potential and yield may be
meager. In other places, they have moderate to very small potential. Though these
formations have been identified to possess moderate potential, the physiography
of the terrain normally restricts exploitation. Occasionally, the geologic conditions
may give rise to artesian conditions, e.g., in parts of the Godavari valley, Cambay
basin, arid parts of west coast, Pondicherry and Neyveli in Tamil Nadu. Potential
semi-consolidated aquifers particularly those belonging to Gondwanas and Tertiaries
have transmissivity values from 100 to 2300 m2 /day and the hydraulic conductivity
from 0.5 to 70 m/day. Generally the well yields in productive areas range from 10
to 50 lps. Lathi and Nagaur sandstones in Rajasthan and Tipam sandstone in Tripura
are moderately productive aquifers.
248 Chapter 6

Area underlain by semi-consolidated sediments: Semi-consolidated sediments are

found in Tertiaries and Mesozoics of Assam, Cambay basin, Eastern coastal areas,
and Western Rajasthan. The mesozoic and tertiary formations of western Rajasthan
lie in arid tracts. The Lathi group of sandstones is the most productive aquifers
in western Rajasthan. Tertiaries and the Mesozoics of coastal areas include the
Baripada bed, Cuddalore sandstones, Rajamundry sandstone, the Triuvakkari beds,
the Bhuj beds, etc. These comprise a thick sequence of sea-ward dipping sediments
which outcrop at surface at places and sometimes underlie the coastal alluvia. On
the eastern coast, these constitute one of the most prolific aquifers occurring under
artesian conditions. These often pose salinity problems in the Gujarat and Saurashtra
coastal areas.
The rocks of the Gondwana system closely follow the course of some of the
peninsular rivers. They also occur as outliers on northern side of the Indus-Ganga-
Brahmaputra alluvium principally in Assam and Kashmir. They are chiefly made
up of alternations of sandstones and shales with coal seams. The sandstones are
generally argillaceous which restrict free movement of ground water. The presence
of numerous planes of structural weaknesses in these formations normally favours
ground water occurrence and movement. Poor permeability of the Gondwana
precludes large-scale ground water development. The upper Gondwanas in certain
areas yield good supplies of water. In such terrains ground water development is
possible only where geomorphological conditions are favourable.

6.3.2. Hard Rock/Consolidated Formations

Hard rocks possess secondary porosity which is generally of two types: joints,
fissures and fractures caused by tectonic features, and intergranular porosity due to
action of natural weathering agents. Ground water regime in hard rocks is strikingly
different from that of un-consolidated and semi-consolidated sediments. The ground
water reservoir in hard rocks is generally not very deep; its depth and lateral extent
depends upon the lithology and structure of the parent rock.
Storage of ground water in hard rock reservoirs is controlled by weathering and
interconnected planes of structural weaknesses in the parent rock. Flow of ground
water in the karstic limestones is often controlled by the nature of the solution
channels than the topography. Although hard rocks have limited ground water
potential, substantial yields may be obtained if wells are located at suitable sites on
the basis of joints, cracks, lineaments, and other features of weakness.
Consolidated formations which occupy almost two-thirds of the country can be
broadly classified into three types: i) igneous and metamorphic rocks excluding
volcanic and carbonate rocks, ii) volcanic rocks, and iii) carbonate rocks. The
nature, occurrence and movement of ground water in these formations are described
below.
(i) Igneous and metamorphic rocks excluding volcanic and carbonate rocks
In this category, the most common rock types are granites, gneisses, charnockites,
khondalites, quartzites, schist and associated phyllite, slate, etc. These rocks possess
Groundwater 249

negligible primary porosities but are rendered porous and permeable due to presence
of secondary porosity by fracturing and weathering.
In areas underlain by hard crystalline and meta-sedimentary rocks, viz. granite,
gneiss, schist, phyllite, quartzite, charnockite, occurrence of ground water in the
fracture system has been identified down to a depth of 100 m and even up to 200 m
locally. The weathered material stores a considerable quantity of ground water in
most of the granite/gneiss areas. Generally the fracture systems are hydraulically
connected with the overlying saturated weathered matter. The transmissivity of the
fractured rock aquifers varies from 10 to 500 m2 /day and the hydraulic conduc-
tivity from 0.1 to 10 m/day. Borewells tapping the fracture systems generally yield
1.0 to 10 lps.
Hydrogeology of Plutonic and Metamorphic Rocks: The occurrence and movement
of ground water in plutonicigeous and metamorphic rocks is governed by secondary
features, viz., joints, fissures, foliation planes and weathering. In these rocks, perme-
ability decreases with depth, since the intensity of weathering and width of fractures
also decrease with depth. The permeability of weathered material varies depending
on the lithology of rock types and climatic conditions. The maximum depth of
weathering could be about 35 m.
Importance of Fracture Studies: From hydrogeological point of view, two types of
tectonic fractures, namely, tensile fractures and shear fractures, in crystalline rocks
are of importance. Both are related to brittle deformation.
Because of their origin, tensile fractures which are related to brittle deformation
have high storativity. They also form very good aquifers. Therefore this type of
tectonic pattern should be considered in regional and local ground water devel-
opment. Studies by Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) in parts of Tamil Nadu
and Kerala States have shown that the yield of bore wells constructed in the tensile
fracture zones varies from 3.6 to 221 lps while those located in the shear fractures
ranges from 2.1 lps to 14.6 lps. Clearly, tensile fractures are more productive than
shear fractures. Therefore, proper analysis of fracture types in hard rocks can help
in successfully locating wells.
Geophysical investigations with contextual interpretations are effective in making
assessments for ground water development. While surface geophysical techniques
help define the negative and positive areas and zones before taking up the drilling,
the post drilling borehole logging technique precisely identifies the zone to be
tapped. The interpretation of geophysical data being contextual, a variety of
problems related to exploration, development and conservation of ground water
can be geophysically addressed and solutions achieved economically. The electrical
resistivity and seismic refraction methods of geophysical exploration are widely
used in ground water exploration in hard rock areas. Of these two, the electrical
resistivity method is cheaper and is a direct method of ground water exploration.
(ii) Volcanic rocks
The basaltic lava flows are mostly horizontal to gently dipping and ground water
occurrence in them is controlled by the contrasting water bearing properties of
different lava flows. The topography, nature and extent of weathering, jointing,
250 Chapter 6

fracture pattern, and thickness and depth of occurrence of vesicular basalts are the
important factors in the occurrence and movement of ground water in these rocks.
Basalts or Deccan Traps usually have medium to low permeabilities depending on
the presence of primary and secondary porosity. Under favourable conditions, bore
wells in these rocks yield about 3 to 6 lps at moderate drawdowns. Transmissivity
values of these aquifers is generally in the range of 25 to 100 m2 /day and the
hydraulic conductivity varies from 0.05 to 15 m/day.
Hydrology of Basalts (Volcanic Rocks): Basalts are the most common volcanic rocks
present in India and are of different geological ages. Deccan Trap, a suite of basaltic
rocks occupies an area of about 5 lakh km2 . The occurrence of ground water in
basalts depends upon primary and secondary features. The relevant primary features
are: vesicles, lava tubes and lava tunnels, and inter-flow contacts. The important
secondary features are fractures and joints, and weathering and laterisation.
The porosity of basalts may vary from less than 1% in massive basalts to as high
as 85% in pumice. Porosity may be high on account of vesicles etc. but if these
are not interconnected, permeability will be low. Permeability of basalt general
decreases with increase in the age of rocks. The hydrological characters of basalts
also depend upon the type of eruption and whether it was subaerial or submarine.
The Deccan trap basalts are less productive. Pumping tests in basalts of the
Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra have given transmissivity values ranging from
15 to 150 m2 /day and of S from 0.01 to 0.13. Specific capacity of bore wells in
Deccan Trap of Betul district (M.P) varies from 0.2 to 8.1 lpm/m/m of drawdown.
Unit area specific capacity, obtained by dividing the specific capacity by the
cross sectional area of dug well in basalts of Ahmednagar district varies from
10 lpm/m/m2 in fractured basalts to 5 lpm/m/m2 in vesicular basalts. The Deccan
Traps are also widespread in Madhya Pradesh.
Almost the entire Peninsular India is occupied by a variety of hard and fissured
formations, including crystalline, trappean basalt and consolidated sedimentary
rocks (including carbonate rocks), with patches of semi-consolidated sediments
in narrow intracratonic basins. Rugged topography combined with compact and
fissured rock formations, to give rise to discontinuous aquifers, with limited to
moderate yield potentials. The near-surface weathered mantle houses the important
ground water reservoir and water circulates through the underlying fracture systems.
In the hard rock terrain, deep weathered sediments, low-lying valleys and abandoned
river channels generally contain an adequate thickness of porous material to
sustain ground water development under favourable hydrometeorological condi-
tions. Generally, the saturated fracture systems occur down to 100 m depth and
occasionally yield even up to 30 liters per second (lps). The friable semi-
consolidated sandstones also form moderate yielding aquifers, and auto flowing
zones in these formations are not uncommon.
(iii) Carbonate Rocks
Carbonate rocks include limestone, marble and dolomite; limestones being
more common occurrence extensively. The productivity of wells in carbonate
rocks depends upon lithological, topographical and structural characteristics. The
Groundwater 251

permeability of carbonate rocks varies considerably due to the presence of solution

cavities and so does the yield of wells. The discharge from a single well from
Vindhyan limestone in Jodhpur district (Rajasthan) was found to be 500,000 lph
for practically no drawdown. The Pakhal limestones in Karimnagar district of A.P.
have a transmissivity of 775 m2 /d and S = 012. Limestones in M.P. are also quite
productive. However, carbonate rocks are not so productive everywhere. Productive
limestone aquifers are found in Rajasthan and Peninsular India with yields ranging
from 5 to 25 lps. Many springs exist in the Himalayan region in the limestone
formations.
Specific capacity and well productivity studies in carbonate and other hard rocks
help determine yield characteristics of wells tapping aquifers from varying depths.
Wells tapping limestone show productivities between 0.02 and 5.93 lpm/m/m while
for sandstone and shale the productivity varies from 0.03 to 0.25 and 0.003 to
0.14 lpm/m/m, respectively. In limestone, the highest productivity is shown by wells
in the depth range of 30 to 50 m. The deeper wells show lower productivity.

6.4. INFILTRATION

Infiltration rate is defined as the volume of water entering into the soil at its
surface per unit area per unit time and has the dimensions of velocity (L/T). This
rate depends on a number of factors, viz., physico-chemical properties of the soil,
vegetation and land use pattern, rainfall intensity and duration, and surface slope.
Under special circumstances wherein the rainfall exceeds the ability of soil to absorb
water, infiltration proceeds at a maximum rate, which is called soil’s infiltration
capacity.
Infiltration rate is of great interest to hydrologists, agriculturalists, irrigation
engineers, etc. as it influences many hydrological processes, such as surface runoff,
soil moisture, evapo-transpiration, ground water recharge and spring flow rates.
The knowledge of infiltration properties can help agriculturists in adopting proper
irrigation methods and irrigation schedule. Infiltration is one of the most important
processes responsible for modifying precipitation and converting it to runoff and
additions to soil moisture storage. The infiltration process and other hydrological
processes are inter-related through a common dependence on soil moisture condi-
tions.
The most important factors affecting infiltration are: soil properties (including
structure, grain size distribution, porosity and compactness), soil moisture, land use
characteristics, rainfall (amount and duration), soil surface slope, and climate. Singh
(1992) has given a detailed description of these factors.
Infiltrometers are the simplest and the most convenient equipment to measure
infi1tration rates of soils. This involves artificial application of water to enclosed
areas. In India, flooding type infiltrometers are frequently used. In these, water is
applied on an enclosed area such that a constant head is obtained.
Infiltration studies have a variety of applications in water resources management.
Designs of structures for flood mitigation and erosion control are based on estimates
252 Chapter 6

of peak discharge which requires prediction of infiltration rate. Water conservation

procedures require computation of cumulative infiltration to produce estimates
of runoff yield. Similarly, in exploiting water resources for plant growth from
rainfall or irrigation, an assessment of cumulative infiltration becomes necessary for
calculation of an optimal level of productivity. This assessment embodies efficient
water use and maintains an acceptable level of erosion control.

6.4.1. Empirical Relations to Estimate Infiltration Rate

Many empirical and physical relationships have been developed to express infil-
tration as a function of clay content in the soil or amount of the total quantity
of water infiltrated into the soil. Conceptual and empirical models have been
developed by applying the principles governing soil water movement for simplified
boundary or initial conditions. These models generally correlate infiltration to some
measurable properties of the soil. This involves evaluation of parameters for a
specific geographical location. The physically based models, on the other hand,
are more complicated and use the theory of continuity of mass and soi1 water
movement with certain simplified assumptions. The use of a particular equation or
model depends on the intended purpose and the accuracy desired.

Empirical relationship for Ganga plains

In the Ganga plains, the following empirical relationship is used to compute infil-
tration capacity:

F = 040 exp −046Acp  (1)

where F = infiltration capacity, and Acp = average clay content of soil in percent.

Amritsar formula

Re = 39 p − 4061/2 (2)

where Re = estimated ground water recharge in cm, and p = precipitation

+ supplement irrigation in cm.

Chaturvedi formula

Re = 35 p − 382/3 (3)

6.4.2. Infiltration Studies in Different States of India

India is vast country and expectedly the infiltration rates vary widely. The All India
Soil and Land Use Survey Organization has carried out Infiltration studies at some
places. The district wise/basin wise results of these studies are presented in the
Table 2 and 3.
Groundwater 253

Table 2. District wise infiltration rates in India at the selected locations

State District in which Soil type Range of

investigation was infiltration
made rate (cm/hour)

Andhra Pradesh Adilabad – 0.80–5.40

Medak – 3.00–8.20
Guntur – 1.70–10.90
Bihar Santhal Pargana – 0.80–12.00
Delhi Mehrauli – 0.80–5.80
Gujarat Whole Gujarat – 0.05–14.22
Jammu & Kashmir Whole Jammu Silty Loam, Clay Loam, Sandy 0.30–5.00
Region Loam, Loam
Karnataka Bidar – 1.80–12.00
Dharwar Chlorite Schist, Shale 1.20–2.00
Raichur Granite Gneiss 0.30
Gulbarga Granite Gneiss, Limestone, 0.20–1.70
Basalt
Bijapur Deccan Trap, Limestone, 0.90–8.00
Mixed Sandy Soil
Madhya Pradesh Bilaspur – 0.8–11.8
Raigarh – 1.0–3.2
Maharashtra Dhulia – 1.40–2.00
Shoalpur – 0.80–1.90
Punjab Ferozpur Saline & Waterlogged soils 0.60–2.07
Faridkot Saline & Waterlogged soils 1.03–1.94
Gurdaspur Medium to Heavy Alkaline soil 0.16
Amritsar Medium to Heavy Alkaline soil 0.44–0.48
Kapurthala Medium to Heavy Alkaline soil 0.17–0.27
Patiala Medium to Heavy Alkaline soil 0.07–0.35
Sangrur Medium to Heavy Alkaline soil 0.21
Rajasthan Western Rajasthan Sandy Loam, Sandy clay 0.8–18.0
Loam, Clay Loam, Loamy
Sand
Uttaranchal Almorah – 5.4–10.9
Pauri Garhwal – 2.8–5.5
Uttar Pradesh Etah – 1.3–3.6
Varanasi – 1.41–6.15
Bareilly – 2.86–7.65
Agra – 0.86
Farrukhabad – 0.90
Lucknow – 1.16–2.80
Aligarh – 0.38–1.16
Sultanpur – 0.72–2.10
Hardoi – 0.54–3.24
West Bengal Purulia – 1.1–9.3

Source: NIH (1993–94).

254 Chapter 6

Table 3. Range of infiltration rates in selected basins in India

Basin Soil type Range of infiltration rate

(cm/hr)

Budigere Basin Sand, Silt, Silty Clay, Red Loam 0.3–49.8

Pavanje Basin, Karnataka, Laterite, Loamy sand, Sandy Soil, 0.57–64.80
Krishna Sandy Clay, Clay
Malaprabha Sub Basin, Laterite, Granitic Clay, Black Cotton, 0.80–23.10
Krishna Red Sandy Soil, Silty Clay, Red
Laterite, Clayey Loam, Black Clay,
Loam, Clay
Ghataprabha Sub Basin Red Sandy, Red Clayey, Loam, Mixed 0.90–16.50
Sandy
Upper Luni Basin Sandy clay, Clay loam, Silty clay 3.50–22.99
loam, sandy loam, loam, Sand
Guhiya Watershed Sandy clay loam, Silty Clay loam, 3.43–22.40
sandy loam, loam, Sand
Hindon River Basin Sand, Sandy loam, Silt Loam, Loamy 0.30–51.90
Sand, Silt, Loam
Baithon watershed, Tehri – 0.35–7.05
Garhwal
Kanhar Catchment, Mirzapur – 0.48–16.65
(Ganga Basin)

Source: NIH (1993–94).

6.4.3. Seepage and Drainage

Canals are the major means to carry and deliver irrigation water in India. Seepage
from an unlined canal starts as soon as water is filled in it. In unlined canals,
a substantial percentage of transported water is lost to seepage. It has been estimated
that seepage losses are about 45 percent of the water supplied at the head of the
canal. According to the Indian Standard IS:9,452 (1980), the loss of water by
seepage from unlined canals in India generally varies from 0.3 to 70 m3 /per106 m2 .
Obviously, losses are more in canals in alluvial areas. Estimates show that if
the seepage loss is prevented, more than 6 M-ha of additional area could be
irrigated.
Seepage loss from an unlined canal depends on the depth of water in the canal,
depth to water table in the vicinity of the canal, width of the canal at the water
surface, side slopes of the canal, distance of the governing drainage, and the coeffi-
cient of permeability of the porous medium. Lining of canals reduces the loss of
water due to seepage; depending on the properties of the lining material, seepage
occurs at a reduced rate. Good lining should be economical, impervious, hydrauli-
cally efficient, durable, and stable. Conventional lining using cement concrete,
masonry, asphalt, pre-cast concrete and R.C.C. is expensive. Bentonite is available
in abundance in Rajasthan, Bihar, and Kashmir and can be used for lining. Seepage
losses from a canal may lead to water logging and soil salanisation.
Groundwater 255

6.4.4. Measurement of Seepage Losses from Canals

Methods for direct measurement of seepage losses from existing canals include the
ponding, inflow-outflow, and seepage meter. Advanced methods, such as the tracer
technique, electrical logging or resistivity measurement, and piezometric survey are
also used in some cases.
The Indian standard code of practice IS:9,452 Part I, (1980) describes
measurement of seepage losses from canals by the ponding method. In this method,
a reach of the channel is isolated by temporary bunds or bulkheads and seepage from
this section is measured. The method has been applied to canals with a discharge
capacity of up to 150 m3 /s. Gravity flow or pumping may be used to fill the test
pond, depending on the conditions that prevail at the site and the size of the canal.
The rate of fall of the water surface within a few hours after the initial readings of
the gauges shall provide an indication of loss rate. Seepage losses may be computed
from observations after the steady state has been achieved.
To determine seepage losses by the inflow-outf1ow method following the Indian
Standard IS:9,452 [Part II, 1980], the quantities of water that flow into and out
of a canal reach are measured. The difference of these is attributed to seepage.
Evaporation from the canal water surface and precipitation are considered in the
computation. The length of the reach should be such that the loss from the reach
is much more than the accuracy of measurements. When this method was used on
canals in Maharashtra, the seepage losses were found to vary from 2.22 to 2.91
cumec per Mm2 of the canal wetted surface.
Singh (1983) estimated seepage from the Janjokar minor and the Dabthua distrib-
utory by the inf1ow and outflow method and found it to be in the range of 1.17 to
2.14 cumec per Mm2 , respectively. Seepage loss from the Ferozepur Feeder canal
was estimated by inflow-outflow method using current meters by Dhillon et al.
(1986). It is a large capacity (design discharge = 316 cumec) double tile lined
channel in Punjab. The average seepage flow from a reach 9.144 km long was found
to be 270 ± 10 cumec per Mm2 of wetted surface area 023 ± 009 m/day. This
loss rate is inclusive of evaporation from the channel surface which was 0.01 m/day.
Plastics, manufactured as low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and high-density
polyethylene (HDPE), has been used in India for controlling seepage through earthen
structures since the 1950s. Punjab and Gujarat were the first states to use these for
lining. UPIRI (1989) studied seepage losses from experimental irrigation channels
and existing irrigation field channels under the following conditions: i) unlined
channels, ii) channels with hard surface lining, iii) channels with LDPE film lining
with varying thicknesses and earth cover over it, and iv) LDPE film lining covered
with hard surface lining, such as brick lining, cement concrete tiles lining, and
compressed clay tile lining. The seepage loss from an unlined reach of a distributory
in Aligarh (UP) was found to be 1139 cumec per Mm2 surface area. The reach
had average width of 1.37 m; side slope 1:1, average water depth 0.4 m and the
discharge was 0.396 cumec. The seepage loss from a lined reach of this distributory
was 0295 cumec per Mm2 . Thus, the seepage reduction of about 74% was possible
by LDPE lining.
256 Chapter 6

6.5. GROUND WATER MONITORING NETWORK IN INDIA

Since ancient times, wells have been dug to tap water-bearing formations. A well
may be used to observe the ground water table, if the well depth covers the range
of water table level fluctuations and the litholog is known. If the wells in-use are
used for observation, there should be sufficient gap between the last withdrawal
and measurement to allow recovery of the water level in the well. Abstractions in
the vicinity of an observation well should also be stopped sufficiently before the
observation for the cone of depression to recover. A reference mark to measure
water depth (levelled to a common datum) should be clearly marked near the top
of the well.
When ground water is up to 15 m, observation wells can be constructed manually.
In areas with unconsolidated sand, silt, or clay, small-diameter observation wells
up to about 10 m depth can be constructed by the drive-point method. Deeper wells
are drilled by the rotary or percussion methods. Because it is cheaper to drill small-
diameter wells, observation wells with inner diameters ranging from 50 to 150 mm
are common.
Ground water levels in observation wells are measured either manually or
with automatic recording instruments. The most common manual method is by
suspending a weighted tape, wire or rope from the surface at the well head and
measuring the length of tape up to the water level. Several measurements may be
made to get improved results. Water level depths can be measured to an accuracy
of a few cm but this of course depends on the depth. As depth to water level
increases, the length of tape/rope to be used increases, thereby increasing the weight
and making the procedure cumbersome. Beyond depths of 50 m, the probability
of errors begins to increase. Using the double-electrode system, water level up to
about 150 m depth can be measured with ease.
Many types of automatic water-level recorders are in use these days. Such instru-
ments should be portable, easily installable, capable both of recording under a
variety of climatic conditions, should work unattended for long durations. They
should also be able to measure ground water fluctuations at short intervals of time.
Float actuated analogue recorder is often used in practice. The hydrograph is traced
on a chart fixed to a drum and the recording drum or pen is driven by a spring or a
clock mechanism. Automatic stage recorders used for stream gauging can be readily
adapted to measure ground water levels. These instruments need some protection
from extreme climatic conditions, accidents, and vandalism.
CGWB has a large network of stations for hydrological observations. It monitors
ground water levels from a network of about 15,000 stations (mostly dug wells
selected from existing wells, uniformly distributed throughout in the country).
Table 4 gives the number of ground water hydrograph stations in different states and
urban territories of India. Dug wells are being gradually replaced by piezometers for
water level monitoring. Measurements of water levels are taken at these stations four
times in a year in the months of January, April/May, August and November. Water
samples are also collected every year during April/May for chemical analyses. The
data so generated are used to prepare maps of ground water depths, water level
Groundwater 257

Table 4. Status of Ground Water Hydrograph Network Stations

Name of the States/Union Territories Number of stations (in 1995)

States
Andhra Pradesh 1,042
Arunachal Pradesh 17
Assam 371
Bihar 599
Goa 53
Gujarat 974
Haryana 521
Himachal Pradesh 78
Jammu & Kashmir 162
Karnataka 1,349
Kerala 651
Madhya Pradesh 1,350
Maharashtra 1,409
Manipur 25
Meghalaya 37
Mizoram 0
Nagaland 8
Orissa 1,122
Punjab 497
Rajasthan 1,414
Sikkim 0
Tamil Nadu 766
Tripura 37
Uttar Pradesh 1,514
West Bengal 836
Total States 14,832
Union Territories
Andaman & Nicobar Islands 29
Chandigarh 14
Dadra & Nagar Haveli 7
Daman & Diu 61
Delhi 6
Lakshadweep 30
Pondicherry 16
Total U.T.s 163
Total for India 14,995

contours and changes in water levels during different periods and years. The data
are also used to prepare long-term trends of rise and fall in water levels.
Deeper ground water level of over 50 m is observed in Piedmont aquifer in the
Bhabar belt in foothills of Himalayas. In Western Rajasthan, ground water levels
have depths ranging from 20 to 100 meters. Water levels range from 5 to 20 meters
below land surface in peninsular region.
Considerable improvements in ground water observation networks have been
made in nine peninsular states under the Hydrology Project Phase I. Details about
the same are given in a later chapter.
258 Chapter 6

6.5.1. Ground Water Quality Monitoring

Water in a dug well should be protected from rain, flood, or seepage of contaminated
waters, which may pollute the well and then the aquifer. The quality of ground water
is subject to change and deterioration as a result of the activities of man. Localized
point sources of pollution include cesspools and septic tanks, leaks in municipal
sewers and waste ponds, leaching from garbage dumps and sanitary landfills, runoff
from animal feedlots, industrial waste discharges, cooling water returned to recharge
wells, and leaks from tankers or pipelines. Larger geographical areas may suffer
degradation of ground water quality because of irrigation water returns, recharge
into aquifers of treated sewage or industrial effluents, and intrusion into fresh water
aquifers from neighbouring sea water or other highly saline aquifers.
Water samples are frequently collected from wells. Bailer, a simple device to
lift samples of water from a well, consists of a length of tube with a ball valve
at the bottom. The bailer is tied to a cable and lowered into the well. The valve
allows water to enter the sample but when the sampler is lifted, it prevents water
from escaping at the bottom. For sampling at any depth below the water table,
samplers with spring operated valves or grab samplers are employed. In some cases,
selected zones in a well are temporarily isolated for sampling. Most Variables for
ground water quality are more or less the same for surface water quality except for
turbidity, which normally is not a problem in ground water.
The electrical conductivity of water increases with increasing salinity. This
property is used to determine the concentration of minerals dissolved in water. The
instrument used for measuring resistance may be a very simple transportable small
resistance bridge that measures in situ the resistance of a water sample pumped or
bailed from the well. In cases where a measurement of salinity at a certain point
below the water table is required or if a chemical log of the whole column of water
in the well is required, a salinity logger is used.
The issues related with ground water quality are discussed in detail in a later
chapter.

6.6. GROUND WATER RESOURCES

When water is withdrawn from ground water, it results in drawdown of water

table which is a temporary lowering of water table. In this situation, the water
table recovers its position when the supply is replenished. Withdrawal differs from
overdraft which may cause loss of storage capacity and may result in permanent
lowering of water table.
Ground water resources can be classified as static and dynamic. The static
resource is the amount of ground water available in the permeable portion of
the aquifer below the zone of water level fluctuation. The dynamic resource is
the amount of ground water available in the zone of water level fluctuation. The
modes of ground water occurrence in the country can be broadly divided into two
groups:
Groundwater 259

(a) Porous formation which comprise of unconsolidated and semi-consolidated

sediments. Aquifers are generally extensive and interconnected resulting in
moderate to very high potentials.
(b) Consolidated and fissured formations. Here, aquifers are discontinuous and as
a result, they have limited yield potentials.
As described earlier, rock formations in India vary from Archean to Recent and the
topography ranges from mountain terrains of Himalayas to the flat alluvial plains
and coastal tracts. Due to diversified meteorological, topographical, and geological
features, the ground water distribution over the country shows enormous variation.
The plains in the Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra basins extend over a distance of nearly
2,400 km from east to west. These plains constitute one of the largest ground water
reservoirs in the world. Here, the aquifer systems are extensive, thick, hydraulically
interconnected, and yields range from moderate to high. To the north of this tract all
along the Himalayan foot hills is a narrow linear belt of Bhabhar piedmont deposits.
Just south of this belt is the Tarai belt down slope with characteristic auto flowing
conditions. Almost the entire peninsular part is covered by a variety of hard and
fissured rock formations. The coastal and deltaic tracts form a narrow strip around
the peninsula; some of these contain highly productive aquifers.
Three major groups of ground water structure are constructed in India. A dugwell
has a diameter of about 1.0 m and is 10–15 m deep. It irrigates about 1 ha in the
hard rock areas; this area can increase manifold depending upon aquifer properties
and by installing a pump. Large diameter wells have a diameter of 2 to 3 m.
Shallow tubewells have 10 to 15 cm diameter in alluvium and these are 15 to 20 m
deep. Typical discharge is about 50 m3 /hr. The area irrigated is about 3 to 4 ha. In
hard rock areas, these are called borewells and the area irrigated is about 2–3 ha.
Deep public tubewells are about 100 to 150 m deep with about 20 cm diameter
and are gravel packed. The discharge varies from 100 to 150 m3 /hr. The area
irrigated is 40 to 80 ha and the cost can range between Rs. 5 to 9 lakh. These are
constructed, operated, and maintained by government departments or corporation
of the government.

6.6.1. Static Ground Water

The water that is present in the aquifers below the zone of water level fluctuation is
known as static ground water. The amount of static ground water is estimated by:

SGW = x∗ A∗ Sy (4)

where, x = thickness of aquifer between zone of water level fluctuation to limit

of exploitation, A = areal extent of the aquifer, and Sy = specific yield of the
aquifer. CGWB has estimated the static ground water resource of the country as
10812 km3 . In addition about 10–15% of this quantity will be available as return
flow from irrigation and domestic uses. As against this, the total withdrawal for all
uses in the year 1990 was 552 km3 .
260 Chapter 6

The quantum of ground water available for development is usually restricted

to long term average recharge or dynamic resources. Presently there is no fine
demarcation to distinguish the dynamic resources from the static resources. While
water table hydrograph could be an indicator to distinguish dynamic resources, at
times it is no so, particularly when water tables are deep. Sustainable ground water
development requires that only the dynamic resources are tapped. Exploitation of
static ground water resources could be considered during extreme scarcity condi-
tions, that also only for essential purposes. The basin and state wise static fresh
ground water resource are listed in Table 5 and 6 respectively.

6.6.2. Concepts Used to Quantify Ground Water Resource

To quantify the available ground water resource, two different concepts based on the
hydrogeological situations are used: (a) Quantity concept – for unconfined (water
table) aquifers (b) Rate concept – for confined aquifers.
(a) Unconfined (water table) aquifers
The useable ground water resource is essentially a dynamic resource which is
(periodically) recharged by rainfall, irrigation return flows, canal seepage, etc.
The most important component of aquifer recharge is the direct infiltration of
rainwater, the quantity of which varies according to the climate, topography, soil
and subsurface geological characteristics. A part of applied irrigation water reaches
ground water depending on the efficiency of irrigation system and soil character-
istics. Influent streams also recharge aquifers depending on the width of streams
and the properties of river bed material. Other sources of recharge are percolation
from canals, reservoirs, tanks, etc.
(b) Confined aquifers
Unconfined aquifers respond to ground water withdrawals differently than the
confined aquifers. Confined aquifers yield water due to expansion of fluid volume
and compaction of pore volume. By definition, a confined aquifer remains saturated.
On the other hand, unconfined aquifers yield water by desaturation of the pore space
as the water table declines. Water released from storage in an unconfined aquifer
greatly exceeds that from a confined aquifer for equal of declines water level.
Ground water potential for the confined aquifers which are hydrogeologically
separate from shallow water table aquifers is assessed by rate concept. The ground
water available in a confined aquifer equals the rate of flow of ground water through
it. The rate of ground water flow in an area can be estimated by using Darcy’s law.
Most of the ground water development in India is up to a depth of about 50 m
for ground water development. In the shallow region, ground water withdrawal is
through dug wells, dug-cum-bore wells, and shallow tube wells. The exploitation
in the deeper zone (50 m and more) is usually through public sector for community
irrigation, municipal water supply, or industrial purposes. Deeper structures include
heavy duty tube wells and bore wells. Ground water development has been intensive
Groundwater 261

Table 5. Static fresh ground water resource – Basinwise

S. N. River basin Static fresh ground water resource km3 

Alluvium/Uncon Hard rocks Total

solidated rocks

1 Indus 13349 33 13382

2 Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna Basin
2a Ganga sub-basin 77691 65 78341
2b Brahmaputra sub-basin 9172 0 9172
2c Meghna (Barak) sub-basin 1013 0 1013
3 Subarnarekha 101 07 108
4 Brahmani-Baitarani 401 33 434
5 Mahanadi 1084 113 1197
6 Godavari 36 234 594
7 Krishna 136 224 36
8 Pennar 39 72 111
9 Cauvery 391 33 424
10 Tapi 43 32 75
11 Narmada 138 46 184
12 Mahi 97 29 126
13 Sabarmati 255 27 282
14 West Flowing Rivers of Kachchh 1031 101 1132
and Saurashtra including Luni
15 West Flowing Rivers South of Tapi 54 58 112
16 East Flowing Rivers Between 344 69 413
Mahanadi and Godavari
17 East Flowing Rivers Between
Godavari and Krishna
18 East Flowing Rivers Between
Krishna and Pennar
19 East Flowing Rivers Between 631 29 66
Pennar and Cauvery
20 East Flowing Rivers South of
Cauvery
21 Area of North Ladakh not draining Not Assessed
into Indus
22 Rivers draining into Bangladesh Not Assessed
23 Rivers draining into Myanmar Not Assessed
24 Drainage areas of Andman, Nicobar Not Assessed
and Lakshadweep islands
Total 106330 1790 108120

Source: CGWB (1999).

in the plains of the Indus-Ganga basin in Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh.
Similar situation is observed in hard rock regions in peninsular India.
Two types of situations of occurrence of confined aquifers may be encountered. In
hard rock areas, the upper water table aquifer in the weathered zone is connected to
the deeper fracture zone, which is semi-confined. In such situations, the assessment
262 Chapter 6

Table 6. Static fresh ground water resources-Statewise

S. N. States Static Fresh ground water resource km3 

Alluvium/ unconsolidated Hard rocks Total

rocks

1 Andhra Pradesh 76 26 102

2 Assam 920 0 920
3 Bihar 2557 11 2568
4 Gujarat 92 12 104
5 Haryana 420 1 421
6 Himachal Pradesh 13 0 13
7 Jammu & Kashmir 35 0 35
8 Karnataka 0 17 17
9 Kerala 5 6 11
10 Madhya Pradesh 14 27 41
11 Maharashtra 16 22 38
12 Orissa 162 13 175
13 Punjab 910 0 910
14 Rajasthan 115 13 128
15 Tamil Nadu 98 0 98
16 Tripura 101 0 101
17 Uttar Pradesh 3470 30 3500
18 West Bengal 1625 1 1626
19 Delhi 3 0 3
20 Chandigarh 1 0 1
Total 10633 179 10812

Source: CGWB (2005).

procedure for unconfined aquifer accounts for full recharge and hence, no separate
assessment is made for the confined aquifer.
In some alluvial areas, resource from a deep confined aquifer may be important.
If the confined aquifer is hydraulically connected to the overlying shallow water
table aquifer, it is a semi-confined aquifer. If there is no hydraulic connection to the
overlying water table aquifer, the potential may have to be estimated by specific
detailed investigations, taking care to avoid duplication of resource assessment from
the upper unconfined aquifers.
Ground water flow available for development in a confined aquifer in the area
can be estimated by using Darcy’s law:

Q=T I L (5)

where Q = Rate of flow through a cross-section of aquifers in m3 /day,

T = Transmissivity in m2 /day, I = Hydraulic Gradient in m/km, and L = Average
width of cross-section in km. The transmissivity may be computed from pumping
test data of tubewells. Leakage from overlying or underlying aquifer may also be
accounted for in the calculation of ground water available for development in a
confined aquifer.
Groundwater 263

The tube well drafts tapping a deeper confined aquifer may be treated separately
and may be accounted for at the time of quantitative assessment of deeper confined
aquifer. The total draft of these tube wells may be taken as gross draft of which
30% may be taken recycled and may be added as recharge to water table aquifers.
The utilizable recharge may be taken as 85 percent of the total ground water flow
available for development.
Lateral flow in the confined aquifer may be computed by flow net analysis.
However, for determine the optimum development of the confined aquifers, the
recharge area of the confined aquifers may be demarcated. Now, the average annual
recharge to the confined aquifer in this recharge area is estimated. The extent of
development of this aquifer should be limited to this recharge.

Analysis of Pumping Test Data

Two important hydrological parameters, namely, transmissivity and storage coeffi-
cient are an essential input in assessment and management of ground water in an
area. These parameters are commonly assessed through pump tests. Such a test is
also called an ‘aquifer test’ because it is the aquifer, rather than the pump or well,
which is tested. Pump test is also conducted to determine the performance charac-
teristics of a well and pump. For a well-performance test, yield and drawdown
are recorded. These data can be used to determining the specific capacity or the
discharge drawdown ratio of the well, to select the type of pump, and to estimate
the cost of pumping. The specific capacity gives a measure of the effectiveness or
productive capacity of the well. Such a pumping test is sometimes termed a ‘well
test’ because it tests the well rather than the aquifer.
The three common types of wells that are encountered in hard rock formations
are large diameter dug wells, bore wells, and dug-cum-bore wells. As the hard
rocks are anisotropic and heterogeneous, the ground water flow mechanism in such
rocks is complicated. The type of ground water structure on which pumping test is
carried out is also important in the choice of a particular method for the analysis
of test data. The bore wells are usually of 6 cm to 9 cm in diameter and 30 to 60 m
in depth. In fractured rocks, the following characteristics may be determined:
a. Horizontal hydraulic conductivity and confined storage coefficient of the
fractured zone.
b. Effective vertical hydraulic conductivity and confined storage coefficient of
weathered and fractured zone.
c. Horizontal hydraulic conductivity and specific yield of the weathered zone.
These parameters can be determined by (i) Leaky aquifer theory (ii) Neuman’s
unconfined aquifer theory, and (iii) Numerical model. The conventional Jacob’s
straight-line method has been used by many workers to determine aquifer param-
eters in hard rocks.
Dug wells of large diameter are the primary source of ground water extraction
not only in India but also in many Asian and African countries. There are over 9
million dug wells in India. The wide use of large diameter wells is mainly due to
their low cost of construction and simplicity of operation and maintenance. Water
264 Chapter 6

from these wells is mostly manually drawn through buckets. These wells are also
ideal in hard rock formations as they provide necessary storage for water during
recuperation. Many studies have been conducted to better understand the hydraulics
of large diameter wells to make the structures more efficient and to determine
the aquifer parameters from pumping tests on such wells. The main problems in
analyzing pumping test data from large diameter well are:
• Effect of well storage,
• Variation in discharge with time,
• Development of seepage face in unconfined aquifer,
• Partial penetration of well, and
• Anisotropic nature of the aquifer.
Due to these reasons, the conventional methods based on Theis’ equation are
not suitable for analyzing flow to large diameter wells. Analytical and numerical
solutions of steady and unsteady flow to a well storage have been developed by
several workers. For example, Chachadi et al. (1990) have used discrete kernel
approach to analyze pumping test data from large diameter well.
Specific capacity determined from both recovery data on dug wells and drawdown
data from bore wells can be used to determine the hydraulic characteristics of
aquifers in hard rocks. Usually, specific capacity index in hard rocks decreases
with increase in depth. This observation helps in determining the optimum depth of
wells. The specific capacity of dug wells in different hard rocks formation is given
in Table 7.
Well Spacing: Overexploitation of ground water can be avoided to some extent
by specifying the density of wells, and the spacing between adjacent wells. Two
approaches are used for this purpose. One uses the pumping test data to develop a
relation between the duration of pumping and corresponding radii of influence in
different hard rock terrains. The second approach is based on ground water recharge
data to compute well density such that the total draft does not exceed the annual
ground water recharge.
The first uses the formation characteristics, i.e., T and S, to compute the well
spacing. Table 8 gives the results of above two approaches for determining well
spacing and well density. This table indicates that the recharge method gives a

Table 7. Specific capacity of dug wells in different hard rocks formation

Formation Sp. capacity (lpmin/m) (C) Unit area sp. capacity = Sp. capacity index
(C/Area) (lpmin/ m/m2 ) lpmin/m/m2  = C/2 rh

Basalt 20.4–364 0.35–5.04 0.16–3.02

Limestone 30.4–348 0.53–19.83 0.16–14.14
Shale 28.4–39.3 0.53–1.22 0.26–0.37
Gneiss 15.5–228.6 0.23–10 –
Sandstone 54.3 0.97 0.60
Laterite 582.2 12.57 5.10

Source: Singhal and Singhal (1989).

Groundwater 265

Table 8. Well Spacing in Different Formations

Formation Well spacing using radius of Recharge well spacing Well density
influence approach (m) (m) approach per km2 

Greywackes 110–136 224–448 6 to 25

Basalt & related rocks 170–256 370–417 7 to 9
Limestones 126 415 7
Gneisses, Granites 134–382 191–492 5 to 35
Charnockites Literates 130–275 190–225 25 to 35
(coastal areas)

Source: Singhal and Singhal (1989).

range of values between 190 to 492 m with the maximum well density in the range
of 5 to 35 wells per sq. km.

6.6.3. Ground Water Flow

Movement of ground water from one point to another is caused by a difference
in flow potential or ‘head’ between the points. Water moves from higher head to
lower head. The area where ground water receives input is known as the recharge
area. Infiltration of precipitation is the principal source of ground water recharge.
Recharge varies from one place to another depending on rainfall properties, local
topography, soil properties, geology, and hydraulic gradient. The speed of flow
of ground water varies from one location to another depending on the geological
and topographical factors. The normal range is between 1.5 m/year and 1.5 m/day.
Weathering of rocks is the main factor that controls the movement and storage
of ground water in the impervious basaltic rocks. Secondary porosity develops
due fractures and joints; usually these are restricted only up to a depth of 40–50
meters.
In the plains of Punjab and Haryana, ground water flows from three sides: north,
northeast and southwest to the central and eastern Haryana. This is because the
topographical features have created a saucer like depression in this part. Geological
Survey of India has made seismic refraction surveys which have revealed existence
of a sub-surface ridge and strike in northwest-southeast direction which is the
continuity of the Aravallis out-cropping in Mahendragarh and Gurgaon districts.
This sub-surface ridge has important influence on ground water flow in this
region.
In the Ganga basin, ground water movement follows the general drainage
direction towards the Bay of Bengal. Consequently, the elevation of water table
contours decrease as one moves from Uttaranchal towards the West Bengal.
The Bhabhar zone contains piedmont of alluvial deposits along the Himalayan
foothill regions. This belt is dominated by unconsolidated sand-boulder and clay
boulder beds but at few places close to the foothills there exist Shiwalik forma-
tions and with limited thickness of the unconsolidated Bhabhar. From the south
266 Chapter 6

along the Son River, large quantity of ground water enters to join the flow
in the main basin. Ground water flow in the Brahmaputra valley follows the
same pattern. Brahmaputra River flows along a north-south fault bordering the
western foothills of the Garo Hills and this continues into a fault present in the
Himalayan foothills region near the Torsa Valley. These prevailing geological
formations influence ground water occurrence and movement because the presence
of faults determines the areas where ground water may enter and leave each
stratum.
Another major aquifer system is present in the eastern parts of Chhattisgarh,
surrounded by the Maikal range in the north and Nimgiri in the southeast. The
Mahanadi and the Brahmani Rivers that flow towards the east and Wainganga River
flowing towards the west provide good amount of water recharge to the aquifer.
Along the eastern coast of India, ground water movement is in the expected
direction from northwest to the southeast. Extensive saline patches occur in Ramnad,
Nellore and Krishna districts. In Ramnathpuram and Tirunelveli, the ground water
occurs in unconfined aquifers and generally is of poor quality. In the west coast
areas of Kerala and Karnataka the substratum is mostly lateritic and a good yield
of ground water may be expected. Along this coast, ground water flow is from
northeast to southwest coinciding with the water table contours of the area.
North of Malabar Coast in the adjoining areas of Mahableswar, ground water
flows towards the northeast direction and moves to the Godavari valley. Another
flow of ground water comes from northwestern and western sides coinciding with
the Narmada and the Tapi River flows.

6.7. ESTIMATION OF GROUND WATER RESOURCE IN INDIA

Till the sixties, ground water potential in India was usually evaluated on
sectoral, regional, or projects basis. Ministry of Agriculture prepared guidelines
for estimation of ground water potential in early 1970s. In 1984, the Ground
Water Estimation Committee (GEC) of CGWB recommended a methodology for
estimation of ground water resources. A similar committee was constituted in
1990s to suggest improvements in GEC (1984) norms. This committee submitted
its recommendation in 1997. Discussions in this section are mainly based on GEC
(1997) recommendations, which are also under revision.
Two approaches were recommended by GEC (1984): ground water level fluctu-
ation method and rainfall infiltration factor method. Retaining these approaches,
GEC (1997) suggested several improvements. In the revised methodology, distinc-
tions have been made in hard rock areas and alluvial areas, canal command areas,
and recharge in monsoon season and non-monsoon season. GEC (1997) recom-
mended that recharge due to rainfall in the monsoon season is to be estimated
by ground water level fluctuation method. But if adequate data is not available,
the rainfall infiltration factor method may be used. The usable ground water
resource is the dynamic resource which is recharged annually by rainfall and other
sources.
Groundwater 267

6.7.1. Ground Water Balance Equation

The water level fluctuation method employs the ground water balance equation. In
gross terms, for any specified period, the equation for the unit (block, watershed,
etc.) is:

Input − Output = Storage change (6)

Here, input refers to recharge from rainfall and other sources and subsurface inflow
into the unit; and output refers to ground water draft, evapotranspiration, baseflow
to streams and subsurface outflow from the unit. Eq. (6) holds good for any period: a
year, season, a month, etc. Typically, this equation is applied separately for different
seasons (monsoon and non-monsoon) or crop seasons, such as Kharif, Rabi and
summer seasons.
In Eq. (6), storage change (positive for storage increase, negative for storage
decrease) is a function of the ground water level change and specific yield. Hence
ground water level measurements at the beginning and end of the season/period are
necessary to estimate storage change.

6.7.2. Unit for Ground Water Resource Assessment

Watershed with well-defined hydro-geological boundaries is the most appropriate

hydrological unit for ground water resource estimation. It is advantageous to adopt
this unit as the inflow/outflow across the boundaries is likely to be negligible in
most cases. In hard rock areas, the hydro-geological and hydrological units normally
coincide. This may not be the case in alluvial areas where the aquifers may traverse
the basin boundaries. For classification of an area into alluvial or hard rock areas,
the predominant hydrogeology of the unit is to be considered in Hard rock areas
occupy about 2/3rd area of the country. In many states where the development unit
is either a block or a taluka or a mandal, the final assessment of ground water
potential may be on this basis to facilitate development programs. In the states
where switch over to watershed is not immediately possible, the present practice of
assessing the ground water potential on block/taluka/mandal basis may continue.
GEC (1997) recommends that in each unit, ground water may be assessed once in
three years. However, the ground water draft figures should preferably be updated
every year.
GEC (1997) recommended a procedure to delineate subareas within the unit,
which may be a watershed (hard rock areas) or a block/taluka/ mandal (alluvial
areas). First, out of the total geographical area of the unit, hilly areas (slope
greater than 20%) are separated as these are not likely to contribute to ground
water recharge. However, the local topographical features such as valley, terrace,
and plateau occurring within > 20% slope zone may be considered for recharge
computations. Out of the remaining part, areas where the quality of ground water
is beyond the usable limits should be identified and handled separately. The area
268 Chapter 6

with brackish/saline ground water be delineated and the resource of these areas be
computed separately. Now, the remaining area is to be delineated as follows:
• Non-command areas which do not come under major/medium surface water
irrigation schemes.
• Command areas under major/medium surface water irrigation schemes.
If necessary, further subdivision based on geomorphological and hydrogeological
characteristics may be made.

6.7.3. Classification of Areas of Ground Water Resources

CGWB periodically estimates the ground water resources of India and publishes
the results as Ground Water Statistics. This assessment gives an aggregate picture
of ground water resources of the country. On the basis of annual availability of
replenishable ground water, the entire country has been categorized in five classes:
(i) areas of very low replenishable ground water resources (below 400 MCM/year),
(ii) areas of low replenishable ground water resources (401-800 MCM/year),
(iii) areas of moderate replenishable ground water resources (801-1,200 MCM/year),
(iv) areas of high replenishable ground water resources 1,201-1,600 MCM/year),
and (v) areas of very high replenishable resources (above 1,601 MCM/year). These
are briefly described below.
(a) Areas of Very Low Replenishable Ground Water Resources
This category includes those areas which are either deficient in rainfall or hydroge-
ological conditions are not favourable for recharge. Hill areas of Himachal Pradesh
and Meghalaya plateau are such examples of unfavourable conditions. This category
includes mainly central and western Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and
southern Haryana besides pockets in Punjab, Bihar, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
(b) Areas of Low Replenishable Ground water Resources
There are the areas which either do not have favourable infiltration due to geological
constraints or lack in precipitation. Mainly these areas are:
(i) Northwestern India: comprising parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Western Punjab,
Western Haryana, Eastern Rajasthan and Western Madhya Pradesh.
(ii) Western Coasts and Western Ghats: including Coasts of Maharashtra,
Karnataka and Kerala along with the leeward side of the Western Ghats
especially in Karnataka.
(iii) Eastern Parts: including most of the districts of Orissa, southern parts of Bihar,
eastern parts of Assam and pockets of eastern Tamil Nadu.
(c) Areas of Moderate Replenishable Ground Water Resources
These areas are widely spread over the entire country without any definite pattern.
Following are the prominent pockets: western Gujarat, south-western Madhya
Pradesh, Uttaranchal, parts of north-western Uttar Pradesh, southern and north-
western parts of Madhya Pradesh, and parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and
Tamil Nadu.
Groundwater 269

(d) Areas of High Replenishable Ground Water Resources

These areas are either the parts of the river basins or very close to them. Because of
the close proximity to the major river systems these areas have large yield prospects.
Following are the main areas: western parts of Jammu and Kashmir, south-western
Punjab, western Haryana, north-eastern Uttar Pradesh, eastern parts of West Bengal,
central parts of Maharashtra, and parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
(e) Areas of Very High Replenishable Ground Water Resources
These areas coincide with the major river basins which provide copious. These areas
have both porous and fissured hydrogeological formations like, alluvium, basalt,
sandstone, schist, marble etc. Such areas have large yield prospects, exceeding
150 m3 /hour in most of the parts. The major river basins of the country are much
ahead in the agricultural production than the other parts because these are the
promising areas of ground water occurrence.

6.7.4. Season-Wise Assessment of Ground Water Resources

Ground water recharge should be assessed separately for the non-command and
command areas as well as for monsoon and non-monsoon season. A schematic view
of ground water assessment philosophy is given in Figure 2. Total annual recharge
is computed following eq. (7).

Total annual recharge = Recharge in monsoon season

from rainfall + other sources
+ Recharge in non-monsoon season
from rainfall + other sources (7)

Generally, a well hydrograph has a variation similar to a stream flow hydrograph

with a peak followed by a recession limb. The recession limb in the post monsoon

Recharge from
an area

Recharge from Recharge from non-

command area command area

GW fluctuation RF infiltration GW fluctuation RF infiltration

method method method method

Recharge in Recharge in Recharge in Recharge in

monsoon non-monsoon monsoon non-monsoon

Figure 2. Schematic representation of components of ground water assessment

270 Chapter 6

period, particularly in hard rock areas, has two distinct slopes: a steep slope limb
from September-October to October-November and a gently sloping limb from
October-November to May-June. The steeper limb indicates that of the total rise
due to recharge during the monsoon period, a significant part is withdrawn after the
end of monsoon. GEC (1997) recommended that the ground water recharge may be
estimated on pre-monsoon (May-June) to post monsoon (October-November) water
level fluctuations for the areas receiving rainfall from South-West monsoon. In areas
such as Tamil Nadu where the predominant rainfall is due to North-East monsoon,
recharge assessment may be based on pre-monsoon (October) to post-monsoon
(February) water level fluctuations. hENCE, in these areas also an additional month
is taken in the monsoon season, to account for the steep part of the recession limb.
With this background, we now discuss methodologies for ground water resource
estimation in non-command and command areas.

6.7.5. Ground Water Assessment in Non-Command Areas

For this case, GEC (1997) recommended the use of ground water level fluctuation
and specific yield approach since this method takes into account the response of
ground water levels to inputs and outputs. However, this requires adequately spaced
setting up of observation wells and water level records for a sufficiently long period.
There should be at least three spatially well distributed observation wells in the
unit, or one observation well per 100 km2 , whichever is more. If the unit comprises
of both command and non-command areas, at least five observation wells must
be present, such that at least two observation wells are available in each type of
sub-area. Also, water level observations must be available for a minimum period of
5 years along with corresponding rainfall data in the unit. Regarding frequency of
data, pre- and post-monsoon observations, preferably in successive years, are the
minimum requirement. It would be ideal if monthly water level measurements are
recorded so that the peak rise and maximum fall in the ground water levels can
be determined. Efforts should be made to install continuous water level recorders
at key representative locations inside the unit. If adequate data on ground water
level fluctuations are not available, ground water recharge may be estimated using
rainfall infiltration factor method.
a. Ground water level fluctuation method
This method is recommended for recharge assessment in the monsoon season. For
non-command areas, recharge in the non-monsoon season is quite small and may
be estimated empirically. Two alternate approaches can be used.
Case a:
Estimate specific yield from long duration pumping tests or based on norms for
the particular hydrogeological area. Use this value of specific yield in the ground
water balance equation for the monsoon season to estimate recharge. This approach
is more suitable for alluvial areas or in hard rock areas where data about base flow
in the dry season is not available.
Groundwater 271

Computation of recharge for the monsoon season: The ground water balance
equation for the monsoon season in non-command areas is:

R G − D G − B + Is + I = S (8)

where RG = gross recharge due to rainfall and other sources including recycled
water, DG = gross ground water draft, B = base flow into streams from the area,
Is = recharge from streams into ground water body, I = net ground water flow
(inflow-outflow) into the area across the boundary, and S = ground water storage
increase.
If the area under consideration is a watershed, the net ground water inflow may be
taken as zero. If there is inflow and outflow across the boundary, the net inflow may
be calculated using the Darcy law by delineating the inflow and outflow sections
of the boundary. Besides such delineation, the calculation also requires estimate of
transmissivity and hydraulic gradient across the inflow and outflow sections.
If the unit of assessment is a watershed in hard rock area, a single stream gauge
station at the outlet of the watershed can provide the required data for the calculation
of base flow. If adequate data is not available to estimate the baseflow and the
baseflow is small, the baseflow term and recharge from stream in eq. (8) may be
dropped.
After accounting for net ground water flow (I), recharge from streams Is  and
base flow (B) in eq. (8), the resultant quantity refers to the possible recharge under
the present status of ground water development in the area. Let R = RG − B + I + Is
is the possible recharge, which is gross recharge minus the natural discharges in
the area in the monsoon season. Hence, eq. (8) can be rewritten as

R = S + DG (9)

Expressing storage increase S in terms of water level fluctuation and specific yield,
eq. (9) becomes

R = h ∗ Sy ∗ A + DG (10)

where h = rise in ground water level in the monsoon season, A = area for compu-
tation of recharge, and Sy = specific yield. The recharge calculated from eq. (10)
is the recharge from rainfall and other sources for the particular monsoon season.
For non-command areas, the other recharge sources may be recycled water from
ground water irrigation, tanks and ponds, and water conservation structures, if any
(e.g., check dams, percolation tanks, nala bunds etc.). The recharge from rainfall is
given by

Rrf = R − Rgw − Rwc

= h∗ Sy ∗ A + DG − Rgw − Rwc − Rt (11)
272 Chapter 6

where, Rrf = recharge from rainfall, Rgw = recharge from ground water irrigation
in the area, Rwc = recharge from water conservation structures, and Rt = Recharge
from tanks and ponds.
Recharge from ground water irrigation Rgw , from water conservation structures
Rwc  and from tanks and ponds Rt  may be estimated based on the norms presented
by GEC (1997). The recharge from rainfall for the particular monsoon season is
estimated as per eq. (11).
Case b:
In this approach, the specific yield is estimated from ground water balance in the dry
season, and then recharge is estimated from ground water balance in the monsoon
season. The approach is suitable in hard rock areas where data about base flow in
the dry season is available or this base flow is practically negligble.
The period January to May is recommended for dry season water balance, except
in areas where predominant rainfall is in the North East monsoon. In these areas,
the period March to May may be used for this purpose. Ignoring the net inflow
term due to subsurface flow and assuming that the recharge from rainfall during
the dry season is practically nil, the ground water balance in the dry season is

h∗ Sy ∗ A = DG − Rgw + B (12)

where h = decrease in ground water level, DG = gross ground water draft, Rgw =
recharge recycled from ground water irrigation, and B = base flow from the area.
Recharge from ground water irrigation Rgw  may be estimated based on GEC
(1997) norms. Water conservation structures such as tanks, and ponds are expected
to have negligible storage by the time the dry season commences. Hence recharge
from these is ignored. The specific yield can now be calculated from equation (12)
as

Sy = DG − Rgw + B/h∗ A (13)

After determining specific yield from the water level fluctuation data in the dry
season, the recharge in the monsoon season can be calculated from eq. (10), applying
the water level fluctuation method for the monsoon season. The corresponding
recharge from rainfall is given by eq. (11).
Estimation of normal recharge during monsoon season: The rainfall recharge
obtained by eq. (11) is the recharge from rainfall in any particular monsoon season.
This estimate is to be normalized for the normal monsoon season rainfall, which is
the average of the monsoon season rainfall for the past 30 to 50 years. The normal-
ization procedure requires that data on recharge and associated rainfall ri  are first
obtained. To eliminate the effects of drought or surplus years, it is recommended
that the rainfall recharge during monsoon season is estimated using eq. (11) not
only for the year for which assessment is being made but also for at least four more
preceding years. This will result in at least 5 pairs of data. If the assessment year
and the four years preceding it were uniformly dry or wet, it is desirable to consider
more than five years for normalization.
Groundwater 273

Let Ri be the rainfall recharge and ri be the associated rainfall. The subscript i
takes values 1 to N where N is usually 5. The rainfall recharge, Ri is obtained by
eq. (14):

Ri = hi ∗ Sy ∗ A + DG i − Rgw i − Rt i (14)

where Ri = rainfall recharge estimated for the ith year, hi = rise in ground water
level in the monsoon season for the ith year, Sy = specified yield, A = area for
computation of recharge, DG = gross ground water draft in monsoon season for
the ith year, Rgw = recharge from ground water irrigation in the monsoon season
for the ith year, Rwc = recharge from water conservation structures in the monsoon
season for the ith year, Rt = recharge from tanks and ponds in the monsoon season
for the ith year.
Among the pairs of Ri and ri obtained above, those pairs that have Ri as negative
or nearly zero should be omitted. Only those pairs in which Ri > 0 should be
considered for further computations in the normalization procedure. It is also likely
that all the computed Ri values are negative or nearly zero. In such a case, the
water table fluctuation method should not be used, and the normal rainfall recharge
during the monsoon season should be estimated by the rainfall infiltration factor
method.
Using the pairs of data on Ri and ri as described above, a normalization procedure
was recommended by GEC (1997) to obtain the rainfall recharge corresponding to
the normal monsoon season rainfall.
Estimation of normal recharge during non-monsoons season: The total recharge
in the non-monsoon season is obtained as the sum of recharge from rainfall and
from other sources in the non-monsoon season. The recharge from rainfall during
the non-monsoon season may be estimated based on the rainfall infiltration factors
given by GEC (1997), provided the normal rainfall in the non-monsoon season
is greater than 10% of the normal annual rainfall. If the rainfall is less than this
threshold value, the recharge due to rainfall in the non-monsoon season may be
taken as zero.
Recharge during the non-monsoon season from other sources, namely, from
ground water irrigation Rgw  and from water conservation structures Rwc  is to be
estimated using the norms given by GEC (1997).
b. Recharge assessment based on rainfall infiltration factor
Clearly the ground water level fluctuation method cannot be used if adequate ground
water level data are not available. In such a situation, recharge may be estimated
based on the rainfall infiltration factor method. GEC (1997) norms to estimate
recharge from rainfall and from other sources are presented in Section 6.8. Recharge
from rainfall in monsoon season is given by

Rrf = f ∗ A∗ Normal rainfall in monsoon season (15)

where f = rainfall infiltration factor given in Section (6.8), and A = area of compu-
tation for recharge.
274 Chapter 6

The same recharge factor may be used for both monsoon and non-monsoon
rainfall with the condition that the recharge due to non-monsoon rainfall may be
taken as zero, if the normal rainfall during the non-monsoon season is less than
10% of normal annual rainfall. In using the method based on the specified norms,
recharge due to both monsoon and non-monsoon rainfall may be estimated for
normal rainfall, based on recent 30 to 50 years of data. It is necessary to use data of
adequately spaced rain gauge stations within and outside (nearby) the unit so that
a correct value of rainfall is used.
For non-command areas, recharge from other sources corresponds to recharge
from ground water irrigation and recharge from water conservation structures. These
are to be estimated separately for monsoon and non-monsoon seasons based on the
norms presented in Section 6.8. The total recharge is:

Rnormal = Rrf normal + Rgw + Rwc + Rt (16)

where Rnormal = total recharge during monsoon season, Rrf normal = rainfall
recharge during monsoon season for normal monsoon season rainfall, Rgw =
recharge from ground water irrigation in the monsoon season, Rwc = recharge from
water conservation structures in the monsoon season, and Rt = recharge from tanks
and ponds in the monsoon season; all for the year of assessment.
c. Total annual recharge
The total annual recharge is the sum of recharge in the monsoon and non-monsoon
seasons. In each season, the recharge comprises of recharge from rainfall and from
other sources.

6.7.6. Ground Water Assessment in Command Areas

Recharge assessment in command areas may be done on the same lines as in non-
command areas, except that two important additional components of recharge are
to be considered, namely recharge due to seepage from canals and recharge due to
return flow from surface water irrigation. In command areas, these two components
may be significantly more than the recharge due to rainfall. Recharge from these
sources may be significant both in monsoon and non-monsoon seasons. The specific
yield may be estimated by applying water level fluctuation method in command
areas in the dry season. If adequate data of water level fluctuations is not available,
the method based on rainfall infiltration factor may be used.

Ground water level fluctuation method

As in the case of non-command area, the ground water level fluctuation method may
be applied to estimate the recharge in the monsoon season for the command area
also. In eq. (10) the recharge term includes the recharge in monsoon season from
rainfall and other sources. For command areas, recharge from other sources includes
contribution from canals, return flow from surface and ground water irrigation,
Groundwater 275

storage tanks and ponds, and water conservation structures. The recharge from
rainfall is given by
Rrf = h∗ Sy ∗ A + DG − Rc − Rsw − Rt − Rgw − Rwc (17)
where, Rrf = recharge from rainfall, Rc = recharge due to seepage from canals,
Rsw = recharge from surface water irrigation, Rt = recharge from storage tanks and
ponds, Rgw = recharge from ground water irrigation, Rwc = recharge from water
conservation structures, DG = gross draft in the command area, h = rise in ground
water level in the command area, and A = area of the command area for recharge
assessment
In eq. (17), all quantities refer to the monsoon season only. For a particular
command area, one or more of the recharge quantities from other sources may be
zero. It may be noted that the net ground water inflow across the boundaries has
been ignored. This may not be true especially in the case of alluvial areas where the
choice of assessment unit (block/taluka) is based on administrative considerations.
Hence, in such cases the component of net ground water flow across the boundaries
should be included. This can be estimated as the product of gradient of ground
water flow, transmissivity of the aquifer and the length across which flow takes
place. The transmissivity value in these computations should be on the basis of
long duration aquifer performance tests.
Eq. (17) gives the recharge in any particular monsoon season for the associated
monsoon season rainfall. This estimate is to be normalized for the normal monsoon
season rainfall which in turn is obtained as the average of the monsoon season
rainfall for the recent 30 to 50 years. The normalization procedure to be followed
has been described in GEC (1997) and involves the following:
a) Computation of a set of pairs of data on rainfall recharge Ri and associated
rainfall, ri for i = 1 to N in which N is at least 5.
b) Considering only those pairs of Ri and ri in which Ri is greater than zero for
further computations in the normalization procedure.
c) Dispensing with the water table fluctuation method if all Ri values are consis-
tently negative or nearly zero, and instead adopting the rainfall infiltration factor
method for computing the rainfall recharge in the monsoon season.
d) Using the pairs of data on Ri and ri , and estimating the rainfall recharge for
normal monsoon season rainfall condition by either of the two methods of
normalization.
e) Comparing the rainfall recharge under normal monsoon season rainfall condition
as obtained by the water table fluctuation method with that obtained by the
rainfall infiltration factor method, and finally assigning the rainfall recharge
value on the basis of a set of criteria so that unreasonably high or low estimates
of rainfall recharge by the water table fluctuation method are avoided.
The computational procedure in this case is also similar to what has been described
in Section 6.7.5, except that, in place of eq. (14), the expression to be used for the
rainfall recharge term Ri is
Ri = hi ∗ Sy ∗ A + DGi − Rci − Rswi − Rti − Rgwi − Rwci (18)
276 Chapter 6

where, Ri = rainfall recharge estimated for the ith year, hi = rise in water level in
the monsoon season for the ith year, Sy = specific yield, A = area for computation
of recharge, DGi = gross ground water draft in the monsoon season for the ith year,
Rci = recharge due to seepage from canals for the ith year, Rswi = recharge from
surface water irrigation for the ith year, Rti = recharge from tanks and ponds for
the ith year, Rgwi = recharge from ground water irrigation for the ith year, and
Rwci = recharge from water conservation structures for the ith year.
Finally, the total recharge during the monsoon season for the conditions pertaining
to normal monsoon season rainfall is

Rnormal = Rrf normal + Rc + Rsw + Rt + Rgw + Rwc (19)

where Rnormal = total recharge during monsoon season and Rrf normal =
rainfall recharge during monsoon season for normal monsoon season rainfall. Terms
Rc , Rsw , Rt , Rgw , and Rwc represent recharge due to seepage from canal, surface
water irrigation, tanks and ponds, ground water irrigation, and water conservation
structures, respectively, all during the monsoon season for the year of assessment.
In the ground water level fluctuation method, a significant part of base flow is
already accounted for by observing the post monsoon water level one month after
the end of rainfall. The base flow in the remaining non-monsoon period is likely
to be small, especially in hard rock areas. Further, detailed data for quantitative
assessment of the natural discharge is not generally available. Considering these
factors, GEC (1997) recommended that 5 to 10% of the total annual ground water
potential may be set aside to account for natural discharges in the non-monsoon
season. The balance will account for existing ground water withdrawal for various
uses and potential for future development. This quantity is termed as the net annual
ground water availability which should be calculated separately for non-command
and command areas.
Normal recharge during non-monsoon season: The total recharge in non-monsoon
season is the sum of recharge from rainfall and other sources in the non-monsoon
season. The recharge from rainfall during the non-monsoon season may be estimated
based on the rainfall infiltration factors given in section 6.8, provided the normal
rainfall in the non-monsoon season is greater than 10% of the normal annual rainfall.
If the rainfall is less than this threshold value, the recharge due to rainfall in the
non-monsoon season may be taken as zero. Recharge during the non-monsoon
season from other sources, namely from ground water irrigation Rgw  and from
water conservation structures Rwc  are to be estimated from the norms given in
Section 6.8.

6.7.7. Recharge Assessment using Rainfall Infiltration Factor

If adequate data of ground water levels are not available, the ground water level fluctu-
ation method cannot be used. In such a situation, recharge may be estimated based on
the rainfall infiltration factor method following GEC (1997) norms. The same recharge
Groundwater 277

factor may be used for both monsoon and non-monsoon rainfall with the condition that
the recharge due to non-monsoon rainfall may be taken as zero, if the normal rainfall
during the non-monsoon season is less than 10% of normal annual rainfall. In using the
method based on the specified norms, recharge due to both monsoon and non-monsoon
rainfall may be estimated for normal rainfall, based on recent 30 to 50 years of data. It
is necessary to have adequately spaced rain gauge stations within and outside the unit
taken up for recharge computation. While adopting this method due weight should be
given to the nearby raingauge stations.
For command areas, recharge from other sources corresponds to recharge due to
seepage from canals, from surface and ground water irrigation, storage tanks and
ponds, and from water conservation structures. These are to be estimated separately
for monsoon and non-monsoon seasons. During each season, recharge takes place
from rainfall and from other sources.
The recharge during the monsoon and the pre-monsoon seasons is summed up
to obtain total annual recharge.

6.7.8. Ground Water Assessment in Saline Areas

In each unit, area with brackish/saline ground water is to be delineated and the
ground water resource of these areas are be computed separately. However, in saline
areas, due to non-availability of data, recharge assessment may be based on rainfall
infiltration factor method. The areas underlain by saline ground water in different
states of the country are shown in Table 9.

6.7.9. Ground Water Assessment in Water Level Depletion Zones

In some areas, ground water level shows a decline even in the monsoon season.
The reasons for this may be: (a) There is a depletion in the ground water regime,
with ground water draft and natural ground water discharge in the monsoon season

Table 9. Area Underlain by Saline Ground water in Different States

State Total area of Area underlain Annual replenishable

state (sq. km) by saline ground recharge/yr
water EC >
4dslm

Haryana 44212 11,438 2452

Punjab 50353 3,038 1351
Delhi 1485 140 32
Rajasthan 342239 141,036 4025
Gujarat 196024 24,300 2179
Uttar Pradesh 294411 1,362 354
Karnataka 191791 8,804 1015
Total 190,118 11408

Source: CGWB (2005).

278 Chapter 6

(outflow from the region and base flow) exceeding the recharge, and (b) There may
be an error in water level data due to inadequacy of observation wells.
If the water level data are found to be erroneous, recharge assessment may be
made using rainfall infiltration factor method. If, on the other hand, water level data
are assessed as reliable, the ground water level fluctuation method may be applied
for recharge estimation. As h in eq. (10) will be negative, the estimated recharge
will be less than the gross ground water draft in the monsoon season. It must be
noted that this recharge is the gross recharge minus the natural discharges in the
monsoon season. This implies that the area falls under the over-exploited category,
with need for micro level study (see Section 6.7.11).

6.7.10. Apportioning Assessment from Watershed to Development unit

Where the assessment unit is a watershed, there is frequent need to convert

the ground water assessment terms of an administrative unit such as block/
taluka/mandal. To that end, recall that a block may comprise of one or more
watersheds, in part or full. First, the ground water assessment in the subareas,
non-command and command areas of the watershed may be converted into depth
unit (mm) by dividing the annual recharge by the respective area. The contribution
of this subarea of the watershed to the block is calculated by multiplying this
depth with the area in the block occupied by this sub-area. This procedure must be
followed to calculate the contribution from all the sub-areas of watersheds lying in
the block to work out the total ground water resource of the block.
The total ground water resource of the block should be presented separately
for each type of sub-area, namely for non-command areas, command areas and
saline/brackish water areas, as in the case of the individual watersheds.

6.7.11. Studies for Critical and Over-Exploited Areas

In all areas which are categorized as semi-critical or worse, it is necessary to increase

the density of observation wells. Micro-level studies are necessary in critical and
over-exploited areas to reassess the ground water recharge and draft. Following
approach was recommended by GEC (1997):
1. The micro-level studies in the critical and over-exploited areas in hard rock
terrain should be based on watershed as a unit and not on administrative unit.
2. The area may be sub-divided into different hydro-geological recharge areas,
discharge areas and transition zones and also on quality terms.
3. The number of observation wells should be increased to represent each such
sub-area with at least one observation well with continuous monitoring of water
levels.
4. Hydrological and hydrogeological parameters, particularly the specific yield,
should be collected for different formations in each sub-area.
Groundwater 279

5. Details regarding other parameters like seepage from canals and other surface
water projects should be collected after field studies instead of adopting recom-
mended norms. Base flow should be estimated based on stream gaugings.
6. The data of number of existing structures and unit draft should be reassessed
after fresh surveys and should match with the actual irrigation pattern in the
sub-area.
7. All data available with CGWB, SGDs and other agencies including research
institutions and universities etc. should be collected for the watershed/sub-areas
and utilized for reassessment.
8. Ground water assessment for each sub-areas may be computed adopting the
recommended methodology and freshly collected values of different parameters.
The assessment may be made separately for monsoon and non-monsoon period
as well as for command and non-command areas.
9. The ground water potential so worked out may be cross-checked with behaviour
of ground water levels in the observation wells and both should match. If they do
not, the factors that cause such an anomaly should be identified and the revised
assessment should be re-examined.
10. Based on the micro-level studies, the sub-areas within the unit and the
unit as a whole may be classified adopting the recommended norms for
categorization.

6.8. NORMS FOR ESTIMATION OF RECHARGE

GEC (1997) has prescribed the following norms for estimating recharge.

Norms for specific yield

GEC (1997) accepted the norms presented in Table 10 for specific yield.

Recharge from rainfall

GEC (1997) recommended the norms to estimate recharge from rainfall and these
are presented in Table 11.

Recharge due to seepage from canals

The norms for recharge due to seepage from canals are presented in Table 12.

6.8.1. Return Flow from Irrigation

The recharge due to return flow from irrigation may be estimated, based on the
source of irrigation (ground water or surface water), the type of crop (paddy, non-
paddy) and the depth of water table below ground level, using the norms provided
in Table 13.
Recharge from storage tanks and ponds: Based on the average area of water spread,
a depth of 1.4 mm/day may be used for the period in which the tank has water. If
280 Chapter 6

Table 10. Norms for Specific Yield

Formation Recommended Maximum Minimum

value (%) value (%) value (%)

Alluvial areas
Sandy alluvium 160 200 120
Silty alluvium 100 120 80
Clayey alluvium 60 80 40
Hard rock areas
Weathered granite, gneiss, schist with 30 40 20
low clay contents
Weathered granite, gneiss schist with 15 20 10
significant clay contents
Weathered or vesicular, jointed basalt 20 30 10
Laterite 25 30 20
Sandstone 30 50 10
Quartzite 15 20 10
Limestone 20 30 10
Karstifield limestone 80 150 50
Phyllites, shales 15 20 10
Massive poorly fractured rock 03 05 02

Note: Usually the recommended values should be used, unless sufficient data based on field study is
available to justify the minimum, maximum or other intermediate values.
Source: GEC (1997).

data on the average area of water spread is not available, 60% of the maximum
water spread area may be used instead of the average area.
Recharge from percolation tanks: Half of gross storage, considering the number of
fillings, with half of this recharge occurring in the monsoon season and the balance
in the non-monsoon season.
Recharge due to check dams and nala bunds: Half of gross storage (assuming
annual desilting maintenance exists) with half of this recharge occurring in the
monsoon season, and the balance in the non-monsoon season.

6.8.2. Some Comments on GEC Methodology

A review of the GEC recommended methodology shows some drawbacks in it.

The major drawback is that surface water and ground water are assessed separately
and not conjunctively; this may result in double accounting and consequent over-
estimation of total water availability. GEC methodology treats development units
as independent and ignores interactions among them which is an important aspect.
The methodology also ignores the water consumed by natural vegetation in the unit.
Implicit objective of full development is another fundamental flaw. This assumption
again neglects the dynamics of ground water between development units (generally
blocks). Base flow depletion, saline water intrusion and declines in ground water
level may all reach unacceptable levels much before full development is reached.
Groundwater 281

Table 11. Norms for Recharge from Rainfall

Formation Recommended Maximum Minimum

value (%) value (%) value (%)

Alluvial areas
Indo-Gangetic and inland areas 220 250 200
East Coast 160 180 140
West Coast 100 120 80
Hard rock areas
Weathered granite, gneiss, schist with 110 120 100
low clay contents
Weathered granite, gneiss schist with 80 90 50
significant clay contents
Granulite facies like Charnokite etc. 50 60 40
Vesicular, jointed basalt 130 140 120
Weathered Basalt 70 80 60
Laterite 70 80 60
Semi-consolidated sandstone 120 140 100
Consolidated sandstone, quartzite, 60 70 50
Limestone (except cavernous
limestone)
Phyllites, shales 40 50 30
Massive poorly fractured rock 10 30 10

Note:
1. Usually the recommended values should be used, unless sufficient information is available to justify
the use of minimum, maximum or other intermediate values.
2. An additional 2% of rainfall recharge factor may be used in areas where watershed development
with associated soil conservation measures is implemented. This additional factor is subjective and
is separate from the contribution due to the water conservation structures such as check dams, nalla
bunds, percolation tanks etc. The norms for the estimation of recharge due to these structures are
provided separately. This additional factor of 2% is only provisional at this stage, and will need
revision.

Table 12. Norms for Recharge due to seepage from canals

Unlined canals in normal soils with some clay 1.8 to 2.5 cumec per million sq. m of wetted
content along with sand area or 15 to 20 ham/day/million sq. m of
wetted area
Unlined canals in sandy soil with some silt 3.0 to 3.5 cumec per million sq m of wetted
content area or 25 to 30 ham/day/million sq. m of
wetted area
Lined canals and canals in hard rock area 20% of above values for unlined canals

Notes:
1. The above values are valid if the water table is relatively deep. In shallow water table and
waterlogged areas, the recharge from canal seepage may be suitably reduced.
2. Where specific results are available from case studies, the above norms are to be replaced by
norms evolved from these results.
282 Chapter 6

Table 13. Recharge as percentage of application

Source of Type of Water table below ground level

Irrigation Crop
< 10 m 10–25 m > 25 m

Ground water Non-Paddy 25 15 5

Surface water Non-Paddy 30 20 10
Ground water Paddy 45 35 20
Surface water Paddy 50 40 25

Notes:
1. For surface water, the recharge is to be estimated based on water release at the outlet. For ground
water, the recharge is to be estimated based on gross draft.
2. Where continuous supply is used instead of rotational supply, an additional recharge of 5% of
application may be used.
3. Where specific results are available from case studies is some states, the above norms are to be
replaced by norms evolved from these results.

Moreover, the amount of water required may be less than the amount of water available
in many of the blocks.
Another feature of the assessment of ground water resources is that CGWB uses
constant state-wide figures for depth of irrigation, irrespective of different crops, soil
and climatic conditions. CGWB assumes that 30% of the gross draft returns to ground
water zone. This, of course, is not correct in negative water balance areas of the country,
which constitute a large part of the country. The cumulative impact of all the factors
could introduce an error of more than 20% in the estimates of ground water resources.

6.9. GROUND WATER DRAFT

Ground water draft is defined as the “quantity of water withdrawn from the ground
water reservoirs”. The total quantity withdrawn is termed as gross draft. The annual
ground water draft of a structure is computed by multiplying its average discharge and
annual working hours. The number of working hours can be calculated by using the data
of consumption of electrical or diesel energy. Ground water draft is also calculated by
the irrigation requirement of crops in the command area of the structure. For working
out ground water balance, 70% of gross extraction is taken which is known as net
ground water draft. Balance 30% is presumed to return to ground water regime as
seepage. Ground water draft of an area can be estimated by multiplying the number of
wells of different types with the unit draft of each type of well.
Ground water draft can be estimated based on:
• Electric power consumption for agricultural pumpsets,
• Statistics of area irrigated by ground water and the associated crop water require-
ments, and
• Use of remote sensing data to obtain seasonal data on area of different irrigated crops
in non-command areas where only ground water irrigation is used.
Groundwater 283

Gross ground water draft includes ground water extraction from all the existing struc-
tures during monsoon as well as non-monsoon period. This should preferably be based
on the latest well census and updating the same based on the growth rate and/or ground
water programs implemented by various agencies. To compute ground water draft, it
is necessary to determine the average unit draft from different types of ground water
structures based on the well yield capacity, its command area, and techno-economic
viability.
Some of the dug wells and tube wells become non-operative either due to water table
falling much below the depth of the well, due to silting, due to water quality problems,
due to failure of the well, or due to expiry of useful life of the well. The ground water
draft from these wells need not be considered. The number of these disused wells may
be reflected by a depreciation factor which should be considered while estimating the
ground water draft.
In view of the uncertainties in estimation of ground water draft by any method, it is
clearly desirable to use more than one method to enable a cross check. The average draft
for ground water structures in different states of India has been presented in Table 14.
This table can be used as guideline for annual draft for different types of ground water
structures in the states. In canal command areas, the present utilisation of wells is
suboptimal. Note that the norms for ground water draft given in Table 14 are based on

Table 14. Average Annual Gross Draft for Ground Water Structures in Different States

S. N. State Type of ground water structure Average gross unit draft

(ham)

1. Andhra Pradesh Dugwell with Mhot 035

Dugwell with Pumpset 065
Borewell with Pumpset 13
Shallow Tubewell 205
Medium Tubewell 41
Deep Tubewell 585
2. Assam Shallow Tubewell with Pumpset 30
3. Bihar Dugwell 06
Private tube well with Pumpset 10
Bamboo boring with Pumpset 075
Deep tube well 300
4. Gujarat Dugwell with Pumpset 08
Borewell with Pumpset 12
Private shallow Tubewell 185
Medium Deep Tubewell 60
Deep Tubewell 300
5. Haryana Dugwell with Pumpset 15
Private shallow Tubewell with Pumpset 181
Deep Tubewell 150
6. Himachal Pradesh Medium Deep Tubewell with Pumpset 25
7. Karnataka Dugwell with Pumpset 09
Borewell with Pumpset 17
284 Chapter 6

the data for non-command areas, except in situation where wells in the command areas
are optimally utilised.

6.9.1. Threats to Ground Water Quantity

An increased quantity of ground water is being withdrawn to meet the growing demands
of population: for household uses, food, and other economic activities. The major
threats to ground water are:
1. Overdraft: Any withdrawal in excess of safe yield (the amount that can be
withdrawn without producing an undesirable result) is an overdraft. It occurs when
ground water is withdrawn faster than recharge, resulting in falling water table.
Consequently, wells go dry, pumping costs increase, and a part of the storage
capacity may be permanently lost. Withdrawal of water from deeper zones can
cause mixing of poor good quality water. In coastal zones, salt-water intrusion can
occur.
2. Subsidence: is one of the outcomes of over-pumping. As the water table declines,
water pressure is reduced. This causes the fine particles that held water to become
compacted. In addition to permanently reducing storage capacity, the land above
the aquifer can sink. This can damage property and fields.
In view of the above, guidelines are needed for extraction and use of ground water in
a sustainable manner.

6.9.2. Guidelines for Ground Water Extraction and Use

Contribution of ground water for irrigation as well as industrial use and drinking has
been on the increase during the last two decades. Indiscriminate extraction of ground
water already poses the threat of aquifers going dry in some parts of the country. The
Central and State Ground Water Boards have prepared ground water availability maps
and have prescribed extraction rates to ensure that the extraction is balanced with
recharge. The country has been zoned depending upon whether water is available in
plenty, or it has already become scarce in the region. Extraction of ground water is
prohibited in some regions where water depletion has already become critical.
The necessity and advantages of ground water development for domestic, irrigation
and industrial uses has been widely appreciated in India. But, the indiscriminate use
of ground water has led to serious situations of excessive drawdowns or mining of
the aquifers. This has caused progressive and at places rapid lowering of the water
table, consequent decline in the yield of wells, and intrusion of sea water in the coastal
aquifers, etc. At the same time, in many canal command areas, because of increased
recharge due to infiltration of excess irrigation water, water table is progressively
rising, creating waterlogging and salinity problems. Hence, the ground water problems
may be divided into two categories: quantity related and quality related. The coastal
aquifers show wide variation in the water quality, both laterally and vertically.
Groundwater 285

6.10. ARTESIAN FLOW

Artesian water is that water which is confined beneath a relatively impermeable stratum
such that if a well penetrates the confined zone, water will rise into the well to an
elevation above that of the confined zone. The aquifer consists of a (thick) layer of
sand or sandstone, which receives water at its exposed outcrop. Hydrostatic pressure in
the confined aquifer is sufficient to raise water in wells to levels higher than the upper
surface of the aquifer. The upward water movement is called artesian flow; its upper
limit of rise is the hydrostatic pressure surface. Note that there is no specific pattern of
artesian flow in the country. It is related with water table conditions and the conditions
of the aquifers. In India, some areas where artesian ground water is observed are: a)
Tarai Regions of Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh, b) Cambay Region (Kathiawar and
Kutch Region) in Gujarat, c) Western Coastal Plain, d) Orissa, e) Parts of J & K, and
f) Parts of Tamil Nadu.

6.10.1. Tarai Region of Uttar Pradesh

Tarai (or moist) region of Uttar Pradesh occurs south of the Bhabhar, adjacent to the
northern limit of Indo-Gangetic plains. The Tarai belt is made up of clay, sandy clay
mixed with Kankars, fine to coarse-grained sand, and gravels. Here ground level slopes
southwards at a gentle slope ranging from 1 m to 3 m/km. The area is mostly drained
by snow-fed perennial rivers which emerge from the Himalayas and is a prominent
place for artesian flow. Artesian aquifers are found here at a depth of only a few meters
below ground. Extensive availability of good quality ground water in this region has
led to development of big farms where paddy is cultivated extensively.

6.10.2. Cambay Region

In the Pleistocene age, Kathiawar and Kutch experienced many earthquakes. As a

consequence of these eruptions, the area experienced many uplifts and was substan-
tially elevated above the sea level. The hydrostatic pressure in this confined aquifer is
sufficient to raise water in wells to a level that is higher than the upper surface of the
aquifer.

6.10.3. Western Coastal Plain

Another region where conditions are favourable to occurrence of artesian water is

the coastal plains of the Western Ghats in South Maharashtra, Coastal Karnataka and
Kerala. Here the seaward dipping strata contains many aquifers of sand and standstone.
There are impermeable shells at the bottom. Very high rainfall in this area means there
is enough water to recharge the aquifer.
286 Chapter 6

6.10.4. Other Areas

Besides the above areas, other parts of the country like Jammu region, eastern plains
of Tamil Nadu, and parts of Orissa also have favourable hydrogeological conditions
for artesian flow.

6.11. CONJUNCTIVE USE OF WATER

The main objective of conjunctive use of surface water and ground water in a
canal command is to optimally utilize water resources to maximize agricultural
production per unit of water used without adversely affecting the environment.
Various aims and objectives of the conjunctive use of water resources in an
irrigation command have been enumerated by CWC (1995) and also by the
National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development Plan (NCIWRDP,
1999).
Different strategies of conjunctive use can be employed in an irrigation command
(CWC 1995) depending on the spatial and/or temporal utilization of surface water
and ground water. Strategies also differ for the use of good quality water or the
saline water. Three strategies of conjunctive use in an irrigation command are as
follows.
Strategy 1: Allocating parcels of land permanently to a particular use
Under this, separate areas of the command are permanently allocated for
surface water or ground water use. The areas at higher elevation where it
is difficult to take the canal water could be some such areas where ground
water might be the sole source of irrigation. It is envisaged in this strategy
that recharge from the surface water application will supplement the ground
water and this will be utilized in an adjacent area allocated for ground
water use.
This form of conjunctive use is effective where distance of the wells from the
recharge area (surface irrigation) is so small that the ground water flow is sustained by
the available gradient. This strategy is feasible in alluvial areas because of the appre-
ciable movement of ground water. In hard rock areas and in clay soils, this strategy
may not be feasible.
Strategy 2: Integrating surface water and ground water in time
In this strategy, surface and ground water resources are allocated in time such
that in monsoon season, only surface water is used and in the non-monsoon
season, only ground water is used. Since the same area is irrigated with surface
and ground water at different times, ground water can use the same field
channels that carry surface water. If private sources of ground water extraction
are not available in the command, then augmentation tube wells are planned
and operated in such a way that ground water carriage over long distances is
avoided.
Combination of Strategy 1 and 2: Space & time integration
Under this strategy, some parcels of land are permanently allocated for surface water
use, some parcels are permanently allocated for ground water use, and some parcels
Groundwater 287

are supplied with surface water in one season and ground water in another. For parcels
of land in which both ground and surface water are used, the intra-annual regime of
uses can vary from year to year to take advantage of the stable regime of ground
water.

6.11.1. Guidelines for Conjunctive use Planning

Recognizing the urgent need of conjunctive use, new projects which do not include
conjunctive use of water are not recommended for Planning Commission’s clearance.
CWC (1995) gives general guidelines for planning conjunctive use. According to
these guidelines, the quantification of water available for conjunctive use may have
to be decided using appropriate methodologies. The steps include establishing a
general ground water balance of the command area for “without conjunctive use
project” conditions, delineate the area where ground water development is to be
taken up based on the depth to water table and potential of aquifers, deciding the
additional recharge that would become available in the command area in “with
conjunctive use project condition”, deciding the planned quantity of ground water
use so as not to lead to progressive lowering or rising of water table and deciding
the quantum of ground water use available for irrigation after considering the other
(non-irrigation) uses of the planned ground water use, taking into account quality
limitations such as the presence of brackish water. However, detailed action plans
to implement the guidelines have to be drawn by respective states considering local
conditions.
CWC (1995) suggests the use of NABARD guidelines for establishing prelim-
inary ground water balance based on some rules of thumb for estimating recharge
in command areas arising from seepage from canals, field channels and tanks and
return flow from irrigation fields. In addition to estimating net annual ground water
recharge, the report also stresses on taking into account: i) minimum necessary
withdrawal in order to avoid large imbalance leading to large rise in ground water
table, and ii) maximum permissible withdrawals with a view to maintain ecology
and not allowing ground water to deplete, unless such depletion is likely to be
beneficial due to the very high ground water table or rising tendency in the “without
conjunctive use project” condition itself. The guidelines for extraction in command
areas as percentage of additional recharge caused by the project are given in
Table 15.
For the purpose of this table, a general long-term rise or fall of more than 0.2 m/year
in case of alluvial condition and of more than 0.5 m/year in case of hard rock areas
would qualify for classifying the trend as “rising” or “falling”. In case an accurate
ground water regime worked out by the specialists and tested and verified through
modeling and field verification in both conditions is available, the maximum/minimum
withdrawal can be worked out on the basis of the water balance studies instead of these
percentages. Detailed studies are desirable in special areas having salinity problems.
Further, economic considerations would finally decide the quantum of surface and
288 Chapter 6

Table 15. CWC (1995) Guidelines for ground water extraction

Present ground water status Minimum necessary Maximum permissible

additional withdrawal (%) withdrawal (%)
Depth of ground water Trend

Less than 2 m Rising 70 100

Less than 2 m Generally steady 50 80
Less than 2 m Falling 30 60
2 m to 6 m Rising 60 90
2 m to 6 m Steady 40 70
2 m to 6 m Falling 20 60
More than 6 m Rising 50 80
More than 6 m Steady 30 60
More than 6 m Falling 0 40

ground water use in space and time. These guidelines may have to be modified in
special situations such as coastal areas and areas with saline ground water, etc.

6.11.2. Status of Conjunctive use in India

With the launching of five-year plans in the year 1950–51, the objective
was to achieve increased irrigation. While achieving the above goal, the
integrated and conjunctive use of surface and ground water was not given
the extent of attention and consideration it deserved. Most of the major
irrigation projects were designed keeping in view the surface water inputs
only. Hence, in course of time, the twin problem of water logging and
soil salinity emerged, affecting agriculture production in the command areas.
The Irrigation Commission (1972) noted the building up of water level in a
number of irrigation projects in States of Bihar, Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar
Pradesh.
The fourth five-year plan envisaged the coordinated use and management of
both, surface water and ground water resources. The National Water Policy
also stresses the integrated and coordinated development of surface water
and ground water and their conjunctive use. It directs that conjunctive use
planning should be envisaged right from the project planning stage and should
form an essential part of the project. The Govt. of India had sanctioned six
conjunctive use schemes in irrigation commands of the country [IGNP Stage-I
command (Rajasthan), Sharda-Sahayak command (U.P.), Tungabhadra command
(A.P. and Karnataka), Ghataprabha command (Karnataka), Hirakund command
(Orissa), and Mahi-Kadana command (Gujarat)] so that the studies can yield
some fruitful recommendations. The Central Ground Water Board (CGWB)
was directed to carry studies and provide solution to reduce waterlogging in
these six commands. The analysis was carried out during 1990–1996. Results
indicated that economically feasible conjunctive use plans could be drawn and
extended in these command areas. Further studies related to conjunctive use were
Groundwater 289

completed by CGWB for the Nagarjuna Sagar project (A.P.); Indira Gandhi Nahar
Pariyojana Stage – II (Rajasthan); and Kosi and Gandak canal command areas
(Bihar).

6.11.3. Some Conjunctive use Studies Completed in India

Salient features of some studies carried out for conjunctive management in India are
briefly described here.
a) Krishnagiri reservoir project
The Krishnagiri reservoir is located in Dharmapuri district of Tamil Nadu
State of India. This reservoir has a catchment area of 5397 km2 , water spread
area of 1285 km2 and command area of 3,648 ha spread in 16 villages in
Krishnagiri taluk. Normal rainfall of this area is 831 mm; available surface
water resource is estimated at 6,046 ha-m and the ground water recharge is
assessed at 5,635 ha-m. A conjunctive use study was been taken up to assess the
ground water potential and utilize it along with surface water to raise maximum
number of crops in the command and to assess the surplus water available for
extending the command area. The study proposed to grow three seasonal crops
and some annual crops in the command area. The requirement of water for all
the crops put together was 7,214 ha-m. With the available surplus water and
conjunctive use strategy, an additional 1,012 ha of command area can be brought
under cultivation by extending the canals. The cropping pattern proposed in the
additional 1,012 ha of command is one wet crop and two dry crops. The expected
benefit from increased production will be 375 and 500 metric tons for wet
crops and dry crop respectively. The benefit-cost ratio of the proposed strategy
was 7.2:1.
b) Tungabhadra irrigation project
CGWB carried out conjunctive use studies have been carried out by the
for the Tungabhadra right bank High Level Canal and Low Level Canal
(HLC & LLC) command areas. The gross command area of these two
canals is 6,354 sq. km which covers parts of Bellary district of Karnataka
and Kurnool and Anantapur districts of Andhra Pradesh. The main source
of irrigation is through Tungabhadra canal while irrigation through dugwells
and tubewells is limited in the western and central part of the command.
Indiscriminate use of surface/canal water has led to water logging and soil
salinity.
Based on the canal water releases, annual surface water availability was assessed
at 827 Mm3 in the LLC and 784 Mm3 in the HLC. Total water demands for all
sectors worked out to be 107323 Mm3 . The project area has few pockets of water
logged area in the head reaches. There are a number of canal water shortage
areas in the middle and tail ends of the canals. The immediate requirement in
the area is to mitigate the problem of water deficit areas. The results indicate
that by harnessing the ground water resource in pockets of canal water deficit
areas, the water scarcity problem can be mitigated. This involves construction of
290 Chapter 6

3,375 number of bore wells and 4,911 number of dug wells. For the surface water
deficit areas which do not have sufficient ground water potential, it is imper-
ative to develop ground water in head-reaches and supply canal water to deficit
areas. The modeling studies have confirmed that ground water development plans
can be implemented safely without any undesirable effect on the ground water
regime.
c) Ghataprabha irrigation project
Ghataprabha River is one of the important tributaries of Krishna River. The study
command area is served by Ghataprabha left and right bank canals. Ever since the
introduction of canal irrigation in the area, there has been steady increase in the
ground water potential. In the area, canal water is generally released in June/July.
Waterlogging conditions set in by August and progressively extend over the area
by November. One of the major objectives of the study was to control the problem
of rising water table in the area by suitably adopting techniques of conjunctive
use.
A mathematical model (MODFLOW) was calibrated and validated for the study
area and five different scenarios of water use were analyzed. A conjunctive use plan
was recommended that needs to be executed in stages. It has been estimated that an
investment of Rs.40.5 crore is required for the left and right bank canal command areas
for ground water development (construction of 20,619 bore wells). The study suggests
setting up water use societies to maintain and operate bore wells, distribute water,
collect water rates, settle disputes, etc.
d) Hirakud irrigation project
The Hirakud dam is a multipurpose project built across Mahanadi River in Orissa State,
India. The Culturable Command Area (CCA) of the Hirakud project is 1,570.18 sq.
km with an irrigation intensity of around 170%. Based on the monthly water table
depth of nearly 130 monitoring wells, it was found that water logging conditions
exist in an area of 174 sq. km during pre-monsoon and it practically covers the major
part of the command during the post-monsoon period. Topographic set up, unlined
canals, over-irrigation and prevailing paddy cultivation during the Kharif and Rabi
seasons are mainly responsible for water logging conditions in the command. Utilizable
ground water resources during Kharif and Rabi seasons have been estimated to be
508.04 and 76444 Mm3 , respectively while the net draft from existing structures
during Kharif and Rabi seasons is merely 2.35 and 435 Mm3 . Surface water avail-
ability during these seasons has been estimated at 1,361 and 1495 Mm3 , respec-
tively.
A linear programming model was formulated to optimally allocate the surface and
ground water as per the cropping pattern. Attempts were also made to determine
optimal cropping pattern for the maximum use of available surface and ground
water to get maximum financial returns from irrigation. The study recommended
use of 90% surface water and 10% ground water in the Hirakud command to rectify
water logging conditions and mitigate water shortage in the tail reaches. Study also
recommended that existing cropping pattern be modified with diversification of
crops.
Groundwater 291

e) Sai Gomti interfluve tract – Part of Sarda-Sahayak irrigation project

The Sarda-Sahayak project in U.P. State, India was framed in 1967, commissioned in
June 1974 and completed in the year 1985. The gross command area of project is 40.02
lakh ha and it was envisaged to irrigate 19.23 lakh ha achieving irrigation intensity
of 96 %. With the commissioning of Sarda-Sahayak canal system, the ground water
levels have risen in the command resulting in water logging conditions and spread of
salt affected land. It has been noticed that existing availability and use of surface water
in the upper and middle reaches of canals has caused significant seepage resulting in
rise of ground water levels.
A study on conjunctive use of surface and ground water was taken in the Sai
Gomati interfluve tract – part of Sarda-Sahayak irrigation project. The study area is
bounded by Gomti River in North and by Sai River in South, covering an area of
about 8,978 sq. km. Mathematical model studies were carried out using USGS-3D
MODFLOW for devising the conjunctive use strategy and development of scenarios
for various planning options. The study recommended installation of 21,375 shallow
tubewells in the command to the existing battery of 56,625 tubewells at the total cost of
Rs. 93.11 crore. Economic analysis was also attempted for the development of ground
water strategy. The benefit-cost ratio “without project” and “with project” was calcu-
lated as 1.49 and 1.56 respectively.
f) lndira Gandhi Nahar Project Stage – I
Indira Gandhi Nahar Project (IGNP) was conceived in the year 1948 to use the water
of Sutlej-Beas Rivers for irrigation in parts of Western Rajasthan. Total command area
of project is 1.537 Mha. The construction works of the project were carried out in two
stages. The IGNP Stage-I comprises CCA of 0.479 Mha. The first water in IGNP was
released in October 1961.
After the introduction of irrigation in the command area, ground water levels were
found to rise at an alarming rate of around one meter per year, resulting in water
logging and soil salinity development. To overcome and mitigate these problems,
the conjunctive use study was carried out in the Northwestern part of Thar Desert
of Rajasthan which is underlain by wind blown sand dune deposits. Mathematical
modeling studies were carried out for devising water use patterns under different
development scenarios. Economic financial analysis for the development of ground
water strategies were also carried out. The economically most viable strategy
demonstrates that there is a need to install 10,023 number of shallow tube wells to
lower the ground water table in the area with the total ground water development cost
of Rs. 72.17 crore. An additional area of 0.1066 Mha can be brought under cultivation
and the benefit-cost ratio for the scheme works out to be 1.03.
g) Optimal crop planning between Yamuna River and Eastern Yamuna Canal
The study area lies between the Yamuna River and Eastern Yamuna canal covering
parts of Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar and Meerut districts of UP. Total extent of
the study area is 2,940 sq. km while cultivated area under irrigation is about
1,764 sq. km.
The main objective of this study was to determine the optimal cropping pattern
and water allocation plan by conjunctive use of surface and ground water. A linear
292 Chapter 6

programming model was used to maximize the net annual benefits from the crops and
determine 40 operating variables. Total net annual benefits from the developed optimal
plan came out to be Rs. 178.89 crore with crop intensity of 152.63 %. In terms of
water use and cost of cultivation, the optimal cropping pattern shows that crops such as
potato, onion, tomato, groundnut, gram and bajara should be grown over larger areas,
signifying greatest benefits, while rice, maize, cotton, jowar, urad and arhar should be
grown over smaller areas, signifying small benefits. Crops such as wheat and sugarcane
signify medium benefits.
h) Hindon – Kali Nadi Doab
The study area lies between Hindon and Kali Rivers in districts Saharanpur &
Muzaffarnagar in UP. The study area covers about 950 sq. km and receives annual
average rainfall of 704 mm during the monsoon period and 131 mm during the
non-monsoon period. The annual ground water draft is 3,300 ha-m. A quantity of
56,470 ha-m of water is annually available for the existing crops. But the annual crop
water requirement is 68,650 ha-m. Therefore, the present irrigation level in this study
area works out to be 80 %.
The main objectives of the study were: a) to optimize allocation of surface and
ground water and to maximize agricultural potential of the command area with the help
of a linear programming model, and b) to develop aquifer response simulation model
of the area to predict future behaviour of ground water table. The study concluded
that available surface and ground water potential in the area can sustain only 80 %
of the irrigation level. If 100 % irrigation is provided in the area, it is likely to result
in decline of ground water table at the rate of 0.54 to 0.33 m per year. The study also
recommended reduction of sugarcane area as this crop consumes more water in the
non-monsoon season resulting in decline of ground water level.
i) Lakhaoti Branch of Madhya Ganga Project
A study for conjunctive management of surface and ground water in the Lakhaoti
branch canal command of Madhya Ganga Project (UP) was carried out jointly by the
Water Resources Development Training Centre, Roorkee, WALMI (UP) and Irrigation
Department (UP). The study threw light on the future scenario of irrigation water
requirement and ground water table behaviour in the area. The study developed a
ground water model, a cost function for surface and ground water use, and optimization
techniques for allocation of surface and ground water in space and time. The study
developed the main canal operation strategy and evolved conjunctive use plan to
minimize cost of providing irrigation water.
j) Mahi – Kadana canal command
The gross irrigated command area of 3,786.58 sq. km of Mahi – Kadana system was
studied by CGWB for conjunctive use of surface and ground water. Surface water and
ground water resources in the area have been estimated as 2,259 and 921 Mm3 respec-
tively. Irrigation consumes 95 % of the total water demands with a cropping intensity
of 179 %. As per the study, full utilization of the available ground water and surface
water is the most ideal situation of conjunctive use in this command. Surface water and
ground water contributions come out to be 2,221 and 734 Mm3 respectively. Ground
Groundwater 293

water abstractions can be done through 8,355 dug wells and 855 shallow tubewells
with annual drafts of 501 and 128 Mm3 , respectively.
Besides the above, studies related to conjunctive use have been completed by CGWB
for the Nagarjuna Sagar project, A.P.; Indira Gandhi Nahar Pariyojana Stage – II,
Rajasthan; and Kosi and Gandak canal command areas, Bihar.

6.11.4. Installation of augmentation tubewells (ATW)

Construction of augmentation tube wells is a form of conjunctive use. In the 1950s, it

was observed that while the command of lower reaches of Western Yamuna Canal were
facing scarcity of canal supply, waterlogging was developing in the upper reaches. In
the year 1969, the Irrigation Department of Haryana chalked out a scheme to install
deep tube-wells in the Western Yamuna canal command extending from Dadupur in
Ambala District to Panipat in Karnal District. After creation of The Haryana State
Minor irrigation (Tubewells) Corporation in the year 1970, the work related to the
exploitation of underground water resources was transferred to it. Detailed inves-
tigations and ground water studies were undertaken and it was revealed that 3,300
cusecs of ground water could be safely exploited form Yamuna Basin without causing
any appreciable fall in the water table in the region. On this basis, it was decided to
construct a lined channel from Jagadhari to Munak to save losses and augment canal
supplies from ground-water resources through deep tubewells. Thus, the concept of
Augmentation Tube Wells came into being. Haryana was the pioneer State in India
to make conjunctive use of ground water and surface water resources for irrigation.
A total of 1,643 augmentation tube wells with capacity varying from 1 to 7 cusec
were installed (Tanwar, 1997). Independent electric feeder lines were provided for
continuous operation of these wells. This strategy resulted in the subsidence of water
table in the region.
The work of the installation of deep tube-wells and Augmentation Canal Project
was completed in December, 1972. An evaluation of this project (Saksena 2000)
revealed that the objective of increasing canal water supplies at the Munak head of
Western Yamuna Canal had almost been achieved. However, the lowering of water
table has been observed within 1-2 km from the canal and lowering of pumps in case of
private tube-wells had to be done. Subsequently, the Haryana government undertook
construction of about 1,000 Augmentation tube-wells on Western Canal System to
directly feed the canal.
In Gandak Canal Project of U.P., about 150 augmentation tubewells have been
installed in 1990s to supplement canal water supplies. Similarly in Chambal irrigation
system, 175 augmentation tubewells with an installed capacity of about 13 cumec
have been constructed for conjunctive use of canal water and ground water. The wells
discharge into various parts of the canal conveyance system including distributaries,
minors and sub-minors.
The Chambal Irrigation System serves areas in the State of M.P. and Rajasthan. At
Kota Barrage, water is diverted into two canals: Right Bank Canal serving M.P. and
Left Bank Canal serving Rajasthan. Due to some deficiencies, hardly 50% proposed
294 Chapter 6

area could be irrigated. To augment supplies in the system, a project on Ambah Branch
canal was taken. It includes construction of 175 augmentation tube-wells. The total
installed pumping capacity would be about 47000 m3 /hr13 m3 /s. It is assumed that
power supply limitations will restrict pumping in peak demand periods to 16 hour/day,
giving a peak 15-day production of 11.2 MCM at the well heads, equivalent to a
continuous discharge of about 87 m3 /s. The proposed cropping pattern would require
approximately 2,300 hours of groundwater pumping during the period October through
March.
 SECTION 3
RIVER BASINS
CHAPTER 7
RIVER BASINS OF INDIA

Inland water resources of a country can be classified as rivers and canals; reservoirs;
tanks & ponds; beels, oxbow lakes, derelict water; and brackish water. Other than
rivers and canals, all the other water bodies cover an area of about 7 M-ha. Of
the rivers and canals, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal) occupies the first place
with the total length of rivers and canals as 31,200 km, which is about 17% of the
total length of rivers and canals in the country. Other states following Uttar Pradesh
are Jammu & Kashmir and Madhya Pradesh. Among the remaining forms of the
inland water resources, tanks and ponds have maximum area (2.9 M-ha.) followed
by reservoirs (2.1 M-ha).
Most of the area under tanks and ponds lies in the southern states of Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. These states along with West Bengal,
Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, account for 62% of total area under tanks and
ponds in the country. As far as reservoirs are concerned, major states like Andhra
Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan
and Uttar Pradesh account for larger portion of area under them. More than
77% of area under beels, oxbow lakes and derelict water lies in the states of
Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and Assam. Orissa ranks first as regards the total area
under brackish water and is followed by Gujarat, Kerala and West Bengal.
The total area of inland water resources is, thus, unevenly distributed over the
country with five states namely Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka
and West Bengal accounting for more than half of the country’s inland water
bodies.
Before describing the river basins of India, it is helpful to note catchment
areas, average annual water yields and lengths of selected major rivers of the
world as given in Table 1. This data is insightful for comparison, to have
a feel of the numbers, and to appreciate the relative magnitude of the key
features. In terms of catchment area, Amazon has the first place followed
Congo, and then Mississippi-Missouri. Amazon also occupies the first place
as afar as mean annual discharge is concerned and this is again followed by
Congo. Nile is the longest river of the world and Amazon comes at the second
place.
297
298 Chapter 7

Table 1. Catchment area, average annual water yield and length of selected major rivers of the World

Name Catchment Rank by Mean Rank by Length Rank by

area, km2  area annual discharge (km) length
discharge,
m3/s

Amazon, South 6,915,000 1 174,900 1 6,400 2

America
Congo, Africa 3,820,000 2 39,000 2 4,700 8
Rio de la Plata-Parana, 3,100,000 4 22,900 5 4,876 7
South America
Ob-Irtysh, Asia 2,990,000 5 12,500 16 5,410 6
Nile, Africa 2,870,000 6 3,100 34 6,671 1
Lena, Asia 2,490,000 8 16,100 11 4,400 11
Niger, Africa 2,090,000 9 6,100 27 4,200 14
Amur-Argun, Asia 2,051,000 10 11,000 17 4,444 10
Yangtze, Asia 1,826,000 11 21,800 6 6,300 3
Volga, Europe 1,360,000 12 7,700 22 3,531 20
Ganga, Asia 1,086,000 16,650 – 2,525 41
Brahmaputra, Asia 580,000 19,200 10 2,849 27
Mississippi-Missouri, 3,220,000 3 18,100 8 6,019 4
North America
Yenisei-Angara, Asia 2,618,500 7 18,100 9 4,092 15
Mekong, Asia 1,525,000 14,100 13 4,200 13
Orinoco, South 1,425,000 25,200 4 2,600 33
America
Mackenzie, North 1,705,000 9,700 21 4,241 12
America
St. Lawrence, North 1,302,800 14 13,000 14 –
America
Danube, Europe 787,500 6,400 26 2,858 26
Zambesi, Africa 1,330,000 13 16,000 12 2,700 30
Indus, Asia 930,000 6,600 25 2,900 25
Columbia, North 645,000 2,000 55
America
Yukon, North America 825,000 6,800 24 2,849 28
Huang, Asia 1,258,700 15 3,300 33 5,464 5
Sao Francisco, South 630,000 3,400 31 3,199 22
America
Euphrates, Asia 1,075,000 – – 2,430 29
Murray-Darling, 1,035,000 368 – 3,750 18
Australia

Source: Rand McNally (1998), Singh (1992), and others.

7.1. MAJOR RIVER GROUPS OF INDIA

Based on the topography, the river systems of India can be classified into four
groups. These are: (i) Himalayan rivers, (ii) Deccan rivers, (iii) Coastal rivers, and
(iv) Rivers of the inland drainage basin. The Deccan rivers are rainfed and therefore
have very little flow during non-monsoon season; many of these are non-perennial.
River Basins of India 299

The coastal streams, especially on the west coast, have small catchment areas and
are short in length. Most of them are non-perennial. The streams of the inland
drainage basin of Western Rajasthan are few and far in between. They flow for
some time during monsoon only. Elaboration of these river categories is given in
what follows.

7.1.1. The Himalayan Rivers

The Himalayan Rivers receive input from rain as well as snowmelt and glacier
melt and, therefore, have continuous flow throughout the year. During the monsoon
months of June to September, Himalayas receive very heavy rainfall and experience
maximum snow melt and these are the periods when the rivers carry about 80%
or more of the annual flows. This is also the time when these rivers are prone to
flooding.
The main river systems in Himalayas are those of the Indus and the Ganga-
Brahmaputra-Meghna. The Indus rises near Mansarovar in Tibet. Flowing through
Kashmir, it enters Pakistan and finally falls in the Arabian Sea near Karachi.
A number of important tributaries of Indus flow through India, namely, the Sutlej,
the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum.
Bhagirathi and Alakhnanda are two important rivers that originate in Garhwal
Himalayas. These join at Devprayag to form Ganga which is the most sacred river
of India. This river traverses through Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West
Bengal and thereafter enters Bangladesh. The important tributaries of Ganga are the
Yamuna, the Ramganga, the Ghaghra, the Gandak, the Kosi, and the Sone. Many
of these tributaries are mighty rivers themselves. Yamuna River is an important
tributary of Ganga and its own important tributaries are Chambal and Betwa.
The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet where it is known by the name Tsangpo. It enters
India in Arunachal Pradesh and after traversing through Assam, enters Bangladesh.
Its important tributaries are the Dibang, Lohit, Subansiri, Manas and Teesta. Ganga
and Brahmaputra rivers meet at Goalundo in Bangladesh. The Barak River, the
head stream of Meghna rises in the hills in Manipur. The Meghna is the part
of Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna-System. The combined Ganga-Brahmaputra River
meets Meghna in Bangladesh and their huge volume of water flows into the Bay
of Bengal.
Harnessing the waters of the major rivers that flow from the Himalayas is of
paramount importance for India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. Through a close collab-
oration and pooling resources, huge benefits can be realized from flood control,
assured irrigation, hydroelectric power generation, employment generation, and
improvement of environmental quality. As these countries grapple with the political
compulsions and realities, both domestic and international, of utilizing the flow
of the Ganga-Brahmaputra system, precious water, largely unutilized, continues to
flow to the sea. At times, it also inflicts large losses to life and property. A map
of India showing important rivers is given in Figure 1. Table 2 shows the Principal
Himalayan rivers of India.
300 Chapter 7

Figure 1. Important rivers of India

7.1.2. The Deccan Rivers

The rivers of Deccan can be further classified in two groups: west flowing rivers
and east flowing rivers. The Narmada and the Tapi rivers flow westwards into
Arabian Sea. The important east flowing rivers are the Brahmani, the Mahanadi,
the Godavari, the Krishna, the Pennar, and the Cauvery. These rivers fall into the
Bay of Bengal.
The Mahanadi, rising in the state of Madhya Pradesh, is an important river in the
state of Orissa. In the upper drainage basin of Mahanadi, which is centered on the
Chhattisgarh Plain, periodic droughts contrast with the situation in the delta region
where floods damage the crops in the rice bowl of Orissa. Hirakud Dam, constructed
River Basins of India 301

Table 2. Principal Himalayan rivers of India

Group No. Order of magnitude (Area in Name of river Himalayan area included in
km2 ) catchment km2 

I Above 256,000 Indus 265,728

II Between 128,000 and 256,000 Brahmaputra 253,952
III Between 38,400 and 128,000 Kosi 61,184
Karnali 52,736
Satluj 47,360
IV Between 25,600 and 38,400 Gandak 37,376
Jhelum 33,280
Manas 30,720
Chenab 26,880
Raidak 26,112
V Between 12,800 and 25,600 Ganga 22,784
Luhit 20,480
Subansiri 17,920
Kali 16,128
Beas 14,336
Dibang 12,800
VI Below 12,800 Tista 12,288
Yamuna 11,520
Ravi 7,936
Rapti 7,680
Ramganga 6,656
Baghmati 3,840

Source: Chandra (1992).

in the middle reaches of Mahanadi, has helped in alleviating these adverse effects
to a large extent by creating a reservoir.
The source of the Godavari is near Nasik, northeast of Mumbai (Bombay) in
the state of Maharashtra, and the river follows a southeasterly course for 1,400
kilometers (km) to its mouth on the Andhra Pradesh coast. The Godavari basin is
second in size only to Ganga; its delta on the east coast is also one of the country’s
main rice-growing areas. It is known as the Ganga of the South but despite the large
catchment area, its discharge is moderate. The reason is medium depth of annual
rainfall, for example, about 700 mm at Nasik and 1,000 mm at Nizamabad.
The Krishna rises in the Western Ghats and flows east into the Bay of Bengal.
Its flow is not very large because of low rainfall in its catchment area: 660 mm
annually at Pune. The Krishna is the third longest river in India.
The source of the Cauvery is in the state of Karnataka and the river flows
southeastward. Its main tributaries are the Bhima, the Tungabhadra, the Ghatprabha
and the Malaprabha. The waters of the river have been a source of irrigation since
antiquity; in the early 1990s, an estimated 95% of the Cauvery flow was diverted
for agricultural use.
The Narmada and the Tapi are the only major rivers that flow eastward into
the Arabian Sea. The Narmada rises in Madhya Pradesh and crosses the state,
302 Chapter 7

passing swiftly through a narrow valley between the Vindhya Range and spurs of
the Satpura Range. It flows into the Gulf of Khambhat (or Cambay). Tapi which
is of shorter length follows a generally parallel course, between 80 km and 160
kilometers to the south of the Narmada, flowing through the states of Maharashtra
and Gujarat on its way into the Gulf of Khambhat.

7.1.3. The Coastal Rivers

There are numerous coastal rivers which are comparatively small. While only
handful of such rivers drain into the sea near the deltas of east coast, there are as
many as 600 such rivers on the west coast. The West Coast rivers are important as
they contain as much as 14% of the country’s water resources while draining only
3% of the land. Figure 2 shows the Coastal and Inland rivers of India. A detailed
description of these rivers is provided in Chapter 16.

Figure 2. Coastal and inland rivers of India

River Basins of India 303

7.1.4. Rivers of the Inland Drainage Basin

The rivers of the inland system, centered in western Rajasthan state, are few and
frequently disappear in years of scant rainfall. A few rivers in Rajasthan do not
drain into the sea. They drain into salt lakes or get lost in sands with no outlet to
sea. These rivers are shown in Fig. 2 and are described in Chapter 16.

7.2. MYTHOLOGICAL NAMING OF RIVERS

Naming of rivers is as interesting a topic as the study of characteristics of the rivers.

Water is essential for human survival and not a day passes in the life of an ordinary
person when he does not consume it. Since rivers have been the most common
source of water, life and culture of a place are inextricably woven with rivers. Our
ancestors were keen observers of the behavior of rivers and named them in many
ways. Color of water has been one motivation for naming them. Consequently, it
is not surprising that there are many white rivers in the world. For example, Rio
Blanco River in Argentina, and Rio Branco River in Brazil are white rivers. There
is Blue Nile and there is White Nile in Africa and after their confluence the river
becomes Nile. In USA also, one can spot a White River. Likewise, we have a Red
River in Canada, Rio Bermejo River in Argentina, Song Chay River in Vietnam,
Son He River in China and Red River in the USA. In a similar vein, there is a Black
River (Rio Negro) in Brazil, Argentina and Chile. The Hwang Ho River in China
is also called as Yellow River since its highly muddy water appears to be yellow.
We may also add that this river is the most important among the colored rivers.
Social and cultural life in India is deeply influenced by religion and this influence
can be vividly seen when one studies the names of Indian rivers and the mytho-
logical stories associated with their naming. In the following, mythological stories
associated with some Indian rivers are narrated.
Bagmati River: It is also called Bagvati in Vishnu Purana. The Svayambu and the
Vardha Purana call it the Vagmati. It is called Bachamati in Buddhist literature,
because it was created by the word uttered by Buddha Krakuchhanda when the
latter visited Nepal with his disciples from the Gaud-desa. Vdana mentions a river
Vaggumuda which flowed to the east of the Vajji territory. This Vaggamuda seems
to be the Vagamati of the present time. Baghavati, the name given to this river by
Vidyapati seems to have some connection with the word Vyaghra (tiger). Tigers
are found in abundance on its banks in the Nepalease Terai.
Bhima River: The Bhima River is also called Punya Damini Bhima. In South India,
people give regards to the Bhima River the same way as they do to Ganga. The
Bhima River originates from the Sahyadri hills. According to the legends, when
Lord Shankar came near Bhima Shankar mountain after killing the demon Tripursur,
he found that the Ayodhya’s saintly king Bhimak was under penance at that place.
King Bhimak begged for the blessings of Lord Shankar so that a pious river might
originate from the sweat of Lord Shankar. Lord Shankar gave the desired blessings
304 Chapter 7

and accordingly, a river originated from his sweat. On the name of king Bhimak,
this river was called as Bhima River. The river joins Krishna at Kurugadi in district
Raipur, which is 25 km away from Gulbarg. A jyotirling (glorified symbol of Lord
Shiva) namely, Bhima Shankar, and a religious place, namely Pandarpur, are located
on the banks of this river.
Brahmaputra River: Brahmaputra River originates from the Mansarovar near
Kailash range and is also known as Mahanad. Worth noting is the fact that the
Brahmaputra River has a male name whereas all other majors rivers of India have
female names. According to legends, Brahmaputra is the son of Lord Brahma. It is
said that Shantanu, a famous ancient sage began a long meditation in an ashram in
this area along with his beautiful wife Amodha. Amodha was so beautiful that Lord
Brahma himself became enchanted by the beauty of Amodha and requested her to
make love with him. But Amodha did not accept the Brahma’s proposal. However,
by that time Lord Brahma had become so excited that his semen discharged at
that place. When Shantanu came to know about this, he inseminated the Brahma’s
semen in the womb of Amodha. Subsequently, Amodha gave birth to a son and he
was called Brahmaputra. The tank near the ashram of sage Shantanu is known as
the Brahm-kund. Another legend is that because Brahmaputra is the largest river in
India, it carries a male name.
Brahmaputra is said to be the soul of Assam. It has seen the growth of the culture
of Assam and is a witness of all the events big or small in the life of its inhabitants.
Chambal River: The ancient name of Chambal River was Charmanvati, meaning
the river on whose banks leather is dried. In the ancient times, large-scale Yagya
(prayer meetings in which also involve offerings to please God) used to be organized
on the banks of this river and in these Yagyas animals were slaughtered and offered.
According to Mahabharata, the color of river water would become red due to the
flow of blood of the sacrificed animals and the skins of these animals were dried
on the banks of the rivers. In due course of time, this river became famous as the
river of ‘chamda’ (skin) and was named as Charmanvati.
Chandan River: It was also known by the name of ‘Malini’ and ‘Chandana’. It is
known as ‘Chamba’ in the Buddhist literature. According to the Kshetra Samasa,
this river is called Sulakshini or Chandravati. According to the Jinavitasa, this river
is named Aranyavaha or the torrent through the wilderness.
Gandak River: In the Muzaffarpur District of Bihar, this river is known as the
Narayani and Saligramini. Ramayana mentions this river under the name of
Kalimahi. The river is said to have been formed from the sweat of the cheeks
of Vishnu when he performed austerities near its source. Artemidoras speaks of
a certain affluent of the Ganga as breeding crocodiles and dolphins. He named
it Oidenes. At the present time, Gandak is the only tributary of Ganga which
breeds crocodiles. The Puranic tale of Gajehrajeha (fight between the elephant and
crocodiles) is said to have taken place at its junction with the Ganga. Therefore,
Oidenes of Artemedoros is no other than the Gandak.
River Basins of India 305

Ganga River: The Ganga River has been considered as the most sacred river of
India in Puranas. The word Ganga is considered as a synonym of pure and holy
water. That is why the word is attached with the names of many other rivers
in Central and South India. According to a mythological legend, Lord Brahma
collected the sweat of Lord Vishnu’s feet and created Ganga. Being touched by
two members of the Trimurti (Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesh), Ganga became very
holy. The other synonyms of Ganga are Vishnu Padee (as the river is said to have
originated from the feet of Lord Vishnu), Mandakini, Devnadi, Sursari, Tripathga,
Jahanvi, Bhagirathi, etc. As mentioned in Mahabharat, when Bhishm was about
to die, Arjuna was said to have extracted groundwater, namely, Patalganga, by
shooting an arrow which made a hole in the ground and created a fountain.
The description of Ganga is available in Rigveda also. Several legends are famous
about the origin of Ganga. It is said that the Ganga has originated from foots of
Lord Vishnu. According to the second legend, Ganga was the daughter of mountain
king Himalaya. As per Devi Bhagwat, Ganga has been called the wife of Lord
Vishnu. According to Mahabharat, Ganga was the wife of King Shantanu as well
as the mother of Bhishm.
According to a legend in the Ramayana, Sagara, the king of Ayodhya who had
sixty thousand sons, once performed Ashvamegh yagya (a ritual for the good of his
kingdom and to demonstrate his supremacy). During the rituals, the horse which
is an integral parts of the ritual, was stolen by the jealous Indra and placed in
the ashram (hermitage) of saint Kapila. Sagara sent all his sons all over the earth
to search for the horse. They found it in the nether-world, in the ashram of saint
Kapila. Assuming that the sage had stolen the horse, they hurled insults at him and
interrupted his meditation. The saint became very angry and burnt all sixty thousand
boys to death by the fire from his eyes. Since the final rites of these boys could not
be performed, their souls continued to wander as ghosts. After many generations,
Bhagiratha a descendant of Sagara, learnt about the fate of his ancestors and he
vowed to bring Ganga to Earth so that her holy water could be used to liberate the
souls of his ancestors and release them to heaven.
King Bhagirath left his kingdom to meditate and prey the Ganga River who
was residing in the heavens to descends to the earth. Ganga could come down
to the earth only after Lord Brahma (the Supreme God) permitted her to do so.
Accordingly, Bhagirath prayed at a place in Uttarkashi where the Gangotri temple
is situated these days. He prayed to Lord Brahma for a thousand years, requesting
him to permit Goddess Ganga to come down to earth from heaven because only
Ganga could release his ancestors’ souls and allow them to go to heaven. On
account of deep devotion of Bhagirath, ultimately Lord Brahma was pleased with
him and granted his wish. But He told Bhagirath to pray to Lord Shiva, who alone
could sustain the huge force of descent of Ganga. Accordingly, King Bhagirath
prayed to Lord Shiva who, after some time, agreed to hold Ganga in his hair.
Accordingly, Ganga descended from heavens on Lord Shiva’s head and was soon
trapped in his thick locks (Figure 3). In the process, the river water got further
purified. One the request of King Bhagirath, Lord Shiva opened one of the locks
306 Chapter 7

Figure 3. Ganga descending from the heaven in the locks of Lord Shiva

and the river reached the Earth. It is said that Ganga followed the chariot of
Bhagirath to the place where the ashes of his ancestors were lying and released
them from the curse. Alert reader will notice that this legend is a simple description
of the hydrologic cycle. Perhaps King Bhagirath was an ancient civil engineer or a
hydrologist!
Since Bhagirath brought Ganga to Earth, one headwater stream of Ganga is
known as Bhagirathi. Further, the Hindi term Bhagirath prayas describes valiant
efforts or difficult achievements of a person. A view of Bhagirathi River in the
headwater regions is shown in Figure 4.
Ganga is also known by another name: Jahnavi. According to a different mytho-
logical story, when Ganga came down to earth long time ago, her fast moving
waters created turbulence and destroyed crops in the fields. She also disturbed the
meditation of a saint named Jahnu. Now, Jahnu was so much angry that he drank up
all the water Ganga. This made the Devtas (semi-Gods) very sad and they prayed
to Jahnu to release Ganga so that she could proceed on her mission. After their
persistent prayers, Jahnu was pleased and he released Ganga water through his ears.
On account of this, Ganga came to known by the name “Jahnavi” (daughter of
Jahnu) also.
River Basins of India 307

Figure 4. A view of Bhagirathi River

Kumbh Mela which is the largest religious gathering on Earth (attended by more
than 80 lakh devotees) takes place after every 12 years at two places on the banks
of Ganga River: Haridwar and Allahabad.
Ghaghara River: The name Ghaghara seems to have originated from the Sanskrit
word Ghaghara a gurgling sound of water. Flow of this river used to produce this
kind of sound.
Hooghly River: Shahjahan (the mughal king of Delhi) permitted the Portuguese to
do trading in Bengal and they built a church in Bengal in 1590. The grass that grew
around the Church was Hugla, and hence the name given to nearby river became
Ogolin. With the passage of time, it became Oglee and eventually Hooghly.
308 Chapter 7

Indus River: In Rig Veda, the deitified Sindhu is praised in many verses. Although
some historians believe that the word Sindhu means a sea, the widely held view
is that it refers to the Indus River. Therefore, Sindhu may be taken to mean the
Indus River which is described as donor of gifts and owner of fertile fields. Our
country came to be called Hindustan or India; these words are derived from the
name Indus or Sindhu. The Sindh province of Pakistan derives its name from
this river. Its name also figures in the national anthem of India. In the valley of
this river rose the Indus Valley Civilization, which is the most ancient and highly
developed civilization of this planet. A unique feature of this civilization is that it
still survives despite numerous setbacks. Many web-sites (e.g., www.harappa.com,
www.archaeolink.com) and books contain detailed information about the Indus
Valley Civilization.
Kosi River: The Kosi River is a notorious river in the Ganga basin for changing
its course. The river can be compared with the rivers of China which suddenly
wash away large tracts of land. Cunningham identified this river with the Tista.
According to Ramayana the river was named after Kausiki who was the sister of
the sage Vishvamitra. Like her brother, she was a lady of short temper.
Krishna River: Krishna is a mighty east flowing river of peninsular India. It is the
same river as Krsnavena in the Puranas or Krsnaveni in the Yoginitantra. It is also
known as Kanhapenna in Jatakas and Kanhapena in the Hathigumpha inscription
of Kharavela. The word Krishna also indicates dark color.
Lohit River: In the Assamese language, Lohit River is known as Luit. The word
Luit comes from a Sanskrit word Lohitya meaning red river. When the red soil
of this region would get eroded by the rain water and flow in the river, the river
water would turn red and this gave the river its name. According to a legend, Ram
who was the grandson of Maharshi Bhrangu and the son of Rishi Jagdagni, was a
bright and obedient child. Once Renuka, the wife of Rishi Jagdagni, came to the
banks of the river to fetch water. There she saw Chitrataka, a gandharva (semi-god)
playing with his wives. Seeing this, Renuka’s mind also got enamoured. When
Rishi Jagdagni came to know about it, he was very angry and he ordered his son
to kill his mother. The obedient son chopped his mother’s head by a parshu (sharp
axe) but the parshu got stuck to his hands. He tried many things, including long
pilgrimages, but the parshu could not be removed. It finally came off when he took
a bath in the Lohit River. In this process, Ram came to be known as Parshuram
and the river which became red due to the blood of his mother was known as the
Lohit River.
Mahanadi River: The literal meaning of Mahanadi River is large size river. The
originating place of Mahanadi River, which is called as holy Ganga in Chhatisgarh
and Orrisa is located near the Ashram of Maharshi Shrangi. It is said that once
all the sages of this area came at this place for taking holy bath in Mahakumbh.
The Maharshi was under meditation and penance at that time. The sages waited for
several days to draw the attention of the Maharshi but the Maharshi’s meditation
River Basins of India 309

was not disrupted. Thereafter, the sages went for the holy bath. While returning
after the bath, all the sages brought some holy water with them. Finding that
Maharshi Shrangi was still in the meditation, they filled the Maharshi’s kamandal
(vessel) with water, and returned to their native places. After some time, when the
meditation of the Maharshi Shrangi was disrupted, the water of the kamandal fell
down on the ground with the stroke of his hand. This water began to flow towards
east and was converted into a stream. This stream was called as Mahanadi which
is said to fulfill the desires of millions of people.
Mahi River: In Vayu Purana, this river is also known as Mahati. The name of the
river seems to be derived from the lake from which it springs. This is often called
the Mau or Mahu as well as the Menda. According to one legend, the Mahi is the
daughter of the Earth and sweat of Indrdyumna, the King of Ujjain.
Narmada River: Narmada is also known as Narbada (Nerbudda). It is also called
Reva. The name Reva has been mentioned in Puranas which has probably been
derived from the Sanskrit root ‘rev’ to ‘hop’ owing to the leaping of the stream
down its rocky bed. The Narmada River is also known by a few other names such
as: Daksinaganga mentioned in Skanda Purana, Indija, Purvaganga, Mekaladrija
Mekalasutra or Mekalakanyaka (Amarakosa) and Somabhava.
There are many legends regarding the origin of the Narmada. According to the
one recorded by Beglar, Narmada was the name of the beautiful daughter of a
shepherd living at the Amarkantaka. She used to carry her father’s breakfast to him
in the fields where he tended his cattle. On her way to and back from her father,
the girl used to spend some time daily in a Yogin’s (a person who practices Yoga)
company whose ashram was by the road side. After sometime, the girl killed herself
for some unexplained reasons. One day the Yogin, while in act of drinking bhang
(a kind of drink), heard about the death of the poor girl. The cup of bhang stuck
to his mouth and he died. A stream of water issued from his throat which is the
Narmada River.
Another version is that the girl, finding herself pregnant with a child, committed
suicide by throwing herself over the falls of Kapiladhara, and the river in which she
died was named after her. According to another legend, the Narmada River sprang
from the body of Lord Shiva.
Pun-Pun River: This river is mentioned in the Vayu and the Padma Puranas in
connection with Gaya Mahatmya as the Punah-punah (again and again) of which
Pun-Pun is the colloquial form. The river might have been called by this name
because it was frequently in spate. The Puranas interpret the word Punahpuna in a
spiritual sense, i.e., sins are removed again and again by offering oblations to the
Pitras (forefathers) in the river.
Sarayu River: According to the Buddhist literature, the Sarayu or Sarju River is
spelt as “Sarabh”. Cunningham, in one of his maps, identified the Sarju with the
Solomattis River mentioned by Megasthenes. Ptolemy names a river Sarobes which
is identified by all scholars with the Sarayu.
310 Chapter 7

Sipra River: The Sipra River is also called Ksipra (Markandeya). It flows in the State
of Madhya Pradesh. The river is famous for the sanctity associated with it. According
to the legend, the river has originated from the blood of Lord Vishnu. In the time of
Mughal King Akbar (15th century), it was believed that the river used to flow with
milk. Probably this means that the region where it flowed was very prosperous.
Sindh River: In Vishnu Purana, the Dasarna River in Sindh has been identified
as Sindhu River. The Sindh River is generally believed to be identical with the
Kali Sindh River. Mahabharat refers to it as Daksinasindh. The Meghdoot refers
to Kalisindh as Sindh. In Varaha Purana the Kalisindh River has been called as
Sindhupurana.
Sone River: It has another name in Amarkosha where it is called Hiranyavaha
because either its sand was of golden colour or because the river carried gold dust
in its flow. In Hindi, gold is called Swarna or Sona which changes to Sone with
the passage of time.
Subarnarekha or Suvarnarekha River: Subarnarekha was earlier known as Hiran-
yarekha. Both these words mean a golden streak. The name shows that the river
brought gold in its flow and this belief still persists among the local people.
Tapi River: Also known by the name Tapti, Tapi was a daughter of Sun. Ptolemy
named it Nanagouna. It is believed that Tapi rises from the sacred tank of Multai
(Mulatapi, i.e., the source of Tapi). The Tapi has its name derived from tapa, ‘heat’
and according to local Brahmanas, it was created by the Sun to protect himself
from his own warmth.
Teesta River: The literal meaning of the word Teesta is Trishna (desire) which
never ends. In the Pali language, Teesta is called as Tanda. The legend of the Teesta
River is mentioned in Kalika Purana. Among the other rivers of northern India,
Teesta River is also called as the younger daughter of Himalaya. There is a legend
about it in Kalika Purana. It is said that once Lord Shiva became pleased from the
hard penance of the demons and gave them blessings. That particular demon was
the devotee of Lord Shiva but he did not like Goddess Parvati, the wife of Lord
Shiva. Parvati took this as an insult to her. As a result, a war started between the
demon and Parvati. The demon was injured in the war and he was feeling thirsty.
He requested Lord Shiva to save his life by quenching his thirst. Lord Shiva became
pleased and from his inspiration, a stream of nectar-like milky water started flowing
from the Parvati’s breast. This stream was called as Teesta River and this river is
fulfilling the desires of the people even today.
Tungabgadra River: Tungabhadra is a famous river of South India. It is also
called Dhatri (midwife) of Vedas. While the Vedas were written in ‘saptsindhav’
or the country of seven rivers, their bhashya was written on the banks of
Tungabhadra.
There is a legend about the origin of Tungabhadra River in Skand Purana. It
is mentioned that once Lord Barah (an incarnation of Lord Vishnu who brought
River Basins of India 311

the Earth out of the pool of water after the great deluge) was resting at Barah
Parvat. Suddenly, from his two front teeth, water started dropping. This water was
converted into two streams. The stream originated from the left tooth was called
as Tunga and the stream originated from the right tooth was called as Bhadra.
The Tunga and Bhadra rivers are known as the sisters and they join together at
Kundly and flow as the Tungabhadra River. Tungabhadra finally joins Krishna
River, which is called as mother of these rivers. Its water is considered to be the
best drinkable water in the world.
Yamuna River: The Yamuna River is regarded as sister of Yama, the God of
death. Bana in his epic Kadambari calls the Yamuna River as Kalindi, because
its water appears to be dark. People believe that those who take bath in the waters
of this river become free from the fear of death.

7.2.1. The Mythological River – Saraswati

The ancient Indian holy scriptures of Vedas have frequent mention of a river named
Saraswati. In the Sanskrit language, ‘saras’ means a lake or water body, and ‘wati’,
means a female associated with it.
According to a belief, Saraswati River used to drain the north and northwest
region of India. Saraswati is believed to have originated from the Har-ki-Dun glacier
in west Garhwal in Uttaranchal. It flowed parallel to the river Yamuna for some
distance and later joined it, proceeding south as the Vedic Saraswati. The seasonal
rivers and rivulets, including Ghaggar, joined Saraswati as it followed the course
of the present river through Punjab and Haryana. Sutlej River, the Vedic Shatadru,
joined the river Saraswati as a tributary at Shatrana, approximately 25 km south
of Patiala. Saraswati then followed the course of Ghaggar through Rajasthan and
Hakra in Bhawalpur before emptying into the Rann of Kutch via Nara in Sindh
province, running parallel to the Indus River.
In the verses of Rigveda, the most ancient of the four Vedas, Saraswati is described
as a mighty river with many individually identified tributaries. Undoubtedly, the
Saraswati River, carrying the flow of three perennial and numerous seasonal rivers,
was a mighty river in the Vedic times. Saraswati was the seventh river of the Sindhu-
Saraswati river system, hence the name ‘Saptsindhu’ for the region bounded by
Saraswati in the east and Sindhu (Indus) in the west. Rigveda describes Saraswati as
Ambitam, the best of the mothers; Naditam, the best of the rivers; and Devitam, the
best of the goddesses. Recent findings do suggest that the Ghaggar-Hakra River once
flowed with great fortitude, and was of major importance to the Indus Valley
civilization. But this river subsequently dried up, probably due to diversion of its tribu-
taries, perhaps before or around 1900 BC but may be much earlier.
In the enumeration of the rivers in Rigveda (one of the four vedas) 10.75, the
order of rivers is Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati, Shutudri. From the verses of vedas,
it is quite clear that the river bearing the name ‘Saraswati’ flowed through Haryana
and Rajasthan states. However, it is not settled whether this is the primal ‘Saraswati’
that the vedas frequently refer to.
312 Chapter 7

The Saraswati River has been identified with various present-day or historical
rivers, particularly the Ghaggar-Hakra River in India and Pakistan. There is a
Saraswati (or Sarasvati), a small river in Haryana that flows into the Ghaggar
River. There is also a Saraswati River in Gujarat. It flows from the south end
of the Aravalli Hills southwestwards into the eastern end of the Rann of Kutch.
Alternative suggestions include the Helmand River in Afghanistan, which histor-
ically bore the name ‘Saraswati’. Further, there is also a river in Iran which has
been given this name. Sometimes Saraswati also means the heavenly ‘river’ or the
milky way and the river is personified as a goddess. Note that Saraswati is also
the Goddess of learning in Hindu mythology. The goddess Saraswati developed
independently from the river itself.
An organization known as the Saraswati Nadi Shodh Prakalp (SNSP) has started
work to revitalize the Saraswati River. SNSP feels that the Saraswati River, adored
in the Rigveda as a sacred river, is not a myth but truth. This has been established
by researches undertaken by scientists, archaeologists and scholars over the last 15
years. SNSP has stated that over 80% of the 2,600 archaeological settlements of
the Saraswati Sindhu Civilization dated to circa 3500 BC have been discovered on
the banks of the Saraswati including some major sites.
The scientific investigations had established the causes and dates of the disap-
pearance of this great river. Owing to tectonic disturbances around 2500 BC and
1900 BC, there was tilt in topography of Northwest India, resulting in migrations of
rivers. The Sutlej migrated westwards to join the Indus and the Yamuna migrated
eastwards to join the Ganga. Thus the major sources of glacier water were lost for
the Saraswati, which was left dependent only on monsoon water from the Siwalik
ranges.
As described elsewhere, Ganga and Yamuna rivers meet at a place known as
‘sangam’ in Allahabad also known as Prayaga. It is also believed that besides
these two rivers, the third river joining at sangam is the Saraswati which flows
underground. In this interpretation, Saraswati might have been an aquifer. An aerial
view of Sangam at Allahabad is shown in Figure 5.
The identification of the Saraswati River of Vedas or the ‘original’ Saraswati
has become embroiled in debates about the age of the Vedas and of the relation
between Aryan culture and the Indus Valley civilization. Many researchers have
attempted to chart the course of Saraswati River, of late using latest tools such
as satellite data. However, despite large number of theories and hypotheses, there
is no definite conclusion yet. Numerous web-sites, such as http://www.haryana-
online.com/saraswati.htm, contain detailed description and folk lores associated
with this enigmatic river.

7.3. RIVER BASINS OF INDIA

A river basin is the natural context in which water occurs and is perhaps the most
appropriate unit for planning, development, and management of water resources.
The drainage area of a system of rivers normally flowing into a common terminus
River Basins of India 313

Figure 5. Sangam at Allahabad where Ganga and Yamuna meet. Photo courtesy http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Ganga

constitute a drainage basin. It is therefore convenient to assess water resources

basin wise.
India is blessed with many rivers. On the basis of size, the river basins of India
could be divided into three groups as mentioned in Table 3.
Besides these, some desert rivers flow for short distances and are lost in
the desert.
According to the above classification, the number of major and medium river
basins are 12 and 46, respectively, and these contribute nearly 92% of the total
runoff in the country. Minor rivers account for about 8% of the total runoff. Of
the major rivers, the Ganga – Brahmaputra Meghana system is the biggest with a
catchment area of about 1.10 million km2 , which is more than 43% of the catchment
area of all the major rivers in the country. The other major rivers with a catchment
area more than 0.10 million km2 are Indus, Godavari, Krishna, and Mahanadi. The
catchment area of medium rivers is about 0.25 million km2 and Subernarekha with
19300 km2 catchment area is the largest river among the medium rivers in the
country.

Table 3. Classification of Indian river basins based on size

1 Major river basins Basins whose catchment area is more than 20 000 km2
2 Medium river basins Basins with a catchment area between 20,000 and 2 000 km2
3 Minor river basins Basins with a catchment area below 2 000 km2
314 Chapter 7

Table 4. Major river basins of the country

S. No. Name of the River Origin Length Catchment States falling in the
(km) Area catchment
(sq. km)

1. Indus Mansarovar (Tibet) 1,114 + 321,289 + J&K, Punjab,

Himachal Pradesh,
Rajasthan and
Chandigarh UT
2. a) Ganga Gangotri (Uttar Kashi) 2,525 + 861,452 + Uttaranchal, Uttar
Pradesh, Himachal
Pradesh, Haryana,
Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh, Bihar, West
Bengal and Delhi UT.
b) Brahmaputra Kailash Range (Tibet) 916 + 194,413 + Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Meghalaya,
Nagaland, Sikkim,
West Bengal,
Mizoram and Tripura
c) Barak & other 41,723 + Assam, Meghalaya,
rivers flowing into Nagaland, Manipur,
Meghna, like Mizoram and Tripura
Gomti, Muhari,
Fenny etc.
3. Sabarmati Aravalli Hills 371 21674 Rajasthan and Gujarat
(Rajasthan)
4. Mahi Dhar (Madhya Pradesh) 583 34842 Rajasthan, MP and
Gujarat
5. Narmada Amarkantak (Madhya 1312 98796 Madhya Pradesh,
Pradesh) Maharashtra and
Gujarat
6. Tapi Betul (Madhya Pradesh) 724 65145 Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra and
Gujarat
7. Brahmani Ranchi (Bihar) 799 39033 Madhya Pradesh,
Bihar and Orissa
8. Mahanadi Nazri Town (Madhya 851 141589 Madhya Pradesh,
Pradesh) Maharashtra, Bihar,
Chattisgarh and Orissa
9. Godavari Nasik (Maharashtra) 1465 312812 Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Orissa and
Pondicherry
10. Krishna Mahabaleshwar 1401 258948 Maharashtra, Andhra
(Maharashtra) Pradesh and Karnataka
11. Pennar Kolar (Karnataka) 597 55213 Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka
12. Cauvery Coorg (Karnataka) 800 81155 Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Kerala and
Pondicherry

Total 2528084
River Basins of India 315

Table 5. Medium river basins of India

S. No. Name of the Village/Distt. State Length (km) Catchment

River (Origin) Area
(sq. km)

West Flowing Rivers

1. Ozat Kathiawar Gujarat 128 3 189
2. Shetrunji Dalkania Gujarat 182 5 514
3. Bhadar Rajkot Gujarat 198 7 094
4. Aji Rajkot Gujarat 106 2 139
5. Dhadhar Panchmahal Gujarat 135 2 770
6. Purna Dhosa Maharashtra 142 2 431
7. Ambika Dangs Maharashtra 142 2 715
8. Vaitarna Nasik Maharashtra 171 3 637
9. Dammanganga Nasik Maharashtra 143 2 357
10. Ulhas Raigarh Maharashtra 145 3 864
11. Savitri Pune Maharashtra 99 2 899
12. Sastri Ratnagiri Maharashtra 64 2 174
13. Washishthi Ratnagiri Maharashtra 48 2 239
14. Mandvi Belgaum Karnataka 87 2 032
15. Kalinadi Belgaum Karnataka 153 5 179
16. Gangavati or Dharwar Karnataka 152 3 902
Bedti (in upper
reaches)
17. Sharavati Shimoga Karnataka 122 2 209
18. Netravati Dakshina Karnataka 103 3 657
Kannada
19. Chaliar or Elamtalvi Hills Kerala 169 2 788
Baypore
20. Bharathapuzha Annamalai Hills Tamil Nadu 209 6 186
(known as
Ponnani)
21. Periyar Sivajini Hills Kerala 244 5 398
22. Pamba Devarmalai Kerala 176 2 235

East Flowing Rivers

23. Burhabalang Mayurbahanj Orissa 164 4 837
24. Baitarni Keonjhar Orissa 365 12 789
25. Rushikulya Phulbani Orissa 146 7 753
26. Bahuda Ramgirivillage Orissa 73 1 248
27. Vamsadhara Kalahandi Orissa 221 10 830
28. Nagavali Kalahandi Orissa 217 9 410
29. Sarda Vishakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh 104 2 725
30. Eleru Vishakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh 125 3 809
31. Vogarivagu Guntur Andhra Pradesh 102 1 348
32. Gundlakamma Kurnool Andhra Pradesh 220 8 494
33. Musi Nellore Andhra Pradesh 112 2 219
34. Paleru Nellore Andhra Pradesh 104 2 483
35. Muneru Nellore Andhra Pradesh 122 3 734
36. Swarnamukhi Koraput Orissa 130 3 225
37. Kandleru Vinukonda Andhra Pradesh 73 3 534

(Continued)
316 Chapter 7

Table 5. (Continued)

S. No. Name of the Village/Distt. State Length (km) Catchment

River (Origin) Area (sq.
km)

38. Kortalaiyar Chinglepet Tamil Nadu 131 3 521

39. Palar (including Kolar Karnataka 348 17 871
tributary
Cheyyar)
40. Varahandi North Arcot Tamil Nadu 94 3 044
41. Ponnaiyar Kolar Karnataka 396 14 130
42. Vellar Chithri Hills Tamil Nadu 193 8 558
43. Vaigai Madurai Tamil Nadu 258 7 031
44. Pambar Madurai Tamil Nadu 125 3 104
45. Gundar Madurai Tamil Nadu 146 5 647
46. Vaippar Tirunolvolli Tamil Nadu 130 5 288
47. Tambraparni Tirunolvolli Tamil Nadu 130 5 969
48. Subarnarekha Nagri/Ranchi Bihar 395 19 296

Total 248 505

Source: CWC (1990) and MoWR (2004)

Lengthwise, Ganga is the longest river in India, followed by Godavari, and then
Krishna. When the rivers are ranked by the catchment area, Ganga is the first,
followed by Indus and Godavari. In terms of water yield, Brahmaputra is the first,
Ganga is the second and Godavari is the third. The catchment areas of major and
medium river basins, lengths of rivers and the states of origin are given in Tables 4
and 5 respectively. The basinwise information about the availability of surface water
and ground water data can also be obtained from the website www.india-water.com.
This site also contains some data that are available in public domain.

7.4. FRESHWATER RESOURCES

Although about three-fourths of earth is water, the estimated volume of fresh

water in our rivers, groundwater, snow and ice, is about 2.5% only, the rest
being sea/salt water. Most of the fresh waters are either in the form of ice
and permanent snow covers in Antarctic/Arctic region (about 69%) or is stored
underground in the form of deep underground basins/aquifers, soil moistures,
etc. (30%).
The total usable fresh water supply to ecosystems and humans from river systems,
lakes, wetlands, soil moisture and shallow groundwater is less than 1% of all fresh
water (MoWR, 2003) and only 0.1% of all the water on earth. As per the World
Health Organisation estimates, only 0.007% (this number is sometimes known as
the James Bond number) of all water on the earth is readily available for human
consumption globally.
River Basins of India 317

7.4.1. Surface Water Resources of River Basins of India

The water resources of a basin are assessed based on stream flows measured at a
terminal site (usually close to sea) on the river. Clearly, the accuracy of assessment
depends upon the accuracy of discharge observations and the length of the data
series. In many instances in India, this length is not adequate and the accuracy of
observations is not known; the periods for which data are available are widely
different in different basins. In India, rainfall data of longer length are usually
available and are frequently employed to extend the runoff series. The average
annual flow at the terminal point of a river is normally denoted as the water resources
of the basin. Note that this refers to the availability of water with a probability of
50%. For the planning of water resources projects, the dependability at other levels,
such as 75% and 90%, is needed. Such dependability is determined by using the
time series of observations.
Most basins of the world are no longer virgin; the flow at the terminal site is
significantly influenced by upstream utilization. The natural runoff of a basin could
be computed by adding to the surface flow measured at the terminal site, the net
export of surface water out of the basin, the net increase of the surface water storage,
additional evapotranspiration caused by the use or storage of surface water, direct
ground water flow from the river basin below or along the terminal site, the net
export of ground water out of the basin, the net increase in ground water storage
and soil moisture storage, and the additional evapotranspiration caused by use or
storage of ground water. This is the general water balance approach, applicable to
any basin for any period. However, if averages over a long time period are taken,
the storage change would be zero or negligible. Also, assuming a case of no export
or import, and neglecting the ground water flow below or along the terminal site, a
simplification is possible. With this simplification, the average annual natural flow
can be computed by adding to the average annual surface flow measured at the
terminal site, the average annual extra evaporation/evapotranspiration due to use or
storage of surface water and the average annual extra evaporation/evapotranspiration
due to storage or use of ground water.
Most surface water flow of the Indian rivers occurs during the monsoon season
of 4 to 5 months. Rao (1973) reported the country’s annual surface runoff as
1645 km3 . According to a recent estimate of the Central Water Commission, the
surface water resources of the country are 1869 km3 . These are statistical estimates
based on available river flows. Recently, NCIWRD (1999) has also estimated water
resources of different basins. According to them, the total surface water resources
of India are 1953 km3 . The average annual flow in Indian rivers of different basins
is summarized in Table 6.
It is observed from Table 6 that some of the southern peninsular rivers like
Cauvery, Pennar etc., are able to utilize almost all of their potential while some
rivers in the northern region viz., Ganga and Brahmaputra etc., have significant
amount of water which is not utilizable. Further, in Pennar and East flowing rivers
between Pennar and Kanyakumari, the utilizable flow is shown to be more than the
potential.
318 Chapter 7

Table 6. Surface water resources potential of river basins km3  of India

S. No. Name of the River Basin Average As per Estimated Cultivable

annual NCIWRD utilizable flow area,
potential in (1999) excluding (thousands
the river ground water ha)

1. Indus (Area in Indian 7331 7331 4600 9 638

Territory)
2. a) Ganga 52502 52502 25000 60 161
b) Brahmaputra, Barak, 58560 67741 2400 6 145
and others
3. Godavari 11054 11054 7630 18 931
4. Krishna 7812 6981 5800 20 299
5. Cauvery 2136 2136 1900 5 523
6. Pennar 632 632 686 3 539
7. East flowing and rivers 2252 2252 1311
from Mahanadi to
Godavari and Krishna to
Pennar
8. East flowing rivers 1646 166 1673
between Pennar and
Kanyakumari
9. Mahanadi 6688 6688 4999 7 994
10. Brahmani & Baitarani 2848 2848 1830 2 360
11. Subarnarekha 1237 1237 681 1 194
12. Sabarmati 381 381 193 1 548
13. Mahi 1102 1102 310 2 210
14. West flowing rivers of 1510 1510 1498
Kutch & Saurashtra
including Luni
15. Narmada 4564 4564 3450 5 901
16. Tapi 1488 1488 1450 4 292
17. West flowing rivers from 8741 8741 1194
Tapi to Tadri
18. West flowing rivers from 11353 11353 2427
Tadri to Kanyakumari
19. Area of inland drainage in Negligible Negligible
Rajasthan desert
20. Minor rivers draining to 3100 3100
Myanmar (Burma) &
Bangladesh
Total 1 86900 1 9528 69000

Table 6 also reveals that the Ganga basin has the maximum utilizable surface
water, i.e. approximately 50% out of the average annual runoff of 525 km3 whereas
the Brahmaputra with the largest average annual runoff of 585 km3 contributes only
4% of utilizable flow of surface water. Also it shows that the river Sabarmati with
average annual runoff of 3812 km3 has nearly half of its runoff as utilizable flow.
Almost similar is the case with Subernarekha.
River Basins of India 319

7.4.2. Utilizable Surface Water Resources

In majority of river basins, present utilisation is significantly high and is in the
range of 50% to 95% of utilizable surface resources. But in the rivers such as
Narmada and Mahanadi percentage utilisation is quite low; it is of the order of 23%
and 34% respectively.
The distribution of water resources potential in the country shows that as against
the national per capita annual availability of water as 2208 m3 the average avail-
ability in Brahmaputra and Barak is as high as 16589 m3 while it is as low as 360 m3
in Sabarmati basin. Brahmaputra and Barak basin, with 7.3% of geographical area
and 4.2% of population of the country, has 31% of the annual water resources.
Per capita annual availability for rest of the country excluding Brahmaputra and
Barak basin works out to about 1583 m3 . A situation of availability of less than
1000 m3 per capita is generally considered as scarcity conditions. Cauvery, Pennar,
Sabarmati, East flowing rivers and West flowing rivers are some of the basins
which fall in this category.
There are two different ways in which utilization of water resources can be
considered. It can be computed as the quantum of withdrawal of water from its
place of natural occurrence such as river or ground water. Alternatively, it can
be considered as the additional evaporation/evapotranspiration of the natural water
that is caused by human activities such as diversion to command areas. The second
approach is more appropriate for a scientific study of water balance of hydrological
cycle. The former approach has been used more commonly in field studies in India.
It is important to note at this stage that the estimates of water availability, potential,
and utilization etc. should be treated as approximations. These numbers are likely
to change as more data becomes available and new technologies are developed.
This calls for re-review of the estimates at regular intervals, say 5–10 years.
Although the estimated surface water availability is of the order of 1869 km3 ,
the amount of water that can be put to beneficial uses is much less. This is because
India experiences monsoon climate implying that most (80–90%) of the annual
runoff occurs during four monsoon months. As India has not been able to create
very large storage capacity, most part of this flow goes as a waste, and in fact, some
of it also causes flood damage. In view of immense variability of streamflows (see
Table 7 which gives the monthly discharge of selected rivers as a percentage of
their annual discharge), if more storages could be developed, it would be possible to
considerably reduce the flood damage. Further these storages will permit carryover
of water from wet years to dry years, providing additional benefits.
Within the premise of physiographic conditions, socio-political environment,
legal and constitutional constraints, and technology development available at
present, different authorities have estimated utilizable quantities of water from
the surface flow differently. As per the recent estimate by the Central Water
Commission, the utilizable annual surface runoff is about 690 cubic kilometers
(= 36% of the total).
The storage space made available from the projects completed by 1995 is about
174 km3 and the projects under construction would provide space to hold another
320 Chapter 7

Table 7. Monthly discharge of selected rivers as percentage of annual discharge

Month River system

Godavari Krishna Mahanadi Narmada Pennar

January 064 052 069 103 220

February 051 031 051 078 115
March 037 021 048 053 132
April 030 018 050 039 079
May 019 091 037 024 388
June 241 279 108 128 132
July 2099 2560 2003 1418 414
August 3139 3056 3728 3092 820
September 2796 2025 2756 3653 1509
October 1124 1278 774 989 2072
November 293 471 286 287 2444
December 107 118 090 136 1675

76 km3 of water. This makes a total of about 250 km3 of storage space, ignoring
small structures. This is about 36% of possible storage space of 690 km3 . A part
of the created storage (approximately 1 km3 per year) is lost every year due to
sedimentation. Clearly, the nation has a long way to go before the adequate capacity
to regulate streamflows is built. To appreciate the growth in storage space, it is to
be noted that this was 156 km3 at the time of independence.
To harness the utilizable surface water, about 400 km3 of live storage needs to
be created. Thus, the development of surface water sector has another half way to
go to achieve its full potential. As per the projections, 80% of the surface water and
85% of the ground water will ultimately be used for irrigation. The remaining 20%
of surface and 15% of ground water for other uses will have to be appropriately
allocated as per the demands for other sectors. An integrated planning for future
demand and supply management needs to be taken up at national level.

7.4.3. Ground Water Resources of River Basins of India

The total annual ground water potential for a unit refers to the available annual
recharge after allowing for natural discharge in the monsoon season through base
flow and subsurface inflow/outflow. While deciding on the ground water available
for future development, some provision needs to be kept for natural discharge in
the non-monsoon season.
According to estimates, the basin wise total rechargeable ground water resources
in India stands at 43143 km3/year. According to another recent state wise infor-
mation, the ground water resource potential of the country is 433882 km3/year. The
basin wise and state-wise ground water resource potential of the country is given
in Table 8 and 9 respectively. The present level of development is about 42%.
River Basins of India 321

Table 8. Ground Water Potential in River Basins of India (Pro Rata Basis) (Unit: km3 /year)

S. No. Name of the Total Provision Available Net draft Balance Level of
Basin replen- for ground ground ground
ishable domestic, water water water
ground industrial resources potential devel-
water and other for available opment
resources uses irrigation for use (%)

1. Brahmani 405 061 344 029 316 845

with Baitarni
2. Brahmaputra 2655 398 2256 076 2180 337
3. Chambal 719 108 611 245 366 4009
Composite
4. Cauvery 1230 184 1045 578 467 5533
5. Ganga 17099 2603 14496 4859 9637 3352
6. Godavari 4065 966 3099 605 2494 1953
7. Indus 2649 305 2343 1821 522 7771
8. Krishna 2641 558 2083 633 1450 3039
9. Kutch & 1123 174 949 485 464 5114
Saurashtra
Composite
10. Madras and 1822 273 1548 893 655 5768
South Tamil
Nadu
11. Mahanadi 1646 247 1399 097 1302 695
12. Meghna 852 128 724 029 695 394
13. Narmada 1083 165 917 199 718 2174
14. Northeast 1884 283 1602 276 1326 1720
Composite
15. Pennar 493 074 419 153 266 3660
16. Subarnarekha 182 027 155 015 140 957
17. Tapi 827 234 593 196 397 3305
18. Western Ghat 1769 319 1450 332 1118 2288

Total 43143 7108 36035 11521 24513 3197

Source: IWRS (1998).

7.4.4. Allocation of Ground Water Resource for Utilization

The net annual ground water availability is to be apportioned between domestic,

industrial and irrigation uses. As per the National Water Policy, requirement for
domestic water supply is to be accorded the highest priority. This requirement
can be computed based on population as projected to the year 2025, per capita
requirement of water for domestic use, and relative load on ground water for urban
and rural water supply.
The water available for irrigation use is obtained by deducting the allocation
for domestic and industrial use from the net annual ground water availability.
322 Chapter 7

Table 9. Ground Water Resource of India as on March 2003 (unit km3 /year)

S.No. States Total Provision Available Net draft Balance Level of

Replen- for ground ground ground
ishable domestic water water water
Ground and resources Resources devel-
water industrial for for future opment
Resource and other irrigation use (%)
uses

States
1 Andhra 3529 529 3000 857 2143 2856
Pradesh
2 Arunachal 144 022 122 – 122 Negligible
Pradesh
3 Assam 2472 371 2101 184 1917 875
4 Bihar 2699 405 2294 1063 1231 4633
5 Chhatisgarh 1607 241 1366 081 1285 593
6 Delhi 029 018 012
7 Goa 022 003 019 002 017 830
8 Gujarat 2038 306 1732 955 777 5516
9 Haryana 853 128 725 813 000 11218
10 Himachal 037 007 029 003 026 1072
Pradesh
11 Jammu & 443 066 376 003 373 081
Kashmir
12 Jharkhand 653 098 555 184 371 3313
13 Karnataka 1619 243 1376 476 900 3460
14 Kerala 790 131 659 146 513 2217
15 Madhya 3482 522 2960 802 2158 2709
Pradesh
16 Maharashtra 3787 1240 2547 944 1604 3704
17 Manipur 315 047 268 Negligible 268 Negligible
18 Meghalaya 054 008 046 002 044 397
19 Mizoram 140 021 119 Negligible 119 Negligible
20 Nagaland 072 011 062 Negligible 062 Negligible
21 Orissa 2000 30 1700 361 1339 2123
22 Punjab 1866 087 1679 1640 000 9766
23 Rajasthan 1271 199 1071 926 145 8642
24 Sikkim 007 001 006 Negligible 006 Negligible
25 Tamil Nadu 2639 396 2243 1445 798 6443
26 Tripura 066 010 056 019 038 3343
27 Uttar Pradesh 8112 1217 6895 3233 3662 4689
28 Uttaranchal 270 041 229 082 147 3578
29 West Bengal 2309 346 1963 750 1213 3819
Total States 43324 7114 36198 14982 21278 4153

UT’s
1 Andaman & 0326 0013 0313 Negligible 0313 Negligible
Nicobar
Islands
2 Chandigarh 0030 0025
River Basins of India 323

3 Dadra & Nagar 0042 0006 004 0005 0031 1281

Haveli
4 Daman & Diu 0013 0002 001 0008 0003 7000
5 Lakshadweep 0002 0007
6 Pondicherry 0029 0004 002 0116 0000

Total UT’s 0442 0025 0384 0160 0348

Grand Total 433882 71165 362364 14997 213128 4157

Source: CGWB (2005).

Potential for future irrigation development from ground water is determined by

deducting the existing ground water draft for irrigation from the net annual ground
water availability for irrigation. The resulting quantity is the net annual ground
water availability for future irrigation development and this should be calculated
separately for non-command areas and command areas. GEC (1997) recommended
the following empirical relation if adequate data are not available:

Allocation for domestic and industrial water requirement (mm/year)

= 22 ∗ N ∗ Lg (1)

where N = population density in the unit in thousands per sq. km, Lg = fractional
load on ground water for domestic and industrial water supply ≤ 10. In deriving
eq. (1), it is assumed that water requirement for domestic and industrial use is 60 lpd
per head.
Recently, CGWB has re-assessed the annual replenishable ground water resources
to be about 434 km3 . The ground water available for irrigation is about 363 km3 ;
out of this the utilizable quantity (90% of available) is about 327 km3 . Thus the total
utilizable ground water resource is 327 + 71 (domestic and other uses) = 398 km3 ,
as shown in Table 10.
The utilizable irrigation potential has been estimated as 64 million ha (M-ha)
based on crop water requirement and availability of cultivable land. Out of this,
the potential from natural rainfall recharge is 50.8 M-ha and augmentation from
irrigation canal systems is 13.2 M-ha. The irrigation potential created from ground
water in the country till 1993 was 35.4 M-ha.
Although the national scenario of ground water availability is favourable, there
are certain pockets that face scarcity of water. This is because the ground water

Table 10. Total utilizable ground water resource of India

1. Total Replenishable Ground Water Resource 434 km3

2. Provision for Domestic, Industrial & Other Uses 71 km3
3. Available Ground Water Resource for Irrigation 363 km3
4. Utilisable Ground Water Resource for Irrigation (90 % of S. N. 3) 327 km3
5. Total Utilisable Ground Water Resource (Total of S. N. 2 & 4) 398 km3

Source: CGWB (1995).

324 Chapter 7

development over different parts of the country is not uniform. It is quite intensive
in some areas resulting in over-exploitation and leading to fall in water levels and
salinity ingress in coastal areas. The declining water levels have resulted in failure
of wells which require deepening of extraction structures.

7.4.5. Ground water development scenario

Ground Water Estimation Committee (GEC 1997) defined stage of ground water
development (SGWD) as the ratio of net annual draft to utilizable resource:

Existing gross GW draft for all uses

SGWD % = ∗ 100 (2)
Net annual GW availability

The level of ground water development in an area is the ratio of net yearly draft to
total utilizable ground water resources for irrigation:

Net yearly draft∗ 100

Level of ground water development =
Utilizable resource for irrigation
(3)

The SGWD is an index of the balance between ground water available and
utilization. As SGWD approaches 100%, the potential for future development
becomes meager. Over the country, SGWD varies from 1.33% in Himachal Pradesh
to 93.85% in Punjab; it is 83.85% in Haryana. Ground water draft is very low
in Himachal Pradesh since the land for agricultural development is limited. On
the other hand, GW is under serious pressure in Punjab and Haryana where GW
withdrawal exceeds annual recharge in most of the blocks. The large rate of
withdrawal is largely attributed to the advent of paddy cultivation in these states.
Water requirements for paddy are quite large and the expansion in area under paddy
has led to tremendous growth in number of tubewells for irrigation. Likewise, the
share of GW irrigation in the total irrigation in Tamil Nadu has risen steadily over
time. During 1995, nearly 60 percent of utilizable ground water resources amounting
to 2.2 Mham were tapped through minor irrigation structures. In Rajasthan, level
of ground water development is nearly 51% and this is predominantly concentrated
in the eastern parts of the State.
While interpreting the long-term trend of ground water levels, several points
are need may be kept in view. If the pre- and post-monsoon water levels show a
fairly stable trend, it does not necessarily mean that there is no scope for further
ground water development. Such a trend indicates that there is a balance between
recharge, draft and natural discharge in the unit. However, further ground water
development may be possible, which may result in a new stable trend at a lower
ground water level with associated reduced natural discharge. If the ground water
resource assessment and the trend of long-term water levels contradict each other,
River Basins of India 325

Table 11. Categorization of Areas of Ground Water Development

Category of areas Stage of ground water development (%)

White <65%
Grey >65% but <85%
Dark >85% but <100%

Source: GEC (1997).

this anomalous situation requires a review of the ground water resource computation,
as well as the reliability of water level data.
GEC (1997) categorized areas on the basis of the level of ground water devel-
opment taking into consideration the ratio of net yearly draft to utilizable ground
water resources for irrigation. On the basis of this ratio, categorization of area is
given in Table 11.
In dark areas, micro-level surveys are required to evaluate the ground water
resources more precisely for taking up further ground water development.
Ground water assessment in India is carried out block wise, except Andhra
Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra where the assessment is carried out on the basis
of mandals, talukas and watersheds. Out of 4,272 blocks in the country, 231 blocks
have been categorized as “over-exploited” where the stage of ground water devel-
opment exceeds the annual replenishable limit and 107 blocks are “dark” where the
stage of ground water development is more than 85% (GGWB 2005). Besides, 6
mandals have been categorized as “over-exploited” and 24 as ‘dark’ out of 1,104
mandals in Andhra Pradesh. Similarly out of 184 talukas in Gujarat, 12 are “over-
exploited” and 14 are ‘dark’ and out of 1,503 watersheds in Maharashtra, 34 are
‘dark’. The state wise over-exploited and dark blocks/taluks/watersheds of India are
listed in Table 12 below.
In India, the first large-scale ground water development for irrigation was taken
up in 1934 with the initiation of a project for construction of about 1,500 public
deep tubewells in the Ganga basin. Since the mid-sixties, there has been tremendous
increase in exploitation of ground water as a source of irrigation. This increase came
with the advent of high yielding varieties of crops. Government of India established
the Agricultural Refinance and Development Corporation in 1963 with institutional
investment for ground water development as one of the objective. This organization
was later renamed as the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
(NABARD). Besides NABARD, Rural Electrification Corporation (REC) is also
currently providing support for ground water development.
It is estimated that 70–80 percent of the value of irrigated production in India now
depends on ground water irrigation. Thus, nearly two-fifths of India’s agricultural
output comes from the areas that are irrigated with ground water. Since agriculture
and allied activities significantly contribute to India’s GDP, the contribution of
ground water to India’s GDP is about substantial. As profits from ground water
irrigation helped to spread new technology, some of these profits were invested
326 Chapter 7

Table 12. Categorization of blocks/taluks/watersheds as over exploited and dark on all India basis

S. No. States No. of Assessment units (Blocks/ Taluks/ Watersheds)

Assessment units
(Blocks/ Taluks/ Over exploited Dark/Critical
Watersheds)
No % No %

1 Andhra Pradesh 1,157 118 1020 79 683

2 Arunachal 59 0 0 0 0
Pradesh
3 Assam 219 0 0 0 0
4 Bihar 394 6 152 14 355
5 Chhatisgarh 145 0 0 0 0
6 Delhi 6 3 50 1 1667
7 Goa 12 0 0 0 0
8 Gujarat 180 41 2278 19 1056
9 Haryana 111 30 2703 13 1171
10 Himachal Pradesh 69 0 0 0 0
11 Jammu & 69 0 0 0 0
Kashmir
12 Jharkhand 193 0 0 0 0
13 Karnataka 175 7 4 9 514
14 Kerala 151 3 199 6 397
15 Madhya Pradesh 312 2 064 1 032
16 Maharashtra 2,316 154 665 72 311
17 Manipur 29 0 0 0 0
18 Meghalaya 39 0 0 0 0
19 Mizoram 12 0 0 0 0
20 Nagaland 52 0 0 0 0
21 Orissa 314 0 0 0 0
22 Punjab 138 81 5870 12 870
23 Rajasthan 237 86 3629 80 3376
24 Sikkim 4 0 0 0 0
25 Tamil Nadu 385 138 3584 37 961
26 Tripura 38 0 0 0 0
27 Uttar Pradesh 819 2 024 20 244
28 Uttaranchal
29 West Bengal 275 0 0 61 2218
Total States 7,910 671 848 424 536
UT’s

1 Andaman & 1 0 0 0 0
Nicobar Islands
2 Chandigarh 1 0 0 0 0
3 Dadra & Nagar 1 0 0 0 0
Haveli
4 Daman & Diu 2 1 50 1 50
5 Lakshadweep 9 0 0 0 0
6 Pondicherry 4 1 25 0 0
Total UT’s 18 2 1111 1 556
Grand Total 7,928 673 849 425 536

Source: CGWB (2005).

River Basins of India 327

back into ground water development, leading to “tubewell explosion” in many parts
of India. Of course, this was facilitated by government’s efforts to promote rural
electrification, availability of cheap diesel, and institutional credit support from
nationalized banks.
During the past four decades, there has been a phenomenal increase in the
growth of ground water abstraction structures due to implementation of technically
viable schemes for development of the resource, backed by liberal funding from
institutional finance agencies, improvement in availability of electric power and
diesel, good quality seeds, fertilizers, government subsidies etc. During the period
1951–92, the number of dugwells increased from 3.86 million to 10.12 million, that
of shallow tubewells from 3,000 to 5.38 million and public bore/tubewells from
negligible to 68000. The number of electric pumpsets has increased from negligible
to 9.34 million and the diesel pump sets from 66,000 to about 4.59 million. There
has been a steady increase in the area irrigated from ground water from 6.5 Mha in
1951 to 35.58 Mha in 1993. During VIII plan, it was anticipated that 1.71 million
dugwells, 1.67 million shallow tubewells and 11,400 deep tubewells were expected
to be added. Similarly number of electric pumpsets and diesel pumpsets is expected
to rise by 2.02 million and 0.42 million respectively. Such a magnitude of ground
water development requires realistic assessment of ground water resources to avoid
any deleterious effects on ground water regime and to provide sustainability to
the ground water development process. The state wise ground water structures and
ground water draft is given in Table 13.
Table 14 gives the phenomenal growth of ground water extraction structures in
India from 1950 onwards. During 1951 to 1997, the number of dug well increased
approximately 2.5 times. While there were only 3,000 private tube wells in 1951,
this number grew to more than 21 lakh by 1980. Between 1980 and 1997, the
number again increased more than three times. Likewise, the number of public
tube wells increased from 2,400 in 1951 to 90,000 by 1997. During this period,
the cumulative irrigation potential due to ground water jumped from 6.5 M-ha to
46 M-ha and currently this potential exceeds 50 M-ha.
The significance of ground water in the economy emanates from the fact that
agricultural yields are generally 30 to 50% higher in the areas irrigated with ground
water compared to areas irrigated by water from other sources. This is primarily
because a farmer using ground water has greater control over the supply of water
than those who depend on other sources of irrigation. On a positive note, ground
water irrigation stimulates investments in fertilizers, pesticides, and high-yielding
varieties, leading to higher yields.
Development of ground water has led to increased “drought proofing” of India’s
agricultural. This phenomenon can be seen from the impact assessment of droughts.
In the 1960s, ground water was a relatively insignificant source of irrigation,
particularly in eastern India. In 1965–66, rainfall (June to September) was 20 percent
below normal, leading to drought conditions. Food grain production declined by 19
percent at the national level over the previous year’s output. In contrast, in 1987–88,
rainfall dropped almost 18 percent below normal, but food grain production declined
by only 2 percent over the previous year’s level. Although the two droughts are not
328 Chapter 7

Table 13. India: State wise Ground water Structures (in thousands) and Ground Water Draft (ham)

S. No. State/ Union Territory Dug wells Shallow Public Ground water
Tubewells Tubewells Draft (ham)

1 Andhra Pradesh 1075860 975600 78750 11812950

2 Arunachal Pradesh – – – –
3 Assam – 451400 20070 471470
4 Bihar 4177700 7058300 62360 11298360
5 Goa 1260 – 800 2060
6 Gujarat 7090700 83000 50880 7224580
7 Haryana 424200 4349800 17990 4791990
8 Himachal Pradesh 35700 3740 1990 41430
9 J&K 1700 20200 1720 38920
10 Karnataka 5126500 350200 – 5476700
11 Kerala 1190100 25300 – 1716000
12 Madhya Pradesh 13070700 192200 14200 13277100
13 Maharashtra 11160200 1000 – 1116120
14 Manipur – 100 50 15  0
15 Meghalaya – 7900 30 7930
16 Mizoram – – – –
17 Nagaland 4500 – 40 4540
18 Orissa 5437500 142000 52610 5623110
19 Punjab 934700 6226000 18610 71179310
20 Rajasthan 8352500 189400 750 8542650
21 Sikkim – – – –
22 Tamil Nadu 14466300 1349700 – 15816000
23 Tripura – 24320 1640 25960
24 Uttar Pradesh 11456700 23435200 269850 35161750
25 W. Bengal 491800 2629700 37260 3158760
26 Union Territories 161900 247000 2880 411780
27 Grand Total 94858560 47762460 632480 143253490

Source: CGWB (1995).

Table 14. Number of groundwater wells and created irrigation potential from 1950 onwards

Time Number of wells (in thousands) Cumulative irrigation

potential created by
Dug wells Private tube Public tube Total ground water (M-ha)
wells wells

March, 1951 3,860 3 24 3,865.4 6.50

March, 1980 7,786 2,132 333 9,951.3 22.00
March, 1985 8,742 3,359 462 12,147.2 27.82
March, 1990 9,407 4,754 636 14,224.6 35.62
March, 1992 10,120 5,379 676 15,566.6 38.89
March, 1997 10,501 6,743 900 17,334.0 45.73
March, 2002 – – – 19800 (projected) 50.00

Source: CGWB.
River Basins of India 329

directly comparable, only marginal decline in production in 1987–88 compared to

1965–66 can be attributed to wider spread of irrigation in general and of ground
water irrigation in particular.

7.4.6. Categorization of Areas for Ground Water Development

GEC (1997) suggested that the unit of ground water assessment can be categorized
for development based on: (i) stage of ground water development, and (ii) long-term
trend of pre-and post-monsoon ground water level. The following categorization
was proposed based on these two factors.
Safe areas with potential for development: (a) areas where ground water resource
assessment shows SGWD ≤ 70 percent and there is no significant long term decline
of pre- or post-monsoon ground water levels; (b) areas where ground water resource
assessment shows 70% < SGWD < 90% and both pre- and post-monsoon ground
water levels do not show a significant long term decline. However, in these areas,
caution may be exercised in planning future development with regard to quantum
of additional ground water withdrawal.
Semi-critical areas for cautious ground water development: Areas where ground
water resource assessment shows 70% < SGWD < 90%, and either pre- or post-
monsoon ground water level shows significant long-term declines.
Critical areas: (a) areas where ground water resource assessment shows 70%
< SGWD < 100%, and either pre-monsoon or post-monsoon ground water level
shows a significant long-term decline; (b) areas where ground water resource
assessment shows stage of ground water development resource assessment shows
SGWD < 100%; but both pre-monsoon and post-monsoon ground water levels
shows a significant long-term decline; (c) areas where ground water resource
assessment shows SGWD > 100 per cent, but either pre-monsoon or post-monsoon
ground water level does not show a significant long term decline.
Over-exploited areas: Where ground water resource assessment shows SGWD
> 100% and both pre-monsoon and post-monsoon ground water levels show a
significant long-term decline.
GEC (1997) also recommended that future ground water development must be
linked with water conservation measures especially in over-exploited and critical
and semi-critical areas. In these areas, there must be some institutional, technological
and financial restriction in the ground water extraction practices.

7.4.7. Available Ground Water Potential

Ground water being a dynamic and replenishable resource has to be estimated

primarily based on the components of annual recharge which largely depends on
hydrogeological and climatic conditions.
330 Chapter 7

When we look at the availability at state level, the picture is satisfactory in terms
of spatial distribution. Barring few pockets of northwest, northeast and Kerala in
south, the entire country has more than 8,000.00 MCM/year (0.8 M ham) of ground
water potentials for future use. But at the district level, the distribution of ground
water balance narrates another story. In a large number of districts in different states
especially, in Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Western Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu,
ground water is over-exploited.
Estimation of yield of aquifer requires subsurface investigations. These investi-
gations are to be followed by detailed resource evaluation studies to determine the
quantity of ground water and its quality. CGWB has conducted water balance studies
in different parts of the country to quantitative determine the ground water potential.

7.4.8. Constraints in Future Ground Water Resources Development

Due to the precarious situation of ground water in India, the focus now needs to be
on holistic management. There are numerous constraints in ground water resource
development. In the following, the major constraints are enumerated.
1. By 2025, majority of the India’s population will live in urban and peri-urban
areas. With changes in life style, people and industries will require larger share
of water. This implies that the share of agriculture in total water use has to be
reduced through improved water management.
2. Urbanization is also creating an enormous pollution load on fresh water supplies
and estuaries. The amount of pollutants thrown into the waterways is rapidly
increasing and, at the same time, the flows of fresh water are decreasing as more
water is diverted or evaporated through intensive use. Thus the concentration of
pollutants is increasing.
3. Inefficient ground water management practices, coupled with unplanned and
unregulated use is hampering sustainable ground water development.
Figure 6 represents comparison between total available replenishable ground water
and ground water balance left in the basins for exploitation after being used for
irrigation, industrial, domestic & other uses. Table 6 shows that Ganga basin
possesses maximum amount of 170.99 cubic km/year of total available replenishable
ground water & 96.37 cubic km/year is left for exploitation. Further, Subarnarekha
basin possess minimum amount of 1.82 cubic km/year of total available replen-
ishable ground water among all basins & only 1.4 cubic km/year is the balance of
ground water available for exploitation/future use.
Detailed data about ground water resources of India has been given in Chapter 6.

7.5. DATA REQUIREMENT FOR WATER RESOURCES

DEVELOPMENT (WRD) PROJECTS

One of the most important aspects in planning and operation of a water resources
development project is to assess the availability of water and its time distribution,
on long term as well as short-term basis. To ensure the success of a project, it is
necessary to plan it such that desired quantity of water is available most of the time.
River Basins of India 331

180
160
GW Resources cubic km/year

140 Total replenishable GW resources

120 Balance GW potential available

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Figure 6. Total available replenishable ground water and ground water balance left in the basins for
Exploitation. Source: Based on data from Ministry of Water Resources

Some shortage may be permitted to make the project cost effective and to have
optimum utilization of the scarce water resources. In India, the normal practice
is to plan an irrigation project for 75% dependable flows. The hydropower and
drinking water supply schemes are planned for 90% and 100% dependable flows,
respectively (Koche and Chawla, 2000).
The data requirements for typical water availability studies are summarized
below.
(a) Runoff data of the desired specific duration (daily, 10-daily, or monthly, annual
etc.) at the proposed site for at least 30 years; or
(b) Rainfall data of specific duration for at least 30 years for raingauge stations
influencing the catchment of the proposed site as well as available runoff data
of specific duration at the proposed site; or
(c) Rainfall data of specific duration of the catchment for the last 30 years for the
proposed site and runoff and concurrent rainfall data of specific duration at a
site in the same basin or a nearby basin provided orographic conditions and
catchment properties are similar for 5 to 10 years or more.
In case of ungauged basins, catchment characteristics are utilized for estimating
dependable flows. If runoff data do not pertain to virgin conditions because of
construction of water resources structures upstream of the gauging site, the working
tables of the upstream reservoirs are required. If the runoff data series consists of
the records for the period prior as well as after the construction of the structure,
the runoff series is considered to be non-homogeneous. Necessary corrections need
to be made to the records belonging to the period prior to the construction of the
structure so that all available runoff records become homogeneous.
CHAPTER 8
GANGA BASIN

Himalayas, the great mountain chains of Asia are the source of three major river
systems of the world. These are the Indus, the Ganga (or the Ganges), and the
Brahmaputra. The large and fertile plains of Indus and Ganga in Northern India
of the Indian subcontinent have been the cradles of one of the greatest and still
surviving ancient civilizations, the Indus Valley Civilization. The Ganga River,
which occupies nearly one-third of the geographical area of India, is the most
important and sacred river of India. So legendary has been the socio-economic,
cultural and religious saga of this great river that the Indian mythology and history
are full of stories and incidents woven around the river and numerous pilgrimages
are dotted along its course.

8.1. GANGA-BRAHMAPUTRA-BARAK (MEGHNA) BASIN

The composite Ganga-Brahmaputra-Barak (GBB) basin covers nearly one-third of
the land area of India. This region is composed of the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and
the Barak basins. The Ganga and the Brahmaputra Rivers join in Bangladesh and
thereafter flow under the name Padma. This river finally joins the Meghna River
and the combined river outfalls into the Bay of Bengal. The combined basin of the
Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh is also
known by the name Greater Ganga Basin.
Ganga and Brahmaputra together drain two basins of extraordinary variation in
every sense: in terms of altitude, cropping pattern, climate, flora, fauna, density of
human settlement, social and cultural life, etc. These two rivers meet in the world’s
largest and most active delta in Bangladesh. This highly fertile area is home to
nearly 10% of the Earth’s population or about 500 million people, the vast majority
of them in the Ganges basin. This fact alone is enough to highlight the importance
of the GBB basin. An index map of the basin is given in Figure 1.
A very large ecosystem on land having distinct types of vegetation and animal life
is called a biome. Nilsson et al. (2005) have pointed out that the Ganga-Brahmaputra
system, covering 10 biomes, encompasses the widest biodiversity on earth.
Planning and management of water resources in GBB Basin in Asia is a really
challenging task in light of factors stated above and increasing consciousness for the
333
334 Chapter 8

Figure 1. Index map of Greater Ganga basin

sustainable water governance. The GBB drains area of about 1,746,500 km2 shared
by five Asian countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India and Nepal (Table 1).
Ganga and Brahmaputra, originate from the glacial sources in the Himalayan
mountain range. Barak is a smaller rainfed tributary originating from the Naga
hills of north-east India. The GBM is the 13th largest river basin in the world with
runoff of about 1,400 BCM/year. At the global level, this outflow ranks third, after
that of the Amazon and Congo. During the heavy rainfall period of the summer
monsoon, this region drains to the Bay of Bengal, constituting most of the enormous
volume of annual runoff, which in order of magnitude larger than the flow in the
lean season. This results in regular annual inundation in the lower parts of the
GBM, particularly in Bangladesh. The Himalayan crest line stands as a dividing
line between the basins of these two long rivers in an approximately south-east to

Table 1. Area of the GBB basin by countries and geographical regions

Countries Basin area in different regions (1,000 sq. km)

Mountain Hills Plains Southern fringe Total

Bangladesh – – 129.0 – 1290

Bhutan 450 – – – 450
India 1494 58.3 544.7 347.1 10995
Nepal 1189 21.1 – – 1400
Tibet (China) 3330 – – – 3330
Total 6463 79.4 673.7 347.1 17465
Ganga Basin 335

north-west direction. The highest peak on Earth, Mt. Everest (8,848 m) lies on this
crestline in the GBB basin.
Table 2 gives areas of different countries in the basin of individual rivers as well
as total areas of the rivers.
GBB is characterized by some unique ecological and socio-political diversities
and complexities, which have resulted in unique difficulties in the utilization of its
water resources. The problems of water management for sustainable development
are not exactly similar in the individual river basins included in the GBB, in which
almost 80% of the annual precipitation occurs during the three monsoon months
of July to September. Another characteristic of the basin is a drastic decrease in
the rainfall from east to west and south to north, across the Himalayan crestline,
which creates a marked rain-shadow effect on the Tibetan plateau. The Meghalaya
plateau, at places such as Cherrapunji, receives average annual rainfall exceeding
11,000 mm. Intense precipitation makes the GBB basin highly prone to floods,
erosion, and river bed upgradation.
GBB has huge hydropower potential. Unfortunately, much of it is unexploited.
The hydropower potential of the Ganga and its tributaries in India at 60% load
factor is 10,715 MW; in Nepal, a potential of 85,000 MW is available. Further,
Brahmaputra River has a potential of 34,920 MW and hardly 2% of it has been
exploited so far.
A large temporal variation in precipitation in the course of the year generates
large fluctuations in the flow characteristics of the rivers. Due to topography and
spatial variations in climate and precipitation, there are water rich and water-scarce
areas, generating conflicts over water sharing at various levels, among the countries,
States and communities. This, in turn, has necessitated storage of the monsoon flow
in the head water reaches of the mountainous landscape. Such storages besides
providing for flood control will also help in irrigation, power generation, and urban
water supplies. Notwithstanding the fact that such hydrological transformation can
also transform the economy of the region, implementation of such interventions has
been insignificant so far. Due to several reasons, storage dams in the Himalayas are
being perceived by many people as a nuisance and hazard rather than an opportunity
to utilize water resources.
The present chapter is devoted to the Ganga basin. Brahmaputra and Meghna
basins form the subject matter of Chapter 9.

Table 2. Areas of different countries (thousand sq. km) in the basin

Country Ganga Brahmaputra Barak/Meghna Total

India 86277 19441 41.72 10989

Bangladesh 4660 4700 36.00 12960
Bhutan – 4500 – 4500
Nepal 14000 14000
Tibet (China) 4000 29300 – 33300
Total 1 08937 57941 77.72 17465
336 Chapter 8

8.2. GANGA BASIN

Undoubtedly, the Ganga is the most sacred river of India – in fact natives typically
call it Ganga Maa (or mother Ganga) or Ganga ji (or reverend Ganga). People of
India believe that a bath in the holy waters of Ganga washes all the past sins of a
person. If a few drops of the Ganga water are given to a person at the time of
death, this is enough to elevate his soul to heaven. The first Prime Minister of India,
Jawaharlal Nehru, described Ganga as, “She has been a symbol of India’s age-long
culture and civilization, ever changing, ever flowing, and yet ever the same Ganga.”
Numerous pilgrimages are present all along the river. At the confluence of
the Ganga and the Yamuna near Allahabad, bathing festivals attract hundreds of
thousands of pilgrims. Other holy pilgrimage sites along the river include: Rishikesh
and Haridwar, the places where the Ganga leaves the Himalayas; Allahabad, where
the mythical Saraswati River is believed to meet the confluence of Ganga and
Yamuna Rivers, forming ‘Sangam’; the eternal city of Varanasi; and Patna. It is
said that Lord Vishnu (Hari) himself used to take bath in Ganga (hence the name
Haridwar – Hari + dwar or gate) to purify himself. Ganga is also regarded as the
mother of Bhishma (the legendry character in Mahabharat).
Besides, Ganga River is the central theme of numerous films and popular songs
of India. Its name prominently appears in the national anthem of India.
Water from the Ganga is used to cleanse any place or object for ritual purposes.
Bathing in the river is believed to wash away one’s all sins. To bathe in the
Ganga is a lifelong ambition for natives who congregate in large numbers for river-
centered festivals, such as the Kumbh Mela and numerous Snan (bath) festivals. It
is believed that any water mixed with even the smallest amount of Ganga water at
once becomes holy with healing powers. Hindus also cast the ashes of their dead
in the river believing that this will take the souls of the deceased to heaven.
The catchment area of the Ganga falls in four countries, namely India, Nepal,
Tibet (China), and Bangladesh. The major part of the geographical area of the
Ganga basin lies in India. Many important tributaries of Ganga originate in the
Himalayas in India and Nepal; Bangladesh lies in the deltaic region of the basin.
The total length of the Ganga River is 2,525 km which makes it the 20th longest
river in Asia and the 41st longest in the world (Philips World Atlas). The navigable
length of Ganga River is 631 km which mostly lies in Bihar. An index map of the
basin is given in Figure 2.
Although the headwaters region of Ganga in the Himalayas is dotted by a
number of mighty tributaries, the Bhagirathi River that rises from the Gangotri
glacier near Gomukh at an elevation of about 7,010 m above mean sea level (see
Figure 3) is traditionally considered to be the source of Ganga River. The other main
stream that originates in the Uttaranchal state of India is the Alakhnanda. Flowing
downhill, Bhagirathi and Alakhnanda are joined by a number of streams, such as
the Mandakini, the Dhuli Ganga, and the Pindar. These two rivers (Bhagirathi and
Alakhnanda) meet at a place called Devprayag (see Figure 4) and thereafter the
combined flow is known by the name Ganga.
Ganga Basin 337

Figure 2. Index map of Ganga basin

Figure 3. Gomukh which is considered as the source of Ganga River

338 Chapter 8

Figure 4. Devprayag where Bhagirathi (coming from left) and Alaknanda (flowing from right) join to
form Ganga

Ganga valley in Uttaranchal State is a place of breath taking natural beauty. It is

the home of the world renowned Valley of Flowers, a protected area. The famous
high altitude Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve is now a part of the Unesco’s Global
Network of World Heritage sites. This reserve will be soon included in the Man and
Biosphere program to assess the global changes in biosphere reserves in mountains.
Ganga enters into plains near Haridwar and from here it flows in south/south-
easterly direction. Yamuna is the most important tributary of the Ganga that joins
it on the right bank at Allahabad. After confluence with Yamuna, the Ganga River
flows in an eastward direction and is joined by a number of tributaries, such as the
Ramganga, the Gomti, the Ghaghra, the Gandak, the Bagmati, the Kosi, the Sone
and the Damodar.
The delta of Ganga is said to begin at a place known as Farakka where a barrage
has been constructed to control river flow. At about 40 km downstream of Farakka,
the river splits in two arms. The right arm, the Bhagirathi River, flows towards
south and enters the Bay of Bengal about 150 km downstream of Calcutta. The left
arm, known as Padma, turns towards east and enters Bangladesh. While flowing in
Bangladesh, Padma meets the Brahmaputra River at a place known as Goalundo.
The combined flow, still known as Padma, is joined by another mighty river,
Meghna, at Chandpur, 105 km downstream of Goalundo. Further down, the river
ultimately flows into the Bay of Bengal.
The Ganga basin extends over an area of 1,086,000 km2 . It lies between east
longitudes 73 30 to 89 0 and north latitudes 22 30 to 31 30 . The drainage area
lying in India is 862,769 km2 which is nearly 26.2% of the total geographical area
of the country. Some tributaries, such as the Ghagra, the Gandak and the Kosi,
drain areas in Nepal amounting to 190,000 km2 . The delta of the Greater Ganga
basin covers an area of 56,700 km2 . The Ganga basin is bounded on the north by the
Ganga Basin 339

Himalayas, on the west by the Aravalis and the ridge separating it from the Indus
basin, on the south by the Vindhyas and Chhotanagpur plateaus and on the east by
the Brahmaputra ridge. The basin lies in the States of Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and
the Union Territory of Delhi. The State-wise distribution of the drainage area is
given in Table 3.
From a hydrological studies point of view, the entire run of Ganga River in
India can be divided in three stretches or reaches. The upper reach extends from
the origin to Narora, the middle reach from Narora to Ballia, and the lower reach
from Ballia to its delta. The main physical sub-divisions of the Ganga basin are
the Northern Mountains, the Gangetic Plains and the Central Highlands. Northern
Mountains comprise the Himalayan ranges including their foothills. The Gangetic
plains, situated between the Himalayas and the Deccan plateau, constitute the most
fertile plains of the basin that are ideally suited for intensive cultivation. The
central highlands lying to the south of the Great Plains consists of mountains, hills
and plateaus intersected by valleys and river plains. They are largely covered by
forests. Aravalli uplands, Bundelkhand upland, Malwa plateau, Vindhyan ranges
and Narmada valley lie in this region.
Predominant soil types found in the sub-basin are sand, loam, clay and their
combinations, such as sandy loam, loam, silty clay loam and loamy sand soils. The
culturable area of the Ganga sub-basin is about 5796 × 105 Mm2 , which is 29.5%
of the total culturable area of the country.

Population
The Ganga basin is the largest basin in India, both catchment-wise, and population-
wise. The total population in the basin as per 1991 census was estimated as
356.8 million, which is 42% of India as a whole. The average population density in
the basin in 1991 was 414 persons per km2 as against 267 for whole India. Besides,
the density of cattle population is around 160 per km2 . As per 1991 census, the

Table 3. State-wise distribution of the drainage area of Ganga River

in India

State Drainage area km2 

Uttaranchal & Uttar Pradesh 294 410

Madhya Pradesh 199 385
Bihar 143 803
Rajasthan 112 490
West Bengal 72 618
Haryana 34 271
Himachal Pradesh 4 312
U.T. of Delhi 1 480
Total 862 769

Source: WG (1999).
340 Chapter 8

basin had 111 urban centers with a population of more than 0.1 million and out of
these, 7 cities had a population exceeding a million.
Two of the world’s largest industrial cities with population exceeding 10 million,
Kolkata (population 13.2 million, 2001 census) and Delhi (population 12.8 million),
lie in Ganga basin. Other big cities in the basin are: Kanpur (population
2.69 million), Lucknow (population 2.26 million), Patna (population 1.71 million),
Agra (population 1.32 million), Meerut (population 1.17 million), Varanasi
(population 1.21 million), and Allahabad (population 1.05 million). A view of
Ganga at Varanasi (or Banaras, a pre-historic city, well-known for its religious
significance and a place noted for education) is shown in Figure 5. Besides these, an
array of medium sized towns are scattered throughout the main stream of the Ganga.
Not only do they put their immense pressure on the basin’s freshwater supplies,
but also have resulted in large-scale downstream pollution from the discharge of
untreated urban wastewater and from agricultural chemicals. In addition, there are
68 gross polluting industrial units along the course of the river and its tributaries
which discharge untreated industrial effluents.

8.2.1. Hydrology of Ganga Basin

The headwater reaches of the river receive a considerable part of precipitation as

snow and some mountain peaks in the region are permanently snow covered. The
average annual rainfall in the basin varies from 35 cm at the western end to nearly
200 cm near the delta.
The average annual discharge of the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and the Meghna
rivers is 16,650, 19,820, and 5,100 m3 /s, respectively. The average annual flow
of Ganga at Farraka is about 525 × 105 Mm3 . There are large variations in the
flow of Ganga with time. Snow and glacier melt during the hot months (March to
June) and provide large summer flows to Ganga and its tributaries. The maximum
discharge in these rivers is observed during monsoon months (June to September).
At Goalundo, the average annual flow of the Ganga River is 11,470 m3 /s. The

Figure 5. Ganga River at Varanasi

Ganga Basin 341

maximum and minimum flow at this site is 70,934 and 1,161 m3 /s (Chaturvedi and
Rogers, 1985). The peak flow at Farakka in 1971 was estimated at 70,500 m3 /s.
A line diagram of Ganga and its main tributaries is given in Figure 6 which also
gives the average annual flows at various gauging points/ tributaries in million cubic
metres. There are several features which immediately attract attention. The south
bank tributaries (left side of figure) contribute less than the northern tributaries; the
discharge at Delhi, far upstream of Yamuna, is relatively quite small; the total flow
of the Brahmaputra is greater than that of the Ganga; and significantly, no figure
is given for discharge down the River Bhagirathi. What the simple figure does not
show is: the huge fluctuation between monsoon flows and the low season, when
many of the south bank rivers simply dry up, and the north bank rivers have a
vastly reduced flow; the fluctuation from year to year; and current and projected
storage dams and their capabilities, which could smooth out the irregularities on an
annual or inter-annual basis.
The surface water resource potential of the Ganga and its tributaries in India
has been assessed at 525 billion m3 out of which 250 billion m3 is considered to
be utilizable. Based on the 1991 census, the per capita water availability in the
basin was nearly 1,471 m3 per year. Although the Ganga basin is bestowed with
abundant water resource, its occurrence/availability both in quantity and quality

Yamuna Ganga
10,750 Tajewala
Delhi 13,700 Hardwar 23,900
Chambal 30,050 31,400 Narora
Sind 700
Betwa 10,000
Ken 11,300 15,620 Ramganga

93,020 Allahabad 58,980

152,000

Tons 5,910
7,390 Gomati
94,400 Ghaghara
Sone 31,800
52,200 Gandak
Punpun 3,577
Patna 364,000
7,100 Buri Gandak
68,340 Kosi
Farakka 459,040

Bhagirathi Padma
Hooghly 510,450 Brahmaputra
Meghna

Figure 6. Line diagram of Ganga and its major tributaries. Numbers are average annual flows (MCM)
342 Chapter 8

is not uniformly distributed either spatially or temporally. More than 75% of the
annual rainfall occurs in monsoon months of June to September. As a result, large
areas are subjected to floods on one hand and droughts on the other.
The storage potential of the Ganga Basin in India has been identified at
8446 × 104 Mm3 . However, till 1995 a total of 368 × 104 Mm3 of the storage
space could be created. Water resources development schemes to create storage
of 1706 × 104 Mm3 are under construction and projects to provide another
2956 × 104 Mm3 of storage are in the pipeline. The total replenishable ground
water resource of the Ganga basin is estimated at 171 × 105 Mm3 out of which,
about 486 × 104 Mm3 was being utilized by 1999. The Ganga River carries one
of the world’s highest sediment loads, equal to nearly 1,451 million metric tons
per annum. During the lean season, the discharge in Ganga at Narora could be as
low as 321 cumec. According to Chapman and Thompson (1995) Further down
at Kannauj, it is 1,542 cumec and at Kanpur 1,679 cumec. At Allahabad, where
Yamuna meets Ganga, lean season flow has been recorded as 1,870 cumec; at
Varanasi it is 4,120 cumec, at Patna it is 5,693 cumec, and at Mungher the lean
season flow is about 7,250 cumec. Figure 7 shows the annual discharge of Ganga
at Farakka for the period 1950 to 1985.
Except in the Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh Himalayas, PE exceeds precipitation
and water deficit conditions prevail in the entire Ganga basin. Only during the
monsoon season, especially during the early rainy season, rainfall first recharges
soil moisture, which was used up previously and then, raises the groundwater level.
Surface and sub-surface runoff is produced when soil becomes saturated. Ballia,
Pipri in eastern UP and districts in western part of the state like Agra, Aligarh,
Meerut, Mainpuri, Kanpur and Bareilly do not show any water surplus. In the
foothills of Himalayas in the Tarai areas, water surplus occurs during the monsoon
period.
The Ganga and its tributaries have formed a large flat and fertile plain in North
India. The availabilities of abundant water resources, fertile soil, and suitable climate

550

500
Annual Volume (km3)

450

400

350

300

250
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985
Year

Figure 7. Annual discharge of Ganga at Farakka

Ganga Basin 343

have given rise to a highly developed agriculture based civilization and one of the
most densely populated regions of the world. The net sown area in the Ganga basin
in India is around 44 million hectares (M-ha) and the net irrigated area is 23.41 M-ha.
Migration of the tributaries draining the eastern part of the basin has resulted
in conspicuous back-swamp and meander bolt deposits. These sedimentological
features play a dominant role in the hydrodynamics of the region.
The hydroelectric potential of the Ganga basin has been assessed as 10,715 MW
at 60% load factor. Out of the 142 identified schemes in the basin, 22 schemes
with a total installed capacity of 2,437 MW are in operation and 12 schemes with
an installed capacity of about 2,716 MW are in various stages of construction.

8.3. MAJOR TRIBUTARIES OF GANGA

The principal tributaries joining the Ganga River through its 2,525 km course are
Tons, Yamuna, Ramganga, Ghaghra, Gandak, Kosi, Mahananda, Pun-Pun, Kiul,
Burhi Gandak and Sone. Chambal and Betwa are the two important sub-tributaries
of Yamuna. The drainage area of different river systems within Ganga Basin are
given in Table 4.
The major tributaries of Ganga River are described next.

Table 4. Drainage area of different tributaries of Ganga

S.N. Name of the river system Drainage area sq. km

1 Main Ganga including Karmnasa Baya, Bagmari-Pagla 113,163

2 Yamuna including Chambal, Betwa & Ken 363,082
3 Sone 71,259
4 Ghaghra 57,647
5 Ramganga 32,493
6 Damodar including Khari-Gangur-Ghia 31,220
7 Gomti 30,435
8 Rupnarayan including Haldi, Rasulpur & Kangsabati 23,760
9 Mahananda 17,440
10 Tons 16,860
11 Kiul-Harohar 16,661
12 Kosi 11,070
13 Burhi-Gandak 10,150
14 Punpun 8,530
15 Mayurakshi-Babla 8,530
16 Gandak 7,620
17 Ajay 6,050
18 Jalangi 5,640
19 Badua-Chandan 4,840
20 Bagmati 3,720
21 Adhwara 2,600
22 Kamla-Balan 2,980
23 Tidal rivers 15,650
344 Chapter 8

8.3.1. Yamuna River

The Yamuna River is the biggest tributary of the Ganga River. It is also considered
as a sacred river in India. According to the mythological legends, Yamuna was the
daughter of Surya (the Sun God), and sister of Yama (the God of Death). A popular
belief is that those who take a dip in its holy waters are not tormented by the fears
of death. The Yamuna River is intimately connected to Lord Krishna’s life. Lord
Krishna sanctified the Yamuna River from the beginning of His avtar (incarnation)
in the world. While his father Vasudeva was crossing the Yamuna with baby Lord
Krishna for a safe place at the other bank of the river, the river was in spate. Legend
says that the moment the rising water touched the feet of Lord Krishna, the river
went into a recession.
The Yamuna River originates from the Yamunotri Glacier near Banderpoonch
peaks 38 59 N 78 27 E in the Mussourie range of the lower Himalayas at an
elevation of about 6,387 meters above the mean sea level in district Uttarkashi
(Uttaranchal). A view of the Yamunotri temple is given in Figure 8. It is said that
the temple of Yamunotri was built in the last decade of the 19th century. A hot
water pool is present at Yamunotri and the water is so hot that people cook rice
and potato by putting them in cloth bags and dipping the bag in the hot water.
Arising from the source, the Yamuna River flows through a series of valleys for
about 200 km in lower Himalayas and then emerges into Indo-Gangetic plains. In the
upper reaches, the main valley is overlooked by numerous hanging valleys, carved
by glaciers. The gradient of the river is steep here and the entire geomorphology
of the valley has been carved by the erosive action of the river water. In the
headwater reach of 200 km, Yamuna draws water from several major streams. The

Figure 8. A view of the Yamunotri temple (Source: www.yap.nic.in)

Ganga Basin 345

combined stream flows through the Shivalik range of hills of Himachal Pradesh
and Uttaranchal states of India and enters into plains at Dak Pathar in Uttaranchal
where the river water is regulated by a weir and is diverted into a canal for power
generation. On the right side of the Yamuna basin is the Mussourie spur-along
which lies the sprawled hill station of Mussourie (also known as the Queen of
Himalayas).
From Dak Pathar, the Yamuna flows through the famous Sikh religious shrine of
Poanta Sahib. Figure 9 shows the bed of Yamuna River near Dak Pathar. Flowing
through Poanta Sahib, it emerges from the foothills of Kalesan, north of Tajewala. It
reaches Hathnikund/Tajewala in the Yamuna Nagar district of Haryana state, where
the river water is diverted into Western Yamuna canal and Eastern Yamuna canal
for irrigation. During dry season, practically no water flows in the river downstream
of Tajewala barrage and the river remains dry in several stretches between Tajewala
and Delhi. Ground water accrual and contributions from seasonal streams again
regenerate the river. Yamuna River enters Delhi near Palla village after traversing
for about 224 km.
A canal known as the Satluj Yamuna link (SYL) canal joining Satluj with Yamuna
is under construction here. This canal was to transfer Haryana’s share of 3.5 MAF
of water from the Indus basin. The state of Haryana has completed its portion of the
canal but Punjab is yet to complete its portion. Punjab Government is not in favour
of construction of this canal. Recently, the Punjab legislature passed an act known
as the Punjab Termination of Agreement Act 2004 whereby the earlier agreements
have been declared as null and void.
Further downstream, there is a barrage at Wazirabad which supplies drinking
water to the city of Delhi. Generally, the flow in the river downstream of the
Wazirabad barrage is almost nil in dry season because the available water is
not adequate to meet the demand of Delhi. Yamuna River flow downstream of
the Wazirabad barrage largely consists of untreated or partially treated domestic
and industrial wastewater contributed by numerous drains along with the water

Figure 9. The bed of Yamuna River near Dak Pathar

346 Chapter 8

transported by Haryana Irrigation Department from the Western Yamuna Canal

(WYC) to the Agra Canal via the Nazafgarh Drain and the Yamuna. About 22 km
downstream of the Wazirabad barrage, the Yamuna water is diverted into the Agra
Canal for irrigation through the Okhla barrage. Generally, water flow through the
barrage during the dry season is nil. Whatever water flows in the river beyond the
Okhla barrage is contributed through domestic and industrial wastewaters generated
by East Delhi, Noida and Sahibabad and joins the river through the Shahdara
drain.
At Tajewala, the ratio Qmax /Qmin (where Qmax is flood peak discharge and Qmin is
the lowest flow rate in the year) comes to about 40, in comparison to 33 of Indus,
34 of Ganga and 4 of Amazon. This large ratio is indicative of a wide temporal
variation in the flow. During non-monsoon period the entire inflow at Tajewala is
diverted to canal systems leaving the river dry. However downstream of this point
the river starts picking effluent seepage from ground water reservoir.
Further downstream, Yamuna flows through the Agra city which is famous for
Tajmahal (see Figure 10), a white marble wonder. Shortly afterwards, it passes
through another historical city, Mathura. The total length of the Yamuna from its
origin to Allahabad (confluence with Ganga) is 1,376 km and the drainage area
is 366,223 sq. km. The Yamuna is a mighty river in itself and has a number of
tributaries. In its first 170 km stretch, the tributaries Rishi Ganga Kunta, Hanuman
Ganga, Tons and Giri join the main river. Later, big rivers, such as the Chambal,
the Sind, the Betwa, and the Ken, join it.
The catchment of the Yamuna River system covers parts of Uttar Pradesh,
Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh & Delhi
states. The area of the Yamuna catchment lying in different states is shown in
Table 5.
For the purpose of flood forecasting, tracking of Yamuna River begins at Poanta in
Garhwal area on the confluence of rivers Tons, Pawar and Giri. The next important
site is at Tajewala followed by Kalanaur and Mawi before Delhi. It roughly takes
about 60 hours for the water to reach Delhi from Tajewala, which enables issue

Figure 10. The Tajmahal, Agra

Ganga Basin 347

Table 5. The catchment of Yamuna River in various states

Name of state Yamuna catchment % of

area in the state catchment
(sq. km) area

Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal) 74,208 215

Himachal Pradesh 5,799 16
Haryana 21,265 65
Rajasthan 102,883 298
Madhya Pradesh 14,028 406
Delhi 1,485 04

of warnings at least two days in advance. Table 6 shows statewise allocation of

utilizable flows of Yamuna River.
The Interstate Agreement also envisages that a minimum flow of 10 cumec
shall be maintained in Yamuna downstream of Tajewala and Okhla head works
throughout the year for ecological considerations. It is also assessed that a quantum
of 680 MCM is not utilizable due to flood spills. The allocation of available flows
amongst the beneficiary states is regulated by the Upper Yamuna River Board.
In a year when the surface-water availability is more than the assessed quantity,
the surplus availability will be distributed amongst the states in proportion to their
allocation. However, in a year when availability is less than the assessed quantity,
first the drinking water allocation of Delhi will be met and balance will be distributed
amongst Haryana, UP and Rajasthan in proportion to their allocation.
The Yamuna River can be segmented in five distinguished independent segments
due to characteristic hydrological and ecological conditions as shown in Table 7.
i. Physiographic and Geomorphology of Himalayan Segment (Upper Yamuna
catchment)
In the Himalayan segment (Upper Yamuna catchment), the drainage system and
the characteristics of landforms are closely interdependent and inter-related. The
Upper Yamuna catchment falls into 3 well defined physiographic belts: the Lesser
Himalaya, The Siwalik, and the Doon Valley.
Lesser Himalayas: Elevation in this region ranges from 4,000 m to 1,000 m. This
region has a mild topography with gentle slopes and deeply dissected valleys which

Table 6. Statewise allocation of utilizable flows of Yamuna River

State Allocation in MCM

Haryana 5,730
Uttar Pradesh 4,032
Rajasthan 1,119
Himachal Pradesh 378
Delhi 724
Total 11,983
348 Chapter 8

Table 7. Different Segments of Yamuna River

Name of segment Location Length

Himalayan Segment From origin to Tajewala Barrage 172 km

Upper Segment Tajewala Barrage to Wazirabad Barrage 224 km
Delhi Segment Wazirabad Barrage to Okhla Barrage 22 km
Eutriphicated Segment Okhla Barrage to Chambal Confluence 490 km
Diluted Segment Chambal Confluence to Ganga Confluence 468 km

suggest that rivers and streams are still furiously at work. The upper part of this area
has high mountains, most of which have seasonal snow capped peaks and glaciated
ranges. Prominent glaciers are Bandarpunch, Jamadar Bamak and Deokhera Bamak.
The retreating movement of these glaciers and their tributary glaciers may still
be observed in the form of ‘V’ shaped valleys with moraines and smooth and
aggradational slopes.
Low to moderately high mountains occur between the altitudes of 1,000 m and
3,000 m. Actually, the Lesser Himalayas region is a massive mountainous tract with
a series of ridges and spurs divided by river valleys. The slope varies from 25 to
50% but may rise even up to 80%. The rivers and their tributaries have carved
out entrenched valleys with steep slopes in higher reaches, while flatter valleys are
found in lower reaches. At a number of places, rivers have formed depositional
terraces. A large part of this region is made up of sedimentary rock formations
intruded by granite and basic volcanic rocks. The northern part has been subjected
to low-grade metamorphism.
Shiwalik Hills: The Shiwalik Hills are formed as a result of intense dissection by
fine textured pattern of drainage lines. They are a long prominent ridge trending
NW-SE with altitudes ranging from 750 to 1,500 m. The main ridge is composed of
a gentle northern slope and a steeper southern slope. A water divide is located more
or less half way through this ridge. It is drained with numerous parallel to sub-
parallel streams flowing towards north or south in consequent entrenched channels.
The Shiwalik or the outer Himalayan range is a youthful range separated from the
less Himalaya by the main boundary fault.
Doon Valley: The Doon Valley is a long tectonic synclinal structure of the outer
Himalaya. It lies within the ranges of lesser Himalaya to the north and the Shiwalik
range of the Outer Himalaya towards north. It is a low-lying region between the two
ranges with altitudes not more than 500 m to 750 m. The Doon gravels composed of
boulder and gravel beds with this clay bands constitute the piedmont slopes. Stream
frequency and drainage density is low here because of the poor development of
drainage, possibly due to porous and permeable characteristics of the bed rocks.
ii. Climate and precipitation
The Himalayas exercises a dominating influence on climate in the northern region of
the Upper Yamuna catchment. In this region, winters are very cold, while summers
Ganga Basin 349

are moderate. The average annual rainfall varies between 1,500 mm to 400 mm. The
entire catchment comes under the influence of south-west monsoon and a major part of
rainfall is received between June and September. Winter rainfall is scanty and occurs
between December and February. In the lower part of Yamuna basin, temperatures
are relatively moderate. In summers, temperature frequently exceeds 40  C.
iii. Tributaries of Yamuna River
The tributaries of Yamuna account for 70.9% of the catchment area; the balance
of 29.1% area directly drains into the Yamuna River or is occupied by smaller
streams. Further, the catchment area of Yamuna amounts to 40.2% of the area of
Ganga Basin and 10.7% of the land area of India.
The important tributaries of the Yamuna River are the Tons, the Chambal, the
Hindon, the Sarda, the Betwa and the Ken. Other small tributaries of the Yamuna
River include Rishiganga, the Uma, the Hanuman Ganga, the Giri, the Karan, the
Sagar and the Rind. The main Yamuna and Tons are fed by glaciers, viz., the
Bandar Punch Glacier and its branches and originate from the Great Himalayan
range. Many smaller streams in the Yamuna basin, for example, the Chautang, the
Sahibi, the Dohan, the Kantili, the Bapah and the Banganga end up in the sandy
tracts. A brief description of the important tributaries of the Yamuna River is given
in the following sections.
Tons River: The Tons River is the longest tributary of the Yamuna River. It flows
through Garhwal, the western part of the Himalayan state of Uttaranchal. The river
originates at an elevation of 3,900 m and joins the Yamuna below Kalsi. With its
source in the 6,315 m high Bandarpunchh Mountain, it is the biggest tributary of
the Yamuna. In fact, Tons carries more water than the Yamuna itself.
Kali River: The Kali River originates from the Doon Valley in the western part of
Uttaranchal. This river is named as Kali, possibly because the colour of the river
water is kala (black). The basin covers a drainage area of approximately 750 sq. km
within the latitude of 29 13 30 N and longitude of 77 32 45E. From its origin
up to the confluence with Hindon River, a tributary of Yamuna, the river travels a
distance of approximately 150 km through Saharanpur and Muzaffar Nagar, Meerut,
and Ghaziabad Districts. Despite a significant drainage area, mostly lying in plains,
the river does not carry any significant flow. The city of Muzaffar Nagar is situated
on the left bank of the Kali River.
Kali is a highly polluted river. People living in about 1,700 villages and a dozen
towns along the river from Saharanpur to Kannauj are exposed to polluted water.
Levels of pollutants including heavy metals and industrial sludge have reached
alarming proportions in the river and even handpumps drawing water from a depth
of 35 meters are found to contain pollutants. The presence of a salt of cyanide
has resulted in over 100 species of fish getting extinct from the river over the past
40 years. Similarly, the release of heavy metals and toxic material from various
industries and slaughter houses into the river has led to chronic ailments among
people living along it.
350 Chapter 8

Hindon River: Hindon is an important tributary of Yamuna River. In fact, this

river is sandwitched between two major rivers: Ganga on the left and Yamuna
on the right. Hindon originates from upper Shiwalik (Lower Himalayas). It lies
between the latitude 28 04 to 35 05 N and longitudes 77 08 to 77 04 E. It
is a purely rainfed river with catchment area of about 7,083 sq. km. This river
has a total run of about 400 km. The width of Hindon River ranges from 20 m
to 160 m.
Banganga Basin: The Banganga River originates in the Aravali hills, near Arnasar
and Bairath in Jaipur District. It flows towards the south up to the village of
Ghat, then east through partly hilly and partly plain terrain. The length of the river
is 240 km.
The main tributaries of the Banganga River are Gumti Nalla, Suri River, Sanwan
and Palasan Rivers. The Gumti Nalla basin is located between latitudes 25 00 30
and 25 53 and longitudes 75 52 and 76 01 . The Gumti Nalla originates in the
hills near Bhaimpura village in Jaipur District, flows for 24 km in a north-easterly
direction and joins the main river near the Talo village. The catchment area of the
basin is 102 km2 .
• Suri River: The Suri basin is located between latitudes 26 44 and 26 53 and
longitudes 76 25 and 76 30 . The Suri River originates in the hills near Kanst
village in Dausa District, flows north for 18 km and then northeast for 10 km
before joining the main river near the village of Kailai. The catchment area of
the basin is 76 km2 .
• Sanwan River: The Sanwan basin is located between latitudes 26 59 and 27 22
and longitudes 76 16 and 76 46 . The Sanwan River originates in the hills near
Angri village in Alwar District, flows 29 km southwards, up to Sirsa Devi Bund,
then 66 km eastwards before joining the main river near the village of Juthiara.
The catchment area of the basin is 660 km2 .
• Palasan River: The Palasan River originates in the hills near Rajpura village in
Alwar District and joins the main river near the village of Indiana, after flowing
in a south-easterly direction for 24 km and in an easterly direction for 24 km. The
catchment area of the basin is 539 km2 and it is located between latitudes 27 02
and 27 18 and longitudes 76 25 and 76 49 .
Chambal River: The Chambal River, called Charmanvati in ancient times, is the
largest of the rivers flowing through and Rajasthan State. This tributary of Yamuna
is 960 km long. The total area drained by the Chambal up to its confluence with the
Yamuna is 143,219 sq. km out of which 76,854 sq. km lies in Madhya Pradesh state,
65,264 sq. km in Rajasthan state and 1,101 sq. km in Uttar Pradesh. The Chambal
basin lies between the longitudes 73 20 E and 79 15 E and latitudes 22 27 N
and 27 20 N.
The Chambal River rises in northern slopes of Vindhyan Mountains, about
15 km West-South-West of Mhow in Indore District in Madhya Pradesh state
at an elevation of about 853 m. The river flows first in a northerly direction in
Madhya Pradesh for a length of about 346 km and after passing the historic fort
of Chaurasigarh, it flows in a generally north-easterly direction for a length of
Ganga Basin 351

around 225 km through Rajasthan. The Chambal flows for another 217 km between
Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan and further 145 km between Madhya Pradesh and
Uttar Pradesh. The Chambal enters U.P. near the Charak Nagar village and flows
for about 32 km before joining the Yamuna River, south east of the Sahon village in
Etawah district at an elevation of about 122 m. Three dams, namely, Gandhisagar,
Rana Pratap Sagar and Jawahar Sagar, have been constructed in its basin.
From the source down to its junction with the Yamuna, the Chambal has a fall
of about 732 m. Out of this around 305 m is within the first 16 km reach from its
source. It falls for another 195 m in the next 338 km, where it enters the gorge past
the Chaurasigarh Fort. In the next 97 km of its run from the Chaurasigarh Fort to
Kota city, the bed falls by another 91 m. In the rest of its 523 km run, the river
passes through the flat terrain of the Malwa Plateau and later in the Gangetic Plain
with an average gradient of 0.21 m/km.
In the reach of 96 km from 344 km to 440 km from its source, the Chambal
River flows through a deep gorge, while lower down, there are wide plains. The
Gandhisagar Dam is located near the center of this reach. As there is a deep gorge
immediately upstream of the dam, the reservoir has a large storage capacity despite
its comparatively low height. For next 48 km the river flows through Kundal Plateau,
the Rana Pratap Sagar dam is constructed at the lower end of this reach, about
1.6 km upstream of Chulia falls. Again, the topography permits fairly good storage
upstream of the dam. Further down, The Jawahar Sagar dam is located in the middle
of the Kota gorge. The Kota Barrage is located near the Kota town, where the river
emerges from the gorge section into the Plateau. The tributaries that join Chambal
upstream of the gorge include Sipra, Choti, Kalisindh, Sivana, Retam, and Ansar.
The total area draining at the Kota Barrage is 27,319 sq. km. Lower down in the
reach between the Kota Barrage and its junction with the Yamuna, the tributaries
joining Chambal are the Kalisindh, the Banas, Parvathi, Seep, Kund and Kuwari.
Three reservoirs, namely, Patanpur on the Parbati River, Mohanpura on the Newaz
River, and Kundaliya on Kalisindh River have been proposed to increase power
generation at the Gandhi Sagar and Ranapratap Sagar reservoirs.
The Chambal drainage area resembles a rectangle up to the junction of the
Parvathi and Banas Rivers with the Chambal flowing along its major axis. On its
south, east and west, the basin is bounded by the Vindhyan mountain ranges and on
the North West by the Aravallis. Below the confluence of the Parvathi and Banas,
the catchment becomes narrower and elongated. In this reach, it is bounded by the
Aravalli mountain ranges on the North and the Vindhyan hill range on the south.
Until the 1970s, the ravines in the lower portion of Chambal were infested with
dacoits.
The Chambal is a rainfed catchment. The annual average rainfall up to the
Gandhisagar dam site is 860 mm. The area is located in the central part of India
and it experiences extremes of climate. The temperature in the hottest months of
April to June occasionally goes up to 40  C in the shade and falls to a minimum
of 2  C during the coldest months. The relative humidity ranges between 30 to 90
percent during the year.
352 Chapter 8

Tributaries of Chambal River

• Alnia: The Alnia River originates in the north-western slopes of Mukindwara
hills, and flows for about 58 km before joining the Chambal near Notana village
in Kota District. The catchment area of the Alania River is 792 km2 .
• Kalisindh: It originates in the northern slopes of the Vindhya hills. Flowing in
M.P., it enters Rajasthan near Binda village in Jhalawar District. After flowing
for about 145 km in Rajasthan, it joins Chambal near Nonera village in Kota
District. The catchment area of the Kalisindh River is 7944 km2 and in Rajasthan
State, it extends over parts of Jhalawar and Kota Districts. The Parwan River is
an important tributary of Kalisindh River. The Parwan originates in the Malwa
Plateau and after flowing for about 186 km in M.P., it enters Rajasthan near
Kharibor village in Jhalawar District. It joins Kalisindh near Ramgarh village in
Kota District. The catchment area of the Parwan River is 2892 km2 .
• Mej: The Mej River originates in Mandalgarh Tehsil in Bhilwara District and joins
the Chambal River near Bhaius Khana village in Kota District. The catchment
extends over Bhilwara, Bundi, and Tonk Districts, with the total area being
5860 km2 .
• Chakan: The Chakan River is formed by the confluence of many small rivulets.
The river flows in a south-easterly direction and joins the Chambal near
Karanpura village in Sawai Madhopur District. The catchment is situated in
Sawai Madhopur, Tonk, Bundi and Kota Districts 789 km2 area.
• Parwati River: The Parwati River originates in the northern slopes of the
Vindhyan hills in M.P. where it forms a boundary between MP and Rajasthan
for about 18 km, and then enters Rajasthan near Chatarpura village in Baran
District. Thereafter, it flows for about 83 km in Rajasthan before again forming
the boundary between MP and Rajasthan for a distance of about 58 km up to
Pali village in Kota District, where it joins the Chambal. The river catchment
in Rajasthan is situated in Kota and Jhalawar Districts. Major tributaries of the
Parwati River are Lhasi, Berni, Bethli, Andheri, Retri, Dubraj, Bilas and Kunu.
• Kunu River: The Kunu River originates north of Guna town in MP. It flows
for 48 km in M.P. before entering Rajasthan near Museri village in Baran
District. The river re-enters M.P. again and flows for about 24 km. It then
again enters Rajasthan near Gordhanpura village in Kota District and joins
Chambal River. The catchment in Rajasthan lies in Baran District. The catchment
area of the river is 726 km2 . The tributaries of the Kunu River are Karal and
Rempi.
• Banas River: The Banas River originates in the Khamnor hills of the Aravali
range (about 5 km from Kumbhalgarh) and flows along its entire length through
Rajasthan. Banas is a major tributary of the Chambal River, the two rivers meeting
near village Rameshwar in Khandar Block in Sawai Madhopur District. The
total length of the river is about 512 km and the catchment area is 45833 km2 .
The main tributaries of the Banas River are Berach and Menali on the right
bank, and Kothari, Khari, Dai, Dheel, Sohadara, Morel and Kalisil on the
left bank.
Ganga Basin 353

The Banas River itself has many big tributaries. The Berach River originates
in the hills northeast of Udaipur city. It flows northeast for about 157 km in
Udaipur, Chittorgarh and Bhilwara Districts before joining Banas near Bigod village
in Mandalgarh Tehsil of Bhilwara District. The catchment area of the river is
7 502 km2 , which lies between 73 25 and 75 02 east longitudes and 24 29 and
25 14 north latitudes. The Berch flows in a hilly region up to Badgaon reservoir and
then through plains. This river receives flow from Ayar, Wagli Wagon, Gambhiri
and Orai Rivers.
The Mashi River, a tributary of the Banas originates near Kishangarh in Ajmer
District. The catchment area of the river is 6335 km2 . It flows east and then south
for about 96 km in partly hilly and partly plain areas of Ajmer and Tonk Districts
before joining Banas River near Tonk.
Khari is another tributary of the Banas which originates in the hills near Deogarh
in Rajsamand District. Its catchment area is 6268 km2 . It flows northeast for
about 192 km through Udaipur, Bhilwara and Ajmer Districts before joining the
Banas River near Chosala village in Ajmer District. Another tributary of the Banas
River, the Dai River originates in the southeastern slopes of the Aravali range,
near Nasirabad Tehsil of Ajmer District. Its catchment area is 3015 km2 . It flows
southeast for about 40 km and east for about 56 km in Ajmer District and for a
short reach through Tonk District, before joining the the Banas River near Bisalpur
village in Tonk District.
The Morel River is a tributary of the Banas River which originates in the hills
near Dharla and Chainpura villages in Bassi Tehsil of Jaipur District. The catchment
area of the river is 5 491 km2 , lies between 75 42 and 76 56 east longitudes and
26 14 and 27 9 north latitudes. It flows southeast for 29 km, then southwest for
35 km, up to the confluence with the Dhund River, and then southeast for 83 km in
Jaipur and Sawai Madhopur Districts, before joining the Banas River near Hadoli
village in Karauli Tehsil of Sawai Madhopur District. The Dhund, Kankrauli and
Kalisil are the major tributaries of the Morel River.
The Kothari River, another tributary of Banas, originates in the eastern slopes of
the Aravali range near Horera village in Bhilwara District. The catchment area of
the river is 2341 km2 , lying between 73 47 30 and 75 3 30 East longitudes and
73 47 30 and 75 3 30 North latitudes. The river flows through Rajsamand and
Bhilwara Districts for about 51 km in a hilly region, and 100 km through plains,
before joining the Banas near Nandrai village in Bhilwara District.
Betwa River: The Betwa River is a tributary of Yamuna River. Its basin extends
from longitude 77 to 81  E and latitude 23 8 to 26 0 N. The Betwa River
originates at an elevation of 470 m in the Bhopal District in Madhya Pradesh.
After traversing a distance of 590 km, the river joins the Yamuna River near
Hamirpur at an elevation of 106.68 m. The total catchment area of the Betwa River
is 46,580 sq. km of which 31,971 sq. km (68.64%) lies in Madhya Pradesh and
14,609 sq. km (31.36%) lies in Uttar Pradesh. The basin is saucer shaped with
sandstone hills around the perimeter. The river has 14 principal tributaries out of
which 11 are completely in Madhya Pradesh and 3 lie partly in Madhya Pradesh
354 Chapter 8

and Partly in Uttar Pradesh. The Halali and Dhasan Rivers are the important tribu-
taries of the Betwa River. The Halali is the largest tributary having a length of
180.32 km. In the entire basin the rainfall varies from 100 cm to 140 cm in upper
reaches and from 80 cm to 100 cm in lower reaches. The average annual rainfall in
the Betwa basin is 110 cm.
Ken River: Ken is an inter-state river, flowing through the States of Madhya
Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Its basin lies between north latitudes 23 20 and 25 20
and east longitudes of 78 30 and 80 32 . The river originates near the Village
Ahirgawan in Jabalpur District of M.P. at an altitude of 550 m above mean sea level
and joins the Yamuna River, near Chilla Village in U.P., at an elevation of about
95 m. It forms the common boundary between Panna and Chhattarpur Districts of
M.P. and state boundary between Chhattarpur District (M.P.) and Banda District
(U.P.). The river has a total length of 427 km, out of which 292 km lies in M.P.,
84 km in U.P, and 51 km forms the common boundary. The total catchment area of
the Ken River basin is 28,058 sq. km, out of which 24,472 sq. km lies in Madhya
Pradesh and the balance 3,586 sq. km in Uttar Pradesh.
Tributaries of Ken River: The important tributaries of the Ken River are Sonar,
Bearma, Kopra, Bewas, Urmil, Mirhasan, Kutni, Kail, Gurne, Patan, Siameri,
Chandrawal, Banne, etc., among others. The longest tributary is Sonar which is
227 km in length and lies wholly in M.P. In terms of catchment area also, Sonar is
the largest tributary with a catchment area of 12,620 sq. km.
The Sonar sub-basin is located fully in Madhya Pradesh between north latitudes
of 23 20 and 23 50 and east longitudes of 78 30 and 79 15 . It is a leaf shaped
elongated catchment, with an average width of about 40 km. The Sonar basin is
bounded by Bearma basin (a sub-basin of the Ken River) on the east side, by Dhasan
basin (a sub-basin of Betwa River) on the west side and the Vindhyan ranges on
the south. Sagar and Damoh are the major districts falling in this sub-basin and
parts of Panna, Chattarpur and Raisen Districts also fall in the basin. The total
catchment area of the Sonar basin is 6,550 sq. km. The major tributaries of Sonar
are Bewas, Dehar, Kaith and Baink on the left bank and Kopra and Bearma on the
right bank.

8.3.2. Ramganga River

Ramganga is the first major tributary joining Ganga. It rises at an altitude of about
3,110 m in the lower Himalayas near the Lohba village in the Garhwal district of
Uttaranchal. The length of the Ramganga River from the source to the confluence
with the Ganga is 596 km. During its course, the river flows through a mountainous
terrain and has a number of falls and rapids. The river enters the plains at Kalagarh
near the border of the Garhwal district, where the famous Ramganga dam has
been constructed. Beyond Kalagarh, the river flows in a southeasterly direction and
finally joins the Ganga on its left bank near Kanauj in the Fategarh district. The river
flows entirely in the states of Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh. The catchment area of
Ganga Basin 355

the basin is about 32,493 sq. km. The important tributaries that join the Ramganga
River are the Kho, the Gangan, the Aril, the Kosi, and the Deoha (Gorra).

8.3.3. Gomti River

The Gomti River originates near Mainkot, about 3 km east of the Pilibhit town
in Uttar Pradesh, at an elevation of 200 m. The river drains the area between
Ramganga and Ghaghra systems. The total length of the river is about 940 km and
it flows entirely in the State of Uttar Pradesh. The total drainage area of the river is
30,437 sq. km. The river flows through Sahajahanpur, Kheri, Lucknow, Barabanki,
Sultanpur, Faizabad, Jaunpur, Varanasi and Ghazipur districts before merging into
the Ganga in Audihar in Jaunpur. Lucknow, the capital city of Uttar Pradesh, is
situated on the banks of the Gomti River. The main tributaries of the Gomti River
are the Gachai, the Sai, the Jomkai, the Barna, the Chuha and the Sarayu.
The Gomti-Kalyani doab is a fertile area, irrigated by canals, tube wells and
open wells. This doab lies in the Barabanki district of U.P. and is bounded by
Kalyani River on the North and the Gomti River and its tributary on the South
covering an area of about 146,526 ha. On the west, the area extends up to the Sarda
Sahayak feeder channel and on the east up to the confluence of the Gomti and
Kalyani Rivers. The area lies between Longitude 81 0 E to 80 37 E and Latitude
26 38 15 N to 27 17 00 N. The area is drained by the Gomti and Kalyani Rivers
and their tributaries. Doab area has a subtropical and monsoonic climate. Most of
the precipitation occurs during the months of July, August and September. The
normal rainfall of the area is 1,004 mm.
The area is part of the Indo-Gangetic plain and its formation consists mainly of
sand, silt, clay and occasional kankar bands. These materials are found intermixed
and beds are variable both in lateral extent and thickness. At places an admixture
of these formations is also found. The structure and thickness of sand beds are such
that these form very potential aquifers.
Major cities situated on its banks are Lucknow, Sitapur, Hardoi, Bara Banki,
Rae Bareli, Pratapgarh, Sultanpur and Jaunpur. The water quality of the Gomati
River at Lucknow and Jaunpur has been found quite unsafe. According to the
World Health Organization (WHO) standards, there should not be more than 5,000
bacteria in 100 cc of water. But in the Gomti River between Dalliganj bridge and
Hanuman Setu (bridge), the bacteria count has soared to 1.75 lakh per 100 cc of
water. Rough estimates show that 25 nullahs, including Sarkata, Patanullah, and
Wazirganj, pour around 6.5 million litres of effluents daily into the Gomti. Besides,
three cremation grounds, Guala, Murdahia and Bhainsa Kund, on the banks of the
river also add to the pollution. Estimates show that an average flow of the Gomti
River is 1,500 million litres per day (MLD). During rains, it reaches 45,000 MLD
while in summer it falls to 500 MLD. Everyday, the Lucknow city draws around
200 MLD of water from Gomti. During summer 210 MLD of effluents are released
daily in the remaining 300 MLD of water, thus making it unworthy of even bathing,
leave alone drinking.
356 Chapter 8

8.3.4. Ghaghra River

The Ghaghra River originates at an elevation of 4,800 m near Mansarover Lake.

The river is also known as Manchu and Karnali in Nepal. After flowing for about
72 km in a south-easterly direction, the river enters Nepal. Ghaghra enters into India
at Kotia Ghat near Royal Bardia National Park, Nepal Ganj, where it is known
as the river Girwa for about 25 km. A barrage called Girijapuri Barrage has been
constructed at the end of the Girwa. Below the barrage the river attains the name of
the Ghaghra. The total catchment area of the Ghaghra River is 127,950 sq. km, out
of which 45% falls in India. The Sarda River is the important tributary of Ghaghra
River, which forms the boundary between India and Nepal for some distance. The
Sarju, Rapti and Little Gandak are the other important tributaries of the Ghaghra
River. The Ayodhya city is located on the banks of the Sarju River, near Lucknow.
This city is famous as the capital of king Dashrath who was the father of Lord
Rama. The total length of Ghaghra River before its confluence with Ganga River (at
Doriganj downstream of Chhapra town in Bihar) is 1,080 km. The Ghaghra River
carries more water than Ganga before its confluence.
The width of the river can be appreciated by Figure 11. This river has changed
its course many times; at a few places it has shifted by as much as 7.0 km. The
critical locations along Ghaghra in India where major shifting has occurred are
Tanda, Ayodhya, Golabazar, Barhaj and Bansdih. Heavy mining of sand from its
course and variation in flow is the possible reasons for shifting in river Ghaghra.

8.3.5. Karamnasa River

The Karmnasa River, a tributary of Ganga River, originates at an elevation of 350 m

near Sarodag on the northern face of the Kaimoor range in the Mirzapur district of
Uttar Pradesh. It flows in a north-westerly direction through the plains of Mirzapur

Figure 11. Ghaghra River at Tanda (Photo courtesy Dr Sanjay Jain)

Ganga Basin 357

and joins the Ganga River near Chanusa. Its tributaries are the Durgavati and the
Chandraprabha, the Karunuti, the Nadi, and the Khajuri. The length of the river is
192 km, out of which 116 km lies in Uttar Pradesh. The balance of 76 km forms the
common boundary between Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The total drainage area of the
Karmnasa River with its tributaries is 11,709 sq. km.

8.3.6. Sone River

The Sone River is an important right bank tributary of the Ganga River. The river
originates at an elevation of 600 m at Sonbhadra in the Maikala range of hills
in Madhya Pradesh. The total catchment area of the basin is 71,259 sq. km. The
important tributaries of the Sone River are Rihand, Kanhar, Ghaghar, and Koel.
The Rihand dam has been constructed on the Rihand River. The total length of the
river is 784 km, out of which about 500 km lies in Madhya Pradesh, 82 km in Uttar
Pradesh and the remaining 202 km in Bihar. The river meets the Ganga River about
16 km upstream of Dinapur in the Patna district of Bihar.

8.3.7. Punpun River

The Punpun River is an important right bank tributary of the Ganga River in
lower reaches. The Punpun River originates from Chottanagpur hills of the Palamau
district at an elevation of 300 m in Bihar and lies between east longitudes of 84 10
to 85 20 E and north latitudes of 24 11 to 25 25 N. The river mostly flows
in a northeast direction and finally joins the Ganga River at Fatawh, about 25 km
downstream of Patna. This 200 km long river is mostly rainfed and carries little
discharge during non-monsoon period. It has a number of tributaries; namely, the
Butane, the Madar, and the Morhar draining the Chotanagpur plateau. Punpun often
causes heavy flood damages on the eastern side of Patna city.
The shape of the Punpun River basin is roughly trapezoidal. The catchment area
of the Punpun catchment is about 8,530 sq. km, which is about 1% of the total area
of the Ganga basin in the country. The agricultural area under the Punpun River
basin is about 5,000 sq. km. Broadly, the geology of the area varies from granite,
gneiss, charnokites in the hills to the recent alluvium in the plains. The average
annual rainfall for the basin is 1,181 mm. The total gross recharge in the Punpun
River system is 1.6 lakh ha-m. However, only 70% of the gross recharge can be
utilized.

8.3.8. The Kiul

The Kiul River rises in the Chotanagpur plateau at an elevation of 605 m and flows
first in an easterly direction close to the southern base of the Girdeshwari hills and
later in a northerly direction. After that it flows towards north-easterly direction
up to Lakhisarai and joins Ganga near Surajgarha in the Monghyr district. In the
course of its run, the river traverses a total length of 111 km and drains an area of
358 Chapter 8

16,580 sq. km. The Harohar, the Barnar, the Azan and the Ulan are the tributaries
of Kiul River, Harohar being the most important.

8.3.9. Gandak River

The Gandak River originates near the Nepal-Tibet border at an altitude of 7,620 m
to the north-east of Dhaulagiri and flows about 100 km in a south-easterly direction
in Nepal. It is known as Kali in Nepal. After that it debauches into the plains of
the Champaran district of Bihar at Trivani. A number of tributaries, such as the
Mayangadi, the Bari, the Trisuli, the Panchnad and the Sonhad join the river. The
total length of the river from its source to outfall into the Ganga is 630 km of which
380 km lie in Nepal and Tibet. The total drainage area of the river is 46,300 sq.
km of which 7,620 sq. km is in India. A barrage has been constructed on this river
at Tribeni in Bihar. A canal takes off from this barrage and irrigates an area of
1.5 million ha.

8.3.10. Burhi Gandak

The Burhi Gandak River, known as the Sikrahana in its upper reaches, originates
in the Champaran district of Bihar from the springs of the Someshwar hills at an
elevation of 300 m. After flowing for a distance of about 56 km, the river takes a
southerly turn where it is joined by the Dubhara River and the Tour River. From
this point forward, the river takes a south-easterly direction and flows through the
Muzaffarpur district for about 32 km. In this reach, the river spills over its banks
and a number of spill channels take off and rejoin it later. The river joins Ganga
close to the town of Monghyr. The total length of the river is 320 km. The drainage
area of the river is 10,150 sq. km.

8.3.11. Kosi River

Kosi is a major tributary of the Ganga River which originates at an altitude of
7,000 m in the Himalayas. The Kosi, known as Kaushiki in the Sanskrit literature,
is a frequently referred river in India. It is a perennial stream whose three main
tributaries, the Sun Kosi from the west, the Arun from the north, and the Tamur
from the east meet at Tribeni to form the Sapt Kosi. The Arun Kosi is the biggest
of the three streams. Mt. Everest and Mt. Kanchenjunga, the two highest mountain
peaks in the world, lie in the catchment of the Arun Kosi River. The total drainage
area of the Kosi River is 74,500 sq. km out of which 11,000 sq. km lie in India.
The Kosi basin lies between 85 and 89 east longitudes and 25 20 and 29
north latitudes. In the north, it is bounded by the ridges separating it from the
Tsangpo (Brahmaputra) River while the Ganga River forms its southern boundary.
The eastern boundary is the ridge line separating it from the Mahananda catchment.
The western boundary is the ridge line separating it from the Gandak/Burhi Gandak
catchment.
Ganga Basin 359

The Kosi catchment can be divided into two distinct parts, one lying in Tibet
across the great Himalayan range and other to the south of it. The trans-Himalayan
portion is a high plateau which is not as jumbled a mass of hills as the great
Himalayan mountain ranges running generally in an eastward direction separated
by cross ribs. All the peaks and valleys above 4,900 meters are covered with
perennial snow, except steep slopes where its retention is not physically possible.
The snow line in winter is roughly at 3,000 meters while during summer it is at
about 4,500 meters. The great snowfields that contribute to the river discharge in
spring generally lie within 3,000 to 4,500 meters. The area within India has flat
topography which is confined in Bihar. Nearly 80% of the Kosi catchment is in
Nepal and Tibet. About 77% of the area is under cultivation.
In the plains where Kosi forms the delta, it has a general slope from north to
south and west to east, being steeper in the north and flatter in the south. In the
north, the slope is 56–75 cm per km but decreases to 6 cm per km beyond Bhaluhi.
The entire lower catchment is nearly a plain country only broken by numerous old
beds of Kosi. Innumerable depressions are found in plains where water accumulates
for the most part of year. The Kosi delta is of conical shape with contours running
almost circumferentially with center located in the vicinity of Belka hill. The total
catchment area of Kosi basin is 95,156 sq. km of which 20,376 sq. km lies in India.
Kamla Balan and Bagamati are two major tributaries on the right side of the river
in Bihar.

Tributaries of Kosi River

Bagmati River: Originating in the Shivpuri range of hills in Nepal at an elevation of
1,500 m, the Bagmati River flows in a westward direction draining the Kathmandu
valley. The river enters India at Rasulpur in the Muzaffarpur district. The river
finally joins the Kosi near the Barna village on the border of the Darbhanga and
Sahasra districts in Bihar. The total drainage area of the river is 13,400 sq. km of
which 6,320 sq. km lies in India. Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal, is located
on the banks of this river and the famous Pashupatinath temple in Nepal is also
situated on the banks of the Bagmati River. Due to the availability of nutritious silt,
the fertility of the Bagmati River basin is quite high.
Kamala River: The Kamala River originates in the Mahabharat range of hills in
Nepal at an elevation of 1,200 m and flows in a southerly direction. A number of
tributaries join the Kamala River during its run. It passes through a gorge above
Chauphat and debouches into the Terai area of Nepal at Chisapani. The Kamala
enters the Indian territory near Jayanagar in the Darbhanga district of Bihar. In the
lower reaches, it follows the course of the Balan and is, therefore, also known as
the Kamala-Balan. Flowing in a south-easterly direction, it joins the Kosi on the
border of the Darbhanga and Sahasra district.

Problems in Kosi Sub-basin

• Shifting: The Kosi River was earlier known as “the river of sorrow” in ancient
times because of its frequent shifting. The residents in the Kosi catchment in
360 Chapter 8

Bihar had to suffer a lot of destruction due to the unpredictable lateral movement
of the river. During the last 200 years, the river has laterally moved by 112 km
from Purnea to its present position. The Kosi project was undertaken in 1954 to
prevent the lateral shift. This has been done by confining the river to a defined
course with the help of embankments and river training works.
The catchment of the Kosi River and its tributaries are affected badly by severe
floods almost every year. As the river with tributaries, Kamla Balan, Bagmati and
Adhwara Group emerge from the hills and enter into the Bihar plains, they deposit
huge amounts of silt, thereby reducing the capacity of channels and increasing the
severity of flooding in the plains of the Kosi basin. After long studies, the Kosi
project was taken up to reduce the losses due to floods as well as to increase
irrigation facilities in the area. The Kosi project has greatly mitigated the severity
of flooding in the Kosi River system.

8.3.12. The Mahananda River

The Mahananda River originates in the hills of the Himalayas in the Darjeeling
district of West Bengal at an elevation of 2,100 m. The first 20 km of its course lies
in the hills of Darjeeling. Thereafter, it flows in a south-westerly direction forming
the boundary between India and Bangladesh. The Balsan, Mechi, Ratwa and the
Kankai are the main tributaries of the Mahananda River. The total drainage area
of the Mahananda River is 20,600 sq. km out of which 11,530 sq. km lies in India.
The river finally enters Bangladesh and joins the Ganga at Godagiri.

8.3.13. The Mayurakshi River

This river has its origin on the slopes of Trikut hills about 43 km upstream from
Dumka in Bihar. At its origin it is known as Matihara. In its course towards
the south-east, it is joined by a number of rivulets, streams and tributaries. The
prominent among its tributaries are Bhurburi, Dhobai, Pusaro, Tepra, Bhamri, Dauna
and Sidheswari. The catchment area of Mayurakshi River is 8,530 sq. km.

8.3.14. The Damodar River

The Damodar River rises in the Palamau hills of Choota Nagpur at an elevation
of about 609.75 m. It flows in a south-easterly direction entering the deltaic plains
below Raniganj. Near Burdwan, the river abruptly changes its course to a southerly
direction and joins Hooghly about 48.27 km below Calcutta. Its slope during the
first 241.35 km is about 1.89 m/km, during the next 160.9 km about 0.568 m/km and
during the last 144.8 km about 0.189 m/km. The total length of the river is nearly
547 km and a total drainage area is 22,005 sq. km. The principal tributary Barkar
joins the Damodar after traveling for about 241 km. The catchment area of the river
above the confluence is fan shaped and as such is susceptible to the concentration
of flood flows but the catchment below the confluence is narrow and has an average
Ganga Basin 361

width of 16.09 km. The upper catchment is rough hilly areas denuded of forest and
vegetal cover and is subject to erosion while the lower catchment is silt covered and
fertile. There are no irrigation facilities in the upper catchment and the cultivation
is solely dependent on monsoon rains. However the lower portion had irrigation
from the Anderson Weir situated at Rhondia on the Damodar nearly 19 km below
the Durgapur Barrage.
Damodar basin lies in the states of Jharkhand and West Bengal. Based on the 2001
census, the population of the basin is close to 14.25 million. For this population,
domestic demand has been estimated at 338.46 MCM/year. This demand is likely
to increase to 507 MCM/year by the year 2021 (Roy et al. 2004). For the industrial
sector, the present water demand is 663 MCM/year which is about 15.36% of the
utilizable water potential of the basin. This demand is likely to increase to about
884 MCM/year by the year 2021 due to new thermal power plants, brick fields, rice
mills, and cold storages etc.
Two irrigation canals, the Left Bank Main Canal and the Right Bank Main Canal
take off from the Durgapur barrage. The cultivable command area in the basin is
3,940 sq. km. Water demand for agricultural uses in the Damodar basin for the
year 2001 was nearly 652.41 MCM/year. This demand is projected to sharply rise
to 1,948 MCM/year by the year 2021. At present, the infrastructure for irrigation is
highly inadequate in the basin.
The climate of the area consists of very mild winters and hot-wet summers.
During the months of December to March the general flow of surface air is north-
easterly. It is of continental origin and is less humid. During June to September,
the flow of wind is southwesterly, from sea to land, and this period has high
humidity. Transition seasons of the hot weather months of April and May and the
retreating monsoon months of October and November lie between the above two
principal seasons. In general the months of June to October are known as monsoon
season and nearly 90% of the mean annual rainfall of about 1,250 mm occurs in
this period. The months of November to May are known as non-monsoon or dry
period when rainfall is small. For the five sub-catchments, namely, Tilaiya, Konar,
Maithon, Panchet, and Durgapur, the average annual precipitation is 1,117.7 mm,
1,320.8 mm, 1,141.7 mm, 1,142.0 mm, and 1,320.8 mm respectively.
Heavy rainfall occurs generally in the Damodar Valley due to:
1. The monsoon depression from head bay moving in a north west direction over
the catchment or west-north-west direction passing near the catchment area., and
2. The land low developing over Gangetic West Bengal or Bihar Plateau and
the remaining stationary or moving slowly across or near the Damodar
Valley.
In the past, the Damodar River used to cause frequent and immense flood damages
in Bihar and West Bengal, so much so that the river came to be associated with
sorrow and sufferings. To overcome these, the then government decided to build
a series of dams on the pattern of developments in the Tennessee Valley in the
USA. Accordingly, five dams were constructed in the Damodar Valley, namely,
Maithon, Panchet, Konar, Tilaiya and Tenughat and a barrage was constructed
362 Chapter 8

at Durgapur. Further, the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC) was established in

1948 for management of the Damodar Valley water resources. The dams in the
Damodar system serve for different purposes, viz., domestic and industrial water
supply, flood control, irrigation, and hydropower generation.

8.3.15. The Ajay River

The catchment of the Ajay River spreads between latitudes 23 25 N and 24 35 N
and longitudes 86 15 E and 8815 E. The Ajay River system originates in the
low hills near Deoghar in the Santhal Pargana District of Jhakhand and flows in
a south-easterly direction passing through the Monghyr District and Birbhum and
Burdwan Districts of West Bengal. Ultimately the river falls into the Bhagirathi
River at Katwa about 216 km above Calcutta. The Ajay River system lies between
the Mayurakshi on the north and Damodar and the Banka/Khari River system on
the south. The habitation in the catchment on the whole is dense and requires a
reliable flood warning system which can provide timely warning to the people with
sufficient lead time to take precautionary measures which can save lives and their
valuables.
The Ajay River traverses a total length of 299 km, 24 km being in Monghyr,
102 km in District Santhal Pargana, 22 km along the boundary of Santhal Pargana
and Burdwan, 115 km along the boundary between Singhbhum and Burdwan and
the rest of the total length falls in the Burdwan district of West Bengal. It meets
the Bhagirathi near Katwa. The river has a catchment area of 6,050 sq. km. The
various tributaries of the Ajay River are Darua, Pathro, Jainti, Hinglo, Tumuni,
Kane, Kanur and Kundur.
The catchment area of the Ajay River is long and narrow. The river course has
remained more or less firm and there is no evidence of marked changes in the
course. The bed slope of the river in different reaches varies considerably. The
slope of the main river is flatter than that of the tributaries and slope in the plains
of West Bengal is much flatter than that in its upper reaches.
The Ajay catchment lies in the path of tropical depressions or cyclonic storms
which form in the Bay of Bengal in the monsoon period and move generally in the
north-west direction. Abnormally heavy rain spells are generally associated with
these storms during monsoon. The average annual rainfall in the river catchment
varies from 1,280 mm to 1,380 mm; higher values being associated with hills. Nearly
75% to 80% of the rainfall is concentrated in the four monsoon months of June to
September.
The river system is divided into three reaches from the point of view of floods.
The upper reach is almost hilly, having comparatively steep slope. The middle reach
is subjected to occasional flooding caused due to breaches and overtopping of the
embankment during high floods in the river. Whenever the river is in high stage,
flood locking of its tributaries takes place, which causes heavy spill on both sides
of the rivers. Even during moderately high discharge the lower reach is the worst
flood prone reach of the river and it suffers from very frequent inundation.
Ganga Basin 363

8.4. THE GANGA DELTA

The delta of the Greater Ganga basin is one of the largest in the world and is
known by the name Sunderbans after the Sundari trees which are in abundance in
this area. The silt deposits of the delta cover an area of 60,000 sq. km. The river
courses in the delta are broad, carrying a vast amount of water. The intense rains in
the monsoon season cause most of the delta region in Bangladesh to flood, leaving
the villages that are built on artificially raised land isolated. On the seaward side
of the delta are swamplands and the Sunderban forests which are protected areas.
The peat found in the delta is used for fertilizer and fuel. The water supply to the
river depends on the rains brought by the monsoon winds from July to October and
the melting snow from the Himalayas during the period from April to June. The
delta also experiences strong cyclonic storms before and after the monsoon season
which can be devastating.
Long ago, the delta used to be densely forested and inhabited by many wild
animals. These days, the delta area is intensely cultivated to meet the needs of the
growing population. Consequently, many wild animals have disappeared, although
the Royal Bengal Tiger still lives in the Sunderbans. The fish population in the
rivers remains high and provides an important part of the inhabitants’ diet. The bird
life in the Ganga basin is also prolific.

8.5. MAJOR WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS

IN THE GANGA BASIN
The development of water resources projects in the Ganga basin has a long history.
There are a large number of water resources development projects in the basin.
A few projects are also being planned in collaboration with the Government of
Nepal. In order to boost the utilization of waterways, some segments of the Ganga
River have been declared as national waterways. A description of the major works
is given in what follows.

8.5.1. Ganga Canal Systems

i. Upper Ganga Canal (UGC)
A remarkable work that includes many great civil engineering structures is the
Upper Ganga Canal system whose construction was initiated by the then British
government in the 1840s to ward off drought and famine in the western part of
the current the Uttar Pradesh state. Northern India experienced a famine in 1837
and 1840 when, according to estimates, the population of the area fell by 20%.
Completed in 1854, UGC was to irrigate an area of 0.7 million ha. This canal was
the reason why the first engineering college in India, the Thomason College of
Civil Engineering was set up at Roorkee, close to Haridwar. In due course of time,
this college was upgraded to an engineering university and then converted into an
IIT. Today, Roorkee is the home to a number of engineering organizations dealing
with water.
364 Chapter 8

At the time of commencement of UGC Project, there was no science of soil

mechanics and hydraulic engineering was also in its primitive stages. There was no
existing large extensive canal system in the country and the world by that time. In
formulation and execution of the project and in projecting the layout and design of
main canal and its major structures, Sir Proby Cautley adopted the simple scheme
of taking the help of nature and maintaining a compromising attitude, specially in
taking the canal across the powerful streams and rivers coming in the alignment and
also used his engineering skill in producing simple and bold designs with locally
available material (brick, lime and surkhi). Although in the first project report, UGC
was proposed as a navigation canal, finally it was constructed as an irrigation canal.
UGC draws its supply from the Ganga River at Haridwar. Prior to the construction
of the permanent head works, water was being forced into the canal by means of
temporary weirs constructed of wooden crates filled with boulders. Originally, the
width at the head was 61 m and the depth at full supply level nearly 3.3 m. Sir
Cautley placed the head of the canal at Mayapur, a place well settled and safe from
the attack of Ganga River. Currently, the head works are situated at Bhimgoda.
Figure 12 shows a pictorial view of Haridwar.
The reach of the canal from the head works to 32nd km may well be classified
among the greatest feats of irrigation engineering in India. The alignment traverses
numerous drainages track and the arrangements for negotiating these drainages are
complicated by the fact that the canal bed is at places far below and at other far
above the general level of surrounding country. Four large torrents are crossed in
this reach while several smaller ones are admitted into the canal. The steep slope
of the country moreover necessitates the negotiation of over 18 m of bed fall in
those first 32 km. UGC flows in deep cutting up to the 19th km. In the 10th km, it
encounters the Ranipur torrent which is carried over it on a masonry super-passage.
The Pathri torrent is passed over the canal on second super passage.
At the 21st km, the Ratmau torrent is passed across the canal, being admitted
directly into the channel on one side and escaped again through a weir. At the 30th
km comes the Solani aqueduct which is the finest work on the canal (see Figure 13).

Figure 12. A pictorial view of Haridwar. Ganga is flowing in the upper part and the UGC at the middle
Ganga Basin 365

Figure 13. Old Solani aqueduct of the Upper Ganga Canal near Roorkee

Solani aqueduct was constructed with the special inspiration of the great work of
Alcantara aqueduct in Portugal, constructed during the years 1,713 to 1,732 and
universally accepted to be a stupendous monument of modern art and engineering
in Europe. At the time of commissioning Ganga canal in 1854, Solani Aqueduct
was ranked as one of the most remarkable massive structure of brick masonry in
the whole world.
It cannot, however, be pretended that the design of UGC was perfect by any
means. Indeed no sooner was the full supply of the channel first admitted, several
serious faults became apparent. In many places, the bed slope was too steep,
the masonry falls generated excessive velocities below them, causing heavy scour
in bed and banks, and the general layout of the distributary system had some
drawbacks. Considerable amount of remodelling was necessary before these defects
were removed, but in other respects, the work even now remains substantially
as Cautley built it. Noteworthy is the fact that at the time it was constructed,
experience of artificial canals was limited to works of only about a third the size of
the Ganga Canal. But the mistakes appear to be insignificant when compared with
the enormous advances in hydraulic engineering, which the scheme represented.
The engineering judgment of planners and designers of UGC was truly marvelous.
The Upper Ganga Canal system is a leading irrigation system in India. It extends
over an area of 24,000 sq. km bounded by natural or man made water courses. The
Ganga River is on the eastern side, the Hindon River and the Yamuna River on the
western side, and the lower Ganga canal on the southern side. The Upper Ganga
Canal takes off from the Ganga at the Bhimgoda weir near Haridwar. The main
canal is 290 km long and is one of the most exquisitely constructed civil engineering
structures. In view of expansion of the command area, the discharge capacity of
the canal was recently augmented to 297 m3 /s. The command area of the canal is
now about 0.924 million ha.
366 Chapter 8

The command area of the system is located between 27 N and 30 N latitudes
and 77 15 E and 78 40 E longitudes covering the districts of Saharanpur, Muzaf-
farnagar, Meerut, Ghaziabad, Bulandshahar, Aligarh, Mathura, Agra, Etah, and
Mainpuri. A major project to revitalize the head reaches of the canal was completed
in 2003. A parallel canal has been constructed upstream of Roorkee and a new
aqueduct has been constructed over the Solani River.
A number of small rivers, such as Kali, Karwan, Solani and West Kali, flow and
interact with the ground water system in the canal command. The Upper Ganga
Canal system has a large expanse and the main canal as well as its branches are an
important source of recharge as they all are unlined. The extraction from ground
water is through pumping by public and private tubewells.
UGC system is fed through a headwork complex with a regulation at Mayapur
and a diversion weir at Bhimgoda across the Ganga River. The important branches
of the system are the Deoband branch (taking off on the left bank at 35 km), the
Anupshahr branch (taking off on the left bank at 80 km), the Mat branch (taking
off on the right bank at 177 km), and the Hathras branch (taking off from the Mat
branch on the left bank at 80 km). The system is unlined and has a network of 115
distributaries. The canal system is connected with natural drains/rivers to discharge
the surplus water of the canal.
Climatically the area belongs to a dry sub-humid to moist-humid category. The
normal annual rainfall varies from 1,050 mm in the north to 650 mm in the south.
Around 90% of annual rainfall occurs in the monsoon season (June to October).
The annual pan evaporation for the area is about 150 cm. The temperature varies
from 3 C to 4 C in January to 43 C to 45 C in May or June.
The scope of the system has been considerably altered since it was first
constructed. The Lower Ganga Canal (LGC) which was opened in 1878, intersected
by the main branches of the UGC, the Etawah and Kanpur branches and the tail
portions of these are now officially included in the LGC system. In their place,
however, three new important branches, the Deoband, Mat branches have been
added to UGC. In the length of its channels, the UGC is still largest in India. The
system comprises 910 km of main canal and branches and 5,280 km of distributaries
or 6,190 km of channels in all.
There are many small hydropower plants on UGC which utilize its falls to
generate power. A hydroelectric power station was built on the Ganga canal at
Bahadrabad, 16 km from the site of the head works, where a fall of 5.8 m was
available. Incidentally, a famous research station is situated at Bahadrabad which is
involved in model studies of WRD projects. Another station is situated at Moham-
madpur near Roorkee.
ii. Madhya Ganga Canal
The Madhya Ganga Canal takes off from the Ganga at the Raoli Barrage, about
11 km east of Bijnor in the U.P. state. Raoli Barrage, completed in 1994, is 583 m
long; the normal water level of the pond is 221.5 m. The capacity at the head of this
115 km long canal is 234 m3 /s and its distributaries are 1466 km long. The usage of
water is: Anupshar branch 25.5 cumec, Lakhaoti Branch 63 cumec, Upper Ganga
Ganga Basin 367

Canal 58 cumec, Parallel Mat Feeder 74 cumec, and losses 13.5 cumec. Madhya
Ganga Canal provides irrigation to paddy crop in 114,000 ha as well as augments
supply to the UGC system. The Lakhoti branch canal takes off at chainage 82 km
from the Madhya Ganga Canal. Its discharge at the head is 63 cume and it is
74 km long. Minors from this canal provide irrigation over about 192,000 ha land
in Neem-Kali Doab in Aligarh and Bulandshahar Districts.
Rivers in many parts of India carry enormous water during rainy season which
can be used for irrigation for Paddy and to recharge ground water aquifers. This
gave rise to the concept of Monsoon canals. Several such canals have been planned
and constructed, viz., (i) the Eastern Ganga Canal (ii) the Madhya Ganga Canal,
and (iii) the Parallel Lower Ganga Canal. These canals are examples of conjunctive
use of water.
iii. Lower Ganga Canal (LGC)
To irrigate the lower portion of Ganga – Yamuna doab, a project was sanctioned in
1872. Work commenced in that year for constructing a new canal from the Ganga
River with head further down the river. LGC system comprises a weir across Ganga
at Narora (near Aligarh), some 6 km below Rajghat, and the canal takes off from
the right bank of the river. The weir, which is 1,158 m long, is fitted with falling
shutters and enables the level of the normal cold weather supply of the Ganga to
be raised by 3.05 m to feed the canal. Under sluices, consisting of 42 vents each of
2.14 m span are provided on the right flank of the weir. The canal head which is
set at right angle to the sluices has 30 bays of equal width.
The main canal is 100 km long and irrigates 0.5 million ha. The Lower Ganga
Canal has a discharge capacity of 156 m3 /s. It was completed in 1879. It serves the
districts of Mainpuri, Etah, Farrukhabad, Etawah, Kanpur, Fatehpur and Allahabad
in central U.P. These canal systems are irrigating a large area of the Ganga-Yamuna
Doab. But, of course, there are still large tracts of culturable area which do not
have irrigation facilities.
The LGC system has 1,060 km of main canal and branches and 5,015 km of
distributaries. In fact UGC and LGC form a single system. A considerable proportion
of channel comprised in the lower system belonged originally to the upper and a
supply of water is regularly passed from the later to the former. Viewed in this
light, the Ganga canals form the largest irrigation system in the world. The length
of the channel, contained in it, is no less than 12,240 km and it irrigates an area of
the size of one million ha.
A map showing network of these canals is given in Figure 14.
iv. Agra Canal
The committee which proposed the construction of LGC, also suggested that a
canal should be taken off from the Yamuna at or near its junction with the Hindan
river below Delhi, to irrigate some more area in the Ganga-Yamuna watershed.
Investigation showed, however, that the district lying on the left bank of river
Yamuna were already or could be fairly commanded by the Ganga canal through
Mat branch, whereas on the right bank, there existed a very precarious tract which
368 Chapter 8

Figure 14. Network of canals in upper Ganga basin

Ganga Basin 369

was greatly in need of irrigation. The site chosen for the head works was at Okhla,
11 km below Delhi and upstream of the junction of the Yamuna and Hindan. To
make the water of the Hindon available for the canal, a regulating weir, consisting
of 39 vents each of 3.2 m span, was constructed across that river, by means of
which its discharge can be diverted through an artificial channel, known as Hinan
cut into the Yamuna immediately above the Okhla weir. A further supplementary
volume can be obtained from the Ganga canal via the Jani escape, which connects
the Ganga Canal with Hindan at point 48 km above the site of the diversion works.
The canal was constructed for a cold weather full supply discharge of 308 m3 /s
with a depth of 2.13 m and for a discharge of 560 m3 /s during the rainy season
with a depth of 3.05 m, the width at the head being 21.4 m. It terminates at its 116th
km at which point the Agra Navigation channel, 25 km long, connected it with
Yamuna at Agra. The distribution system comprises of 1,440 km of distributaries.
In the first 13 km of its course, the canal crosses three important torrents, which
bring down to the Yamuna the drainage of the rocky hills on the right bank of the
canal. The floods from these hills rise rapidly but are of short duration. To obviate
the necessity of large drainage crossing, embankments are provided for two of them
on the right of the canal. These reservoirs have storage of 4.5 MCM. The floods
are received by them and the water stored until it can be passed out gradually. The
third torrent is carried under the canal through a large siphon.
v. East Ganga Canal Project
The East Ganga Canal Project envisages the utilization of surplus water of the
Ganga River during the Monsoon season from the existing Barrage at Bhimgoda
Haridwar for providing irrigation to 105,000 ha of paddy crop, mainly in the Bijnor
district (99.64 thousand ha), the Haridwar district (360 ha), and the Moradabad
district (5,000 ha). The gross command area of the project is 3.01 lakh ha, out of
which 2.33 lakh ha is cultivated. The proposed intensity of irrigation in Kharif is
45% which will produce an additional amount of 36.0 lakh quintals of paddy crop.
Before introduction of this project, the area was being irrigated by perennial
supplies and by the Upper Ganga and Lower Ganga Canals. The original project
was planned in the year 1976 for an estimated cost of Rs. 48.46 crore and the
construction work was started in the year 1980–81.
The soil in the command of the East Ganga canal is generally light loam, except
in northern areas of the Malin-Chhoya, Chhoya-Ban, Ban-Ganga and Ganga-Kho
doabs falling in the Najibabad, Kiratpur and Kotwali blocks. The loamy soil in
most of the blocks is highly suitable for rice cultivation and similar soils in the
Mirzapur and Saharanpur districts produce bumper harvests of paddy. Irrigation
can develop easily as soon as water is made available in abundance. At present the
existing sources of irrigation in the Bijnor district are mainly the state tube wells,
private tube wells and a small canal system called the Bijnor canal group.
The East Ganga Canal command has monsoonal climate. Monsoon generally starts
in the last week of June and lasts up to September. The mean annual precipitation at
Bijnor is 1,073 mm. About 90% of the total annual rainfall is received during June to
September and the rest 10% in the remaining months. The winter rains are insufficient
370 Chapter 8

to meet the water requirement of crops in the area and there is always a need for
irrigation water to grow Rabi crops. Uncertain irregular rain causes floods in the area.

8.5.2. Yamuna Canal Systems

The Yamuna River emerges from the hills near Tajewala where water is diverted for
irrigation by the Western and Eastern Yamuna Canals. The Yamuna flows further
280 km down to Okhla near Delhi from where the Agra Canal takes off.

Eastern Yamuna Canal

The earliest canals in Northern India of which any record exists are the old canals
that take off from both banks of the Yamuna. The Eastern Yamuna canal was origi-
nally constructed during the Mughal dynasty, probably in the reign of Muhammad
Shah (1719–1748 A.D.), and a Royal preserve at Ranup, on the left bank of the
Yamuna, is said to have received water from the canal. The works were, however,
soon abandoned. They were partially restored by one of the Rohilla Chiefs in about
1780 A.D. and water was brought to Saharanpur. Probably the extended canal ran
during one season at most. It was not provided with masonry works and its excessive
bed slope would have led to total retrogression. The canal was later realigned by
the British early in the 19th century. As was the usual practice in the case of old
works of this nature, the courses of rivers and drainage lines had been utilized as
much as possible and all high ground carefully avoided. The alignment of the canal,
as remodeled by the British, followed this old practice to a considerable extent but
a large number of masonry works were introduced.
The canal has its head on the Yamuna on its eastern bank, a point not far from
the head of the Western Yamuna canal. Originally, the supply required was directed
by means of temporary spurs into the eastern channel of the river and delivered
at Naushera, where the excavated canal commenced and where arrangements were
made for surplusing any water not required back in the river. When the canal was
opened in 1830, it was realized that the gradient was too much steep, rapids forming
in the bed at many points seriously threatening the masonry works. To reduce the
slope, masonry falls were constructed at suitable intervals and channel was in part
realigned. The distribution system had also a faulty design and was operated and
had gradually to be remodelled. Many of the evils experienced in the Western
Yamuna Canal repeated themselves in the Eastern Yamuna Canal system such as:
i) The bad alignment of the main canal and of its distributaries
ii) The over irrigation of certain areas led to water logging here also.
The construction of the weir for the Western Yamuna canal at Tajewala in 1875–79
resulted in a modification of the methods adopted for obtaining the supply for
the Eastern Yamuna canal. A new head and regulator for the latter was built in
connection with the weir and supply channel excavated from Tajewala to Naushera,
the volume in the river was divided between the two canals in fixed proportions,
the Government of the United Provinces making an up-keep of the weir and its
connected works. The salient features of Eastern Yamuna canal are given in Table 8.
Ganga Basin 371

Table 8. Salient features of Eastern Yamuna Canal

Length of main canal 207.561 km

Length of distributaries 1,287.20 km
Canal capacity 84.95 cumec
Command area 1 6188 Mm2

Western Yamuna Canal

Emperor Feroz Shah Tughlaq constructed the Western Yamuna Canal (WYC) to
divert water to the hunting grounds in Hansi-Safidon area in Haryana in 1355 A.D.
After the death of Emperor Tughlaq in 1388, the canal fell in disuse. Mughal
Emperor Akbar got the canal renovated in 1568. It was further improved by Emperor
Shahjahan in 1628. Note that the Hasli canal was also constructed at the same time
to bring Ravi water to Lahore; it was later extended by the Sikhs to bring water
to the sacred tank at Amritsar (CBIP 1965). During the British period, the canal
was realigned and repaired from 1821 onwards. After a long lull in fresh water
development, GW development in the area began in 1960s. It was noticed that there
is decline in GW level as well as decline in river discharge. Conjunctive use of SW
& GW is being practiced in the area by completion of augmentation canal project.
Upper Yamuna Basin covers an area of 25,000 sq. km. In the canal area, tropical
climate dominates. In summers, temperature can rise as high as 47 C; during
winters, they can go as low as −1 C. The average rainfall in the area is 746 mm/year;
84% of it falls during summer monsoon. WYC command area is located between
the north latitudes 28 20 & 30 28 and east longitudes 75 48 & 77 35 .
The total length of the WYC with all its branches is 325 km. In addition, there are
about 32 distributaries and 95 minors, the combined length of which is 1,220 km.
To augment canal supplies and prevent water logging in adjacent tract, a large
number of augmentation wells were constructed along WYC. Further, to prevent
seepage losses along WYC and to further augment its supply, a lined augmentation
canal, 69 km in length was constructed recently, taking off from Yamuna Nagar and
out falling in WYC at Munak. Heavy-duty wells constructed along this canal direct
about 14–15 cumec of ground water to surface water canal system. In addition,
there are similar augmentation wells constructed along Delhi parallel Branch and
the Narwana Branch Karnal link.
In the entire reach between Tajewala to Wazirabad the river behaves as a mature
river and meanders within the flood plains, the width of which increases as the
slope decreases. The maximum width of the flood plain is around 3 km. In order
to protect the habitations and cultivated area from flood protection, embankments
have been constructed along the river, more of them along the right bank.
Ground Water Situation: The area of mountainous sub-basin is underlain by Siwalik
and older formations which are semi-consolidated and consolidated in nature and
are composed of sand rocks, shale and boulder conglomerates. These are poor
repositories of ground water and effectively make no ground water contribution
to sub-basin. The plain tract lying south of the Siwalik zone forms a part of
372 Chapter 8

Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains of recent origin. The thickness of the alluvial deposit
(as deduced from geophysical evidence) is small along the fringe of peninsular mass
but progressively increases towards northwards and is maximum in the foredeep area
lying immediately south of the Himalayan zone. The alluvial plains are underlain
by loose unconsolidated river borne sediments and form very good repository of
ground water. Below a particular level, not far below the land surface, the alluvium
is saturated with ground water. Water table occurs between 10 to 60 m BGL in the
sub-mountainous tract but generally lies between 3 m to 10 m BGL in rest of the
area. The aquifer system lying closest to the land surface is in unconfined condition.
At deeper levels, particularly below regionally or sub-regionally extensive poorly
permeable layers, the ground water occurs in semi-confined to confined conditions.
It is expected that with increasing depth, the alluvium could get more and more
consolidated because of the increasing over burden and hence have reduced porosity
and permeability. The unconfined aquifer, which is quite potential, generally bears
an effluent relation with the surface drainage.
Major Aquifer systems: Aquifers have been demarcated in this area based on
exploratory drilling and bore-hole logging. Except in areas close to Delhi where
the bedrock occurs at a shallow depth, four distinct groups of permeable horizons
were identified.
The Aquifer Group 1 (AG1) (composed of different sand and clay layers) extends
from water table to 167 m below ground level (BGL). This is composed of relatively
coarser sediment and contains fresh formation water. In general, this aquifer behaves
as unconfined aquifer displaying delayed yield phenomenon. The effects of leakage
are negligible. AG1 is underlain by a clayey horizon 10 to 15 m which is regionally
extensive except around sites Nagal, Tikaula, Labhkari, Newal and Ambheta. At
these sites, AG1 seems to be directly in contact with Aquifer Group 2 (AG2).
AG2, composed of different sand and clay lenses occurring at variable depths
(ranging from 65 to 283 m BGL) has distinguishing characteristics of its own at
places and at others is separated because of distinguishing features of the overlying
and underlying groups. The sediment of this group is less coarse and kanker is
encountered at sites located west of river Yamuna. The quality of water is reasonably
fresh except in south-western parts. Seven successful long duration pumping tests
with observation wells were conducted. The aquifer behaved as confined at 3 sites
and as semi-confined at rest 4 sites.
AG2 is underlain by another clayey horizon which is considerably thick at places
and appears to be regionally extensive except around sites Sikka and Kheri. A local
aquifer group of limited thickness is found enclosed within thin clay around sites
Nitli and Baleri. Aquifer Group 3 (AG3) comprises of thin sand layers alternating
with thicker clay layers occurring at variable depths varying between 197 m to
346 m BGL, underlies the above groups. The granular material of this group is
generally finer in texture and more so in southerly direction. Kankar occurs in
southern parts. The parameters of aquifer groups of WYC area are given in Table 9.
AG3 is underlain, in turn, by a thick clayey horizon which in turn is underlain
by another permeable granular horizon. Aquifer Group 4 was not fully penetrated.
Ganga Basin 373

Table 9. Parameters of Aquifer Groups of WYC area

Parameter Gen. range Average values

Aquifer Group – 1
Transmissivity m2 /day 800–5,210 2,200
Lateral Hydraulic Conductivity ‘K’ (m/day) 14–47 24
Specific yield Sy % 6–24 12
Aquifer Group – 2
2
Transmissivity m /day 750–1,050 700
Lateral Hydraulic Conductivity ‘K’ (m/day) 4–11 7.2
Storativity 56 × 10−4 to 17 × 10−3 10 × 10−3
Specific yield Sy % 335 × 10−4 to 27 × 10−3 19 × 10−3
Aquifer Group – 3
2
Transmissivity m /day 345–830 525
Lateral Hydraulic Conductivity ‘K’ (m/day) 3.5–10.7 7.1
Storativity 66 × 10−4 to 24 × 10−4 45 × 10−4

Behaviour of Ground water: The master slope of water table is from north to south
with lateral slopes away from the ground water ridges. There is a prominent ground
water trough roughly along the river Yamuna, but this departs Westwards in areas
between Panipat to Delhi. A general down-valley shift of contours in post-monsoon
period in response to recharge can be observed.
The area between the Eastern Yamuna and Western Yamuna canals south of
latitude 30 behaves as a hydro-geological unit with no flow across boundaries
but some inflow from north. The piezometric levels of the lower portions of the
AG1 show similar behavior to that of the phreatic surface with minor departures. It
appears that there is flow in the vertical direction within AG1; and in parts between
Yamuna and WYC this is found to be upwards. No GW flow occurs in AG1
from across the eastern boundary but generally outflow takes place from Western
boundary. Substantial vertical leakage is expected to be occurring between AG1
and AG2 and much of the flow converging towards the trough may be leaking
upwards to AG1.
In general in the submontaneous tract and the areas along the major canals and
part of the central area in the south, AG1 has potentiometric head of 0 to 4 m
above the AG2. All the observations fit well with the fact that both AG1 and AG2
receive recharge in Bhabhar tract and areas along the major canals and discharge
the same to Yamuna drainage.
In major part of the area between the canals, AG3 and AG4 have a higher
head over AG2. However, only in southern parts of AG3 and AG4 are likely to
provide leakage to AG2 above. The study of daily hydrographs of river levels along
with those of ground water levels in the river tract for one year indicate a general
sympathetic behavior and a good hydraulic connectivity of the river with ground
water storage along the banks. It was concluded from the study that influent–effluent
relation of river with the areas in immediate vicinity of the two banks changes with
374 Chapter 8

places and times and may not always coincide with the regional relation of ground
water body with the river, on either bank.
The soils in sub-mountainous region are classified as reddish soils. South of this
zone roughly up to Panipat the soils are classified as ‘Tropical Arid Brown’. In
area south of Panipat the soils are arid brown soils. The soils in the basin, west of
Yamuna River are mostly sandy loam to loam with medium permeability. In Karnal
district considerable sedimentation and alkalinization of the soil has occurred due
to rise in water table by canal seepage and from excessive use of irrigation water.
The area is predominantly an agricultural tract, with about 76% area under
cultivation. The major crops grown in the area are wheat (58% area), rice (20%
area), Gram (10% area), Maize (13% area), Jowar (4% area), Barely (3% area),
Bajra (7% area), and sugar cane (19% area).

Betwa Canal
The sanction of the estimate of the Betwa canal in 1881 marked the opening of yet
another and a very important era in the history of irrigation works in India, namely
the era of protective works or the works designed primarily for the protection, of
precarious areas against famine, the direct return obtainable from them being the
secondary consideration.
The Betwa canal was the first protective work in India which was constructed
in the United Provinces. A report was prepared in 1868 which established the
practicability of such a canal for irrigation of the triangular area in the Jalaun district
formed by three rivers: Yamuna, Pahuj and Betwa. The subsoil water throughout
this tract was at immense depth. The project was completed in 1893.
The head works of the canal are situated on the Betwa River near Parichcha,
27 km from Jhansi. The river at this point has a discharge of 23000 m3 /s. Canal
regulator has five bays. This weir forms a reservoir in the river channel and
impounds 48 MCM of water at crest level. In 1899 automatic shutters were erected
which increased the capacity of the reservoir to 61 MCM.
The main canal is 30 km long. At its termination it bifurcates into Hamirpur and
Kathound Branches. In 1904–05, the Kathound branch was remodelled to carry
discharge of 170 m3 /s. But the greatest weakness of the canal lay in the general
inefficiency of its cold weather supply and in 1905 works was commenced on the
construction of a supplementary reservoir at Dhukwan 40 km above the Parichha.
The Dhukwan weir is 1,196 km long and has maximum height of 17.4 m. The work
was completed in the year 1910.

Dhasan Canal
The Dhasan and Bearma are tributaries of Betwa, flowing from the east. The canal
lies in Hamirpur district between a triangular area made by above rivers. The project
was sanctioned in 1905. Two dams have been constructed upon Dhasan River, the
upper one at Pahari, the lower at Lachaura some 11 km further down. Both dams
have same maximum height of 16 m, the Pahari dam is 580 m, the Lachaura dam
542 m long. Gates, 2.5 m high, are erected on the crests and effective storage of
Ganga Basin 375

78 MCM at Pahari and 15 MCM at Lachaura are thus obtained. Both dams are of
concrete, with masonry facing up and downstream.
The Dhasan canal has a head discharge of 20 cumec and a bed width of 13.7 m.
With its 3 branches, it has a total length of 170 km and feeds 300 km of distributaries.
There is only one masonry work of importance on the main line the Kohina Nala
aqueduct. The canal was opened for irrigation in 1910.

Ken Canal
To irrigate the watershed between the Ken and the Bhagin, the Ken canal has been
constructed. It was sanctioned in 1903 and came into operation in 1908. It consists
primarily of a weir across the Ken at Bariarpur, some 100 km south of Banda, a
main canal 59 km long, and two branches with a connected distributory system.
The Bariarpur weir has a crest length of 512 m and a maximum height of 8.0 m
above the solid rock on which it is founded. The weir is capable of impounding
14 MCM of water. The canal takes off direct from this reservoir and is designed
to carry a normal supply 22.5 cumec, which can be increased to 28 cumec at time
of intense demand. The steep slope of the country necessitated a large number of
masonry falls – there are 22 such falls in the first 13 km of the main canal. Two
principal works for cross drainage being Majhgawan and Mawapura aqueduct.
To supplement the supply in canals, the Gangao dam has been constructed. This
dam is situated on the Ken River some 50 km above the head works of the canal.
The work was taken up in 1911 and completed in 1917. The dam is of masonry,
of the same design as those in the Dhasan and Bariarpur. It is 740 m long with
a maximum height of 16 m and is capable of 76 MCM of water at crest level.
Ken is very formidable river, carrying in flood a discharge of 17,000 cumec and
consequently both at Bariarpur and Gangao the works are on a scale of considerable
magnitude. The canal system has 138 km of main canal and branches and 413 km
of distributaries. In addition to large works smaller storage schemes were also
provided in the Bundelkhand area.

Ghagar Canal
Construction of the Ghagar canal was commenced near the end of 1912 and
completed in 1918. The main feature of the scheme is the masonry dam at
Dhandraul, which has been constructed across a gorge where Ghagar River pierces
a low line of hills on its way to join the Sone. This dam, which is 305 m long
and 20.72 m high forms in conjunction with an earthen embankment, 5.23 km long
of a mean height of 7.6 m, a reservoir capable of storing more than 140 MCM of
water.
Two low saddles in the hills provide means of escape with their crests at the full
supply level of the lake while the third, which forms the main escape is divided into
12 bays each of 6.1 m span. A supplementary dam, 152 m long and 13.7 m high,
on the neighbouring Karamnasa River diverts the water of that river also into the
reservoir through the so called Karmnasa cut, thereby supplementing the supplies
in the Ghagar. From this reservoir, the canal system consisting of 100 km of main
376 Chapter 8

canals and branches and 120 km of distributaries is fed. The canal is crossed by 48
drainages. The steep slope of the country necessitated the provision of numerous
masonry falls in the beds of various channels.

Sarda Canal
The scheme consists of two parts: the Sarda canal proper and the Sarda Kichcha
Feeder which leaves it at about 11 km. The former comprises a comprehensive
project for irrigation of the north western district of Oudh, while the latter assures a
supply to the extension of the existing Rohilkhand canals. The head works and the
first 11 km of the canal are common to both. Thereafter, the Sarda canals runs in a
southerly direction, while the feeder flows through the Tarai, the low-lying land at
the foot of Himalayas.
The head works of the combined project are situated on the Sarda River a few
km below the point where it debauches from the hills. At this place, the river forms
the boundary between (British) India and Nepal; the government of Nepal had
courteously consented to a small exchange of territory so as to permit the British
Government jurisdiction over the land upon which the left abutment of weir and
left bank training works are situated. A channel is built on the left flank to irrigate
certain area of Nepal. The weir and sluices have been designed to pass a maximum
flood of 11,300 cumec. The head regulator and first 11.26 km of combined canal
were constructed to carry 233 cumec.
The Sarda canal proper, below bifurcation consists of main canal with a length
of 28.15 km, after which it bifurcates into three branches. The project comprises
769.10 km of main canal and branches, 5,422.33 km of distributaries and 160.90 km
of escapes or 6,352.33 km of channel in all.
The Upper Sarda Barrage is located in Banbassa of Nainital district for purpose
of directing water in Sarda main canal for irrigation and power generation. Design
flood discharge was 16,900 m3 /s. Length of barrage is 598 m and it has 4 under
sluice bays. The barrage was completed in 1928.
The 1920 Sarda river agreement between the British Indian Government and
Nepal guaranteed 113 m3 /s for the summer (Kharif) irrigation and 925 m3 /s for
the winter (Rabi) irrigation. Trishuli and Devighat hydroelectric projects on the
river Trishuli, Chatra canal and renovation and extension of the Chatra canal
were completed by the Government of India, which bore the complete costs of
these projects. At least on the Indian side it is felt that all these projects, fully
funded by India, have provided large benefits to the two countries.

8.5.3. Tehri Dam Project

The Ganga River system has substantial hydropower potential, besides being a
vast source for irrigation in the Gangetic Plains. The hydropower potential of the
Ganga and its tributaries has been assessed as 10,715 MW. So far, very small
amount of this potential has been exploited. There are no storages on the main river
and its two arms Bhagirathi and Alaknanda. To harness the hydropower potential
Ganga Basin 377

of the river, a major storage dam is being constructed on Bhagirathi at a point

1.5 km downstream of Tehri town in the State of Uttaranchal. To meet the peaking
power needs, another dam is planned downstream of Tehri at Koteshwar. It will
cater for pumped storage operation also. The entire Tehri Hydro Power Complex,
as envisaged, would have an installed capacity of 2,400 MW and would provide
substantial benefits by way of irrigation and domestic water supply.
The Tehri dam project was first conceived in 1949 and was sanctioned by the
Planning Commission of India in 1972 when approval of the proposal for a 260.5 m
rock-filled dam at Tehri was given in. Tehri dam is located on the outer Himalaya in
the Tehri-Garhwal district of Uttaranchal in the Ganga Basin. The dam will be the
fifth highest dam in the world with a height of 260.5 meters and spread over an area
of 45 sq. km in the Bhagirathi and Bhilangana valleys near Tehri town. The dam,
when finished, will completely submerge the Tehri town and nearly 100 villages
will be totally or partially submerged. Nearly one lakh persons have been displaced
and resettled because of the dam and a whole new city, known as New Tehri has
been developed. The Government of India sanctioned the project in 1972. It is a
multipurpose project, the main purposes of the dam being hydropower, irrigation,
flood control, fisheries & tourism. The designed annual irrigation from the reservoir
is 2,700 million sq. meter. The Tehri dam on the Bhagirathi (under construction)
will provide a live storage capacity of 2,613 million cubic m (gross storage capacity
of 3,540 million cubic m) to be used for power generation and irrigation. The
project is being executed by The Tehri Hydro Development Corporation with its
headquarters at Rishikesh. A view of Tehri dam is given in Figure 15.
The average river flows in the Ganga near Haridwar in monsoon season (July to
Sept.) range between 2,000 to 3,000 cumec and the lean flows are about 100 cumec.
The average river slope up to Haridwar is 20 m/km. The salient features of the
project are given in Table 10. The main features of the project are:
• A 260.5 m (above the deepest foundation) high earth and rockfill dam creating a
live storage of 2615 Mm3 .
• An underground powerhouse of 1,000 MW4 × 250 MW with conventional
turbine generating units.
• Another underground powerhouse of 1,000 MW4 × 250 MW with reversible
pump turbine set (pumped storage plant).
• A 103.5 m high concrete dam (which will function as a balancing reservoir)
with a surface power house of 400 MW4 × 100 MW at Koteshwar about 20 km
downstream of Tehri dam.
• A transmission system for evacuation of power generated at Tehri and Koteshwar
through 765 kV lines to Meerut.
The project would generate about 4,300 million units of energy on the 90%
dependable water availability and about 5,000 trillion units on the average water
availability. The peak load power generation is 2,400 MW. Besides, the project will
provide irrigation facilities to 2.7 lakh ha of area in the command of existing canal
systems off taking from the Ganga downstream of Haridwar. The project will also
provide about 10 cumec of water to Delhi to meet its future domestic requirements.
378 Chapter 8

Figure 15. A view of Tehri dam (under construction)

The total cost of project including the cost of transmission system but excluding the
cost of modernizing and extending the canal distribution system is about Rs.5,060
crore.
The Tehri dam project area is seismically active and falls in Zone-IV of the
seismic zoning map of India, which corresponds to intensity VIII on MM Scale.
Most of the past earthquakes have magnitudes of 5–7 on the Richter scale. The dam
is designed for a probable earthquake of magnitude 8.0. A site specific assessment
of seismicity has been made for detailed designs.

Catchment Area Characteristics

The catchment area at the dam site is 7,511 sq. km. Out of this 2,323 sq. km is snow
bound. This catchment varies in elevation from 9,600 m to 600 m in a length of
187 km. The valley is narrow and moderately forested. The catchment area below
the perpetual snow line (4,880 m) is divided into following the three types:
i) Agriculture land (1,240 sq. km).
ii) Forest land (2,400 sq. km).
iii) Soyam land lying between the above two types being mainly used by villagers
for cattle grazing, etc. (1,500 sq. km).
The spread of Tehri dam reservoir will be about 42 sq. km at the full reservoir level
of 830 m. The length of reservoir along the Bhagirathi River is 44 km and along the
Bhilangana River, it is 25 km. The Tehri dam will affect 22 villages fully and 74
Ganga Basin 379

Table 10. Salient features of the Tehri Dam Project

1. Reservoir
M.W.L. 835 m
F.R.L. 830 m
Dead Storage Level 740 m
Gross Storage 3,540 MCM
Live Storage 2,615 MCM
2. Main Dam
Type Earth & Rockfill
Top Level 839.50 m
Height 260.50 m above deepest foundation level
Width at river bed 1,141 m
Length and width at top 575 m, 20 m, Flared 25 m on abutments
3. Diversion Tunnel
Type Horse Shoe
On Left Bank 2 number, 11.30 m dia, 1,774 & 1,778 m long
On Right Bank 2 number, 11.30 m dia, 1,298 & 1,429 m long
Diversion Flood 8,120 Cumec
4. Spillway
(A) Chute Spillway
Crest Elevation 815.00 m
Design Discharge 15,480 Cumec
No. & Size of Bays 3,10.50 m each
(B) Right Bank Shaft Spillway
Crest Elevation 830.20 m
Design Discharge 3,879 Cumec
Intake Type 2 Number, Ungated Funnel Shaped
(C) Left Bank Shaft Spillway
Crest Elevation 815.00 m
Design Discharge 3,750 Cumec
Intake Type 2 Nos. Gate Weir type Intake
5. Power House (Underground 2 Number)
Installed Capacity 2,000 MW
Conventional Units 4 × 250 MW
Reversible Units 4 × 250 MW
Design Head 231.5 m
Gross Head 188 m
Head Race Tunnel 4 Number, 8.50 m dia

villages partially besides submerging the Tehri Town. Out of the total submerged
area, about 1,600 ha is the cultivated land, about 1,600 ha is the forest land and
the remaining is uncultivated. In addition, some area will be acquired for the Tehri
Town, project colony, workshop, stores and roads, etc. which affect 13 additional
villages. The project will displace about 13,840 families.

Hydrology
The snow-bound catchment has little rainfall but it contributes runoff in non-
monsoon period due to snow melt. The rest of the catchment has the annual
380 Chapter 8

precipitation varying from 101.6 to 263.0 cm. More than eighty percent of the
annual precipitation occurs during the monsoon period causing occasional floods.
These floods often cause soil erosion bringing heavy sediment loads in the river.
The river discharge at the dam site generally varies from 30 to 2,000 cumec, the
minimum being in January and the maximum in August.
The probable maximum flood (PMF) has been worked out at 15,540 cumec which
corresponds to a frequency of 1 in 10,000 years and has been adopted as the design
flood. The routed discharge for which spillway structures have been designed has
been worked out to be about 13,100 cumec.

The Debate over the Tehri Dam

Opposition to the Tehri dam began in 1976 when the Anti-Tehri Dam Committee
was formed by local opponents mainly in respect of the question of displacement,
compensation and rehabilitation. The opposition on environmental grounds came
in prominence in 1978 when a massive landslide dam-burst occurred in the upper
catchment of the river producing devastating floods to some distance downstream
of the dam site. A social activist, Mr. Sunderlal Bahuguna was the leader of this
movement which led to the establishment of a governmental working group for the
assessment of the environmental impact of the proposed dam.
The report of the governmental working group further stressed the issue of
seismicity in the Himalayan region as a major factor to be considered for dam
safety. In 1990 a more detailed investigation was undertaken by the Environmental
Appraisal Committee (EAC) of the Ministry of Environment. Three important
factors that were examined by the committee were: compensation and resettlement
for the involuntarily displaced population, siltation and economic life of the dam,
and the seismic risk associated with large dams in the tectonically active Himalayas.
These factors are not specific to the Tehri dam alone and will apply equally in the
case of any other large dam in the Himalayas. It may be added that the construction
of large dams to store water to augment lean-period flow is a solution to many
water related problems in the lower parts of Ganga Basin.
Intense public debate on the Tehri dam has centered around seismicity and
dam safety in Himalayas. As expected, there was divergence in expert opinions
on the seismicity issue which caused considerable confusion. While this debate
over the desirability or otherwise of large dams in Himalayas has generated much
controversy, it has also generated a wealth of literature. Anti-dam campaigners
also tried to the sensationalize campaign by highlighting the scenario of a possible
dambreak-generated flood that might wipe many districts of Western UP.
The opposition to the Tehri dam began on the question of displacement and
compensation for the affected people and constructing a dam in earthquake prone
Himalayan region (Valdiya 1991). But it grew beyond the resettlement and safety
aspects and later ecological and environmental issues dominated the debate. A wide
range of literature on the broad policy issues has been generated by the Tehri
Dam debate (Bandyopadhyay, 1990) and some of this could be a rich information
base for future projects. In this way, it can serve as a vital information base and
Ganga Basin 381

important background for the evolution of overall policy guidelines for decision
making on other big dams proposed in the Himalaya. Admittedly, some of the
questions that have been raised in the Tehri dam debate are of vital significance in
finding appropriate solutions to the question of optimal utilization of the Himalayan
water resources on a sustainable basis and good governance.
The possibility of occurrence of an earthquake of magnitude 7.0 or higher on
Richter Scale in the Himalayan region has been widely accepted. On the basis of
the risk associated with possible damage from earthquakes, the wisdom behind the
decision in favour of the construction of large dams in the Himalayas has been
questioned by many. Debate has been going on for years about the adequacy of
the design of the Tehri dam to sustain the dam against the maximum credible
earthquake expected in the area. The occurrence of a major earthquake in 1991 in
the upper catchment areas of the dam was a shot in the arms of the opponents.
It may be added here that Tehri dam is an earth and rock fill dam and that such
dams can withstand earthquakes of quite high magnitude. One may recall that the
construction of the Sardar Sarovar dam was also disrupted by activists on many
counts.
With the closure of tunnels in Oct. 2005, first filling of the reservoir commenced.
Trial run of the turbines of the power house was conducted in March 2006.

8.5.4. Lakhwar Dam

The Lakhwar dam site is proposed on the Yamuna River at latitude 80 31 3 N
and longitude, 77 56 58 E in the Dehradun district of Uttaranchal, about 2 km
south-west of the Lakhwar village, which is about 28 km upstream of the Dak
Pathar Barrage.
Initially in 1967 it was envisaged to construct a 176 m high concrete gravity dam
at Lakhwar and an underground power house on the right bank of the river with an
installed capacity of 158 MW. Along with this, another auxiliary project involving
construction of 60 m high concrete gravity dam at Vyasi was also envisaged. But
in December 1972 the proposal was modified and now the plan is to construct:
1. A 192 m high concrete cored gravity dam across the Yamuna River near the
Lakhwar village by which a head of 169 m would be created. This head will
be utilized by a powerhouse at the foot of the dam with an installed capacity
of 300 MW. For the main dam, the deepest anticipated foundation level is at an
elevation of 608 m, with top level at EL 800.00 m. The length of the dam at
the top level of EL 800.00 m will be 450.0 m. The capacity of reservoir, behind
Lakhwar dam, at full reservoir level of EL 796.00 m will to be 580 × 106 cum.
2. An auxiliary cored concrete gravity dam, 5 km downstream of Lakhwar, at the
Vyasi with a height of 58 m from its deepest foundation level. From this dam
water will be conducted through twin power tunnels to a surface powerhouse at
Hathiari with an installed capacity of 240 MW.
3. The discharge released from the Hathiari powerhouse will be balanced by a
proposed barrage at Katapathar 2.25 km downstream of the Hathiari powerhouse.
382 Chapter 8

The entire Lakhwar Vyasi Scheme is divided into two stages. The first stage
involves the Lakhwar dam and the Lakhwar underground powerhouse, while the
2nd stage involves the Vyasi dam, Hathiari powerhouse, and Katapathar barrage.
The National Hydroelectric Power Corporation will be constructing the project.
However, preparation of DPR for the project is stalled for want of consent of the
Govt. of UP & NCT of Delhi to fund the irrigation & drinking water component
of project, respectively.

8.5.5. Tapovan Vishnugarh Project

The Tapovan Vishnugarh Project is one of the Mega projects being constructed on
the Dhauliganga River in the Chamoli district of Uttaranchal state. The construction
work on this 520 MW project began in February 2005. The approximate cost of the
project is 2,158 crore. After completion the project will generate 2,558.37 million
units per year on 90% dependability. This project is being constructed by the
National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC).
Vishnuprayag hydroelectric project on Alaknanda River in Chamoli District of
Uttranchal is a run-of-the-river consisting of a 63 m barrage and an underground
powerhouse. This project is likely to commence power by the year 2007 and will
generate about 200 crore units each year.

8.5.6. Ramganga Multipurpose Project

The Ramganga dam on the tributary by the same name has created a reservoir at
Kalagarh with a live storage capacity of 2,190 million m3 . The Ramganga dam is
situated about 3 km upstream of the Kalagarh village, 45 km from Dhampur, Bijnor
District, Uttar Pradesh. It is about 110 km to the North East of the Moradabad
city. The exact location of the dam site is latitude 29 31 13 North and Longitude
78 45 35 East. Its construction began in 1961. The Ramganga project comprises
a 127.5 m high earth dam, a power house, irrigation outlet system and a vast canal
system. It is one of the first few high earth dams in India constructed close to areas
prone to seismic activity. The dam has been constructed over weak rocks, having
relatively complex geological features, in thickly wooded forests infested by wild
animals. The valley where the dam exists is known by the name of Patli Dun. The
catchment area at the dam is 3,134 km2 . The reservoir has a live storage capacity
of 2,450 MCM at FRL 365.3 m and the MDDL is at 317 m.
Two earthen dams, one 125.6 m high on the main Ramganga River and the
other 72.2 m high Saddle dam on one of its tributaries Chui Sot, comprise the
Multipurpose Ramganga River Project. The Saddle dam is about 3 km away from
the main dam on the North Eastern rim of the reservoir. The area is seismically
active and falls in a seismic belt. A feeder channel takes off from the dam to provide
extra supplies of water to the upper and lower Ganga canal and the Agra canal,
besides direct irrigation. A total of 666,000 ha cropped area will be irrigated by this
project.
Ganga Basin 383

The Ramganga Reservoir creates a lake submerging 55 sq. km in the famous

Corbett National Park. The reservoir does not only add to the beauty of this famous
wild life sanctuary but also helps in developing pisciculture and a bird sanctuary.
Apart from these, the development of boating facilities, crocodile pockets and
the project area provides an attraction to the tourists. The project is located in
industrially undeveloped area of Pauri Garhwal and has provided a great impetus to
its economic and social development. The life of the reservoir has been estimated
as 100 years and the design sedimentation rate is 4.25 ha-m/100 sq. km/year.
The multipurpose project has brought in additional benefits of flood control
and power generation. The existing resources of power in western U.P. are the
hydroelectric power stations located on falls on the Upper Ganga and Sarda Canals
and a few thermal stations. The major power projects included in the third five-year
plan were the 90 M.W. thermal station at Harduaganj and Yamuna Hydro Electric
scheme stage I and II. The existing Ganga, Sarda and the Yamuna power stations
have to depend on river supplies, there being no storage reservoirs.
The water available for utilization from the Ramganga reservoir is estimated
to be 0.215 M ha-m annually. With this water, 5.75 lakh hectares of additional
land can be brought under irrigation by means of a network of canals. This added
irrigation has improved agriculture in 14 districts of U.P. and three lakh tons of
additional food grains are being produced annually. It has provided substantial flood
protection to the districts of Moradabad, Rampur, Bareilly, Shahjahanpur, Bijnor
and Farrukhabad.
The Ramganga Project has provided irrigation to new areas and has increased
the firm power available in the combined Ganga-Sarda-Yamuna Ramganga grid. A
powerhouse with an installed capacity of 198 MW comprising 3 units of 66 MW
each is located at the toe of the dam. With mean annual inflow of 2,683 MCM,
the project has a firm power of 38 MW. Ramganga power house, in conjunction
with the existing Ganga-Sarda grid, the Yamuna stage I and II and existing
thermal power station, is expected to increase the firm power of the grid by
82.25 MW. The Ramganga powerhouse output is nearly 450 million units of power
per year.
Irrigation outlets have also been provided for emergency when the powerhouse
is not functioning and irrigation demands have to be met. The water released from
the powerhouse flows down the Ramganga for 25.6 km. It is diverted into a feeder
channel at Harevelli where a 416.3 m long barrage has been constructed across
the Ramganga River. The river and the barrage allow for the balancing of daily
fluctuation of load as the Ramganga power House is mainly as a peaking station.
The Feeder Channel, with a full supply discharge of 135 cumec, is 74 km long
and discharges into the Ganga River opposite Garhmukteshwar. The augmented
supplies of the Ganga River are picked up at Narora in the Bulandshahar district
and utilized for the Lower Ganga Canal.
The Ramganga River used to cause flood havoc in the past in the districts
of Moradabad, Bijnor, Rampur, Bareilly, Shahjahanpur and Farrukhabad, during
monsoons. Due to the storage of river water in the Ramganga Reservoir, the flood
384 Chapter 8

havoc has been eliminated in most of the years. In addition to direct advantages
5.5 cumec water would also be supplied to Delhi to overcome the shortage of
drinking water supply.

8.5.7. Projects in the Vicinity of Dehradun

A number of medium and small projects have been constructed in the region around
Dehradun.
Dhalipur hydropower plant: Dhalipur hydropower plant is located on Yamuna
River, 5 km from Herbertpur, in Dehradun District, Uttaranchal. The project utilizes
tail water of upstream Dhakrani power house which uses Yamuna waters diverted by
Dak Patthar barrage into Dakrani power channel. The rate of inflow is 19824 m3 /s.
The power house has 3 units of 17 MW each. It has a firm power of 39 MW. This
project was commissioned in 1965–70.
Giri diversion project: Giri is a diversion project on Giri River, tributary of Yamuna
River, located 25 km from Paonta Sahib in Sirmaur district in Himachal Pradesh.
The barrage is 163 m long. Commissioned in 1978, Giri power house has 2 units
of 30 MW each.
Chibro hydropower project: Chibro hydropower project is located near Ichari
diversion dam on Tons River, a tributary of Yamuna, 67 km from Dehradun, in
Dehradun District, Uttaranchal. The catchment area at the dam is 4,890 km2 . The
height and length of the dam is 59.25 m and 155 m respectively. It has a small pond
of live storage capacity of 5.11 MCM. The power house has 4 units of 60 MW each
and produces a firm power of 98 MW.
Khodri power house: Downstream to Chibro is the Khodri power house, 52 km
from Dehradun, in Dehradun District, Uttaranchal. The project uses the tail water
of Chibro powerhouse (5.6 km upstream) for power generation. Khodri powerhouse
has 4 units of 30 MW each and is able to generate a firm power of 51.5 MW. This
project was commissioned in 1984.
Chilla hydropower project: Chilla hydropower project is located downstream of
Pashulok diversion barrage on Ganga River, 4 km from Haridwar, in Dehradun
District. The catchment area at the Pashulok barrage is 21,400 km2 . The maximum
and minimum pond level is 336.5 m and 333.15 m respectively. The barrage is
designed for a designed flood of 13,200 m3 /s. The power house has 4 units of
36 MW each and a firm power of 143 MW. This project was commissioned in
1980–81.
Khara hydropower house: Khara hydropower house is located on Ahsan River,
tributary of Yamuna River, 50 km from Saharanpur, in Saharanpur District, Uttar
Pradesh. The hydropower project utilizes tail water of upstream Kulhal on Asan
River. The mean rate of inflow here is 186 m3 /s. The power house with 3 units of
24 MW each and has a firm power of 62 MW was commissioned in 1992.
Maneri Bhali I hydropower project: Maneri Bhali I hydropower project comprises
of 39 m high and 127 m long Maneri diversion dam on Bhagirathi River, 150 km
from Rishikesh, in Uttarkashi District, Uttaranchal. The catchment area at the dam
Ganga Basin 385

is 4,024 km2 . The project was completed in 1984. A small reservoir with live storage
capacity of 0.60 MCM has been created behind the dam. The power house has 3
units of 30 MW each which produce a firm power of 42 MW.
Tanakpur Barrage: Tanakpur Barrage was constructed in 1992 on Sarda River, a
tributary of Ghaghara which in turn is a tributary of Ganga. The powerhouse is
12 km away from Tanakpur in Udhamsingh Nagar District, Uttaranchal. Tanakpur
barrage is 475.30 m long and its design flood is 19,824 m3 /s. The pond level of the
barrage is 246.7 m. Tanakpur power house has 3 units of 40 MW each. It has a firm
power of 53 MW.
Kishau dam: Kishau dam is proposed on the Tons River, a tributary of the Yamuna
River, at about 95 km from Dehradun. A concrete gravity dam about 236 meters
high will be constructed at this place. The total extra electric power generated
will be to the tune of 1,68819 × 106 . On completion of the project, 1.015 maf of
irrigation water will be available, out of this only 0.515 maf will be utilized by the
Eastern Yamuna Canal to irrigate 97,076 ha of extra land and the rest of 0.500 maf
will be made available for drinking water to Delhi State.
The cost has been estimated to be about Rs. 35,662 million (December 1998
price level). A provision of 372 MGD (about 1.7 million cubic m/day) has been
earmarked for Delhi’s use from the storage of this dam.

8.5.8. Jamrani Multipurpose Dam Project

This dam is situated about 10 km from Kathgodam. The proposed dam is 130.6 m
high roller compact concrete structure. In the first phase a barrage on the Gola River
and a Feeder Channel and rejuvenation of the existing canal system is proposed.
After completion, 89,702 hectares land will be irrigated, 52.93 million m3 drinking
water and in future 15 MW hydro-electric power house is proposed.

8.5.9. Rihand Dam

The Rihand Dam was constructed on the Rihand River in the Sonbhadra district
of Uttar Pradesh in the year 1962. The objective of the project was to provide
water mainly for generation of hydropower necessary for speedy development of
agriculture and industry in the backward areas of Eastern and South-Eastern parts
of the State of Uttar Pradesh.
The river above the dam site drains an area of 13,333 sq. km and has a length
of 257.50 km. The stream slopes down from an elevation of about 915.50 m in the
upper valley to 190.5 m at the dam site. The region is hilly and is covered with
vegetation. At Chopan in the Sonbhadra district (U.P.), the Rihand River joins the
Sone River.
The Rihand dam is located at a latitude of 24 12 30 N and a longitude of
83 03 E. It comprises a 90 m high and 934.2 m long concrete gravity dam near the
Pipri village. The dam impounds 10,608.32 million cubic meters Mm3  of water
at the full reservoir level (FRL) of 268.22 m. A powerhouse with 6 units of 50 MW
386 Chapter 8

each is also constructed at the toe of the dam on the right bank of the river to provide
a firm power of 105 MW with a total annual power output of 912 million units.
The reservoir can attain an MWL of 271.52 m during the passage of PMF of
13,339 cumec. The reservoir has a dead storage of 1,62838 Mm3 below R.L.
236.22 m and a live storage of 8,97994 Mm3 between R.L. 236.22 m and the FRL.
Its water spread area is 469.40 sq. km at FRL which lies in both Uttar Pradesh
(347 sq. km) and Madhya Pradesh (122 sq. km).
The average annual rainfall in the Rihand basin is 1,422 mm while the average
annual runoff is 475 mm. The Rihand River experiences heavy floods during the
monsoon season and has little discharge during the remaining part of the year.
The maximum and minimum runoffs have been estimated to be 8,993 Mm3 and
3,503 Mm3 , respectively, the average annual runoff being 6,32847 Mm3 .
Although the original project envisaged generation of only hydroelectric power,
these days the reservoir water is used mainly for the generation of thermal power as
the coal is available in adjacent areas. The following thermal power stations have
been installed at the periphery of the reservoir:
a. Anpara Super Thermal Power House of 2,000 MW,
b. Renu Sagar Power Station of 600 MW,
c. Shakti Nagar Super Thermal Power Station of 2,000 MW,
d. Vindhya Nagar Super Thermal Power Station of 2,000 MW, and
e. Rihand Nagar Super Thermal Power Station of 1,000 MW.
The reservoir is encroached upon by construction of several ash dykes and other
structures near its periphery. Consequently, the capacity of the reservoir has reduced
by 447 Mm3 . Thus, the net original capacity of 10,56362 Mm3 and the net live
storage capacity of 8,97994 Mm3 is available for regulation of water. The reservoir
could be filled up to FRL only in the years 1964, 1971 and 1995 and it was well
below FRL during the rest of the years. Consequent upon installation of several
thermal power stations around the periphery, the reservoir level is now not allowed
to fall below 252.98 m. Therefore, the new dead storage level is 252.98 m.
The provision of dead storage in the reservoir is made considering the sedimen-
tation in 140 years of its operation. During this period, the live storage was
expected to reduce from 8,97994 Mm3 to 8,18549 Mm3 . However, the capacity
survey of the reservoir carried out before the monsoon of 1995 indicates that
the sediment deposition has reduced the live storage to 8,00994 Mm3 in only 33
years of operation. This gives a sedimentation rate of 2,918 m3 /sq. km/year against
the assumed value of 904 m3 /sq. km/year. The large difference in the assumed
and the estimated rates is partly attributed to inaccuracies in the original capacity
surveys.

8.5.10. Rajghat Dam Project

Rajghat dam in Bundelkhand region provides irrigation facilities for area in Uttar
Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh States. The financial burden will be borne by both
states under the central command of the Betwa River Board. This project has been
Ganga Basin 387

cleared by the Central Government. The canal network is proposed to be borne by

individual state governments. The pump canal system of the Betwa, Gurshahai, and
Bargaon is being considered.

8.5.11. The Halali Dam

The Halali dam, also known as Samrat Ashok Sagar project, was constructed across
the Halali River which is a tributary of the Betwa River. The dam site is located
both in the Raisen and Vidisha districts of Madhya Pradesh, 40 km away from
Bhopal and 16 km away from the Salamatpur railway station. The Halali River rises
around Bhopal at an altitude of about 487.68 m above msl and joins the Betwa
near Vidisha. After flowing for a length of about 38 km NE, it enters a narrow
gorge with high hills on both sides. The dam has been constructed at this gorge
at 23 30 N latitude and 77 30 E longitude. The rock at the dam site belongs to
Upper Vindhyans and consists of massive to current bedded, course grained sand
stone, grits, conglomerates together with minor bands of shales and pockets of soft
friable sand rock.
Halali is a rolled-filled earthen dam, 945m long with a maximum height of 29.57m
above the foundation level. The catchment area of the project is 699 sq. km with
a maximum rainfall in the area as 1680 mm and the average rainfall of 1,108 mm.
About 25% of the catchment area is hilly and the rest is in plains. The project
envisages a gross command area of 374.19 sq km with CCA as 279.24 sq km. The
intensity of irrigation in the command is 135%. The design rate of sedimentation
is 0.476 mm/year for gross storage. The top bund level of the reservoir is fixed
at 466.32 m and MWL is fixed at 464.19 m. The water spread at FRL is 52.59 sq.
km. The width of the earthen dam at its top is 4.57 m. Additional spillway with a
41.15m length is provided at RL 459.61 m.

8.5.12. Gandhisagar Dam

Three important storage reservoirs constructed in the basin include Gandhisagar,

Jawaharsagar and Rana Pratapsagar cascade which provide a live storage of 8,500
million cubic m. The barrage at Kota diverts water into canals on either side,
irrigating a total of 0.57 million ha agriculture area.
Gandhisagar is the main storage dam constructed across the Chambal River, inter-
cepting a catchment area of about 23,025 sq. km. The dam serves as a backup storage
for power generation in the Gandhisagar, Rana Pratapsagar and Jawaharsagar dams
and irrigation through canal systems taking off from the Kota Barrage. The dam is
64.63 m high, straight gravity masonry type with an installed capacity of 115 MW
and an irrigation potential of 7.57 lakh ha.
The Gandhisagar is the upper most dam in the series of three dams and a
barrage of the Chambal Valley Project. The catchment area intercepted up to various
structures is given in Table 11:
388 Chapter 8

Table 11. Catchment area intercepted up to various structures

Name of structures Catchment area (sq. km)

Gandhisagar Dam 23 025

Between Gandhisagar & Ranapratap Sagar Dam 2 103
Between Ranapratap Sagar Dam & Jawahar Sagar Dam 2 054
Between Jawahar Sagar Dam & Kota Barrage 137
Total 27 319

The live and dead reservoir storages provided for at planning stage were
6910 Mm3 and 836 Mm3 , respectively with a gross storage of 7 746 Mm3 . The
original reservoir submergence area at FRL was 680 sq. km.
The Gandhisagar dam was constructed in 1960 as a 64.63 m high straight gravity
masonry dam 514 m long with a 182.93 m central spillway and five power blocks on
its right along with non-overflow blocks at both flanks. The installed hydropower
capacity is 115 MW and the irrigation potential created is 7.57 lakh ha. The dam
is located at a latitude of 24 44 N, longitude of 75 33 E, 8 km north-east of
Bhanpura. The spillway section consists of 10 spans each of 18.3 m length and 9
sluice piers 7.927 m wide, accommodating 9 sluices of 305m × 762m each with
their sill level at 363.872 m and steel crest gates 183m × 854m with crest at
391.46m. The discharging capacity of the spillway is 13,705 cumec at MWL. At
the foot of the power intake is the power house which has five generating units.
The gross storage capacity of the reservoir was assessed as 7,746 MCM at the time
of first impounding.
The Full Reservoir Level (FRL) and the Maximum Water Level (MWL) of the
dam is 400 m, and the Dead Storage Level (DSL) is 381.0 m. Sedimentation surveys
were conducted in the reservoir area in 1975 and 1989. Surveys conducted in 1975
indicated a reduction of the gross capacity by 333 MCM over a period of 15 years.
Those conducted in 1989 indicated a further reduction of 419 MCM in the gross
storage.
A hydrographic survey using modern equipment was conducted during March-
October, 2001 up to the maximum water level. The rate of sedimentation adopted at
the project planning stage was 3.6308 ham/100 sq. km/year. However, the average
rate of sedimentation during the first 41 years, on the basis of 2001 survey, works
out to 5,508 ham/100 sq. km/year. The anticipated feasible life of the reservoir
works out to be 125 years, as against the planning stage stipulation of 100
years.
The gross storage capacity of Gandhisagar dam was assessed from toposheets
at the planning stage as 8450 M cu m, with full reservoir at 400 m. Subsequently,
based on aerial photographs and contour surveys, the gross storage was refixed
at 7,746 M cu m. In all subsequent publications, this value is considered as
original gross capacity. The surveys conducted from time to time have indicated a
progressive reduction of the storage capacity as given in Table 12.
Ganga Basin 389

Table 12. Storage in the Gandhisagar dam on various dates

Project planning 1960–61 1975 Resurvey 1989 survey

stage Reassessment

Gross Storage at FRL 8,450 MCM 7,746 MCM 7,413 MCM 7,323 MCM
Live Storage 7,620 MCM 6,910 MCM 6,827 MCM 6,798 MCM
Dead Storage 830 MCM 836 MCM 586 MCM 525 MCM

8.5.13. Rana Pratap Sagar Dam

Rana Pratap Sagar is a masonry gravity dam on Chambal River, 54 km from Kota,
in Chittaurgarh District, Rajasthan. The catchment area at the dam is 24,576 km2 .
The height and length of the dam is 38.3 m and 1,143 m respectively. The reservoir
has a live storage capacity of 2,899.5 MCM at FRL 352.9 m and the MDDL is at
343 m. The power house has 4 units of 43 MW each, producing a firm power of
54 MW with mean annual inflow of 49,538 MCM. RRVPN Ltd. commissioned the
project in 1968–69.

8.5.14. Jawahar Sagar Dam

Jawahar Sagar is a straight gravity concrete dam on Chambal downstream of Rana

Pratap Sagar, 36 km from Kota, in Kota District, Rajasthan. The catchment area
at the dam is 26,880 km2 . The height and length of the dam is 37 m and 336 m
respectively. This reservoir has a live storage capacity of 7.40 MCM. Its FRL is at
298.78 m and MDDL is at 295.78 m. With 3 units of 33 MW each, the power house
produces a firm power of 32 MW. This project was completed in 1972–73.

8.5.15. Chambal Valley Project

The Chambal Valley Project would provide water for both irrigation and industrial
purposes in the south eastern part of the State, primarily in the districts of Kota,
Baran, Bundi and Sawaimadhopur. Three dams and a barrage on the Chambal
River have been created with a canal network in Rajasthan & Madhya Pradesh. The
project will irrigate approximately 5 lakh ha. The salient features of the Chambal
Canal System have been given in Table 13.

8.5.16. Obra Dam

Obra is an earth and rockfill dam constructed across Rihand River, 33 km from
Robertsganj, Uttar Pradesh. The catchment area at the dam is 5465 km2 . The height
and length of the dam is 29 m and 2000 m, respectively. Commissioned in 1970–71,
the Obra powerhouse has 3 units of 33 MW each and has a firm power of 21 MW.
390 Chapter 8

Table 13. Salient features of Chambal Canal System

Name of Length Design/head CCA (ha) Design Tehsil

canal (km) discharge irrigated
area (ha)

Right main 179 11040 68,400 47,800 Shopepur & Vijapur

canal
Lower main 53 5380 29,200 20,300 Sabalgarh & Joura
canal
Ambah 171 3540 132,100 92,500 Sabalgarh, Joura, Ambah
branch & Bhind
canal
Morena 38 1420 48,600 34,100 Morena
branch
canal
Asan outfall 3 4100 – – –
canal
Bhind main 82 3570 96,200 60,700 Gohad, Bhind & Mehgaon
canal
Mau branch 48 990 40,100 28,100 Gohad
canal

Source: WG (1999).

8.5.17. Bansagar Tons

Bansagar Tons hydropower project is located on Beehar barrage on Tons River and
Beehar River, tributaries of Yamuna, 50 km from Rewa, in Rewa District, Madhya
Pradesh. The catchment area at the Bansagar dam is 8648 km2 , at Tons bridge is
4457 km2 , and at Beehar Bridge is 1637 km2 respectively. The height and length
of the Beehar barrage is 9.1 m and 138 m respectively. The maximum and minimum
pond levels of the barrage are 180 m and 277 m respectively. The power house has
3 units of 105 MW each. It has a firm power of 35 MW with mean annual inflow of
2,100 MCM and 700 MCM at tons bridge and Beehar Bridge respectively. MPEB
commissioned the project in 1991–92.

Bansagar Tons II and III

Bansagar Masonary gravity dam on Sone River in Rewa District, Madhya Pradesh.
At the dam site, the catchment area is 18648 km2 . The height of the dam is
63 m and the live storage capacity of the reservoir is 5,410 MCM at FRL 341.65.
Corresponding to a 90% dependable year, the annual inflow of the dam is 4,840
MCM. Bansagar Tons II and III powerhouses are located at a distance of 8 km and
70 km from Rewa. The Bansagar Tons II power house has 2 units of 15 MW and
Bansagar Tons III has 3 units of 20 MW each. Bansagar Tons II and Bansagar Tons
III projects have initial phase firm power of 12.9 and 16.4 MW and final phase
firm power of 3.3 and 13.3 MW respectively. MPEB commissioned the project in
2001–02.
Ganga Basin 391

8.5.18. Parbati Dam

The Parbati dam is situated across Parbati River in the Chambal basin in the Baseri
tehsil in the Dhaulpur district of Rajasthan. It is located nearly 50 km away from the
district headquarters and almost 15 km from Bari town. The geographic coordinates
of dam are 26  37 36 N latitude and 77  26 52 E longitude. The area experiences
extreme temperature variation with minimum and maximum temperatures as 1  C to
49  C, respectively. The average annual rainfall in the area is nearly 67 cm. Farmers
in the area grow wheat, gram, barley, pulses, bajra, etc. The forest in the area falls
under the dry deciduous variety. Physiographically, the area is characterized by a
dissected plateau and alluvial plain region. The geological sequence of the area
forms part of vindhyan supergroup, which is essentially made up of sedimentary
rocks including sandstones, shales and limestones.
The catchment and gross command area (GCA) of the Parbati project are approx-
imately 780 sq. km and 325 sq. km, respectively. The project has a live storage
capacity of 102.893 MCM as per the hydrographic survey carried out during the
impounding year 1963. The length of the main canal is 58 km. The project command
is restricted to main course on its southern side. The design rate of sedimentation
is 0.157 mm/year.

8.5.19. Matatila Reservoir

Matatila dam was constructed in the year 1956 across Betwa River, a tributary of
the Yamuna River. The dam lies at 25  6 15 N latitude and 78  23 00 E longitude.
It is located in Lalitpur tehsil of Matatila district, Uttar Pradesh, at about 56 km
from Jhansi.
Matatila is an earthern dam 6.6 km long with masonary spillway of ogee shape.
The height of the dam is 24.40 m. It has 23 vertical lifting gates and 4 sluices. The
dam has a live storage capacity of 1,019.40 MCM and dead storage capacity of
113.30 MCM. The total capacity of the reservoir at FRL 308.46 m is 1,132.70 MCM
with a water spread area of 14243 m2 . It is a multipurpose dam which provides
facilities for irrigation, water supply and fish cultivation.

8.5.20. Ramsagar Dam

The Ramsagar dam is situated across the Bamani River, a tributary of the Ramsagar
River (which is a tributary of the Chambal River) in Bari tehsil, the Dhaulpur
district of Rajasthan. It is located nearly 40 km away from the district headquarters
and almost 8 km from the Bari town. The geographic coordinates of the dam are
26  35 N latitude and 77  35 E longitude. The area experiences extreme temper-
ature variations with minimum and maximum temperatures as 1  C to 49  C, respec-
tively. The average annual rainfall in the area is nearly 67 cm. Major crops in the
area are wheat, gram, barley, pulses, bajra, etc. The forest in the area falls under the
392 Chapter 8

dry deciduous variety. Physiographically, the area is characterized by a dissected

plateau and alluvial plain region. The geological sequences of the area are part of
Vindhyan supergroup, which is essentially made up of sedimentary rocks, including
sandstones, shales and limestones.
The catchment and gross command area (GCA) of the Ramsagar project are
approximately 176 sq. km and 62 sq. km, respectively. The project has a gross and
live storage capacity of 30.83 and 29.39 MCM, respectively as per the hydrographic
survey carried out during year 1905, which is the impounding year. The length of
the main canal is 11.27 km. The design rate of sedimentation is 0.81 mm/year.

8.5.21. Massanjore Reservoir

The Massanjore reservoir is located on the Mayurakshi River upstream of the
confluence of Sidheswari with Mayurakshi. The total length of the Mayurakshi
River up to the dam site is 70 km from its origin, out of which 43% lies in the
reservoir waterspread area. The reservoir was created in 1954 by the construction
of a stone masonry dam at Massanjore in the Santhal Parganas in the district of
Bihar about 24 km from the West Bengal border to irrigate the lands in West Bengal
and Bihar and to generate 4,000 kW of hydro power. The lake extends over 30 km
upstream in the Bihar State. The 1,859.62 sq. km catchment of the river above the
dam is leaf shaped with no appreciable vegetal cover. Rolling and undulating in
nature with scattered hillocks the catchment comprises various types of lands.
Forests constitute only 6% of the catchment area. The vegetation is generally
limited to hill tops and slopes. About 44% of the catchment area comprises lands
under paddy cultivation.

8.5.22. Dhauliganga Power Project

The Dhauliganga project has been constructed in the Pithoragarh district of the
Uttaranchal state. Under this project a 56 m high concrete dam on the Dhauliganga
River, a 750 m long diversion tunnel, and a 5.3 km long head race tunnel have been
constructed. The total installed power capacity of the underground power house
is 280 MW 4∗ 70 MW. Constructed by the National Hydropower Corporation
(NHPC), this project has started generation of electricity in 2006. This hydropower
project will generate 1,134 million units of electricity each year. The beneficiary
states of this project are Delhi, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Chandigarh,
Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir. The estimated cost of the
project is Rs. 1,578 crore.

8.5.23. The DVC System

To control the Damodar River, the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC) was set up
in 1948. Construction work on four dams at Tilaiya, Konar, Maithon and Panchet
was completed in 1953, 1955, 1957 and 1959, respectively. Along with these,
Ganga Basin 393

a barrage at Durgapur was completed in 1958. One more dam was constructed
at Tenughat at a later date. First four reservoirs, viz., Maithon, Panchet, Konar
and Tilaiya, come under the purview of the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC),
whereas the Tenughat reservoir is being operated by the Bihar Government. The
operation of the Durgapur barrage is being controlled by the Government of West
Bengal. Further, the Central Water Commission has the responsibility to operate the
Maithon and Panchet reservoirs. These dams are being operated for flood control,
municipal and industrial water supply, irrigation, and power generation. A line
diagram of the system is shown in Figure 16.

Bokaro Konar River

Garhi Nala River

Tilaiya Dam

Konar dam

Damodar
River
Usri River

Barakar River
Tenughat Dam
Bokaro
Barrage

Maithon Dam
Garga Dam

Gawai River

Panchet Dam

Damodar River
Damodar River

Durgapur Barrage

Figure 16. Line diagram of the DVC system

394 Chapter 8

i. Tilaiya Reservoir
The Tilaiya dam is located in the upper reaches of the Barakar River about 64.4 km
downstream of its source. The river at this site passes through a narrow gorge
approximately 91.4 m wide with banks steeply rising about 45.7 m on either side.
The dam was completed in 1952. Barakar River rising from the hilly forests of
the Hazaribagh district at an elevation of 610 m has a catchment area of 984 km2 ,
comprising mainly forests, pastures, cultivated lands and wastelands. The annual
rainfall in the area is 127 cm. The reservoir has a water spread area of 5,921 ha at
FRL with a volume and mean depth of 394 MCM and 6.65 m respectively.
The Talaiya dam is a concrete gravity dam with a maximum height of 30.2 m above
the river bed. The spillway has 14 tainter type crest gates of 305 m∗ 91 m, with a
maximum discharge capacity of 3,852 cumec. Two modified butterfly type undersluice
gates 1 m high and 1.7 m wide with a discharge capacity of 14.2 cumec are provided
in the body of the dam mainly to supply irrigation water during dry season. The power
house is 41.5 m long 19.5 m wide and 22.6 m high and is located on the left bank of the
river. It consists of two of generating units of 2 MW capacity each with a provision for
a third future unit of the same capacity.
ii. Konar Reservoir
Completed in 1955 on a river with the same name, the Konar reservoir is located
on the Konar River, a seasonal tributary of the Damodar River, about 30.6 km from
its confluence with Damodar River in the district of Hazaribagh in Bihar. This
dam was the second of the four dams which was completed in the first phase of
development of DVC. The dam is primarily responsible for flood control and to
supply cooling water to Bokaro thermal power station in the downstream.
The Konar earth and concrete dam has a catchment area of 997 km2 which
comprises thick jungles, wastelands and cultivated areas. The total length of the
dam was 4.00 km with earthern embankment flanked on either side of the concrete
structure. At FRL, the reservoir has a capacity of 336.16 million m3 and a mean
depth of 12.97 m. In the basin of the Konar reservoir, the main soil is sandy loam
to clay with 0.3 to 0.9% of organic carbon.
The spillway was provided with 9 tainter crest gated each of 104 m × 99 m.
Two 2.3 m dia. undersluices were embedded in the body of the dam. The spillway
has a maximum capacity of 6,792 cumec. Two power stations with a total capacity
of 35 MW have been proposed.
iii. Maithon Reservoir
The Maithon dam is a concrete cum earthen dam located on Barakar River at a
distance of 26 km from Asansol in Bardhaman District, West Bengal. The dam was
constructed for flood conrol, irrigation and power generation. This reservoir came
into being in 1957. At the dam site, the catchment area is 6,249 sq. km. The average
annual basin precipitation is 114 cm and the average annual run off is 2,616 million
cubic m. In the basin, and the maximum observed flood (June 1949) was 7,085
cumec. For the project, the spillway design flood is 14,736 cumec. The live storage
capacity at the dam is 566 MCM at FRL 152.4 m and the MDDL is at 132.5 m.
Ganga Basin 395

Table 14. Salient features of the Maithon Reservoir

Elevation (meters) Storage (Million cu m)

Minimum draw down level 13262 16530

Spillway crest 14024 39729
Maximum conservation pool 14635 73859
Maximum flood control pool 15091 112030
Full and maximum pool 15244 127577
Top of dam 15609

For generation of hydropower, 3 units of 20 MW each have been installed. It has a

firm power of 16 MW with mean annual inflow of 2,615 MCM. Salient features of
the reservoir are stated in the Table 14.
It can be seen that a separate storage is earmarked at the Maithon dam for
flood control storage amounting to 539.39 million cu m (between EL 146.34 m to
152.44 m. The land has been acquired up to RL 150.91 m.
iv. Panchet Dam
The Panchet dam, an earthen dam with concrete spillway, was commissioned
in 1958 on the Damodar River located at a distance of 20 km from Asansol in
Jharkhand. The height and length of the dam are 47.85 m and 2,345 m respectively.
The reservoir traps a catchment area of 10,961 sq. km. The average annual basin
precipitation is 114 cm and the average annual run off is 4,540 million cubic m. At
the dam site, the maximum observed flood (June 1949) was 8,558 cumec. For the
project, the spillway design flood that was adopted was 17,853 cumec. Two units
of 40 MW have been installed at the powerhouse for generation of hydropower.
Some important features of the reservoir are given in the Table 15.
At the Panchet dam also, flood control storage amounting to 1,083 million cubic
m (between EL 125.0 m to 135.67 m) has been earmarked. The land acquisition has
been made up to RL 129.57 m. Houses have been acquired up to RL 132.62 m at
the Panchet.
v. Operation guidelines of the Maithon and Panchet Dams
The conservation storage level for the Maithon and the Panchet is 146.34 m and
125 m, respectively. The operation of the reservoirs during monsoon season below
the conservation storage (i.e., 146.34 m and 125 m) consists in releases to meet the

Table 15. Salient features of Panchet Reservoir

Elevation (m) Storage (Million cu m)

Minimum draw down level 11950 17026

Spillway crest 12347 31215
Maximum conservation pool 12500 39236
Maximum flood control pool 13262 1 05862
Full and maximum pool 13567 1 47565
Top of dam 13933
396 Chapter 8

downstream requirements. The operation curves guide the flows such that on the
first of October, the reservoir will be at the monsoon storage level of 146.34 m for
the Maithon and 125 m for the Panchet. When the reservoir level rises or shows
a tendency to rise above 146.34 m and 125 m for the Maithon and the Panchet
reservoirs, flood control operation commences and they shall cease as soon as the
level comes down to RL 146.34 m and 125 m.
As regards the operation of the Panchet reservoir, the reservoir may be drawn
down to EL 119.51 m to meet the power requirements in June, when the monsoon
flows arrive in June the reservoir will be, if at a lower level, allowed to build
up to RL 121.95 m as quickly as possible after allowing releases for the essential
downstream and power requirements.
On the 1st of July, the Panchet reservoir is to be kept as near to RL 121.5 m as
possible for ensuring generation of hydro-electric power. The reservoir level shall
be kept between curves A & B during July, August and closer to curve A during
September and as far as possible at the monsoon storage level RL 125 m during
October.
Guidelines for releases from the Maithon and Panchet dams taken together for
flood control operations during June, July, August and September are:
• Limit the combined outflow to the safe limit indicated by the West Bengal, except
that the outflow shall not be less than the actual inflow or 1,983.7 cumec (70,000
cusecs) whichever is less, till 20% of the combined flood reserve is used up.
• Limit the combined outflow to 3,400 cumec (120,000 cusec) while using the
combined flood reserve between 20% to 50%.
• Limit the combined outflow to 4,534 cumec (160,000 cusec) while using the
combined flood reserve between 50% to 70%.
• Limit the combined outflow to 5,668 cumec (200,000 cusec) while using the
combined flood reserve between 70% to 100%.
• Balance outflow with inflow when all available combined flood reserve is used
up, when the Maithon and Panchet reaches 150.91 m and 132.92 m, respectively,
and the combined inflow is more than 5,667 cumec (200,000 cusec).

Emergency operation
• Flood starts when 50% of the flood reserve is occupied.
• Between 50% to 70% occupation, the inflow and outflow is balanced up to a
maximum of 4,534 cumec (160,000 cusec).
• Between 70% to 100% occupation, half inflow is released subject to a maximum
of 7,085 cumec (250,000 cusec) and a minimum of 5,668 cumec (200,000 cusec).
• At 100% occupation balance the outflow with inflow.
Dry weather operation: The water available from monsoon storage and dry season
flows are utilized for meeting the committed requirements of Kharif, Rabi, Industrial
and drinking water and hydro-electric power requirements.
Allocation of surplus, if any, after meeting the committed requirements will be
made in November, the surplus water will be allocated for irrigating Bore paddy
(Jan 21 to April 30), hydro-electric power and other requirements and a working
Ganga Basin 397

table is prepared on the basis of allocation of waters for different uses. The reservoir
is operated as per the working table.

8.5.24. Farakka Barrage

Farakka is a gauging site very close to the India-Bangladesh border. At Farakka

the river has a stable cross-section with a long history of monitoring. In Figure 6
information on the annual volume of water flow of the Ganga is shown. The
hydrograph does not show any trend in the hydrological characteristics of the Ganga
from 1950 to 1985. The annual fluctuation is extremely high, but there is no obvious
change over the recorded time period.
Near the Indo-Bangladesh border, a barrage has been constructed at Farakka
to divert water to the river Hooghly to increase and maintain adequate depths of
flow for navigation and operation of Calcutta port. Farakka barrage was completed
in 1975.

8.5.25. Other Projects

In addition to the above there are several other reservoirs in the basin. Some other
important projects on the tributaries of the Ganga include Sarda sagar on the Sarda,
and Mayurakshi on the Mayurakshi River. A brief description of a few follows.

Baigul reservoir
Baigul (Sukhi) is a small tributary of the Ganga originating from the foothills of
Kumaon Himalayas. In the year 1967, the river was harnessed for irrigation purposes
to form the Baigul reservoir. The dam is located at 28  56 N and 79  40 E, and
provided with four gates and two sluices for outflow. The catchment area of dam
is 305 km2 , comprising of wooded forests and fields. The reservoir has an area of
2,995 ha at FRL of 211 m above MSL. The maximum spillway discharge amounts
566 m3 /s.

Baghla reservoir
Baghla reservoir is a small irrigation impoundment, created on the rivulet Barica
in 1952. Situated at a distance of 55 km southwest of Allahabad, the reservoir
covers 250 ha at the FRL of 119 m above MSL. The water retention capacity is 9.58
million m3 at FRL and 0.141 million m3 at DSL. Catchment comprises 32 km2 of
hilly land, receiving a rainfall of 100 cm.

Renuka Dam
This is a proposed project in Himachal Pradesh. The expected total cost of the
project is Rs.1,224.64 crore. A provision of 275 MGD (about 1.25 million cubic
m/day) has been earmarked for Delhi’s use in the proposed Renuka Dam project.
398 Chapter 8

Kosi Project
Kosi is one of the highly silt-laden rivers in the world. The resultant lateral migration
of Kosi has caused considerable misery in Bihar and because of this, it came to
be known as Bihar’s ‘river of sorrow’. There was considerable pressure in India to
control the Kosi River, especially after a major flood in 1954. As a response, a Kosi
river barrage was built below Chatra in Nepal, along with a pair of embankments
to confine the Kosi to its existing course. The Kosi embankments were completed
in 1959 and the barrage in 1963. The cost of the barrage and the associated works
were borne by India. Nepal received about 10 MW of power, some flood protection
and a bridge over the barrage which facilitated east-west communications in that
part of Nepal.
The Kosi, the Karnali and the Pancheshwar projects are three mega projects
which have received a lot of attention and discussion over the past three decades.
Of these, the Kosi high dam is the oldest project, which was proposed by the
Government of India in 1950s. The project was originally proposed to have a
239 m high dam at Barakshetra in Nepal, and a downstream barrage at Chatra, also
in Nepal. The 850,000 ha-m storage has considerable flood attenuation capacity,
reducing a peak flow of 24050 m3 /s to 5660 m3 /s, thereby providing substantial
flood control benefit. The project would generate 1,800 MW of power and irrigate
large tracts of land in Nepal and Bihar.

Karnali dam
The original Karnali dam proposal suggested a height of 240 m for the dam and
a power potential of 4,500 MW. The Himalayan Hydro Development Company
(HHDC) in 1988 proposed raising the height of the dam to 262 m so that the power
potential might be increased from 4,500 MW to 10,000 MW. Another suggestion by
HHDC is to phase the Karnali Project with an upstream run-of-the-river hydroelectic
project and storage development on the Bheri and Seti rivers, which are tributaries of
the Karnali. These supplements to the Karnali Project would generate an additional
5,400 MW of electricity. The 1988 cost of the Karnali Project was estimated at
about US$ 4.4 billion; 95% of the power generated by the Karnali Project is to be
exported to India.

Pancheshwar Project
The Pancheshwar project on the Mahakali River is of interest to both India and
Nepal. The Mahakali River is a western boundary river between India and Nepal.
The project can generate 2,000 MW and provide Irrigation benefits. India has
completed the Investigation of the Pancheshwar site on its side of the border
and wants the project to move ahead fast. However, Nepal is still investigating
the conditions on its side of the border. Between the two, Karnali will be a
completely Nepalese project and the Pancheshwar a joint project between India and
Nepal.
Ganga Basin 399

Gandak Project
The Gandak Project was designed to irrigate 0.96 million ha in nine districts
of Bihar, 56,650 ha in Nepal, some area in Uttar Pradesh and supply 15 MW of
hydroelectric power to Nepal. This project was commissioned in 1971 and was
declared complete in 1985. This project was also fully financed by the Government
of India.
The Sarda canal provides protective irrigation to nearly 0.6 million ha area.
Some other major projects under construction are Rajghat on the Betwa, Bansagar
on the Sone and Lakhwar-Vyasi on the Yamuna. The National Hydroelectric
Power Corporation is running a 120 MW Tanakpur Project and also signed an
agreement with the Uttaranchal state government for constructing an 850 MW
BHEL project on the Alakhnanda River in February 2005. Storage capacities of
the other large existing and under construction projects having a storage capacity
of 10 Million cubic meter or more is summarized below as Tables 16 and 17,
respectively.

Table 16. Salient features of some existing projects in Ganga Basin

Name of the project State Completed Gross Live Designed Installed

in storage storage annual capacity
capacity capacity irrigation (MW)
(million (million (Million
cubic cubic sq. m)
meter) meter)

Ajan Bihar – – 2471 3240 –

Anrej Bihar – 3040 2689 1900 –
Badua Bihar 1966 12828 10978 42510 –
Belharan Reservoir Bihar – 1555 1456 2320 –
Botane Bihar 1961 – 4833 6710 –
Bilasi Reservoir Bihar – 2874 2467 4000 –
Chandan Bihar 1976 13692 12458 62750 –
Durgawati Bihar 1957 – 25770 – –
Kohira Bihar 1961 3685 2771 10320 –
Kharagpur lake Bihar 1956 1650 1628 5060 –
Latratu Bihar – 4686 4135 3300 –
Lilajan Bihar 1961 21868 18871 22680 –
Lower Kiul Bihar 1961 – 25105 25920 –
Malay Bihar – 3232 2852 – –
Murway Bihar 1971 1805 1505 4900 –
Nalkari Dam Bihar 1968 10500 8500 – –
Nakti Bihar – 1470 1364 2830 –
Oriya Dam Bihar – – 1720 3640 –
Palna Bihar – 1233 1134 2300 –
Phulwaria Reservoir Bihar – 5829 5066 – –
Sunder Reservoir Bihar 1977 2566 1924 9600 –
Tarlow Bihar – 1533 1284 9500 –

(Continued)
400 Chapter 8

Table 16. (Continued)

Name of the project State Completed Gross Live Designed Installed

in storage storage annual capacity
capacity capacity irrigation (MW)
(million (million (Million
cubic cubic sq. m)
meter) meter)

Tahle Bihar – 19116 15416 2550 –

Tenugha Bihar 1973 28057 21644 – –
Upper Sakari Bihar – 33086 25123 – –
Aoda M.P. 1934 5570 4500 4860 –
Arania Bhadurpur M.P. 1986 2524 2236 2750 –
Bairarpur M.P. – 7900 6200 43510 –
Bainswar M.P. 1971 – 9000 2570 –
Barodia M.P. 1961 – 1458 910 –
Beniganj M.P. 1970 2800 2600 4170 –
Bila Nadi Tank M.P. 1973 5668 5195 12270 –
Bilas M.P. – 5600 5300 – –
Bohita M.P. 1987 1796 1746 440 –
Chappi M.P. 1972 1574 1354 2020 –
Chillar M.P. 1970 3480 3100 3440 –
Devendra Nagar M.P. 1967 1087 1009 2400 –
Dholawad M.P. – 5430 5000 6440 –
Doraha M.P. 1986 1806 1559 2830 –
Girla M.P. 1987 1450 1338 390 –
Gomukh M.P. – 3751 3516 6100 –
Gurma Tank M.P. 1980 3916 3605 7240 –
Harri Tola M.P. 1987 1422 1222 4710 –
Harsi M.P. 1935 23050 22450 40490 –
Hathikhenda M.P. 1960 1628 1522 240 –
Jarmora Tank M.P. 1980 1854 1734 3040 –
Jassiya (Koncha) M.P. 1972 2155 1872 3800 –
Jhumka M.P. 1985 2580 2340 2960 –
Kaketo M.P. 1935 8048 7995 5610 –
Kaliasote M.P. – 3538 3441 7500 –
Kanchan M.P. – 1400 1300 3850 –
Kerwan M.P. 1975 2503 2257 4050 –
Kethan M.P. 1976 1915 1757 2530 –
Kotwal Bhind M.P. 1927 – 3774 – –
Kunwarpur M.P. 1977 1675 1562 4250 –
Madosagar M.P. 1929 – 12420 – –
Mansurwari Tank M.P. 1982 1234 1122 3840 –
Marhi M.P. 1981 1424 1274 2050 –
Mala M.P. 1929 1996 1687 2630 –
Mola Tank M.P. 1939 – 1768 3690 –
Morwan M.P. 1965 1650 1576 2670 –
Nandanwara M.P. – 3550 2265 1820 –
Pagara Tank M.P. 1927 11339 6673 2227 –
Paronch M.P. – 2060 1669 2240 –
Piplia Kumar M.P. 1978 – 1515 1470 –
Rampur M.P. 1917 2414 1808 2830 –
Rangwan M.P. – – 15750 17090 –
Ganga Basin 401

Ratapani Tank M.P. 1964 1514 1450 1780 –

Shahib Khedi M.P. 1977 1246 1030 1440 –
Tigra M.P. 1917 42000 40000 3220 –
Tillar M.P. – 5315 4730 7200 –
Umrar Tank M.P. 1981 1890 1670 2830 –
Ajan Rajasthan – – 1645 8420 –
Alnia Rajasthan 1961 4424 3678 5640 –
Arwar Rajasthan 1959 4791 4777 4900 –
Badagaon Rajasthan 1969 – 3152 3440 –
Bade Talab Rajasthan – – 1441 1280 –
Bagoloia Rajasthan 1955 1943 1881 1940 –
Bardha Rajasthan – – 4704 3300 –
Baretha Rajasthan – – 5268 3830 –
Baroch Dam Rajasthan 1970 3046 2876 3200 –
Badagaon Rajasthan 1967 3151 3017 3400 –
Bhimlat Rajasthan 1958 1082 1076 880 –
Bhupal Sagar Rajasthan – – 1855 2110 –
Buchchora Rajasthan – – 1509 1230 –
Bundika Gothra Rajasthan 1957 2846 1982 2400 –
Chaparwar Rajasthan – – 3418 5010 –
Chandsen Rajasthan – – 1470 2100 –
Chittali Rajasthan – – 1252 3170 –
Chariya Rajasthan – – 2368 2400 –
Dheel Bundh Rajasthan – – 2520 3570 –
Dhill Sagar Rajasthan 1939 – 2524 3350 –
Dugari Rajasthan – – 1923 1560 –
Galwa Rajasthan 1960 4874 4726 5300 –
Gambhiri Rajasthan 1956 7646 6513 6200 –
Gopalpura Rajasthan 1978 3265 3198 6080 –
Gudha Rajasthan 1958 9566 9367 8000 –
Jetpura Rajasthan 1977 1854 1638 2340 –
Juggar Rajasthan 1956 2807 2461 3680 –
Kalakh Sagar Rajasthan – – 1645 2340 –
Kalisil Rajasthan 1953 4168 3724 3520 –
Khari Rajasthan 1957 5894 3328 2810 –
Madho Sagar Rajasthan – – 2262 2590 –
Madri Rajasthan 1964 1841 1657 3200 –
Meja Rajasthan 1956 9622 9169 9420 –
Mandal Rajasthan – 1388 1188 1360 –
Mangalasar Rajasthan – 1902 1597 2140 –
Mansarovar Rajasthan 1950 1852 1305 1970 –
Mashi Rajasthan 1960 4814 3511 3000 –
Morah Sagar Rajasthan – – 1294 4400 –
Morel Bundh Rajasthan 1956 6768 7068 11960 –
Moti Sagar Rajasthan – 1254 1226 1420 –
Nahar Sagar Dam Rajasthan 1905 2314 2010 2270 –
Namana Rajasthan 1956 2124 2064 4500 –
Nand Samand Rajasthan – – 12124 1300 –
Narainsagar Rajasthan 1968 1994 1982 2800 115
Nardi Budiya Rajasthan – – 1416 2030 –
Nehar Sagar Rajasthan 1958 2317 2010 3310 –
Orai Dam Rajasthan 1967 3528 3279 4600 –

(Continued)
402 Chapter 8

Table 16. (Continued)

Name of the project State Completed Gross Live Designed Installed

in storage storage annual capacity
capacity capacity irrigation (MW)
(million (million (Million
cubic cubic sq. m)
meter) meter)

Paibalapur Rajasthan 1956 1166 1008 1000 –

Parwan Rajasthan 1960 – 3600 – –
Raisagar Bundh Rajasthan – 1254 1095 – –
Rajsamand Rajasthan 1971 10720 9871 2860 –
Ramgarh Rajasthan 1901 – 5898 4860 –
Sainthal Rajasthan – 1286 1370 1960 –
Sardar Samand Rajasthan 1906 – 8823 8560 –
Sareri Dam Rajasthan 1957 5575 5507 5300 –
Silised Rajasthan – 1393 1212 1740 –
Surwal Rajasthan 1956 – 1350 4080 –
Tordi Sagar Rajasthan 1887 – 4711 8370 –
Udai Sagar Rajasthan 1700 3113 2760 1940 –
Umed Sagar Rajasthan 1903 – 1860 2540 –
Urmila Sagar Rajasthan – 57300 53480 1680 –
Adwa Uttar Pradesh 1984 8810 8370 16980 –
Adhrawara Uttar Pradesh 1955 6060 5824 8880 –
Arjun Uttar Pradesh 1957 6920 6380 10770 –
Balan & Tons Uttar Pradesh 1961 26105 19539 – –
Balimiki Uttar Pradesh 1958 3835 3778 6270 –
Barwa Uttar Pradesh 1923 21492 2328 5460 –
Barwar Uttar Pradesh 1923 3339 3172 3450 –
Barwa Sagar Uttar Pradesh 1968 – 1020 – –
Baur Uttar Pradesh 1967 10335 9838 18900 –
Chandra Prabha Uttar Pradesh 1960 9339 9000 14610 –
Chandrawal Uttar Pradesh 1972 3471 3086 4310 –
Dhandhraul Uttar Pradesh 1917 13015 12933 – –
Dhukwan Uttar Pradesh 1909 – 5870 – 20
Dungia Uttar Pradesh 1918 2832 2025 – –
Gangao Dam Uttar Pradesh 1915 5649 5649 37640 –
Garai Upper Uttar Pradesh 1915 2704 1480 – –
Storage
Ghagar Main Uttar Pradesh 1917 15250 12946 27110 –
Gularia Dam Uttar Pradesh 1968 8300 8000 1280 –
Haripura Uttar Pradesh 1975 7275 5456 19990 –
Jamni Uttar Pradesh 1973 9290 8410 12480 5
Jirgo Reservoir Uttar Pradesh 1958 15000 13170 25900 –
Kabrai Uttar Pradesh 1955 1461 1330 1940 –
Kohargaodi Uttar Pradesh 1930 – 1252 3230 –
Lachura Uttar Pradesh 1910 1531 1100 97000 –
Lalitpur Uttar Pradesh 1953 9678 8000 7580 –
Majhgawan Uttar Pradesh 1917 2680 2505 3770 –
Meja Reservoir Uttar Pradesh 1965 30322 28343 21200 –
Musakhand Uttar Pradesh 1967 11326 11037 22290 –
Nagwa Uttar Pradesh 1952 4550 4539 27240 –
Ganga Basin 403

Nanak Sagar Uttar Pradesh 1962 0970 16276 53710 –

Nangadh Uttar Pradesh 1960 10190 7642 34800 –
Naugarh Dam Uttar Pradesh 1968 10188 8781 – –
Ohan Uttar Pradesh – – 3800 – –
Pahari Uttar Pradesh 1913 7934 4600 – –
Pahuj Reservoir Uttar Pradesh – – 1500 – –
Paricha Uttar Pradesh 1885 – 7860 4 52550 –
Pilli Dam Uttar Pradesh 1968 5520 4773 11490 –
Rangwan Uttar Pradesh 1957 16367 15400 37640 –
Saprar Uttar Pradesh 1956 7525 6565 17000 –
Sarda Sagar-I Uttar Pradesh 1962 49300 36400 67750 –
Sarda Sagar-II Uttar Pradesh 1962 56700 41700 73930 –
Shazad Dam Uttar Pradesh – 12710 11898 20000 –
Sirsi Uttar Pradesh 1958 20644 19767 6000 –
Tumaria Extension Uttar Pradesh 1964 16810 15286 16190 –
Upper Khajuri Uttar Pradesh 1962 4817 4243 7280 –
Hinglow Dam West Bengal 1976 1707 1415 12380 –
Kangsabati West Bengal 1965 1 03600 90040 59000 –

Table 17. Salient features of some projects under construction in Ganga Basin

Name of the project State Gross Live Annual Installed

storage storage irrigation capacity
capacity capacity (Million (MW)
(Million (Million m2 )
m3 ) m3 )

Anjan Bihar 2326 2129 – –

Auranga Jharkhand 50200 44265 75400 –
Barnar Bihar 7995 7054 22000 –
Batan Bihar 6430 5918 6000 –
Dhansing Totli Bihar 1210 1039 2950 –
Durgabati Bihar 28770 25770 36000 –
Jalkund Bihar 30800 23100 – –
North Koel Jharkhand 1 17163 96815 13000 –
Oriya Dangro Bihar – 1408 3640 –
Orni Reservoir Bihar 5156 4460 9600 –
Punasi Bihar 14135 11316 24000 –
Sugthana Reservoir Bihar 2344 1826 3640 –
Torai Reservoir Bihar 3632 3261 8000 –
Upper Kiul Bihar 9798 8425 15000 –
Upper Shank Bihar 27872 23987 7110 –
Bah Madhya Pradesh 8640 7652 14500 –
Banki Madhya Pradesh 1842 1707 3440 –
Barcharnalla Tank Madhya Pradesh 1800 1700 3300 –
Barnai Madhya Pradesh 1200 1100 2080 –
Bunda Nalla Project Madhya Pradesh 1500 1400 4000 –
Chaldu Tank Madhya Pradesh 4919 3866 10000 –
Dudhi Madhya Pradesh 2666 2240 4000 –

(Continued)
404 Chapter 8

Table 17. (Continued)

Name of the project State Gross Live Annual Installed

storage storage irrigation capacity
capacity capacity (Million (MW)
(Million (Million m2 )
m3 ) m3 )

Ghorapachar Madhya Pradesh 1241 1157 1780 –

Ghunghotta Madhya Pradesh 11050 8360 13050 –
Kaohan Dam Madhya Pradesh 2802 2542 – –
Lakhundar Madhya Pradesh – 3390 6000 –
Makroda Madhya Pradesh 4664 4100 5780 –
Mahan-T Madhya Pradesh 10400 10000 19740 –
Naren Irr. Project Madhya Pradesh 2054 1832 2830 –
Rampura Khurd Madhya Pradesh 1381 1183 3300 –
Sind Madhya Pradesh – 1344 37000 –
Sindh River Project Madhya Pradesh 9660 8280 37650 –
Bassi Rajasthan 2320 2024 3250 45
Bhimsagar Rajasthan – 7520 9990 –
Bilas Rajasthan – 2295 2700 –
Bilaspur Project Rajasthan – 3600 – –
Galwa-II Rajasthan 6712 6568 6680 –
Gausunda Rajasthan 7547 6698 7000 –
Harishchandra Sagar Rajasthan – 7200 16180 –
Hindlot Rajasthan 2260 2038 – –
Kothari Stage-II Rajasthan 2600 2150 3400 –
Panchana Rajasthan 5945 5261 9980 –
Piplot Rajasthan – 1800 – –
Wagan Rajasthan – 3756 5370 –
Birpur Uttar Pradesh – 3940 – –
Gaunta Dam Uttar Pradesh 2881 2428 4970 –
Kanhar Uttar Pradesh 32300 12754 32000 –
Kanota Uttar Pradesh 1415 1245 – –
Mejha Uttar Pradesh 30322 22725 – –
Pathkavli Uttar Pradesh 16300 12225 8000 –
Saznam Uttar Pradesh 8154 7160 7270 –
Urmil Tank Uttar Pradesh 11660 11150 8000 –

8.5.26. Proposed Hydroelectric Projects in Uttaranchal

An agreement has been made between Govt. of Uttaranchal & some Central Public
Sector Power Undertakings [National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC)
Ltd., Tehri Hydro Development (THDC) Ltd., Satluj Jal Vidut Nigam (SJVN)
Ltd., and National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) Ltd.] for construction
of several hydroelectric power projects. A list of these projects is given in
Table 18.
Koti Bhel Hydropower Stage–I A: This project is proposed at Muneth Village
near Dev Prayag in Tehri Garhwal District of Uttaranchal. A 82.5 m high concrete
gravity dam is proposed to store and divert water for an underground power house
Ganga Basin 405

Table 18. Hydroelectric Projects Proposed or being executed in Uttaranchal

Name of project Capacity in Location Constructing

MW agency

Bonkang Bailing 330 Pithoragarh THDC Ltd

Chungar Chal 240 Pithoragarh NHPC Ltd
Devra Mori 33 Uttarkashi SJVN Ltd
Devsari Dam 300 Chamoli SJVN Ltd
Garba Tawaghat 630 Pithoragarh NHPC Ltd
Gohana Tal 60 Chamoli THDC Ltd
Jadhganga 50 Uttarkashi THDC Ltd
Jakhol Sankari 35 Uttarkashi SJVN Ltd
Jhelam Tamak 60 Chamoli THDC Ltd
Karmoli 140 Uttarkashi THDC Ltd
Karmoli Lumti Tuli 55 Pithoragarh NHPC Ltd
Lata Tapovan 162 Joshimath NTPC Ltd
Maleri Jhelam 55 Chamoli THDC Ltd
Rupsiabagar Khasiyabar 260 Pithoragarh NTPC Ltd

that will have 3 units of 80 MW each (total 240 MW). The estimated cost of the
project is Rs. 1,264. Preparation of DPR is in progress. Koti Bhel Hydropower
Stage – I B: This project is proposed at Village Pali near Dev Prayag in Tehri
Garhwal Districts of Uttaranchal. Here, a 83 m high concrete gravity dam with an
underground power house having 4 units of 70 MW each will be constructed to
generate 280 MW 4∗ 70 MW of power. Preparation of DPR of this project is in
progress.
Koti Bhel Hydropower, Stage – II: It is proposed at Village Kaudiyala near Rishikesh
in Pauri & Tehri Garhwal Districts of Uttaranchal. The proposal is to construct a
85.0 m high concrete gravity dam and an underground power house with 8 units
of 55 MW total capacity = 440 MW. Preparation of DPR is in progress and the
project is likely to cost Rs. 2,577 crore.

8.6. GANGA-BRAHMPUTRA-BARAK BASIN STUDY

Chaturvedi and Rogers (1985) have presented the results of extensive studies on
the Ganga–Brahmaputra–Barak basin in the Indian sub-continent. The following
discussion is based on their book detailing the study. The Greater Ganga system
is the second largest international river basin in terms of runoff, second only to the
Amazon basin in South America. The peak outflow from the system at its estuary is
141 000 m3 /s. It carries about 127.61 m-ha-m of water in the Bay of Bengal each
year of which about 80% is in the monsoon season. The monthly mean flow of
Ganga River at its tail end reaches up to 57,000 cumec. The north-eastern boundary
of this system is formed by Himalayas which are geologically young mountains and
it is bounded by Vindhyachal mountains in the south. A low watershed separates
the basin from the Indus basin in the west. The extensive alluvial plains of Ganga
406 Chapter 8

basin are part of this system. The delta of the Greater Ganga system covering an
area of 56,700 sq. km is one of the biggest in the world.
The Greater Ganga system has wide diversities in physiographic- geographical
characteristics, topography, soil and land use as well as socio-economic aspects.
The basin is like an elongated bowl with very high steep mountains in the north,
comparatively low mountains in the south and east and a very flat fertile alluvial
plain in between. The region has also witnessed rapid growth in population over
the last few decades; there has been tremendous urbanization and demands for
water have risen rapidly. The development in the basin has been largely on an
ad-hoc basis. Although the region has huge water potential, due to various reasons
including its international character, most of this potential remains unutilized. More
than 80% of annual precipitation takes place in four months of monsoon; the area
receives solid as well as liquid precipitation. The physiographic and meteorological
characteristics of the system coupled with monsoon concentrated precipitation lead
to heavy floods. Since Himalayas are geologically young and erodible mountains
and have very steep slopes, the high flows also carry high sediment loads. Most of
the storage sites and hydroelectric potential lie in Nepal and the North-East part of
India. The emphasis on WR development in the past was on flow diversions limited
to low flows.
The schematic diagram of the system used in the coordinating model is given in
Figure 17 There are 49 river–schematic nodes of interest at which junctions, diver-
sions, ground water pumping, and return flows occur. In the first stage of preliminary
screening, a single linear model was constructed to explore and coordinate all the
demands placed on the system. This model was used as a tool to explore the
various goals to be obtained and the constraints on development. The idea was
that once the system has been fully explored by this inexpensive model it can be
broken up into smaller, more manageable pieces for a more complete analysis.
The model considered five reservoirs and 75 irrigation works as already developed.
In the second stage, the entire basin was decomposed into smaller systems. Two
types of decomposition were planned. In the first case of hydrologic decompo-
sition, the system was divided into nine sub-basins. The operation of each sub-basin
was optimized by varying the irrigation level under the given water releases and
energy target levels. Each sub-basin then reports to the central organisation, its
optimal irrigation level and search for energy production, shadow prices and their
effective ranges on the water and energy target levels. The master problem was
then solved by maximising incremental irrigation areas and the total irrigation level
and energy production for the whole basin is computed. This process is done in
an iterative fashion. In the second type of decomposition, the basin was decom-
posed by political units. The problem was analysed under two schemes: flow quota
scheme and resource allocation scheme. These schemes were worked out by three
algorithms. The first algorithm requires that the minimum flow at any point in
the Ganga should be greater than the sum of the flow quota fixed by the central
government for all the states above that point. Under the second algorithm, water
that leaves an upstream state may be used by a downstream neighbor, provided that
Ganga Basin 407

Figure 17. Schematic diagram of Greater Ganga System

this neighbor allows a flow greater than or equal to the sum of all the upstream
states quota into the next state. In the third algorithm, the restriction of algorithm
two was lifted.
The authors emphasised the conjunctive use of surface and ground water for this
system pointing out that ground water is a major user of energy and surface water
is a rich source of energy through hydroelectric generation. In the conjunctive use
study, it was proposed that infiltration may be increased during the monsoon season
by heavy pumping during non-monsoon season and thus creating ground water
storage. The extent and date of pumping was estimated such that it is replenished
in 120 days of the monsoon season and equilibrium is achieved. The areas suitable
for ground water storage were identified and it was concluded that in this scheme
of underground storage of flood waters, the total potential irrigation in the Ganga
basin may be limited by the area of irrigable land rather than water supply. Various
alternative schemes of ground water recharge were proposed. The first involves
408 Chapter 8

pumping heavily along perennial rivers prior to monsoon so as to lower the water
table and induce ground water recharge. The second proposes a similar approach
along non-perennial rivers. The third involves irrigation during the monsoon season
with groundwater lowered adequately in the non-monsoon period so that enough
ground water recharge takes place to provide adequate supplies for non-monsoon
months. A simulation-optimization model was applied to study the surface water-
ground water interaction and comparative cost effectiveness of the three alternate
approaches. The sensitivity analysis showed that the third scheme is the most
attractive.
Chaturvedi and Rogers (1985) concluded that a reasonable approach for such
large systems is that a programming model may be first used to find out the range
for which simulation studies should be carried out, particularly taking into account
the stochastic nature of inputs and outputs. For detailed modeling, simulation will be
most convincing and convenient. However, simulating the entire system in diverse
conditions will be extremely time consuming. They also emphasize that trained
manpower is the most important prerequisite for WR development. Sadly, despite
a passage of more than 20 years after the results of this study were published, the
additional resource development efforts in this system are meager.

8.7. PROBLEMS IN WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

OF GANGA BASIN

Highly productive irrigated agriculture is practiced in fertile soils of Ganga basin

since time immemorial and recent rapid industrialization has generated large
demands for water and hydropower. The domestic water demand in high-population-
density urban areas scattered throughout the Ganga basin has outstripped the
supplies. Bangladesh which lies at the downstream end, requires a mechanism that
can augment the dry season flow as well as control floods. The irrigation infras-
tructure in Ganga basin, as elsewhere in the country, is getting old. A number of
large irrigation projects are over 100 years old. During the past 50 years, many of
these have been modernized by replacing the weirs and anicuts by gated barrages
and repairing the canal systems.
Large dams on the perennial rivers are an inevitable solution to the above
problems. A few smaller projects have been already completed and several larger
ones are planned in the Himalayan catchments of the northern tributaries to the
Ganga and Brahmaputra. There is no doubt that storage of even a fraction of the
huge flow and generation of hydroelectricity would go a long way in advancing
economic transformation and development within the GBM. In short, these dams
have been described as panacea for the poverty in the Himalayan region. However,
decisions regarding construction of these dams is no longer guided by hydrology
and engineering; other factors have started influencing the decisions.
The basic problem in utilizing water resources in the Ganga basin is that in relation
to the relatively large annual flow in the basin, the storage capacity of existing and
foreseeable reservoirs in India is not large enough to permit conservation of flows
Ganga Basin 409

during high flow season. The live storage capacity of all reservoirs in the Ganga
basin is less than one-sixth of the annual flow, which does not permit a significant
degree of flow regulation. Lean season flows in the basin without an adequate
storage backup are not sufficient to meet the requirements for various demands
while monsoon flows are so high that the Ganga and its tributaries remain in spate
almost every year.
Many of the diversion works are not backed by any large upstream storage.
Therefore the supply of water for irrigation is limited by the flow of the rivers.
Only a few tributaries, namely Chambal, Betwa and Sone have large reservoirs and
are relatively better developed.
A list of the important projects in Ganga Basin with storage back up (if any) is
given in Table 19.
Table 19 shows that although there is a vast canal networks in Upper Ganga
basin, there are no large existing reservoirs except on Ramganga. After the Tehri
dam is completed in near future, Ganga River will be partly regulated. Tehri will
also help in irrigating new areas of about 3 lakh ha besides stabilizing the existing
system. Tehri will also supplement water supply to Delhi through the Upper Ganga
Canal.
In the Yamuna system, the possibility of any upstream reservoir in near future is
bleak. Although the Lakhwar Vyasi Dam is under construction for over 3 decades,
no significant progress has been made. Similarly, two other reservoirs, namely
Kishau and Renuka are in pipeline for more than 10 years. Gandhisagar dam on
Chambal River with a storage capacity provides regulated supplies to Rana Pratap
Sagar, Jawahar Sagar and Kota Barrage.
Rihand dam on a tributary of Sone River is the other large reservoir in the system.
Rihand is primarily a hydropower station and is operated to meet the peaking
demands. The power releases from the project supplement Sone Barrage particularly

Table 19. Important Irrigation Schemes in the Ganga Basin

Major upstream storage dam

Name of the project Area benefited
Existing Under Proposed
construction

Upper Ganga Canal North West U.P. Nil Tehri –

Madhya Ganga Canal Western U.P. Nil Tehri –
Lower Ganga Canal Western U.P. Ramganga – –
Western Yamuna Canal West U.P./Delhi Nil Lakhwar Kishau
Eastern Yamuna Canal West U.P./Delhi Nil Lakhwar Kishau
Sharda Sahayak Canal North East U.P. Nil – Pancheshwar
Saryu Canal North East U.P. Nil – Karnali (in Nepal)
Sone Canal Bihar Rihand Bansagar –
Gandak Canal Bihar Nil – –
Kosi Canal Bihar Nil – –
Kota Barrage Rajasthan/M.P. Gandhisagar – –
410 Chapter 8

during dry season. Bansagar an interstate project of UP, Bihar and Madhya
Pradesh is nearing completion. It will further improve the water availability at
Sone barrage.
Sharda Sahayak and Saryu Nahar in U.P. and Kosi and Gandak Projects in Bihar
also do not have any back up storage. Despite being very attractive hydropower
projects, Karnali and Pancheshwar projects, little headway is made in construction.
Kosi and Gandak dam projects are still on drawing boards. There appears to
be poor coordination between India and Nepal on joint execution of projects.
Delay in implementing the projects will result in escalation of costs. Irrigation
potential developed from surface water is around 45% and that from ground
water is around 80% in Bihar while the same in U.P. is around 60% and 90%
respectively.
After the formation of Jharkhand and Uttaranchal States, the hydropower potential
in U.P. and Bihar is only 403 and 60 MW respectively. This has been developed
to the extent of 70 to 80 percent. The hydropower potential in Uttaranchal is about
9,341 MW of which only 9% is developed. Similarly in Jharkhand, only 15.73%
of the total 478 MW has been developed. This underlines the need for more large
dams to be taken up in Uttaranchal for hydropower generation and these will also
provide regulated releases to stabilize existing irrigation systems in Ganga and
Yamuna basins.
No large reservoir has been constructed on Ken River which is a major tributary
of Yamuna. Ken multipurpose project has been under consideration for several
decades but no progress was made in absence of agreement on sharing of its waters
between UP and MP. This project will also transfer surplus water to Betwa basin
where construction of Rajghat and Matatila have affected the development in the
upstream reaches. More about this issue can be found in a later Chapter.
Development of large reservoirs in southern tributaries of Ganga has not been
satisfactory (Hasan, 2005). The North Koel dam project remains to be completed for
several decades for some environmental hitches. Similarly Auranga dam is yet to
be taken up for implementation. Bue even pending projects are completed, after the
total live storage capacity created in Ganga basin will be about 52 BCM. This will
be less than 10% of the average annual runoff and less than 20% of the utilizable
runoff. Therefore, sincere efforts are needed to complete the major storage dams
which have already been identified in Uttaranchal, U.P., Bihar and M.P. Of late,
the problems encountered in constructing dams in India are increasing. A majority
of good storage sites of the basin are in Nepal and this is a cause of delay in the
construction of dams on the northern tributaries of Ganga. Agreements with Nepal
are to be made for implementation of identified projects.
In the Ganga basin, the flooding problem is mainly confined to the middle and
terminal reaches. In general, the severity of the problem increases from west to east
and from south to north. The worst flood affected states in the Ganga basin are Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. In Uttar Pradesh, flooding is largely confined
to the eastern districts where the rivers that cause flooding include the Sarada, the
Ghagra, the Rapti, and the Gandak. The major causes of flooding here are drainage
Ganga Basin 411

congestion and bank erosion. North Bihar is in the grip of floods almost every year
due to the spillage of rivers. In West Bengal, floods are caused due to the drainage
problems as well as tidal effects. The Ganga Flood Control Commission was set
up by the Government of India for flood management in the Ganga Basin.
The Ganga basin has an extremely high density of population. This dense
population, coupled with high growth rate is expected to generate huge demand
for additional water in Ganga basin. Further, industries are rapidly growing in the
region. This will create substantial additional water demand as well as problems
of water quality. This scenario will be similar in all the countries in the Ganga
basin: Nepal, India, and Bangladesh. In the absence of a well-coordinated water
resources developing and sharing agreement, the local, regional, and international
conflicts may become critical. Nepal and India should come to agreements on joint
developments of major water projects. Between Bangladesh and India, the sharing
of the flow in the Ganga below Farakka has evaded a long term solution. In the
overall interest of sustainable development in the region, early resolution of these
problems is very much needed.

8.8. WATER QUALITY ASPECTS

In addition to the quantity related problems, an increasing level of pollution from

urban and industrial areas has also created a sharp decline in the quality of Ganga
water. The problem has arisen largely due to the discharge of untreated urban wastes
and industrial effluents from the cascade of large and medium cities located along
the course of Ganga and its tributaries. Although Ganga is considered as a holy
river in mythology, people do not hesitate while dumping domestic and industrial
waste in the river.
Numerous cities located in the Ganga basin generate and discharge huge quantities
of wastewater, a large portion of which eventually reaches the river through natural
drainage system. The industrial complexes which have sprung up along the rivers
also dump considerable pollution loads into the river. Over the years, the Ganga
and its tributaries have become the channels of transport of industrial effluents and
the drains for the wastewater of the cities. It is estimated that some 900 million
litres of sewage is dumped into the Ganga every day; three-fourths of the pollution
in the Ganga is from untreated municipal sewage. In particular the middle reach of
the basin between Kanpur and Buxar is the most urbanized and industrialized, as
also the most polluted segment of the basin. Municipal and industrial wastes with
dangerous concentration find entry into the watercourse in this segment and pose a
grave threat to society.
In the hilly reaches up to Rishikesh, Ganga water is quite clean except for
sediments. From Rishikesh onwards, disposal of sewage into Ganga begins. Besides
the municipal waste of Rishikesh and Haridwar, industrial units discharge partly
treated effluents into the river. Haridwar City has a population of 1.5 lakh and
nearly 60,000 people visit the city every day on an average. This number rises to a
few lakh on important religious days and may go up to 15 lakh on the auspicious
412 Chapter 8

days during Kumbha Mela (fair). Considerable lengths of sewer lines are clogged
by silts that flow in from the adjoining hills.
Further downstream from Haridwar, Ganga flows through Bijnor, Garhmukteshwar,
Narora and Kannauj. Here, water is not much polluted as these two towns do not
have any large industry. A note worthy feature of this area is considerable quantity
of baseflow that joins the river in this reach during the post-monsoon season. Moving
downstream, the situation changes for the worse at Kanpur from the quality point of
view. Sewage from the city (population 2.7 million) coupled with untreated toxic waste
discharge from about 150 industrial units results in severe damage to water quality.
The mean value of DO at 3 mg/l at Jajmau, near Kanpur, reflects the levels of pollution
caused by discharge from 80 tanneries and other industries.
At Allahabad with population of more than a million, municipal wastes are the
major contributor to river pollution. Yamuna whose water is highly polluted joins
Ganga at Sangam. Large volume of municipal and industrial waste is dumped in
the river at Varanasi, a city with approximately 1.2 million population, The Varuna
River, which joins the Ganga in the vicinity of Varanasi, receives waste from many
drains. Besides, due to the religious belief that those who die in Varanasi are sure
to go to heaven, on average, more than 40,000 dead bodies are cremated on the
river bank and the ashes and remains are dumped in the river.
Entering in Bihar, a number of industries (including fertilizer and oil refining)
have come up along Ganga River. Patna is the most populous city whose wastes are
dumped in the river. At Kolkota in West Bengal, the Hooghly (Ganga) river basin
is highly populated as the waster from numerous industries as well as municipal
sewage is dumped in the river.
In view of the magnitude of water quality problems in the Ganga basin, two
actions plans were launched by the government of India: the Ganga action plan and
the Yamuna action plan. These are discussed next.

8.8.1. Ganga Action Plan

The pollution load dumped in the river by human interference is a serious health
hazard to the dense population of the basin. In recognition of the magnitude of this
problem and realizing the importance of water quality as a cardinal element of river
management, the Government of India started the planning and execution of several
programs to check the pollution of the river Ganga from Rishikesh to Diamond
Harbour and its tributaries. An ambitious programme, known as the Ganga Action
Plan (GAP), was initiated in 1985. The main objectives of the plan are to improve
the quality of the river water and to establish self-sustaining city authorities with the
capacity to install and maintain treatment plants. Under the GAP, the government
attempted to build a number of waste treatment facilities and to collaborate with a
number of voluntary organizations. Pollution abatement works for the Ganga River
had been taken up in 25 class I towns (population exceeding one lakh) along the
main Ganga River under the three basin States of U.P., Bihar, and West Bengal.
The main objectives of the GAP were:
Ganga Basin 413

• Reduction of pollution load on the river and improving the water quality as a
result thereof, and
• Establishment of domestic/municipal wastewater treatment systems with
emphasis on resource recovery to make such systems self-sustainable as far as
possible.
In addition, GAP was to serve as a model to demonstrate the methodology of
improving the water quality of the other polluted rivers and water bodies of the
country to their designated best use class. A multi-pronged approach was adopted
to achieve the objectives of the GAP. Similar other plans are in various stages of
implementation in some tributaries of the Ganga.
The major polluting industries on the Ganga are the leather industries, especially
near Kanpur, which use large amounts of Chromium and other chemicals and much
of it finds its way into the meager flow of the Ganga. With the lax monitoring and
enforcement by the government, the possibility of immediate control of pollution
is limited. However, industry is not the only source of pollution. Sheer volume
of waste – estimated at nearly 1 billion litres per day – of mostly untreated raw
sewage – is a significant factor. Also, inadequate cremation procedures contribute
to a large number of partially burnt or unburnt corpses floating down the Ganga.
In addition, animal corpses can also be seen floating in the river.
The first phase of the plan envisaged major works such as renovation of sewage
pumping and treatment plants, setting up of new treatment plants to produce energy,
manure and biogas and laying down sewage disposal systems where they do not exist
at present. According to the reports, all the sewage pumping stations in Rishikesh
and Haridwar are in order and pollution of the river has been largely checked. At
Kanpur, work has been initiated for cleaning the main stream and renovation and
restoration of the existing sewage pumping station and treatment plants has been
taken up. Similar works have been taken up at Varanasi, Allahabad, and Patna.
Table 20 gives desired and the real water quality levels for Ganga River at various
locations. It can be noted that there is no significant improvement in the river water
quality with time, in fact the quality has deteriorated at many places. Further, total
coliform remains a serious problem at majority of the locations.
The Ganga River dolphin (platanista gangetia) is found in India, Nepal, Bhutan
and Bangladesh, in Ganga, Brahmaputra, Meghna, Karnaphuli and Hoogli river
systems. A unique feature is that these dolphins are blind and their eyes have no
lenses. They use a sophisticated echolocation system to navigate and find food.
They eat shrimp and fish from the mud in river bottoms. They are solitary creatures
and are only found in fresh water. The Ganga River dolphin is an endangered
species which are hunted by humans for meat and oil.

8.8.2. Yamuna Action Plan

In recent years, the Yamuna has become highly polluted due to various reasons
and this has adversely affected human health and bio-diversity of the eco-system.
Like other rivers, the main cause of pollution of the Yamuna River is discharge
414 Chapter 8

Table 20. Desired and Existing (at various times) Water Quality Levels for Ganga

Location Desired Observed class & critical parameters

class
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Ganga at Rishikesh A B, B, C, NA C,
U/S, U.P Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Ganga at Haridwar B C, C, C, NA C,
D/S, U.P Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Ganga at B E, NA D, NA D,
Garhmukteshwar, BOD, BOD BOD,
U.P Free Ammonia Totcoli
Ganga at Narora B NA NA D, NA D,
(Bulandsahar), U.P. BOD, BOD,
Totcoli Totcoli
Ganga at Kannauj B D, D, D, D, D,
U/S (Rajghat), U.P BOD, BOD Totcoli BOD, BOD,
Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Ganga at Kannauj B D, D, D, D, D,
D/S, U.P BOD, BOD Totcoli BOD, BOD,
Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Ganga at Bithoor B D, NA D, D, D,
(Kanpur), U.P. Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Ganga at Kanpur B D, NA D, D, D,
U/S (Ranighat), U.P BOD, Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Totcoli
Ganga at Kanpur B D, D, D, D, D,
D/S (Jajmau BOD, BOD Totcoli BOD, BOD,
Pumping Station), Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
U.P
Ganga at Dalmau B D, D, NA NA D,
(Rai Bareilly), U.P. Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Ganga at Allahabad B D, E, C, NA C,
(Rasoolabad), U.P. BOD, Totcoli, Totcoli Totcoli
Totcoli Free Ammonia
Ganga at Allahabad B D, E, D, NA D,
D/S (Sangam), U.P. BOD, pH, Totcoli BOD,
pH, Totcoli, Totcoli
Totcoli Free Ammonia
Ganga at Varanasi B D, D, D, NA D,
U/S (Assighat), U.P BOD, BOD Totcoli Totcoli
Totcoli
Ganga at Varanasi B E, E, D, NA D,
D/S (Malviya DO, DO, BOD BOD,
Bridge), U.P BOD, BOD Totcoli
Totcoli
Ganga at Trighat B D, D, D, NA D,
(Ghazipur), U.P BOD, BOD BOD BOD,
Totcoli Totcoli
Ganga at Buxar, B D, D, D, D, C,
Bihar BOD Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Ganga Basin 415

Ganga at Khurji, B D, D, D, D, C,
Patna U/S, Bihar Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Ganga at Patna B D, D, D, D, D,
D/S (Ganga Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Bridge),Bihar
Ganga at Rajmahal, B D, D, D, D, D,
Bihar Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Ganga at Diamond CB B NA D, D,
Harbour, West Totcoli Totcoli
Bengal
Ganga at Garden CB B NA D, D,
Reach, West Bengal Totcoli Totcoli
Ganga at C D, B NA D, D,
Howrah-Shivpur, Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
West Bengal
Ganga at CB B NA D, D,
Serampore, West BOD, BOD,
Bengal Totcoli Totcoli
Ganga at BB B NA D, D,
Baharampore, West Totcoli Totcoli
Bengal
Ganga at Palta, B D, B NA D, D,
West Bengal BOD BOD, Totcoli
Totcoli
Ganga at B D, B NA D, D,
Dakshineshwar, BOD BOD, BOD,
West Bengal Totcoli Totcoli
Ganga at Uluberia, DB B NA D D,
West Bengal DO,
BOD,
Totcoli

Note: NA- Not Available

Source: Central Pollution Control Board.

of untreated wastewater into the river from the towns located along its banks.
To arrest river pollution, certain measures have been taken by the Government
of India (GOI) in 12 towns of Haryana, 8 towns of Uttar Pradesh, and Delhi
under an action plan. This plan, known as the Yamuna Action Plan (YAP),
is being implemented since 1993 by the National River Conservation Direc-
torate (NRCD) of the Ministry of Environment and Forests. YAP has been
framed to prevent pollution of the Yamuna River. The towns in Haryana are:
Yamuna Nagar, Karnal, Panipat, Sonepat, Gurgaon, Faridabad, Chhachhrauli, Indri,
Radaur, Gharaunda, Gohana, and Palwal. In Uttar Pradesh, the focus towns are:
Saharanpur, Muzaffar Nagar, Ghaziabad, Noida, Vrindavan, Mathura, Agra, and
Etawah.
Delhi alone contributes around 3,296 MLD (million litres per day) of sewage
by virtue of drains outfalling in Yamuna. Due to the low perennial flow and the
416 Chapter 8

huge quantity of waste it receives, Yamuna is one of the most polluted rivers
of the country. Ten to fifteen years ago, a large quantity of Delhi’s sewage was
used to irrigate nearby agricultural lands. However, today agricultural lands have
been converted into residential colonies. Most of these colonies are unplanned and
provision of drainage of waste water is usually not made. More than 3.5 lakh people
live in the 62,000 jhuggis (hutments) that have come up on the flood plains of
the Yamuna River and its embankments. The Government of India has prepared
plans to rebuild and repair the sewerage systems and the drains that empty into the
river over the next five years. However, there are no plans at present to shift the
jhuggis.
Rapid urbanization in the Delhi area has further compounded the pressure on the
sewerage system. With the population of Delhi increasing from 0.4 million in 1911
to 13.9 million in 2001, there is an ever-increasing pressure on the water resources.
Trunk sewers are in poor condition, there is a shortage of sewage treatment capacity
and lack of sanitation facilities in unsewered areas of Delhi which account for nearly
50% of the population. These are the factors that are responsible for the continued
pollution of the Yamuna in Delhi. Although the water treatment capacities have
increased from 159 MLD in 1951 to nearly 2,951 MLD by 2002, the average
shortfall in 2002 was about 68 MLD. Further information about the Yamuna Action
Plan is available at the web-site www.yap.nic.in.
Table 21 gives the desired and the actual water quality class and critical
parameters for Yamuna River at various locations. Similar to Ganga, there is no
significant improvement in the river water quality of Yamuna with time and the
quality has deteriorated at many places. Further, total coliform remains a serious
problem at majority of the locations including the locations in Uttaranchal. Planning
Commission (2006) reported the following values for Yamuna at Okhla (Delhi):
total dissolved solids 569 mg/l, BOD 52 mg/l (norm 3 mg/l), coliform count 85,000
maximum probable number (MPN) per 100 ml (norm 5,000 MPN/100 ml).
Despite huge investments made in the two projects, these have not been very
effective in improving the river water quality.

8.9. GROUND WATER ASPECTS IN TERAI AND GANGA PLAIN

ZONES

In the Terai region, groundwater occurs both under confined and unconfined condi-
tions. The clayey sand and sandy formation yield groundwater under an unconfined
condition down to an average depth of 50 m. Confined groundwater occurs in
sand-gravel beds at depths exceeding 50 m. The wells tapping confined aquifer
show both flowing and non-flowing conditions. The Terai aquifers show a strong
confining condition. The piezometric head in the flowing wells ranges between 6.60
and 8.90 m above ground level and in the non-flowing wells from 1.65 to 11.20 m
below ground level. The tubewells yield 25 to 55 1/ s for a pressure head varying
between 1.5 m and 8.7 m in the case of flowing wells while the non-flowing wells
discharge 8.9 to 38 l/s at drawdowns from 4 to 9 m.
Ganga Basin 417

Table 21. Desired and Existing (at various times) Water Quality Levels for Yamuna

Location Desired Observed class & critical parameters

class
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Yamuna at U/S Dak NA B, D, D, C,

Patthar, Uttar Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Pradesh
Yamuna at U/S of A NA D, D, NA C,
Lakhwar Dam, U.P. Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Yamuna at Mathura B D, D, E, D, D,
U/S, U.P. BOD, DO, BOD, BOD, BOD,
Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli, Totcoli Totcoli
Free ammonia
Yamuna at Mathura B D, D, E, E, D,
D/S, U.P. BOD, BOD, DO, DO, BOD,
Totcoli Totcoli BOD BOD, Totcoli
Totcoli
Yamuna at Agra C D, D, D, D, D,
U/S, U.P. BOD, Totcoli BOD, BOD, BOD,
Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Yamuna at Agra C NA D, D, NA NA
D/S, U.P. Totcoli Totcoli
Yamuna at Etawah, C D, E, D, D, D,
U.P. BOD, DO, BOD, BOD, BOD,
Totcoli BOD Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Yamuna at B D, E, C, NA C,
Allahabad D/S T.Coliform Totcoli, Totcoli Totcoli
(Balua Ghat), U.P Free Ammonia
Yamuna at B C, D, D, D, D,
Allahabad. U.P. Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Yamuna at C E, D, D, E, E,
Mazawali, U.P. DO, BOD, BOD, DO, DO,
BOD, Totcoli Totcoli BOD, BOD,
Totcoli Totcoli, Totcoli
Free ammonia
Yamuna at C D, D, D, D, D,
Bateshwar, U.P. BOD, BOD, BOD, BOD, BOD,
Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Yamuna at Juhikha C C C D, D, D,
(After Confl. With Totcoli BOD, BOD,
Chambal), U.P. Totcoli Totcoli
Yamuna at Mathura D, D, E, D, D,
U/S BOD, DO, BOD, BOD, BOD,
Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli, Totcoli Totcoli
Free ammonia

Note: NA- Not Available.

Source: Central Pollution Control Board.
418 Chapter 8

Table 22. Groundwater potential Mm3  in Indo-Nepal basins

Name of basin Annual total Annual resource for irrigation

utilizable potential (@ 85% of total)

Gandak & Burhi Gandak 5,057 4,298

Kosi & Mahananda 9,281 7,889
Ghaghra including Gomti 35,645 30,298

8.10. GROUND WATER IN GANGA PLAINS

The Ganga plain in North Bihar is rich in groundwater resources. In all, three
major saturated groundwater zones have been identified down to the drilled depth
of 690 m. The lower granular zone forms the deep aquifer in the depth range of
300 to 440 m. The extensive granular zones, four in number, occurring within the
middle clays in a depth range of 50 to 200 mbgl together constitute the interme-
diate aquifer and the upper granular zone forms the shallow aquifer extending
from 20 to 70 mbgl. In addition to these three aquifers, a water table aquifer also
exists.
The groundwater potential of various Indo-Nepal river basins is shown in
Table 22. Obviously, considerable irrigation potential from groundwater sources
exists in these plains in North Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh.

8.11. EPILOGUE

By no means, the task of restoration of the Ganga to its old pristine glory will be
easy. Nevertheless, this will be worth the trouble because the sustainable devel-
opment of a large geographical area and population crucially depends on it.
CHAPTER 9
BRAHMAPUTRA AND BARAK BASIN

The North-East Region (NER) of India covers an area of 27.23 M-ha (8.11% of the
country’s area) consisting of seven states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya,
Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura. Popularly, these states are also known
as the Seven Sisters. The area is characterized by hills with valleys in between; in
all about 65% of the land mass comprises of hills. The terrain coupled with heavy
rainfall of the tune of 2,000–4,000 mm causes situations of floods in the valleys
and water scarcity in the hills.
Brahmaputra and Barak are the two major river basins in NER. The ground
water resource in this region consists of total of 35 BCM. The total water resource
including rivers from Tripura, Manipur & Mizoram is 64783 km3 . Table 1 shows
the details of water resources potential in the region.
Clearly, such a huge water resources potential provides lot of scope for develop-
mental activities for hydropower, navigation, pisiculture, irrigation, recreation, and
so on. However, due to many reasons, the development of water resources in
this region is in nascent stage as compared to other parts of the country. This
chapter provides a detailed description of water resources and their development in
Brahmaputra basin.

9.1. THE BRAHMAPUTRA BASIN

As per the Hindu belief, Brahmaputra means ‘son of the creator, Lord Brahma’.
According to Tibetans, the source of this river lies in the Kanglung Kang Glacier
near the Kailash range of Himalayas located in the south-western part of the
Tibetan plateau at an elevation of 5,300 m 82 10 E 30 30 N near Konggyu Tso
Lake. Here the river is called Tamchok Khambab Kangri. Many snowfed streams
join the river from the passes at about 60 km southeast of Mansarovar Lake. The
Brahmaputra River traverses a distance of 2,880 km through three countries, namely,
China, India, and Bangladesh, before joining the Bay of Bengal. It has a catchment
area of 580,000 sq. km, an average annual discharge of 19,820 cumec, an average
annual sediment load of 735 million metric tonnes, and a specific flood discharge
of 0.149 cumec/ sq. km. The Brahmaputra River basin with the river system from
its source to outfall is shown in the Figure 1.
419
420 Chapter 9

Table 1. Water Resources Potential in Northeastern Region

Basin Average annual SW GW potential Total potential

potential km3  km3  km3 

Brahmaputra 537.2 27.9 565.1

Barak 48.4 1.8 50.2
Potential in Tripura, 31.0 1.5 32.5
Manipur, and Mizoram
Total 616.6 31.2 647.8

Among the top ranking large rivers of the world, the Brahmaputra River is fifth
with respect to discharge, fourteenth with respect to the drainage area, twenty-fifth
with respect to length, second with respect to sediment load, and first with respect
to specific discharge.
The catchment area of the river falls in four countries. Although the main river
does not flow through the Kingdom of Bhutan, 96% of Bhutan’s area falls under this
basin. The basin is of irregular shape: the maximum east-west length is 1,540 km
and the maximum north-south width is 682 km. The basin lies between 23  N to
32  N latitude and 82  E to 97 50 E longitude. The part of the Tibetan plateau
falling under the basin has an elevation varying from 3,000 to 5,000 m and is dotted
with numerous glaciers.
The Brahmaputra valley is long and narrow; it is 640 km long and the width
varies from 64 km to 90 km. The valley is bounded in the north by high Himalayan
mountain ranges, in the east by the Patkai hill ranges, in the south by the lower
(Assam) hill ranges and in the west, it is contiguous with the plains of Bangladesh.
The southern (Assam) mountainous region under the basin is comprised of parts

Figure 1. The Brahmaputra basin

Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 421

of Naga hills, Mikir hills, North Cachar hills, Khasi hills and Garo hills lying in
continuity in the east-west direction from Patkai hill ranges up to the Bangladesh
border.
The Brahmaputra River characteristics, including the local name,
length, catchment area and gradient of the river from source to its outfall and
nature of topography at different parts through which the river flows, are furnished
in Table 2. In India, the Brahmaputra basin covers parts of six states: Arunachal
Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya and West Bengal and the whole of Sikkim.
The statewise distribution of the Indian part of the catchment area is given in Table 3.
The culturable area of the basin is 12.15 M-ha which is 6.2% of the culturable area
of the country.
The Brahmaputra basin covers 6 topographic regions falling in 4 countries. These
regions are described in Table 4.

Table 2. Reachwise distribution of length, catchment area, gradient of the Brahmaputra River and nature
of topography through which the river flows

Location Name river Catchment area Gradient Topography

(Country the and length in that part (sq. of the area
river flows (km) in km) and % of Reach with Average
through) that reach total area Elevation (m) Gradient

Tibet (China)- Tsangpo 293,000 Source 1:385 High Tibetan

(Upper (1,625) (50.52%) EL = 5 300 m) Plateau
Reach) to Indo-China
Border (EL
660 m)
India (Middle 195,000
reach) (33.62%)
i) Arunachal Siang in 1st i) Indo-China 1:515 Himalayan
Pradesh part & Dihang border to Kobo mountain
in 2nd part (EL 120 m) region
(278)
ii) Assam Brahmaputra ii) Kobo to 1:690 Brahmaputra
(640) Indo-Bangladesh Valley
border (EL 28m)
Bhutan Main river does 45,000 – – Himalayan
not flow here (7.76%) mountain
Bangladesh Brahmaputra, 47,000 (up to i) First 60 km. 1:1,140 Plains
Jamuna, Padma confluence from India including
and then with Ganga Border coastal belt
Meghna (8.10%)
(337 km up to
mouth)
ii) Next 100 km 1:1,260
iii) Next 90 km 1:2,700
iv) Rest up to sea 1:3,700
422 Chapter 9

Table 3. Statewise Distribution of the Indian part of the Brahmaputra catchment area

S. N. Name of the Area of Catchment area Percentage of Percentage of total

State the state in the state (sq. state area in the catchment area in
(sq. km) km) basin India

1. Arunachal Pradesh 83 578 81 600 976 4185

2. Assam 78 523 70 700 900 3626
3. Meghalaya 22 489 11 800 525 605
4. Nagaland 16 523 10 900 650 559
5. Sikkim 7 300 7 300 100 374
6. West Bengal 87 853 12 700 145 651
Total 195 000 100

Table 4. Topographic distribution of Brahmaputra basin area

S. N. Nature of Basin Area under Percentage of Geographical Location

Topography the Topography Total basin
(sq. km) area

1. High 293,000 505 Southern Part of the Tibet

Tibetan province of China.
Plateau
2. High 137,050 236 Part of Himalayan kingdom
Himalayan of Bhutan and of 3 states of
mountains India: Arunachal Pradesh,
West Bengal and Sikkim.
3. Brahmaputra 56,200 97 Part of Assam State of India.
Valley
4. Lower 37,200 64 Part of 3 states of India:
(Assam) Nagaland, Assam and
Mountainous Meghalaya.
Region
5. Plains 56,550 98 Part of the 2 plains districts
of West Bengal (India) and
part of Bangladesh.
6. Coastal Negligible Coastal region of Bangladesh.
Region

9.1.1. The Brahmaputra River System

The course of the Brahmaputra River can be divided into three reaches: upper,
middle, and lower. A Flow diagram of the Brahmaputra River and its tributaries
has been shown in Figure 2.
Upper Reach: In its upper reach, the river flows 1,625 km from the source to
the Indo-China border through Tibetan plateau with an elevation from 3,000 m to
5,000 m, mainly in the east direction almost parallel to the Himalayan mountains
and north thereof. Here, the river is known as Tsangpo, which means ‘the purifier’.
After flowing for 80 km in an easterly direction, Tsangpo meets two big rivers,
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 423

Source

62,800 Dibang River

Dihnag 200,000 60,000 Lunit

322,000 • Kobo

13,870 Buri Dihing

Subansiri 54,270

Dhansiri 20,000

Kameng 25,900

Kalang 28,000
455,000 • Guwahati

Manas 32,000

Sankosh 17,270
510,450 • Bangladesh

Figure 2. Flow Diagram of the Brahmaputra. The numbers represents average flow in cumec

viz., Mayum Chu and Chema Yung Dung. The main river is about 160 km north
of the Himalayas. The drainage area spreads to a maximum of 80 km to the south
and 135 km to the north from the Tsangpo.
Important glaciers that form the northern boundary of the basin from west to
east are: Kailash 6,100 m (Longitude 82  E to 84  E), Lunkar 6,000 m (Longitude
84 to 84 30 E), Kangchung Kangri and Lapchung 6,000 m (Longitude 84 30 E to
86 25 E) and Nyenchen Tanglha 7,088 m (Longitude 86 25 E to 95  E). In addition
to rainfall, the river in this reach is also fed by snow and glacier melt.
The catchment area of the Brahmaputra River up to the Indo-China border
is 293,000 sq. km; this part of the catchment falling under high Tibetan plateau
is 50.5% of the total catchment area. The basin here is long and narrow; the
maximum length in the east-west direction is 1,540 km and the maximum width in
the north-south direction is 310 km. This part of the basin is bounded in the south
by Himalayan ranges and in the north-west side initially by the Kailash ranges of
Himalayas and then by the Nyenchentanglha mountain ranges.
The 650 km reach from Pindzoling to Gyatsa Dzong is one of the most remarkable
inland navigable systems in the world where boats ply at an altitude of 3,659 m
and more. In this part, the average width of the river is more than 2 km. Along this
reach, the major tributaries joining the Tsangpo are the Shap Chu, Nayang Chu,
Rang Chu, Yarling Chu on the right bank and the Tong Chu, Shang Chu, Kyi Chu
on the left bank. Of these, the Nayang Chu and Kyi Chu are much bigger. Nayang
424 Chapter 9

Chu, a snow fed river, passes east of the great trade centre of Shigatse to meet
Tsangpo. The Kyi Chu or the Gya Chu is the largest tributary of the Tsangpo in
Tibet which flows for about 300 km.
After 92  E longitude, the river flows through deep gorges till it comes near
93  E longitude where a major town, Gyatsa Dzong, is situated on the left bank.
Near Gyala (Linzhi), it takes an abrupt turn towards northeast and flows through
stupendous gorges between the huge mountains of Gyala Peri (7,150 m) and Namcha
Barwa (7,755 m). Here the river flows through a series of cascades and rapids taking
numerous hairpin bends. A major tributary, Po-Tsangpo, joins the river here from
north. About 1.6 km before the Indo-China border is the only known fall of about
24.4 m on the main river. Although Tsangpo has an easterly course throughout its
run the north of the Himalayas, a large number of its small and large tributaries
flow in the westerly direction. They meet Tsangpo by flowing from the opposite
direction thereby developing a barbed type drainage pattern. This feature has led to
the speculation that the Tsangpo might originally have flowed westwards.
In the eastern part of the Tibetan plateau, the Tsangpo River takes a hairpin bend
around the Namcha Barwa mountain ranges. Tsangpo arrives at the Indo-China
border near Monku at an elevation of 660 m and flows for 5 km as the international
boundary to arrive at Kobo in Arunachal Pradesh, India, at a chainage of 1,255 km
from the mouth of the river. It enters India flowing south and is now known as the
Siang River.
Many important places are situated on the bank of Tsangpo River and its tribu-
taries. Lhasa, the capital city of Tibet, lies on the bank of Kyi-chhu River, a tributary
of the Tsangpo River. Shigatse, the great trade centre and second largest city of
Tibet with the great Monastery of Tashi Lhumpo, lies at the confluence of the
tributary Nyang-chhu and Tsangpo.
Middle Reach: In the middle reach, from the Indo-China border to the Indo-
Bangladesh border, Brahmaputra flows 918 km through India. Of this, 278 km is
through the mountainous state of Arunachal Pradesh and the next 640 km is through
the valley in the state of Assam. In Arunachal Pradesh, the river is known as Siang in
the upper reach and Dihang in the lower reach. The river crosses Himalayas through
deep gorges traversing 226 km from the Indo-China border up to the Pasighat town
flowing mainly in the southern direction.
From Pasighat up to the Indo-Bangladesh border for a length of 692 km, the river
passes through alluvial plains. All along its course in this region, the river flows in
a braided form and the main course oscillates from one bank to the other, forming
many islands and sand chars. Most of these sand chars are not habitable as they
get submerged during high stage. During monsoon months, almost all the braided
channels join to form one vast sheet of moving water. The average gradient of the river
from the Indo-China border to Kobo within the state of Arunachal Pradesh is 1:515.
Dihang River enters into the plains of Assam at Kobo where it meets two major
trans-Himalayan tributaries, Dibong and Lohit, coming from northeast and east,
respectively. From here onwards, the combined river is known as Brahmaputra. At
the tri-junction of the Dihang, Lohit and Debang, the contribution from the Dihang
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 425

is about 31.63% of the total discharge. From Kobo, the river flows first in the
southwest direction and then in the west direction. The lengths of the river reaches
from Kobo to its mouth and to Pasighat are 918 km and 226 km, respectively. The
average gradient of the river in this reach is 1:515. River terraces are noticed along
the river stretch between Yinkiong and Pasighat. Some of the terraces are 250 m
high above the river bed.
Further down, the river passes through towns of Tinsukia, Dibrugarh, North
Lakhimpur, Sibsagar, Jorhat, and Golaghat. In this reach, the river is a highly
braided channel, except at Pandu where it is constricted into a single channel of
1.2 km wide. This is the narrowest point in the entire reach. In this reach, the river
is navigable throughout the year and has the important towns of Tezpur, Naogaon,
and Guwahati. Many tributaries meet the river here; the biggest amongst them is the
Jia Bhareli which contributes about 4.9% of the total discharge of the Brahmaputra.
Downstream of Pandu, many tributaries, notably, the Pagladia, Manas, Champamati,
Saralbhang (Gaurang), and Sankosh join the Brahmaputra.
Majuli Island (Latitude 26 53 N and Longitude 94  E), the biggest river island of
the world, is the most remarkable feature of the valley reach of the Brahmaputra. It
is formed by bifurcation of the Brahmaputra into two branches: the Kherkatiya Suti
on the north and the Brahmaputra (Dihing) on the south. Majuli is not a normal
alluvial island – it was a piece of land known as Majali, on the south bank of the
Brahmaputra till the year 1750. An extreme flood caused the Brahmaputra (Luit)
to divert its course southwards on the east of Majali, thereby joining it with the
Dihing River. Subsequently the Brahmaputra diverted its main flow through the
lower reach of the Dihing, and the land in between the two rivers became the Majali
Island which is now called Majuli.
Majuli Island is inhabited by 150,000 people and is under constant threat of bank
erosion especially during the monsoon season. Owing to active bank erosion, the
area of the island has reduced from 1,300 sq. km as in 1950 to 900 sq. km at present.
Figure 3 gives a view of Brahmaputra River near Guwahati, Assam.

Figure 3. Brahmaputra River near Guwahati

426 Chapter 9

Tributaries in Middle Reach: A number of tributaries join the main river course in
this reach. The two north bank tributaries, Subansiri and Manas are trans-Himalayan
rivers. Besides these, the major part of the catchment area of the other north bank
tributaries, such as Ranganadi, Borgong, Jia-Bharali and Sankosh, lie deep inside
the Himalayan mountainous terrain of Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh. Details about
the river and the basins of the north bank tributaries are furnished in Table 5.
Details about the river and the basins of the south bank tributaries are furnished in
Table 6.
Subansiri is among the largest tributaries of the Brahmaputra. Gold was commer-
cially mined from its basin till the recent past. Hence it derived this name (Subarna =
Gold in Sanskrit). It is a snowfed perennial trans-Himalayan river. Draining
an area of 37 700 km2 , Subansiri has a maximum discharge of 18,799 cumec
and minimum of 131 cumec. It contributes 7.92% of the total yield of the
Brahmaputra.
Manas is the biggest tributary of this reach which has a maximum discharge
of 7,641 cumec. It contributes 5.48% of the total discharge of the Brahmaputra.
Another big river of this reach is Sankosh which contributes 2.81% of the total
discharge of the Brahmaputra.

Table 5. Some parameters of major north bank tributaries of the Brahmaputra River in the middle reach
in Assam (India)

S. N. Name of Distance of Altitude at Length (km) Catchment Area

Tributary confluence source (m)
(km) from In In Total In sq. % in % in
mouth of Hills Plains km hills plains
Brahmaputra

1 Simen 917 –
2 Jiadhol 877 1,247 – 130 99 1 346 227 773
3 Subansiri 820 5,389 312 – 442 37 000 957 43
4 Ranganadi 811 3,440 – 21 – 2 940 762 238
5 Borgong 719 700 21 66 42 550 636 364
6 Jia-Bharali 675 – 198 – 264 11 843 719 281
7 Gabharu 635 – – – – 295 193 807
8 Belsiri 617 – – – – 751 246 754
9 Dhansiri (N) 607 – – 75 – 956 348 652
10 Noa-nadi 567 – – – – 366 186 814
11 Nonoi 552 – – – 120 860 238 762
12 Barnadi 542 – 10 102 112 739 172 828
13 Puthimari 509 3,750 74 116 190 1 787 334 666
14 Pagladiya 507 1,300 19 180 197 1 820 242 758
15 Manas 422 4,900 270 105 375 41 350 859 141
16 Champamati 400 – – 60 – 1 038 132 868
17 Gaurang 380 – – 57 – 1 023 185 815
18 Tipkai 377 – – – – 1 744 98 902
19 Sankosh 337 7,300 214 107 321 10 345 924 76
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 427

Table 6. Some parameters of the south bank tributaries of Brahmaputra confluencing in the middle reach
in the Assam State

S. N. Name of Chainage of Altitude at Length (km) Catchment Area

tributary confluence with source (m)
Brahmaputra In hills In plains Total Total Percent Percent
(km from km2  in hills in plains
mouth)

1 Dibong 982 4,267 136 57 193 12 270 965 35

2 Lohit 977 4,876 310 84 394 23 400 796 204
3 Dibru 929 – 0 149 149 1 852 0 1000
4 Buri-Dihing 877 2,300 – – 363 8 730 568 432
5 Desang 852 2,594 80 150 230 3 950 457 543
6 Dikhow 842 1,823 104 96 200 4 370 784 216
7 Jhanji 832 1,416 53 55 108 1 349 647 353
8 Dhansiri (S) 757 – 252 102 354 12 580 513 487
9 Kopili 557 1,630 127 129 256 20 068 791 200
10 Kulsi 477 – 99 48 147 4 005 770 230
11 Krishnai 445 – 39 26 65 1 615 800 200
12 Jinari 437 – 32 28 60 594 690 310
13 Jinjiram 337 – 0 160 160 3 467 704 296

The characteristics of the north bank tributaries are quite different than those of
the south bank tributaries because:
(i) North bank tributaries originate from higher Himalayan ranges and the river
gradients are much steeper than those of the south bank tributaries,
(ii) Rainfall in the north bank tributary basins is much higher,
(iii) Catchment areas of north bank tributaries are much bigger,
(iv) North bank tributaries travel through geologically younger Himalayan ranges
which contain unconsolidated sedimentary rocks and hence carry higher sediment
load, and
(v) Most of the north bank tributaries are flashy.
Lower Reach: It covers the lower portion of the river for a length of 337 km from
the Indo-Bangladesh border to its outfall into the Bay of Bengal. The whole portion
of the lower reach of the river falls within Bangladesh. Near the Indo-Bangladesh
border, the Brahmaputra River takes a turn towards south and flows mostly in the
southern direction with a little eastward trend. The river flows 225 km from the
Indo-Bangladesh border up to Goalundo.
In the reach from the confluence of the Tista River near Bahadurabad to Goalundo,
the Brahmaputra River is known as Jamuna. At Goalundo, the Brahmaputra (Jamuna)
joins another major river, Ganges-Padma, coming from west and the combined
river flows as Ganga-Padma for 80 km. Near Rajabari, a little south of the tropic
of cancer, another major tributary Meghna coming from north-east joins it and
the combined river flows for 32 km as Meghna River. A little downstream, the
Meghna River trifurcates in three channels forming a delta. The three channels are:
428 Chapter 9

Sandwip (the east channel), Shahbaz (the central), and Tutulia (the western channel).
These channels ultimately outfall into the Bay of Bengal forming broad estuaries.
Practically, there is no notable tributary on its east (left) bank in this reach,
except the Meghna River. Important tributaries on its west (right) bank are Raidak,
Dharla, Tista, and Atrai. The river gradient in this reach varies from 1:11,340 near
the Indo-Bangladesh border to 1:37,700 near its mouth.
Tributaries in lower reach
Some important tributaries of the lower reach are discussed below.
Raidak River: This is one of the main right bank tributaries which is known as Wong
in its upper reach in Bhutan. It debouches into the plains in the Jalpaiguri district of
the West Bengal state. The Raidak River confluences with the Brahmaputra River
at a chainage 327 km in Bangladesh.
Dharla River: An important right bank tributary which originates in the Sikkim
state and is known as Jaldhaka River in the upper reach. The river traverses 186 km
through Sikkim, Bhutan, then districts of Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar
of West Bengal and finally enters into Bangladesh. Dharla confluences with the
Brahmaputra River at a chainage of 307 km in the Rangpur district of Bangladesh.
Teesta River: Teesta is the largest of the rivers of North Bengal which rises in the
Himalayas in North Sikkim. Running through narrow gorges for nearly 138 km,
it debouches into the plains of the Jalpaiguri district at Sivok. It has a number
of tributaries, many of them are mountain torrents. Draining an area of 12,540 sq.
km of which 3,017 sq. km lies in North Bengal, it joins the Brahmaputra near the
Rangpur town in Bangladesh after traversing a distance of 309 km.

9.1.2. Barak River

Barak (Meghna) River originates from Japvo mountain of Manipur hills at an
altitude of 3,015 m and flows south through mountainous terrain up to Tipaimukh
near the tri-junction of the three states: Assam, Manipur and Mizoram. Here, the
river takes a hairpin bend and debouches into the plains of Cacher district of Assam
and forms the border of Assam and Manipur states up to Jirimat, a little upstream
of Lakhimpur. The river then flows through the Barak valley of Assam. From the
source to the Indo-Bangladesh border, the Barak River flows for 564 km.
The drainage area of the sub-basin lying in India is 41,157 sq. km which is nearly
1.38% of the total geographical area of the country. It lies between east longitudes
90 10 to 95 7 and north latitudes 21 58 to 26 24 . It is bounded on the north by
the Barail range, on the east by the Naga and Lushai hills and on the south and west
by Bangladesh. The bed gradient of the Barak River is very flat and varies from
1:10,000 in the upper reach to 1:20,000 in the lower reach. There are two major
physiographic regions in the sub-basin, namely, the hilly region and the plains.
The plains are thickly populated and extensively cultivated. Predominate soil types
found in the sub-basin are laterite and red and yellow soils. The culturable area in
the sub-basin 0.893 M-ha which is only about 0.5% of the culturable area of the
country. The state wise distribution of drainage area is given in Table 7.
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 429

Table 7. Statewise distribution of drainage area of Barak River

State Drainage Area km2 

Meghalaya 10,650
Manipur 9,550
Mizoram 8,280
Assam 7,224
Tripura 4,725
Nagaland 728
Total 41,157

9.2. HYDROMETEOROLOGY OF THE BASIN

Hydrometeorology of the Brahmaputra basin varies greatly owing to the following

reasons:
(i) The basin has wide variations in latitude, longitude and altitude. About half
of the basin area lies in magnificent high Tibetan plateau just north of high
Himalayan ranges.
(ii) The Himalayas pass through the basin, dividing it into two distinct climatic
regions.
(iii) Orography plays a vital role in the hydrometeorology of the basin. The basin
covers six distinct topographical regions, including two distinct orographic
regions. Small and medium mountain ranges also influence hydrometeorology
of the basin.
(iv) The presence of the Bay of Bengal on the south greatly influences the basin
hydrometeorology.
(v) Different parts of the basin come under the influence of different winds in
different seasons. Examples are continental air moving under Siberian anti-
cyclones, trade winds, monsoons, westerly disturbances, hot wind from south
west Asia, cyclones and depressions that develop over the Bay of Bengal and
many a times pass over the basins.
(vi) The presence of numerous glaciers and permanent snow-covered regions.
(vii) The influence of strong winds in high altitude regions.
(viii) Wide variations in temperature owing to non-uniform surface heating.
(ix) Wide variations in vegetative cover and retention of soil moisture.
(x) Wide variations in transparency and insolation, depending on the altitude of
the place.

9.2.1. Basin Climate

The great Himalayan mountain ranges with a width varying from 200 km to 300 km
lie in the east-west direction just south of the Tibetan plateau and divide the basin
into two distinct climatic zones (Figure 4). The northern part of the basin under the
high Tibetan plateau, falls under climatic Zone III and is classified as ‘Mountain
430 Chapter 9

Figure 4. Climatic zones

Climate’, which is cold, dry and arid. The southern part of the basin falls under
climatic Zone I and is classified as ‘Tropical Monsoon Climate’; the climate of this
zone is relatively warm and humid, and experiences high rainfall, especially during
June to September under the influence of the southwest monsoon.
The basin experiences four distinct seasons in a year: winter (December to
February), summer or pre-monsoon (March to May), rainy season or monsoon (June
to September), and autumn or post-monsoon (October and November). There is a
wide seasonal variation of temperature under the influence of different prevailing
winds. The minimum temperature in the plains and valley areas of the basin varies
from 9  C in the western part to 4  C in the north-eastern part.
The western part of the Brahmaputra valley and the northern part of the plains of
Bangladesh experience hot summer in April and May. During summers, the average
maximum temperature in this part of the basin remains above 35  C, whereas the
maximum temperature is 40  C.
The basin area under Zone I experiences 20% to 35% of the average annual
rainfall during this summer period owing to northwesterly storms that generally
occur in a few days mostly in the afternoons. Sometimes this part of the basin
also experiences widespread heavy rainfall for two to three days resulting from
deep depressions that develop over the Bay of Bengal and pass over the basin. In
general, the humidity and rainfall in the Brahmaputra basin area under Zone I are
relatively high.
The months of October and November, after the retreat of the southwest monsoon,
constitute the autumn or post-monsoon period. The weather during autumn remains
very comfortable with relatively clear sky and moderate temperatures. On average
these two months experience 3% to 6% of the average annual rainfall.
The annual number of cloudy days in the Tibetan part of the basin is compara-
tively less; it is 98 days in Lhasa. The northeastern part of the Brahmaputra valley
and lower mountainous regions of the eastern part of Arunachal Pradesh and Assam
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 431

remain under cloud cover for more than 60% of the days in a year. The average
number of cloudy days in the eastern part of the valley at Dibrugarh is 241 days,
whereas it is 191 days at Guwahati located at the west central part of the valley.
The number of rainy days in the Tibetan plateau is less, although it experiences
light drizzle accompanied by snowfall in some of the days during winters. The
number of rainy days annually at Lhasa is 48. In the Brahmaputra valley, the
number of rainy days increases from west to east. The number of rainy days at
Guwahati, the capital city of the Assam state, is 115 days, whereas it is 172 days
at the Dibrugarh city located on the eastern side of the valley.
The low altitude rain bearing clouds brought in by the southwest monsoon from
the Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal during late May move in the northeast
direction and get intercepted by the southern (Assam) hill ranges and causes
extremely heavy rainfall along the Cherrapunji (see Figure 5) and Mawphalang
Pynurala belt of the Meghalaya state. The wettest town of Cherrapunji is located in
the Khasi hills, just south of the basin boundary towards the windward side of the
southwest monsoon winds. The clouds that pass over the 1,800 m high mountain
ridges of the Garo and Khasi hills of Meghalaya (which means the abode of clouds)
enter into the Brahmaputra basin and widespread rainfall takes place in the valley
and the mountain reaches of Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh. The intensity and
duration of rainfall increases towards the foothills of the Himalayas and more
towards northeast. In the Tibetan plateau, rainfall occurs in the months of July and
August; rainfall decreases as the monsoon winds advance towards the northwest.
The central and western parts of the plateau are cold, dry and arid.

9.2.2. Climatic Variation

Climatically the basin can be divided mainly in two zones: a) area north to the
Himalayan mountain ranges (Zone III) classified as ‘Mountain Climate’; and b) the
southern part of the basin (Zone I) classified as ‘Tropical monsoon climate’. Charac-
teristic features of these zones are described below.

Figure 5. Cherrapunjee (locally names as ‘Shora’), the wettest place on Earth

432 Chapter 9

Climate of the basin area under zone III: Mountain climate

This zone encompasses an area of 293,000 sq. km which is about 50.5% of the total
area. About 1,625 km long portion of the Brahmaputra River from the source to
the Indo-China border flows through this zone. The great plateau of Tibet, lying at
3,000 m to 5,000 m above the mean sea level is known as the roof of the world.
The plateau is wide and undulating with snow covered mountain ranges and dotted
with numerous glaciers and lakes. Some of the glaciers extend into deep valleys.
About 53,000 sq. km area of the basin remains under permanent snow cover; the
snow cover area increases as winter advances and in December and January, snow
covers almost whole of this zone. In winters this zone comes under the influence of
continental winds under Siberian anticyclone and experiences severe cold. The great
Himalayan mountain ranges shield the southern part of the basin from this Siberian
cold air. January is the peak winter month and minimum recorded temperature at
Lhasa is −16  C.
In months from June to September, the southwest monsoon moves northeast
and is obstructed by the great Himalayan mountain ranges. The monsoon winds
penetrate into southeastern part of this climatic zone and precipitate. The amount
and rate of precipitation decreases rapidly as the moisture-laden air advances in the
northwest direction. The central part of the basin under this zone is extremely dry
and arid.

Climate of the basin area under zone I: Tropical monsoon climate

The southern part of the basin covering an area of 287,000 sq. km falls under this
climatic zone. This part of the basin area is comprised of an area of 195,000 sq.
km in India, 45,000 sq. km in Bhutan, and 47,000 sq. km in Bangladesh. The river
reach for a length of 1,255 km from the Indo-China border to its outfall into the
Bay of Bengal falls under this zone.
The general climate of this zone is tropical, humid and experiences a high amount
of rainfall under the influence of southwest monsoon (June to September). The
winter months from December to February are relatively dry and experience about
2% to 5% of the average annual rainfall. The three months, March to May, are
generally known as pre-monsoon months. October and November constitute the
post-monsoon period and experience 3% to 6% of the average annual rainfall.

9.2.3. Seasonal Weather Variation

The weather of the basin varies greatly from place to place, depending on its latitude,
longitude, altitude, location, orography and distance from the sea. Monsoon is the
most important factor responsible for seasonal weather variation. On the basis of
monsoon variations, the year is divided into four seasons.
Winter Season: Three months from December to February are winter months. In
the Tibetan plateau and high altitude places of Arunachal Pradesh and Bhutan,
winter lasts longer - from November to March. The intensity of winter is much
more severe. In this season, the days are bright and sunny but nights are cold.
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 433

Fine weather of this season gets occasionally disturbed by the western disturbances
which bring light rainfall and severe cold in the southern part of the basin.
Summer Season: The three months of summer from March to May constitute the
period of rising temperature and decreasing air pressure. Dry hot wind blows from
west to east over the northern and western parts of the basin under Zone I; sometimes
these are associated with dust storms. At times, this zone experiences heavy rainfall
for two to three days, resulting from depressions that develop in the Bay of Bengal.
This period is also called as pre-monsoon and experiences 20% to 35% of the
average rainfall. Summer in the Zone III is moderate and experiences very small
amounts of rainfall.
Rainy Season (Southwest Monsoon Season): The period of four months from
June to September is the rainy season when the basin experiences 65% to 80%
of the average annual rainfall under the influence of southwest monsoon. These
monsoon winds arising from the Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal move from
the southwest to the northeast direction and enter into the Brahmaputra valley by
the first week of June. These monsoon winds get obstructed by the Patakii and
Arakan mountain ranges in the east, Himalayas in the north and southern (Assam)
mountain ranges in the south. As a result the monsoon winds gradually move
towards the west. The Brahmaputra valley, the Lower (Assam) mountain ranges and
the foothills of Himalayan ranges experience heavy rainfall. The rainfall gradually
decreases towards higher mountain ranges. Orography plays an important role.
Sometimes, cyclones develop over the Bay of Bengal and move over the Brahma-
putra basin. Under their influence part of the basin under Zone I experiences heavy
rainfall.
Autumn (Post-Monsoon): The period of two months, October and November, just
after the monsoon and before the onset of winter, is the autumn season. In this
period, the monsoon winds start retreating. From the middle of October the temper-
ature begins to fall. The weather during this season is characterized by high day
temperatures, clear sky and pleasant nights. This period experiences 3% to 6% of
the annual average rainfall.

9.2.4. Typical Annual Weather Phenomenon

The northeastern part of the Brahmaputra valley and the lower reaches of Arunachal
Pradesh experience more rainfall and the area remains under clouds about 67%
of the days in a year. The number of cloudy days gradually reduces towards the
western side of the basin. The Tibetan plateau generally remains clear and bright;
only 10% to 25% of the days are cloudy days.
The western side of the Brahmaputra valley experiences more thunderstorms
than the eastern side. The number of thunderstorm days at Dibrugarh, located at
the eastern side of the valley, is only 31 days annually, whereas it is 62 days at
Guwahati (located towards the western side). The Tibetan plateau also experiences
thunderstorms annually in about 15% of the days.
434 Chapter 9

Table 8. Annual weather phenomenon at some stations within the Brahmaputra basin

Station Average annual number of days

Cloudy Thunder storm Dust storm Foggy

Lhasa 98 53 0 41
Dibrugarh 241 31 1 52
Tezpur 147 16 0 7
Guwahati 191 62 5 45

The Brahmaputra basin experiences foggy nights in winters. Some areas near
the main river experience dust storms in February and March. The average annual
number of cloudy days, thunderstorm days, dust storm days and foggy days of four
stations Lhasa, Dibrugarh, Tezpur and Guwahati are furnished in Table 8.

9.2.5. Temperature Variation

The basin experiences wide seasonal variations of temperature. The recorded mean
and recorded daily maximum and minimum temperatures of four stations are
furnished in Table 9. The monthly means of daily maximum and minimum temper-
atures of the above four stations are furnished in Table 10. The basin can be
divided into five regions on the basis of temperature and its variation as discussed
below.
Region I: Tibetan Plateau: Here the average minimum temperature during
December and January comes down to −12  C to −13  C at Lhasa and recorded
minimum temperature is −16  C in January. The average maximum temper-
ature varies from 25  C to 28  C during May to August. The high altitude
areas always remain under snow cover. The insolation is also large in this
plateau.
Region II: Himalayan Mountainous Region: The 200 to 300 km wide belt of the
Himalayan mountain ranges passes through the basin. The states of Arunachal
Pradesh and Sikkim of India and Kingdom of Bhutan fall in this region. As the

Table 9. Temperature and mean relative humidity at some stations in the Brahmaputra basin

Station Temperature (in  C) Mean relative humidity (%)

Mean Daily Recorded At At

0800 Hrs. 1700 Hrs.
Max. Min Max. Min.

Lhasa 16 1 32 (June) −16 (Jan) 69 –

Dibrugarh 27 18 39 (June) 4 (Feb) 88 76
Tezpur 29 19 38 (May) 6 (Feb) 85 70
Guwahati 29 19 40 (April) 5 (April) 84 69
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 435

Table 10. Monthly mean of daily maximum and minimum temperature (in  C) of some stations located
in the Brahmaputra basin

Month Lhasa Dibrugarh Tezpur Guwahati

Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min.

January 14 −12 25 7 25 9 26 7
February 16 −12 27 9 28 10 29 8
March 18 −8 31 12 33 13 34 11
April 22 −4 32 15 34 17 36 17
May 25 1 35 18 35 19 35 19
June 28 4 35 21 35 22 35 22
July 27 6 35 22 35 23 35 24
August 26 4 35 23 35 24 35 24
September 24 4 34 21 35 23 34 23
October 22 −5 33 17 33 18 33 18
November 17 −9 29 12 30 13 30 13
December 14 −13 26 8 26 9 27 8

altitude varies from 1,000 m to 5,000 m, the temperature variation is also wide.
The windward side of the mountains experiences heavy rainfall which creates
temperature differences between windward and leeward sides. Again, insolation
results in wide differences of temperature between sunny and shadow areas in
high altitude regions above 3 km, where the atmosphere is free from dust, and air
pollution and hence insolation plays an important role.
Region III: Valley and Northern Plains: The Brahmaputra valley in Assam and
the northern part of Bangladesh fall under this region. The western side of this
temperate region (area west of 93  E longitude) experiences heat wave during April
and May. The average maximum temperature remains above 35  C and the recorded
maximum temperature is 40  C. The temperature in the eastern side of the valley is
slightly moderate. Dibrugarh, Tezpur, and Guwahati are situated in the Brahmaputra
valley, and the average and maximum observed temperatures of these stations are
furnished in Tables 9 and 10.
Region IV: Southern (Assam) Mountainous Region: Parts of the southern (Assam)
mountainous region south of the Brahmaputra valley from where the southern tribu-
taries of the Brahmaputra originate and traverse fall under this temperate region. The
altitude of this region varies from 500 m to 3,000 m; the areas are moderately cool in
summer and very cold in winter. In some days of December and January in high altitude
places, temperature drops below the freezing point. Most of the places above 1,500 m
experience ground frost in peak winter months. The region does not experience any
snowfall.
Region V: Coastal Belt: This area is influenced by the ocean effect. The area also
experiences a few cyclones that develop from deep depressions over the Bay of
Bengal. Generally, cyclones hit the coast during pre- and post-monsoon periods.
The area does not experience extreme weather.
436 Chapter 9

9.2.6. Humidity

Depending on latitude, altitude, sunshine hour, the influence of different prevailing

winds, precipitation, and ground moisture, humidity show a large variation. The
average humidity of places under climatic Zone-I is relatively high but it is low
under Zone-III. The central part of the Tibetan portion of the basin under Zone III
is relatively dry owing to its high altitude, coolness and location. Low pressure and
strong wind increase dryness.
The mean relative humidity of four stations are furnished in Table 9. It shows
that the mean relative humidity at 8 hrs of the three stations Dibrugarh, Tezpur and
Guwahati, located in Zone-I is above 80% whereas it is 69% at Lhasa in Zone-III.

9.3. SOILS OF THE BRAHMAPUTRA BASIN

The major groups of alluvium-derived soils of the Brahmaputra valley are Entisols,
Inceptisols and Alfisols. Climate, particularly rainfall and temperature, have the
dominant role in formation of soils of the basin. Topography modifies the influence
of climate on these soils. The duration of soil forming processes also leads to the
variations in the profile characteristics. The upland soils are more developed due to
the origin of the alluvium in pleistocene age whereas other soils are less developed
due to their origin on younger alluvium.
Generally, soils of uplands are dark brown to yellowish brown. These colours of
the soils indicate their better drainage conditions. The fluctuations in the depth of
water tables in the profile causes the variation in the depth of mottles as the soils
remain temporally saturated during rainy season. The recent and old flood plain
soils, the channel soils, and low lying soils of upland have characteristic gleyed
colours associated with wetness. The poorly drained soils have dark gray to pale
brown colour. Some of these soils are flooded every year. The paddy growing soils
of the basin also develop characteristics of grayish matrix colour.
The soils of the Brahmaputra valley have wide textural variations ranging from
sand to clay. The flood plain soils are predominantly silty loam to sand. The upland
soils are loam to clay loam at the surface horizons and clay loam to clay at the lower
horizons. The alluvium near the Brahmaputra River is newer and stratified. In these
flood plain soils, coarser materials are deposited first, followed by finer materials.

9.3.1. Physico-Chemical Characteristics

Soils of the Brahmaputra basin have a great diversity in their physical and chemical
properties. Flood plain soils contain a higher percentage of sand at lower depths.
The sand content of upland soils is less than 28% at the surface and it decreases at
lower depths. The fine and very fine fractions constitute the major portion of the
total sand. Soils near the main river are coarser in texture while those away from
the river have finer texture. The silt content of the soils ranges from 30–75%. The
depth-wise distribution of silt fraction in the profiles of flood plain soils is irregular
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 437

but a gradual decrease of silt in upland soils is observed. In most of the soils, the
content of medium silt exceeds that of coarse and fine silt.
The soils developed on uplands, old flood plain, lower horizons of some recent
flood plains and upper horizon of old channels contain a higher amount of clay
(21–58%). Clay increases with depth in upland and old flood plain soils. A signif-
icant negative correlation between silt and clay contents on the upland profiles and
old flood plain profiles indicates that clay is formed by the weathering of silt.

9.3.2. Bulk Density, Saturation Percentage and Moisture

Holding Capacity

The bulk density of the soils ranges from 1.36 to 210 gm/cm3 . Relatively more
developed upland soils of the basin have a higher bulk density than the other soils.
The saturation percentage of the soils varies from 25.7 to 54.7%; the field capacity
varies from 3.1 to 29.2%.
The organic matter content in the surface horizon of the soils of the Brahmaputra
basin varies from 0.60 to 2.9% and its value decreases with depth. The organic
matter content has been found to increase with the increase in rainfall and decrease
with the increase in the temperature.
Soils of the middle region of the Brahmaputra basin contain free CaCO3
and carbonate nodules at lower depths. The flood plain soils contain carbonate
throughout the profile, indicating a lack of carbonate leaching. The calcium
carbonate content of these soils is higher at the surface horizons which indicates
recent deposition of alluvium derived from calcium rich rocks. Low pH, high
rainfall, and moderate to well-drained conditions of these soils enhance disso-
lution and leaching of carbonates. Therefore, the electrical conductivity (EC) of the
Brahmaputra basin soils is low. The free iron oxide content of the soils ranges from
0.57 to 5.28% and that of the aluminum oxides ranges from 0.31 to 3.95%.
The pH of the recent flood plain soils of the Brahmaputra basin ranges from
7.6 to 8.0 and that of the old channel soils, old flood plain soils and upland soils
ranges from 5.5 to 8.4, 4.4 to 7.5 and 4.8 to 6.4, respectively. The pH of these soils
decreases with increase in the intensity of rainfall and with the increase in age.
Higher rainfall and temperature increase the base status and the Fe and Al oxides
and decreases the silica ratio of the soils. In general, the silica ratio decreases
with depth in most of the upland soils. As the soils of eastern region of the basin
experience a higher rate of weathering, they contain a higher amount of iron and
aluminum. The recent flood plain soils of the valley also contain a higher amount
of Fe and Al.

9.3.3. Mineralogy of Soils

The heavy minerals (sp. gr. > 25) in sand fractions of the soils ranges from 0.1 to
6.1%. The chlorite, biotite, amphibole and pyroxene together constitute the major
proportion of heavy minerals of sand fractions of soils of the basin. Clay mica
438 Chapter 9

is the dominant mineral in clay fractions of flood plain soils (53–61%). Chlorite
constitutes 8 to 10% of the clay fractions of the flood plain soils of the basin.
Kaolinite is another dominant mineral constituting 36–40% of the clays.
The major groups of the alluvium-derived soils of the Brahmaputra basin are
entisol, inceptisol and alfisol. Inceptisols comprise 45% of the soils followed by
entisols and alfisols which represent 36.6 and 12.3 per cent of the soils of Assam,
respectively. The dominant soils of Assam are grouped under 5 classes and 7 sub-
classes of land capacity. Nearly 69% of the land comes under the arable class
suitable for agriculture with proper management.

9.3.4. Organic Matter and Nitrogen Content

The organic matter reserve of the Brahmaputra valley soils ranges from low to high.
It is high in bheel and virgin soils. In continuously cultivated soils, the organic
content has decreased to an alarming level. The average organic matter content
of new alluvium, old alluvium and upland soils are 0.97%, 1.02% and 2.70%,
respectively. The organic matter in the profiles shows a gradual decrease with depth.
The total Nitrogen content in the top soils of old alluvium vary from higher to
low, while the new alluvial soils contain a medium level of total N. The average
value of the total N content in the valley has been reported to be 0.1%. The amount
of the total N in new alluvial soils varies between 0.013% and 0.135%. On the
other hand, the N content of the old alluvial soil is in the range 0.034 to 0.165%.
Top soils of the old alluvium have low to deficient levels of phosphate. In general,
the available P2 O5 content in old alluvial soils is less than 0.01% (1% citric acid
soluble). The top soils of new alluvium are relatively rich in phosphate. The soil
acidity is the main reason of the low level of phosphorus available for plants in
these soils. The top soils of the new alluvium are richer in potash, compared with
the top soils of the old alluvium. The average values of the available K2 O content of
new alluvial soils of Lakhimpur, Nagoan and Kamrup districts are 0.006%, 0.014%
and 0.002%, respectively.
In the Brahmaputra valley soils, the percentage of the total (acid soluble) MgO
is relatively greater than that of CaO, but the available (replaceable) Mg is lower
than Ca. In recent alluvium and low-lying soils exchangeable Ca++ and Mg++ are
dominant. Cations of clay surface and their content increase down the profile of
upland soils. In old alluvium derived soils, only exchangeable Mg++ increases with
the depth of profile. The status of exchangeable Ca and Mg in the surface soils of
the Brahmaputra valley soils of Nagoan, Tezpur, Guwahati and Jorhat is low with
values ranging between 73 to 148 and 3.6 to 39, respectively. The Ca:Mg ratio of
these soils varies between 1.41 and 12.17.
Crop yields in most of the arable soils of the Brahmaputra Valley can be consid-
erably increased by adequate manuring combined with proper cultural practices.
Most of the old alluvial soils need to be adequately manured, particularly with
nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizers to increase crop yield. Organic manures, such
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 439

as cowdung, compost, oil cake and green manures, have been found effective for
most crops in these soils.

9.3.5. Fertility of Tea Soils

In the Brahmaputra valley tea is grown on land with an elevation between 50 to 120 m
above the mean sea level. The tea soils of the Brahmaputra valley, which occupy
196,173 ha, are mostly alluvial and vary widely in texture. Most tea soils of the Brahma-
putra valley have low to medium status of organic carbon. About 54% of the tea
sections have medium to high level of nutrient index for soil organic matter; the rest are
with low nutrient index. A typical tea garden in the valley can be seen in Figure 6.

9.4. HYDROGEOLOGY

Hydrogeologically, the Brahmaputra basin can be divided into two distinct

categories: (a) dissected alluvial plain and (b) the inselberg zone. The first category
is represented in the flood plain extending from south of the sub-Himalayan
piedmont fan zone in the north to right up to the main rock promontory of the
Garo hills and the Shillong plateau. There are a large number of buried channels
consisting of gravel and sands, natural levees of sands and silts, back swamps/bils
of silts and clays. The inselberg zone is characterized by fractured, jointed, and
weathered ancient crystalline rocks with inter-hill narrow valley plains, consisting
of thin to occasionally thick piles of assorted sediments.

9.4.1. Aquifers

Subsurface lithological data indicate two broad groups of aquifers: (i) shallow
water table and (ii) deeper water table or confined ones, separated by a system

Figure 6. A tea garden in Brahmaputra valley in Assam

440 Chapter 9

of aquicludes. The occurrence of groundwater in the hard rock inselberg areas is

controlled by foliations, fractures/joints, and weathered zones. The physiographic
features, types of drainage, depth and duration of precipitation also play an important
role. Many of the shallow open wells go dry by the month of March.
In the tertiary sediments, ground water occurs in the sandstones and along the
fractures and solution cavities in the limestones. Ground water occurs both under
water table and confined conditions. In the piedmont and alluvial fan deposits
ground water occurs generally under water table conditions. The water table has,
in general, a southerly slope corresponding roughly to the surface topography.
The ground water yield from the older alluvium varies from 500–700 lpm for a
drawdown of about 3 m. The estimated transmissibility and coefficient of storage
are of the order of 793 lpm/m and 82 × 10−3 , respectively.
On the north bank, in the dissected flood plains between Abhayapuri and Beki-
Chaulkhowa section, ground water generally occurs under unconfined or water table
condition, at places it is perched where a thin veneer of sand or silt rests on the
pockets of clay. In the younger or newer alluvium, ground water occurs both under
water table and confined conditions. Depths to water levels vary from ground level
to 10m below the land surface. The depth to the tube wells ranges from 30 to
200 m and the depth to water ranges from 6m below the land surface to 2 m above
the land surface. The yield of the deep tubewells ranges from 2 to 4 kl/minute for
a drawdown of 3m to 6m. The transmissivity of the aquifers varies from 69 to
1,600 lps/m and the storage coefficient is of the order of 352 × 10−2 .
Within the inselberg zone, at places shallow unconfined aquifers occur right from
the ground level down to a depth of about 30 m. The sediments are mainly fine
to coarse sand and silt. In these units, the first saturated granular zone of medium
to coarse sand and gravel with occasional cobbles, pebbles occur between 10 and
20 m below the ground. In the Chapar geomorphic units, a top clay layer of 15 to
18 m thick occurs. The deeper aquifers with intervening thin clay lenses occur in a
composite zone ranging in thickness from 5 to 80 m below 25–30 m. Throughout
the area, the shallow and deeper aquifers are more or less interconnected. Water
levels are comparatively shallower in the flood plain and the inselberg zone, the
depth to water level varying mostly from less than 2 to 6 m below ground level but
in the older Chapar Formation, deeper water level exists.

9.4.2. Aquifer Properties

The sediments in the lower Assam plain of the Brahmaputra can be grouped into
belts from north to south as described below:
1) Piedmont zone (Bhabar belt-Pleistocene): The piedmont terraces consist of talus
fans having all the general characteristics of foothill terraces all along the sub-
Himalayan belt. The terraces comprise rock fragments, boulders, pebbles, and
ill-sorted sand and minor clay. These fans hardly retain any percolating water
and the ground intake from precipitation and runoff migrates rapidly down to
the terraces below. Adequate ground water exists in the area under water table
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 441

as well as confined conditions. The average depth to water is 3–3.5 m during

March-April. Flowing conditions in the case of a few tube wells indicate water
at depths from 26–38 m with thickness of water column ranging from 3 to 14 m.
The southern extremity of the Bhabar belt is characterized by water table at
shallow depths of 1 to 2.5 m.
2) The Tarai zone (Pleistocene): The linear Tarai tract fringes the piedmont zone
throughout, commencing from the spring line. It occurs below the piedmont
zone comprising terraces of brown clay, coarse to medium sand with occasional
pebbles and gravel beds. The water table persists within depths of 1–2 m for
about 4–5 km down south of the spring line. This belt forms the main recharge
zone for aquifers in shallow depths in the sub-Tarai zone. Near surface, aquifers
are under the water table condition.
3) The present day flood plain deposits and their abandoned channels: They occur
between the Tarai belt and the Brahmaputra River. The sediments are mainly
gravel, sand, silt and clay. The near-surface sand and gravel beds constitute
the aquifers which contain ground water under water table conditions. Deeper
aquifers are often under confined condition.
On the southern periphery of the alluvial plain near the northern flank of Brahma-
putra River, a progressive increase in the depth to water from 2 to 5 m is noticed.
In the central part of the area where alternating sand and clay beds occur below
the topmost clayey horizon up to a thickness of 18 m, at least 3–4 significant
confined aquifers have been tapped from depths of 20–53 m. In the southern part
of the alluvial plain, where sandy sediments predominate, small diameter tube
wells tap water from the aquifers between the 10–26 m depth. The aquifers are
under semi-confined to free condition. Deeper aquifers down to a 60 m depth are
also under semi–confined condition, as no impervious horizon of any importance
exists within this depth. The piezometric level varies in the alluvial plain from
1.4 to 5.9 m below the land surface. Many tube wells in the sedimentary plain have
shown artesian flow.

9.4.3. Chemical Quality of Ground Water

The ground water is generally mildly alkaline with a pH value ranging from 6.5 to
8.5. The total dissolved solids are low. The chloride (10–40 ppm) and bi-carbonate
(50–350 ppm) values are considerably low. The iron content ranges from a fraction
of a ppm to as high as 50 ppm, having higher values in the north eastern sector, and
varies both laterally and depth wise. The total hardness as CaCO3 generally varies
from 50 to 300 ppm, and the specific conductance at 25  C generally varies from
150 to 650 mhos/cm.
Although ground water is available in plenty, because of high iron content, its
quality affects its potable nature. At greater depths, say 30 m, ground water is free
from much of iron. In some places, good quality water is available at 14–30 m depth.
The temperature of the ground water is, in general, in the range of 23–25  C during
winter, 24–26  C during pre monsoon period, and 27–28  C during peak monsoon
442 Chapter 9

when the water table rises within 2 to 2.5 m of surface. Owing to stagnation, the
condition of ground water of the back swamp lakes shows a higher temperature
range of up to 31–34  C.

9.5. GROUND WATER RESOURCE POTENTIAL

The total annual replenishable ground water potential of Brahmaputra basin is

assessed to be 26.55 BCM. Basin wise and state wise details of ground water
potential are given in Table 11.
Percentage of ground water development is very low; only about 3.5%. Clearly,
there is large scope of development of ground water resources in the NER but of
course, the demand are also very low.

9.6. CROPS AND CROPPING PATTERN

The major crops raised in Assam include rice, wheat, maize & other cereals, pulses,
oilseeds, jute, sugar cane, and potato. The horticultural crops grown in the state
are fruit crops, plantation crops, tuber crops, spices, and vegetables. Commercial
cultivation of ornamentals has been initiated recently. Rice is by far the most
important crop of Assam, occupying an area of 25.80 lakh hectares or about
80 % of the annual cropped area. Of this area, winter or Kharif rice (known as
‘Sali’) occupies 70% of the total area under rice. Sali is cultivated from June-July
to November-December. Next in importance is the ‘ahu’ or autumn rice which
occupies 25% of the total area under rice. The ‘ahu’ crop season ranges from
March-April to July. The third crop of rice occupies only 5% of the rice area in the

Table 11. Ground water potential (BCM) NE Region

Basin / state Total Replenishable Available for Available Net draft Balance
GW resource domestic use for irrigation available

Brahmaputra 2655 3.99 2256 0.76 2180

Basin
State wise potential
Arunachal 144 0.22 122 0.00 122
Pradesh
Assam 2472 3071 2101 0.94 2007
Manipur 315 0.47 268 Negligible 268
Meghalaya 054 0.08 046 0.02 044
Mizoram Data Not Available
Nagaland 072 0.11 062 Negligible 062
Tripura 066 0.10 056 0.19 037

Percentage of ground water development is very low; only about 3.5%. Clearly, there is large scope of
development of ground water resources in the NER but of course, the demand are also very low.
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 443

state. ‘Boro’ and early ahu crop are raised in this season, lasting from December-
January to April-May. The area covered under high yielding varieties is a little over
40% of the total cropped area.
The area under wheat in the state increased from 5,000 ha in 1965–66 to 93,000 ha
in 1985–86. But this has shown a declining trend since 1990–91. The area under
maize (corn) and other cereals is rather low, being only 21,000 and 15,000 hectares,
respectively.
Pulses are cultivated primarily during the Rabi season, the important pulses being
black gram, green gram, pea, lentil, and rajmah. About 10–15 thousand ha, out of
the total area of 1.2 lakh ha under pulses, are cultivated during the Kharif season,
the crops raised include arhar (pigeon pea), summer green gram and summer black
gram. The productivity of pulses is rather low, being around 450–550 kg/ha. Pulses
are grown in the rain-fed areas only. Edible oilseed crops grown in the state include
rape and mustard, niger, soyabean, sesamum and ground nut, while linseed and
castor are the non-edible crops. However, rape and mustard alone occupy 92%
of the total area under oilseeds which is around 3.5 lakh ha. The productivity of
oilseeds is very low, since the crops are rainfed, grown during the Rabi season.
Jute is the primary fiber crop cultivated in around one lakh ha. The production of
jute ranges from 8.5 to 10.5 lakh bales annually. Sugarcane is another important
crop, grown in about 40,000 ha, annual production being around 14.5 to 15.5 lakh
tons. The area under potato is around 635,000 ha, the average yield being about
6 tons/ha.
A large number of horticultural crops are raised in the valley. Important horti-
cultural and plantation crops include orange, banana, pineapple, papaya, limes and
lemons, ginger, turmeric, chilies, tapioca, sweet potatoes, arecanut, coconut, betel
vine, black pepper, an array of summer and winter vegetables, and onion, etc. The
area under fruits is around 0.78 lakh hectares; the total production being about 9.2
lakh tons. Similarly, the total production of vegetables is around 19 lakh tons, the
crops occupying an area of about 1.55 lakh hectares.
Mixed farming is usually practiced by farmers – rearing livestock and raising
of crops are common. Growing of horticultural crops is primarily confined to
homesteads, except pineapple and oranges which are raised commercially. Over
90% of the total cropped area is rainfed. The Brahmaputra River has made the
valley fertile and has contributed to the favourable moisture regime in the area. The
high rainfall also helps rainfed farming.
The cropping intensity in the state of Assam is around 125%. The lack of
irrigation is the primary cause for such a situation. Production and productivity of
the major crops during 1991 to 1993 are shown in Table 12.
As for the cropping pattern, Ahu rice (summer paddy) followed by Kharif rice
(Sali or winter paddy) and jute followed by Kharif rice are the two primary cropping
patterns in low lying areas. In the rainfed uplands, Ahu/olitorins jute followed by
mustard/wheat is the common pattern, where double cropping is practiced. Mainly
due to sandy loam soil of Goalpara, Kamrup, Nowgong and Barpeta districts, more
areas are under double cropping.
444 Chapter 9

Table 12. Production and productivity of four major crops of Assam

1990–91 1991–92 1992–93

Crops
Production Productivity Production Productivity Production Productivity

Rice 32.70 1,313 31.97 1,261 33.0 1,308

Rape & Mustard 2.95 535 3.03 586 2.90 476
Pulses 1.21 433 1.26 472 1.19 475
Jute 866 1,632 8.67 1,537 10.34 2,011

Production is in lakh tonnes (Jute in lakh bales), productivity is in kg/ha.

9.6.1. Land Tenure and Farm Size

The land holdings in the Brahmaputra valley are small (average size: 1.47 ha). Many
socio-economic problems of the farmers are due to the large number of fragmented,
small and marginal holdings. The share tenancy is quite widespread. As per the
world agricultural census, 16% of the holdings are wholly rented, while another
9% are partially rented. The 59.66% of the land holdings are of size 1 hectare or
less, 22.62% of size 1–2 ha and 9.04% of 2–3 ha.

9.6.2. Demography

Historically, the Brahmaputra Valley has been highly plural in demographic compo-
sition. It has been a shared homeland of various racial, religious, ethnic, linguistic
and cultural groups. As per the 1991 Census, the population of the Brahmaputra
Valley in Assam was 19,109,300 persons. As per the provisional Census Report of
2001, the population of Assam has reached 26,638,407 persons. During the post-
colonial period, the Brahmaputra Valley had shown a rapid growth of population
up to 1991 Census. The population of the north-eastern states has gone up from
10.36 million in 1951 to 31.55 million in 1991. The staple diet for people in the
region is rice. However, the population growth rate declined substantially from 1991
onwards. The literacy rate, too, has increased from 56.08%in 1991 to 66.08% in 2001.
The density of population in Assam has increased from 286 per sq. km in 1991
to 340 per sq. km in 2001. However, the density of population in the Brahmaputra
Valley is much higher than the average of the state.

9.7. PRECIPITATION

Depending on the amount of precipitation, the basin may be broadly divided into
two regions:
(i) Tibetan plateau that falls under climatic zone-III.
(ii) Southern part of the basin that falls under climatic zone-I.
The southwest monsoon causes widespread rainfall in the basin south of Himalayas
under climatic zone I during June to September. About 65% to 80% of the average
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 445

annual rainfall takes place in this period. Rainfall during July and August is the
highest and amounts to more than 33% of the annual rainfall. Orography plays an
important role in areal distribution of rainfall. Rainfall is very high on the southern
slopes and the foothill region of Himalayas in Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh.
The monsoon rainfall is generally widespread and at places it is heavy. In most
places, monsoon rainfall is received in showers of one to three hours duration. At
some places, heavy showers of six hours or more duration are also observed. Such
situations generally persist for 2 to 3 days but may continue for 4 to 5 days.
The Tibetan plateau and higher reaches of mountain ranges above 3,000 m receive
snowfall during December to February. The south-eastern part of the Tibetan plateau
receives some monsoon rainfall in July and August. The amount of rainfall decreases
gradually towards western and central part of the plateau.
The average annual rainfall in the basin varies from less than 400 mm to more
than 6,000 mm. The mean annual rainfall over the whole catchment excluding the
Tibetan part is around 2,300 mm. Within the valley reach in Assam, rainfall is more
towards the northeast and gradually decreases towards the west. The mean monthly
and average annual rainfall, and the average number of rainy days in a year at four
stations are furnished in Table 14.
Depending on the prevailing climate and influence of different winds mainly
monsoon, the year may be divided into the following four periods of rainfall:
I: Winter rainfall from December of February,
II: Pre-monsoon rainfall from March to May,
III: Monsoon rainfall from June to September, and
IV: Post-monsoon rainfall from October to November.
Under the influence of western disturbances, the basin gets small amounts of rainfall
in winter months. The area under Zone I experiences occasional winter rainfall
amounting to 2% to 5% of the average annual rainfall. Higher reaches of Arunachal
Pradesh and Bhutan receive greater amounts of rainfall during these winter months,
amounting to about 10% of the average annual rainfall. The Tibetan part of the
basin under Zone III experiences snowfall under the influence of continental cold
air that blows owing to Siberian anticyclones. The Tibetan plateau also receives
light winter rainfall, although the total amount is not substantial.
The pre-monsoon months from March to May experience rainfall mainly from
isolated thunderstorms occurring over small areas for short duration. Scattered
thunderstorms are also observed on some days over large areas. Generally such
activities do not persist for more than a day or two. Widespread heavy rainfalls
are sometimes observed during late May due to cyclones over Zone I. In general,
this pre-monsoon period, experiences 20% to 35% of the average annual rainfall.
Higher reaches of Arunachal Pradesh and Bhutan experience about 35% of the
average annual rainfall, the southern portion of the catchment experiences 20%
to 30%. Such rainfalls give rise to flooding in some tributaries or the main river
itself.
Some portions of the Brahmaputra valley in Assam and the adjoining mountainous
regions receive heavy to very heavy rainfall. Sometimes rainfall continues for 7
446 Chapter 9

to 8 days during monsoon months under synoptic meteorological conditions. Such

spells generally take place under four meteorological situations, namely: (i) break
monsoon situation; (ii) northwesterly to northern movement of monsoon depressions
or storms from the Bay of Bengal; (iii) the formation and the movement of land
depressions over northeast; and (iv) the upper air cyclonic circulation over the basin.
Under such situations, one-hour rainfall of 70 mm is common in some areas. Such
a spell of heavy rainfall gives rise to flooding in the concerned tributaries or the
main river.
Monthwise numbers of rainy days of four stations are furnished in Table 13.
Note that Lhasa experiences only 48 rainy days in a year compared to 172 days
at Dibrugarh. The rain shadow areas of the Mikir hills in the south-central part of
the basin experiences a low of 95 days. Almost 65% of the rainy days occur in the
monsoon season and 20% in the pre-monsoon season. The number of rainy days
in the southern periphery of Arunachal Pradesh is around 120 and it increases to
170 at the northern end. In the high altitude northern part of Arunachal Pradesh,
the number of rainy days in winter and pre-monsoon period is considerably high,
although the total amount of rainfall is not much.
The October and November months are the post-monsoon period and experience
very low rainfall, of the order of 3% to 6% of the annual value. Rainfall in this period
occurs generally from isolated thunderstorm or from the cyclones that develop. The
average rainfalls of the northern and southern tributaries of the Brahmaputra River
in the middle reach for the four seasons are furnished in Table 14 and Table 15,
respectively.

Table 13. Mean monthly rainfall and rainy days of four stations in the Brahmaputra Basin

Month Lhasa Dibrugarh Tezpur Guwahati

Rainfall Rainy Rainfall Rainy Rainfall Rainy Rainfall Rainy

(mm) Days (mm) Days (mm) Days (mm) Days

January 3 1 38 7 15 3 10 2
February 13 1 62 10 27 6 4 5
March 8 1 103 14 48 8 25 6
April 5 1 241 18 153 12 145 10
May 25 3 307 19 271 19 236 15
June 53 8 500 22 308 18 312 18
July 122 13 536 24 348 19 312 20
August 89 10 451 22 331 18 261 16
September 66 7 352 21 210 16 167 15
October 13 2 152 8 104 6 71 5
November 3 1 53 4 23 3 14 2
December 0 0 16 3 6 2 4 1
Annual 400 48 2811 172 1844 130 1561 115

A day having rainfall more than 0.3 mm is termed as a rainy day.

Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 447

Table 14. Average rainfall of some north bank tributary basins of the Brahmaputra in the middle reach

S.N. Name of Average Rainfall (in mm) Annual

River
Dec.- Mar.-May June-Sept. Oct.-Nov.
Feb. (Pre- (Monsoon) (Post-
(Winter) monsoon) monsoon)

1. Simen – – – – 3,680
2. Jiadhol – – – – 3,500
3. Subansiri 108 461 1,450 131 2,150
4. Ranganadi 88 604 1,601 174 2,467
5. Borgong – – 1,455 – 2,216
6. Jia-Bharali 60 471 1,529 157 2,217
7. Gabharu – – – – 1,582
8. Belsiri 38 384 1,147 99 1,668
9. Dhansiri (N) 56 463 1,345 133 1,997
10. Noa-Nadi – – – – 1,722
11. Nanoi 50 539 1,359 126 2,074
12. Barnadi – – – – 2,037
13. Puthimari 46 608 1,407 93 2,154
14. Pagladiya 39 689 1,820 111 2,659
15. Manas 52 418 1,286 113 1,869
16. Champamati – – – – 2,667
17. Gaurang – – – – 3,123
18. Tipkai – – – – 3,264
19. Sankosh – – – – 2,863

Table 15. Average rainfall of some south bank tributary basins of the Brahmaputra in the middle reach

S.N. Name Average Rainfall (in mm) Annual

of River
Dec.- Mar.-May. June-Sept. Oct.-Nov.
Feb. (Pre- (Monsoon) (Post-
(Winter) monsoon) monsoon)

1. Dibong 394 1 415 1,701 350 3,860

2. Lohit 216 840 1,776 159 2,991
3. Dibru 96 669 1,466 140 2,371
4. Buri-Dihing 113 631 1,567 175 2,486
5. Desang 110 613 1,535 174 2,432
6. Dikhow 113 594 1,553 178 2,438
7. Jhanji 80 654 1,277 186 2,197
8. Dhansiri (S) 58 449 1,116 144 1,767
9. Kopili 42 376 1,194 123 1,735
10. Kulsi 25 378 1,152 117 1,672
11. Krishnai 14 404 1,138 157 1,713
12. Jinari 28 835 1,842 345 3,050
13. Jinjiram 31 653 1,937 226 2,847
448 Chapter 9

Several closed cells of maxima of more than 4,000 mm exist. One such closed
cell of maxima (Cell-I) is noticed in the area around Pasighat between latitude
27  N to 28 45 N and longitude 93  E to 95 30 E. The second such cell (Cell-II)
is in the western part of Assam in the foothill region of Bhutan hills between
latitude 26 15 N and 27 15 N and longitude 88 30 E to 90  E at and around the
Sankosh basin. The third closed cell of maxima (Cell-III) exists in the Khasi hill
region along the Cherrapunji and Mawphalang Pynurala belt of the Meghalaya
state between latitude 24 30 and 25 30 N and longitude 89 30 E and 91 30 E.
Extremely heavy rainfall takes place in this cell. The town of Cherrapunji located
in this cell just south of the basin boundary and towards the windward side of the
southwest monsoon experiences the average annual rainfall of 10,800 mm and is
the wettest place in the world. Rainfall between cells I and II falls sharply to less
than 2,000 mm in the Mikir and adjoining hills of the southern Assam ranges.
There are a number of rain shadow areas in the basin. Rainfall is less than 1,500 mm
in major parts of high altitude regions of Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh. The eastern
part of the Lohit district of Arunachal Pradesh (east of 95 30 E longitude and north
of 28 N latitude) is a rain shadow area where the average annual rainfall is less than
1,000 mm. Another rain shadow area is in the north western part of Arunachal Pradesh
adjoining Bhutan, where the average annual rainfall is less than 1,000 mm. Rainfall in
the Assam valley varies from 1,500 mm in the western side to more than 4,000 mm in
the northeast corner. The variability of annual rainfall over the basin is 15 to 20%.
The variability of winter rainfall is less than 40 percent in the north-eastern part
of Arunachal Pradesh; it increases to about 65 percent in the south-eastern part of
the basin and 85 percent in the south-western part. The variability of pre-monsoon
rainfall is about 30% over the basin, except the Tibetan part. The variability of
monsoon rainfall over the basin, except Tibetan part, is about 15 to 20 percent,
whereas the variation in individual months is 30 to 40 percent. For the post monsoon
season, the variability is 40 to 50 percent in the eastern part of the catchment and
it increases to 80 percent in the western part.
Exceptionally heavy rainfall occurs over Assam and neighbouring hill states when
westerly waves moving across Nepal-Assam Himalayas happen to synchronize with
any of the synoptic situations. Under such situations, heavy to very heavy rainfall
of isolated nature takes place. The maximum rainfalls of 1-hour, 3-hour, 6-hour,
12-hour, 24-hour, etc. are recorded at different places and are mentioned below.
a) 1-hour maximum recorded rainfall: Rainfall of nearly 70 mm/hour is common in
areas favourable for heavy rainfall. The highest recorded 1-hour rainfall is 97.5 mm
at Saralpara under Tikpai sub-basin located in the Cell-II of maxima where the
average annual rainfall is above 4,000 mm. One-hour rainfall of above 60 mm is
also seen in the Cell-I near Pasighat.
b) 3-hour maximum recorded rainfall: Rainfall of 60 mm and above in a 3-hour
duration is quite frequent in areas favourable for heavy rainfall. The three-hour
rainfall of 200 mm is recorded in Cell-II of maxima at and around Saralpara. The
maximum recorded 3-hour rainfall in Cell-I of maxima at and around Pasighat is
120 mm.
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 449

Table 16. Maximum recorded 24-hour rainfall in different months at four stations

Month Maximum 24 hours rainfall (in mm) at station

Lhasa Dibrugarh Tezpur Guwahati

January 3 35 29 29
February 38 46 39 53
March 13 56 62 56
April 8 197 84 71
May 20 113 148 94
June 28 202 137 145
July 28 165 140 233
August 28 223 143 188
September 23 122 103 115
October 15 105 141 84
November 23 53 60 36
December 0 56 19 17
Recorded max. 24 hour rainfall 38 223 148 233

c) 6-hour maximum recorded rainfall: Six-hour maximum rainfall of 300 mm has

been recorded in Cell-II whereas it is 150 mm in Cell-I. The recorded 6-hour rainfall
in areas of minima is around 60 mm.
d) 24-hour maximum recorded rainfall: Rainfall of 200 mm and above in 24 hours
is frequent in areas favourable for rainfall, such as the region around Pasighat
and around Sankosh basin. Rainfall of more than 300 mm occurs rarely. A cell
of maxima of 500 mm in 24-hours is observed in Cell-II and a cell of 300 mm is
observed in Cell-I near Pasighat. Adjacent to this, there is another cell of 250 mm
rainfall near Likabali and Gerukamukh in the Himalayan foothills region. Very high
rainfall in some places has occurred under synoptic meteorological conditions in
rare cases. A few such recorded 24-hour rainfall amounts are:
(i) At Jamduar 805.5 mm on 7.9.76
(ii) At Jamduar 603.2 mm on 5.10.77
(iii) At Roing in A.P. 745.0 mm on 16.8.77
The 24-hour recorded rainfall for different months of the year for four stations are
furnished in Table 16.

9.8. DISCHARGE

The average annual discharge of the river at its confluence with the Ganga River at
Goalundo in Bangladesh is 19,820 cumec. The recorded maximum and minimum
discharges at Guwahati (catchment area 424,100 sq. km, or 73.12% of the catchment
area) are 72,794 cumec and 1,757 cumec, respectively. The return period of the
maximum discharge is 10 years. Three discharge measuring sites of the river in
Tibetan plateau are Shigatse (the new name is Rikaze), Chushuldzong (Qushui
Gogge) and Tsela Dzong (Ziang Zhong) located at an altitude of 3,816 m, 3,565 m
450 Chapter 9

and 2,957 m, respectively. The maximum recorded discharges at these three sites
are 3,380 cumec, 6,230 cumec and 10,200 cumec, respectively. The maximum
recorded discharge at Tsela Dzong is 14% of the maximum discharge at Guwahati,
whereas the catchment area at Tesladzong is 44% of Guwahati. The Pasighat
gauging site (chainage 1,029 km) is located in Arunachal Pradesh, just at the
foothills, where the catchment area is 249,000 sq. km (42.93% of the total) and the
observed maximum discharge is 29,640 cumec (40.72% of Guwahati). There are
three discharge measuring sites in the valley reach of Assam: Bessamara, Pandu
(Guwahati city) and Jogighopa.
Typical discharge hydrographs of the Brahmaputra River for five stations,
Chushuldzong, Tseladzong, Pasighat and Guwahati are shown in Figure 7. The
hydrographs of Pasighat and Guwahati show that the river experiences a number
of floods from June to mid October. The peak annual discharge was observed
at Guwahati on 18th September; this wave had peak discharge at Pasighat on
15th September, i.e., the flood wave took three days to travel from Pasighat to
Guwahati. The peak discharge at Guwahati is nearly three times the peak discharge
at Pasighat. The percentage contributions to the annual yield of the river at
Guwahati by the main river at Pasighat and other main tributaries are given in
Table 17.
The Brahmaputra is a perennial river. Snow melt and base flow contributions
sustain its lean period flow from December to March. The main contribution to
runoff of the river is from surface runoff. The maximum and minimum discharges
of the Brahmaputra River at different sites are furnished in Table 18.

Figure 7. Discharge hydrographs of the Brahmaputra River at different sites

Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 451

Table 17. Contributions to the annual yield at Guwahati by the main river
at Pasighat and main tributaries

By the main Dehang River at Pasighat 34.00%

By the Dibong River 7.65%
By the Lohit River 9.50%
By the Subansiri River 10.30%
By tributaries joining between Pasighat and Guwahati 38.55%
Total 100.00%

Table 18. Recorded maximum and minimum discharge of the Brahmaputra River at different sites

Name of site Chainage in km Catchment area Recorded discharge (cumec)

(State, Country) from the mouth in sq. km
Max. Min

Shigatse (Tibet, 2,105 88,620 3,380 –

China)
Chushuldzong 1,933 113,500 6,230 –
(Tibet, China)
Tseladzong 1,515 186,730 10,200 –
(Tibet, China)
Pasighat 1,029 249,000 29,640 1,076
(Arunachal
Pradesh, India)
Guwahati 542 424,100 72,794 1,757
(Assam, India)

In the middle reach, the major contribution to the flow of the main river comes
from the right bank tributaries, such as Subansiri, Jia-Bharali, Dhansiri (North),
Manas and Sankosh and from the left bank tributaries, such as Dibong, Lohit, Burhi-
Dihing, Desang, Dikhow, Dhansiri (South), Kopili, etc. The recorded maximum and
minimum discharge of major and left bank tributaries are furnished in Table 19.
There are four discharge observation sites in the lower reach in Bangladesh,
namely, Chilmari, Bahadurabad, Sirajgonj, and Nagarbari. At Bahadurabad, the
average discharge during the monsoon period is 31,850 cumec and the average dry
season (December to March) discharge is 6,510 cumec. The average discharge during
July and August is 39,900 cumec. The minimum observed discharge is 3,120 cumec.

9.8.1. Flooding
The problem of flooding is acute in the Brahmaputra valley and the possible
solutions are complex. On average, flooding affects an area of 1 million hectares
in Assam. The main reasons for frequent floods in the Brahmaputra valley are the
narrowness of the valley, high rainfall, and heavy encroachment of flood plains.
Besides, seismic activity in this region is a continuous process. Earthquakes of
magnitudes of about 5 on the Richter scale are quite frequent. The earthquakes
452 Chapter 9

Table 19. Observed maximum and minimum discharge of some major tributaries of the Brahmaputra
River in its middle reach (in India)

Name of tributary Gauging site Observed discharge (cumec)

Maximum Minimum

A. Right Bank Tributaries

Subansiri Chawidhowghat 18,799 13800
Ranganadi Pahumaraghat 1,911 1350
Jia-Bharali N.T. Rd. Cr. 9,939 5300
Dhansiri (N) N.T. Rd. Cr. 2,092 1050
Pagladiya N.T. Rd. Cr. 1,737 170
Manas Mathanguri 10,842 14200
Sankosh Srirampur Rly. Bridge 6,391 8700
B. Left Bank Tributaries
Dibong Jiagaon 11,205 17600
Lohit Digarughat 12,350 20900
Burhi-Dehing Khowang 2,217 1530
Dikhow A.T. Rd. Cr. 1,379 540
Dhansiri (S) Numuligarh 2,296 930
Kopili Dharamtul 1,942 1780

of 1897 (8.7 Richter scales) and 1950 (8.6 Richter scale) had seriously disturbed
the drainage of the Brahmaputra valley. Highly braided nature of the Brahma-
putra, coupled with soil strata of its banks, steeper slopes and high sediment
load are the main cause of its excessive erosive activity. These coupled with the
practice of Jhumming cultivation in some areas is responsible for the high sediment
load in the rivers.
During the last few years, floods have created havoc in the region and have put
the people to untold miseries. The floods of 1987, 1988, 1992 and 1995 have been
particularly severe in the Brahmaputra valley. The entire embankment system was
put to maximum strain resulting in 102 breaches and cuts in 1987 and 220 in 1988.
A tentative assessment of flood damage in Assam during the decades 1953 to 1995
is summarized in Table 20.
Since completely staying away from the flood plains in the NE region is neither
possible nor desirable, mankind should be willing to regulate developmental activities
in the flood plains. With the launch of the National Policy on Flood Control in 1954,
the tempo of construction of embankments had increased rapidly. Due to this, the
length of embankments increased from 6,000 km in 1954 to 15,675 km in 1990 besides
improvement of 30,857 km of drainage channels. The years corresponding to the major
flood events along with corresponding discharges at Pandu (near Guwahati, catchment
area 424,100 sq. km, 73.12% of the whole) are given in Table 21.
The extent of flood depends on the width and depth of flow. The average lift at a
braided reach near the Dibrugarh city (where the river width is 8.03 km) is 3.65 m.
It is 9.91 m at a nodal point near Guwahati where the river width is 1.20 km (which
is the minimum within the valley in Assam). After the cessation of monsoon by mid
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 453

Table 20. Tentative assessment of flood damage of Assam during 1953 to 1995

Theme Total Maximum

Area affected in million hectares 4166 3.82 (1988)

Population affected in million 9810 10.47 (1987)
Damage to crops in million hectares 508 1.13 (1988)
Loss in term of crore rupees 328831 334.10 (1988)
Damage to houses – number 3327189 4,998 (1988)
Damage to houses – value in terms of rupees 29680 103.92 (1988)
Cattle lost 431537 108,913 (1987)
Human lives lost 1724 226 (1988)
Damage to public utilities in rupees (crores) 83242 225.82 (1988)
Total damage to crops, houses and public 4417530 6,638.40
utilities (million rupees)

Table 21. Maximum observed floods at Pandu (Guwahati)

Year Discharge (cumec) Year Discharge (cumec)

1957 57,733 1958 61,320

1960 57,985 1962 72,794
1966 57,570 1980 55,092
1988 61,015

October, the water level and discharge of the river start receding and attain the lowest
annual water level (LWL), sometime in the late February or early March. The recorded
minimum discharge of the river at Guwahati during this period is 1,757 cumec.
Considering the seriousness and complexity of the flood problem, the Brahma-
putra Flood Control Commission was set up in 1971 to prepare a compre-
hensive plan of flood control and implement it. The flood management works so
far adopted have been mainly embankments, drainage channels, town protection
works, and erosion control works. The works completed as part of flood
management during the last three decades have been described in Table 22.

Table 22. Works completed as part of flood management during the last three decades

Brahmaputra Valley Barak Valley

i) Embankments i) Embankments
a) Brahmaputra 984 km a) Barak 214 km
b) Tributaries 2,568 km b) Tributaries 524 km
ii) Anti-erosion Schemes 421 ii) Anti-erosion Schemes 81
iii) Drainage Channels 600 km iii) Drainage Channels 247 km
iv) Sluices 56 iv) Sluices 29
454 Chapter 9

The difficult terrain of the Brahmaputra basin and insufficient hydrological and
geological data have made investigations of multi-purpose reservoirs both difficult
and time consuming. Nevertheless, the flood control measures implemented so far
have afforded a reasonable protection to an area of 16.35 lakh ha out of the total
flood-prone area of 31.50 lakh ha. But for the protection works, Dibrugarh town
would have ceased to exist.

9.8.2. Observed Floods and their Causes

On average, the Brahmaputra River experiences 4 to 5 major floods annually during

the monsoon months. The two rainiest months, July and August, experience most
of the major floods. On rare occasions, the river also experiences floods in the
later part of May. On an average, the flood level remains above the danger level
for 39 days in a year at Guwahati; the maximum recorded period is 70 days. In
some years, severe flooding results in huge losses of property, buildings, crops, live
stocks, and crops besides dislocation of normal life and communication networks.
Such floods occur as a result of heavy to very heavy rainfall in the catchment area.
A monthwise distribution in the percentage of occurrences of historic floods within
the valley are furnished in Table 23.
The percentage occurrence of major floods owing to such four typical meteoro-
logical situations in the month of June, July and August are 25%, 35% and 37%,
respectively. The Brahmaputra River is turbulent and aggrading in nature; it is
highly braided in the valley reach and in Bangladesh. The slope of the river in the
state of Assam is much steeper than required for a river of its size. During flood,
the river is burdened with a heavy sediment load, and a huge quantity of water
flows down the river with a high velocity attacking its banks.
Generally, water level remains above the danger level for long periods in the
valley reach, thereby creating acute flood congestion. Consequently, tributaries
within the valley experience back flow from the main river when it is in high stage;
the back flow may extend up to 25 km from the confluence with the Brahmaputra
River. Under such circumstances, tributaries cannot discharge their own flow.

Table 23. Occurrences of floods in the Brahmaputra River in the valley reach during monsoon months

Month Percentage Occurrence of Historic Floods owing to

Break Movement of Movement of Upper air Total

monsoon depression / storms land depression cyclonic occurrences
situation from Bay of Bengal circulation

June 2 10 5 8 25
July 10 10 7 8 35
August 18 5 7 7 37
Sept. – – 3 – 3
Total 30 25 22 23 100%
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 455

Table 24. Number and duration of floods of some major tributaries of the Brahmaputra at its middle
reach

Annual Number of Floods Annual Flood Duration (Days)

S.N. Tributary
Max. Min. Normal Max.

1. Burhi – Dihing 5 2 19 41
2. Desang 9 2 12 36
3. Dikhow 5 Nil 3 13
4. Jhanji 3 1 2 4
5. Dhansiri (S) 10 1 – 55
6. Kopili 45 3 32 68
7. Puthimari 7 1 9 16

When tributaries together with the main river experience flooding, it becomes
devastating. The normal duration for which the water level of the Brahmaputra
River remains above the danger level annually is from 40 to 50 days but in some
years it extends up to 70 days. The characteristics, such as annual maximum and
minimum number of floods and normal and maximum flood duration of some
important tributaries, are furnished in Table 24.
The main factors causing extensive floods in the valley are:
(i) adverse physiography of the valley;
(ii) heavy rainfall in the catchment of the tributaries joining in the valley reach;
(iii) excessive sediment load owing to frequent earthquakes and landslides and
erosion of the top soil by heavy rainfall; and
(iv) inadequate waterway owing to encroachment of riverine areas.

9.8.3. Gauge Hydrograph

The gauge hydrographs of four stations, Dibrugarh, Guwahati, Goalpara and Dhubri,
are shown in Figure 8. Note that the water level starts rising gradually from the
month of March but rapidly from May. The danger level of the four stations is
also shown in the figure. Note that the duration for which the water level remains
above the danger level (DL) gradually increases towards the downstream side. The
specific flood discharge of the Brahmaputra River at Bahadurabad in Bangladesh
is 0.149 cumec/sq. km.
In the Brahmaputra reach in Assam, the observed HFL of all the stations are
much higher than the DL. The observed HFL against the DL of six stations are
shown in Table 25. The return period of the observed HFL is gradually reduced
from 108 years for Dibrugarh to 21 years for Dhubri. The observed HFL and the DL
of major tributaries of the Brahmaputra River within valley reach (middle reach)
are shown in the Table 26.
The record shows that the observed HFL of the tributaries are all much above
the DL of the site. It clearly indicates that the tributary rivers also experience high
and devastating floods.
456 Chapter 9

Figure 8. Gauge hydrographs of the Brahmaputra River at four sites within the middle reach

9.8.4. Travel Time

On the average, a flood wave takes 5 days 3 hours to travel through the valley
portion from Pasighat (foothill) to Dhubri (near the Indo-Bangladesh border), a
distance of 672 km. In this reach the average river gradient varies from 1:3700 near
Pasighat to more than 1:8,875 near Dhubri. The average time taken by the flood
wave to travel (time lag) reachwise the valley portion is furnished in Table 27.

9.9. SEDIMENT TRANSPORT

The sediment yield of the Brahmaputra River is very high and its position is second
amongst the large rivers of the world. The sediment yield of the river at Guwahati
is 0.0755 ha-m/sq. km of the catchment area; the maximum and minimum sediment
concentration values are 679 and 36 ppm, respectively. The average annual sediment
load of the river at Bahadurabad in Bangladesh is 735 million metric tonnes; the

Table 25. Observed highest flood level of the Brahmaputra River in the valley reach

Station Chainage from Danger HFL (m) Return period of

the Mouth (km) Level (m) HFL (Years)

Dibrugarh 917 104.24 105.95 108

Neamati 809 85.04 86.84 32
Tezpur 672 65.38 65.66 30
Guwahati 542 49.68 51.04 25
Goalpara 432 36.27 36.88 23
Dhubri 357 28.65 29.97 21
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 457

Table 26. Observed highest flood level and danger level of some tributaries of the Brahmaputra River
within the valley reach (middle reach)

Sl. No. Tributary Observation Site Danger Observed Year of

Level (m) HFL (m) Occurrence

1. Subansiri Chowaldhowaghat 100.43 101.31 1972

2. Ranganadi Pahumaraghat – 95.92 1979
3. Jia-Bharali N.T. Road Cr. 77.00 80.89 1970
4. Dhansiri (N) N.T. Road Cr. – 84.14 1979
5. Puthimari N.T. Road Cr. 51.82 54.20 1973
6. Pagladiya N.T. Road Cr. 52.75 55.51 1970
7. Manas N.T. Road Cr. 47.55 49.88 1974
8. Sankosh Srirampur – 46.71 1968
9. Lohit Dhola 128.27 129.49 –
10. Burhi-Dihing Khowang 102.11 103.51 1980
11. Desang N.H. Cr. 92.00 93.88 1980
12. Dikhow A.T. Rd. Cr. 93.30 95.60 1979
13. Dhansiri (S) Golaghat 89.50 90.68 1971
14. Kopili Dharamtul 56.31 57.85 1966

Table 27. Reachwise travel time (time lag) of flood wave of the Brahmaputra River from Pasighat to
Dhubri in the valley (middle reach) portion

From Station To station Distance along the Travel time of

(chainage in km) (chainage in km) river (km) flood wave (Hrs)

Pasighat (1029) Dibrugarh (917) 112 12

Dibrugarh (917) Neamati (809) 108 24
Neamati (809) Tezpur (672) 137 24
Tezpur (672) Guwahati (542) 130 24
Guwahati (542) Goalpara (432) 110 24
Goapara (432) Dhubri (357) 75 15
Total 672 123

average maximum concentration of the river is 1,180 ppm. The percentage break
down of the surface sediment load at Bahadurabad is 12.5% coarse, 14.2% medium
and 73.3% fine.
The composition of the surface sediment load is 12.5% coarse, 14.2% medium,
and 73.3% fine. The tributaries that originate from the high mountains carry high
sediment loads as these flow through geologically young Himalayan mountain
ranges of unconsolidated sedimentary rocks with steep slopes and the area falls in
one of the most earthquake prone belts. In comparison, the tributaries originating
from the southern (Assam) hill ranges carry less sediment load as these hills are
geologically much older, stable, of lesser height, and have flatter bed slopes. Heavy
bank erosion by the Brahmaputra River takes place at different reaches.
In the valley reach in Assam, the sediment yield of the north bank tributaries
is approximately 5 to 6 times higher than that of the south bank tributaries. Over
458 Chapter 9

70% of the annual average sediment load of the Brahmaputra River at Guwahati is
contributed by the main river and two tributaries, Dibong and Lohit.
Among the north bank tributaries, Subansiri, Jia-Bharali, Manas and Sankosh
carry high sediment loads, while Burhi-Dihing, a south bank tributary, carries the
highest sediment load. Other tributaries, such as Kopili, Dhansiri (S) and Disang,
carry significant amounts of sediment load. The average annual suspended sediment
load of some important tributaries of the Brahmaputra River within its middle reach
in the valley is furnished in Table 28. The bed load of the Brahmaputra River is
generally considered as 15% of the suspended sediment load.
Most of the tributaries of the Brahmaputra River form alluvial deltas just at
the foothill region. Most of the suspended sediment carried by the rivers from the
mountainous region gets deposited in the river bed. Sometimes rivers change their
course in this region when old channels get filled up with sediment. The north bank
tributaries are more prone to such problems. The main reasons of high sediment
load in the Brahmaputra River are:
(1) Geologically Brahmaputra is a young river whose present configuration took
shape only during Pleistocene and recent times.
(2) The catchment area of the river falls in a seismic belt. The basin experiences
a number of earthquakes of moderate intensity every year and landslides and
slips occur owing to these yields high sediment loads in rivers. The basin
experienced severe earthquakes in the past; the earthquakes of 1762, 1822,
1865, 1869, 1897 and 1950 were notable. The earthquakes of 1897 and 1950
were amongst the severest. These two earthquakes disturbed the topography
and the drainage system to a great extent, resulting in heavy sediment load and
bank erosion. The river is still in the process of attaining stability.
(3) The river and its tributaries traverse through unconsolidated sedimentary rocks
of the Himalayas and high amounts of sediment are washed down by the
monsoon rains.
(4) High intensity rainfall erodes the top soil of the catchment area; landslides and
slips also occur in many places which add high sediment load in the river.

Table 28. Average annual suspended sediment load of some important tributaries of the Brahmaputra
River

Name of tributary Observation site Average annual suspended sediment

load (ha-m)

Dihang Ranaghat 7,694

Dibong Jiagaon 2,620
Luhit Digarughat 4,650
Subansiri Bhimpuraghat 2,497
Jia-Bharali N.T. Road Cr. 2,143
Manas Mathanguri 2,038
Sankosh Srirampur 594
Burhi-dining Khowang 594
Dhansiri (S) Numuligarh 422
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 459

(5) Steep slopes of river and its tributaries in the mountainous reaches bring down
sediment.
(6) Forest fires also expose the soil to erosion.
(7) Gradual encroachment of forest areas.
Besides the above natural causes, some human activities also contribute to
high rates of sediment load; one such human activity is ‘Jhumming’ of shifting
cultivation which adds sediment load to a great extent. Jhumming is extensively
practiced by tribal communities living in the mountainous regions of the catchment
area especially in the Arunachal Pradesh and Southern Assam hill ranges and
is done by burning the forest and exposing the soil for cultivation. About 1.35
million hectares of forest land remains under Jhum cultivation at one time or the
other.

9.9.1. Braiding and Bank Erosion

The Brahmaputra River does not display a stable morphology. The alluvial plains
of the river are nearly 96 to 112 km wide and 644 to 805 km long. The bed is about
10 km wide. The bed slope is very gentle, varying from 1 in 6,600 to 1 in 9,900,
and at some places, the river bed lies below the mean sea level.
The channel is highly braided and short-term channel migration is quite drastic;
rates of movements as high as 870 m a year being common. The most significant
bank line modifications take place during the falling river stage, when sediment is
deposited as in the channel, causing migration of the thalweg.
The Brahmaputra River is highly braided in the reach downstream from Pasighat.
The width of the Brahmaputra River from Kobo to the Indo-Bangladesh border
varies from 6 km to 18 km except in nine reaches (nodal points) where it traverses
through deep and narrow throats. The width of the river at the nodal points varies
from 1.2 km to 5.1 km. The reachwise average width, maximum width and width
at nodal points of the Brahmaputra River are furnished in Table 29.
Heavy bank erosion by the Brahmaputra River at different reaches takes place
owing to excessive sediment load, erodible nature of bank material, and formation of
char islands. Active bank erosion is generally observed to take place both upstream
and downstream of the nodal points and also in the downstream reaches of the
confluence of major tributaries. The instability of the Brahmaputra River coupled
with silt and sand strata of its banks is also responsible for considerable bank erosion
in its valley reach. There is a tendency of the Brahmaputra River to shift southward
within the valley reach; this tendency has become more prominent after the great
earthquake of 1950 which raised the whole land mass of the northeastern part of
the valley by 3 to 4 m. This southward thrust has initiated widespread erosion in
the south bank near the Dibrugarh town which is continuing even after construction
of different anti erosion schemes. A few kilometers downstream of the nodal point
near Guwahati, the river is observed to have a northern migration since 1920 and
active bank erosion has taken place in the Nalbari and Barpeta districts of Assam.
The situation is different further downstream of the next nodal point near Jogighopa
460 Chapter 9

Table 29. Width of the Brahmaputra River in different reaches from Kobo to the Indo-Bangladesh
border

S.N. Reach (Chainage in Width of the river (km)

km from the mouth)
and reach length Mean Maximum At nodal point Place
(chainage in (chainage in
km) km)

1. Kobo (977) to 8.19 14(967) 4.8(977) Kobo

Dihingmukh (877),
100 km
2. Dihingmukh to 8.18 13(870) 5.1(864) Near
Dhansirimukh (747), Desangmukh
130 km 3.7(832) Bechamara
3. Dhansirimukh to 8.12 13.1(730) 4.4(727) Gamiri
Pandu (535), 212 km 3.6(674) Near Tezpur
1.2(535) Paudu
4. Pandu (535) to 7.93 18.5(503) 2.4(517) –
Dhubri (357), 2.4(422) Jogighopa
178 km

where the river shows a tendency of migration towards the south. The south bank
in this reach is facing active bank erosion.
Erosion is more prominent during recession stages of the flood waters. Owing to
the variation of the river width along its course, the velocity of flow also changes
and as a result scouring and siltation also take place. In the last few years, owing
to active bank erosion at some affected reaches, the river width has increased from
8 km to 10 km and in some other reaches from 15 km to more than 18 km.

9.10. IRRIGATION

Water resources in the Brahmaputra region are largely under-utilized. Large extent
of availability of these resources on temporal and spatial scale provides an oppor-
tunity for improving life style of the population residing in the region. The basic
demands of the region are drinking water, irrigation, hydropower and navigation.
Water resources of this part of the country are almost free from pollution except
for small biological contamination. Even with rigid norms of drinking water, the
water required for drinking purpose is negligible.
The geographical area of Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, and Arunachal Pradesh,
the four states adjoining the Brahmaputra Valley, is about 20 million hectares.
The area under all crops in these four states has been reported as 4.5 million
hectares. Most of this area (3.6 million hectares) is in Assam which has 237,000
hectares under tea. Out of the 4.5 million hectares of the cropped area, only 0.7
million hectares are irrigated. The main crops in the region are rice, wheat, maize,
pulses, oilseeds, sugarcane, certain vegetables, jute, and mesta. The total food grain
production for all crops, excluding tea but including sugarcane, is around 6.2 million
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 461

tons. The production of rice in Assam in 1994–95 is about 3.4 million tons. The
average yield of about 1,300 kg/ha is much less than that in other parts of the
country.
Unlike other states of India, irrigation was hardly practiced for agricultural
production in the north-eastern region. In the mid sixties, a few flow irrigation
projects were developed in Assam. The cultivatable area in the region has been
estimated to be about 7 million hectares. The irrigation potential has been estimated
to be 3.6 million ha.
There is no shortage of water for irrigation. But due to limitations of topography
and frequency of floods in lower reaches of the basin large scale irrigation is not
feasible in Arunachal Pradesh and Assam. However, due to hilly terrain, the drainage
of water is very fast thus causing water stress during dry spell. Apart from the huge
surface water resources in the Brahmaputra valley, the utilizable ground water has
been estimated to be over 2 million ha-m. Even with the maximum provision for
irrigation, the annual water requirement is not likely to exceed 6×106 ha-m. The
total irrigation potential of the region is 4.26 M ha of which only about 20% has
been utilized. Surface water resources can be tapped either by diversion structures
or by pumping for irrigation. The planning for irrigation has to be sub-basin wise
to utilize the full irrigation potential.

9.11. HYDROPOWER

The hydropower potential of the Brahmaputra and Barak basin in NE states has
been estimated at 34,920 MW at 60% load factor. This amounts to 41.5% of
the potential of all the rivers of India. The river along with its tributaries has
great potential for hydropower development. It is estimated that Arunachal Pradesh
alone has a hydropower potential of 26,756 MW @ 60% load factor and only
125 MW (0.47%) has been developed so far. Overall for the region, despite the
availability of large hydropower potential, current development is very small. Out
of the available potential, only less than 2% has been developed so far. A few
public sector corporations have now been involved in development of hydropower
potential. These projects will also moderate floods during monsoon and augment
lean season flow. Table 30 details sub-basin wise hydropower potential for the
north-eastern region.
The large chunk of hydropower in the NE region cannot be developed without a
large export outlet from this region. CEA has identified three primary reasons for
the extremely poor development of the hydroelectric resources of the NE region:
(i) difficult terrain (ii) lack of demand, and (iii) non-availability of bulk transmission
corridors. It is noted that land communication between the Indian mainland and the
NE region is through a narrow chicken neck of about 10 km width. Detailed inves-
tigations have been carried out to identify project sites for hydropower development.
Manas and Sankosh are two major tributaries of Brahmaputra having their catch-
ments in Bhutan and with suitable storage sites for hydropower development. An
ambitious project, Sankosh dam (4,000 MW) is under consideration of Bhutan
462 Chapter 9

Table 30. Sub-basin wise estimated hydro potential of Brahmaputra basin

Basin/Rivers No. of schemes Potential at 60%

identified load factor (MW)

Dihang-Dibang 28 13,615
Lohit 11 4,152
Subansiri 25 6,893
Upper Brahmaputra 19 789
Kameng 34 1,982
Kalang (Kopili) 16 510
Teesta 30 3,021
Lower Brahmaputra 03 50
Barak and neighboring rivers 60 3,908
Total 226 34,920

Source: WG (1999).

Government. At present India has bilateral arrangement only in respect of 336 MW

Chukha hydroelectric project with Bhutan. For bilateral projects, the present Indian
initiative is focused on Karnali, Pancheswar, and Saptakoshi projects in Nepal and
Sankosh project in Bhutan.
Installed capacity of hydropower projects and gross energy generation in
2000–01 in NE Region is shown in Table 31. Note that of the total installed capacity,
37.42% comes from hydropower projects.
A number of small hydropower schemes have also been identified in the north-
east region. Table 32 gives the details of such schemes for various states.

Table 31. Status of major hydropower projects in North Eastern Region of India

Installed Capacity (MW) as on 31/03/2001 Gross Energy

Generation (MU)
State Agency Hydropower Total power

Arunachal Pradesh 23.60 3940 –

Assam 2 62270 1,059.208
Manipur 2.80 1210 –
Mizoram 5.40 2450 –
Nagaland 3.30 656 –
Meghalaya 185.20 18520 657.519
Tripura 16 866 328.748
Total in State Sector 238.30 97706
A. NEEPCO 325.00 70366 2,559.063
B. NHPC 105.00 10500 551.06
Total in NE Region 668.30 (37.42%) 1,785.72 (100%)

Source: NEEPCO
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 463

Table 32. Identified small hydropower schemes in NE Region

State Capacity < 3 MW Capacity 3–15 MW Total

Number Capacity, Number Capacity, Number Capacity,

MW MW MW

Arunachal Pradesh 433 38231 49 46072 482 84303

Assam 38 5000 8 6800 46 11800
Manipur 91 5975 4 2988 95 8963
Meghalaya 83 4100 13 9750 96 13850
Mizoram 73 4232 13 10100 86 14332
Nagaland 67 2689 17 11750 84 14439
Tripura 8 985 – – 8 985
Total 793 61212 104 87460 897 1 48672

Source: NEEPCO

9.11.1. Completed Projects

In the following, we describe selected important completed projects of this region.

Doyang: Doyang is a rockfill dam on the Doyang River, a tributary of Brahma-
putra, 30 km from Wokha in Nagaland. The catchment area at the dam
is 2,606 km2 . The height of the dam is 92 m and the reservoir has a live
storage capacity of 535 MCM at FRL 333.00 m. With mean annual inflow of
1,355 MCM, Doyang power house has 3 units of 25 MW each and has a firm
power of 21 MW. NEEPCO commissioned the project in 2001.
Kopili: This project consists of Umrong dam on Umrong River, a tributary of
Brahmaputra River. The power house is located at a distance of 70 km from
Lanka in Assam. The catchment area at the dam is 1,318 km2 . The height of
the dam is 30 m. The reservoir has a live storage capacity of 55.5 MCM at FRL
609 m and the MDDL is at 592.83 m. Kopili power house has 4 units of 50 MW
each, with mean annual inflow of 2,860 MCM. NEEPCO commissioned the
project during 1988–97 which has a firm power of 55 MW.
Khandong: This dam on Khandong River, a tributary of Brahmaputra, is located
at a distance of 70 km from Lanka in Assam. The height of the dam is 66 m
and its catchment area is 1,256 km2 . The reservoir has a live storage capacity
of 129.5 MCM at FRL 719.3 m; the MDDL is at 704 m. Khandong power
house has 2 units of 25 MW each, with mean annual inflow of 2,860 MCM and
provides firm power of 13 MW. NEEPCO commissioned the project in 1984.
Loktak: Loktak Hydroelectric station involves a barrage, namely Ithai barrage,
near Loktak Lake, 39 km from Imphal in Manipur. The catchment area at the
barrage is 1,000 km2 . The height and length of the barrage are 11 m and 59 m
respectively. The pond has a live storage capacity of 397 MCM at maximum
water level 768.5 m and the minimum water level is at 766.2 m. Loktak power
house has 3 units of 35 MW each, with mean annual inflow of 679 MCM. It
has a firm power of 42 MW. NHPC commissioned the project in 1983.
464 Chapter 9

Rammam II: This hydroelectric station uses water from Rammam and Lodhama
weirs constructed on Rammam River and its tributary Lodhama Khola; these
are the tributaries of Teesta River. The power house is located at a distance
of 77 km from Darjeeling, West Bengal. The intercepted catchment area is
209 km2 . Four units of 12.75 MW each have been installed with a firm power
of 14 MW. West Bengal State electricity Board commissioned the project in
1995–96.
Ranganadi: A concrete gravity dam has been constructed on Ranganadi River,
a tributary of Brahmaputra River, 50 km from Zir City in Arunachal Pradesh.
The catchment area at the dam is 1,894 km2 . The height of the dam is 68 m
and the reservoir has a live storage capacity of 21.28 MCM at FRL 567 m; its
MDDL is at 560 m. Doyang power house has 3 units of 135 MW each, with
maximum and minimum annual inflow of 5,080 and 2,048 MCM respectively.
It has a firm power of 166 MW. NEEPCO commissioned the project in 2002.
Rangit III: Rangit III hydroelectric station was constructed in the year 2000 by
NHPC on Greater Rangit River, a tributary of Teesta River. The dam is located
at a distance of 130 km from Siliguri in South Sikkim District. The catchment
area at the dam is 979 km2 and the dam is 47 m high. The reservoir has a live
storage capacity of 1.175 MCM at FRL 639 m and the MDDL is at 627 m.
The power house has 3 units of 20 MW each, with mean annual inflow of
0.696 MCM. It has a firm power of 39 MW.
Teesta Canal Power House I, II, III: Three power houses have been constructed
on Teesta canal, namely Teesta PH I, II, and III. Teesta canal emerges from
Mahananda barrage, which has been constructed on Teesta River, a tributary
of Brahmaputra River in Siliguri, West Bengal. The Power houses have been
constructed on the canal at 5 km, 21 km and 31 km from barrage, near Siliguri
town in Jalpaiguri District, West Bengal. The catchment area at the Mahananda
barrage is 675 km2 . The design flood of Mahanada barrage is 2 265 m3 /s. All
the three power houses have 3 units of 7.5 MW each. WBSEB commissioned
the project in 1997–99.
Teesta Low Dam Stage – III Hydroelectric Project: It is being constructed on
Teesta River in Darjeeling distt. (W.B). It is located near New Jalpaiguri. The
project will have 32.5 m high barrage and the power plant will have installed
capacity of 4 × 33 MW or 132 MW to annually generate 594 MU in a 90%
dependable year. This project is estimated to cost Rs.770 crore. Work is in
progress and is anticipated to be completed by March 2008.
Teesta Low Dam Stage – IV Hydroelectric Project: This project is under
construction near Siliguri town in Dist. Darjeeling, West Bengal. Here, a 45 m
high concrete gravity dam will be constructed. The catchment area for the
project is 8,021 sq. km. With FRL of 182.25 m and MDDL of 179.00 m, the
reservoir has a gross storage of 36.63 MCM and live storage of 7.91 MCM. For
power generation, the underground power house will have Kalpan Turbines,
4×40 MW each which will work at gross head of 25.8 m. Its annual gener-
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 465

ation is likely to be 720 MU (90% dependable year). Work is expected to be

complete by September 2009 at a cost of Rs.1,061 crore.
Umiam III: This is the third in the series of projects with Umiam I of 36 MW
and Umiam II of 18 MW capacity. Umiam III hydroelectric project consists of
Kyrdemkulai concrete gravity dam on Umiam & Umtru Rivers, tributaries of
Brahmaputra. The power house is located at a distance of 52 km from Shillong
in District Ri Bhoi of Meghalaya. The catchment area at the dam is 520 km2
and its height is 27.5 m. The reservoir has a live storage capacity of 2.78 MCM
at FRL 681.23 m and the MDDL is at 675.58 m. Umiam III power house
has 2 units of 30 MW each. It has a firm power of 16 MW. Meghalaya State
Electricity Board commissioned the project in 1979.
Umiam IV (Nongkhylle): Umiam IV hydroelectric project consists of Nongkhylle
dam across Umtru River. The power house is located at a distance of 55 km
from Shillong in District Ri Bhoi of Meghalaya. The catchment area at the
dam is 150 km2 . The height of the dam is 43 m. The reservoir has a live storage
capacity of 4.94 MCM at FRL 503 m and the MDDL is at 496 m. Umiam
IV power house has 2 units of 30 MW each, with mean annual inflow of
52 MCM. It has a firm power of 15 MW. Meghalaya State Electricity Board
commissioned the project in 1992.

9.11.2. Projects Under Construction/Investigation

Many hydropower schemes are under investigation in the north-east region of

India. There are immense possibilities of cooperation with neighbouring countries
for hydropower generation. India and Bhutan have agreed to build a 1,020 MW
hydroelectric project on the Wangchu River in Bhutan. Surplus power from the Rs.
14bn (US$ 400 M) project will be sold to India, which will finance 60% of the cost
through a grant and the balance through a loan. The dam will be handed over to
the Bhutan Government two years after completion.
A list of projects under construction in the region is given in Table 33.
A discussion of some important projects that are under planning/investigation
follows.
Pagladiya Dam: This is a multipurpose project whose construction work is likely
to be initiated soon and is scheduled for completion in 2008. The project which
has been cleared by the Technical Advisory Committee of the Ministry of Water
Resources, Government of India, involves construction of an earthen dam of
26 m height over Pagladiya River, a tributary of Brahmaputra, in Nalbari District
of Assam. The dam will intercept an area of 570 sq. km. The Pagladiya River
has been responsible for recurrent floods in the north bank of the Brahma-
putra. Benefits from Pagladiya dam include flood moderation in 40,000 ha area,
irrigation benefits to 54,000 ha, and incidental power generation by a plant of
3 MW capacity. The project cost has been estimated at Rs. 541 crore.
Siang (Dihing) Multipurpose Dam Project: Originally, the Siang Dam project
proposal envisaged a multipurpose dam with 20,000 MW installed capacity to
466 Chapter 9

Table 33. Projects under construction in NE region

Project Capacity (MW) State

Dhansiri + LBP 120 Assam

Karbi Langpi (Lower Borpani) 100 Assam
Kopili Stage II 25 Assam
Likim- Ro 24 Nagaland
Loktak Downstream 90 Manipur
Ranganadi 405 A. Pradesh
Teesta Stage V 510 Sikkim
Tuirial 60 Mizoram
Tuirini 35 Mizoram
Tuivall 35 Mizoram
Umiam- Umtru St-V 30 Meghalaya

Source: CEA, NEEPCO

generate hydropower. Now, the proposal has been split in three dams: (i) a
rockfill dam of 257 m height near Pugging village on the Siang River with
installed capacity of 11,000 MW, (ii) a 154 m high rockfill dam near Raying
village, 15 km upstream of Kaying on Siyom River with installed capacity of
750 MW, and (iii) another 45 m high rockfill dam upstream of Pasighat near
Rotung village with installed capacity of 1,500 MW. These three smaller dams
have been planned to avoid submergence of important towns. Investigations
for the dams are in progress.
Siyom Project: This proposed project will be located near Village Raying (near
Along) in West Siang District of Arunachal Pradesh. A 188m high, concrete
face rockfill dam is proposed. Underground power house with 1,000 MW
capacity 4×250 MW will be constructed and annual generation will be
3,640.95 MU in a 90% dependable year. The DPR for the project has been
completed.
Subansiri Multipurpose Dam Project: Similar to Siang, the original Subansiri
project proposal envisaging a large dam in Arunachal Pradesh with 4,800 MW
installed capacity has been recently modified. Now the proposal is to construct
three smaller rockfill dams: (i) a 265 m high dam on Subansiri river near
Menga village, upstream of Daporijo with installed Capacity of 2,500 MW,
(ii) a dam of same height (265 m) on Kamla River near Tamen with installed
capacity of 2,000 MW, and (iii) a dam of 110 m height on Subansiri River
near Gerukamukh having installed capacity of 1,500 MW. In addition to
hydropower, these dams are expected to give irrigation benefit to an area
of 25,000 ha. Besides, these will also help in flood moderation, navigation,
pisciculture, and recreation. Detailed surveys and investigations for the projects
are under way.
The Lower Subansiri Hydropower Project is under construction in lower
Subansiri/ Dhemaji Distt. (Arunachal Pradesh & Assam) near Nagaon at an
estimated cost of Rs.6,285 crore. A concrete gravity dam, 116 m in height is
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 467

envisaged. The proposed generation capacity is 2,000 MW 8×250 MW and

expected annual generation is 7,422 MU in 90% dependable year. The project is
expected to be completed by 2010.
Teesta Stage – V Hydroelectric Project (under construction) in East Sikkim District
in Sikkim. A 96.45 m high concrete gravity dam with underground power house
containing 3 units of 170 MW each (total 510 MW) is being constructed. It annual
generation will be 2,573 MU (90% dependable year). Work is scheduled for
completion by 2007 at an estimated cost of Rs. 2,198 crore.
A private company has won the contract to construct the 360 MW Teesta VI
Hydropower Project. This project is the last scheme of six stages of cascade devel-
opment on the Teesta River. The investment by the Government of Sikkim in the
project will be in the form of equity to the extent of 26 %.
Tipaimukh Dam Project: It envisages construction of a 162.8 m high rockfill dam
across the Barak River near Tipaimukh village on Manipur-Mizoram border,
intercepting a catchment area of 12,758 sq. km. The project will generate
electricity by 6 units of 250 MW each. It is expected to yield irrigation
benefits to 98,844 ha and flood control benefits to 1.50 lakh ha area in Cachar,
Karimganj & Hailakandi districts of Assam. Besides, indirect benefits like
navigation, pisciculture, recreation etc. are also expected.
Table 34 lists selected projects that are under survey and investigation in the
north-east region

9.12. ENVIRONMENTAL AND OTHER ASPECTS

In this section, we discuss several topics which are of interest from environmental
point of view.

9.12.1. Forest

The forests of Assam contain a great diversity of flora and fauna and other natural
ecosystems. There are about 51 different forest types and subtypes occurring in the
region, forming an amalgam of Indian, Malayan and Tibetan elements. Five major
groups of forests in Assam have been identified: 1) Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest;
2) Tropical Semi-evergreen Forest; 3) Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest; 4) Littoral
and Swamp Forest; and 5) Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest.
Forestry has been playing a very intimate role in the social lives of the people
living in the region. During the Ahom dynasty, a specific administrative branch
looked after the management of timber. As of 1992, the Reserved Forests in Assam
was 17,581 sq. km. By the year 2000, the area under wildlife sanctuary and national
parks was around 3,000 sq. km. In the late 1980s, the state of Assam had a forest
cover of 22 percent. The percentage of forest cover in the plains was around 17.2
percent, while in the hills it was 42 percent. The reserved forests account for 19.14
percent of the state’s total geographical area.
Table 34. Some project proposals that are under investigation in north-east region 468

Name of State Dam Location River Installed Other benefits

the Project height (m) capacity
(MW)

Lohit Multipurpose Arunachal Pradesh 272 Mompani Lohit 2,000 Flood control,
Project pisciculture, and
recreation
Kameng Multipurpose Arunachal Pradesh 200 Near Bhalukpung Kameng 1,100 –
Project
Jadukata Multipurpose Meghalaya 120 9 km south-west Jadukata 450 Flood control
Project of Nongatain
town
Someswari Meghalay 63 6 km upstream of Someswari 130 Flood control and
Multipurpose Project Nanhgalbibra irrigation
town
Bairabi Multipurpose Mizoram 60 Near Bairabi Dhaleswari 75
Dam Project tributary of Barak
Noa-Dehing Arunachal Pradesh 57 Near Miao Noa-Dihing, a 75 Flood control,
Multipurpose Dam tributary of irrigation to an
Project Brahmaputra area of about
8,000 ha
Debang Multipurpose Arunahcal Pradesh 165 Near Munli (Ichi) Debang river 12∗ 250 MW = 3000 Flood control,
Dam Project recreation,
navigation, and
pisciculture
Kulsi Multipurpose Meghalaya – Assam 60 1.3 km. upstream Kulsi River, a 36 Irrigation to area
Dam Project of Ukium village tributary of of 39,000 ha in
Brahmaputra Assam.
Chapter 9
Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 469

9.12.2. Wildlife
The Brahmaputra valley has legendary sites for unique wildlife. Assam, harbouring
the big five mammals-Rhino, Tiger, Wild Buffalo, Gangetic Dolphin and Elephant,
has been in limelight for its role in the conservation. The spotted deer, which is
found in India, has its last distribution range in western Assam. The Malayan Sun
Bear is found in the southern part of the Brahmaputra valley as the Hoolock Gibbon.
Similarly, the Golden Langur is found in a few pockets in northern Assam.
At the beginning of the year 2000, Assam had 5 national parks and over 10
wildlife sanctuaries. The National Parks are: Kaziranga (430 sq. km), Manas (500 sq.
km), Nameri (200 sq. km), Dibru-saikhowa (340 sq. km) and Orang (79 sq. km). The
salient wildlife sanctuaries are: Pabitora, Barnadi, Burachapori, Panidihing, Hollan-
gapar Gibbon Sanctuary, Chakrasila, Bordoibam-beelmukh, Garampani, Padumoni-
Bherjan-Borajan, and Laokhowa. The Manas National park, declared as a World
Heritage Site, is one of the important Tiger Reserves in India. Recently, Nameri
National Park has been declared as a Tiger Reserve. Dibru-saikhowa National Park
(740 sq. km) has been declared as a Biosphere Reserve.
The Kaziranga National Park (KNP) is a place of international importance because
of its mega-diversity in flora, fauna and ecosystem. The KNP is a healthy wetland
system. Being situated in the flood plain of the Brahmaputra River, the soil of
the park is rich in alluvial deposits. Flood is an annual phenomenon submerging
50–75 percent of the park area. The flood waters generally start receding after 8–12
days. In the KNP, 478 species of birds reside out of which 25 species are globally
threatened. The Great Indian One Horn Rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis) is one of the
three Asian Rhino species found in Assam. The KNP holds almost two-thirds of
the Indian Rhino (Figure 9) Population. The state of Assam harbours more than
70% of the Great Indian Rhino Horn population of the world and provides shelter
to over 400 tigers and 5,600 wild elephants.

Figure 9. The Great Indian One Horn Rhino in its natural habitat at KNP
470 Chapter 9

9.12.3. Wetlands

Wetlands are regarded as one of the most productive ecosystems in the world.
Wetlands include marshes, ponds, lakes, rivers, streams, reservoirs, and marine
waters of the shoreline. Although highly efficient, wetland ecosystem is very fragile
and easily disturbed by human actions.
The wetlands in Assam are primarily fresh water and riverine in nature. Assam
has 3,519 wetlands as summarized in Table 35. Out of these, 2,278 wetlands are
with low turbidity, 346 with moderate and 178 wetlands with high turbidity. The
total fish production from Assam’s wetlands is 1.55 lakh tons per year.
The total area under water bodies in the north eastern region is around 3.32 lakh
ha. Yet the production of the fish is very small and most of the fishes are procured
from other parts of the country. Planned development of water bodies provides
tremendous scope for development of fresh water fish potential.

9.12.4. Water Quality

The major ion chemistry of the Brahmaputra is characterized by high bi-carbonate

content and source rock influence. While higher values of TSM than TDS during
monsoon indicate predominance of physical weathering over chemical weathering,
chemical weathering is relatively more pronounced during the dry season. On
average, 60% of the bicarbonates in the Brahmaputra water come from silicate
weathering and the rest from the carbonates.
Surface suspended sediments range from fine sand to clay, the size fraction
greater than 12 m constituting an important size population. Surface suspended
sediments are moderately to poorly sorted with greater amounts of finer material
in the distribution, particularly during the rainy season. The detrital contribution in

Table 35. Types of Wetland in Assam

Wetland Type Number Area (ha) Percent

Natural
Lake/Pond (locally called ‘Beel’ 690 15 4940 1530
Ox-bow Lake (locally called ‘Era suti’) 861 15 4606 1527
Waterlogged (seasonal) 1,125 23 4315 2315
Swamp/Marsh (locally called ‘Pitoni/Jolah’) 712 43 4335 4291
Total 3,388 97 8196 9666
Man-made
Reservoirs 10 2 6625 260
Tanks (locally called ‘Pukhuri’) 115 7495 074
Total 125 3 4120 334
Grand Total 3,513 101 2316 10000

Source: Assam Remote Sensing Application Centre.

Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 471

the form of Quartz, Feldspar and Mica make up more than 80% of the mineralogy.
Chlorite, Illite, and Kaolinite constitute about 95% of the clay minerals.
Sediment chemistry does not reveal any marked spatial or temporal variation.
However, spatial variation in the metal/aluminum ratio in some cases has been
observed. This may be attributed to continuous addition of freshly eroded materials
by a large number of tributaries at different points of the main stem. Since there
is hardly any major industry in the catchment area and the amounts of sediment
carried by the tributaries are enormous, there is not enough ground to link any
occasional rise in metal concentration to any point source.
The major sources of carbon in the Brahmaputra basin are deforestation and
fossil fuel consumption. In the case of nitrogen, precipitation, soil erosion, drainage
and fertilizer application constitute the main sources. Phosphorous carried by the
suspended load makes up a substantial part of the P loading in the Brahmaputra. A
comparison of different forms of P between suspended and bed sediments indicates
a decrease in organic-P, Fe-P and total-P after deposition. Since much of the
suspended sediment-transported P is not available biologically, land management
practices to minimize sediment input to the river should produce no significant
reduction in the biological availability of P. The total flux of P from the Brahmaputra
150–270 × 1010 gm P/year constitutes nearly 5% of the global flux and is about
three times greater than that carried in dissolved form. Considering the mobilization
of P by fertilizer use, it is reasonable to assume that the P concentrations will further
increase.
Suspended sediments play a significant role on the overall solute and sediment
biogeochemistry of the river. The biogeochemistry of Ganga and Brahmaputra is
markedly different with respect to HCO3 , SO4 , Cl, SiO2 , Ca and a few heavy metals,
such as Cu, Fe, and Zn. It may be possible that apart from the natural factors,
such as geology, topography, vegetation, and precipitation, this is also owing to
the difference in the intensity of utilization of the two rivers and anthropogenic
impacts on their watersheds which may be different, having a direct reflection on
their geochemical behaviour.

9.12.5. Navigation

The total length of rivers for navigation in this basin is around 3,880 km. Brahma-
putra from Sadiya in Assam to Bangladesh border is known as National Waterway
Number 2. In the past, the Brahmaputra River served as the principal route for trans-
portation of goods between Calcutta and places in the Assam valley. Regular steamer
services were operated by the River Steam Navigation (RSN) Company from 1863.
This company was merged with the India General Steam Navigation Company
in 1899 to form the Joint Steamer Companies. They provided freight service
between Calcutta and 16 riverside towns from Dhubri to Dibrugarh. Outgoing
traffic from the valley to Calcutta was also heavy.
Following the 1950 earthquake, steamer services beyond Neamatighat became
difficult. The government formed a public sector company called the Central Inland
472 Chapter 9

Water Transport Corporation in 1957 (CIWTC). The CIWTC is continuing to

operate the service now. However, with the opening of the national highway and
conversion of the meter gauge rail link to broad gauge, the traffic on the river route
got diverted to road and rail. The traffic potential on the river route is estimated to
be about 1.1 million tons by the year 2004–2005. Till 1996–97, the capacity utilized
was only 2,117 (20%of the available). Thus there exist prospects for development
of navigation facilities in the region. Efficient and quicker turnaround is likely to
improve the traffic potential between Calcutta and the Assam valley. The planned
release of water from major storages will improve the draught in the river during
the lean season by 1.5 to 2 meters. This will help provide a more efficient and
economical freight traffic on the river route.

9.13. CONCLUDING REMARKS

The hydrology of Brahmaputra River is unique in that its basin enjoys a variety of
seasons and climate ranging to very cold to tropical. It can serve as one of the most
productive natural laboratories for hydrologic investigations.
CHAPTER 10
INDUS BASIN

10.1. THE INDUS BASIN

According to a popular theory, the majority of inhabitants of North India are

the descendents of the Aryans who came to this part of the world thousands
of years BC. The river which is known as the Indus these days was called
Sindhu by the Aryans. The people who lived across this river were called Hindus
(a word derived from Sindhu) and the land was called Hindustan, the ancient
name of India. The fertile planes of Indus were the seats where the Indus valley
civilization arose about 2,500 BC. In ancient times, Indus was second only to Ganga
River in terms of cultural and commercial importance for the region. Its impor-
tance for India was considerably reduced after the partition of the country in the
year 1947.
The Indus River, one of the mightiest and the longest rivers in the world, origi-
nates from Mount Kailash in Tibet on the north side of the Himalayas at an
altitude of 5,486 m. The total length of the river is 3,199 km (Basit Masud 2003).
It bisects the physical territory of Pakistan longitudinally. From its origin to the
Guddu Barrage in Pakistan, it is called the Upper Indus, while downstream from
the barrage it is known as the Lower Indus. The Karakoram and the Haramosh
ranges bound the basin on the north, the Himalayas on the east, the Sulaiman and
the Kirthar ranges on the west and the Arabian Sea on the south.
In Upper Indus Basin, the principal tributaries are the Kabul, the Swat and the
Kurram on the right bank and five major tributaries on the left bank in Punjab,
namely, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Satluj. These five tributaries have given
the present name to the land: Punjab (punj = five & ab = river), the Land of Five
Rivers. The total length of the tributaries of Indus is 5,600 km.
The basin extends over an area of 1165500 km2 and lies in Tibet (China), India,
Pakistan, and Afghanistan. The drainage area lying in Pakistan is 692700 km2 . The
area lying in Afghanistan and China is 15100 km2 . The drainage area lying in India
is 321289 km2 which is nearly 9.8% of the total geographical area of the country.
The river travels about 2,880 km up to its outfall into the Arabian Sea. The length
of the river in India is 1,114 km. The Index map of the Indus basin is presented in
Figure 1.
473
474 Chapter 10

Figure 1. Index map of Indus Basin

In India, the Indus basin lies in the States of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana and the Union Territory of Chandigarh. It is
situated between longitudes 72 35 E to 79 50 E and latitudes 28 52 N to 37 20 N.
The state wise distribution of the basin area is given in Table 1.
The upper part of the basin, which lies in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal
Pradesh is dominated by mountain ranges and narrow valleys. In Punjab, Haryana
and Rajasthan the basin consists of vast plains, which are the fertile granary of this
country. The submontane, brown hill and alluvial soils are the principal soil types
found in the basin. The culturable area of the basin is 9.6 Mha, which is about 4.9%
of the total culturable area of the country. The mean annual flow of the Indus basin
Indus Basin 475

Table 1. Statewise drainage area of Indus basin (in Indian Territory)

State Drainage Area km2 

Jammu and Kashmir 193 762

Himachal Pradesh 51 358
Punjab 50 306
Rajasthan 15 814
Haryana 9 939
Chandigarh 110
Total 321 289

rivers amounts to about 187 cubic km. There is a significant contribution from
snowmelt. For the Satluj basin, the contribution of snow and glacier melt to annual
runoff is about 60% (Singh and Jain 2002).
The only significant tributary inflow to the lower Indus River is from the Khirther
and Sulaimanki range hill torrents which find their way to the river partly through
Baran Nai and partly Manchhar Lake, one of the largest fresh water lakes in Asia.
Sometimes, flood protection measures in the basin suffer heavy damage from the
unmanaged flood flows from these hill torrents.

10.2. TOPOGRAPHY OF INDUS BASIN

The upper part of the basin lying in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh
mostly consists of mountain ranges and narrow valleys. In Punjab, Haryana and
Rajasthan the basin consists of vast plains, which are the fertile granary of the
country. The principal soil types found in the basin are submontane, brown hill,
and alluvial soils.
The net sown area in the J & K state is 0.748 Mha, roughly equally divided
between the two divisions: Jammu and Kashmir. However, due to harsh climate, the
area sown more than once is very low in Kashmir region. Due to the same reason,
the cropping intensity in much high in Jammu region as compared to Kashmir.
Only about one-fourth area is Jammu region is irrigated but it produces 70% of the
total food grain production of the state. The details of crop area and production in
J & K have been given in Table 2.

Table 2. Crop Area and Production in J & K

Particulars Jammu Kashmir Total

Net sown area(m ha) 039 034 0748

Area sown more than once (m ha) 029 007 0367
Cropping intensity (%) 1744 1206 1491
Percent irrigated area (%) 256 558 415
Food grain production (mt) 077 034 112
Estimated requirement (mt) 088 109 202
476 Chapter 10

The Kashmir valley in Indus basin is gifted with exotic natural scenic beauty and
water bodies. On account of these, poets call it a paradise on the earth. These rivers
and lakes water bodies are of great ecological and socio-economic significance. The
Dal, Wullar, Nagin, Mansar, and Khajjiar lakes are famous for their scenic beauty.
A detailed discussion on lakes is given in a later chapter.

10.3. KANDI BELT

Kandi belt is the name given to the sub-montane region of the Himalayas. In the
J & K State, Kandi Belt is 10 to 30 km wide, stretching from Akhnoor in the west
to Kathua in the east. Its area is 811 km2 , covered in two districts – Jammu and
Kathua. About 57% of total area of these districts is under Kandi belt. In Punjab
state, Kandi Belt covers northern districts of Gurdaspur, Hoshiarpur and Ropar,
situated at foot of Lower Shivaliks and extending into adjoining states of Haryana
and HP. Most villages of this region face water scarcity during summer. Upper
portion of Kandi belt consists of low hills covered by shrubs and forest and lower
foot hill terrain has cultivated lands and gully beds. Kandi Belt has undulating
topography, steep and irregular slopes, erodible and low water retentive soils and
terrain badly dissected by numerous gullies. The annual mean rainfall in the region
is approximately 1,000 mm. Figure 2 shows the Kandi belt in Jammu and Kashmir.
The major water related problems of the Kandi Belt are:
• Although the area has a number of seasonal streams, water availability is a
problem,
• Ground water is inadequate and is not economically accessible because aquifers
are generally deep with low recharge,
• The area has severe problem of soil erosion and nutrient losses; high intensity
storms aggravate the problems,

Figure 2. Kandi belt in Jammu and Kashmir

Indus Basin 477

Figure 3. Contour cultivation in Indus basin

• Other irrigation systems, based on transported water, are not feasible due to
undulating topography and light textured soils, and
• Productivity of crops is low and unstable.
Ponds have played a crucial role in water management in the Kandi belt, and were
the main source of drinking water till 1960s. Almost all Kandi villages have a
big pond to meet the domestic needs through out the year. These big ponds were
constructed with masonry work on three sides; the fourth side is left open for the
water to flow in. These ponds were generally dug adjacent to a seasonal rivulet to
divert part of flood water into it. For example, the Jammu District has 249 ponds
while the Kathua District has 116 ponds.
The solution to these problems require conservation of basic natural resources,
i.e., soil and water so that productivity can be improved and demands of the society
can be appropriately satisfied. Rain water harvesting and management allows more
time for rainfall or runoff to infiltrate into the soil and recharge ground water. Runoff
velocity is restricted in the permissible limits by breaking the land slope into several
short ones. The methods for the same include bunding, land leveling, terracing,
vegetative bunding, contour cultivation, cover cropping, ridging and furrowing.
Terrace farming on hill slopes (see Figure 3) is a popular method to conserve soil
and water. Evaporation losses can be reduced by following practices like mulching.

10.4. CLIMATE

Large variations in temperature are noticed in the Indus basin. The upper part of
the basin experiences harsh winters with a lot of snowfall while the lower part
has comparatively mild winter but hot summer. At Srinagar which is located in
the upper part of the basin in the Kashmir valley, the minimum temperature in
the month of Jan. is −67  C while the maximum temperature in July climbs up to
35  C. Table 3 gives the temperature ranges and rainfall at selected location in the
basin in Jammu region.
478 Chapter 10

Table 3. Salient climatic features of Jammu Division in Indus basin

S. N. Location Temperature  C Rainfall (mm)

Maximum Minimum

1. Jammu 18.7–32.7 7.0–26.2 1,300

2. Kathua 18.5–39.4 8.0–26.0 1,450
3. Udhampur 18.0–38.0 6.5–25.4 1,070
4. Rajouri 16.5–36.0 5.3–23.0 1,065
5. Doda 16.5–37.5 6.0–23.2 460
6. Poonch 15.3–32.0 4.3–21.4 951

Table 4. Monthly rainfall and pan evaporation at Jammu

Month Rainfall (mm) Pan R – E (mm)

evaporation
(E) (mm)

Jan 350 154 +19.6

Feb 507 283 +22.4
March 578 1161 –58.3
April 349 2028 –167.9
May 125 1860 –173.5
June 490 1800 –131.0
July 3183 1356 +182.7
Aug 4978 1131 +384.7
Sep 1358 1026 +33.2
Oct 781 758 +2.3
Nov 252 446 –19.4
Dec 52 250 –19.8
Total 1 3003 1 2253

In Table 4, monthly rainfall and pan evaporation at Jammu are listed. Note that
August is the wettest month and April is the driest. During the period from March
to June, rainfall is much smaller than pan evaporation.

10.5. TRIBUTARIES OF THE INDUS RIVER

In this section, the important tributaries of Indus are described. A network diagram
of Indus Basin is shown in Figure 4.

10.5.1. Jhelum River

The Jhelum River is known in Kashmir as Veth. It originates from Verinag, a spring
at the bottom of a high scarp of a mountain spur, at the upper end of Kashmir
valley. The river has several tributaries notably the Liddar, the Sind and the Pohru
Indus Basin 479

Source

Satluj River
Indus River
Beas River

Jhelum River

Chenab River

Ravi River

Kabul Rriver
Satluj River

Kuram River

Sea

Figure 4. Flow Diagram of Indus Basin

rivers, which rise in Kashmir. The river joins the Chenab at Trimmu after a flow of
322 km. Up to the Indo-Pakistan border, the river flows through the Kashmir valley
for a length of 402 km and crosses the Pirpanjal range through a deep gorge. The
catchment area up to the Indo-Pakistan border is 34,775 sq. km.

10.5.2. Chenab River

The Chenab River is one of the five main rivers of the great Indus System. The major
part of the Chenab catchment lies in India; its lower reach including the confluence
with the Indus River is in Pakistan. In India, the Chenab basin is located in the
Western Himalayas between latitudes 30 to 34 N and longitudes 74 to 78  E.
It spreads over the two states of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir which
comprise the extreme western sector of Himalayas. Upper half of this basin is
located between the Zanskar and the Pir-Panjal ranges whereas the lower half is
480 Chapter 10

located between the Pir-Panjal and the Dhauladhar ranges. In this way, this basin
covers outer, middle and greater Himalayas.
The Chandra and the Bhaga rivers join together to form the Chandrabhaga or
the Chenab. The Chandra starts from a large snowbed on the south-eastern side of
Baralacha Pass at an elevation of 5,639 m and after flowing (south-east) through
snow clad barren area for about 90 km, it sweeps round the basin of mid Himalayas
and joins the Bhaga at Tandi after a course of about 185 km. The Bhaga rises in the
north-western slopes of Baralacha pass the elevation of 8,477 m. The Length of the
Bhaga up to the confluence with the Chandra is about 105 km. The combined stream,
known as Chandrabhaga or the Chenab, flows in north-west direction through the
Pangi valley of Himachal Pradesh and enters Kishtwar area in Jammu & Kashmir. At
Bengawar near Kishtwar, it turns south and flows through a gorge across Pir-Panjal
range and then enters the valley between the Pir-Panjal and the Dhauladhar ranges.
It receives its major tributary, the Marusudar River and then flows in southern
direction for about 25 km. Thereafter, it flows almost in westerly direction up to
the Salal Dam site. From this place, the river takes a southerly turn and emerges
out into plains near Akhnoor. A little further, the river enters in Pakistan. The total
length of the Chenab River up to Akhnoor is about 535 km.
Ranbir Canal in Chenab basin was constructed around 1905. It is an important
irrigation project which has a culturable command area of 38,623 ha. Irrigation
potential created through this canal is 67,814 ha while the potential utilized is
65,458 ha.

Hydropower Potential of Chenab River

The hydropower potential of Chenab River is very high, around 8,300 MW. The
gradient of the river is very steep in the head reaches – it has the general character
of torrent with a gradient of 10 m/km. In the lower reaches, the gradient gradually
reduces as one moves downstream, typical values being 3–4 m/km.

Tributaries of Chenab River

The Chenab basin consists of many valleys or sub-basins which contribute consid-
erable amount of runoff to the main river. The main tributaries in its passage up to
Kishtwar are Thirot, Shedi, Sohal, Lidder and Marusudar. Among these, Marusudar
is the biggest tributary which meets Chenab at Bandalkot. Between Kishtwar and
Akhnoor, Chenab receives the water of Neeru, Pugal, Bagi, Bachleri, and Ana
tributaries.

Tawi Sub Basin

The Tawi sub-basin is a part of Chenab basin in Western Himalayas. The basin
is contained in between 32 35 to 33 05 North Latitude and 74 35 to 75 45
East Longitude. The river flows for about 141 km up to the point where it enters
Pakistan. Its origin lies in the Kalikundi Glacier. The catchment area of Tawi is
2,168 sq. km which falls mostly within the Districts of Jammu and Udhampur with
a small portion in Doda.
Indus Basin 481

The upper part of the Tawi sub-basin is covered by hard granite intrusive rocks
and the lower part by loose and soft Shiwalik rocks. The average height of the basin
is 2,200 m – it varies from 400 m to 4,000 m above mean sea level. The slope of
the basin is from East to West in upper part, while North-East to South-east in the
lower part. Out of total area, forest comprises of about 31% and the rest is barren,
fallow grazing, or cultivable waste.
In the Tawi basin, July and Aug. are generally the wettest months with about 55%
rainfall and November is the least rainy month with about 2–3% of total rainfall.
Tawi River experiences heavy flood in July and Aug. Monsoon starts from 1st July
with heavy thunder showers and continues up to mid September. Normal annual
rainfall in the basin varies from 111 cm to 150 cm.
The Tawi River is endowed with vast water resources and has considerable
hydropower potential. Upper part of its catchment is snow fed while the lower
part is predominantly rainfed. It has nine major tributaries which carry discharge
mostly in monsoon period. The maximum discharge of Tawi was 12,200 cumec
in September 1988 at Jammu; the minimum discharge is about 8–11 cumec. Low
discharge is experienced during the month of October, November and December.
There is rise in the discharge of the river in the month of March and early summer
due to melt of snow in Kalikundi glacier valley.

10.5.3. Beas River

In the Greek literature, Beas was known once known as the Hyphasis. This river
marks the most easterly extent of the conquests of Sikandar (Alexander the Great,
king of Macedonia) in 326 BC. This river rises at an elevation of 3,960 m in the
Rohtang Pass in the Punjab Himalayas in central Himachal Pradesh. Subsequently,
it flows south through the Kulu valley, receiving tributaries from the flanking
mountains, and then enters the Punjab plains to meet the Satluj at Harike. The
total length of the Beas River is 460 km and catchment area is 20303 km2 . The
estimated hydropower potential of Beas River in the Himachal Pradesh state has
been given in Table 5. Pong Dam is a major existing project in the valley.
Near Mandi town, the catchment area of the Beas is approximately 5000 km2 .
The annual fluctuation of water flow is very high. The variability of high flow in
the summer months is remarkable. The river flow in summer mainly consists of
monsoonal run-off combined with snow-melt discharge. The low flow in winter
is more or less constant. Neither high flow nor low flow nor annual average of
discharge follows any significant trends whatsoever.

10.5.4. Ravi Basin

The Ravi River rises near the Rohtang Pass in the Kangra district in Kulu (HP).
It flows westward through a triangle formed by the junction of the Pirpanjal and
Dhaola Dhar ranges. After crossing the Shiwaliks, it enters the Punjab plains at
Madhopur and later enters Pakistan 26 km below Amritsar. From its source to the
482 Chapter 10

Table 5. The hydropower potential of Beas River in the Himachal Pradesh state

S. N. Name River/Khad MW Status

1. Allian – Dhungan Allaain Nallah 192 Under Construction

2. Malana Malana Khad 86 Under Operation
3. Parbati Stage – I Parbati Khad 750 Under Construction
4. Parbati Stage – II Parbati Khad 800 Under Construction
5. Parbati Stage – III Parbati Khad 501 Under Construction
6. Larji Beas River 126 Under Construction
7. Beas Satluj Link Beas River 990 Under Operation
8. Uhl Stage – I (Shanan) Uhl Khad 110 Under Operation
9. Bassi Uhl Khad 60 Under Operation
10. Uhl Stage – III Uhl Khad 100 Under Construction
11. Neogal Uhl Khad 15 Under Construction
12. Binwa Binwa Khad 6 Under Operation
13. Baner Baner Khad 12 Under Operation
14. Khauli Khauli Khad 12 Under Construction
15. Gaj Gaj Khad 105 Under Operation
16. Pong Dam Beas River 360 Under Operation
17. Patikari Bakhli Khad 16 Under Construction
18. Sainj Sainj Nallah 100 Under Investigation
19. Gada Gosain Tirthan Nallah 25 Under Investigation
20. Baragaon Baragaon Nallah 105 Under Construction
21. Dhaulasidh Beas River 800 Under Construction
22. Lambadug Beas River 150 Under Construction
23. Trithan Beas River 180 Under Investigation
Total 4 495

Source: Web site of HP State Electricity Board.

Indo-Pakistan border, the river has a length of about 370 km and the total catchment
area is 14,442 sq. km. The estimated hydropower potential of Ravi River in the
Himachal Pradesh state has been given in Table 6.
i. Ujh sub basin
The Ujh River is a tributary of Ravi. The head waters of Ujh lie in the Kailash
mountains at an altitude of 4,300 m near the Bhaderwah hills of Jammu province.
Ujh flows for a distance of nearly 100 km before it joins Ravi below Nainkot in
West Pakistan. Just upstream of the dam site, four streams, Bhini, Sutar, Dunarki
and Talan join Ujh at a place named Panjtirthi. Bhini and Ujh are perennial rivers.
The remaining three streams flow only during the rainy season. The catchment area
of Ujh River at the dam site is 990 sq. km. The catchment is hilly and rugged,
varying in altitude from 510 m to 4,300 m. Areas having an altitude of 2,000 m and
above which constitute about 20% of the catchment area are generally snow bound
for most of the winter.
The mean annual temperature of the southern part of the catchment is 23  C
and of the eastern portion of the catchment, it is 16  C. The temperature at higher
altitudes in the northern part is expected to be low. The climatic conditions vary
from semi-arid to humid from south to northern parts of the catchment.
Indus Basin 483

Table 6. Hydropower potential of Ravi Basin

S. N. Name River Capacity in Status

MW

1. Bara Bhangal Ravi River 200 Under Investigation

2. Bajoli Holi Ravi River 200 Under Investigation
3. Holi Holi Nallah 3 Under Construction
4. Kutehar Ravi River 260 DPR Ready
5. Gharola Gharola Nallah 005 Under Operation
6. Kugti Budhil Nallah 45 Under Construction
7. Harsar Budhil Nallah 60 Under Construction
8. Bharmour Budhil Nallah 45 Under Construction
9. Budhil Budhil Nallah 70 Under Construction
10. Tundah Stage – II Tundah Nallah 30 Under Investigation
11. Tundah Stage – I Tundah Nallah 15 Under Investigation
12. Hibra Ravi River 231 Under Construction
13. Chamera Stage – II Ravi River 300 Under Construction
14. Sal Stage – I Sal Nallah 65 Under Investigation
15. Sal Stage – II Sal Nallah 2 Under Operation
16. Bhuri Singh Power house 045 Under Operation
18. Chamera Stage – I Ravi River 540 Under Operation
19. Siul Siul Nallah 130 DPR Ready
20. Saikhoti Baira Nallah 170 Under Construction
21. Chamba Ravi River 125 Under Investigation
22. Chamera Stage – III Ravi River 231 Under Construction
Total 2 361

Source: Web site of HP State Electricity Board.

There are two rainy seasons one from December to March associated with the
passage of western disturbances and the other mid-June to mid-September due to
south-west monsoon. The rainfall in October and November is generally small in
amount. The cold season precipitation from December to March is chiefly due to
western disturbances which advance from Persia and Baluchistan across Northern
India. These disturbances occasionally give very stormy weather with stormy winds
on the higher elevations giving much snow. In April and May, thunder storms are
occasionally observed giving light to moderate showers of rain. The south-west
monsoon is a predominant feature in this region with 50 years normal of annual
rainfall being 1,400 to 1,600 mm around the Ujh catchment.
ii. Baira Nalla sub basin
The Baira Nalla sub-basin is a part of Ravi basin in Western Himalayas. This sub-
basin is located above Tissa in Chamba district of Himachal Pradesh. The basin
is bounded between latitude 32 47 to 33 02 and longitude 75 57 to 76 23 . The
catchment is on the southern slopes of Pir-Panjal range in the Western Himalayas.
The area of catchment is 585 sq. km; its elevation ranges from 5,321 m to 2,693 m.
The catchment is densely forested – the main tree specie being Deodar. Agriculture
is the main land use. However, there are a few pastures and uncultivated areas
and barren hill slopes. The mountain slopes are steep and are susceptible to land
484 Chapter 10

slips due to rains. The soils are degraded and loose and are easily prone to erosion.
Consequently, the sediment flow in the river is high.
The catchment is partially snow covered during winter. The catchment is affected
due to western disturbances during winter when precipitation is mainly in the
form of snow. The average annual rainfall of the area is about 1,122 mm. Winter
temperatures are low and are generally below zero during the months of December
to February.

10.5.5. The Satluj River

The Vedic river Shutudri has rejuvenated as Satluj in modern times. The Satluj
River rises as Langchen Khabab in the lakes of Mansarover and Rakastal in the
Tibetan Plateau from the southern slopes of Mount Kailash at an elevation of about
4,570 m above mean sea level (msl) and forms one of the main tributaries of Indus
River. It travels about 322 km in the Tibetan province of Nari-Khorsam forming
a plateau by successive deposits of boulders, gravel, clay and mud. Satluj enters
into the Indian territory near Khab, a narrow cut into massive rock structure. The
flow of Satluj, arising mainly from snow and glaciers, has cut a valley about 914 m
deep through these deposits. Hereafter, the river flows through Himachal Pradesh
and Punjab states of India. After flowing in north-westerly direction, it changes
direction towards south-west and covers another 322 km up to Bhakra gorge, where
a 225 m high straight gravity dam (Bhakra/Govind Sagar) has been constructed.
The lower catchment largely drains directly into the reservoir and the higher slopes
drain through tributaries. The important tributaries of the Satluj River are the Soel
khad, Alseed khad, Ali khad, Gamrola khad, Ghambhar khad, Seer khad, Sukhar
khad, Sarhali khad, and Lunkar khad.
Near the Nangal Town, Satluj enters the Anandpur Dun, a valley/plain area
between the Shiwalik and the outer range of the Himalayas. This valley runs from
Nangal in the North to Kakrala village in the South over a distance of about 50 km
and has an average width of 10 km. With elevations ranging between 366 m and
278 m above MSL, it has a North-South gradient of 2 m/km. The river flows along
the valley’s longer axis finally to leave it near Ropar. The Soan Nadi joins the Satluj
in the upper sections of this valley from the North-West and the Sirsa Nadi merges
with it in the Southern part of the valley left bank (Eastern bank). Due to its general
gradient, Satluj along with its tributaries runs through a braided course. Elongated
strips of land between the river and the peripheral hills have a general slope towards
the Satluj. These parts of Dun are traversed by a large number of seasonal torrents,
locally called Khads, which descend quickly from the neighboring hills. Some of
the important streams which contribute their flow to the Satluj on its way to Roper
are Donala Khad, Dabawali Khad, Charan Ganga Khad, Lohand Khad and Kundlu
Ki Khad. Some small flashy streams also outfall in the Satluj from the right-bank
above Roper. After flowing sluggishly through Anandpur Dun, the Satluj debauches
from the Shiwaliks just above Roper, and emerges on to the plains of Punjab. There
used to be a weir at Roper with falling shutters and under-sluices for the diversion
Indus Basin 485

of water into Sirhind canal. This was later replaced with a barrage as a component
of the Bhakra-Nangal Project in fifties. Another canal, named as Bist Doab canal,
takes off from the right-bank of the river. Several natural streams and man-made
drains join the Satluj between Roper and Ferozepur.
There is a group of streams below Roper, which flow in a NE–SW direction.
Siswan Nadi is another important seasonal stream, which initially flows NE to
SW, but gradually turns NW to merge with the Satluj near Khizarpur village after
traversing a distance of over 40 km over the plains. Immediately under the high
bank along the old course of the Satluj runs a perennial stream called Budha Nala,
which rises at Chamkaur in Roper district. It enters Ludhiana District near Bahlopur.
Flowing close to the town of Ludhiana, it flows into the Satluj in Jagraon Tehsil, a
few km east of the Ludhiana-Firozpur district boundary. East Beas and West Beas
merge with the Satluj from the right bank, upstream of its confluence with the
Beas, which joins the Satluj at Harike (see Figure 5). A number of surface drains
have been constructed to facilitate drainage of the catchments in the plains. These
outfall in the Satluj and contribute to its discharge during the rainy season of July
to September.
Like all Punjab rivers, the Satluj constantly shifts its course. During the twenty
years (1882 to 1903) it has moved by about 1.6 km at several points in the Ludhiana
and Samrala Tehsils and about a mile towards the North in Jagraon Tehsil. Some
shifting of river course (up to 3 km) has been observed in Satluj in Punjab. The
places where major shifting has occurred are Phillaur, Noormahal and Nakodar. In
1988, a heavy rainfall had resulted in acute flooding downstream of Bhakra and
this flooding also caused shifting of Satluj river. At some places, mining of sand is
also the reason behind shifting.
i. Topography of the Satluj basin
The total geographical area of Satluj River up to Bhakra dam is about 56980 km2 ,
of which about 37153 km2 lies in Tibet. The remaining about 19827 km2 area lies

Figure 5. Confluence of Satluj and Beas Rivers near Harike (photo courtesy Dr. Sanjay Jain)
486 Chapter 10

in the Indian territory. Indian part of the Satluj basin is elongated in shape. The
shape and location of this basin is such that a major part of the basin area lies
in the greater Himalayas where heavy snowfall is experienced during winters. The
catchment area lies between longitudes 76 22 E to 78 42 E and latitudes 31 13 N
to 32 23 N.
A major portion of the Satluj basin lies in the greater Himalayan range. The
elevation of the catchment varies widely from about 500 m to 7,000 m above msl,
although only a very small area exists above 6,000 m. The mean elevation of the
basin is about 3,600 m. The gradient is very steep near its source and gradually
reduces downstream. Owing to large differences in seasonal temperatures and great
range of elevation in the catchment, the snowline is highly variable, descending to
an elevation of about 2,000 m during winter.
Over the past several years a number of small hydroelectric projects had come
up in the stretch between Rampur and Wangtu. This nearly 80-km stretch of valley
is under intense development. Schemes at Ghanvi (22 MW) and Bhaba (120 MW)
are complete. Nathpa Jhakri Hydroelectric Project (a 1,500 MW scheme) is one
of the largest hydroelectric projects of the country. Work is in progress on three
more hydroelectric projects, Baspa Stage-I (150 MW), Baspa Stage-II (300 MW)
and Karchham-Wangtu (600 MW).
The salient features of the Satluj catchment are summarized in Table 7.
ii. Climatic Conditions in Satluj basin
The great contrast in the topographical relief results in a variety of climate in
the Himalayas. Principal controls producing such differences are those of altitude,
local relief and mountain barrier effect. The most important factors controlling the
weather and climate in the Himalayas are the altitude and aspect. Largely due to
variations in altitude, the climate varies from hot and moist tropical climate in
lower valleys to cool temperate climate at about 2,000 m and tends towards polar
climate as the altitude increases beyond 2,000 m. Depending upon broad climatic
conditions, the following four seasons prevail over the basin.
The Winter season (December to March): This season extends from December to
March. During this season, precipitation is caused by extra-tropical weather system
of mid-latitude region (also called western disturbances) originating from Caspian

Table 7. Salient features of Satluj catchment

Reach Catchment Elevation Average Major

area km2  range (m) annual rainfall contribution to
(mm) streamflow

Tibetan plateau 37 050 4,000–6,000 Nil Snow and glacier

Spiti Valley 7 084 3,300–5,300 Scarce Snow and glacier
Namgia to Rampur 6 490 3,000–4,800 Little Snow and rainfall
Rampur to Suni 2 068 1,200–3,000 1,000–1,500 Rainfall
Suni to Kasol 700 900–2,000 910–1,630 Rainfall
Kasol to Bhakhra 3 108 600–2,000 1,520 Rainfall
Indus Basin 487

Sea and moving eastward through Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan. The precipitation
during this season is generally in the form of snow in the greater Himalayas, snow
and rain in the middle Himalayas, and light to moderate rain over outer Himalayas
and north Indian plains.
The Pre-monsoon season: This season lasts for about 3 months from April to
June and is considered as transit period between winter and south-west monsoon.
Light to moderate rains are essentially caused by convective storms. Convection
increases because of increasing trend of temperature in the Himalayan region in this
season.
The Monsoon season (July –September): In this season moist air currents from the
Bay of Bengal cause precipitation over the Himalayas. This is the season of abundant
rain and rivers are generally flooded. Snow and glaciers at very high altitudes
continue melting during this season. The monsoon normally starts withdrawing
from this region towards the end of September.
The Post-monsoon season (October–November): In this season, clear autumn
weather prevails and there is generally little rainfall. This is the driest season in the
entire Himalayas as well as in the plain areas.
iii. Streamflow Characteristics of Satluj Basin
The streamflow of the Satluj River consists of the contribution from rain, snow
and glaciers and respective contribution of each component varies with time of the
year. Generally, snowmelt contribution starts from March and lasts until June/July
depending upon the snowpack water equivalent accumulated in the preceding winter
season and prevailing temperatures in the summer season. As the summer season
progresses, the snowmelt contribution increases continuously and after some time,
it exceeds the rainfall component. Thus, in the pre-monsoon season (April-June),
a major part of streamflow is generated from seasonal snow. During monsoon
season (July-September), monsoon rains producing higher discharges in the river
augment flow. Generally, high discharges/floods are observed in the months of
July and August and these are essentially due to heavy rain in the lower part of
the basin. Usually, the end of May/June ablates seasonal snow accumulated on
glaciers during winter season and glaciers start contributing to streamflow thereafter.
Glaciers contribute to their maximum in the months of July and August. As such,
glacier-melt runoff contribution lasts till September/October. In the post-monsoon
season, streamflow is believed to be partly from glaciers and some occasional rain
events. The minimum streamflow is observed during winters, because no melting
takes place due to lower temperature regime.
Singh and Bengtsson (2004) studied sensitivity of Satluj basin to climate change.
Changes in distribution of melt runoff were found to be more pronounced in summer
when the decrease is expected to be about 10% for a temperature rise of 2  C.
Annual decrease was little less, about 5%. However, if only the lower and middle
part of the basin is considered where snow disappears in summer, the reduction
could be about 27%.
The estimated hydropower potential of Satluj River in the Himachal Pradesh has
given in Table 8.
488 Chapter 10

Table 8. Hydropower Potential in Satluj Basin

S. N. Name River Capacity in Status

MW

1. Rongtong Rongtong Khad 25 Under Operation

2. Kealing Lara Spiti 40 Under Investigation
3. Lara Project Spiti 60 Under Investigation
4. Mane Nadang Spiti 76 Under Investigation
5. Nadang Spiti 80 Under Investigation
6. Lari Sumate Spiti 104 Under Investigation
7. Sumte Kothans Spiti 130 Under Investigation
8. Chango Yangthang Spiti 140 Under Investigation
9. Yangthang Khab Spiti 400 Under Investigation
10. Khab Pooh Satluj 340 Under Investigation
11. Pool Spillo Satluj 300 Under Investigation
12. Jhangi Thopan Satluj 300 Under Investigation
13. Thopan Powari Satluj 400 Under Investigation
14. Shongtong Karcham Satluj 225 Under Investigation
15. Baspa Stage – I Baspa 210 Under Investigation
16. Rukti Rukti Khad 15 Under Operation
17. Baspa Stage – II Baspa 300 Under Construction
18. Karcham Wangtoo Satluj 1 000 Under Construction
19. Bhaba Aug. P/H Shango Khad 3 Under Construction
20. SVP Bhaba Bhaba Khad 120 Under Operation
21. Nathpa Jhakri Satluj 1 500 Under Operation
22. Ghanvi Ghanvi Khad 225 Under Operation
23. Rampur Satluj 403 DPR Ready
24. Nogli Stage – I Nogli 25 Under Operation
25. Chaba Nauti Khad 175 Under Operation
26. Kol Dam Satluj 800 Under Construction
27. Bhakra Dam Satluj 1 200 Under Operation
28. Keshang Keshang Khad 160 Under Construction
29. Sorang Sorang 100 Under Investigation
30. Tidong Tidong Khud 100 Under Investigation
31. Karang Karang Khud 16 Under Investigation
32. Ropa Ropa Khud 80 Under Investigation
33. Ghanvi-II Satluj 7 Under Construction
34. Barhal Satluj 9 Under Investigation
Total 8 63375

Source: Web site of HP State Electricity Board.

10.6. SURFACE WATER POTENTIAL OF INDUS RIVER

An average annual surface water potential of 733 km3 has been assessed in this
basin. Out of this, 460 km3 is utilizable water. Culturable area of the basin is about
9.6 M ha, which is 4.9% of the total culturable area of the country. The seasonal
flow in each sub-basin of Indus river is given in Table 9.
The present use of surface water in the basin is 400 km3 . Live storage capacity in
the basin has increased significantly since independence. From just about 001 km3
Indus Basin 489

Table 9. Seasonal flow of Indus River and its tributaries

Name of Percentage of the annual mean flow during

the river
April–June July– October– January–March
September December

Indus 31 54 8 7
Jhelum 44 36 8 12
Chenab 28 56 7 9
Ravi 30 51 8 11
Beas 15 67 10 8
Satluj 23 62 9 6

in the 1st Plan period, the total live storage capacity of the completed projects
has increased to 138 km3 . In addition, a storage quantity of over 24 km3 would
be created on completion of projects under construction. An additional storage
to the tune of over 03 km3 would become available on execution of projects
under consideration. The hydropower potential of the basin has been assessed as
19,998 MW at 60% load factor.

10.7. WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT IN INDUS BASIN IN

INDIA

For utilization of water resources of the Satluj, the Beas and the Ravi, multi-
purpose projects such as Bhakra, Nangal, Pong, Pandoh and Ranjit Sagar have been
constructed. The installed hydroelectric power generation capacity of these dams
taken together is 3,420 MW. Irrigation benefits have been provided to 54 M ha; most
of it in Punjab, some extended to Haryana and further to desert districts of Bikaner
and Jaisalmer in Rajasthan. Several towns and villages in Punjab, Haryana, Western
Rajasthan, Union Territory of Chandigarh and also the national capital Delhi in
the Yamuna basin are supplied water for drinking purposes from the Bhakra-Beas
system.
Except Nangal having a negligible storage in the balancing reservoir, the other
dams have live storage capacity of 16,843 MCM to cater to various demands
and control floods in Punjab. The area protected from flood is yet to be properly
quantified. The submergence in most cases is in the Himachal Pradesh, affecting
about 500 sq. km area.
The Indus basin has two classic cases of interlinking its rivers. The oldest is a link
canal of 283 cusec capacity constructed in 1955 for diverting surplus water of the
Ravi at Madhopur headworks to the Beas near Pathankot. Transfer of 4,716 MCM
Beas waters into the Satluj has been made at Pandoh in Himachal, about 21 km
upstream of Mandi town through a 13.1 km long tunnel of 255 cusec capacity.
The link tunnel outfalls into the Satluj at Slapper. These have proved useful in
augmenting water for generation of power and other uses.
490 Chapter 10

The interlinking of the basin’s three rivers has also facilitated better regulation of
river flows through integrated operation of reservoir at Bhakra, Pandoh, Pong, and
Ranjit Sagar. The system feeds a large irrigation network of 900 km long canal from
Harike to Gadra, known as the Indira Gandhi Canal, its 8,800 km distributaries and
6,500 km field channels. Another canal, the Satluj-Yamuna Link (SYL) to transfer
Indus water to Haryana is under construction.
A number of dams, weirs, barrages, river-interlinks, large network of canals and
distributaries have been constructed on Indus basin rivers with massive investment
after Independence. Punjab has been the main beneficiary and became the granary
of India. Although Haryana is not inside the Indus basin, it has been allotted
some water of Indus in accordance with old agreements, awards and the Punjab
Reorganization Act, 1966. Himachal Pradesh is an upper riparian basin state of
these three rivers contributing major flow from perennial snow cover, higher rainfall
and large drainage area of 51,358 sq. km.
Harnessing the water resources of the Indus, the Jhelum and the Chenab within
the Indian catchment of 178,406 sq. km is negligible, though the Indo-Pak Treaty
allows the use of some flow for existing and specified future purposes. Only a
couple of hydroelectric projects in the Chenab basin at Salal in Jammu and Kashmir
and Hurot in Himachal have been completed. Work on Dulhasti power project in
Jammu and Kashmir is in progress. The Jhelum has no major project although a
flood storage dam is needed to control inundation in the rainy season and to regulate
inflow to the Wular Lake for inland navigation. Uri is an important hydropower
project in this basin, location being the Baramula district in J & K. The project
envisages a concrete gravity dam and a power house with installed capacity of
240 MW.
Flowing through the Ladakh region, the main Indus River enters virgin into
Pakistan except for small abstractions to meet day-to-day water requirements of
thinly populated local habitations. Chenab is the largest river in terms of flow,
originating in Himachal Pradesh. Its upstream tributary, the Chandra, could be
linked with the Beas through a tunnel near Manali to supplement the SYL and the
Indira Gandhi Canal supplies via the Beas-Satluj link for the benefit of Haryana
and Rajasthan. A similar possibility exists in the downstream for diversion of still
larger quantity of Chandra-Bhaga waters to Budhil nala near Kugti and its further
transfer to the Indira Gandhi Canal through the Ravi-Beas Link.

10.8. WATER RESOURCES PROJECTS IN INDUS BASIN

10.8.1. Bhakra Nangal System

Bhakra Beas system is one the most prestigious and showcase project of India.
The composite Bhakra-Nangal project consists of the Bhakra dam constructed on
Satluj River in the State of Himachal Pradesh and Nangal barrage constructed on
the same river downstream of Bhakra Dam in the State of Punjab. A distance of
around 13 km separates these two projects. A schematic diagram of Bhakra Beas
System is given shown in Figure 6.
Indus Basin 491

Dehar
Power
Plant Satluj River
Beas Satluj Link

Pandoh Diversion Dam Bhakra Reservoir

Nangal
River Beas` Nangal Dam Hydro
Channel

Ropar
Pong Reservoir Canals

Mukarian
Harike
Canals

Import Mandiplain
From Ravi Gauge
(Madhoupur
Beas Link)

Figure 6. Schematic Diagram of Bhakra Beas System

i. Bhakra Dam
The Bhakra dam (bhakra.nic.in) is a concrete gravity dam with a total height
of 225.55 m above the deepest foundation level, completed in 1963. It creates
a lake called Gobind Sagar with total storage capacity of 0.9621 M ha-m at an
elevation 515.11 m and having a surface spread of 16,868 hectare (41,680 acre).
An ogee type of spillway is provided at the center of the dam with its crest at an
elevation 501.4 m. The spillway discharge is controlled by four 15.24 m long radial
gates. Facilities for release of water for irrigation and power production consist of
sixteen numbers of 2.64 m horse shoe type river outlets and 4.572 m diameter steel
penstocks, respectively. The river outlets are arranged in two tiers of eight each
in the central spillway section. Generally water for irrigation is provided through
discharges meant for power generation. However, when the irrigation demand or
when the demand at Nangal pond is more than the power releases the river outlets
are operated. The overflow spillway and river outlets together can take care of
around 11,327 cumec of water. A view of Bhakra dam has been shown in Figure 7.
The flow of Satluj River at Bhakra is supplemented by diversion of Beas water
through Beas-Satluj link, which takes off from Pondoh dam across Beas River. The
Bhakra power plants are operated in conjunction with Gunguwal and Kotla Power
Houses on the Nangal Hydel channel.
ii. Nangal Barrage
Nangal Barrage diverts the water of Satluj River into the Nangal Hydel Channel
(NHC) for power generation and irrigation. It acts as a balancing reservoir with
storage about 19.74 MCM to smoothen the variations in releases from the Bhakra
492 Chapter 10

Figure 7. The Bhakra Dam

power plants supplying regulated flow to Nangal Hydel Channel. There are two
powerhouses on the NHC. The first powerhouse is located at Ganguwal, about 19 km
from Nangal and second is situated at Kotla at a distance of 9.6 km downstream of
Gunguwal. A head of about 28.4 m is available at each of these power houses. A
view of Nangal Barrage is shown in Figure 8.
iii. Bhakra canal systems
Bhakra canals: The Bhakra Main Link (BML) takes off from the tail end of the
Nangal Hydel Channel at Ropar and is aligned towards Tohana in the Hissar District.
It is a lined channel of 172 km long with a full supply capacity of 354 cumec. The
Narwana, Fatehabad and the Bhakra main branches take off from the Bhakra Main
Line and through distributaries, irrigate areas of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan.

Figure 8. Nangal Barrage on Satluj River

Indus Basin 493

Bist Doab Canal: It takes off from the right bank of River Satluj at Ropar just
upstream of Ropar Head Works with full supply discharge of 45.3 cumec. This
canal serves a gross area of 0.25577 million ha.
iv. Beas-Satluj Link
A link between Beas and Satluj rivers could be beneficial in many ways: a) for the
production of hydropower at Dehar Power Plant, b) augmenting storage in Bhakra
reservoir for generation of power, c) to meet irrigation demands for part of Haryana,
which otherwise could not be commanded from the Beas at Pong. Also this
additional diversion into the Satluj augments the firm power at Bhakra where two
sets of power plants of 1,050 MW installed capacity are in operation. Beas-Satluj
Link (BSL) Project diverts about 4,700 MCM of water annually from Beas River
into Satluj River.
Beas river water is diverted from Pandoh dam into the Satluj River near village
Dehar, upstream of Bhakra reservoir through a 38 km long water conductor system.
The head due to an elevation difference of more than 335 m is utilized to generate
990 MW power. Water of Beas river at Pandoh dam is carried through a tunnel up to
Baggi, through an open hydel channel up to Sundarnagar, and through a tunnel from
Sundarnagar to Slapper. In between the hydel channel and Sundarnagar-Slapper
tunnel, a Balancing Reservoir (BR) has been constructed at Sundarnagar with
limited storage capacity to ensure regulated water supply to meet the fluctuating
and peaking load requirement for power generation at Dehar Power House.
The Pandoh-Baggi Tunnel (PBT), 7.62 m diameter and 13.1 km length carries
255 cumec water and outfalls into concrete lined hydel channel. Water flows through
this 1.8 km long open channel into Sundarnagar Balancing Reservoirs (BR). The
Sundarnagar BR has 3.7 MCM live storage capacity and takes care of fluctuating
water demand at the Dehar power House. Sundarnagar Slapper tunnel (8.53 m dia,
12.38 km long) terminates into surge shaft. The tunnel carries 404 cumec of water
for running six generating units of Dehar Power Plant (DPP) and flows into Satluj
River. The DPP located on the right bank of river Satluj produces 990 MW power
at its full capacity.
Beas, Satluj and other Himalayan rivers are known for their high silt content. The
tributaries of river Beas, viz. Tirthan, Parboti and Sarvori meet the Beas upstream
of Pandoh dam. Silt laden Beas river water from Pandoh dam flows through tunnel
and hydel channel into the BR. The large quantity of silt carried by the Beas settles
in the BR at Sundarnagar reducing its holding capacity. Hence, silt disposal from
BR is carried out through dredging. Silt dredger with a capacity of 500-800 m3 of
solids/hr with 15% to 20% of silt by volume is installed in the BR. The dredged
slurry is discharged into the Sukheti khad flowing adjacent to the BR. The Sukheti
Khad confluences Beas River near Mandi town after flowing a distance of 21 km
through a relatively flat terrain.
Silt load in the river system: Out of total catchment of 5,278 sq. km of the Beas,
784 sq. km has been identified as a high silt yielding area, specifically in the
sub-watershed of Parvati, Bhunter and Larji. It was anticipated that a total silt load
of 407 ha-m would annually reach Pandoh dam and would fill the dead storage of
494 Chapter 10

the dam in 27 years. However, silt in Pandoh dam was filled up to the spillway crest
in a period of nine years after commissioning of the project. Operational guidelines
for post delta stage were prepared by BBMB for bed load passes. According to
these guidelines, flushing and dredging operations were started in 1986 to restrict
the entry of sediment into PBT. It was also anticipated that on an average 215 ha-m
of suspended load would enter the water conductor system of BSL and settle in
BR, which has a live storage of 369 ha-m. Out of 162 ha-m of silt entering in the
BR, about 80 ha-m of silt settles in it annually.
Beas Unit –Pandoh Dam: The Beas-Satluj link scheme consists of a 76.2 m high
rockfill diversion dam at Pondoh on Beas River in Mandi district (HP). The
Pandoh dam was constructed in 1977 at Pandoh, 21 km upstream of Mandi town
on Mandi-Kulu road in Himachal Pradesh. The reservoir has a live storage of 18.56
MCM. The conveyance system comprises 13.2 km long, 7.62 m diameter tunnel
from Pondoh to Baggi and 11.4 km long hydel channel from Baggi to Sundernagar
with a maximum capacity of 212.5 cumec. From the tail of the canal, water is led
to the Satluj power plant near Dehar. There are six turbines to generate power, each
with an installed capacity of 165 MW.
Beas Project-II Pong Dam: Pong is a multipurpose earth & rockfill dam on
Beas River, 40 km from Mukerian, Mukerian District, Himachal Pradesh. It is
located in the Himalayan foot-hills downstream of Pandoh dam. It has a central
impervious core with sand and gravel shell zones on either side. The dam is
132.6 meter high from the deepest foundation level and about 100.6 meter high
above the river bed. The catchment area at the dam is 12 560 km2 . The height
and length of the dam is 133 m and 1,951 m respectively. The reservoir has a
gross storage capacity of 8,570 MCM and live storage of 7290 MCM at FRL
426.72 m and the MDDL is at 384 m. At FRL, the water spread area covers about
260 sq. km. Pong power house has 6 units of 60 MW each, with mean annual
inflow of 15,338 MCM. It has a firm power of 156 MW. BBMB commissioned
the project in 1978–83.
When the water level reaches 426.7 m the spillway radial gates would be raised.
From irrigation and power generation considerations, the minimum level of permis-
sible water level has been fixed at an elevation of 384 m. Between the FRL
at 426.7 m and the dead storage level of 384 m a capacity of 0.729 M ha-m for
controlled irrigation and power generation is available. An overflow spillway with
six bays of 14.4 m (47.5 ft each has been provided on the left abutment of the
dam with the crest at an elevation of 416 m. The discharge over the spillway is
controlled by six 14.5 m wide and 12.34 m high radial gates with a discharging
facility of 12,375 cumec at the highest flood level of 433.12 m.
v. Hydropower plants in Bhakra system
There are several hydropower plants under Bhakra System in Indus basin. The
installed capacity of each hydropower plant has been presented in Table 10.
Indus Basin 495

Table 10. The installed capacity of hydropower plants under Bhakra system

Name of the hydropower plant Installed Capacity (MW)

Bhakra (Right Bank) 3 × 132 + 2 × 157 710

Bhakra (Left Bank) 5 × 108 540
Ganguwal 2 × 242 + 1 × 2925 7765
Kotla 2 × 242 + 1 × 2925 7765
Dehar 6 × 165 990
Pong 6 × 60 360
Total 2 75530

vi. Sharing of Benefits

The sharing is as follows:
a) Distribution of water
i) Sutlej water: As per the Bhakra Nangal Agreement of 1959, the share of Punjab,
Haryana and Rajasthan is 57.88%, 32.31% and 9.81% respectively.
ii) Ravi Beas water: According to the agreement of 1981 and the distribution
approved by BBMB in 1982, the surplus Ravi Beas water (after taking out pre-
partition utilization) is distributed among Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan in the
ratio of 30%, 21% and 49%, respectively. Delhi and Jammu & Kashmir have been
given fixed shares of 0.2 MAF and 0.65 MAF as per 1981 agreement. No water has
been allocated either from Bhakra Nangal or from Beas Project to HP. The Board
has been approving the proposals from HP regarding supply of water for irrigation
and drinking water purposes out of the Bhakra Nangal and Beas projects.
b) Distribution of Power
Bhakra Complex: 15.22% of available energy less the requirement of Common
Pool Consumers and transmission losses is distributed to Rajasthan. The remaining
84.78% to Punjab, Haryana, New H.P. and UT of Chandigarh in the proportion
54.5%, 39.5%, 2.5% and 3.5% respectively.
Dehar Power Plant: Available power less 15 MW to HP allocated by Government
of India, 4% transmission losses and project supply at Sundernagar, Slapper and
Pandoh is distributed to Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan in the ratio 48%, 32% and
20%, respectively.
Pong Power Plant: Available power less project supplies at Talwara and 4% trans-
mission losses is shared by Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan in the same ratio as the
sharing of cost, viz., 24.9%, 16.6% and 58.5%.
vii. Operation of Bhakra and Pong Reservoirs
The BBMB is operating the reservoirs at Bhakra and Pong in an integrated manner in
the best interest of the Partner States. BBMB has constituted a technical committee
for this purpose, comprising Chief Engineers from Irrigation Departments of the
partner States, Technical Members from the State Electricity Boards and Chief
Engineer (Indus Basin), Chandigarh, Central Water Commission, with Director
(Agriculture), Punjab as a Special Invitee, to decide the operation of reservoirs
under its control. The committee after taking a stock of reservoir levels, inflows,
496 Chapter 10

irrigation & power requirements, decides releases from the reservoirs for the
following month on a 10-daily basis at the monthly meetings. The same are reviewed
by the BBMB at its quarterly meetings.

10.8.2. Indira Gandhi Nahar Project (IGNP)

Indira Gandhi Nahar Project is a standing example of how large inter-basin transfers
have brought about all round socio-economic growth with overall improvement
in the ecology and environment of the region. Under the Indus Water Treaty, the
waters of three eastern rivers viz. Satluj, Beas and Ravi were allocated to India. As
the land to be benefited in India lies mostly to the east and south of these rivers,
the three rivers had to be interlinked and the water conveyed to canal systems
for serving vast agricultural tracts in Western India. The main storage on Satluj
is at Bhakra while that on Beas is at Pong. Bhakra system provides irrigation to
26.3 lakh ha of new area besides stabilization of existing irrigation on 9 lakh ha.
The Beas-Satluj link is 37.25 km long, of which 25.45 km passes through a tunnel
under difficult rock formations. The capacity of the tunnel is 254.70 cumec. Another
dam on Ravi namely, Ranjit Sagar dam will provide additional water to Beas and
also generate a large amount of power. Subsequently, it was decided to provide
9.36 BCM of water to Rajasthan Canal (Indira Gandhi Nahar) for irrigating the
areas of Thar Desert.
Transfer of surplus waters of Ravi, Beas and Satluj to Rajasthan right up to
Jaisalmer and Barmer through Indira Gandhi Nahar Pariyojana has eliminated
drought conditions, provided power benefits and transformed desert waste land into
an agriculturally productive area by bringing irrigation and vegetation to about
2 Mha area. Contribution in agricultural production due to implementation of the
project is worth Rs. 1,750 crore annually. Canal water is also being used to meet
domestic needs. The project has dramatically changed the living standard and socio-
economic conditions of the people in the region.
The post independence era of the country has witnessed rapid strides in creation
of irrigation potential, resulting in substantial increase of agricultural production.
The IGNP (formerly known as The Rajasthan Canal Project) with a command area
of 15.43 lakh hectare is the largest irrigation and drinking water project to cater five
districts in north-western Rajasthan. The main canal gets water from the Satluj River
in Punjab through a feeder canal which takes off from Harike Barrage, constructed
at a point down stream of its influence of Beas and Satluj Rivers.
The entire project comprises of the main Indira Gandhi Canal, nine branches,
three lifts, and 21 district distributaries with a length of 7,150 km. The project has
been divided in two stages. Under the first phase, Rajasthan feeder, the main canal
up to 195 km, the Suratgarh low level, and Namshera branches were completed.
Under the second stage the construction of remaining portion of the main canal
from Chhatargarh to Mohangarh has been completed. The irrigation potential from
the IGNP project is assessed as 13.87 lakh ha. A view of Indira Gandhi Canal is
shown in Figure 9.
Indus Basin 497

Figure 9. A view of the main Indira Gandhi Canal

The IGNP is a gigantic canal project to carry 524 cumec water from the Harike
Barrage in a 204 km long feeder canal in Punjab, to the vast Great Indian Desert,
known as the Thar Desert, in Western Rajasthan. The canal network is spread in an
area of about 60 km wide and 1,000 km long belt. It consists of 204 km of feeder,
450 km main canal, 8000 km of distribution networks and several thousand km of
lined water courses, to spread over a gross command area of 2.5 Mha and provide
irrigation to a culturable command of 1.55 Mha.
The salient features of the IGNP are:
• It will provide additional irrigation in 964,000 hectares,
• Will deliver drinking water for 14 million humans, besides a large cattle
population,
• Will help afforesation in an area of 362,000 hectares,
• Would provide fodder for 5.2 million units of cows or equivalent animals,
• Is expected to provide direct employment to 500,000 persons on regular basis,
and
• Will enables exploitation of mineral resources and industrialization.
The project was conceived by the great Indian civil engineer, Kanwar Sain, around
the year 1940 and construction was started in the year 1958. Since then, the project
has gone under considerable modifications and revisions. It is still (year 2006)
under construction near tail areas. Planning, design and construction of canal system
is managed by a high powered Canal Board with many advisory and technical
committees.
The main canal is a contour canal with distribution network and irrigation on
the right side only. Few lift schemes are provided on the left side. Although the
main canal was initially conceived as unlined, design was subsequently modified
and it was constructed as a lined canal as it passes through sandy desert soils. High
498 Chapter 10

cuttings of about 20 m above bed level as well as heavy bed filling of more than
4 m are encountered in the course of the canal.
No construction materials except the desert sand are available along the canal or
even within 100 km. There are no rivers or stone hillocks nearby. However, there
are some stone hillocks near Ratangarh at a distance of 200 to 300 km from main
canal and in tail areas after 450 km of canal (near Mahangarh) at a distance of
about 50 km from the tail. Even the coarse sand (locally known as Bajri) required
for cement mortar is available at a distance of 200 to 300 km away from canal
in deep quarries of Shivbari (Bikaner) and Bap (Phalodi). However, clay soil for
manufacture of tiles/bricks is available in small pockets in depression in between
sand dunes, at distances varying from 5 to 100 km.
The geology of the area is completely concealed under the thick blanket of dunal
sand and alluvium; no rock exposures are seen on the surface. The lithology of deep
bore holes, dug cum bore hole and piezometers in the area reveal that stratigraphical
unit in the area ranges in age from alluvium of quaternary group consolidated
sedimentaries of paleozoic group.
In the head reaches, the depth of the canal is limited to 6.5 m for stability of sandy
soils, operational problems and easiness in construction. It gradually decreases in
tail. Internal side slopes of 1:2 (V:H) were considered safe for sandy soils and
provided for depth from 6.5 m to 5 m, throughout the entire 450 km length of the
main canal. Bed slope has also been restricted to 1 in 12,000, because of long
length of canal and to have sufficient command. Even with this flat slope, the drop
in water level is 54 m from head to tail. It is uniform from head to tail in 450 km
length. Thus velocities are also very much limited in the entire length from 1.5 m/s
to 1.2 m/s. Bed width varies practically from 11 times the depth at head to 2 times
the depth at tail. Single tile lining in bed and double tile lining on sides has been
adopted. Burnt clay tile lining is provided up to 365 km and thereafter P.C.C. block
lining is adopted till the end.

10.8.3. Nathpa Jhakri Hydroelectric Project

The 1500 MW Nathpa Jhakri Hydropower Project (NJHP) is a prestigious project

commissioned by Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam Limited (SJVN). SJVN (Formerly Nathpa
Jhakri Power Corporation Limited) was incorporated in 1988 as a joint venture of
the Govt. of India and the Govt. of Himachal Pradesh. Work on NJHP began in
1993. The project includes a 60.5 m high dam and underground desilting complex.
While the dam is located at Nathpa village in Kinnaur District, the power house
is located on the left bank of Satluj River at Jhakri in Shimla District. NJHP has
many unique features. It has one of the largest underground desilting complexes
of the world, one of the deepest surge shafts of the world, and an underground
power house with large a cavern of 222 m X 20 m X 49 m, housing 6 Francis
turbines of 250 MW each. NJHP will generate 6,700 Million Units of electrical
energy in a 90% dependable year. The first unit of the project was commissioned
Indus Basin 499

in October 2003. SJVN is also associated with many other projects besides NJHP.
Details about Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam Limited are available at sjvn.nic.in.
Flash floods in August 2000 led to extensive loss of time and money to the
project, and caused severe destruction to the dam and power house.

10.8.4. Other Projects

Anandpur Sahib: Anandpur Sahib hydropower project is located on Anandpur Sahib

Canal that takes off from Nangal barrage on Satluj River, 8 km from Anandpur Sahib
in Ropar District, Punjab. Two hydropower houses namely Anandpur Sahib I and
Anandpur Sahib II have been constructed under this scheme. Both the powerhouses
have 2 units of 33.5 MW each with a total installed capacity of 134 MW. It has a
firm power of 105 MW. Punjab State Electricity Board (PSEB) commissioned the
project in 1985.
Baira Siul Project: Baira hydropower project is an earth core and rockfill dam on
Baira River supplemented by Bhaledh and Siul Rivers, tributaries of Ravi River
in Indus basin. The dam is located in Chamba District, Himachal Pradesh near
Pathankot. The catchment area at the dam is 1,038 sq. km out of which 660 sq. km
lies in Baira river basin and the rest lies in Bhaledh River basin. The height and the
length of the dam are 53 m and 160 m respectively. The reservoir has a live storage
capacity of 1,270 MCM at FRL 1,122.15 m and the MDDL of the reservoir is at
1,113 m. Baira surface power house has 3 units of 60 MW each, with mean annual
inflow of 1,060 MCM. It has a firm power of 39 MW and the annual generation
is 750 million units in 90% dependable year. NHPC commissioned the project in
1981 at a cost of Rs. 142.5 crore.
Baspa II: Baspa II hydropower project has been constructed on a gated barrage
on Baspa River, a tributary of Satluj River in Indus basin. The project is located
210 km from Shimla in Kinnaur District, Himachal Pradesh. The catchment area
at the dam is 969 sq. km. The barrage has a live storage capacity of 75 ha-m at
FRL 2,531.50 m and the minimum pond level is at 2,527.50 m. The power house
has 3 units of 100 MW each, with annual inflow of 99,175 ha-m and 146,737 ha-m
on 90% and 50% dependable year respectively. The project was commissioned in
2003.
Bassi Project: Bassi power project is located in Jogindernagar district in Himachal
Pradesh. The project utilizes tail waters of Shanan reservoir located in the upstream
of Bassi on Uhi River, tributary of Beas River. Bassi power house has 4 units of
15 MW each. It has a firm power of 16 MW. HPSEB commissioned the project in
1970–81.
Chamera I: Chamera I is a major project consisting of a concrete arch gravity
dam on Ravi River, 25 km from Dalhousie and 80 km from Pathankot in Chamba
District, Himachal Pradesh. The catchment area at the dam is 472.5 sq. km. The
height and the length of the dam are 140 m and 295 m respectively. The reservoir
has a live storage capacity of 110 MCM and mean annual inflow of 1,273 BCM. Its
FRL and MDDL are 760 m and 747 m. Chamera I underground power house has 3
500 Chapter 10

units of 180 MW each. It has a firm power of 160 MW and in a 90% dependable
year, the annual generation is 1,664 million units. NHPC commissioned the project
in 1994 at a cost of Rs. 2,114 crore.
Chamera power station – II: It is located near Pathankot, in Distt. Chamba, Himachal
Pradesh. It has a 39 m high, 118.50 m long concrete gravity dam and an underground
power house containing 3 units of 100 MW each. In a 90% dependable year, the
annual generation is 1,500 MU. This project was completed by NHPC in 2004 at
an estimated cost of Rs.1,930 crore.
Lower Jhelum: Lower Jhelum dam has been constructed on Jhelum River near
Warikhah in Baramulla District, Jammu & Kashmir. Lower Jhelum power house
has 3 units of 35 MW each. It has a firm power of 62 MW. J&KPDC commissioned
the project in 1978–79.
Malana: Malana is a concrete gravity dam completed in 2001 on Malana River,
a tributary of Parbati River of Beas basin. The dam is located 20 km from
Bhuntar in Kulu District, Himachal Pradesh. The catchment area at the dam is
4,725 sq. km. The height and the length of the dam are 18 m and 305 m respec-
tively. The reservoir has a live storage capacity of 0.249 MCM at FRL 1,893 m;
the MDDL has been fixed at 1,879 m. Malana power house has 2 units of
43 MW each, producing a firm power of 12 MW. It has a mean annual inflow of
403 MCM.
Mukerian: Mukerian is a hydropower project, located on Shah Nahar Canal diverted
from Beas River, in Hoshiarpur District, Punjab. A barrage namely Shah Nahar
barrage has been constructed 5 km down stream of Pong dam in Hoshiarpur
District, Punjab. Four hydropower projects namely Mukerian I, Mukerian II,
Mukerian III, and Mukerian IV have been constructed under this scheme. The
Shah Nahar barrage has a pond level of 330.7 m. The length of the barrage is
562 m. The barrage has been constructed for a design flood of 11 073 m3 /s.
Two powerhouses have 3 units of 15 MW and other two powerhouses have 3
units of 19.5 MW each. Thus the Mukerian power house has a firm power of
137 MW. Punjab State Electricity Board (PSEB) commissioned the project in
1983–89.
Sanjay Bhaba: Sanjay Bhabha hydropower project consists of a gated weir, namely
Bhabha weir, located on Bhabha Khad, tributary of Satluj River, 190 km from
Shimla in Kinnaur District, Himachal Pradesh. The catchment area at the weir is
280 sq. km. The pond has a storage capacity of 0.304 MCM at maximum water
level 2425.20 m. The power house has 3 units of 40 MW each, with mean annual
inflow of 480 MCM. It has a firm power of 33 MW. HPSEB commissioned the
project in 1989.
Salal Project: Salal I is a 113 m high, 450 m long rockfill concrete dam on
Chenab River, 90 km from Jammu in Udhampur District, Jammu & Kashmir.
The catchment area at the dam is 21,500 sq. km. The height and the length of
the dam are 113 m and 630 m respectively. The FRL of the dam is at 487.68 m.
Salal sub-surface power house has 3 units of 115 MW each. With mean annual
inflow of 21,000 MCM, its annual generation is 2,038 MU. It has a firm power
Indus Basin 501

of 227 MW. NTPC commissioned the project in 1987. At 1987 price level, the
project cost was Rs. 6,212.1 million.
Salal Power Station – II: also has a capacity of 345 MW 3 × 115 MW and annual
generation of 1,063 million units. Its 1st unit was commissioned in 1993, 2nd unit
in 1994, and the 3rd unit in 1995.
Shanan Project: Shanan dam has been constructed on Uhi River and its tributary
Lambadug River, tributaries of Beas River in Indus basin. It is located 4 km from
Jogindernagar in Kangra District, Himachal Pradesh. The catchment area at the dam
is 381 sq. km. Shanan power house has 4 units of 15 MW each including one extra
unit of 50 MW.
Thein Dam (Ranjit Sagar): Ranjit Sagar Hydropower house is located at Thein
earth and rockfill dam on Ravi River, 24 km from Madhopur barrage, in Gurdaspur
District, Punjab. The reservoir behind the Thein dam is known as Ranjit Sagar
reservoir. The catchment area at the dam is 6086 km2 . The height and length of
the dam is 160 m and 617 m respectively. The reservoir has a live storage capacity
of 2,344 MCM. The power house has 4 units of 150 MW each. It has a firm power
of 129 MW. Punjab State Electricity Board (PSEB) commissioned the project in
2000.
UBDC Project: Upper Bari Doab Canal (UBDC) is a hydropower project, located
on Madhopur barrage, on Upper Bari Doab Canal diverted from Ravi River, 12 km
from Pathankot in Gurdaspur District, Punjab. The hydropower complex is a mixture
of three power projects, namely UBDC I, UBDC II, and UBDC III. The Madhopur
barrage is 774 m long and has a normal pond level of 348.5 m. The catchment area
at the project is 6086 km2 . The barrage has been constructed for a design flood
of 17750 m3 /s. All the three powerhouses have 1 unit of 15 MW and 1 unit of
15.45 MW each with a total installed capacity of 91.35 MW. It has a firm power
of 55 MW with mean annual inflow of 8,609 MCM. Punjab State Electricity Board
(PSEB) commissioned the project in 1971–91.
Upper Sindh II: Upper Sindh II dam has been constructed on Sindh Nallah and
Wangath Nallah tributaries of Jhelum River. It is located 40 km from Srinagar in
Srinagar Kangan District, Jammu & Kashmir. The catchment area at the dam is
927 sq. km out of which 697 sq. km lies in Sindh basin and the rest 230 sq. km
in Wangath basin. The tail waters of Upper Sindh I are diverted into Upper Sindh
II for power generation in the project. Upper Sindh II power house has 3 units of
35 MW each. JKPDC commissioned the project in 2000–02.
Uri Project: Uri is a 20 m high 93.5 m long barrage, located on Jhelum River, 8 km
from Baramulla in Kashmir North District, Jammu & Kashmir. The catchment area
at the dam is 12,570 sq. km. The reservoir has a live storage capacity of 0.36 MCM
and mean annual inflow of 8,400 MCM. The FRL of the reservoir is 1,491 m. Uri
underground power house has 4 units of 120 MW each, It has a firm power of
213 MW and annual generation of 2,663 million units in a 90% dependable year.
NTPC commissioned the project in 1997 at a cost of Rs. 3,300 crore.
Small Hydro Projects: Licences have been given to set up 4 × 5 MW small hydro-
electric power projects in Kangra District of Himachal Pradesh. The projects
502 Chapter 10

are: 5 MW Baner III, 5 MW IKU II, 5 MW Drinidhar, and 5 MW Upper Khaul.

Another private company has won the bid for the 70 MW Budhil Project in Chamba
district. The power plant will have two units of 35 MW each and will generate
313.33 million units of power per annum.

10.8.5. Projects Under Construction

In addition to the above several other projects under construction or consideration.

Baglihar Hydro-Electric Project: The hydropower potential from the four major
river basins in the state of Jammu and Kashmir, namely, Chenab, Jhelum, Indus,
and Ravi has been estimated to be in the range of 11,000 MW. The Chenab basin by
itself has the largest potential, with an estimated capacity of 8,000 MW (at 60% load
factor). Eight hydropower projects with a total capacity of 5,320 MW have already
been identified along its track in Jammu and Kashmir State. However, only about
10% of this huge renewable source of energy on Chenab has been exploited up to
now. Baglihar is one of such projects with ultimate installed capacity of 900 MW
to be developed in two stages of 450 MW each. It is located across Chenab River
in Doda District. Pakistan has raised objections against this project under the Indus
Water Treaty.
Bursar Project: Investigations are in progress for the 1,020 MW 4 × 255 MW
project consisting of a 252 m high rockfill dam and an underground power house
near Hanzal Village (near Kishtwar) in Doda District of Jammu & Kashmir. Annual
generation is expected to be 2,018 MU (in a 90% dependable year) at an estimated
cost of Rs. 4,378 crore.
Chamera Stage – III Project: It is being constructed in Chamba Distt. in Himachal
Pradesh. A 68 m high concrete gravity dam on Ravi River is being constructed
along with an underground power house consisting of 3 units of 77 MW each (total
231 MW). Completion is scheduled by August 2010 at estimated cost of Rs. 1,406
crore.
Chutak Project (Proposed): This project is located near Minji Village in Kargil
District of Jammu & Kashmir. A 47.5 m long diversion barrage with an underground
power house having 4 units of 11 MW each are proposed.
Dulhasti Project: It involves a 65 m high, 186 m long concrete gravity dam, being
constructed in Doda District in J & K. An underground power house containing
3 units of 130 MW each = 390 MW will generation 1,928 MU annually at an
estimated cost of Rs. 3,560 crore when it is complete (expected date is end of
2006).
Kishanganga Project: This is a proposed run-of-the-river hydropower project
on Jhelum River. It will be located near Kralpore Village (near Bandipore)
in Baramulla District of Jammu & Kashmir. Its underground power house
will have an installed power production capacity of 330 MW yielding an
annual generation of 1,350 MU in a 90% dependable year. Like the Baglihar
Project, construction of this project has also been opposed by Pakistan claiming
Indus Basin 503

that the diversion tunnel of this project will cause reduction in flow of Neelam
River which will be detrimental to Pakistan’s interests.
Kol Dam: This project is being constructed by the National Thermal Power Corpo-
ration (NTPC) across Satluj River, 4 km upstream of Dehar Power Plant in Bilaspur
District. Kol Dam will be a 163 m high rock and gravel fill dam with clay core. Its
crest level will be at 648 m. Kol reservoir will have MDDL at 636 m, FRL at 642 m,
and MWL at 646 m. Four units, each of 200 MW capacity will yield total installed
capacity of 800 MW. The estimated annual generation in a 90% dependable year
will be 3,054 GWHr and the estimated cost of the project is Rs. 6,300 crore. Work
on the project began in the year 2000.
Nimoo Bazgo Project: It is proposed near Alchi village in Leh District of Jammu
& Kashmir. A 57 m high 247.9 m long concrete gravity dam is proposed to be
constructed with a surface power house. The project will have installed capacity
of 45 MW (3 X 15 MW) yielding an annual generation of 239.33 MU in a 90%
dependable year.
Pakal Dul Project: It is located near Village Pakal (near Kishtwar) in Doda District
of Jammu & Kashmir. It will have a 167 m high concrete face rockfill dam and
an underground power house with capacity of 1,000 MW (4X 250 MW), giving an
annual generation of 3,387 MU (in a 90% dependable year). The project is likely
to cost Rs. 5,577 crore. The DPR for the project has been completed.
Parbati Stage – II Project: It is being constructed near Kiratpur in Distt. Kullu,
Himachal Pradesh. The project will have a 85 m high concrete gravity dam and a
surface power house containing 4 Pelton Turbine Generating units of 200 MW each.
These turbines will generate 3,108.66 MU of energy annually (90% dependable
year). The estimated cost of the project is Rs. 3,920 crore and it is likely to be
commissioned by September 2009.
Parbati Stage – III Project: This project being constructed on Sainj River in Kullu
district, Himachal Pradesh consists of a 43 m high rockfill dam with a 34.5 m
orifice type spillway. The underground powerhouse will have 4 units of 130 MW
each. It will produce 1977 million units of power in a 90% dependable year. The
latest estimated cost of the project is Rs. 2,305 crore. Work has commenced and is
expected to be completed by November, 2010.
Sewa Project: The Sewa project is being constructed on Sewa River, a tributary
of Ravi River, in Basholi tehsil of Kathua River in Jammu and Kashmir. Here,
a hydropower project, known as Sewa stage-II is under construction. The project
envisages 53 m high concrete gravity dam, a tunnel and three units of 40 MW each
in the under-ground powerhouse. The estimated cost of the project is Rs. 665.46
crores. The project is likely to be completed by August 2007 (The Times of India
newspaper, August 11, 2004). The installed capacity of power plant will be 120 MW
and it will generate 533.52 MU of energy annually.
Sewa Stage – II Project: Is located near Pathankot on Sewa River (a tributary of
Ravi) in Kathua District, J&K State. The project consists of a 53 m high concrete
gravity dam. Is power house will be equipped with 3 × 40 MW vertical Pelton
turbine units with rated net head of 560 m. Annual generation is expected to be
504 Chapter 10

534 MU (90% dependable year). The estimated cost of the project is Rs. 665 crore
and it is likely to be completed by the end of 2007.
Uri Stage – II Project: This project is located in Uri Tehsil of Baramulla district
in Jammu & Kashmir. The project consists of a concrete gravity dam, 52 m
high, 173.2 m long with spillway consisting of 4 bays of 9.0 m each. An under-
ground power house of 132 m length, 15 m width, and 41 m height is being
constructed to accommodate 4 units of 60 MW capacity each. Annual energy gener-
ation from the plant to the tune of 1,124 MU (90% dependable year) is expected.
This project is scheduled for completion by Nov. 2009 at an estimated cost of
Rs. 1,725 crore.

10.8.6. Water Bodies In Indus Basin

In addition to the reservoir projects, there are many lakes in Indus basin. The
important lakes in have been described in Chapter 19. However, brief information
about these lakes is summarized in Table 11.

10.9. DAMS AND WATER TRANSFER IN INDUS BASIN

To utilize India’s share of water, it was necessary to build storages on three rivers
to conserve flood waters and divert it to semi arid lands in Punjab and Haryana
and desert areas of Rajasthan. The Ranjit Sagar reservoir on Ravi was completed
in year 2000. With the completion of this dam, over 90% of the water is being
utilized in the region for various purposes. Table 12 briefly summarizes the main
projects.
It is readily seen from the table that annual value of energy produced alone is
nearly seven times the capital cost of Bhakra dam project. This highlights the high
benefits of early implementation of such WRD projects. In addition to irrigation,
power, water supply other benefits of the project include development of industries,
and communications. Since the value of benefits as well as cost goes on increasing
with time, it is never too late to take up construction of such projects that continue
to give service for hundreds of years.
In Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir in Indus basin, irrigation potential is
limited but there is high potential for hydropower. In Jammu and Kashmir against a
hydropower potential of 7,487 MW at 60% load factor only 515 MW was developed
till November 2002 (Hasan, 2005) which is only 6.88%. Similarly in Himachal
Pradesh against a potential of 11,647 MW only, 2.036 MW was developed which is
about 17.5%. Work is in progress on many large hydropower projects in Himachal
Pradesh, which will help in harnessing the remaining potential in reasonable time.
The live storage permitted under Indus Water Treaty on Chenab and its tributaries
has not been completely utilized so far. Storage projects would not only generate
hydropower but the regulated flow would greatly enhance power generation from
the run of the river schemes in the downstream.
Table 11. Details of Water bodies in Jammu & Kashmir (Area wise)

SN Name of Water Type Nearest District Elevation (m) Water Spread Perimeter (km)
Indus Basin

Body Place Area (sq. km)

Pre- Post- Pre Post

Monsoon Monsoon Monsoon Monsoon

1. Pangong Tso Lake -na- Leh 4,250 273454∗ 296.564 185.251 184.554
2. Amto Gor Lake -na- Leh -na- 174.080 174.385 65.032 65.846
3. Tso Morari Lake Karzok Leh 4,527 115845∗ 141.054 61.823 74.705
4. Wular Lake Bandipur Baramulla 1,580 50.15 55.05 66.07 49.06
5. Hygam Jhil Swamp Tarazu Baramulla 1,569 15.127 18.745 27.517 30.303
6. Dal Lake Dalgate Srinagar 1,586 13.186 13.629 21.978 21.047
7. Kar Tso Lake -na- Leh 4,537 Snow 10.536 Snow 20.018
8. Nambi Narku Marshy Narkur Srinagar 1,583 4.570 5.951 9.459 10.300
9. Kyun Tso Lake Chila Leh 5,000 Snow 5.420 Snow 10.823
10. Tazangkuru Tso Lake Tsakshang Leh 4,800 Snow 5.063 Snow 9.449
11. Startsapu Tso Lake Kurjok Leh 4,337 Snow 4.866 Snow 11.753
12. Manasbal Lake Gratabal Baramulla 1,600 2.591 3.486 9.346 8.981
13. Un-named Marshy Nusu Baramulla 1,581 2.138 2.390 5.644 6.024
Ghat
Kalhum
14. Rakh Malang Marshy Safapora Baramulla 1,538 1.845 2.035 5.332 5.441
15. Kyule Tso Lake Kyule Leh 5,400 Snow 1.864 Snow 5.605
16. Un-named Marshy Kulul Pulwama 1,591 -na- 1.639 -na- 6.075
17. Yaye Tso Lake Yayala Leh 4,800 Snow 1.637 Snow 4.869
18. Gangabal Lake Lake Naranag Srinagar 3,569 Snow 1.634 Snow 6.420
19. Yusup Tso Lake Zulungpha Leh 5,400 Snow 1.542 Snow 6.205

(Continued)
505
Table 11. (Continued) 506
Name of Water Nearest Elevation Water Spread Perimeter (km)
SN Type District
Body Place (m) Area (sq. km)

Pre- Post- Pre Post

Monsoon Monsoon Monsoon Monsoon

20. Nagin lake Lake Sadrabal Srinagar 1,604 0.776 0.907 4.385 4.815
21. Rakhi Marshy Barthana Srinagar 1,583 0.701 0.820 3.853 4.119
Gandka
Shah
22. Mansar Lake Mansar Udhampur 700 0.629 0.747 3.198 3.413
23. Hokar sar Lake Zainakot Baramulla 1,584 0.475 0.732 3.095 3.414
24. Vishan Sar Lake Vishansar Baramulla 3,677 Snow 0.635 Snow 4.077
25. Godsar Lake Godsar Baramulla 3,810 Snow 0.607 Snow 3.755
Nala
26. Tso Kur Lake – Leh 4,225 0.357 0.549 2.43 1 3.156
27. Gundi-I-Khalil Lake TaraZu Baramulla 1,569 0.388 0.535 2.442 2.840
28. Krishan Sar Lake Vishansar Baramulla 3,819 Snow 0.448 Snow 2.900
29. Tar sar Lake Pahilmazar Anantnag 3,785 -na- 0.430 -na- 3.398
30. Salnai sar Lake Lolgul Gali Baramulla 4,055 Snow 0.425 Snow 2.892
31. Nund kol Lake Dandlod Srinagar 3,607 Snow 0.351 Snow 2.854
32. Madmatti sar Lake Waril Gali Baramulla 4,449 Snow 0.348 Snow 2.316
33. Konsar Nag Lake Phutin Pulwama 3,585 -na- 0.329 -na- 2.565
Pansaisali
34. Surinsar Lake Surinsar Udhampur 736 0.302 0.324 2.283 2.123
35. Bod Sar arshy Nambalbal Srinagar 1,593 0.228 0.318 2.024 2.342
36. Marsar Lake Nagaberan Srinagar 3,849 -na- 0.271 -na- 2.926
37. Bodhsar Lake Bodhsar Budgam 3,956 Snow 0.262 Snow 2.201
∗
partly covered with snow, Snow: fully covered with snow. NA: data not available.
Chapter 10
Indus Basin 507

Table 12. Brief summary of the main projects

Name of Dams
Particulars
Bhakra Nangal Pong Pandoh Ranjit Sagar

Year of 1963 1954 1974 1977 2000

Completion
Cost (Rs. Crore) 218 27 326 449 3,200
Benefits
Annual Generation 7,000 1,000 1,800 3,600 1,500
in Million units
Value of energy 1,400 200 360 600 300
Rs. 2 /unit
New Area irrigated 65 40 8 – 0.32
(lakh Acre)
Cost of agriculture 465 – 350 100 140
product in crore
rupees

Source: Hasan (2005).

10.10. WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT IN THE INDUS

BASIN IN PAKISTAN
Pakistan and India share the river waters of the Indus Basin under the Indus Basin
Treaty signed in 1960. The treaty allocates the three western rivers, Jhelum, Chenab,
and Indus to Pakistan, apart from some limited use in the state of Jammu and
Kashmir in India. Unrestricted use of waters of three eastern rivers, namely Ravi,
Satluj, and Beas can be made by India while only run of the river schemes for
hydropower development and limited storage and riparian irrigation is permitted on
Chenab and Ravi.
As part of Indus treaty works, Pakistan developed a gigantic irrigation system,
known as the Indus Basin Replacement Project, to cater to the needs of the areas
which got deprived of irrigation when three eastern rivers of the Indus System
were allocated to India. The project included construction of a huge network of
link canals to divert water from the western rivers to the eastern rivers, two major
storage reservoirs, and a number of barrages. Pakistan built ten links, six barrages
and two dams namely Mangla dam and Tarbela dam, during the post-treaty period
of 1960–1970. Its Indus Plains host most of its population and the world’s largest
irrigation network commanding an area of 345 lakh acres which contribute to 90%
of its national agricultural production. A brief description of Tarbela and Mangla
dams follows.

10.10.1. Tarbela Dam

The major storage reservoir on the Indus is located at Tarbela where an earthfill
dam was completed in 1976. The dam has a live storage capacity of 11.5 cubic km
508 Chapter 10

Table 13. Salient features of the Mangala dam

Gross storage capacity 7 25313 Mm3

Live storage capacity 6 587027 Mm3 (at FRL 366.37 m)
Area of the Reservoir at FRL 257025 Mm2
Catchment area 33 65545 km2

for irrigation and hydropower production. It is 147.8 m high and 2,743 m long
with a live storage capacity of 9.74 MAF and installed capacity of 3,478 MW of
hydropower generation.

10.10.2. Mangla Dam

The first large earthfill dam, namely, Mangla Dam on River Jhelum in Pakistan
was completed and commissioned in 1967. The dam is 115 m high with installed
capacity of 1,000 MW to generate power. This multipurpose reservoir also stores
water for irrigation and controls floods. The Salient features of the Mangala dam
are given in Table 13.

10.11. FLASH FLOODS IN THE INDUS RIVER BASIN

Heavy concentrated rainfall in the catchment during the monsoon season, which
is sometimes augmented by snowmelt flow and rainfall – primarily outside the
Indus Plain, generally cause floods. Monsoon currents, originating in the Bay
of Bengal, and consequent depressions often result in heavy downpour in the
Himalayan foothills and Koh Hindu Kush, occasionally producing destructive flash
floods along one or more of the main rivers of the Indus System. However,
in some cases, exceptionally high floods have been caused by the formation of
temporary natural dams by landslide or glacier movement and their subsequent
collapse.
In the upper part of the Indus Basin system, floodwater spilling over the river
banks generally returns to the river. However, in the lower part of the Indus River,
which flows at a higher elevation than the adjoining lands for the most part, spills do
not return to the river. This increases the extent and period of inundation, resulting in
more damage. Although flood protection is provided by the embankments at many
locations in the upper areas, bunds have been breached at times. Such breaches
often cause greater damage than would have occurred without the bunds because
of their unexpected nature and intensification of land use following the provision
of flood protection.

Floods in Satluj in Year 2000

On the early morning of August 1, 2000, very high flood was observed in Satluj
River which caused enormous damage in Rampur (It was once the capital of
Indus Basin 509

the princely state of Bashahr, perhaps the largest in area among the Shimla
Hill States. Rampur is famous for Lavi Fair) and to the Nathpa Jhakri Hydro-
electric Project. The other major loss was the delay in completion of the
project.
River reach from Rampur to Wangtu is very fragile – the valley is narrow, both
sides steeper in gradient. Extensive felling of trees started as early as 1850 in the
Satluj valley by British contractors who took benefit of the poor condition of the
hill chiefs.
During July-August 1993, a landslide from the right bank of Satluj obstructed
the flow of Satluj near Nathpa, 185 km from Shimla, creating an artificial lake.
Water of the lake entered the 120 MW Bhabha Powerhouse causing it heavy losses.
After great effort, the rocks blocking Satluj were blown into pieces by dynamites,
releasing water from the lake.
On the evening of August 11, 1997, the Panvi Khud, a small rivulet originating
in the Shatul Ghati brought tons of debris with it and blocked Satluj for several
days. Six major bridges left no trace cutting the Kinnaur from rest of the country
and eroding about 6 km of the NH 22. A big lake was formed at Wangtu due
to blockage of the Satluj. On the same night, the Andhra Khud flowing in the
same mountain range washed away a roadside township of Chirgaon. On the same
night, considerable damage was inflicted by the Nogli Khud. Andhra Power House
(17 MW) and Nogli Power House (2.5 MW) suffered heavy losses and did not
generate electricity for about a year.

Land slides
Heavy rainfall in the mountain areas is also responsible of large-scale landslides.
There are instances when large volumes of earth moved to river beds, creating
an earthen dam which blocked the flow of river. This leads to the formation of
a lake behind this temporary dam. Breakage of this dam gives rise to flooding
in the downstream areas. Such a landslide, for example, took place in year 2004
and blocked the flow of Peerchu River in Tibet, a tributary of Satluj River.
Similar instances of landslide and dam formation have been observed in the Ganga
valley also.

10.12. WATER QUALITY OF THE TRIBUTARIES OF INDUS

BASIN IN PUNJAB

Water pollution in the Indus occurs through three sources: municipal wastewater
discharges, industrial wastewater discharges, and agriculture return flows through
drainage structures. Treatment plants (oxidations ponds), provided in many cases,
are not maintained properly. As a result, the wastewater does not receive the
desired degree of treatment. The parameter of major concerns is the discharge of
organic matter. This causes depletion of dissolved oxygen of the river water. In
extreme cases, when the assimilative capacity of the river is exceeded, anaerobic
(septic) conditions result. This could be a problem in the river, during the months
510 Chapter 10

of low dilution (December and January). At present, water shortages are feared
during the incoming crop season. Under anaerobic conditions, iron and manganese
become more soluble and become a potential source of ground water pollution.
In addition, due to high coliform content, use of water for drinking purposes,
without appropriate treatment, would result in water-borne diseases, such as malaria,
typhoid, cholera & dysentery. Industrial waste water discharges, depending upon the
nature of industry, comprise wide-ranging variables. This includes organic matter;
ions like sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, carbonates and bicarbonates,
chloride; other inorganic variables, such as fluoride, silica, cyanide; metals like
cadmium, chromium, copper, mercury, lead, zinc, nickel, etc. The return-agriculture
flow characteristics include salinity, total dissolved solids, sodium adsorption ratio
(SAR), nitrates, phosphates and pesticides. The status of water quality of rivers of
Punjab is given in Table 14.

Sampling Stations
1. Satluj : Harike Reservoir,
2. Ghaggar: Confluence with Saraswati River,
3. Beas : Goindwal Sahib,
4. Ravi : Headworks at Madhopur.
Indiscriminate and unscientific irrigation has disturbed the equilibrium between
inflow and outflow of water in command areas of main beneficiary states leading to
excess salt concentration. The area affected by salinity in Punjab is about 490,000 ha
and in Haryana 197,200 ha. The over-irrigated command of the Indira Gandhi Canal
is also suffering from waterlogging and salinity. Misuse and quality degradation is
bound to affect the productivity of land and cause shortage of water.

Table 14. Status of Water Quality of rivers of Punjab

S. No. Parameter Satluj Ghaggar Beas Ravi


1 Temperature C 16 16 16 14
2 PH 7.7 7.6 7.8 7.8
3 Conductivity mho 378 424 342 202
4 Nitrogen NO2 + NO3  1.0 2.34 1.4 .04
5 DO (mg/l) 7.7 5.8 7.8 9.0
6 BOD (mg/l) 1.8 28.0 4.2 0.4
7 COD (mg/l) 6.4 57.6 14.4 1.6
8 Cl− mg/l 20 54.0 23.0 10
9 So4 14 30 16 8.0
10 Na 4.2 21.2 14.6 1.8
11 Fecal Coliform 170 500 500 0.0
12 Turbidity (NTU) 22 62 24 7.0
13 Total Coliform 500 9,000 5,000 7.0
14 TDS 340 396 302 194

Source: Punjab Pollution Control Board Report.

Indus Basin 511

Table 15. Details of Hydroelectric projects being given to private sector by Govt. of HP

Name of the Project District River Basin Tentative

installed
capacity

Part I: Projects for which P.F.R. is ready

Category-I
Chanju-I Chamba Chanju/Ravi 25 MW
Chanju-II Chamba Chanju/Ravi 25 MW
Category-II
Youngthang Khab Kinnaur Spiti Satluj 261 MW
Bara Bangahal Chamba Ravi 200 MW
Bajoli Holi Chamba Ravi 180 MW
Gondhala Lahaul & Spiti Chandra/Chenab 144 MW
Bardang Lahaul & Spiti Chenab 114 MW
Chhatru Lahaul & Spiti Chandra/Chenab 108 MW
Part II: Projects Identified
Category-I
Mane Nadang Lahaul & Spiti Spiti/Satluj 70 MW
Lara Lahaul & Spiti Spiti/Satluj 60 MW
Ropa Kinnaur Roopa/Satluj 60 MW
Kuling Lara Lahaul & Spiti Spiti/Satluj 40 MW
Bharai Bilaspur Bharai/Satluj 5.5 MW
Miyar Lahaul & Spiti Miyar/ Chenab 90 MW
Tinget Lahaul & Spiti Miyar/ Chenab 81 MW
Teling Lahaul & Spiti Chandra/Chenab 61 MW
Patam Lahaul & Spiti Miyar/ Chenab 60 MW
Rupin Shimla Rupin/Yamuna 39 MW
Category-II
Chango Youngthang Kinnaur Spiti/Satluj 140 MW
Symte Kothang Kinnaur Spiti/Satluj 130 MW
Lara Sumta Kinnaur Spiti/Satluj 104 MW
Reoli/Dugli Lahaul & Spiti Chenab 715 MW
Dugar Chamba Chenab 360 MW
Gyspa Lahaul & Spiti Bhaga/Chenab 240 MW
Sach-Khas Lahaul & Spiti Chenab 210 MW
Seli Lahaul & Spiti Chenab 150 MW
Tandi Lahaul & Spiti Chenab 150 MW
Rashil Lahaul & Spiti Chenab 150 MW

Efficient water management practices by reducing the water allowance and

irrigation frequency are necessary to check these problems. The water thus saved
can provide critical irrigation to more desert areas in Rajasthan. Despite optimum
development, the principles of easy access, fair use, justice and social equity have
not been adequately addressed in all adjoining states.
The govt. of Himachal Pradesh has decided to give the following Hydroelectric
Projects to the private sector for operation and has invited tenders for the same.
The details of these projects have been given in Table 15.
CHAPTER 11
NARMADA BASIN

Narmada, the largest west-flowing river of the Indian peninsula, is an important

river of India. This chapter describes the basin of this river.

11.1. THE NARMADA BASIN

The Narmada River, rises in the Amarkantak Plateau of Maikala range in the
Shahdol district of Madhya Pradesh at an elevation of 1,057 meters above mean
sea level at a latitude 22 40 north and a longitude of 81 45 east. The river travels
a distance of 1,312 km before it falls into Gulf of Cambay in the Arabian Sea near
Bharuch in Gujarat. The first 1,079 km of its run are in Madhya Pradesh. In the
next length of 35 km, the river forms the boundary between the States of Madhya
Pradesh and Maharashtra. Again, in the next length of 39 km, it forms the boundary
between Maharashtra and Gujarat. The last length of 159 km lies in Gujarat. The
index map of the basin is shown in Figure 1.
The Narmada basin extends over an area of 98,796 sq. km and lies between
longitudes 72 32 E to 81 45 E and latitudes 21 20 N to 23 45 N. The statewise
distribution of the drainage area is given in Table 1. The catchment area up to
Sardar Sarovar dam is 88,000 sq. km.
The basin is bounded on the north by the Vindhyas, on the east by the Maikala
range on the south by the Satpuras and on the west by the Arabian Sea. Most of the
basin is at an elevation of less than 500 meters above mean sea level. A small area
around Panchmarhi is at a height of more than 1,000 meters above mean sea level.
The Narmada River has a number of falls in its head reaches. At 8 km from its
source, the river drops 21 to 24 m at Kapildhara falls (see Figure 2). At 0.4 km
further downstream, it drops by about 4.6 m at the Dhuandhara falls (see Figure 3).
Its first major tributary, the Burhner joins the Narmada from the left at the 248th km
of its run. Flowing in a generally south-westerly direction in a narrow and deep
valley, the river takes several pin-head turns. At the 286th km from the source, it
turns northwards and hardly a km further downstream it receives the Banjar, another
major tributary from the left. Narmada flows past Mandla town in a number of
channels called Sahasradhara. Close to Jabalpur city, 404 km from the source, the
513
514 Chapter 11

Figure 1. Index map of the Narmada basin [Source: NCA (2000)]

river drops nearly 15 m at the picturesque Dhuandhara falls, after which it flows
through a narrow channel carved through the famous marble rocks of Bhedaghat.
Emerging from the marble rocks, the Narmada enters the upper fertile plains
and at the 464th km of its run receives the Hiran, a major right bank tributary.
Continuing to flow in a westerly direction through the upper plains the river receives
several tributaries, such as the Sher, Shakkar, Dudhi, Tawa, Ganjal from the left
and the Tendoni, Barna, Kolar from the right. Flowing further west, the river enters
the middle plains near Panghat in East Nimar district. At Mandhar, 806 km from
the source and at Dhardi, 47 km further downstream, the river drops over falls of
12 m at each place. At the 966th km from the source, nearly 6.4 km downstream
of Maheshwar, the Narmada again drops by about 6.7 m at the Sahastradhara falls.
During its journey through the middle plains, it receives the Chhota Tawa, the
Kundi from the left and the Man from the right.

Table 1. Statewise drainage area of Narmada basin

State Drainage Area (sq. km)

Madhya Pradesh 85,859

Maharashtra 1,538
Gujarat 11,399
Total 98,796
Narmada Basin 515

Figure 2. Kapildhara water fall on Narmada, about 8 km from its origin

Further west, after traversing through the middle plains, the river has two falls of
12 m each: at Nandhar (806 km from the source) and at Dhardi 47 km downstream
from Nandhar. At 966 km from source, nearly 6.4 km downstream of Maheshwar, the
Narmada again drops by about 6.7 m at the Sahasradhara falls. Flowing further west,
the river enters the lower hilly regions and flows through a gorge, receiving the Goi

Figure 3. Dhuandhara falls on Narmada River near Jabalpur city

516 Chapter 11

from the left and the Uri, the Hatni from the right. The 113 km long gorge is formed by
the converging of the Vindhyas from the north and the Satpuras from the south towards
the river. Emerging from the gorge, the river enters the lower plains and meanders in
broad curves till it reaches Broach. The Karjan from the left and the Orsang from the
right are the important tributaries joining the river in this reach. Beyond Broach, the
valley widens into an estuary. Finally, the river enters the Gulf of Cambay.
The Narmada is navigable in its lower reaches. The tidal influence is felt up to
48 km upstream from the mouth of the river in the Gulf of Cambay. Broach is an
important river port. Between the mouth of the Narmada and the city of Broach,
fairly large sized barges ply for the transport of goods. For another 32 km above
Broach, navigation is possible in the sandy reach. Beyond this point, on account
of rocky outcrops and rapids, navigation is not possible. The tributaries of the
Narmada are not navigable.

11.1.1. Population
On the basis of the 1991 census and the percentage of the area of each district
lying in the basin to the district as a whole, the total population in the basin was
about 16.733 million (Gupta 2001). The State-wise distribution is: Madhya Pradesh
12.820 million, Maharashtra 0.313 million, and Gujarat 3.600 million.
The important urban centers in the Narmada basin are Mandla, Jabalpur,
Hoshangabad, Khandwa and Khargone in Madhya Pradesh, and Bharauch in
Gujarat. There are 40 large and 70 medium scale industrial units operating besides
large number of small scale units in the basin. (NIH, 1999). Jabalpur is the most
populous city in the basin with a population exceeding two lakh. The average
density of population in the basin is 107 persons per sq. km against the figure of
182 for India as a whole. The districts of Raisen and Mandla are thinly populated
and have 66 persons per sq. km. Of the total population in the basin, nearly 81%
live in the rural areas and 19% live in urban areas.

11.2. MAJOR TRIBUTARIES AND SUB-BASINS

Narmada River has 41 tributaries. Of these, 22 are on the left bank and 19 on the
right. The important tributaries/sub-basins of the Narmada are described briefly in
what follows.

11.2.1. Barna River

The Barna rises in the Vindhya range in the Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh,
east of Barkhera village, at an elevation of 450 m. Barna rises at a north latitude
of 22 55 and an east longitude of 77 44 . It flows for a total length of 105 km in
a south-easterly direction to join the Narmada near the Dimaria village. Barna is a
right bank tributary of Narmada River. It drains a total area of 1,987 sq. km. The
distance of confluence with Narmada from the source is 605 km.
Narmada Basin 517

Ground elevation in the Barna sub-basin ranges from 300 m near the Bareli
gauging site to 630 m in the uppermost part of the basin. The hilly portion of
the basin is predominately covered by dense deciduous forest. The portion of the
catchment downstream to the Barna Dam site comes under its command.
The soils in the basin are medium to deep black cotton soils except in the hilly
region where skeleton soils have been reported. In the Barna sub-basin, four distinct
seasons occur during each year. They are: i) cold weather, ii) hot weather, iii)
south-west monsoon, and iv) post-monsoon. The cold weather season commences
in December and continues till the end of February. It is characterized by bright
cloudless days and clean nights and piercing winds. Frost is known to occur
occasionally. Hail too is not uncommon. There is a slight precipitation in the basin
during this season. The mean annual temperature in the cold weather varies from
175  C to 20  C. The hot weather starts in March and continues up to the middle
of June. May is usually the hottest month. This season is generally dry except for
occasional thunderstorms. The mean annual temperature during the hot weather
varies from 30  C to 325  C, with maximum temperature some times touching
48  C. The south-west monsoon sets in by the middle of June and withdraws by
the first week of October. June to September are the rainiest months. Nearly 90%
of the annual rainfall is received during the five monsoon months from June to
October. In the south-west monsoon, the temperature ranges 275  C to 30  C. In
the post-monsoon season temperature between 25  C to 275  C are experienced.
Average annual rainfall in the sub-basin is about 1,130 mm.
The Bareli gauging site is located at about 25 km downstream of the Barna dam and
has the catchment area of about 1,590 sq. km. Another gauging site, namely, Sultanpur
is located upstream of the dam and the catchment area up to the gauging site is about
414 sq. km. At this site, discharge is measured only during monsoon months as the river
is usually dry at other times. The flow at the Bareli gauging site mostly depends on the
discharge from the Barna dam during non-monsoon season. A small river, Ghoghar,
joins the Barna River at 8 km upstream from the gauging site.
Barna Dam was constructed across Barna River in Raisen District. A small tank,
namely Palakmati tank is situated in the catchment which intercepts runoff of an
area of 85.47 sq km.

11.2.2. Ganjal River

The Ganjal rises in the Satpura range in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh,
north of Bhimpur village at an elevation of 800 m at a north latitude of 22 0 and
an east longitude of 77 30 . The Ganjal River flows for 89 km in a north-westerly
direction to join the Narmada near Chhipaner village. Ganjal sub-basin lies between
the latitudes 21 58 N to 22 25 N and longitudes 77 17 E to 77 45 E and covers an
area of 1 930 km2 . The entire sub-basin forms part of two districts, Hoshangabad
and Betul. The Morand River, a tributary of the Ganjal River joins it just upstream
of Chhidgaon and has a length of about 121 km.
518 Chapter 11

Topographically, the Ganjal sub-basin can be divided into three distinct zones:
(i) low land, (ii) slopes, and (iii) upland. The part of the sub-basin having elevation
less than 400 m above mean sea level can be considered as low land. Hill slopes are
characterized by elevation ranging from 400 m to 550 m and the part of sub-basin
having elevation more than 550 m can be regarded as upland. About 63% area of
the sub-basin is covered by dense forest, 12% by agriculture, 19% by waste land
and 6% by open forest. In the down stream areas, agricultural activity is carried
out. Upstream of this agricultural zone, vast open forest exists. Apart from this,
most of the basin is covered by dense forest and waste land.
There are three main types of soils in the sub-basin, viz. medium black, laterite
and shallow black. Shallow black soil lies in the lower reach and the upstream area
of the basin. Most of the sub-basin is covered by medium black soil.

11.2.3. Chhota Tawa River

The Chhota Tawa River, a left bank tributary of Narmada River rises in the Satpura
range in the west Nimar District of Madhya Pradesh near Kakora village at north
latitude 21 31 and east longitude 75 50 . It flows for a total length of 169 km in
a north eastern direction to join the Narmada River at its 829 km run from source,
north of Purni village. Basin of Chhota Tawa lies between east longitudes 85 50
to 77 11 E and north latitude 21 27 to 22 11 N. The Chhota Tawa is next in size
to the Tawa among the left bank tributaries and drains a total area of 5,051 sq. km.
The southern border of the basin is the water divide line of Satpura mountain
range. The basin gradually slopes down in the north-north-east direction. A river
gauging site has been set-up at Ginnore where the catchment area is 4,816 sq km
and he elevation of the gauging station is 218 m. Average slope of the river
is 1:400.
The basin has two types of soil. In the main part of the basin covering central and
lower reaches, soil is of medium black variety. Texture of the soil is silty clay loam
and soil depth varies from 50 to 100 cm. Soil of the upper reach of the catchment
is shallow black variety. Texture of the soil is clay loam and soil depth varies from
25 to 50 cm.
Upper and some part of the central region are under forest cover amounting to
about 32% of the basin area. About 60% area is culturable and remaining part is
under shrub, suitable for grazing. Good quality teak wood grows in upper reaches
of the basin. Main crops under agriculture in the basin are wheat, pulses (mainly
Arhar), linseed, sesame and rice. Wheat is the most important crop in the basin.
Large quantity of cotton is also grown in the basin. Groundnut is another cash crop
that grows in the basin.
Climate of the basin is humid and tropical. Average annual rainfall of Jamtara
and Chhota Tawa sub-basins are 1,480 mm and 855 mm respectively. South-west
monsoon from June to September accounts for 86% and 88% of the average annual
rainfall respectively for Jamtara and Chhota Tawa sub-basins. July and August are
Narmada Basin 519

Table 2. Maximum and minimum temperatures at Khandwa and Punasa towns

Station Jan.–Mar Apr.–June July.–Sept. Oct.–Dec.

Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min.

Khandwa 38.0 11.8 41.5 24.3 30.5 22.6 31.3 11.1

Punasa 38.8 11.9 42.9 24.2 31.1 22.9 33.1 12.0

the two rainiest months. The maximum and the minimum temperatures at Khandwa
and Punasa towns in the four quarters of the year are given in Table 2.

11.2.4. Hiran River

Hiran River rises in the Bhanrer range in the Jabalpur district of Madhya Pradesh
near the Kundam village at an elevation of 600 m. Geographical coordinates of its
origination are at a north latitude of 23 12 and an east longitude of 80 27 . The river
flows in a generally south-westerly direction for a total length of 188 km to join the
Narmada from the right near Sankal village. Hiran has the distinction of being the
biggest right bank tributary of the Narmada and drains a total area of 4,792 sq. km.
The sub-basin covers part of areas of Jabalpur and Damoh Districts of M.P.
Hiran sub-basin has a flat topography and higher drainage density. The
topographic elevations vary from about 600 m above sea level to about 320 m above
mean sea level. About 57% of the area is under agriculture and the dense forests
occupy nearly 36% of the total area of the basin. About 80% of the agriculture is
practiced on low land area, the elevation of which is less than 400 m above mean
sea level. However, on the hill slope, some agriculture is also practiced. Nearly
5% of the total basin area is wasteland and eroded forests which exist at higher
elevations. Among the major crops sown are wheat and paddy. Paddy is grown
during monsoon season and wheat during winter.
Low hills with medium forest cover are found near the source area at Kundam;
areas in the valley have a mixed cover of fields and open forests. Central region near
Sihora is dominated by flat land where agriculture is carried out. The lower part
of the basin is generally flat, fertile farm land. Black cotton soils are extensively
found in the basin and they occur in different depths in different region. The low
land area (elevation 400 m) is mainly deep black cotton soil on which agriculture is
practiced. Most of the forests lie on red sandy soil which exists at higher elevations.
However, a part of the forests exist on shallow black cotton soils and red loamy
soils. The depth of the soil varies from 0.5 m to as much as 12.0 m. The black
cotton soil in low land is very deep, but on hill slope the depth of black cotton soil
is much less. Typically, the water table varies between 4 m to 10 m. The water table
depth varies on an average from 5.5 m in May/June to 3.5 m in Nov./Dec. Draw
down of 0.26 m to 8.2 m have also been observed seasonally.
At the outlet, the river is gauged at Patan road bridge. A small tank, known
as the Bahoribund tank was built in 1923 in this sub-basin. Its storage capacity
520 Chapter 11

has been reduced to a large extent by siltation. The catchment of the tank is
about 109 sq. km.

11.2.5. Jamtara Sub-Basin

Jamtara sub basin is a part of Narmada River containing 399 km of the main
Narmada River from its source up to the discharge measuring site Jamtara. In this
part, elevation ranges from 1,100 m in the upper part of the basin to 450 m near
the Manot gauging site and 360 m at Jamtara. The sub-basin falls in the upper hilly
zones of Narmada basin. The catchment area of the basin up to Jamtara discharge
site is 16,575 sq. km. Jamtara sub-basin basin lies between east longitudes 79 45
to 81 45 E and north latitude 21 20 to 23 45 N.
From the source of the river to a distance of 269 km lies the Manot gauging site
where catchment area is 4 980 km2 . Here, Narmada flows in a generally northwesterly
direction but just upstream of Manot, it turns in a loop to the south. Narmada has a
number of falls in its head reaches. Two major tributaries, Burhner and Banjar, join
Narmada from left at 248 km and 287 km near Manot and Mandla respectively.
Topographically, the basin can be divided into three distinct levels: low land
areas, hill slopes or semi-hilly areas, and upland or hilly areas. The upper reaches of
Jamtara sub-basin are well-forested and are covered with good quality Sal and Teak
woods; North, east, central part of the basin is mainly covered with Sal wood forest
whereas Southern and Western part is covered with Teak woods. Occasionally,
dense forest cover in seen in upper reaches and flat farmland is more evident in
the lower reaches. Flat agricultural areas containing bunded fields are interrupted
by low hills with a medium to dense forest cover.
The soil of Jamtara basin is loamy clay, in general with about 60% area having
red and yellow variety, about 25% area having deep black variety and rest portion
having medium black variety. At the end of the dry season, deep cracks are seen
in the soil which permit rapid infiltration of the early monsoon rains, thereby
inhibiting runoff. In the upland forest areas, surface runoff may be generated at
earlier stage in monsoon season because of shallower soils. The runoff may also be
more concentrated in small channels, whereas in the flat low land areas, sheet flow
may be more prevalent.
The climate of the basin is humid and tropical, although extremes of heat and
cold are often encountered at places. The maximum and the minimum temperatures
of Mandla and Jabalpur Town in four quarters are given in Table 3.

Table 3. Maximum and Minimum temperature in Jamtara Sub-basin

Station Jan.–Mar. Apr.–June July–Sept. Oct.–Dec.

Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min.

Mandla 34.9 9.0 40.2 19.6 29.1 21.7 29.4 6.8

Jabalpur 36.2 10.1 42.1 21.0 30.6 23.1 30.5 7.7
Narmada Basin 521

11.2.6. Kolar River

The Kolar rises in the Vindhyachal range in the Sehore district of Madhya Pradesh
near Bilqisganj village at an elevation of 550 m at a north latitude of 23 7 and an
east longitude of 77 17 . It flows for a total length of 101 km in a south-westerly
direction to join the Narmada from the right, south of Nasrullahganj. During its
course, Kolar drains a total area of 1,347 sq. km. The Kolar sub-basin is located in
the latitude range of 22 40 to 23 08 and longitude 77 01 to 77 29 in two districts,
Sehore and Raisen.
Topographically, the Kolar basin can be divided into two distinct zones. The upper
four-fifth part having elevations ranging from 600 m to 350 m is predominantly
covered by deciduous forest (dense and open). The boundaries of catchment are
mild sloped at the northern and of the basin. The river debauches to plains from
this area upstream of Jholiapur through ramp shaped southward sloping topography.
The soils are skeleton to shallow in depth except near channels where they are
relatively deep. The rock outcrops are easily visible at many places. In this area,
the rocks are weathered and deep fissures can be seen. The channel beds are rocky
or graveled. The thin soils get saturated even during low intensity rains and water
moves through the fissures rapidly. Agricultural activity is carried out in relatively
large areas in the north western part (adjacent to Ichhawar) and in small pockets
elsewhere in which the main crops are wheat and grams.
The lower part of the basin consisting of flat-bottomed valley narrowing towards
the outlet and having elevations ranging from about 350 m to 300 m is predominantly
cultivable area. The soils are deep in the area and have flat slopes. The places where
agricultural activity is carried out have bunded fields in which water is impounded
during the monsoon period. Part of this area comes under the command of Kolar Dam.
This dam has been constructed near Lawakheri to provide drinking water to Bhopal
and for irrigation. Downstream of the dam, a barrage has been built at Jholiapur.

11.2.7. Orsang River

The Orsang rises in the Vindhya range of the Jhabua district of Madhya Pradesh,
near the Bhabra village at an elevation of 300 m, at a north latitude of 22 30 and an
east longitude of 74 18 and flows for a total length of 101 km in a south-westerly
direction to join the Narmada from the right, near Chandod. It drains a total area
of 4,079 sq km and is next in size to the Hiran amongst the right bank tributaries.

11.2.8. Sher River

The Sher rises in the Satpura range near Patan in the Seoni district of Madhya
Pradesh at an elevation of 600 m at a north latitude of 22 31 and an east longitude
of 79 25 . Sher flows in a north-westerly direction for a total length of 129 km.
It meets Narmada from the left near Brahmand. The Sher drains a total area of
2,901 sq. km.
522 Chapter 11

Sher sub-basin lies in the districts of Narsimhpur, Chindwara and Seoni in

Madhya Pradesh. It is identified with hilly terrain, heavily intersected by streams
and rivers. The third and higher order streams in the catchment are ephemeral. The
vegetation of the basin consists of forest of medium density, scrubland, pockets of
cultivation on undulating land and some denuded land. The average annual rainfall
at two rainfall stations of the sub-basin, namely, Narsimhpur, and Lakhandan is
reported as 1,241 and 1,269 mm, respectively.

11.2.9. Tawa River

The Tawa, the biggest left bank tributary of Narmada, rises in the Mahadeo hills of
the Satpura range in the Chhindwara district of Madhya Pradesh near the Cherkathari
village at an elevation of 900 m. Its origin is at a north latitude of 22 13 and an east
longitude of 78 23 . Taw River flows in a generally north-westerly direction for a
total length of 172 km to join the Narmada from the left, north-east of Hoshangabad.
The Denwa is its important tributary. The Tawa drains a total area of 6,333 sq. km.
A dam, namely Tawa dam, has been constructed in this catchment.

11.2.10. Other Tributaries

Salient features of the other tributaries of Narmada are given in Table 4.

11.3. CLIMATE IN NARMADA BASIN

The climate of the basin is humid tropical ranging from sub-humid in the east to
semi-arid in the west with pockets of humid or per humid climates around higher
hill reaches.
IMD is maintaining class 1 observatories at 18 locations in and around Narmada
basin where the observations of dew point, temperature are made twice a day at
08:30 IST and 17:30 IST. The list of observatories along with their date of starting
is shown in Table 5.
The Tropic of Cancer crosses the Narmada basin in the upper plains area and a
major part of the basin lies just below this line. The climate of the basin is humid
and tropical, although at places extremes of heat and cold are often encountered. In
a year, four distinct seasons occur in the basin. They are: (i) cold weather, (ii) hot
weather, (iii) south-west monsoon and (iv) post-monsoon.
Cold weather Season: The cold weather season, which commences in December
and continues till the end of February, is characterized by bright cloudless days and
clean nights and piercing winds. Frost is known to occur occasionally; hail too is
not uncommon. There is slight precipitation in the basin during the season.
Hot weather Season: The hot weather starts in March and continues up to the middle
of June. May is usually the hottest month. This season is generally dry except for
occasional thunder-storms.
Narmada Basin 523

Table 4. Details of selected tributaries of Narmada

Name Bank on Length (km) Catchment Details of origin Place of joining

which area Narmada and
joins km2  distance of this
Narmada place from
source of
Narmada (km)

Banjar Left 184 3 626 Rises in the Satpura range, near Near Mandla,
Rampur village, Durg district, 287
Chhattisgarh, elevation 600 m,
latitude 21 42 N, longitude
80 50 E.
Burhner Left 177 4 118 Rises in the Maikala range, Near Manot,
south-east of the Gwara village, 248
Mandla district, MP, elevation
900 m, latitude 22 32 N,
longitude 81 22 E
Dudhi Left 129 1 541 Rises in the Mahadeo hills of North-west of
the Satpura range, west of the Nibhora, 575
Chhindi village, Chhindwara
district, MP, elevation 900 m,
latitude 22 23 N, longitude
78 45 E
Goi Left 129 1 891 Rises in the Satpura range, near West of
village Dhavdi, West Nimar Barwani
district, MP, elevation 600 m, village, 1,038
latitude 21 40 N, longitude
75 23 E
Hatni Right 80 1 942 Rises in the Vindhya range in Near Kakrana,
the Jhabua district of Madhya 1,075
Pradesh, east of Kanas at an
elevation of 450 m at a north
latitude of 22 32 and an east
longitude of 74 40 and flows
for a total length of 81 km in a
southerly direction to join the
Narmada from the right
Karjan Left 93 1 489 Rises in the Satpura range, East of Sinor
Surat dist., south of Nana village, 1,199
village, elev. 300 m, latitude
21 23 N, longitude of 73 35 E
Kundi Left 121 3 820 Rises in the Satpura range in Near
West Nimar dist., MP, near Mandleshwar
Tinshemali village at an elev. 943
600 m, latitude 21 25 N,
longitude of 75 45 E
Man Right 89 1 528 Rises in the Vindhya range in North of the
the Dhar dist. MP, near Dhar Talwara Deb
town at elev. 500 m, latitude village, 992
22 33 N, longitude of 75 18 E

(Continued)
524 Chapter 11

Table 4. (Continued)

Name Bank on Length (km) Catchment Details of origin Place of joining

which area Narmada and
joins km2  distance of this
Narmada place from
source of
Narmada (km)

Shakkar Left 161 2,292 Rises in the Satpura range, east north-west of
of the Chhindi village, Paloha, 546
Chhindwara district, MP,
elevation 600 m, latitude
22 23 N longitude 78 52 E
Tendoni Right 118 1,632 Rises in Vindhya range, Raisen Near Bhatgaon
dist. MP, east of Sodarpur village, 602
village, elev. 600 m, latitude
23 22 N, longitude 78 33 E
Uri Right 74 1,813 Rises in Vindhya range, Jhabua Near Nisarpur,
dist. MP, near Kalmore, elev. 1,029
450 m, latitude 22 36 N,
longitude of 74 47 E

Source: NIH (1999).

South-West Monsoon: The south-west monsoon sets in by the middle of June and
withdraws by the first week of October. Months from June to September are the
rainiest months. During this season, the weather is somewhat sultry and oppressive,
especially in areas adjoining the Narmada River.
Post-Monsoon Season: In the post-monsoon season, a few thunderstorms occur,
especially in October. Thereafter, the weather clears up and dry pleasant weather
prevails throughout the valley.

11.3.1. Rainfall in Narmada Basin

According to the records maintained by the India Meteorological Department, there

were ten rain-gauges in 1867 in the entire Narmada basin. The number rose to
21 rain-gauges in the year 1891, the year from which published rainfall data are
available. Thereafter, there has been a steady growth of the rain-gauge network
in the basin. The number of raingauge stations in the basin was 205 in 1980. Of
these, nearly 120 raingauge stations have data for more than 40 years. About 50
self-recording raingauge stations (SRRG) are maintained by IMD or other agencies
like the flood forecasting division of CWC, state irrigation departments, etc.
The normal annual rainfall for the basin works out to 1,178 mm. South-west
monsoon (June to October) is the principal rainy season accounting for nearly 94%
of the annual rainfall. About 60% of the annual rainfall is received during July and
August months. Table 6 shows the monthly distribution of normal annual rainfall
in the basin. The rainfall is heavy in the upper hilly and upper plains areas of the
Narmada Basin 525

Table 5. List of Observatories in and around Narmada Basin

District Observatory Lat. Long. Elevation Date of

(m) Starting

Bilaspur Pendra Road 22 46 81 54 625 23.6.1903

Balaghat Malajkharid 22 00 80 42 581 01.7.1978
Jabalpur Jabalpur 23 12 79 57 393 01.1.1869
Shahdol Umaria 23 32 80 53 459 24.4.1931
Mandla Mandla 22 35 80 22 443 15.6.1950
Seoni Seoni 22 05 79 33 619 01.1.1870
Narsimhapur Narsimhapur 22 57 79 11 356 10.2.1962
Chindwara Chindwara 22 06 79 00 685 01.6.1908
Hoshangabad Hoshangabad 22 46 77 46 302 01.1.1870
Hoshangabad Pachmarhi 22 25 78 26 1,075 01.5.1870
Sehore Bairagarh (Bhopal) 23 17 77 21 523 09.7.1927
Raisen Raisen 23 19 77 50 440 13.6.1970
Betul Betul 21 52 77 56 653 15.9.1948
Devas Kannod 22 40 76 44 353 17.3.1969
Nimar Khandwa 21 50 76 22 318 01.1.1877
Khargone Khargone 21 49 75 37 251 27.9.1969
Indore Indore 22 43 75 48 567 25.2.1877
Dhar Dhar 22 36 75 18 583 18.2.1973
Jhabua Alirajpur 22 17 74 24 293 01.7.1955
Broach Broach 21 42 73 00 17 25.2.1969
Surat Surat 21 12 72 50 12 29.1.1947
Dhulia Nandurbar 21 20 74 15 206 11.7.1949
Jalgaon Jalgaon 21 03 75 34 201 01.9.1936

Source: NIH (1999).

basin. It gradually decreases towards the lower plains and the lower hilly areas
and again increases towards the coast and southwestern portions of the basin. The
annual rainfall in the upper part of the catchment is more than 1,400 mm and in
some pockets it exceeds 1,650 mm. From the source to Sardar Sarovar dam, the
coefficient of variation varies from 19% to 37%.

Table 6. Monthly distribution of normal annual rainfall

Month Rainfall (mm) Percent of annual rainfall

June 152.4 13
July 392.4 33
August 314.8 27
September 199.7 17
October 40.6 34
Non-monsoon months 78.1 66
Total 1,178.0 1000
526 Chapter 11

Table 7. Seasonal normals of rainfall (cm) for Narmada basin

Jan–Feb Mar–May Jun–Sep Oct–Dec

Rainfall No. of Rainfall No. of Rainfall No. of Rainfall No. of
(cm) rainy (cm) rainy (cm) rainy (cm) rainy
days days days days

2.9 1 2.7 5 110.8 36 6.7 8

Source: Rakhecha & Soman (1992).

The seasonal normal rainfall for Narmada basin is given in Table 7. The monthly
normal of rainfall in two adjoining/in-basin cities is shown in Table 8.

11.3.2. Temperature

In cold weather, the mean annual temperature varies from 175  C to 20  C and
in hot weather from 30  C to 325  C. In the south-west monsoon, the temperature
ranges from 275  C to 30  C. In the post-monsoon season, temperatures range from
25  C to 275  C. The maximum and minimum temperatures for a few representative
towns in the Narmada basin are given in Table 9, which clearly indicate the extent
of variations:

11.3.3. Evaporation

Little data on evaporation is available in the basin. There are a few agro-
meteorological observatories located in the basin. The potential evaporation depths
for Kolar sub-basin in the basin are given in Table 10.

11.3.4. Real-Time Data Acquisition System

A Real-time Data Acquisition System (RTDAS) has been planned by the Narmada
Control Authority (NCA) for the Narmada basin. This system consists of 96 remote
stations which will be linked with a master control centre for acquisitions of hydro-
meteorological data in real-time. The data obtained through this system will be used,
among other things, for reservoir regulation. A master control centre will be set-up
at Indore at the headquarters of NCA. Data communication will be based on Indian
communication satellite from INSAT series (METSAT). Category wise, these will
be five project stations, six key gauge and discharge stations, seven gauge and

Table 8. Average monthly rainfall for selected stations in Narmada basin

City Elevation Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Bhopal 501 m 60 40 90 60 145 1735 5010 2780 2650 420 260 50
Indore 564 m 60 40 20 30 130 1470 2820 2070 1640 310 155 70
Narmada Basin 527

Table 9. Maximum and Minimum Temperature for a few cities in/near Narmada Basin

City Elevation Max/ Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Min

Ahmedabad 56 m Max 287 310 357 397 407 380 332 318 331 356 330 296
Min 119 145 186 230 263 274 257 246 242 212 161 126
Bhopal 501 m Max 257 285 336 378 407 369 299 286 301 313 285 261
Min 104 125 171 212 264 254 232 225 219 180 133 106

Source: IMD (1972).

Table 10. Monthly potential evaporation for Kolar sub-basin in Narmada Basin

Month Evaporation depth (m) Month Evaporation depth (m)

January 0.125 July 0.256

February 0.14 August 0.137
March 0.175 September 0.167
April 0.278 October 0.146
May 0.45 November 0.128
June 0.306 December 0.093

Source: NIH (96-97a).

discharge stations, and eight meteorological stations. The parameters that will be
measured include rainfall, wind speed and direction, ambient temperature, relative
humidity, water level, solar radiations, and evaporation.
The initial phase comprises of 26 remote stations (8 meteorological stations,
13 gauge and discharge sites, and 5 project stations). The RTDAS network is an
interactive data communication system under star configuration (Srivastava and
Sinha, 2003).

11.4. SOILS AND LAND USE

Reconnaissance soil surveys made in connection with the Bargi, Sardar Sarovar,
Barna and Tawa projects indicated that the Narmada basin consists mainly
of black soils. The different varieties are deep black soil, medium black soil and
shallow black soil. In addition mixed red and black soil, red and yellow soil and
skeletal soil are also observed in pockets. Of these deep black soil covers the major
portion of the basin.

11.4.1. Forests and Agriculture

In the basin, forests occupy nearly 31,670 sq. km which is 32.1% of the total area and
the cultivable area is about 59,000 sq. km which is about 60% of the total area. Out
of the total culturable area, nearly 4.49 M-ha are annually cultivated. About 4.5% of
the cultivated area is irrigated annually. Wheat is the most important irrigated crop
528 Chapter 11

in the basin covering nearly 28.1% of the total irrigated area. Wherever irrigation
facilities exist, perennial and eight-monthly crops are cultivated. Cultivation is
by a system of rotation of crops and the major crop seasons are the Kharif and
the Rabi.

11.4.2. Land Use and Agricultural Practices

The culturable area in the basin is about 3.02% of the total culturable area of India.
The total cropped area in the basin forms 2.92% of the total cropped area in the
country. The area under irrigated crops is about 4.47% of the cropped area in the
basin. The state-wise general pattern is as under.
Land Use in Madhya Pradesh: Of the gross irrigated area of nearly 132,400 hectares,
31.4% is under rice, 36.5% under wheat, 5.2% under sugarcane, 4.4% under gram,
0.8% under cotton and the rest under other crops. The other irrigated crops are
jowar, bajra, maize, barley, pulses, fruits, vegetables, linseed, rape, mustard, tobacco
and fodder crops. Food and non-food crops cover about 98.3% and 1.7% of the
irrigated cropped area, respectively.
Land-use in Maharashtra: Of the gross irrigated area of 7,900 hectares, 51.9% is
under wheat, 6.3% under rice, 2.5% under sugarcane, 5.1% under cotton, 1.3%
under grain and the rest under other crops. The other irrigated crops are jowar,
bajra, maize, pulses, condiments, spices, groundnut, sesamum, tobacco and fodder
crops. Food and non-food crops cover about 88.6% and 11.4% of the irrigated
cropped area, respectively.
Land-use in Gujarat: Of the gross irrigated area of 73,200 hectares, 49.8% is under
cotton, 11.3% under rice, 10.7% under wheat, 0.4% under sugarcane and the rest
under other crops. The other irrigated crops are jowar, bajra, maize, barley, condi-
ments, spices, rape, mustard, fruits, vegetables, tobacco, and fodder crops. Food
and non-food crops cover about 37.8% and 62.2% of the irrigated area respectively.
To sum up, of the total irrigated area in the basin, nearly 23.6% is under rice,
28.1% under wheat, 17.7% under cotton, 3.5% under sugarcane, 2.8% under gram
and the rest under other miscellaneous crops. Food and non-food crops cover about
77.2% and 22.8% of the irrigated area respectively. Table 11 summarizes land use
details in Narmada basin.

11.5. WATER RESOURCES OF NARMADA BASIN

We first discuss the stream gauging network in Narmada basin.

11.5.1. Stream Gauging Network

Systematic observations of gauge and discharge were started in Narmada basin only
in 1947 by the then Central Waterways, Irrigation and Navigation Commission.
The main river Narmada is now gauged at nine sites at Manot, Mandla, Jamtara,
Narmada Basin 529

Table 11. Land-use details in the Narmada Basin (area in km2 

Item State

Madhya Maharashtra Gujarat Total

Pradesh

Gross area 85,859 1 538 11 399 98,796

Area under forests 29,370 690 1 610 31,670
Cultivable area 49,840 800 8 370 59,010
Net sown area 36,810 800 7 380 44,990
Area sown more than once 2,410 70 150 2,630
Total cropped area 39,220 870 80 40,170

Bermanghat, Hoshangabad, Mortakka, Mandleshwar, Barwani, and Garudeshwar,

where daily gauge and discharge observations and hourly gauge observations during
monsoon season (June-Oct.) are made. Only a few principal tributaries in the
Narmada are gauged. In addition to the CWC sites, state governments have also
established sites to measure streamflows.
Like the peninsular rivers of India, the Narmada rises in the latter half of June and
the flow reaches its maximum in the months of August and September. Thereafter,
it begins to fall in October and reaches its lowest level just before the monsoon.
A quick glance of observed data shows that a maximum flow of 39,644 cumec was
recorded at Garudeshwar on the 17th of September, 1950 and a minimum of 10.3
cumec on the 10th June 1952.
Some details of the cross-section of Narmada River at selected gauging sites are
given in Table 12.
Rating curves were developed at several gauging sites of Narmada using the
procedure described in Chapter 5. A power equation was fit as flows:

Q = aH − cb (1)

Where, Q is discharge in m3 /s and H is river stage in m.

Table 12. Some details of the cross section of Narmada River at selected gauging sites

Name of the Zero of gauge Width (m) Channel slope Area m2  at
gauging site (m) 15 m depth

Manot 442 170 000125 2 592

Jamtara 360 280 000033 3 715
Bermanghat 306 320 000038 3 140
Hoshangabad 282 700 000023 8 831
Mortakka 150 670 000053 6 291
Mandleshwar 138 600 000046 10 064
Garudeshwar 12 500 00001 6 682

Source: NIH (1999).

530 Chapter 11

Table 13. The parameters defining rating curves for various sites

Name of the Parameters Datum (m)

gauging site
a b c

Manot 99467 1769 050 86

Jamtara 85046 1795 230 360
Bermanghat 98428 173 400 306
Hoshangabad 173183 1858 190 282
Mortakka 60509 154 260 150
Mandleshwar 331209 1715 090 138
Garudeshwar 25000 166 170 12

Source: NIH (1999).

The parameters for the rating curve at some gauging sites are given in Table 13.
A stream Network model for Narmada basin is presented in Figure 4.

11.5.2. Surface Water

The surface water potential of the Narmada river system has been assessed at
different times by different authorities. In 1949 when the basinwise water resources
of the country were assessed on the basis of Khosla’s formula, the annual runoff of
the Narmada river system was estimated to be 49,241 MCM.
In 1960, the total annual runoff of the Narmada river system was assessed as
40,088 MCM. In 1965, the Narmada Water Resources Development Committee, set
up by the Government of India, reported the total annual runoff of the Narmada
River system at Garudeshwar site as 44,331 MCM. Table 14 summarizes the annual
observed runoff in selected tributaries of Narmada.
The 75% dependable flow in the basin has been assessed at 34,537 MCM or
28 MAF by the Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal. On this basis, the shares of
the four party States in this quantity were fixed as: M.P. 18.25 MAF (22,511.01
MCM), Gujarat 9 MAF (11,101.32 MCM), Rajasthan 0.5 MAF (616.74 MCM) and
Maharashtra 0.25 MAF (308.37 MCM). The runoff factor for the 75% dependable
flow worked out to be 0.29.

11.5.3. Ground Water

Six major aquifers are found in the basin. Among these, the Archaeans are found
in many districts: Balaghat, Seoni, Chhindwara, Betul, Dewas, and Jhabua. The
Chhattisgarh aquifer system is found in some parts of the Durg district. The
Vindhyans systems are extensively found in the basin and are found in Khargone,
Khandwa, Dewas, Raisen, Sagar and Damoh districts. Another major geologic
feature, the Gondwanas partly cover Shahdol, Jabalpur, Chhindwara, Betul and
Hoshangabad districts. Deccan traps cover a very extensive area in the form of
Narmada Basin 531

Figure 4. Stream Network of Narmada basin (Source: NIH 1999)

532 Chapter 11

Table 14. Annual average observed runoff at selected CWC sites in

Narmada basin

Name of the site Name of the Catchment Annual average

stream area km2  runoff (BCM)

Garudeshwar Narmada 87,892 35.4

Rajghat Narmada 77,674 31.3
Mandleshwar Narmada 72,809 32.7
Handia Narmada 54,027 26.1
Hoshangabad Narmada 44,548 22.6
Sandia Narmada 33,954 17.1
Barmanghat Narmada 26,453 13.0
Jamtara Narmada 17,157 10.1
Bijora Narmada 14,561 7.5
Mortakka Narmada 67,184 24.7

basaltic flows, together with inter-trappean beds. They cover major parts of Mandla,
Seoni, Chhindwara, Khandwa, Khargone, Dhar, Indore, Dewas and Sehore districts
and small parts of Shahdol, Betul, Jhabua and Raisen districts. The quaternary
deposits cover the river alluvia of Narmada, comprising parts of Hoshangabad,
Sehore, Raisen, Narasimhapur and Jabalpur districts and shallow alluvial beds in
the district of Damoh. These alluvial deposits comprise alternating beds of sands
and clays along with soil cap and lateritic cover of local significance. These deposits
are of great significance for their ground water potential.
The upper region of the Narmada basin covering parts of Sehore, Hoshangabad,
Raisen, Narasimhapur and Jabalpur districts has vast stretches of alluvial areas.
Here, the thickness of the alluvial materials varies from a few cm over 550 m. Most
commonly, clays, sands and gravel and occasionally pebbles and boulders are found
deposited over Vindhyans or Archaeans. The alluvial materials, particularly sands
and gravels are the most important horizons for ground water development. Under
exploratory and production well programmes, about 120 deep bore wells were drilled
in the alluvial areas. Ground water occurs in the alluvial materials under both water
table and confined conditions. The water table is generally deep in areas adjacent to
the foot of the Vindhyas and the Satpuras and also towards the Narmada and its tribu-
taries. Perched water table conditions are noticed at certain places with occurrences
of clay beds at shallower depths. Ground water occurring under confined conditions
is tapped by dug-cum-bore wells and by shallow or deep tubewells. Recharge to the
water table and also the confined aquifers of the alluvium, takes place mainly by direct
precipitation. Considering the confined nature of the valley, the annual rainfall and
the drainage pattern, the quantum of recharge to the water table and confined aquifers
should be very high. Incipient seepage from rivulets and major streams draining the
recharge areas also form a significant source of recharge to ground water. The quality of
ground water both is generally suitable for irrigation. In the following areas, promising
aquifers have been proven after investigations by various agencies:
Narmada Basin 533

(i) The Padghal area located to the south of the Narmada, in Hoshangabad district,
covering 100 sq. km.
(ii) The Powerkheda-Ari-Babai area located to the south of the Narmada, in
Hoshangabad district, covering 650 sq. km.
(iii) The Khapuria Kalan-Tonga area in Raisen district, lying north of the Narmada,
covering about 600 sq. km.
(iv) The Mahuakhera-Godarwara area in Hoshangabad and Narasimhapur districts,
south of the Narmada, covering about 2,000 sq. km.
(v) The Dhobi-Kasikheri area in Narasimhapur district, north of the Narmada,
covering 120 sq. km.
(vi) The Shahpura-Bhedaghat area in Jabalpur district, north of the Narmada,
covering 400 sq. km.
Systematic ground water studies in the basin have been intensified recently for
obtaining precise data on the seasonal fluctuation of the water table, estimate of aquifers
and their parameters, the chemical quality of ground water and recharge-discharge
relationship, etc. Under this programme, the drilling of observation wells and setting
up permanent hydrographic stations are being undertaken. The trends of groundwater
table in the Dhar and Jhabua districts in Narmada basin are presented in Figure 5.
The fertile Narmada valley has tremendous potential in ground water of excellent
quality and there is great scope for the development and utilization of this water
for a variety of purposes.

Figure 5. Ground water level fluctuation for pre- and post-monsoon seasons (NIH, 1999)
534 Chapter 11

11.5.4. Hydroelectric Power

The hydroelectric power potential of the basin has been assessed as 2,027 MW at
60% load factor. The details about major hydropower and other projects in the basin
are given in a later section. There are thermal stations at Jabalpur and Satpura.

11.6. WATER QUALITY

Table 15 gives existing and desired water quality class at many places in the basin
at different times. It can be seen that as compared to the other rivers, the quality
of Narmada water is quite good. Of concern is the fact that even near the point of
origin, the quality of river water was in class ‘C’ in the year 2001 while it was in
class ‘B’ in earlier years. As was observed for most other rivers, in case of Narmada
also, BOD and Total Coliform are critical parameters.

11.7. MODELING STUDIES

Six sub basins of Narmada River were chosen for simulation of hydrologic response
using the SHE model. These sub basins include Kolar, Barna, Sher, Ganjal, Hiran
and Narmada up to Manot. The Systeme Hydrologique Euoropeen (European
Hydrological System) or SHE is an advanced, physically based, distributed
catchment modelling system. The system has developed by Danish Hydraulic
Institute, the British Institute of Hydrology, UK and SOGREAH (France) with
the financial support of the commission of the European Communities. A detailed
description of the model and the results for the sub-basins of Narmada was given
by Refsgaard et al. (1992). Jain (1990) and Jain et al. (1992) have described the
detailed results for the Kolar sub-basin. Lohani et al. (1992) have described the
results of irrigation command studies completed for Narmada basin.
While applying the SHE model, detailed field investigations for Kolar basin were
made to find the soil properties. The results obtain for land use for Kolar basin due
to field investigations in respect of land use and soil depth are given in Table 16.
The samples from the Kolar sub-basin were collected from 12 locations. The
particle size distribution of these samples was determined through sieve. The results
of these analyses are given in Table 17.
SHE is a physically-based model which simulates, the entire land phase of the
hydrologic cycle. As an example, the simulated and observed hydrographs for the
model calibration period (1983–85) at Satrana gauging site at the outlet of Kolar
sub-basin have been shown in Figure 6 Of course, the model output includes ground
water table, soil moisture profile, ET, overland flow, etc.

11.8. MAJOR WATER RESOURCES PROJECTS IN NARMADA

BASIN
Prior to the independence, there was no large-scale development of Narmada water,
partly because the region was not subject to any serious famines. Moreover because
the soil in the basin is generally retentive and capable of producinga fairly good
Narmada Basin 535

Table 15. Desired and existing water quality levels for Narmada

Location Desired Observed class & critical parameters

class
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Narmada near source A B B NA B C

at Amarkantak, DO, BOD DO DO,
M.P. Totcoli
Narmada at Mandla C B B B B B
near road bdg., MP
Narmada at B D C D D D
Sethanighat, M.P. BOD, Ph, BOD, BOD, BOD,
Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Narmada at C B B B D B
Narsinghpur, M.P. BOD
Narmada at B C C C D C
Hoshangabad U/S, Totcoli pH, Totcoli BOD, Totcoli
M.P. Totcoli Totcoli
Narmada at B D D C E pH, D
Hoshangabad D/S, BOD, pH, BOD, Totcoli Totcoli BOD,
M.P. Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Narmada at D/S of B B B B B B
Omkareshwar,
M.P.
Narmada at C B B B B B
Mandleshwar, M.P.
Narmada at B B B B B B
Maheshwar, M. P.
Narmada at Badwani, C B B B B B
M.P.
Narmada at A D A NA NA C
Garudeshwar, BOD, Totcoli
Gujarat Totcoli
Narmada at Chandod, C C A NA NA C
Gujarat
Narmada at Panetha, C C A NA NA B
Gujarat
Narmada at Bharuch, C D B NA NA C
Zadeshvar, Gujarat BOD
∗
NA- Not Available. Source: www.cpcb.nic.in.

harvest even in years of scanty rainfall any large-scale irrigation development in

the basin had not been taken up seriously in the past. Only a few medium projects,
with total irrigation potential of about 40,500 ha, existed in the basin.
The Master Plan on the utilization of the Narmada waters was submitted to Khosla
Committee by the Madhya Pradesh Government. It proposed that by constructing
19 dams on Narmada and its tributaries, irrigation can be provided to 3.1 million
ha area by utilizing 29,295 MCM of water. The Rajasthan State, whose desert areas
in Barmer and Jalore districts are close to the tail reaches of the (then proposed)
536 Chapter 11

Table 16. Soil depth in Kolar basin

Land use class Percent of basin Soil depth

Agriculture on deep soil 29 8.0

Agriculture on moderate deep soil 119 1.7
Agriculture on medium deep soil 82 1.0
Agriculture on shallow soil 191 0.5
Forest upland 39 0.3
Forest lowland 469 0.3
Wasteland 81

Source: Jain et al. (1990).

Table 17. Particle size distribution

Sample no. Particle size distribution (percent by weight)

Clay Silt Sand Gravel

1 40.79 32.32 26.51 0.48

2 17.20 14.85 54.73 13.22
3 25.84 27.04 35.24 11.88
4 21.00 45.00 19.50 14.50
5 45.00 39.50 12.90 2.60
6 56.40 40.10 2.82 0.68
7 55.60 33.90 8.03 2.47
8 39.10 33.60 21.32 5.98
9 36.37 27.13 22.21 14.29
10 29.00 27.50 8.29 35.21
11 12.50 40.00 20.00 26.75
12 69.00 27.75 2.86 0.39

Source: Jain et al. (1990).

high level Narmada Canal, requested the Committee to allocate the Narmada waters
for irrigating more than 0.4 million ha falling in their State. Subsequently, a list
of 31 major projects was finalized for the Narmada basin. These are listed in
Table 18.
According to the latest planned development program, in all 29 major, 135
medium and 3,000 minor projects will be constructed to irrigate 46 lakh ha of
land and generate power with an installed capacity of about 3,590 MW (Srivastava
and Sinha, 2003). Out of the 29 major projects, Matiyari (Dhoba Toria), Tawa,
Sukta, Kolar & Barna Projects have been completed. Bargi Dam is operational;
the left bank canals system of Bargi is being constructed. The remaining projects
are planned to be completed in two phases. In the first phase, Indira Sagar
(Narmada Sagar), Omkareshwar, Maheshwar, Bargi Diversion (R.B.C.), Man and
Jobat projects are proposed to be completed. The remaining 18 projects will be
constructed in second phase. The Narmada Water Dispute Tribunal has allocated
Narmada Basin 537

Figure 6. Simulated and observed hydrographs for the model calibration period (1983–85) at Satrana
gauging site, Kolar sub-basin

18.25 M.A.F. (22,511 million cubic meter) of water to Madhya Pradesh (Table 19)
subject to the condition that the allocation would be reviewed after 45 years, i.e.,
by 2024–25.
The water use by the projects would be as shown in Table 19.
In the following, the important WRD projects in the Narmada basin are described.

11.8.1. Sardar Sarovar Project

Narmada basin is the subject of one of the largest basin development schemes
in the world. The Sardar Sarovar Project in Narmada basin, India, is one the
most ambitious but controversial projects of recent times. In view of the immense
importance, the salient features of the project, its benefits, environmental impacts
and opposition are described in detail in the following.
Tapping the resources of the Narmada has been the dream of political leaders
and development planners for decades. Large parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan face
recurrent droughts and there have been instances when water had to be transported
by trains to save the people from famine. The idea of constructing dams on the
Narmada River was first suggested in 1946. For quite some time, this idea could not
538 Chapter 11

Table 18. Thirty-one projects envisaged in the Narmada Basin

S. N. Name of project Catchment State River Status

area km2 

1 Upper Narmada 1 243 MP Narmada Proposed

2 Raghavpar (Hydel) 6 160 MP Narmada Proposed
3 Rosa (Hydel) 4 312 MP Narmada Proposed
4 Upper Burhner 1 606 MP Narmada Proposed
5 Halon 715 MP Narmada Proposed
6 Basania (Hydel) 9 583 MP Narmada Proposed
7 Dhobatoria 1 854 MP Narmada Proposed
8 Matiyari 159 MP Narmada Proposed
9 Bargi 14 556 MP Narmada Completed
10 Ataria 554 MP Narmada Proposed
11 Chinki 22 414 MP Narmada Proposed
12 Sher 881 MP Narmada Proposed
13 Machrewa 470 MP Narmada Proposed
14 Shakkar 1 479 MP Narmada Proposed
15 Sitarewa 202 MP Narmada Proposed
16 Dudhi 808 MP Narmada Proposed
17 Barna 1 176 MP Barna Completed
18 Tawa 5 983 MP Narmada Completed
19 Kolar 508 MP Kolar Completed
20 Morand 1 041 MP Narmada Proposed
21 Ganjal 436 MP Narmada Proposed
22 Sukta 469 MP Narmada Completed
23 Chhota Tawa 969 MP Narmada Proposed
24 Indira Sagar 61 642 MP Narmada Proposed
25 Omkareshwar (UC) 64 880 MP Narmada Proposed
26 Maheshwar (UC) 69 184 MP Narmada Proposed
27 Upper Beda 544 MP Narmada Proposed
28 Man 690 MP Narmada Proposed
29 Lower Goi 1 119 MP Narmada Proposed
30 Jobat 792 MP Narmada Proposed
31 Sardar Sarovar (UC) 88 000 MP Narmada Proposed

UC: Under construction.

materialize because the states did not agree on the distribution of the river water.
The then Prime Minister of India, Mr. Jawaharlal Nehru, laid the foundation stone
for the Sardar Sarovar dam, a multipurpose project which is the terminal dam of the
basin-wide scheme in 1961. This project was delayed and in 1965, a committee was
appointed by the Government of India to prepare a detailed plan for the development
of the Narmada basin. The committee recommended the construction of a dam
and a canal in Gujarat and twelve major projects in Madhya Pradesh. The two
principal dams proposed were the Indira Sagar Dam and the Sardar Sarovar. The
recommendations of the committee were endorsed by the Government of Gujarat
but rejected by the Governments of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Subsequently
in 1969, the issue was referred to the Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal which
Narmada Basin 539

Table 19. Utilisation by Major Water Resources Projects in Narmada Basin, MP

S.N. Category Area to be irrigated Water used

(Lakh ha)
(M.A.F) Million cubic m

1 29 Major Projects 1415 1135 14 000

2 135 Medium Projects 67 289 3 562
3 3,000 Minor Projects 67 251 3 100
4 Total 2755 1675 20 660
5 Domestic & Industrial use – 15 1 850
6 Grand Total 2755 1825 22 511

Source: NVDA (2005).

was established under India’s Interstate Water Disputes Act of 1956. The Tribunal
considered the issues for a decade and made its final award in 1979.
This award, which provides for diversion of 11,718.25 million m3 (9.5 million
acre-feet, MAF) of water from the reservoir into a canal and irrigation system, has
formed the basis for construction of the current Sardar Sarovar Project. Finances
for this ambitious project were secured in 1985 when the World Bank entered into
credit and loan agreements with the Governments of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and
Maharashtra. It provided U.S. $ 450 million for the construction of the dam and the
canal. The construction of the dam began in earnest in 1987. Another major project
under construction upstream of Sardar Sarovar is the Indira Sagar project.
Sardar Sarovar Project is a multipurpose interstate project of 4 States (Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan) being implemented by Govt. of
Gujarat. It is an ambitious and technologically complex irrigation scheme which is
to draw upon the flow of the Narmada River to alleviate the water needs of large
areas of the state of Gujarat. The project, which is one of the largest water resource
projects ever undertaken in India, includes a dam, a riverbed powerhouse, a main
canal, a canal powerhouse, and an irrigation network. Its projected impact extends
over a large area, and it will potentially affect 25–40 million people. The compo-
nents of the project are designed to irrigate a vast area of Gujarat and Rajasthan
(although not a basin state, was also later allocated a share of its waters), and
to provide drinking water to areas of central and northern Gujarat. The water is
to be delivered by creating a storage reservoir on the Narmada River with a full
reservoir level of 138.684 m (455 feet), along with an extensive canal and irrigation
system.
The project comprises construction of a 163 m high and 1,200 m long concrete
gravity dam across Narmada River near village Kevadia of Distt. Baroda. The top
of the dam will be at 146.5 m and the spillway crest level at 121.92 m. The M.W.L.
of the Dam is EL 140.21 m. The live storage capacity of the reservoir will be
5,800 MCM. The 458 km long lined canal will irrigate 17.92 lakh hectares of land in
Gujarat and will also provide 616 MCM share of water to Rajasthan. The installed
capacity of the Bed River Power House is 120 MW and that of Canal Head Power
540 Chapter 11

House is 250 MW. The project will also cater domestic water supply needs of 135
towns and 8,215 villages of Gujarat.
At the SSP dam, the maximum spillways discharge capacity is 84,950 cumec.
There are 23 bays in the main spillway whose crest gates are 1830 m × 1676 m.
In the auxiliary spillway, there are 7 bays with radial crest gates of size 1830 m ×
1830 m.
Based on the analysis and after considering the possibilities of transposition and
the different alternate synthetic combination of storms for design purposes, the
storms given in Table 20 were recommended for Sardar Sarovar Project.
The dam is being constructed in a hilly region, and the reservoir created behind
the dam will resemble a narrow lake extending from the dam over 200 km upstream,
submerging approximately 37,533 ha of land in three states: Gujarat, Maharashtra,
and Madhya Pradesh. Out of this, 11,300 ha is agricultural, 13,385 ha forest land,
and the rest consists of river bed and waste land. While the full impact of the project
remains in dispute, it is generally acknowledged that 248 villages will be submerged
(33 villages of Maharashtra, 19 of Gujarat, and rest in MP) mostly partially, affecting
about 100,000 people. Many of these people, especially in Gujarat and Maharashtra,
are considered to be ‘tribals’ and have no formal title to their land. The number
of families likely to be effected due to submergence, based upon 1991 census, are
estimated as 40,727; out of these 33,014 are in Madhya Pradesh. Gujarat will be
required to resettle 14,124 families of Madhya Pradesh in the command area of
the project in Gujarat. The remaining 18,890 families will be resettled in Madhya
Pradesh.
A large number of farmers, about 140,000 according to an estimate, will lose
land to the canal and irrigation systems. In addition, thousands of people living
downstream will find their lives affected by the project. Weigh this up against the
benefits: irrigation of 1.8 million ha, 1,450 MW of hydroelectric power, drinking
water to 135 towns and 8,215 villages (some of these suffer frequent droughts),
flood protection for 210 villages with an aggregate population of 750,000 and other
less important benefits. The area that will be submerged is about 1.65% of the area
that will get benefits. The ratio of population displaced to the population benefited
is 1:37. Generation of wealth in an area also contributes to general economic
development of the area.

Table 20. Design storms recommended for

Sardar Sarovar

No. of day/Date Depth in mm

1st day (28.08.1973) 28.0

2nd day (29.08.1973) 63.0
3rd day (30.08.1973) 80.0
4th day (05.09.1970) 61.0
5th day (06.09.1970) 72.0

Source: NIH (1999).

Narmada Basin 541

The Narmada main canal will be the largest of its kind in the world, extending
450 km to the Rajasthan border and crossing 19 major rivers and 244 railway lines
or roads. With 31 branch canals, the aggregate length of the distribution system will
be 75,000 km which will require approximately 80,000 hectares of land. The main
canal will be 250 meters wide at the head and 100 m wide at the border: the capacity
of this canal system is such that it will be able to empty the proposed reservoir
storage in less than two months. The canal will also transport Narmada water to
Saurashtra and Kutch region of Gujarat which are drought prone areas. Many wild
life sanctuaries and parks will get water from the project. Figure 7 shows a view
of the main Sardar Sarovar dam (under construction).
Only one-sixth of the project cost is for construction of the dam. An additional
equal amount is required for hydro-power installation at the dam and canal bed
powerhouse. The other one-third of the cost is for the main canal and the rest is
for development of the irrigation network in the command area. For different levels
of irrigation efficiency, the internal rate of return was between 16.77 and 21.88
on economic prices of the inputs and outputs and the corresponding benefit-cost
ratios between 1.59 and 3.29 (Chitale, 1997). The acceptable levels are 9 and 1,
respectively.

The Controversy
The complexity of this project allows for considerable dispute about how to best
calculate and compare the projected costs and anticipated benefits. The project’s

Figure 7. Main Sardar Sarovar dam (Under construction)

542 Chapter 11

proponents emphasize the enormous benefits it is expected to bring to millions of

people at the cost of displacing comparatively few. They ask that these projected
benefits – the provision of drinking water to as many as 40 million people and the
irrigation of 1.8 million hectares of land – be weighed against the relatively small
number of people who will be displaced from land. From their perspective this
balance tilts heavily in favour of the project.
The opponents of the project question both the projected benefits and the cost of
the project. They argued that the irrigation benefits have been vastly overestimated
and that adequate drinking water may never reach the most needy drought-prone
areas of Gujarat, such as Kutch. (It may be noted that water has already reached
drought prone areas of Gujarat and has considerably eased the situation). According
to them, the economic costs are based on unrealistic figures and have been grossly
underestimated. Also, the human and environmental costs have been vastly underes-
timated or ignored by mis-reporting the number and the extent to which people will
be affected by the project, and disregarding the costs of cultural disruption that will
occur when tribal people are moved from their traditional lands. In their opinion,
the number of people to be affected must include those living in the submergence
area, those displaced by construction of infrastructure, those affected by the canal,
and those living downstream whose lives and livelihoods will be affected. The
reservoir submergence has ignored the adverse effect on the forest cover.
In the Sardar Sarovar Project, the major concern about compensation has focussed
on the category of people identified as “oustee”. An oustee is an individual “whether
landed or landless, who since at least one year prior to the date of publication of
the notification under the relevant Indian Land Acquisition Act, has been ordinarily
residing, or cultivating land, or carrying on any trade, occupation, or calling or
working for gain in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra, who would be
displaced from his usual habitat due to the carrying out of the Project.” Two factors
affect the compensation to which the Sardar Sarovar Project oustee is entitled. One
is the assessment of an oustee’s right to compensation, which is complicated by
disparity between the way the government administers, registers, and taxes land and
the way people conceive of and use resources. Secondly, the R&R policies of the
three states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra vary in the compensation
they give to oustees. The policy of Gujarat is considered to be the most ‘lucrative’.
Consequently, the oustees want the states of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra to
match their policies with those of Gujarat.
The three states have different norms for treatment of “major” sons (sons over the
age of 18), encroachers (those residing on and cultivating land to which they do not
have legal title), and the landless. The Gujarat policy makes no distinction between
landed and landless oustees and offers full benefits to major sons. According to the
award of the Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal, all people displaced by the Sardar
Sarovar reservoir have the right to settle in Gujarat, if they so desire. Naturally,
so long as Gujarat’s resettlement and rehabilitation benefits are significantly better
than those offered by the other two states, most displaced people are apt to take
this option. Hence, Madhya Pradesh resettlement plans anticipate that only 10
Narmada Basin 543

percent of the displaced people from that state will remain in the state. An unequal
compensation is seen to violate the spirit of the Tribunal Award which provides
that all oustees may remain in their home states. To do so under current policies
would entail a financial sacrifice for some, while relocation to Gujarat would mean
for many “a long cultural journey.” Therefore, while the right of choice still exists
in principle, the disparity in benefits means a choice between migration to another
state or a lower standard of living.
The concern of compensation dominates the discussions of R&R; there are
disagreements about what constitutes full, fair, and appropriate compensation, and
further disagreements about whether all the oustees will or can be fully, fairly, and
appropriately compensated under prevailing circumstances. The proponents argue
that displacement should be treated as a development opportunity and that project-
affected people should not only regain their standard of living but also be treated as
the first beneficiaries of the project. Clearly, high costs attached to R&R reduce the
cost-benefit ratio, making it more difficult to raise political and financial support.
Even in cases where project benefits make it possible to offer attractive R&R
packages, high compensation is opposed by the decision-makers fearing that this
will set a precedent of high awards which could not be met by all future projects.
Note that the oustees mostly belong to marginal and disempowered communities
and R&R requires that all people affected by the project must ‘improve or at least
regain the standard of living they were enjoying prior to their displacement’.

The Protests by NGO’s

Meanwhile, a number of Indian Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) began
opposing the project, mainly on the grounds of environmental, human (tribal) rights,
the skewed economics of the project, etc. The Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA)
is the main opponent. They were later joined by several foreign NGOs. Some
NGOs, such as Action Research in Community Health Association (ARCH), who
were originally opposed to the project because of insufficient compensation for
the affected population, later accepted the improved measures and supported the
continuation of construction.
Originally, the campaign against the Sardar Sarovar Project revolved around
resettlement issues. Earlier disagreement between the states, mainly about water
allocation and the height of the proposed dams, had been resolved amicably by the
middle of 1974. After certain clarifications, this was made an award by a Tribunal
under the Inter-State Water Disputes Act at the end of 1979. This Tribunal also set
out a resettlement and rehabilitation scheme which, at that time, was considered
very liberal though the World Bank insisted on even higher standards. Landless
farm laborers and so called “encroachers” were to receive 2 ha compensation, often
more than the area possessed by the communities among whom they were to be
resettled. It had been planned to resettle some of the displaced people on degraded
forest land. In the meantime a new “Forest Conservation Act” had been passed in
1980, forbidding any forest land to be diverted to other purposes, unless specifically
544 Chapter 11

sanctioned by the Central Government. This led to a shortage of land needed for
resettlement.
Gradually, NGOs started to employ radical protest techniques, such as marches,
hunger strikes, traffic disruptions, and intimidation of those wanting to be resettled.
They even instituted a “mass drowning rather than relocate” campaign at the first
village threatened by the rising waters. Much was made of the fact that many of the
so called “oustees” were still tribal. A lot of incitation of these relatively primitive
people took place. The proponents, however, claim that the tribal families have
shown a desire to avail of this development opportunity. The NGOs also started
canvassing for foreign support through newspaper articles, talks, and petitions to
heads of the governments, the UN, and the donor agencies. All this led to Japan
withdrawing its financial support to the project. The World Bank appointed an
Independent Review Mission, the first of its kind in the history of the Bank. The
report of this mission was interpreted variously by various people; it was criticized
by many, e.g., Alagh and Buch (1997), and apparently further complicated the
matter. After the World Bank withdrew from the project, the Government of India
decided to proceed without external help.
The opponents managed to mobilize a substantial number of people in India and
elsewhere against the project, but a large scale popular support for it was shown by
about a million people turning up for a pro-project demonstration. Public issue of
bonds was floated by the Government of Gujarat to mobilize funds for the project.
All the issues were over-subscribed, showing public support to the project.

Project Status
More than 98% of the excavation and 90% of concreting for the main dam were
over by 2000. The matter regarding the final height of the dam was considered
by the Supreme Court of India. On October 18, 2000, the Supreme Court of India
delivered its judgment on the Sardar Sarovar Project. In a 2 to 1 majority judgment,
it allowed immediate construction on the dam up to a height of 90 m. Further, the
judgment authorized construction up to the originally planned height of 138 m in
5-meter increments subject to receiving approval from the Relief and Rehabilitation
Subgroup of the Narmada Control Authority. In 2002 summer, the dam height was
allowed to be raised to 95 m. By June 2004, construction of the dam up to EL
110.64 m was completed. Canal head powerhouse has been completed and all five
units of 50 MW are ready. With the lowest block of the dam attaining an elevation
of 110m, 450,000 ha area are receiving irrigation water and power generation will
also commence. As per the schedule, the project in all respects is expected to be
completed by 2010.
First unit of riverbed powerhouse is likely to begin work in 2006. Construction
of Narmada Main Canal up to 357 km is over. As per the plans, the dam is expected
to be completed to the EL 138.68 m (top of the dam) by 2006.

Water Supply through Narmada Canal Major urban centers in Saurashtra region
have been badly hit with underground water level in most parts going down to 800
Narmada Basin 545

to 1,000 feet. Even at that level, it is mostly brackish water. In summers, Rajkot
city, the main nerve center of the Saurashtra region, gets just about a couple of
hours supply twice a week. Jamnagar city, the second largest in the region, gets
once in three days, and Junagarh every fourth day.
A huge pipeline network based on the SSP’s main canal has been envisaged to
supply drinking water. The configuration of the system is shown in Figure 8 Only
790 of the total 8,215 villages to be given drinking water from the SSP are in
Ahmedabad and the Panchmahals districts. The rest are in Saurashtra, Kutch and
North Gujarat. Similarly, 120 towns from the total 135 to be supplied drinking water
are in the three regions. Twelve are in Ahmedabad and three in the Panchmahals.
Water from the Mahi and the Narmada rivers is to be taken through a pipeline from
the Pariyej lake in Kaira district where the water will flow through the Mahi canal
and will be distributed at different points in the Saurashtra region to supply 275
million litres of water per day to 1,625 villages and some towns in Ahmedabad,
Amreli, Bhavnagar and parts of Rajkot districts.
An escape for Mahi Right Bank Canal (MRBC) had been created from Narmada
main canal at chainage of 150 km. The branch canals named, Shedhi and Limbhasi
take off from MRBC and end up at Pariej and Kaneval tanks, respectively. A trunk
line takes off from Pariej/Kaneval reservoirs and reaches Pipli pumping station.
The 103 km long Saurashtra Branch Canal (SBC) takes off from Narmada Main
canal at chainage 256.88 km. A pumping station at Dhanki lifts water from SBC at
chainage 67 km and supplies it to Maliya Branch Canal (MBC). The total length
of all trunk pipelines is 2,722 km. The main pumping stations to lift water for

Figure 8. Configuration of Narmada Canal based water supply system

546 Chapter 11

the Narmada-Mahi based Saurashtra pipeline projects are: two pumping stations at
Pariej and one at Kaneval. A well organized administrative set up has been created
for the drinking water supply projects. Pani Panchayats are being created at village
level and they are responsible for O&M of village level facilities with technical
assistance from Gujarat Water Supply and Sewerage Board (GWSSB). A SCADA
(Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition) System for better control on O & M
and running the system with optimum efficiency is being planned. Further details
of the system are available in Talati and Kumar (2005).
Significantly, the cumulative benefits of the project are not reflected in the dam’s
command area. At present 40 percent water from whatever little is received by all
major dams in Saurashtra – has to be reserved for drinking water. Once that problem
is taken care of, more water will be available from these dams for irrigation. This
way, actually irrigation spread will improve, while the SSP is already going to
irrigate nearly 18 lakh ha of land.
Many websites contain information about this project, for example,
Sardar Sarovar Narmada Nigam Ltd. (www.sardarsarovardam.org),
Narmada Control Authority (www.nca.nic.in), Narmada Valley Development
Authority http://www.nvda.nic.in/sardarsarovar.htm and an NGO’s site
www.narmada.org/sardarsarovar.html.
Some relevant features of the Sardar Sarovar Project are given in Table 21.

11.8.2. Indira Sagar Project (ISP)

The Indira Sagar (also known as Narmada Sagar) Project (Punasa, Khandwa
District) is a multipurpose project of M.P. on the Narmada River upstream of

Table 21. Salient features of Sardar Sarovar Project

Watershed area above dam site 88,000 sq. km

Mean annual rainfall 1,120 mm
Annual run-off at 50% dependability 4.10 M ha m
Annual run-off at 75% dependability 3.36 M ha m
Annual run-off at 90% dependability 2.44 M ha m
Designed flood (1 in 1000 years) 87,000 cumec
RESERVOIR
Full Reservoir Level (FRL) 138.68 m
Maximum Water Level 140.21 m
Minimum Draw Down Level 110.64 m
Normal Tail Water Level 25.91 m
Gross Storage Capacity 0.95 Million ha m
Dead Storage Capacity 0.37 Million ha m
Live Storage Capacity 0.58 Million ha m
Annual evaporation 0.06 Million ha m
Land Submergence at FRL 37,533 ha
Number of villages affected at FRL 244
Number of families affected at FRL 40,963
Narmada Basin 547

Sardar Sarovar Project. Its importance arises from the fact that the projects proposed
downstream of it, i.e., Omkareshwar, Maheshwar and Sardar Sarovar would be able
to attain their full potential of irrigation and power generation only after getting
regulated releases from ISP.
The Indira Sagar Project envisages construction of a 92 m high and 653 m long
concrete gravity dam with a surface power house of 1,000 MW installed capacity
8 × 125 and a 249 km long canal to provide irrigation in 1.23 lakh ha of C.C.A. in
the districts of Khandwa and Khargone. On completion, a reservoir of 9,744 MCM
live storage capacity will be created. Submergence is likely to affect 249 villages,
30,739 families, 40,332 ha of forest and 510,016 ha of other lands. Compensatory
afforestation has to be done in 80,945 ha area and catchment area treatment in 30
sub-catchments totaling 62,975 ha in the directly draining area, chargeable to the
project. The salient features of Narmada Sagar Project are given in Table 22. A view
of the Indira Sagar Project is shown in Figure 9.

Table 22. Salient features of Narmadasagar Project

Particulars Details

Catchment area km2  61,880

Inflow from immediate upstream (MCM) 740.09
Gross storage (MCM) 12,211.45
Live storage (MCM) 9,745.00
Dead storage (MCM) 2,467.00
Design flood (cumec) 65,147
Maximum water level (m) 263.35
Full reservoir level (m) 262.13
Minimum drawdown level (m) 245.06

Figure 9. Indira Sagar Project (Under Construction)

548 Chapter 11

Based on the analysis made by NIH and after considering the possibilities of
transposition and the different alternate synthetic combination of storms for design
purposes, the following storms were recommended for Narmada Sagar which was
agreed upon by IMD and CWC. The design storms recommended for Narmada
Sagar are given in Table 23.

11.8.3. Omkareshwar Project

The Omkareshwar multipurpose project is situated downstream of ISP on the main

Narmada River, near village Mandhata, District Khandwa. The project envisages
construction of a 53 m high and 949 m long concrete dam with gated spillways to
irrigate 1.468 lakh ha of C.C.A. through a 142 km long L.B.C. and a 64 km long
R.B.C. and a 83 km lift canal. Riverbed powerhouse of 520 MW installed capacity
8 × 65 MW is proposed on the right bank and the annual generation is likely to
be 1166 MU in a 90% dependable year. The reservoir will have approximately
300 MCM live storage capacity, the submergence will affect 30 villages, 5,829 ha
forestland, 4,059 ha of private and revenue lands and 3,024 families. Compensatory
afforestation in 11,660 ha and catchment area treatment in 79,886 ha has to be done.
The cost of the project at 2002 price level is estimated at Rs. 2,225 crore. The
construction work is in progress and is expected to be over by Feb. 2008. The
power component of project is being taken up by a joint venture with NHPC. The
salient features of Omkareshwar Project are given in Table 24.

11.8.4. Maheshwar Hydel Project (M.P.)

The Maheshwar hydel project, located about 40 km downstream of Omkareshwar

multi-purpose project on the main Narmada near Mandleshwar town of Madhya
Pradesh, envisages construction of a 35 m high concrete dam with a 670 m long
spillway. The dam will have earthen flanks on the left and right banks of lengths
1,573 m and 464 m, respectively. There will be a surface powerhouse of 400 MW
10 × 40 MW on the right bank.
This project has been proposed in the private sector and the work has been
awarded to Shri Maheshwar Hydel Power Corporation Limited (SMHPCL).

Table 23. Design storms recommended for Narmada

Sagar

No. of day/Date Depth in mm

1st day (28.08.1973) 33.8

2nd day (29.08.1973) 100.6
3rd day (30.08.1973) 99.8
4th day (15.07.1944) 90.2

Source: NIH (1999).

Narmada Basin 549

Table 24. Salient features of Omkareshwar Project

Particulars Details

Catchment area km2  64,880

Inflow from immediate upstream (MCM) 1,973.57
Gross storage (MCM) 1,500.00
Live storage (MCM) 811.63
Dead storage (MCM) 688.28
Design flood (cumec) 43,639
Maximum water level (m) 202.7
Full reservoir level (m) 201.2
Minimum drawdown level (m) 193.5

A power purchase agreement was signed between SMHPCL and MPEB in 1994.
The revised estimate of the project has pegged to cost to Rs. 1,569 crores. The
project work is under progress. The salient features of Maheshwar Hydel Project
are given in Table 25.

11.8.5. Rani Avanti Bai Sagar (Bargi) Project

Bargi (later renamed as Rani Avanti Bai Sagar Project) is a major masonry earth
scheme in the head reaches of Narmada River. The project consists of the Bargi
dam on the Narmada River near village Bargi in the Jabalpur district 43 km away
from Jabalpur city. The latitude and longitude of the dam are 22 56 30 N and
79 55 30 E, respectively. The catchment area up to dam site is 14,556 sq. km and
the average annual rainfall in the catchment is 1,414 mm. It is a 69 m high and
5,337 m long composite gravity dam completed in 1980’s. The maximum height
of the masonry dam is 69.80 m while that of earth dam is 29 m. The catchment
area at the dam site is 14,556 sq. km. The gross, live and dead storage capacity of
the reservoir is 3.92 billion cubic meter (B Cum), 3.18 B Cum and 0.740 B Cum

Table 25. Salient features of Maheshwar Hydel Project

Particulars Details

Catchment area km2  69 184

Inflow from immediate upstream (MCM) 2 79753
Gross storage (MCM) 48846
Live storage (MCM) 2837
Dead storage (MCM) 46255
Design flood (cumec) 49 695
Maximum water level (m) 1649
Full reservoir level (m) 1628
Minimum drawdown level (m) 16215

Source: Gupta (2001).

550 Chapter 11

respectively. The maximum water level, full reservoir level and the dead storage
level of the reservoir are at 425.70 m, 422.76 m and 403.55 m, respectively. The
estimated life of the reservoir is 100 years.
The project has been envisaged as a multipurpose scheme meant to serve for
water supply for domestic and industrial purposes, irrigation and hydropower
generation. One canal system (left bank canal system) is nearing completion
and one power plant (River bed power plant) of 2 units of 45 MW each has
already been completed for utilizing the stored water of the Bargi reservoir.
It has a firm power of 45 MW. The left bank canal takes off from the left
flank of the Bargi dam and covers a distance of 137.2 km. The design capacity
of the canal is 124.65 cumec. The command area under Bargi LBC lies in
Jabalpur and Narsinghpur districts of Madhya Pradesh. There are 4 branch
canals, 11 distributaries, 16 minors and 4 sub-minors serving the complete
command.
The gross and culturable command area of the left bank canal is 2.574 and
1.57 lakh ha, respectively. Other canal system (right bank canal system) is under
construction. The purpose of the right bank canal is to transport 116 M Cum of water
for domestic use and around 2,300 M Cum of water for irrigation and interbasin
transfer annually. One power house (Canal power house) with a capacity of 15 MW
is also proposed to be constructed in the left bank canal system. Annual water
requirement from the reservoir through the left bank canal for domestic water supply
and irrigation is 54 M Cum and 2,160.1 M Cum, respectively. In addition, annual
firm energy requirement from the reservoir is 363 Mkwhr. It has a firm power of
45 MW.
The peak of the design flood hydrograph is 51,510 cumec. According to the
reservoir operation manual for the Bargi dam, no provision is made for flood
moderation by operation of this dam. The length of river channel between the
Bargi dam and the Hoshangabad city is approximately 265 km. For discharging
excess water during the flood season, a 385.72 m long spillway has been provided
in the centre of the masonry section. 21 nos. of radial gates of size 13.71 m
length and 15.25 m height have been provided on this spillway. The shape of
overflow section of the spillway has been designed to conform to the shape of
lower nappe of water flowing over a sharp crested vertical edge. The spillway
has been designed to pass a flood hydrograph having the base period of 7 days
and peak inflow of 45,296 cumec. The design flood hydrograph is based on the
unit hydrograph concept. The maximum water level at the Bargi dam site has
been limited to 424.28 m because of the Mandla township upstream of the Bargi
dam.
The water availability at the dam site was estimated based on the discharge data
at the Jamtara gauge site. The Jamtara gauge site is located 16 km downstream of
the Bargi dam site and has a catchment area of 16,576 sq. km. Systematic gauging
has been done at this site since 1949. The average annual inflow at the dam site is
7,197 M Cum. There are 13 raingauge stations in the catchment area. In some of the
raingauge stations, rainfall data for nearly 89 years has been recorded. The average
Narmada Basin 551

annual rainfall in the catchment up to Jamtara is 1,414 mm. Rainfall in the basin
mostly occurs during the monsoon months (July to October). During monsoon,
94.09% of the total rainfall of the calendar year occurs.
The reservoir has been classified as hilly. The shape of the reservoir is almost
longitudinal. Its longest periphery from the axis is about 80 km. The width at 16 km
and 25 km from the axis is 16 km and 3.2 km, respectively.

11.8.6. Tawa Dam

The first major work to be undertaken in the Narmada basin was the Tawa Project.
The Tawa project was constructed in 1974 on the Tawa River near village Ranipur
in Hoshangabad district. Tawa is a left bank tributary of Narmada River and the
catchment area up to dam site is 5,983 sq. km. The dam is operated to supply water
for irrigation and municipal uses. The average annual rainfall for the catchment is
1,564 mm. and the 75% dependable flow is 3,075 MCM. The gross storage capacity
at FRL (355.397 m) is 2,310 MCM while the live storage capacity is 2,050 MCM.
The maximum water level for this dam is 356.66 m. The peak of design flood
hydrograph for the dam is 36,800 cumec. The actual observed maximum flood was
24,300 cumec in 1961.
It is a composite dam of earth and masonry 1,630 m long with two dykes of
185 m length each and of a maximum height of 57.95 m. The gross storage in
the reservoir is 2,311 m cu. m of which the live storage is 2,087 m cu. m. The
dam is operated to supply water for irrigation and municipal uses. There are
canals, one on each bank. The left bank canal is 120 km and the right bank canal
76.85 km long. The total irrigation is expected to be of the order of 331,854 ha.
The project will provide irrigation to about 121,406 ha in the first phase. There is
a facility to generate hydropower through a power house with installed capacity of
13 MW.
Waterlogging study in Tawa basin was made by NIH in 1988. The results show
that an area of 80 sq. km was affected by waterlogging and about 140 sq. km area
where water table lies in between depth of 1 to 3 m was prone to waterlogging. It
is suggested that periodic assessment of waterlogging using remotely sensed data
should be carried out on a regular basis.

11.8.7. Barna Dam

The dam is located near village Bari of Tehsil Bareli (near National Highway 12,
connecting Bhopal to Jabalpur) in Raisen district and was completed in 1978. It
is located on Barna River which is a right bank tributary of Narmada River. The
total catchment area of the dam is 1,176 sq. km. The gross storage capacity at
FRL (348.55 m) is 539.00 MCM and the live storage capacity is 455.80 MCM.
Barna dam is 432 m long and 47.7 m high at the deepest section. The main canal
will be 38 km long and it will irrigate 60,290 ha. The design flood of the dam
552 Chapter 11

is 13,557 cumec. The maximum discharge observed at the dam site in 1965 was
11,480 cumec.
Barna project is an irrigation project of Madhya Pradesh. On the right of the main
dam, there is a saddle dam from which a 0.67 m long joint water carrying canal
emerges. From this canal two branch canals take off from the left and right banks
for irrigating the command area falling on its left and right banks, respectively.
The irrigation infrastructure has greatly improved the irrigation potential in the
command and benefited the farmers.
The project does not provide flood protection. However, through judicious and
cautious reservoir operation, peaks can be moderated to some extent to subside the
damage and submergence of life and properties in the downstream of the dam site,
especially near Barlei township.

11.8.8. Kolar Dam

Kolar dam has been constructed near the Lawakheri Village. It has a gross storage
capacity of 270 MCM and live storage of 260 MCM. Water from the reservoir is
being used to provide drinking water to the city of Bhopal which lies at a distance
of 30 km towards north. Water from the dam is envisaged to provide irrigation to
an area of 610 million sq. m. For this purpose, a barrage has been constructed in
the basin near Jholiapur from where two canals take off.
In addition to the above projects, there are some other small projects and projects
are under construction. Salient features of existing and under construction water
resources projects with a live storage capacity equaling and exceeding 10 MCM
have been presented in Table 26 and Table 27, respectively.

Table 26. Salient features of selected existing projects in Narmada Basin

Name of State Year of Gross Live storage Designed Installed

the Project completion storage capacity Annual capacity
capacity (million m3 ) Irrigation (MW)
(million m3 ) (million m2 )

Sukhi Gujarat - 17685 16660 25000 –

Wadhwan Gujarat 1910 1284 1200 14200 –
Bahori Bund Madhya Pradesh 1929 3684 3451 6480 –
Chandrakeshar Madhya Pradesh 1976 3008 2847 7040 –
Depalpur Madhya Pradesh 1952 3993 3794 930 –
Dukri Kheda Madhya Pradesh 1956 1226 1151 2670 –
Pariat Madhya Pradesh 1927 2006 1850 – –
Sakalda Madhya Pradesh 1987 1565 1267 – –
Sampna Tank Madhya Pradesh 1956 1692 1430 38500 –
Satik Madhya Pradesh 1964 1980 1836 1460 –
Simrar Tank Madhya Pradesh 1967 1294 1229 2500 –
Satpura Dam Madhya Pradesh 1967 9560 7170 – –
Sukata Madhya Pradesh 1983 8940 7814 17640 –
Narmada Basin 553

Table 27. Salient features of selected Under Construction Projects in Narmada Basin

Name of the State Gross storage Live storage Designed Annual

Project capacity capacity Irrigation
(million m3 ) (million m3 ) (million m2 )

Ani Gujarat 3720 3410 2300

Dholi Gujarat 1312 1147 –
Karjan Gujarat 65700 58330 78000
Men Gujarat 3790 3434 4050
Saktha Gujarat 8937 7530 –
Shankra Gujarat 1168 1033 1640
Choral Madhya Pradesh 2392 1923 3900
Dajla- Madhya Pradesh 5635 5029 12100
Dewada
Project
Matiyari Madhya Pradesh 5680 5112 10100
Sakalda Madhya Pradesh 1526 1236 –

11.9. FLOODS, WATERLOGGING AND DRAINAGE

In Madhya Pradesh, Narmada flows in a deep channel with high banks, which are
not frequently over-topped. Below the Hiranphal-Navagam gorge, Narmada spreads
out over the flat Gujarat plains and flows as a wide stream with low banks for the
rest of its course down to the Gulf of Cambay. Floods do occur frequently in this
reach and cause damage to life and property.
Regional flood frequency analysis of two hydro-meteorological sub-zones of
zone 3, namely (i) Lower Narmada and Tapi sub-zone 3(b); and (ii) Upper Narmada
and Tapi sub-zone 3(c), was carried out by NIH (NIH 1999). Long term annual
maximum peak flood data records and areas of various bridge sites under these
sub-zones formed inputs to these studies. Summary statistics of catchments of the
sub-zones 3(b) and 3(c) are given in Table 28.
Based on analysis, the following regional flood formulae for the two sub-zones
were determined:

Table 28. Salient features of various catchments of the sub-zones 3(b) and 3(c)

Sub-zone Area of sub-zone Number of Range of Range of mean Range of record

km2  bridge sites in catchment annual peak length (Years)
the sub-zone area of bridge flood m3 /s
sites km2 

3 (b) 77,000 19 17.22–1017.00 34.95–558.29 12–28

3 (c) 86,353 15 41.80–2110.85 111.95–1730.53 14–30
554 Chapter 11

Sub-zone 3(b)
  −020 
1
QT = 613 − ln 1 − − 469 A046 (2)
T

Sub-zone 3(c)
   −011 
1
QT = 522 − ln 1 − − 443 A067 (3)
T

11.9.1. Flood Control by Reservoirs in Upper Narmada Basin

The runoff factor for the 75% dependable flow of Narmada works out to be 0.29.
The annual rainfall in the upper part of the Narmada catchment is more than
1,400 mm and in some pockets it exceeds 1,650 mm. The Narmada catchment
up to Hoshangabad received unprecedented rainfall in 1999. In the catchment
up to Hoshangabad, three major dams have been constructed: Bargi, Barna and
Tawa. Consequently, a large part of the Hoshangabad city remained flooded for
considerable time, causing severe damages.
The reservoir regulation manuals for Bargi dam recommends filling of the
reservoir in stages and rule levels which are to be maintained at fortnightly intervals
during the monsoon season have been specified. According to this manual, the
reservoir level has to be filled up to 410.0 m by 30th July and up to 422.76 m (FRL)
by 15th September.
According to the reservoir operation and maintenance manual for Bargi, the
reservoir does not provide for flood protection. However, through judicious and
cautious reservoir operation, peak flood can be moderated to some extent. During
very high floods when reservoir water level is at FRL, the incoming floods are to
be passed over spillway taking care that the rate of outflow does not exceed the
rate of inflow to the reservoir. The absorption between FRL (422.76 m) and MWL
(425.7 m) is 884 MCM. According to this manual if the rate of rise of reservoir water
level is restricted to 10 cm per hour, the incoming flood can be safely moderated
and regulated for a prolonged period of about 30 hours without crossing MWL.
In the second half of September 1999, a severe storm occurred in the upper
parts of Narmada Basin. The normal monthly rainfall for the Bargi catchment for
the month of September is 208 mm. In 1999, the average rainfall over the Bargi
catchment from 13.09.1999 to 19.09.1999 was 337 mm. According to the operation
manual, the Bargi dam is to be kept at 422.76 m on September 15 and in 1999,
the actual reservoir level on September 15 was 422.85 m. For the Tawa dam, the
normal annual rainfall is 1,564 mm while the average rainfall in Tawa catchment
from 12.09.1999 to 22.09.1999 was 610 mm.
The observed discharges at Hoshangabad during September 18–23 were in the
vicinity of 25,000 cumec and this high flow has caused flooding in the city and
severe damages. The discharge at Sandia was probably higher than this; it was so
Narmada Basin 555

high between 16 to 22 Sept. that measurements could not be taken. The one-day PMP
for the upper Narmada catchment is about 60 cm as given in the meteorological atlas
by Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune. Daily rainfall depths exceeding
180 mm have taken place in this storm.
As noted above, the live storage capacity of the Barna dam is very small and no
significant control of flood is possible by regulation of this dam. The catchment
area at Bargi dam is 14,556 sq. km, at Tawa 5,983 sq. km and the free catchment
up to Hoshangabad is 23,337 sq. km.
In the worst case scenario when one-day PMP takes place over the entire
catchment, the flow at Hoshangabad would be 222,000 cumec. In case the rain
is over the catchment of Tawa and Bargi the flow at Hoshangabad will be
102,946 cumec. Similar calculations were carried out for the rainfall at the rate
of 90% of PMP etc. It was found that when the one-day rainfall is about 25%
of PMP and it takes place only over the Tawa and Bargi catchments, the flow at
Hoshangabad would be close to 25,700 cumec which is of the same order as the
discharge experienced in the September 1999 floods. It is also seen that if this
rainfall (15 cm) in one day takes place over the intermediate catchment, it will
lead to peak discharge over 42,500 cumec which, when routed, would give a peak
discharge of 29,779 cumec at Hoshangabad.
In the storm of September 1999, daily rainfalls of magnitude up to 180 mm were
observed at many stations. For example, the rainfall at Sandiya on 16 September was
185 mm, at Mandla on 17 September it was 182 mm, at Hirdayanagar it was 170 mm
on 17 September and at Gadarwara on 15 September, rainfall was 160 mm. Thus,
rainfall at the rate of over 150 mm per day can be expected in this catchment though
it will not be uniformly spread over an area of about 15,000 sq. km. Nevertheless
the possibility of generation of flood of such a high order cannot be ignored.
The volume under the discharge hydrograph at Hoshangabad during September
11–23, 1999 was 18,455.6 MCM. Compared to this, the combined live storage
capacity of Bargi (3,180 MCM) and Tawa (2,050 MCM) is 5,230 MCM. Therefore,
even if the entire live storage of both these dams is available for moderation of
floods, the floods that were experienced in September 1999 cannot be significantly
moderated and very few options are available in such an eventuality. It is also
important to note that the free catchment area at Hoshangabad is 23,337 sq. km.
Approximate calculations show that the flows generated by this catchment alone
can cause havoc in the Hoshangabad city in the event of a major storm taking place
over this free catchment.
For flood management in this catchment, it will be necessary to adopt a combi-
nation of structural and non-structural measures. The following measures can be
considered to manage the flooding problem at Hoshangabad city:
1. It would be necessary to install and operate a flood forecasting system for the
basin. This will help in efficient utilization of the available storage space in
the dams for flood moderation. Based on the forecasts, reservoir levels can be
pre-depleted to make available additional space to regulate the floods.
556 Chapter 11

2. A warning system to issue flood warnings sufficiently in advance needs to be

put in place so that the damages to life and movable property can be minimized.
3. Options to increase the carrying capacity of river channel at critical locations
should be explored.
4. The construction of embankments at selected locations will help in protecting
the vulnerable areas.
5. It would be necessary to create additional storage space in the basin in the light
of the award of NWDT.

11.10. THE NARMADA WATER DISPUTES TRIBUNAL (NWDT)

The Govt. of India constituted the Narmada Water Dispute Tribunal on 6th Oct.,
1969 to adjudicate the water dispute regarding the sharing of water resources of
Narmada River. The Tribunal deliberated over the issues and gave the final decision
in December, 1979. The highlights of the decisions of the Tribunal are:
(i) The utilizable quantum of waters of the Narmada River at Sardar Sarovar
dam-site on the basis of 75% dependability was assessed as 28 MAF (34,537
MCM).
(ii) The shares of the four party States in this quantity was fixed as: M.P. 18.25
MAF (22,511.01 MCM), Gujarat 9 MAF (11,101.32 MCM), Rajasthan 0.5
MAF (616.74 MCM) and Maharashtra 0.25 MAF (308.37 MCM).
(iii) The Full Reservoir Level of Sardar Sarovar Dam was fixed at 138.68 m.
(iv) The power benefits from the project are to be shared as: Madhya Pradesh
57%, Maharashtra 27%, and Gujarat 16%. The cost of power component of
the project is to be shared by Gujarat, M.P. and Maharashtra in the ratio of
their benefits in power.
(v) M.P. has to make a uniform release of 8.12 MAF (10,015.86 MCM) ex-
Maheshwar to meet the requirements of Gujarat and Rajasthan from Sardar
Sarovar Dam in a normal year having 28 MAF (34,537 MCM) flow.
(vi) The Indira Sagar project is to be taken up by MP and completed with a FRL of
262.13 m (860 ft) either concurrently or earlier than the construction of Sardar
Sarovar.
(vii) Gujarat is required to credit to MP each year 17.63% of the expenditure on
Indira Sagar dam.
(viii) The allocation of Unit I – Dam and Appurtenant works cost between irrigation
& power was done as 43.9% and 56.1%. The irrigation component of the
project is to be shared by Gujarat and Rajasthan in the ratio of water allocation
for the dam and canal.
(ix) A machinery, viz., Narmada Control Authority (NCA) was set up for imple-
mentation of the decision of the Tribunal. A Review Committee was also
set up under Union Ministry of Water Resources to review decisions of the
Authority.
(x) For efficient, economical and early execution of Unit I & III of Sardar Sarovar
Project, a construction advisory committee was set up. The Review Committee
Narmada Basin 557

was empowered to decide on issues on which there is disagreement in the

construction committee.
(xi) The decisions of the Tribunal are subject to review after a period of 45 years
from the date of publication of the final award in the gazette of Govt. of India.
This means
(xii) Although Rajasthan is not a riparian state as far as Narmada is concerned, it
was allocated a part of Narmada water with the concurrence of MP, Gujarat
and Maharashtra.

11.10.1. Rules of Regulation

As per the NWDT award, NCA shall frame the rules of regulation and water
accounting within the ambit of given guidelines. The procedure for preparing this
account and rules of regulation were spelt out by the Tribunal. The Authority shall
also ensure implementation of the orders of the Tribunal in respect of quantum and
pattern of regulated release by M.P.
The water year is to be reckoned from 1st July to 30th June of the next calendar
year. The Authority has to determine the volume of water flowing in the Narmada
River and its tributaries in a water year. The utilizable flow in excess or falling
short of 34,537 MCM (28 MAF) is to be shared by the four party States in the same
ratio as allocation of utilizable quantum of Narmada waters at 75% dependability,
i.e., 34,537 MCM.
The requirements at Sardar Sarovar have to be met by releases by MP ex-
Maheshwar and by inflows from the intermediate catchment between Narmadasagar
and SSP surplus to the requirements of MP and Maharashtra. The releases ex-
Maheshwar works out to approximately 10,000 MCM and uniform monthly releases
of nearly 83,500 MCM would make up this amount. Although it would be fully
known only in October whether the year is normal, surplus or deficit, the releases
by MP in the filling period would have to be more or less on the basis of a normal
year. As the months of July and early part of August are crucial for Kharif sowing,
it is important that regulatory arrangements are made to ensure due share to various
parties.
The Authority was directed to review the ten-day releases made by M.P. at least
once a month and more often if considered necessary for directing any change in
the releases. NCA would also ensure by directing the releases by MP that there is
sufficient utilizable water in Sardar Sarovar at all times to meet the requirements of
the next ten-days subject to water being available in the storage of M.P. after taking
into account the proportionate requirements of M.P. For this purpose, Gujarat and
Rajasthan are required to intimate their requirements of the 10-day period well in
advance.
The Narmada Control Authority was directed by the Tribunal to determine, from
time to time, the volume of water stored by each state in reservoirs and other
storages and it may, for that purpose, adopt any device or method. Further, the
558 Chapter 11

water available in the live storage of the various reservoirs on 30th June shall be
reckoned as an inflow to be shared in the next water year.
Note that the apportionment relates to actual withdrawals and not consumptive
use. The available utilizable waters on any date will be inclusive of return flows and
exclusive of evaporation losses in various reservoirs. The Tribunal has assessed the
utilizable quantity of water at 75% dependability on the Narmada at Sardar Sarovar
dam site as 28 MAF (34,537 MCM) assuming the inflow at 75% dependability
as 27.01 MAF (33,316.29 MCM) and bringing this up to 28 MAF (34,537 MCM)
considering regeneration, carryover and evaporation loss. As per the NWDT report,
evaporation loss is 4 MAF (4,934 MCM), regeneration or return flow (+)2 MAF
(2,467 MCM) and carry over (+)3 MAF (3,700 MCM). The Tribunal did not specify
how regeneration is to be worked out but as per the NWDT report, regeneration
including return flow should be taken as 10% of irrigation use in upstream major,
medium and minor projects in any month with a lag of one month. Further, 60%
of the water used for domestic and industrial purposes within Narmada basin may
be taken as return flow uniformly available throughout the year.
The surplus water shall first be utilized for filling up the reservoirs to their
capacity and further extra surplus water should be utilized for irrigation and other
purposes only after this has been ensured.
After meeting the storage requirements and withdrawals, the surplus waters in the
filling period which would go waste to sea even without generating power can be
allowed to be utilized by party States to the extent they can. Gujarat is required to
inform NCA and the designated representative of all the concerned states whenever
water starts going waste to sea as also when flows cease. During the period of such
flows, the party States, whose reservoirs are spilling and the spill water cannot be
stored elsewhere, may utilize such flows from the said reservoirs as they like and
such utilization will not count either towards allotment of supplies to them nor will
it establish prescriptive rights.

11.10.2. Resettlement and Rehabilitation Activities

The Resettlement and Rehabilitation Policy for the affected persons of Sardar
Sarovar Project (SSP) is based on the decisions and final orders of the Narmada
Water Disputes Tribunal (NWDT) Award. Considering the socio-economic and
cultural background of the population being displaced and with a view to improving
the living conditions of these people, all the three participating States have formu-
lated their own policies which contain more liberal provisions than those envisaged
in the Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal (NWDT) Award.
In pursuance of the decision taken by the NCA, a frequency of 1 in 100 year
flood has been adopted for working out the backwater effect and preparing the
submergence schedule. The original submergence schedule which was based on the
Revised Implementation Schedule (RIS) of 1989 is being reviewed from time to
time based on the actual approved yearly construction programme. A mechanism
has been evolved to link the progress of R&R works and dam construction keeping
Narmada Basin 559

in view the interim orders/ directions of the Supreme Court of India. Accordingly,
the programmes of dam construction are being approved on year to year basis after
reviewing the progress of R&R works.
Out of total of 40,827 project affected families (PAFs), house plots have been
allotted to 10,471 families and agricultural land has been allotted to 9,998 families
up to 31st January, 2000.
In Sardar Sarovar Project, out of the total targeted area of 179,180 ha for
catchment area treatment of directly draining sub-watersheds an area of 128,230 ha
has been treated up to January, 2000. Compensatory afforestation work has been
carried out in an area of 45,525 ha against a total target of 46,358 ha. This work
is being done in lieu of 17,943 ha taken by the Sardar Sarovar Project for submer-
gence and resettlement and rehabilitation in Maharashtra. Baseline data have been
collected, action plan has been prepared and preventive and curative measures are
being implemented in project and command areas and at rehabilitation sites as far
as the health related issues are concerned. Epidemiological surveillance studies are
also making progress.
In Indira Sagar Project, out of a total targeted area of 62,975 ha for catchment area
treatment of directly draining sub-watersheds, an area of 44,276 ha has been treated
up to September, 1999. Compensatory afforestation work has been carried out in
an area of 67,188 ha against a total target of 80,945 ha. This work is being done
in lieu of 41,420 ha used by the Indira Sagar Project for submergence, residential
colony, power house complex, dam, saddle dam, and approach roads.
CHAPTER 12
TAPI, SABARMATI AND MAHI BASINS

Three important rivers of central India are described in this chapter: Tapi, Sabarmati,
and Mahi. These rivers outfall in the Arabian Sea, close to each other and share
some common characteristics. These were the reasons of describing these in a
shared chapter.

12.1. THE TAPI BASIN

The Tapi basin is situated in the northern part of the Deccan Plateau and extends
over an area of 65,145 km which is nearly 2% of the total geographical area of the
country. The catchment area up to Ukai dam is 62,225 sq. km. Nearly 80% of
the basin lies in State of Maharashtra. The basin lies between east longitudes of
72 38 to 78 17 and north latitudes of 20 5 to 22 3 . It is bounded on the north
by the Satpura range, on the east by the Mahadeo hills, on the south by the Ajanta
range and the Satmala hills and on the west by the Arabian Sea. Bounded on the
three sides by the hill ranges, the Tapi River along with its tributaries flows over
the plains of Vidarbha, Khandesh, and Gujarat and covers large areas in the State
of Maharashtra and small areas in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. The basin has
an elongated shape with a maximum length of 587 km from east to west and the
maximum width of 210 km from north to south. Perimeter of the basin is about
1,840 km. The State-wise distribution of the drainage area is given in Table 1. An
Index map of the Tapi basin is presented in Figure 1.
There are two well-defined physical regions, in the basin, namely, hilly region
and the plains. The hilly regions comprising Satpura, Satmalas, Mahadeo, Ajanta
and Gawilgarh hills are well forested. The plain covers the Khandesh areas, which
are broad and fertile suitable for cultivation primarily, the basin consists of black
soils. The coastal plains of Gujarat are composed of alluvial clays with a layer of
black soil above. The culturable area of the basin is about 4.29 Mha which is 2.2%
of the total culturable area of the country. The forest cover is about 25% of the area
in the basin.
Physiographically, the area is a basaltic landscape with major physiographic units
of plateau lands, escarpments, hills, piedmont plains, colluvio-alluvial plains and
valley plains.
561
562 Chapter 12

Table 1. State-wise distribution of the Tapi basin

State Basin area falling Percent of total

in state (sq. km) basin area

Madhya Pradesh 9 804 1500

Maharashtra 51 504 7910
Gujarat 3 837 0590
Total 65 145 10000

The entire Tapi basin sea can be divided in three sub-basins: Upper Tapi Basin
up to Hathnur [confluence of Purna with the main Tapi (29,430 sq. km)], Middle
Tapi Basin from Hathnur up to the Gidhade gauging site (25,320 sq. km), and
Lower Tapi Basin from the Gidhade gauging site up to the sea (10,395 sq. km). The
annual rainfall for the upper, middle, and lower Tapi basins for an average year is
935.55 mm, 631.5 mm, and 1,042.33 mm respectively.
In Table 2, the areas of various districts that fall in the upper, middle, and lower
Tapi Basins are given. Note that the Jalgaon district lies almost completely in the
basin.

12.1.1. Tapi River

The Tapi River is the second largest west flowing river of Indian Peninsula. The
river rises near Multai in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh at an elevation of
about 752 m and before joining the Gulf of Cambay, it traverses a total length
of about 724 km. Of the total length, 228 km lies in Madhya Pradesh, 228 km
in Maharashtra, 214 km in Gujarat and the remaining 54 km forms the common
boundary between Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. The river flows generally
east to west through Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra & Gujarat States. The drainage

Figure 1. Index map of Tapi basin

Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi Basins 563

Table 2. Area (%) of different districts within three sub-basins

District State Percent area

Upper Tapi Basin

Akola Maharashtra 6357
Buldhana Maharashtra 6239
Amravati Maharashtra 6503
Jalgaon Maharashtra 532
Betul M.P. 4091
Khandwa M.P. 3574
Middle Tapi Basin
Jalgaon Maharashtra 9145
Aurangabad Maharashtra 973
Nasik Maharashtra 3956
Dhule Maharashtra 4458
Khargaon M.P. 816
Lower Tapi Basin
Dhule Maharashtra 3497
Khargaon M.P. 546
Surat Gujarat 4735
Bharuch Gujarat 1224

density of the river is moderate to high. Broadly speaking, the pattern is dendritic
with a sub-parallel system existing adjacent to stream courses, particularly in the
alluvial belt. In the lower reaches, river widens considerably. Low tides come right
up to Kakrapar weir.
There are 5 major, 27 medium and 364 minor existing projects; 3 major, 24
medium and 123 minor ongoing projects; and 3 major, 4 medium and 197 minor
projects are proposed in the Tapi basin up to Ukai dam.
The utilizable water from Tapi River at Ukai dam has been estimated by Central
Water Commission (CWC) to be 14,500 MCM. According to the agreements, the
upstream utilization by riparian States of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh will be
5,420 MCM and 1,980 MCM, respectively. The remaining quantity on the order
of 7,100 MCM can be utilized by Gujarat. The water requirements for irrigation,
municipal and industrial uses from the Ukai reservoir are of the order of 4,546
MCM and 1,000 MCM respectively.

12.1.2. Major Tributaries

The Tapi River has 14 major tributaries having a length more than 50 km. Four right
bank tributaries, namely Vaki, Aner, Arunawati, and Gomai have their origin in
Satpura ranges and flow generally in South-West direction. They are comparatively
of shorter length and individually drain small areas as they descend down the steep
slopes. Ten important left bank tributaries, namely Nesu, Amravati, Buray, Panjhara,
Bori, Girna, Waghur, Purna, Mona, and Sipna drain into the main Tapi River. The
left bank tributaries rise in Gawaligarh hills, Ajanta hills, the Western Ghats, and
564 Chapter 12

the Satmalas. These rivers are of comparatively long with large individual drainage
areas. The Purna and the Girna rivers together account for nearly 45% of the Tapi
basin area. A brief description of major tributaries is given next. Figure 2 Shows
the stream network of Tapi basin.

The Purna
The Purna River is the principal tributary of Tapi River. Purna is the only river in
the upper basin, which has a perennial flow. The river rises in the Betul district
in Gawaligarh hills of the Satpura range at an elevation of 900 m at north latitude
of 21 38 and an east longitude of 77 36 . The Purna River traverses first in a
southwesterly direction for about 60 km through hills and forests, and then it enters
in the Purna plains. After traversing a length of 274 km in a generally westerly
direction, the Purna joins the Tapi north-west of Edalabad. The Pedhi, the Katpurna,
the Murna, the Mun and the Nalganga are the main left bank tributaries and the
Arna, the Chandrabhaga and the Wan are the principal right bank tributaries of
Purna River. The total drainage area of Purna River is 18,929 sq. km and it joins
Tapi at 282 km of Tapi’s run.

Source

3,889 Burhanpur

2,004 Purna River

241 Vaghur River

3,014 Girna River

Aner River 961

451 Bori River

11,806 Sarangkheda

17,902 Kathor

Sea

Figure 2. Stream network of Tapi basin

Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi Basins 565

The Vaghur River

The Vaghur River rises in the Ajanta hills at an elevation of about 751 m at north
latitude of 20 29 and an east longitude of 75 42 and flows in a generally northerly
direction for a total distance of 96 km before joining the Tapi River on the left,
north-west of Bhusawal. The total drainage area of Vaghur River is 2,592 sq. km
and the point of confluence is at 312 km from the source of Tapi.

The Girna River

The Girna River rises in Western Ghats at an elevation of 900 m at north latitude of
20 44 and an east longitude of 73 51 . Girna has its upper catchment in the eastern
slopes of Sahyadri mountains. The river flows first in an easterly direction up to
Jaamda and then turns north. It takes a westerly turn at Nandra to join the Tapi from
the left near Nanded. At this point, Tapi has already run for 340 km. Before Joining
the Tapi River, the Girna River traverses a distance of 260 km. The drainage area
of the river is 10,061 sq. km, which is nearly one-sixth of the total catchment of
the Tapi. Girna is the second biggest tributary of Tapi in terms of catchment area.
The waters of the Girna are used for irrigation in Nasik and Jalgaon districts. Due
to heavy rainfall in the catchment, Girna has important influence on the floods in
the Tapi basin.

The Bori River

The Bori River rises in the Malegaon sub-division of Nasik district at north latitude
of 20 48 and an east longitude of 74 22 at an elevation of about 600 m. The river
flows first in an easterly direction and then in a northerly direction to join the Tapi
from the left, east of Betavad. The river traverses a distance of 130 km and drains
an area of 2,580 sq. km. The waters of the Bori are used for irrigation in Dhulia
and Jalgaon districts. The confluence of Bori with Tapi falls at 386 km of the run
of Tapi.

The Panjhra River

The Panjhra River rises near Pimpalner from the crest of the Sahyadri hills at an
elevation of 600 m at north latitude of 20 52 and an east longitude of 73 55 . After
flowing east for about 99 km, it takes a turn to the north and joins the Tapi from
the left, south of Thalner. The river traverses a distance of 138 km before joining
the Tapi. The drainage area of the Panjhra River is 3,257 sq. km.

The Buray River

The Buray River rises in the Satmala hills at an elevation of 600 m at north latitude
of 21 10 and an east longitude of 74 4 and traverses a distance of 87 km before
joining the Tapi River from the left, north-east of Sindkheda. The drainage area of
the river is 1,419 sq. km.
566 Chapter 12

The Aner River

The Aner River is the longest right bank tributary of the Tapi. It rises at an elevation
of 600 m at north latitude of 21 23 and an east longitude of 75 45 from the southern
slopes of the Satpura hills and traverses in a generally south-westerly direction for
a distance of 94 km to join the Tapi from the right, south of Hol. The drainage area
of the Aner River is 1,702 sq. km.

The Arunavati River

The Arunavati River rises at an elevation of 450 m at north latitude of 21 33 and an
east longitude of 75 11 from the southern slopes of the Satpura hills. It traverses in
a generally south westerly direction. The river flows for a distance of 53 km to join
the Tapi from the left, east of the Virdel village. The drainage area of the Arunavati
River is 935 sq. km.

The Gomai River

The Gomai River also rises from the southern slopes of the Satpura hills at an
elevation of 600 m at north latitude of 21 47 and an east longitude of 74 46 . It
traverses in a generally south-westerly direction for a distance of 58 km to join the
Tapi from the right near village Parkasha. The drainage area of Gomai River is
1,148 sq. km. Gomai is the last major tributary which joins Tapi when it has flown
for 481 km.

12.1.3. Topography, Physiography and Geology of Tapi Basin

The Tapi basin has two well-defined physical regions, viz., the hilly regions and the
plains. The hilly regions cover the Satpura, the Satmala, the Mahadeo, the Ajanta
and the Gawilgarh hills and are well forested. The plains cover the Khandesh plains
which are broad and fertile areas suitable for cultivation. The culturable area of the
basin is considered as the total of the land under miscellaneous crops and trees,
current fallows, other fallows, culturable wasteland and net area sown.
The basin in Madhya Pradesh is mostly covered with Deccan trap lava flows.
The other formations found in the basin are alluvium, lower Gondwana, Cuddapah
system, Bijawar series, and granites gneiss. Most of the area of Tapi basin falling
within Maharashtra state is full of cuts & valleys. Lands on the right side of the
river lying on southern slopes of Satpura hills consist of black soils. The soil cover
is deep and rock is found at greater depths. Lands on the left side of the river on
northern slopes of Sahyadri consist mainly of dykes & red murrum soil and are
rocky in most parts.

12.1.4. Soils of Tapi Basin

The soils in the Tapi basin up to Ukai dam can be broadly classified into 3 groups:
1) coarse shallow soils, 2) medium black soils, and 3) deep black soils. The area
covered by these three groups of soils in the basin is given in Table 3.
Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi Basins 567

Table 3. Area covered by various soils in Tapi basin

S. N. Type of soil Districts covered

1. Coarse shallow soils Betul, Khandwa, Khargon, Amrawati, Akola, Buldhana,

Jalgaon, Dhule, Aurangabad and Nasik.
2. Medium black soils Khandwa, Amrawati, Akola, Buldhana, Jalgaon, Dhule and
Nasik.
3. Deep black soils Amravati, Akola, Buldhana, Jalgaon, Dhule, Nasik, Surat
and Bharuch.

Coarse Shallow Soils

These soils have developed primarily from the basaltic Deccan traps and have been
considerably affected by natural processes of weathering and erosion. Their depth
is generally between 25 cm to 50 cm and seldom more. Their texture from surface
to sub-surface varies from silty loam to clay. Their organic matter content is usually
poor and they are moderately drained.

Medium black soil

These soils have developed from Deccan traps and cover the largest area of the
basin. Their depth is generally between 50 cm to 1 m. These soils contain higher
lime reserve and are alkaline in reaction. These soils are fair in their contents of
phosphates and potash but low in organic matter and nitrogen.

Deep black soils

These soils are found along the Purna River and in the middle & lower reaches of
Tapi River. These soils have originated primarily from decomposition of trap rocks
of hilly ranges. The depth of this soil varies from 1 m to 6 m. The soils have very
high clay content, montmorillonite predominating and not easily workable during
monsoon. The soil reaction varies from neutral to alkaline.

12.1.5. Land Use in Tapi Basin

The major land use of the basin in the year 1995–96 is presented in Table 4.
Cultivated area (around 60%) and forests >20% cover the major part of the
catchment. The important crops grown in the basin are cotton, jowar, bajra, oilseeds,
wheat, paddy, tuar, black gram, fodder crops, vegetable, fruit, and sugarcane. The
Tapi basin, as observed from the NOAA satellite, is presented in Figure 3.

12.1.6. Rainfall and Climate of Tapi Basin

The annual average rainfall in the Tapi basin is 830 mm; the maximum being
2,030 mm. Normally, the south-west monsoon sets in by the middle of June and
withdraws by mid-October. About 90% of the total rainfall is received during the
568 Chapter 12

Table 4. Major land uses in Tapi basin (for the year 1995–96)

Land use category Area (sq. km)

Forest area 14 78872

Barren/Uncultivable area 2 73797
Non-agricultural area 2 00284
Cultivable waste land 71921
Permanent pasture 2 31233
Miscellaneous crops/trees 11843
Fallow land 1 78146
Gross sown area 46 06957
Gross irrigated area 5 74184

monsoon months, of which 50% is received during July and August. There are
70 rain gauge stations in and around the basin up to Ukai dam.
The climate of the basin is characterized by hot dry summer and winter. Owing
to topographical characteristics, the climate is variable. In winter, the minimum
temperature varies from 10  C to 145  C. May is the hottest month with temperature
varying from 38  C to 48  C. In fact, the Purna sub-catchment is one of the hottest
regions of India. Eight IMD observatories at Betul, Amrawati, Akola, Khandwa,
Buldhana, Jalgaon, Malegaon and Surat are located in and around the basin.
Table 5 gives some important meteorological data and the evapo-transpiration
estimates for the three sub-basins of Tapi.

12.1.7. Population and Agriculture

As per the 1991 census, the population of Tapi basin was 12.576 million of which,
the rural population was 9.132 million and the urban population was 3.444 million.
The density of population in the year 1991 in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and

Figure 3. A view of Tapi basin up to Ukai dam from NOAA Satellite. Ukai reservoir can be clearly
seen near the top left edge
Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi Basins 569

Table 5. Meteorological data and evapo-transpiration estimation for sub-basins of Tapi

Month Max_temp Min_temp Max._Hum Min_Hum Wind Cloud PET

 
C C % % speed cover (mm/day)
km/day Oktas

January 33 85 55 28 1104 1.7 393

February 36.9 104 42 21 1248 1.3 512
March 40.6 138 35 18 1464 1.4 655
April 43.7 201 32 17 1728 1.8 794
May 45.1 23 39 18 2952 2.2 1058
June 42.4 223 67 43 3336 4.9 871
July 36.5 22 81 66 2784 6.4 542
August 34.3 218 84 68 2664 6.6 465
September 35.7 209 80 60 2088 5.0 518
October 36.2 152 65 40 1128 2.7 474
November 33.8 116 57 34 912 2.1 376
December 32.4 9 58 33 888 1.8 333
January 33.5 67 58 28 1104 1.7 395
February 37.6 82 43 19 1248 1.2 518
March 41.7 12 36 15 1464 1.3 667
April 45 187 36 14 1728 1.6 812
May 45.8 235 54 19 2952 1.5 1064
June 42.9 225 73 44 3336 4.6 873
July 37.7 224 85 65 2784 6.6 543
August 34.8 217 88 72 2664 6.8 441
September 36 202 85 60 2088 5.4 505
October 36.9 134 68 37 1128 2.5 482
November 35 105 59 32 912 2.1 382
December 32.9 76 62 34 888 1.9 336
January 35.5 103 65 39 1656 1.0 502
February 38.1 115 62 33 1704 0.8 61
March 41 157 64 32 180 1.2 709
April 42.4 203 66 38 1992 1.4 816
May 41.9 235 68 55 2856 2.7 835
June 37.4 234 79 70 324 5.6 612
July 34.4 233 88 79 3024 6.9 427
August 33.2 232 89 79 264 7.1 375
September 36.4 225 86 70 1896 5.1 479
October 38.7 194 72 49 1488 2.0 551
November 37.7 155 61 43 1584 1.4 516
December 35.9 121 65 43 1728 1.3 487

Gujarat was 128 per sq. km, 250 per sq. km, and 204 per sq. km, respectively. The
livestock population of the basin was estimated at 7.0 million.
Agriculture is the main occupation of the people of the basin. The upper reaches
of the basin are covered by dense forests. The livestock population of the basin is
70 lakh as per 1991 census. Mainly animals found in the basin are buffaloes, cows,
goat and poultry are found in the basin.
The net sown area for the year 1994–95 was 3,751,418 ha and gross sown area was
4,523,699 ha which is 60.29% and 72.70%, respectively of the total geographical
570 Chapter 12

area of the basin. Cotton, Jowar, Bajra, Oilseeds, Wheat, Paddy, Tuar, Black gram,
Sugarcane, Vegetables and Fruits are the main crops grown in the basin.

12.1.8. Water Resources Development in Tapi Basin

Twelve G&D sites are maintained by CWC in Tapi basin, viz. Dedtalai, Burhanpur,
Lakhpuri, Gopalkheda, Yerli, Dapuri, Savkheda, Malkheda, Morane, Gidhade &
Sarangkheda located upstream of the Ukai dam and Ghala G&D site located
downstream of the Ukai dam. The Kathor G & D site is located downstream of the
Ghala G & D site and is maintained by the Government of Gujarat. Table 6 gives
average flow at some gauging sites.
The utilizable water from Tapi River at Ukai dam has been estimated by Central
Water Commission (CWC) to be 14,500 MCM. According to the agreements among
the riparian states, the upstream utilization by States of Maharashtra and Madhya
Pradesh will be 5,420 MCM and 1,980 MCM respectively. The balance quantity of
7,100 MCM can be utilized by Gujarat. Preliminary investigations by the Government
of Gujarat show the water requirements for irrigation and D&I (domestic and indus-
trial) uses from the Ukai reservoir are about 4,546 MCM and 1,000 MCM respectively.
Therefore, the surplus quantity at Ukai reservoir has been estimated to be 1,554 MCM.
Water is exported from this basin from Ukai dam and Kakrapar weir. The proposed
Par-Tapi-Narmada interlinking scheme plans to transfer 1,554 MCM from the Ukai
dam to meet the demands in water deficit areas in North Gujarat.
There are 5 major, 27 medium and 364 minor existing irrigation projects in the
basin with annual irrigation of 357,959 ha utilizing 2,717 MCM of water. Most
of these projects are located in Maharashtra portion. Construction of 3 major, 24
medium and 123 minor projects is going on while 3 major, 4 medium and 197
minor projects are proposed to be constructed in future. Hathnur dam, Kakrapar
weir, Ukai dam, Girna dam, and Dahigaon weir are some of the important projects
in the basin. Important existing major and medium hydraulic structures along with
their capacities are presented in Table 7.

Table 6. Average flow (in 109 m3 ) at different CWC gauging stations (Catchment area
>5 000 km2 )

Name of the site Name of the stream Catchment area Annual average runoff
km2  (BCM)

Burhanpur Tapi 8 487 54

Gopalkheda Purna 9 500 10
Yerli Purna 16 517 18
Dapuri Girna 8 901 05
Savkheda Tapi 48 136 71
Gidhada Tapi 54 750 62
Sarangkheda Tapi 58 400 77
Ghala Tapi 63 325 57
Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi Basins 571

Table 7. Major/Medium existing Projects in Tapi basin

Name of Project Gross Storage 106 m3  Live Storage 106 m3 

Upper Tapi Basin

Sonkhedi Tank 545 459
Sukta 1 347 1 311
Chandora 182 1648
Katepurna 9767 8635
Nalganga 762 6932
Uma 14 1168
Nirguna 349 2885
Morna 4474 4146
Gyanganga 3626 3393
Mos 175 1514
Paltag 909 751
Man 3976 3683
Thoran 848 79
Hathnur 388 255
Total 2 13464 1 92604
Middle Tapi Basin
Girna 60845 52355
Manyad 5395 4027
Bori 403 2515
Suki 5016 3985
Abhora 744 602
Boker Bari 709 654
Agnawati 374 276
Tondapur 463 464
Aner 10323 5638
Karwand 3384 3115
Panjhra 4341 3563
Malangaon 1302 1135
Kanholi 1179 845
Burai 2133 1421
Arunawati 2778 1497
Rangawali 1502 1289
Nagasakya 1562 1124
Haran bari 3478 27
Total 1 09558 87205
Lower Tapi Basin
Ukai 8 510 7 092
Kakrapar 5151 3657
Lakhigav 388 3741
Ver 49 461
Total 8 60521 7 17059

From the on-going major, medium, and minor projects, anticipated utilization is
expected to be about 1,495.75 million m3 .
In the next section, we describe the Ukai Project which is a major WRD project
in Tapi basin.
572 Chapter 12

12.1.9. Ukai Project

The Ukai is the largest multipurpose project so far completed in Gujarat state. The
Ukai dam is located across Tapi River near Ukai village of Fort-Songadh taluka in
Surat district. Its catchment is located between longitudes 73 32 25 to 78 36 30 E
and latitudes 20 5 0 to 22 52 30 N. The dam is located at about 29 km upstream
of the Kakrapar weir. The total catchment area of the Ukai reservoir is 62,225 sq.
km, which lies in the Deccan plateau. The catchment of the dam covers large areas
of 12 districts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat. The districts that lie
in the catchment include Betul, Hoshangabad, Khandwa and Khargaon of Madhya
Pradesh; Akola, Amravati, Buldhana, Dhule, Jalgaon and Nasik of Maharashtra and
Bharuch and Surat of Gujarat state.
The dam comprises a 4,927 m long earth-cum-masonry dam. The reservoir has
a live storage capacity of 0.71 Million ha-m at FRL 105.156 m. The earth dam is
80.77 meter high above the lowest foundation level, while the masonry dam is 68.68
meter high above the lowest foundation. The storage extends irrigation facilities to
an area of 1,522 sq. km under the Ukai left bank canal and Ukai right bank canal
system besides firming up irrigation in an area of 2,275 sq. km under the command
of pick up weir at Kakrapar. Thus, the total irrigation facilities provided are for
3,797 sq. km under Ukai and Kakrapar.
The Ukai head works were completed in the year 1972 after a construction period
of seven years. There are 22 radial gates of 15545 × 14783 m size each. The length
of the spillway is 425.195 m. The area under submergence due to the construction
of reservoir (at FRL) is 601.30 sq. km, out of which 303 sq. km is in agricultural
land, 223 sq. km is forest land and the remaining 75.30 sq. km is wasteland. In Ukai
dam, 55 km3 of water is stored against the gates. This amounts to nearly 78% of
the live storage. Thus, a large quantity of water is not stored against a static wall
(the dam) but against a ‘live’ and moving device (gates). In such circumstances,
operation of gates is very critical not only for the structural safety but also for flood
control. This arrangement of storing large quantity of water behind gates has saved
large chunks of land from permanent submergence thereby reducing the cost of the
dam. Srisailam dam (Chapter 14) is another large dam where enormous volume of
water is held behind gates.
The 75% dependable yield of Tapi River at Ukai dam site is 11,350 MCM. Out
of this, the share of Gujarat is 3,947 MCM or 38.4%. This water is utilized to:
1. Provide irrigation in 152,000 ha in the command of Ukai Left Bank and Right
Bank canals,
2. Firm up irrigation in 227,500 ha in the command of Kakrapar canals, and
3. Generate hydropower up to 300 MW for 8–10 hours a day to meet the peak
demands.
Initially, the Ukai dam toe hydro-power station with an installed capacity of 300 MW
was planned as a peaking station and it was to be operated only for 8 to 10
hours in a day. In the initial years, with no upstream utilization in Maharashtra,
the project was expected to generate about 990 MU annually. This was expected
to reduce to 745 MU after 30 years and further to 587 MU after 60 years of
Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi Basins 573

operation, due to upstream development leading to reduced inflows to the reservoir.

The actual performance of power house indicates that the stipulated generation of
900 MU was exceeded in 12 out of 25 years, the maximum annual generation
reaching 1,233 MU in the year 1977–78. Table 8 shows the quantum of water
utilized for power generation at Ukai dam from 1990 to 1999. The reservoir also
provides partial flood control in the downstream areas; Surat is the major city being
protected.

12.1.10. Floods in the Tapi Basin

During monsoons, the Tapi River is frequently in spate and floods occasionally
cause havoc in the plains of lower reaches. In the post-monsoon period, the discharge
in the river is quite low, say of the order of 300 cumec. In the basin, rain storms
typically move from east to west; this also is the general flow direction in the basin.
Most floods occur during the period July to September, though occasionally they
may occur in the second week of October. The maximum number of floods has
been found to take place in the month of August.
Floods were a frequent phenomenon in Tapi River at Surat before the Ukai Dam
was constructed. During 1876 to 1970, danger level was crossed at the Hope Bridge,
in Surat on 19 instances. This implies a frequency of once in every five years. High
floods were experienced during three consecutive years from 1882 to 1884. There
was a very high flood in August 1944 and actually two almost similar flood peaks
occurred in the same week. A heavy flood, only slightly lower than that in 1944,
was experienced again in 1945. Consecutive large floods were also observed in
1958 and 1959. Heavy floods were witnessed in 1968, 1969, and 1970. The floods
of September 1959 and August 1968 were catastrophic. The floods of 1994 and
1998 also caused considerable damage to the Surat city and other low-lying areas
on the downstream.

Table 8. Water utilized for power generation at Ukai Dam

Year Electricity generated Water utilized for electricity

(million kwhr) generation (million m3 )

1990–91 67600 5 57533

1991–92 33800 2 70132
1992–93 87300 6 69780
1993–94 48500 3 82379
1994–95 79000 5 92070
1995–96 38700 3 72511
1996–97 54600 4 58855
1997–98 86100 6 64846
1998–99 91300 8 28899
Average 65211 5 33000
574 Chapter 12

Operation of Ukai Reservoir for Flood Control

CWC had prepared detailed guidelines for flood control operation of the Ukai
reservoir in the year 1975. The discussion in this section is drawn from (Patel
and Patel 2003). These guidelines had suggested restricting the outflow from the
dam to 24,070 cumec (8.5 lakh cusec) for floods of peak up to 36,800 cumec (13
lakh cusec). Higher floods could also be negotiated, provided the initial reservoir
level at the time of impinging of flood is at EL 101.19 m. But since the floods can
occur even by the beginning of October, maintaining EL 101.19 might result in the
reservoir remaining vacant if higher flows do not take place and in that eventuality
future demands will remain unsatisfied. To resolve the problems, reservoir is filled
to the maximum level of 103.33 m by the end of August and is gradually raised up to
FRL 105.15 m thereafter. But in the process, there is a risk of not completely filling
the reservoir. It was also suggested that the reservoir level should not be allowed to
rise above the FRL of 105.15 m for passing floods up to 36,800 cumec. Further, it
was presumed that weather and inflow forecasts would be available during floods
to make the best use of available storage space. CWC guidelines suggested that the
flood forecasting and dissemination facilities need to be strengthened to improve
the quality of forecasts and to increase the warning time to the maximum possible
extent. Availability of inflow forecasts permits the reservoir operator to make pre-
releases and create additional flood control capacity without the risk of losing the
conservation storage.
The guidelines stipulated that when floods higher than 36,800 cumec occur at
or near FRL, the outflows will exceed 28,080 cumec and the reservoir level may
rise up to MWL, depending upon the size of the flood. It was also brought out
that it would not be possible to contain the outflow within the permissible value
of 28,317 cumec (10 lakh cusec) when the floods between SPF and PMF occur
or when the reservoir is operated under emergency situation, without the aid of
flood forecasting. The maximum flow may reach the designed maximum outflow
of nearly 45,300 cumec (16 1akh cusec).

Regulation of 1994 and 1998 Floods

Abnormally big floods occurred in Tapi basin in the year 1994 and 1998. On
26.8.1994, the reservoir level at the dam was at 103.54 m (339.70 ft) and the inflow
was 2,315 cumec (82,000 cusec). Gradually, the inflow increased and reached a
maximum of 24,267 cumec (8.57 lakh cusec) on 8th Sept. at 18:00 hr. The flood
was regulated by allowing the reservoir to rise from RL 104.98 m (344.42 ft) to
RL 105.39 m (345.77 ft) and peak release was 14,385 cumec (5.08 lakh cusec).
The reservoir level depleted and reached FRL 105.15 m (345 ft) on 9.09.1994 at
08:00 hr. Thus the water level was kept above FRL for 22 hours so as to release less
water and provide flood relief to the downstream areas. During this flood event, the
total volume of inflow was 2,570 million m3 and the volume released was 1,744
million m3 . The maximum water level reached at Nehru Bridge, Surat, was 10.0 m.
Till 1994, the warning level and danger level of Tapi River at Surat City were
10.18 m and 11.18 m respectively. But in the 1994 flood, the peak release from Ukai
Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi Basins 575

dam was close to 14,900 cumec (5.25 lakh cusec). Consequently, river water level
rose to 10.2 m and this caused extensive submergence and heavy damages in Surat
City. After the monsoon of 1994, the matter was reviewed and the new warning and
danger levels were fixed at 8.5 m and 9.5 m, respectively. These levels correspond
to discharge of 11,328 cumec (4.0 lakh cusec) and 13,027 cumec (4.6 lakh cusec).
Note that the discharge corresponding to the warning level is considered to be the
safe carrying capacity of the river at that location.
In terms of volume and peak, the flood of 1998 was much bigger than the flood
of 1994. The first advance advisory flood warning for the heavy incoming flood
was received from CWC, on 15th September 1998 at 07:05 hr, informing that in the
next 42 to 48 hours, approximately 2 500 Mm3 of water was likely to enter Ukai
reservoir due to heavy rainfall in Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. It was also
informed that the total volume of this flood may be of the order of 4,000 million
m3 . At the time of this warning, the water level-in the reservoir was 104.1 m and the
storage capacity available up to FRL (105.15 m) in the reservoir was only 456 Mm3 .
To accommodate this flood by pre-depleting the Ukai reservoir, release at the
rate of 1,453 cumec was started from the dam at 10:00 hr on 15-9-98. The release
was increased subsequently with receipt of each new forecasts indicating that flood
was building up. During this event, the maximum observed inflow was of the order
of 29,817 cumec at 19:00 hr on 16-9-98. Against this, the maximum release from
the dam was at 19,765 cumec at 22:00 hr on 16-9-98. While routing the flood,
the maximum reservoir level attained was 105.47 m, which is 0.32 m above FRL.
During this event, the reservoir level was above FRL and in the vicinity of 105.46 m
for over 72 hours.
During flood season, the Ukai Reservoir is being operated in consultation with
CWC. The last gauging station being monitored by CWC on Tapi River is at
Gidhade, 175 km upstream from Ukai dam. The catchment area between Gidhade
and Ukai Dam which drains into Ukai dam Reservoir is 7,475 sq. km. From this
area, no rainfall or run off data are available to the Ukai dam operating authorities
till the water reaches the dam. Further, the water spread area of Ukai reservoir at
FRL is 600 sq. km and any rainfall over this area directly contributes to the inflow at
dam site without any loss. During the flood in September 1998, it was observed that
many times, the flood received at Ukai was much higher than the forecasts. Partly,
this can be attributed to heavy rainfall in the catchment area between Gidhade and
Ukai dam.
An analysis of data (Patel and Patel, 2003) shows that on 16th Sept. 1998, CWC
had forecasted an inflow volume of 1 460 Mm3 while the volume received at the
dam site was 1,748 million m3 which is 20% higher than forecast given by CWC.
Further, total 4,321 million m3 water was received at the dam site till 06:00 hrs
of 19th Sept. 1998. Out of this, only 727 million m3 was stored in the reservoir
and remaining 3,686 million m3 was released. In the initial response on 15th Sept.
1998, 1,159 million m3 water was received at dam site out of which, 403 Mm3 was
stored in the reservoir which is 35% of the inflow and remaining 756 Mm3 was
released in the downstream.
576 Chapter 12

As against the peak inflow of 29,817 cumec, peak outflow was 19,765 cumec
due to which the maximum water level of Tapi River at Nehru Bridge at Surat
on 17.9.1998 was 11.4 m. Had the unregulated flood of 29,817 cumec reached
Surat, the river water level at Nehru Bridge might have touched 11.90 m. Thus,
due to regulation of Ukai project, the peak flow at Surat was significantly reduced.
However, even the peak release of 19,765 cumec inundated low lying areas in and
around Surat City and caused extensive damages. In view of this, the Government
of Gujarat decided to review the flood control operation policy of Ukai dam.
Ever increasing need for water for irrigation and power for industries in Ukai
command and looking to the performance of the reservoir regarding flood control as
described above, prompted the government to review the operation policy of Ukai
dam in the changed circumstances so as to optimize the irrigation, power and flood
control benefits. New rule curve levels have been determined after a detailed study
and these recommendations are given in the second column of Table 9. Further,
CWC has tried to optimize the rule levels for the reservoir by minimizing the total
penalties due to violation of storage and channel flow targets and the optimized
rule levels are given in the third column of Table 9.
Patel and Patel, (2003) report that the safe carrying capacity of the Tapi River
at Surat has alarmingly reduced from the design value of 24,070 cumec (8.5 lakh
cusec) to only 11,320 cumec (4 lakh cusec) due to the following reasons:
a) Non-completion of flood embankments on both sides of Tapi River upstream of
Surat City,
b) Extensive encroachment on river flood plains in and around Surat City,
c) Extensive siltation in river channel in and around Surat City, and
d) Afflux created due to the construction of Siganpore weir just upstream of Surat
City.

12.1.11. Other Projects in Tapi Basin

In addition to Ukai, there are some other existing projects in the Tapi basin. Salient
features of the existing projects whose live storage capacity is more than 10 million
cubic meter have been presented in Table 10.
Table 11 gives salient features of those projects which are under construction
and whose live storage capacity is more than 10 million cubic meter.

Table 9. Rule levels recommended by Task group for Ukai Reservoir

Date Recommended rule Optimized rule

level (m) level (m)

July 1st 9785 9750

August 1st 10150 10100
September 1st 10363 10300
September 15th 10363 –
Oct. 1st 10515 10515
Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi Basins 577

Table 10. Salient features of selected existing projects in Tapi basin

Name of the State Year of Gross Live storage Designed

Project completion storage capacity annual
capacity (million m3 ) Irrigation
(million m3 ) (million m2 )

Kakrapar Gujarat 1953 5230 4400 19981

Ver-II Gujarat – 3894 3733 6120
Sampur Madhya Pradesh 1956 1494 1121 3850
Sawpna Madhya Pradesh 1957 1694 1431 3900
Aner Maharashtra 1978 10327 5891 7180
Bari Maharashtra 1977 3945 2502 5960
Burai Maharashtra 1983 2133 1421 2830
Chankapur Maharashtra 1911 8000 7459 6420
Girna Maharashtra 1969 60845 52355 57210
Gyan Ganga Maharashtra 1970 4280 3890 4250
Haranbasi Maharashtra 1980 3477 3302 6710
Karvand Maharashtra 1970 3384 3115 5570
Kelzan Maharashtra 1981 1710 1622 3540
Morna Maharashtra 1971 4471 4146 2200
Malangaon Maharashtra 1971 1302 1133 6880
Manyad Maharashtra 1973 5393 4026 5900
Mas Maharashtra 1982 1750 1504 8740
Nalganga Maharashtra 1963 7620 7054 5890
Nirguna Maharashtra 1976 3229 2883 3340
Purme Pada Maharashtra 1955 1353 1296 11390
Panzara Maharashtra 1973 4350 3580 3130
Rangavali Maharashtra 1982 1502 1289 5690
Sudki Kalepurna Maharashtra 1974 9763 9288 2560
Suki Maharashtra 1977 5017 3986 55000
Uma Maharashtra 1982 1401 1168
Upper Tapi Stage-I Maharashtra – 38800 25500

Table 11. Salient features of selected projects under construction in Tapi basin in Maharashtra

Name of the Project Gross storage capacity Live storage capacity Designed annual
(million m3 ) (million m3 ) irrigation (million m2 )

Bahula 2003 1633 4650

Mun 3976 3586 –
Punad 3975 3699 17000
Shahanoor 4785 4585 9560
Waghur 25804 18130 24000
Wan 8491 7928 18000

12.1.12. Groundwater Potential

Table 12 contains groundwater related information for the three sub-basins of Tapi.
As can be seen from this table, the normal natural ground water recharge is the
578 Chapter 12

Table 12. Ground water recharge and potential for three sub-basins of Tapi

Sub-basin Normal natural Canal Provision for Utilizable GW GW resource

recharge to irrigation D&I & other resources for for future use
GW 106 m3  recharge to uses 106 m3  irrigation 106 m3 
GW 106 m3  106 m3 

Upper Tapi 3 42516 19482 1 05795 2 30579 1 90139

Middle Tapi 2 33524 47392 90186 1 71661 95239
Lower Tapi 1 06853 51860 32483 1 13606 97468

highest in the Upper Tapi sub-basin while the recharge due to canal irrigation is
the maximum in the Lower Tapi sub-basin.

12.1.13. Water Quality

Table 13 reports the status of water quality indicators at selected locations in the
Tapi basin at five different time periods. At almost all places, the observed quality
was worse than the desired quality. BOD and total coliform were the parameters
that frequently aggravated the situation.

12.2. THE SABARMATI BASIN

The Sabarmati basin extends over an area of 21 674 km2 which is nearly 0.66
percent of the total geographical area of India. It lies between east longitudes of
72 15 to 73 49 and north latitudes of 22 15 to 24 53 . It is bounded on the north
and north-east by the Aravalli hills, on the east by the ridge separating it from the
Mahi basin, on the south by the Gulf of Cambay and on the west by the ridge,
separating it from the basins of minor streams draining into Rann of Kutch and
the Gulf of Cambay. The basin lies in the States of Gujarat and Rajasthan. The
State-wise distribution of drainage area is given in Table 14.
The important soil types found in the basin are black, alluvial and sandy soils.
The culturable area of the basin is about 1.55 M-ha which is 0.8 percent of the total
culturable area of the country. An index map of Sabarmati basin is given in Figure 4.

12.2.1. The Sabarmati River

The Sabarmati River is one of the four main rivers which traverse the alluvial
plains of Gujarat. It rises in the Aravalli hills at a north latitude of 24 40 and an
east longitude of 73 20 in the Rajasthan state at an elevation of 762 meters near
the popular shrine of Amba Bhavani. After traversing a course of about 48 km in
Rajasthan, the river enters the Gujarat State. At the 51st , km of its run, the Wakal
River joins it from the left, near village Ghonpankhari. Flowing in a generally
south-west and winding among jungle covered hills over a bed strewn with shingles
Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi Basins 579

Table 13. Desired and existing water quality levels for Tapi

Location Desired class Observed class & critical parameters

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Tapi at A B B B B B
Nepanagar, Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
M.P. BOD,
Totcoli
Tapi at A B D B B B
Burhanpur, Totcoli Totcoli
M.P. BOD, BOD, BOD,
Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Tapi at Hathnur, A A B B B B
Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
M.P. BOD,
Totcoli
Tapi at Ajnand D D D D D
BOD,
Totcoli
Village, BOD, BOD, BOD, BOD, BOD,
Maharashtra Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Tapi at Bhusawal C D D D D D
U/S, BOD BOD BOD BOD BOD
Maharashtra
Tapi at Uphad D D D D D
Village, BOD BOD BOD BOD BOD
Maharashtra
Tapi at Ukai, C D D NA NA NA
Sherula Bridge, Totcoli BOD
Gujarat
Tapi at Mandavi, C D D NA NA NA
Gujarat BOD BOD
Tapi at Kathore, C D D NA NA NA
(NH-8 Bridge), BOD, BOD
Gujarat Totcoli

NA- Not Available. Source: Central Pollution Control Board.

and boulders, at the 67th , km of its run, it receives the Sei River from the right
near Mhauri and then the Harnav River from the left at about 103rd , km from the
source, before it enters Dharoi reservoir. Emerging from the dam it passes through

Table 14. Statewise drainage areas of Sabarmati basin

State Drainage area km2 

Gujarat 17,550
Rajasthan 4,124
Total 21,674
580 Chapter 12

Figure 4. Index map of Sabarmati basin

the plains and is joined on its left at about 170 km from its source by the Hathmati
River. Continuing to flow south-westwards, the river passes through Ahmedabad
at about 165 km downstream of Dharoi dam. Further 65 km downstream, another
tributary, the Watrak River joins it from the left. Flowing for a further distance of
68 km, the river outfalls into the Gulf of Cambay in the Arabian Sea.
The total length of the river from the head to its outfall into sea is 419 km of
which about 48 km are in Rajasthan and the remaining 371 km in Gujarat. The river
meets the following tributaries during its course of flow:
• Sei (catchment area 883 sq. km),
• Wakal (catchment area 1,893 sq. km),
• Harnav (catchment area 865 sq. km),
• Hathmati (catchment area 1,574 sq. km), and
• Watrak (catchment area 8,638 sq. km).
The Sabarmati River runs in a valley with the ground rising on both sides. The
drainage area assumes a shape of a fan covering the part of Rajasthan state and
parts of Sabarkantha, Ahmedabad, Banaskantha, Mehsana, Surendranagar and Kaira
districts of Gujarat state. Sabarmati River has been subjected to severe pressure due
to the fast pace of urban and industrial growth of Ahmedabad’s urban agglomeration,
especially after the 1960s. The topography of the Sabarmati basin is hilly in the
early reaches up to Dharoi after which the river flows mostly in plains. On an
average, the river empties 44,775 MCM of water in the Arabian Sea annually.
The studies carried out by the Govt. of Gujarat reveal the possibilities of utilizing
9,692.2 MCM of water for irrigating 132,420 ha of land and for power generation
to the extent of 2,899 KW at 60 % load factor. At times, the Sabarmati River sends
Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi Basins 581

down very heavy floods and some of these have caused devastation in Ahmedabad
and villages lower down, destroyed crops, carried away cattle, changed the course
of the delta channels and filled up harbour with silt. The highest known floods have
occurred in 1875, 1941, 1950 and 1973.

12.2.2. Tributaries of the Sabarmati River

A brief description of various tributaries of the Sabarmati basin is given in what

follows. Figure 5 Shows the stream network of Sabarmati basin.

Sei River
The Sei River rises from the south western spurs of the Aravalli hills and mostly
flows in Rajasthan state. The river is formed by the confluence of several rivulets
originating from the western slopes of Aravalli hills. The Sei River meets Sabarmati
after traversing a course of 102 km. The catchment area of the Sei is 883 sq. km
which is hilly with steep slopes. The average annual rainfall in the catchment is
675 mm. The total catchment area of Sei dam is 331.66 sq. km and normal expected
yield at dam site is 52.032 MCM. Most of the runoff occurs in the monsoon season.
The winter rainfall is very small. However, in good rainfall years, some flow remains
in the river up to March-April. A dam, namely Sei dam, has been constructed on
this river.

Wakal River
The Wakal River rises from the south western spurs of the Aravalli hills at
a north latitude of 24 46 and an east longitude of 73 23 . After traversing a
course of 158 km, it meets the Sabarmati River. The catchment area of the Wakal
is 1,893 sq. km. The basin is hilly, covered with forests. The basin covers the
Sabarkantha district of Gujarat state and part of Udaipur district of Rajasthan state.

Harnav River
The Harnav River rises from Aravalli hills near village Ghadvas at north latitude
of 24 12 and an east longitude of 73 16 . After traversing 61 km, the Harnav River
meets the Sabarmati River. The catchment area of Harnav River is 865 sq. km.
The catchment area in the first 32 km is hilly and thereafter the basin is plain. The
average rainfall in the catchment area is 80 cm. The main tributaries of Harnav
River are Kaluri and Kusumba rivers draining an area of 311 and 124 sq. km,
respectively. The catchment area up to the dam site is hilly and the remaining
portion is generally in plains.
For gauge & discharge measurements, there are three gauging sites in the basin
at Abhapur, Harnav-1 and Khedbrahma. One storage reservoir with dual purpose
of flood control irrigation and three pickup weirs to cater for irrigation have been
constructed across the river. All the three weirs are located downstream of Harnav
dam and upstream of Khedbrahma.
582 Chapter 12

Figure 5. Stream network of Sabarmati basin

Hathmati River
The Hathmati River rises from the Gujarat Malwa hills south western foothills of
the Rajasthan range near Godad at a north latitude of 23 55 and an east longitude
of 73 29 in Sabarkantha district. After traversing a course of 98 km, it meets the
Sabarmati River near Ged, 20 km south west of Himatnagar in Sabarkantha distt.
Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi Basins 583

The catchment area of Hathmati River including its tributaries is 1,574 sq. km.
The elongated catchment consists of 70% hilly and thinly wooded jungles and
about 30% cultivated and inhabited lands. The two main tributaries of Hathmati
are Bodoli and Guhai having catchment areas of 119 and 505 sq. km, respectively.
The catchment area up to the confluence of Guhai and Hathmati is a hilly region.
The average annual rainfall in the catchment is 86 cm.
On the Hathmati River, a dam, namely Hathmati dam, and a pick up weir, namely
Hathmati weir or Himatnagar weir, have been constructed for getting the irrigation
facilities from the tributary. Hathmati dam is located in district Sabarkantha and
has the dual purpose of irrigation and flood control. The weir is located on the
downstream of dam but upstream of confluence of Hathmati with Sabarmati. The
purpose of the weir is irrigation. On the Guhai River, a storage dam has been
constructed for irrigation and flood control. Gauge and discharge measurements are
taken in the basin at Bhiloda, Balochpur, Kadiadra and Himatnagar weir.

Watrak River
It originates in Aravalli hills in south Rajasthan an. After flowing for about 178 km
in south-west direction, it joins Sabarmati near Pala village, about 34 km from
Ahmedabad. Eru, Mazam, and Shedhi are important tributaries of Watrak. The
catchment area of Watrak is about 1,114 sq. km out of which, 336 sq. km lies in
Rajasthan and the rest in Gujarat. In the headwater region, the river runs in hilly
and forested tracts.

12.2.3. Major Projects in Sabarmati Basin

The major water resources development projects in the Sabarmati basin are
described next.

12.2.4. The Sei Dam

Sei dam has been constructed on Sei River in the Rajasthan state near village Teja Ka
Bas, Kotra tehsil of district Udaipur. This project is also known as Jawai reservoir
project. The latitude and longitude of the dam site are 24 23 N and 73 11 8 E. The
main objective of this project is to supply water for irrigation in Jawai command
area. The water from the catchment up to this dam site is not available for the
Dharoi reservoir command.

12.2.5. The Harnav Dam

In the head reaches of Harnav River, a gated dam, known as Harnav dam, has
been constructed. Also known as Harnav-II dam or Vanaj dam, the dam is located
near Vanaj village, in Vijaynagar taluka, Sabarkantha district and has dual purpose
of irrigation and flood control. The catchment area at the dam site is 116 sq. km.
The dam was completed in the year 1990. The FRL and HFL of the reservoir are
584 Chapter 12

at level 332.00 m and 336.85 m, respectively. The dead storage and live storage
capacity of the Harnav dam is 1.70 and 19.97 million cubic meter respectively. The
crest level of the head regulator for release of water for irrigation from the dam is
at 317.50 m.
Three weirs have been constructed between the dam site and Khedbrahma:
(i) Mamrechi weir situated 3 km downstream of Harnav dam near Abhapur
(ii) Kenyatta weir situated 12 km downstream of Harnav dam at Attarsumba Ashram,
and (iii) Chhapra weir or Harnav weir situated 25 km downstream of Harnav dam.
The Mamrechi and Kenyatta weirs were constructed by the former princely states.
The third weir, namely Chhapra weir, was constructed in 1958 as Harnav-I. There
are three gauging sites on Harnav River at Khedbrahma (downstream of Harnav
weir) at Abhapur (downstream of Harnav dam) and at Harnav weir. The water
requirements at the three weir sites are met from the Harnav dam and the flow from
the intermediate catchment. Harnav dam is operated to meet the irrigation demands
from these weirs. The Harnav River spills its water directly in the Dharoi reservoir.
Since there is no rain gauge station in the catchment area of the Harnav dam-and
no gauging site upstream of the Harnav dam, estimation of inflow in the reservoir
is made on the basis of rate of rise or fall of water level in the reservoir.

12.2.6. The Harnav Weir

Also known as Harnav-1 or Chhapra weir, the weir is located in district Sabarkantha
downstream of Harnav dam and upstream of Khedbrahma. The weir was completed
in the year 1959. The catchment area at the weir site is 427 sq. km. This single
purpose project has been constructed to cater for irrigation. The spillway of the
weir is 191 m long. To supply water in the command area of the Harnav weir, the
water at the weir site is diverted in the Damavas and Patera tanks, which have
combined, live storage capacity of 2.067 MCM. Thus, water is spilled to the Dharoi
reservoir from the Harnav weir after filling the Damavas and Patera tanks to their
capacity.

12.2.7. The Dharoi Dam

The Dharoi dam is the most important structure of the Sabarmati basin. It is located
on Sabarmati River near village Dharoi in Kheralu taluka of district Mehsana,
103 km from the source of the river. The latitude and longitude of the dam are
24 00 N and 72 52 E, respectively. Its purposes are water supply to the cities of
Ahmedabad and Gandhinagar, irrigation, flood control and power generation. The
catchment area of the river at the dam site is 5,540 sq. km. The dam was completed
in the year 1976. The FRL and HFL of the dam are at a level of 189.59 m and
175.87 m respectively. The dead storage and live storage capacity of the reservoir (as
per revised capacity plan after 50 years) are 131.99 and 775.89 MCM, respectively.
A view of Dharoi dam has been shown in Figure 6.
Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi Basins 585

Figure 6. A view of Dharoi dam

12.2.8. Hathmati Dam

The Hathmati dam is located near Fatehpur village in Bhiloda taluka, Sabarkantha
district, and serves dual purpose of irrigation and flood control. The catchment area
at the dam site is 595 sq. km. The dam was completed in the year 1972. Along with
the Hathmati dam, the Indrasi dam for providing necessary storage and the Navalpur
waste weir for disposing off the flood water have also been constructed. The FRL
and HFL of the reservoir are at a level of 180.74 m and 183.18 m, respectively. The
dead storage and live storage capacity of the Hathmati dam are 3.90 and 148.93
million cubic meters, respectively. The crest level of the head regulator taking off
water for irrigation from the dam is at 170.69 m.
The Indrasi dam has been built on the Indrasi River for providing enhanced
storage for the Hathmati dam. The dead storage and live storage capacity of this
reservoir at a level of 178.76 m (as per revised fresh capacity plan, 1988) are
0.392 and 18.80 million cubic meters, respectively. Above the level 178.76 m, the
Hathmati reservoir and the Indrasi reservoir merge together. One head regulator has
also been provided in this dam for releasing water for irrigation. The crest level of
this head regulator is at a level of 172.21 m.
To dispose off the flood water from the Hathmati reservoir, the Navalpur waste
weir has been constructed. The crest level of this ogee shaped weir is at a level of
180.74 m and it is ungated. The length of the spillway is 241 m and its discharging
capacity at HFL is 2,943.2 cumec.
586 Chapter 12

12.2.9. Guhai Dam

The Guhai dam is located on Guhai River near village Khandial in Himatnagar
taluka of district Sabarkantha, 39 km from the source of the river. The latitude and
longitude of the dam are 23 42 00 N and 73 3 24 E, respectively. Its purposes are
irrigation and flood control. The catchment area of the Guhai River at the dam
site is 422 sq. km. The dam was completed in the year 1990. The FRL and HFL
of the dam are at a level of 173.00 m and 173.77 m respectively. The dead storage
and live storage capacity of the reservoir are 5.30 and 57.04 MCM, respectively.
The culturable command area of this project is 11,465 ha and the annual water
requirement from this reservoir for irrigation is 44.702 MCM.

12.2.10. Hathmati Weir

The Hathmati weir is located on the downstream of Hathmati dam and Guhai dam
but upstream of confluence of Hathmati River, with Sabarmati River. The ogee
shaped weir was remodelled in 1972–73. It has the sill level at 134.078 m and an
overflow section 306.367 m long. The total catchment area of the weir is 1,357 sq.
km. The design discharge of canal head regulator is 19.4 cumec. This weir is used
to divert the flow of Hathmati River into the B, C and D zones (See below) of the
command area of the Hathmati system for irrigation purposes. During floods, the
excess flow of Hathmati River passes over the weir to join the Sabarmati River.
Hathmati canal system is one of the oldest irrigation systems of Gujarat state.
The command area of this project comprises of four zones:
(i) Zone A: New areas in Bhiloda and Himatnagar Taluka of Sabarkantha District
under direct command of the reservoir.
(ii) Zone B: Area of existing Hathmati canal system getting water through Himat-
nagar weir.
(iii) Zone C: New area beyond Bokh between Sabarmati and Khari rivers in
Sabarkantha, Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad districts.
(iv) Zone D: Command area of existing Khari cut canal system. The main canal of
zone A takes off from the Hathmati dam.
The capacity of the main canal in initial reach is 15.581 cumec. An escape has been
provided at chainage 1,425 of main canal to release water in the Hathmati River for
B, C and D zones. Upstream of the Hathmati weir, two ancient storage structures,
known as Limla dam and Karol dam have been constructed for storing excess water
at the Hathmati weir. This water is to be released in the command areas of B, C
and D zones. The storage capacity of the Limla dam is 10.28 million cubic meter
and that of Karol dam is 7.504 million cubic meters. Thus, water in excess of the
irrigation demands of the B, C and D zones at the Hathmati weir can be diverted to
fill these two storage structures for use in case of scarcity before spilling the water
in Sabarmati River.
A head regulator of 4.816 cumec capacity has been provided in Indrasi dam for
releasing water for B, C and D zones. The water released from Hathmati reservoir
Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi Basins 587

in the Hathmati River for B, C and D zones either through Indrasi head regulator
or through escape of main canal of zone A is picked up at Himatnagar weir and is
diverted in the main canal of B-zone.
During floods, water of Hathmati River is diverted in the main canal of zone B
at Himatnagar weir and water is stored in Limla dam which is filled through Bokh
feeder, taking off from Hathmati canal (zone B) and Karol dam which is being
fed through Hathmati main canal and Karol feeder. This stored water is released
through head regulator in river Khari for Khari cut canal (zone D) and the same is
picked up at Raipur weir.
The main canal of zone C takes off from Bokh feeder of Hathmati main canal
of zone B. As such, water diverted in main canal of zone B at Himatnagar weir is
utilized in zone B, zone C, and zone D.

12.2.11. Watrak Project

Watrak dam is an earthen dam constructed near Pahadia village, about 19 km
upstream of Dhupal Weir. This dam was completed in 1984 with gross and live
storage capacities of 177 and 154 million m3 . The height of the dam above the
deepest foundation to the spillway crest is 36 m. Spillway of the dam is ogee shaped
with six gates and has been designed for a flood of 12,798 cumec. FRL of the dam is
at 136.25 m and MDDL is at 126.39 m. Two canals take off from the dam to supply
water for irrigation. The right bank canal runs for about 23.5 km and irrigates an
area of 3,258 ha while the left bank canal has two branches and irrigates an area of
15,103 ha. At FRL, the submergence area is 32 sq. km.

12.2.12. Kalpsaar Project

The Kalpsaar project envisages construction of a dyke in the Gulf of Khambat, to
isolate a portion of the gulf, and convert it into a large sweet water lake. As such
this project is not in the Sabarmati basin. The project will provide water, generate
electricity, and the rail/road on the dyke will also reduce the distance between
Mumbai and Saurashtra by 225 km. A noteworthy feature of Kalpsaar is that the
dam and the lake are both out in the ocean, and not on the land, so there is no
submergence of any land area and consequently displacement etc. In addition, it
is also important being tidal power project, one of the alternative and renewable
sources of energy.
Besides the above, there are some more existing water resources projects in
the basin. Salient features of existing water resources projects with a live storage
capacity of 10 MCM and above have been presented in Table 15.

12.2.13. Water Quality

Table 16 reports the status of water quality indicators at selected locations in the
Sabarmati basin at five different time periods. Note that at almost all the places, the
588 Chapter 12

Table 15. Salient features of selected existing projects in Sabarmati basin

Name of the Project Year of Gross storage Live storage Designed annual
completion capacity capacity (million irrigation
(million cubic cubic meter) (Million Sq.
meter) meter)

Bhogava – I 1959 1851 1678 3240

Bhogava – II 1959 2332 1679 720
Mazam – 4386 7700 6290
Meswa Main Dam 1964 8200 2803 17200
Thoriali 1958 3016 15433 4210

Table 16. Desired and existing water quality levels for Sabarmati

Location Desired Observed class & critical parameters

class
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Sabarmati at A D D C NA C
Kheroj Bridge, BOD, pH, pH, Totcoli
Gujarat Totcoli BOD, BOD,
Totcoli Totcoli
Sabarmati at C D D D NA NA
Gandhi Nagar BOD, Totcoli BOD,
Chiloda Bridge, Totcoli Totcoli
Lekawada,
Gujarat
Sabarmati at A D D C NA D
Dharoidam, BOD, pH, BOD, BOD
Gujarat Totcoli BOD, Totcoli
Totcoli
Sabarmati at C Below-E Below-E Below-E Below-E Below-E
Ahmedabad at Conductivity Conductivity Conductivity Cond, pH,
V.N. Bridge, Fammonia Conductivity
Gujarat
Sabarmati at C D E E NA E
Railway Bridge BOD, BOD, DO, DO,
Ahmedabad, Totcoli Totcoli, Totcoli BOD,
Gujarat Free Totcoli
Ammonia
Sabarmati after D E Below-E Below-E Below-E Below-E
conf. with Conductivity Conductivity DO, Conductivity
Meshwa at Cond.,
Vautha (near Fammonia
Dhokla),Gujarat
Sabarmati at Vill. D E Below-E Below-E Below-E NA
Miroli Taluka DO DO, DO, Cond.,
Dascroi, Conductivity Fammonia, Fammonia
Ahmedabad, Conductivity
Gujarat
∗
NA- Not Available. Source: Central Pollution Control Board.
Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi Basins 589

observed quality was much below the desired quality. In particular, at Ahmedabad,
the observed quality was in the ‘E’ class and the river is more or less like a drain.
The flow is very small during the summer months. Sabarmati River is notorious for
being almost depleted of dissolved oxygen during summer or pre-monsoon months.
However, the situation has improved after the Narmada canal has started supplying
water to some places in the basin due to dilution effect. It is also a matter of concern
that at some places, the quality of river water is below ‘E’ class.

12.3. THE MAHI BASIN

The Mahi basin extends over an area of 34,842 km which is nearly 1.1 percent of
the total geographical area of the country. It lies between east longitudes 72 15 to
78 15 and north latitudes 22 0 to 22 40 N respectively. The Mahi River originates
in the Mahi Kanta hills in the Vindhyachal range, in the western part of Madhya
Pradesh. It is bounded on the north and north-west by the Aravalli hills, on the east
by the ridge separating it from the Chambal basin, on the south by the Vindhayas
and on the west by the Gulf of Cambay. The basin lies in the States of Rajasthan,
Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. The statewise distribution of drainage area is given
in Table 17. An index map of the Mahi basin is presented in Figure 7.
The upper part of the basin in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh and comprises
mostly of hills and forests except the lower half in M.P., which is fairly plain. The
central part lying in Gujarat consists of developed lands. The lower part of the basin
lying in Gujarat is flat and fertile and well developed alluvial tract. Important soil
types in the basin are red and black soils. The culturable area of the basin is about
2.21 Mha which is 1.1 percent of the total culturable area of the country.
The Mahi River originates in the northern slope of the Vindhyachal ranges in
MP at an elevation of nearly 500 m and flows for about 583 km before outfalling
into the Arabian Sea. It flows southwards for about 120 km in MP before entering
Banswara District of Rajasthan. The river makes a ‘U’ shaped loop in Rajasthan
before entering Gujarat and finally discharges into the Gulf of Cambay. Being a
monsoonal river it is found that the inflow from seven dry months is less than 5%
of the total inflow. The principal tributaries of the Mahi River are Som, Jakham,
Moran, Anas, and the Bhadar.

Table 17. Statewise drainage area of Mahi River

State Drainage area km2 

Rajasthan 16 453

Gujarat 11 694
Madhya Pradesh 6 695
Total 34 842
590 Chapter 12

Figure 7. Index map of Mahi basin

The mean annual rainfall over the Mahi basin is around 700 mm, of which 94%
falls during four monsoon months.

12.3.1. Major Tributaries of the Mahi River

In the following, we describe the major tributaries of Mahi River. Figure 8 Shows
the stream network of Mahi basin.

The Som
The River Som originates in the hills near the village Som in Kherwara Tehsil
of Udaipur District at an elevation of 600 m. It flows southeast through a hilly
region and joins river Mahi near the village Baneshwar. The entire catchment lies in
Udaipur and Dungarpur Districts. The tributaries of the Som River are Tidi, Gomti
and Jakham. The catchment area of the Som sub basin is 6 443 km2 .
Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi Basins 591

Sea

Son River 2,300

1,700 Anas River

Panam River 700

8,500 Gulf of Khambhat

Sea

Figure 8. Stream network of Mahi basin

The Jakham
The River Jakham originates southwest of the hills near Chotti Sadari in Chittorgarh
District. It flows through the hilly region of Udaipur District in a south-western
direction and joins river Som near Bilara village. The Sub-Basin is situated in
Chittor and Udaipur Districts. Karmai and Sukli are the major tributaries of the
Jakham River. The catchment area of the Jakham sub basin is 2 318 km2 .

The Moran
River Moran originates in the southern hills of Dungarpur town. It flows through
Dungarpur District and joins Mahi River near Galiakot village. The total catchment
of river lies in Dungarpur District. Karmai and Sukli are the tributaries of The
Moran River. The catchment area of the Moran sub basin is 735 km2 .

The Anas
The River Anas originates in the northern slopes of the Vindhyan ranges, near
Amber village in MP. It flows in a north-western direction, enters Rajasthan near
Meledikhera village and joins Mahi River about 15 km downstream of Galiakot
village. The Sub-Basin in Rajasthan is situated in Banswara District. The Hiran
is the tributary of the Anas River. The catchment area of the Anas sub basin is
1 441 km2 .
592 Chapter 12

The Bhadar
The river Bhadar, originating in the hills south of Kanguwa village in Dungarpur
District, flows from north to south and enters Gujarat near Kokhakra village in
Dungarpur District, where it joins the Mahi near Karanta village in Gujarat. The
catchment is situated in Dungarpur District. The catchment area of the Bhadar sub
basin is 6 047 km2 .

12.3.2. WRD Projects in Mahi Basin

Selected important WRD projects in Mahi basin are described in the following.

12.3.3. Jakham Reservoir

Jakham reservoir is located at 24 10 30 N latitude and 74 35 30 E longitude at
village Anuppura, Pratapgarh Tehsil, Chittorgarh District, in Rajasthan. It was
completed in the year 1986. It is constructed on river Jakham, which is tributary
of river Mahi. The project provides irrigation benefits to tribal people of the
area consisting of 104 villages of Dhariawad Tehsil and 3 villages of Pratapgarh
Tehsil. The area near the dam is hilly and consists of waste land, hence a pickup
weir at Nagalia, which is 13 km away from dam is constructed from which main
canal emerges.
The project has a catchment area of 1,010 sq. km with average yield as
212.376 MCM. It lies in Pratapgarh and Chotisadri Tehsils of Chittorgarh in agrocli-
matic zone IVB. The irrigated area in catchment covers 95.85 sq. km (9.49%) and the
unirrigated cultivable area is 366.32 sq km (36.27%). Around 45% of the catchment
area has sufficient soil cover for raising crops and this area may contribute to soil
erosion to Jakham reservoir. The Forest area covers 23.52% of catchment area. Soils
in the area vary considerably. The soils are silty loam to clay loam, occasionally
clay, and grayish brown to dark grayish brown. Soils are deep and occur as buried
pediments. These appear to be derived from alluvium of phyllites and limestone.
The catchment area falls in typical sub-tropical sub-humid to humid climate
conditions, characterized by mild winter and moderate summer with high relative
humidity during the months of July-September. Mean monthly minimum temper-
ature ranges from 11  C (Jan.) to 26  C (June) and mean monthly maximum
temperature ranges from 218  C (Jan) to 438  C (May). The average annual
rainfall varies between 800–900 mm. Mean annual PET varies from 1,301
to 1,400 mm.
The Top of dam is at RL 373.0m with HFL at RL 371.65m. The dead storage level
of reservoir is at RL 332.0m. The length of dam is 253.0 m with maximum height
as 81.0m. Two main canals, Right Main Canal (RMC) with length as 23.76 km and
Left main canal (LMC) of 39.90 km length emerge from the pickup weir. The canals
are lined with design discharge of 3.533 cumec (RMC) and 7.92 cumec (LMC).
Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi Basins 593

12.3.4. Panam Dam

Panam dam in Santrampur Taluka of Panchmahals district in Gujarat was first
impounded in the year 1977. It is a multipurpose project constructed on Panam
River, a tributary of Mahi. Panam River originates in Devgadh Baria Taluka of
Panchamahals district. After flowing mostly through hills in North – westerly
direction, it joins Mahi River about 25 km downstream of Panam dam. The dam
site is located at 23 3 00 North latitude and 73 42 00 East longitude in village
Kel-Dezar. Nearest railway station is Godhra, which is 45 km from dam.
Total catchment area at the dam site is 2,312 sq. km. The catchment is mostly
hilly and covered with forests except near the dam site where it is relatively flatter.
The reservoir has a designed gross reservoir capacity of 737.987 MCM with live
capacity being 689.567 MCM. Top of dam is at RL 131.41 m, with HFL at 128m.
This masonry dam is 56.36 m high and 269.45 m long, with 182 m long spillway.
There are 10 radial gates of size 1493 m × 1128 m. Irrigation potential of Panam
dam is 493.70 sq km. Soils of the catchment are derived from rocks like quartzites,
schists and phyllites. Deep soils cover about 79% of the culturable.
Project area experiences tropical climate with minimum temperature of 12  C in
January and maximum temperature of 39  C in May. Average annual rainfall in the
area is 940 mm. About 80% of the rainfall occurs during July and August. Panam
dam has total GCA of 582.73 sq. km with CCA as 411.16 sq. km. The command is
entirely located on the left bank of river.

12.3.5. Mahi Bajaj Sagar Project

Mahi Dam is a straight masonry dam on Mahi River, located at a distance of 56 km
from Banswara in Banswara District, Rajasthan. The length of the masonry and
earthen parts of the dam is 435 m and 2,627 m respectively. The reservoir behind
the 43 m high dam is known as Mahi Bajaj Sagar reservoir. The catchment area of
the river up to the dam site is 6,149 sq. km. Mahi Bajaj Sagar reservoir has a live
storage capacity of 2,070 MCM at FRL of 280.75 m and the MDDL of the project
is at 259 m.
Two power stations namely Mahi I and Mahi II have been constructed under the
development plan. Mahi I power house, located at Mahi dam, has 2 units of 25 MW
each. Mahi II power house is located at a distance of 45 km from the dam site. Mahi
II power house uses the tail waters of upstream Mahi I power house. Mahi II power
house has 2 units of 45 MW each. Mahi I and Mahi II power projects have the firm
power of 15 MW and 23 MW respectively. The minimum and maximum annual
inflow of the Mahi I project is 435 MCM and 6,618 MCM respectively. RRVPN
Ltd. commissioned the projects in 1986 and 1989 respectively.

12.3.6. Kadana Project

Kadana is masonry cum earthen dam on Mahi River, located at a distance of 80 km
from Godhra in Panchmahal District, Gujarat. The catchment area at the dam is
594 Chapter 12

25 520 km2 and the mean annual inflow of the reservoir is 596.432 MCM. The
height and length of the dam is 66 m and 575 m respectively. The reservoir behind
the dam has a live storage capacity of 1,203 MCM at FRL at 127.7 m and the
MDDL is at 114.3 m. Kadana power house has 4 units of 60 MW each. It has been
commissioned by the Gujarat Electricity Board in 1990–98. On an average, about
2,900 MCM water is used per year to produce 316 million units at the power house.
There are many other existing water resources projects in the basin. Salient
features of the projects with a live storage capacity of 10 MCM and more are
presented in Table 18.
Table 19 gives the salient features of selected projects that are under construction
in the basin.

Table 18. Salient features of selected existing projects in Mahi basin

Name of the Project State Year of Gross Live storage Designed Installed
completion storage capacity annual capacity
capacity (million m3 ) irrigation (MW)
(million m3 ) (million m2 )

Badar Gujarat – 4672 3800 8900 –

Hadaf Gujarat – 3226 2502 5820 –
Karad Gujarat 1964 3538 3300 4540 –
Machhen Nala Gujarat – 3791 2917 3030 –
Patadungri Gujarat 1950 4106 3964 4560 –
Umaria Gujarat – 1354 1167 2190 –
Wankhori Gujarat 1958 4188 3622 2 63150 –
Wankleshwar Bhay Gujarat – 1430 1267 – –
Haro Rajasthan 1958 1191 1106 – –
Jaismand Rajasthan 1700 41489 17227 11890 –
Lodhisarkanaka Rajasthan 1958 1194 1005 1100 –
Surwania Rajasthan 1963 1320 1166 1200 –

Table 19. List of the Projects under construction in Mahi Basin

Name of the Project State Gross storage Live storage Designed

capacity capacity annual
(million cubic (million m3 ) irrigation
meter) (Million m2 )

Edalwada Gujarat 1133 1053 1380

Dholwad Madhya Pradesh 5429 4994 6400
Daya Irrigation Rajasthan 1240 1121 1280
Somkagdar Rajasthan 3520 3270 4950
Somkamla Amba Rajasthan 11865 10615 13610
Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi Basins 595

12.3.7. Water Quality

Table 20 gives the status of water quality indicators at selected locations in the
Mahi basin at five different time periods. There does not seem to be much problem
from water quality point of view in the basin.

Table 20. Desired and existing water quality levels for Mahi

Location Desired class Observed class & critical parameters

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Mahi at Badnawar, A NA B B B B
M.P. Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Mahi (D/S) C C B C C B
conf with R.
Chap (Under
Sagwara-Sarhi Rd.
Bdg.), Rajasthan
Mahi after conf. A C A NA NA NA
with Anas at Pardi BOD,
(Banaswada), Totcoli
Gujarat.
Mahi near Rajasthan C C A NA NA B
Border at Kadana
Dam, Gujarat
Mahi at Virpur, C D A NA NA C
Gujarat BOD
Mahi at Sevalia, C C A NA NA C
Gujarat
Mahi at Vasad, C C B NA NA C
Gujarat
∗
NA- Not Available. Source: Central Pollution Control Board.
CHAPTER 13
MAHANADI, SUBERNAREKHA AND BRAHMANI
BASINS

In this chapter, Mahanadi, Subernarekha, Brahmani, and Baitarani basins are

described. Among these, Mahanadi is the biggest and the most important.

13.1. THE MAHANADI BASIN

The Mahanadi basin extends over an area of 141589 km2 which is nearly 4.3% of
the total geographical area of the country. It lies between east longitudes 80 30
to 86 50 and north latitudes 19 21 to 23 35 . It is bounded on the north by the
Central India hills, on the south and east by the Eastern Ghats and on the west
by the Maikala range. The upper basin is a saucer shaped and mostly lies in
Chhattisgarh state. The basin lies in the States of Orissa, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, and
Maharashtra. The basin is circular in shape with a diameter of about 400 km and an
exit passage of about 160 km length and 60 km breadth. The statewise distribution
of the drainage area is given in Table 1. A map of the Mahanadi basin is given
in Figure 1.
Physiographically, the basin can be divided into four regions, namely, the northern
plateau, the Eastern Ghats, the coastal plain and the erosional plains of central
table land. The first two are hilly regions. The coastal plain is the delta area which
is highly fertile. The central table land is the central interior region of the basin,
traversed by the river and its tributaries. The basin has a culturable area of about
79900 km2 which is about 57% of the basin area and four percent of the total
culturable area of the country.

13.1.1. The Mahanadi River

The Mahanadi River is one of the major rivers which flow from west to east
and finally drain into the Bay of Bengal. The water potential of the Mahanadi
River is next to Godavari in the peninsular rivers. The Mahanadi River commences
in southeastern Chhattisgarh as a small stream draining the eastern part of the
Chhattisgarh Plain.
597
598 Chapter 13

Table 1. Statewise distribution of drainage area of

Mahanadi River

State Drainage area km2 

Chhattisgarh 75 136

Orissa 65 580
Bihar 635
Maharashtra 238
Total 141 589

Source: Orissa Government.

The Mahanadi River rises in a pool, 6 km from Pharsiya village near Nagri town
in Raipur District of Chhattisgarh at a height of 442 m. Initially for about 56 km,
the river flows towards west in a shallow valley between low, scattered hills. Four
small streams join the river near Kanker where it takes a sharp turn to northwest.
While flowing about 113 km in the same direction, at Rajim, the Pairi River joins
from the right. About 13 km above Sheorinarayan, the first major tributary Sheonath
joins the Mahanadi near Khargahni in Bilaspur District. Beyond this confluence, the
Mahanadi takes an easterly course for a length of about 138 km. At Sherorinarayan
the tributary Jonk joins from the right. About 17 km further down near Mahuadih,

Figure 1. Index map of Mahanadi basin

Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 599

the Hasdo joins from the left. It forms a braided course of about 21 km long while
receiving the Barai River on its left. Further down, it is joined by the Mand River
from the left at Chandarpur. After traversing a further length of 28 km, Mahanadi
leaves Chhattisgarh and enters Orissa.
The Ib River joins from the left near Bagra, now flowing into the reservoir created
by the Hirakud dam which is located across Mahanadi 10 km from Sambalpur city.
Below Sambalpur, the river turns south, then splits near Charpali into two channels
which unite again near Dhama. Between Hirakud and Chiplima, a distance of about
27 km, the bed is rocky with a number of rapids. About 11 km below Dhama, the
Mahanadi enters the district of Bolangir and flowing in a southerly and south-
easterly direction for a length of about 45 km it reaches Sonepur. About 11 km
upstream of Sonepur, the Ong falls into the Mahanadi from the right. Near Sonepur,
the river takes a gradual turn to the south-east, and is joined on its right by the
second biggest tributary, the Tel. The Eastern Ghats mountain chain starts from this
place. At Haudh, the river again splits into two arms. Beyond Athmalik, the valley
narrows down sharply and between Jamudeli and Baramul, for a distance of about
23 km, the river flows through the extremely narrow Satkosis Gorge. Tikarpara
village is about 6 km below the start of this gorge. This gorge ends at Baramul and
the river crosses the Eastern Ghats. The valley of the Mahanadi between Baramul
and Baideshwar is flat with scattered hillocks. Below Baramul the river widens
again, attaining a width of about 1.6 km. At Kantilo, it turns east-north east. Near
Pathpur, it flows through the Kaimundi gorge. Below this gorge, the river widens
again and takes a sharp turn to the left, finally to emerge into the delta at Naraj,
11 km west of Cuttack. Below Naraj the river splits into two channels, the Katjuri
and the Birupa. Splitting into numerous branches, the Mahanadi River falls into the
Bay of Bengal, near a place known as False Point.
Mahanadi flows for a total length of about 851 km of which, 357 km is in
Chhattisgarh and the balance of 494 km is in Orissa. The river enters Orissa State
below Baloda Bazaar and crosses the Eastern Ghats to enter the Plains of Orissa near
Cuttack. It finally debouches into the Bay of Bengal through a series of branches.
The famous pilgrimage city of Puri is at the mouth of one of these branches.

13.1.2. Tributaries of Mahanadi River

The Seonath, the Jonk, the Hasdo, the Mand, the Ib, the Ong, and the Tel are the
principal tributaries of Mahanadi. Important tributary/sub-basins and their catchment
areas are shown in Table 2. A description of major tributaries is given in what
follows. Flow Diagram of Mahanadi Basin has been presented in Figure 2.

i. The Seonath
The Seonath River is the longest tributary of the Mahanadi River. It rises in an
undulating region with numerous small groups of hills at an elevation of about
533 m near Kotgal and flows for about 383 km to join the Mahanadi on its left near
Kharghand. The main sub tributaries of the Seonath are the Kharhara, the Tandula
600 Chapter 13

Table 2. Important sub-basins of Mahanadi and their catchment areas

Name of the Area km2  Percentage of area

tributary/sub-basin of Mahanadi basin

Seonath 30,761 2172

Jonk 3,484 247
Hasdeo 9,856 696
Mand 5,200 367
Ib 12,447 879
Upper Mahanadi 21,652 1529
Ong 5,128 362
Tel 22,818 1612
Middle Mahanadi 12,654 893
Lower Mahanadi 17,589 1243
Total 141,589 10000

Source: WG (1990).

Source

13,073 Seonath

5,389 Hasdo

Jonk 1,850

30,586 Sarangarh

3,246 Mand

9,003 Ib

41,816 Sambalpur

Ong 2,220

Tel 11,716

54,881 Sonepur

66,640 Bay of Bengal

Sea

Figure 2. Flow Diagram of Mahanadi Basin. The numbers represent average annual flow in cumec
Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 601

and the Kharun on the right bank and the Surhi, the Hanp, the Agar and the Arpa
on the left bank. The total drainage area of the Seonath River is about 30761 km2
which is nearly 22% of the total drainage area of the Mahanadi basin.

ii. The Jonk

The Jonk River originates from the Khariar hills in the Kalahandi district of Orissa
State at an elevation of about 762 m. The Jonk River flows for a length of about
196 km to join the Mahanadi on its right at Sheorinarayan. The total drainage area
of the river is about 3484 km2 .

iii. The Hasdo River

The Hasdo River rises at an elevation of about 915 m at a place nearly 10 km north
of Sonhat in the Sarguja district of Chhattisgarh. The river traverses a distance of
about 333 km to join the Mahanadi on its left near village Mahuadih. The total
drainage area of the river is about 9856 km2 . Gej River is the principal sub tributary
of the Hasdo River.

iv. The Mand River

The river originates at an e1evation of about 686 m in the Sarguja district of
Chhattisgarh and flows for about 241 km to its confluence with the Mahanadi on
its left near Chandarpur. The total catchment area of the river is about 5200 km2 .

v. The Ib River
The Ib River originates in the hills near Pandrapat, in the Raigarh district of
Chhattisgarh at an elevation of about 762 m. The total length of the river is about
251 km and it falls now into the Hirakud Reservoir on its left. The total drainage
area of the river is 12447 km2 . It is rain-fed river and hence nearly 80% of runoff
occurs during the monsoon months of June to October. Geologically, granite and
gneisses underlie the catchment’s soil mantle. A mixed red and black soil dominates
the region surrounding the reservoir. For about 40 km in the lower reaches, a part
of the catchment is submerged under the Hirakud Reservoir.

vi. The Ong River

Ong is another important tributary of the Mahanadi River. It rises at an elevation
of 457 m on a hill in the northern outskirts of the south-north running range of
mountains situated to the right of the Jonk River. The Ong River traverses a
total length of about 204 km to join the Mahanadi on its right about 11 km above
Sonepur. The drainage area of the Ong River is 5128 km2 lying in the interior of
the main basin. The climate of the Ong basin is mainly dry sub-humid. There are
four distinct seasons in the year: (i) the cold weather, (ii) the hot weather, (iii) the
south-west monsoon, and (iv) the post-monsoon. The mean minimum temperature
ranges between 1  C and 137  C. The maximum temperature ranges from 38  C
over the hills to 43  C. In the plains, south-west monsoon is the principal rainy
602 Chapter 13

season. During this period the basin receives over 90% of its total annual rainfall.
A variety of soils are found in the basin: red, yellow and black.

vii. The Tel River

The Tel River originates in plain and open country in the Koraput district of Orissa,
about 32 km to the west of Jorigam. The river traverses a total length of 296 km
to join the Mahanadi River on the right bank, 1.6 km below Sonepur. The total
drainage area of the Tel River is about 22818 km2 .

13.1.3. Climate of Mahanadi Basin

To the north, in the region of the Mahanadi River the climate is predominantly
sub-tropical with summer temperatures of around 29  C and winter temperatures of
21  C. The normal time of onset of monsoon over the basin is the first week of
June. The bulk of the precipitation (800 to over 1,600 mm) over the basin falls in
the period from July to September while during January to February, precipitation
received is less than 50 mm.
The meteorology and climatology of the catchment are significantly influenced by
the geographical location of the catchment with respect to the Bay of Bengal, where
from most of the weather systems originate. Also, the orography of the Eastern
Ghats, influence the rainfall pattern over the catchment to a great extent. The south-
west monsoon normally sets over this area in the first week of June and withdraws
in the first week of October. The south-west monsoon (June-October) accounts for
nearly 91% of the annual rainfall. December is the driest month contributing less
than 10% of annual rainfall.

i. Rainfall
The normal (1901-60) annual rainfall of the Mahanadi catchment is 141.7 cm. The
average normal annual rainfall of the catchment above Hirakud is 139.6 cm and the
corresponding value for catchment below Hirakud is 145.8 cm. Historical records
show that the highest monthly and annual rainfalls were 1,405.9 mm in June 1936
and 3,669.8 mm in 1944 respectively at Bulandarpara.
Besides the observatories maintained by IMD, about 200 raingauge stations are
maintained by the concerned States. Although distribution of the stations is fairly
even, their number is not sufficient considering the hilly terrain which occupies
the major part of the catchment. Rainfall data at some of the observatories and
raingauge stations are available from past 80 years.

ii. Temperature
In the Mahanadi catchment, May is the hottest month and December the coldest.
The diurnal range of temperature is the maximum during February and March; it
is less during July and August. At Raipur and Sambalpur, the temperature varies
from 12  C to 40  C while at Cuttack, it varies from 14  C to 40  C. Temperature
variation at Puri which is closer to sea is from 16  C to 32  C.
Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 603

iii. Evaporation
Pan evaporation is being observed at four stations in the Mahanadi basin, namely,
Labhandi, Hirakud, Bolangir and Cuttack. Out of these, long-term pan evaporation
data is available for Labhandi and Cuttack stations. The average monthly pan
evaporation of these stations is given in Table 3.

iv. Soils and Land Use

The main soil types found in the basin are red and yellow soils. Mixed red and
black soils occur in parts of the Bolangir, Sambalpur, and Sundargarh districts of
Orissa. Laterite soil is found in the lower parts of Orissa. The deltaic soil is found
in the coastal plains of the Mahanadi. Black soil and sandy soil with “Kankar” are
the main soils found in the part of basin lying in Chhattisgarh.
Except in the Chhattisgarh and coastal plains, the basin has an extensive area
under forests. Forest and agriculture are the main stay of the people in the interior
parts of the basin. The Chhattisgarh and coastal plains, with a high incidence of
rainfall, are predominantly rice growing areas.

v. Stream-Gauge Network
The gauge and discharge measurements are being made at several locations on
Mahanadi River as well as its tributaries. The list of such gauging stations is given
in Table 4.

13.1.4. Water Availability in Mahanadi Basin

An average annual surface water potential of 66900 Mm3 has been assessed in
this basin. Out of this, 50000 Mm3 is utilizable water. The present use of surface

Table 3. Pan evaporation data (cm) of two stations

in Mahanadi Basin

Month Station

Labhandi Cuttack

January 30 33

February 49 44
March 68 53
April 109 66
May 146 75
June 118 56
July 57 39
August 49 34
September 41 39
October 37 36
November 30 33
December 24 30
604 Chapter 13

Table 4. Gauge-Discharge sites on Mahanadi River and its tributaries

S.N. Name of Gauge-Discharge River Catchment Area Annual Year of

Site at the site km2  average runoff Starting
(BCM)

1 Rajim Mahanadi 8,760 309 1971

2 Ghorari Mahanadi 13,209 – 1963
3 Shrinarayaneo Mahanadi 46,620 – 1961
4 Saradih Mahanadi 57,029 – 1957
5 Basantpur Mahanadi 57,780 2443 1971
6 Sambalpur Mahanadi 83,698 – 1926
7 Khairmal Mahanadi 115,514 – 1957
8 Tikarpara Mahanadi 124,000 5295 1947
9 Naraj Mahanadi 131,720 – 1926
10 Baronda Pairi 3,225 – 1977
11 Kotni Seonath 6,990 247 1977
12 Simga Seonath 16,060 602 1971
13 Jondhra Seonath 29,645 1062 1979
14 Andhiyarkoro Hamp 2,210 042 1977
15 Ghatora Arpa 3,035 151 1977
16 Bamnidhi Hasdeo 9,730 480 1971
17 Rampur Jonk 2,920 162 1971
18 Kurubhata Mand 4,625 302 1977
19 Sundergarh Ib 5,870 385 1977
20 Deogaon Ib 8,676 – 1957
21 Guchapalli Ong 3,444 – 1976
22 Salebhata Ong 4,650 204 1971
23 Kesinga Tel 11,960 570 1977
24 Kantamal/Deoli Tel 19,600 1040 1971

water in the basin is 17000 Mm3 . Live storage capacity in the basin has increased
significantly since independence. From just about 800 Mm3 in the pre-plan period,
the total live storage capacity of the completed projects has increased to 8500 Mm3 .
In addition, a substantial storage quantity of over 5400 Mm3 would be created on
completion of projects under construction. Additional storage to the tune of over
11000 Mm3 would become available on execution of projects under consideration.
The hydropower potential of the basin has been assessed as 627 MW at 60% load
factor.
NIH (1986) estimated water availability at five sites in the Mahanadi Basin.
Table 5 summarizes the results of this study.
The Small Catchment Directorate of CWC has derived synthetic unit hydrographs
for many sub-zones of India as described in Chapter 5. For the sub-zone 3-d that
falls in the Mahanadi basin, the equations established by regression analysis are
given in Chapter 5. In addition to UH ordinates, the concerned report also gives
50-year 1-hour, 3-hour, 6-hour, 9-hour, 12-hour, 15-hour, 18-hour, and 24-hour
rainfall maps. These maps are used to determine design storm for the catchment in
question.
Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 605

Table 5. Estimates of water availability for various sites in Mahanadi Basin

Name of site (River) Catchment Water availability in Mm3 for percentage

area km2  of time the flow is equal or exceeded

50% 75% 90%

Salebhata (Ong) 4,650 2,24690 1,72320 1,40610

Kantamal (Tel) 19,600 11,14750 9,12130 7,63280
Hirakud (Mahanadi) 83,400 41,34550 34,10640 24,39030
Tikarpara (Mahanadi) 124,000 65,63600 54,83820 43,24800
Naraj (Mahanadi) 131,720 69,34090 57,66790 44,94880

13.1.5. Major and Medium Projects in Mahanadi Basin

Given the large size of the Mahanadi basin and plenty of available water, it is
natural that a number of projects have been constructed for utilization of these
resources. Brief description of the major projects follows.

i. Hirakud Dam
Hirakud is one of the earliest and prestigious major multi-purpose river valley projects
in India after independence. Commissioned in 1957, the reservoir is situated a little
downstream of the confluence of Mahanadi with its tributary Ib, 15 km upstream of
Sambalpur town. Situated within the geographical ordinates of 21 30 and 21 50 N,
and 83 30 and 84 05 E, the reservoir has a water spread area of 71963 km2 at
FRL. The 1,248 m long masonry dam is 61 m high and this, along with the earthen
dams, has a combined length of 25.8 km. At the dam site, the maximum annual
runoff was 91900 Mm3 while the minimum annual runoff was 12400 Mm3 . The total
catchment area up to the dam is 83400 km2 . With gross storage capacity of 5818 Mm3 ,
this is one of the biggest reservoirs. The spillway capacity at FRL is 41,428 cumec.
The average annual rainfall in the region is 152 cm. More than 65% of the vast
catchment area stretching over the central Indian plateau is fertile land area. The
salient features of Hirakud Reservoir are given in Table 6.
The project has been designed to serve three purposes, namely flood control,
irrigation and power. In addition it was planned to supplement supplies to the old
irrigation system in the Mahanadi delta. Now, the reservoir serves the irrigation
needs of 264038 km2 of land. The water released through power house irrigates
further 4360 km2 of CCA in Mahanadi delta. A hydropower plant at the dam has
307.5 MW of installed capacity. Besides, the reservoir produces a fish crop of 350
ton every year. The reservoir space is also used to provide flood protection to
9500 km2 of delta area in district of Cuttack and Puri. A view of Hirakud dam has
been shown in Figure 3.

ii. Ravishankar Sagar

The Ravishankar Sagar project (RSP) dam was constructed in 1978 on the Mahanadi
River, at 20 38 N, 81 34 E. RSP is about 92 km south of the city of Raipur. It is
606 Chapter 13

Table 6. Salient features of Hirakud reservoir

Elevation at FRL 192.024 m

Elevation at DSL 179.830 m
Gross storage capacity 8,136 Mm3
Live storage capacity 5,818 Mm3
Dead storage capacity 2,318 Mm3
Water spread area at FRL 71963 km2
Length of the masonry dam 1,248 m
Number of sluices 64
Number of crest gates 34
Crest level of spillway dam 185.928 m
Maximum spillway capacity 41,428 cumec

a multi-purpose reservoir which serves irrigation, hydro-electric power-generation

and the industrial requirements of the Bhilai Steel Plant. At the FRL of 348.7 m,
the reservoir surface area is 9540 km2 . The total catchment area is estimated at
3620 km2 , of which 625 km2 is intercepted by the upstream dam, Dudhawa and

Figure 3. A view of Hirakud dam

Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 607

486 km2 by Murumsilli reservoir. At full level, the reservoir storage capacity is
909 Mm3 . The maximum depth of the reservoir is about 32 m.
The off-taking channels carry water in the order of 11,000 to 30,000 cumec in
the peak season. However, the outlets are rarely completely closed. Water level
fluctuates by 3 to 5 m in a year. The sediments of Ravishankar Sagar are poor in
nutrients and organic matter.

iii. Dudhawa Reservoir

The Dudhawa reservoir is situated at 81 45 21 E longitude and 20 18 1 N latitude
across Mahanadi River near Dudhawa village about 21 km west of Sihawa near the
origin of Mahanadi river and 29 km east of Kanker. The reservoir is in Dhamtari
district of Chhattisgarh state. The construction of the project started in 1953–54
and it was commissioned in 1963–64. This reservoir is designed to supply water
to Ravishankar Sagar Project complex thereby increasing its irrigation potential.
Water will also be provided to additional culturable areas under the command of the
existing Mahanadi Tandula canal system. The maximum height of this earthen dam
is 24.53 m and length is 2,906.43 m. Two subsidiary bunds of the dam have heights
of 6.61 m and 2.83 m and lengths 568.42 and 426.70 m, respectively. The catchment
area of the reservoir is 62527 km2 and gross command area is 56680 km2 . At the
Full Reservoir Level (FRL), the submergence area of the reservoir is 4480 km2 .

iv. Sondur Reservoir

The Sondur reservoir is constructed at 82 6 E longitude and 20 14 N latitude across
Sondur River a tributary of Mahanadi. Located near Gram Machka, Nagri block,
Dhamtari district of Chhattisgarh state, the dam was constructed in the year 1988.
The catchment area of Sondur River up to the dam site is 518 km2 . Major portion
of the catchment lies in Dhamtari district of Chhattisgarh and Koraput district of
Orissa state. Sondur project comprises of a 3.33 km long composite dam. This
consists of a 191.25 m long masonry dam at the center which includes overflow
and non overflow portions; the rest is earthen dam at both the flanks. The spillway
has 5 radial gates of size 15m × 10m each. Irrigation sluice is provided at the
left flank.
The project is also designed to supply water to RSP complex through Dudhawa
reservoir thereby augmenting the irrigation potential of RSP complex for irrigation.
It would also provide irrigation to about 12260 km2 of Kharif and Rabi crops
in Sihawa Nagri block. The designed rate of sedimentation in gross storage is
0.357 mm /year.
Anicuts built on Mahanadi and Baitarani Systems are functional as part of Orissa
Canal system, which currently irrigates 3500 km2 in Mahanadi and Baitarani basins
mostly and also in Brahmani basin by exporting water from Mahanadi. Two of
the canals of “Orissa Canal System” starting from Birupa weir (on Birupa River, a
branch of Mahanadi River) namely Kendrapara and Pattamundai canals start from
the right of the river and proceed to irrigate to the right of Birupa. The third, High
608 Chapter 13

Level Canal, Range I originating from the Left of the weir crosses Birupa-Brahmani
watershed to enter the Brahmani basin.
Two tributaries, namely Ong and Tel, join Mahanadi downstream of Hirakud dam.
Both these carry large volumes of flow during monsoons. The average monsoon
runoff at Tikarpara site is 65,636.00 MCM. In absence of any large storage dam
lot of flow of Mahanadi goes to the sea and a small portion is utilized in Mahanadi
delta. There is an imperative need for construction of a large terminal storage to
conserve the precious resource and utilize it to meet the reasonable needs of the
basin and transfer the surplus to water short areas. A dam site at Manibhadra dam
has been identified and investigated but no progress seems to have been made.
Opposition to the proposed dam is on account of large population displacement and
other reasons. Live storage capacity of the proposed dam is 6000 Mm3 . Studies
have shown that Mahanadi has surplus water (Govt. of Orissa has not agreed with
this conclusion) that is proposed to be transferred from Manibhadra reservoir to the
Dowlaiswaram barrage on the Godavari. In fact, the proposed Manibhadra dam is
the starting point of the peninsular component of NWDA’s ILR proposal.

v. Hasdeo Bango
Minimata Hasdeo Bango is a multipurpose storage reservoir on Hasdeo River,
tributary of Mahanadi River, 70 km from Korba, in Korba District, Chhattisgarh.
The catchment area at the dam is 6730 km2 . The masonry gravity dam is 87 m
high. The FRL and the MDDL of the reservoir are 359.66 m and 329.79 m and it
has a live storage capacity of 3,040 MCM. Mean annual inflow to the reservoir is
3,540 MCM. The power house has 3 units of 40 MW each and a firm power of
20 MW.

vi. Tandula
This is an important project of Chattisgarh state. The dam is located in Balod tehsil
of Durg district at about 5 km from the Balod city. A dam was completed on the
confluence of Sukha Nala and Tandula River in 1921, with a catchment area of
827.2 sq. km. The gross, live, and dead storage capacities of the reservoir are 312.25
MCM, 302.28 MCM and 99.67 MCM respectively. For the reservoir, the highest
flood level, the FRL, and MDDL are 333.415 m, 332.19 m, and 320.445 m. A canal
takes of from the dam to provide irrigation to 68,219 ha of Kharif crop. Main canal
and distributaries run for about 110 km and the length of minors is 880 km. The
monsoon rainfall in the command is about 1,293 mm.
In the 1950s, it was realized that the Tandula reservoir is unable to meet the
demands of the command and hence a reservoir, named Gondali reservoir, was
created on Jujhara Nala in 1957 and a supplementary canal of 9 km length was
constructed to supply water from Gondali reservoir to Tandula reservoir. After
construction of Bhilai Steel Plant in 1956, water is being supplied to this plant from
the Gondali reservoir and supply for irrigation has been stopped.
There are many other existing projects in the basin and some other are
under construction. Salient features of existing and under construction water
Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 609

Table 7. Salient features of selected existing projects in Mahanadi basin

Name of the State Year of Gross storage Live storage Designed annual
Project completion capacity capacity irrigation
Mm3  Mm3  km2 

Gondli Chhattisgarh 1964 10148 9675 3080

Kedar Nalla Chhattisgarh 1969 1679 1571 4660
Project
Keshwa Nalla Chhattisgarh 1963 1803 1786 3850
Khapri Chhattisgarh 1911 1302 1157 4250
Khakhara Chhattisgarh 1967 17152 14150 –
Khurung Tank Chhattisgarh 1958 19531 19238 40490
Kinkari Chhattisgarh 1980 1622 1515 5670
Koncha Chhattisgarh 1970 2156 1871 3760
Kumhari Chhattisgarh 1927 1161 1134 2630
Kunaria Chhattisgarh – 2200 1750 5510
Madiyan Chhattisgarh 1963 1202 1157 2510
Maniyari Tank Chhattisgarh 1931 15129 14761 30770
Murum Silli Chhattisgarh 1923 16500 16200 –
Pairy Chhattisgarh – 21679 19908 72850
Paralkot Chhattisgarh 1923 6636 6363 14580
Pilosaiki Chhattisgarh – 1920 1440 3590
Project
Pindrawan Chhattisgarh 1909 1074 1061 2590
Saroda Chhattisgarh 1964 3114 3014 7360
Sikasar Chhattisgarh 1978 21700 19880 72850
Surhi Tank Chhattisgarh 1963 2214 2178 6390
Budha Budhani Orissa 1976 1498 1250 4380
Damar Bahal Orissa 1983 2230 1932 3780
Lurada Orissa 1990 3198 2829 66000
Russel konda Orissa 1901 5166 3875 –
Saipala Orissa 1982 2128 1835 3160
Surada Orissa 1902 3516 2829 –
Sundar Dam Orissa – 2635 2355 7410
Upper Dahuka Orissa – 2960 2344 2740

resources projects with a live storage capacity of 10 Mm3 and above are presented
in Table 7 and Table 8, respectively.

13.1.6. Water Quality Aspects

Based on investigations, CPCB has determined water quality classes of various

reaches of Mahanadi River and its tributaries at different times. This classifi-
cation along with critical parameters for each reach is given in Table 9. In
general, the quality of river water in upper reaches is quite good and often the
observed class is better than the desired class. However, in downstream reaches,
the quality is degraded and BOD and total coliform are identified as the critical
parameters at most of the places.
610 Chapter 13

Table 8. Salient features of selected projects under construction in Mahanadi basin

Name of the Project State Gross storage Live storage Design annual Installed
capacity capacity irrigation capacity
Mm3  Mm3  km2  (MW)

Arpa Project Chhattisgarh 38934 33889 – –

Balar Reservoir Chhattisgarh 3962 3662 55.70 55
Chirrpani Project Chhattisgarh 5102 5025 91.10 –
Gongha Reservoir Chhattisgarh 3401 3007 76.90 –
Glaj Tank Chhattisgarh 3031 2317 – –
Kasarteda Chhattisgarh 7276 6370 111.20 –
Kelo Chhattisgarh 17540 14400 256.70 –
Khanher Phakut Chhattisgarh 2157 1938 34.40 –
Kharang Tank Chhattisgarh 19521 19238 404.80 –
Matia Moti Chhattisgarh 2943 2648 65.00 –
Piparia Chhattisgarh 4570 4060 60.70 –
Chiroli Dam Orissa 30000 18900 345.00 –
Hariharjhar Orissa 7988 5868 137.00 –
Lower Indra Project Orissa 25681 25000 – –
Upper Jonk Project Orissa 11000 10400 165.90 –
Upper Suktel Orissa 1230 1069 15.20 –

Table 9. Desired and existing water quality levels for Mahanadi

Location Desired Observed class & critical parameters

class
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Mahanadi at Rudri U/S at E A A B B B

Dhamtori Reservoir, M.P.
Mahanadi at U/S of D B B B A B
Rajim, M.P.
Mahanadi at Sheorinarayan C B B D BOD D BOD B
Village, M.P.
Mahanadi at Kharad, M.P. C B B B B B
Mahanadi after confl. With B B D BOD B B
River Mand, MP
Mahanadi at Interstate C B B D BOD B B
Boundry, M.P.
Mahanadi at Hirakud C D BOD D BOD B C B
Reservoir, Orissa
Mahanadi at Braj Raj Nagar D BOD D BOD D BOD C C
U/S, Orissa
Mahanadi at Sambalpur C D BOD D BOD D BOD D BOD, C
U/S, Orissa Totcoli
Mahanadi at Sambalpur C D BOD D BOD D BOD D BOD, D BOD,
D/S, Orissa Totcoli Totcoli
Mahanadi D/S (after confl. C B B D BOD C B
with R. Ong Sonepur U/S),
Orissa
Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 611

Mahanadi after confl. C D BOD D BOD D BOD D BOD D BOD,

With Tel River (Sonepur Totcoli
D/S),Orissa
Mahanadi at Tikarpara, C D BOD D BOD D BOD D BOD C
Orissa
Mahanadi at Narsinghpur, C D BOD D BOD D BOD B B
Orissa
Mahanadi at Cuttack U/S, C D BOD D BOD D BOD D BOD C
Orissa
Mahanadi at Cuttack D/S, C D BOD D BOD D BOD D BOD, D BOD,
Orissa Totcoli Totcoli
∗
NA- Not Available. Source: www.cpcb.nic.in

13.2. SUBERNAREKHA SYSTEM

Subernarekha, Burahbalang and small east flowing rivers between the Ganga and the
Baitarni, are covered under this group. The spatial coverage of this basin extends
over an area of 29196 km2 and lies between east longitudes 85 10 to 87 25 and
north latitudes 20 45 to 23 30 . Lying in the northeast corner of the peninsular
India, the region covers relatively large areas in the states of Bihar and Orissa and a
somewhat smaller area in West Bengal. The State-wise distribution of the drainage area
is given in Table 10. An Index map of Subernarekha basin is given in Figure 4.
The basin is bounded on the north and the west by the Chhotanagpur plateau,
on the south by the ridges separating it from the Baitarani basin, and on east by
the ridge separating it from the Kasai valley. The basin has a rectangular shape
with a maximum length of 305 km in a north-west to south-east direction and a
maximum width of 123 km in a north-east to south-west direction. There are two
major topographical divisions in the basin, namely (i) the northern plateau and (ii)
the coastal plains. The plateau region covers District Purulia of West Bengal and
Ranchi and Singhbhum districts of Bihar. Part of the Mayurbhanj district of Orissa
lying in the basin is hilly and well forested. The coastal plains lying in the basin
cover parts of Balasore district in Orissa and of the Midnapur district of West
Bengal. The general slope of the basin is from north-west to south-east. There are

Table 10. Statewise distribution of drainage

areas of Subernarekha system

State Drainage Area km2 

Bihar 13,685
Orissa 11,964
West Bengal 3,547
Total 29,196

Source: WG (1999).
612 Chapter 13

Figure 4. Index map of Subernarekha basin

four sub-basins of which those of the Subernarekha basin has an elongated shape,
while the Burhabalang basin is triangular in shape with the main river as the base
and the apex near Kalamgadia village in the Mayurbhanj district.
The various river systems in the Subernarekha basin and their catchment areas
are given in Table 11.
The Subernarekha River basin presents a classic example of conflict among
competing uses of water both sectorally and across regions. Fresh water from the
river is used by industry as a direct process input and as a disposal agent for the
dilution of effluents; by agriculturists for irrigation; and by the household sector for
drinking. As long as the resource was abundantly available, it could be treated as a
free good. Recently, increasing water scarcity and alarmingly high pollution levels
in the Subernarekha River have caused widespread concern in the region major
uses of water now find themselves competing for this scarce resource, leading to
conflicts amongst various stakeholder groups.

Table 11. Rivers in Subernarekha system and their catchment areas

Name of the river Catchment area in km2

Subernarekha River including Rasulpur and Piehabani streams 19296

Two small streams between Subernarekha and Burhabalang 2418
Burhabalang River 4837
Two small streams between Burhabalang and Baitarani Rivers 2645
Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 613

13.2.1. Subernarekha River

The Subernarekha River originates near Nagri village (Ranchi district) in the
Chhotanagpur plateau of Jharkhand State at an elevation of about 610 m at
latitude 23 18 N and longitude 85 11 E. Subernarekha literally means golden line.
According to legends, in ancient times, gold was being extracted in the river’s bed
close to its origination point near Piska village, close to Ranchi. Before falling
in the Bay of Bengal, the river flows through Ranchi and Singhbhum districts
of Jharkhand, Midnapore district of West Bengal and Balasore district of Orissa.
Subernarekha River flows for a total length of 395 km. Out of this, 269 km lies
in Bihar, 64 km in West Bengal, and 62 km in Orissa. The Subernarekha basin
covers an area of 19300 km2 . This area is nearly 0.6% of the total national
river basin area and yields 0.4% of the country’s total surface water resources.
With regards to statewise distribution, Subernarekha drains an area of 14600 km2
in Jharkhand (75.6% of total catchment area), 2500 km2 (12.9%) in Orissa and
2200 km2 (11.5%) in West Bengal. Its important tributaries are the Kanchi, Karkari
and Kharkai. Flow diagram of Subernarekha Basin has been presented in Figure 5.
The topography of the Subernarekha basin varies from steep hills to flat coastal
plains, plateaus, uplands and central plains. The basin has three distinct seasons:
winter, summer and rainy. Rainfall varies greatly – both annually and seasonally and
the average annual rainfall is 1,500 mm. During monsoons, the basin may receive
a spell of copious rainfall followed by a long dry period. Of the 28,609 million
m3 Mm3  of rainfall, about 57% is lost by evapotranspiration and 15% infiltrates

Source

Muri

Kanchi 750

Karkari 950

Kharkai 3,300

Jamshedpur

7,940 Rajghat

Sea

Figure 5. Flow Diagram of Subernarekha Basin

614 Chapter 13

into ground. Balance 7940 Mm3 of water flows past Rajghat station into the Bay
of Bengal annually. This yield corresponds to approximately 04 MCM/km2 of the
basin area per year. This low yield is caused by the fact that the Subernarekha is
a rain-fed river of peninsular origin, and the average annual rainfall of 1,500 mm
varies on a monthly and geographical basis.
In the major part of the basin, ancient Precambrian, igneous and metamorphic
rocks are exposed. Younger geological formations, namely tertiary gravel, Pleistocene
alluvium and recent alluvium, are found in the lower reaches of the basin, south-east of
Ghatsila. Red soil is the dominant soil type of the basin – it is derived from old bedrocks
and is mostly of residual and alluvial origin. In the lower valleys and coastal plains,
river-borne alluvial deposits of unconsolidated materials are found.

13.2.2. Burhabalang River

The Burhabalang River rises south of Simphalgarh village in the Mayurbhanj district
at an elevation of about 800 m and flows for a length of 164 km to join the Bay of
Bengal. Two small streams flow between Burhabalang and Baitarani Rivers. The
Northern stream rises near Nilgiri village in the Balasore district at an elevation of
150 m and flows for a total length of 22 km to join the Bay of Bengal. The second
stream rises north of Dantur village in the Balasore district at an elevation of 300 m
and flows for a length of 54 km to join the Bay of Bengal.
Two small streams flow between Subernarekha and Burhabalang. The northern
stream rises west of Lakshman Nath village in the Balasore district at an elevation
of 45 m and its total length is 38 km, and it joins Bay of Bengal. The second stream
rises south-west of Gopiballabhpur village in the Midnapur district at an elevation
of 100 m and flows for a length of 77 km before joining the Bay of Bengal.

13.2.3. Demography and Economy

Subernarekha River passes through three states which are among the poorest in
India. These states – Jharkhand, Orissa and West Bengal – have a total population
of about 150 million. Apart from irrigation, vast quantities of water are used by
industries and towns in the basin. These industries and towns generate considerable
quantities of wastewater, which is discharged directly into the river.
Ranchi is the most important town in the Subernarekha basin. With the rapid
increase in population of the city, withdrawal of water for domestic needs has
risen sharply over the years. The effluents from the industries and sewage wastes
emanating from the industrial township are deteriorating quality of its water. A drop
in dissolved oxygen, accompanied by decrease in plankton, has been reported
below the discharge point. Due to natural processes, river water recovers its quality
further downstream.
As expected, water supply in the urban areas of the region is unevenly distributed
and leaves much to be desired. Domestic water supply in the Jamshedpur City is
intermittent. Residents in TISCO township have a 100% piped water supply while
Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 615

the urban centres of Jugsalai, Mango and Adityapur face water crises. In most cases,
water is supplied for 6–8 hours/day. In the other areas, supplies are for even shorter
periods and water may even is supplied only twice or thrice a day. In Mango NAC,
piped water supply is provided only 4 days a week. The demand for water is bound
to increase because of population growth. The decadal growth rates of population in
the Subernarekha basin states (Jharkhand, Orissa and West Bengal) range from 15%
in Orissa to 23% in Jharkhand. Demand for irrigation water could also – significantly
increase in future as currently only 8% of total cultivable area is irrigated.
About 75 million people in these three states (mainly in Jharkhand) live below
the poverty line. An emerging shortage of water, serious water-quality problems,
and a lack of any policy and institutional framework characterize this river basin.
An increase in the quality and quantity of water would contribute significantly to
improving the quality of life in this region.

13.2.4. Surface Water Resources of Subernarekha

The upper portion of the Subernarekha and its tributaries run through the fertile
lands of Bihar, with farming in this region mainly dependent upon insufficient and
seasonally variable rainfall. The water resources of the Subernarekha river system
remain largely undeveloped. Besides containing fertile lands, the upper basin also
includes extensive mineral resources and a number of industries have therefore been
established along the banks of the river. Table 12 represents the annual average
observed runoff for Gauging sites of CWC in Subernarekha basin.
Average annual rainfall in the Subernarekha basin is on the order of 1,250 mm
with the maximum and minimum on record being 1,420 and 1,150 mm, respectively.
About 90% of this rainfall is received during the South–West monsoon season, i.e.,
June to October. The Subernarekha river basin includes of two reservoirs [Chandil
and Icha], and two barrages [Kharkai and Galudih]. Each reservoir and barrage has
two canals; namely, left bank canal (LBC) and right bank canal (RBC). On the
right bank canal of Galudih barrage (GRBC), there are three small command area
reservoirs [Haldia, Jambhira, and Baura]. This canal has two branch canals; namely,
Betnoti branch canal (BBC), and Subernarekha branch canal (SBC). The salient
features of the reservoirs are given in Table 13. There is also a small hydroelectric
power plant on the Chandil left bank canal (CLBC). The irrigation and municipal

Table 12. Annual average observed runoff at selected CWC sites in Subernarekha basin

Name of the site Name of the stream Catchment area km2  Annual average runoff
(BCM)

Adityapur Kharkai 6309 318

Ghatsila Subernarekha 14176 739
NH5 Govindpur Burhabalang 4495 345

Source: CWC (2002).

616 Chapter 13

Table 13. Salient Features of Reservoirs in Subernarekha River Basin

Description Catchment area Storage

km2 
Live Mm3  Dead Gross
Mm3  Mm3 

Chandil dam 5,646 1 264 204 1468

Icha dam 2,849 925 117 1042
Kharkai barrage 5,815 – – –
Galudih barrage 13,629 – – –
Haldia dam 55 4588 2.12 48
Jambhira dam 76.50 21410 1.18 216
Baura dam 47 25971 1.90 262

and industrial water supply requirements during the off-peak period of the power
plant are routed through a proposed small bypass canal. The CLBC also acts as a
water carrier to deliver 12.25 MCM (million cubic meters) to West Bengal. Live
storage in Chandil reservoir mainly belongs to Bihar, a small amount of 30.75
MCM, belongs to West Bengal.

13.2.5. Water Resources Development Projects in the System

There are a few water resources projects in the system and their description follows.

i. Subernarekha multipurpose system

The Subernarekha multipurpose system comprises of:
• Subernarekha multipurpose Project (SMP), Phases I and II (Jharkhand).
• Subernarekha Irrigation Project (SIP), Orissa.
• Subernarekha Barrage-cum-Dolong Dam project (SBDP), West Bengal.
The SMP comprises of two dams (Chandil and Icha), two barrages (Kharkai and
Galudih) and a network of canals from these, and a canal from the Galudih barrage to
carry water to Orissa; all these lie in Jharkhand state. Three small storage reservoirs
and a network of canals from these reservoirs are in Orissa. The main objectives of
the SMP are: i) to provide reliable water supply to agricultural lands of 1,600,900
and 50 km2 in Jharkhand, Orissa and West Bengal, respectively, ii) to provide 740
MCM/year of water for M&I uses in Jharkhand; and iii) to reduce flood damage
in Orissa and West Bengal by providing 463 MCM of flood-storage capacity for
the Chandil dam. Orissa and West Bengal will construct embankments in their
respective territories along the flooding reaches of the river and generate 30 MW of
hydroelectric power through medium, mini and micro-hydroelectric projects located
at various points of the canal system.
Phase I of the SMP envisaged the partial construction of the Chandil dam (50%)
with its main canal (30%) partial construction of the Icha dam (20%) and its right and
left bank canals (20%); and partial construction of the Galudih Barrage (36%) and
Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 617

its right bank canal (22%). It also envisaged the construction of three distributaries
under Kharkai Barrage (not included in Phase I) and partial completion of the micro-
distribution system 210 km2  besides establishing a Water and Land Management
Institute (WALMI), irrigation research stations, and pilot water management and
pollution control programs. None of the components was planned for full completion
in Phase I of the project. This was due to several reasons including: (1) insistence
by the co-basin states to take up all components simultaneously; (2) the inability
of the World Bank to fund an implementation plan for more than 4 years; and (3)
the physical impossibility of completing all these components in 4 years.
Started in 1982–83, SMP multipurpose project was planned for irrigation,
hydropower generation and water supply at 75, 95 and 100% reliability, respec-
tively. However, attempts to implement all project components simultaneously and
consequent delays has rendered the project infeasible and has reduced its economic
viability, the economic rate of return in Bihar had decreased from 17.8% in 1981–82
to 8.6% in 1989. A lack of funds also has been a major problem though a significant
amount has been spent (Rs. 9,528 million by June 2001). However, no benefits
for the irrigation or household sectors have been generated. The lack of irrigation
benefits can be attributed to the failure to deliver irrigation water because of the
incomplete canal system. In addition, the increasing demand for irrigation, drinking
water, industrial uses and other uses has further complicated the situation.
Although the estimates of project benefits in all categories are very large
(See Table 14), significant benefits have accrued only in terms of the mitigation of flood
damage and the generation of non-farm employment. In terms of physical achieve-
ments, the Chandil dam and Galudih barrage are almost complete, but other compo-
nents are still incomplete. Partial storage is available in the Chandil reservoir and that
is providing M&I water supply to the industrial city of Jamshedpur.
Phase I of SMP was implemented with financial assistance from the World Bank.
It was to be followed immediately by Phase II. However, the implementation of
Phase II got delayed and it is now in progress. The components are in different
stages of completion.

ii. Getalsud reservoir

Getalsud reservoir is located at 23 27 N and 85 33 E, across the Subernarekha
River, 40 km east of Ranchi city, now the capital of Jharkhand State. Completed in
1971, this multi-purpose reservoir was envisaged mainly to meet municipal water
demands of Ranchi town, industrial needs of the Heavy Engineering Corporation
and other factories. The reservoir has a maximum surface area of 3459 km2 and a
capacity of 2885 Mm3 at the FRL of 595.70 m. At the lowest level, the area is only
987 km2 . Getalsud dam has a catchment area of 717 km2 and is located at about
50 km from the origin of the Subernarekha River. The height of the dam is 35.5 m.
Two power houses, namely Subernarekha I & II, have been commissioned. Both
the power houses have one unit of 65 MW each and have a firm power of 9.5 MW
and 5.0 MW respectively.
618 Chapter 13

Table 14. Subernarekha Multipurpose project (Phase I): direct benefits pertaining to the entire
scheme when complete

SN Indicator Appraisal Closing date Estimate at full

estimate estimate development

1 Directly benefiting farm families 130,000 0 232,000

(number)
2 Increased irrigated area (ha) 255,000 0 255,055
3 Increased food grain production (1,000 700 0 700
tonnes / year)
4 Increased municipal and industrial 700 0 607
water supply (MCM/year)
5 Moderation to flood damage (Rs. 18.5 21.2 21.2
million/ year)
6 Generated farm employment (number 138,000 0 190,000
of jobs)
7 Generated non-farm employment 24,800 27,715a 39,300
(number of jobs)
8 Value added in agriculture (Rs 1,485 0 2,254
million/year)
9 Reduction in farm families below 53 42b 58
poverty line (percent)
a
pertains only to project construction employment;
b
due only to project construction works

In addition to the Getalsud project, some more projects exist or are under
construction in the basin. Salient features of existing and under construction water
resources projects in the basin with a live storage capacity of 10 Mm3 and above
are summarized in Table 15 and Table 16, respectively.

13.2.6. Tri-Partite Agreement For Sharing of Subernarekha Waters

Notwithstanding rich water resources, Subernarekha basin is subject to frequent drou-
ghts. Being an interstate river, any development in the Subernarekha basin requires

Table 15. Salient features of selected existing projects in the Subernarekha system

Name of the State Year of Gross storage Live storage Design annual
Project completion capacity capacity irrigation
Mm3  Mm3  km2 

Hatia Jharkhand 1962 3121 2965 –

Largara Jharkhand – 2220 2136 640
Palna Reservoir Jharkhand – 1241 1135 –
Baladia Orissa – 6661 4934 –
Kalo dam Orissa – 2961 2467 –
Kharkhai Dam Orissa 1970 6988 6168 –
Sunei Orissa – 5551 4688 15200
Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 619

Table 16. Salient features of selected projects under construction in Subernarekha basin

Name of the State Gross storage Live storage Designed Annual Installed
Project capacity capacity Irrigation capacity
Mm3  Mm3  km2  (MW)

Jharijara Reservoir Jharkhand 22.45 19.80 40.50 –

Subernarekha Jharkhand 1,963.00 1,619.00 2,090.00 30
Bhankbal Orissa 27.14 20.96 98.00 –
Palan Reservoir Orissa 12.41 11.39 – –

joint agreement among the co-basin states: Jharkhand, Orissa and West Bengal. The
signing of a Tri-Partite Agreement (TPA) in 1978 by three co-basin states (Jharkhand
was a part of Bihar at that time) marked the beginning of the preparation of a
comprehensive plan for the development of the basin through the Subernarekha
Multipurpose System. Studies of socioeconomic benefits, environmental impact, dam
safety, planning for operation and maintenance, management information system, and
hydrometeorology have been undertaken in the context of these agreements.
TPA is mainly based on the availability of water up to Kokpara (UK) and
beyond Kokpara (BK) (Table 17). The 75% water year dependable flow to Kokpara
(catchment area 15369 km2 ) has been assessed at 5,550 MCM. This quantity is
allocated to Bihar, Orissa, and West Bengal states in the ratios of 32:12:1. The
shortages, if any, during a year, are to be shared in the same ratio, but surpluses,
if any, will be shared in the ratios of 8:1:11, respectively. The 75% water year
dependable flow below Kokpara (catchment area 4631 km2 ) is assessed at 1,418
MCM, and is allocated to the respective states in the ratios of 2.7:2.9:5.9. Similar
ratios are applicable in shortage or surplus water years.

Table 17. Highlights of Tripartite Agreement up to Kokpara (UK) and Below Kokpara (BK)

Important features Water share ratio

Bihar Orissa West Bengal

Up to Kokpara (UK)
(i) Assessed 75% water year dependable flow as 32 12 123∗
5,550 MCM
(ii) Surplus over the assessed 75% 8 1 11
(iii) Shortage below the assessed 75% 32 12 1
Beyond Kokpara (BK)
(i)Assessed 75% water year dependable flow as 2.7 2.9 5.9
1,418 MCM
(ii) Surplus and shortage with respect to the 2.7 2.9 5.9
assessed 75%
∗
61.50 MCM upstream of Chandil dam+12.25 MCM through CLBC for Kharif and Rabi+30.75
MCM below Kokpara through storage space in Chandil dam + 1850 MCM below Kokpara from run-
of-river=123 MCM.
620 Chapter 13

Table 18. Tripartite Agreement for water at Icha Dam

Important features Water share ratio

Bihar Orissa

838 MCM storage capacity of dam 50 1.8 (through Galudih

Right Bank Canal)
310 MCM utilization upstream of dam 10 4.0
Surplus and shortage with respect to the assessed 50 1.8
75%water year dependable flow

Note: Cost of dam to be shared in the ratio of 5.0:1.8.

At the Icha reservoir (Table 18), the live storage capacity is to be shared between
Bihar and Orissa in the ratio of 5.0:1.8, respectively. The same ratio holds for
sharing of water in surplus or shortage years and for sharing of the reservoir cost.
The sharing of water at Icha begins on 1st July every year, with the Kharif irrigation
(June to October) having the highest priority. At Galudih barrage (Table 19), during
non-monsoon periods, a total of 197 MCM is to be shared in the ratio of 3:5
between Bihar and Orissa. The water share ratio during shortage years is also 3:5,
respectively.
To provide a quick overview, Table 20 lists the Culturable Commanded Areas
(CCA) and capacities of important canals of the basin.
Table 21 provides details of the upstream and downstream water diversion
requirements at individual dams and barrages.

13.2.7. Water Pollution Problems

A Central Pollution Control Board study estimates that 0.4 MCM of untreated or
semi-treated water containing 61 tons of biological oxygen demand is discharged

Table 19. Tripartite Agreement Features at Galudih Barrage

Important features Water share ratio

Bihar Orissa

After Icha dam construction, use of run-of-river

from barrage:
(i)197 MCM during non-monsoon 3 5a
(ii) Shortages 3 5a
Before Icha dam construction, use of run-of-river
from barrage:
(i)197 MCM during non-monsoon 3 5a
(ii) All excess over 197 MCM during non-monsoon 0 1a
a
Through Galudih Right Bank Canal.
Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 621

Table 20. Culturable commanded areas and capacities of important canals in Subernarekha system

Site name CCA km2  Capacity (MCM/year)

LBC RBC LBC RBC

Chandil 663.54 115.18 265200 50500

Icha 148.94 507.94 62916 157557
Kharkai 4.98 138.77 6971 56838
Galudih 69.81 45.68 30653 401265
Haldia 15.70 39.50 4730 11763
Baura 323.55 – 86724 –
Jambhira 311.09 35.30 85147 11999
SMC – – 373701 –
SBC 73.39 – 34689 –
BBC 228.36 – 189216 –

Note: LBC = left bank canal; RBC = right bank canal; SMC = Subernarekha main canal; SBC =
Subernarekha branch canal; and BBC = Betnoti branch canal.

daily into the river from all urban sources. The contribution of rural areas is
approximately 50,000 kg of biological oxygen demand load. This and the uncon-
trolled discharge of metallic, non-metallic and toxic substances and effluents
from mines have resulted in degraded river water quality. Toxic and radioactive
substances are found mainly in the lower segments of the river.
Table 22 shows the desired and observed water quality classes and critical
parameters for different locations in Subernarekha basin at different times. It can
be seen that at three locations, the observed quality is below the desired class and
total coliform is a critical parameter for this basin.

13.3. THE BRAHMANI BASIN

The Brahmani Basin lies between latitude 20 28 to 23 35 N and longitude 83 52
to 87 30 E. It lies in the districts of Raigarh and Sarguja in Chhattisgarh, Ranchi and
Singhbhumi in Jharkhand and Sundergarh, Deogarh, Sambalpur, Angul, Dhenkanal,
Keonjhar, Jajpur and Kendrapara in Orissa. Brahmani basin is situated between
Mahanadi Basin (on the right) and Baitarani Basin (on the left). Chhotanagpur
Plateau in the East and South bound the basin, in the north a ridge separates
it from Mahanadi basin, and to the east of the basin lie the Bay of Bengal
and the Baitarani basin. Out of the total basin area of 39269 km2 , the major
parts of the basin covering 22516 km2 (57.34% of the basin) falls in Orissa
state. Further, about 15406 km2 (39.23% of the basin area) falls in Jharkhand
state and about 1347 km2 which is only 3.43% of the basin area falls in the
Chhattisgarh state.
District wise geographical area and rural and urban population of the basin is
given in Table 23. The index map of Brahmani and Baitarni basin is given in
Figure 6.
622 Chapter 13

Table 21. Upstream and Downstream Annual Irrigation and Municipal and Industrial Water Supply
Requirements (in MCM)

Site Bihar Orissa West Bengal

Irrigation Water Irrigation Water Irrigation Water

Supply Supply Supply

Upstream
Chandil dam 65550 10000 – – 5270 880
Icha dam 6200 900 216.60 3140 – –
Kharkai Barrage 41340 6000 – – – –
Galudih Barrage 2450 400 – – – –
Downstream
Chandil LBC 60661 52163 – – 1225 –
Chandil RBC 10471 5108 – – – –
Icha LBC 194 36 – – – –
Icha RBC 518 36 – – – –
Kharkai LBC 11 47 – – – –
Kharkai RBC 106 35 – – – –
Galudih LBC 79 63 – – – –
Galudih RBC 35 25 1,044 – – –
Direct Command Area
BBC – – 218.57 – – –
SBC – – 70.28 – – –
DC – – 66.44 1291 – –
Command area reservoir
Haldia dam – – 49.02 – – –
Jambhira dam – – 304.78 – – –
Baura dam – – 322.00 – – –
Haldia LBC – – 15.30 054 – –
Haldia RBC – – 37.83 137 – –
Jambhira LBC – – 33.80 1082 – –
Jambhira RBC – – 297.89 123 – –
Baura LBC – – 309.82 1125 – –

Note: BBC = Betnoti branch canal; SBC = Subernarekha branch canal; DC = direct command; Water
supply pertains to municipal and industrial water supply.

13.3.1. Brahmani River System

Brahmani River is the second largest river in the State of Orissa. In fact, two
headwater streams, namely Sankh River and South Koel River originate in Chhat-
tisgarh and Jharkhand states, respectively. After the confluence of Sankh River and
South Koel River at Vedvyas (in Orissa at latitude 22 48 N and longitude 84 14 E,
at an elevation of 200 m), the combined river is known by the name Brahmani. The
Brahmani River flows through the heart of Orissa till it joins the Bay of Bengal at
Dhamara mouth. The Flow diagram of the Brahmani basin is given in Figure 7.
The South Koel River originates near village Nagri in Ranchi district of Jharkhand
at an elevation of about 700 m at latitude 23 20 N and longitude 85 12 E. Karo
River a major left bank tributary joins the South Koel at a distance of 221.25 km
Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 623

Table 22. Desired and existing water quality levels for Subernarekha

Location Desired Observed class & critical parameters

class
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Subernarekha at C D D D D D
Ranchi,(Tatisilwai) Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Bihar
Subernarekha at C C A C C D
Jamshedpur, Bihar Totcoli
Subernarekha at D/S C E D D D D
Jamshedpur,(Tata DO, Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Nagar),Bihar BOD,
Totcoli
Subernarekha at C C C C C C
Chandil Bridge, Bihar
∗
NA – Not available. Source: Central Pollution Control Board.

from origin, just south of Gudri in Singhbhum district. At the confluence, Koel
intercepts a catchment of 13 378 km2 out of which 1 438 km2 lie in Orissa and
11 940 km2 in Jharkhand. The Koel River enters Orissa at 262 km of its run.
Another right bank tributary named Deo joins South Koel at 288 of its run km in
Orissa and the Sankh River joins after another 16 km.

Table 23. Geographical Area and Population within Basin

State District Area km2  Population 2001 (in thousands)

Geographical Within basin Rural Urban Total

Orissa Sundargarh 9 712 5 71777 68098 58806 1 269042

Keonjhar 8 303 1 74356 16632 5683 223145
Sambalpur 6 657 1 37105 8136 000 8136
Deogarh 2 940 2 52911 23857 2009 258655
Angul 6 375 4 23538 76029 14700 907294
Dhenkanal 4 452 3 96866 81918 9279 911967
Jajpur 2 899 1 83614 93290 3761 970509
Kendrapada 2 644 1 11441 43926 7413 513388
Orissa Total 22 51608 4 11886 1 01650 5 13536
Jharkhand Lohardega 1 490 62560 16975 4620 215954
Simdega 8 820 3 92734 56932 3396 603282
Gumla 4 42023 77360 3979 81339
Ranchi 7 573 2 47017 69094 3235 723287
W. Singhbhum 5 290 3 96256 53679 6358 60037
Jharkhand Total 15 40590 2 74040 21588 2 956283
Chhattisgarh Sarguja 22 337 19600 7091 000 7091
Jashpur 6 154 1 15080 27541 2019 2956
Chhattisgarh Total 1 34680 34631 2019 3665
Basin Total 39 26878 7 20557 1 25257 8 45814
624 Chapter 13

Figure 6. Index map of Brahmani and Baitarni basin

The Karo River originates in Chhotanagpur Plateau of Jharkhand near Nagri in

Ranchi district at an elevation of 700 m at Latitude 23 17 N and Longitude 85 08 E.
It drains an area of 2 784 km2 and flows for a length of 125 km before it joins
South Koel.
The Sankh River rises near village Lupungpat in Ranchi district at an elevation
of 1,000 m, the latitude and longitude of origin being 23 14 N and 84 16 E. The
river flows for a distance of 67.5 km in Jharkhand before entering Chhattisgarh.
After flowing for about 50 km in Chhattisgarh, it again enters Jharkhand and flows
for 78 km before finally leaving Jharkhand. The Sankh River flows for a distance
of 45 km in Orissa before it meets Koel. Thus, the total length of Sankh River is
240.5 km. Its catchment area is 7 353 km2 out of which 1 422 km2 lie in Chhat-
tisgarh, 4 472 km2 in Jharkhand, and 1 456 km2 in Orissa.
Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 625

Sankh 5,250 Koel

Karo 2,776

Brahmani River

Rourkela

Tikra 1,920

18,310 • Jenapur Anicut

Sea

Figure 7. Flow diagram of Brahmani basin

After the confluence at Vedvyas, the Brahmani River heads towards the southeast
direction and traverses a total length of 461 km before it joins the Bay of Bengal. It
drains a total catchment area of 39 269 km2 . Deltaic region of Brahmani begins near
village Gadamadhupur Jenapur of Jajpur district, where the Kalamitra Island divides
the river into two branches. The south branch is known as the Brahmani main
and the north branch is called Kharsuan. These two branches again join. Further
down, Birupa River, a distributary of Mahanadi River joins Brahmani River and
still further down, Baitarani River joins it. About flowing for about 15 km, the river
falls in the Bay of Bengal. Table 24 shows land use data of the Brahmani Basin.

13.3.2. Climate of The Basin

i. Rainfall
Brahmani Basin has tropical climate with a fairly hot summer and moderately cold
winter. Three well-defined seasons are observed: summer, winter and rainy. In the
small region close to the coast, climate is influenced by sea which has a moderating
effect while the hilly areas are somewhat cooler due to their altitude.
Rain is the only mode of precipitation in the basin. Average annual rainfall of
the basin is 1,305 mm. The range of minimum and maximum rainfall is 969 mm
to 1,574 mm. The highest annual rainfall observed was at Sukinda station, district
Jajpur, in the year 1986 and was 2,489 mm. District Keonjhar received the lowest
rainfall. The basin receives 90% of its total annual rainfall from the south west
monsoon and the bulk of it (more than 75%) occurs during the monsoon period
from June-October. In the remaining months, only occasional showers are received.
626 Chapter 13

Table 24. Land Use Details of Brahmani Basin (area in km2 )

Land Use Orissa Jharkhand and Total

Chhattisgarh

Forests 9534 4618 14152

Misc. tree crop & grooves not 442 507 949
included in agriculture land
Permanent Pastures etc. 926 397 1323
Land not available for cultivation 286 146 432
Land under Reservoir 503 104 607
Culturable Waste and Fallows 5068 4305 9373
Net area Rainfed 3860 6039 9899
under Irrigated 1897 636 2533
cultivation Total 5757 6675 12432
Total Basin Area 22516 16752 39268
Gross Irrigated Area 2585 1001 3586
Gross cropped area 6945 7823 14768

Source: Mohile and Gupta (2003).

Thunderstorms are quite frequent during monsoon, the intensity being more in the
plains. A typical value of potential evaporation for the basin is 150 cm per annum.

ii. Temperature
In the basin, the maximum temperature rises to 47  C during summer while the
minimum during winter may be as low as 4  C. Temperatures in the coastal
region are moderate but humidity is higher. As per the observations at the IMD
stations, the cloud cover is maximum during July and August and minimum during
Dec. to Feb.
The coastal part of the Brahmani basin lies in the track of cyclonic storms that
originate in the Bay of Bengal during the months of April to November and move
westwards. The storms developing in April-May and in October-November are
somewhat stronger and some of these were devastating to life, property, crops and
vegetation. The wind velocity is higher in the months of April, May and June and
lower in the months of Dec. and Jan.

13.3.3. Water Resources of the Basin

i. Surface water yield

The river Brahmani with its large catchment of varying characteristics (Agricultural
land 32%, forest 36%, and culturable waste 23%) yields a runoff of 400 to 550 mm
from the average monsoon rainfall of 1,200 mm.
The major tributaries Sankh, Koel, and the main river are gauged by CWC and
State government at five locations, whereas the other tributaries are also gauged,
mainly at project locations. From the gauged data, (CWC 2002), the average yield at
Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 627

the head of the delta is 18 318 Mm3 . The catchment area of the basin is 39 269 km2
against the Jenapur area of 33 955 km2 and the total yield would be 22 000 Mm3 .
The Orissa Water Planning Organization has estimated the average annual yield
of Orissa portion as 10 661 Mm3 from a basin area of 22 516 km2 . The 75%
dependable yield for the entire basin is assessed as 17 204 Mm3 (NWDA, 1988)
and 8 277 Mm3 is for the Orissa portion (DOWR, 1999).

ii. Ground water availability

Based on soil characteristics and rainfall pattern, which consistently increases from
1,200 mm in the coast to 1,400 mm in the western region, the ground water avail-
ability is assessed as 5 17066 Mm3 (Table 25). Essentially about 23 000 km2 of
agricultural land in the basin states are potential infiltration zone.
Since ground water utilization is low; much of this recharge reappears in the
river system.

iii. Water budget

Monthly average runoff at three gauge stations, namely, Panposh, Gomlai, and
Jenapur, in the basin are given in Table 26.
Water withdrawals, uses and returns for various uses in Brahmani Basin have
been assessed by Mohile and Gupta (2003). The summary information is given in
Table 27.

Table 25. Annual Ground Water Availability in Brahmani Basin

State District(s) Basin area Gross recharge Recoverable

km2  Mm3  recharge
(85%) Mm3 

Jharkhand Ranchi, 11 44334 1 65198 1 40418

Gumla,
Simdega,
Lohardega
Singhbhum 3 96256 65709 55853
Chatishgarh Sarguga 19600 2065 1755
Raigarh 1 15080 21206 18025
Orissa Sundergarh 5 71777 55479 47157
Sambalpur 1 37105 15038 12782
Deogarh 2 52911 22642 19246
Keonjhar 1 74356 15435 13120
Anugul 4 23538 54718 46510
Dhenkanal 3 96866 48153 40930
Jajpur 1 83614 46595 39606
Kendrapada 1 11441 4828 4104
Total 39 26879 5 17066 4 39506

Source: Orissa Government.

628 Chapter 13

Table 26. Monthly average runoff at three gauge stations in the basin

Month At Panposh At Gomlai At Jenapur

Confluence of Upstream of Rengali Head of Delta.

South Koel & reservoir. Catchment Catchment
Sankh. Catchment area = 21 950 km2 area = 33 955 km2
area = 19 448 km2

In % In Mm3 In % In Mm3 In % In Mm3

June 714 778 755 793 433 793

July 2094 2,282 2437 2,559 1752 3,209
August 2960 3,226 3127 3,284 2912 5,334
September 2370 2,583 2299 2,414 2174 3,982
October 701 764 686 720 909 1,665
November 373 407 248 260 426 780
December 198 216 119 125 316 579
January 266 290 108 113 282 517
February 136 148 072 76 228 418
March 048 52 054 57 215 394
April 073 80 041 43 163 299
May 067 73 054 57 190 348
Total 10000 10,900 10000 10,502 10000 18,316

Source: CWC (2002).

The 75% dependable water resources at Rengali dam site have been assessed as
9 140 m3 ; this corresponds to flow of the year 1965–66. Further, it is assessed that
water utilization upstream of the project is about 3 191 m3 .

13.3.4. Irrigation and Agriculture

Agriculture is the primary occupation and the most important economic activity
of the inhabitants. Most people in rural areas, who constitute 80% of the basin
population are engaged in agriculture. The rest 20% of the population earn their

Table 27. Water withdrawals and uses Mm3 /Year for various uses in Brahmani Basin

Use Withdrawals (from) Consumptive

use
Total SW GW

Irrigation 4,049 3623 426 560

Domestic – Rural 260.74 000 26074 130.37
Domestic – Urban 63.98 5118 1280 12.80
Industrial 322.44 25795 6449 64.49
Total 4,696 3932 764 768
Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 629

livelihood working in industries and other business. Double cropping pattern is

prominent in Kendrapara district followed by Sambalpur and Keonjhar
Rice is the most common crop grown, accounting for over 86% of the gross
sown area of the basin. Pulses account for 7% of the gross sown area and oil seeds
occupy 5.45%. The basin has abundant mineral resources but few industries have
been set-up.
About 300 Mm2 in Brahmani basin was getting irrigated from Mahanadi Canal
system in 1960–61 and another 50 to 100 Mm2 from minor irrigation in the whole
basin. Overall rainfed agriculture was practiced over 8 600 Mm2 .
Anicuts were built at Jenapur on the Brahmani River and at Jokadia on the
Kharsuan River in 1870–80 for irrigation and navigation along the coast. The
Jenapur Anicut has gone into distress and has become defunct. The high level canal
originates in Mahanadi basin traverses across the neck of the Brahmani-Baitarani
plains and irrigates large tracts of land in the Brahmani Baitarani basin. Although the
Birupa weir storage provides some confidence and supply in emergencies, basically
the system is a Kharif irrigation system, depending on normal stream flow. The
total area irrigated in the Brahmani Basin through HLC Range I and Pattamundai
Canal is about 300 Mm2 .
The Brahmani Basin with a drainage area 39 269 km2 has a few major & medium
irrigation projects. Irrigation development has been accelerated as a plan program.
As only 10% to 15% of the area is receiving dependable irrigation, the introduction
of high yield, hybrid, and technologically superior varieties crop is not done. The
Rengali Dam (in Orissa) built on Brahmani, intercepting 25 250 km2 is a major
project, providing flood protection to the lower basin and generating hydropower.
The irrigation potential of the project is yet to be utilized as the distribution system
off-taking from the Samal Barrage (35 km downstream of the dam) is still in
progress. Table 28 depicts the arable land & irrigated land in Brahmani basin.
Medium Projects numbering 7 in Orissa and 7 in Jharkhand have resulted in almost
10% of the basin area getting irrigation.
The agricultural land use pattern in the Brahmani basin is shown in Table 29.

13.3.5. Flood & Drainage

During floods, the Brahmani River turns into a large turbulent channel posing threat
to life and property. The maximum flood in the river has been recorded as 24,246
cumec on 20.8.75 at Pankapal site. The highest gauge level at the site in that event
was recorded to be 24.78 m against the danger level of 23.00 m. Since the Rengali
Multipurpose Project has come up, it has been moderating floods in the lower reach
covering an area of 14 019 km2 . Out of this, deltaic stretch of 4 000 km2 is mostly
vulnerable. At some locations, raising and strengthening of flood embankments has
also been taken up to control flooding.
Below Jenapur, Brahmani River bifurcates to Brahmani (Kimiria) on its right and
Kharsuan on its left. These two rivers again join 100 km downstream. An anicut was
built on the Brahmani arm and another at Jokadia was built on Kharsuan in 1890,
630 Chapter 13

Table 28. Arable land & Irrigated land in Brahmani basin

District Geographical Area within Culturable Irrigated land

area km2  basin km2  land km2  (Kharif) in
km2

Sundargarh 9 712 5 78608 2 589 19732

Deogarh 2 940 2 51237 682 11866
Sambalpur 6 657 1 37105 281 8152
Angul 6 375 4 22594 1 566 25738
Dhenkanal 4 452 3 95691 1 815 37076
Keonjhar 8 303 1 72348 401 7211
Jajpur 2 899 1 82475 1 047 45844
Kendrapara 2 644 1 1155 646 33882
Sub Total 22 51608 9 027 1 89501
Ranchi 7 573 2 47017
Lohardega 1 490 62814 7,489
Gumla & Simdega 8 820 8 34357
West Singhbhum 5 290 3 96003 2 671
Sub-total 15 40591 10 160 60036
Sarguja 22 337 42370 46 07
Raigarh 6 154 92310 747 166
Sub-total 1 34680 793 173
Total 39 26879 19 980 2 51267

from the left of which the High Level Canal takes off for irrigation and navigation.
This canal finally discharges into Baitarani. This canal has since become defunct.
The entire flood spill of the Brahmani – Kharsuan rivers flows to the sea over a
10 to 20 km wide and 70 km long flat flood plain. The entire delta of Brahmani –
Kharsua covering 3 500 km2 area is flood prone. To protect the densely populated
Aul area, a 70 km long ring bund was constructed, protecting 250 Mm2 of agriculture
land, and nearly 15 lakh population.

Table 29. Gross Area (in km2 ) under Different Crops in Brahmani Basin

Crop Irrigated Un-irrigated condition Total area

condition

Rice 2 85857 7 94873 10 80730

Wheat 8556 2195 10751
Other Cereals (millets/ ragi) 0 74215 74215
Pulses (BGH grams) 13678 1 66727 1 80405
Sugarcane 1639 0 1639
Oil crops (groundnut, mustard, til) 21566 49734 71300
Summer crop/ vegetables 3725 21171 24896
Maize 2166 11129 13295
Roots & tubers (potato) 879 21604 22483
Fruit trees – 94980 94980
Total 3 38066 12 36628 15 74694
Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 631

13.3.6. Domestic & Industrial Water Use

Nearly 1.252 million people in Brahmani Basin live in 41 urban centers. Total
water consumption in major towns in the basin is about 97,000 kL/day and waster
generation is about 74,500 kL/day. Current withdrawals of water for domestic use
are given in Table 30.
Brahmani basin with its rich mining and agricultural resources and cheap labour
offers ideal ground for establishment and operation of industrial units. The estab-
lishment of an integrated steel plant at Rourkela in Sundergarh district during late
1950s was the harbinger for large-scale industrialization of the area. Many indus-
tries in the basin are small-scale units that have no significant water requirement,
wastewater generation and environmental implications.
Parts of the Brahmani basin have witnessed rapid urbanization in the last four
decades. Urban conglomerates such as the Rourkela city and its suburbs, Talcher
and its satellite towns, Rengali township, Dera Colliery township, Angul, Dhenkanal
and Keonjhar districts have rapidly grown only during the last three decades due
to industrial development or construction of dams.
Brahmani Basin has vast potential for development of inland fisheries in reser-
voirs, ponds, tanks, and canals. The predominant species found in Brahmani River
are Carps, Catfishes, feather-backs, forage fishes, prawns & Hilsa. The entire
stretch of Brahmani, Kimiria and Kharsuan have flood plains with over bank zones
which are sheltered locations for breeding. Total annual fish catch is estimated
at 24,000 M.T.
Table 31 enumerates the water demand & waste water generation from major
industries in Brahmani Basin. The Current withdrawal of water for industrial use is
given in table 32.

Table 30. Current withdrawals of water for domestic use in Brahmani basin

SN Water use type Per capita Total Withdrawals (in

annual demand Population (in Mm3 
m3  Million)

Domestic (Urban)
1 Municipal use (Urban area) 51.10 1.25 6398
@ 140 LPCD
Total withdrawal for Urban 6398
Use
Domestic (Rural)
1 Drinking water & sanitation 25.55 7.21 18409
needs (rural) @ 70 LPCD
2 Live stocks (Cattle & 18.25 3.82 6968
Buffalos) @ 50 LPCD
3 Other live stocks (pigs, – – 697
sheeps, goats, etc.) @ 10% of
SN 2
Total withdrawal for rural use 26074
632 Chapter 13

Table 31. Water demand & waste water generation from major industries in Brahmani Basin

SN Name of the Industry Products Water Wastewater

consumption generation
KLD KLD

1 Rourkela Steel Plant Iron & Steel 265580 120000

2 Rourkela Steel Plant Fertilizer CAN 28807 7920
3 Fertilizer Corporation Fertilizer (Urea) 45883 16608
4 National Aluminum Company – Aluminum 5066 4900
Smelter Unit
5 National Aluminum Company – Electric Power 135000 90000
Captive Power Plant
6 ORICHEM Ltd. Sodium dichromate, 170 10
Basic Chromate
Sulphate, Yellow
Sodium Sulphate
7 Talcher Thermal Power Electric Power 13227 6483
8 Talcher Super Thermal Power Plant Electric Power 137099 52080
NTPC Kaniha
TOTAL 630832 298001

Source: OPCB, Orissa

13.3.7. Water Quality Aspects

Brahmani, a mighty river during the monsoon, turns in the summer into more or
less a stagnant pool of water held in deep gorges and pot holes in the river bed.
The river becomes incapable of washing down the pollutants, which are discharged
into it from the nearby industries, towns & villages. Greater part of the Brahmani
River (below Panposh) is highly polluted.
The Brahmani Baitarni River basins hold extremely rich mineral resources. Conse-
quently, many industrial units including the famous Rourkela Steel Plant as well
as a number of fast growing townships are located here. This basin was essentially
a virgin natural environment till India’s independence with marginal human inter-
ference. Industrialization which started in late fifties was slow in the beginning. From
the water quality point of view, the basin area is still far cleaner than other urban indus-
trial complexes in the country. Table 33 shows the desired and observed water quality
classes and critical parameters for different locations in Brahmani basin at different

Table 32. Current withdrawal of water for industrial use

SN Industrial water Use Withdrawal Mm3 

1 Consumption of water by major industries 23032

2 40% of above (lump sum) for other 9213
industries in the basin
Total Withdrawal 32244
Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 633

Table 33. Desired and existing water quality levels for Brahmani

Location Desired Observed class & critical parameters

class
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Brahmani at U/S C D D C C C
Panposh, Orissa BOD BOD
Brahmani at D/S C D D D D D
Panposh, Orissa BOD BOD BOD BOD, BOD,
Totcoli Totcoli
Brahmani at Rourkela C NA D D C D
D/S, Orissa BOD BOD Totcoli
Brahmani at Bonaigarh, C D D B D C
Orissa BOD BOD BOD
Brahmani at Rengali, C D B D B B
Orissa BOD BOD
Brahmani at Samal, C D D D B C
Orissa BOD BOD BOD
Brahmani at Talcher C D D D D C
U/S, Orissa BOD BOD BOD BOD
Brahmani at C D D D D D
Kamalanga, Orissa BOD BOD BOD BOD BOD
Brahmani at Bhuban, C D D D D C
Orissa BOD BOD BOD BOD
Brahmani at B D D D D C
Dharmashala, Orissa BOD BOD BOD BOD, Totcoli
Totcoli
Brahmani at B D D D D C
Pattamundai, Orissa BOD BOD BOD BOD, Totcoli
Totcoli
∗
NA- Not Available. Source: Central Pollution Control Board

times. While the observed quality is below the desired class in general, it is better at a
few places. Here too, BOD and total coliform are critical parameters.

13.3.8. Master Plan

Govt. of Orissa, Dept. of Irrigation formulated a master plan for the Brahmani
basin with the objective of utilizing the large water potential. Incidentally Orissa
with 4% of the country’s area is endowed with 11% of the country’s water wealth.
The Brahmani basin with 18,318 MCM yield is estimated to have a total irrigation
potential of 4 493 km2 from major and medium irrigation schemes. The minor
irrigation potential is 1 217 km2 . One major project and 21 medium projects are
envisaged in the basin.
The state of Jharkhand has a total agricultural area of about 29 740 km2 . As per
the assessment of 2nd Bihar Irrigation Commission, 12 765 km2 irrigation potential
may be created in Jharkhand through major and medium Irrigation Schemes. By
634 Chapter 13

Table 34. Irrigation & Water Need by 2025 in Brahmani Basin

Project types Jharkhand Chhattisgarh

Area km2  Water need Area km2  Water need

Mm3  Mm3 

Major/ Medium 188411 188411

Minor 100486 65316 20.09 13.06

the end of March 2001, 2 005 km2 of potential had been created. The ultimate
irrigation water requirements of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh from future projects
have been assessed as given in Table 34.

13.4. THE BAITARANI RIVER BASIN

The Baitarani River, one of the major rivers of Orissa, drains an area of 14 218 km2 .
The basin lies mostly in the State of Orissa excluding 736 km2 in Singhbhum District
of Jharkhand State. In Orissa part, the Districts Keonjhar, Mayurbhanj, Balasore,
Cuttack, Sundergarh and Dhenkanal fall in the Baitarani basin of which Keonjhar
District covers the major portion of the basin area. The Baitarani River originates
from Guptaganga hills in Keonjhar District of Orissa, about 2 km from Gonasika
village, at an elevation of 900 m at latitude 21 31 N and longitude 85 33 E. Initially
the river flows in northern direction for about 80 km and then takes a sudden right
turn. In this reach, the river serves as a boundary between Jharkhand and Orissa
states up to the confluence of Kangira River.
While flowing towards south, the River enters the plains at Anandapur and
further downstream meets the deltaic zone at Akhudapada, where it gets bifurcated.
Further, it meets the Brahmani and is renamed as Dhamara and joins the Bay of
Bengal after traveling a distance of 360 km. There are 64 tributaries of Baitarani
River out of which 35 join on the left side and 29 on right side. The prominent
tributaries are Kangira, Khairi, Bhandarn, Deo, Kanjihar, Sita, Kusai and Salanadi.
Annual average observed runoff at some of the CWC gauging sites of Brahmani
and Baitarni basins are given in Table 35.

Table 35. Annual average observed runoff at CWC sites in Brahmani and Baitarni basin (Catchment
area > 5 000 km2 )

Name of the site Name of the stream Catchment area km2  Annual average
runoff (BCM)

Jaraikela Koel 9160 509

Panposh Brahmani 19448 1407
Gomlai Brahmani 19820 1173
Jenapur Brahmani 33955 1698
Anadpur Baitarani 8570 469
Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 635

During flood, the Baitarani River turns into a large turbulent stream posing
potential threat to life and property. The maximum observed flood has been recorded
as 4.36 lakh cusec in the year 1960 at Birdi G & D site. At present there is no flood
moderating project completed in the Baitarani main stream. Only a few major and
medium projects have been completed. These are Salanadi, Kanjhari, Remal and
Akhuapada projects having total command area of 1 323 km2 . In addition to the
above, the ongoing projects are Kanupur and Deo with command area of 395 km2 .
There are some proposed projects and Bhimkund project at Udaipur is an important
major project that is in the stage of investigation.
Based on topography and hydrometeorology, the Baitarani River basin may be
classified in three groups: Upper, Middle, and Lower Baitarani basins.

13.4.1. Upper Baitarani Basin

The upper Baitarani basin covers an area of 5 792 km2 of which 736 km2 lies in
Jharkhand. This is mostly mountainous and rocky and lies in higher altitude. The
upper portion of this basin is in the northern plateau and Eastern Ghats. The rock
of the basin belongs to iron ore series of the upper Dharwar system of the eastern
archean group. The major tributaries are Khairi-Bhandan, Deo that join Baitarani
in the sub-basin.

13.4.2. Middle Baitarani Basin

The middle Baitarani basin with an area of 4 333 km2 is entirely in the State
of Orissa. This portion is partly hilly and partly plain. The major tributaries are
Kanijhari, Kushei, Kantamuli and Sim.

13.4.3. Lower Baitarani Basin

The lower Baitarani basin covering an area of 4 093 km2 mostly consists of Salandi
and Matai River basins. Physiographically this sub-basin is in the deltaic region
and situated in fertile plain of Cuttack and Balasore Districts. Major portion of the
sub-basin is made up of alluvial soil.

13.4.4. Geology
The geological formations in and around the Upper Baitarani are of two main
series, the iron ore series and younger Kolhan series. The iron ore series are
represented by mica, hornblende, schist, gneiss, phyllite, chert and jasper which
along with Singhbhum granite constitute the surrounding country rock. The Kolhan
series comprise mainly flat bedded Kolhan, sand stone and conglomerate. The sand
stone usually form the flat tapped hills over the granite terrain in this area. The
generalized geological break up of the south Singhbhum and Keonjhar Districts is
New Dolerite, Kolhan series, Singhbhum series, and Iron ore series.
636 Chapter 13

13.4.5. Physiography and Climate

The Baitarani basin is an oval shaped basin having drainage area of 14 218 km2 .
The basin lies in the Singhbhum District of Jharkhand and Keonjhar, Dhenkanal,
Mayurbhanj, Sundergarh, Cuttack and Balasore Districts of Orissa. The upper
Baitarani basin is about 700 m above mean sea level and therefore the climate is
extreme in nature. The middle Baitarani basin is partly hilly and partly plain, and
the lower Baitarani basin is in coastal area. The effect of the sea is very much felt
in the lower basin in coastal plain.
The rainfall in the basin is mostly from south-west monsoon and lasts from June
to October. About 80% of the annual precipitation occurs during these months.
The rainfall is caused mostly by depressions in Bay of Bengal. The annual rainfall
varies from a maximum of 1,595 mm to a minimum of 745 mm and average rainfall
is 1,187 mm. The maximum recorded temperature of Keonjhar District in summer
is 485  C and minimum in winter is 6  C.
The relative humidity is minimum in the months of April and May and maximum
in the months of August and September. The maximum and minimum humidity are
of the order of 83.08% and 39.63% respectively.
As per the data of the IMD station at Keonjhar, the minimum and maximum
wind speeds are 5 kmph and 75 kmph respectively. The maximum cloud cover is
observed in the months of June and July whereas minimum is in the months of
December and January.
In the Baitarni River basin in central part of India that covers a large area in
the state of Orissa and a smaller part of Jharkhand, water surplus occurs in the
southwestern part of the basin. Water deficit is very low and is concentrated only
in western and central parts of the basin, which vary from 70 mm to 140 mm.
Moreover, due to the low water deficit and high amount of water surplus, the entire
river basin provides a maximum of 400 mm of water of the river as runoff as a
good amount for groundwater recharging.

13.4.6. Existing and Ongoing Projects in Brahmani and Baitarani

Basins
After independence, many water resources development projects have come up in
these basins. Brief details of important projects are given below.

i. Hirakud canal system

Large tracts in Sambalpur District are irrigated by this major irrigation system.
These works were built after independence. The flood waters of Mahanadi River
are stored at Hirakud Dam and are distributed for irrigation in later months. A part
of the stored water gets transported to the Brahmani basin.

ii. Rengali dam

Rengali is an earthen and rockfill dam constructed on Brahmani River, located at a
distance of 80 km from Angul in Angul District, Orissa. The height and length of
Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 637

the dam is 70.5 and 1,040 m respectively. Rengali reservoir is the second largest
man-made lake in Orissa, covering 37,840 ha at full reservoir level and 28,000 ha
at the mean level. Its FRL is at 123.5 m and the MDDL is at 109.72 m. Regali
reservoir stores 4,400 to 5 150 Mm3 of water with mean annual inflow of 14,900
MCM. The reservoir has a catchment of 25 250 km2 , comprising mostly forests
and wasteland. Rengali power house has 5 units of 50 MW each and a firm power
of 53 MW. The water temperature (20.25 to 290  C) and pH (8.2) are conducive
to reasonably high organic productivity.
Rengali dam has the capacity to moderate the high flood of 5 to 6 lakh cusec to
3 to 4 lakh cusec and to 2 lakh cusec or less in approximately 30% of time. Even
with this moderation, growing a Kharif crop over 500 Mm2 of good land (low land
of elevation up to 10 m) has become unviable.
Orissa has planned to utilize some more water resources in the second phase of
Rengali Irrigation Project. Till date only Rengali dam across Brahmani and Mandira
dam across Sankh have been constructed. Water from Mandira reservoir is being
used for the Rourkela Steel Plant.
Rengali Irrigation Project: This is a barrage scheme constructed across Brahmani
River at Samal in Angul district, 35 km downstream of Rengali dam project. The
project is designed to pick up flood releases and tail race water from Rangali dam
and divert the same as per requirements through two canal systems. The CCA
includes both flow and lift irrigation. The salient features of Rengali Irrigation
Project are given below:
Free catchment at barrage site: 4 780 km2 (between Dam & barrage)
Total catchment: 30 030 km2
Mean Annual Rainfall: 1 570 mm
For this project, the Gross Command Area is 3 364 km2 while the culturable
command area (CCA) is 2 591 km2 . The intensity of Kharif Irrigation is 100% and
that of Rabi is 90%. The Kharif cropped area is 2 591 km2 and Rabi cropped area
is 2 332 km2 .

iii. Kansabahati irrigation project

This is a reservoir project constructed across Badajore Nalla, a tributary of Brahmani
River in Sundergarh district near village Kadambahal. The reservoir intercepts a
catchment area of 179 km2 and is designed to provide irrigation to a CCA of
5,050 ha. Kharif irrigation is for 4,615 ha and Rabi irrigation for 2,430 ha. The
anicut lies within Rajgangpur Block area.

iv. Pitamahal irrigation project

A reservoir project with earthen and masonry dam across the Pitamahal River in
Sundergarh district intercepts a catchment area of 102 km2 . The project is designed
to irrigate 4,261 ha of CCA which includes 2,630 ha in Kharif season and 1,631 ha
in Rabi season. The gross and live storage capacity of the project are 27.68 and
2400 Mm3 respectively.
638 Chapter 13

Table 36. Salient particulars of the existing Projects in Brahmani and Baitarani basin

Name of the State Gross storage Live storage Designed Installed

Project capacity Mm3  capacity Mm3  annual capacity
irrigation km2  (MW)

Nandini Jharkhand 1928 1654 4080 –

Paras Jharkhand 1849 1690 3470 –
Kanjhari Dam Orissa 4052 3452 13390 –
Mardira Orissa 54278 37008 – –
Roomal Orissa 1928 1570 6400 –
Salnadi Orissa 56500 55635 60140 3

v. Gohira irrigation project

This is a reservoir project with 3,550 m long earth dam built near village Ambaghat
in Deogarh district. It intercepts a catchment area of 236 km2 and is designed to
irrigate 8,100 ha in Kharif season and 5,265 ha in Rabi season in Reamal block of
Deogarh district.

vi. Aunali irrigation project

This project is constructed across Aunali Nalla in Chhendipada block of Angul
district near village Patrapada. It intercepts a catchment area of 15022 km2 and is
designed to irrigate 1,188 ha in Kharif season.

vii. Dadaraghati irrigation project

It is a reservoir project with a rock-fill dam constructed near village Rangathali in
Angul district, across Gambharia Nalla. This reservoir intercepts a catchment area
of 102 km2 and is designed to irrigate 4,514 ha CCA with an annual intensity of
irrigation of 140%. The gross and live storage capacity of the project are 23.44 and
1974 Mm3 respectively.

Table 37. Salient particulars of the Projects Under construction in Brahmani and Baitarni basins

Name of the Project State Gross storage Live storage Designed

capacity Mm3  capacity Mm3  annual
irrigation
km2 

Chirgaon Reservoir Jharkhand 1457 1317 2900

Kans Reservoir Jharkhand 2324 2146 3300
Kansabahal Orissa 4042 2872 8110
Kusei Dam Orissa 7196 5674 10480
Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 639

Table 38. Desired and observed water quality classes for Baitarani

Location Desired Observed class & critical parameters

class
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Baitarani at Joda, C D D D B C
Orissa BOD BOD BOD
Baitarani at Anandpur, C D D D C C
Orissa BOD BOD BOD
Baitarani at Jajpur, C D D D D D
Orissa BOD BOD BOD BOD Totcoli
Baitarani at Chandbali, C D D D D D
Orissa BOD BOD BOD BOD BOD,
Totcoli
Baitarani at Dhamra, C D D D D D
Orissa BOD BOD BOD BOD BOD,
Totcoli
∗
NA- Not Available. Source: Central Pollution Control Board.

viii. Derjang irrigation project

It is a reservoir project with zoned earth-fill dam constructed across Lingra Nalla
in Angul district. It intercepts a catchment area of 394 km2 and irrigates 6,478 ha of
CCA. The gross and live storage capacity of the project are 45.28 and 4155 Mm3
respectively.

ix. Ramiala irrigation project

It is a reservoir project with rolled filled homogeneous earth dam constructed across
Ramiala River in Dhenkanal district near village Budhibil. Ramiala dam intercepts
a catchment area of 328 km2 and is designed to irrigate 9,600 ha CCA with annual
intensity of irrigation of 162.5%. The gross and live storage capacity of the project
are 86.00 and 6940 Mm3 respectively.
In addition to these, salient features of some other existing projects with a live
storage capacity of 10 Mm3 and above are presented in Table 36. Table 37 gives
salient features of some projects that are under construction.

13.4.7. Water Quality Aspects

According to the studies made by CPCB, the observed water quality status of
Baitarani River and its tributaries and the desired class are given in Table 38. It
is observed from this tale that the observed class in mostly ‘D’ while the desired
class is ‘C’.
CHAPTER 14
KRISHNA AND GODAVARI BASINS

14.1. THE KRISHNA BASIN

The Krishna is the second largest eastward draining interstate river in Peninsular
India. It rises in the Mahadev range of the Western Ghats at an altitude of 1,337 m
near Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra State, about 64 km from the Arabian Sea. It
flows for a distance of 305 km in Maharashtra, 483 km in Karnataka and 612 km in
Andhra Pradesh before finally out falling into the Bay of Bengal. Thus the length
of the river is about 1,400 km and it flows across the whole width of the peninsula,
from west to east, through Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh states. The
basin lies between latitudes 13 07 N and 19 20 N and longitudes 73 22 E and
81 10 E. On the north, the basin is bounded by the range separating it from the
Godavari basin, on the south and east by the Eastern Ghats and on the west by the
Western Ghats. The basin extends over an area of 258,948 km2 , which is nearly 8%
of the total geographical area of the country. An index map of the Krishna basin is
given in Figure 1.
The basin is roughly triangular in shape with its base along the Western Ghats,
the apex at Vijayawada and the Krishna itself forming the median. The western
border of Krishna basin is formed by an unbroken line of ranges of the Western
Ghats. Most other parts of this basin are comprised of rolling and undulating terrain.
The state-wise distribution of drainage area is given in Table 1.
The Tungabhadra, Narayanpur, Srisailam, Nagarjunasagar and Prakasam barrage,
are the existing major projects in the basin. Jurala and Almatti are the ongoing
major projects while Pulichintala is the proposed major project.
Water balance studies carried by NWDA (by sub-dividing the whole basin into
12 sub-basins) have shown that the basin will be water deficit to the tune of
3,235 Mm3 in the ultimate development scenario.

14.1.1. Tributaries of Krishna River

Thirteen major tributaries join the Krishna River along its course, out of which six
are right bank tributaries and seven are left bank tributaries. All the major tributaries
draining the base of the triangle fall into the Krishna River in the upper two-thirds
of its length. Among the major tributaries, the Ghatprabha, the Malprabha and
641
642 Chapter 14

Figure 1. Index map of Krishna Basin

the Tungabhadra are the principal right bank tributaries which together account
for 35.45% of the total catchment area, whereas the Bhima and the Musi are
the principal left bank tributaries which together account for 35.62% of the total
catchment area. The catchment area, length and elevation of source of the tributaries
are given in Table 2. Flow Diagram of Krishna basin is given in Figure 2.
In the following, a detailed description of the principal tributaries is given.

The Tungabhadra river

Tungabhadra River is formed from the union of the two rivers, namely, Tunga and
Bhadra, which together rise in Varahagiri in the Western Ghats of Karnataka State
at an altitude of about 1,196 m. The two rivers confluence at a village called Kudali

Table 1. Statewise area of Krishna Basin

State Length (km) Drainage area Percentage

(sq. km) of total
area

Maharashtra 305 69 425 268

Karnataka 483 113 271 437
Andhra Pradesh 612 76 252 295
Total 1 400 258 948 1000
Krishna and Godavari Basins 643

Table 2. Details of major tributaries of Krishna River

SN Name of tributary Bank Elevation Length (km) Catchment area

of source (sq. km)
(m)

1. Koyna Right 4 719 118 4 890

2. Panchganga Right 1 020 74 2 575
3. Dudhganga Right 870 103 2 350
4. Ghataprabha Right 884 283 8 829
5. Malaprabha Right 793 304 11 549
6. Bhima Left 945 861 70 614
7. Tungabhadra Right 610 531 71 417
8. Dindl Left 718 178 3 490
9. Peddavagu Left 707 109 2 343
10. Halia Left 708 112 3 780
11. Musi Left 661 265 11 212
12. Paleru Left 515 152 3 263
13. Munneru Left 238 195 10 409

near Shimoga. The united Tungabhadra River flows for about 531 km in a generally
northeasterly direction, through Mysore and Andhra Pradesh and joins the Krishna
at an elevation of about 264 m beyond Karnool. The length of the river is 786 km.
The important tributaries of the Tungabhadra River are the Varada, the Hagari,
the Vedavati, and the Kumudvati. The total drainage area of the Tungabhadra
is 71,417 km2 . The mean annual rainfall in the Tungabhadra basin is 884 mm
(NIH, 1992).
The catchment area of Tungabhadra sub-basin can be demarcated into three zones
depending on the vegetative growth viz., (i) The Western Ghat belt from Agumbe to
Honnali with thick forest and heavy rainfall, (ii) thin vegetative cover from Honnali
up to Harihar with moderate rainfall, and (iii) very thin vegetative growth with bare
topped hills beyond Harihar and up to Mallapuram with scanty rainfall. The land
use in the catchment consists of forest (14.5%), cultivation (59%), pastures (9%),
wasteland (12%); the rest (5.5%) is fallow land (KERS 1985).
Drainage density of the catchment is 044 km/km3 and the average slope is 6%.
On the basis of topography, vegetation and the type of soil the value of runoff
coefficient is 0.21 The river derives major portion of its flow in its initial course of
206 km, draining from the Western Ghats.
The annual river flow varies from 8,412 Mm3 to 17,148 Mm3 , the average being
11,427 Mm3 . Although the volume of rainfall is quite high, the rate of soil erosion is
low because of good forest cover. In addition, the soils are mainly lateritic, which are
not easily susceptible to erosion when there is vegetation cover.
The storage projects existing in the area are: (1) Bhadra Reservoir across
Bhadra near Lakkavalli, (2) Tunga anicut across Tunga near Gajanur, (3) Hagari-
Bommanhalli reservoir across the river Hagari, (4) Bhadra anicut near Bhadravathi,
(5) Dharma reservoir across the river Varada, and (6) Anjanapura reservoir across
644 Chapter 14

Source

Koyna 3,964

Varna 570

Ghatprabha 5,380

Malprabha 1,980

12,690 Bhima

Tungabhadara14,700

1,410 Musi

483 Palleru

1,980 Muneru

Vijaywada ♦67,675

Krishna River

Sea

Figure 2. Flow Diagram of Krishna basin

Kumudvathi. In addition, the catchment area is intercepted with a large number

of minor tanks. Counting the major and medium reservoirs in the catchment, the
intercepted catchment is approximately 6,740 km2 and the independent catchment
is approximately 21,440 km2 .

The Malprabha river

Malprabha is a right bank tributary of Krishna River. The Malprabha catchment
lies between North latitudes 15 00 and 16 12 and east longitudes 74 14 and
76 05 . The Malprabha River originates from the Chorla Ghats, a section of the
Western Ghats, at an elevation of about 792 m about 35 m south-west of Belgaum
District of Karnataka. The river flows east and north-west and joins Krishna at
Kapila Sangam in the Bijapur District at an elevation of about 488 m. Malprabha
traverses a length of 306 km before meeting the Krishna River. The Bennihala
and the Hirehalla are the principal tributaries of the river Malprabha. The total
Krishna and Godavari Basins 645

catchment area of the Malprabha including its tributaries is 11,549 km2 , which lies
wholly in the State of Karnataka.
To harness the waters of the Malprabha River a dam has been constructed
at Niviluteerth, Belgaum District to impound 1,377 Mm3 water. The reservoir
catchment covers an area of 3,300 km2 .
Physiography: The Malprabha catchment is approximately triangular in shape. The
terrain is flat to gently undulating except for a few hillocks and valleys. The northern
boundary is the common ridge between the Malprabha and the Ghatprabha rivers
and the eastern boundary is the common bridge between the Malprabha, the Krishna
and the Tungabhadra rivers. The southern and western boundaries are the common
ridge between the Malprabha and the west flowing rivers. The important rock
formations in the sub-basin are: (i) sedimentary rock formation (Kaladgi group)
comprising limestone, shale and quartzites, (ii) Schistose rock formations (Dharwad
super group) comprising granite, gneiss and crystalline rocks. The important soil
types found in the basin are black soils, red soils, laterite and lateritic soils, alluvium,
mixed soil, red and black soil and saline and alkaline soils.
Climate: Three main seasons prevailing in the catchment are: the summer from
March to April, the monsoon from May to November, and the winter from December
to February.
Rainfall is mainly received by the south-west monsoon. The rainfall in the non-
monsoon period is insignificant. The average annual rainfall of the catchment for the
periods from 1901–02 to 1930–31, 1931–32 to 1948–49 and 1949–50 to 1984–85
were 718 mm, 775 mm and 815 mm respectively. Except the monsoon months, the
climate of the catchment is generally dry. The mean relative humidity is high during
the south-west monsoon season and comparatively low during the non-monsoon
period. In summer, the weather is dry and the humidity is low.
During the monsoon season, winds flow from the south-west or west. In the
non-monsoon season, winds from north-east and south-east are common. During
the south-west monsoon, sky is heavily clouded. During the remaining part of the
year, clear or lightly clouded sky prevails.

The Bhima river

The Bhima River is a major left bank tributary of the Krishna River, which also
rises in the Western Ghats and flows south-eastwards through Maharashtra and
Mysore. It falls into the Krishna River at about 26 km north of Raichur at an
altitude of 343 m. The total length of the river before joining Krishna River is
861 km. The main tributaries of the Bhima are the Mula, the Mutha, the Nira, the
Ghod, the Man and the Sina. The total catchment area of the Bhima sub-basin
is 76,614 km2 .
Twenty medium and major reservoir projects have been constructed on the Bhima
River and its tributaries in Maharashtra. Most of the headwater reservoirs are
ungated. The dams in Bhima system are operated to meet various conservation
requirements and for controlling the flood in the Bhima valley. The Bhima project,
also known as Ujjani dam, is the biggest dam in the system that has been constructed
646 Chapter 14

on the Bhima River in the Krishna basin in Solapur district, Maharashtra state.
The main purposes of this dam are irrigation and flood control. Pandarpur is an
important religious place which is to be protected against floods. The 15 major
projects are:

1. Pimpalgaon 6. Chaskaman 11. Bhatghar

joge 7. Pawana 12. Bhama Askhed
2. Yedgaon 8. Varasgaon 13. Veer
3. Manikdoha 9. Panshet 14. Ghod
4. Wadaj 10. Khadakwasla 15. Ujjani
5. Dimbhe

Following five lakes are operated by the Tata group and are known as Tata lakes:
1. Andhra 2. Mulshi 3. Shirota 4. Lonawala 5. Valvan

The current practice of operating the dams in this system is based on thumb
rule as scientific analysis of the operation procedure for the reservoirs has not been
carried out. This implies sub-optimal management of reservoirs in the basin. Water
scarcity and flood situations occur quite frequently. Figure 3 shows the line diagram
of the Bhima system.
The Solapur district critically depends on the Ujjani reservoir for drinking and
irrigation water supply, with almost 80% of its water coming from the reservoir.
Ujjani irrigates some 350 Mm2 of land in Solapur through various lift irrigation
schemes and another 1,500 Mm2 benefit through water discharged into the Bhima

YEDGAON DAM LINE DIAGRAM OF

PIMPALGAON JOGA DAM BHIMA SYSTEM
MANIKDOH DAM

WADAJ DAM

BH
IM VISAPUR DAM
DIMBHE DAM A R
IV
ER
GHOD
CHASKAMAN DAM
PROJECT
THITE WADI TANK UJJANI DAM
ASKHED PROJECT DHOUND

NAZARE DAM
ANDHRA LAKE R NARSINGPUR
I RIVE
AYAN
VADIVALE TANK INDR
HA RPUR
PAND
BARHANPUR PROJECT
PAWANA RIVER PUNE
PAWANA DAM R
VALVAN TANK VEER DAM
VE
KHADAKWASLA DAM RI
RA
MULSHI LAKE NI

BHATGHAR DAM
PANSHET DAM
VARASGAON DAM

Figure 3. Line diagram of Bhima system

Krishna and Godavari Basins 647

River. The Ujjani catchment is spread over 14,856 km2 . However, in some recent
dry years, the ready-to-use water stock in Ujjani, with a capacity of 1,517 Mm3 was
nearly over.

The Ghatprabha river

Rising from the Western Ghats at an altitude of 884 m, the Ghatprabha River is one
of the southern tributaries of the Krishna River. The catchment area of Ghatprabha
lies between latitude 15 45 and 16 25 N and longitude 74 00 and 75 55 E. The
Ghatprabha River flows eastwards for a distance of 283 km before joining Krishna
at Kudalisangam, about 35 km north-east of Kaladgi at an elevation of 500 m. The
river flows for about 60 km in the Ratnagiri and Kolhapur Districts of Maharashtra
before entering the Belgaum District of Karnataka. In Karnataka, it flows through
Belgaum and Bijapur Districts and joins the Krishna about 16 km from Almatti.
The catchment area of Ghatprabha including its tributaries is 8,829 km2 .
Tributaries of Ghatprabha River: The principal tributaries of Ghatprabha River are
the Tampraparni, and Hiranyakeshi and the Markandeya. The Tamraparni, rising in
Maharashtra flows through the Sindudurg district. It forms the boundary between
Maharashtra and Karnataka for 6 km and after a run of 19 km in Karnataka, joins
Ghatprabha on the left bank. The Markandeys, rising in Maharashtra flows for 8 km
and after a run of 66 km in Karnataka, joins the Ghatprabha on the right bank.
A dam has been constructed at Hidkal in Hukkeri taluk to impound 2,202 Mm3
water running two canals on either bank and coupled with weirs and lift irrigation
schemes on the foreshores.
Physiography and Geology: The sub-basin is approximately triangular in shape. Its
northern boundary is the common ridge between the Krishna and the Ghatprabha
rivers; the southern boundary is the common bridge between the Ghatprabha and the
Malprabha rivers. Except for isolated hillocks and valleys, most of the catchment
area is flat to gently undulating.
The geological formations found within the sub-basin are (i) Deccan trap of
tertiary age, (ii) Sedimentary formations known as ‘Kaladagi group’ comprising
limestone, shale and quartzities, (iii) Schists, Gneiss and other crystallizing rocks,
and (iv) Laterite rocks. The soils generated from the formations are mostly
permeable. As the surface is covered with moorum, runoff is moderate in the
catchment.
Hydrogeological studies carried out in the sub-basin reveal that ground water
occurs in all the geological formations, viz., the Dharwar Schists, Peninsular
Gneisses, quartzites and alluvial deposits. The occurrence and movement of ground-
water in these rocks is controlled by the nature and extent of weathering and the
presence of joints and fractures in them. The sub-soil water table generally does not
exceed 9 m below ground water level under normal conditions. The ground water
development in the sub-basin is from open wells and dug-cum-borewells.
Climate: The climate of the catchment is marked by a hot summer and a mild
winter. In the western parts of catchment, the summer season is mild but it is severe
in the other parts. On certain days during summers, the day temperature rises up to
648 Chapter 14

41  C. The monsoon sets early in June and withdraws by the end of October. With the
onset of monsoon in early June, there is an appreciable drop in the day temperature.
The winter season lasts from November to December. Generally December is the
coldest month with the mean daily maximum and minimum temperature being
293  C and 139  C respectively. April is generally the hottest month with mean
daily maximum and minimum temperatures of 357  C and 195  C. Expectedly,
the relative humidity is high during the south-west monsoon and low during the
non-monsoon period. In summer the weather is dry and humidity is low.
Wind velocities are generally low with some increase during the late summer
and in the monsoon season. From April to Sept., wind blows mainly from the
south-west and west. In October, it is from the directions between north and east
but on some days from south-west or west. During November and December, wind
is mostly north-easterly or easterly. South-westerly and westerly appear in January
and from February onwards the easterlies decrease in frequency and by April the
afternoon wind blows predominantly from the west and south-west.
During the south-west monsoon, the sky is heavily clouded. Cloud cover
decreases in the post-monsoon period. From December to February, the sky is
generally clear with occasional light clouds. Cloud cover increases from April
onwards. The sunshine percentage in the catchment varies from 21 to 96.

The Musi river

The Musi River is a major left bank tributary of Krishna, having its origin in
the hills of Anathagiri near Vikarabad, Rangareddy District, A.P. It flows through
Hyderabad city and runs mostly west to east until the Aleru River joins it. Flowing
southwards, it meets the Krishna River near Wazirabad at an elevation of about
61 m. When it confluences with Krishna river, Musi River has already flown
for 267 km.
The river has a rocky and very steep fall. It brings very heavy and sudden floods
during the monsoon. During the year 1908, Musi swelled up in high floods and
submerged a major portion of Hyderabad city and many villages on its banks, and
caused severer damages to the property and life. Immediately after this disaster, the
problem of controlling flood received the attention of Government of Hyderabad.
Consequently two major reservoirs Himayatsagar and Osmansagar were constructed
on the two branches of river Musi called Easa and Musa (Musi). The storages
of these two reservoirs are exclusively being utilized for water supply to the
twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad. In recent years also, the city of
Hyderabad has seen flooding and unplanned urban growth is one of the reasons
for this.

14.1.2. Climate of Krishna Basin

The climate of the Krishna basin is dominated by the southwest monsoon, which
provides most of the precipitation for the basin. High flow in the river occurs
during the months of August–November and the lean flow season is from April to
Krishna and Godavari Basins 649

May (at Vijayawada). Climatic types range from per-humid through dry sub-humid
in the west through semi-arid in the central and eastern parts of the basin. The
south-central part of the basin is truly arid.
On an average, annual rainfall in the Krishna basin is 784 mm. The southwest
monsoon sets in by middle of June and withdraws by the middle of October. About
90 percent of the annual rainfall is received during the monsoon months; more than
70% occurs during July, August and September.
Except the monsoon months, the climate of the catchment remains dry. From the
climatological observations, it is seen that the mean daily maximum temperature in
the basin varies from 277  C to 404  C and the mean daily minimum temperature
varies from 206 to 272  C.
The relative humidity in the basin ranges from 17 to 92 percent. Mean relative
humidity is high during the monsoon period and comparatively low during the post
monsoon period. In summer, the weather is dry and the humidity is low.
Winds in the basin are generally light with some increase in force during the
later half of summers. The catchment is influenced by south-west winds during the
monsoon season. In the post monsoon season, they blow from north-west to north.
In the winter season the winds blow from the north-west and south-west directions.
In the Krishna basin, wind speed varies from 4.0 to 21.7 km/hr.
Sky is generally heavily clouded during the monsoon season. Cloudiness
decreases sharply in the post monsoon months. During rest of the year, sky is clear
or lightly clouded. The cloud cover in the basin varies from 0.8 oktas to 8.00 oktas.

14.1.3. Geology of Krishna Basin

The geology of the Krishna basin is dominated in the northwest by the Deccan
Traps, in the central part by unclassified crystallines, and in the east by the Cuddapah
Group. The Dharwars (southwest central) and the Vindhian (east central) form a
significant part of the outcrops within the unclassified crystallines. Krishna delta is
predominantly formed by Pleistocene to recent material. Figure 4 shows the valley
of Krishna River in Eastern Ghats.

14.1.4. The Deltaic Plain

The Krishna delta is situated between latitudes 15 42 to 16 30 N and longitudes
of 80 30 to 81 15 E with its head at Vijayawada. After cutting the Eastern Ghats,
the river forms a deltaic plain which is nearly 95 km wide and covers an area of
about 4,736 km2 . The main river splits in four distributaries which debauch into
the Bay of Bengal. The first channel begins near Avanigodda and the three main
distributaries are the Golumuttapaya, the Nadimieru and the Main channels. A weir
at the head controls the flow within the deltaic plain. Vast amounts of sediment
material has been added at the mouths of the distributaries during the past 50 years
leading to the formation of river mouth bars and barrier islands with associated
650 Chapter 14

Figure 4. Valley of Krishna River in Eastern Ghats

back island lagoons. As the delta progressed, these lagoons were filled in with finer
grained sediments. From Vijayawada to the Bay, the average slope is 20 cm/km. The
Krishna delta has large tracts of mangrove swamps along the coast with maximum
concentration surrounding the three main distributaries.
Tidal flats occupy a considerable area of the lower deltaic plain especially
between the Golumuttapaya and Avanigodda distributaries (Div Island). In fact,
the tidal flats may be the product of a degraded inter-distributary bay between two
(now abandoned) former channels.

14.1.5. Surface Water Potential of Krishna Basin

Average annual surface water potential of this basin has been assessed at 781 km3 .
Out of this, 580 km3 is utilizable water. Culturable area in the basin is about
0203 Mm2 , which is 10.4% of the total culturable area of India. The hydropower
potential of the basin has been assessed as 2,997 MW at 60% load factor.
At present, the utilization of surface water in the basin is 500 km3 . Past few
decades have seen significant increase in storage capacity in the basin. From just
about 32 km3 in the pre-plan period, the total storage capacity of the completed
projects has increased to 345 km3 . In addition, the projects under construction
would add storage quantity of over 49 km3 on completion. Figure 5 shows the gross
flows of Krishna River at Vijayawada. This figure does not show any major trend
in the data. The annual average observed runoff at some CWC sites in Krishna
basin is given in Table 3.

14.1.6. Water Quality Aspects

Based on the systematic sampling of river water at many locations in the basin, its
suitability for various purposes is determined by CPCB and the results are listed in
Krishna and Godavari Basins 651

Figure 5. Gross flow of Krishna River at Vijayawada

Table 4. In general, the quality is not as per the desired class and BOD remains
the most critical parameter. At some places, DO and total coliform are also causing
problem.

14.1.7. Major Existing Water Resources Projects in Krishna Basin

A number of dams and barrages have been constructed and are under construction
in the Krishna basin to utilize water resources. Nagarjunasagar and Srisailam are

Table 3. Annual average observed runoff at some CWC sites in Krishna basin

Name of the site Name of the Catchment area Annual average

stream km2  runoff (BCM)

Arjunwad Krishna 12 660 466

Kurundwad Krishna 15 190 652
Galagali Krishna 22 560 990
Huvenhedgi Krishna 55 150 1001
Krishna Agraharam Krishna 132 920 2032
Pondugala Krishna 221 220 1840
Wadenapalli Krishna 235 544 1302
Vijayawada Krishna 251 360 1021
Dhond Bhima 11 660 325
Narsingpur Bhima 22 856 315
Takali Bhima 33 916 326
Yadgir Bhima 69 863 570
Wadakbal Sina 12 092 568
Hariahalli Tungabhadra 14 582 975
Ollenur Tungabhadra 33 018 804
Mantralayam Tungabhadra 60 630 846
Bawapuram Tungabhadra 67 180 615
T. Ramapuram Hagari 23 500 57
Damercherla Musi 11 501 89
Bhupasamundram Vadavathi 15 026 46
652 Chapter 14

Table 4. Desired and existing water quality status of Krishna River (1997–2001)

Location Desired Observed class & critical parameters

class
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Krishna at C D D D D D
Mahabaleshwar BOD BOD BOD BOD BOD
Dhom Dam Near
Koina Dam,
Maharashtra
Krishna at Krishna C D D D D D
Bridge, Karad, BOD, BOD BOD BOD BOD
Maharashtra Totcoli
Krishna at B D D D D D
Kurundwad in BOD BOD BOD BOD BOD,
Kolhapur, Totcoli
Maharashtra
Krishna at Sangli, C D D D D D
Maharashtra BOD BOD BOD BOD BOD
Krishna at U/S of C NA C C C C
Ugarkhurd Barrage,
Karnataka
Krishna at D/S of C NA C NA NA C
Narayanpura Dam,
Karnataka
Krishna at Tintini C C C C C C
Bridge, Karnataka
Krishna at Rajapur B D D D D D
Weir, Maharashtra DO, BOD BOD BOD BOD
BOD
Krishna at D/S Of C C NA C C C
Devasagar Bdg.,
Karnataka
Krishna after Confl. C D NA NA D NA
with Tungabhadra, BOD BOD
Sangameshwaram
A.P.
Krishna at C C C C NA NA
Vijaywada, A.P.
∗
NA - Not Available.
Source: Central Pollution Control Board.

two large terminal reservoirs on Krishna. These two have enough storage to regulate
the inflows received in Andhra Pradesh for irrigation and hydropower. The left
and right bank canal systems of Nagarjunasagar extend up to Godavari and Pennar
delta and are notable examples of intra-basin water transfer. Telugu Ganga canal
taking off from the Srisailam reservoir and carrying water up to Tamil Nadu for
Chennai water supply is another praiseworthy example of inter-basin transfer with
cooperation amongst the states.
A brief description of the important projects in Krishna basin is given here.
Krishna and Godavari Basins 653

Upper Krishna project stage – 1

The first stage of the project comprises of two components:
• A dam across the Krishna River near Almatti village in Bagewadi taluk of Bijapur
district to storing water up to RL 512.20 m for providing irrigation to an area of
160 Mm2 .
• Another dam across the Krishna River, at Narayanapur (downstream of Almatti
Dam) near Bachihal and Siddapur village in Muddebihal taluk of Bijapur district.
A Left Bank Canal from the dam will provide irrigation under to 4,250 Mm2
area and the water utilization will be 3,368 Mm3 . The salient features of the
Narayanpur dam are given in Table 5.
Narayanpur or Upper Krishna Stage I dam is located downstream of Almatti
dam after confluence of the Malaprabha and Krishna rivers. A major part of
Upper Krishna command is covered under the Narayanpur canals for which, the
main supplementing storage would be at Almatti. Narayanpur dam is a composite
dam, located at north latitude of 16 10 00 and an east longitude of 76 21 00
near village Siddapur in Muddebihal Taluka of Bijapur district. Narayanpur dam
is 10,637.52 m long and 29.72 m high. The catchment area of the reservoir is
47,850 km2 . The Project provides water for irrigation to the drought prone areas of
Bijapur, Bagalkote, Gulbarga, Raichur and Koppal Districts. This project has been
taken up in two stages. A view of Narayanpur dam can be seen in Figure 6.

Upper Krishna project stage – 2

The second stage of the project envisages raising FRL of Almatti Dam to 524.26 m to
utilize further quantum of 1,907 MCM for providing irrigation to an additional area

Table 5. Salient features of Narayanpur dam

Particulars Details

75 % dependable yield 22,914.40 Mm3

Gross Storage capacity 1,072.08 Mm3
Live Storage capacity (above MDDL) 86304 Mm3
Dead Storage capacity (below sill) 20303 Mm3
Utilization of water 3,369.70 Mm3
MWL of dam 492.25 m
FRL of dam 492.25 m
MDDL of dam 481.58 m
Sill level of dam 462.90 m
Location of spillway Central
Length of spillway 459.00 m
Discharge from spillways 37,922 cumec
Type and number of crest gates Radial, 30
Size of crest gates 15 × 12 m
Submergence area 13206 Mm2
Villages affected 41
Population affected 48,125
Irrigable area 4,087.47 Mm2
654 Chapter 14

Figure 6. A view of Narayanpur dam

of 1,972 Mm2 . However, the state of Maharashtra claims that in case the reservoir
water level rises beyond 519.6 m, there will be submergence in Maharashtra which
a violation of the stipulation that the reservoir should not cause any submergence
in its territory.
Almatti dam of Upper Krishna project is located on the Krishna River about
10 km downstream of the confluence of its tributary Ghatprabha. The Almatti dam
is located at a north latitude of 16 19 48 N and east longitude of 75 53 15 E near
village Almatti in Bagewadi Taluka of Bijapur district. This is a 49.29 m high
composite dam of length 1,565 m. The catchment area of the dam is 35 925 km2 .
Irrigation and hydropower generation are planned at Almatti dam apart from
ensuring releases for the Narayanpur dam which is downstream to it. The salient
features of the dam are given in Table 6. A view of Almatti dam can be seen
in Figure 7.
The power house at Almatti has 5 units of 55 MW each and one unit of 15 MW,
totaling 290 MW. The MDDL varies from 505.97 to 511.16 m and the tail race
level is 489.0 m. For the 55 MW units, the rated head is 26.6 m and for the 15 MW
unit, it is 24.0 m.

Srisailam dam
The Srisailam project, renamed as ‘Neelam Sanjiva Reddy Sagar’ in the honour of
the former president of India, was originally planned as hydroelectric project by the
Govt. of Andhra Pradesh. Subsequently, the domestic water supplies to Chennai
and irrigation benefits to upland areas have been included. This is a part of the
scheme for integrated development of the water resources of river Krishna in the
state of Andhra Pradesh. The dam is located near the famous shrine ‘Srisailam’
known as “South Benaras” after the confluence of Tungabhadra and Bhima rivers
Krishna and Godavari Basins 655

Table 6. Salient features of Almatti dam

Particulars Details

75 % dependable yield 21,057.54 Mm3

Gross Storage capacity 3,485 Mm3
Live Storage capacity (above MDDL) 2,986 Mm3
Dead Storage capacity (below sill) 35311 Mm3
Top of dam 528.756 m
FRL of dam 519.6 m
MDDL of dam 506.87 m
Location of spillway Central
Length of spillway 486.50 m
Flood lift of spillway 15.24 m
Discharge from spillway 31,000 cumec
Number of crest gates of spillway (radial) 26
Size of crest gates of spillway 15 × 1524 m
Sill level of river sluice 495.30 m
Submergence area 24230 Mm2
Villages affected 136
Population affected 180,000
Length of Almatti left bank canal 103 km
Irrigation from Almatti left bank canal 16200 Mm2

with the Krishna. Srisailam village is about 200 km south of Hyderabad and the
Srisailam dam is situated at about 869 km downstream of the origin of Krishna
River where the catchment area is 211,700 km2 . A view of Srisailam dam can be
seen in Figure 8.

Figure 7. A view of Almatti dam

656 Chapter 14

Figure 8. A view of the Srisailam dam and reservoir

The project involves the construction of a masonry dam of straight gravity type
with an overall length of 512 m and a maximum height of about 144 m from
the deepest foundation level. The reservoir formed behind the dam has a storage
capacity of 8,720 Mm3 . The spillway portion is 266.4 m long having 12 bays of
18.3 m clear span each and controlled by 183 m × 167 m radial gates. It has a
discharging capacity of 37,380 m3 /s. The non-overflow of the dam is on either
side of spillway portion. At FRL of 269.75 m, the storage capacity is 8,723 Mm3 .
The dead storage level of the dam is 260.3 m and live storage is 7,080 Mm3 . The
catchment area at the dam is 203,600 km2 .
Two powerhouses are located near the dam. At the right bank powerhouse,
7 units of 110 MW each have been installed while the left bank powerhouse has
6 units of 150 MW each. The powerhouses were submerged in a flood in 1998
which caused extensive damage to them. When the Srisailam reservoir touches
FRL, the backwater extends up to the Kurnool town. Fishing is also carried out
in the reservoir and some recreation facilities are being setup. From the Srisailam
reservoir, planned annual irrigation is 3,100 Mm2 , utilizing about 2,209 Mm3 of
water. A noteworthy feature of this dam is that nearly 59 km3 of water is stored
against the gates. Thus, a large quantity of water is not stored against a passive
wall but against a ‘live’ and moving device. Recall that Ukai dam (Chapter 12) is
another large dam where enormous volume of water is held behind gates.
In summer months, the river flows dwindle down to less than 30 m3 /s. The
maximum flood observed in Krishna River at the dam site is of the order of
18,500 m3 /s during monsoon period (June-October). During the construction,
a problem of deciding river diversion arrangements arose. The maximum river
discharge data for fifteen consecutive years were studied to select the optimum
discharge which would give the largest working period. Finally, diversion
arrangements were designed for about 850 m3 /s capacity which ensured about 195
working days during the period from Nov–June.
The diversion arrangements finally adopted comprised of: A 9.14 m diameter
circular tunnel of 567 m3 /s capacity through the left abutment; a diversion channel
Krishna and Godavari Basins 657

of 15.24 m bed width to carry the balance of 283 m3 /s; and two semi-permanent
concrete upstream and downstream cofferdams to divert the river flows for isolation
of the construction area.
Papanasi temple: When the Srisailam project was planned, the Papanasi and
Sangameswara temples happened to fall in its submergence area. To save these
ancient monuments, these were cut and moved block-by-block. At Alampur in
Mehbubnagar District, the temples were reconstructed exactly the same way as
they were at the original site. Shifting of Papanasi temple is a fine example of
how water resources development can be carried out while protecting the cultural
heritage of the country. Recall that the famous Abu Simbel temple in Egypt was also
shifted in the same manner when the Aswan Dam was constructed on Nile River in
Egypt.

Pulichintala project
The Pulichintala project was originally investigated as an irrigation project. But due
to construction of Nagarjunasagar dam, this project was not taken up as the entire
ayacut that was originally to be irrigated under Pulichintala project was covered
by Nagarjunasagar project. The present proposal is to construct a dam to stabilize
irrigation in the existing ayacut in the Krishna delta for the paddy. Hydropower
generation by utilizing the irrigation releases for the delta is also planned by using
installed capacity of 60 MW.
At the proposed site, the catchment area is 240,733 km2 . The FRL of the reservoir
will be at 53.34 m and MDDL at 42.67 m. Pulichintala reservoir will have gross
storage capacity of 1,296 Mm3 and a live storage of 1,026 Mm3 .

Nagarjunasagar project (NSP)

The Nagarjunasagar project is the largest and highest masonry dam (125 m) in the
world. It is situated downstream of Srisailam reservoir on the main Krishna river in
Andhra Pradesh. It is a multipurpose project with irrigation, hydropower and flood
control components.
The Nagarjunasagar dam is Located near Nandikonda village, Pedavoora Mandal,
Nalgonda district, latitude is 16 34 24 N and longitude 79 18 47 E. It is one of
the dams whose height is more than 100 m; it is 124.663 m above the deepest
foundation level. The catchment area at the dam at 215,193 km2 ; the annual rainfall
in the catchment is 889 mm, the maximum observed flood is 30,050 cumec, and
the design flood (return period 1,000 year) is 58,340 cumec. For the reservoir, the
FRL, DSL, and MDDL of the reservoir are at 179.83 m, 121.92 m, and 156.36 m,
respectively. For this reservoir, the maximum storage is 11,555 Mm3 and the live
storage is 6,940 Mm3 . Spillway at the masonry dam is 470.916 m long and has its
crest at 166.421 m. It is equipped with 26 gates of size 1371 m × 1314 m. When
the Nagarjunasagar reservoir is full, its backwater extends up to the Srisailam dam
and covers an area of 285 sq. km. A view of Nagarjunasagar dam can be seen in
Figure 9.
658 Chapter 14

Figure 9. A view of Nagarjunasagar dam

Nagarjunasagar project complex has substantial capacity for hydropower gener-

ation. It has one conventional and seven reversible units, each with 110 MW
capacity. The right bank canal power house has 3 units of 30 MW each and left
canal power house has 2 units of 20 MW each.
On an average, the Nagarjunasagar project will annually provide irrigation to
a command of 12,480 Mm2 ha by utilizing 7,465 Mm3 water. The work on the
project was completed in 1974. The project comprises a dam with two canals taking
off on either side. The Nagarjunasagar Right Main (Jawahar) Canal is 203 km
long and envisages creating irrigation potential in an area of 4,750 Mm2 in Guntur
and Prakasam districts. The Nagarjunasagar Left Main (Lal Bahadur) Canal is
179 m long and envisages creating irrigation potential in an area of 4,200 Mm2
in Nalgonda, Khammam and Krishna districts. Each of these canals can carry
maximum discharge of 311.5 cumec. The irrigation potential created by June 1999
was 8,100 Mm2 .

Ghatprabha dam
The Ghatprabha project comprises three stages. The first stage consists of a 71 km
long left bank canal from the Dupdhal weir constructed across Ghataprabha River
in 1897 near Dupdhal for providing irrigation to an extent of 425 Mm2 . The second
stage comprises of extension of left bank canal from km 72 to its full length of
109 km and a dam across Ghatprabha River near Hidkal, up to a partial height of
RL 650.14 m. The Ghatprabha dam is located near Hidkal town in Hukkeri taluk
of Belgaum district at latitude 16 9 0 N and longitude 74 38 0 E. At the dam site,
the catchment area is 1,412 km2 and the water yield is 1,970.38 Mm3 .
Ghatprabha dam has a live storage capacity of 1,387 Mm3 to provide irrigation
to a total area of 1,396 Mm2 , inclusive of the area under stage I. The third stage
Krishna and Godavari Basins 659

involves raising the FRL of Hidkal dam to its final level of RL 662.94 m (RL
2,175.00 feet) thereby creating gross storage of 1,448 MCM and constructing a
202 km long Right Bank Canal and 86 km long Chickkodi Branch Canal to irrigate
1,913.86 Mm2 . Thus, the total command area under the project comes to 3,310 Mm2 .
Figure 10 shows a view of the dam. The salient features of the reservoir are given
in Table 7

Tungabhadra project
Tungabhadra is the largest tributary of the Krishna River which contributes an
annual discharge of 14,700 Mm3 at its confluence with the main river. The
Tungabhadra dam is located at Mallapuram, 5 km away from Hospet in the Bellary
district. The latitude and longitude of the dam are 15 15 0 N and 76 21 0 E,
respectively. With full reservoir level of 497.74 m above MSL, the reservoir extends
over 37814 Mm2 . The catchment up to the dam site is 28,168 km2 . The annual
rainfall in the upper catchment of the river is 104 cm. Minor rivers that feed the
Tungabhadra River are dammed at many places, creating small to medium sized
reservoirs, such as Vanivilas Sagar and Anjanapur, and several large tanks, such
as Shantisagar and Madag. The river carries large amount of silt and therefore, silt
deposition in the reservoir is high. This has reduced the capacity of the reservoir
by 13.5% in its first decade of existence. The salient features of the reservoir are
given in Table 8. A view of Tungabhadra dam can be seen in Figure 11.
The climate at the reservoir site is mainly dry (humidity 80.7% to 93.7%);
the average monthly maximum and minimum air temperatures ranging from
31.0 to 395  C and 138  C to 223  C, respectively. The water remains
warm (23.1 to 295  C) throughout the year.

Figure 10. A view of Ghatprabha dam (Hidkal dam)

660 Chapter 14

Table 7. Salient features of the Ghatprabha (Hidkal) dam

Particulars Details

Gross Storage capacity 1,448.69 MCM

Live Storage capacity (above MDDL) 1,387 MCM
Dead Storage capacity (below sill) 60.31 MCM
Height of Dam 60 m
Type of Dam Composite
FRL of dam 662.94 m
MDDL of dam 633.83 m
Length of spillway 149.35 m
Discharge from spillway 4,613 cumec
Crest gates of spillway (radial) 10
Size of crest gates of spillway 1219 × 762 m
Submergence area 6338 Mm2
Villages affected 22
Population affected 15,660
Power Generation 32 MW
Irrigable area 3 31000 Mm2
Length of Left bank canal 109 km
Capacity of Left bank canal 80.7 cumec
Area of Left bank canal 1 61880 Mm2
Length of Right bank canal 202 km
Capacity of Right bank canal 66.56 cumec
Area of Right bank canal 1 69129 Mm2
Withdrawals by canals 2,110.45 MCM
Reservoir losses 92.60 MCM
Gross utilization 2,203.05 MCM

Vanivilas sagar project

Vanivilas Sagar dam is situated on the Vedavati River in Chitradurga district, about
104 km northeast of the Babudan Hills (the source of the Vedavati River). Created
in 1901, it is one of the oldest reservoirs in the State. Total Catchment area at
the dam site is 5,374.00 km2 and the independent catchment area is 1,554 km2 .
Mean annual precipitation for the catchment is 600.00 mm and mean annual run-
off at dam site is 29449 Mm3 . Maximum flood discharge at the dam site has
been estimated to be 1,000 cumec. The salient features of the reservoir have been
given in Table 9. At full reservoir level of 652.28 m, the impoundment has a water
spread area of 8763 km2 . The latitude and longitude of the dam are 13 16 0 N and
75 16 20 E, respectively. In the headwaters area, the river receives high rainfall to
the tune of 375 cm per annum. However, the precipitation in the local
catchment is just 60 cm per year, as the reservoir is situated in the semi-arid
plains.
The reservoir water is uniformly warm throughout the year (22.3 to 263  C) and
no thermal stratification develops. The pH of the water usually lies in the range
8.4–8.5.
Krishna and Godavari Basins 661

Table 8. Salient features of the Tungabhadra project

Particulars Details

Yield 11,978.026 Mm3

Gross Storage capacity 3,737.82 Mm3
Live Storage capacity 3,308.54 Mm3
Dead Storage capacity (below sill) 65128 Mm3
Height of Dam 35.36 m
Length of Dam 2,449 m
Type of Dam Composite
FRL of dam 497.74 m
MDDL of dam 477.01 m
Type of Spillway Central
Length of spillway 701 m
Peak Discharge from spillway 18,408 cumec
Crest gates of spillway (radial) 33
Size of crest gates of spillway 1829 m × 610 m
Power Generation 99 MW
Irrigable area 362795 Mm2
Length of Left bank canal 227 km
Capacity of Left bank canal 198 cumec
Irrigable Area of Left bank canal 2,439 Mm2
Length of Right bank canal 251 km
Capacity of Right bank canal 71 cumec
Irrigable Area of Right bank canal 37504 Mm2
Withdrawals by canals 3,383.86 Mm3
Reservoir losses 35396 Mm3
Gross utilization 3,737.82 Mm3

Figure 11. A view of Tungabhadra dam

662 Chapter 14

Table 9. Salient features of Vanivilas Sagar project

Particulars Details

Full reservoir level 652.28 m

Storage capacity at FRL 85030 Mm3
Water spread area FRL 8763 Mm2
Dead storage level 630.950 m
Dead storage capacity 4780 Mm3
Live storage capacity 80250 Mm3
Length of dam 405.4 m
Villages affected 32
Length of High Level Canal 9.60 km
Design discharge of High Level Canal 8.825 cumec
Irrigable area of High Level Canal 447 Mm3
Length of Left Bank Canal 48.00 km
Design discharge of Left Bank Canal 8.85 cumec
Irrigable area of Left Bank Canal 6059 Mm3
Length of Right Bank Canal 46.40 km
Design discharge of Right Bank Canal 8.85 cumec
Irrigable area of Right Bank Canal 5629 Mm3

Bennihora project
Bennihora project is a major river valley projects across Bhima River, a tributary of
Krishna River. The dam is located in Chithapur Taluk, Gulbarga District. Its latitude
is 17 27 00 N and longitude 77 01 00 E. The catchment area of the reservoir is
2,204.09 km2 . The salient features of the dam are given in Table 10.

Bhadha reservoir project

This is a major multipurpose river valley project across the Tungabhadra River.
The dam is located near Lakkavalli village in Tarikere Taluk, of Chickamagalur
District, and its latitude is 13 42 00 N and longitude 75 38 20 E. The catchment
area of the reservoir is 1,968 km2 . The salient features of the dam are given in
Table 11.

Bhima irrigation project

The Bhima project is a major river valley projects across Bhima River, a tributary
of Krishna River near, near Ujjani Village in Solapur District. The dam is located
at latitude 18 4 26 N and longitude 75 07 15 E. The gross catchment area of the
reservoir is 14,856 km2 and the free catchment area is 9,766 sq. km. salient features
of the dam are given in Table 12.

Hipparagi barrage
The Hipparagi Barrage project is located near village Hipparagi, in Jamakhandi
Taluka of Bijapur district. The latitude and longitude of the barrage are
Krishna and Godavari Basins 663

Table 10. Salient features of Bennihora Project

Particulars Details

Utilization 162.82 MCM

Catchment Area 2,204 sq. km
Gross Storage Capacity 149.97 MCM
Live Storage Capacity 140.68 MCM
Dead Storage Capacity 9.29 MCM
Type of Dam Composite
Length of Dam 2,270 m
Tank Bund Level 441.71 m
Full Reservoir Level 438.89 m
Spillway Discharge 8,800.80 cumec
Spillway Gates 7 Nos. 15 m × 115 m
Submergence Area 2473 Mm2
Villages Affected 9
Population Affected 9,338
Length of Left Bank Canal 66 km
Length of Right Bank Canal 82 km
Gross Command Area 24859 Mm2
Net Command Area 20234 Mm2

Table 11. Salient features of Bhadha Reservoir Project

Particulars Details

75% dependable yield 2,396.45 Mm3

Gross Storage Capacity 2,024.65 Mm3
Dead storage Capacity 24069 Mm3
Live storage Capacity 1,783.96 Mm3
Total Submergence area 11251 Mm2
Forest area 717 Mm2
Cultivable area 3275 Mm2
Villages affected 28
Allocation of Water as per Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal Award 1,747.15 Mm3
Gross command area 1,628.18 Mm2
Cultivable command area 1,215.00 Mm2
Irrigable area 1,055.70 Mm2
Type of Dam Composite
Length of Dam 1,708 m
Height of Dam above river bed level 59.13 m
MWL 657.75 m
Full Reservoir level 657.75 m
Minimum draw down level 636.40 m
Dead storage level 631.50 m
Type and length of Spillway Ogee, 82.30 m
Discharging capacity of Spillway 3,020 cumec
Type of Crest Gates Vertical
Size of Crest Gates 762 m × 1828 m
Installed capacity for hydropower 160 MW
664 Chapter 14

Table 12. Salient features of Bhima Project

Particulars Details

Gross Storage Capacity 3,114 Mm3

Dead Storage Capacity 1,700 Mm3
Live Storage Capacity 1,414 Mm3
Total submerged area 29,000 ha
Villages submerged 82
Annual Utilization 2,410 Mm3
Length of Dam 2,467 m
MWL of Dam 497.58 m
FRL of Dam 496.83 m
Type and length of Spillway Ogee, 608 m
Discharging capacity of Spillway at FRL 15,717 cumec
Number and Size of Crest gates 41,12 m × 65 m
Length of Left bank canal 126 km
Irrigable area of Left bank canal 68,840 ha
Length of Right Bank Canal 112 km
Irrigable area of Right Bank Canal 44,100 ha

16 33 00 N75 10 00 E, respectively. The catchment area at the barrage is
22,699 km2 . The salient features of the project are given in Table 13.

Malprabha project
This project is located on the Malprabha tributary of Krishna River, near village
Navilutheertha, in Saundatti Taluka of Belgaum district. The latitude and longitude
of the barrage are 15 49 00 N and 75 6 0 E, respectively. The catchment area of
the reservoir is 2,564 km2 . Salient features of the dam are given in Table 14. A view
of Malprabha dam can be seen in Figure 12.

Upper tunga project

This project is located near Shimoga Taluka of Shimoga district, 100 m downstream
of existing Anicut. Salient features of the dam are given in Table 15.

Koyna dam
Koyna is multipurpose masonry gravity dam on Koyna River, located at a distance
of 20 km from Chiplun, in Ratangiri District, Maharashtra. The catchment area at
the dam is 89178 km2 . The height of the dam is 85.35 m. The reservoir has a live
storage capacity of 2,662 MCM at FRL which is at 650.85 m and the MDDL is
at 609.50 m. The mean annual inflow at Koyna dam is 4,745 MCM. Four power
houses have been constructed under this scheme. Koyna I & II power houses have
4 units of 65 MW and 4 units of 75 MW each with a total installed capacity of
560 MW. Koyna III power house has 4 unit of 80 MW each and Koyna IV power
house has 4 units of 250 MW each.
Krishna and Godavari Basins 665

Table 13. Salient features of Hipparagi Barrage

Particulars Details

75 % dependable Yield 17,393.91 Mm3

Gross Storage Capacity 16990 Mm3
Live Storage Capacity 13875 Mm3
Dead Storage Capacity 31156 Mm3
Withdrawals by canals 30865 Mm3
Reservoir losses 2576 Mm3
Water supply 2831 Mm3
Total Utilization 36274 Mm3
Type of Dam Composite
Length of Dam 5,463.00 m
Height of Dam 26.00 m
MWL of Dam 531.40 m
FRL of Dam 531.40 m
MDDL of Dam 517.47 m
Length of Spillway 368.78 m
Discharge capacity of Spillway 19,810 cumec
Crest gates of Spillway 23 of size 822 m × 1372 m
Submersion Area 2998 Mm2
Villages affected 28
Population affected 49,364
Irrigable area 59690 Mm2
Foreshore lift canal
a) Ainapur
i) lift 33.14 m
ii) length in km 76
iii) command area 26741 Mm2
b) Haliyal
i) lift 37.63
ii) length in km 94
iii) command area 32949 Mm2

Markendaya project
The Markendaya project is located on Ghatprabha tributary of Krishna River, near
village Shirur in Hukkeri Taluka of Belgaum district. The latitude and longitude
of the barrage are 16 02 00 N and 74 38 33 E, respectively. The catchment area
at the project side is 432 km2 . The salient features of the dam are given in
Table 16.

Singatalur lift irrigation

The Singatalur Lift Irrigation project is located on Tungabhadra River near village
Hammige, in Mundaragi Taluka of Gadag district. The latitude and longitude
of the barrage are 15 02 00 N and 75 50 0 E respectively. The catchment area
at the project is 19,850 km2 . The salient features of the dam are given in
Table 17.
666 Chapter 14

Table 14. Salient features of Malprabha Project

Particulars Details

Yield 1,205.44 Mm3

Gross Storage Capacity 1,068.39 Mm3
Live Storage Capacity 86625 Mm3
Dead Storage Capacity 9599 Mm3
Irrigable Area 2,181.91 Mm2
Submerged Area 13578 Mm2
Village affected 43
Population affected 41,000
Type of Dam Masonry
Height of Dam 56 m
Length of Dam 69 m
MWL of Dam 633.83 m
FRL of Dam 633.83 m
MDDL of Dam 623.93 m
Location of Spillway Central
Length of Spillway 85.34 m
Discharging capacity of Spillway 5,236 cumec
Type of Gates of Spillway radial
Gates of Spillway 4 of size 1524 m × 1219 m
Length of Right Bank Canal 138.00 km
Capacity of Right Bank Canal 58.10 cumec
Command Area of Right Bank Canal 1,399.21 Mm2
Length of Left Bank Canal 168.00 km
Capacity of Left Bank Canal 38.91 cumec
Command Area of Left Bank Canal 53134 Mm2

Krishna irrigation project

The Krishna Irrigation Project covers Satara and Sangli Districts in Southern
Maharashtra. The project consists of two storage dams across the Krishna River
(Dhom) and its tributary Venna River (Kanher) for irrigation in downstream semi-
arid and arid zones as well as industrial water supply to Wai and Karad towns.
The Krishna Irrigation Project (K.I.P.) was cleared for implementation in the year
1966. The proposed water utilization of the Krishna Irrigation Project with three
storage reservoirs was 1,051.54 Mm3 . However, in view of the reduced quantum of
water from the Krishna basin allotted to Maharashtra State as a result of Krishna
tribunal award (year 1974–75), it was decided to reduce the utilization of Krishna
irrigation project to 84962 Mm3 .
The Krishna irrigation project’s catchment area of the storages and command area
lies in between latitude 17 0 N and 18 0 N; and longitude 73 45 E to 74 45 E.
This command area can be classified in the three groups: (1) Having normal annual
rainfall 700 to 800 mm; (2) Having normal annual rainfall 400 to 500 mm (semi arid
zone), and (3) Having normal annual rainfall below 400 mm (arid zone). Kanher
and Dhom command area falls under the 1st category. Arphal command area up
to 40 km falls under the 1st category, from 40 km to 100 km comes under the 2nd
Krishna and Godavari Basins 667

Figure 12. A view of Malprabha dam

category, and beyond 175 km of the Arphal left bank canal, the area is under the
3rd category.
Annual rainfall in the command area varies from 700 to 800 mm; it is less than
400 mm in the tail reach. Nearly 75% of annual rain falls during the months of June to
September. Average annual runoff at Dhom reservoir site is 42330 Mm3 . Catchment
area at Dhom dam site is 21756 km2 . Average annual runoff at Kanher reservoir
(Venna River) site is 483.60 MCM and the catchment area at this dam is 20469 km2 .
Part of the command area of this project is under semi-arid and arid zone. Demand
for irrigation water in arid zone from Krishna irrigation project has increased due
to increase in irrigation area. Reservation of water from Krishna irrigation project
storages for the industrial area (Wai and Karad towns) has also increased. But the
reduced water allocation for Krishna irrigation project necessitated the revision of
water planning for the project whole. The 75% dependable yield from the two
storages viz. Dhom and Kanher is approximately 822.15 MCM. The quantum of
water available is not adequate to cater to all demands of extending irrigation
facilities (Dhom command, Kanher command, Arphal command) and reserving
water for industrial area (Wai and Karad). Hence it is necessary to use the available
water optimally.
668 Chapter 14

Table 15. Salient features of Upper Tunga project

Particulars Details

Type of dam Composite

Length of dam 770 m
FRL of dam 588.24 m
Top level of dam 592.20 m
Canal off take 584.45 m
Length of canal on left bank 339.50 m
Type of Spillway Ogee with roller bucket
Length of Spillway 311 m
Crest level of Spillway 583.50 m
Type of Crest gates Radial
Number of Crest gates 22
Size of Crest gates 1175 m × 474 m
Length of non-over flow section 335.00
Sill level of river sluice 573.00
Number of gates of river sluice 3
Size of gates of river sluice 25 m × 40 m
Length of embankment 192 m
Top width of embankment 7.5 m
Top level of embankment 593.2 m
Number of Gates in Left side irrigation sluice 5
Size of Gates in Left side irrigation sluice 25 m × 1829 m
Sill level of Left side irrigation sluice 582.168 m
Number of Gates in Right side irrigation sluice 2
Size of Gates in Right side irrigation sluice 25 m × 1219 m
Sill level of Right side irrigation sluice 582.778 m
Irrigable area 94700 Mm2
Water utilization 34935 Mm3

Accordingly, the project planning was changed by deleting storage scheme at

Borkhal; reducing the water losses in conveyance by lining the canals; deleting some
of the command area under the Arphal left bank canal; diluting the crop pattern
and extending the irrigation facilities to the more command area; and reserving
the water for industrial area at Wai and Karad. Jowar, groundnut and pulses are
major Kharif crops, and the major Rabi crop is Jowar (local) or hybrid variety;
and well irrigation for perennial crop is only practiced in the Dhom and Kanher
command area.

Osmansagar reservoir
The Osmansagar reservoir is situated near Gandipet village in Rangareddy district,
AP, at latitude and longitude 17 22 30 and 78 22 0 respectively. It was constructed
across Musi River in the year 1920 with live capacity of 156.81 MCM and gross
storage capacity of 180.54 MCM. The designed maximum flood discharge is
2,971 cumec. Though the main purpose of the reservoir at the time of construction
was to absorb flood water but it is now serving as a water supply source to the twin
Krishna and Godavari Basins 669

Table 16. Salient features of Markendaya Project

Particulars Details

Average yield 12431 Mm3

Gross Storage Capacity 10466 Mm3
Dead Storage Capacity 1447 Mm3
Live Storage Capacity 7020 Mm3
Total submerged area 898 Mm2
Villages submerged 9
Population affected 2,258
Gross Utilization 11327 Mm3
Irrigable area 19105 Mm2
Type of Dam Gravity dam in concrete
Length of Dam 1,356 m
Height of Dam 39.10 m
MWL of Dam 704.00 m
FRL of Dam 704.00 m
MDDL of Dam 690.55 m
Dead Storage Level of Dam 688.85 m
Type of Spillway High ogee
Length of Spillway 112.50 m
Discharging capacity of Spillway 3,728.00 cumec
Type and number of Crest gates Radial, 7 gates
Size of Crest gates 800 m × 127 m
Length of Left bank canal 12 km
Irrigable area of Left bank canal 890 Mm2
Length of Right Bank Canal 80 km
Irrigable area of Right Bank Canal 18215 Mm2

Table 17. Salient features of Singatalur Lift Irrigation Project

Particulars Details

75 % dependable yield 7,204.94 Mm3

Type of weir Ungated concrete barrage
Length of weir 402.00 m
Height of weir 3.00 m
Irrigable area 19425 Mm2
MWL of Dam 508.75 m
FRL of Dam 507.00 m
Minimum water level of Dam 501.00 m
Type of Spillway Low ogee
Discharging capacity of Spillway 14,724.62 cumec
Type of Crest gates Vertical lift type
Number of gates 27
Size of gates 120 m × 30 m
670 Chapter 14

cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad. The catchment area up to Osmansagar is

738.15 sq. km comprising 637.14 sq. km free and rest of 101.01 sq. km intercepted.
The salient features of the reservoir are given in Table 18.
According to the sedimentation study made by Vishwantaham and Eashwaraiah
(2004) through remote sensing, the current live storage capacity of Osmansagar
reservoir is 100.19 MCM and the loss of live capacity works out to 56.63 MCM
over a period of 82 years. The average annual loss of live capacity is approximately
at the rate of 0.7 MCM/year.

Prakasam barrage
This barrage is the terminal structure on the Krishna River to meet the delta require-
ments in the Krishna basin. It has been named after a former chief minister of the
Andhra Pradesh. The barrage is located near Vijayawada in Andhra Pradesh. At the
barrage, the catchment area is 257,078 km2 and the pond level is 17.4 m. Prakasam
barrage provides irrigation to a command of 4,450 Mm2 utilizing 5,132 Mm3 of water.

Other existing projects

In addition to the above, there are several existing water resources projects in
the basin. Salient features of existing water resources projects with a live storage
capacity of 10 Mm3 and above have been presented in Table 19.

14.1.8. Major Ongoing Water Resources Projects in Krishna Basin

Telugu ganga project (TGP)
Telugu Ganga Project (TGP) is a prestigious on-going project in this basin. Telugu
Ganga Project is an interstate project formulated to utilize flood water of Krishna and
Pennar rivers to irrigate 2,327.025 Mm2 in drought prone areas of Kurnool, Cuddapah
and Chittoor districts of Rayalaseema and uplands of Nellore districts in A.P., besides
conveying 15 TMC (424.80 MCM) of Krishna water of Chennai City. The scheme
consists of 408 km long canal from Srisailam dam up to the Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu border. The project commenced in 1983 and the target date of project completion
was 2005. The project also envisages power generation at three locations: Velugodu
(9 MW), Chennamukkapalli (15 MW), and Kandaleru (99 MW).

Table 18. Salient features of Osmansagar Reservoir

Full reservoir level 545.59 m

Maximum water level for absorbing flood 550.16 m
Water spread area 27.22 sq. km
Capacity at FRL 180.54 MCM
Capacity at MWL 328.45 MCM
Live storage capacity at FRL 156.82 MCM
Flood storage 147.92 MCM
Free catchments area 637 sq. km
Krishna and Godavari Basins 671

Table 19. Salient features of selected existing projects in Krishna basin

Name of the Project State Year of Gross Live Designed Installed

completion storage storage annual capacity
capacity capacity irrigation (MW)
(million (million (million Sq.
cubic cubic Meter)
meter) meter)

Bhariravuni Tippa Andhra Pradesh 1961 7424 6529 6800 –

Dindi Project Andhra Pradesh 1943 5 90100 5814 12750 –
Gajuladinne Andhra Pradesh 1979 4814 4247 12950 –
Himayat Sagar Andhra Pradesh 1926 21660 10480 – –
Jutpally Andhra Pradesh 1965 9412 8548 980 –
Koilsagar Project Andhra Pradesh 1955 6983 6446 4300 –
Kotepallyvagu Andhra Pradesh 1969 4452 3685 330 –
Lakhnapur Andhra Pradesh 1968 9285 8548 1040 –
Lanka Sagar Andhra Pradesh 1968 1881 1726 1230 –
Musi Dam Andhra Pradesh 1961 13694 13026 16730 –
Pakhal Andhra Pradesh 1919 – 8250 3840 –
Paliar Andhra Pradesh 1928 7245 6650 7970 –
Pendlipakla Andhra Pradesh 1938 1532 1453 1370 –
Sarala Sagar Project Andhra Pradesh 1959 1505 1391 1680 –
Siddapur Andhra Pradesh 1919 2474 1856 250 –
Wyra Project Andhra Pradesh 1930 7013 5939 7040 775
Ambligola Karnataka – 1239 1170 2950 –
Bhadra Karnataka 1963 2 02300 1 63500 1 06000 58
Chamdrampalli Karnataka 1971 3420 3140 5220 –
Dharma Karnataka 1964 2300 2110 2790 –
Gayatri Reservoir Karnataka 1963 2753 1810 950 –
Jamradhalla Karnataka 1968 3700 2800 1540 –
Ramanahalli Karnataka 1960 1286 1168 1940 –
Ashti Maharashtra 1976 – 2299 4770 –
Bhatghar Maharashtra 1892 67267 66559 – 18
Budhiyal Maharashtra 1966 – 1902 4250 –
Chandhani Maharashtra 1966 2070 1520 2020 –
Ekruk Maharashtra 1891 – 6117 2610 –
Ghod Maharashtra 1957 21631 17074 24600 –
Hirani Maharashtra 1966 1257 1117 1660 –
Hingani Maharashtra 1978 4551 3197 – –
Kanhar Maharashtra 1988 28600 27168 9180 –
Khadakwasla Maharashtra 1979 8592 6259 62000 –
Khairi Maharashtra – 1511 1374 2800 –
Khasapur Maharashtra 1956 1981 1584 2140 –
Kolkewadi Dam Maharashtra 1975 3622 1122 – 40
Kurnur Maharashtra 1970 3524 3226 3640 –
Lonawala Maharashtra 1916 – 1152 1310 72
Mangi Maharashtra 1966 3269 3170 3120 –
Manikdoh Maharashtra 1986 30806 28807 – –
Mehekari Maharashtra 1966 1613 1298 4050 –
Mhaswad Maharashtra 1988 4791 4621 4050 –
Morna Maharashtra 1985 2118 1516 5170 –

(Continued)
672 Chapter 14

Table 19. (Continued)

Name of the Project State Year of Gross Live Designed Installed

completion storage storage annual capacity
capacity capacity irrigation (MW)
(million (million (million Sq.
cubic cubic Meter)
meter) meter)

Mulshi Maharashtra 1929 – 52200 81.60 150

Nazare Maharashtra 1974 1617 1050 32.00 –
Panshet Maharashtra 1971 30396 25600 – –
Pathari Maharashtra 1905 1187 1161 63.00 –
Pawana Maharashtra 1975 30500 27400 – 10
Radhanagari Maharashtra 1954 23679 21900 265.60 –
Shefal Maharashtra 1901 1755 1693 – –
Shirwata Maharashtra 1920 18598 13041 – –
Sina Maharashtra 1990 6795 5230 73.60 –
Thokarwadi Maharashtra 1922 36370 36091 29.00 –
Tisangi Maharashtra 1966 2616 2446 40.90 –
Tulashi Maharashtra 1978 9829 9192 57.10 –
Vir Maharashtra 1961 27853 26578 161.10 –
Visapur Maharashtra 1936 3322 2572 53.20 –
Wadaj Maharashtra 1981 3600 3320 – –
Walwan Maharashtra 1916 7250 5437 – –
Yadegaon Maharashtra 1978 9342 7937 – –

The project benefits include irrigation for 1 112925 Mm2 in Kurnool and
Cuddapah districts with Krishna flood waters amounting to 82099 Mm3 and
irrigation for 1 21410 Mm2 in Nellore and Chittoor districts with Pennar flood
waters: 84930 Mm3 . For the Chennai city, water requirement from Krishna basin
will be 42465 Mm3 . Out of this, the share of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and
Maharashtra each will be 14155 Mm3 . The components include four balancing
reservoirs: Velugodu Balancing Reservoir, S.P.V. Balancing Reservoir, Somasila
Reservoir, and Kandaleru Reservoir.

Other under construction projects

In addition to the above, there are several under construction water resources
projects in the basin. Salient features of under construction water resources projects
with a live storage capacity of 10 Mm3 and above have been presented in Table 20.

14.1.9. Krishna Water Dispute Tribunal

In 1969, the government of India constituted the Krishna Water Dispute Tribunal
to adjudicate upon the water dispute regarding the Krishna River. The KWDT gave
its award in 1973 and it was published in 1976. Details about the award are given
in Chapter 21.
Krishna and Godavari Basins 673

Table 20. Salient features of selected Under construction projects in Krishna basin

Name of the project State Gross Live Designed Installed

storage storage annual capacity
capacity capacity irrigation (MW)
(MCM) (MCM) (million
sq. m)

Gajuladinne Andhra Pradesh 12743 12120 12800 –

Varadarajaswamy Gudi Andhra Pradesh 1102 1020 3480 –
Amarja Karnataka 4401 4007 8900 –
Bennithora Project Karnataka 15506 14578 20000 –
Hagaribommanhalli Karnataka 5700 5000 2980 –
Hirehalla Karnataka 4723 4156 8020 –
Lower Mullamari Karnataka 4913 3990 9710 –
Maskinalla Karnataka 1311 1070 2830 –
Narihalla Karnataka 2292 2086 1410 –
Rangayyanadurga Karnataka 1420 1310 – –
Upper Mullamari Karnataka 2123 1755 3280 –
Bori Maharashtra 3746 3072 10450 –
Chaskaman Maharashtra 23817 21099 39000 –
Chikotra Maharashtra 4280 3999 4690 –
Dimbhe Maharashtra 38222 35391 – –
Dudhganga Maharashtra 70178 66383 65000 15
Jaggamhatti Maharashtra 2779 2629 3140 –
Jawalgaon Maharashtra 3475 2519 5340 –
Kadvi Maharashtra 7124 7056 9220 215
Kasari Maharashtra 7856 7796 9460 215
Kasarsai Maharashtra 1375 1262 – –
Kumbhi Maharashtra 7688 7649 8890 27
Patgaon Maharashtra 7626 7579 8360 –
Pauna Maharashtra – 24400 – 5
Sankh Maharashtra 1993 1487 – –
Urmodi Maharashtra 8294 7673 9040 –
Veer Baji Pasalkar Maharashtra 37400 27500 – 11
Varna Maharashtra 96397 79973 1 14000 27
Wadivala Maharashtra 3248 2200 3630 –
Yerlawadi Maharashtra 3282 1961 – –

14.2. THE GODAVARI BASIN

Godavari is the largest river in Peninsular India and third largest in India. Godavari
is held in reverence as “Vridha Ganga” or “Dakshin Ganga”. Holy places are located
on the banks of the river at Nasik and Bhadrachalam. Godavari rises in the Sahyadris
near Triambakeswar, about 80 km from the shore of Arabian Sea, at an elevation of
1,067 m in the Nasik district of Maharashtra. Kumbh Mela which attracts millions
of devotees is organized at Nasik after every 12 years. After flowing for about
1,465 km in a general south-easterly direction through Maharashtra and Andhra
Pradesh, Godavari falls into the Bay of Bengal north of Rajahmundry. The basin
674 Chapter 14

lies between latitudes 16 16 0 N and 23 43 N longitudes 73 26 E and 83 07 E.
The basin extends over an area of 312 813 km2 , which is nearly 10% of the total
geographical area of the country. It is bounded on the north by the Satmala Hills,
the Ajanta Range and the Mahadeo Hills, on the east and south by the Eastern Ghats
and on the west by the Western Ghats. The state-wise distribution of the catchment
area is shown in Table 21. Important tributaries of the Godavari are the Pravara, the
Purna, the Manjra, the Maner, the Penganga, the Wardha, the Pranhita, the Indravati
and the Sabari. The Jayakwadi project, Sriram Sagar project and Cotton barrage
(Dowleswaram) are the important projects existing in the basin. The proposed major
projects are Bhopalpatnam, Inchampalli and Polavaram. An index map of Godavari
basin is given in Figure 13.
About 64 km from its source, Godavari receives the waters from Dharna, on its
right bank and a short distance lower down the Kadwa joins it from the left. The
combined waters of the Pravara and Mula which rise in the hills of Akola join
the river about 217 km from its source. About 338 km lower down, while still in
Maharashtra, the river receives the combined waters from the Purna and Dudhna
rivers and after a further 138 km at the border of Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh,
the waters of the Manjira River join it from the south. At this point, Godavari flows
at an elevation of about 329 m.
The Pranhita River, conveying the combined waters of Penganga, Wardha and
Wainganga, which drain Nagpur and southern slopes of the Satpura ranges, falls
into the Godavari about 306 km below its confluence with the Manjira. Forty-eight
km lower, the waters of the Indravathi join the river. Both the Pranhita and the
Indravati are major rivers in their own right. The last major tributary is the Sabari
from Orissa, which falls into the Godavari, 100 km above Rajahmundry.
Further below Rajahmundry, the river branches off into two main streams – the
Gautami Godavari on the east and Vasishta Godavari on the west. Further down,
a branch Vainateyam splits from the Vasishta Godavari at Gannavaram 22 km
from the coastline. All these streams run down to sea through arid alluvial delta
formed over the ages by the mass of silt that has been deposited. The basin is
roughly triangular in shape and the river itself runs practically along the base of the
triangular.

Table 21. Distribution of catchment area in Godavari basin

S. N. State Drainage area % of the total basin

(sq. km) area

1. Maharashtra 152 199 486

2. Andhra Pradesh 73 201 234
3. Madhya Pradesh 31 821 100
4. Chhattisgarh 33 434 109
5. Orissa 17 752 57
6. Karnataka 4 406 14
Total 312 813 1000
Krishna and Godavari Basins 675

Figure 13. Index map of Godavari basin

14.2.1. Topography
The Godavari basin is bounded on the north by the Satmala hills, on the south by
the Ajanta range and the Mahadeo hills, on the east by the Eastern Ghats and on
the west by the Western Ghats. Except for the hills forming the watershed around
the basin, the entire drainage basin of the river comprises rolling and undulating
country – a series of ridges and valleys interspersed with low hill ranges.
The upper reaches of the Godavari drainage basin are occupied by the Deccan
Traps containing minerals, hypersthene, augite, diopside, enstatite, magnetite,
epidote, biotite, zircon, rutile, apatite and chlorite. The middle part of the basin
is principally Archean granites and Dharwars composed of phyllites, quartzites,
amphiboles and granites. The downstream part of the middle basin is occupied
mainly by the Cuddapah and Vindhyan metasediments and rocks of the Gondwana
group. The Cuddapahs and Vindhyan are quartzites, sandstones, shales, limestones
and conglomerates. The Gondwanas are principally detritals with some thick coal
seams. The Eastern Ghats dominate the lower part of the drainage basin and are
formed mainly from the Khondalites which include quartz- feldspar- garnet- sillli-
manite gneisses, quartzite, calc-granulites and charnockites. In the coastal region
the tertiary Rajahmundry sandstones crop out.
The western edge of the basin is an almost unbroken line formed by the Sahyadri
range of the Western Ghats from 600 to 2,100 m height. It has the heaviest rainfall
and the dampest climate in the basin. Hardly 50 to 60 km east of the Ghats lie
676 Chapter 14

the sparsely cultivated and undulating plains of the Deccan, with a dry climate.
The interior of the basin is a plateau, the greater part of which is at an elevation
of 300 to 600 m with its general slope eastwards. Great undulating plains, divided
from each other by flat topped ranges of hills, are the chief characteristics of this
plateau.
The Eastern Ghats which form the eastern boundary of the peninsula are not
well-defined or continuous as the Sahyadri range on the west. They rise from the
plains of East Godavari and Visakhapatnam to the level of the table land of Jeypore.
The northern boundary of the basin comprises a series of table-lands varying from
600 to 1,200 m in elevation, which have withstood the effect of ages of denudation
better than the terrain to the north and south of them.
To the south, lie great stretches of plain at an elevation of more than 300 m
interspersed with and surrounded by hill ranges, some bare and rocky, but generally
covered with forests and scrub jungles. The delta of Godavari consists of a wide
belt of river borne alluvium formed by deposits at the mouth of the river over the
ages. The process of silting at the mouth of the river is still continuing and the delta
is gradually extending into the sea.

14.2.2. Major Tributaries of Godavari River

The Godavari basin was divided into 12 sub-basins by the Godavari Water Disputes
Tribunal. These are: (i) the Upper Godavari (from the source to its confluence with
Manjira) (G-1), (ii) the Pravara (G-2), (iii) the Purna (G-3), (iv) the Manjira (G-4),
(v) the Middle Godavari (from its confluence with Manjira to its confluence with the
Pranhita) (G-5), (vi) the Maner (G-6), (vii) the Penganga (G-7), (viii) the Wardha
(G-8), (ix) the Pranhita (G-9), (x) the Lower Godavari (from its confluence with
the Pranhita up to the Sea) (G-10), (xi) the Indravati (G-11) and (xii) the Sabari
(G-12). A flow diagram of Godavari River is shown as Figure 14.
The largest tributary of the Godavari is the Pranhita (inclusive of Penganga
and Wardha) with about 34% coverage of drainage area. The Pravara, Manjira
and Maner are right bank tributaries covering about 16.1%, the Purna, Pranhita,
Indravathi and Sabari are important left bank tributaries, covering nearly 59.7% of
the total catchment area of the basin. The Godavari in the upper, middle, and lower
reaches make up for the balance 24.2%. The particulars of the catchment area,
length, elevation of the source points of the river and its tributaries in the order of
their occurrence along the length of the main river are shown in Table 22.
Major tributaries of Godavari flowing through well-established drainage networks
are the Pravara, the Purna, the Manjra, the Penganga, the Wainganaga, the Wardha,
the Pranahita, the Indravati, and the Sabari. A brief description of the principal
tributaries is given in the following.

The Pravara river

The Pravara River originates in the Western Ghats at an altitude of about 1,067 m.
After traversing a distance of about 200 km in the easterly direction it falls into
Krishna and Godavari Basins 677

Source

Prauara 1,980
2,830 Purna
Manjra 7,640

Maner 2,550

6,800 Wardha

5,110 Penganga

36,810 Pranhita

32,850 Indravati

13,600 Sabari

Dowlaiswaram 105,000

Godavari River

Sea

Figure 14. Flow diagram of Godavari River

the Godavari River near Newasa at an altitude of about 457 m. The Mula River is
the right bank tributary of Pravara River. The drainage area of the Pravara River
is 6 537 km2 lying entirely in Maharashtra, but its principal source of supply is
only about 32 km length of the Western Ghats.

Table 22. Important Tributaries of Godavari

SN Tributary Elevation of Length (km) Catchment

Source area (sq. km)

1 Pravara 1 050 208 6 537

2 Purna 838 374 15 579
3 Manjira 823 686 30 844
4 Maner 533 225 13 106
5 Pranhita 640 721 109 079
6 Indravathi 914 536 41 665
7 Sabari 1 372 418 20 427
8 Main Godavari including minor tributaries 1 067 1 465 75 576
678 Chapter 14

The Purna river

The Purna River originates in the Ajanta Range of hills at an altitude of 838 m.
It flows in a south-easterly direction for a distance of 373 km before joining the
Godavari at an elevation of about 351 m. The Dudna is its longest tributary. The
catchment area of the Purna River, including its tributaries is 15,579 km2 which
lies in a low rainfall zone which gets 711 mm to 889 mm of rain in the year.

The Manjara river

The Manjara River is one of the major tributaries of Godavari, which originates in
the Balaghat Range of hills in the Bhir district of Maharashtra at an altitude of about
823 m. The river flows in a general east and south easterly direction for 512 km
through the Osmanabad district of Maharashtra, the Bidar district of Mysore and
the Medak district of Andhra Pradesh before changing its direction Northwards near
Sanga Reddipet. After flowing for 75 km further, it enters the Nizamabad district
of Andhra Pradesh and from 102 km lower down, it forms the boundary between
Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. The total length of the river from the source to its
confluence with the Godavari at an altitude of 323 m is about 724 km. The principal
tributaries of the Manjara River are the Tirna, the Karanga, the Halai, the Lendi
and the Maner. The catchment area of the Manjra River including its tributaries is
30 844 km2 lying in a zone which gets about 635 mm of rain annually.

The Pranhita river

The Pranhita is the most important tributary of the Godavari River which gets
water from two important tributaries, namely the Wardha and the Wainganga. The
combined waters of the Wainganga and the Wardha are called the Pranhita, which
traverses for 113 km along the border between Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh
before falling into the Godavari at an elevation of 107 m. The catchment area of
the Pranhita and of all its tributaries is 109 077 km2 and lies in a medium rainfall
zone of 889 mm to 1,600 mm (annual).

The Wardha river

Wardha is one of the right bank tributaries of Pranhita River. The Wardha sub basin
lies between latitude 19 18 N and 21 58 N and longitudes 77 20 E and 79 45 E.
Wardha originates at an altitude of 777 m in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh
and enters Maharashtra about 32 km from its source. After traversing a distance
of 528 km, it joins the Wainganga at an elevation of 146 m. The major left bank
tributaries of the Wardha are the Kar, the Wena, The Jam and the Erai and the right
bank tributaries are The Madu, the Bembla and the Penganga. The drainage area of
the Wardha River is 24 087 km2 and throughout its course, the river flows through
dense forests. The average annual rainfall for the entire sub-basin is 1,000 mm
approximately.
Krishna and Godavari Basins 679

The Penganga river

The Penganga River originates at an altitude of 686 m in the Buldana Range in
Maharashtra and after traversing a distance of 676 km in a generally east-south-
east direction, it joins the Wardha River at an elevation of 174 m. Except in its
uppermost reaches in which the terrain is barren and hilly, the river passes through
dense forests of Yeotmal and Nanded districts. The important tributaries of the
Penganga River are the Pus, the Arna, the Aran, and the Waghari. The drainage
area of the Penganga River and its tributaries is 23 898 km2 .

The Wainganga river

The Wainganga River originates at an altitude of 640 m in the Seoni district of
Madhya Pradesh. The major tributaries of the Wainganga are the Pench, the Kanhar,
the Bagh and the Andhari. The total drainage area of Wainganga and its tributaries
is 61 093 km2 .

The Indravati river

The Indravati originates at an altitude of 915 m in the Thuamul-Rampur plateau in
Kalahandi district of Orissa on the western slopes of the Eastern Ghats. It flows
westward through the Koraput district of Orissa and the Bastar district of Madhya
Pradesh. The important tributaries of the Indravati River are the Podagada, the
Kapur, the Muran, the Narangi, the Baordbig, the Kotri, the Bandia and the Nandira
(Berudi). After flowing through a number of rapids, the river emerges into plains
near Khatiguda village of Nowrangpur district. The total drainage area of Indravati
River including its tributaries is 41,665 km2 lying in a relatively high rainfall zone
with about 1,524 mm of annual rainfall. It joins the Godavari River at an elevation
of about 82 m at about 531 km from its source.

The Sabari river

The Sabari or the Kalab is the last major tributary of the Godavari. The river
originates at an altitude of 1,372 m in the Sinkaram hill range of the Eastern Ghats.
It flows for short distances in a north, north-westerly and westerly direction and
joins the Godavari, about 418 km from its source, at an altitude of 25 m. The Sileru
or Machkund is the most important tributary of the Sabri River originates at an
elevation of 1,219 m and flows for a length of about 306 km before joining the
Sabari River. The total catchment area of the Sabari including its tributaries is
20 427 km2 .

14.2.3. Soils

The principal soil types in the Godavari basin and adjoining areas are (i) black soils
(regur), (ii) red soils, (iii) laterites and lateritic soils, (iv) alluvium, (v) mixed red
and black soils and red and yellow soils and (vi) saline and alkaline soils. The soils
in the basin are generally fertile.
680 Chapter 14

14.2.4. Climate of Godavari

The climate of the Godavari drainage basin has high humidity throughout the year
effected by the northeast and southwest monsoons. The delta region is semi-arid
with an average annual rainfall of 1,042 mm and a maximum temperature in May
of 373  C. The coldest month is January with a mean daily maximum temperature
of 269  C and a mean daily minimum temperature of 192  C.
Three distinct seasons occur in the Godavari basin, viz. (i) the hot weather,
(ii) monsoon and (iii) the winter. The summer season is from mid-February to the
end of May. In the hot weather, the heat is unbearable in the central, northern and
eastern regions. The weather is comparatively less hot in the westernmost parts of
the basin. The south west monsoon sets in by mid June and ends by mid October.
During this period the basin receives about 84% of its total annual rainfall. The cold
weather season in the entire basin, from mid October to mid February is generally
pleasant, the western and the north eastern regions being colder than the rest of the
basin.

Temperature
The Godavari basin has a tropical climate. The mean annual surface temperature in
the Western Ghats area is about 24  C. It increases gradually towards the east and
attains a maximum of 294  C on the east coast.
During January, a typical winter month, the mean daily minimum temperature going
from west to east increases from 15  C on the Western Ghats to about 18  C on the
east coast; The mean daily maximum temperature generally exceeds 30  C in the
western part of the Godavari basin and is slightly less than 30  C in the eastern part;
Maximum and minimum temperatures in the basin gradually increase as one
moves from west to east. Temperatures are the highest in April-May, which
are typical summer months. The maximum temperature increases from 35  C in the
west to 40  C in the middle of the plateau, though it goes down again to 35  C on
the east coast. The minimum temperature increases from 22  C in the west to 26  C
in the east coast.
During July, a typical monsoon month, the minimum temperature increases from
20  C in the Western Ghats to 26  C near the east coast and the maximum temperature
increases from 27  C in the Western Ghats to 33  C near the east coast. During October,
a typical post-monsoon month, the minimum temperature is 23  C near the coast. The
mean daily maximum temperature is a little above 39  C over the entire basin.

Rainfall pattern in the basin

The Godavari basin receives its maximum rainfall during the Southwest monsoon.
The monsoon currents strike the west coast of the peninsula from west and south-
west; meets the Western Ghats or Sahyadri range which presents almost an uninter-
rupted barrier ranging from 610 m to 2,134 m in height. Before surmounting this
barrier the currents deposit most of their moisture on its windward side, and then
sweep across the interior of the peninsula on the easterly course. Rainfall is governed
Krishna and Godavari Basins 681

largely by the orography of the area, which leads to variation in the amount of
precipitation. The monsoon currents follow the eastward slope of the country from
the crest of the Ghats, which form the watershed. Conditions in the interior are,
therefore, somewhat unfavorable for heavy precipitation except in association with
the depression from the Bay of Bengal. The Northeast part of the Godavari basin
also receives some rain in association with monsoon depressions, which move
west-northwest across the Orissa coast.
The Godavari receives flow from a length of about 129 km of the high rainfall zone
in the Western Ghats where the annual rainfall varies from 1,000 to 3,000 mm. East
of the Western Ghats, the rainfall decreases rapidly to less than 600 mm along a line
running approximately from Chitradurga through Sangli and Pune to a point North-
east of the line connecting Kurnool, Raichur, Bijapur and Ahmadnagar. East of this
line the rainfall again gradually increases to about 900 mm towards the East coast.
The Godavari basin as a whole receives 84% of the annual rainfall on an average,
during the Southwest monsoon, which sets in mid June and ends by mid October.
January and February are almost entirely dry in the Godavari basin; the rainfall
during these two months being less than 15 mm. During the next three months,
up to end of May, rainfall varies from 20 mm to about 50 mm in most parts of
the basin. The Indravati and Pranhita sub-basins receive up to 86% and 88% of
the annual rainfall during the same period due to influence of the cyclonic storms
which predominantly pass through these sub-basins. Particulars of average rainfall
in the different sub-basins are given in Table 23.

14.2.5. Water Quality Aspects

Table 24 gives the results of systematic sampling of river water quality carried
out by CPCB at different times. It can be seen that at almost all places, the quality

Table 23. Rainfall Pattern in the Sub-basins of Godavari

S.N. Name of Sub- Rainfall during Annual Monsoon rainfall percent

basin/tributary rainfall (mm) of annual rainfall
June-sept. Oct-may
(mm) (mm)

1 Upper Godavari 645 125 770 84

2 Pravara 476 130 609 79
3 Purna 660 137 797 83
4 Manjira 696 150 846 82
5 Middle Godavari 809 146 955 85
6 Maner 762 170 932 82
7 Pranhita 1 196 167 1 363 88
8 Lower Godavari 929 280 1 209 77
9 Indravati 1 366 222 1 588 86
10 Sabari 1 137 295 1 432 79
11 Godavari Basin 953 79 1 132 84
682 Chapter 14

Table 24. Desired and existing water quality levels of Godavari River (1997–2001)

Location Desired Existing class & critical parameters

class
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Godavari at U/S of •B D D D D D
Gangapur Dam, DO, BOD BOD BOD BOD BOD
Nasik, Maharashtra
Godavari at B D D D D D
Panchavati at DO, BOD BOD BOD BOD BOD
Ramkund,
Maharashtra
Godavari at Nasik B D D D D D
D/S, Maharashtra DO, BOD BOD BOD DO,BOD BOD,
Totcoli
Godavari at B D D D D D
Dhalegaon, DO, BOD, BOD, BOD BOD BOD
Maharashtra Totcoli Totcoli
Godavari at Nanded, B D D D D D
Maharashtra DO, BOD BOD, BOD BOD BOD,
Totcoli Totcoli
Godavari at Raher, C D D D D D
Maharashtra BOD BOD BOD BOD BOD
Godavari at C D NA NA NA NA
Mancherial, A.P. DO, BOD
Godavari at C B NA NA D D
Polavaram, A.P. BOD BOD
Godavari at C NA NA NA D D
Rajahmundry U/S, BOD BOD
A.P.
Godavari at C Below-E NA NA D D
Rajahmundry D/S, BOD, BOD BOD
A.P. pH

• NA- Not Available.

Source: Central Pollution Control Board

of Godavari water is below the desired class. For example, at many places, the
desired class was B or C while the existing class was D.

14.2.6. Major Water Resources Development Projects in Godavari

Basin

The water resources potential in Godavari basin has been assessed by Central Water
Commission to be 11054 km3 . The utilizable surface water is about 763 km3 ; the
replenishable ground water is about 45 km3 . There is a vast potential for irrigation
development and hydropower generation in the basin. The present utilization is of
the order of only 40 km3 in the case of surface water and 6 km3 in the case of
ground water.
Krishna and Godavari Basins 683

Water resources of Upper Godavari catchment are fully utilized up to Sriram

Sagar Dam. Downstream of this dam, Godavari is joined by many major tributaries,
namely, Pranhita, Indravati and Sabari which carry large volumes of flood waters
during monsoon. Table 25 gives monsoon yield of some of Godavari’s tributaries
at selected locations.
Table 25 shows that Pranhita, Indravati and Sabari contribute a huge amount of
flow to Godavari in its lower reaches. Since there is no large storage reservoir in this
area, most of this water (except a small quantity diverted at Godavari barrage to meet
the requirements of delta irrigation) goes to the sea unutilized during the monsoon
period. Of course, the scope of additional new irrigation is limited due to typical
topography of the lower Godavari basin. Therefore, it is important to construct
storages at Inchampalli and Polavaram to utilize huge quantity of water going waste
to the sea every year. Potential storage sites for hydropower generation have also
been identified on Indravati at Bhopalpatnam and Bodhghat. These storages will
also regulate flows for utilization in the downstream areas. The surplus waters of
lower Godavari could be transferred to the water deficit areas after meeting all the
requirements of the basin in Andhra Pradesh.

Table 25. Annual average observed runoff at Important CWC sites in Godavari basin

Name of the site Name of the stream Catchment area km2  Annual average
runoff (BCM)

Polavaram Godavari 307 800 8150

Koida Godavari 305 460 8158
Konta Sabari 19 550 1484
Injarum Sabari 12 925 1142
Perur Godavari 260 200 5482
Pathagudem Indravati 40 000 2117
Medadapalli Indravati 24 212 4075
Chindnar Indravati 17 270 836
Tekra Pranhita 108 780 3385
Sirpur Pranhita 47 500 989
Bamni Pranhita 46 020 1039
Penganga Bridge Pranhita 18 441 304
Ghugus Pranhita 21 429 405
Hivra Wardha 10 240 086
Ashti Pranhita 50 990 2527
Pauni Pranhita 35 520 1350
Satrapur Kanhan 11 100 219
Somanpally Maneru 12 991 117
Mancherial Godavari 102 900 503
Yelli Godavari 53 630 179
Purna Purna 15 000 045
G R Bridge Godavari 33 934 075
Dhalegaon Godavari 30 840 071

Source: CWC (2002)

684 Chapter 14

Prior to independence, only a few irrigation projects were constructed in Godavari

basin. Important among these are Godavari delta system (with Dowlaiswaram weir
as head works). Nizamsagar reservoir, Kadana dam and Pravara dam. After indepen-
dence, under various five-year plans a large number of multi-purpose and irrigation
projects were taken up. The most important among them are the Jayakwadi, Sri
Ram Sagar and Godavari Barrage (by remodeling the existing Dowlaiswaram) weir.
Prominent among the proposed major projects in the basin are Bhopalapatnam on
Indravati, Inchampalli and Polavaram on Godavari.

Inchampalli
The Inchampalli project is proposed on the Godavari River about 12 km downstream
of the confluence of Indravati with the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. It is a joint
project among the States of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. It
is a multi purpose project envisaging irrigation benefits for upland areas, generation
of hydropower, navigation facilities in the river, development of pisciculture and
providing recreation benefits, besides mitigating flood hazards. Flows in abundance
are available at Inchampalli, as it is just downstream of the place where two major
tributaries, Pranhita and Indravati join the Godavari River. The catchment area of
the dam is 269,000 Mm2 . The FRL and MDDL of the reservoir will be 112.77 m and
106.98 m respectively. The gross storage capacity and live storage capacity of the
reservoir will be 8,959 and 4,098 MCM respectively. The annual irrigation from the
dam is 950 Mm2 and annual utilization is 620 000 Mm2 . For hydropower generation
install capacity at the dam is 875 MW. The Salient features of Inchampally Project
are given in Table 26.

Polavaram
The Polavaram project is planned downstream of Inchampalli after the confluence
of another major tributary the Sabari with the Godavari River. It is also a multi-
purpose project for irrigation, hydropower, and water supply to Vizag city. The
catchment area of the dam is 307 000 Mm2 . The FRL and MDDL of the reservoir
are at 45.72 m and 41.15 m, respectively. The gross storage capacity and live storage
capacity of the reservoir is 4,945 and 2 043 Mm3 respectively. The project has been
planned to utilize the significant quantum of flows that would be received from
Sabari and power releases and spills from Inchampalli for its own uses and also for
regulating releases for the Godavari delta. The annual irrigation from the dam is
4,720 Mm2 and annual utilization is 3 823 000 Mm2 . For hydropower generation
install capacity at the dam is 720 MW. The salient features of Polavaram Project
are given in Table 27.

Dowleswaram barrage (cotton barrage)

The Dowleswaram Barrage is the terminal project on Godavari, located downstream
of Polavaram, catering to the needs of Godavari delta. This 3,500 m long barrage
built in the mid 19th century is supposed to be Asia’s largest barrage. It was named
as Cotton Barrage after Sir Arthur Cotton, who built the barrage and who is fondly
Krishna and Godavari Basins 685

Table 26. Salient features of Inchampally Project

Particulars Details

Proposed Utilization from Ayacut in Kharif 63553 Mm2

Proposed Utilization from Ayacut in Rabi 70011 Mm2
Hydropower production 975 MW
Water Availability 15,885 Mm3
Water Requirement for Irrigation 2,265.6 Mm3
Water Requirement for Hydropower 9,912 Mm3
75% Dependable yield 10,025 Mm3
Area for submergence at FRL 112.770 970 Mm2
FRL 112.770 m
M.D.D.L. 106.980 m
Gross storage 10,375.88 Mm3
Live Storage 9,950.23 Mm3
Type of Dam Masonry
Type of Spillway Ogee
Length of Spillway 1,278 m
No & Type of gates 57, Radial Type
Size of gates 18 m × 1237 m
Length of R/B Canal 293 km
Irrigation command area 51395 Mm2
Number of villages affected 229
Population affected 1 Lakh

Table 27. Salient features of Polavaram Project

Particulars Details

Catchment area 306 643 km2

Proposed Utilisation from Existing Ayacut NIL
Proposed Utilisation from New Ayacut 2 910 Mm2
Hydropower production 720 MW
Water Required for project 8 535 Mm3
Water supply to Vishakhapatnam city 66382 Mm3
Diversion to Krishna River 2 2656 Mm3
FRL 45.72 m
M.D.D.L. 41.15 m
Gross storage at FRL 3 38820 Mm3
Live Storage at MDDL 3 381408 Mm3
Type of Dam Earth cum Rock fill
Length of Dam 2,310 m
Type of Spillway Ogee
Length of Spillway 897.50 m
No & Type of gates 44, Radial Type
Size of gates 16 m × 20 m
Length of L/B Canal 181.50 km
Length of R/B Canal 174 km
Number of villages affected 276
Population affected 117,034
686 Chapter 14

remembered and revered in regard to his yeoman services to the upliftment of the
people in the area. This barrage has completely transformed the famine and poverty
wracked areas in the Godavari Delta into a prosperous place. Sir Cotton is credited
with preparation of a grand plan for development of water resources of Peninsular
India but this could not materialize due to some reasons. The catchment area at the
barrage is 312,800 million sq. m. The gross storage capacity of the pond at FRL
13.81 m is 10 Mm3 . The annual irrigation from the barrage is for 9 800 Mm2 area
for which, on an average, annually 777 400 Mm3 of water is utilized.

Karanja project
The Karanja Reservoir Project is a major project constructed on Manjra River,
a tributary of Godavari River. The dam is located near Byalhalli in Bhalki Taluk in
Bidar district. The catchment area of the dam is 2 025 km2 . The length of the dam
is 3,480 m with FRL as 584.15 m. Salient features of the Karanja project are given
in Table 28.

Sriram sagar project (SRSP)

Although the Telangana area of Andhra Pradesh State is endowed with great natural
water resources, such as the Godavari and Krishna Rivers, their tributaries and

Table 28. Salient features of Karanja Project

Particulars Details

Yield 27159 Mm3

Gross Storage capacity 21778 Mm3
Live Storage capacity 20717 Mm3
Dead Storage capacity 10591 Mm3
Level at top of dam 589.15 m
Maximum Water Level 587.00 m
Crest Level 574.15 m
Sill Level 575.15 m
Peak Spillway Discharge 13,282.36 cumec
Spillway Gates 6 of size 15 m × 10 m
Submergence Area 5673 Mm2
Villages affected 7 Full and 2 Partial
Population affected 9,080
Length of Left Bank Canal 31 km
Head Discharge of Left Bank Canal 1.982 Cumec
Ayacut of Left Bank Canal 3238 Mm2
Length of Right Bank Canal 131 km
Head Discharge of Right Bank Canal 16.935 Cumec
Ayacut of Right Bank Canal 28329 Mm2
Length of Fore Shore Lift Canal 24 km
Head Discharge of Fore Shore Lift Canal 1,756 Cumec
Ayacut of Fore Shore Lift Canal 4047 Mm2
Gross Command Area 48968 Mm2
Net Command Area 35614 Mm2
Krishna and Godavari Basins 687

extensive fertile lands, it largely remains undeveloped partly due to lack of assured
irrigation facilities. The extent of Irrigation is small and even this is by means of
numerous small tanks, which are dependent on uncertain rainfall. The completion
of Sriram Sagar Project Stage-I is expected to make up and set right the shortfalls
and imbalances in the economy of the region and would greatly contribute to the
well being and prosperity of the people of the region. Thus, this project has great
importance for the development of this region.
The Sriram Sagar Project is a multipurpose project, located across the Godavari
River near Pochampad of Nizamabad District in Andhra Pradesh at a distance of 200 km
from Hyderabad. The dam is located at a latitude of 18 58 N and a Longitude of
78 20 0 E. The catchment area at the dam site is 91 760 km2 . The water spread of
the reservoir is 453 km2 , with a capacity of 3.17 BCM (Subramanyam, 1979). The
reservoir utilizes 1,869 BCM of water to irrigate 0.23 M-ha of land in the Districts of
Karimnagar and Nizamabad, of which one-third would be under wet cultivation and
the rest under dry crops such as maize, jowar, chillies and pulses.
The masonry spillway is designed for a maximum discharging capacity of
45,307 cumec with MWL at 333.146 m. The arrangement for energy dissipation of
the spillway consists of slotted roller bucket for the first 20 spans from left end
of the spillway and ski jump bucket in the remaining 22 spans. The left and the
right earthen dams are of rolled type. Three 2438 ∗ 3657 m river sluices have been
provided to serve for diversion purposes during dam construction and to serve as
permanent low level river outlets. Four sluices of 2438 ∗ 3657 m size have been
provided for south canal with sill at 307.850 m.
The command area of the SRSP consists of undulating terrain with extensive
granite rocks. The area comprises of prominent ridges and valleys formed by gully
erosion; it slopes towards the Godavari River and is drained by many small streams
that empty into Godavari and its distributaries. The majority of the soils are sandy
loams. Though soil conditions support easy drainage, there are a number of low-
lying areas which require systematic drainage facilities.
The main rock types occurring in command area are pink and gray granites, with
fine to coarse-grained texture. Most of the ridge and relief areas are developed into
poorly to moderately weathered formations. Low lying and plain areas are developed
into moderately to highly weathered formation. The thickness of weathering extends
up to 11 m. It is observed that weathering intensity decreases with depth and
generally basement is encountered without fracturing. Hence dug wells are feasible
and bore wells are not feasible in general.
The area is drained towards Godavari River. The drainage pattern is dendritic.
Undulating topography is characteristic of the area and hence distributaries are aligned
on ridges. The maximum and minimum elevations of the area are 300 to 200 m above
mean sea level respectively. The normal monsoon rainfall in the area is 986 mm.
The predominant soil type of the area is red sandy loams of good permeability.
Black sandy, silty loams are found in low-lying areas stretching along the streams
and also in the commands of irrigation tank. Paddy is the principal crop which
is grown extensively in the areas receiving irrigation from canal and tank water.
688 Chapter 14

Sugarcane is grown but quite sparsely. In areas that do not receive canal water,
paddy is grown under well irrigation.
Water table depth varies from shallow ground level in canal fed areas to 10 m in
tail end areas. In the areas receiving canal supplies, the wells existing prior to the
project are not being put to use now. These areas are under sugarcane cultivation.
Wells are found to be excavated to maximum depths of 2.5–4.0 m to meet the
water demand during canal closures. In the tail-end areas, wells are used in both
the seasons. The salient features of Sriramsagar project is given in Table 29.

Nizamsagar project
The Nizamsagar project is a multipurpose project, constructed in Nizamabad district
in Telengana area of Andhra Pradesh. The project was completed on Manjira River
in 1931, a tributary of Godavari, which was a single state river. The canals and
distribution system was completed in late 1935. It is a masonry dam, 3.2 km long
and 48.15 m high above deep foundation. At the time of its completion, this project
was one of the largest in the state but also one of the biggest schemes in India.
The live storage capacity of the reservoir is 724736 Mm3 , irrigating an ayacut
of 967233 Mm2 . The filling period is generally from July to August and depletion
period is from September to June. The installed capacity of the power house at the
dam is 15 MW.

Lower manair reservoir

Manair River is a tributary of Godavari River and the reservoir is located at latitude
18 24 N and longitude 79 8 E in Karimnagar district of Andhra Pradesh state.
The total catchment area of the river up to confluence with Godavari River is
13,106.25 km2 . The lower Manair dam was constructed in 1985 across Manair River
at tits 110th km and at its confluence with Mohedamada River. The dam is located
at 18 8 24 N and 79 8 6 E. The total catchment area up to the Lower Manair
dam site is 6,464 sq. km; the free catchment area at the Lower Manair Dam is

Table 29. Salient features of Sriramsagar Project

Particulars Details

Length of Masonry Dam 14.6 km

Bed level 325.240 m
Bed width 51.0 m
Proposed utilization from existing ayacut 89031 Mm2
FRL 332.537 m
Gross storage 3,171.84 Mm3
Live Storage at MDDL 2,322.24 Mm3
Number of gates 42,
Size of gates 1524 m × 10 m
Number of villages affected 29
Population affected 38.529
Krishna and Godavari Basins 689

1 79746 km2 and the rest is intercepted. The original capacity of the reservoir at
F.R.L. 280.46 m is 680648 Mm3 . The spillway has 20 gates of 1524 m × 731 m
and has been designed for maximum flood of 14,158 cumec.
There are no sediment observation stations on Manair River. Based on Khosla’s
formula, sediment inflow is assessed at the rate of 4.97 ha.m/year/100 sq. km.

Kaddam reservoir
The Kaddam reservoir was constructed across Kaddam River at its 80th kilometer
of run in the Adilabad district of Andhra Pradesh. After traversing a distance of
6.5 km from the dam, Kaddam joins the Godavari River. The latitude and longitude
of the dam are 19 07 N and 78 47 E. The dam was constructed during the year
1958 and was remodified in the year 1965. The total drainage area of the Kaddam
River up to the dam site is 2,631 sq. km. The original capacity of the reservoir at
full reservoir level 213.300 m is 21580 Mm3 .

Upper indravati project

This project, constructed on the Indravati River in Orissa is one of the major
multipurpose transbasin diversion projects in India. It involves diversion of the
waters of the Indravati River, a tributary of the Godavari River into the Mahanadi
basin for power generation and irrigation. The whole scheme envisages construction
of 4 dams (Indravati masonry dam; Podagada earth dam; Kapur earth dam; and
Muran concrete, masonry and earth dam) and 8 earthen dykes (4 on left and 4
on right). The main dam is on the Indravati River in Nowrangpur and Kalahandi
districts of Orissa; the other three being on its three tributaries: the Podagad, the
Kapur, and the Muran. All these form a single reservoir, connected together through
two link channels, to generate, in all, 1,990 million kWhr of electricity per year and
simultaneously to annually irrigate 2 185 Mm2 from the releases through the power
house. The reservoir has gross storage capacity of 2,300 MCM and live storage of
1,486 MCM. At FRL, the reservoir covers and area of 112 sq. km. At the dam site,
the catchment area of Upper Indravati basin is 1,153 sq. km.
The distinct feature of this project is the trans-basin diversion of water from,
Godavari Basin up to river Hati (Mahanadi basin) for power generation and
irrigation. Tailrace release from powerhouse is picked up at Hati Barrage constructed
across river Hati at Mangalpur in Kalahandi district with two canals taking off on
either bank. Left main canal is 52 km long and commands an ayacut 49,078 ha.
83 km. long right main canal provides irrigation to 27,191 hectares. Another lift
canal is under consideration for irrigating CCA of 33,027 ha.
Water from the reservoir is to be conveyed through a water conductor system
for power generation. Thereafter, the release through 7.8 km long tail race channel
discharges into the Hati stress, a tributary of the Tel River in Mahanadi basin and is
picked up by a weir across the Hati for utilization in irrigation. While designing this
project, the aim was to provide as much irrigation as the available resources can
provide. With the calculated runoff, the project could provide irrigation of about
1,214.10 Mm2 .
690 Chapter 14

For power generation, the power house is connected to reservoir by a water

conductor system consisting of a pressure tunnel, a surge tank and five numbers of
penstocks. The tunnel has a length of 4,215 m and is of 7 m diameter. The tunnel
discharges into a differential surge tank of 18 m diameter and 96.75 m deep. There
are 5 penstocks of 3.05 m diameter each. The annual power potential of this project
is 1,990 million KWH at 100 percent load factor. The installed capacity of 600 MW
consists of 5 units of 120 MW, each operating under an average load of 374 m. It
is a surface power house.
The tail race discharge is utilized for irrigating 1 093 Mm2 of C.C.A. in Sadon
and Dharamgarh subdivisions of Kalahandi District. The intensity of irrigation is
200 percent. The project is located in Kalahandi and Koraput districts which are
among the most undeveloped districts of Orissa and are predominantly inhabited
by adivasis and tribals. Although there is immense scope of industrial growth and
agricultural development, the progress is slow as the rich mineral resources of
the districts are not yet properly tapped. When the full potential of this project is
utilized, it will undoubtedly accelerate growth of economy of these two districts.
Although droughts are frequent in these districts, even when rainfall in good,
rainfall distribution is in variance with the crop water requirements and artificial
irrigation is the only means to increase crop production. There is no other
project in these districts which has such a high irrigation potential. Further, this
region suffers from shortage of electricity. Even after the full utilization of the
additional power from the Balimela Power Station (360 MW, 1,980 MKWhr),
Talchur Thermal Expansion (220 MW, 1,012 MKWhr) and Rengali Power Station
(100 MW, 523 MKWhr) that are now under construction and the Upper Kolab
Project, shortage of power with both in energy and capacity will exist. A view of
Indravati project has been shown in Figure 15.
Bhopalpatnam Reservoir: This is a proposed reservoir on Indravati River, a tributary
of Godavari River. The gross storage, dead storage and live storage capacity of the

Figure 15. A view of Indravati project

Krishna and Godavari Basins 691

reservoir will be 8,368.00, 549.00 and 7 81900 Mm3 respectively. The FRL and
MDDL of the reservoir will be 200.254 and 176.48 m respectively. The maximum
and minimum dependability has been assessed at 21,969.00 and 3 29000 Mm3
respectively.

Balimela dam
The Balimela Project on the Sileru River in the state of Orissa in India consists of
a 70 m high earthfill dam and 3 earthen dykes on the saddles in the left abutment
hill. The project is located at a distance of 35 km from Malkangiri in Godhra in
Malkangiri District, Orissa. The catchment area at the dam is 4,910 km2 . At FRL
462.7 m, the reservoir has a live storage capacity of 3,610 MCM. The spillway is
located on a saddle to the right. Half of the stored water is diverted to another
valley and a head of 275 m is created for power generation. The other half quantity
of water is used for power generation at successive power stations on the Sileru
River itself. Balimela power house has 6 units of 60 MW each, with mean annual
inflow of 5,190 MCM. It has a firm power of 161 MW. It was commissioned during
1973–77. A view of Balimela dam is shown in Figure 16.

Mula irrigation project

Mula is a major irrigation project on the Mula River, a tributary of Pravara,
which in turn is a tributary of Godavari. The Mula project is located at longitude

Figure 16. A view of Balimela dam

692 Chapter 14

74 34 30 E and latitudes 19 1 30 N. This multipurpose project caters for irrigation
and municipal (Ahemdnagar city) water supply. It provides industrial water supply
to defense units, sugar factories, and other industries. The project infrastructure
consists of an earthen dam with gated spillway at Baregaon-Nandur in Rahuri
Taluka of Ahmednagar district. The FRL, MDDL and MWL of the reservoir are
552.30 m, 534.21 m and 553.21 m respectively. The Gross storage, live storage,
and dead storage of the reservoir are 73632 Mm3 , 60888 Mm3 and 12744 Mm3
respectively. The water spread area of the reservoir at FRL is 56397 km2 . Project’s
right bank and left bank canals with an extensive distribution system provides
irrigation to an area of 80,810 ha. Major portion of command has black cotton soil.
The rainfall is very scanty in this area; average rainfall is 50 cm in lower catchment
and evaporation is moderate.

Pench projects
The Pench River is a tributary of Kanhan River which lies in the Godavari River
Basin. There are two major projects on the Pench River. Pench hydropower project
comprises of Totaladoh masonry cum concrete dam on Pench River, 3 km from
Totaladoh, in Nagpur District, Maharashtra. The catchment area at the dam is
4,275 km2 . The height and length of the dam is 75 m and 680 m respectively. The
reservoir has a live storage capacity of 1,249 MCM at FRL 490 m and the MDDL
is at 464 m. The power house has 2 units of 80 MW each. It has a firm power
of 34 MW with annual inflow of 1,857 MCM in a 75% dependable year. MSEB
commissioned the project in 1986–87.
Pench Irrigation Project comprises a storage-cum-diversion dam, 23 km
downstream of Totladoh Dam on Pench River to impound releases through the tail
race discharge after power generation at Totladoh reservoir. It has lined canals on
both the banks, envisaging irrigation of 104,476 ha area in Nagpur and Bhandara
districts. Besides irrigation, this project also provides 145 MCM of water for Nagpur
water supply and 87 MCM for Koradi Thermal Power Station through its right
bank canal. The temperature in the area rises above 36  C in summer and goes
below 20  C in winter. The average annual rainfall is 1,051 mm. Free catchment
area between Totladoh and Kamthi Khedi is 388.0 sq. km with an inflow from free
catchment of 112.6 MCM. The Kamthi Khedi diversion dam near Parsheoni Village
has a gross storage capacity of 230.00 MCM resulting in live storage of 180.00
MCM. It is 2,248 m long, with height 44.50 m, above cut-off trench in case of earth
dam and 45.5 m in case of masonry dam above the lowest foundation level. The
dam comprises of a central spillway with earth dam on right flank and earth dam
in left saddle. The spillway has 16 gates of size 12 m × 8 m.

Upper kolab
Upper Kolab is a straight masonry gravity dam completed in 1990 on Kolab River,
5 km from Jeyapore in Korapt District, Orissa. The catchment area at the dam is
1,630 km2 . The height and length of the dam is 55 m and 631 m respectively. The
reservoir has a gross storage capacity of 1,215 MCM and live storage capacity of
935 MCM at FRL 858 m, and mean annual inflow of 1,803 MCM; its MDDL is at
Krishna and Godavari Basins 693

844 m. At FRL, the reservoir water spread covers 114 sq. km. Peak of design flood
hydrograph is 10,020 cumec. The spillway has 11 radial gates of 122 m × 122 m
with crest level at 845.8 m. Two canals take off from the reservoir: right bank canal
is known as the Jeyapore main canal which is 58.83 km long with discharge at
head 98.1 cumec, and the left bank canal is known as the Padampur canal which is
12.47 km long with 2.79 cumec discharge at the head. Upper Kolab power house
has 4 units of 80 MW each. With a design head of 261 m, it has a firm power of
111 MW. OHPC Ltd commissioned the project in 1988–93.

Projects in sileru (machkund) basin

Three important projects of this basin are described here. Machkund project
comprises of Kalaput dam, constructed on Machkund River (Sileru River is known
by this name in upper reaches). The project is located at a distance of 65 km from
Jeypore, in Onukudelli District, Orissa. The catchment area at the power house
is 1,932.85 km2 . This 60.7 m high dam has created a reservoir with live storage
capacity of 893 MCM at FRL 839 m and the MDDL is at 819 m. At the dam site,
mean annual inflow has been estimated at 1,023.7 MCM. For power generation, it
has 3 units of 17 MW each and 3 units of 23 MW each respectively. This project,
commissioned in 1955–59, has a firm power of 81 MW.
Upper Sileru hydropower project is located on Guntawada masonry gravity dam
on Sileru River, 230 km from Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh. The height and
length of the dam are 31 m and 625 m respectively. The reservoir has a live storage
capacity of 109.5 MCM at FRL 414.5 m and the MDDL is at 406.3 m. The power
house has 4 units of 60 MW each. It has a firm power of 58 MW with mean annual
inflow of 2,000 MCM.
Lower Sileru hydropower project is located on Donkarayi masonry gravity dam on
Sileru River also known as Machkund in upper reaches, 94 km from Bhadrachalam,
in Khammam District, Andhra Pradesh. The catchment area at the dam is 2,254 km2 .
The height and length of the dam are 71.5 m and 1,399 m respectively. The
reservoir has a live storage capacity of 380 MCM at FRL 316 m; its MDDL is
at 291.2 m. The power house has 4 units of 115 MW each. It has a firm power
of 154 MW with mean annual inflow of 90.6 MCM. This project was commissioned
in 1976–78.

Upper wainganga
This project, later renamed as Sanjay Sarovar Project, is a major irrigation scheme
in Seoni and Balaghat Districts of Madhya Pradesh. It envisages the construction
of a composite earth and masonry dam with maximum height of 42.67 m across
Wainganga River near Bhimgarh village at latitude 22 22 51 N and 70 30 20 E.
The construction of the dam was completed in 1995. The dam intercepts a catchment
area of 2,008 sq. km. At FRL of 519.38 m, the reservoir has gross and live
storage capacities of 507 MCM and 410 MCM. In the catchment of the dam,
the maximum and minimum annual rainfalls are 1,748 mm and 647 mm, the average
being 1,225 mm. The 75% dependable yield at the dam site is 7031 Mm3 . Ten
694 Chapter 14

radial type gates of size 1524 m × 1067 m have been provided at the spillway
whose crest lies at 508.71 m.

Other projects
In addition to the above, there are several existing and under construction water
resources projects in the basin. Salient features of existing and under construction
water resources projects with a live storage capacity of 10 MCM and above have
been presented in Table 30 and Table 31, respectively.

14.2.7. Flood of 1986 in Godavari Basin

In the Godavari basin, the normal rainfall over the individual sub-basins varies
widely. Godavari basin upstream of Nanded receives about 860 mm in an average
year while Indravati sub-basin receives 1,580 mm. During monsoon period, the
eastern half of the basin receives about 750 to 1,500 mm of rain every year while
in the rest of the area, except a narrow Ghats strip, annual rainfall is between
450 to 750 mm. Consequently eastern half of the basin is more prone to floods as
compared to the west.
Floods in the Godavari River are the result of heavy rains over the basin. Severe
storms are mostly associated with the depressions/cyclonic storms of Bay of Bengal
(BoB) origin. Unprecedented floods occurred in the Godavari basin during 13–20
August 1986 which were caused by a depression originated in the BoB.
The famous flood of 1986 was caused by two storms that occurred in quick
succession. A low pressure area was formed over East Madhya Pradesh on 5th
August 1986. Moving in a westerly direction, it turned into deep depression on
8th morning and centered close to Surat in Gujarat (Northwest of the Godavari
basin). On 10th morning it was centered near latitude 23  N and longitude 66 30 E
(Pandharinath, 1987). It weakened considerably on 11th August. Although this storm
did not cause flooding, it sufficiently saturated the basin. The flood causing storm
originated as a low pressure area over North–West BoB on 9th August 1986. This
system became well-marked on 10th morning and concentrated into a depression
on the same evening, with central region near latitude 18  N and longitude 88  E.
It moved in a westerly direction and intensified into deep depression and centered
near latitude 18  N and longitude 86 30 E on 11th morning. Moving in a west-north-
westerly direction it crossed north Andhra coast near Kalingapatnam on 12th night.
It centered over eastern part of the basin near Karaput on 13th morning. Moving
in a north-westerly direction it moved over the extreme eastern part of the basin
weakened, into a depression and centered near Raipur on 14th morning. It further
weakened and formed as a well marked low over Northwest Madhya Pradesh on
15th morning. To appreciate the relative amounts of rain that fell over the basin in
the flood event, Table 33 contains the normal rainfall of monsoon months as well
as for the storm events at a few stations over the Godavari basin. Table 32 shows
the Flood stages at various gauging sites of Godavari River during August 1986.
Krishna and Godavari Basins 695

Table 30. Salient features of selected existing projects in Godavari basin

Name of the State Year of Gross Live Designed Installed

Project completion storage storage annual capacity
capacity capacity irrigation (MW)
(MCM) (MCM) (Million
sq. m)

Boggulavagu Andhra Pradesh – 1152 1034 2060 –

Buggavanka Andhra Pradesh – 1432 1204 3440 –
Donkaravi Dam Andhra Pradesh 1974 1 67000 1 25250 – 25
Jalaput Andhra Pradesh 1959 97000 89200 – 25
Kinnerasani Andhra Pradesh – 23786 20785 – –
Lakhnawaram Lake Andhra Pradesh 1909 6046 6046 2870 –
Nallavagu Project Andhra Pradesh 1969 2113 1849 1960 –
Peddavagu Andhra Pradesh 1987 1385 1170 6400 –
Pocharam Andhra Pradesh 1922 5155 4252 4050 –
Ramadhugu Andhra Pradesh 1964 1800 1484 1180 –
Ramappa Lake Andhra Pradesh 1919 – 8250 2100 –
Salivagu Andhra Pradesh 1964 1587 1464 1280 –
Singur Andhra Pradesh – 85000 56625 16000 –
Swarna Andhra Pradesh 1978 4200 3583 2690 –
Vottigedda Andhra Pradesh – 8909 7993 9800 –
Ari Tank Madhya Pradesh 1952 1530 1289 4250 –
Gangulpara Tank Madhya Pradesh 1958 1 11132 1093 3450 –
Karad Madhya Pradesh 1963 1540 1369 – –
Nahaleswara Tank Madhya Pradesh 1967 1614 1455 4510 –
Oon Madhya Pradesh 1966 1980 1836 160 –
Paralkot Madhya Pradesh 1973 6630 6360 14580 –
Sarathi Madhya Pradesh 1923 1706 1616 3480 –
Thanwar Project Madhya Pradesh 1987 13900 12900 18210 –
Adhala Maharashtra 1974 3000 2760 5090 –
Alandi Maharashtra 1983 2952 2746 4490 –
Asolamedha Maharashtra 1918 9270 7462 9920 –
Bagh River Project Maharashtra 1977 6508 4867 33670 –
Sirpur Maharashtra 1976 20377 19245 – –
Bhandardara Maharashtra 1923 31240 30731 – 17
Badalkasa Maharashtra 1923 1739 1645 4050 –
Bor Maharashtra 1967 13867 12740 6190 –
Chandai Maharashtra 1978 1148 1049 3610 –
Chandpur Maharashtra 1915 3112 2324 4860 –
Chargaon Maharashtra 1976 2016 1751 2120 –
Chorkhamra Maharashtra 1923 2105 2080 4050 –
Chulband Maharashtra 1976 1910 1654 4040 –
Darna Maharashtra 1912 22687 21982 25870 –
Dheku Maharashtra 1962 1353 1216 2710 –
Dina Nadi Project Maharashtra 1977 6117 5595 11360 –
Ekburji Maharashtra 1964 1412 1197 2430 –
Gangapur Maharashtra 1954 21576 20376 23260 –
Galhati Maharashtra 1965 1637 1383 2300 –
Ghirani Maharashtra 1968 2508 2246 2830 –
Ghorazari Maharashtra 1987 4519 3800 3850 –

(Continued)
696 Chapter 14

Table 30. Continued

Name of the State Year of Gross Live Designed Installed

Project completion storage storage annual capacity
capacity capacity irrigation (MW)
(MCM) (MCM) (Million
sq. m)

Girija Maharashtra 1986 2450 2153 3800 –

Goki Maharashtra 1980 5022 4270 7800 –
Itiadoh Maharashtra 1970 28883 22512 40080 –
Jayakwadi Maharashtra 1976 2 90900 2 17100 2 78000 12
Karadkhed Maharashtra 1973 1239 1101 2690 –
Karanjwan Maharashtra 1974 17556 16622 44880 –
Kardwhed Maharashtra 1977 1230 1101 – –
Kalyan Maharashtra 1986 1536 1222 1900 –
Karpara Maharashtra 1976 2682 2490 3110 –
Kanhdi Maharashtra 1978 2221 2048 1540 –
Khair Bandha Maharashtra 1915 1679 1595 –
Khelna Maharashtra 1966 1260 1108 2430 –
Koradi Maharashtra 1980 2258 1512 4800 –
Kundalika Maharashtra 1986 4630 3400 4400 –
Kundrala Maharashtra 1974 1176 1041 1560 –
Manar Maharashtra 1964 13832 12868 24470 –
Mangarh Maharashtra 1972 21000 17150 1700 –
Makardhokada Maharashtra 1977 2135 1993 3370 –
Manjra Maharashtra 1984 25070 17332 23690 –
Masoli Maharashtra 1982 3408 2694 2750 –
Naleshwar Maharashtra 1918 1235 1118 1690 –
Navegaon Maharashtra 1987 4594 2959 – –
Ozarkhed Maharashtra 1982 6796 6032 5890 –
Palkhed Maharashtra 1975 – 2122 54930 –
Pandharabodi Maharashtra 1967 1380 1304 2460 –
Pus Maharashtra 1972 11392 9125 9360 –
Ramtek Maharashtra 1913 10515 10426 10920 –
Saikheda Maharashtra 1969 3851 2718 3120 –
Sidheswar Maharashtra 1962 25000 8100 61500 –
Sindhaphana Maharashtra 1965 1259 1080 1780 –
Sonal Maharashtra 1981 2027 1693 3160 –
Sukhana Maharashtra 1968 2134 1849 2510 –
Tawaraja Maharashtra 1984 2050 1696 4040 –
Tirana Maharashtra 1969 2200 1862 2180 –
Tiru Maharashtra 1974 2331 1595 3290 –
Upper Dudhana Maharashtra 1965 1537 1300 3490 –
Umari Maharashtra 1972 23100 17210 1180 –
Waghadi Maharashtra 1979 4111 3537 5840 –
Wan Maharashtra 1969 2518 2191 5260 –
Wunna Maharashtra 1968 2356 2164 1210 18
Yeldari Maharashtra 1967 96600 81000 – 65
Nalkangeri Dam Orissa – 3948 3084 – –
Umerkota Project Orissa 1965 2961 2714 5070 –
Krishna and Godavari Basins 697

Table 31. Salient features of selected under construction projects in Godavari basin

Name of the Project State Gross Live Designed Installed

storage storage annual capacity
capacity capacity irrigation (MW)
(MCM) (MCM) (Million
m2 )

Sathunal Project Andhra Pradesh 3514 2861 7680 –

Talliperu Andhra Pradesh 2067 1446 9800 –
Velleru Andhra Pradesh 68240 40600 58000 –
Vottivagu Andhra Pradesh 8206 7496 9800 –
Chulkinala Project Karnataka 2657 1506 4050 –
Kalisarar Madhya Pradesh 3247 2775 1000 –
Kanhargaon Madhya Pradesh 2550 2160 38900 –
Adan Maharashtra 7832 6725 10720 –
Amal Nalla Maharashtra 2270 2120 3900 –
Anjana Palsi Maharashtra 1555 1371 2550 –
Arunavati Maharashtra 21185 17540 31000 –
Bawanthadi Maharashtra 29875 20479 25000 –
Bham Maharashtra 7542 6976 – –
Bhavali Maharashtra 4475 4079 45000 –
Channa Maharashtra 1479 1399 2120 –
Dham Maharashtra 7246 6251 10210 –
Dongargaon Maharashtra 1417 1244 1250 –
Erdha Maharashtra 1527 1196 2510 –
Gosikhurd Maharashtra 73241 55244 1 90000 –
Human Maharashtra 30476 27326 36000 –
Isapur Maharashtra 1 25000 95000 – –
Karwa Maharashtra 5959 5291 10000 –
Karwappa Maharashtra 3257 3158 5250 –
Khekaranala Maharashtra 2613 2371 3310 –
Lendi Maharashtra 20795 15966 20000 –
Lower Dudhana Maharashtra 34480 24200 30000 –
Lower Pus Maharashtra 8110 5967 9680 –
Lower Terna Maharashtra 13356 12246 20000 –
Lower Wardha Maharashtra 25334 21687 53000 –
Majalgaon Maharashtra 45364 37364 93890 –
Masalga Maharashtra 1468 1195 2430 –
Mukane Maharashtra 13976 12248 – –
Nand Storage Maharashtra 6600 5560 – –
Pakadigudam Maharashtra 1331 1180 3710 –
Pothra Maharashtra 3843 3473 6310 –
Punegaon Maharashtra 2039 1758 67000 –
Shivana Takali Maharashtra 11361 4242 7490 –
Tambapuri Maharashtra 2127 1963 4780 –
Tultuli Maharashtra 18676 16045 30000 –
Upper Pravara Maharashtra 25254 24462 67000 –
Upper Wardha Maharashtra 78640 61469 80000 –
Vishnupuri Maharashtra – 8355 – –
Wedgaon Storage Maharashtra 16042 13872 – –
Waki Maharashtra 5845 5596 – –
698 Chapter 14

Table 32. Flood stages at various gauging sites of Godavari River during August 1986

SN Name of gauging Initially Date & time Peak level Date and Date and time
site level attained time when water
attained level receded
below danger
level

1 Tekra DL 13.0 m 12.08.1986 19.6 m 15.08.1986 18.08.1986

(21.00 hrs) historical (03.00 hrs) (15.00 hrs)
2 Perur DL 13.0 m 12.08.1986 19.3 m 15.08.1986 18.08.1986
(24.00 hrs) (03.00 hrs) (24.00 hrs)
3 Bhadrachalam DL 16.2 m 13.08.1986 23.0 m 16.08.1986 19.08.1986
(03.00 hrs) all time (12.00 hrs)
high
4 Kunavaram DL 13.4 m 12.08.1986 24.4 m 16.08.1986 After
(15.00 hrs) (21.00 hrs) 20.08.1986
5 Dowlaiswaram DL 4.3 m 13.08.1986 6.55 m 16.08.1986 20.08.1986
(09.00 hrs) all time (03.00 hrs)
high

Source: Pandharinath (1987).

DL: Danger Level

Table 33. Normal average depth of rainfall and actual flood period rainfall depths in various sub-basins
of the Godavari River basin

SN Name of sub-basin Normal average depth of rainfall (cm) Flood period

average depth of
rainfall (cm)

June July August September 9–11 8–14

August August
1981 1986

1 Godavari basin 14.3 19.3 13.9 17.1 23 5.47

upstream of Nanded
2 Manjira 12.5 20.0 17.9 22.1 06 10.07
3 Penganga 17.5 28.2 20.5 18.1 90 16.65
4 Wardha 16.9 33.3 24.2 18.9 100 22.77
5 Wainganga 18.9 44.6 35.8 21.1 133 23.71
6 Indravati 22.1 45.7 40.6 26.8 116 26.35
7 Sabari 20.3 38.9 37.8 25.7 35 31.74
8 Godavari basin 16.3 29.5 23.9 20.3 28 35.45
Downstream of Nanded
9 Whole Godavari basin 17.25 32.67 26.74 21.0 677 22.00

Source: Pandharinath (1987).

Krishna and Godavari Basins 699

In addition to the above system, an east-west oriented trough in the lower and
mid-troposphere was observed running across the basin on 8th , 9th and 10th . Subse-
quently this trough was observed only in the mid-troposphere till 12th and became
unimportant on 13th . Under the influence of these two systems, heavy to very heavy
rain falls were reported at many places over the eastern and central part of the
basin.
According to available records since 1881, the highest gauge level recorded at
Dowlaiswaram was 5.95 m recorded on 15th August 1953. But this record was
surpassed on 16th August 1986 when a gauge level of 6.55 m was recorded. The
flood level at Bhadrachalam touched an all time high record of 24.4 m on 16th
August 1986.
Available records show that the floods during August 1986 affected 18 districts
of Andhra Pradesh. Besides taking a toll of 161 human lives and over 4,000 heads
of cattle, it damaged about 12.5 lakh acres of cropped area, affected 2,321 villages
and inflicted damage to about 1.05 lakh houses. A 70 m breach took place in the
flood embankment of Vasistha River, a tributary of Godavari, at Gopalapuram in
East Godavari district. On the night of 18th August 1986 Dowlaiswaram anicut was
breached, inundating 12 villages. At Palocole, the railway track was under 2 m of
water while Dowlaiswaram approach road was under 3.3 m of water. Polavaram
and Kunavaram towns were completely submerged under floodwaters. About 5.5
lakh people had to be evacuated to safer places.
CHAPTER 15

CAUVERY AND PENNAR BASINS

15.1. THE CAUVERY BASIN

The Cauvery River, also known as Dakshin Ganga or ‘Ganga of South’, is one
of the major interstate peninsular rivers of South India. It is the fourth largest
river in the Indian peninsula next only to Godavari, Mahanadi, and Krishna. The
Cauvery River rises in the Western Ghats and flows in eastwardly direction passing
through the states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Pondicherry before it
drains into Bay of Bengal. The basin lies between latitudes 10 05 N and 13 30 N
and longitudes 75 30 E and 79 45 E. It is bounded on the west by the Western
Ghats, on the east and south by the Eastern Ghats and on the north by the ridges
separating it from the Tungabhadra (Krishna) and Pennar basins. The total length
of the river from source to its outfall into Bay of Bengal is about 800 km. Of this,
320 km is in Karnataka, 416 km is in Tamil Nadu and 64 km forms the common
boundary between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu States. The principal tributaries of
the river are the Kabini, the Suvarnavathi, the Shimsha, the Arkavathi, the Chinnar,
the Palar, the Bhavani, the Noyil, the Tirumanimuttar, the Amaravathi and the
Ponnanai Ar. Krishnarajasagar, Mettur and Grand Anicut are the existing major
projects in the basin.
The Cauvery basin extends over an area of 81 155 km2 , which is nearly 24.7%
of the total geographical area of the country. An index map of the basin is given
in Figure 1. The basin lies in the States of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and
Pondicherry. The shape of the basin is somewhat rectangular with a maximum
length and breadth of 360 km and 200 km, respectively. The statewise distribution
of drainage areas is given in Table 1.
Physiographically, the basin can be divided into three parts: the Western Ghats
area, the Plateau of Mysore and the Delta. The delta area is the most fertile tract
in the basin. The principal soil types found in the basin are black soils, red soils,
laterites, alluvial soils, forest soils, and mixed soils. Red soils occupy large areas
in the basin. Alluvial soils are found in the delta areas. The culturable area of the
basin is about 58 000 km2 which is about three percent of the culturable area of
the country.
701
702 Chapter 15

Figure 1. Index map of Cauvery basin

15.1.1. The Cauvery River

The Cauvery (Kaveri) River is one of the sacred interstate rivers of India which
originates at Talakaveri on the Brahmigiri Hills (12 75 N latitude and 74 34 E
longitude) of the Coorg district in Karnataka State at an elevation of 1,341 m. The
river flows down from the hills in a series of rapids and cascades and is joined at
the foot of the hills by the Kannike stream at Bhagamandala. The course of the
river through Coorg district is very tumultuous.
The Krishnarajasagar dam has been constructed across the Cauvery about 19 km
north-west of Mysore City. The Shivasamudram Falls, which are the second largest
waterfalls in India, are on the course of the Cauvery River. At Sivasamudram, the river
divides into two branches and falls through a height of more than 91 m in a series of
major falls, notably, the Gagana Chukki and the Bhara Chukki. Hydroelectric energy
is produced at these falls. Further, the picturesque Hogenakal falls lie on the border

Table 1. Statewise distribution of drainage area of Cauvery basin

State Drainage area km2  Percentage of area

Tamil Nadu 43 867 54.1 %

Karnataka 34 273 42.2 %
Kerala 2 866 3.5 %
Pondicherry 149 0.2 %
Total 81 155 100%
Cauvery and Pennar Basins 703

between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Below the falls, near the town of Salem, the 154
meter high Mettur Dam impounds water in the Stanley Reservoir.
The important tributaries joining Cauvery in the Coorg district are the Kakkabe,
the Kadanur and the Kummahole. Cauvery then enters the Mysore district where
important tributaries joining the river from the left are the Harangi, the Hemavathi,
the Shimsha and the Arkavathi. The tributaries joining it from the right are the
Lakshmanathirtha, the Kabbani, and the Survanavathi. Further down, the river enters
Tamil Nadu state where the many tributaries, namely, the Bhavani, the Noyil, and
the Amravathi join it. The salient features of the major tributaries in the Cauvery
basin are given in Table 2. The flow Diagram of Cauvery is given in Figure 2.

15.1.2. Sub Basins Under Cauvery Basin

The entire Cauvery catchment can be divided into 16 sub-basins, viz., (1) the Upper
Cauvery [from the source to the Krishnarajsagar (KRS) dam], (2) the Kabini, (3) the
Shimsha, (4) the Arkavathi, (5) the Middle Cauvery (the catchment of main Cauvery
from KRS dam at the upstream end to just below the confluence of Arkavathi River
with Cauvery), (6) the Suvarnavathi, (7) the Palar, (8) the Chinnar, (9) the Bhavani,
(10) the Noyil, (12) the Tirumanimuttar, (11) the Amaravathi, (13) the Ponnanai

Table 2. Salient features of tributaries of Cauvery River

SN Name of the Catchment Length Origin and altitude Sub-tributaries Basin

tributary area km2  (km) state(s)

1 Harangi 717 50 Pushpagiri Hills Karnataka

of Western Ghats
1,067 m
2 Hemavathy 5 410 245 Ballarayana Karnataka
Durga in western
Ghats, 1,219 m
3 Kabini 7 040 230 Westren Ghats in Taraka, Hebballa, Karnataka,
Kerala, 2,140 m Nugu, Gundal Kerala &
Tamil Nadu
4 Suvarnavathy 1 787 88 Nasrur Ghat Karnataka &
range Tamil Nadu
5 Lakshmanathirtha – 131 Westren Ghats, Ramathirtha Karnataka
1,950 m
6 Shimsha 8 469 221 Tumkur district, Veeravaishnavi, Karnataka
914 m Kanihalla,
Chickkhole,
Hebbahalla,
Mullahalla, &
Kanva
7 Arkavathy 4 351 161 Nandidurga Kumaudavathy, Karnataka &
1,480 m Manihalla & Tamil Nadu
Kuttehole,
Vrishabhavathy
704 Chapter 15

Source

1,130 Herangi

2,520 Hemavati

Lakshamantirtha 425
Kabini 2,500

Suvarnavati 620
1,700 Shimsha
850 Arkavati
Bhawani 3,090
Amravathi 1,080
Lower Anicut • 20,950
Cauvery River

Sea

Figure 2. Flow Diagram of Cauvery River

Ar., (14) the Upper Coleroon, (15) the Lower Coleroon, and (16) the Cauvery Delta.
The sub-basin wise drainage area, rainfall, runoff and groundwater potential are
given in Table 3. Table 4 represents annual average observed runoff at important
CWC gauging sites in Cauvery basin.

Upper cauvery sub-basin

The Upper Cauvery Sub-basin lies between latitudes 10 54 and 13 21 N and
longitudes 75 30 and 76 36 E comprising the catchment of the Hemavathi, the
Laxmanthirtha and the main Cauvery River up to KRS dam. The total length of
the Cauvery River in this sub-basin is about 224 km. The lengths of the Harangi,
Hemavathi and Laxmanthirtha, all tributaries of Cauvery River in this sub-basin
from their origin to their confluence with the Cauvery are 48 km, 245 km, and
131 km, respectively.
The Upper Cauvery sub-basin drains an area of 10 619 km2 which is about 13%
of the total catchment area of the Cauvery basin. The catchment of the Upper
Cauvery sub-basin lies wholly in Karnataka covering parts of the Chickmaglur,
Kodgu, Hassan, Mandya, and Mysore districts.
The Harangi River: The Harangi rises in the Pushpagiri Hills in Coorg district and
after draining a catchment area of 717 km2 , it joins Cauvery near Kudige in the
Somawarpet taluk. Heavy rainfall from the south-west monsoon is received in the
catchment area of Harangi.
Cauvery and Pennar Basins 705

Table 3. Sub-basin wise Area, average annual Rainfall, Runoff at 75% Water Year Dependable Flow
and Ground Water Potential

S. N. Name of Sub-basin Area Rainfall Runoff (75% water Ground water

km2  (mm) year dependable potential
flows, Mm3 ) Mm3 

1 Upper Cauvery 10 619 1 025 5 394 5785

2 Kabini 6 810 1 097 3 641 3864
3 Shimsha 8 469 656 619 5060
4 Arkavathi 4 351 451 287 1035
5 Middle Cauvery 2 676 424 330 2056
6 Suvarnavathi 1 787 438 238 639
7 Palar 3 214 469 105 1397
8 Chinnar 4 061 653 312 1776
9 Bhavani 6 154 908 1 917 1877
10 Noyil 2 999 504 225 542
11 Amaravathi 8 280 572 898 3080
12 Tirumanimuttar 8 429 536 649 3501
13 Ponnanai Ar 2 050 542 191 2074
14 Upper Coleroon 3 082 656 589 2526
15 Lower Coleroon 1 378 815 224 1206
16 Cauvery Delta 6 566 810 1 051 2246

The Hemavathi River: Hemavathi is one of the principal tributaries to join the
Cauvery on its northern bank. It rises in Ballalarayanadurga in the Western Ghats
in the Mudigere Taluk of Chickmagalur district of Karnataka. The Western Ghats
region is mountainous area covered with thick vegetation. The Hemavathi joins
the Cauvery on its left bank after traversing a length of 193 km in Hassan and
Mudigere Districts of Karnataka in the water spread of Krishnarajasagar reservoir
near Akkihebbal. The important tributaries of the Hemavathi are the Yagachi and
the Algur. The drainage area of the Hemavathi River is 5 410 km2 .
The Hemavathi River, in its early reaches, passes through a very heavy rainfall
region in the vicinity of the Kotigere and Mudigere. The Yagachi River flows in a
meandering course along NNW-SSE to SSE-NNE directions, and joins the Hemavati

Table 4. Annual average observed runoff at CWC sites in Cauvery basin (Catchment area >5 000 km2 )

Name of the site Name of the stream Catchment area km2  Annual average runoff
(BCM)

Musiri Cauvery 66 243 147

Nallamaranpatti Amaravathi 9 080 23
Kodumudu Cauvery 53 233 150
Savandapur Bhawani 5 776 12
Urachikottai Cauvery 45 235 134
Biligundulu Cauvery 36 682 130
T. K. Halli Shimsha 7 890 13
T. Narsipur Kalini 7 000 51
706 Chapter 15

River at Gorur. The Algur River joins Hemavathi from south near Algur. Numerous
small streams also join the Hemavati River all along its course. The annual rainfall
of the area varies from 762 to 5,080 mm with an average annual of 2,972 mm.

The Kabini sub basin

The Kabini River is the most important south-bank tributary of the Cauvery in its
upper reach. The Kabini sub-basin lies between latitudes 11 29 N and 12 20 N and
longitudes 75 48 E and 75 54 E. The Kabini River rises in the Western Ghats in
the Wyand district of Kerala State at an elevation of about 2,140 m above mean sea
level and after draining an area of 6 810 km2 , it joins the Cauvery at Tirumakudal
Narasipur in Mysore district. The length of the river is 210 km. Kabini River drains
a hilly and forested catchment in the upper reaches where rainfall is heavy.

Shimsha sub-basin
The Shimsha sub-basin lies between the latitudes 12 18 N and 13 30 N and the
longitudes 76 15 E and 77 19 E. The Shimsha River, one of the important tribu-
taries of Cauvery, rises in the south of Devarayanadurga hill in Tumkur district.
After flowing southwest in the initial reach, it turns to southwards and then to east.
Thereafter pursuing a southerly course, the river enters the Mandya district. Moving
further, it finally takes southeasterly course and joins the Cauvery, a few km below
the Shivasmudram falls. The total length of the Shimsha River from its origin to
confluence with Cauvery is about 200 km. The Shimsha sub-basin has a catchment
area of 8 469 km2 , which constitutes 10.4% of the Cauvery basin area. The entire
catchment area of the sub-basin lies in the Karnataka State.

Arkavathi sub-basin
The Arkavathi sub-basin lies between the latitudes 12 16 N to 13 23 N and longi-
tudes 77 11 E to 77 42 E. The Arkavathi River is one of the important tributaries
of the Cauvery River. It rises at Nandidurga hills in Chikballpur Taluk of Kolar
district. After flowing in the southwest direction in the initial stage, it receives flow
of Kumudvathi River. From this point, the Arkavathi River flows in a southerly
direction up to Ramanagaram and turns towards southeast. It then flows in the
same direction up to the confluence of its tributary Suvarnamukhi on the left bank.
Thereafter, it flows in southerly direction and receives the water of Kuttlehole from
the left near Kanakapura town. Further, it flows down and receives the waters of
Doddahalla from the left and then finally joins Cauvery at Kungedoddi. The total
length of the Arkavathi River is about 150 km from its origin to its confluence with
Cauvery. The Arkavathi sub-basin has a catchment area of 4 351 km2 that consti-
tutes 5.4% of the Cauvery basin area. The major portion of the sub-basin amounting
to 4 184 km2 lies in Karnataka state and the rest 167 km2 falls in Tamil Nadu.

Middle Cauvery sub-basin

The Middle Cauvery sub-basin lies between the latitude 11 52 N to 12 48 N
and longitude 76 30 E to 77 29 E comprising the catchment of main Cauvery
Cauvery and Pennar Basins 707

from Krishnarajasagar dam to the state boundary just below Mekedatu gorge on the
main River.
Below the Krishnarajasagar dam, the Cauvery River continues to flow eastwards
for 15 km up to Srirangapatnam and then changes its course south-eastwards. It
receives an important tributary, viz., the Kabini on its right bank at Triumakudal
Narasipur and another tributary, namely, the Suvarnavathi joins it from the right at
Talakad, about 25 km downstream. The river then takes a north-east direction and
receives the Shimsha from the left below Sivasmudram. After this point the river
starts cutting through the Eastern Ghats and from a width of nearly one kilometer,
the cross-section narrows considerably. It then flows in cascades through a gorge.
At Sivasmudram, the river gets divided into two branches and falls through a height
of more than 91 m in a series of falls and rapids. The two major falls are the Ganga
Chukki and Bhara Chukki. The fall of river at this point is being utilized for the
generation of hydro electricity power. The Sivasmudram power station built in 1902
is one of the earliest hydroelectric power stations in Asia.
The two branches of the river join after the falls and flow through a gorge, known
as Mekadatu gorge. This gorge is quite narrow. After flowing through this gorge,
Cauvery continues its eastward journey and forms the boundary between Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu states for a distance of about 64 km. Another left bank tributary,
viz., the Arkavathi joins the river just before it enters into Tamil Nadu state. The
total length of the Cauvery River is about 130 km from Krishnarajasagar dam to the
state boundary below Mekedatu gorge. Middle Cauvery sub-basin has catchment
area of 2 676 km2 , which constitutes 3.03% of the Cauvery basin area. The entire
catchment area of the sub-basin lies in the Karnataka State.

The Suvarnavathi sub basin

The Suvarnavathi River is one of the southern tributaries of the Cauvery in its
upper reaches. It is the second tributary joining on right bank. The Suvarnavathi
sub-basin lies between latitudes 11 35 N to 12 10 N and longitudes 76 46 E to
77 12 E. Suvarnavathi originates in the Nasurghat range of hills situated in the south
eastern portion of Mysore district near Gajjala hatti valley and flows northwards
through Chamrajasagar and Yelandur taluks. Two streams, viz., Niredurgihalla
and Araikaduhalla join together near Badibadga to form the river Suvarnavathi
or Honhole. This river, after flowing for a further distance of 11 km, is joined
by a tributary known as the Chikkahole. After flowing further for a distance of
about 15 km, it is joined by another tributary, the Yenehole from left side. The
Suvarnavathi River finally joins Cauvery on its right side at Talakad in the Kollegal
taluk. From its origin to its confluence with Cauvery, the total length of Suvarnavathi
River is about 88 km. The Suvarnavathi sub-basin covers an area of 1 787 km2 in the
states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. It forms 2.2% of the area of the Cauvery basin.

Palar sub-basin
The Palar River is one of the southern tributaries of the Cauvery. The Palar sub-
basin lies between the latitudes 11 35 N and 12 14 N and longitude 77 10 E and
708 Chapter 15

77 50 E. The Palar River rises in the hill ranges of Satyamangalam Taluk of Periyar
district and flows northwards till it receives a small tributary, namely Moranur
Halla from west where river turns perpendicularly to the east and finally joins the
Cauvery on right side near the upstream of Mettur reservoir. The Palar River forms
the common boundary between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu in Mysore and Periyar
districts, respectively, for about 45 km. The drainage area of Palar sub-basin is
3 214 km2 , lying in the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Chinnar sub-basin
The Chinnar sub-basin lies between the latitudes 11 45 N to 12 45 N and longitudes
77 25 E to 78 20 E. The sub-basin comprises the catchments of four independent
streams, namely Chinnar, Doddahalla, Nagavathi and Thoppaiar. The Chinnar River
is the main among them. The catchment area of the Chinnar sub-basin as a whole
is 4 061 km2 , which constitutes 5% of the total catchment of the Cauvery basin.
Most of the sub-basin area lies in Dharmapuri district in Tamil Nadu at an elevation
ranging from 300 to 900 m above mean sea level.

Bhavani sub-basin
The Bhavani River is one of the tributaries of Cauvery River in its mid-reach
whose sub-basin lies between latitudes 10 56 3 N and 11 46 14 N and longitudes
76 24 41 E and 77 41 11 E. The Bhavani River rises at an altitude of about 2,634 m
in the Billimala range of Nilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu. The total drainage area of the
river is 6 154 km2 and it flows for a distance of 216 km before joining the Cauvery
from the right at Bhavani in Coimbatore district. The important tributaries of the
Bhavani are the Siruvani, the Kundah, the Coonoor and the Moyar.

Noyil sub-basin
This sub-basin comprises the catchment of Noyil River including the catchment of
its small tributaries, viz., Sanganurpallan, Vannattangarai, Nallar and Chinnakarai.
The Noyil sub-basin lies between latitudes 10 54 N and 11 19 N and longitudes
76 39 E and 77 56 E. The sub-basin area includes a part of the command area of
Lower Bhavani project canal, Kalingarayan channel and Perimbikulam main canal.
The Noyil sub-basin is bounded on the north by Bhavani sub-basin, on the south
by Amaravathi sub-basin, on the east by Cauvery River and on the west by the
Western Ghats. The river flows entirely in Tamil Nadu and the basin is spread
over the districts of Coimbatore, Periyar and Tiruchirapalli. The area of the basin
is 2 999 km2 , which constitutes 3.7% of the area of the Cauvery basin.

Amaravathi sub-basin
The Amaravathi River is among the main tributaries of the Cauvery River in its
mid reach. It is a right bank tributary next to Noyil, downstream of Mettur dam in
Tamil Nadu. The Amaravathi River originates from Naimakad at an elevation of
2,300 m in the Southern Ghat in Devikulam taluk of Iddukki district of Kerala State.
A number of streams join the river in Kerala before its entry into Tamil Nadu. The
Cauvery and Pennar Basins 709

Amaravathi sub-basin lies between latitudes 10 6 N and 11 2 N and longitudes
77 3 E and 78 6 E. It is bounded by Noyil sub-basin in the north, Vaigai basin in
south, the southern part of the Western Ghats in the west, and the Cauvery River
in the east. Except that part of the upper hilly catchment of the sub-basin which
lies in Kerala, the rest of the sub-basin is spread over Tamil Nadu. The area of the
basin is 8 280 km2 which constitutes 10.2% of the area of the Cauvery basin.

Tirumanimuttar sub-basin
The Tirumanimuttar sub-basin lies between latitudes 10 36 N and 11 55 N and
77 27 E and 78 41 E. The basin comprises the catchment of Cauvery River below
Mettur dam on both sides up to Upper Anicut including the sub-catchment of
Sarabhanga Nadi, Tirmnanimuttar, Pungar and Ayyar, but excluding the catchments
of Bhavani, Noyil and Amaravathi rivers. The area of the Tirumanimuttar sub-basin
is 8 429 km2 , which is 10.39% of the total area of Cauvery basin. The sub-basin
lies mostly in Salem and Tiruchirapalli districts of Tamil Nadu.

Ponnanai Ar sub-basin
The Ponnanai Ar sub-basin comprises the catchment of the Ponnanai Ar and its
tributaries on the right side of the Cauvery River between Upper Anicut and Grand
Anicut. The Ponnanai Ar sub-basin is bounded on the north by Upper Coleroon
subbasin, on the west by Tirumanimuttar sub-basin, on east by Cauvery Delta and
on the south by the basin covering the area between the Cauvery and Vaigai river
basins. The sub-basin lies between North latitudes 10 25 50 and 10 53 25 and
East longitudes 78 08 00 and 78 50 00 . The Ponnanai Ar River originates in the
scattered hills near Kadavur in Kulittalai taluk of Tiruchirapalli district and flows
in a northeast direction through Kultittala, Manapparai and Tiruchirappali taluks.
In the middle reach, the river Ponnanai Ar is also known as Ariyar and it is known
as Kodamurutti Ar in the lower reach. The Ponnanai Ar sub-basin covers an area
of 2 050 km2 which is 2.53% of the area of the Cauvery basin.

Upper coleroon sub-basin

The Upper Coleroon Sub-basin covers the direct catchment of the Coleroon River
around the Upper Anicut and lies between the latitudes 10 50 N and 11 15 N and
longitudes 78 35 E and 79 27 E. The sub-basin also comprises of the catchment of
a few independent streams such as Upper Marudaiyar, Nandiyar, Nari Odai, Andi
Odai etc. The area of the sub-basin as a whole is 3 082 km2 , which constitutes
3.8% of the total catchment area of the Cauvery basin. Most of the sub-basin area
lies in Tiruchirapalli district but a sma1l part lies in Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu.

Lower coleroon sub-basin

The Lower Coleroon sub-basin with a catchment area of 1 378 km2 covers the
catchment of the Coleroon River below the lower Coleroon Anicut and it extends up
to its confluence with the sea. This sub-basin area lies entirely in Tamil Nadu state
between latitudes 11 08 N and 11 25 N and longitudes 79 13 E and 79 48 E. The
710 Chapter 15

area of this sub-basin is 1 378 km2 which is about 1.7% of the total catchment of the
Cauvery basin. Most of the sub-basin area lies in South Arcot and Tiruchchirappalli
districts and a small part lies in Thanjavur district.

Cauvery delta
The Cauvery delta comprises the command area of the Vennar branch, Cauvery
branch and part of the Grand Anicut canal irrigation system. The sub basin also
covers a part of the command area of Kattalai canal scheme and the New Kattalai
high-level canal scheme. The Cauvery Delta sub-basin is bounded on the north by
the Upper Coleroon and Lower Coleroon sub basins, on the west by the Tiruman-
imuttar sub-basin and Ponnanai Ar sub-basin, on the south by Palk Strait and the
area covered by the streams between Cauvery and Vaigai and on the east by the
Bay of Bengal. The sub-basin lies between latitudes 10 17 N and 11 22 N and
longitudes 78 48 E and 79 53 E.
Downstream of the Grand Anicut (Upper end of Cauvery Delta sub-basin), the
Cauvery River subdivides itself into two main branches, namely, Cauvery and
Vennar System, which get further sub-divided into 36 rivers to feed the delta
through a network of channels and branches, distributaries and sub-distributaries.
The Cauvery Delta is spread over 6 566 km2 which is 8.09% of the total area of
the Cauvery basin.

15.1.3. Climate and Geology of the Cauvery Basin

Cauvery basin experiences tropical climate. Here, the main climatic feature is the
monsoon rain. The north-east monsoon provides the greater portion of the annual
precipitation. The far north-western part of the drainage basin has a per-humid
climate which passes eastwards into humid, moist sub-humid, dry sub-humid and
semi-arid zones. The recorded maximum and minimum temperatures are 44  C and
18  C respectively. The basin experiences four distinct seasons, namely: south west
monsoon; north east monsoon; cool, dry winter; and hot, dry summer. These four
seasons fall from June to September, October to December, January to February,
and March to May respectively.

Rainfall
Over the basin, the highest rainfall is received along the western border of the
basin during the southwest monsoon. The eastern side of the basin gets most of
the rain during the northeast monsoon. Depressions in the Bay of Bengal affect the
basin in the monsoon, causing cyclones and widespread heavy rains. To observe
climatic variables, IMD has established 11 observatories in the basin and there are
352 raingauging stations in an d around the basin.

Geology
The geology of the drainage basin is predominantly formed from Precambrian rocks,
principally the Dharwars, Peninsular granitic Gneiss, Charnockites and the Closepet
Cauvery and Pennar Basins 711

Granite. The Dharwar metamorphics mainly comprise of phyllites, slates, schists

with chlorite, biotite, garnet, and hornblende. Accompanying these are greenstones
and quartzite. The Closepet Granite of the upper reaches of the Cauvery basin is
a pink granite consisting mainly of quartz, plagioclase, microcline, perthite, and
subordinate hornblende. Over the main basin, the peninsular granites and gneisses
comprising of biotite granitic gneiss, hornblende granitic gneiss are widely found.
The Charnockites are confined to the Nilgiri Range in the central part of the drainage
basin. These are represented by gabbros, olivine norites, and pyroxene. Cretaceous
sediments crop out in the coastal region and consist of conglomeratic sandstone,
coralline limestone, and shale.

15.1.4. Surface Water Resources

Water balance studies for 75%, 50%, 90% and 100% dependable flows
Patil (2004) has carried out sub-basin wise monthly water balance studies for
Cauvery basin, with and without considerations of ground water for a 75%
dependable year. The sub-basin wise water balance studies for 90%, 100% for water
deficit year and 50% water year dependable flows for water surplus year were also
carried out.
The sub-basin wise results of water balance are as follows.
i. Upper Cauvery Sub-basin: By comparing monthly water balances in the Upper
Cauvery sub-basin, it is found that the months of July and May are surplus and
months of September, December and February are water deficit in terms of the
water needs in the sub-basin, with the consideration of ground water availability.
The maximum surplus of water is 704 Mm3 which occurs in the month of July
for the 75% dependable flow and the maximum water deficit of 291 Mm3 occurs
in the month of August for the 100% water year dependable flow considering
ground water availability. The amount of annual surplus and annual deficit water
has decreased from 3 940 Mm3 and 286 Mm3 to −262 Mm3 and −1 935 Mm3 in
the sub-basin with the ground water availability for 50%, 75% 90% and 100%
water year dependable flows, respectively.
ii. Kabini Sub-basin: In the Kabini sub-basin, months of June, October and May
have surplus water in comparison to the water needs in the sub-basin, with the
consideration of ground water and the months of December, January, February and
March are water deficit. The maximum water surplus is 446 Mm3 in the month of
May for 100% dependable flow and the maximum water deficit is 203 Mm3 in the
month of January for 75% dependable flow. The sub-basin faces water shortage in
the month of August.
iii. Shimsha Sub-basin: In the Shimsha sub-basin, in most months, water availability
is in excess than water requirements; very few months are deficit in water if the
ground water availability is considered. The maximum water surplus of 372 Mm3 is
in the month of October for 50% water year dependable flow and maximum water
deficit of 4 Mm3 is in the month of April for 100% water year dependable flow
with the ground water availability considerations.
712 Chapter 15

iv. Arkavathi Sub-basin: In the Arkavathi sub-basin, in all the months there is deficit
in the water availability in comparison to the water needs, with the consideration
of ground water availability. For 90% water year dependable flow, the maximum
water deficit of 226 Mm3 occurs in the month of September.
The amount of annual water deficit in the sub-basin is 594 Mm3 , 713 Mm3 , and
796 Mm3 with the ground water availability for 50%, 75%, and 90% water year
dependable flows, respectively.
v. Middle Cauvery Sub-basin: In the Middle Cauvery sub-basin, the months of June
and May are deficit in the water availability in comparison to the water needs, and
other months have surplus in the water availability. The maximum water surplus of
58 Mm3 occurs in the month of September for 50% water year dependable flow.
The amount of annual surplus water is 331 Mm3 , 269 Mm3 , 215 Mm3 and
128 Mm3 in the sub-basin with the ground water availability for 50%, 75%, 90%
and 100% water year dependable flows, respectively.
vi. Suvarnavathi Sub-basin: In the Suvarnavathi sub-basin, the months of September,
October and November are surplus for 75% and 50% water year dependable flows.
In the other months, there is a deficit in the water availability in comparison to the
water needs. The maximum water surplus of 19 Mm3 is in the month of October
in 50% water year dependable flow and for 90% and 100% water year dependable
flows, sub basin has water deficit throughout the year.
vii. Palar Sub Basin: The months of November to May have deficit in the water
availability in the Palar sub-basin, with the consideration of ground water avail-
ability. The maximum water surplus of 29 Mm3 is found in the month of September
in 50% water year dependable flow and maximum water deficit of 18 Mm3 is in
the month of August in 100% water year dependable flow. In the month of August,
the sub-basin becomes water deficit in 90% and 100% water year dependable flow
from water surplus in 75% and 50% water year dependable flows.
viii. Chinnar Sub-basin: In the Chinnar sub-basin, all the months are deficit in
the water availability, with the consideration of ground water availability. The
maximum water deficit of 5 294 Mm3 is in the month October in 50% water
year dependable flow. The amount of annual water deficit in the sub-basin is
−15 787 Mm3 , −12 932 Mm3 , −13 012 Mm3 and −13 155 Mm3 with the ground
water availability for 50%, 75%, 90% and 100% water year dependable flows,
respectively.
ix. Bhavani Sub-basin: In the Bhavani sub-basin, the months of October, November
and December are surplus and the months of June, August, February, March and
April are deficit in the water availability, with the consideration of ground water
availability. The maximum water surplus, 157 Mm3 is in the month of October in
50% water year dependable flow and maximum water deficit of 144 Mm3 occurs
in the month of August in 100% water year dependable flow with the ground water
availability considerations.
The annual surplus has decreased and turned to annual deficit from 239 Mm3 to
−247 Mm3 , −652 Mm3 and −947 Mm3 in the sub-basin with the ground water avail-
ability for 50%, 75%, 90% and 100% water year dependable flows, respectively.
Cauvery and Pennar Basins 713

x. Noyil sub-basin: In the Noyil sub-basin, the months of October, November and
December have surplus water while the months of June, July, August, September,
January, February, March, April and May are deficit in the water availability when
considering ground water availability. The maximum water surplus of 108 Mm3 is
in the month of October in 50% water year dependable flow and maximum water
deficit of 45 Mm3 is in the month of June in 50% water year dependable flow with
the ground water availability considerations:
The amount of annual deficit water is −40 Mm3 , −52 Mm3 and −64 Mm3 in the
sub-basin with the ground water availability for 75%, 90%, and 100% water year
dependable flows, respectively.
xi. Amaravathi sub-basin: In the Amaravathi sub-basin, the months of October and
November are surplus and the months of June, July, August, January, February,
March and April are deficit in the water availability, with the ground water avail-
ability consideration. The maximum water surplus of 195 Mm3 is noted in the month
of November in 50% water year dependable flow and maximum water deficit of
172 Mm3 is in the month of March in 50% water year dependable flow. In the
month of December, the sub-basin becomes water deficit in the event of 90% and
100% water year dependable flows from water surplus in 50% and 75% water year
dependable flows.
The amount of annual deficit water is −304 Mm3 , −454 Mm3 , −547 Mm3 and
−711 Mm3 in the sub-basin with the ground water availability for 50%, 75%, 90%
and 100% water year dependable flows, respectively.
xii. Tirumanimuttar Sub-basin: In the Tirumanimuttar sub-basin, the months of
October, November and December are surplus and other months are deficit in the
water availability, with the ground water availability consideration. The maximum
water surplus of 531 Mm3 is in the month of October for 50% water year
dependable flow and in the month of March, deficit is 82 Mm3 for 90% water year
dependable flow.
The amount of annual surplus water has decreased from 583 Mm3 to 219 Mm3 ,
76 Mm3 and 17 Mm3 in the sub-basin with the ground water availability for 50%,
75% 90% and 100% water year dependable flows, respectively.
xiii. Ponnanai Ar sub-basin: In the Ponnanai Ar sub-basin, all the months are
surplus in the water availability, with the consideration of ground water availability
except the months of April and May in 100% water year dependable flow. The
maximum water surplus 85 Mm3 is in the month of November in 50% water year
dependable flow, and maximum water deficit of 2 Mm3 is in the month of April in
100% dependable flow.
The amount of annual surplus water has decreased from 244 Mm3 to 217 Mm3 ,
157 Mm3 and 61 Mm3 in the sub-basin with the ground water availability for 50%,
75%, 90% and 100% water year dependable flows, respectively.
xiv. Upper Coleroon Sub-basin: In the Upper Coleroon sub-basin, the months of
October, November and December are surplus and the month of June, is deficit
in the water availability, with the ground water availability consideration. The
maximum water surplus of 192 Mm3 is observed in the month of November in 50%
714 Chapter 15

water year dependable flow and maximum water deficit of 37 Mm3 is in the month
of June in 100% water year dependable flow. In the month of August the sub-basin
becomes water deficit in 90% and 100% water year dependable flows from water
surplus in 50% and 75% year dependable flows.
xv. Lower Coleroon Sub-basin: In the Lower Coleroon sub-basin, there is no shortage
of water in comparison to the water needs in any month. The maximum water surplus
is 102 Mm3 in month of September in 50% water year dependable flow.
xvi. Cauvery Delta Sub-basin: In the Cauvery Delta sub-basin also there is no
deficit in the water availability in comparison to the needs, with the ground water
availability consideration, except in the month of May in 90% and 100% dependable
water years. The maximum water surplus 192 Mm3 is in the month of September
in 50% water year dependable flow.

15.1.5. Ground Water Potential

The Sub basin wise ground water potential of the Cauvery Basin is presented
in Table 5.
It can be noticed from the table that total replenishable ground water resources
of the basin are 10,357 MCM. With a net draft on 4,937 MCM, about 3,866
MCM of the resource is available for future use. Among the sub-basins, Noyil and
Suvarnavathi have the smallest quantity of ground water left for future use.

Table 5. Sub basin wise ground water potential at Cauvery River Basin in India

Name of the Sub Ground Water (Mm3 )

basin
Total Provision for Available Net draft Balance for
replenishable domestic & resource for future use
resource industrial use irrigation
@15%

Upper Cauvery 7775 1166 6608 823 5785

Kabini 7153 1073 6080 2216 3864
Shimsha 9297 1395 7903 2843 6060
Arkavathi 4235 635 360 2565 1035
Middle Cauvery 2869 430 2438 382 2056
Suvarnavathi 1692 254 1438 799 639
Palar 3415 512 2903 1506 1397
Chinnar 5116 767 4349 2573 1776
Bhavani 6673 1001 5672 3795 1877
Noyil 4064 610 3454 2912 542
Amaravathi 1 0487 1573 8914 5833 3080
Tirumanimuttar 16352 2453 1 3899 1 0399 3501
Ponnanai Ar 4349 652 3697 1622 2074
Upper Coleroon 6188 928 5260 2734 2526
Lower Coleroon 4089 613 3475 2269 1206
Cauvery Delta 9810 1472 8339 6093 2246
Total Cauvery 10 3565 1 5535 8 803 4 9365 3 8665
Cauvery and Pennar Basins 715

15.1.6. Major Water Resources Development Projects in the Basin

The utilization, area irrigated and districts benefited by the completed major &
medium projects are given in Table 6. Description of selected major projects follows.

Krishnarajasagar dam
This is an existing major multipurpose project on Cauvery in Karnataka State. The
latitude and longitude of the dam are 12 25 30 N and 76 34 30 E. It is located
about 19.3 km from Mysore City near Kannambadi village, Srirangapatna Taluk,
and district Mandya. The dam is situated below the confluence of the Cauvery
River with two of its main tributaries, the Hemavathy and the Lakshmanathirtha.
The catchment area of the dam is 10,619 km2 . The flow of the river at the site of
the dam fluctuates from a normal high flood of 2,832 cumec during the monsoon
season, to less than 3 cumec during the summer. The highest flood in the river
which occurred in the year 1924 was 10,787 cumec.
KRS dam is a 2,620 m long gravity dam of stone masonry in surki mortar. The
length of the dam at the top is 2621 m. There is no overflow spillway. The floods
are disposed off through 152 sluice gates situated at different elevation in the
body of the dam. Height of the dam above the bed level is 39.8 M. The reservoir
formed by the dam has a gross and live storage capacity of 1,368.847 Mm3 and
1,244.21 Mm3 respectively. The water spread area of the reservoir at full reservoir
level is 129 km2 . The reservoir fills during June to September period and supplies
water during October to May period. The length of left bank canal is 45.92 km and
the length of right bank canal is 32 km. The irrigation demand from the dam is
1 325 Mm3 . Some other salient features of the project are given in Table 7. A View
of KRS dam is shown in Figure 3.

Table 6. Utilization, area irrigated by completed major and medium projects in Cauvery basin

S. N. Name of the project Year of Utilization in Irrigation in Districts

completion Mm3 Mm2 benefited

Major Projects
1 Krishnaraja Sagar 1944 1 73257 79312 Mandya,
Mysore
2. Nugu 1959 21799 10526 Mysore
Medium Projects
1 Byramangala 1945 2831 1619 Bangalore
2. Chikkahole 1969 1982 1650 Mysore
3. Gundal 1980 3963 4048 Mysore
4. Hebbala (H.D. KOTE) 1972 1132 1214 Mysore
5. Kanwa 1946 3397 2076 Bangalore
6. Mangala 1970 1699 850 Tumkur
7. Marconahalli 1941 11324 4560 Tumkur
8. Nallur Amanikere 1987 849 1300 Mysore
9. Suvarnavathy 1984 10192 3300 Tumkur
716 Chapter 15

Table 7. Salient features of KRS Project

Design yield 5 351 Mm3 at 50% dependability

Full reservoir level (FRL) 38.04 m
Minimum drawdown level (MDDL) 22.56 m
Dead storage level 18.29 m
Sill level of canal sluices
a) Right Bank low level Canal Sluice 18.29 m
b) Left Bank low level Canal Sluice 18.29 m
c) Sill level of river sluice 3.657 m
Length of Dam 2,620.365 m
Height of Dam 39.867 m above river bed level
Maximum release capacity 9,794 cumec through sluice gates

The credit to construct this project goes to the eminent engineer of India,
Dr. M. Visweswaraiah. In recognition to his services to the nation,
Dr. Visweswaraiah’s birthday, September 15, is celebrated as engineer’s day in
India. The project was commenced during the year 1911 and commissioned during
1932. The expenditure incurred on the project was Rs. 91 billion. An area of
10,785 ha of culturable land and 25 villages were submerged due to this project. The
reservoir is named after the late Sri Krishna Raja Wadiyar in whose illustrious reign
its construction was undertaken. KRS was constructed with the twin objectives:
1. To ensure a steady supply of water for generating Hydro-Electric Power at
Sivasamudram.
2. To supply water for irrigation of about 48,563 ha of land situated in the arid
tracts of Mandya district.
Three canals take off from the dam. The main canal is the 44.8 km long left bank
high level canal, named as Visweswaraiah canal after the well known engineer

Figure 3. A view of KRS dam

Cauvery and Pennar Basins 717

Dr. M. Visvesvaraiah. This canal has a capacity of 67.5 cumec and provides
irrigation to 77,806 ha. The two low level canals have much smaller capacities. The
32 km long low level right bank canal, also known as Varuna canal, has a capacity
of 7 cumec and provides irrigation to 1,534 ha. The low level left bank canal is
21 km long, has a capacity of 1.42 cumec and irrigation potential of 151 ha. The
dam also provides flood control.
In addition to the main benefit of providing reservoir backed assured irrigation
to a large area, a notable feature associated with KRS is the Vrindavan gardens.
This is an exquisite garden located just below the KRS dam, and has a beautiful
biological park, and a number of fountains run from the hydraulic head generated
by the dam. The KRS dam supplies water for the upkeep of the garden which is a
major tourist attraction of South India. A view of Vrindavan garden of Mysore is
shown in Figure 4.

Mettur dam (Stanley reservoir)

The flow in Cauvery is mainly dependent on the south-west monsoon which influ-
ences large parts of its upstream catchment in Karnataka and Kerala, in the months
of July and August. It was seen that the flow in the river after the south-west
monsoon receded, was not sufficient to support the agriculture in the Cauvery delta.
The north east monsoon was less dependable and failed frequently, with the result
that the delta irrigation suffered badly, often just at the time when the crops were
in the maturing stage.
Mettur dam is a remarkable project. Situated at 11 49 N latitude, it is located at
52 km from Salem, in Salem District, Tamil Nadu, 270 km downstream of the KRS
and just downstream of the Karnataka-Tamil Nadu border where the river emerges
from the Eastern Ghats. Situated at an elevation of 243 m, it is a 85 m long masonry
dam and a 1,615 m long earth dam section, the maximum height of the dam being

Figure 4. Vrindavan garden of Mysore. This place is a major tourist attraction of South India
718 Chapter 15

70.4 m. Rising above the Cauvery River bed, the dam is constructed across two
hills of the Eastern Ghats. Mettur reservoir has catchment area of 42,217 km2 , a live
storage capacity of 2.65 BCM. At FRL 241 m, the water spread area is 153.5 sq.
km and its MDDL is at 219 m.
In the present form, Mettur Reservoir was formulated by Col. Ellis in 1910.
Construction began in July 1925 and was completed by 1934. The Mettur Reservoir
is also called Stanley reservoir; it got this name after Sir George Frederick Stanley,
the then Governor of Madras, who inaugurated the project. At the time of its
construction, Mettur was the highest masonry dam in Asia and the largest in the
world. It was planned to store the high flows during the south-west monsoon and
distribute them evenly throughout the irrigation period, thus firming up the irrigation
provided by Grand anicut canals. It is a landmark project that has helped stabilize
irrigation in the Cauvery delta area and has yielded consistent benefits for the past
75 years. This project has helped stabilize existing irrigation in 1.665 M-ha of area
and has extended irrigation to 121,810 ha of new area. Constructed primarily to
stabilize irrigation in Thanjavur delta, the dam caters to about one third of the
irrigated area of Tamil Nadu besides generating hydroelectric power of 200 MW
(4 units of 50 MW each). Stanley is the largest reservoir in Tamil Nadu.
In the reservoir, the highest and lowest water temperatures recorded are 32  C (in
May) and 242  C in (January), respectively. Dissolved oxygen in the surface layer
in most of the months is above 4 mg/l with the maximum supersaturated conditions
at the surface are accompanied by a depletion of oxygen in the hypolimnion. The
water is alkaline, the pH values range between 7.5 to 8.8. Total hardness as CaCO3
varies in a range of 86–128 mg/l suggesting the lake as a hard water one.
Even during the winter season, air temperature in this part of the country does not
drop below 15  C, keeping the water relatively warm. With the onset of summer, when
the top layer warms up, there is no cool water below to offer any thermal resistance.
Moreover, the release of cooler water from the bottom layer through the outlets of the
dam removes any disparity in temperature between the top and bottom layers.
Lower Mettur Power Houses I/II/III/IV: In this system, there are 4 power houses,
namely Lower Mettur Power House I, II, III, and Lower Mettur Power House IV.
The power house I is located at Chekkanur Reservoir, 10 km downstream from
Mettur dam. Power house II is located at Nerunjipettai Reservoir, 20 km downstream
from Mettur dam. Power house III is located at Koneripatti Reservoir, 16 km down
stream from Bhavani dam, and power house IV is located at Urachikottar Reservoir,
5 km downstream from Bhavani dam. These power houses are located on Cauvery
River in Erode District, Tamil Nadu. The lengths of the dams are 948 m, 1,478 m,
710 m and 1,085 m respectively. All the four power houses have 2 units of 15 MW
each, producing a firm power of 46 MW.

Grand anicut
An anicut (a kind of small barrage) known as the Grand Anicut was constructed
across Cauvery River by the kings of Chola dynasty some 2,000 years ago, mainly
to provide irrigation to large areas in Thanjavur district. With some minor changes,
Cauvery and Pennar Basins 719

the Grand anicut is still in use and is one of the oldest in-use irrigation struc-
tures in the world that have been successfully serving their purposes; this one
meeting the requirements of Cauvery delta area in Tamil Nadu. The Grand Anicut
is located downstream of Mettur reservoir. The irrigation demand from the anicut
is 9 670 Mm3 .

Nugu reservoir
This reservoir is located near Beerwal village, H.D. Kote Taluk, Mysore District
in Kabini sub-basin. The longitude of the dam is 76 27 00 and the latitude is
11 58 15 . At the dam site, the catchment area is 984 sq. km. Nugu is an earthen
dam on right side with central masonry spillway. Table 8 gives the salient features
of the Nugu Reservoir Project. A view of Nugu dam is shown in Figure 5.

Kundah I
Kundah I hydropower project is located at Avalanchi and Emerald masonry gravity
dam, on Avalanchi and Emerald streams, 32 km from Udhagamandalam, in Nilgiris
District, Tamil Nadu. The catchment area at the dam is 585 km2 . The height and

Table 8. Salient features of Nugu Reservoir Project

Design yield 28328 Mm3

Storage
(i) Gross 15410 Mm3
(ii) Dead 1550 Mm3
(iii) Live 1386 Mm3
Full Reservoir level (FRL) R.L. 725.42 m
Minimum draw down level (MDDL) RL 709.57 m
Dead storage level, sill level of canal sluice 707.14 m
Height of dam above river bed level. 35.8 m
Capacity of spillway 566 cumec (2 vertical gates of
9144 m × 61 m)
Halsoor Anicut
Location Near Halsoor village, 2 km downstream of
the dam
Sub-basin/Taluk/District Kabini/H.D.Kote Taluk/Mysore.
Length of weir 63.5 m
Discharging capacity of weir 849 cumec
Capacity of Head Regulator
1) Nugu Right Bank Canal 4.25 Cumec
2) Nugu Left Bank Canal 1.98 Cumec
Minimum pond level RL 693.27 m (Crest level of Anicut)
Description of Canals: (Main Canal)
Length of RBC (in km) Nugu High Level Canal
101.5 km (87 km up to
Narasambudi tank), 14.5 km
beyond.
Authorized Head Capacity 18.85 Cumec
720 Chapter 15

Figure 5. Nugu dam in Cauvery basin

length of the dam is 57 m and 366 m respectively. At FRL 1,985.7 m, the reservoir
has a live storage capacity of 154 MCM; the MDDL of the dam is at 1,943.1 m.
Mean annual inflow to the reservoir is 108.2 MCM. The powerhouse has 3 units of
20 MW each to produce a firm power of 27.5 MW.

Kundah II
Kundah II hydropower project is located at Kundah Palam gravity dam constructed
across Kundah River, 52 km from Udhagamandalam, in Nilgiris District, Tamil
Nadu. The catchment area at this 32 m high dam is 11396 km2 . The reservoir has
a live storage capacity of 0.849 MCM; its FRL is at 1,624.6 m and the MDDL is
at 1,609.34 m. Five units of 35 MW each have been installed at the powerhouse to
produce a firm power of 63.5 MW.

Kundah III
Kundah III hydropower project is located at Pegumbahallah Forebay dam and
Nirallapallam diversion weir, on Pegumbahallah Nirallapallam River, 77 km from
Coimbatore, in Nilgiris District, Tamil Nadu. The catchment area at the Pegum-
bahallah dam is 4144 km2 . The height of the Pegumbahallah dam is 55.5 m. The
Pegumbahallah reservoir has a live storage capacity of 0.679 MCM at FRL 869 m;
the MDDL is at 835 m. Power is generated by 3 units of 60 MW each yielding a
firm power of 37 MW.

Kundah IV
Kundah IV hydropower project is located on Pillur dam on Bhavani River, 85 km
from Coimbatore, in Nilgiris District, Tamil Nadu. The 88 m high dam has a
catchment area of 1 191 km2 ; the dam is 357 m long and the mean annual flow to
Cauvery and Pennar Basins 721

the dam is 685 MCM. The reservoir has a live storage capacity of 28 MCM at FRL
427 m and the MDDL is at 396 m. The power house has 2 units of 50 MW each. It
has a firm power of 10 MW.

Harangi dam
The Harangi dam is located in the Upper Cauvery sub-basin near Hudgur village
in Somwarpet Taluk of District Coorg. The latitude of the dam is 12 29 30 N
and longitude is 75 54 20 E. At the dam site, the catchment area is 419.58 sq. km.
Harangi is a masonry dam with central spillway and non-overflow section and there
are earthen dams on either flank. Length of the dam is 845.8 m. Table 9 gives the
salient features of the Harangi dam. A view of Harangi dam is shown in Figure 6.

Hemavathi reservoir
The Hemavathi reservoir is located on Hemavathi River near Gorur village in Taluk
and district Hassan in the Upper Cauvery sub-basin. The latitude of the dam is
12 45 0 N and the longitude is 76 03 0 E. At the dam site, the catchment area
is 2810 sq. km. It is a masonry dam with central spillway and earthen flanks on
either bank. Table 10 gives the salient features of the Hemavathi project. A view
of Hemavathi dam is shown in Figure 7.

Kabini reservoir project

The Kabini dam was constructed on the river with the same name in the Kabini
sub-basin near village Beechanahally in Mysore district. The latitude and longitude

Table 9. Salient features of Harangi dam

Design yield at 50% dependability (in TMC) 1 11307 Mm3

Storage (in TMC)
i) Gross 24074 Mm3
ii) Dead 121 Mm3
iii) Live 22865 Mm3
Levels of Storage
i) Full Reservoir Level (FRL) RL 871.42 m
ii) Minimum drawn down level (MDDL) RL 850 m
iii) Dead Storage Level RL 849.78 m
Height of Dam above River bed level 50 m
Length of Spillway 67 m
Capacity of spillway 3,400 cumec
Description of Canals
Length of Left Bank Canal (in km) 153
Length of Right Bank Canal (in km) 137.50
Length of Lift Canal (in km) 50
Length of Branch canals under Right Bank canal (km) 103.5
Authorized Head Capacity of Left Bank Canal (at head up to 11.28 km) 55.35 cumec
Right Bank Canal (off take 11.28 km of Left Bank Canal) 42.45 cumec
722 Chapter 15

Figure 6. A view of Harangi dam

Table 10. Salient features of the Hemavathi project

Designed yield 2 22857 Mm3 (at 50% dependability)

Storage
i) Gross 1 05083 Mm3
ii) Dead 3804 Mm3
iii) Live 1 0128 Mm3
Reservoir evaporation losses 9913 Mm3
Particulars of Dam
Length 4,692 m
Height above river bed level 44.5 m
Length of spillway 91.44 m with 6 radial gates of sizes
1067 m × 9144 m each.
Capacity of spillway 3,622.4 cumec
Description of Canals
i) Length of Hemavathi Left Bank Canal 214 km (it is two seasonal canal)
ii) Hemavathi Right Bank Canal 91 km (One Seasonal)
iii) Hemavathi Right Bank High 106 km (One Seasonal)
Level Canal
iv) Length of Branch Canal under Hemavathi
Left Bank Canal
a) Tumkur Branch Canal 240 km
b) Nagamangala Branch Canal 78.5 km
Authorized Head Capacity
i) Hemavathi Left Bank Canal 113.2 cumec
a) Tumkur Branch Canal 40.44 cumec
b) Nagamangala Branch Canal 24.34 cumec
ii) Hemavathi Right Bank Canal 9.34 cumec
iii) Hemavathi Right Bank High 25.67cumec
Level Canal
Cauvery and Pennar Basins 723

Figure 7. A view of Hemavathi dam

of the dam are 11 50 30 N and 76 20 17 E. At the dam site, catchment area is
2,141.90 sq. km. Salient features of the project are given in Table 11. A view of
Kabini dam is shown in Figure 8.

15.1.7. Ongoing and Other Projects

The utilization, area irrigated and expenditure under ongoing major & medium
projects are given in Table 12.
In addition to the above there are several other reservoirs in the basin. Storage
capacities of the other large Completed and under construction projects having a
storage capacities of 10 Million cubic meter or more is summarized below as Table
no. 13 and 14 respectively.

Table 11. Salient features of the Kabini Reservoir Project

Design yield 2 76706 Mm3 (at 50% dependability)

Storage
i) Gross 55285 Mm3
ii) Dead 997 Mm3
iii) Live 45315 Mm3
iv) Sill level of Right and Left Bank canal sluice 685.50 m
v) Sill level of river sluice 676.35 m
Designed Silt charge per year 283 m3 /sq. km of catchment area
Ayacut (in acres)
i) Left Bank flow canal 1214 Mm2
ii) Left Bank lift canal –
iii) Right Bank flow Canal 44516 Mm2
iv) Right Bank lift Canal 4217 Mm2
724 Chapter 15

Figure 8. A view of Kabini dam

15.1.8. Water Quality Aspects

Several studies were made by the Central Pollution Control Board to ascertain
the status of water quality in the Cauvery River. The results show that at many
places, the quality of water was quite poor compared to what was the desired class.
The summary results of the analysis at various locations in Cauvery River from
1997–2001 is given in Table 15.

Table 12. Utilization, area irrigated and benefits under completed medium projects in the Cauvery basin

S. N. Project Year of Benefitted Utilization Benefitted

commencement area (in ha) (In TMC) Taluk/district

Medium Projects
1 Arkavathy 1975 6,232 314 Kanakapura
2 Chicklihole 1978 865 111 Somwarpet
3 Huchannakoplu 1991 3,360 056 Holenarsipura/Hassan
L.I.S
4 Iggalur 1979 4,047 510 Channapatna,
Maddur, Malavalli
5 Kamasamudra 1985 3,916 080 Holenarsipura/Hassan
L.I.S
6 Manchanabele 1970 2,433 Magadi & Ramanagar
7 Taraka 1970 7,040 384 H.D. Kote
8 Uduthorehalla 1978 6,597 123 Kollegal
9 Votehole 1977 7,487 240 Alur, Belur/Hassan
Cauvery and Pennar Basins 725

Table 13. List of the Completed projects in Cauvery Basin

Name of the Project State Year of Gross Live storage Designed Installed
completion storage capacity Annual capacity
capacity (MCM) Irrigation (MW)
(MCM) (Million
m2 )

Anjanapura Dam Karnataka 1938 3976 2000 6740 –

Byramamgala Karnataka 1945 2115 1904 1620 –
Chamaraja Sagar Karnataka 1933 8965 8605 – –
Chilkole Karnataka 1967 – 1053 1610 –
Gundal Karnataka 1974 2742 2300 4250 –
Hebbahalla Karnataka 1963 1195 1080 1210 –
Kanva Karnataka 1946 2273 2145 2020 –
Macromahalli Karnataka 1941 6800 6000 6070 –
Moti Talab Karnataka – 2190 1642 – –
Suvarnavathy Karnataka 1975 – 3560 2830 –
Amaravathy Tamil Nadu 1958 11461 11237 8700 20
Avalanche & Emerald Tamil Nadu 1960 15620 15280 – 70
Dam
Chinnar Tamil Nadu 1977 1415 1398 760 –
Lower Bhawani Tamil Nadu 1955 92880 90780 83770 34
Manalar Tamil Nadu 1978 1358 1255 – –
Makurthy Dam Tamil Nadu 1938 5098 5071 – –
Palar Porandalar Tamil Nadu 1978 – 4319 4080 –
Parsons Valley Tamil Nadu 1966 1925 1719 – 12
Pillur Dam Tamil Nadu 1966 4440 3497 – 25
Porthinund Dam Tamil Nadu 1966 6000 4573 – –
Pykara Tamil Nadu 1935 5680 5522 – 17
Sandyanalla Dam Tamil Nadu 1963 2662 2311 – –
Upper Bhavani Tamil Nadu 1965 10120 8520 – 16
Upper Dam Tamil Nadu 1968 1631 1492 2450 –

Table 14. List of the Under Construction projects in Cauvery Basin

Storage capacity Designed annual Installed

Name of the Project State
(MCM) irrigation (million capacity
Gross Live sq. m) (MW)

Arkavathy Karnataka 44.90 40.18 62.30 –

Manchanable Karnataka 35.66 28.87 38.50 –
Taraka Karnataka 112.00 82.00 89.00 –
Uduthorehalla Karnataka 21.20 16.24 66.00 –
Votehole Reservoir Karnataka 42.76 36.68 74.90 –
Karapuza Kerala 76.50 72.00 93.00 –
Kuttiyadi Kerala 120.70 113.00 360.00 75
Kodaganar Tamil Nadu – 12.30 41.20 –
Noyyal Orathupalayam Tamil Nadu – 17.45 42.00 –
726 Chapter 15

Table 15. Desired and existing water quality levels for Cauvery

Location Desired Observed class & critical parameters

class
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Cauvery at Napokulu A C C C C C
Bdg (D/S), Karnataka Totcoli pH, Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Totcoli
Cauvery at Kushal A C C C C C
Nagar U/S (Near Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Baichanahalli),
Karnataka
Cauvery at KRS Dam, C A B D C B
Balamurikshetra, BOD
Karnataka
Cauvery at Sri B NA D D C C
Rangapattanna, D/S of BOD BOD Totcoli Totcoli
Road Bdg., Karnataka
Cauvery at D/S of C C C C C C
Karekuara Village,
Karnataka
Cauvery at C A D D C B
Sathyagalam Bridge, BOD BOD
Karnataka
Cauvery at Mettur, C D C B C B
Tamil Nadu DO,
Totcoli
Cauvery at 1km. D/S of D D D C C
Bhavani River Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
confluence Tamil Nadu
Cauvery at C D D C C C
Pallippalayam, Totcoli Totcoli
Tamil Nadu
Cauvery At Erode near D D Totcoli D C C
Chirapalayam, Totcoli Totcoli
Tamil Nadu
Cauvery at Velore Near D C B C B
Kattipalayam, Totcoli
Tamil Nadu
Cauvery at Mohanur C C B B B
near Pattaipalayam,
Tamil Nadu
Cauvery at C C C C B
Thirumukkudal-
Confluence Point of R.
Amravati, Tamil Nadu
Cauvery at Musiri, C C C C C C
Tamil Nadu
Cauvery at B D D D C D
Tiruchirappalli U/S, DO, BOD, Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Tamil Nadu BOD, Totcoli
Totcoli
Cauvery and Pennar Basins 727

Cauvery at B D C C C C
Tiruchirappalli D/S, Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Tamil Nadu
Cauvery at Trichy, B C C C NA C
Grand Anicut, Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli Totcoli
Tamil Nadu
Cauvery at Thanjavur, C C NA NA C B
Tamil Nadu
Cauvery at Coleroon, C C D C C
Tamil Nadu Totcoli
Cauvery at C C D D Totcoli E DO
Pitchavaram, Totcoli
Tamil Nadu
∗
NA- Not Available. Source: Central Pollution control Board.

15.2. THE PENNAR BASIN

The Pennar basin extends over an area of 55,213 sq. km which is nearly 1.7% of the
total geographical area of the country. Out of the total area of the basin, 6 937 km2
lies in Karnataka and 48 276 km2 in Andhra Pradesh. The basin lies between east
longitudes of 77 04 and 80 10 and north latitudes of 13 16 and 15 52 . It is
bounded on the north by the Erramala range, on the east by the Nallamala and
Velikonda ranges of the Eastern Ghats, on the south by the Nandidurg hills and on
the west by the narrow ridge separating it from the Vedavati valley of the Krishna
basin. The basin lies in the States of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. An index map
of the entire basin showing various sub-basins is given in Figure 9. The statewise
distribution of drainage area is given in Table 16.

15.2.1. The Pennar River

The Pennar or the Uttara Pinakini is one of the major rivers of Indian peninsula
flowing east and draining into Bay of Bengal. It is the next largest river to Cauvery
in the Peninsula. Pennar River is locally known as Penneru; it is also called ‘Henne’
which means Penna in Telugu language. The name Pinakini is associated with
‘Pinaka’ the bow of Siva or Nandeeswara, the presiding deity of Nandi hills, the
place of origin of the river.
Pennar rises at east longitudes of 77 36 and north latitudes of 13 33 in the Chenna
Kesava mountain range in the state of Karnataka. After flowing in north western
direction for a distance of 48 km through the Kolar and Tumkur districts of Karnataka,
the river enters Andhra Pradesh in the Anantpur district. At 115th km, the river re-
enters Pavagada taluk of Karnataka and at 128th km again, it enters Kalynadurg taluk of
Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh. At its 336th km, the river forces its way through
Gandikota gorge, one of the magnificent gorges in the world. The river emerges from
Velikonda range of Eastern ghats at its 467th km and enters the plains below Somasila.
After traversing for a distance of 597th km, the river joins the Bay of Bengal. The basin
728 Chapter 15

Figure 9. Index map of Pennar Basin

of Pennar River lies between latitudes 13 16 and 15 52 and longitudes 77 4 E and
80 10 E. The major tributaries of the river are the Jayamangali, the Kunderu, the
Sagileru, the Chitravathi, the Papangi, and the Cheyyeru.
Two of its tributaries, Kumudavali and Jayamangali, join it in its 69th and 82nd
kilometer from its source, respectively. After traversing 67 km through Anantpur
district in Andhra Pradesh, Pennar re-enters Karnataka and flows across the Tumkur
district for about 13 km to emerge in the Anantpur district again. Beyond the
confluence of the Jayamangali, the river runs almost northwards for a distance
of 146 km passing through the plains. Further, the river diverts in the east near
Ponnahobalam and flows through the Marutia and Katrimala reserve forest ranges.
The river Chitravadi, a major tributary, falls into the Pennar on its right at the
336th km from the source. Further, two major tributaries, the Kunderu and the
Papagni, meet with Pennar near Kamalpuram. The river continues to flow in a
South-easterly direction, cuts across the Nallamala hill range and passes through
the town of Siddhavattam. After receiving the Sagileru it turns eastwards and near
Boyanapalli, it is joined by the Cheyyaru flowing from the right. The river finally

Table 16. Statewise drainage areas of Pennar basin

State Drainage area km2  Percentage of basin area

Andhra Pradesh 48 276 1260

Karnataka 6 937 8740
Total 55 213 10000
Cauvery and Pennar Basins 729

falls into Bay of Bengal. The length of the river is 597 km, of which about 61 km
is in Karnataka and remaining 536 km in Andhra Pradesh. It is estimated that the
total sediment load transported by Pennar into the Bay of Bengal is 69 × 106 ton.
Flow Diagram of Pennar Basin is given in Figure 10.

15.2.2. Climate of Pennar Basin

The catchment receives rainfall both during the south-west and north-east monsoons.
The rainfall during the non-monsoon period is not significant. The north-east
monsoon [October through January] provides a little precipitation but the predom-
inant rain falls when the southwest monsoon [June through September] occurs. Post
monsoon cyclonic activity in the Bay of Bengal during September and October
produces an increased rainfall in the coastal region. The mean annual rainfall within
the drainage basin varies from about 550 mm around Anantapur area to 900 mm
around Nellore.
From the temperature records, it is seen that the mean maximum daily temperature
varies from 403  C observed at Cuddapah to 347  C observed at Arogyavaram and

Source

74 Jayamangali

Chitravati 314

433 Kunderu

Papagni 356

192 Sagileru

Cheyyeru 466

Nellore ♦ 3,238

Pennar River

Sea

Figure 10. Flow Diagram of Pennar Basin

730 Chapter 15

the mean minimum daily temperature varies from 20  C observed at Nellore to 153  C
observed at Arogyavaram. In general, humidity is high during the monsoon period
and moderate during non-monsoon period. The relative humidity in the catchment of
Pennar ranges from 21 to 84 percent. The mean monthly maximum and minimum
temperatures at Nellore hydro-meteorological station are given in Table 17.
Winds are generally light to moderate with some strengthening in the monsoon
season. The catchment is influenced by winds from south-west and north-west
during the period from May to September and from north-east and south-east during
the period from October to April. The wind speed in the catchment varies from 4.3
to 3 km/hr.

Geology
The geology of the drainage basin is predominantly formed from Archean rocks,
principally granitic intrustives into metamorphic schists. The Archeans in this
region comprise biotite and hornblende granite-gneisses, granodiorite, diorite, and
pegmatite. Of secondary importance are the Dhawar metamorphics comprising of
phyllites, slates, schists with chlorite, biotite, garnet, staurolite, kyanite, silllimanite
and hornblende. In the central part of the basin, the dominant rocks belong to
the Cuddapah and Kurnool groups consisting of conglomerates, sandstones, shales,
dolomites, limestones and cherts. These are intruded by doloritic and basaltic
igneous materials in many places. In the coastal regions major sediments are laterites
and recent alluvium.

Soils
The important soil types found in the basin are red soil, black soil, sandy soil and
mixed soil. The culturable area of the basin is about 3.54 M-ha which is about 1.8%
of the culturable area of the country.

Table 17. Monthly Temperature Data of Nellore

Mean Temperature in  C
Month
Maximum Minimum

January 296 187

February 319 210
March 346 228
April 374 253
May 401 277
June 386 280
July 361 267
August 356 263
September 348 257
October 326 244
November 296 222
December 287 202
Cauvery and Pennar Basins 731

15.2.3. Sub-Basins of Pennar Basin

The Pennar basin can be divided in three sub-basins, namely the Upper Pennar, the
Middle Pennar, and the Lower Pennar. The areas of various sub-basins are given
in Table 18.

15.2.4. Upper Pennar Sub-Basin

The upper Pennar sub-basin includes the area of the basin from the source to the
confluence with Chitravati River and it also includes the catchment of Jayamangli
River. The length of Pennar River in this sub-basin is 336 km and the catchment
area is 19 700 km2 . This sub-basin occupies 35.7% of the total basin area. Out of
this, the area in Andhra Pradesh is 14,666 and it is 5 034 km2 in Karnataka.

Topography, physiography, and other features

More than 10% of the area of this sub-basin lies in hilly and dense forested area.
The principal mountain chains are mainly Durga ranges, the Nagasamundra hills,
and the Mutsukota hills. The highest peak with an elevation of 1,148 m is located in
Pavagada taluk of Karnataka. There are many long bridges and a number of small
streams. The sub-basin is nearly rectangular in shape; the western and northern
boundary is the common ridge of Krishna and Pennar basins.
Most of the sub-basin is underlain by crystalline Archean rocks, Dharwar super
group, Cuddapah group of rocks belonging to Proterozic rocks age, and recent to
sub-recent soils and alluvium. Groundwater is present in almost all the geological
formations, the occurrence being mainly dependent upon the development of
secondary porosity through weathering and fracturing. The alluvium occurs in a
narrow patch along either side of the Pennar River and it comprises of sands of
various grades and clay mixed with Kankar.

Climate
The sub-basin experiences hot weather from mid February to the end of May. The
monsoon season begins in early June and lasts till the end of November and is
followed by winter season from December to mid February. This sub-basin receives
rainfall from south-west and north-east monsoons. The average annual rainfall
varies from 811 mm at Chikballapur to 448 mm at Chinnakottapalli. The rainfall
during the non-monsoon season is insignificant.

Table 18. Areas of various sub-basins under Pennar basin

Sub-basin Area in km2

Upper Pennar 19,700

Middle Pennar 16,953
Lower Pennar 18,583
732 Chapter 15

April and May are the hottest months in this sub-basin with the maximum
temperature nearing 384  C. The minimum temperature is observed in December
and January and it is 172  C. Maximum relative humidity observed during October
month is 76% and maximum wind velocity of 18.9 km/hour has been reported in
the month of July. Due to arid climate, evapotranspiration takes place at high rate:
it is nearly 200 mm at Anantpur during May.

Soils
The dominant soil groups in this sub-basin are red earth which are found in Anantpur
and Kurnool district and occupy nearly 53.5% of the sub-basin area. The other
important soils are black soils (16.5% of the area), red loamy soil (15.9% of the
area), and red sandy soil (9% of the area). Red earths are dark reddish brown to
brown in colour, deep to very deep and loamy sand to clay loam in texture. These
moderately well drained soils possess satisfactory water holding capacity and crops
like ragi, jowar, pulses and groundnut can be grown on these. The black soils are
dark brown to grayish brown in colour, deep to very deep and finer in texture.
These are overly-drained and have satisfactory water holding capacity. Red loamy
soils are dark brown to reddish brown in colour, deep to very deep and coarse to
medium in texture. These are well-drained and have poor water holding capacity.
The major crops are groundnut, pulses, ragi, rice and fruits and vegetables. Not
much year-to-year variation is observed in the culturable area in the sub-basin.

15.2.5. Middle Pennar Sub-Basin

This sub-basin lies between latitudes 13 24 to 15 52 N and longitudes 77 42 to
78 50 E. It covers an area of Pennar Basin from its confluence with the Chitravathi
River to its confluence with the Papagni River. The area of this part of catchment is
16,953 sq. km which is 30.5% of total basin area. Out of this area, 1,877 sq. km lies
within the Kolar district of Karnataka and the remaining 15,076 sq. km lies in the
Anantpur, Chittoor, Cuddapah, Kurnool and Prakasam districts of Andhra Pradesh.
The major tributaries of this sub-basin are Kundaru, Rageiu and Papagni rivers.

Topography
The shape of Middle Pennar sub-basin nearly resembles a parallelogram whose
length in North-South direction is about 260 km and width in the East-West direction
is about 65 km. About 41% of the area of this sub-basin lies in the Kurnool district
and about 31% in the Cuddapah district. These two districts covering nearly 72%
of the area are hilly districts of Andhra Pradesh with Kolar plateau, Chitravathi,
Muttasukota and Erramala hilly range. Besides, there are a number of isolated hills.
The highest hill is the Horselay hill located in the south-east part of the sub-basin
with an elevation of 1,314 m. Hills and forests cover nearly 20% of the sub-basin.
Rocks of Pre-Cambrian age like archeans, composite gneisses, shales, limestones
and quartzites of Kurnool and Cuddapah system of rocks are the major geological
formation of this sub-basin. Ground water is found to occur in all geological
Cauvery and Pennar Basins 733

formations: the occurrence and movement are controlled by the major extent of
weathering and the presence of joints and fractures.

Climate
This sub-basin experiences the severe hot weather from the middle of February
to the middle of June. This is followed by monsoon season lasting till October
during which southwest monsoon rains are received. The retreating monsoon also
causes some rains during November. The period from December to mid February
is relatively cool and dry. The annual rainfall in the sub-basin varies from 497 mm
to 788 mm.
As noted above, the basin experiences high temperatures during summer, the
maximum temperature reaches about 40  C in the month of May while the minimum
is around 166  C in the month of December. Monthly evaporation of the order of
222 mm has been reported for the month of May at Kurnool observatory of IMD.
The basin is fairly dry, typical relative humidity values are about 75% at 8:30 hours
during the monsoon season at the Kurnool observatory, while the values at 17:30
hours nearly of the order of 24% during April and May. The sky is moderately to
heavily clouded and overcast on some days during the monsoon period and during
the rest of the year, sky is generally clear or lightly clouded.
The average annual reference evapo-transpiration for the Pennar basin is 1,840 mm.

Stream flow data

There are two gauge and discharge sites in the sub-basin at Mylavaram dam site and
at Sitarampuram (Alladipalli). Considering the yield of the sub-basin and imports to
it, the overall water availability at 75% dependability was assessed at 2,763 MCM;
it is 3,180 MCM at 50% dependability.

15.2.6. Lower Pennar Sub-Basin

The area below the middle Pennar basin and the outfall to the sea falls under this
sub-basin. The total area under lower Pennar Sub-basin is 18 583 km2 . Rainfall in
this area is much high compared to the other parts of the basin.

15.2.7. Major Tributaries of Pennar

The principal tributaries of the Pennar River are the Jayamangali, the Kunderu,
the Sagileru, from the left and the Chitravati, the Papagni and the Cheyyeru from
the right.

The Sagileru river

The Sagileru River is a major tributary of Pennar that joins it on the left side.
The Sagileru River rises in the Nallamalla range at an altitude of about 700 m
near Cumbum in Ongole District. Sagileru flows towards south in the Districts
of Ongole and Cuddapah of Andhra Pradesh; it flows in general in southward
734 Chapter 15

direction for a total distance of 141 km. It joins Pennar River in Sidhout Taluk of
Cuddapah District from the left bank near Venkatesampalli. The Sagileru basin is
located between latitude 14 28 to 15 34 N and longitude 78 46 to 79 10 E. The
total geographical area of the basin is about 3,203 sq. km and falls in Ongole and
Cuddapah districts 960 sq. km and 2,243 sq. km respectively.
The Sagileru basin is characterized by sub-dendritic type of drainage pattern.
The total length of Sagileru River along its course is about 162 km and the river
runs almost in central part of the basin from North to South. There are only small
tributaries to this River, worth mentioning streams being Enamaleru, Tadukuvagui
and Maderu. The Enamaleru stream drains into Sagileru River at 49th km of run.
The Tadukuvagu and the Maderu streams join the Sagileru at 68th km and 111th km
respectively. Sagileru is a non-perennial river – most of discharge in the river is
observed in the months from June to November. After January, the river becomes
almost dry.
The basin comprises of rather undulated country with deep valleys between two
big hill ranges on either side throughout the length. Most of the area in the basin
lies between contours 500 ft (152.4 m) to 2,500 feet (762 m).
Climate: The climate of Sagileru basin is generally regarded as unpleasantly hot
which is probably due to the early setting in of high temperatures. The average
maximum temperatures in April and May are 42  C and 43  C respectively.
The Sagileru basin lies in medium rainfall zone as the annual average rainfall in
the basin is 767 mm. The basin is under the influence of both the southwest and
northwest monsoons. From the rainfall pattern it is observed that the southwest
monsoon sets in during middle of June. It brings fair quantity of rains to the basin
up to the end of September. There are heavy rains in the upper portion of the
basin during this period. The northeast monsoon breaks in October and the rains
continue till December. These rains are heavier in lower portion of the basin than
the earlier rains. On the whole, the incidence of rainfall during southwest monsoon
is greater than northeast monsoon in the basin.
Physiography: The Sagileru basin comprises of shales and phyllites of Pullampet
formation, occupying a major portion. Quartizites and limestones of the same stage
occur in patches, occupying very little part of the basin. Bairenkonda quartzites
occupy the northwestern, southwestern and eastern parts of the basin to a limited
extent. The general trend of the formation is north-south direction with little
variation of 10 to 15, dipping 60 to 80 due east. The shales and phyllites are well
bedded and jointed in east-west, northwest-southeast, northeast-southwest direc-
tions. Fractures extending to depths of 30 to 70 meters below ground level are
common in this formation except near mounds and foot hills. Bairenkonda quartzites
are hard and massive and rarely comprises of fractured zones.
Cropping pattern: The principal crops grown in the basin in descending order of
the areas covered by them are Paddy, Groundnut, Bajra, Jowar, Ragi, vegetables
and sugarcane. Paddy is the wet irrigated crop and is grown mainly in the Kharif
season, i.e. from July to November. The second crop of paddy during Rabi season
is taken in a very small area in the ayacut of only a few tanks. The sugarcane is
Cauvery and Pennar Basins 735

perennial and is another wet irrigated crop which covers a very negligible area in
the basin. The remaining crops, viz. groundnut, Bajra, Jowar, Ragi and vegetables
come under dry irrigated crops, i.e. only supplementary irrigation is provided to
these. The groundnut and vegetables are grown in both the seasons of Kharif and
Rabi while Bajra and Jowar are grown mainly in Kharif season only; Ragi is grown
mostly in Rabi season.
Soils: The principal soil types in the Sagileru basin are: (1) Red loam, (2) Red sand,
(3) Black loam, and (4) Black clay. Red soils cover a major portion of the basin.
Texturally, red soils comprise of course sandy loam, fine sandy loam and loams.
These are sufficiently permeable to be well drained. Black soils are alluvial soils
and occur in minute extent in the basin.
Projects: Two medium projects have been constructed across the Sagileru River:
(1) Upper Sagileru project (USP), and (2) Lower Sagileru Project (LSP). The Upper
Sagileru Project, constructed in 1896 near Diguva Thamballapalli village in Badvel
Taluk is an anicut across the river. The project does not have any direct command
area. However, through its left bank canal, it feeds 10 tanks which in turn irrigate
an area of about 2,210 ha. The lower Sagileru project constructed in 1960 in Badvel
Taluk of Cuddapah District is a storage reservoir. This project also does not have
any direct command area but feeds 34 tanks through its left bank canal. The right
bank canal of this project is not yet operational.

The Jayamangali river

The Jayamangali River rises in the Tumkur district of Karnataka and joins Pennar
on the left bank after traversing a distance of 77 km in northeasterly direction. The
total drainage area of the river is 1,282 sq. km. The Survarnamukhi River is an
important tributary of the Jayamangali River.

The Kunderu river

The Kunderu River rises in the Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh and after
traversing a distance of 205 km, it meets Pennar from the left bank near Kamala-
puram. The total drainage area of the river is 8,057 sq. km which is about 15.55%
of the total catchment area of Pennar River.

The Chitravati river

The River Chitravati rises near Chikballapur town in the Kolar District of Karnataka
and before joining the Pennar River it traverses a distance of 218 km in north-
east direction. The river falls into the Pennar from the right near Gandaluru. The
drainage area of the river is 5,908 sq. km which is about 12.4% of the basin area.

The Papagani river

The Papagani River rises near Sidlaghatta town in the Kolar district of Karnataka
State and joins Pennar from the right bank. The length of the river is 205 km and
the drainage area of this major tributary is 7,423 sq. km which is about 14.14% of
the total basin area.
736 Chapter 15

Table 19. Annual average observed runoff at some CWC sites in Pennar basin

Name of the site Name of the stream Catchment area km2  Annual average runoff
(BCM)

Nagalamadite Pennar 5 050 0.2

Siddavattam Pennar 38 663 0.0
Tadapatri Pennar 12 482 0.3

The runoff in the river is being measured by CWC at several places. The annual
average observed runoff at some CWC sites in Pennar basin is given in Table 19.

15.2.8. Land Use in Pennar Basin

Table 20 gives area under major land uses in the Pennar basin. Forests account for
21% of the area whereas nearly 12% area falls under barren land. Net sown area is
36% of the total basin area while total culturable area is about 55%. In the basin,
double crops are taken over very small, about 1.66% area.
The population of the basin was 9.7 million in 1991 which grew to 11.65 in year
2001. According to the projections, the population is likely to be 18.7 million by
the year 2050. In the basin, the rural population is 60% of the total.

15.2.9. Water Resources of Pennar Basin

The Pennar basin receives rainfall from the south-west as well as the north-east
monsoons. Many depressions in the Bay of Bengal or Arabian Sea result in moderate

Table 20. Land use in Pennar basin

SN Land use Area (ha) Percent of area

1 Forest 1 159 161 2100

2 Barren land 637 221 1154
3 Land put to non-agricultural use 481 342 872
4 Permanent pastures and other grazing lands 208 299 377
Sub-total 2 486 023 4503
5 Land under miscellaneous crops and trees 69 541 126
6 Culturable waste 255 735 463
7 Other fallows 365 109 661
8 Current fallows 378 500 686
9 New sown area 1 966 392 3561

Sub-total (Culturable area) 3 035 277 5497

10 Area sown more then once 91 814 166
11 Gross sown area 3 058 206 3727
12 Total area of Pennar basin 5 521 300 10000
Irrigation from existing, on-going and proposed 1,073,195 ha
projects
Cauvery and Pennar Basins 737

rainfall in the Pennar basin. While the upper part of the basin is served mostly by
the south-west monsoon, the lower catchment is served by the north-west monsoon.
Pennar basin receives less rain fall in upper zones while the rainfall is more between
Nallmalais and the sea. The average monsoon rainfall is 540 mm in the head reaches
which increases to 1,040 mm in the tail end. As a result of this distribution of
rainfall, much of the rainwater remains un-utilized and flows to the sea while
the upper reaches of the basin face severe water shortage. In the Andhra Pradesh
area of the basin, the average rainfall is 600 mm. Andhra Pradesh state utilizes
about 1,220 MCM from the Pennar River for irrigation above Somasila and about
708 MCM below Somasila. Another 1,415 MCM will be put to beneficial use on
completion of the projects in progress. Of this, 850 MCM is for utilization outside
the Pennar basin under the Telugu Ganga project. Irrigation development in the
upper reaches of Pennar basin will serve the drought prone areas much better.
The upper Pennar sub-basin has negligible surface storage, while the middle
and lower Pennar have Mylavaram and Somasila dams respectively. Upper Pennar
sub-basin has an existing import of 387 Mm3 of water from the Krishna basin
through Tungabhadra High Level Canal. Similarly, in the middle Pennar basin there
is an existing import of 919 Mm3 of water through Kurnool-Cuddapah canal from
Tungabhadra sub-basin of the Krishna basin. There is an existing export of 73 Mm3
of water from the lower Pennar sub-basin.
Though floods are not very frequent in the Pennar basin, soil erosion is on the
high side due to fairly steep slopes, arid climate, and lack of vegetation. Already
some areas have become so eroded now that the soil cover is not adequate for
agriculture.
Much of the flow below Somasila reservoir may continue to remain un-utilized
for beneficial use because large extent of the catchment east of the Eastern Ghats is
endowed with higher rainfall and the topography offers very little scope to impound
the flood flows. There is limited use in small irrigation tanks and very small
abstractions at Sangam and Nellore anicuts. Large quantum of water is consumed by
evaporation and evapo-transpiration by vegetation. There are many tanks in the area
for irrigation and domestic use in villages. Table 21 gives water withdrawals for
domestic and industrial uses in three different sub-basins for a recent year. The total
withdrawal stands at 1,029.86 MCM. Industrial sector accounts for 684.22 MCM or
about 66% of these withdrawals.

Table 21. Withdrawals for Domestic and Industrial needs (MCM) in Different Sub-basins (Year
1999–2000)

Item Upper pennar sub-basin Middle pennar Lower pennar

sub-basin sub-basin

Domestic, Rural 10151 5636 6170

Domestic, Urban 4854 3701 4052
Industrial 29206 18720 20496
Total 44211 28057 30718
738 Chapter 15

The gross area under irrigation in the Upper Pennar sub-basin was 189,732 ha
in the year 1999–2000 which is 18.66% of the gross cropped area. Irrigation
is mainly from minor schemes like tanks and wells. The canal irrigation is
mainly through imported waters. In the Middle Pennar sub-basin, the gross area
under irrigation during 1999–2000 was 191,054 ha which is 26.5% of the gross
cropped area. Existing irrigation in the sub-basin is mainly from minor irrigation
schemes.
Pennar is a water deficit basin. To fulfill the growing water needs of the
agriculture and industrial sectors, there is an existing import of water in the
basin. Furthermore, under inter basin water transfer schemes, transfer of water is
recommended to Pennar basin from the adjoining basins.

15.2.10. Water Availability and Demand

Table 22 shows an assessment of water availability and demand in Pennar Basin.
As per this assessment, if water is used in a sustainable manner, the total availability
for irrigation is 10,270 MCM while the demand for food sector is about 15–20%
more than this quantity.
The base flow in the Pennar River is showing a decreasing trend with at time
and it is much less than what used to be in the past. Similarly the total outflow
into the sea is also showing a decreasing trend. In the basin, around 30–35%
irrigation is by surface water and rest is by ground water. There is a very heavy
and increasing withdrawal from surface and ground water to fulfill the demands.
In future, the demands for domestic, industrial, and agriculture sector are likely to
increase significantly and this is likely to worsen the water availability situation.

Table 22. Water Availability and Demand in Pennar Basin

Water availability Surface water Ground water

Mm3  Mm3 

1 Utilizable water 6,900 4,930

2 Import 3,388 –
3 Export −495 –
4 Net available 9,793 4,930
Water Demand
Urban population @ 200 lpcd 546
Domestic Rural population @ 120 lpcd 246 246
i.
requirement Total 792 246
Consumptive use @ 30% 238 74
Industrial Average 8,261
ii.
demand Consumptive use @ 30% 2,478
iii. Environmental flow releases @ 1 % of annual flows 44
Total demand (other than agriculture) 2,760 74
Water available for irrigation (2/3 of ground water) 7,033 3,237
Cauvery and Pennar Basins 739

15.2.11. Water Quality

Rivers in semi-arid areas are characterized by wide variations in the annual flows and
poor quality of water. Pennar River also has a semi-arid catchment. Water of the Pennar
River up to Anantpur and Cuddapah is not of good quality for irrigation and drinking
due to large quantities of carbonates and bicarbonates. The fluoride concentration is
also high due to the presence of soluble salts and fluorides from the rocks and soils in the
catchment. Due to poor quality of water, yield from irrigated crops is very poor. In case
of paddy, only special saline resistant varieties could be grown with low yields. While
the soils nearer the ridges are generally good, nearer the valleys the soils are saline or
alkaline due to water logging and deposition of salts. However, the quality of water of
the tributaries of Pennar is good and hence there is good irrigation development in the
lower reaches. Kundu River, a major tributary of the Pennar carries water of K.C. Canal
which draws good quality water from Tungabhadra. Even though the catchments of
Tungabadra and Pennar are close by (the basin of Vedavati lies in between), there is
large difference in the quality of water of these rivers.
Table 23 gives the desired and observed class of water of Pennar River at different
times. Not much data are available for this river but whatever data are available give a
grim picture as the observed quality was found to be much worse than the desired.
The Pennar water possess high silt load during monsoon period resulting acute
drinking water problems for people in rural areas who directly depend on it. In
Andhra Pradesh, ground water occurs under unconfined and semi confined condi-
tions. Rainfall is the principal source of recharge; the others being percolation of
river water during high flow periods and seepage of irrigation water. During summer
(low flow) period, ground water contributes to baseflow. Among the cations and
anions present in the ground water sodium and chloride are predominant in Andhra
Pradesh region. Concentration of cations and anions are in the order: Na > K >
Ca > Mg; Cl > SO4 > F. Non-carbonate hardness is present in the region.
The indices of salt-water contamination like Mg/Ca, Na/Ca indicate that the
ground water in the entire area is slightly contaminated with sea water. Based on
this fact, some people have hypothesized that this area was probably inundated by
seawater in the past. Seawater from the Bay of Bengal is the main contributor to

Table 23. Desired and existing water quality classes for Pennar

Location Desired Observed class & critical parameters

class
1997 2000 2001

Pennar before confluence with Chitravathi, C D NA D

Tadpatri, Unganoor, A.P. BOD BOD
Pennar after conf. with Cheyyuru, Somasile, C D NA C
A.P. BOD
Pennar at Siddvata, Nellore, A.P. C D D NA
BOD BOD
∗
NA – Not Available. Source: Central Pollution Control Board.
740 Chapter 15

salinity in the coastal areas and this is caused by the reduction in the Pennar water
flow. The problem of saline water intrusion in the fresh water zone gets severe
during the dry period when the Pennar and its tributaries face a drastic fall in river
flow. This situation is worsening and might lead to a terrible environmental hazard
in the future unless a suitable remedial action is initiated.

15.2.12. Major Water Resources Development Projects

In this section, the major water resources projects of the Pennar basin are described.

Table 24. Some features of Somasila Project

General data
Ayacut 167,670 ha (414,000 acres)
Kharif 111,375 ha (275,000 acres)
Rabi 56,295 ha (139,000 acres)
Culturable Command Area (CCA) 1.64 lakh ha (4.05 lakh acres)
Proposed utilization under the project
Kharif (Stabilization of Existing command) 996 Mm3 (35.15 TMC)
Rabi a) Dry 292 Mm3 (10.308 TMC)
b) Wet 87 Mm3 (3.09 TMC)
Total 1 375 Mm3 (48.548 TMC)
Main canal North feeder South feeder Kavali canal
channel channel
Length 72.92 km 76.2 km 67.5 km
FSL at Head 80.92 m 85.38 m 33.84 m
Maximum discharging capacity 10.76 cumec 10.48 cumec 28.32 cumec

Source: GoAP (1984).

Table 25. List of the Completed projects in Pennar Basin in Andhra Pradesh

Name of the Year of Storage capacity (MCM) Designed annual

project completion irrigation
(Million sq. m)

Gross Live

Arnair 1958 5244 4880 –

Bahuda Reservoir 1972 1126 1070 1150
Gandipalem 1987 5300 4942 6400
Mid Pennar dam 1968 14158 13450 31200
Pedderu Stage-I – 1497 1412 2570
Rallapadu 1966 3129 3080 4400
Swarnamukhi Project 1959 4767 4243 9940
Upper Pennar Dam 1959 5128 4957 3880
Cauvery and Pennar Basins 741

Table 26. List of the Projects under construction in Pennar Basin in Andhra Pradesh

Project Storage capacity (MCM) Designed annual irrigation

(Million sq. m)

Gross Live

Buggavanka Project 1432 1035 –

Cheyyeru Project 6347 4489 52.00
Meddileru 1938 1503 32.40
Valligaleru Reservoir 13147 6942 –

Somasila reservoir
This is an operational major project on Pennar River in Andhra Pradesh for stabi-
lizing irrigation in Pennar delta. The dam is located near Somasila Village, Atmakur
Taluk of Nellore District at Latitude 14 29 15 N and Longitude 79 18 25 E.
Catchment area at dam site is 50 4925 km2 . It is an earth and rockfill + masonry
and concrete dam whose maximum height above deepest foundation level is 38 m.
Somasila has also been integrated as a component of the Telugu Ganga canal
project which is proposed to carry water from Srisailam to Chennai city and provide
irrigation benefits to the en-route areas. The gross storage capacity at FRL 100.58 m
and live storage capacity of the reservoir are 2,210.00 MCM and 1,994.00 MCM
respectively. At the maximum water level of 101.80 m the storage capacity is
2,483 MCM and at dead storage level of 82.30 m, it is 214 MCM. At FRL, the
reservoir water spread area is 21228 km2 . The designed annual irrigation from
the dam is 44.00 Million sq. meter. The irrigation and water supply demand from
the dam is 1,453 and 409 Mm3 respectively. The annual volume reliability for
irrigation and water supply is 0.533 and 0.917 respectively.
An ogee type spillway, 236.21 m with crest level at 86.868 m, has been provided
to dispose flood waters. The spillway has 12 radial gates, 1524 m × 1372 m
and the maximum discharging capacity at FRL and MWL is 19,680 cumec and
22,375 cumec respectively. Table 24 gives some other details about the project.

Sathanur reservoir
Sathanur reservoir was created in 1957 on the Pennar River at Sathanur
village in Tiruvannamalai Sambuvarayar district. The reservoir has a capacity of
22891 million m3 at FRL of 222.2 m and a mean depth of 11.4 m. It covers 2,010 ha
area at the FRL.

Other reservoirs
Salient features of the other important completed and under construction projects
having storage capacities of 10 MCM or more is summarized in Table 25 and 26
respectively.
CHAPTER 16

OTHER BASINS AND ISLANDS

In this chapter, we describe several small rivers that flow in various parts of India.
Most of these rivers have small catchment areas and flow essentially during the
monsoon season. However, occasionally the catchments of these rivers receive
intense rainfall and cause flooding. Of particular interest are the rivers in the
Western Ghats area, which carry substantial quantity of flow as their catchments
receive very high amount of rainfall.

16.1. WEST FLOWING RIVER SYSTEM

The Western Ghats are a principal geographical barrier in the path of the Arabian
Sea branch of the Southwest monsoon, and this interruption in flow of mountain
is largely responsible for the heavy rainfall over the western coastal belt. The
Southwest monsoon season (June to September) is the principal rainy season in
which over 90% of annual rainfall takes place. Heavy rainfall in this belt has given
rise to many rivers of short length but high discharge.
In this region, most rivers originate at an elevation ranging from 400 m to 1,600 m,
close to the Western Ghats ridge. The rivers generally flow westward and meet the
Arabian Sea after a short run varying from 50 km to 300 km. The rivers are very
steep in the upper reaches and fairly steep in the middle reaches. It is only when the
rivers are near the sea that they have relatively flat gradients and form moderately
wide flood plains.
The list of west flowing rivers, their important tributaries and the states through
which these flow is given in Table 1. Sharavathi is an important river of this part
which originates in Western Ghats near Ambutirtha in Tirthahlli Taluk of Shimoga
District. It flows for only 128 km covering an area of 2,771 sq. km but has immense
hydropower potential. The river has a vertical drop of about 253 m near Jog which
is the highest water fall in India. Sharavathi joins the Arabian Sea near Honavar in
Uttar Kannada District. It covers a varied terrain and climate and supports a rich
diversity of flora and fauna.
In addition to the above main river basins, there are many free catchments between
the identified river basins which have small streams that directly drain into the
Arabian Sea. These free catchments are close to the sea and are at lower elevation.
743
744 Chapter 16

Table 1. West flowing rivers and their tributaries

Name of the Catchment Origin Altitude Length Sub- State

river/ area (m) of the tributaries through
tributary km2  river which the
(km) river flows

Mahadayi/ 2,032 Western Ghats, 600 87 Maderi Karnataka,

Mandavi Belgaum Goa
district
Kalinadi 4,188 Western Ghats, 600 153 Pandhari, Karnataka
Bidi village Tatti-halla
and Nagi
Gangavalli 3,574 Western Ghats 700 152 – Karnataka
(Bedthi) south of
Dharwad
Aghanashini 1,330 Western Ghats 500 84 – Karnataka
(Tadri) Near Sirsi
Sharavathi 3,592 Western Ghats 700 122 – Karnataka
Humacha in
Shimoga
district
Chakra 336 East of 600 52 Kollur Karnataka
Kodachadri in
Shimoga
district
Varahi 759 Kavaledurga in 600 66 – Karnataka
(Haladi) the Shimoga
district
Netravathy 3,222 Bellarayan in 1,000 103 Gundiahole, Karnataka
the Dakshina Kumaradara
Kannada and
district Shisiahole
Barapole 1,867 Brahamagiri 900 110 – Karnataka
(Valapat- Ghat Reserve & Kerala
tanam) Forest in
Coorg district

Some important independent catchments in the West Flowing River system are
described in the following sections.

16.1.1. Independent Catchment between Sharavathi and Chakra River

Many small streams flow in this area and join the Arabian Sea. Kollur River,
Ghantihole, Venkatapur, Baindurhole, Shankargundi, Kumbarhole and Yedamav-
inahole are the important streams in this region. The entire catchments of the streams
flowing in this region lie in the state of Karnataka.
Other Basins and Islands 745

16.1.2. Independent Catchment between Varahi and Netravathi River

The independent catchment comprises of streams namely Swarna, Seethanadhi,

Mulki river, Pavanje, Nadisalu, Gurpur,Yennehole and Madisalhole. Catchment
areas of the streams falling in this region entirely lie in the state of Karnataka.

16.1.3. Independent Catchment between Netravathy and Chandragiri

The main streams draining this region are Chandragiri (Payaswani) and Shiriya
Rivers. The Chandragiri River rises west of Mercara in Coorg District of Karnataka
State at an elevation of about 600 m. Pyayaswani River originates from Patti Ghats
reserve forest in Coorg District of Karnataka at an elevation of 1,350 m. The two
river joins together at Machipana about 15 km upstream of their out fall point into
Arabian Sea near Kasaragud. It drains catchment area of 1406 km2 out of which
836 km2 lies in Karnataka state and the balance portion in Kerala state.

16.2. WEST FLOWING RIVERS OF KACHCHH

AND SAURASHTRA INCLUDING LUNI
AND INLAND DRAINAGE

This is a fairly large basin whose total area is 334 390 km2 . It lies between east
longitudes 68 7 and 75 50 and north latitudes 20 40 and 29 25 . Located in
Western India, this area covers large parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Diu (UT) as
well as (very small) inland drainage area of Punjab. The state-wise distribution of
the drainage area is given in Table 2.
The basin is bounded on the north and east by the ridge separating it from the
Indus, the Ganga and the Sabarmati basins, on the south by the Arabian Sea and on
the west by Pakistan. The shape of the basin is irregular; it has a maximum length
of 1045 km2 in a NE-SW direction and a maximum width of 470 km in a NW-SE
direction.
Although many rivers flow in this region, the more important are the Luni, the
Shetrunji, the Bhadar, the Machhu, the Rupen, the Saraswati, the Banas, the Mitti
and the Damanganga. The chief characteristics of the rivers flowing in Rajasthan

Table 2. Statewise catchment areas of west flowing rivers of Kachchh and

Saurashtra

State Drainage area km2 

Rajasthan 193,359
Gujarat 140,932
Diu 45
Punjab (inland drainage) 54
Total 334,390
746 Chapter 16

are that after flowing for some distance, they disappear in the desert. A description
of the major rivers follows.

16.2.1. Luni River

Luni river basin is located in south-western Rajasthan, between latitudes 23 41 and
27 05 and longitudes 71 04 and 74 42 . It is bounded by the arid western districts
in the west, by Banas basin in the east, Shekhawati basin in the north, and Sukli and
West Banas basins in the south. The basin extends over parts of Ajmer, Barmer,
Jalore, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Pali, Rajsamand, Sirohi and Udaipur Districts. The total
catchment area of the basin is 37363 km2 . Luni River originates in the western
slopes of the Aravalli range at an elevation of 550 m near Ajmer. After flowing for
about 495 km in a south-westerly direction in Rajasthan, the river disappears in the
marshy land of Rann of Kutch. In the basin, elevations range from 890 m to 10 m
(near the outlet). Nearly half of the basin is occupied by rugged mountains where
soils are shallow.
Annual rainfall over the Luni basin varies between 600 mm to 300 mm; the mean
annual rainfall is computed as 320 mm, of which about 97% falls during the four
monsoon months (June-September). The number of rainy days in a year is quite
low, around 14. Being located in arid region, annual average pan evaporation is
2,640 mm which is eight times the mean rainfall. Flow in the river is observed only
during a few days in a year.
The main tributaries of Luni on the left are Sukri, Mithri, Bandi, Khari, Jawai,
Guhiya and Sagi whereas only Jojari River joins it on the right side.

i. Sukri river
The Sukri basin is located between latitudes 25 00 30 and 25 53 and longitudes
72 36 and 73 42 , covering an area of 3036 km2 . The Sukri River is formed by the
confluence of several small nallahs (streams) – Ghanerav Nadi, Muthana ka Bala,
Magai Nadi etc., originating from the Aravalis in Pali and Udaipur Districts. Sukri
flows for about 110 km in a south-east to north-west direction and feeds Bankli
Dam on the way. It joins Luni River near the village Samdari in Barmer District.
This sub-basin covers parts of Jalore, Pali, and Barmer Districts.

ii. Khari river

The Khari basin, with catchment area of 1232 km2 , is located between latitudes
25 18 and 25 46 and longitudes 73 20 and 73 50 . The Khari River is formed
by the confluence of small streams, namely, Somesar and Khari Kherwa. Somesar
River (originally known as Sumer Nadi) originates in the western slopes of the
Aravali range near the village Somesar in Pali District. The stream Umrawas Ka
Nalla, originating in the western slopes of the Aravali near village Kanklawas, joins
Sumer Nadi. Kotki Nadi, originating from Dewair Reserved Forest Bhakar also
joins Sumer Nadi after flowing for about 30 km. After all these small streams join,
Other Basins and Islands 747

the river is called Khari. It joins Bandi River downstream of Hemawas reservoir
after flowing for about 25 km.

iii. Mithari river

The Mithari basin is located between latitudes 25 00 and 25 30 and longitudes
72 52 and 73 29 . The Mithari River is formed in the south-western slopes of
the Aravali range in Pali District by confluence of many local nallahs. The river
flows through Jawai, Bali and Falna Districts for about 80 km in a north-west
direction before vanishing in sandy plains near village Sankhwal in Jalore district.
The catchment extends over parts of Pali and Jalore Districts and covers a total of
1644 km2 .

iv. Bandi (hemawas) river

The Khari and Mithari Rivers join near Bombadra pickup weir to form the Bandi
River. It joins the Luni near the village Lakhar in Pali District after flowing for
about 45 km. The Bandi basin is located between latitudes 25 15 and 25 55 and
longitudes 72 56 and 73 57 . The catchment, situated in Pali District, covers an
area of 1685 km2 .
The Guhiya River originates in the hillocks near the villages Khariyaniv and
Tharasani in Pali District. It joins Bandi River near village Phekariya in Pali District.
The basin is located between latitudes 24 45 and 26 14 and longitudes 72 58 and
74 14 . The catchment area of the basin is 3835 km2 and it falls in Pali district.
The main tributaries of Guhiya River are Raipur Luni, Radia Nadi, Guria Nadi,
Lilri Nadi, Sukri and Phunpharia Bala.

v. Jawai river
The Jawai basin is located between latitudes 24 43 and 25 34 and longitudes
72 31 and 73 24 . The Jawai River, and its main tributary Sukari, originate in the
western slopes of the Aravalis, in Udaipur District. The river flows generally in a
north-west direction for about 96 km, before joining River Khari near the village
Sayala in Jalore District. The catchment area is 2976 km2 .
Sukri (Sayala to Luni): The Jawai River, after its confluence with the Khari
River is called Sukri. The basin is located between latitudes 25 05 and 25 26
and longitudes 71 44 and 72 22 . It flows in a southwest direction for about
80 km before joining the Luni River near Golia village. The catchment covering
1615 km2 extends over parts of Jalore and Barmer Districts. The main tributaries
of Sukri River are Krishnawati and Kameri.

vi. Jojari river

The Jojari basin is located between latitudes 26 07 and 26 43 and longitudes 73 08
and 74 00 . The Jojari River originates in the hillocks near village Pondlu in Nagaur
District. It flows for about 83 km from north-east to south-west before joining Luni
River near the village Khejadli Khurd in Jodhpur District. The catchment extends
748 Chapter 16

over Jodhpur and Nagaur Districts and covers an area of 2571 km2 . A number of
small streams join this river in the upper reaches.

vii. Sagi river

This basin is located between latitudes 24 46 and 25 09 and longitudes 71 40 and
72 26 . The Sagi River originates in the south-western slopes of Jaswantpura hills
in Jalore District. It flows initially for about 72 km northwest and then southwest
before joining the Luni near Gandhav village in Barmer District. Kari Nadi is the
only tributary of River Sagi. The catchment extends over parts of Jalore and Barmer
Districts and covers an area of 1495 km2 .

16.2.2. Machhu River

Machhu is one of the major rivers of Saurashtra region of Gujarat. It rises near
Bhadla in the Rajkot district of Gujarat at an elevation of 275 m at North latitude
22 11 and East longitude 71 6 flowing in a generally northern, north-western
course and disappears in the little Runn of Kutch downstream of Malia. On the way,
a few rivers and tributaries join it. Important among them are Jumbudi, Banaiya,
Patalia Vonkala, Asoi, Maha and Matelio. The total length of the Machhu River is
161 km and its total catchment area is 2331 km2 .
Machhu irrigation scheme was first contemplated as early as 1924 by the author-
ities of former Wankaner state. The scheme was envisaged construction of two
reservoirs on the main Machhu River. This scheme intended to provide irrigation
facilities to the villages of Wankaner and Morbi Talukas which are often hard hit
by severe drought.
The average rainfall for the Machhu catchment is 52.20 cm. The maximum
rainfall during any one year in the catchment has been at Sardhana during the year
1917, being 139.88 cm. The minimum rainfall observed at Kuwadva during 1928
was 7.08 cm. The runoff factor for the catchment is 20%. The daily mean minimum
and maximum temperature as observed at the Rajkot IMD station, are 107  C (Jan)
and 455  C (May) respectively. The wind velocity is highest during the month of
May to August.
The soils in the command area are mostly of residual origin derived from basaltic
Deccan trap and have montmorillonite as the clay material.

16.2.3. Damanganga River

The Damanganga River originates in Sahyadri hill ranges in Nasik district of
Maharashtra at elevation 930.5 m above mean sea level. Two major distributaries,
Daman and Vag, after traveling through a course of 79 km and 61 km respectively,
meet near village Matunji to form Damanganga River. For its major course, it runs
through Maharashtra, then enters Gujarat to finally join Arabian Sea. The gross
catchment area of the river Damanganga at the dam site is 1813 km2 . The average
rainfall in the area is 220.2 cm with maximum being 378.0 cm.
Other Basins and Islands 749

16.2.4. Water Resources Projects in the Basin

i. Machhu-I dam
This dam is located on river Machhu near Jalsika village in Wankaner taluka of
Rajkot district. The location of the dam is 57 km from the source of the river. The
town of Wankaner, one of the seats of former princely states, lies 22 km downstream
of Machhu-I dam. The dam was completed in the year 1958. The catchment area
up to the dam site is 735 km2 . This project has been designed for gross and live
storage capacities of 727 Mm3 and 708 Mm3 respectively with FRL at 135.35 m.
The Machhu-I dam has been conceived as a reservoir impounding water for the
purpose of irrigation. The command area of the project lies on the left bank of
Machhu River in the Wankaner and Morbi talukas of Rajkot district. The gross
command area of this project is 18218 Mm2 and the culturable command area is
10409 Mm2 .
The whole of the catchment area gradually rises towards the source in the north-
eastern direction, i.e., Mandva hills from where the river takes its origin. Out of
the 735 km2 of the catchment area at the dam site, 363 km2 have already been
intercepted by a tank at Aria, 35.4 km upstream of the dam site.
The reservoir is intended to provide irrigation water all the year round. Hence
a provision for the evaporation and absorption losses that occur in the reservoir
throughout the year has been made. Taking evaporation and absorption losses as
1.83 m for the entire year, an allowance of 867 Mm3 of water has been made in
the reservoir. The spillway of this project was designed to pass a flood of 2,595
cumec with HFL at 137.46 m. Clear overfall weir of 487.68 m in the river portion
with water cushion has been provided.

ii. Machhu-II dam

This dam is located on river Machhu near village Jodhpur in Morbi taluka of Rajkot
district at a distance of 103 km from the source of the river. The total catchment
area up to the dam site is 1928 km2 . The gross and live storage capacities of this
dam are 100.41 and 9073 Mm3 respectively with FRL at 57.32 m. The Machhu-II
dam has been conceived as a reservoir impounding water for conservation purposes
like irrigation and municipal water supply and for flood control. The maximum
observed flood for this project is 13,026 cumec while the peak of design flood
hydrograph is 18,548 cumec. However for the purpose of spillway design, the peak
flood of 26,420 cumec has been adopted. This dam was breached in August, 1979
floods. The dam has been rebuilt now.
The towns of Morbi and Malia, lie 9 km and 46 km downstream of the Machhu-II
dam respectively. The Morbi town is situated on the left bank of the river whereas
the Malia town is situated about 1.5 km away from the left bank. The area under
the command lies on the left bank of river Machhu. Geographically, the command
lies between latitudes of 22 46 N and 22 57 N and longitudes of 70 52 E and
70 40 E. The area has more or less flat topography which is characteristic of
the coastal low-lands. The water stored in the reservoir is utilized mainly during
750 Chapter 16

Kharif & Rabi seasons. The area where this scheme has been taken up is much
affected by famine and hence the Govt. of Gujarat has taken up this scheme as a
protective scheme.
The catchment area up to Machhu-II dam site is partly hilly and partly cultivated
and fan shaped. Most of the annual rainfall in the catchment area falls in the monsoon
months from June to September. The average annual rainfall in the Machhu – II
catchment is 60.2 cm. The maximum temperature reaches around 43  C in the hottest
month of May whereas the lowest temperature falls to 6  C in the coldest month of
January.
It may be pointed out that in this particular case, the capacity of the reservoir is
governed by the submergence of lands and the probable submergence of a part of
the railway line from Rafaleshwar to Dhuva on the Novlakhi Wankaner line. The
lowest level of the top of railway embankment at certain places is at R.L. 59.44 m.

iii. Damanganga Dam

Damanganga dam was constructed in the year 1983 across Damanganga River near
village Madhuban of Valsad district. The dam site is 30 km away from Vapi and
60 km from Valsad. The dam is designed to impound gross storage of 567 Mm3 at
RL 79.584 m. The live storage capacity of the dam is 50200 Mm3 . The length of
masonry dam is 352 m and length of earthen dam is 2,376 m. The maximum height
of dam above river bed on ground is 57.50 m. The spillway length is 191.11 m. Ten
radial gates of size 1555 m × 1402 m are provided. The designed annual irrigation
from the dam is 570 Mm2 .

iv. Mitti dam

The Mitti dam is basically an irrigation scheme located on River Mitti near
Village Trambau in Abdasa Taluka of Kachchh District in Gujarat. The latitude
and longitude of the site are 23 20 0 amd 68 49 30 respectively. The scheme
drains a catchment area of 46879 km2 and serves a gross command area of
5567 Mm2 . The gross storage, dead storage and live storage capcities of the dam
is 1740 Mm3  268 Mm3 , and 1472 Mm3 respectively.

v. Palitana dam
The Palitana dam, which is also known as Shetrunji irrigation scheme was
constructed in the year 1959 across river Shetrunji near village Nani – Rajasthali
of Palitana taluka of Bhavnagar district. The dam site is 10 km away from Palitana
city on Palitan Talaja road.
The dam is designed to impound gross storage of 415414 Mm3 at RL 55.53 m.
The length of masonry dam is 769.79 m and total length of earthen dam is
3,126.86 m. The maximum height of dam above river bed on ground is 25.31 m.
The gross catchment-area of the Shetrunji River at the dam site is 4317 km2 and
intercepted catchment is 389 km2 . The catchment area of the river is partly hilly and
partly plain. The drainage area up to village Padargadh is hilly and full of vegetation.
Other Basins and Islands 751

Shape of catchment is fan type with maximum length being 105 km and width about
72 km. Designed rate of sedimentation is 0.476 mm/year for gross storage.
The mean annual rainfall in the watershed is 55.20 cm with the maximum being
96.10 cm and the minimum being 17.20 cm. In the command, the maximum rainfall
is 50.80 cm. The mean annual flood at the dam site is 4,183 cumec. A 645.56 m
long spillway is designed to pass discharge of 7,080 cumec. Four gates of size
151 m × 183 m on right flank and 2 gates on left bank are provided.

vi. Other projects

There are some more existing and under construction water resources projects in the
regioin. Salient features of existing and under construction water resources projects
with a live storage capacity of 10 MCM and above have been presented in Table 3
and Table 4 respectively.

16.3. WEST FLOWING RIVERS SOUTH OF TAPI

All west flowing rivers from Tapi to Kanyakumari can be placed in this group. The
total area of this region is 113 057 km2 which lies between longitudes 72 43 E and
77 35 E and latitudes 8 4 N and 21 10 N. The basin is located in southern and
western India and covers practically the whole of Kerala, Goa, Daman, Dadra &
Nagar Haveli and parts of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Gujarat. The
state wise distribution of the drainage basin is given in Table 5.
The region is bounded on the north by the ridge separating it from the Tapi
basin, on the east by the Western Ghats, on the south by the Indian Ocean and
on the west by the Arabian Sea. The basin is highly irregular in shape and has a
maximum length of 1,555 km in NW-SE direction and a maximum width of 125 km
in NE-SW direction.
The basin is traversed by as many as 115 small and fairly big rivers, of which
one in Tamil Nadu, 32 in Kerala, 10 in Karnataka, 3 in Goa, 11 in Maharashtra and
5 in Gujarat are important rivers. The list of 98 rivers, (45 rivers systems between
Tapi to Tadri and 43 rivers systems from Tadri to Kanyakumari) along with the
catchment area, rainfall and average annual flows are given in Table 6.
The Achencoil River basin in Kerala lies between latitude 9 to 10  N and
longitude 76 to 77  E, covering an area of 1484 km2 . Achencoil flows for 128 km.
It discharges a part of its flows into the Arabian Sea through a flood regulator
and the major part flows to the Vembanad estuary. Achencoil basin receives
an annual average rainfall of 2,600 mm, mainly from the two monsoons: the
Southwest monsoon (June to September) contributes about 60% of the rainfall and
the Northeast monsoon (October to November) about 30%. Spatially, the average
annual rainfall increases from about 2,400 mm per year in the coastal region to
3,200 mm in the highland region. The average annual yield of the basin is 2,793
MCM. This basin has highly undulating topography; the land use varies from
evergreen forests and plantation crops (mainly rubber and tea) in the highland
regions to rice and coconut in the midland and coastal regions.
752 Chapter 16

Table 3. Salient features of selected existing projects in West Flowing Rivers of Kutch And Saurashtra
Including Luni basin

Name of the State Year of Gross storage Live storage Designed

project completion capacity Mm3  capacity annual
Mm3  irrigation
Mm2 

Aji Dam Gujarat 1957 3228 3000 1130

Aji-II Gujarat – 1887 1848 2380
Aji-III Gujarat – 6517 5096 6620
Bawal Gujarat 1978 2673 2400 –
Bhadar Gujarat 1969 23780 22370 17150
Bhimdad Gujarat 1951 3118 1107 1150
Bhuki Gujarat – 1588 1458 1350
Brahmani Gujarat 1954 7501 7139 3850
Chaparwadi Gujarat 1946 1852 1471 2940
Chimanbhai Lake Gujarat 1906 1788 1340 –
Dantiwada Gujarat 1969 46440 44500 44520
Dhatarwadi Gujarat 1976 3271 2656 2480
Demi-I Gujarat 1964 2152 1952 2190
Demi-II Gujarat – 1891 1831 2420
Deo Gujarat – 8409 7633 9610
Fodarness Dam Gujarat 1970 2364 2226 –
Fulzar Gujarat 1961 1489 1376 1220
Gandali Gujarat 1956 1135 1087 940
Ghee Gujarat 1953 – 1382 830
Ghelo Gujarat 1968 1335 1200 3150
Godhatad Gujarat – 1470 1312 660
Goma Gujarat 1976 1852 1646 2530
Hiran Gujarat 1966 3858 3500 2630
Jhanjeshwari Gujarat 1977 1064 1000 4050
Jhuj Gujarat – 2865 2758 5890
Kaila Gujarat 1955 1398 1320 880
Kalubhar Gujarat – 2694 2164 51070
Kanakvati Gujarat 1955 1461 1320 1560
Karmal Gujarat – 1270 1003 4040
Kashwati Gujarat 1978 1398 1308 610
Kelia Gujarat – 1810 1735 880
Kharo Gujarat – 1525 1250 –
Khodiyar Gujarat 1965 – 4035 –
Machmundri Gujarat 1963 3184 2750 450
Maduvanti Gujarat 1976 1214 1173 2190
Mahagarh Gujarat 1970 6000 4500 –
Malan Gujarat 1957 1447 1387 2330
Moj Gujarat 1966 5306 5011 4820
Munjiasar Gujarat 1957 1473 1200 1340
Nara Gujarat 1975 4103 3883 2980
Niruna Gujarat 1963 3220 1102 1940
Nyari-II Gujarat – 1300 1170 470
Pauna Gujarat 1953 1370 1314 1010
Other Basins and Islands 753

Phoophal Gujarat 1974 5961 5168 7910

Rajawadla tank Gujarat 1902 2287 1120 240
Rajawal Gujarat – 3301 2740 10300
Ranghola Gujarat 1952 4451 4293 3500
Rawal irri. Scheme Gujarat 1960 2302 1962 5830
Rawal-II Gujarat – 2700 2400 4180
Rojki Gujarat 1962 1200 1102 1540
Rudramata Gujarat 1962 6474 5600 3000
Sananadaro Gujarat 1955 1227 1175 680
Sankroli Gujarat 1963 1099 1030 1220
Sasoi Gujarat 1954 5103 4678 3060
Singoda Gujarat – 3644 3517 6070
Sukhbhadar Gujarat – 4413 3722 7390
Suvi Gujarat 1966 1428 1190 1340
Tapar Dam Gujarat 1975 1471 1450 –
Und Gujarat – 7250 6548 7300
Varjani Gujarat – 1035 1005 –
Vartudam Gujarat 1969 1331 1164 2690
Venu-II Gujarat – 2259 1615 6120
Vijaya Sagar Gujarat 1948 2082 1918 1840
Waidy Gujarat 1984 1360 1260 2010
Bankli Rajasthan 1955 – 3455 3510
Hemarvas Rajasthan – – 6256 2020
Jawai Rajasthan 1954 20737 19337 17610
Jaswant Sagar Rajasthan 1973 – 3283 3820
Kharda Rajasthan – – 1515 1940
Ora Rajasthan – 2266 2229 3190
Raipurluni Rajasthan 1964 1254 1090 1420
Sardar Samant Rajasthan – – 8822 8560
West Banas Dam Rajasthan 1962 3908 3622 4080

Table 4. Salient features of selected under construction projects in West Flowing Rivers of Kutch and
Saurashtra Including Luni basin

Name of the Project State Gross storage Live storage Designed annual
capacity Mm3  capacity Mm3  irrigation Mm2 

Aji-IV Gujarat 2294 1514 4000

Amipur Gujarat – 2945 6770
Datardi Gujarat 1220 1060 –
Goma Gujarat 3200 3070 2520
Hiran-II Gujarat 3858 3429 9510
Machhundri-II Gujarat 3150 2750 6480
Mazarri Gujarat 1810 1375 –
Medhacreck Gujarat – 3795 –
Mukteshwar Gujarat 3990 3171 5830
Sani Gujarat 5508 4658 4120
Sipu Gujarat 17780 15600 32000
754 Chapter 16

Table 5. Statewise catchment areas of west flowing rivers South of Tapi

State Drainage area km2 

Tamil Nadu 4 694

Kerala 35 930
Karnataka 24 764
Goa 3 700
Maharashtra 32 806
Dadra & Nagar Haveli 490
Daman 65
Gujarat 10 608
Total 113 057

Table 6. Salient features of west flowing rivers south of Tapi

S. N. Basin Average Catchment Average-

annual rainfall area km2  annual flow
(mm) Mm3 

Rivers System from Tapi to Tadri

1 Purna 1 521 2 322 1 587
2 Ambica 1 999 2 715 3 528
3 Damanganga 1 750 1 382 1 572
4 Auranga 2 200 172 246
5 Par 2 076 688 942
6 Varoli (Jogni) 2 200 238 340
7 Free catchment between Varoli and 2 000 805 1 047
Vaitarna
8 Vaitarna 2 794 3 647 6 700
9 Ulhas 3 556 3 804 8 793
10 Free catchment between Ulhas & 2 200 266 380
Parval
11 Parvel 2 962 803 1 546
12 Patalganga 3 366 940 2 056
13 Amba 3 050 740 1 467
14 Kundalika 3 143 825 1 685
15 MandaI Jansi 2 655 1 505 2 597
16 Savitri 3 493 2 889 6 558
17 Bharaja 3 473 383 639
18 Ilne 3 200 74 154
19 Jog 3 511 385 379
20 Vashishti 3 391 2 238 4 933
21 Free catchment between Vashiti & 3 000 225 439
Shastri
22 Shastri 3 260 2 174 4 607
23 Free catchment between Shastri & 2 900 279 526
Kajvi
24 Kajvi 2 550 762 1 263
25 Free catchment between Kajvi & 3 000 94 183
Machkundi
Other Basins and Islands 755

26 Machkundi 2 150 833 1 164

27 Kodavali (Rajapur) 3 216 665 1 390
28 Vaghotan, 2 500 903 1 467
29 Kharda (Deogarh) 2 500 455 739
30 Piyali 3 000 86 168
31 Achra 3 207 297 619
32 Gad 2 600 891 1 506
33 Karli 2 750 753 1 346
34 Free catchment between Karli & 3 000 246 480
Talwada
35 Talvada 3 225 137 287
36 Free catchment between Talwada & 3 125 96 195
Terekhol
37 Terekhol 3 578 530 1 233
38 Chapora (Tillari) 3 578 530 1 233
39 Mandvi (Mahadayi) 3 134 2 032 4 139
40 Rachol 2 959 772 1 485
41 Sal 2 800 344 626
42 Free catchment between Sal & 2 900 446 841
Kalinadi
43 Kalindi 2 436 4 188 6 631
44 Gangavali (Bedthi) 2 039 3 574 4 737
45 Agnashini (Tadri) 2 956 1 330 2 556
Sub-total 87 009
River Systems from Tadri to Kanyakumari
46 Sharavathy 3 169 3 592 7 399
47 Free catchment between
Banduruholi & Sharavathy
48 Banduruholi 4 000 1 041 2 707
49 Free catchment between
Banduruholi & Chakra
50 Chakra 4 082 336 892
51 Haladi (Varahi) 4 587 759 2 263
52 Sita
53 Free catchment between Swarna &
Mulki
54 Mulki 3 800 3 067 7 576
55 Free catchment between Mulki &
Gurpur
56 Gurpur
57 Netravathy 5 363 3 222 12 813
58 Manjeshwar 3 600 90 210
59 Uppala 3 600 250 585
60 Shiruja 3 800 587 1 450
61 Morgal 3 800 132 326
62 Chandragiri 3 809 1 406 3 481
63 Chittari 3 600 145 339
64 Nileswar 3 700 190 457
65 Kariangode 4 000 561 1 459
66 Kaviyi 3 600 143 335
67 Peruvamba 3 700 300 722

(Continued)
756 Chapter 16

Table 6. (Continued)

S. N. Basin Average Catchment Average-

annual rainfall area km2  annual flow
(mm) Mm3 

68 Ramapuram 3 600 52 122

69 Kuppam 3 900 539 1 366
70 Vallapattanam 3 735 1 867 4 533
71 Anjarakadi 4 000 412 1 071
72 Tellicherry 3 900 132 335
73 Maha 4 000 394 1 024
74 Kuttiadi 3 900 588 1 478
75 Korapuzha 3 800 624 1 541
76 Kallai 3 200 96 200
77 Chaliyar 3 201 2 923 6 082
78 Kadalundi 3 201 1 122 2 335
79 Terurpuzha 2 800 117 213
80 Bharatapuzha 2 276 6 186 7 054
81 Keechari 2 800 401 730
82 Puzhalkal 2 800 234 426
83 Karuvannur 2 800 1 054 1 900
84 Chalakudy 4 290 1 704 3 277
85 Periyar 2 919 5 398 12 210
86 Moovattupuzha 3 385 2 004 4 409
87 Meenachil 3 400 1 272 2 811
88 Manimala 3 800 847 2 092
89 Pamba 3 600 2 235 5 230
90 Achenkoil 2 600 1 484 2 793
91 Pallickal 2 800 220 400
92 Kallada 2 800 1 699 3 092
93 Ithikkara 2 600 642 1 085
94 Ayroor 2 300 66 99
95 Vamanapuram 2 400 687 1 072
96 Mamom 2 000 114 148
97 Karamana 2 000 703 914
98 Neyyar 2 000 497 646
Sub-total 113 702
Total 200 711

Source: WG (1999).

16.3.1. Water Resources Projects in the Area

Some important projects located in this region are described next.

Tillari
Tillari is a masonry dam on Tillari River, 19 km from Chandgad in Kolhapur
District, Maharashtra. The catchment area at the dam is 4759 km2 . The height and
length of the dam are 38 m and 485 m respectively. The reservoir has a live storage
capacity of 113.24 MCM at FRL 750.2 m and the MDDL is at 737 m. With one unit
Other Basins and Islands 757

of 60 MW, Tillari power house has a firm power of 16 MW. MSEB commissioned
the project in 1986.

Bhivpuri
Bhivpuri hydropower project is located on Thokarwadi Rubble masonry gravity
dam on Andhra River, a tributary of Indarayni River, 18 km from Karjat, in Raigad
District, Maharashtra. The corresponding reservoir is known as Andhra Lake. The
catchment area at the dam is 124 km2 . The height and length of the dam is 58 m
and 571 m respectively. The reservoir has a live storage capacity of 325.64 MCM
at FRL 668 m. Initially, the power house had the installed capacity of 48 MW,
which was uprated to 6 units of 12 MW each in 1961. In 1998–99 the old plant was
replaced with 3 units of 24 MW each. The project has a firm power of 32.5 MW
and mean annual inflow of 247.32 MCM.

Bhira and Bhira pumped storage projects

These projects are located on Mulshi rubble masonry dam on Mula and Neela
Rivers. These projects are located at a distance of 30 km and 27 km respectively
from Kolad, in Raigad District, Maharashtra. The catchment area at the dam is
2476 km2 . The height of the Mulshi dam is 47 m. The reservoir has a live storage
capacity of 522.76 MCM at FRL 607 m and the MDDL is at 590 m. Former power
project has 6 units of 25 MW each whereas the later has a single unit of 150 MW.
The Bhira hydropower project has a firm power of 86 MW with mean annual inflow
of 685 MCM.

Bhira tail race project

One more power house has been constructed to utilize the tail water of Bhira power
house and Kundlika River, known as Bhira tail race. This power house is located
32 km from Mangaon, in Raigad District, Maharashtra. The catchment area at the
dam is 245 km2 . The power house has 2 units of 40 MW each and has a firm power
of 21 MW with mean annual inflow of 608 MCM.

Vaitarna
Vaitarna hydropower project is located near Vaitarna and Alwandi masonry and
earthen dam on Vaitarna and Alwandi Rivers, 30 km from Ghoti, in Nashik District,
Maharashtra. The catchment area at the dam is 1608 km2 . The height and length of
the dam is 47 m and 555 m respectively. The reservoir has a live storage capacity
of 35 MCM at FRL 603.5 m and the MDDL is at 580 m. The power house has a
unit of 60 MW. It has a firm power of 11 MW with mean annual inflow of 635
MCM. MSEB commissioned the project in 1976.

Kalinadi
Kalinadi Hydropower station utilizes water from the Bommanhalli masonry gravity
dam constructed on Kalinadi River. The power house is located at a distance of
758 Chapter 16

4 km from Dandeli in Uttara Kannada District, Karnataka. The catchment area at

the power house is 636 km2 . The height and length of the dam are 28.96 m and
1,025 m respectively. At FRL 438.38 m, the reservoir has a live storage capacity
of 83.90 MCM. Kalinadi power house has 6 units of 135 MW each. It has a firm
power of 341 MW with a mean annual inflow of 735 MCM. KPCL commissioned
the project in 1979–84.

Kadra
Kadra is a masonry gravity and earth dam on Kalinadi River located a distance of
35 km from Karwar in Uttara Kannada District, Karnataka. The catchment area at
the dam is 432 km2 . The height of the dam is 40.50 m. The reservoir has a live
storage capacity of 209 MCM at FRL 34.5 m and the MDDL is at 27 m. Kadra
power house has 3 units of 50 MW each, producing a firm power of 40 MW. KPCL
commissioned the project in 1997–99.

Kodasalli
Kodasalli is a 49 m high concrete gravity earth dam on Kalinadi River located
a distance of 70 km from Karwar in Uttara Kannada District, Karnataka. The
catchment area at the dam is 1049 km2 . The reservoir has a live storage capacity
of 178.82 MCM at FRL 75.5 m and the MDDL is at 62.5 m. Kodasalli power house
has 3 units of 40 MW each and a firm power of 38 MW. It was commissioned in
1998–99.

Pykara Singara
Pykara Singara hydropower project on Glenmorgan masonry & gravity dam on
Pykara and Mukurthy Rivers, located at a distance of 36 km from Udhagamandalam
in Nilgiris District, Tamil Nadu. The height and length of the dam is 29 m and
250.6 m respectively. At FRL 1,972.56 m, the reservoir has a live storage capacity
of 6.113 MCM. Pykara Singara power house has 3 units of 6.65 MW each, 2 units of
11 MW each, and 2 units of 14 MW each with a total installed capacity of 70 MW.
It has a firm power of 46 MW. TNEB commissioned the project in 1932–54.

Kadamparai
Kadamparai is a masonry gravity and earth dam on Kadamparai River, tributary
of Aliyar River, located near Pollachi in Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu. The
catchment area at the dam is 83 km2 . The height of the dam is 63.5 m. The reservoir
has a live storage capacity of 27 MCM at FRL 1,149 m and the MDDL is at
1,112 m. Kadamparai power house has 4 units of 100 MW each. It has a firm power
of 10 MW. TNEB commissioned the project in 1987–88.

Sabarigiri
Sabarigiri hydroelectric station is located on the Kakki concrete gravity dam
constructed on Pambas and Kakki Rivers. The power house is located 72 km from
Other Basins and Islands 759

Pathanamthitta in Quilon District, Kerala. The catchment area at the power house
is 316 km2 . The height and length of the dam is 110 m and 336 m respectively. The
reservoir has a live storage capacity of 446.5 MCM at FRL 981 m and the MDDL
is at 908 m. It has 6 units of 50 MW each with a mean annual inflow of 824 MCM.
It has a firm power of 139 MW. Kerala State electricity Board commissioned the
project in 1966–67.

Kakkad
Kakkad hydroelectric station has two concrete gravity dams, namely Moozhiyar
and Veluthodu, constructed on the rivers with the same names. Moozhiyar and
Veluthodu streams are the tributaries of Pamba River. The power house is located in
Pathanamthitta District, Kerala. The catchment area at the power house is 3585 km2
and the mean annual inflow is 77.59 MCM. The length of both dams is 192 m. It
has 2 units of 25 MW each with a firm power of 29 MW. Kerala State electricity
Board commissioned the project in 1999.

Supa dam
Supa is a concrete gravity dam on Kalinadi River located 22 km from Karwar in
Uttara Kannada District, Karnataka. Supa dam is the main storage for the Kalinadi
Hydroelectric project in Karnataka. It is a 101 m high concrete gravity dam. This
dam creates main storage reservoir for the entire project with a total capacity of
4300 Mm3 . The catchment area at the dam is 1057 km2 and its height is 101 m.
The length of the dam of 322 m which is divided in 20 wedge-shaped blocks to
suit the geology of the terrain and to facilitate speedier construction. The water
impounded in Supa reservoir is being utilized for power generation at Nagajhari
Power house which has 2 units of 50 MW each. It has a firm power of 54 MW with
mean annual inflow of 3,393 MCM.

Varahi Project
Varahi project consists of a hydropower station near the Hulical earth dam
constructed on Varahi River. The power house is located 35 km from Kundapur in
Udupi District, Karnataka. The catchment area at the dam is 214 km2 . The height
and length of the dam are 35.9 m and 660 m respectively. The reservoir has a
live storage capacity of 15 MCM at FRL 564 m. It has 2 units of 115 MW each
with a mean annual inflow of 198 MCM. It has a firm power of 121 MW. KPCL
commissioned the project in 1989–90.

Idamalayar
Idamalayar is a concrete gravity dam on Idamalayar River, tributary of Periyar
River, 81 km from Ernakulam in Ernakulam District, Kerala. The catchment area
at the dam is 381 km2 . The height and length of the dam is 91 m and 373 m
respectively. The reservoir has a live storage capacity of 1,018 MCM at FRL 169 m
and the MDDL is at 115 m. Idamalayar power house has 2 units of 37.5 MW each,
760 Chapter 16

with mean annual inflow of 1,370 MCM. It has a firm power of 37 MW. KSEB
commissioned the project in 1987.

Linganamakki
Linganamakki is a masonry gravity earth dam on Sharavathy River, 35 km from
Sagar, in Shimoga District, Karnataka, completed in 1964. The dam is located
at 14 41 24 N latitude and 74 50 54 E longitude and has a catchment area of
1992 km2 . The height and length of the dam is 61.28 m and 2,749 m respectively.
Very high rainfall is received in the catchment of this dam; the recorded maximum
rainfall is 8,150 mm. In addition, inflow is also received from Chakra and Savahaklu
reservoirs which are linked with Linganamakki through a canal. Linganamakki
reservoir has a live storage capacity of 4,276 MCM; its maximum water level
is 555.04 m, FRL is at 554.43 m, and the MDDL is at 522.73 m. It has caused
submergence of an area of 326 sq. km. Eleven radial gates of 1524 m × 731 m
have been provided at the spillway, the design flood peak being 8,070 cumec. From
Linganamakki, water flows through a channel to the Talakalale balancing reservoir.
The power house at the site is known as Mahatma Gandhi (Jog Falls) power
house. It has 4 units of 12 MW each and 4 units of 18 MW each with a total installed
capacity of 120 MW. A view of Jog Fall is given in Figure 1.

Sharavathy
Sharvathy hydroelectric station has been constructed near the Talakalake masonry
gravity dam constructed on Sharvathy River. The power house uses the tail water

Figure 1. A panoramic view of Jog Falls

Other Basins and Islands 761

of Linganamakki Dam constructed on Sharvathy River. The project is located at

a distance of 30 km from Sagar, in Shimoga District, Karnataka. The catchment
area at the dam is 46 km2 . The height and length of the dam is 62.5 m and 353.6 m
respectively. The reservoir has a live storage capacity of 54 MCM at FRL 516.64 m
and the MDDL is at 515.11 m. It has 10 units of 89.1 MW each. It has a firm power
of 545 MW.

Aliyar
Upper Aliyar is a masonry gravity dam on Aliyar River, 35 km from Pollachi, in
Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu. The catchment area at the dam is 121 km2 . The
height and length of the dam is 81 m and 316 m respectively. The reservoir has a
live storage capacity of 25.91 MCM at FRL 770 m and the MDDL is at 730 m. The
power house has a single unit of 60 MW each. It has a firm power of 12 MW with
mean annual flow of 55 MCM. TNEB commissioned the project in 1970.

Idukki
Idukki is a concrete arch gravity dam on Periyar Cheruthoni and Killivally rivers,
located at a distance of 25 km from Thodupuzha in Idukki District, Kerala. The
catchment area at the dam is 649 km2 . The height and length of the dam is 169 m
and 366 m respectively. The reservoir has a live storage capacity of 1,459.7 MCM
at FRL 732.62 m and the MDDL is at 694.94 m. Idukki power house has 6 units of
130 MW each. It has a firm power of 230 MW with mean annual inflow of 1,360
MCM. A view of Idukki dam is shown in Figure 2.
The Cherthono tributary is dammed by a concrete gravity dam, about 135.7 m
high and 651 m long. This dam was completed in 1976.

Kodayar
Kodayar is masonry gravity dam on Kodayar River, located at a distance of 25 km
from Kulasekharan in Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu. The catchment area at
the dam is 29 km2 . The corresponding reservoir is known as Upper Kodayar. The
height and length of the dam is 88 m and 181 m respectively. The reservoir has a
live storage capacity of 73 MCM at FRL 1,326 m and the MDDL is at 1,296 m.
Kodayar power house has a single units of 60 MW each. It has a firm power of
26 MW with mean annual inflow of 75 MCM.

Sholayar
Sholayar is a masonry gravity dam on Sholayar River, 65 km from Chalakudy in
Trichur District, Kerala. The catchment area at the dam is 1865 km2 . The height
and length of the dam is 58 m and 431 m respectively. The reservoir has a live
storage capacity of 149.2 MCM at FRL 812.68 m and the MDDL is at 779 m.
Sholayar power house has 3 units of 18 MW each, with mean annual inflow of
1,710 MCM. It has a firm power of 27 MW. KSEB commissioned the project in
1966–68.
762 Chapter 16

Figure 2. The majestic Idukki dam

Sholayar I
Sholayar I Hydro electric project is located near Sholayar masonry & earthen dam
on Sholayar River, 25 km from Valparai and 90 km from Pollachi in Coimbatore
District, Tamil Nadu. The catchment area at the dam is 12032 km2 . The height
and length of the dam is 105 m and 3,622 m respectively. The reservoir has a live
storage capacity of 138 MCM at FRL 1,003 m and the MDDL is at 960 m. Sholayar
I power house has 2 units of 35 MW each, with mean annual inflow of 1,034 MCM.
It has a firm power of 28 MW. TNEB commissioned the project in 1971.

Kuttiyadi
Kuttiyadi is a masonry gravity dam on Kuttiyadi River, 55 km from Kozhikode in
Kozhikode District, Kerala. The catchment area at the dam is 39 km2 . The height
and length of the dam is 40 m and 229 m respectively. The reservoir has a live
storage capacity of 29.6 MCM at FRL 758.04 m and the MDDL is at 737.62 m.
Kuttiyadi power house has 3 units of 25 MW each, with mean annual inflow of
205.30 MCM. It has a firm power of 28 MW. KSEB commissioned the project
in 1972.
Other Basins and Islands 763

Salient features of some more existing and under construction water resources
projects with a live storage capacity of 10 MCM and above are presented in Table 7
and Table 8, respectively.

Table 7. Salient features of selected existing projects across West flowing Rivers South of Tapi

Name of the State Year of Gross Live Designed Installed

project completion storage storage annual capacity
capacity capacity irrigation (MW)
Mm3  Mm3  Mm2 

Tapi To Tadri
Anjunam Goa – 4482 4420 1630 –
Bommanhalli Karnataka 1977 9690 8390 1940 –
Dam
Thattihalla Karnataka 1980 26400 24900 – 810
Dam
Barvi Maharashtra 1984 46040 43040 – –
Khopoli Maharashtra – – 18690 – 70
Natuwadi Maharashtra 1983 2808 2723 4500 –
Surya Maharashtra – 28531 27635 27000 4
Tansa Maharashtra 1892 18360 14509 – –
Tulshi Maharashtra 1879 1300 1040 5800 –
Vehar Maharashtra 1860 4150 3172 – –
Tadri To
Kanyakumari
Chakra Dam Karnataka 1985 22200 13300 – –
Savahaklu Karnataka 1980 9436 6580 – –
Dam
Talakalale Karnataka 1966 13000 5400 – 891
Anayirankal Kerala 1965 4984 4899 – 11
Chalakudy Kerala 1965 15347 15080 39380 –
Mmeenkara Kerala 1962 – 1133 10930 –
Challiar Kerala 1965 – 1370 – –
Kakki Dam Kerala 1966 45502 44741 41680 410
Kallada Kerala – 50490 48792 92000 –
Kannira Puzha Kerala 1977 6110 5950 22000 –
Madupatty Kerala 1956 5522 5122 – –
Malampuzha Kerala 1955 23669 22696 42009 –
Mangalam Kerala 1962 2547 2467 6880 –
Neyyar Kerala 1959 10608 10115 17950 –
Pamba Dam Kerala 1967 3922 3115 49000 –
Panniar Dam Kerala – – 5200 – 30
Peechi Dam Kerala 1957 11044 10817 23170 –
Ponmudi Kerala 1963 5159 4740 9370 –
Poringal Kuthu Kerala 1957 3200 3030 39380 60
Pothundi Kerala 1968 5091 4389 10930 –
Vazhani Kerala 1958 1812 1665 7130 –
Wadakkanchery Kerala 1977 – 1812 3560 –
Walayar Kerala 1956 1890 1840 6470 –

(Continued)
764 Chapter 16

Table 7. (Continued)

Name of the State Year of Gross Live Designed Installed

project completion storage storage annual capacity
capacity capacity irrigation (MW)
Mm3  Mm3  Mm2 

Chittaratadnakma Tamil Nadu 1974 2780 2085 1493 –

Parambikulam Tamil Nadu 1967 50466 37971 10100 –
Periyar Tamil Nadu 1897 44355 29935 5787 –
Thirumurthy Tamil Nadu 1967 5480 4939 8083 –

16.4. EAST FLOWING RIVERS BETWEEN MAHANADI

AND GODAVARI

Turning attention to the other side of the peninsular triangle, this group covers
the east-flowing rivers between Mahanadi and Godavari and extends over an area
of 49570 km2 which lies between longitudes 81 15 E to 85 30 E and latitudes
16 55 N to 20 18 N. The basin lies at the east coast of the peninsular India and
covers large areas in the States of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. The state-wise
distribution of the drainage areas is shown in Table 9.
The basin of rivers in this zone bounded on the north, the west and the south
by the various ranges of the Eastern Ghats and on the east by the Bay of the

Table 8. Salient features of selected under construction projects in West flowing Rivers South of Tapi

Name of the State Gross Live Designed Installed

Project storage storage annual capacity
capacity capacity irrigation (MW)
Mm3  Mm3  Mm2 

Tapi To Tadri
Salauli Goa 24634 23913 22980
‘ –
Dandeli Dam Karnataka 7823 2442 – –
Bhatsa Maharashtra 95710 92312 43000
‘ 10
Deogad Maharashtra 10043 9802 8350
‘ –
Gad Maharashtra 6662 6473 – 21
Hetavana Maharashtra 12751 12700 12830
‘ –
Talamba Maharashtra 29715 28583 16000
‘ –
Wandri Maharashtra 3651 3471 3060
‘ –
Tadri To Kanyakumari
Bijjur Karnataka 6500 1642 1820
‘ –
Mani Dam Karnataka 101847 92868 – 14
Attapady Kerala 6500 6070 8380
‘ –
Chimmony Kerala 17924 17249 26000
‘ –
Muvathupuzha Kerala 4200 3100 52000
‘ –
Puyaukutty-I Kerala 122600 102150 – –
Vamanapuram Kerala 8160 8000 18010
‘ –
Other Basins and Islands 765

Table 9. Statewise catchment areas of east flowing rivers between Mahanadi and
Godavari

State Drainage area km2 

Orissa 25,665
Andhra Pradesh 23,905
Total 49,570

Bengal. The basin, which is irregular in shape has a maximum length of about
182 km in the northwest-southeast direction and a maximum width of 476 km in
the northeast-southwest direction.
The basin can be divided into two major topographical divisions: the hill ranges
of the Eastern Ghats and the coastal plains. The hill ranges are well-forested. The
plains extending from the eastern slopes of the Ghats slope gently towards the Bay
of Bengal. The entire zone can also be divided into 13 sub-basins: 1) Small streams
between the Mahanadi and the Rushikulya draining into the Chilka lake; 2) The
Rushikulya River; 3) Small stream - between the Rushikulya and the Bahuda; 4)
The Bahuda; 5) Small streams between the Bahuda and the Vamsadhara; 6) The
Vamsadhara; 7) The Nagavali; 8) Small streams between the Nagavali and the
Sarada; 9) The Sarada; 10) The Varaha; 11) The Tanadava; 12) The Eluru; and 13)
Small stream between the Eluru and the Godavari.
The Vamsadhara, the Rushikulya, the Nagavali and the Sarada Rivers in the basin
are the more important.

16.4.1. Vamsadhara Basin

The Vamsadhara River originates from the hills near village Lanjigarh of Kalahandi
district of Orissa. After flowing for a length of 160 km in Orissa, it forms the
boundary between Orissa and Andhra Pradesh and then traversing through Andhra
Pradesh, falls into the Bay of Bengal. Out of the total catchment area of 11,500 sq.
km, 9,400 sq. km lies in Orissa. This river ranks 5th to Mahanadi in terms of its
water potential and flood producing capacity. The total length of river from head to
ocean is 380 km out of which 276 km falls in Orissa and 104 km in Andhra Pradesh.
The major tributaries are Harabhangi, Badanalla, Mandratanaya and Sanonae.

Harbhangi river
The Harabhangi River is a tributary of Vamsadhara River which originates from
Ramagiri of Ganjam district in Orissa state at an altitude of 1,100 m. The catchment
area intercepted at dam site is 572 sq. km. The catchment is almost fan shaped and
more than 50% of its area is covered by forest and the area is thinly populated.
Harbhangi traverses 36 km in A.P. before falling into Bay of Bengal. Nearly 78%
of its catchment area lies in Orissa.
766 Chapter 16

16.4.2. Rushikulya River Basin

The Rushikulya river
The Rushikulya River is one of the medium seized east flowing rivers in Peninsular
India. The larger portion of the river falls in Ganjam and Gajapati districts, and
few portion in Pun and Phulbani districts of Orissa state. It is an important river
of Orissa having a drainage area of about 82100 Mm2 which is approximately
5.71% of the total area of the State. The drainage basin spread over the parts of the
Districts of Ganjam, Phulbani and Puri lies within the geographical coordinates of
19 07 N to 20 19 N latitudes, and 84 01 E to 85 06 E longitudes.
The Rushikulya River originates from Ararha bity and Kutrabor hills of Eastern
Ghats at an elevation of 500 m in Ganjam and Phulbani Districts. It flows in the
south eastern direction through Purushottampur and falls to the Bay of Bengal near
Chhatrapur in Ganjam District. The length of the main stream from its origin to the
outfall is about 175 km. The principal tributaries of the Rusikulya River are Padma
and Ghodahado on the right and Badanadi, Baghua, Dhanei and Kharakhari on the
left side.
The climate of the basin is moderate having four distinct seasons namely: Winter
(December to February), summer (March to May), south-west monsoon (June to
September) and post monsoon period (October and November). The maximum
and minimum recorded temperatures of the basin are 45  C and 12  C respectively.
Relative humidity during the summer monsoon season varies from 88% to 93%.
The average annual rainfall in the basin is about 1,235 mm, of which about 80%
occurs during south-west monsoon season. Besides the monsoon rains, cyclonic
rains which have caused severe floods have also been observed in recent years. In
certain years, serious drought has also occurred due to inadequate rainfall.

16.4.3. Nagavali Basin

The Nagavali basin is surrounded by the Mahanadi on north, Godavari basin on

west, Champavathi, Peddagedda, Kandivalasa River basins and Bay of Bengal in
south, and Vamsadhara River basin in the east. The total catchment area is about
8845 km2 . Out of this, the catchment area in Orissa state is 4040 km2 and in
Andhra Pradesh State it is 4805 km2 . The maximum length of the basin from
north to south is about 210 km lying between latitudes 18 11 N to 19 45 N. The
maximum width of the basin is about 110 km in between longitudes 82 53 E to
84 2 E.
The Nagavali River rises in the Eastern Ghats in the Orissa State. After flowing
in south eastern direction for about 40 km, it takes a turn towards southerly direction
and flows in this direction for 25 km. There after, where the river crosses the
Visakhapatnam-Raipur railway line and continues to flow in the same direction
and parallel to the railway line for another 22 km where it passes one and half
km east of Rayagada. The river continues to flow for another 20 km in the same
direction and almost parallel to the railway line and Parvathipuram-Rayagada road.
Other Basins and Islands 767

It enters Andhra Pradesh State limits at a point 6 km south of Jimidepeta Railway

Station. A number of minor hill streams fall into the main river in the Orissa
State limits.
After entering Andhra Pradesh State, the Nagavali river takes a south easterly
direction and continues to flow in this direction till it falls in the Bay of Bengal
about 10 km south east of Srikakulam town near Dibbalapalem village. Description
of its main tributaries is given next.

Janjavathi river
The Janjavathi River takes its origin in Koraput District of Orissa State and flows
for about 60 km in easterly direction. It joins the Nagavali River on the right side
near Devara Gumpa in Komarada Mandal of Vizinagaram District.

Vottigedda river
The Vottigedda River takes its origin near the Andhra Pradesh-Orissa State border
near Addapi at an altitude of 1,060 m above sea level and flows in southerly
direction for about 50 km. It joins the Nagavali River on the left side near Chidimi
in Veeraghattam Mandal, Srikakulam District.

Vegavathi river
The Vegavathi River is the major tributary of the Nagavali River which takes its
origin in Arakuvalley Mandalam in Visakhapatnam District at an altitude of 1,600 m
above sea level. The river flows almost in easterly direction for about 80 km and
is joined by the Suvarnamukhi River on the left side at a place called Kottisa. The
Suvarnamujkhi River is the tributary of the Vegavathi River which takes its origin
in Koraput District of Orissa State.

16.4.4. Sarada River Basin

This is a small river that drains the area between Eastern Ghats and the Bay of
Bengal in the north-eastern coastal area of Andhra Pradesh. The drainage area
of the Sarada River basin is 2590 km2 , which lies between longitude 82 30 to
83 07 E and latitude 17 25 to 18 17 N. The river is bounded by Anakapalli minor
drainages and Naravagedda minor basin on the eastern side, Sileru River (a tributary
to Godavari) on the Northern side and Vardha river basin on the Western side. The
entire basin is situated in the 19 administrative mandals of Visakhapatnam District
and one mandal of Vijayanagaram District.
The maximum length of the basin from east to west is 63 km and from north
to south, it is about 95 km. The Sarada River originates in the Anantgiri reserved
forest area of Eastern Ghats near Lakshmipuram village of Chodavaram mandal.
The river flows in the southern direction until it reaches Anakapalli, it then takes a
southwestern turn from Anakapalli to Medupaka and thereafter flows in southerly
direction until it joins the sea. The river is not perennial; it being a hill stream is
768 Chapter 16

characterized by occasional floods. The drainage pattern of the basin was observed
as dendrite type. The elevation of the river at its origin is about 1,447.80 m.
The basin consists of Pleistocene unconsolidated formations near sea coast and
archean complex of unclassified crystalline khondalities and granites. The major
soil types in this basin are: red loamy soil, red sandy soil, and coastal sands and
alluvial soils. Red sandy soils cover the largest area in the basin. The acidic granites,
gneisses, quartzites and felpathic are subordinate rock types, rich in iron and
magnesium bearing minerals. These are responsible particularly for the formation
of red soils, and at certain places for formation of yellow, grey or even black
colored soils. Coastal sands and alluvial soils occur in the coastal belt of the
basin.
Expectedly, the coastal part of the basin is highly humid. The basin experiences a
marked fall in the temperature in the month of November. The highest temperature
of the basin observed at the Anakapalli was close to 44  C and lowest temperature is
about 12  C. During the winter months, the mean temp ranges from 29  C to 17  C.
During the summer months, the mean temperature ranges from 38  C to 25  C.
The basin lies in medium rainfall zone and the rainfall varies from 700 to
1,000 mm. Most of the rainfall in this region is received during south-west monsoon
from June to September.

16.4.5. Suddegedda Basin

This basin lies between Mahanadi and Godavari, between latitudes 17 09 10 N
and 17 30 45 N and longitudes 82 08 30 E and 82 19 15 E. It occupies an
area of 526 km2 . The basin covers Prathipadu Mandal and parts of Rajavom-
mangi, Pithapuram and Gollaprolu Mandals. Nearly 57 villages fall in the basin
area.
A number of ephemeral hill streams working their way through the undulatory
hilly tracts join together to form the stream. Gokavaram “Yeti Calva” or ‘Kuntidevi
vagu: Further downstream, this river is known as Suddagedda. The drainage pattern
of the basin is dendritic to subdendritic. The Suddegedda basin has a drainage
density of 113 km/km2 . Subbareddysagar Project, a major tank across the above
stream, has a storage capacity of 51 Mm3 .
In the basin, elevation ranges from 700 m to 20 m. Although this is not a large
variation in absolute terms, looking at the elevation range in Eastern Ghats and size
of the catchments, this variation is quite large. The basin area has a series of hill in
the northern side which are a part of Eastern Ghats. The general slope of the basin
is towards south-southeast.
The basin area enjoys tropical climate with hot summers and cold winters.
Although the area receives rainfall from both the monsoons, more than half of
the rainfall is contributed by southwest monsoon (June and September) while the
remaining rainfall is by north-west monsoons during the months of October and
November. The average annual rainfall is 1,059 mm.
Other Basins and Islands 769

The predominant soils in the basin are black clay and red and light brown sandy
soils. Towards the northern part of the basin, red soils are predominant in the hilly
tracts and valley portions while in the middle part of the basin, light brown soils
and towards the southern part black soils are predominant.
The main crops grown in the area are paddy, banana, sugarcane and commercial
crops like chillies and cotton. The northern part of the basin is mostly occupied
by cashew and mango orchards. Paddy and banana are grown utilizing irrigation
water under Subbardeddysagar project and ground water. Rainfed crops like pulses
and gingelli are also grown in the area. The total irrigated area from surface
water sources is 6981 Mm2 , out of which an area of 1758 Mm2 is irrigated from
the Subbareddysagar reservoir and 5223 Mm2 gets water from minor irrigation
tanks.

16.4.6. Water Resources Projects

A number of minor irrigation structures exist on some of these tributaries which

include: Bhanjanagar reservoir; Sorada reservoir; Madhoborida diversion weir;
Janivilli diversion weir; Sarisomuli diversion weirs; Ghodahado Daha Project;
Ramanadi Project; Baghua Stage I Project; Dhanei Project; Jayamangal Project;
and Hirdharbati projects.

Harabhanghi irrigation project

The Harabhanghi irrigation project is a reservoir scheme across Harabhangi River
located at 19 29 58 N latitude and 84 8 12 E longitude in Ganjam district, 250 km
away from Orissa State capital Bhubaneswar. The aim of the project is to
supply the irrigation water through canal system to the command area lying in
Ganjam district, Orissa. Ganjam district has got immense water resource so that
such type of major project has been planned to cater the water requirement for
irrigation.
Being an interstate river between Orissa and Andhra Pradesh, an agreement was
made in 1962 between the Government of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh regarding
the utilization of water of Vamsadhara basin. According to this agreement reached
in the year 1962, “the yield of Vamsadhara basin is just sufficient to meet the
requirement of both the states. The water of Vamsadhara basin may consequently
be utilized by A.P. and Orissa on a fifty:fifty basis.” The 75% of dependable water
available at Gotta barrage (A.P.) is estimated to be about 3,100 MCM. Thus Orissa’s
share comes to 1,550 MCM. Harabhangi project is one such project in the state that
utilizes its share of water in Vamsadhara basin.
The basin receives about 85% of the annual rainfall from SE monsoon during
June to October. The maximum, minimum and average rainfall in this area are
about 1,917 mm, 799 mm, and 1,132 mm respectively. The Live storage capacity
of reservoir is 17,200 ha-m and the reservoir envisages irrigating about 9,650 ha of
C.C.A. in Ganjam district.
770 Chapter 16

16.5. EAST FLOWING RIVERS BETWEEN GODAVARI

AND KRISHNA

These rivers flow towards east and join the Bay of Bengal between Godavari and
Krishna, in total covering an area of 12289 km2 . The basin lies between longitudes
80 30 E to 81 45 E and latitudes 16 10 N to 17 30 N. This whole area falls in the
State of Andhra Pradesh.
The Godavari River bounds the area on the north and the east, the Krishna River
basin lies to the west and the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal on the south.
The area has an irregular shape with the maximum length of 155 km in north-
south direction and 125 km in east and west direction. Topographically the area
can be divided in two distinct classes: the hilly area of the Eastern Ghats and the
plains. There are five small basins in the area, namely, 1) a small stream between
Gundalkamma and Musi; 2) Musi; 3) Paleru; 4) Manneru; and 5) a small stream
between the Manneru and the Pennar. The Gundlakamma and the Manneru are the
important basins.

16.5.1. Gundlakamma River Basin

The Gundlakamma River is a small river of about 264 km length which originates
in the Nallamali hills of Mallamalai forest near Gundla Brahmeswaram Village, in
Nandyal taluka of Kurnool District at an altitude of 680 m. Gundlakamma flows
through deep ravines and thickly grown natural forests and hilly tracts up to
Cumbum tank situated in Cumbum village in Prakasam District. The river flows
in north-east direction up to the confluence of Konduleru River, then takes a turn
towards east up to the Pittambanda village where it joins of Konkeru River. From
here onwards, the river flows in the south-east direction and finally joins Bay
of Bengal near Pallipalem village. The river’s total catchment area is 8195 km2 ,
including the area drained by its tributaries Jamaleru, Venumuleru, Mekaleru,
Teegaleru, Duvvaleru, Rallavagu, Konduleru, Pasupaleru, Konkeru, Chilakaleru,
Voleru, etc. The Gundlakamma basin is bounded by Vogeru vagu, Romperu on east
side, by Nallamalai hill range on the western side, Krishna basin on the northern
side and Musi river basin on the southern side and flowing eastwards into Bay
of Bengal.
The climate of coastal part of the study area may be broadly classified under
tropical coastal type and rest is of steppe type. According to Koppan, the climate is
tropical Savannah in upper part and dry season in high sun period in the rest of the
area. The daily mean temperature is about 275  C. Mean maximum temperature is
around 325  C. Mean minimum temperature is about 225  C. Highest maximum
temperature is about 47  C and lowest minimum temperature is about 14  C. The
mean diurnal range of temperature is about 10  C.
For the Gundlakamma basin, the annual rainfall is 800 mm. Of this, about 25 mm
falls during January and February, about 75 mm during March to May, about
400 mm during the monsoon months of June to September and about 300 mm during
Other Basins and Islands 771

October to December. The annual runoff is about 200 mm. At times, the basin gets
heavy rainfall due to cyclones forming in Bay of Bengal.

16.6. EAST FLOWING RIVERS BETWEEN KRISHNA

AND PENNAR
The area occupied by the east flowing rivers between Krishna and Pennar extends
over 24649 km2 and lies between longitudes 78 45 E to 80 52 E and latitudes
14 38 N to 16 22 N. The entire area lies in state of Andhra Pradesh.
The Nallamala hills and the Velikonda range of the Eastern Ghats bound the area
on the west, a ridge separates it from the Krishna basin on the north, another ridge
separates it from the Pennar basin on the south, and the Bay of Bengal extends
on the east. The shape of the basin is irregular and it has a maximum length of
213 km in a west-east direction and a maximum width of 186 km in the north-south
direction. There are two major topographical divisions in the basin: the hilly area
of the Eastern Ghats, and the plains. The plains extending from the eastern slopes
of the Ghats slope gently towards the Bay of Bengal. The basin can be divided into
nine sub-basins in the basin, of which the Gundlakamma and the Manneru are the
more important.
Various river systems in the basin from the north to the south are: Three
small streams up to the Vogarivagu; The Vogarivagu; a small stream between the
Vogarivagu and the Gundlakamma; the Gundlakamma; a Small stream between the
Gundlakamma and the Musi; the Musi; the Paleru; the Manneru; and a small stream
between the Manneru and the Pennar.

16.6.1. Water Resources Projects

There are several existing and under construction water resources projects in the
small basins from Mahanadi to Godavari and Krishna to Pennar. The salient features
of these projects with a live storage capacity of 10 MCM and more have been
presented in Table 10 and Table 11, respectively.

16.7. EAST FLOWING RIVERS BETWEEN PENNAR

AND CAUVERY
The region covers the east flowing rivers between the Pennar and the Cauvery
extending over a large area of 64751 km2 . The basin lies between east longitudes
77 35 to 80 21 and north latitudes 11 15 to 14 30 . Lying in peninsular India, the
area covers large areas in the State of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Pondicherry and
Tamil Nadu. The State-wise distribution of the area is shown in Table 12.
On the eastern side of the area lies the Bay of Bengal. On the remaining other
sides, it is bounded by the various ranges of the Eastern Ghats. These are the
Velikonda Range, the Nagari Hills, the Javadi Hills, the Shevaroy Hills, the Chitteri
Hills, the Kalrayan Hills, the Kollaimalai Hills, the Pachai Malai Hills etc. The area
772 Chapter 16

Table 10. Salient features of selected existing projects in existing east flowing Rivers from Mahanadi
to Godavari and Krishna to Pennar basin

Name of the project State Year of Gross Live Designed

completion storage storage annual
capacity capacity irrigation
Mm3  Mm3  Mm2 

Cumbum Tank Andhra Pradesh 1896 9565 6400 3200

Gesthani Dam Andhra Pradesh 1969 9410 8985 5610
Kanigiri Andhra Pradesh 1906 13499 11407 37240
Konam Reservoir Andhra Pradesh 1981 2403 2360 2890
Maddigedda Andhra Pradesh 1980 1373 1227 1600
Mopadu Andhra Pradesh 1923 – 5933 4400
Paleru Reservoir Andhra Pradesh – 7300 6650 2660
Raiwada Andhra Pradesh – 10198 9266 2400
Tammileru Andhra Pradesh 1978 8495 7645 3200
Vamsadhara Stage-I Andhra Pradesh – 53944 46525 20000
Varaha Dam Andhra Pradesh 1975 1317 1221 1760
Baghua-I Orissa 1977 4934 3218 –
Daha Orissa 1979 2800 2195 6870
Godahade Orissa 1976 2220 1850 6200
Salia Orissa 1977 5975 4800 11040

has an irregular shape; it has a maximum length of about 290 km and a maximum
width of about 360 km. There are three major topographical divisions in the basin,
namely: the hill ranges of the Eastern Ghats; the table land or the plateau region;
and the coastal plains. The basin can be divided into 12 sub-basins, of which the

Table 11. Salient features of selected under construction projects in existing east flowing Rivers from
Mahanadi to Godavari and Krishna to Pennar basin

Name of the project State Gross Live storage Designed

storage capacity annual
capacity Mm3  irrigation
Mm3  Mm2 

Andra Andhra Pradesh 2776 2640 3770

Gundlakamma Andhra Pradesh 9860 5236 –
Janjhavathi Reservoir Andhra Pradesh 9630 7856 4020
Madduvalasa Andhra Pradesh 9556 9362 6000
Thandwa Andhra Pradesh 14046 12160 13130
Tharakaramathirtha Andhra Pradesh 8294 6815 –
Sagaram Project
Vengalaraja Sagaram Andhra Pradesh 4759 4235 6720
Vathinagu Andhra Pradesh 8206 7496 –
Yarralakalwa Project Andhra Pradesh – 11467 9500
Yeleru Reservoir Scheme Andhra Pradesh 67960 53800 40470
Badnella Irrigation Project Orissa 8250 6700 13740
Baghua Phase-Ii Orissa 3750 3100 4380
Other Basins and Islands 773

Table 12. Statewise catchment areas of east flowing rivers, between Pennar and Cauvery

State Drainage area km2 

Andhra Pradesh 16478

Karnataka 6173
Tamil Nadu 41759
Pondicherry 341
Total 64751

Palar, the Ponnaiyar and the Vellar are the more important. The shape of the Palar
basin is like a rhombus. The Ponnaiyar basin is elongated in shape, whereas the
Vellar basin is fan shaped.
The major rivers that flow in the area (listed from the north to the south) include:
the Kunleru; the Swarnamukhi; Small streams draining into the Pulicat Lake; the
Araniar; the Kortalaiyar; the Cooum; the Adyar; the Palar; Minor streams between
the Palar and the Gingee; the Gingee; the Ponnaiyar and the Vellar.
A few important rivers are described in the following.

16.7.1. Palar Basin

The Palar (also known as Palaru) basin is located at a latitude of 12 15 N to
13 40 N and at a longitude of 77 50 E to 80 15 E. The basin is bounded by the
Papagni, Bahuda and Punchu Basins of Andhra Pradesh and the Madras basin of
Tamil Nadu on the north, by the Ponnaiyar basin on the west, by the Tonidaru basin
on the south and by the Bay of Bengal on the east. The basin is quite wide at its
head reaches and tapers down to a narrow width of about 50 km on the coastline.
Out of the total catchment area of 18409 km2 , about 2616 km2 lie in Karnataka,
4387 km2 in Andhra Pradesh and 11406 km2 in Tamil Nadu.
The Palar (Palaru) River originates in the Kolar district of Karnataka and after
traversing a distance of 30 km through Andhra Pradesh, it enters Tamil Nadu on
its 130th km near Vaniyambadi. The Kavundi aru River joins the Palar River near
Pallikonda. From this point, the river widens tremendously and maintains nearly
the same width till it meets the Sea. Palar River is an ephemeral channel that has a
flow for only a few days in a year and during the major part of the year, it remains
totally dry.
The Cheyyaru, Kamandalaru, and Kavundiarum are the important tributaries of
the Palar River. The Kiliyaru River across which Madurantakam tank has been
formed joins Palar near the Sea mouth. The Cheyyaru River originates from the
southern slopes of the Javandu hills near Komattiyur and after traversing through
Chengam, Polur and Tiruvettipuram, it finally joins Palar River near Walajabad.
The Cheyyaru anicut has been built across the river, about 10 km south-east of
Arni. Another anicut namely, the Uttiramerur anicut has also built on the Cheyyaru
River about 10 km east of Tiruvettipuram. The Kamandalaru River is a small stream
774 Chapter 16

which originates from the Java hills and after traversing through Arni town, it joins
the Cheyyaru River, just downstream of the Cheyyaru anicut.
The Kiliyaru River is a small tributary of the Palar River. It originates between
Chetput and Vandavasi. The Madurantakam tank, one of the largest tanks of Tamil
Nadu has been built on this river. The Kiliyaru River joins the Palaru River about
20 km upstream of the mouth of Palaru River.

16.7.2. Ponnaiyar (Pennayaru) Basin

The Ponnaiyar River, an interstate river, is one of the largest rivers of the state of
Tamil Nadu (TN), often reverently called ‘little Ganga of the South’. The river has
supported many a civilizations of peninsular India across the history and continues
to playa vital role in supplying precious water for drinking, irrigation and industry
to the people of the states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry.
The Ponnaiyar basin is located in between the north latitudes of 11 30 to 13 40 N
and east longitudes of 77 30 to 79 50 E. The basin is bounded by the Cauvery
basin from the west and south, and the Palaru and Tonidaru basins from the east
and north, respectively. The catchment area of the basin is 15865 km2 out of which
3597 km2 lies in Karnataka.
The Ponnaiyar River rises from Chik-Ballapur in Karnataka at the south-eastern
slopes of Chennakesari hills at an altitude of about 1,000 m above mean sea level.
The river enters Tamil Nadu after traversing 85 km from its origin. A number of
large and small tributaries such as Chinna Aru, Markanda Aru, Mattur Aru, Vaniaru,
Pambaru, Kallaruc join the river during its way, before it falls in the Bay of Bengal.
A number of large irrigation tanks have been constructed across the Pennaiyaru
River at Chik-Ballapur, Sidlaghat, Vijayapur, Hoskoto and Whitefield in Karnataka.
The river flows for a major portion through wooded country, deep ravines and
narrow gorges, with the country at the sides rising steeply to a height of about 90 m
above the riverbed. Ponniyar River has practically no flow in the river except during
Northeast monsoon months (October–December) or the less precipitous southwest
monsoon (June–August). During the rainy spells, there are flash floods in Ponniyar.
This has aptly given rise to a proverb in the Tamil language “the Ponnaiyar will
rise and fall even before the butter melts”.
The Ponnaiyar basin is predominantly built up with granite and gneisses rocks
of archean period. The granite is of very good quality and extensive outcrops and
masses of it are commonly found. The chief components of rocks are hornblende
and feldspar. Foliation is seldom seen. In the plains of reserve forest, quartz is found
commonly. The diamond granite is also found in scattered pockets in the areas
of Chitteri hills in Dharmapuri and Krishnagiri sub-divisions. Charnokite rocks of
archean period are also seen in some areas. At the tail end of the basin, pockets of
sandstone, clays pebble of tertiary period, and limestones of cretaceous period are
found. Alluvium and sand-dunes of quaternary period are also seen at a few places.
The catchment falls under the tropical belt. The climate in general is hot; April
and May being the hottest months of the year when the temperature rises to 34  C.
Other Basins and Islands 775

November and December are the coldest months for this basin when the ambient
temperature falls to 22  C.
The average annual rainfall over the catchment varies from 800 mm to 1,000 mm.
The catchment gets rainfall both from southwest and northeast monsoons. Most
of the rainfall received in this tract is from June to December but October and
November are the rainiest months. A considerable amount of dew falls during
December to February.

Krishnagiri dam
The Krishnagiri dam is located on the Pennaiaru river at a north latitude of 12 28 N
and east longitude of 78 11 E. The dam was completed in the year 1957. The
river bed level at the dam site is 464.634 m above mean sea level. The catchment
area and length of the main stream is 5429 km2 and 150 km respectively. It is an
earthen dam with gravity stone masonry. The height of the dam is 22.866 m and
the maximum design flood is 4,250.8 cumec. The full reservoir level is 483.232 m
with a capacity of 66.83 MCM.

Sathanur dam
The Sathanur dam is located on the Pennaiaru river at a north latitude of 12 11 N
and east longitude of 78 50 E. The dam was completed in the year 1958. The river
bed level at the dam site is 183.490 m above mean sea level. The catchment area and
length of the main stream is 10826 km2 and 245 km respectively. It is an earthen
and gravity dam with masonry. The height of the dam is 41.15 m and the maximum
design flood is 5,663 cumec. The full reservoir level is 483.232 m with a capacity
of 6683 Mm3 . The total length of the dam is 779.8 m of which the masonry section
is 418.5 m and rest is the earthen dam. The masonry dam is designed as a gravity
structure, 40.9 m above the riverbed and 44.7 m above the deepest foundation level.

Memathur regulator
The Memathur regulator exists across Manimukta River in Vellar basin at
about 5 km below the confluence of Gomukhi and about 14 km north-west of
Vridhachalam town. It was constructed during the year 1873. The total catchment
area of the regulator is 168350 km2 . It irrigates an area of 2420 Mm3 .

16.7.3. Vellar Basin

The Vellar basin is an important river basin in Tamil Nadu situated between latitude
11 13 N to 12 00 N and longitude 78 13 E to 79 47 E. The basin lies in between
Ponnaiyar River in the north and Cauvery River in the south with the total catchment
area of 7,659 sq. km. The basin can be divided in two distinct sub-basins. There is
no exchange of surface water between the two sub-basins.
The Vellar River flows through the Dharamapuri (a small portion), Salem,
Trichirapalli, and South Arcot districts of Tamil Nadu. The river originates at an
elevation of 900 m near the Tumbal village in the Chittori Hills of the Eastern Ghats
776 Chapter 16

in the Salem district of Tamil Nadu. In the initial reaches, the river is known as
Ammapalayam and it flows in a south-west direction for about 21 km until another
tributary Kariyakoil joins it. Thereafter, the river attains the name Thumbal and
continues to flow in the south-west direction till the tributary Vasistanadi joins it on
the right bank. The Vasistanadi in its headwater reaches is known as Anaimadavu.
It generally flows towards south direction and meets Thumbal on its right bank.
After this confluence, the river flows in a south-east direction and attains the name
Vasistanadi. It crosses the Salem-Kallakurchi road near Talaivasal at about 69 km
from its origin. The river continues to flow in the south easterly direction for a
further distance of about 28 km and meets the Swetanadi. The river then takes an
easterly direction and crosses the Trichi-Chennai Trunk road over Toludur regulator
located at 4 km downstream of the confluence with Swetanadi.
After the confluence of Swetanadi, the river attains its name Vellar. In its further
course, Vellar receives the tributaries Chinar and Anaivari Odai on its right bank.
From the point of infall of Anaivari Odai, the river takes a north direction, flows
for about 13 km, then takes south-east direction and flows for another 15 km up to
the infall of the Manimukta nadi on its left bank. The river then flows in an easterly
direction, crosses the Kumbakonam Villipuram road through Sethiathope regulator
and finally empties into the Bay of Bengal near Portonovo in the Chidambaram
Taluk of South Arcot district.
The tributaries of the Vellar River are Vasistanadi, Swetanadi, Gomukhi River,
Manimukta River, Chinar River and Anairvari River.
The Vellar basin experiences tropical monsoon climate, with much variation in
temperature, humidity and evaporation throughout the year. During summer months
the maximum temperature is reported to 40  C, whereas in winter months the
minimum temperature goes down to about 20  C. The monsoon season in the basin
is from June to September in which significant rainfall is observed in the basin. The
mean annual rainfall in the basin varies from 825–1,390 mm. Most of the rainfall
in the basin occurs in the monsoon months and less rainfall experiences in non
monsoon period.

Manimukta reservoir
The Manimukta reservoir is formed across Manimukta tributary of Vellar River at
about 5 km downstream of the confluence of Mani and Mukta sub-tributaries and
about 6 km from Kallakurichi Town. The dam was completed in the year 1970.
It has a catchment area of 484 km2 . The live storage capacity of the reservoir is
1989 Mm3 and it irrigates an area of 1720 Mm2 .

Gomukhi reservoir
The Gomukhi reservoir is located on the tributary of Vellar River of the same
name, at about 16 km to the north-west of Kallakurichi Town. The reservoir was
completed in the year 1965. It has a catchment area of 293 km2 . The live storage
capacity of the reservoir is 1586 Mm3 and it irrigates an area of 2,023.43 ha.
Other Basins and Islands 777

16.7.4. Tondiaru Basin

The Tondiaru basin is located at a latitude of 11 55 N to 12 30 N and at a longitude
of 79 05 E to 80 05 E. The basin is bounded by the Palaru Anicut on the north,
by the Ponnaiyar basin on the west and south and by the Bay of Bengal on the
east. The catchment area of the basin is 3637 km2 which lies entirely in Tamil
Nadu state. Two small rivers, namely, Onguraru and Tondiaru drain in this basin
separately.
The average annual rainfall in the basin is 1,078 mm. The annual infiltration and
annual runoff in the basin has been estimated at 102 mm and 112 mm respectively.

Onguraru river
The Ongur aru River originates from the south of Vandavasi and after traversing
through a distance of about 50 km, it falls into the Bay of Bengal in the backwaters
north of Marakkanam.

Tondiaru river
The Tondiaru River originates near Chetput. After 50 km of its origin, the Varadaru
River joins it from the right. The Vidur reservoir has been constructed at the
downstream of the confluence. The command area of the Vidur Reservoir is
1298 km2 . Below the Vidur reservoir, the Tondiaru River is also known as
Chenjiaru River, which falls into the Bay of Bengal about 6 km south of Pondicherry.
The Vidur dam is located at a north latitude of 12 04 N and east longitude of
79 35 E. The dam was completed in the year 1960. Vidur is an earthen dam with
stone masonry. The height of the dam is 13.42 m and the maximum design flood is
1,912.9 cumec. The FRL of reservoir is 33.232 m with a capacity of 17145 Mm3 .
The only station in the basin where the flows in the Tondiaru River is gauged is
at the Vidur dam. The river bed level at the dam site is 26.83 m above mean sea
level. The catchment area and length of the main stream is 1298 km2 and 50 km
respectively.

Palaru anicut
The Palaru anicut, located on Palaru River was constructed in the years 1855–58.
The Anicut is located at a north latitude of 12 53 N and at an east longitude of
79 24 E. The catchment area and length of the main stream is 10293 km2 and
152 m respectively. The effective length of Palaru anicut is 778.96 m. The river bed
level & crest level of anicut is 148.78 m & 151.335 km respectively. The maximum
observed flood discharge at the site was 4829 m3 /s in 1903.

Ponnai anicut
The Ponnai anicut, located on Pennai Aru River was completed in 1897. The Anicut
is located at a north latitude of 13 07 N and at an east longitude of 79 16 E. The
catchment area and length of the main stream at the anicut is 1725 km2 and 90 m
respectively. The effective length of Ponnai anicut is 216.46 m. The river bed level
778 Chapter 16

and crest level of anicut is 218.293 m & 220.918 km respectively. The maximum
observed flood was 1685 m3 /s in 1930.

Aliyabad anicut
The Aliyabad anicut on Kamandalaru River was completed in 1866. The Anicut
is located at a north latitude of 12 38 N and at an east longitude of 79 08 E. The
catchment area and length of the main stream is 223 km2 and 25 m respectively.
The effective length of Aliyabad anicut is 61.59 m. The river bed level & crest level
of anicut is 197.256 m & 198.759 km respectively. The maximum flood observed
was 1025 m3 /s in 1936.

Cheyyaru anicut
The Cheyyaru anicut on Cheyyaru River was completed in 1852. The Anicut is
located at a north latitude of 12 35 N and at an east longitude of 79 22 E. The
catchment area and length of the main stream is 1841 km2 and 110 km respectively.
The effective length of Cheyyaru anicut is 70.63 m. The river bed level & crest
level of anicut (without falling shutters) is 115.854 m and 117.689 m respectively.
The maximum flood observed was 2587 m3 /s.

Uttiramerur anicut
The Uttiramerur anicut on Cheyyaru River was completed in 1956. The Anicut is
located at a latitude of 12 40 N and at a longitude of 79 41 E. The catchment area
and length of the main stream is 3885 km2 and 155 km respectively. The river bed
level & crest level of anicut is 69.512 m & 70.774 m respectively.

Nedungal anicut
The Nedungal Anicut is located on the Pennai aru river at a north latitude of
12 23 N and east longitude of 78 15 E. The Anicut was completed in the year
1877. The river bed level and crest level of the anicut is 461.280 m and 464.076 m
respectively. The catchment area and length of the main stream is 5670 km2
and 165 km respectively. The length of the anicut is 278.05 m and the maximum
design flood is 2,000 cumec. The maximum flood observed was 3,043 cumec in
1903.

Tirukkoilur anicut
The Tirukkoilur Anicut is located on the Pennai aru river at a north latitude of
11 57 N and east longitude of 79 16 E. The Anicut was completed in the year
1879. The river bed level and crest level of anicut is 81.250 m and 82.927 m
respectively. The catchment area and length of the main stream is 12317 km2 and
300 km respectively. The length of the anicut is 456.41 m. The maximum flood
observed was 7,651 cumec in 1903.
Other Basins and Islands 779

Ellis choultry anicut

The Ellis Choultry Anicut is located on the Pennai aru river at a latitude of 11 54 N
and at a longitude of 79 25 E. The Anicut was completed in the year 1950. The
river bed level of anicut is 54.255 m. The catchment area and length of the main
stream is 12940 km2 and 320 km respectively. The maximum flood observed was
6,569 cumec in 1909.

16.8. EAST FLOWING RIVERS SOUTH OF CAUVERY

The area where east-flowing rivers between Cauvery and Kanyakumari are located
lies between longitudes 77 09 E to 79 17 E and latitudes 8 5 N to 10 30 N. The
total catchment area of these rivers is 35026 km2 , which lies completely in the
state of Tamil Nadu. The area is bounded by the Varushanad hills, the Andippatti
hills, the Cardamom hills and Palani hills on the west, by the Indian Ocean on the
south, by the Palk-Strait, Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar on the east and the
ridge, which separates it from the Cauvery basin on the north. Shape of the area is
irregular; it has a maximum length of 236 km in the northwest-southeast direction
and a maximum width of 275 km in the northeast-southwest direction. There are two
major topographical divisions in the basin: the hilly area; and the plains. The area
can be divided into 11 sub-basins, of which the Vaigai and the Tambraparni are the
most important. The Vaigai basin is elongated in shape, whereas the Tambraparni
basin is fan-shaped.
The various river systems in the area north to south are: the Vellar; a small
stream between the Vellar and the Varshalei; Varshalei; a small stream between
the Varshalei and the Vaigai; the Vaigai; the Gundar; a small stream between the
Gundar and the Vaippar; the Vaippar; small streams between the Vaippar and the
Tambraparni; the Tambraparni; and small Streams south of the Tambraparni up to
Kanyakurnari.

16.8.1. Agniaru Basin

The Agniaru basin is located between latitudes of 09 55 N to 10 48 N and longi-
tudes of 78 14 E to 79 30 E. The basin is bounded by the Cauvery basin from the
north and by the Pambaru basin from the south. The catchment area of the basin is
4463 km2 , which lies entirely in Tamil Nadu State.
The basin is drained by three rivers Agniaru, Ambuliyaru and Vellaru. The
Agniaru drains Pudukottai–Vallam-Orathanadu highlands. The length of the river
is 80 km. The Ambuliyaru River is a small stream draining the Alangudi Plateau.
The Vellaru River originates just north of Tuvarankurichi and traverses a total
distance of 135 km through Pudukkottai, Arimalam, and Arantangi. All the three
rivers finally fall into Palk Strait.
The mean annual rainfall for the Agniaru basin is 1,040 mm. The maximum rain
falls during the month of October. The annual evaporation for the Agniaru Basin
is 928 mm, which is about 89% of the total rainfall. The annual infiltration for
780 Chapter 16

the Agniaru basin is 51 mm, which is about 5% of the total rainfall. The mean
surface water potential has been estimated to be 31687 Mm3 . Assuming 0.5 as the
extraction factor, the ground water potential works out 9147 Mm3 for the entire
basin. The surface runoff in the basin is 61 mm with base flow of 10 mm.

16.8.2. Pambaru Basin

The Pambaru basin is located between latitudes of 09 45 N to 10 25 N and longi-
tudes of 78 10 E to 79 10 E. The basin is bounded by the Cauvery basin to its
west, by the Agniaru basin to its north and by the Kottakkarairu basin to its south.
The area of the basin is 3488 km2 , which lies entirely in Tamil Nadu.
The Pambaru River originates in the northern slopes of Alagar Malai at an
altitude of 830 m. In the head reaches, the river is known as Tirumanimutharu. The
river traverses through Kallai and Devakottai and falls into the sea just north of
Sundarapandiyan Pattinam. The Pallaru River, a tributary of the Pambaru River
drains Kondangikuttu, Karandamalai and Ayilur reserve forests and joins Pambaru
River just south of the village Kandramanikkam.
The mean annual rainfall for the Pambaru basin is 941 mm. Maximum rainfall
takes place during the north-east monsoon month of October. The annual evapo-
transpiration for the Pambaru Basin is 878 mm, which is about 93% of the total
rainfall. The annual infiltration for the Pambaru basin is 40 mm, which is about
4% of the total rainfall. In the basin, surface water potential has been estimated to
be 1045 Mm3 . Assuming 0.5 as the extraction factor, the ground water potential
works out 575 Mm3 for the basin. The surface runoff in the basin is 23 mm with
base flow of 7 mm.

16.8.3. Periyar-Vaigai System

The Periyar-Vaigai system is one of the oldest irrigation systems in India. It is a

trans-basin scheme, which came into existence towards the end of the nineteenth
century. The system consists of two reservoirs namely, the Periyar reservoir on the
Periyar river in the Kerala state, the Vaigai reservoir on the Vaigai river in the
state of Tamil Nadu, and the irrigation command areas in the Vaigai basin. The
Periyar River, which originates on the western slope of the Western Ghats, flows
westwards and discharges into the Arabian Sea. The Vaigai River, which originates
on the eastern slope of the Western Ghats, flows east and discharges into the Bay
of Bengal. The index map of the system is shown in Figure 3.
The system is benefited from both the South-West monsoon and the North-East
monsoon. The Periyar catchment receives rainfall during the South-West monsoon.
The Vaigai catchment and the command area receive rainfall during the North-
East monsoon. The natural flows in the Vaigai basin (east of the Western Ghats)
were fully utilized by the end of the nineteenth century and water shortage was
experienced in the basin. This led to the construction of Periyar reservoir and the
Periyar-Vaigai trans-basin scheme which made it possible to divert the waters from
Other Basins and Islands 781

Figure 3. Index map showing Periyar-Vaigai System

the Periyar basin in the state of Kerala to the Vaigai basin in the state of Tamil
Nadu for supplementing the irrigation in the command area of the system.
The irrigated command area of the Periyar-Vaigai system covers parts of the
Madurai and Ramanathapuram districts of Tamil Nadu and is located on the plains
between the Western Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. It covers a gross area of
1300 Mm2 of which 734 Mm2 is cultivable. Madurai, the second largest city in
Tamil Nadu is located on the fringe of the project area.
The area has a tropical monsoon climate; the normal annual rainfall of the
Periyar being about 2,000 mm. Major portion of the rainfall in this area falls during
the South-West monsoon from June to September. In clear contrast to this, the
normal annual rainfall for the Vaigai reservoir catchment is about 750 mm. This
area receives a major portion of the annual rainfall during the North-East monsoon
from October to December.
January and February are the months of cold and dry weather while April and May
months have hot and dry weather when the maximum daily temperature sometimes
exceeds 40  C. Although the project area experiences two monsoons in a year, the
distribution pattern of rainfall is not suitable to grow crops without irrigation. The
actual pan evaporation is high, nearly 2,400 mm per year. Evaporation rates in the
Vaigai catchment in the months from March through August are of the order of 7
to 8 mm per day.
Paddy is the principal crop raised in the project area. The farmers use short
duration varieties of paddy for the first crop, which has a crop period of 105 days
commencing from 1st June. For the second crop, medium duration varieties of
782 Chapter 16

paddy are used which have a crop period of 135 days commencing from the middle
of September to the end of January. In single cropped area, paddy is raised from
mid August with a crop period of 120 days. Other crops raised under irrigated area
are groundnut (2 to 3 percent), sugarcane and cotton.
In a year of normal rainfall with respect to time and space, water is released
for the cultivation of two crops (rice crops) in double crop area and single crop in
the rest of the pre-project. Depending on the availability, water is released to raise
single rice crop in extension area. If water available in the system is inadequate to
raise two crops in double crop area, water is released for cultivation of single rice
crop in the entire pre-project area. The farmers grow rice crop of 105 days duration
in the double crop area and of 120 days duration in the main crop area and the
extension area.

Major water resources projects in the Periyar-Vaigai system

There are three main hydraulic structures in the Periyar-Vaigai system. The most
important among them is the Periyar reservoir, which is located in the state of
Kerala and satisfies most of the demands of the system. The credit for the Periyar
Dam goes to the noted British engineer, Colonel John Pennyquick. Releases from
the Periyar reservoir are picked up at the Vaigai reservoir, which is a balancing
reservoir. Upstream of Vaigai reservoir, the releases from the Periyar reservoir are
required to satisfy the irrigation demands of the Cumbum valley. Peranai regulator
is located downstream of the Vaigai dam. Vaigai reservoir was constructed across
Vaigai River during 1954–59. Its catchment area is 2,253 sq. km and capacity at
FRL is 194.78 MCM.
Periyar Irrigation System: After coming out of the Periyar power house, the
releases of the Periyar reservoir and the natural flows of the Vaigai basin
flow through the Cumbum valley. The Cumbum valley agriculture areas are
irrigated through the channels taking off from 15 anicuts constructed across
the rivers Vairavanar and Suruliyar. This command area enjoys the perennial
supply of water from the Periyar reservoir in addition to the natural inflows. It
consists of two distinctive areas: a) The old command of 6,017 ha, served by
17 channels and b) New command of 2,082 ha, served by recently constructed
P. T. Rajan channel.
The old command is designed for two paddy crops (June–February): the first
coinciding with the South-West monsoon; and the second with North-East monsoon.
The new command is designed for single crop during September–March.
Vaigai Irrigation System: The command area of the Vaigai irrigation system lies
downstream of the Vaigai reservoir and is in the rain shadow region of the Western
Ghats. The total command area of this system is 76,736 ha. Paddy is the principal
crop grown in this area. The command area consists of pre-project area of 58,827 ha
and extension area of 17,909 ha. The pre-project area and the extension areas are
distributed in PMC and TMC. Of the pre-project area, 53,312 ha lies in PMC and
5,515 ha in TMC. In the pre-project command area of PMC, double crops are
cultivated in 18,227 ha as per the present practice. In other area, single crop is
Other Basins and Islands 783

cultivated. Of the total extension area, 15,567 ha lies under PMC command and
2,342 ha lies under TMC. In the extension area, single rice crop is cultivated. Pre-
project area and extension area are together known as the post-project area. The
double crop areas lie between the Peranai regulator and the Kallandiri regulator.
The single (main) crop areas get distributed in the entire system. As far as normal
irrigation supply is concerned, the pre-project areas have priority for irrigation water
over the extension areas.
In addition, the command area has a number of system tanks which store the
runoff from their own catchment areas and the irrigation return flows. There are
251 tanks up to the Kallandiri regulator which is located downstream of the
Peranai regulator. The water available in the tanks is used for irrigation. This
irrigation system is mainly operated for cultivation of rice crop in the command
area. The command area consists of double crop area and the single crop area on
the downstream of the Vaigai reservoir.

Various demands of the system

The various demands of the system include Periyar Irrigation System Demands
(Cumbum valley), Vaigai Irrigation system demands (PMC and TMC) and the
Madurai water supply demands. While releasing water from the Periyar reservoir,
normally highest priority has been given to the Cumbum valley irrigation demands
and the Madurai city water supply demands. Next priority has been given for
meeting single crop area demands under the Vaigai irrigation. If water is still
available, then the double crop requirements and the extension area demands are
satisfied.
Lower Periyar: Lower Periyar is a concrete gravity dam on Periyar River, located at
a distance of 32 km from Kothamangalam in Idukki District, Kerala. The catchment

Table 13. Salient features of selected existing projects in east flowing Rivers Between Pennar and
Kanyakumari

Name of the project State Year of Gross Live Designed Installed

completion storage storage annual capacity
capacity capacity irrigation (MW)
Mm3  Mm3  Mm2 

Chittar-I Tamil Nadu 1970 1728 1113 12950 –

Chittar-Ii Tamil Nadu 1970 2855 1699 – –
Chalavasam Tank Tamil Nadu 1986 3500 3126 – –
Pachiparai Tamil Nadu 1906 15236 12602 25900 –
Poondi Reservoir Tamil Nadu 1944 – 7787 – –
Peruvaripallan Tamil Nadu 1971 1750 1312 – –
Perunchani Tamil Nadu 1952 – 8184 – –
Red Hills Tamil Nadu – 8100 7100 – –
Servalar Tamil Nadu 1986 3500 3126 – –
Thanbraparani Tamil Nadu 1943 15580 14734 – –
Vidur Tamil Nadu 1959 – 1713 1300 –
Wellingdom Tamil Nadu 1923 7340 6001 11200 –
784 Chapter 16

Table 14. Salient features of selected under construction projects in east flowing Rivers Between Pennar
and Kanyakumari

Name of the Project State Gross Live Designed Installed

storage storage annual capacity
capacity capacity irrigation (MW)
(million (million (Million
cubic cubic Sq.
meter) meter) Meter)

Anaikuttam Tamil Nadu 11.16 11.08 18.20 –

Reservoir
Kelevarapalli Tamil Nadu 13.61 13.17 32.40 –

area at the dam is 1813 km2 . The height and length of the dam is 32 m and
284 m respectively. The reservoir has a live storage capacity of 4.55 MCM at FRL
253.00 m and the MDDL is at 237.74. Lower Periyar power house has 3 units of
60 MW each. It has a firm power of 57 MW. The project was commissioned by the
KSEB in 1997.
In addition to the above, there are several existing and under construction water
resources projects in the basin. Salient features of existing and under construction
water resources projects with a live storage capacity of 10 MCM and above have
been presented in Table 13 and Table 14, respectively.

16.9. RIVERS DRAINING INTO BANGLADESH

There are a number of minor rivers originally flowing through Tripura and Mizoram
that enter into Bangladesh before finally draining into Bay of Bengal. The important
rivers from Tripura are Manu, Khowai, Gomati and Muhuri. Karnafulli River flows
through Mizoram and enters Bangladesh. The total catchment area of the basin lies
in Mizoram and Tripura is 10031 km2 . The state-wise distribution of the area is
given in Table 15.
Runoff in the rivers have been measured by CWC. Table 16 represents the annual
average observed runoff at selected CWC sites in East & West flowing Rivers
(Catchment area > 5 000 km2 ).

Table 15. State-wise distribution of drainage area of minor rivers of Tripura and Mizoram

State Drainage area km2 

Mizoram 4,266
Tripura 5,765
Total 10,031
Other Basins and Islands 785

Table 16. Annual average observed runoff at selected CWC sites in East & West
flowing Rivers (Catchment area > 5 000 km2 

Name of the site Name of the Catchment area Annual average

stream km2  runoff (BCM)

Purushottampur Rushikulya 7,112 1.34

Kashinagar Vamsadhara 7,820 1.67
Srikakulam Nagavali 9,500 1.86
Thammavaram Gundlakamma 7,864 6.3
Chengalpattu Palar 16,230 1.6
Arcot Cheyyar 10,174 1.7
Vazhavachanur Ponniyar 10,780 2.0
Villupuram Ponniyar 12,900 1.8
Paramakudi Vaigai 6,796 0.9
Kumbidi Bharathapuzha 5,755 23.7

16.10. HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF ISLANDS

There are two main groups of Islands in India: Andaman and Nicobar group and
Lakshadweep group.

16.10.1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands

This group of islands is located in the Bay of Bengal, between 92 to 94  E

longitudes and 6 to 14  N Latitudes. The area of Andamans district is 6,408 sq. km
and that of the Nicobars district 1,841 sq. km. The total land area of the group is
8,249 sq. km. Out of this, the Andaman District occupies 6,408 sq. km. and the
Nicobar District 1,841 sq. km. In this predominantly rural setting, the rural area is
8,232.36 sq. km while the urban area is only 16.64 sq. km. In these islands, altitude
varies from sea level to 732 meters. The highest point in Andaman islands is Saddle
Peak (North Andaman Island) at 732 m and in Nicobar islands, the highest point
is Mount Thullier (Great Nicobar Island) at 642 m. Port Blair is the administrative
capital of the islands.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands appear in history as old as the period of Lord Rama.
Mythologically, the name Andaman was presumed to be derived from Hanuman,
who was known to the Malays as Handuman. Hanuman, the noted friend of Lord
Rama is believed to have landed here on the way to Sri Lanka, in search of Sita.
Since prehistoric times, these islands were the home of aboriginal tribes. The tribes
of, the Andaman group of islands are the Great Andamanese, Onges, Jarawas, and
Sentinatese, all of Negrito origin, while the tribes of Nicobars are the Nicobarese
and Shompens, both of Mongoloid stock.
In recent times, the existence of these islands was first reported in the 9th century
by Arab merchants, who sailed past them on their way to the straits of Sumatra.
The first western visitor was Marco Polo who called it the land of the head hunters.
Marathas had captured these islands and remained in control till the death of Maratha
786 Chapter 16

Admiral Kanhoji Angre in 1729. The first settlement by the British took place in
1789, which was later abandoned in 1796. The second settlement was basically a
penal settlement, taken up in 1858, after the First War of Independence, followed
by the settlement of convicts, Moplas, some criminal tribes from Central and United
Provinces, refugees from erstwhile East Pakistan, Burma and Sri Lanka as well as
ex-servicemen. In a way the islands were inhabited until mid 19th century mainly
by aboriginal tribes whose main occupation was hunting using bows and arrows.
Current population of these islands is about 278,000 people which amounts to 34
persons per sq. km.
Andaman & Nicobar Islands is a Union Territory, stretched over an area of
more than 700 km from north to south with 36 inhabited islands. Once a hill
range extending from Burma (Myanmar) to Indonesia, these undulating islands
are covered with dense forests and endless variety of exotic flowers and birds.
These islands receive annual rainfall of about 3,000 mm, mainly in two periods:
May to Mid-September and November to January. There is not much variation in
temperature. Mean minimum temperature is 23  C and mean maximum temperature
is 30  C. Relative humidity varies between 70% and 90%.
The Andamans are a group of more than 500 islands many of which are still
uninhabited. The islands stretch into the territory of some 750 km from north to
south in the Bay of Bengal. These islands are now being developed. Figure 4 show
the index map of Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

Topography
The topography of the islands is hilly and abounds in tropical flora. These are
endowed with evergreen thick forests and tropical trees with mangrove swamps
on the water’s edge; the forest cover is 86%. Many parts of the islands are hilly.
The beaches have white sand, coral reef, and unpolluted sparkling clear water. The
sandy beaches on the edge of meandering coastline are fringed with coconut-palms
that sway to the rhythm of the sea. The sea around the islands offers excellent scope
for water sports. The rare flora and fauna, underwater marine life and corals, with
crystal clear water and mangrove-lined creeks, offer a dream-view of the rare gifts
of nature. Figure 5 gives a view of the main island.
About 50% of the forests have been set aside as Tribal Reserves, National Parks
and Wildlife Sanctuaries, which are inviolate. Luxuriant mangroves, perhaps the
richest in the world, occupy nearly 11.5% of the territory. More than 150 plant
and animals species are endemic in nature. Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park
is rich in corals, varieties of colored fishes, sea turtles etc., besides other marine
life. It is a bird’s paradise – more than 271 varieties of birds inhabit the idyllic
landscape, out of which 39 are endemic. Megapode, Swiftlet, Hornbill and Nicobar
Pigeon are some of the specialties of the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
Total length of Andaman Islands is 467 km. Their maximum width is 52 km
while the average width is 24 km. Nicobar Islands are smaller is size with total
length of 259 km and the maximum width of 58 km. In the Andaman group,
Other Basins and Islands 787

Figure 4. Index map of Andaman & Nicobar islands

Figure 5. A view of the Andaman Island

788 Chapter 16

the biggest island is the Middle Andaman Island whose area is 1,536 sq. km. In
the Nicobar group, the biggest island is the Great Nicobar Island whose area is
1,045 sq. km.
The normal rainfall at Port Blair is 3,180 mm. Due to proximity of sea at the
islands, temperature variation is very small – mean minimum temperature at Port
Blair is about 225  C and the mean maximum temperature is about 30  C. At Port
Blair, the mean relative humidity is about 81%. Population statistics for the islands
is given in Table 17.
There are number of small streams in Andaman, Nicobar Islands. Obviously, their
length is very small.
Further detailed information about these islands is available at
www.Andaman.nic.in.

16.10.2. Lakshadweep Islands

The Lakshadweep Islands are irregularly scattered in the Arabian Sea between 8 to
12 30 north latitude and between 71 to 74 east longitudes. There are 36 islands
including 12 tolls, 3 reefs and 5 submerged banks covering an area of 32 km2 land,
4200 km2 of lagoon and 40000 km2 of oceanic zone. Among the 36 islands, only
10 are inhabited and the rest are seasonally inhabited or uninhabited islands. At
present, except Pitti Island, no other area of Lakshadweep is protected by law.
These palm-trees covered, coral islands have beautiful lagoons and are an
attractive and peaceful place. Lakshadweep consists of 36 islands located between
200 km and 300 km off the Kerala coast. These islands are coral islands, northern
extension of the Maldives. Ten of the islands are inhabited: Andrott, Amini, Agatti,
Bitra, Chetlat, Kadmat, Kalpeni, Kavaratti (headquarters), Kiltan, and Minicoy.
Lakshadweep is a Union Territory of India.
Lying 400 km west off the Malabar Coast – called Lakshadweep, comprising
of approximately 36 coral islands and 12 atolls. Out of these only 11 islands
are inhabited. These are some of the finest, unexplored coral islands in
the world, although facilities and infrastructure are not well developed. The
Lakshadweep islands are amongst the finest coral islands in the world. The clear
aquamarine lagoons protected by a reef, make one feel cozy and safe from the
ocean waves. The islands are comparatively tiny and flat with only coconut
palms.

Table 17. Population statistics for the Andaman and Nicobar islands

1971 1981 1991 2001

Total Population 115,133 188,741 280,661 356,265

Rural Population 88,915 139,107 205,706
Urban Population 26,218 49,634 74,955
Other Basins and Islands 789

16.10.3. Daman and Diu

Daman earlier called ‘Damao’, is situated on the west coast of India, bordered by
the Arabian Sea. It is surrounded by the Kolak River on the north, Gujarat on the
east, Kalai River on the south and Gulf of Cambay on the west. This place has
very low altitude, about 12 m. Being close to sea, it has mild climate. In summer,
the maximum temperature goes up to 36  C and the minimum annual temperature
is 20  C.
The island of Diu, an erstwhile Portuguese colony, is situated off the Saurashtra
coast of Gujarat bordering Junagadh district. The word ‘Diu’ is derived from the
Sanskrit word ‘Dweep’. Pandavas during their fourteen years of exile are believed to
have passed a few days at a place known as Mani Nagar. According to mythology,
Diu was ruled by the great king Jallandhar who was a daitya (Demon) and was
killed by Lord Vishnu with his Sudarshan Chakra. During the period from the 14th
to 16th century, Diu was a major sea port and a naval base.
This island occupies an area of 38.5 sq. km and its altitude is 29 m. Temperature
at this place varies between 38  C (maximum in summers) to 20  C (minimum in
winters). Mean annual rainfall is close to 70 cm. Diu is famous for its beautiful
beaches such as Ahmedpur, Mandvi, Chakratirath, Jallandhar, and Gomtimata.
EMINENT WATER RESOURCES PROFESSIONALS WHO
HAVE MADE OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTIONS IN INDIA

Bharat Ratna M.Visvesvaraya (1861–1962): Engineer, Statesman, Educationist,

Administrator and a Great Humanist. Responsible for pioneering work in the field
of water resources in the Southern States of Karnataka, Maharashtra and Andhra
Pradesh. His birthday which falls on 15th September is celebrated as Engineers’
Day in India.

791
792 Eminent Water Resources Professionals in India

Dr. A. N. Khosla (1892–1984): Outstanding engineer and administrator. He rose

to become the Chairman (Central Water Commission), the Vice Chancellor of
the University of Roorkee, and the Governor of Orissa State. He is credited for
construction of several major projects including the Bhakra Dam. He developed the
theory for Design of Weirs on Permeable Foundations.

Dr. K.L. Rao: An excellent engineer who went on to become the Minister of
Irrigation and Power, Govt. of India. He was responsible for design of many dams,
notably Hirakud and Nagarjunasagar. He conceived inter basin transfer of water on
a grand scale through the Ganga–Cauvery link.
Eminent Water Resources Professionals in India 793

Sir Arthur Cotton: Famous for the construction of Dowaleshwaram anicut (barrage)
across Godavari River in mid 19th century. Prior to the construction of barrage,
Godavari delta was frequently visited by famines. In his honour, this barrage is also
known as Cotton barrage and Cotton is revered as a saint.

Dr. Kanwar Sain: Former Chairman Central Water Commission. He is credited

for construction of the Indira Gandhi Canal, Kosi Project, Flood Protection of
Dibrugarh, and conceived the Farakka Barrage. He was also closely associated with
the Mekong Project.
794 Eminent Water Resources Professionals in India

K.K. Framji: Another famous hydraulics engineer of India. He was the Secretary
General of ICID for nearly 25 years (1963–1988) and was the joint winner of
‘Olympia Prize’ 1985. He was the Chairman of ISO Technical Committee TC 113
for a very long time.

Sir Proby Thomas Cautley (1802–1871): The man who constructed the Upper
Ganga Canal in 1850s, a marvelous irrigation project which was instrumental in
socio-economic transformation of Western Uttar Pradesh. A boys’ hostel at IIT
Roorkee is named after him.
Eminent Water Resources Professionals in India 795

Gerald Lacey (1887–1983): Developed widely used equations for design of stable
channels which helped in canal design.

Dr. Bharat Singh: He was a Professor in Civil Engineering at the University of

Roorkee who rose to become the Vice-Chancellor of the same university. He has
written three text books on irrigation and water resources and numerous papers.
Prof. Singh was a member of National Commission for Integrated Water Resources
Development, a member of the panel constituted by the then Prime Minister for
Cauvery Water Dispute, and a member of expert panels of several major projects
in India. An outstanding water resource engineer, he is a Fellow of the National
Academy of Engineering and has won several awards.
 SECTION 4
WATER USES, PROJECTS, PROBLEMS,
AND GOVERNANCE
CHAPTER 17
MAJOR USES OF WATER IN INDIA

Since independence various measures have been taken for development of water
resources in India under the Five Year Plans. A noteworthy achievement has been
self-sufficiency in food grain production. From 50 million tons in pre-plan era,
food grain production reached 211 million tons in 2001–02. This praiseworthy
achievement has been possible mainly due to development of irrigation by major,
medium, and minor project and advancements in agriculture technology. Area
covered by irrigation till end of IX Plan stood at 90.93 million hectares (M-ha) as
against 9.70 M-ha in the pre plan era.

17.1. THE DEMAND FOR WATER

The demand for water for a use is the quantity of water required to be supplied for
that specific use. For example, for agricultural use, demand includes consumptive
requirement of crops, percolation losses, canal seepage, and evaporation. In case
of hydropower generation, although no water is consumed, the practice in India is
to consider the evaporation loss from the reservoirs as the use of water for this
purpose.
While estimating present demand by different sectors, management policies,
availability of technology and other resources are required to be considered along
with the prevalent practices. For future demand projections, emerging practices
and technologies which are likely to be in practice in the future socio-economic
environment have to be considered. The effective water supply is the amount of
water actually given and received by the user sectors. Only a part of the quantity
of water given to a particular use is consumed and the rest of the water (return
flow) drains away and can be reused by the downstream users, (usually after some
treatment).

17.2. WATER RESOURCES REQUIREMENT

The availability of water in India shows a great deal of spatial and temporal
variability. The increase in population and expansion of economic activities
inevitably leads to increasing demands for water use for diverse purposes. Therefore,
799
800 Chapter 17

overall national planning and resource management in respect of water with

emphasis on allocation of priorities among the diverse uses is necessary.
Water use efficiency is presently estimated to be around 40% for canal irrigation
and about 60% for ground water irrigation schemes. India’s per capita water avail-
ability per year (1991 census) was estimated at 2,209m3 against the global average
of 9,231m3 .
Surface water is either used in-stream for hydropower, recreation, navigation etc.
or is diverted for off-stream use. Ground water is mostly used for irrigation or
for domestic requirements. The consumptive uses of water are: (a) Irrigation for
agriculture, (b) rural and municipal water supply, and (c) industrial water supply.
The Indian economy has traditionally been agriculture based and the principal
consumptive use of water is for irrigation. On the total water use in 1990, the
share of agriculture was 83%, followed by domestic use (4.5%), energy (3.5%) and
industrial use (2.7%). The remaining 6% were for other uses including environ-
mental requirements. At the time of independence, it was of crucial importance to
develop irrigation to increase agricultural production for making the country self-
sustained and for poverty alleviation. Accordingly, irrigation sector was assigned
a very high priority in the 5-year plans. Giant schemes like the Bhakra Nangal,
Hirakud, Damodar Valley, Nagajunasagar, Rajasthan Canal project etc. were taken
up to increase irrigation potential and maximize agricultural production.
The long term planning has to take into account for the growth of population. A
number of individuals and agencies have estimated the likely population of India
by the year 2025 and 2050. In Chapter 2, the topic of population was discussed
in detail. According to the estimates adopted by NCIWRD (1999), by the year
2025, the population is expected to be 1,333 million in high growth scenario and
1,286 million in low growth scenario. For the year 2050, high rate of population
growth is likely to result in about 1,581 million people while the low growth
projections place the number at nearly 1,346 million.
In India, the food grain availability in the year 2004 was around 525 gm per
capita per day whereas the corresponding figures in China and USA were 980 gm
and 2,850 gm respectively. Assuming that the level of consumption will rise with
time due to socio-economic factors like better standard of livings, NCIWRD (1999)
estimated that the food grain requirements per capita per year would be 218 kg for
the year 2025 and 284 kg for the year 2050. After considering factors such as feed
requirement, losses in storage and transport, seed requirement, and buffer stock,
the projected foodgrain and feed demand for 2025 would be 320 million tons (high
demand scenario) and 308 million tons (low demand scenario). The requirement for
the year 2050 would be 494 million tons (high demand scenario) and 420 million
tons (low demand scenario).
The required rate of growth in foodgrain production can be achieved through
extension of irrigated areas and by increasing the grain yield per unit area assuming
that there may not be any significant increase in net sown area. It has been estab-
lished that productivity of irrigated areas is at least double, if not more, compared
to un-irrigated areas in respect of wheat and rice crops. The present average
Major Uses of Water in India 801

productivity of irrigated land is about 2.5 t/ha and less than 1.0 t/ha for rain-fed
lands. Therefore, irrigation will be the prime input for increasing the foodgrain
output. Based on the trends in this sector, these levels are likely to go up to at least
3.5 and 1.5 t/ha respectively by 2050 AD. In fact, given sufficient attention, yield
of the order of 5.5–6.0 also seen feasible.
The sector-wise requirement of water is being discussed in the following sections.

17.3. DOMESTIC WATER NEEDS

Community water supply is the most important among the requirements of water
and it is about 5% of the total water use. The volume of water being utilized for
domestic needs is far less than that used for irrigated agriculture. Estimates show
that about 7 km3 surface water and 18 km3 ground water is being used for water
supply in urban and rural areas. Organized water supply and sanitation programs
have not yet covered the entire country. Under the International Drinking Water
Supply and Sanitation Decade Program launched in 1981, the aim was to provide
adequate drinking water facilities to 90% of the urban population and 85% of rural
population, and sanitation facilities to 50% of urban population, and 5% of rural
population.
While about 82% of the population has access to safe drinking water supply in
rural areas, the accessibility in urban areas is around 85%. However, in most of the
cities and towns, the supply is grossly inadequate, particularly in slums inhabited
by the poorer sections of the society. Use of booster pumps to draw water from
municipal networks is common. Besides, the quality of water supplied through these
networks is very poor and people are increasingly installing small devices in their
homes to clean water before consuming.
Along with the increase in population, another important change from the point
of view of water supply is the higher rate of urbanization. As per the projections,
the higher is the expected growth in population, the higher would be urbanization.
It is expected that nearly 61% of the population will reside in urban areas by the
year 2050 in high growth scenario and about 48% in low growth scenario. So the
expansion of water supply network for drinking, domestic use and various civic
amenities has to be accordingly planned. Currently, most houses that are being
constructed in the outskirts of cities make their own arrangement for use of ground
water for domestic needs.
Different organizations and individuals have given different norms for water
supply in cities and rural areas. The figure adopted by the NCIWRD (1999) were
220 liter per capita per day (lpcd) for classes I cities. For the cities other than class
I, the norms are 165 lpcd for year 2025 and 220 lpcd for the year 2050. For rural
areas, 70 lpcd and 150 lpcd have been recommended for the year 2025 and 2050.
Based on these norms and projection of population, it is estimated that by the year
2050, the water requirements per year for domestic use will be 90 km3 for low
demand scenario and 111 km3 for high demand scenario. It is expected that surface
802 Chapter 17

Table 1. Basic water requirements for human needs

Purpose Rural Areas (Litres/ Urban Areas (lpcd)

capita /day or lpcd)

Drinking water 5 5
Cooking 3 5
Ablution 6 −
Bathing 15 55
Washing of utensils, clothes & household 11 45
Flushing of toilets/sewer − 30
Total basic water requirement (BWR) 40 140

Source: WG (1999).

and ground water sources will meet about 70% of urban water requirement and
30% of rural water requirement.
The core needs of domestic use of water are for drinking, cooking, washing and
bathing. Non core needs are for toilet flushing, sewer flushing, washing clothes,
water for lawns, etc. The union ministry of works and housing has fixed minimum
norms for various basic human needs as given in Table 1.
The National Commission on Urbanization, Govt. of India, has suggested
minimum norms for use of water. According to the commission, even in the worst
drought conditions and even in the poorest colonies, at least 70 liters of water must
be delivered per day to sustain the human life at a minimum standard of hygiene.
In India, recommended norms for water supply are based on the population size.
These are given in Table 2.
Shri Rajiv Gandhi, the Prime Minister of India during 1984 to 1989, had
constituted several technology missions with well defined objectives. The National
Drinking Water Mission was one of them. Recently, all drinking water schemes

Table 2. Recommended norms for water supply

S. N. Population Recommended water supply norm (lpcd)

Less than 20,000

1 a. Population served by stand posts 40
b. Population provided with pipe connections 70
2 20,000 to Less than 100,000 100
100 (with no sewerage system)
3 100,000 to Less than 1,000,000
135 (with sewerage system)
4 1,000,000 and above 150
5 Rural and hills (per elevation difference of 40 or one hand-pump for 250 persons within
100 m) a walking distance of 1.6 km
6 Rural – additional water for cattle in Desert 30
Development Programme (DDP) areas.

Source: WG (1999) and Planning Commission (2006).

Major Uses of Water in India 803

have been brought under the Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission.
Besides providing drinking water to total population in the country, emphasis will
on tackling water quality. At present, only 30% of rural households have access to
safe sanitation facilities. The total sanitation campaign now operates in 452 districts.
The requirements of drinking and municipal water supply to metropolitan and
other important towns in the country have already become critical. Among the
metropolitan cities, total water requirement of Delhi is 800 million gallon per day
(MGD). Delhi, which is situated on the banks of the Yamuna, gets scarcely 25%
of its needs from the river. The balance needs are met by releases from Bhakra
Dam to the west, and Ramganga Dam to the east. This is in addition to a number
of tubewells, which contribute less than 10% of Delhi’s water supply. By the end
of the year 2004, only 640 MGD was being treated at the water treatment plants of
Delhi Jal Board. A new plant has been constructed at Sonia Vihar with a capacity
of 140 MGD and raw water for this plant is to come from the Tehri dam in
Uttaranchal via the Upper Ganga Canal (till Muradnagar in UP and then through
a 30-km 3,250 mm diameter conduit). Noteworthy feature of this scheme is that
the contract for building and operating this plant for 10 years has been given to a
private company.
The entire water supply of Mumbai is dependent on a series of dams such as
the Vaitarana, Tansa and Bhatsa. In fact, there is now a proposal to construct
another dam on the Vaitarana to meet the increasing needs of Bombay’s water
supply. The water demand of Pune town in Maharashtra is met by the Panshet and
Khadakwasla dams. Hyderabad is mainly dependent for its water supply on the
Manjira and Singur Dams. The acute scarcity of water supply in Madras is well
known. Apart from the storage available in Poondi Reservoir, there was no other
possibility of further augmenting the water supply. Therefore, the states of Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka agreed to part with their allocated share of
Krishna water to provide 430 million m3 of water supply to Madras city, which
will be made available through the stored waters at Srisailam Reservoir in Andhra
Pradesh and carried through 430 km long canal to reach Madras city. A major dam
at Bisalpur is now being constructed mainly to provide water supply to Ajmer city
in Rajasthan. Warangal town in Andhra Pradesh depends for its water supply on
Sriramsagar Dam.
In India, water charges are paid either in the form of property tax, or based on
water consumption, or a combination of the two. For consumption also, the charges
are either on the basis of flat rates or depending on the quantity is consumed. In the
later case also, two variations are found: the uniform rate or the rates increasing as
the consumption increases. However, in many cases, the meters are faulty or broken.
Often the water prices are very low and even a fraction of operation and maintenance
expenditures are not recovered. Regarding pricing for domestic water supply, the
average monthly water bill for consuming 25 kilo litres is Rs. 31.50 in Delhi,
Rs. 67.50 in Chandigarh, Rs. 75.00 in Mumbai, Rs. 100.00 in NOIDA, Rs. 140.00
in Bangalore, and Rs. 225.00 in Chennai (The Times of India, 2004). Clearly,
among these cities, the consumers in Delhi pay the least while the consumers of
804 Chapter 17

Table 3. Cost of unreliable supply and poor quality water

Cost item Amount (per annum)

Purification cost Rs. 648.91

Booster pump Rs. 1,147.74
Borewell motor Rs. 644.63
Additional water Rs. 844.53
Sickness cost Rs. 516.34
Storage cost Rs. 688.27
Total cost Rs. 4,490.42

Chennai pay nearly eight times more than that. However, the charges in Delhi were
recently increased so that the consumers will be paying about 1.5 to 3 ties what they
were paying earlier. For instance, those consuming up to 10 kilo litres and living
in posh area will pay Rs. 162 per month. But even with the increased charges, the
authorities are not able to recover full operation and maintenance charges. Here it
is pertinent to note that the bottled water is sold at rates varying from Rs. 12 to 15
per litre.
Attempts have been made to determine the cost of unreliable supply and of poor
quality of water borne by people in planned settlements. Table 3 gives the results
of a survey conducted by Dutta and Tiwari (2005) for New Delhi. According to
this study, people residing in planned settlements are paying about Rs. 4,490 per
annum or Rs. 374 per month on account of unreliable and poor quality water.

17.4. IRRIGATION
Agriculture is the most fundamental form of human activity. The word ‘agriculture’
has its roots in Latin word ‘agri’ meaning soil and ‘culture’ meaning cultivation. It
is said that agriculture sustains the society while irrigation sustains agriculture.
The gross irrigated area in India was only 22.6 M-ha in 1950–51. The net irrigated
area was 20.9 M ha, comprising of 9.71 M ha (8.3 M ha net) by major and medium
projects, 6.4 M ha by minor surface water schemes and 6.5 M ha by groundwater.
Since the food production was much less than the requirement, sincere efforts were
made by the Govt. of India for expansion of irrigation through surface and ground
water projects. An ambitious target for large-scale water resources development
was set and efforts initiated to achieve it through five-year plans.
In India, irrigation projects are classified as major (having culturable command
area or CCA more than 10,000 ha), medium (CCA between 2,000 ha to 10,000 ha),
and minor (CCA below 2,000 ha). The source of water in major and medium
schemes is surface water while the dominant source in minor schemes is ground
water. The ultimate total irrigation potential from major, medium, and minor
irrigation schemes has been estimated as 140 M-ha. Out of this, 76 M-ha would
come from surface water and 64 M-ha from ground water sources. The ultimate
potential from major and medium projects is about 59 M-ha and it is 81 M-ha from
minor projects.
Major Uses of Water in India 805

In India, progress of irrigation development is reported through three sets of

figures: irrigation potential created; potential utilized; and irrigation by source
(surface or ground water). The potential created by the year 1997 was about 91 M-ha
comprising of 45 M-ha by surface water and 46 M-ha by ground water sources. Thus
about 65% of the potential had been developed by 1997. The actual utilization was
about 81 M-ha; the share of major and medium projects was 28 M-ha and 53 M-ha
was the contribution of minor projects. Source-wise utilization was 39 M-ha from
surface and 42 M-ha from ground water.
At the time of independence, canals provided irrigation to large commands over
the country. Major systems included Sirhind canal (providing irrigation to 0.6 M
ha), Upper Bari Doab canal (0.33 M ha), Sone canal (1.35 M ha), Yamuna canals
(0.68 M ha), and Upper Ganga canal (0.7 M ha). According to Vaidyanathan (1999),
total irrigation from diversion based systems was about 80% of the irrigation from
major and medium projects. Proponents of diversion schemes argue that adverse
social and environment impacts of these structures are much less than those of
big dam projects. But it may be noted that as far as command area is concerned,
both have the same impact and storages are often needed to improve reliability of
diversion schemes.
The cumulative irrigation potential created and utilized for each five-year plan in
the country is shown in Table 4. Further, Table 5 lists statewise irrigation potential,
potential created and gap from surface water and ground water.
The data about cumulative irrigation potential created under the various plans
as given in Table 4 (above) is shown in Figure 1 for a better visualization. It can
be readily appreciated from the figure that the addition to the potential is very
small from 1997 onwards. From 1969 to 2000, the potential created by surface
water nearly doubled from 24.6 181 + 65 to 48.12 3510 + 1302 M-ha but
Cumulative Potential Created (M ha)

120
GW
100
SW
80
Total
60
40
20
0
51
-56
-61
-66
-69
-74
-78
-80
-85
-90
-92
-97

8
9
000
97-9
98-9
o 19
1951
1956
1961
1966
1969
1974
1978
1980
1985
1990
1992

99-2
o 19
o 19
Up t

o 19
Up t
Up t
Up t

Figure 1. Cumulative irrigation potential created under various plans

Table 4. Planwise Cumulative Irrigation Potential Created and Utilized (in M-ha) 806

Plan Potential created Potential utilized

Major & Minor Total Major & Minor Total

medium Medium

Surface Ground Total Surface Ground Total

Water Water Water Water

Pre-Plan up to 1951 970 640 650 12.90 2260 970 640 650 12.90 22.60
I Plan (1951–56) 1220 643 763 14.06 2626 1078 643 763 14.06 25.04
II Plan (1956–61) 1433 645 830 14.75 2708 1305 645 830 14.75 27.80
III Plan (1961–66) 1657 648 1052 17.00 3357 1517 648 1052 17.00 32.17
Annual Plan 1810 650 1250 19.00 3710 1675 650 1250 19.00 35.75
(1966–69)
IV Plan (1969–74) 2070 700 1650 23.50 4420 1869 700 1650 23.00 42.19
V Plan (1974–78) 2472 750 1980 27.30 5202 2116 750 1980 27.30 48.46
Annual Plan 2661 800 2200 30.00 5661 2264 800 2200 30.00 52.64
(1978–80)
VI Plan (1980–85) 2770 970 2782 37.52 6222 2357 901 2624 35.25 58.82
VII Plan (1985–90) 2992 1099 3562 46.61 7653 2547 997 3315 43.12 68.59
Annual Plan 3074 1146 3889 50.35 8109 2632 1029 3625 46.54 72.86
(1990–92)
VIII plan (1992–97) 3296 1209 5031 53.30 8626 2844 773 3958 48.80 77.24
IX Plan 3708 1302 5301 56.90 9398 3103 827 4180 49.05 86.80
(1997–2002)
X plan (2002–07) 4702 63.71 11073
Target

Source: CWC (1996 & 2002) and Planning Commission (2006).

Chapter 17
Table 5. Statewise Details of Irrigation Potential created and Gap (all in 1,000 ha)

State/UTs Ultimate irrigation potential Potential created up to 1994–95 Gap in Irrigation Potential

S.W. G.W. S.W. G.W. S.W. G.W. Total

Andhra Pradesh 7 300 3 960 4 422 1 635 2 878 2 325 5 203

Arunachal Pradesh 150 18 73 2 77 16 93
Assam 1 970 900 622 190 1 348 710 2 058
Bihar 8 400 4 947 4 203 3 965 4 197 982 5 179
Goa 25 29 32 2 –7 27 20
Gujarat 3 347 2 756 1 532 1 751 1 815 1 005 2 820
Haryana 3 050 1 462 2 112 1 524 938 –62 876
Major Uses of Water in India

Himachal Pradesh 285 68 140 15 145 53 198

Jammu & Kashmir 650 708 534 9 116 699 815
Karnataka 3 400 2 574 2 317 758 1 083 1 816 2 899
Kerala 1 800 879 948 130 852 749 1 601
Madhya Pradesh 8 200 9 732 3 302 1 508 4 898 8 224 13 122
Maharashtra 5 300 3 652 3 140 1 608 2 160 2 044 4 204
Manipur 235 359 126 1 109 358 467
Meghalaya 105 63 41 9 64 54 118
Mizoram 70 0 12 0 58 0 58
Nagaland 85 0 66 1 19 –1 18
Orissa 4 600 4 203 2 143 665 2 457 3 538 5 995
Punjab 3 050 2 917 2 477 3 349 573 –432 141
Rajasthan 3 350 1 778 2 627 2 019 723 –241 482
Sikkim 70 0 24 356 46 0 46
Tamil Nadu 2 700 2 832 2 414 1 289 286 1 543 1 829
Tripura 200 81 78 21 122 60 182
Uttar Pradesh 13 700 16 799 8 029 20 644 5 671 –3,845 1 826
West Bengal 3 610 3 318 2 744 1711 866 1 607 2 473
UTs 201 5 40 62 161 –57 104
Total 75 853 64 040 44 198 42 868 3 1655 21 172 52 827
807

Source: MOWR (1999).

808 Chapter 17

during the same period, the potential created by ground water increased from 12.5
to 53.01 M-ha, more than four-fold increase.
It is noted from this table that there is large gap between ultimate irrigation
potential and potential created in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh,
Bihar, and Maharashtra. In Madhya Pradesh alone, of the estimated potential of
17,932 M-ha, only about 4,810 M-ha or only 27% of the potential has been created.
One can also notice the instance of mining of ground water in some states, e.g.
Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and the Union Territories.
The state wise irrigation potential in India from groundwater for the year 1996–97
has been presented in Table 6. The full development of ultimate irrigation potential
by construction of major, medium and minor irrigation projects by 2025 would be
necessary to meet the food requirement of the projected population. Ground water
irrigation is mainly through electrical and diesel pump sets.
The gross figures of irrigation potential created and irrigation potential utilized
have been presented in Table 7. Note that there are differences among the figures
given by different institutions and this is due to different definitions and methods
of data collection.
An analysis of past data shows that the net sown area in the country has marginally
increased over past 30 years from 140 M-ha to 143 M-ha. It is likely that the net sown
area would hover around 145 M-ha between the years 2000 to 2050. To increase
the net sown area, multi-prong effects are needed, which include conservation of
rainwater, developing irrigation potential, increasing water use efficiency, efficient
management of water resources and improvement in agriculture practices, etc.
Recently, Water Resource Consolidation Project (WRCP) has been taken up in
the States of Haryana, Orissa and Tamil Nadu. WRCP envisages the completion of
some major and medium irrigation projects and strengthening of institutions through
Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM). This effort should result in efficient
water use in irrigation sector but unless the efforts are sustained, the systems are
likely to degrade.
Foodgrains production in the year 1950–51 was 50.82 million tons; it was about
200 million tons in 1996–97, and about 210 million tons in 2004. Thus, the
production has not seen major changes over last 7–8 years. Lack of any significant
breakthrough in seed technology and major improvements in agricultural practices
are cited as the main reasons for the slow growth. Large variations in land yields
per unit area across the country show that significant increase in grain production
can be achieved if infrastructure is improved and scientific practices are followed
in the areas where current yields are low.
Besides agricultural production, India has a variegated nature of horticultural
potential. This can be judged by the organized upland tea and coffee plantations,
the extensive coastal strips of coconut trees, and the subterranean tuber and root
crops. India is famous for its high quality tea and coffee. Darjeeling tea is to be
the best among the tea lovers in the world. Recent years have also witnessed high
growth in the production of flowers and these are now being exported to many
countries. Export of Indian fruits has also registered impassive growth in recent
Table 6. Statewise Irrigation potential from ground water (as on 1996–97)

SN States Net utilizable Weighted Utilizable Potential Potential Percentage Balance

Ground Water Average Irrigation Created Utilized Development Irrigation
Resource for Delta (m) Potential (M-ha) (M-ha) of Irrigation Potential for
Irrigation (M-ha) Potential Development
(M-ham/year) (6/5∗ 100) (5–6) (M-ha.)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Major Uses of Water in India

1 Andhra Pradesh 269981 0.047–1.472 396008 177420 173910 4480 218588

2 Arunachal Pradesh 011005 – 001800 000240 000240 1333 001560
3 Assam 189102 1.283 090000 020680 015180 2298 069320
4 Bihar 256439 0.40–0.65 494763 429180 381590 8674 065583
5 Goa 001670 0.57 002928 000190 000170 649 002738
6 Gujarat 155881 0.45–0.714 275590 177890 169370 6455 097700
7 Haryana 065236 0.385–0.600 146170 154490 149930 10569 −008320
8 Himachal Pradesh 002637 0.385 006850 001570 001150 2292 005280
9 Jammu & Kashmir 033858 0.385–0.600 070795 001160 001100 164 069635
10 Karnataka 123821 0.18–0.74 257281 078010 076410 3032 179271
11 Kerala 059281 0.53–0.83 087925 014060 012420 1599 073865
12 Madhya Pradesh 389298 0.4 973249 162290 150630 1668 810959
13 Maharashtra 229231 0.43–1.28 365197 163630 158840 4481 201567
14 Manipur 024129 0.65 036900 000060 000050 016 036840
15 Meghalaya 004128 0.65 006351 001020 001000 1606 005331
16 Mizoram Not assessed
17 Nagaland 005535 negligible

(Continued)
809
 810

Table 6. (Continued)

SN States Net utilizable Weighted Utilizable Potential Potential Percentage Balance

Ground Water Average Irrigation Created Utilized Development Irrigation
Resource for Delta (m) Potential (M-ha) (M-ha) of Irrigation Potential for
Irrigation (M-ha) Potential Development
(M-ham/year) (6/5∗ 100) (5–6) (M-ha.)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

18 Orissa 153009 0.34–0.44 420258 071720 060070 1707 348538

19 Punjab 151109 0.518 291715 341200 335300 11696 −049485
20 Rajasthan 096418 0.457–0.600 177783 204840 201250 11522 −027057
21 Sikkim Not assessed
22 Tamil Nadu 201892 0.37–0.93 283205 131450 131190 4642 151755
23 Tripura 005076 0.63 008056 002120 002120 2632 005936
24 Uttar Pradesh 641233 0.20–0.50 1679896 2263400 2035800 13473 −583504
25 West Bengal 176653 0.33–0.75 331794 185520 141310 5591 146274
Total States 3246622 – 6404514 4582140 4199030 7155 1822374
Total UTs 000642 – 000504+ 006240 006180
Grand Total 3247264 – 6405018 4588380 4205210 7164 1816638
Note: +− Relates to Dadra & Nagar Haveli only

Source: Ministry of Water Resources http://wrmin.nic.in/resource/default3.htm

Chapter 17
Major Uses of Water in India 811

Table 7. Irrigation development from different sources (in thousand ha)

Data Surface water Ground water Total

Irrigation potential created 43,271 (140%) 41,506 (110% 84,777(124%)

Irrigation potential utilized 37,534 (124%) 38,579 (103%) 76,113 (111%)
Irrigation as per land use 30,869 (100%) 37,498 (100% 68,367 (100%

Source: CWC (1996).

year. Technology and infrastructure support for handling, packing, processing and
preservation can save large losses of fruits and vegetables. Compared to developed
nations, immense possibilities of value addition in agricultural products exist in
India.

17.4.1. Rainfed Agriculture

As large areas of the country do not have assured means of irrigation, rainfed
agriculture is widely practiced in the country. Even with large scale development
of water resources, the contribution of rainfed farming in Indian agriculture are
immense. Estimates show that about 68.0 of the cropped area is under rainfed
agriculture and this area is responsible for nearly 44% of total production. Further,
rainfed farming supports 40% of the human population and 60% of the live-stock
population. Of course, productivity in rainfed situation is quite low. While the
average productivity ranges from 2.0 to 2.5 ton/ha in irrigated areas, it is in the
range of 0.7–0.8 ton/ha in rainfed areas.
Table 8 gives some irrigation related projections for the years 2010, 2025, and
2050. As shown here, cropping intensity is likely to marginally increase to over
150% by the year 2050. This table also shows that maximum 64% of the gross
cropped area is likely to be irrigated by the year 2050 although it will be difficult
to attain this target. It is important to realize that about 36% of the gross cropped
area is likely to remain rainfed even by the year 2050. Further, by the year 2050,
little over half of the total irrigation will be from surface sources.

Table 8. Irrigation related projections for three years

Particulars Year 2010 Year 2025 Year 2050

Net sown area (M-ha) 143 144 145

Cropping intensity (%) 135 140–142 150–160
Ratio of irrigated to gross cropped area (%) 40–41 45–48 52–64
Ratio of rainfed foodcrop area to gross irrigated area (%) 70 70 70
Ratio of rainfed foodcrop area to gross rainfed area (%) 66 66 66
Ratio of surface water irrigation to total irrigation (%) 47 49–51 54.3

Source: MOWR (1999) Perspective of Water Requirements.

812 Chapter 17

Table 9. Area sown and irrigated from 1950–51 to 1997–98

Year Area sown Irrigated area Cropping intensity Irrigation Intensity

(in M ha) (in M ha) (percentage) (percentage)

Net Gross Net Gross

1950–51 118.8 131.9 20.9 22.6 111.0 108.1

1955–56 129.2 147.3 22.8 25.7 114.0 112.7
1960–61 133.2 152.8 24.7 28.0 114.7 113.4
1965–66 136.2 155.3 26.3 30.9 114.0 117.5
1970–71 140.3 165.8 31.1 38.2 118.2 122.8
1975–76 141.6 171.3 34.6 43.4 121.0 125.4
1980–81 140.0 172.6 38.7 49.8 123.3 128.7
1985–86 140.9 178.5 41.9 54.3 126.7 129.6
1990–91 143.0 185.7 47.8 62.5 129.9 130.8
1993–94 142.1 186.4 51.5 68.4 131.2 132.8
1994–95 143.0 188.0 53.0 70.7 131.5 133.4
1995–96 142.2 187.5 53.4 71.4 131.9 133.7
1996–97 142.8 189.6 55.1 73.3 132.8 133.0
1997–98 142.0 190.8 54.6 72.8 134.4 133.3

Source: CWC (2002).

The area sown and irrigated in India from 1950–51 to 1997–98 is given in
Table 9. It can be noted that the gross sown area in the country was 190.8 M ha in
1997–98 whereas irrigated area was 72.8 M ha.
The crop wise irrigated area under principal crops in 1997–98 is shown in
Table 10. Note that while the gross irrigated area of wheat and rice is of the same
order, nearly 85% of wheat crop is irrigated while only 48.6% of rice crop is
irrigated. Even in case of rice which is a water intensive crop, more than half of
the cropped area is under rainfed cultivation. This is because rainfed rice is quite
extensively cultivated in many southern states. Some crops like Sorghum are almost
exclusively grown in rainfed areas as the Table 10 shows.
Despite large growth in irrigation and use of fertilizers etc., crop productivity
remains quite low in India although the production has grown many folds in the past
50 years. Ambast (2005) has complied data about productivity of some crops in India
and the same is shown in Table 11. Note that as compared to some advanced countries,
the productivity is very small in India and there is considerable scope of improvement.
Crop productivity in the country shows large regional variations. For two principal
crops, rice and wheat, productivity for some states in the country is shown in
Table 12. The productivity is very high in Punjab and Haryana and it is 1.5 to
2 times as compared to the other states. Here crop water productivity (CWP) is
defined as follows:

CWPkg/m3  = Yieldkg/ha/Water consumed in ET

+ Lossesm3 /ha (1)
Major Uses of Water in India 813

Table 10. Area irrigated under principal crops during the year 1997–98

Name/Type of the crop Gross irrigated area Share of the irrigated area in the total
(M ha) cropped area for the given crop (percent)

Wheat 214 851

Rice 207 486
Rapeseed and Mustard 37 594
Sugarcane 30 890
Cotton 25 343
Groundnut 16 190
Gram 15 239
Maize 14 226
Jowar 08 62
Bajra 06 66
Oilseeds − 24
Pulses − 20
Pearl millet − 60
Sorghum − 50

Source: MOA (1997) and others.

Table 11. Productivity of selected crops in India

Crop Production (Million Ton) Average Yield Frontline Yield in other

(t/ha) demonstration countries
1950–51 1996–97 2003–04 yield (t/ha) (t/ha)

Rice 206 8131 87.0 2.09 3.53 8.879 (Egypt)

Wheat 65 6927 72.1 2.77 3.79 6.347 (Egypt)
Maize 17 1061 14.7 2.02 3.99 7.974 (Canada)
Millet 137 – 23.0 0.88 (For 1.99
Pearl millet)
Pulses 84 1446 15.2 0.85 (For 1.57 2.255 (Egypt)
chickpea)
Jowar – 1109 – 0.958
Gram – 575 – 0.81
Groundnut – 902 – 1.155
Cotton – 1425 – 0.266
Sugarcane – 27725 – 66.510

Many factors constrain productivity in rainfed areas; some are natural and techno-
logical and some are social. The major such factors are: climatic, soil, technological,
and socio-economic. These are explained in Table 13.

17.4.2. Water Requirement to Satisfy Food Grain Demand

Based on the net sown area, cropping pattern, yields etc. for a particular crop, the
water requirements for irrigation from surface and ground waters were estimated
814 Chapter 17

Table 12. Crop water productivity in some states of India

Region/Crops Land Productivity kg/m2  Crop water Productivity

(Experimental) in kg/m3 
Avg. Exp.

Rice
Punjab 0.35 0.66 0.34
Haryana 0.27 0.64 0.44
Uttar Pradesh 0.21 0.46 0.38
Chhattisgarh 0.14 0.70 0.46
Orissa 0.16 0.17 0.21
West Bengal 0.25 0.42 0.36
Karnataka 0.22 – 0.61
Wheat
Punjab 0.45 0.54 1.40
Haryana 0.41 0.49 1.44
Uttaranchal 0.19 0.50 1.00
Uttar Pradesh 0.28 0.43 1.11
West Bengal 0.22 0.30 1.15

Source: CWC (2002), Ambast (2005), and others.

Table 13. Constraints in rainfed areas

Factor Description

1. Climatic Limited rainfall with erratic distribution, extreme temperatures, higher

wind speed.
2. Soil Shallow, low organic matter, low fertility, sloppy.
3. Technological Non availability of drought resistant varieties, lack of adoption of
production practice, good data base not available.
4. Socio-Economic Smaller holding size, fragmented holdings, higher population growth
rate and illiteracy, problems of marketing and distribution.

by NCIWRD (1999) and are presented in Table 14. The requirements have been
computed for low and high demand scenarios and the gross requirements under
these two scenarios are likely to be 628 and 807 km2 , respectively.
Although irrigation is the major water user, due to more pressing and competing
demands from other sectors, its share in the total demand is bound to decrease from
the present 83%. It is also expected that the price of water for agriculture will rise
in future so as to recover a part of expenditure in operation and maintenance of
irrigation works and this will result in higher water use efficiency. Estimates show
that a 10% increase in the efficiency in irrigation will yield enough water to irrigate
an additional 14 M-ha land. This much improvement in efficiency will require very
moderate investment and user education. Consequently, the share of agriculture in
total water demand by the year 2025 is expected to be about 75 percent.
Major Uses of Water in India 815

Table 14. Water requirement for irrigation

Particulars Unit Year 2010 Year 2025 Year 2050

Low High Low High Low High

Demand Demand Demand Demand Demand Demand

Food grain demand 106 tones 245 247 308 320 420 494
Net cultivable area 106 hectares 143 143 144 144 145 145
Cropping intensity % 135 135 140 142 150 160
% of irrigated to % 40 41 45 48 52 63
gross cropped area
Total cropped area 106 hectares 193 193 202 204 218 232
Total irrigated 106 hectares 77 79 91 98 113 146
cropped area
Total unirrigated 106 hectares 116 114 111 106 104 86
cropped area
Food crop area as % % 70 70 70 70 70 70
of irrigated area
Food crop area as % % 66 66 66 66 66 66
of unirrigated area
Food crop area 106 hectares 541 554 635 687 792 1023
-irrigated
Food crop area 106 hectares 764 752 732 702 689 567
-unirrigated
Average Tonne/ ha 3 3 34 34 4 4
yield-irrigated
foodcrop
Average Tonne/ ha 11 11 125 125 15 15
yield-unirrigated
foodcrop
Foodgrain production 106 tones 162 166 216 234 317 409
from irrigated area
Foodgrain production 106 tones 84 83 91 88 103 85
from unirrigated area
Total surrogate food 106 tones 246 249 307 321 420 494
production
Assumed % of total % 47 47 49 51 543 543
irrigation potential to
potential from surface
water
Irrigated area from 106 hectares 363 372 445 501 614 759
surface water
Irrigated area from 106 hectares 409 419 463 481 517 703
ground water
Assumed “delta” for Metre 091 091 073 073 061 061
surface water
Assumed “delta” for Metre 052 052 051 051 049 049
ground water

(Continued)
816 Chapter 17

Table 14. continued

Particulars Unit Year 2010 Year 2025 Year 2050

Low High Low High Low High

Demand Demand Demand Demand Demand Demand

Surface water km3 330 339 325 365 375 463

requirement for
irrigation
Ground water km3 213 218 236 245 253 344
requirement for
irrigation
Total water required km3 543 557 560 611 628 807
for irrigation

Source: WG (1999).

17.4.3. Water Distribution Practices in India

Water distribution or conveyance of water from the source to the field head is
the most important link between the supplier and the farmers. Rotational methods
of distribution of water are generally followed in India using supplier controlled
schedules (frequency) with either constant or variable amount of water application.
The rotation may be between: (i) sections of main/ branch canal (ii) distributaries
and minors, (iii) outlets, and (iv) individual farmers or groups of farmers. Different
types of rotation methods of water distribution followed in the country are discussed
here.

17.4.4. Warabandi or Osrabandi

The term warabandi is composed of two words: wara (turn) and bandi (fixation).
Thus warabandi means fixation of turn for supply of water to different fields. The
word osrabandi is also synonymously used in place of warabandi. Warabandi is
widely practiced in northern states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, etc. for more than a century. According to this practice, the available volume
of water is equitably allocated to all the users in the command irrespective of
location of the holdings of farmers. The share of a farmer is in the ratio of the size
of his field and is allocated in terms of time interval as a part of total hours (168)
in a week.
In a typical surface irrigation system, the main canal feeds two or more branches
which operate by rotation and may or may not be able to run full. This constitutes
the primary distribution system which runs through out the irrigation season. Branch
canals supply water to a number of distributaries – the secondary distribution
system – which must run at full supply level by rotation. Distributaries feed water
courses called guls (the tertiary system) through ungated, fixed discharge outlets
which are generally semi-modular type (Malhotra, 1982). Water courses run at full
Major Uses of Water in India 817

supply level when the distributary is running and the water is allocated between the
farmers on a water course by a time roster (Sahni, 2000).
Two types of warabandi are followed: Khatawar (area-wise) and Nakawar
(location-wise). In Khatawar warabandi, the rotation period is divided amongst the
applicants in the ratio of the area of their holdings in the command. In the Nakawar
warabandi system, the filling and the depletion time of the field channels are also
considered while fixing the turns. Besides the date and time of water delivery,
the beneficiary is also informed about the exact naka (location) from where the
water is to be withdrawn. The nakas are allocated keeping in view the position
of the farmer’s fields. If the turns are continuous, they occur at regular intervals
irrespective of water availability. Alternatively, the turns are considered in force
only when water is available.
The osrabandi method that is prevalent in U.P., distributes water among the
farmers at the outlet command thokwise, chakwise, and village-wise. In the first
system, the farmers of the outlet are aggregated to form thoks or groups and the
share of different groups is proportional to the areas of their holdings. The leader
of a thok or ‘Thokdar’ is given a list of irrigators belongings to his Thok and the
time entitlement noted against each. He is responsible to distribute water among all
the members of his thok. Thokwari system often fails down due to discriminatory
practice by Thokdars, poor maintenance of field channels, and defiance by powerful
farmers. In the chakwise system, water allocation is on the basis of chak (farm).
In many parts of India, scattered land holdings of farmers have been consolidated
under chakbandi (consolidation of holdings) and this has helped in overcoming the
problems associated with fragmentation of land. This system is now preferred.
In Warabandi system, the infrastructure is sized so that the capacity of successive
channels is proportional to the area served. Each unit of culturable command is
allocated a certain rate of flow termed as water allowance which is the basis of
designing the carrying capacity of distributaries and water courses. The outlets
to water courses are so constructed that all of them on a distributary draw their
authorized share concurrently. The value of the water allowance at water course
head is (0.68 cumec) per 404.69 ha (1,000 acres) of culturable command area (CCA).

Management
The distribution of water in warabandi is a two tier operation. Up to outlet it is
managed by the government agency. The distributaries are always run full in 8-day
periods. The distribution of water coming out of an outlet (‘mogha’) is managed by
cultivators. The distribution water is done on a 7-days rotation basis with the help
of an approved roster which divides 168 hours (i.e. 7 days) in proportion to size of
the holdings. The outlets have no gates and it is illegal to keep any of them closed
when the parent distributary is in operation. The distributary runs for 8-days so that
all water courses can get water at least for 7 full days.
Water distribution proceeds from head to tail along the water course. Each
cultivator is entitled to receive the entire water in a water course only on a specific
day of the week at a specified time. There is no provision in this system to
818 Chapter 17

compensate any individual farmer, who fails to receive his share of water for any
reason, including those for which he is not responsible such as fault in operation
or breaches in canal etc. Also this system does not compensate for the losses in the
water course. No distributary operates for the entire period of the crop(s). The ratio
of the operating period of a distributary to the total crop period called its Capacity
factor is a compromise between demand and supply.

Roster of turns
When the water is delivered in the water course, it takes some time to each delivery
point called nakka. This time of filling is called Bharai. The total time of filling
is debited to the common pool time of 168 hours and credited to the individual
account of each farmer. At the end of the rotation, the whole length of the water
course which has been filled with common pool time, is utilized by the last farmer.
Hence, part of total bharai time considering sudden reduction of supply is debited
to the account of the last (tail-end) farmer. This is called the Jharai time which is
credited to the common pool. Thus,

168 − Total Bharai + Total Jharai

Net running timehours/unit_CCA =
Total Area
(2)

and,

Total time for a farmer (hr) = Net time per unit area × area
+ his Bharai − his Jharai (3)

where Jharai is zero for all farmers except for the last.
Although, each cultivator’s right to share water is guaranteed under section 68
of the North India Canal and Drainage Act (1873) and canal officer can enforce
this right if he receives a complaint, farmers themselves are vigilant in their own
interest. This is one of the major strengths of the system. A second major strength
is the equity. In the event that river flows fall below the combined capacity of the
system, a schedule is adopted which rotates priorities between groups of branch
canals and distributaries, the number of groups being determined by the variability
of supply. Inspired by the achievements and success of warabandi in Punjab and
Haryana, initiatives have recently been made to implement this practice in irrigation
schemes elsewhere in the country.

17.4.5. Shejpali, Block and Satta Systems

The Shejpali and block systems are followed in Gujarat, Maharashtra and some
parts of Karnataka. In these systems, the supplier of the water or the government
enters in an agreement with the farmers for supply of water. In the Shejpali system,
Major Uses of Water in India 819

water is distributed according to a pre-determined schedule in each rotation. Based

on expected water availability, a preliminary delivery schedule is prepared each
year. Farmers give indent for water indicating the crops they plan to grow and the
respective areas. This forms the basis of allocation of water. If the total demand
of water exceeds the availability, the irrigated areas proposed by the farmers are
proportionately reduced. Now for each rotation, a schedule known as Shejpali is
prepared which fixes the turns of applicant farmers. In this system, the farmers at
the tail end of the command get water first and those at the head are served last. The
actual delivery of water to the crops also depends upon the nature of the crop. Some
crops require frequent irrigation and are irrigated in each rotation while less water
demanding crops may be irrigated on alternative rotation. After the final schedule
is prepared, it is notified so that each farmer knows when his turn will come.
Most of the irrigation projects in these states are storage scheme with direct canals
from the storage or from a pick-up weir downstream of a storage. Distribution of
water essentially follows rotation-cum-demand approach and the word ‘demand’ is
interpreted as follows. A farmer in the command area has to apply for the area and
crops to be irrigated in each season except for perennial crops for which long term
sanction (6 to 12 years basis) is given. Demand given by the farmer is sanctioned as
per the cropping pattern of the project and availability of water. Water is supplied
in each rotation according to crop requirement.
At the end of the Kharif season, the amount of water available in the reservoir is
known. Based on this, crops to be grown and areas for each crop are decided before
the start of Rabi season (15th October). Preliminary Irrigation Programme (PIP) is
prepared by the in-charge of the project for proper utilization of the stored water,
considering the duties of the various crops, river gains, evaporation and seepage
losses in reservoir, losses in conveyance system and commitments for non-irrigation
purposes. This is essentially water budgeting.
Public notices are then issued inviting application for water from farmers for
season wise sanctions. If the area demanded for irrigation is more, suitable cut is
applied, guaranteeing minimum area of up to 2 acres to small farmers. The cultivators
are informed in advance about the area sanctioned by issuing passes to them.
Rotation program i.e., days ‘off’ and ‘on’ is prepared and published. Water is
supplied to the crops at pre-decided rotation period of 14 to 21 days. Having fixed
the rotation periods and the area to be permitted during the season, the quantity
required to be released from the storage in each rotation is calculated on the basis
of observed AI/DC or ETc and losses. Generally in Rabi season, AI/DC of 4 is
taken at distributory head and 6 at outlet head.
After scrutinizing and sanctioning the indent by the Executive Engineer, water
is released and supplied from tail to head reach of the canal. On each outlet, the
canal inspector prepares a list of sanction holders, their sanctioned area of calculates
the total quantity of water in terms of day cusecs and the total time for which a
particular outlet is required to run. A time table known as Pali-patrak giving the
date and time for which water will be supplied to each sanction holder in his beat
is prepared by canal inspector for each outlet and is communicated to irrigators by
calling a meeting.
820 Chapter 17

Supply is rotated tail to head among farmers on each outlet, among different
distributaries and in different sections of canal. At the end of each rotation AI/DC
statement are prepared and after completion of each season Completed Irrigation
Report (CIR) is prepared which includes abstract of water utilized for irrigation and
non-irrigation uses, rotation-wise discharge utilized by each sub-division, crop-wise
area irrigated in each rotation, duty of water utilized on canal and distributary,
conveyance losses, and graph showing planned and actual withdrawal from the
storage. This CIR is compared with PIP to evaluate the performance of the system
and management staff (WALMI, 1987).

Outlets and water supply in field channels

All outlets in irrigation commands in Maharashtra are non-modular type and of
standard size generally 30 to 40 cm diameter fixed at the bed level of the parent
channel and are provided with lift type gates to control the water supply. A constant
discharge of 30 litre/second (about 1 cusec) is maintained at the outlet head. The
time allotted to the farmers at the tail end is required to be adjusted to account
for the conveyance losses in the field channel. When the time allotted to each
irrigator is rigidly prescribed, the distribution system is called the Rigid Shejpali or
Rotational Water Supply (RWS).
Under the block system, a long-term arrangement for water supply is made but
irrigation from season to season proceeds in the same manner as in the Shejpali
system. The blocks are sanctioned for a period ranging from six to twelve years.
Since this system ensures supply of water for a considerably long period, the farmers
can plan over a long-time horizon.
The Satta (means agreement) system has many features which are similar to the
Shejpali or the block system. The Satta system is practiced in the Sone Command
area in Bihar. This is amongst the oldest irrigation systems of India.
In Madhya Pradesh, different water distribution methods are practiced. While
the Punjab or U.P. model is followed in the northern part of the state, the Shejpali
system of Maharashtra is followed in the southern part. This situation is the result
of merger of units from adjoining states after state reorganization. In Vindhya
Pradesh and Bhopal region where Rabi irrigation is comparatively more than Kharif,
the responsibility of irrigation beyond the outlets rests with Irrigation Department.
Mixed cropping pattern prevails in this region. On the other hand, in the old
Mahakoshal region which is mostly rice growing area, the distribution of water
beyond the outlet is the responsibility of Irrigation Panchayats (IPs). In M.P., the
formation of IPs is compulsory under the M.P. Irrigation Act. Each village has its
own IP which has a small committee consisting of a Sarpanch (Head of Panchayat)
and two or more members elected once in 3 years and serves on an average 250 ha
(Raju, 1992).
In Tamil Nadu the Varavaram rotational water supply method is practiced. Paddy
is the main crop both in Kharif and Rabi seasons. During Kharif season, in the
Cauvery system all channels run continuously without any control till the maturity
of the paddy crop. Distribution below the outlet is the responsibility of farmers
Major Uses of Water in India 821

who practice field to field irrigation. In Lower Bhawani Project, the distributaries
run in rotation in alternate years supplying water to two crops in a year -paddy
and an irrigated dry crop for the full area covered by these distributaries which
run continuously throughout the crop seasons (January to April and August to
December). During the Rabi season, rotational system of water distribution is used.
Water to each cultivator is supplied at an interval of 1.5 to 4 days for paddy and
larger interval for other crops.

17.4.6. Improvement in Water Use Efficiency

Most old canal systems in India were unlined and did not have adequate and
appropriate structures to control flow of water. This results in large transmission
losses. In view of this, a number of schemes have been taken up in the recent
past to modernize such systems. The basic premise here is that the efficiency of
a canal can be improved by providing impermeable lining. Some important canals
modernization projects include the Haryana Canal modernization project, Punjab
canal modernization project, and the Upper Ganga Canal modernization project.
Work has also been taken up to improve some old canals such as the Khadakwasla
right bank canal, Tungabhadra canal system and the Chambal canal system. Another
factor is that the older systems were designed keeping in view the demands and
their projections. As the demands have increased significantly over the years due
to several reasons the older systems are unable to function well.
Inadequate maintenance of the canals is another cause of inefficient utilization of
irrigation water. At present, many canal systems are in poor shape due to negligence
and inadequate finances for their maintenance. A major chunk of the allocation
funds is usually spent on the establishment costs and thus a very small amount is
actually spent on maintenance work. To overcome this, it is necessary that prices
of water are fixed such that wastage is reduced and the major portion of operation
and maintenance expenditure is recovered. This will make available adequate funds
for maintenance works.

Zero tillage practice

This is a technique that has come in news during the last decade. In this technique,
after harvesting the crop, the new crop is planted with tilling the ground. Avoidance
of tillage leads to conservation of moisture as well as nutrients. Proponents of this
technique call it ‘conservation farming’ which helps in large reduction of input
costs, saving in water to the tune of 25%, and about 10% saving in seeds. Estimates
show that zero tillage practice is being followed in about 8 lakh ha in UP and abut
10 lakh ha in Haryana.

Systems of rice intensification (SRI)

SRI is drawing attention world-wide as a viable paddy cultivation practice that
boosts yield while reducing water use and cost of cultivation. This technique was
developed after experiments conducted in Madagascar where the conditions are
822 Chapter 17

quite similar to those observed in India. SRI promises significant increase in rice
yields even without the introduction of high yield variety (HYV) seeds, increase in
application of chemical fertilizers and, most importantly, with much lees water. In
Madagascar, average paddy yields rose from 2 tons/ha to 8–10 tons/ha with up to
50% reduction in water consumption. SRI holds out a big promise for India where
rice cultivation is extensively carried out, even in water deficient regions and where
rice cultivation is frequently blamed for declining water tables in many areas.

Recent developments in bio-technology and genetically modified seeds

Recent advances in GM and bio-technology could drastically change crop water and
fertilizer requirements in the future. Introduction of this technology has been slow
in India so far and much of the efforts and debate has been concentrated around
BT cotton rather than food crops. However, next decades are probably going to
witness large changes in the way food is grown in many parts of the world. Some
experts predict that poor countries might see dumping of cheaply produced food
grains by advanced countries using GM technologies. While this may alleviate food
shortages, it will have serious repercussions on the third world economies and will
be a big challenge for the planners and policy makers.

17.4.7. Sprinkler and Drip Irrigation

In this method, water is carried through a network of pipes under medium or

high pressure and is spread like light rain/drizzle. The system consists of pumping
unit, main, sub-main and lateral pipes, couplers, risers and sprinkler heads. With
careful selection of nozzles of the sprinkler, operating pressures, lateral spacing,
and sprinkler spacing on lateral, the irrigation water required to refill the crop root
zone can be applied nearly uniformly to suit the soil intake rates, thereby obtaining
efficient irrigation. Both the rotating head and perforated pipe sprinkler systems are
used in India. Rain gun sprinkler systems are also becoming popular with Indian
farmers. Further details regarding planning, design, operation and maintenance of
sprinkler system in Indian conditions can be found in Sahni (1996b).
The sprinkler irrigation was first introduced mainly in hills for plantation crops
like tea, coffee, etc. in the Western Ghats and in the North Eastern States. Subse-
quently, when water scarcity, waterlogging, and salinity problems in command
areas started manifesting on a big scale, the government induced the farmers (often
through subsides) to adopt sprinkler irrigation. Sprinklers are being extensively
used in Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, etc. These are very well suited to all
closely spaced crops except rice, i.e. cereals, oil seeds, pulses, and other cash crops.
Application of these techniques has resulted in efficiencies as high as 90% in
some cases and, therefore, the use of these methods on large scale should be
encouraged. The NCIWRD (1999) estimated the area under the sprinkler irrigation
to be about 700,000 ha at that time. The commission also estimated the cost of
sprinkler irrigation to be about Rs. 10,000 to Rs. 20,000/- per ha and the cost of
micro-irrigation to be from Rs. 20,000 to Rs. 50,000/- per ha.
Major Uses of Water in India 823

Studies conducted at various institutions in the country and at farmers’ fields

have proved that there is about 30 to 50% saving in water and yield increase 10 to
40% for various crops with sprinkler irrigation compared with surface irrigation.
Results from some field studies are summarised in Table 15. The data collected
from 22 farmers in Haryana have indicated that by introducing sprinkler method
area of irrigation has increased by 38%, crop intensity is increased from 66 to 121%,
saving in human labour and above all net income of the farmers. The benefit-cost
ratios for plastic sprinkler and metallic sprinkler have been worked out to 4.65:1
and 3.42: 1 respectively (Shivanappan, 1998).

Micro irrigation
Micro irrigation is well suited to all row crops and especially for wide spaced
high value crops. The required quantity of water to meet the ET requirement is
provided to each plant daily at the root zone. Hence very little water is lost by
evaporation. The use of drip irrigation on experimental basis began in India in
1970s. The area under micro irrigation has increased in India from 1,000 ha in
1985 to 60,000 ha in 1993 and further to 170,000 ha in 1997 covering about 30
different crops (Shivanappan, 1998). Maharashtra is the leading state with more
than 60,000 ha area under micro irrigation. NCIWRD (1999) estimates place the
area under drip and micro-jet system etc. to be 200,000 ha at that time.

Table 15. Summary of field studies on sprinkler – water saving and productivity

Delta in cm Saving Yield Q/ha Increase in

Crops and station
of Water Yield%
Flow Sprinkler (%) Flow Sprinkler
Irrigation Irrigation Irrigation Irrigation

Wheat (HD-2,189) 640 441 31.0 2175 2325 7.0

Vadgaon
Wheat (HD-2,189) 573 426 26.0 2200 2560 16.4
Phaltan
Wheat (HD-2,189) 912 480 47.0 2070 2170 5.0
Akola
Rabi Jowar; Phaltan 647 537 17.0 1540 2000 30.00
Rabi Gram; Phaltan 593 544 8.3 1430 1780 24.50
HW Groundnut 820 560 32.0 1100 1250 14.00
Vadgaon
HW Groundnut Phaltan 866 549 36.6 1290 1830 42.00
Kharif Ground nut; 255 191 25.0 410 470 15.0
Akola
Kharif Jowar; Phaltan 338 295 13.0 3150 3450 9.5
Kharif Bajara; Phaltan 268 210 22.0 2200 2300 5.0
Sugarcane (Co740); 2793 19040 32.0 135∗ 151∗ 12.0
Vadgaon
∗
Sugarcane Yield in tonnes.
Source: Sahni (2000).
824 Chapter 17

The potential for drip irrigation in India is estimated to be about 10.5 M ha.
Govt. of India provides subsidies to encourage wider adoption of drip irrigation.
Experiments show that use of drip irrigation can lead to up to 60% saving in water
use and to increase crop yields up to 50% (Postel, 1999). By following this method,
water productivity can increase up to 250% for cotton. The drip system has a
potential to use saline water. These systems are in use in Madhya Pradesh, Haryana,
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, West Bengal and Maharashtra. The micro irrigation systems
has several advantages such as large crop yields, higher efficiency of fertilizer use,
low labour requirement and reduced weed. Use of these systems is expected to
grow significantly with time.
The drip system essentially consists of a pump or overhead tank, main, sub-main,
laterals, drippers or emitters, filters, fertiliser tanks or venture pumps, and other
accessories. Filters are essential for drip system to prevent clogging of drippers.
Biwall system is used for closely spaced crops like sugarcane, vegetables, cotton
etc. Micro sprinklers and micro sprayers are essentially a combination of sprinkler
and drip irrigation. Water is sprinkled or sprayed around the root zone of the plants
with a small sprinkler working under low pressure. This method is very suitable
for tree or orchards crops. Details of selection, planning, design, operation and
maintenance for Indian conditions can be found in Sahni (1996a).
The cost of micro-irrigation system depends on the type of crops grown, spacing,
water requirement, location of water source, etc. It varies from Rs. 15,000 per ha for
wide spaced crops like coconut, mango, etc. to Rs. 40,000 per ha for closely spaced
row crops like sugarcane, vegetables and cotton. Studies by various institutions
have revealed that water saving by drip irrigation compared to surface irrigation is
40–50% and increase in yield is up to 100% (Table 16).

Table 16. Water used and yield for various crops in micro and conventional methods

Crop Yield (Quintal/Ha) Water Supplied (cm)

Conventional Drip Increase in Conventional Drip Water

Yield (%) saving (%)

Banana 57500 87500 52 17600 970 45

Grapes 26400 32500 23 5320 278 48
Mosambi 10000 15000 50 16600 640 61
Pomegranate 5500 10900 98 14400 7850 45
Sugarcane 1 28000 1 70000 33 21500 940 56
Tomato 32000 48000 50 3000 1840 39
Cotton 2300 2950 27 8953 4200 53
Brinjal 28000 32000 14 9000 4200 53
Papaya 13400 23480 75 22600 7330 68
Chillies 4233 6088 44 10971 4177 62
Sweet Potato 4244 5888 39 6314 2520 60

Source: NCPA (1990).

Major Uses of Water in India 825

The B.C. ratio for drip system in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu is found to range
1.31 to 2.60 for various crops (Sahni 2000) except grapes including the proportion
of water saving. In case of grapes, it is about 13.35. If water is also taken into
account the ratio goes up from 2.78 to 11.05 for various crops and 30.0 for grapes.
This explains why grape growers in Maharashtra have adopted drip irrigation in a
big way.

Use of sewage water for irrigation

Sewage water is being used for irrigation in some parts of the country. In Punjab, 34
million litres of industrial effluents and municipal wastewater is used for irrigation.
However, since most of it is untreated, toxic elements enters the food chain through
plants (Singh 1997). In Gujarat (around Baroda and Ahmedabad) and Tamil Nadu
(around Chennai) also, industrial and municipal effluent water is used for agriculture
with or without treatment, with mixed results. Domestic sewage is also used to
irrigate vegetables due to high content of organic waste. The presence of chemicals
in such water on the soils, crops and groundwater will certainly be harmful.
Many diseases, especially among children, are said to have been caused due to
consumption of fruits or vegetables grown with contaminated water.

17.4.8. Traditional Methods of Irrigation in India

In India, all sources other than canals, wells and tubewells are considered as
traditional sources. Small and medium irrigation works continue to play an important
role in developing irrigation in the country. These works have smaller capital outlay,
short gestation period, benefits from them are spread over a wider area, they do
not face opposition from environmentalists, and give employment opportunities to
local people.

Traditional methods in mountainous region

Traditional Methods of Irrigation in hilly region are characterized by in – situ water
harvesting techniques using locally available skills and material. Terrace cultivation
of crops which additionally conserves soil and water is a characteristic feature
of the mountainous regions of India. The terraces are cut along the contours and
are leaned up against the stone retaining walls to check soil erosion. Channels or
bamboo pipes are placed to divert water from the streams or rivulets to irrigate
these terraces.
Angami system, a form of terrace cultivation, is practiced in the north – eastern
part of India (CSE, 1997). A unique means of terrace cultivation practiced in
Nagaland is called zabo system. In fact, Zabo combines forest protection, soil
conservation, water resources development, and protection of environment. In
Meghalaya, natural spring water is diverted through Bamboo pipes to irrigate the
plantation crops. These bamboo pipes are widely prevalent and are so fabricated that
18–20 litres of water entering the pipe gets reduced to 20–80 drops per minute at the
site of plantation (CSE 1997). The irrigation system practised in Himachal Pradesh is
826 Chapter 17

called as Kul (diversion channel) irrigation which transports water from the glaciers
to the fields. Haveli system is a traditional harvesting method prevalent in upper
part of Narmada valley in the MP. Rainwater is stored in fields by constructing
earthen embankments. After the passage of monsoon, farmers drain off the water
and then plant crops which grow using available soil moisture. In Uttaranchal
hills also, people have evolved various techniques for water conservation and
utilization.

17.4.9. Tanks for Irrigation

Tanks are being built in India for many centuries for multiple objectives including
social works. Some authors date the commencement of these works to as far back
as 5th century. Most of the tanks were built by the rulers or local communities but
maintenance was mainly by the community. In earlier times, tanks were part of social
culture, customs, and rituals, and some of these also had religious connotations. The
beginning of the 20th century saw gradual stoppage of construction of new tanks.
According to Mishra (1993), there were about 1.1 to 1.2 million tanks of various
sizes in the country in the beginning of the 19th century. In 1800, there were
more than 39,000 tanks in Mysore. Thakkar (1999) reports that a census of minor
irrigation schemes carried out in 1986–87 showed that 507,200 minor irrigation
tanks were in use in the country (no census done in Rajasthan). Four peninsular
states (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala) accounted for about
60% of the irrigated area under tanks in the country. These states together with
MP, Maharashtra, UP and West Bengal accounted for 97% of the total tanks of the
country.
Anicuts (small weirs) are unique devices to divert water from rivers into the
canals dug on their bank(s). Network of channels and tanks are typically connected
with these anicuts which are dominant in Southern India. These anicuts range from
small earthen barriers across small streams to that of concrete structures like the
Grand Anicut on Cauvery River. The water from these tanks is utilized for irrigation
through an outlet or sometimes irrigated through natural seepage. Typically, these
tanks irrigate from less than 1 ha to about 1,000 ha and above.
Besides irrigation, the other benefits of these structures are recharge of aquifers,
arresting soil erosion, and reducing the flood peaks. In Tamil Nadu, tanks are
classified as individual tanks, systems tanks, and tank cascades (Saravanan, 1994)
based on the hydrological characteristics. In Tamil Nadu, the Panchayat maintains
tanks with command area of less than 40 ha that are rainfed or are fed by non –
perennial streams while the PWD maintains both rainfed and canal fed tanks with
command area of more than 40 ha.
Although the area under irrigation by the traditional sources was only 14.5%
in 1987–88, Thakkar (1999) notes that these are practically the only sources of
irrigation in the Himalayan states of Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam, Arunachal
Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Tripura and Manipur. Further, in Jammu
and Kashmir and Kerala, they account for over half the net irrigated area. In Bihar,
Major Uses of Water in India 827

Karnataka, Tamil Nadu & West Bengal, they account for over a quarter of net
irrigated areas. In MP and AP, they account for over 20% of net irrigated area.
In UP (including Uttaranchal), these sources irrigate over 0.4 M ha of net irrigated
area, most of which is in Uttaranchal where other sources of irrigation are scant.

Rehabilitation of tanks and water bodies

It is common to hear that the traditional systems were largely neglected in the
last century because the society has been gradually sidelined in their management
and enough attention was not paid for their maintenance. The area irrigated by the
traditional means is witnessing decline, especially in the last fifty years. In 1960–61,
traditional water sources irrigated 8.2 M ha area. This area declined to 6.24 M ha
by 1987–88 indicating that these sources were neglected over the years (Sengupta
1995). Thakkar (1999) noted that the area under tank irrigation reached an all time
high of 4.78 M ha in 1962–63, which came down to 3.071 M ha in 1985–86.
The deterioration of tank irrigation in Tamil Nadu can be noted from the fact
that the tanks were irrigating an area of 0.565 M ha (about in 1950–51 reached
a peak of 0.936 M ha in 1960–61, and steadily reducing thereafter. According to
Saravanan (1994), tanks contributed 60% of the irrigated area in 1950’s which
declined to less than 30% in 1989. A study by Indian Institute of Management,
Bangalore, found that more than half of the estimated 43,000 tanks in Karnataka
have been more or less silted up, causing loss of irrigation to an area of 0.23 M ha
(Dhawan, 1993). Many tanks and dug wells in and around urban areas have been
deliberately filled-up over the past 50 years due to pressure on land as a result of
rapid urbanization.
Though the need to restore these systems was realized since 19th Century, the
importance of community-based restoration (or currently termed as rehabilitation)
has only been realized in the 1990’s due to importance of participatory governance
and impending water crisis. In recent years rehabilitation of tanks is gaining promi-
nence. Recently, Govt. of India has formulated a massive scheme of rehabilitation
of water bodies in collaboration with concerned state governments.

17.4.10. Under-Use of Irrigation Potential

The fact that larger potential created remains utilized is a cause of concern for water
resources planners and decision makers. Two important reasons behind this are:

a. Poor maintenance
In many cases, the earlier developed facilities have become degraded and suffer
from lack of proper maintenance. As a result, such facilities are unable to deliver
the desired objectives. Reasons for such a scenario are poor recoveries, relatively
higher operation costs, and relatively low allocation of funds for maintenance.
Un-accountability is another reason for sub-optimal performance.
828 Chapter 17

b. Under utilization and over utilization of resources

Faulty operation plans etc. also contribute to inefficient resource utilization. Many
a times, the optimal benefits are not derived from the system because of lack of
on-farm development. Seepage losses from minors and sub minors may be consid-
erable at times. There are also issues related to over-utilization by one stakeholder
at the cost of others. It is also seen that the areas or regions where water resources
have been developed, there is a tendency to maximize the benefits by switching to
more crops or cash crops, thus increasing the pressure on water usage.
Another cause of concern with regard to irrigation development is that a signif-
icant variation between potential created and ultimate potential exists in various
regions. The stark variation is clear from the following:
• Northern Region States indicate variation between 41% (J&K) to 100% (Punjab).
• In Eastern States, the variation is between 37% (Orissa) to 79% (West Bengal).
• In Southern States, the variation is from 47% (Kerala) to 66%) (Tamil Nadu).
• Western and Central States have variation from 21% (MP) to 69% (Maharashtra).
• North-Eastern States indicate very low potential as regards major and medium
schemes but under minor irrigation, the variation is from 16% (Manipur) to 100%
(Nagaland).
Such large disparities will lead to regional imbalances in growth and development.
Clearly, efforts are needed to ensure sustainability of the created facilities so that
they can deliver the planned benefits. The conventional approach of maintenance of
the system and its operation by designated units without involvement of stakeholders
is not able to: (a) cope up with increasing demands for water, and (b) check the
deterioration of created facilities. A holistic management approach involving the
users and aimed at sustainability is essential.

17.4.11. Command Area Development Programme

Although very high priority was given to irrigation after the independence so as
to increase agricultural production, it was noticed in 1960s that the utilization of
potential created was increasingly lagging behind. While looking into the problems
faced by major and medium irrigation projects, Irrigation Commission (1972) felt
that utilization of created potential was impeded by deficiencies in implementation
of projects, such as completion of reservoirs before canal networks, lack of field
channels to carry water from the government outlets to the individual farms, etc.
Systematic development of command area was recommended to solve this and other
related problem like:
• equitable distribution of water,
• drainage,
• deficiencies in planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance of the
projects,
• provision of inputs like seeds,
• agricultural support services such as credit and extension,
• lack of farmer’s involvement in system operation and maintenance, and
Major Uses of Water in India 829

• lack of coordination between various agencies involved in the development

irrigation command, and
• dissemination of advance technology among the farmers,
Accordingly, the command area development program (CAD) was launched in
1974–75 chiefly to achieve speedier utilization of irrigation potential and efficient
use of water. Initially, it covered 60 major and medium projects with a cultivable
command area (CCA) of 13 M ha. By 1991, 54 CADAs were functioning, covering
131 commands and representing a total command area of 18.5 M ha. Gradually,
a number of projects were brought under this scheme. Till the year 2000, total
236 projects were covered under the program with a culturable command area of
23 M ha.
The CAD programme is mainly being administered by the state government
through Command Area Development Authorities (CADAs). CADAs are funded
by the central and state government. The major activities that are taken by CADAs
are:
• Development of field channels and drains,
• Enforcement of water deliveries practices such as the Warabandi system,
• Land leveling in the commands,
• Realignment of field boundaries and consolidation of holdings (chakbandi),
• Reclamation of waterlogged area.
• Introduction of suitable cropping pattern, and
• Development, maintenance and effective operation of irrigation systems.
To appreciate the activities initiated under the CAD programme, the achievements
as of 1996–97 have been given in Table 17. Targets for a year are also listed in
Table 17 so that the reader can appreciate as to how much work is practically
possible in the given circumstances. Up to the end of 2000–01, Rs. 7,097 crore
were spent on CADP.
Farmer’s involvement in system management was identified as part of the CAD
program when it was started in 1974. Ideally, the measures being taken up under
CAD should be part of the project right from the planning stage which is not
happening. Evaluation of selected projects has shown that the CADP has had
a positive impact by better utilization of created potential, increase in irrigation
intensity, improvement in water use efficiency, use of better variety of seeds,
increase in agricultural production, more use of fertilizers, improvement in farm

Table 17. Cumulative achievements of CAD programme as of 2000 and targets for a year

Item Cumulative achievements (million ha) Target 1997–98

Field Channel 1572 0.360

Warabandi 057 0.410
Field Drainage 068 0.030
Land leveling and shaping 219 0.015

Source: WG (1999a) and Planning Commission (2006).

830 Chapter 17

income and reduction in water logging, soil salinity, etc. At the same time, some
shortcomings of the programme were also noted. Some of these are:
(i) Progress of development of field channels was slow,
(ii) Slow progress in realignment of field boundaries and consolidation of holdings,
(iii) High water use crops like paddy, sugarcane had increased in head reach areas,
(iv) Conjunctive use did not pick up due to various constraints,
(v) Maintenance and upkeep of the canal system above outlet was lacking, and
(vi) Due to the neglect of intermediate and main drains, field drains were not
effective in preventing waterlogging.
The CADA personnel are drawn from the Irrigation, Agriculture, Cooperatives,
and Revenue Department. The essential pre-requisites for a multidisciplinary team
to function as an effective and sustainable interdisciplinary team are the three
C’s: commitment, cooperation and communication. Adequate administrative coordi-
nation with personnel from the irrigation departments could be typically achieved
only when CADA happened to be placed under the direct control of the state
Irrigation Department itself, as in the state of Maharashtra (Sahni 2000). In states
like Gujarat and Maharashtra, where decentralised democratic administrative system
has been operating, the CADAs receive agricultural extension assistance from the
local self government institutions. At the same time, there are states like Tamil
Nadu, Punjab and Haryana where the production achievements are among the best
in spite of these states not having CADA.
To give boost to wider implementation of the CAD programme in various states,
many positive steps have been taken. There was a persistent feeling in the past that
there is a lack of dialogue between the Union government and CAD departments in
the State Governments. With this background, the state level interactions are being
organized. Further, in 1997 the Government of India constituted an Inter-ministerial
Coordination Committee for the implementation of the Centrally Sponsored CAD
programme and Management of Waterlogged, Saline and Alkaline land in the
commands of irrigation projects.

17.4.12. Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM)

The present irrigation management approach is top down wherein the prescrip-
tions are handed down from the top and irrigation is managed more according to
standard administrative procedures than by local needs. This decoupling between
the water users and the suppliers is one of the major reasons behind the poor perfor-
mance of most irrigation projects. Participation of stakeholders and users in joint
management is being increasingly viewed as essential for effective management
of irrigation projects. This is being sought through the Participatory Irrigation
Management (PIM). When properly carried out, PIM provides benefits not only
to the farmers but also to the government through equity in distribution, reduced
costs, and improved agricultural production. The operational objective of PIM is to
transfer the management of irrigation facilities at appropriate level from government
to WUAs. In most cases, management transfer will focus at the level of a minor or
Major Uses of Water in India 831

distributary for large systems or the entire system in case of small schemes. The
objectives of PIM are to:
1. Improve service deliveries through better operation and maintenance which in
turn will result in improved efficiency and equity as well as higher reliability.
2. Ensure the physical sustainability of irrigation infrastructure. As water users
associations (WUAs) assume management of the secondary levels of the system
(e.g. a minor), the irrigation agency can focus its limited resources on the main
system.
3. Promote a sense of partnership between the farmers and the irrigation agency
which will ensure better co-operation leading to mutual benefits.
The essential functions of a typical WUA are:
1. Management of allotted water to WUA among the members and non-members
on principles of equity to be decided by WUA,
2. Repairs and maintenance of the system within their jurisdiction,
3. Assessment and collection of water charges from farmers and remittance to
the Irrigation Agency (IA) at rates fixed in the memorandum of understanding
between WUA and IA, and
4. To ensure measured quantity of water supply from the IA.
It is to be mentioned here that the concept of PIM is not new. Up to the nineteenth
century, most irrigation schemes were managed by farmers themselves as illustrated
by the following examples:
• In Vijayanagar Empire (13th − 16th Century AD) which is now part of Karnataka
State, a series of diversion weirs and canals were built by rulers in which farmers
participated voluntarily. Resolution of conflicts and routine maintenance was
done by the farmers themselves.
• In Tamil Nadu, the Chola King Karikala built an anicut on Cauvery River.
Certain parts of the irrigation system known as ‘Sarkari’ were maintained by
the government and the lower parts known as ‘Kudimarammat’ (maintenance by
donated labour) were maintained by the farmers.
• Himachal Pradesh had an ancient system called ‘Kuhl’ in which irrigation was
managed by the community. Similarly in the hilly regions of Uttar Pradesh, there
was a tradition of farmers managing very small diversion schemes.
• In Maharashtra, the ‘Phad’ system of irrigation that evolved in Nashik and
Dhule in the 17th century is a small-scale community irrigation which is entirely
managed by irrigators.
Thus, the concept of PIM has been practiced in this country for a long time in
some form or the other. However, PIM in its present context and scope of modern
irrigation systems is quite recent in the country.
All the five – year plans since the sixth five year plan, various committees made
recommendations for PIM. But planned and systematic effort on PIM started under
the CAD Programme in 1985. At that time, the Government of India requested
the state governments participating in the CAD Programme to take up farmers
participation on pilot basis in at least one minor (comprising about 1,000–2,000 ha
area) in each CAD Project. The aim was to involve farmers in water management
832 Chapter 17

and maintenance of water courses/field channels with the objective that eventually
the minor level system could be handed over to WUAs. Around 1996 when
the Ninth Five year Plan formulation started, Planning Commission constituted a
working group on PIM to review and suggest the strategies for the Ninth Plan.
This working group had made detailed recommendations to promote PIM and many
of these were implemented. PIM concept is based on the widely tested premise that
the involvement of users in management of irrigation systems creates a win-win
situation – it is beneficial for the users as well as for the government. To promote
the concept of PIM, several steps have been initiated to involve the farmers in
irrigation management. These steps include organizations of conferences at national/
state level to discuss the associated issues, to give legal status to Water User’s
Associations (WUAs), to conduct training programs, etc. Under this scheme, the
states have elected a large number of WUA’s. The details of the number of WUAs
formed and the command area covered is given in Table 18.
Two overarching issues that are addressed through PIM are: a) optimal use of
water and associated resources, and b) equitable distribution of water among users
as well as uses. These objectives can be realized in different ways and through
participation by all stakeholders at different levels. For example, at the micro level, a
distributary of an irrigation system can be managed exclusively by the stakeholders
who can form a Water User’s Association (WUA), Pani Panchayat, or similar
bodies. Likewise, policies/guidelines can be evolved for regulation, in consultation

Table 18. The number of water user’s associations formed and the command area covered by 1998

States Number of water user’s associations Approximate area

(Hydraulic level) (thousand ha)

Andhra Pradesh 10,292 (Minor) 4 70000

Assam 2 (Minor) 100
Bihar 1 (Distributary) 1220
Goa 39 (Minor) 459
71 (Minor) 1900
Gujarat
405 (Lift irrigation schemes)
Haryana 554 (Outlet) 11080
Himachal Pradesh 875(Micro schemes) 3500
Karnataka 193 (Minor) 13839
Kerala 3,712 (Outlet) 14848
Madhya Pradesh 65 (Minor) 2680
Maharashtra 142 (Minor) 5580
Manipur 62 (Minor) 4927
Orissa 53 (Minor) 2760
Rajasthan 35 (Minor) 1563
Tamil Nadu 328 (Minor) 42640
Uttar Pradesh 1 (Minor) 025
West Bengal 10,000 (Tubewell) 3790
Total 5 80911

Source: WG (1999a).
Major Uses of Water in India 833

with stakeholders and these policies can be implemented by the project authorities.
At the basin level where there may be multiple stakeholders including the state
governments etc., the involvement of all the stakeholders needs to be ensured right
from the planning stage.
Some Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs) have also made significant
efforts in formation of WUAs in the country. Efforts have also been made for
formation of WUAs, as a part of the conditions under externally aided projects
such as Water Resources Management and Training Project (WRMTP) of USAID
and National Water Management Project (NWMP) and Water Resources Consoli-
dation Project (WRCP) of World Bank. Efforts made by various Water and Land
Management Institutes (WALMIs) and State Training Institutes (STIs) in Water
Management under the Action Research Programme undertaken by them have also
been instrumental in formation of some WUAs.
In AP, the government had formed some 10,800 WUAs and 172 distributary
committees by Nov. 1997 through legislation. Some other states like Gujarat, Tamil
Nadu and Haryana have also made progress but the number of successful cases is
limited. Of course, while one frequently gets to read about the successful cases like
Mohini distributary in Ukai command, there are relatively fewer write ups about
the large number of failures. Even in case of Mohini distributary also there are
some skewed developments. In 85% of the command of this distributary, water
intensive crop like sugarcane are being grown while the maximum stipulated area
under these crops was 15%.
Hydraulic unit has been accepted as the basis for formation of WUAs. At the
outlet level, the WUA is considered too small to be effective. But WUAs at
minor level having CCA of 500 to 750 ha are considered to be ideal as basic unit.
Small irrigation schemes having CCA up to 1,000 ha can have a single tier. But
for medium and major projects, multi-tiered WUA and a federation of WUAs at
Distributary/Branch Canal level has been proposed. The successful formation of
WUA and its sustainability depends largely on the motivation both on the part of
the farmers and the irrigation bureaucracy. This motivation can largely come from
the understanding of how they stand to gain from such an organization.
It may be emphasized that public involvement is beneficial only when the
public is properly informed. To ensure desired level of involvement of stake-
holders, infrastructure needs to be created and mechanisms have to be put in place.
Detailed guidelines in this respect are available, for example as discussed by Jain
and Singh (2003).

17.4.13. Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP)

Time and cost over-runs are two major malaises associated with WRD projects in
India. A large number of river valley projects have spilled over from one five-year
plan to the next, mainly because of financial constraints being faced by the State
Governments. Prolonged litigations are another cause of delay. Whatever be the cause,
despite a huge investment having already been made on these projects, the country has
834 Chapter 17

not been able to derive the desired benefits. At the end of the VIII Plan, there were
171 major, 259 medium and 72 ERM (Extension, Renovation and Modernisation)
on-going irrigation projects in the country at various stages of construction with
spillover cost of Rs 75,690 crore. Indeed, this is a cause of great concern which is
amplified by the fact that the things don’t seem to be improving with time.
With this background the Government of India launched the Accelerated
Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP) during 1996-97. As the name suggests, the
aim of AIBP was to speed up implementation of ongoing WRD projects on which
substantial progress has already been made. Thus the twin objectives of AIBP are:
(i) to accelerate ongoing irrigation projects and (ii) to realize full benefits from
completed irrigation projects at the earliest. Priority is given to a) those projects
for which progress is hampered due to resource shortage at State Governments
level, and b) those which are in advanced stage of construction with substantial
investment and could yield benefits in near future.
Assistance under AIBP is given to only those projects which have been cleared
by the Planning Commission. Large projects are given assistance for their phased
completion so that benefits could start flowing early with comparatively smaller
investments. Projects benefiting tribal/drought prone areas are given due preference
provided they are otherwise eligible. Priority is also given to inter-state projects.
Projects with larger irrigated area per unit of additional investment are preferred.
For the projects supported under AIBP, Central Government monitors the progress.
Sometime ago, AIBP has been linked with economic reforms in the irrigation sector.
But with al the efforts, AIBP has not been very much successful. Out of 181 projects
in the AIBP, only 32 have been completed and only 2.66 M-ha of potential has
been created while the scope was to create 9 M-ha (Planning Commission 2006).
At present, the priority of projects under AIBP is fixed on the basis of likely
completion date and no further projects are financed till the pending projects are
complete. In this way, the selected projects preempt resources at the cost of other
projects. Planning commission has suggested another strategy in which the projects
can be prioritized based on likely additional irrigation from a given investment in
a given time frame.

17.4.14. Economic Criteria of Irrigation Projects

At present, all the major and medium sector, are entirely funded by the Government.
Institutional finance through financial institutions is available for the minor
irrigation sector. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD)
extends assistance to minor and sometimes major & medium projects as well. The
unit cost of irrigation development has steadily increased. It was Rs. 1,500/ha in
the first plan which grew to nearly Rs. 2.5 lakh per ha of CCA in the tenth plan.
Before any major and medium project is taken up for execution, techno-economic
appraisal is carried out. The criteria for establishing viability of a project have
changed with time and with philosophy of development. Before independence,
the economic return was the main criteria used for sanctioning projects. After
Major Uses of Water in India 835

independence, the minimum acceptable rate of return on investment was fixed at

3.75% since irrigation was considered to be a responsibility of the state and an
essential part of social welfare. Later, this rate was raised to 4.5% and then to 5%.
In 1960s, it was felt that a minimum acceptable rate of return on capital criterion
for sanctioning irrigation projects was inappropriate from a social welfare point of
view. After deducting charges for land levelling, interest on capital, depreciation
and administrative expenses, projects having a benefit-cost (BC) ratio of 1.5 and
above were considered project viable. The Irrigation Commission (1972) decided
that the BC ratio of one should be considered acceptable for drought prone areas.
Later, there was a feeling that benefit-cost analysis alone is not sufficient to
properly rank the projects. Accordingly, since late 1980s, besides the BC ratio, the
internal rate of return (IRR) of the projects on a discounted cash flow basis is also
being computed. A committee constituted by the Planning Commission under the
chairmanship of Dr Nitin Desai had recommended that the minimum cut-off point of
IRR should be 9% for general cases. Further, for drought-prone, chronically flood-
prone, hilly areas, and in areas where 75% of the dependable flows of the basin had
already been tapped, a cut-off IRR of 7% was suggested. Most irrigation projects
in India have IRR varying from 12 to 16%. This is an indication of large economic
benefits of the major and medium irrigation projects. But there are allegations that
in these computations, many related indirect costs and benefits (which, at times are
substantial) are not accounted for.

17.4.15. Working Expenses and Receipts of Irrigation Projects

In many countries, canals are operated by following “on demand supply system”.
Canals are operated in India by following schedule delivery, an upstream operational
concept and downstream depth method. This system has evolved as a practical
method to satisfy irrigation needs using the traditional structures by following a
supply based operation. This system has several weaknesses. Notable among them
is that there may be large differences between the demand and actual delivery of
flows. In case the available water is inadequate, the users located at the tail end
of the canal may not get adequate water. Modern technology is being employed
to overcome the problems associated with present systems. For instance, the main
canal of the Sardar Sarovar Project with a capacity of 1,100 cumec will be a
computer controlled, centrally operated canal system.
Data of working expenses on canal systems and revenue generated from 1975–76
to 1991–92 is shown in Table 19. The table shows that the losses have tended
to gradually mount and the gross receipts from irrigation fall short of working
expenses by 2,500 crore by the end of 1991–92. One alternative to fill this gap
will be to suitably increase the water rates. However, any significant adjustment of
water price seems unlikely in view of current political situation. In fact, provision
of free electricity to farmers to withdraw groundwater is quite common despite its
obvious harmful consequences. The state wise working expenses, gross receipts and
ranges of water rates for the year 1991–92 has also been presented in Table 20.
836 Chapter 17

Table 19. Financial results of WRD projects (All India) (in crore rupees)

Year Capital Outlay Gross Working Interest on Profit % recovery

receipts expenses capital GR-WE + of WE
During the At the end of (G.R.) (W.E.) outlay at I through GR
year year the end of (GR/WE∗
(cumulative) year (I) 100)

1974–75 4036 3 8478 607 946 1379 -171.8 64

1975–76 5093 4 4543 869 954 1577 -166.2 91
1976–77 6805 5 1378 1047 1128 1749 -183.0 93
1977–78 8632 5 9963 969 1272 2155 -245.8 76
1978–79 9702 6 9664 1081 1552 2555 -302.6 70
1979–80 1 1237 8 0900 1007 1405 2923 -332.1 72
1980–81 1 2567 9 3467 1034 2257 3015 -423.8 46
1981–82 1 4386 10 7905 1202 2653 4156 -560.7 45
1982–83 1 5518 12 3423 1171 2377 8727 -993.3 49
1983–84 1 7203 14 0421 1651 2739 5628 -671.6 60
1984–85 1 8676 15 9297 1297 3340 6357 -840.0 39
1985–86 2 0421 17 9712 2238 4869 6817 -944.8 46
1986–87 2 2601 20 2343 1667 4896 8673 -1,190.2 34
1987–88 2 2748 22 3112 1387 1 4003 -1,261.6 10
1988–89 2 4910 24 6080 164 2 1280 -2,016.2 1
1989–90 2 4810 27 0888 2076 2 2238 -2,111.6 9
1990–91 2 5896 27 2923 2224 2 4184 -2,196.0 9
1991–92 2 9517 30 2535 2158 2 7165 -2,500.7 8

Source: WG (1999a).

Table 20. Irrigation project – working expenses, gross receipts, and range of water rates in 1991–92

States Working Gross Range of

expenses receipts (per water rates
(per ha) ha) (Rupees/ha)

Andhra Pradesh 1 377 48 99−222

Bihar NA NA 30−158
Gujarat 3 605 231 25−830
Haryana 792 88 17−99
Jammu & Kashmir 529 15 6−289
Karnataka 1 639 252 37−556
Kerala 596 46 37−99
Madhya Pradesh 748 182 15−297
Maharashtra 5 627 206 65−1000
Orissa 189 40 6−185
Punjab 412 65 14−81
Rajasthan 852 99 20−143
Tamil Nadu 579 15 6−65
Uttar Pradesh 808 64 7−237
West Bengal 514 16 74−593
All India 1032 82 NA

Source: WG (1999a).
Major Uses of Water in India 837

Table 20 shows that the revenue collection in Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya

Pradesh and Maharashtra is much higher than the other states. But in these states
also, the revenue collection woefully inadequate in comparison to the working
expenses. One may also notice that there is huge disparity in water rates across the
states and the rates are very low in certain states.

17.4.16. Economic Development Through Irrigation

Irrigation projects are known to be a catalyst in socio-economic development of
the region. A number of benefits flow to the society which can be categorized as
direct benefits, indirect benefits, and tertiary benefits. Several attempts have also
been made to quantify the benefits of irrigation projects.

Direct benefits
Studies of the gross income and cost of inputs indicate that net income per hectare
of irrigated areas with food crops rises by about Rs 6,000 to Rs 8,000 per ha
at present prices. With irrigated cash-crops, the figures would be Rs 20,000 to
Rs 50,000 per ha. A detailed study of a major irrigation project carried out by the
National Council of Applied Economic Research some years back indicated that
gross receipts per man-day in irrigation areas have increased by more than 100%
in all economic activities. Irrigated farming also results in an increase in permanent
employment which is of the order of 30 to 50 man-days per ha, or about 60 to 100
million man-days per year at the present growth rate. World Bank (2005) notes
that the biggest gainers from the green revolution were the landless whose income
increased by 125% as a result of the large increase in demand for their labour.
Figure 2 demonstrates the impact of Bhakra dam on crop production in Punjab.
After the construction of dam, wheat production increased by 8.5 times and rice
production by 29 times.
Studies also indicate that the manpower used per ha of cropped area is about three
times higher in irrigated agriculture as compared with unirrigated. The obvious
reason is the elimination of risk in crop cultivation due to availability of irrigation

20
1966-67
15
Million Tons

1999-00

10

0
Wheat Production Rice Production

Figure 2. Impact of Bhakra dam on crop production in Punjab

838 Chapter 17

resulting in higher yields and consequently more returns from agriculture. Advent
of irrigation in an area results in higher and more stable employment and the
poor are the major beneficiaries. Prevalence of poverty in irrigated districts was
found to be about one-third of that in unirrigated districts (World Bank 2005).
The increase in employment alone is a very significant aspect in the context of
large-scale unemployment/ under-employment in India at present.

Indirect benefits
An examination of overall economic development in the states of Punjab and
Haryana in the last four decades reveals that there is a close relationship between
water resources development and socio-economic transformation of rural areas.
With the availability of adequate water and power, and with the adoption of new
agricultural technology, and of course with hard work of the farmers, one can see
remarkable improvement in the quality of life. The interdependence of production
processes arises from the fact that each such activity demands input that are supplied
by other similar activities. One sector is linked with another sector which supplies
inputs to it and also with those sectors which use output as their own inputs.
Regarding impacts on manufacturing industry, introduction of irrigation creates
demand for inputs such as chemical fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation pumps,
motors, new tools, and other agricultural machinery. This growing demand in
turn, encourages setting up of industries to manufacture these products as well as
paraphernalia to service and repair machines and tools. All these activities help
generating additional employment opportunities in the ancillary sector.
Another off shoot of growth of agro-based industries as well as other small
industries by attracting the surplus income generated. The development of capital-
intensive industry as well as increased surplus agricultural production also requires
an adequate and extensive transport system to move raw materials and finished
goods, road and communication network, storage godowns, markets for wholesale
and retail trade, and other services and utilities. The increase in crop output provides
adequate food and fodder for livestock and thus accelerates animal husbandry
activity. Besides, the water spread also promotes fisheries and forestry. All these
factors would obviously result in additional income which would create a demand
for additional production and distribution services to handle and process the
increased output and deliver the final product to the consumer. Thus there will be
various multiplier effects on all areas of social and economic life.

Impact on tertiary sector

Increase in personal disposable income also creates demand for services like
transport, communications and recreation. The increasing preference for consumer
durables like motor cycles, cars, refrigerators, mobile phones, TV, and kitchen
gadgets will also need services catering to their repair and maintenance. While on
the one hand the process of economic development will lead to large governmental
activities in the form of regulation and administration, on the other hand it will
bring about a rapid change in the fields of housing, education, entertainment, health
Major Uses of Water in India 839

and tourism. Such an overall change in the socio-economic scene has already been
experienced in Punjab and Haryana on a very wide scale and in some of the other
irrigation projects such as the Rajasthan Canal, etc., on a lesser scale.

Income, consumption and asset formation

Average receipts for households with irrigation are found to be 2.2 times higher
than households without irrigation. In fact the receipts from crop farming alone are
found to be almost six times higher for households with irrigation.
It is an established fact that, as income rises, a relatively larger part of it is spent
on productive activities and less on consumption. From the analysis it has been
seen that consumption expenditure in the case of non-irrigated areas is 73% of
total expenditure. On the other hand, in irrigated areas it is only 57%, the balance
accounting for productive activities. Further examination of the consumption pattern
also brought out that people with a higher income spend relatively less on food and
more on non-food items as compared with those on lower incomes. The analysis
further indicated that, with increase in income, capacity to save and invest also
increased. It is estimated that the investment made by households with irrigation
was 57% higher than those without. It was also observed that those with irrigation
invest in farm equipment in a big way to increase their income still further.
This clearly demonstrates the higher standard of living of those in irrigated areas.
It further proves that in irrigated areas the people have been able to satisfy their
demand for food and they are using their increased income for non-food items. This
itself sets in motion the forces of economic development.

17.5. HYDROPOWER

Hydropower generation follows a simple concept: water falling under gravity turns
the blades of a turbine, which is connected to a generator. The rotating generator
produces electricity. The pre-historic man was aware of the energy contained in
falling water. One of the earliest devices to utilize this energy was the water wheel.
Romans used the energy of falling water to do many useful things. They had
constructed paddle wheels that turned with the riverflow and lifted water to troughs
built higher than river level. The Egyptians and Greeks harnessed the power of
river currents to turn wheels and grind grain before 2,000 B.C. In the Middle Ages,
more efficient water wheels were built for milling grain.
In the nineteenth century, the water turbine gradually replaced the water wheel,
and dams were built to control the flow of water. Since then, the hydroelectric
potential of rivers continued to be developed. The first modern turbine design
was developed in 1849 by James Francis. According to estimates, the hydro-
electric power production has now risen to a whopping 2,000 billion kilowatt hours
worldwide.
The principle and the technique to generate electricity from water remain the
same regardless of the size of the project. A plant may serve a small community
or a country. For example, many communities in remote area of Nepal are not
840 Chapter 17

connected to the national grid and get electricity from mini/micro hydropower
(size < 2 MW) plants. The largest hydroelectric complex in the world now is on
the Parana River, between Paraguay and Brazil. It is known as the Itaipu Dam
and its 18 turbines produce 12,600 megawatts (MW) of electricity. But this plant
will be soon surpassed by the hydro-power plant at the Three Gorges dam (under
construction) across river Changjiang (China) whose installed capacity (IC) will be
about 18,000 MW.
Hydropower generation offers many distinct advantages:
(1) Water is a renewable source of energy and hence no fuel cost is involved;
(2) Hydro plants are ideally suited to supply peak energy during the day, thereby
saving large amounts of capital and running cost for the installation of alter-
native thermal capacity;
(3) Operation and maintenance costs are very low, being of the order of 1% of the
capital cost against 2.5% (excluding the cost of fuel) in the case of coal-based
thermal plants;
(4) Auxiliary consumption is only 0.5% to 1% of the total energy generated against
8 to 10% in the case of coal-based thermal plants;
(5) Start-up and shutdown of hydro units can be achieved in a couple of minutes
and therefore, these are ideally suited for meeting peak demands;
(6) Hydro plants do not create any problem of air and surface pollution;
(7) The cost of generation is relatively low, ranging from Rs 0.50 to Rs 1.00 per
kWh on average, depending on the type of scheme, i.e. run-of-the river or
storage-based, and size of the installation, and is not subjected to inflationary
pressures; and
(8) Generation of one kWh of thermal energy requires about 0.65 kg of coal. If
full hydro potential is developed, the country could save over 250 million tons
of coal every year. Apart from conservation of coal reserves, the relief which
the transport sector could obtain would be immense. The consumptive use of
water is practically negligible except by way of evaporation in the storage-based
schemes.
The amount of power generated is a function of discharge and the hydraulic head.
It can be computed as

P = 9817QH (4)

where P is the electric power in kW, Q is the discharge through power plant in
m3 /s, H is the net head in m, and  is the overall efficiency of the power plant
expressed as a ratio (usually about 0.85). The overall efficiency of the power plant
is obtained by multiplying the turbine efficiency with the generator efficiency. The
hydroelectric power generation depends on the volume of water passing through
turbines and the effective head. Thus, the same amount of power can be produced
by releasing more water at a low head or less water at a high head.
The demand for electrical energy is known as load. The ratio of the average
power demand to peak power demand for the time period under consideration is
Major Uses of Water in India 841

known as a load factor and this is computed on a daily, weekly, monthly or annual
basis. Thus,
Load factor = Average power demand/Peak power demand (5)
an appropriate time unit is chosen in this equation. The amount of power generated
over a time, or energy, is expressed in kilowatt-hour (kW-hr). It can be computed
as:
KWHR = 9817QHT (6)
in which KWHR is the hydropower generated during the period in kW-hr and T is
the number of hours in the period.
With respect to types of site development, there are four major classifications of
hydroelectric projects: storage, barrages, run-of-river, and pumped storage. Storage
projects usually have heads in the medium to high range >25 m and can store
relatively large volumes of water during periods of high streamflow to generation
energy during periods of low streamflow. The power house is commonly located
at the toe of the dam, although in some cases it might be away from the dam.
Peaking operation is frequently associated with storage projects and this requires
large and sometimes rapid fluctuations in releases of water through the generating
units. It is often necessary to provide facilities to even out the fluctuations in the
discharge if rapid changes of discharge below the project are not desired. Such an
arrangement exists in the Bhakra Nangal project where a small barrage (Nangal
barrage) has been constructed at some distance downstream of the Bhakra dam.
A barrage, also known as pondage, has a very small storage capacity. It can
regulate the flow only up to minor extent. Hence, the tail water fluctuations are
usually quite large, particularly in peaking operations. Run-of-river plants have
little or no storage and, therefore, generate power from streamflow as it occurs with
little or no benefit from at-site regulation. These projects generally have productive
heads in the low to medium range (5 to 30 m). For a base-load run-of-river project
to be feasible, the stream must have a relatively high baseflow. Sometimes, the
falls in irrigation canals are also used to generate energy, e.g., on the Upper Ganga
Canal.
It is sometimes argued that hydropower can be exploited by a series of small
dams or diversion structures rather than by constructing major dams. This argument
is wrong for two seasons. First, the quantum of hydropower which can be generated
by small dams will be limited. Second, studies have indicated that the cost of one
kW of IC increases appreciably in small dams compared to large dams.

17.5.1. Quantitative Hydropower Facts

It can be seen from Table 21 that coal accounts for nearly 40% of the electricity
generation in the world. Hydropower is world’s cleanest source of renewable
energy. In the year 2003, hydropower accounted for nearly 16.3% of the world’s
electricity production.
842 Chapter 17

Table 21. World Electricity Generation by Source (2003)

Production Production
from
(TWh) Percent of total

Coal 6681339 3991

Gas 3224699 1926
Water 2725824 1628
Nuclear 2635349 1574
Oil 1151729 688
Biomass 138207 083
Waste 62493 037
Geothermal 53735 032
Other Sources 67406 041
Total 16741884 10000

Source: International Energy Agency (www.iea.org), 2006.

Canada produces more than 13% of the global output of hydropower and is
the world’s second largest exporter of electricity after France. Europe and North
America have developed more than 60% of their hydropower (see Table 22); most
of it was developed during the twentieth century. In contrast, many countries in
Asia, South America, and Africa currently utilize only a small portion of their
potential hydropower and large hydropower potential still remains un-exploited.
Canada is the world’s large producer of hydropower, generating 346 TWh/year
(nearly 62% of the country’s total electricity production). The electricity supplied
by hydropower far exceeds the capacity of any other renewable energy resource.
Norway meets virtually entire (99.6%) electricity demand by hydropower. Twenty-
five countries world-wide depend on hydropower for more than 90% of their
electricity needs. Though there is dominance of fossil fuels for electricity generation,
worldwide more than 60 countries currently use hydropower for half or more of
their electricity needs. Most of the installed hydroelectric capacity resides in North
America, Brazil, Russia, China, and Europe. Hydropower generation by major
producers is shown in Table 23.

Table 22. Continent-wise percentage of developed hydropower potential

Continent Percentage of developed hydropower Percentage of electricity generated by

potential hydropower

Africa 7 2
Asia 20 39
Australia 40 2
Europe 65 13
N. America 61 26
S. America 19 18
Major Uses of Water in India 843
Table 23. Hydropower generation by major producers of the world

Country Hydro-power produced % of world total

(TWh)

Canada 346 130

United States 319 120
Brazil 293 110
China 204 77
Russia 161 61
Norway 122 46
Japan 96 36
India 81 30
France 77 29
Sweden 72 27
Rest of the world 888 334
Total World 2 659 1000

Source: IEA (2001).

Table 24. Hydro Composition Vs Total Electricity Generation

Source Share in %

1975 1996 India (2000)

Hydro 210 184 248

Nuclear 33 177 21
Gas 121 184 718
Oil 246 93
Coal 383 384
Others∗ 07 14 12
Total Electricity (TWh) 6118 13652 242
∗
Other includes geothermal, solar, wind, combustible, renewable & waste.
Source: IEA (2001).

Out of world’s total primary energy supply of about 9,376 millions of tons oil
equivalent, about 2.3% comes out of hydro sources. Out of a total 13,652 TWh of
electricity production, only 18.4% of electricity is generated through hydro sources,
as evident in Table 24.
Table 25 is a compilation of quantity of hydropower produced by large and small
hydropower projects in different regions of the world.

17.5.2. Electric Energy Scenario in India

India is currently facing large deficit of electric energy, particularly during peak
hours and the IC would have to be substantially increased to ensure that the avail-
ability of electric energy does not become a handicap in economic development.
844 Chapter 17

Table 25. Capacity and Production of Global Regional Hydropower

Region Large hydro projects Small hydro projects Percentage of small w.r.t.
large hydro

Capacity Production Capacity Production Capacity Production

(GW) (TWh) (GW) (TWh)

North America 1337 5768 4302 19738 320 3.42

Latin America 940 3900 1113 4607 118 1.18
Western Europe 1367 4053 7231 30239 529 7.46
E Europe and CIS 823 2602 2296 9438 279 3.63
Mid East and N. Africa 131 402 0045 0118 034 0.29
Sub-Saharan Africa 165 451 0181 0476 110 1.05
Pacific 121 387 0102 0407 084 1.05
China (2002) 7935 243 2458 80 32 30%
Asia 1007 3974 0343 1353 034 0.34
Total 6270 22812 19503 81709 310 3.6%
India (2002) 255 745 145 N.A. 568 N.A

At the same time, it calls for accelerated efforts for development of hydro-
power projects.
India has a per capita electricity consumption of about 300 kW/hour/year.
Thermal and conventional hydropower contributes about 96% of the total IC. India
has a total non-conventional renewable energy potential of about 126,000 MW
(wind 20,000 MW, micro-hydro 10,000 MW, biomass/bio-energy 17,000 MW,
ocean thermal power 50,000 MW, tidal power 9,000 MW, and sea wave power
20,000 MW). Of the total energy consumption in the country, almost 60% is met by
conventional energy sources and the rest is met by non-conventional and renewable
energy sources.
By the end of the year 2005, the IC of thermal plants was 81,681 MW (66%),
hydropower plants 33,570 MW (27.29%), nuclear 3,310 MW (2.69%), rest 4,453
(3.62%), giving total 123,014 MW. It has been estimated that to meet the demand
for power by 2012, an additional 100,000 MW of IC would be required. Table 26
gives the envisaged additions to IC during two five-year plans.
The estimated energy and peak demands for the recent times are presented
in Table 27. According to Planning Commission, by the year 2002 the installed

Table 26. Hydropower capacity additions during 10th and 11th plans

Hydropower Capacity Addition (MW)

10th Plan (2002–07) 11th Plan (2007–12) – Likely

Total 14 393 16 872

Central sector 8 742 11 691
State sector 4 481 3 589
Private sector 1 170 1 592
Major Uses of Water in India 845

Table 27. Estimated energy and peak load requirement

Particulars 1995–96 1998–99 2001–02 2004–05

Energy demand (Billion KWh) 386.97 481.17 594.52 726.10

Peaking demand (MW) 68,541 84,960 104,641 127,401
Annual load factor (%) 64.45 64.45 64.86 65.06

hydropower capacity in the country was 26,269 MW (which increased to

33,570 MW by Sept. 2005), installed thermal power capacity was 76,057 MW, and
the total IC was 105,046 MW. By the end of 10th plan (March 2007), installed
hydropower capacity is likely to be 37,069 MW, installed thermal power capacity
will be 95,247 MW and the total IC in the country is likely to be 136,336 MW.

17.5.3. Water Requirement for Generation of Electricity

Water is required for generation of electricity by all means. The consumptive water
requirement for hydropower stations is not significant because the water coming
out of power plant is fully available for other uses. In India, evaporation loss from
storage projects is considered as the water required for this purpose.
According to the projections, the needed installed generation capacities by the
year 2025 will be 531,000 MW for low demand scenario and 587,000 MW for
high demand scenario. Further the requirement for the same by the year 2050 will
be 2,278,000 MW for low demand scenario and 2,518,000 MW for high demand
scenario. The total water requirement for the year 2025 is likely to be 311 km3 for
low demand scenario and 331 km3 for high demand scenario. For year 2050, the
annual requirements are expected to be 626 km3 for low scenario and 698 km3 for
high scenario.
The water requirements for thermal and other means of power generation depend
upon a number of factors such as the size of unit, technologies used for heat
transfer and cooling, source of energy etc. In case of coal-fired power stations using
cooling towers, the consumptive requirement is about 1 to 4 m3 /hr/MW. With the
advancement in cooling technology and by efficient operation of plants, there is
immense possibility of reduction in consumptive use of water in thermal power
plants. Estimates show that about 15% to 40% reduction in consumptive water uses
may be feasible by the year 2025 and 2050 respectively. Accordingly, consumptive
use of water in the years 2025 and 2050 is likely to be 21 Mm3 /year/100 MW of
IC and 15 Mm3 /year/100 MW of IC respectively.

17.5.4. India’s Renewable Energy Sources

The importance of increasing the use of renewable energy sources was recognized
in India in the early 1970s. During the past quarter century, a significant effort
has gone into the development and induction of a variety of renewable energy
846 Chapter 17

technologies. Presently, India has one of the world’s largest programs for renewable
energy. The activities cover all major renewable energy sources of interest, such as
biogas, biomass, solar energy, wind energy, small hydropower and other emerging
technologies. The Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) looks
after all matters relating to non-conventional/renewable energy. In India, the total
estimated renewable energy availability is about 47,000 MW from commercially
exploitable sources. It is estimated that small hydro plants can generate about
10,000 MW per year. MNES Web site can be accessed at http://mnes.nic.in/.

17.5.5. Hydropower Potential in India

The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) undertook reassessment of the hydropower

resources of the country in 1980s. In this survey, theoretical and the economic hydro
potential of the rivers was worked out. The potential was assessed by identifying
specific suitable sites and water availability corresponding to a 90% dependable
year. CEA had identified 845 economically feasible schemes in various river basin of
the country. The firm energy was converted into hydroelectric potential by applying
a suitable system load factor. On this basis, the total theoretical potential at 60%
load factor was assessed as 301,117 MW and the economic potential at 84,044 MW
as detailed in Table 28. Figure 3 diagrammatically shows the hydropower potential
of Indian river basins.

Table 28. Basin-Wise of Hydroelectric Potential of Indian River System

S. N. Name of River Number of Firm Potential Potential (MW) Needed IC

Schemes (MW) at 60% LF (MW)

Economic Theoretical

1. Great Indus 190 119928 19988 50172 33,832

(including
23 storage)
2. Great Brahmaputra 226 239519 34920 146170 66,065
(including
76 storage)
3. Ganga 142 34090 10715 20,711
(including
35 storage)
5. West flowing river 94 36894 6149 9437 9,430
of South India
6. East flowing rivers 140 57190 9532 26972 14,511
of South India
7. Central Indian 53 16642 2740 14888 4,152
river system
Total 845 504263 84044 301117 148,701

Source: CEA and others.

Major Uses of Water in India 847

24%

Brahmaputra 34,920 MW
42% Indus 19,488 MW
Ganga 10,715 MW
Central Indian 2,740 MW
13% West Flowing 6,149 MW
East Flowing 9,532 MW

11% 7%
3%

Figure 3. Basin wise hydroelectric potential of Indian rivers 60% load factor

On account of wide fluctuations in the discharges in the Indian rivers, large

storage capacity is often required to increase the firm power of hydroelectric plants.
Run-of-the-river type hydroelectric projects yielding large firm power are feasible
only on the Himalayan rivers which carry substantial discharges during the lean
months. Even small storage capacities created on Himalayan rivers help increase
the firm power generation appreciably.
It is pertinent to mention that the assessment of hydro potential by CEA was based
on limited data on hydrology, irrigation and other consumptive uses, etc. Comput-
erized geographical databases were not used in this assessment. The economics of
power development has substantially changed since then. Many sites which were
not considered feasible earlier due to economic parameters may now be found to
be economically exploitable. Further, the availability of water at many sites may
also be substantially different now. Therefore, re-assessment of the hydropower
potential of the country using latest tools and geographic/hydrological databases is
necessary.

17.5.6. Hydropower Potential of Indian Rivers in Other Countries

Many Indian rivers have their source in neighbouring countries such as Napal.
Karnali (10,800 MW), Pancheshwar (5,600 MW), and Saptkoshi (3,300 MW) in
Nepal; Tala (1,020 MW), Kurichu, and Manas (2,800 MW) in Bhutan; and
Tamanthi (1,200 MW) in Myanmar are some of the hydro projects which have
been identified for development under mutual cooperation with these countries.
Out of the above schemes, Tala and Kurichu are under construction and other
schemes are at various stages of planning/investigation/discussions. Table 29 gives
848 Chapter 17

Table 29. Hydro electrical potential of Nepal

Power potential (MW)

River basins
Major Small Total

Kosi 1875 36 2235

Gandak 1795 27 2065
Karnali 2884 317 3201
Mahakali 384 032 416
Southern rivers 307 104 411
Total 7245 1083 8328

Source: WG (1999a).

hydropower potential of selected major rivers that originate in Nepal and flow
through India.

17.5.7. Hydropower Development in India

A project with capacity of 130 kW installed at Sidrapong (Darjeeling) in the year

1897 was the first hydropower installation in India. A few old installations, e.g.,
Shiva Samundram in Mysore (2,000 kW), Chamba (40 kW) in 1902, Gagoi in
Mussoorie (3,000 kW) in 1907, Jubbal (50 kW) in 1911, Chhaba (1,750 kW) in
Shimla in 1913, are the known hydro-power stations that are still working. Energy
from these plants was primarily used for domestic needs in adjacent towns.
The Gagoi Power House that Lt. Col. W.W. Bell had built near Mussoorie was
to provide electricity and to pump water upward to Mussoorie town. It was for
the first time that water was pumped to a height of 516 m (the highest in Asia at
that time). The water was pumped from Murray springs below Mussoorie town.
In the early 20th century, the princely State of Mysore established a major hydro
development – the Shiva Samudaram powerhouse – on Cauvery River with initial
capacity of 7.92 MW. The capacity of this powerhouse was increased to 47 MW by
1938. Initially power was supplied to Kolar Gold fields for mining development
and operations and later to Bangalore and Mysore cities too. Mysore’s second
development was in 1940, the Shimsapura hydro power station 2 × 86 MW again
on Cauvery River.
In northern India, 4 MW Mohora hydropower station on Jhelum River in the year
in 1905 was the first major hydro development in the then princely state of Jammu
and Kashmir. A major contribution to hydropower development was made by the
Tata industrial group who successfully established three major hydropower plants
in the Western Ghats in Maharashtra: 40 MW Khopoli 5 × 8 MW in 1915, 48 MW
Bhivpuri 4 × 12 MW during 1922–25, and 90 MW Bhira 5 × 18 MW in 1927.
In 1932, two major hydropower projects, namely 48 MW Joginder Nagar station
(Himachal Pradesh), and 14 MW Pykara hydro plants were taken up and completed
Major Uses of Water in India 849

by the then provincial governments of Punjab and Madras, respectively. Further

notable developments in Madras state were Mettur dam hydro station (40 MW) in
1937 and Papanasam (14 MW initial) in 1944. Travancore-Cochin princely state
(now in Kerala) and United Provinces (now Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh) also
carried out some significant hydro developments namely the Pallivassal hydro
station (with 15 MW initial capacity), and a series of hydro stations on Ganga canal,
respectively. With the development of high voltage transmission lines in the early
twentieth century, a shift occurred from small hydro plants serving local electricity
markets to large plants feeding into distribution grids.
At the time of independence (1947), the IC of hydropower projects was 508 MW,
which was about 37% of the total IC at that time. But with the taking up of five-
year plans, work began on many multi-purpose river valley projects, the so called
‘temples of modern India’. Bhakra dam was the notable showcase for a long time to
come. At the end of 1998, the installed hydropower capacity was about 22,000 MW
which was 24.85% (lowest % so far) of the total IC of 88,543 MW. In the year
1962–63, the hydro: thermal ratio was the maximum at 50.62 However, over the
years, the share of hydropower has continuously come down. It may be noted that
a thermal-hydro mix in the ratio of 60:40 is considered as ideal. Figure 4 shows
the growth of IC of hydropower projects in India. Table 30 lists those hydropower
projects that are in operation (IC of 50 MW or more) and Table 31 lists those
hydropower projects that are under construction (IC of 50 MW or more).
At the time of independence, total IC in the country was very small. The first
5-year plan for comprehensive and overall development of the country including
power sector was launched in 1951. Many medium- and large-scale hydropower
projects were taken up – some individually, and others as part of multipurpose
projects (irrigation, flood control and power etc.).

Total IC
Installed Capacity (MW)

100,000
Hydropower IC

50,000

0
1945 1965 1985 2005
Year

Figure 4. Growth of installed capacity of hydropower generation in India

850 Chapter 17

Table 30. Hydropower stations in operation (IC of 50 MW and above)

Name of Station Name of State IC (MW) Year

River Commissioned

Lower Jhelum Jhelum Jammu & Kashmir 105 1978–79

Salal Chenab Jammu & Kashmir 690 1987–95
Uri Jhelum Jammu & Kashmir 480 1996–97
Upper Sindh II Sindh nallah Jammu & Kashmir 105 2000–01
Shanan Uhi Himachal Pradesh 110 1932–82
Bhakra LB Sutlej Himachal Pradesh 540 1960–61
Bhakra RB Sutlej Himachal Pradesh 660 1966–68
Bassi Uhi Himachal Pradesh 60 1970–81
Dehar Beas Himachal Pradesh 990 1977–78
Giri Giri Himachal Pradesh 60 1978
Pong Beas Himachal Pradesh 360 1978–83
Baira Siul Baira/Siul Himachal Pradesh 180 1980–81
Sanjay Bhaba Bhabha Khad Himachal Pradesh 120 1989
Chamera I Ravi Himachal Pradesh 540 1994
Malana Malana Himachal Pradesh 86 2001
Baspa II Baspa Himachal Pradesh 300 2003
Nathpa Jhakri Sutlej Himachal Pradesh 1500 2003–04
Ganguwal & Kotla Sutlej Punjab 155 1955–62
UBDC Ravi Punjab 91 1971–91
Mukerian Beas Punjab 207 1983–89
Anandpur Sahib Sutlej Punjab 134 1985
Ranjit Sagar Ravi Punjab 600 2000
Rana Pratap Sagar Chambal Rajasthan 172 1958–69
Jawahar Sagar Chambal Rajasthan 99 1972–73
Mahi I Mahi Rajasthan 50 1986
Mahi II Mahi Rajasthan 90 1989
Dhalipur Yamuna Uttaranchal 51 1965–70
Chibro Tons Uttaranchal 240 1975–76
Ramganga Ramganga Uttaranchal 198 1975–77
Chilla Ganga Uttaranchal 144 1980–81
Khodri Tons Uttaranchal 120 1984
Maneri Bhali I Bhagirathi Uttaranchal 90 1984
Tanakpur Sarda Uttaranchal 120 1992
Rihand Rihand Uttar Pradesh 300 1962–66
Obra Rihand Uttar Pradesh 99 1970
Khara Ashan Uttar Pradesh 72 1992
Gandhisagar Chambal Madhya Pradesh 115 1960–66
Bargi Narmada Madhya Pradesh 90 1986–88
Bansagar Tons I Tons Madhya Pradesh 315 1991–92
Bansagar Tons III Sone Madhya Pradesh 60 2001
Hasdeo Bango Hasdeo Chhatisgarh 120 1994–95
Ukai Tapi Gujarat 300 1974–76
Kadana Mahi Gujarat 240 1990–96
Khopoli Ganga Maharashtra 72 2001–03
Bhivpuri Andhra Maharashtra 72 1998–99
Bhira Mula & Neela Maharashtra 150 1927–51
Major Uses of Water in India 851

Koyna I & II Koyna Maharashtra 560 1962–67

Koyna III Koyna Maharashtra 320 1975–78
Vaitarna Vaitarna & Aliwandi Maharashtra 60 1976
Pench Pench Maharashtra 160 1986
Tillari Tillari Maharashtra 60 1987
Bhira Tail race Bhira & Kundlika Maharashtra 80 1987–88
Bhira PS Mula & Nila Maharashtra 150 1997
Koyna IV Koyna Maharashtra 1,000 1999–2000
Upper Sileru Sileru Andhra Pradesh 240 1967–95
Lower Sileru Sileru Andhra Pradesh 460 1976–78
Nagarjunsagar Krishna Andhra Pradesh 815 1978–85
Srisailam Krishna Andhra Pradesh 770 1982–87
Nagarjunsagar RC Krishna Andhra Pradesh 91 1983–90
Nagarjunsagar CH Krishna Andhra Pradesh 61 1992
Srisailam LB Krishna Andhra Pradesh 900 2001–03
Mahatma Gandhi Sharavathy Karnataka 120 1947–52
(Jog Falls)
Sharavathy Sharavathy Karnataka 891 1964–77
Sharavathy TR Sharavathy Karnataka 240 2001–02
Linganamakki Sharavathy Karnataka 55 1979–80
Kalinadi Kalinadi Karnataka 810 1979–84
Supa Kalinadi Karnataka 100 1985
Varahi Varahi Karnataka 230 1989–90
Kadra Kalinadi Karnataka 150 1997–99
Kodasalli Kalinadi Karnataka 120 1998–99
Pykara Singara Pykara & Mukuthy Tamil Nadu 70 1932–54
Periyar Periyar Tamil Nadu 140 1958–65
Kundah I Avalanche & Emerald Tamil Nadu 60 1960–64
Kundah II Kundah Tamil Nadu 175 1960–64
Kundah III Pegumbahallah & Tamil Nadu 180 1965–78
Nirallapallam
Kundah IV Bhavani Tamil Nadu 100 1966–78
Mettur Tunnel Cauvery Tamil Nadu 200 1965–66
Aliyar Aliyar Tamil Nadu 60 1970
Kodayar I Kodayar Tamil Nadu 60 1970
Sholayar I Sholayar Tamil Nadu 70 1971
Kadamparai Kadamparai Tamil Nadu 400 1987–88
Lower Mettur I/ II/ Cauvery Tamil Nadu 120 1988–89
III/ IV
Sholayar Sholayar Kerala 54 1966–68
Sabarigiri Pamba & Kakki Kerala 300 1966–67
Kuttiyadi Kuttiyadi Kerala 75 1972
Idukki Periyar & Killivally Kerala 780 1976–86
Idamalayar Idamalayar Kerala 75 1987
Lower Periyar Periyar Kerala 180 1997
Kakkad Moozhiyar Veluthode Kerala 50 1999
Panchet Hill Damodar Bihar 80 1959–91
Subarnarekha I & II Subarnarekha Jharkhand 130 1977–80
Machkund Machkund Orissa 120 1955–59
Hirakud PH I Mahanadi Orissa 236 1956–90
Hirakud II Mahanadi Orissa 72 1962–64

(Continued)
852 Chapter 17

Table 30. (Continued)

Name of Station Name of State IC (MW) Year

River Commissioned

Balimela Sileru Orissa 360 1973–77

Rengali Brahmni Orissa 250 1985–92
Upper Kolab Kolab Orissa 320 1988–93
Upper Indravati Indravati Orissa 600 1998–2000
Maithon Barakar West Bengal 60 1957–58
Rammam II Rammam West Bengal 51 1995–96
Teesta canal I/II/III Mahananda West Bengal 67 1997–99
Rangit III Greater Rangit Sikkim 60 2000
Khandong Kopili Sikkim 50 1984
Kopili Umrong Assam 200 1998–97
nallah
Umiam III Umiam Meghalaya 60 1979
Umiam IV Umtru Meghalaya 60 1992
Ranganadi Ranganadi Arunachal Pradesh 405 2002
Doyang Doyang Nagaland 75 2000–01
Loktak Loktak Manipur 105 1983
Pykara Ult. Moyar Tamil Nadu 150 2003–04
Chamera II Ravi Himachal Pradesh 300 2004–05
Tehri I Bhagirathi Uttaranchal 1000 2005–06
Dhauliganga Dhauliganga Uttaranchal 280 2005–06
Almati Krishna Karnataka 290 2004–06
Bhavani Barrage I/ Bhavani/Cauveri Tamil Nadu 90 2004–05
II/ III

The status of hydropower development in major basins is quite unsatisfactory. For

example, the hydropower potential of Brahmaputra basin is about 34,920 MW which
is 41.5% of the total potential of the country. Only 1.86% of this was developed by
the year 2005. The percentage development in Northern rivers was about 20.6%.
The major hydroelectric projects (above 750 MW) in India are: Bhakra, Dehar,
Koyna, Nagarjunasagar, Srisailam, Sharavarthy, Kalinadi and Idukki. Among the
projects that are nearing completion, the prominent are Tehri and Sardar Sarovar.
The region wise status of hydro power development in India has given in Table 32.
Major hydropower installations have been discussed in the chapters of individual
rivers.
Table 33 shows statewise hydropower potential Status of Hydro Electric Potential
Development as on 31.08.1998.

17.5.8. Small Hydropower Projects (SHP)

In India, small hydro schemes are classified by the Central Electricity Authority
(CEA) according to the norms given in Table 34.
The small hydroelectric development in Himalayan region of India has so far
been in those areas only where alternative sources of electricity were not available.
Major Uses of Water in India 853

Table 31. Hydropower stations under construction (IC range – 50 MW and above)

Name of Station Name of River State IC (MW) Commissioning

Target

Dulhasti Chenab Jammu & Kashmir 390 2006–07

Sewa II Sewa Ravi Jammu & Kashmir 120 2006–07
Baglihar Chenab Jammu & Kashmir 450 2006–07
Sawalkot Chenab Jammu & Kashmir 600 NA
Larji Beas Himachal Pradesh 126 2006–07
Dhamai Sunda Pabar Himachal Pradesh 70 2006–07
Rampur Sutlej Himachal Pradesh 400 2006–07
Keshang I Sutlej Himachal Pradesh 66 2006–07
Koldam Sutlej Himachal Pradesh 800 2008–09
Parbati II Parbati/Beas Himachal Pradesh 800 2009–10
Uhi III Uhi/Beas Himachal Pradesh 100 NA
Allian Duhangan NA Himachal Pradesh 192 2008–09
Shapurkandi I/II/III Punjab 168 2006–07
Tehri II (PS) Bhagirathi Uttaranchal 1000 2006–07
Koteshwar Bhagirathi Uttaranchal 400 2005–06
Maneri Bhali II Bhagirathi Uttaranchal 304 2005–06
Lakhvar Vyasi I/II Yamuna Uttaranchal 420 2007–12
Vishnu Prayag Alaknanda Uttaranchal 400 2006–07
Srinagar Alaknanda Uttaranchal 330 2007–08
Indira Sagar Narmada Madhya Pradesh 1000 2014
Omkareshwar Narmada Madhya Pradesh 520 2006–07
Maheshwar Narmada Madhya Pradesh 400 2012
Sardar Sarovar Narmada Madhya Pradesh 1200 2006–07
Sardar Sarovar Narmada Madhya Pradesh 250 2003–07
Canal Head
Ghatgar (PS) Pravara Maharashtra 250 2004–07
Priyadarshini Jurala Krishna Andhra Pradesh 235 2006–08
Kutiadi Augm Kutiadi Kerala 100 2006–07
Balimela Sileru Balimela Orissa 210 2005–08
Purulia PS Kishtobazar nallah West Bengal 900 2006–07
Teesta L Dam III Teesta West Bengal 132 2006–07
Teesta L Dam IV Teesta West Bengal 168 2006–07
Teesta V Teesta Sikkim 510 2006–07
Karbi Langpi Borpani Assam 100 2006–07
Myntdu Myntdu Meghalaya 84 2006–07
Loktak d/s Loktak Manipur 90 2008–09
Tuirial Tuirial Mizoram 60 2006–07
Bairabi Dhaleshwari Mizoram 80 2006–07

The development was confined to the small hilly streams in regions such as
Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and
Arunachal Pradesh etc. During 1960’s, a few small hydro stations were constructed
in the hilly regions mainly to serve isolated settlements. Some plants were installed
on falls of the Upper Ganga Canal during 1930–50. These plants typically utilized
relatively larger discharges and smaller head on the canal falls. Some installations
854 Chapter 17

Table 32. Status of Hydro Electric Potential Development (region wise) by 2005

Region Potential (MW) Balance

(%)
Assessed (MW) Developed (MW) Developed (%)

Northern 53 395 11 000 20.61 79.39

North Eastern 58 971 1095 1.86 98.14
Eastern 10 949 2466 22.53 77.47
Western 8 928 6 276 70.30 29.70
Southern 16 458 11 026 67.00 33.00
All India 148 701 31 865 21.42 78.58

were also constructed in 1970s on Kosi and Gandak canals. Currently, small
hydropower accounts for about 1,450 MW of installed power.

Assessment of small hydro potential

A detailed study to assess small hydropower potential on the basis of infor-
mation/data from various States was taken up in 1988–1989 by the CEA. This study
arrived at an aggregate potential of about 6,000 MW from about 1,512 identified
schemes/ sites (including the ones already in operation or under construction at
the time). Another more exhaustive study for a comprehensive and more precise
estimate of the SHP potential covering schemes with IC up to 25 MW (now defined
as the upper limit for SHP) was completed by MNES in 2002–03. This study
determined a potential of about 10,280 MW from about 4,215 identified schemes.
An estimate by planning commission places the small hydropower potential as
15,000 MW. Table 35 gives state-wise small hydropower potential of the country.
The small hydro capacity (considering stations with IC up to 15 MW) developed
so far aggregates to about 850 MW comprising (a) 360 micro mini stations (IC
up to 3 MW) with total 315 MW and (b) 68 small stations (IC higher than 3 MW
up to 15 MW) with total 535 MW). Considering stations with IC up to 25 MW
under SHP, the aggregate small hydro capacity totals to about 1,045 MW from
454 stations in operation. Small hydro capacity under construction (stations with
IC up to 25 MW) presently is 520 MW from about 201 schemes (Kumar 2004).
Considering the plants up to 25 MW capacities, small hydropower development by
March 2004 was 1,705 MW.

17.5.9. Pumped Storage Schemes in India

Pumped storage schemes are commonly used in hydropower projects to meet the
peak power demands. Pumped storage projects consist of a high level forebay
where inflow or pumped water is stored until it is needed for power generation and
a low level afterbay where the power releases are stored. These projects depend
on pumped water as a partial or total source for generating electric energy. The
pumping and generation are done by units composed of reversible pump turbines
Table 33. Status of Hydro Electric Potential Development (State Wise) As on 31.08.1998

State Potential at 60% load factor Potential % of CEA cleared % of total % of

under-development at Potential schemes Potential
60% load factor developed Potential at developed under-
under- 60% load development +
Assessed Developed % developed In MW In % development factor (MW) CEA cleared
(MW) (MW)

Jammu & Kashmir 7 487 48017 641 40717 544 11.85 503.17 18.57
Himachal Pradesh 11 647 2 00700 1723 54917 472 21.95 583.25 26.95
Punjab 922 45467 4931 37500 4067 89.99 39.33 94.25
Major Uses of Water in India

Haryana 64 5167 8073 1167 1823 98.96 0.00 98.96

Rajasthan 291 19267 6621 800 275 68.96 0.00 68.96
Uttar Pradesh 9 744 112700 1157 1 11767 1147 23.04 405.67 27.20
Madhya Pradesh 2 774 57950 2089 1 21105 4366 64.55 234.45 73.00
Gujarat 409 13867 3390 11067 2706 60.96 0.00 60.96
Maharashtra 2 460 1 10800 4504 19767 804 53.08 0.00 53.08
Goa 36 000 000 000 000 0.00 0.00 0.00
Andhra Pradesh 2 909 1 39292 4788 4370 150 49.39 36.23 50.63
Karnataka 4 347 2 13950 4922 49033 1128 60.50 4.83 60.61
Kerala 2 301 1 06867 4644 27613 1200 58.44 41.50 60.25
Tamil Nadu 1 206 94467 7833 6933 575 84.08 11.33 85.02
Bihar 538 11995 2230 21100 3922 61.51 0.00 61.51
Orissa 1 983 72217 3642 38728 1953 55.95 0.00 55.95
West Bengal 1 786 9133 511 983 055 5.66 101.67 11.36
Sikkim 1 283 2883 225 3367 262 4.87 355.67 32.59
Meghalaya 1 070 12167 1137 000 000 11.37 0.00 11.37
Tripura 9 850 9444 000 000 94.44 0.00 94.44
Manipur 1 176 7317 622 533 045 6.68 42.50 10.29
Assam 351 11167 3181 9083 2588 57.69 0.00 57.69
Nagaland 1 040 000 000 8188 787 7.87 0.00 7.87
Arunachal Pradesh 26 756 1650 006 10833 040 0.47 251.67 1.41
Mizoram 1 455 100 007 3683 253 2.60 168.17 14.16
Total 84 044 12 97993 1544 5 83255 694 22.38 2,779.43 25.69
855
856 Chapter 17

Table 34. Classification of Micro, Mini & Small Hydel Schemes in India

Type Station Capacity Unit rating

Micro Up to 100 kW Up to 100 kW

Mini 101 kW to 2,000 kW 101 kW to 1,000 kW
Small 2,001 kW to 25,000 kW 1,001 kW to 5,000 kW

Table 35. Identified Small Hydro Projects (Up to 25 MW Capacity)

S. N. State Total

Number Capacity (MW)

1 Andhra Pradesh 377 25050

2 Arunachal Pradesh 452 1 24347
3 Assam 40 11954
4 Bihar 74 14935
5 Chhattisgarh 47 5790
6 Goa 4 460
7 Gujarat 287 18637
8 Haryana 23 3655
9 Himachal Pradesh 288 1 41868
10 Jammu & Kashmir 208 1 29443
11 Jharkhand 89 17005
12 Karnataka 221 53476
13 Kerala 207 45553
14 Madhya Pradesh 85 33633
15 Maharashtra 221 48450
16 Manipur 99 9175
17 Meghalaya 90 19732
18 Mizoram 53 13593
19 Nagaland 84 14931
20 Orissa 206 21799
21 Punjab 122 12422
22 Rajasthan 55 2782
23 Sikkim 70 21433
24 Tamil Nadu 155 37346
25 Tripura 10 3085
26 UT (A & N Islands) 5 115
27 Uttar Pradesh 211 26706
28 Uttaranchal 354 1 47824
29 West Bengal 141 21352
TOTAL 427800 10 26545

and generator motors connecting the forebay and afterbay. The water is pumped
from the afterbay to the forebay when the normal power demand is low and released
from the forebay to the afterbay to generate power when the demand is high. Such
projects derive their usefulness from the fact that the demand for power is generally
low at night and on weekends and therefore, pumping energy at a very low cost
Major Uses of Water in India 857

will be available from idle generating facilities. The feasibility of pumped storage
developments arises from the need for relatively large amounts of peaking capacity,
the availability of pumping energy at a cheap rate and a load with an off-peak
period long enough to permit the required amount of pumping.
There are three types of pumped storage development: diversion, off-channel,
and in-channel. The diversion type of development usually consists of pumping in
one basin to a forebay on or near the divide between that basin and an adjacent
basin and it does not recirculate the water between the forebay and afterbay. The
water is released through generating units into an afterbay located in the adjacent
basin. The off-channel type of pumped storage development is most suitable when
a forebay site exists on a hill above a stream where an afterbay can be constructed.
The head differential should be large and the forebay site should be close to the
afterbay to avoid head loss and reduce construction costs. The water requirement
to support this type of development is not large after the initial supply has been
provided. Since the system primarily recirculates water, it is necessary to provide
water only to replace losses due to evaporation and leakage.
In the in-channel type of pumped storage development, the reservoir of a conven-
tional power project is used as a forebay. The afterbay could be a reservoir from
a downstream project or a reservoir provided solely to serve as afterbay. This type
of development is more attractive if the cost of the afterbay is shared with other
purposes. In an in-channel pumped storage project, the maximum possible amount
of water is pumped back from the afterbay to the forebay during low flow period.
During the less severe dry periods, only a part of the water that is used to generate
power is pumped back into the forebay. During periods of high streamflow, none
of the water is pumped back (Jain and Singh, 2003).
In India, the installed capacities of various pump storage schemes are shown in
Table 36.
The Kadamparai site was initially proposed to be developed for a conventional
hydro power station only 1 × 35 MW but considering usefulness of the site (high
head, short WCS, lower reservoir having been already in existence as a head
reservoir feeding a downstream conventional hydro station (Aliyar), it was thought
advisable to develop the site as a pumped storage station with a large peaking
capacity (400 MW). The other two stations also had the advantage of both the
reservoirs being in existence for other conventional stations.
Pumped storage type generating units and other associated equipments for
the purpose were installed at Kadana Powerhouse 4 × 60 MW, Nagarjunasagar
Dam Powerhouse (7 × 100 MW reversible units and 1 × 110 MW conventional
unit 1), Paithan Powerhouse 1 × 12 MW, Ujani Powerhouse 1∗ 12 MW, and
Panchet Hill Powerhouse 1∗ 40 MW. These powerhouses however were not to be
operated as pumped storage initially. The waters available for flow down the five
irrigation dams for the stations mentioned above were to be initially ample but
were to diminish gradually over a period of time as a result of development of
up-stream-utilization-schemes including high level canals taking off from the dams.
Initially these were to operate as conventional hydro station their operation was to be
switched over to pumped storage type when the waters diminished. As there was no
858 Chapter 17

Table 36. Pumped storage development in India

Scheme IC (MW)
∗
No. of units Unit size Total

Schemes in Operation
Kadana stage I & II – (Gujarat) 2 × 60 + 2 × 60 240
Paithon – Maharashtra 1 × 12 12
Nagarjunsagar – A.P. 7 × 100 700
Kadamparai – T. N. 4 × 100 400
Panchet Hill – D.V.C. 1 × 40 40
Ujani – Maharashtra 1 × 12 12
Bhira – Maharashtra 1 × 150 150
Total 1 554
Schemes under construction
Sardar Sarovar – Gujarat 6 × 200 1200
Ghatgar – Maharashtra 2 × 125 250
Srisailam – A.P. 6 × 150 900
Purulia – West Bengal 4 × 225 900
Koyana Stage IV – Maharashtra 4 × 250 1000
Bhivpuri – Maharashtra 1 × 90 90
Total 4340
Schemes approved by CEA
Tehri stage II – U.A. 4 × 250 1000
Total 6894

need for the construction of lower tail pool dams the same was deferred in most of these
cases. For Ujjaini it was built early after commissioning and for Paithan a little later
after commissioning. These stations have been rendering pumped storage service for
some years now. The tail pool dams at Nagarjunsagar, Kadana and Panchet Hill were
taken up much later. The Ujjaini, Paithan and Panchet Hill being of too small capacity
for pumped storage are not much significant. When Nagarjunsagar and Kadana become
operational as pumped storage this will be another significant addition to pumped
storage capacity in India which will get raised to 2,454 MW. (About 3,350 MW
pumped storage capacity comprising Tehri II (1,000 MW) Uttaranchal, Sardar Sarovar
(1,200 MW) Gujarat, Ghatgar (250 MW) Maharastra and Purulia (900 MW) West
Bengal is under active construction scheduled for completion within 1 to 4 years (as
of June 2003). With all this capacity coming into operation as pumped storage-the
pumped storage capacity in the country would become quite substantial-5,804 MW.
There are a quite a number of favourable sites in India for development of
pumped storage station. A study to identify the sites by CEA identified 56 such
sites with a total installation possibility of 94,000 MW.

17.5.10. Hydro Power Policy of India

Government of India announced its new policy on hydropower development in
August 1998. The following objectives for accelerating the pace of hydropower
Major Uses of Water in India 859

development have been set:

(i) Ensuring targeted capacity addition during the 9th Plan.
(ii) Exploitation of vast hydro electric potential at a faster pace.
(iii) Promoting small and mini hydroelectric projects.
(iv) Strengthening the role of PSUs/ SEBs for taking up new hydroelectric projects.
(v) Increasing private investment.
There has been a revival of interest in hydropower schemes in recent years in the
context of harnessing all sources of energy to meet the rapidly growing energy
needs of the nation. In many states, the private sector has been invited to tap the
hydropower resources for captive use as well as for commercial purposes. Among
the states, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Kerala, Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh have taken a lead by advertising and allotting sites to the private
sector.
To systematic accelerate the development of hydropower potential in the country,
a 50,000 MW hydropower initiative was launched in May 2003. This initiative
includes 162 hydroelectric projects with an aggregate capacity of over 48,000 MW
(Planning Commission 2006). The proposed schemes include 17,000 MW of storage
scheme and 31,000 MW of run-of-the-river projects. Note that around half of this
capacity lies in Arunachal Pradesh alone.

17.6. INDUSTRIAL USES

The estimates for future water requirements for industries in India are highly
uncertain due to several reasons: Chief among these is that there is lack of requisite
data-base on the present water use by industries in India. The second factor to
compound uncertainty is non-availability of data on future developments in indus-
tries. The last decade of the 21st century has witnessed large changes in the GDP
growth from one year to another. Further, there has been tremendous acceleration
in economic growth and it now appears that India will witness GDP growth at about
8% for several years.
When the industries are looked product-wise, water use by paper, petrochemicals,
mining, fertilizer, chemical and steel industries is much higher than the other
industries. Rough estimates indicate that the present water use in the industrial
sector is of the order of 15 km3 . The water use by thermal and nuclear power plants
with IC of 40,000 MW and 1,500 MW (1990 figures), respectively, is estimated to
be about 19 km3 .
With the rapid pace of industrialization in India, the availability of adequate
quantity of water for industrial use is becoming a problem. In some instances, water
shortage has restricted the development of new projects and smooth functioning
of existing projects. On the one hand, adequate surface water in some areas is
not available for industrial use due to priority of domestic and irrigation supply
while on the other hand, due to over-exploitation, there is a big problem of ground
water in several parts of the country. Many industries have realized the importance
of water and are adopting advanced technology to optimize use of water. Bodies
860 Chapter 17

Table 37. Water consumption by industries (year 1996–97)

S. N. Industry Mm3 /Year

1 Large & medium industries 15,282.92

2 Small scale industries 6,882.15
Total 22,165.07

Source: WG (1999a)

such as, Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) and
Confederation of Indian Industries (CII) have also initiated studies and programs in
water sector. Water auditing of industries is also being initiated under their auspices.
Industrial requirements of water constitute only a small percentage of the total
consumption of water and some of these are being met by the construction of
storage dams. For example, for the needs of the Bokaro Steel Plant, a dam at
Tenughat in the Damodar Basin was constructed. Similarly, a cluster of thermal and
super-thermal stations in Uttar Pradesh are entirely dependent on the water stored
at Rihand Dam on a tributary of the Sone River. Similarly, for the Vishakapatnam
Steel Plant, water is being supplied from the Yeleru Reservoir.
The water consumption by industries in 1996–97 has shown in Table 37. The
shortage of water is likely to force the industries to switch over to water efficient
technologies. The projections for the future have assumed the development of water
saving technologies and sliding scale of water requirement. If the present rate of
water use is continued, the water requirement for industries in the year 2050 would
be 103 km3 and if water saving technologies are adopted on a large scale, the
requirement is likely to be nearly 81 km3 .
The total water requirement for the industries was around 11 km3 /year for the
base year 1996–97. It was observed that the pulp and paper, integrated iron & steel
and textile sub sectors account for approximately 60% of the water requirement
of the industry. For future projections, water requirement for each sub sector has
been separately calculated. The overall water requirements for the year 2010, 2025
and 2050 have been estimated as 37, 67 and 81 km3 respectively. The production
figures and water requirements in the year 2010, 2025, and 2050 for the different
industries have been presented in Table 38. It needs to be stated here that till 1990s,
Indian economy was on a low growth path.

17.7. RE-CYCLING AND REUSE OF WATER

Re-cycling is internal use of waste water by the original user before disposal. In
this process, the wastewater is recovered, fully or partially treated and then reused
by the same user. The term reuse is applied to utilization waste water by a user
other than the discharger. Waste water potentially available for reuse including
discharges from municipalities, industries, and the agriculture irrigation. The water
Major Uses of Water in India 861

Table 38. Water requirements for different industries for 2010, 2025, 2050

Category of Production Water Water requirement km3

Industry requirement
Year Growth per unit of 2010 2025 2050
1997 rate % production
(1,000 m3 
Tons) 1997–2010

Integrated iron & 119 390 9 22 58377 57393 10941

steel
Smelters 174 58 825 00241395 003179792 0043008
Petrochemicals & 1 255 3 17 003061003 0035536 0049065
Refinery
Chemicals- 1 45930 2140 55 0010200025 001036575 001213695
Caustic
soda
Textile & Jute 24 73020 1157 200 1901878 36517893 35192625
Cement 76 000 11 55 12045 13825 18725
Fertilizer 11 15530 800 167 06309594 1025686615 119274795
Leather Products 9125 58 40 008765 00899725 01428975
Rubber 40324 575 66 00042999 0005634468 0006357824
Food Processing 96 450 14 11 556765 8043034 83194496
Inorganic 2 200 7 200 16 3346 30076
chemicals
Sugar 14 500 12 22 007117 03344 031845
Pharmaceuticals 4 190 12 22 018414 0243012 03434
Distillery 1 79080 420 22 006731098 00980012 0116788
Pesticides 86 73 65 0001989975 0004081275 00057996
Paper & Pulp 3 100 4 280 2898 1018888 189053
General 5 779 12 22 00236588 00278157 00556314
Engineering
Average 907 Total 3726276 6112383 8052476

Source: WG (1999).

is generally reused for agricultural irrigation, for cooling in power plants and other
industrial uses.
Since the demand for water use in the industrial sector is likely to increase many
folds, recycling and reuse of the wastewater can reduce the net water demand. The
reuse of wastewater can also reduce the cascading impact on downstream water
users. Reuse of wastewater within the industry would help in minimization of
freshwater requirement as well as reduction in wastewater volume. The amount of
wastewater generated in various industries and the percentage of effluent that can
be recycled is presented in Table 39.

17.8. NAVIGATION AND OTHER USES

Transport is one of the vital infrastructure components and has a key role in
economic development of the country. Inland navigation historical means of
862 Chapter 17

Table 39. Waste water generation from different types of industries and
achievable reuse

Industry Average Volume of Percentage reuse

Waste water per unit achievable
of product

Thermal Power Plant 155 × 103 lit/hr/MW 98

Pulp & Paper 250 × 103 lit/ton 50
Iron & Steel 150 × 103 lit/ton 40
Pharmaceutical 45 × 103 lit/kg 40
Distillery 1.5 lit/lit of alcohol 25
Textile 250 lit/kg. Cloth 15
Tannery 34 lit/kg. Of raw hides 12

Source: Tyagi et al. (1994).

transport especially in Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers. Inland water transport is the
cheapest mode of transport compared with the other modes of surface transport,
namely, road and rail, especially when the two terminal points fall on a river. In
the wake of the current energy crisis and the need to conserve energy, this mode
of transport is even more attractive.
The navigable waterways in India including rivers, canals, backwaters, creeks
etc. extend to about 14,500 km. Although India has a large network of rivers and
canals, most of these waterways are not suitable for navigation because of shallow
depth of flow, narrow widths, unstable beds and banks, and inadequate vertical
clearances at road bridges. Due to these problems, presently about 5,200 km of
major rivers and 485 km of canals are suitable for navigation in India. Consequently,
the cargo movement through inland waterways is about 1 million tonne-km per
annum compared to 900 billion tonne-km per annum by other surface means. Cargo
transportation in an organized manner is confined to Goa, West Bengal, Assam and
Kerala.
The consumptive use of water for navigation is not substantial as the wastage is
only at the terminal points of the waterways. Water requirement for navigation is
computed keeping in view the two-way movement of containers of required capacity
and size. According to the guidelines of National Transport Policy Committee,
minimum width of 45 m and minimum depth of 1.5 meter is necessary for a reach to
be declared as a National Waterway. In most cases, flow requirement in waterways
can be met by seasonal flow. However, some water may have to be released from
upstream reservoirs, particularly in the lean flow season. It has been estimated
that volume of water required for this purpose will be 10 km3 for the year 2025
and 15 km3 for the year 2050. After studies, ten important waterways have been
identified and declared as national waterways. These are:
1. The Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hoogli system
2. The Brahmaputra river
3. The West Coast Canal
4. The Mandavi Zuari river and the Cumbarjua canal in Goa
Major Uses of Water in India 863

5. The Mahanadi river

6. The Godavari river
7. The Narmada river
8. The Sunderbans area
9. The Krishna river, and
10. The Tapi River.
Three of these, viz., Ganga – Bhagirathi – Hoogli River system, the Brahmaputra
River, and the West Coast canal have been declared as national water ways. The
details of these national waterways are given below.

The ganga-bhagirathi-hoogly river system (National waterway no. 1)

The Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hoogly river system from Allahabad to Haldia has been
declared as first national waterway which became operational in October 1986.
The length of this waterway is 1,620 km. From Haldia to Nabadwip the waterway
is available in Hooghly River. From Nabadwip to Jangipur & Farraka barrage the
water way is formed by Bhagirathi River. Loading/unloading/terminal facilities are
available at Haldia, Calcutta, Pakur, Farakka, Bhagalpur, Munger, Patna, Balia and
Varanasi.

The brahmaputra river system (National waterway no. 2)

The waterway in river Brahmaputra from Dhubri to Sadiya was declared as National
waterway no. 2. The length of this water way is 891 km. The important stations
along the river bank in this waterway are Dhubri, Jogighopa, Guwahati, Tezpur,
Neamati, Dibrugarh, Sadia and Saikhowa. Loading/ unloading/ terminal facilities
are available at Dhubri, Jogighopa, Pandu/Guwahati, Tezpur, Neamati.

The west coastal canal system (National waterway no. 3)

The west coasty canal from Kottapuram to Kollam was declared as National
waterway no. 3. The total length of the canal system from Kottapuram to Kollam
including Champakara and Udyogmandal canals system is 205 km. The waterway
comprises of natural lakes, river sections, back water and man-made canal system.
The industrial centers are available at Ambalamugal and Udyaogmandal with the
Kochi Port.

Sethusamudram project
Sethusamudram Project is a shipping canal, like the Panama or Suez Canal. Presently
the ships going from India’s east coast to west coast, or even from Chennai to
Tuticorin, have to go around Sri Lanka, because the depth of water in the stretch
of the ocean between India and Sri Lanka is not enough to allow passage of ships.
Sethusamudram canal will allow the ships to pass through this stretch directly,
reducing the shipping distance, time, and fuel costs. In addition to the benefits
for mercantile shipping, it will enable navigation between India’s east coast and
west coast entirely through India’s territorial waters, something that has immense
strategic significance for India.
864 Chapter 17

17.8.1. Water for Environment

Each river has developed a well-established ecosystem in its course having different
habitats and seasonality. All the biological processes are highly timed and spaced.
To accomplish these processes, a minimum quantity of water is required. Water
quantity has ecological impact in a number of ways. Flood flows flush out spawning
areas, leaving clean new gravels, sand washed out of the hills. Controlling flows by
dams prevents both cleaning and renewal. High flow rates sweep debris from river
channels and wash down new gravels and sand needed for spawning of many fish.
In the past and even now, dilution was considered to be an acceptable “solution to
pollution” and self-purifying capacity of a stream. This has been included in most
of the effluent standards (Minimum National Standards, MINAS) notified under
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. It is assumed that at least ten times dilution
is available in a stream where the effluent is going to be discharged. Because all
deleterious material is not removed in wastewater treatment, the role of dilution is
very significant in protecting the health of a river. In our country, the need for fresh
water is growing at a fast rate. Thus, the focus is laid on utilisation of every drop
of water. This has resulted in drastic reduction in flow conditions of many rivers in
the country. Reduced flow followed by increased waste load rendered many rivers
almost ecologically dead.
Environment is increasingly being considered a legitimate water user. Many
aquatic species require a certain flow regime to live and breed. The environmental
or instream flow requirement (EFR) for a river is the minimum flow required
to maintain aquatic life. A range of methods are available to assess EFR. The
decision on which method to use is dependent on the type of river (e.g. perennial,
seasonal, flashy), perceived environmental importance, complexity of the decision
to be made, and difficulty of collecting large amounts of information. In India, the
estimates put a requirement of 10 km3 for the year 2025 and 20 km3 for the year
2050 for EFR purpose.

17.8.2. Fisheries
Water bodies are frequently utilized for fish production in many parts of our country.
India is the seventh largest producer of fish in the world. As per the data from
Ministry of Agriculture, the inland fish production increased substantially from
2 lakh tonnes in 1950–51 to about 24 lakh tonnes during 1997–98. Data of statewise
inland fish production during 1990–98 shows that West Bengal continues to occupy
the foremost position among fish producing States, accounting for about one third
of the country’s total fish production. Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Assam and Uttar
Pradesh are the other major fish producing states.

17.9. TOTAL WATER REQUIREMENTS

Based on the various studies, total annual requirement of fresh water for the country
from various sectors including irrigation, domestic, industrial, hydropower and other
Major Uses of Water in India 865

uses is estimated to be about 694 to 710, 784 to 850 and 973 to 1 180 km3 by the
years 2010, 2025 and 2050 respectively depending on the low and high demand
scenarios. Estimates show that this demand will be met by harnessing 700 km3 of
surface water and 350 km3 of ground water. Sector wise and source wise break up
of these demands is shown in Table 40.

17.9.1. Basinwise and Statewise Total Water Requirements

There is a vast difference in availability of water from one basin to other. Similar
situation exists between different states also. The NCIWRD has estimated the
basin wise and state wise water requirements for different periods. Basinwise water
requirement for the year 2050 are presented in Table 41. Similarly, statewise net
water requirement for the years 2010, 2025 and 2050 for low and high demand
scenarios have been presented in Table 42.
It is clear from Table 43 that irrigation sector is the main consumer of water.
Therefore, future water resources planning as a whole will be greatly affected by
the needs of this sector. Predictions (Table 43) show that in future, percentage of
water use by agriculture sector will come down from the present 83% to about 68%
while the usage by domestic, industries, and others will increase.

17.10. VIRTUAL WATER TRADE AND WATER FOOTPRINTS

OF INDIA

The concept of ‘virtual water’ was introduced by Allan (1993). Water used to
produce a commodity is called the ‘virtual water’ contained in the product; it is the
water embedded in a product in a virtual sense. If 1,000 kg of water is needed to
produce 1 kg of grain and if 1,000 kg of this grain is exported from one country to
another, one million kg of water is also being exported with this product. To compute
virtual water content of products, a distinction is made between primary products
(e.g., vegetables), processed products (say sugar), and transformed products (say
cheese). Table 44 gives virtual water contents of a few selected products. Some
processes may yield multiple products and in this case, total quantity of water used
is apportioned amongst these. Clearly, if a product does not require water for its
production, its virtual water content is nil. The virtual water content of a product is
an indicator of the environmental impact of consuming the product.
There can be two different ways to look at the concept of virtual water. From
the view point of the producer, virtual water content of a product is the quantity of
water that is consumed to produce that commodity. This quantity depends upon the
technology and conditions of production. There can be considerable difference in
the quantity consumed depending upon these factors. Considerable saving of water
is possible if water efficient technology is employed to produce, say, steel. Further,
more water is needed to produce each unit of a crop in arid climates as compared
to humid areas. This view point is helpful when a country or region is involved in
866 Chapter 17

Table 40. Annual Water requirement for different uses (in km3 )

Year Year 2010 Year 2025 Year 2050

Uses
1997–98
Low High % Low High % Low High %

Surface
Water
Irrigation 318 330 339 48 325 366 43 375 463 39
Domestic 17 23 24 3 30 36 5 48 65 6
Industries 21 26 26 4 47 47 6 57 57 5
Power 7 14 15 2 25 26 3 50 56 5
Inland 7 7 1 10 10 1 15 15 1
Navigation
Flood −− −− 0 −− −− 0 −− −− 0
Control
Environment −− −− 0 −− −− 0 −− −− 0
(1)
Afforestation
Environment 5 5 1 10 10 1 20 20 2
(2)
Ecology
Evaporation 36 42 42 6 50 50 6 76 76 6
Losses
Total 399 447 458 65 497 545 65 641 752 64
Ground
Water
Irrigation 206 213 218 31 236 245 29 253 344 29
Domestic 13 19 19 2 25 26 3 42 46 4
Industries 9 11 11 1 20 20 2 24 24 2
Power 2 4 4 1 6 7 1 13 14 1
Total 230 247 252 35 287 298 35 332 428 36
Total
Water
Use
Irrigation 524 543 557 78 561 611 72 628 807 68
Domestic 30 42 43 6 55 62 7 90 111 9
Industries 30 37 37 5 67 67 8 81 81 7
Power 9 18 19 3 31 33 4 63 70 6
Inland 0 7 7 1 10 10 1 15 15 1
Navigation
Flood 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Control
Environment 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(1)
Afforestation
Environment 0 5 5 1 10 10 1 20 20 2
(2)
Ecology
Evaporation 36 42 42 6 50 50 6 76 76 7
Losses
Total 629 694 710 100 784 843 100 973 1 180 100

Source: WG (1999).
Major Uses of Water in India 867

Table 41. Summary of Basin-wise total water requirement for 2050

Basin name Catchment Population Total water requirement km3

area in year 1991
India km2 million Surface Ground Total
water water

Indus 321289 419 4724 2988 7712

Ganga 862769 3568 31196 18211 49408
Brahmaputra 197316 291 2846 2737 5583
Meghna 41157 62 376 857 1233
Subernarekha 29196 95 743 262 1005
Brahmani-Baitarni 51822 98 1753 359 2112
Mahanadi 141589 266 365 2446 6096
Godavari 312812 54 5645 4233 9878
Krishna 258948 608 688 3064 9153
Pennar 55213 97 993 392 1384
Cauvery 87900 293 2008 1510 3519
Tapi 65145 148 1331 488 1819
Narmada 98796 147 2381 690 3071
Mahi 34842 105 718 30 1019
Sabarmati 21674 106 577 289 866
West flowing rivers 334390 292 1698 1175 2873
of Kachchh &
Saurashtra including
Luni
West flowing rivers 113057 584 4073 1035 5108
between Tapi and
Kanyakumari
East Flowing rivers 86508 236 2099 642 2741
between Mahanadi
& Pennar
East flowing rivers 99777 450 1928 1116 3044
between Pennar and
Kanyakumari
Minor rivers 36302 21 254 121 375
draining into
Bangladesh &
Myanmar
Area of North 28478
Ladakh not draining
into Indus
Drainage area of 8280
Andaman, Nicobar
& Lakshdweep
islands
Total 3 287 260 8426 7508 4290 1 1800

Source: MOWR (1999).

large-scale exports of a commodity. If the country in question is facing shortage of

water, it may be worthwhile to review the export policy.
868 Chapter 17

Table 42. State wise net water requirement in 2010, 2025 & 2050

Net water requirement km3 

States/UTs
Year 2010 Year 2025 Year 2050

Low High Low High Low High

Andhra Pradesh 457 469 533 585 706 856

Arunachal Pradesh 09 09 13 14 114 117
Assam 121 125 155 172 285 385
Bihar 328 333 435 469 587 810
Goa 04 04 05 06 06 07
Gujarat 258 264 328 350 390 443
Haryana 223 226 232 235 244 246
Himachal Pradesh 48 49 47 49 54 55
Jammu & Kashmir 45 45 59 62 91 120
Karnataka 253 260 296 319 363 464
Kerala 76 78 104 113 194 238
Madhya Pradesh 356 367 469 507 646 899
Maharashtra 391 406 505 554 655 789
Manipur 10 10 11 12 18 40
Meghalaya 07 08 09 11 15 17
Mizoram 02 02 04 04 08 09
Nagaland 08 08 11 12 56 57
Orissa 169 173 196 242 325 386
Punjab 368 369 369 372 374 376
Rajasthan 378 399 402 409 444 458
Sikkim 03 03 03 03 05 06
Tamil Nadu 306 310 357 379 400 475
Tripura 11 11 13 14 59 62
Uttar Pradesh 849 862 960 1025 1123 1331
West Bengal 267 274 310 335 407 516
UTs 11 11 15 16 23 26
Total States 496 508 584 627 759 919

Source: MOWR (1999).

From the view point of the consumer, virtual water content of a product is the
amount of water that would be needed if the commodity is to be produced at
the place of consumption. This quantity will also depend upon the technology and

Table 43. Water use – Changing trends of the future

Present scenario Likely scenario for 2050

Use Percentage Use Percentage

Agriculture 83% Agriculture 68%

Industry 5% Industry 9%
Domestic 5% Domestic 7%
Others 7% Others 16%
Major Uses of Water in India 869

Table 44. Virtual water contents of a few selected products

Product Virtual water Product Virtual water

content (litres) content (litres)

A glass of milk (250 ml) 200 A glass of apple juice 190

(200 ml)
A cup of coffee (125 ml) 140 A glass of orange juice 170
(200 ml)
A cup of tea (125 ml) 18 Potato (1 kg) 250
A loaf of bread (300 g) 400 One egg (40 g) 135
Potato chips (200 g) 185 Tomato (1 kg) 185
Apple (1 kg) 700 Orange (1 kg) 500
Cotton shirt (500 g) 4 100 Leather shoes (1 pair) 8 000
A4 size paper (100 sheets, 1 000 Microchip (2 g) 32
80 g/m2 )

conditions of production. This view point can be helpful in taking a decision if the
country is facing a shortage of water and plans to import certain goods that require
large quantity of water.

Water footprints
Related to the concept of virtual water is notion of water footprint. Water footprint
of a nation is defined as the total volume of freshwater used to produce the goods
and services used by that nation. In a similar way, this concept can be defined for
an individual.
Some countries of the world do not have adequate water to meet their current
and projected water needs while in some others, surplus water may be available.
Further, in big countries, there are regions of water surplus or deficit. A possible
approach to overcome this spatial mis-match is to transport water from surplus
regions to deficient regions. Due to the involvement of large distances and associated
infrastructure and other costs, transportation of real water between water-rich and
water-poor countries may be very difficult. Therefore, a viable option for water-
scarce countries could be to import water-intensive products rather than produce
them domestically. At the same time, water-rich countries could reap benefits from
their abundant water resources by exporting products that consume large quantities
of water. Of course, in reality things are not so simple and additional questions of
food security, energy security, employment, etc. enter in the picture. Table 45 lists
top ten virtual water importing and exporting countries.
For India, a number of issues are relevant when discussing about the virtual water
trade. Some important issues are listed below.
1. Are investments in development of infrastructure (mainly irrigation) necessary
and justified for food self-sufficiency. Could these investments be more gainfully
used for other sectors while importing the required food? But since a large
population of India is traditionally engaged in agriculture and related industries,
investment in agriculture is a must for rural and national growth.
870 Chapter 17

Table 45. Top ten virtual water importing and exporting countries

Rankwise countries with net export Rankwise countries with net import

Virtual water flow (Gm3 /year) Virtual water flow (Gm3 /year)
Country Country
Export Import Net Export Import Net
export export

Australia 73 9 64 Japan 98 7 92
Canada 95 35 60 Italy 89 38 51
USA 229 176 53 UK 64 18 47
Argentina 51 6 45 Germany 106 70 35
Brazil 68 23 45 South Korea 39 7 32
Ivory Coast 35 2 33 Mexico 50 21 29
Thailand 43 15 28 Hongkong 28 1 27
India 43 17 25 Iran 19 5 15
Ghana 20 2 18 Spain 45 31 14
Ukraine 21 4 17 Saudi Arabia 14 1 13

2. How reliable are global producers, the international food market, the access to
this market, and food prices particularly when a big country like India has to
make large purchases?
3. There is large virtual water flow within the country itself from one region to
another. There are regions where water tables are falling rapidly but even then
the farmers are cultivating water intensive crops. Pricing could be a mechanism
to control water use but given the political set-up, it is difficult to raise water
charges.
4. Large-scale imports of agriculture products will result in severe depletion of
foreign exchange reserves.
5. For the sake of food security and to claim the rightful place in the international
arena, India has to have a well-developed agriculture production and distribution
system.
6. There are risks associated with genetically modified food and the exporting
country may interfere in the policies of importing countries.
CHAPTER 18
PROBLEMS RELATED TO WATER RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT IN INDIA

To safeguard India’s economic and social prosperity, it is imperative that enough

freshwater is available to meet the requirements of agriculture, industries, and the
domestic sector in the coming years. Unfortunately, inadequate water planning, lack
of water awareness, and lack of implementation of desired measures have created
a difficult-to-manage situation. As a result, an alarming scenario of freshwater
scarcity is gradually unfolding in India. The scarcity of water is already evident in
many parts of India, varying in scale and intensity at different times of the year.
This situation is the result of natural factors and human actions. Intense competition
among water users — agriculture, industry and domestic sector — is pushing the
groundwater table deeper and deeper. Widespread pollution of surface water and
groundwater is degrading the quality of freshwater resources. Attempts to introduce
and enforce legislation have, by-and-large, failed. The requirement for freshwater is
increasingly taking the center stage on the economic and political agenda, as more
and more disputes between and within states, regions, and even at the community
level are rising.
At the time of independence, when the population of India stood at around 350
million, the per capita annual water availability was more than 5,000 m3 . Now,
with the population at more than one billion, it stands at 1,950 m3 and is likely to
fall further to less than 1,000 m3 in the next decade. The shortages will be more at
local levels and are bound to spread to regional levels as the population continues
to grow. The situation of plentiful water resources in the past is rapidly becoming
one of water scarcity. The problems of pollution from municipal sewage, industrial
effluents, agrochemicals, and pesticides have further threatened the availability
of good quality water. In short, the country’s fragile resources are stressed and
depleting fast in both quality and quantity.
In certain areas between Pennar and Kannyakumari, the availability of water is as
low as 400 cubic metres per person per year. Further, the proliferation of tube wells
from 360,000 in 1947 to 6 million had disturbed the ground water situation in Punjab
and Haryana. In 12 districts of Punjab and 3 districts of Haryana, exploitation of
ground water exceeds recharge.
871
872 Chapter 18

18.1. CAUSES OF WATER RELATED PROBLEMS IN INDIA

The root causes of water related problems in India can be stated as:
i. Highly uneven distribution of water availability, often leading to floods and
droughts.
ii. Rampant pollution of freshwater resources mainly by agricultural, industrial
and municipal activities.
iii. Uncontrolled use of the bore-wells that has allowed extraction of groundwater
at very high rates, often exceeding recharge.
iv. Inadequate attention to water conservation, efficiency in water use, water re-
use, groundwater recharge, and eco-system sustainability.
v. Very low water prices, which do not discourage wastage.
vi. Prevalent system of water rights which gives unlimited ownership of ground-
water to the landowner, despite the fact that groundwater is a shared resource
from common pool aquifers.
vii. Dis-association of communities in water resources management.
The main water-related problems in India are elaborated in what follows. Problems
related with reservoirs and lakes are discussed in Chapter 19 and those related with
water quality in Chapter 20.

18.2. UNEVEN DISTRIBUTION OF WATER AVAILABILITY

Water availability in India has a large variation – both spatial and temporal. The
basin wise per-capita water availability varies between 14,100 m3 /year for the
Brahmaputra-Barak basin to about 300 m3 /year for the Sabarmati basin. As per
international norms, if the water availability is less than 1,700 m3 per capita/year
then the country is categorized as water stressed and if it is less than 1,000 m3 per
capita/year then the country is classified as water scarce. Growing water scarcity in
India can be gauged from the fact that the available water per capita per year has
decreased from 6,008 m3 in 1947 to 2,384 m3 in 2000. Although India is above the
water stressed category, the real situation of per capita water availability is more
disturbing than what is depicted by the average values. In Figure 1, the per capita
water availability in selected river basins of the country is depicted, highlighting
huge differences among them.
Rainfall pattern and distribution in a region is a good index of its water resources.
South-West monsoon, North-East monsoon, cyclonic depressions and local storms
contribute to rainfall in different degrees in various regions of the country. As noted
previously, India receives nearly 75–80% of annual precipitation during the four
monsoon months. Of the remaining amount, a large fraction is received during the
winter monsoon. Further, out of 8,760 hours in a year, most of the precipitation is
received in about 100 hours. Instances where 10% of annual rain falls in just 3 hours
are not uncommon. Such a high concentration of precipitation and streamflows
makes it imperative to regulate rivers. Moreover, the uneven distribution of rainfall
across the country at different times of the year makes several parts of India fall
under the water stressed, water scarcity and absolute water scarcity category.
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 873

Basinwise Per Capita Water Availability

Sabarmati 2025 (Projected)

Mahi 2000
Tapi
Narmada
Pennar
Cauvery
Krishna
Godavari
Brahmani & Baitarani
Mahanadi
Brahamaputra Barak
Ganga
Indus
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000
Per capita per year (cubic m)

Figure 1. Basin-wise per-capita water availability

Analysis of the long series of meteorological records in India shows that quantity
wise, Indian summer monsoon is reasonably stable. Of course, floods and droughts
are common features which occur year after year. Notably, the regions with low
seasonal rainfall also experience high variability and this makes them drought prone.
Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) has been correlated with Indian monsoon – weak
monsoons in India are associated with a large negative SOI and occurrence of
El Niño. Further, large positive SOIs and absence of El Niño events have strong
correlation with large monsoon rainfalls.
Several global and regional parameters have been found to be related with
monsoons and are being used in forecasting. Analysis of monsoon rainfall data
of India shows an absence of any trend and the variation seems to be random in
nature over a long period of time. However, in some pockets, significant long-term
changes in rainfall have been noticed. Monsoon seasonal rainfall has been found to
be increasing in the areas along the West Coast, north Andhra Pradesh and north-
west India while it has been found to be decreasing over east Madhya Pradesh and
adjoining areas, north-east India and parts of Gujarat and Kerala.
To overcome problems due to this highly uneven distribution of water resources
over the country, it is necessary to create storage space so that streamflows can be
beneficially regulated. This matter has been discussed in detail in a previous chapter.
Highly skewed and water resources distribution result in seasonal abundance and
devastating floods in some areas while large tracts in other regions are chronically
drought affected.
874 Chapter 18

18.3. FLOODS

Floods are the most frequent natural calamities faced by India in different magni-
tudes, year after year. Flood is an overflow of water onto lands that are not normally
covered by water. Usually, inundation of land is temporary and the land is adjacent
to and inundated by overflow from a river, stream, lake, or ocean. As about 80–90%
of the annual precipitation in India occurs during the four months of monsoon, this
is also the season when floods are mostly experienced. The main causes of floods
in India are inadequate capacity of river sections to contain high flows, silting of
river beds, and drainage congestion. Besides, floods are also caused by cyclones
and cloud bursts.
Every year floods kill nearly 1,600 people and render 33 million homeless,
submerging 8 million ha of fertile land and causing damages close to a thousand
crore rupees. Major causes of floods in India are:
• Inadequate capacity within the banks of a river to contain high flows.
• River bank erosion and silting of river beds.
• Land slides leading to obstruction of flow and change in the river course.
• Synchronization of high flows in the main river and tributaries so that high flows
occur in all rivers at the same time.
• Retardation of flow due to tidal and backwater effects, resulting in stagnation of
water and inundation of adjoining areas.
• Poor natural drainage in the area.
• Cyclone and associated heavy rainstorm/ cloud bursts.
A review of floods in India during the period from 1910 to 1985 was carried out by
Ramaswamy (1985). He also studied the meteorological aspects of severe floods in
India up to 1980 (Ramaswamy, 1987).

18.3.1. Flood Prone Areas in India

In Indian practice, any area that has been subject to flooding at any time is considered
as a flood prone area unless it has been effectively protected. The Rashtriya Barh
Ayog (RBA) made an assessment of the extent of the country exposed to the
possibility of flooding. The maximum area affected due to floods in a state in any
one of the years is taken as the area liable to flooding in that State. The total of
such maxima of the various states is considered to be the area liable to flooding in
the country.
On the basis of available data for the period from 1953 to 1978, RBA (1980)
assessed the flood prone area in the country as 40 M-ha (see Table 1) which is
about 1/8th of the geographical area of the country. According to the estimates, the
average area annually affected by floods is 7.52 M-ha out of which the agricultural
area is 3.52 M-ha. The variability of submerged areas ranges from 1.46 million
ha (1965) to 17.5 million ha (1978). The flood prone areas of India are shown in
Figure 2. According to NCIWRD (1999), during the second half of 20th century,
on an average, 1,515 lives were lost and 95,285 heads of cattle were lost every
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 875

Table 1. Flood prone and protected area in India

Flood Prone Area 40 mha

Area which can be given reasonable protection 32 mha
Area protected prior to 1954 3 mha
Area Protected till 2004 15.8 mha

Source: RBA (1980) and others.

year. Heavy flood damage had occurred in the country during the monsoon of 1955,
1971, 1973, 1977, 1978, 1980, 1984, 1988, 1989, 1998 and 2005. Further, floods
have affected about 33 million persons between 1953–2000, and the number of
people affected each year may increase due to population growth.
The area affected by the floods each year for the second half of the last century
is shown in Figure 3. It can be seen that this area does not show much increase
with time and the trend line is almost horizontal. It may be added that there is

Figure 2. Flood prone areas of India

876 Chapter 18

20
Area (Million ha)

15

10

0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year

Figure 3. Area affected by floods in India

a feeling that the assessment of flood prone area is not being done scientifically.
Often higher figures are reported and the actual area submerged may reduce if a
careful scientific assessment is carried out.
For the same period, the population affected by floods is shown in Figure 4. This
figure shows that the population affected by floods exhibits large fluctuations. The
overall trend is increasing with a slope of 0.77 million/year. Analysis of data on
population affected by floods, adjusted for population growth with a representative
growth of 2% per annum, also exhibits a small rising trend with a slope of 0.11
million/year.
The pattern of crop damage increase (Figure 5) at the 1993–94 prices, both
unadjusted and adjusted for productivity, is almost similar to that of the population
affected. The trend is, however, increasing without productivity adjustment but is
almost static with productivity adjusted.
Finally, Figure 6 shows the human lives affected by floods. There was unprece-
dented loss of lives in the year 1977 when about 11,300 persons lost their life due
to floods.
There is a general perception that notwithstanding large amounts of money being
spent for various flood management works in the country, the flood damage is

80
70
Population (Million)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year

Figure 4. Population affected by floods in India

Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 877

Figure 5. Crop damages by floods in India

increasing. In case of damage data also, it is likely that inflated figures being
reported for seeking higher relief. It is seen that at constant prices, neither the crop
damage nor the total damage figures show a definite pattern or an overall trend.
Another important observation is that the yearly area affected by floods is more
or less static. Assam, UP and Bihar are among the most flood prone states in the
country. The maximum damage of Rs. 58,460 million due to floods was reported
during the year 1998.

12000
10000
8000
Lives Lost

6000
4000
2000
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year

Figure 6. Human lives affected by floods in India

878 Chapter 18

18.3.2. Floods in Indian River Basins

Based on the causes of floods, the country can be divided into four basins/regions:
a) Brahmaputra & Barak (Meghna) basins; b) Ganga basin; c) North west rivers’
basin; and d) Central India and Deccan rivers’ basin. A discussion of each of these
follows.

Brahmaputra and Barak Basins

The basins of Brahmaputra and Barak Rivers and their tributaries cover the north-
eastern states, northern West Bengal, and Sikkim. Catchments of these rivers receive
very heavy rainfall mostly during the months of May/June to September. Frequent
earthquakes in this region have caused numerous landslides in the hills and have
upset the flow regime of rivers. In this region, flooding is caused by the spilling of
rivers over their banks, drainage congestion and tendency of some of the rivers to
change their courses. As a result, floods in this region are severe and recurrent. In
the Brahmaputra basin, the problem areas are in the valley portion in Assam where
inundation is caused by overflow of the Brahmaputra and its tributaries and erosion
along the river banks. In North West Bengal, the Teesta, Torsa and Jaldakha rivers
frequently inundate large areas. These rivers carry considerable amounts of silt and
have a tendency to change their courses. The rivers in Manipur frequently spill over
their banks.

Ganga Basin
In the Ganga basin, the flooding problem is mainly confined to the middle and
lower parts of the basin. In general, the problem becomes more severe as one moves
from west to east and from south to north. In the Ganga basin, the flood problem is
mostly in the areas on the northern bank of the Ganga River and damage is mainly
caused by the northern tributaries of Ganga which spill over their banks and keep
changing their courses. Ganga is a mighty river carrying huge discharges of 57,000
to 85 000 m3 /sec (2 to 3 million cusecs). Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal are
the worst affected states in the Ganga basin. In eastern Uttar Pradesh, the rivers that
cause flooding include the Sarada, the Ghagra, the Rapti, and the Gandak besides
the main Ganga River. The major causes of flooding are intense rainfall in the upper
catchment areas, drainage congestion, and bank erosion. The problem of drainage
congestion exists in the western and northwestern areas of Uttar Pradesh. Erosion
is experienced in some places on the left bank of the Ganga, and in the Ghaghra
and Gandak Rivers. In Haryana, flooding may take place along the Yamuna and
the problem of poor drainage exists in some of the southwestern districts. In Delhi,
the area along the banks of the Yamuna is flood prone.
North Bihar suffers from floods almost every year due to spillage of rivers;
floods are not frequent in the rivers of south Bihar. The rivers, such as the Burhi
Gandak, the Bagmati, the Kamla and other small rivers, the Kosi in the lower
reaches, and the Mahananda, spill over their banks causing considerable damage to
crops and dislocation of life. High floods occur in the Ganga in some years, causing
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 879

considerable inundation in Bihar. Figure 7 shows the flood prone area of Bihar.
During the monsoon of 1998, large scale devastation took place in Uttar Pradesh
and Bihar due to high floods in the Ghaghra, the Rapti, the Gandak, the Kosi, the
Mahananda, the Bagmati & Adhwara Group leading to loss of lives, dwellings,
properties, installations, communication, and infrastructure facilities.
In West Bengal, floods are caused due to drainage problems as well as tidal
effects. In south and central West Bengal, the Mahananda, the Bhagirathi, the Ajay,
the Damodar, etc., cause flooding due to the inadequate capacity of river channels
and tidal effect. In Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, the problem is not serious but
these states have also experienced some isolated incidents of heavy floods in recent
years.

North West Rivers Basin

Flooding is not a very severe problem in the north-west part of India. Whatever
floods are caused here arise due to the inadequate carrying capacity of the channels.
The flood problem is not very severe in Sutlej, Ravi, Beas, Jhelum and Ghaggar
rivers. The major problem in the states of Haryana and Punjab is that of inadequate
surface drainage, which causes inundation and waterlogging over vast areas. In

Figure 7. Flood prone area of Bihar

880 Chapter 18

Rajasthan, floods were rare in the past but now isolated instances of floods are
noticed. In Haryana, topography is the prime cause of flooding.
Ghaggar River carries a huge quantum of flow during the monsoon period; about
150 MCM of this can be utilized for recharge. Presently this water gets collected and
retained in 19 natural depressions causing water logging problems in the adjoining
low lying areas like Baropal, where water levels have risen from 50 m below ground
level to less than 5 m below ground level. Judicious management of Ghaggar flood
water would provide significant quantity of water for recharge.

Central India and Deccan Rivers Basin

This region covers all the southern states, namely, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala and the states of Orissa, Maharashtra, Gujarat
and parts of Madhya Pradesh. Major rivers in this region, the Narmada, the Tapi,
the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery have mostly well defined
and stable courses but occasionally there are flood problems in their lower reaches
and delta areas. The lower reaches of major east coast rivers have been embanked,
thus largely eliminating the flood problem.
In Orissa, damage due to floods is caused by the Mahanadi, the Brahmani
and the Baitarni which have a common delta. When these rivers area in spate
simultaneously, they cause considerable havoc. The deltaic districts are densely
populated. The small rivers of Kerala, when in high floods, occasionally cause
damage. Also there is the problem of mud flow from the hills, leading to severe
damages.
In the central and southern parts of the country, floods are observed in the
Narmada, the Tapi, the Godavari, the Mahanadi and the Krishna. There have been
instances of floods in these rivers due to very heavy rainfall in their catchments,
e.g., flooding of Hoshangabad (Narmada) in 1999. The Tapi and the Narmada
occasionally carry high flows which affect areas in the lower reaches in Gujarat.
The delta areas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari and the Krishna on the east coast
in particular and the coastal regions of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in
general also periodically face flood problems in the wake of cyclonic storms.

18.3.3. Special Flood Related Problems

Here we describe some special flood-related problems that arise in various parts of
the country.

Urban Drainage
Flooding of urban areas is a common occurrence in India. Many cities, including
Delhi and Mumbai, witness such a situation even after moderate rainfall, causing
damage to property. When this rise in water level in the drains in the cities synchro-
nizes with flood situation in the outfall river, it creates a disaster like situation.
A flood in the Hyderabad city and adjoining areas recently is one such example.
In July 27,2005, the meteorological observatory at Santa Cruz (north Mumbai)
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 881

recorded 94.4 cm of rain fall. At the same time, rainfall at Vihar Lake was 105 cm
and at Colaba observatory in South Mumbai, it was only 7.3 cm. Intense rainfall in
north Mumbai led to severe flooding and disrupting, road, rail, air communication
and killing 108 people. Although this was the maximum rainfall over the last 100
years, it shows that the city infrastructure is not prepared to handle such extreme
events. Drainage congestion was identified as the main reason for flooding. Figure 8
shows the extent of waterlogging that was witnessed in Mumbai.
Urban drainage problems also lead to unhygienic conditions leading to spread
of epidemics. Absence of any planned urban drainage system and inadequacy of
the existing drains make the situation worse. Often people living in low-lying areas
belong to poorer sections of the society and are the worst affected. It is necessary
that urban drainage be given due importance. Some of the suggestions to improve
the situation are:
(i) Along with master plan for an urban area, there should also be a master plan
for drainage of the area,
(ii) This drainage plan should take into account the topographic conditions, existing
drainage system, future development pattern of the city etc.,
(iii) The land use policies and future developments must follow the drainage plan
of the city,
(iv) Existing lakes and depressions which form parts of drainage plan in the city
should not be allowed to be filled up, and
(v) Adequate attention should be given to proper maintenance of the drainage
system every year.

Figure 8. Inundation in Mumbai city in July 2005 when nearly 95 cm of rain fell in 24 hours
882 Chapter 18

Flash Floods
Flash floods are characterized by very fast rise and recession of flow of small
volume and high discharge that cause high damages because of suddenness. In case
of flash floods, there is virtually no time to issue warnings and very little time is
available for evacuation. These types of floods occur in hilly regions and sloping
lands where heavy rainfall and thunder storm or cloud burst are common. Severe
flash floods in Arunachal Pradesh during the year 2000 are an example of floods
from such a situation. Punjab also experiences such floods occasionally. Large
reservoirs with sufficient vacant space upstream of areas prone to flash floods can
absorb the flood wave, protecting the downstream regions.
In Himachal Pradesh, a flash flood was experienced on the night of 31st July and
1st August, 2000. The discharge in Sutlej River at the Rampur site rose sharply
from 1,500 cumecs to 5,000 cumecs in a period of 2.5 hours beginning 03:00 hrs.
The discharge at Suni, downstream of the Rampur site, rose from 1,800 cumecs to
6,000 cumecs over a period of 2 hours only. Thereafter, the water level receded.
The flash flood caused widespread damage to life and property in Kinnour district,
washing away many bridges and villages. The Rampur town also suffered heavy
damage.
In Arunachal Pradesh, the Siang River (Brahmaputra) experienced flash floods
in June 2000. There was no heavy rainfall before the flood. Suddenly, flood water
entered the Gelling area from its source Tsang-po River. The rate of rise of water
level was very rapid – there was a rise of 3.21 m at Passighat between 12:00 hrs to
13:00 hrs on 11.6.2000 and the total rise was 5.3 m between 09:00 hrs to 18:00 hrs.
The water level receded quickly thereafter. Vast areas in 4 districts on both sides
of the river were inundated in the Passighat township, causing considerable losses.
Though no specific reason could be ascribed for the flood, breach in a natural dam
caused by landslides in Tibet or blockade in the upstream catchment in Tibet was
suspected to be the reason.

Snow & Glacial Melt Generated Floods

Sudden release of water from glaciers are known as glacier floods and may represent
the outflow either of water which has been held within the ice body or on surface due
to ice dam. Snowmelt is a slow process and usually does not result in major floods
in India. Generally, glacier melt is slower than snowmelt but sometimes glaciers
hold large quantities of water which may be suddenly released with melting of ice
dam which may be holding this water. This results in glacier outburst floods. This
hydrological phenomenon is common in Karakoram Himalayas where 30 glaciers
have potential to create floods in the upper Indus River.
Many rivers originating from Himalayas in North India also receive melt water
from glaciers. Glacial outburst is one of the suspected reasons for flash floods in
some Himalayan rivers. The outburst flood of the year 1929 by Chong Khundam
glacier had a volume of 1,500 MCM. Some 300 000 m3 of ice were carried with
the flood. It was completely drained in 48 hours with flood peak discharge of
22 650 m3 /sec in Indus at Attock.
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 883

Another example is the glacier flood in Aug. 1959 in Kashmir, which caused
a rise in the water level of more than 30 m at a distance of over 40 km from the
point of outburst. Major floods occur in some rivers when river ice breaks up into
large blocks during the early stages of spring melt and piles up to form ice jam.
After a jam develops, the water level behind it rises, often rapidly, until eventually
the obstruction gives way releasing water and debris into the channel. Therefore,
the flood hydrograph close to the ice jam is often extremely sharp peaked until the
flood wave moves down the channel.

Cyclones and Storm Surges in Coastal Areas

Floods in coastal areas are also caused by rainstorms which are generally associated
with low pressure systems like tropical cyclones. During the last century, over 1,000
tropical cyclones and depressions originating in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea
moved across the Indian subcontinent. Passage of such storms in quick succession
over a river basin invariably leads to severe floods. Parts of the country, mainly
coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal,
experience such cyclones leading to extensive flooding. The flood due to super
cyclone combined with heavy rainfall during October 1999 in the coastal belt of
Orissa is an example of this type of floods.

Cloud Bursts
Some parts of the country are prone to sudden unprecedented heavy rains, known
as cloud bursts. During the year 2000, coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh experi-
enced severe flooding caused by such bursts. Cyclonic circulations during monsoon
conditions too sometimes lead to cloud bursts leading to floods. In July 1981 such
a condition developed over eastern Rajasthan when stations around Jaipur recorded
a 3-day rainfall which was more than the annual normal. Annual rainfall at these
places varies from 550 mm to 700 mm. But during the period, the daily rainfall
was 250–590 mm, two-day rainfall of 430–800 and 3-day rainfall of 450–900 mm,
which caused severe floods. High rainfall over Mumbai in July 2005 could also be
termed as an instance of a cloud burst.

Human Activities
Human activities also sometimes result in floods. Sudden breaches in
dams/reservoirs may cause devastating floods. The Machhu-II, constructed in
Gujarat in 1972, failed during 1979 due to overtopping, causing severe damages
in Morbi town in the downstream reach. Around 2,000 people were killed in the
accident. However, the record of India in regard to dam safety has been very good.
The Ukai dam is the terminal dam on the Tapi River harnessing a catchment
area of about 62,000 sq. km. Due to the large storage space reserved for flood
control, the Ukai dam is able to moderate the peaks of incoming floods and has
largely freed the town of Surat from flooding. However, recently the city of Surat is
experiencing a flood problem whenever there is a large release of water from Ukai
dam because of: (i) considerable reduction in safe carrying capacity of the river due
884 Chapter 18

to the encroachment of flood plains, (ii) reduction in carrying capacity of the river
due to silting, and (iii) the effect of tides, etc. In the 1970s a discharge of 24,000
cumec (about 8.5 lakh cusecs) was considered safe for Tapi River in the Surat city
area. But due to encroachments in the areas around Surat, the safe carrying capacity
is now about half of the previous value. Thus, whenever Ukai dam managers are
forced to make large releases due to high inflows, there is inundation of low-lying
areas of Surat.

Tsunamis
Tsunami or the harbour waves were not considered to be a problem for India, not
until 2004 when giant tsunami waves triggered by an earthquake near the Sumatra
Island, Indonesia, caused widespread damage in more than 25 countries bordering
the Indian Ocean. More than 180,000 people are believed to have perished in one of
the worst natural disasters of Asia. In India, these waves led to widespread flooding
and damages in states on the eastern coast of India, viz., Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Pondicherry, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
In view of the devastation caused by the tsunamis, the Government of India is
setting up a comprehensive warning system for tsunamis.

18.3.4. Flood Management Measures

Flood management activities can be broadly classified into two major groups:
structural measures, and Non-structural measures. Broadly, all physical measures
taken up to modify the flood are termed as Structural Measures, while those under
other activities are grouped as Non-structural Measures: a) attempts to modify the
susceptibility to flood damage, b) attempts to modify the loss burden, and c) bearing
the loss.
Attempts to modify the “damage susceptibility” involve actions designed to
reduce the vulnerability of property and other developmental activities in flood
plains to flood hazard. Attempts to “modify the loss burden” consist of actions
to modify the incidence of losses, by spreading them over a large segment of the
community. Bearing the loss means living with floods.

Structural Measures
These measures attempt to prevent flood waters from reaching potential damage
centres. These consist of embankments, flood walls, reservoirs, natural detention
basins, channel improvement, drainage improvement, and diversion of flood waters.
Each of these measures aims to protect an area; normally these may involve high
capital costs.
Embankments restrict the flow of a river in its defined course. Generally these
are constructed with available earth in the nearby area if spills are of small depth.
Where adequate space is not available for an earthen embankment or land is very
expensive, concrete or masonry flood walls are constructed. In the 19th century
many embankments were constructed on some rivers which were causing recurrent
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 885

damages. These measures were to protect some areas in northern India and the
deltaic tracts of east flowing rivers in Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
Reservoirs store floodwaters and the stored water can be gradually released when
the flood has receded. In a multipurpose project, besides moderating flood peaks,
the stored water can be used for purposes such as irrigation, power generation,
industrial and domestic uses, etc. From the flood control point of view, storage
space is specifically allocated in the reservoir although some incidental flood control
benefit is available from every reservoir. Many reservoirs in India have storage
spaces specifically allocated for flood control, e.g., Maithon, Tilaiya (Damodar),
Hirakud (Mahanadi), Bhakra (Sutlej), Rengali (Brahmani) and Ukai (Tapi).
Channel improvement involves increasing the area or velocity of flow or both so
that larger flow can be safely carried. Channel improvement has not been widely
resorted to in India, mainly because it is costly. Diversion of flood water is just like
a road bypass for a congested city. Flow that may cause damage can be diverted
into a natural or artificially constructed channel.

Non-Structural Measures
Non-structural measures strive to keep the people away from flood waters, bearing
in mind that flood plains belong to the river. These contemplate judicious use of
flood plains for beneficial purposes and vacating the same for use of the river
whenever she wants it. In India, considerable thrust is on non-structural flood
management measures. The non-structural measures are broadly grouped as: Flood
plain zoning, Flood proofing, Flood forecasting and warning, Disaster preparedness,
Disaster relief, Flood fighting, and Flood insurance. Figure 9 shows the concept of
flood plain zoning.
Of all the non-structural flood management measures, the one which is gaining
increased attention is flood forecasting and warning. Flood forecasting involves
estimation of river water level and discharge at future times. A nationwide flood
forecasting and warning system has been established by CWC. The system under
CWC is largely on major interstate rivers and states often supplement these by
their own efforts at other stations. With reliable advance information/warning about
impending floods, loss of human lives and moveable properties and human miseries
can be considerably reduced. People and cattle can be shifted to safer places.
Similarly, valuable moveable properties can be removed to safer places.

WARNING WARNING
I RESTRICTIVE PROHIBITIVE RESTRICTIVE I
II II
RIVER CHANNEL

Figure 9. The concept of flood plain zoning

886 Chapter 18

Disaster Preparedness and Response Planning

The impact of flood disaster can be mitigated by timely rescue, relief and rehabili-
tation operations. Responsibility for relief and rehabilitation is shared at two levels:
State and Central. The role of the Central Government in the event of a natural
calamity is at policy and administrative level while the state governments deal
with the actual ground work. Advanced plans for disaster mitigation involve co-
ordination among central, state and local authorities. The Ministry of Agriculture,
Government of India, has prepared a contingency action plan for natural calamities,
including floods. Most of the states have Relief Commissioners who are in charge
of relief measures. Besides, there is a National Crisis Management Committee
(NCMC) with Cabinet Secretary as Chairman and a Crisis Management Group
(CMG). Voluntary agencies, Panchayats and co-operative societies can play a very
vital and constructive role in creating awareness among people towards disaster
management.
Flood Fighting covers building temporary dykes along the river, dowel bunds on
the banks, immediate closing of breaches, attending to scour, evacuating movable
property and people out of the flooded zone, protecting equipment, etc. At the
time of floods, the facilities for water supply and sewerage get disrupted affecting
the health of the population. Public health operations to ensure the availability of
supplies and equipment, co-ordination with other organizations engaged in disaster
relief and procedure for immediate mobilization of personnel to eliminate health
hazards is an important part of relief operation. Flood fighting measures normally
involve evacuation of stranded people, air dropping of food packets, supply of
fodder and other essential commodities, restoration of road/rail links, pumping of
water from inundated areas and restoration of public utilities, such as roads, bridges,
electric supply, sewerage and water supply schemes, and drains, etc.

18.3.5. Flood Management in India

We often hear that “the flood plains are the playgrounds of rivers and should be
left as such, without any human interference”. Although it is a wise statement, this
philosophy has not been found to be practical in overpopulated developing countries
like India. Firstly, the limits of these “playgrounds” cannot be defined precisely.
Most alluvial rivers are of meandering or braided form covering wide areas. The
flow is confined to narrow channel(s) during fair weather. Typically, the width of
these “playgrounds” could be about ten times the width of such a waterway width
for the meandering rivers and even larger for the braided rivers.
After the unprecedented floods of 1954, the Government of India took several
initiatives to solve the problem of floods in the country. Landmarks in the process
of evolving a policy for flood management in India are:
• Announcement of Flood Management Policy – 1954
• Report of High Level Committee on Floods – 1957
• Report of Rashtriya Barh Ayog (RBA) – 1980
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 887

• Report of National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development

Plan – 1999
• National Water Policy – 2002
A commission, known as the Rashtriya Barh Ayog (RBA or National Flood
Commission), was set up by the Government of India to cover the entire gamut of
flood problem in the country. The commission submitted its comprehensive report
in 1980 which contained 207 recommendations. This report formed the basis for
formulating flood management programs. Subsequently, the National Commission
for Integrated Water Resources Development Plan also, among other things, studied
the flood problem and made many useful recommendations in its report published
in 1999. The National Water Policy (2002) of India also has made several recom-
mendations concerning flood control and management. Among other things, the
National Water Policy (2002) has recommended preparation of basin-wide master
plans for flood management in each flood prone basin, watershed management and
catchment area treatment plans and measures like flood forecasting and flood plain
zoning for damage minimization. The National Commission for Integrated Water
Resources Development also studied the flood management problem and gave its
recommendations (NCIWRD 1999). The commission rightly pointed out that there
is no possibility for complete protection against floods. Therefore, it suggested that
emphasis should be on better management of flood plains, flood forecasting, flood
preparedness, and flood insurance.
In the policy statements listed above, the underlying objective has been to get rid
of the menace of floods by managing them. Emphasis has been laid on a flexible
approach to the problem of floods as part of an integrated approach for the utilization
of land and water resources. A summary of the important recommendations follows:
1. It is not possible to provide complete protection against floods and the
country has to focus attention on efficient flood management involving flood
forecasting, disaster preparedness, wise use of flood plains, flood proofing,
flood fighting, and flood insurance;
2. Basinwise master plan for flood management in each flood prone basin should
be prepared;
3. To the extent feasible flood control schemes should fit in with other water
related plans;
4. Future multi-purpose projects should simultaneously consider flood control
aspects;
5. Properly designed, executed and maintained embankments are satisfactory
means of flood protection. A suitable combination of embankments with other
methods such as storage dams, detention basins, etc. is usually more efficient
and should be adopted as resources permit;
6. Performance of embankments has to be evaluated and suitable changes be made
in their design, construction and maintenance for better results;
7. Priorities for soil conservation work relating to flood control should be as under:
(a) Catchment areas of multi-purpose dams,
(b) Himalayas with their foothills,
888 Chapter 18

(c) Indo-Gangetic plain, and

(d) Deccan plateau;
8. Works relating to watershed management be prioritized. Work commenced in
a catchment should not be left incomplete to take up work in other catchments;
9. Data be collected to provide information on long-term performance of flood
management measures and their impact on various socio-economic factors;
10. Legislation and enforcement by states is necessary to prevent unauthorized
river bed cultivation and encroachments;
11. States to enact legislation amending section 17 (II) of land acquisition act
to make the existing provisions for emergent situations applicable for flood
control works;
12. Priority be assigned for measures to modify the susceptibility of life and
property to flood damage;
13. Priority be given for completion of continuing schemes and adequate funds be
allocated for maintenance;
14. Adequate flood-cushion should be provided in water storage projects, wherever
feasible; and
15. The network of flood forecasting and warning is to be extended to remaining
flood prone areas.
During the past 50 years, different methods of flood protection, both long term
and short term, have been adopted, depending upon the nature of the problem and
local conditions. In this period, 34,400 km of new embankments and 51,318 km of
drainage channels have been constructed. In addition, 2,400 town protection works
have been completed and 4,760 villages were raised above flood levels mainly
in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, North Bihar, and Assam. The major embankment
projects that have been completed are on rivers Kosi and Gandak (Bihar), Krishna
and Godavari (Andhra Pradesh), Mahanadi (Orissa), Tapi (Gujarat), Damodar (West
Bengal), and Brahmaputra (Assam). Needless to say, these embankments have
provided reasonable protection to adjoining areas. While there have been occasional
breaches in embankments, these have given reasonable protection to an area of
about 15.07 M-ha. In addition an area of about 3 M-ha had been protected in some
of the states by the structures which existed prior to 1954. A flood spill channel of
Jhelum has been built to protect the Srinagar city.
A flood plain zoning bill was mooted by the Government of India. However,
the response of the state governments towards enactment of flood plain zoning bill
is not encouraging. Manipur had enacted flood plain zoning legislation in 1978
but demarcation of flood zones is yet to be taken up. The State Government of
Rajasthan has also enacted legislation for flood plain management. One of the main
requirements to implement flood plain zoning measure is availability of maps on
a suitable scale to demarcate flood prone areas. For this purpose, maps on a scale
1:15,000 or larger preferably with contours at an interval of 0.5 m for plain areas
and 1 to 2 m for hilly areas are needed. Such maps for the states of Assam, Bihar,
Haryana, J & K, Punjab, U.P., West Bengal and Delhi covering 54,700 sq. km were
prepared but the scheme remains unimplemented.
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 889

Planwise expenditure on flood management works up to the eighth plan period

ending 1997 was Rs. 4,856.68 crore. For the ninth plan, the anticipated expenditure
was Rs. 2,629.23 crore and the area likely to be benefited is 1.14 M-ha. The recom-
mended outlay for the Tenth Plan is Rs. 10,631.84 crore. Of this, Rs. 7,624 crore is
for the state sector and Rs. 3,007.91 crore is for the central sector. This is expected
to benefit 2.781 M-ha. Among other activities, the works to be taken up involve
strengthening of the flood forecasting network of the Central Water Commission
(CWC), flood plain management through zoning and people’s participation in the
maintenance of embankments.

Organizations involved in flood management

The primary responsibility for the management of floods rests with the respective
state governments. Schemes for flood management are investigated, planned and
executed by state governments. Most states have Departments of Irrigation, Water
Resources, or PWD which also deal with flood control. The Ganga Flood Control
Commission was set up in 1972 for preparation of comprehensive plans for flood
management, monitoring the execution of important flood control schemes, techno-
economic examination of major and medium flood control, drainage and anti erosion
schemes of Ganga basin. Brahmaputra Board was constituted in 1982 to plan and
integrate implementation of measures for control of floods and bank erosion in the
Brahmaputra Basin. Likewise, one of the prime objectives of the Damodar Valley
Corporation is flood management in the Damodar basin.
In India, flood forecasting and warning commenced in 1958 with the estab-
lishment of a unit in CWC, New Delhi, for flood forecasting for the Yamuna River
at Delhi. This set-up has now grown to cover most of the flood prone interstate
river basins in the country. Presently, flood forecasts are issued at 173 stations:
145 stations for river stage forecast and 28 for reservoir inflow forecast. These
stations are located on 62 of the country’s most flood-prone river basins. Most of
the forecasting stations are situated in 12 northern and north-eastern states. Eighty
stations are in the Ganga basin and 27 in the Brahmaputra basin.
During a flood event, engineering departments and local administration work
closely to fight the flood menace. In extreme situations, help is also sought from
army, air force, and navy to evacuate people from the affected areas and to provide
relief.

Capacity Building for Better Flood Management

For effective flood management, a larger capacity is needed in the country for
understanding the problem and planning mitigation measures. This strategy should
consist of: a) Building a scientific database, b) Building a large R & D capacity,
and c) Human resources development.
Currently, no evacuation plans and no inundation maps showing the areas likely
to be affected by dam burst floods exist for most Indian dams. Clearly, these should
be prepared. In the recent past, dambreak studies have been conducted for some
dams in India using mathematical models.
890 Chapter 18

18.3.6. Problem of Inundation in Mokama Tal Area Bihar

Mokama Group of Tals in Middle Ganga Plains (Bihar) is well known for its
typical flood problem and due to this reason, it is discussed here. Water accumulates
and remains stagnant in large areas up to the end of September and the area
becomes dry without adequate irrigation facilities after September/October. This
prevents Kharif cultivation and delays Rabi crops. Attempts made to drain out the
area for Kharif crops through various drainage schemes and embankments have
proved to give no satisfactory results. A solution is possible, if the problem area
is used for suitable purposes, such as very low areas for ponding and fishing,
shallow areas for agricultural purposes using compatible cropping patterns and
high level areas for other supporting infrastructure activities. Introducing new crop
production technology; minikit seed distribution; training demo to farmers; ensuring
easy availability of agricultural implements like pumping sets, tractors, etc.; ensuring
irrigation during dry season privately or by government or both; easy distribution
of high yielding varieties of seed; introducing suitable plant protection measures to
check damage to standing crops providing supporting infrastructure to the above
activities, etc. are some of the measures that may improve agricultural production
and thus the economy of the area. Using the chronically inundation prone Tal areas
as flood moderation detention basins to moderate peak floods of Ganga is also an
option.
The Mokama group of Tals lies in Kiul-Harohar River basin and extends over
parts of Patna, Nalanda, and Munger districts. It has a total area of about 1,062 sq.
km and is a saucer shaped depression, extending from Fatuha in the west to
Lakhisarai in the east. The length of the depression is about 100 km and its width
varies from 6 to 17 km. It runs close and almost parallel to the right bank of Ganga
River (See Figure 10). General slope of the Tal area is mainly from west to east
and the Harohar River is the master drain of the Tals.
The Mokama Tal area is a fertile and low-lying land. It has been divided into
several sub-areas by south-north embankments, rails, roads or other natural divides.
The land between the railway line and Ganga is rather high and consequently natural
drainage across this land is not possible. In the south of the Tal area, the terrain
is very flat. In the Tal area the average rainfall depth is about 101 cm; about 85%
of it occurs during the monsoon months. The tragedy of the area is its topography
which renders drainage difficult. Consequently, the area remains water-logged for
the whole of the monsoon period.
Various rivers that rise from south Bihar and flow in northward direction enter
the Tal from the south and form one channel named Dhowa (later Harohar), flowing
from west to east in the middle of the Tal. The Tal area acts as a delta for right bank
tributaries of Ganga River in between Mohane and Nata valleys. The main central
river flows through the Tal area from west to east. Finally the Harohar River, which
is the main outlet channel for the Tal area, flows eastward and drains into the Kiul
River near Rahuaghat. From this confluence the combined Kiul-Harohar flows in
the north east direction and ultimately falls in the Ganga River near Surajgarh.
The Tal and all these rivers lie in Kiul-Harohar basin. The total drainage area of
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 891

Figure 10. Mokama group of Tals

the Harohar River above its confluence with Kiul River which directly feeds these
Tals is about 13,340 sq. km. The drainage areas of the major rivers are: Tilaiya
(181 sq. km), Dhadhar (240 sq. km), Lilagan (646 sq. km), Mohane (990 sq. km),
Job (43 sq. km), and Morhar (256 sq. km).
The slope of the Tal varies from 0.057 m/km to 0.095 m/km from west to east.
The underlying soil for Tal area is impervious clay and silt having low moisture
yielding capacity. The core of the Tal area has a surface cover of dense, poorly
drained, unoxidised and humus-rich clayey soil. The Tal area is essentially built up
by the major contribution from the upland drainage system originating from South
Chotanagpur highland which transported silty or fine sand into this backswamp.
Sediment brought by the spill-over water of Ganga also gets deposited here.
Cropping Pattern in the Tal Area: Approximately three-fourth of the total Tal area
has Rabi cultivation, 17% is paddy and double cropland. In parts of Patna and
Munger districts, the Kharif intensity is more than Rabi. The main crops in the
Tal area are pulses, oilseeds, and wheat. Land remains under water for about two
months during Kharif but is intensively cropped during Rabi.
Water Logging Problem: In general, the flood problem in the Kiul-Harohar River
system is limited to the problem of the Mokama Tal area. In addition to discharge
from the streams draining into the Tal, this area gets spills from the Punpun in
892 Chapter 18

the West and from Ganga. Flooding is also caused by the entry of backwater of
Ganga through the Harohar River. The only drainage outlet for the Tal is through
the Harohar-Kiul River, which does not have adequate capacity. Consequently, the
land remains submerged practically up to the middle of November.
The following are the major causes of water logging in the Tal area.
1. The total catchment area of various rivers draining into the Tal is 13,340 sq. km
against the total submergence area of 1,062 sq. km. Clearly, even if the Tal is
dry, the incoming water from the catchment can appreciably submerge the Tal
area even with a moderate runoff. Inundation during the monsoon period in the
Tal area is caused by these rivers as the runoff of this large catchment enters the
Tal area.
2. The entry of backwater of the Ganga River causes water logging in the Tal area.
3. The topography of the area does not permit any provision to ensure drainage
until the Ganga water level starts receding. Sometimes, this goes up to the middle
of November. The only drainage of the Tal is through Harohar River and a few
culverts in the Patna-Munger road and eastern railway embankments.
4. There is no regulating arrangement in Harohar River which could prevent the
entry of the backwater of the Ganga. Likewise, there is no provision to check
the entry of backwater through road and railway culverts.
Solution: Water-logging problem in the Mokama Tal area has drawn attention of
decision makers for a long time and many suggestions have been made to solve
it. Broadly, the suggestions to solve this water logging and drainage congestion
problem are:
1. Construction of storage reservoir and embankment on the right side of Punpun
River to check flow into Tal.
2. Construction of an anti-flood sluice on Harohar River.
3. Constructing river embankments on both banks of Harohar and irrigation outlets
for sluicing water for irrigation.
4. Use of mathematical modeling and system analysis techniques to derive a long-
term sustainable solution of the Mokama Tal problem.
Despite studies and reports by several committees, the problem of Mokama Tal
remains unsolved. A detailed description of the area and problem is given in
NIH (1996).

18.4. DROUGHTS

Drought is a phenomenon which occurs in different parts of the Indian sub-continent

with unpredictable frequency. Normally, the term drought is used to express shortage
of precipitation or water at a place when it is expected. In India, droughts mainly
occur due to: i) delay in the onset or failure of monsoons, ii) large variability of
monsoon rainfall, and iii) long break in monsoon.
As water is used for various life supporting uses, drought can also be defined
as a situation where water is expected nut not available. For example, in Bali, six
consecutive rainless days would be termed as drought while in some parts of North
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 893

Africa, drought is said to have taken place if no rain is received for more than two
consecutive years. Another contrasting picture can be quoted from Karnataka where
a year in which rainfall is 1,000 mm will be called a drought year in Sirsi but a
wet year in Chitradurga (Prasad 1990). In Egypt, which depends upon the flow of
Nile for most of its water needs, drought depends not on rainfall but on the flow of
Nile.
Meteorological drought is said to occur, when there is more than 25% decline in
rainfall from the normal value. According to the norms of IMD, a meteorological
subdivision is considered to be affected by drought if its total seasonal rainfall is less
than 75% of the normal. If meteorological drought is prolonged over an extensive
area, it triggers hydrological drought which is the condition of marked depletion
of water resources in rivers, reservoirs, lakes, and springs and fall in groundwater
levels. A marked depletion of soil moisture and precipitation leads to Agricultural
Drought (Figure 11).
To identify a drought prone area, CWC (1982) has adopted the same criteria as
followed by the Irrigation Commission (1972). Accordingly, an area is considered
as drought prone if:
• The annual rainfall is less than 75% of the normal in 20% of the years examined.
• Less than 30% of the cultivated area is irrigated.
Depending upon the percent departure of runoff volumes, drought is classified as
“severe” if percent departure is more than 50% and moderate if the percent departure
is 25–50%.
The most important factor in understanding drought is that it is basically a
situation of water deficit for a given use due to below-normal natural water avail-
ability. Basically, hydrological drought means a deficit of water supply involving
duration, areal extent, severity (intensity), probability of occurrence, initiation, and
termination.
Besides the amount of rainfall and its variability, the problem of drought also
depends on the extent to which irrigation has been developed. In India, the areas
that suffer from chronic drought are confined to West Rajasthan, particularly the
districts of Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jodhpur and Bikaner; and Kutch in Gujarat. Providing

Figure 11. A field during drought

894 Chapter 18

irrigation and water harvesting are the major steps in relieving the drought-affected
areas from scarcity conditions. For example, the Indira Gandhi Canal in Rajasthan
has transformed parts of Ganganagar, one of the intensely arid districts in the state,
into a prosperous agricultural area.
The methods of drought analysis include deterministic, stochastic, and statistical.
Low flow analysis is frequently employed to identify hydrological drought. The
magnitude of low flow determines the amount of water available for various uses
and the severity of drought. Drought indices are used to describe features of drought.
A commonly used index is the depth of precipitation or runoff for a given duration
viz., week, fortnight, month, with the long-term mean value for the corresponding
duration. The numerical value of this index gives the severity of drought.

Characteristics of Drought
Droughts are cyclical and regional climatic phenomenon. They differ from other
natural calamities in several ways:
• Drought is a ‘creeping phenomenon’, making its onset and end difficult to
determine. The effects of drought accumulate slowly over considerable period of
time and may prolong beyond a period of year(s) for major events.
• The absence of a precise and universally accepted definition of drought adds to
the confusion about whether or not a drought exists. In the literature, the concept
of drought definition is conflicting. it varies according to subject of interest of
researchers and among regions of differing climates. This ultimately effects in
drought management decisions.
• The societal impacts of drought are less obvious and extend over the larger
geographical area than damages that result from other natural calamities. Drought
seldom results in structural damage. For these reasons the quantification of
impacts and the provision of disaster relief is a far more arduous task than it is
for other natural hazards.
Droughts are recurring natural phenomena; therefore, they cannot be prevented.
However, coping with droughts is possible through proper prediction of regional
drought characteristics and planning. Droughts are characterized by their intensity,
duration, frequency, and severity. These characteristics form a basis in the planning
of management strategies to cope with drought catastrophe in a given place or
region. To reduce the impact of drought hardships, it is necessary understand
its characteristics, i.e., its possible duration (How long will it last?), its intensity
(How severe will it be?), and its frequency (How often will it recur?). Once these
characteristics are known for a given place/climatic region, they can be used as a
management tool for drought mitigation.
Drought intensity (I): Drought intensity (I) refers to the magnitude to which actual
precipitation/stream/soil moisture are lesser than the mean or a given threshold
value. (i.e., the precipitation deficit/ streamflow deficit/ soil-moisture deficit).
Drought intensity is nearly independent of the duration and this fact is very well
discussed in the literature (e.g., Woo and Tarhule, 1994).
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 895

Table 2. Social, environmental, and economic impacts of droughts

Aspect Direct Indirect

Social Drinking water Conflicts water users, Unemployment,

Famine, Poverty, Health (heat stress
and respiratory), Migration, Deaths
Environmental Soil moisture, Groundwater levels, Water quality, Plant growth, Habitats,
Groundwater discharge, Spring yield, Endangered species, Dust storms,
Streamflow, Lake levels, Reservoir Forest fires
levels, Water velocity, Water depth
Economic Groundwater abstraction, Surface Irrigation water, Domestic water,
water abstraction, Reservoir outflow, Crop failure, Farm animal death,
Crop yield Navigability, Hydropower, Higher
food and fodder prices, Economic
growth

Drought duration (D): Drought duration (D) is the period of time when there is a
deficiency of precipitation/ stream/soil-moisture preceded and followed by periods
when there is no deficiency.
A drought event is a series of one or more consecutive drought months/seasons
or years. A drought can have duration of one or more months/seasons or even years.
Drought persistence is the tendency of a drought event to last more than one, season
or year. For instance, a 4-year drought is a very persistent drought.
Drought Impacts: Drought is always viewed as having a negative effect
meaning that magnitude of variable is lower, smaller or reduced, except
for the indirect social effects. Its impacts are classified as direct or
indirect. Table 2 lists the social, environmental, and economic impacts of
droughts.

18.4.1. Historical Drought Occurrences

Drought is a disaster that frequently hits parts of India. Since the year 1800, there
have been around 40 droughts in the country with varying degrees of severity. Some
past severe droughts have taken place in 1965, 1966, 1969, 1973, 1974, 1976, 1980,
1985, 1986, 1987, and 1991. The drought of 1987 was one of the severest in the
recent past and it had affected about half of the country.
• There are evidences of a terrible famine in India, which lasted for twelve consec-
utive years (310 to 298 BC).
• Severe drought occurred in Kashmir in 1917–1918 when Jhelum River completely
dried up.
• After Independence, India faced droughts in 1966–67, 1972–73, 1979–80 and
1986–87. In each case food production fell below the national average. There
were large-scale losses through starvation, depletion of assets and livestock and
high mortality. The 1987 drought, which was one of the worst droughts of the
896 Chapter 18

Table 3. Drought years in the past centuries

Period Drought years Number of years

1801–1850 1801, 04, 06, 12, 19, 25, 32, 33, 37 9

1851–1900 1853, 60, 62, 66, 68, 73, 77∗∗ , 91, 99∗∗ 9
1901–1950 1901∗ , 04, 05∗ , 07, 11, 13, 15, 18∗∗ , 20, 25, 39, 41∗ 12
1951–2003 1951, 65∗ , 66, 68, 72∗∗ , 74, 79∗ , 82, 85, 87∗∗ , 2002∗ 11
∗ ∗∗
Indicates severe drought (> 395% area affected), Phenomenal drought year (> 477% area).
Source: Ali (2003).

20th century with overall rainfall deficiency of 19%, affected 58–60% of cropped
area and a population of 285 million.
The droughts that have occurred in India over the last 200 years are listed in Table 3.
Further, Table 4 lists droughts that have taken place since independence, the
percent area affected by each, and their categories.
Most of the drought prone areas fall either in semi-arid or arid regions.
The probabilities of occurrence of drought in different meteorological sub-
divisions are shown in the Table 5. The probabilities are high in the arid region
of the western Rajasthan compared to other sub-divisions. Communities like
marginal farmers that are dependent on rainfed agriculture are most affected
by drought. Drought not only affects the socio-economic condition of millions
of people in the affected area, plants, and livestock but also damages the
economy.

Table 4. Details of droughts since independence

S. N. Year Percentage of affected area in India Category

1 1951 33.2 Moderate

2 1952 25.8 Slight
3 1965 42.9 Moderate
4 1966 32.3 Moderate
5 1968 20.6 Slight
6 1969 19.9 Slight
7 1971 13.3 Slight
8 1972 44.4 Severe
9 1974 29.3 Moderate
10 1979 39.4 Moderate
11 1982 33.1 Moderate
12 1985 30.1 Moderate
13 1986 19.0 Slight
14 1987 49.2 Severe
15 2002 Areas in 14 States Severe

Source: Ali (2003).

Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 897

Table 5. Probability of occurrence of drought in different meteorological sub division

Meteorological sub division Frequency of deficient rainfall

(75% of normal or less)

Assam Very rare, once in 15 years

West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Konkan, Bihar and Orissa Once in 5 years
South Interior Karnataka, Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Once in 4 years
Vidarbha
East Rajasthan, Gujarat and Western Uttar Pradesh Once in 3 years
West Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Jammu & Kashmir and Once in 2.5 years
Telangana

Source: Ali (2003).

18.4.2. Drought Prone Areas in India

Out of the total geographical area of India, almost one-sixth area with 12% of the
population is drought prone; the areas that receive an annual rainfall up to 60 cm
are the most prone. The Irrigation Commission (1972) had identified 67 districts as
drought prone. These comprise 326 talukas located in 8 states, covering an area of
49.73 m ha. Subsequently, the National Commission on Agriculture (MOA 1976)
identified a few more drought prone areas with slightly different criteria. Later,
based on detailed studies, 74 districts of the country have been identified as drought
prone as given in Table 6. Figure 12 shows drought prone areas of the country.
Most of the drought-prone areas are found in arid, semi-arid, and sub-humid
regions of the country, which experience less than average annual rainfall. Broadly,
the drought-affected areas in India can be divided into two tracts. The first tract
comprising the desert and the semi-arid regions covers an area of 0.6 million sq.
km. It is rectangle shaped area whose one side extends from Ahmedabad to Kanpur
and the other from Kanpur to Jullundur. In this region, rainfall is less than 750 mm
and at some places it is even less than 400 mm. The second tract comprises the
regions east of the Western Ghats up to a distance of about 300 km from coast.
Known as the rain shadow area of the Western Ghats, rainfall in this region is less
than 750 mm and is highly erratic. This region is thickly populated and periodic
droughts cause considerable suffering and distress.
Besides these two tracts of scarcity, there are many pockets of drought in India.
Some of these are: (i) Tirunelveli district, south of Vaigai River in Tamil Nadu,
(ii) Coimbatore area in Kerala, (iii) Saurashtra and Kutch regions in Gujarat,

Table 6. Drought Prone Area of India

Drought Prone Area 51.1 mha

Affected Districts 74
Affected States 13
898 Chapter 18

Figure 12. Drought prone area of the country

(iv) Mirzapur plateau and Palamu regions in Uttar Pradesh, (v) Purulia district of
West Bengal, and (vi) Kalahandi region of Orissa. Together, these scattered pockets
occupy an area of 0.1 million sq. km. Drought is a recurrent phenomenon in Andhra
Pradesh where no district is entirely free of droughts. Table 7 gives the percentage
occurrence of drought of class moderate and above in the Kharif season in some
meteorological sub-divisions of India.
Rajasthan is one of the most drought prone areas of India. Eleven districts of the
state are in arid regions including Jaisalmer as the driest district. No perennial river
flows in Jaisalmer. Groundwater level in the district is 125–250 ft deep and at some
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 899

Table 7. Percentage occurrence of drought of class moderate and above in the Kharif season

S. N. Sub-division June July Aug Sept Oct Nov

1 Telangana 22 17 19 22 30 30
2 Rayalseema 24 28 30 27 27 27
3 Tamil Nadu 20 22 23 23 21 17
4 Interior Mysore South 20 15 19 15 23 20
5 Interior Mysore North 25 23 29 26 30 29
6 Madhya Maharashtra 20 27 25 23 31 30
7 Vidarbha 20 20 24 21 25 24

places 400 ft deep. The rainfall in the district is extremely low at 164 mm. Out of
365 days of a year, on an average 355 days are dry.
The total area which receives inadequate rainfall is just over one million sq. km.
The regions with rainfall less than 400 mm occupy 12% of the total geographical
area, and the area below 750 mm rainfall is 35% or a little over a third of the
country. Thus out of the total gross cultivated area of the country, 56 million ha is
subject to inadequate and highly variable rainfall.
Large areas in the four states that utilize Narmada water falls in arid and semi-arid
regions. As shown in Table 8, nearly 57% of Rajasthan and 32% of Gujarat falls
in arid zone. Also, nearly 61% of Maharashtra and 46% of the area of Gujarat is
semi-arid. This shows how important it is for these states to properly use available
water.
Natural Disasters are huge economic burdens on developing economies, such
as India. Droughts greatly and adversely affect vegetation and local biodiversity
prevailing in that region. Every year huge amounts of resources are spent on
rescue, relief and rehabilitation works following droughts. The Central Government
plays a major role as far as mobilization of financial resources is concerned.
A scheme called Calamity Relief Fund (CRF) has been constituted for each
state with contribution from the Central and State Governments to undertake
relief and rehabilitation measures. In addition to CRF, a National Fund for

Table 8. Statewise area of arid and semi–arid zones

State Area km2 

Arid Semi-arid

Gujarat 62,180 (31.72) 90,520 (46.18)

Madhya Pradesh – 59,470 (13.41)
Maharashtra 1,290 (0.42) 189,580 (61.61)
Rajasthan 196,150 (57.31) 121,020 (35.396)

Note: figures inside brackets represent the % of the area of the state under that
category.
900 Chapter 18

Calamity Relief (NFCR) has been created to deal with hazards of rare severity
managed by a National Calamity Relief Committee (NCRC).

18.4.3. Drought Indices

In a drought situation streamflows are low or even zero. Hence, indices charac-
terizing the low flow regime of a river or time series of low flow values can be
said to characterize drought behaviour of a river. Similarly, indices or time series
of low groundwater recharge, levels and discharge can be said to characterize
the drought behaviour of groundwater. These time series or indices characterize
droughts by considering only the flows over pre-defined duration. They do not
provide a complete characterization of the drought such as the start, the end, the
total duration, and the severity of the drought. To quantify the latter characteristics,
it is necessary to define a threshold level below which the flow or groundwater is
regarded as being in a drought situation.
Drought events can be defined by introducing a threshold below which the flow
is regarded as being in a deficit. Each event has a beginning and an end. The
deficits can be described by different characteristics like duration, severity, time of
occurrence and spatial extent. An index is a single number characterizing an aspect
of drought or low flow behaviour at a site or in a region. A drought event definition
implies the use of a method to select drought events from a time series. Whether
the drought will have adverse effects or not will depend on the vulnerability of the
region.

Low flow characteristics

The variation in climate combined with differences in physiographical catchment
properties gives a wide variety of river flow regimes which might require the usage
of several different methods. Most methods to derive low flow characteristics have
been developed and used for perennial rivers, and applying them to intermittent
and ephemeral streams should be done with caution. Many indices are derived by
involving the whole spectrum of flows. These include the flow duration curve, from
which the low flow percentiles are selected.

Mean annual minimum flow

One of the most frequently applied low flow indices is derived from a series of
the annual minima of the n-day average flow, AM(n-day). This could be the mean
annual 1-day flow,1-week flow, etc. For n > 1, the method consists of deriving a
hydrograph whose values are not simply daily flows but are average flows over the
previous n-days or alternatively the previous and the n/2 days. The derived data
can thus be regarded as the outcome of passing a moving average filter of n-day
duration through the daily data. Based on the ‘filtered’ hydrographs mean annual
minimum n-day indices, MAM(n-day), can be derived.
The Base Flow Index (BFI) gives the ratio of base flow to total flow. BFI is a
measure of the river’s runoff that derives from stored sources. Values of the index
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 901

range from above 0.9 for a permeable catchment with a very stable flow regime to
0.15–0.2 for an impermeable catchment with a flashy flow regime.
Complex indices are based on several variables, often including many elements
of the hydrological cycle, for example a combination of precipitation, streamflow,
and evapotranspiration. Several complex drought indices have been developed. The
most frequently applied index, especially in the US, is the Palmer Drought Severity
Index. Although the PDSI is sometimes used as an indicator of hydrological drought,
it is more correctly referred to as a meteorological drought indicator.

Palmer Drought Severity Index

The Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) was developed by Wayne Palmer in the
1960s and uses temperature and rainfall data to determine dryness. Palmer defined
a drought period as “an interval of time, generally of the order of months or years in
duration during which the actual moisture supply at a given place rather consistently
falls short of the climatically expected or climatically appropriate moisture supply”.
PDSI is based on the supply and demand concept of the water balance equation
taking into consideration monthly mean precipitation and temperature as well as
the local available water content of the soil. It is most effective measuring impacts
on sectors sensitive to soil moisture conditions, such as agriculture (Willeke et al.
1994). This index generally ranges from −6 to +6, with negative values denoting
dry conditions and positive values denoting wet conditions.
PDSI has also been useful as a drought-monitoring tool and has been used to
trigger actions associated with drought contingency plans (Willeke et al. 1994). It
has typically been calculated on a monthly basis. The water balance model that
forms the basis of the PDSI also allows the development of other indices that
have different rates of response to changes in supply and demand for moisture and
therefore represent different types of drought.
The PDSI is based around a supply and demand model of soil moisture at a
location. The supply is the amount of moisture in the soil plus the amount that
is absorbed into the soil from rainfall. The demand or the amount of water lost
from the soil depends on several factors, such as temperature and the amount of
moisture in the soil. The basis of soil modeling is the calculation of the potential
evapotranspiration (PET) and evapotranspiration (ET). Monthly PET depends on
that month’s average temperature, and the latitude of the weather station. Besides
PET, there is also potential recharge (PR), potential runoff (PRO), and potential
loss (PL).
The moisture departure, d, is the deficit or surplus of moisture, adjusted for
seasonal changes in climate. However, the moisture departure does not give any
information about how severe that deficit or surplus is relative to the local climate.
In order to do that, the moisture departure is adjusted again to create the Moisture
Anomaly, Z, which represents how wet or dry it is with respect to the current
season and the local climate.
With the moisture anomaly calculated, the PDSI itself can now be calculated.
There are actually three intermediate indices, X1 is severity of a wet spell that may
902 Chapter 18

or may not be developing, X2 is the severity of a dry spell that may or may not
be developing, and X3 is the severity of the current, “established” spell. The actual
PDSI value is actually determined by picking one of the three indices according to
a set of rules. The whole reasoning behind the three different indices is that a single
wet month in the middle of a drought does not end the drought. However, several
wet months in a row may be enough to end a severe drought. The three indices
allow the flexibility to determine when a drought has ended using information
from more than a single month. The detailed computational procedure developed
by Palmer can be found in George et al. (1972), and Sikka (1986); WMO (1994)
describes procedures for low-flow analysis.
The objective of development of PDSI was to provide measurements of moisture
conditions that were standardized so that comparisons using the index could be
made between locations and between months. PDSI is most effective in determining
long term drought (of the order of several months) and is not as good with short-
term forecasts (a matter of weeks). It uses 0 as normal, and drought is shown in
terms of negative numbers. PDSI can also reflect excess rain using a corresponding
level reflected by plus figures; i.e., 0 is normal, +2 is moderate rainfall, etc. Table 9
gives a drought classification based on PDSI.
Some authors have reported that PDSI failed to explain the well-known 1981
drought in the country. The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) has
developed an algorithm for the generation of the time series of Moisture Adequacy
Index to characterize agricultural droughts.

18.4.4. Drought Prediction and Mitigation

Drought is a major problem demanding a more systematic approach to its tackling.

Improved drought management calls for effective drought prediction and assessment
procedures. National Remote Sensing Agency in collaboration with the Government
of Andhra Pradesh and IMD has undertaken a project on drought monitoring and
identify the parameters for the areas that have been repeatedly declared as drought
affected and to evaluate drought occurrence. Though the State government identified
as much as 18 parameters on the causes and impact of drought only percentage
rainfall deviations from the normal rainfall are expressed quantitatively. The drought
impact is in general explained with quantitative figures with reference to area not

Table 9. Drought classification based on PDSI

PDSI Drought class

−050 to −099 Incipient

−100 to −199 Mild
−200 to −299 Moderate
−300 to −399 Severe
≤ −400 Extreme
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 903

shown and extent of crop damage. However even those figures are not consistent
between space and time (Thiruvengadachari, 1989).
Analysis of SST of the northern and southern hemispheric oceans for a 120-year
period from 1871 to 1990 was carried out by IITM. It was observed that the two
periods which witnessed frequent droughts – from 1901 to 1920 and from 1965
to 1990 – broadly corresponded with warm SST Index. During the earlier warm
SST Index periods from 1901 to 1920, and 1965 to 1987, droughts occurred as
frequently as every two or three years. In the last spell, India recorded droughts in
1965, 1966, 1968, 1972, 1974, 1979, 1982 and 1987. The reverse trend of the SST
Index cooling started from 1990 and was likely to continue for one or two decades,
bringing in good rainfall for the country. This could be one reason why India has
recorded a series of normal monsoons from 1992 onwards in spite of El – Nino
phenomenon in other regions.
Like those of other natural hazards, the impacts of drought can be reduced
through mitigation and preparedness. Drought preparedness should be an integral
part of water resources management. Drought risk is a product of a region’s or
community’s exposure to the natural hazard and its vulnerability to extended periods
of water shortage. If nations, regions, and communities are to reduce the serious
consequences of drought, they must improve their understanding of the hazard and
the factors that influence vulnerability. An integrated early warning system can
provide timely and reliable information to decision makers and aid in reducing the
impacts of drought.

18.4.5. Actions to Minimize Adverse Impacts of Drought

It is the responsibility of every government to implement measures to mitigate the

effect of natural disaster on its citizens, particularly on the highly vulnerable commu-
nities. Of course, help should be provided such that people organize themselves
and are not entirely dependent on the government. Government assistance should
be targeted such that it increases the resilience of vulnerable communities without
encouraging long-term dependence. After a disaster, it is imperative that authorities
make every effort to restore the affected communities to pre-disaster status as early
as possible.
A number of actions based on either increasing available water supply or reducing
demand or to minimize impacts can be and are initiated to mitigate drought conse-
quences. The drought mitigation measures can be classified into three groups:
• Water-supply measures: intended to increase the available water supply during
drought and to develop new supplies,
• Water-demand measures: intended to reduce the water demand during drought,
• Impact-minimization measures: intended to minimize drought impacts even with
increased water supply and reduced demands.
Supply-oriented measures include:
• Maximizing surface water storage capacity,
904 Chapter 18

• Water conservation measures including control of evaporation, and rainwater

harvesting,
• Soil and water conservation practices,
• Control of snow and ice melt,
• Relaxation of water quality standards,
• Increasing ground-water use,
• Water transportation by trains, tankers, ships, or boats,
• Water transfers between river basins or within the same river basin (long-term),
and
• Desalination of salt or brackish waters.
Demand reduction oriented measures include:
• Issue appeals to consumers to reduce water use and create awareness,
• Encourage use of sprinkler and drip irrigation systems through subsidies,
• Enforce restrictions on water use and encourage water reuse,
• Induce change in patterns of water consumption, and
• Create economic incentives to reduce water consumption.
Measures to minimize impacts of drought include:
• Drought forecast and warnings,
• Drought insurance, and
• Disaster aid programs.
All these measures have varying degrees of effectiveness related to the circum-
stances of each drought and a judicious combination of measures can yield an ideal
solution. Different kinds of reactions are observed from various individuals and
groups on the forecast and warnings issued regarding various natural events like
floods or droughts. When forecast and warnings are of creeping phenomenon such
is the case with drought, an indefinite response is much more complex than with
the other extreme events. The response of people to drought forecast and warnings
is influenced by human assessment of the warning reliability. As people become
more convinced to the forecast their reaction may become more prompt to the
situation. The knowledge of response to forecast and warnings, and to adjustments
and measures is useful for involving more information and management of drought
control. Proper forecast of drought with reliabilities will make the common man
understand the likely impacts of drought which might be there and may allow them
for the adjustment of life styles to prevailing situations of water scarcity. Present
drought and information which is presently in vogue is not comprehensive in nature
and has limited usefulness. Efforts are required to be made.to provide to the farmers
a list of the effect of drought for a particular state of evaluation and agro-climatic
regions.
Actions are initiated by the Government of India from time-to-time to minimize
the adverse impacts of droughts. Important of these are:
• Higher thrust is being given for watershed development.
• Dryland farming using available moisture is being developed.
• Low cost structures for soil and moisture conservation are being encouraged
which can be constructed with local skills.
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 905

• Dovetailing crop production into watershed projects along with soil conservation
activities.
• Over-exploitation of groundwater resources is being checked.
• Use of sprinkler and drip irrigation systems is being encouraged.
• Construction of suitable water harvesting structures for conservation and optimal
use of surface water and recharge of underground aquifers.
• Renovation and restoration of old tanks/farm ponds in the villages is being taken
up.
• Afforestation and pasture development.
• Animal husbandry and fodder development are being taken up systematically.
• People’s participation in drought proofing is being sought.
The Government of India operates a command area development programme
(CADP) to strengthen water management capabilities and enhance the effectiveness
of irrigation water application. The Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP), the
Desert Development Programme (DDP), and the National Watershed Development
Project for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA) have been devised and are under implemen-
tation. These programmes include development measures for all the spatial compo-
nents of watersheds, i.e., arable land, non-arable and drainage lines as one organic
geo-hydrological entity. The objective is to achieve conservation of rainwater,
control of soil erosion, regeneration of green cover and promotion of dry land
farming systems, including horticulture, agro-forestry and pasture development and
livestock management as well as household production systems.
The DPAP was launched in 1973 in arid and semi-arid areas with poor natural
resource endowments to promote more productive dryland agriculture by better soil
and moisture conservation, more scientific use of water resources, afforestation,
and livestock development through development of fodder and pasture resource,
and in the long run to restore the ecological balance. The DPAP covers 615 blocks
of 91 districts in 13 States. The DDP which was initiated in 1977–78 covers both
the hot desert regions of Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Haryana and the cold desert areas
in Jammu, Kashmir, and Himachal Pradesh. It is functional in 131 blocks of 21
districts in 5 States covering an area of about 0.362 million km2 and a population
of 15 million. The objectives of the programme include controlling the process of
desertification, mitigating the effects of drought, restoring the ecological balance,
and raising the productivity of land, water, livestock, and human resources.
Natural disasters, particularly droughts, create unemployment and under-
employment problems in rural areas. The Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) is the
largest programme in the country aimed at generating additional gainful employment
for the unemployed and under-employed men and women in rural areas.

18.4.6. Irrigation for Drought Proofing

Irrigation is the most effective drought proofing strategy and is the single biggest
factor in bringing stability in agricultural production. The statewise irrigation status
of the drought prone areas and the other states is given in Table 10. It can be seen
906 Chapter 18

Table 10. Statewise Irrigation Status of Drought Prone and other states (in ha)

S. State Total Gross Gross Potential Ultimate Indicators (%)

N. Cultivable Sown Irrigated Created Irrigation
Area (CA) Area Area (GIA) (PC) Potential PC to GIA to
(UIP) CA UIP
Drought prone states

1 A.P. 15,856 12,135 5,158 8,134 11,260 51.30 45.81

2 Bihar 10,859 10,012 4,664 7,360 13,347 67.78 34.94
3 Gujarat 12,361 10,609 3,643 4,067 6,103 32.90 59.69
4 Haryana 3,821 6,143 4,829 4,408 4,512 115.36 107.03
5 J&K 1,050 1,083 446 542 1,358 51.62 32.84
6 Karnataka 12,897 11,696 2,912 3,424 5,974 26.55 48.74
7 M.P. 22,899 26,070 6,527 7,930 17,932 34.63 36.40
8 Maharashtra 21,104 21,740 3,149 7,218 8,952 34.20 35.18
9 Orissa 7,975 8,645 2,318 3,198 8,803 40.10 26.33
10 Rajasthan 25,692 22,325 6,676 6,675 5,128 25.98 130.19
11 Tamil Nadu 8,301 6,558 3,519 5,208 5,532 62.74 63.61
12 U.P. 20,739 26,522 17,467 22,531 30,499 108.64 57.27
13 West Bengal 5,836 9,208 2,491 4,635 6,918 79.42 36.01
Other states
14 Arunachal 293 250 36 66 168 22.53 21.43
Pradesh
15 Assam 3,257 3,994 572 708 2,870 21.74 19.93
16 Goa 198 169 36 36 116 18.18 31.03
17 H.P. 805 972 176 214 353 26.58 49.86
18 Kerala 2,444 2,969 417 1,049 2,679 42.92 15.57
19 Manipur 164 207 75 104 604 63.41 12.42
20 Meghalaya 1,082 251 54 82 168 7.58 32.14
21 Mizoram 446 113 10 10 75 2.24 13.33
22 Nagaland 636 260 70 68 90 10.69 77.78
23 Punjab 4,250 8,042 7,377 9,417 5,967 221.58 123.63
24 Sikkim 114 142 16 26 70 22.81 22.86
25 Tripura 310 456 60 49 281 15.81 21.35
All India 183,593 190,762 72,784 97,266 140,008 52.98 51.99

Source: CWC (2002).

that substantial potential has been created in the drone prone states which varies
from 25% to 115%. Only in five of these states the potential is below 40%.
Villagers in Rajasthan have built nearly 4,500 dams to make 90 villages drought-
proof. About 500 to 700 dams are made every year. These dams have been made
of mud and stone and cost only about Rs. 7 lakh. These dams prevent rain water
from being washed away, carrying rich top soil, and also help increase recharge.
The area that was declared a “dark zone” by the government with low ground water
levels where no wells were to be drilled has five rivers – Ruparel, Bhagani, Sarsa,
Jahajwali and Arvari – which have been made perennial by these dams.
Figure 13 shows the actual production of foodgrains in India since 1975–76 and
the dips in the production line depicts the years of droughts – as can be seen in the
years 1979–80, 1982–83, 1986–88.
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 907
Production of fodd gains (M-ton) and Rainfall

Production of food gain

190
Rainfall (% over normal)
(% over normal)

150

110

70
0

0
8

6
6
6

-9

-9

-9

-9

-0
-7

-8

-8

-8

-8

-9
-8
-7

89

91

93

97

99
77

79

81

83

87

95
85
75

19

19

19

19

19
19

19

19

19

19

19
19
19

Year

Figure 13. Actual production of food grains in India since 1975–76 and the dips in the production

The bold straight line gives the long-term trend of food grain production in India.
The trend line has a positive slope, implying that the production of food grain
is increasing. The rise in production is a consequence of increase in land under
irrigation, use of high yielding seeds, etc. Creation of more irrigation has given
enhanced protection to crops against monsoon failure and the possibility of more
than one crop. During drought years, there is significant downward divergence
from the trend line. Therefore, the rise in productivity has resulted in the increasing
trendline, which also implies that the output levels of the troughs have also been
increasing over time. Thus, from one drought to another, the floor of output has
risen implying that any year of drought would have a lesser impact on the foodgrain
production level than the previous one.

18.4.7. Special Problems of Arid Zones

Low and erratic rainfall, frequent droughts, high summer temperatures and high
wind velocity resulting in high evapotranspiration characterize the Indian arid zone
which covers 12% of the country’s geographical area. Besides poor soils, undulating
topography, limited availability of good quality ground water and increasing biotic
pressure further aggravate the magnitude of the problems faced by the desert
dwellers.
Out of the total geographical area of the country, about 54% falls in arid and
semi-arid regions. In these regions, rains are erratic and often come in a few heavy
storms of short duration. Rather than properly meeting crop demands or replenishing
ground water, these storms result in high run-off. For the most part of the year,
908 Chapter 18

there is little or no moisture in the soil, resulting in sparse vegetation cover. The
arid zone of India is the most densely populated arid region in the world. Severe
wind erosion is found in areas that have bare soils. The area subjected to high wind
erosion is about 59.2 Mha, which includes about 7.03 Mha of cold desert in Ladakh
and the Lahaul valleys. In western Rajasthan, in about 13.3 Mha area is subject to
desertification. In a survey carried out in the mid 1980s, 355 km2 area was found
to be affected by water erosion and gully formation in the arid region of Rajasthan
(CAZRI, 1997).
The hot arid zone covers about 10% (31.7 million ha) of India’s geographical area
located in parts of Rajasthan (61%), Gujarat (20%), Punjab & Haryana (9%) and
Andhra Pradesh & Karnataka (10%) (Figure 14). The production and life support
systems in this region are constrained by adverse environmental conditions, such
as low precipitation (100–420 mm/year), high temperature 45–50  C, high wind
speed (30–40 km/hr), high evapotranspiration (1,400–1,900 mm/year, which is 3 to
5 times higher than the rainfall), and sandy soils having poor fertility and low
water retention. There is a well defined desert region consisting of the great desert
and little desert. The great desert extends from Rann of Kutch beyond Luni River
northwards. The little desert is located between Jodhpur and Jaisalmer and the two
are divided by a zone of sterile rocky land cut up by limestone ridges. The annual

Figure 14. Arid zone in India

Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 909

rainfall in western Rajasthan varies from less than 150 mm in west of the Jaisalmer
district to about 500 mm in the Jalar district. Arid areas in Haryana, Punjab, Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh receive rainfall in the range of 250 to
700 mm. New problems are cropping up due to ever-increasing human and livestock
population.
India also has a cold arid region in Ladakh which receives only 90–120 mm
of rainfall in a year. This region occupies nearly 2% area of the country. ICAR
has identified the following agro-climatic zones in India (Table 11), which broadly
represent the arid to extreme climatic conditions.
Two-thirds of the Indian desert is made up of Aeolian sands — these are low
in clay and silt with predominance of fine sand. The dune soils are also highly
sandy (75 to 98% sand) and are mainly concentrated to the west of 250 mm rainfall
zone (where rainfall is still lower). In the region with slightly higher rainfall (250
to 450 mm), light brown sandy soils are extensively found. These are characterized
by sandy, occasionally loamy fine sand. In the arid parts of Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka, one finds red and black soils.
With increasing population, low and erratic rainfall and absence of any other
source of water, over-exploitation of groundwater is rising. The water table is falling
at a rate of 0.20 to 0.40 m per year in the Jhunjhunu, Sikar, Nagaur and Pali districts.
If the present trend of water use continues, it is feared that by 2020 AD a major part
of Thar Desert will run out of economically viable groundwater resource. Nearly
65% area in the Thar Desert has saline groundwater. Water harvesting in the form
of village ponds (nadis) and tankas is common for meeting drinking water demand.
The Indira Gandhi Nahar Pariyojana (IGNP), earlier known as the Rajasthan
Canal, an ambitious irrigation power project was launched in the 1950’s to bring
Himalayan water to the Thar Desert through a 649 km long network of canals. The
north-western part of Rajasthan desert is undergoing a great agro-ecological trans-
formation due to the construction of IGNP. A great extent of canal command area

Table 11. Arid agro-climatic zones of India

Name of the region Rainfall (mm) Major soil

Arid western plains of Rajasthan 100–300 Desert (Rhegosolic)

Irrigated north Rajasthan 100–350 Desert/grey brown
Transitional plains of Rajasthan 300–350 Desert/grey brown
Transitional plain of Luni basin 300–350 Desert/grey brown
Western zone of Haryana <500 Calcareous/sierozemic
Western zone of Punjab <400 Old alluvial
North-west Gujarat 250–500 Grey brown/deltaic alluvium/red sandy/
medium black
Scanty zone of Maharashtra 500–700 Medium/deep black
Scarce rainfall zone of AP 500–700 Red loamy/medium black
Central dry zone of Karnataka 455–717 Red sandy/deep black medium black
Cold arid zone of Jammu & Kashmir 83 Skeletal (mountane meadow soils, tarai
soils)
910 Chapter 18

is being promoted for crop based agriculture. This project began to pay dividends
in the late 1980’s. But despite the availability of canal water, more than 80% of the
region is expected to remain under rainfed farming. Irrigation through IGNP has
also led to water logging and salinity problems over large tracts. Whereas water
table is falling in many parts of Thar Desert, it is rising @ 0.16 to 0.33 m per year
in the IGNP Phase I area. The area degraded by irrigation with sodic waters and
waterlogging is estimated to be 2,000 sq. km by 2020 AD. Unless the degradation
is effectively checked, this area is likely to increase to 3,000 sq. km area by 2020
AD. A view of Indira Gandhi canal has been shown previously as Figure 9.
The human population in arid Rajasthan was 17.44 million in 1991 which is
projected to increase to 28.45 million by 2020 AD. Due to the rising population, the
average size of land holding has been decreasing. It was 17.77 ha in 1951, 14.69 ha
in 1961, 10.20 in 1971 and is only 6.0 ha in 1995. If the trend continues, it is likely
to be less than 4.0 ha by 2020. The land distribution is uneven, with nearly 11.2%
households owning 50% of the total land, whereas 47% hold only 10% of the total
land.
Owing to the reduction in the average size of land holding, the practice of fallow
farming is reducing and cultivation of marginal lands is rising. For example, fallow
lands in Barmer district have reduced from 73% to 38% in the last four decades.
In the Jaisalmer district, the net sown area increased from 11,000 ha in 1952 to
234,000 ha in 1988. Another consequence of the population hike is the increase in
overall cropping area, being 32% in 1952, 50% in 1991 and is likely to be around
55% by 2020 AD.
As per the present trends in arid Rajasthan, the production of cereals, pulses and
oils will be 26.27, 10.71 and 1.52 lakh tones by 2020. Despite this, there is likely
to be a decrease in per capita availability. The value of agricultural and livestock
production in Rajasthan was Rs. 900 million in 1960 and the same is expected to
be more than Rs.1.3 lakh million by 2020 AD. However, this is not expected to
lead to proportional rise in per capita income because the rural population is likely
to increase from 6.28 million (in 1960) to 22.35 million by 2020 AD.

18.5. EXCESSIVE GROUNDWATER EXPLOITATION

Groundwater has contributed vastly to agricultural development in India, particu-

larly during the last four decades. It has helped attain food security through green
revolution and commercialization of farming practices. However, its exploitation,
which has grown exponentially over the years and is a matter of concern, is largely
in the hands of private individuals. In 1950, there were 3.86 million dug-wells and
3,000 deep tube-wells. In a span of four decades, as many as 10.2 million dug-wells,
5.4 million private tube-wells and 60,000 deep tube-wells became operational in
the country (Nagaraj et al., 1999). Large-scale extraction of groundwater has led to
overdraft and a drastic fall in water table in some basins. This in turn has created a
chaotic situation, especially in the water scarce hard-rock regions of southern India,
where assured sources of surface irrigation are rare and rainfall is non-uniform.
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 911

Currently, about 32% of the annual utilizable groundwater potential of 432 km3
is actually exploited, and only 8% of the groundwater sources have been exploited
above 85% of their potential. However, in states like Punjab, Rajasthan and Tamil
Nadu, large areas fall under the dark category. Table 12 shows ten states where the
percentage of dark areas has increased considerably between 1984–85 and 1997–98.
In coastal regions, e.g., in Tamil Nadu and Gujarat, regional declines in water table
have resulted in saltwater encroachment in aquifer systems.
Groundwater sources have been classified in three categories depending upon the
extent of exploitation. In the 1st category (termed ‘white’), the level of exploitation
is below 65% of the annual utilizable potential. The 2nd category (termed ‘gray’)
includes areas and sources in the range of 65% to 85% exploitation levels and the
third and the worst category (termed ‘dark’) has the level of exploitation exceeding
85%. About 673 assessment units (Blocks/Talukas/Watershed) out of 7,928 units
come under the category of over-exploited blocks where the ground water table
has gone down considerably. Further, 425 assessment units have fallen under the
category of dark/critical units where utilization has reached a level beyond which
further development will exceed the natural replenishment of ground water.
In Gujarat, the water table in over 90% of all the wells monitored by Central
Groundwater Board (CGWB) has dropped by 0.5 meter to 9.5 meters. In Haryana,
the average depth has fallen by 1 to 33 cm annually in different parts of the state
during the 1980’s (TERI, 1998). Figure 15 shows the districts in various states of
India where the water table has fallen more than 4 m during 1981–2000.
The adverse effects of over-utilization of ground water are lowering of the ground
water table, depleting of the resource and deterioration of the quality of water. In
coastal areas, this has also led to sea-water intrusion. Interestingly, in many areas
ground water resources have not been adequately tapped.

Table 12. Blocks with intensive exploitation of groundwater

State Number of Dark Blocks

1984–1985 1992–1993 1997–1998

Andhra Pradesh 0 30 26
Bihar 14 1 11
Gujarat 6 26 28
Haryana 31 51 41
Karnataka 3 18 16
Madhya Pradesh 0 3 3
Punjab 64 70 83
Rajasthan 21 56 94
Tamil Nadu 61 97 103
Uttar Pradesh 53 31 40
Total 253 383 445

Source: Chaddha (2002).

912 Chapter 18

Figure 15. Over-exploitation of groundwater in India. The hatched portions show areas where, due to
extraction of groundwater, especially for irrigation, the groundwater levels have in general fallen by
more than 4 m @ > 20 cm/yr during 1981–2000

The water table in Haryana has been declining for the last two decades. The
average water table in the state has declined by 1.90 m, whereas in fresh belt areas
of the state its average fall is 4.38m. It varies from 0.94m in the Yamunanagar
district to 12.09 m in the Mahendragarh district. However, on the other hand, the
water table in saline areas has risen during the period ranging from 0.41m in Rohtak
to 6.02m in the Sirsa district.
There is reason for concern in Rajasthan, as the number of blocks in the state
categorized as “dark zones” has gone up from 33 in 1984 to 109 in 1995. Area-wise
the dark zones now cover over 92,285 sq km compared to 18,000 sq. km in 1984.
As such there is no perennial river system in the state other than the Chambal and
the Mahi. The climate is arid and semi-arid with scanty and unpredictable rainfall
contributing to the slow groundwater recharge.
According to the Rajasthan Ground Water Department, Jodhpur, the depletion
of water level has been noticed in 67 per cent area of the 2.13 lakh sq. km land
identified as groundwater worthy. Of this, in 39 per cent area, depletion of more
than 3 metres has been recorded. Though a rise in water level was observed in
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 913

mainly the command areas of the Indira Gandhi Nahar Project, despite normal
monsoons a declining trend has been noticed in all other zones. The trends over
the past 12 years indicate that as many as 13 districts in eastern and central parts
of the state, such as Alwar, Bharatpur, Jhunjhunu, Jaipur, Dausa, Ajmer, Sawai
Modhopur, Sikar, Nagaur, Jodhpur, Chittorgarh, Rajasamand and Jalore, come in
the “danger category” in a classification of three. Several areas in these districts have
problems of groundwater salinity and high concentration of hazardous constituents
like fluoride and nitrate.

18.6. DRINKING WATER PROBLEMS

A recent report by the Washington-based Worldwatch Institute has concluded, “One

of the first and the foremost basic changes that lengthen life-expectancy is the
supply of clean water”. It adds that this perhaps is the reason why the average
Indian’s life-expectancy today has increased by about 20 years during the last 45
years. For example, for the people of Kerala, the availability of safe drinking water
has been responsible for a much higher average life-expectancy which is 73 years
for men and 67.5 years for women.
The provision of safe drinking water is primarily the responsibility of the state
governments and the Central Government supplements their efforts in providing
drinking water systems like hand pumps, tube wells and regional piped water
schemes. There is an acute shortage of drinking water in various parts of the country
and different reasons are cited. In many places, the shortage of water is a temporary
affair with water sources drying up during summer months. But almost all over the
country, sources often go dry owing to a fall in the ground water table. Over the
past few decades, the expansion of the water supply and sanitation infrastructure
in Indian cities has not kept pace with growing population. Consequently, running
water is available for only a few hours in the morning and evening each day.
In some cities, people get up in early hours just to fill up their in-house storage
tanks/vessels. During summers or droughts, running water may be available for
only a few hours every week and that two at very low pressure. Municipal supply is
only a small fraction of the demand in many major cities. Scenes like that shown in
Figure 16 are quite common in the country. Another area of concern is the falling
quality of drinking water in many areas. About 217,000 rural habitations did not
have good quality drinking water till April 1999.
It may be noted that only 5% of the total water resources available in the
country are required for drinking and domestic use. The total ‘Not-Covered’ (NC)
habitations with regard to potable water supply stood at 5,759 as on Dec. 31, 1997.
According to assessments, the states where NC habitations are fairly large are:
Assam, Rajasthan, Punjab, Orissa, Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and
Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, and Meghalaya. The government norm for providing
drinking water to villages is at least 40 litres per capita per day (LPCD) of safe
drinking water for human beings, which is supposed to take care of all their needs
like ablutions, drinking, washing and cooking.
914 Chapter 18

Figure 16. People queuing for water for domestic use

Those habitations which get less than 40 LPCD are termed as ‘Partially Covered’
(PC) habitations. The country had 354,305 habitations, which were partially covered
as of Dec. 31, 1997. Andhra Pradesh (29,071) Assam (23,698), Bihar (17,112),
Himachal Pradesh (41,133) Karnataka (15,973), Madhya Pradesh (21,057) UP
(53,725) West Bengal (25,039), Tamil Nadu (27,543), Rajasthan (41,672), Orissa
(16,749), Maharashtra (37,436) and Meghalaya (1,692) are some states with large
PC habitations. As on Dec. 31, 1997, the country had 1,430,663 habitations of which
49,374 were not covered, 354,305 were partially covered, and 1,026,984 were fully
covered.
At the beginning of 10th plan (April 2002), out of 1,422,664 habitations in
the country, 15,798 habitations wee not covered by any drinking water schemes
while 133,305 habitations were partially covered. Thus, about 1,273,561 (89.5%)
habitations were fully covered by the drinking water supply schemes in the country.
Only in 10 states and Union Territories all habitations had been covered partially
or fully under the drinking water supply schemes. The highest number of 2,974
habitations which had remained uncovered in the drinking water supply schemes by
March 2004 was in Rajasthan, followed by Maharashtra, and Jammu and Kashmir.
By March 2004, 75,607 habitations remained to be covered including 5,759 in the
non-covered category (Planning Commission 2006).
The availability of safe drinking water in some cities (Pangare et al. 2006) of the
country (in litres per capita per day) is: Ahmedabad 116, Allhabad 111, Bangalore
100, Bhopal 130, Chennai 65, Delhi 155, Hyderabad 90, Jaipur 97, Kanpur 118,
Kolkata 100, Lucknow 264, Nagpur 130, Patna 107, Pune 220, and Vijaywada 137.
A centrally sponsored scheme, known as the Accelerated Rural Water Supply
Programme (ARWSP) was initiated in 1972–73 to supply safe drinking water to all
the rural areas. Priority is given to areas that are either ‘not covered’ or ‘partially
covered’. Funding is provided by central as well as the concerned state government.
Under this programme, 3.5 million hand pumps and over 0ne lakh water supply
schemes have been installed (Pangare et al. 2006). About 85% habitations are fully
covered and 14% are partially covered. Swajaldhara is another programmer which
is implemented through Panchayats and in which the users also bear about 10% of
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 915

the expenses. Nearly 2,500 project proposals from 10 states and union territories
have been approved under this programme.
An innovative project, the Swajal project, was launched in 1996 to empower rural
communities to plan, construct, and manage their own water supply and sanitation
systems. This six year project was implemented in the Bundelkhand area of UP,
covering 1,200 villages and a population of 12 lakh.
Two important schemes were launched in the past for urban area. The Accelerated
Urban Water Supply Programme (AUWSP) was aimed to provide safe water supply
to urban area with population below 20,000 (1991 census). Nearly 240 schemes
have been completed under this project. A mega city scheme catering to Bangalore,
Chennai, Hyderabad, Kolkata, and Mumbai was initiated in 1994 for development
of water supply and sanitation facilities.
The Rakesh Mohan Committee has estimated that as much as Rs. 27,000 crore to
Rs. 28,000 crore is needed each year to provide safe drinking and sanitation in all
urban areas of the country while the plan allocation is only to the tune of Rs. 5,000
crore every year. What is worse, around 35 to 45% of the water supplied is never
paid for – either it leaks through the pipes or gets stolen. There are several models
across the world that the Indian states can examine. Four different models are
frequently discussed: Argentina, a developing country, has successfully achieved
privatization through a concessional agreement of water supply; the corporatized
system of Sydney in Australia has been a success; the lease agreement of Guinea
(only partially successful), and the British model. Three states – Gujarat, Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu – have made small beginnings on private participation.

18.6.1. Water Supply for Metropolitan Cities

Almost all the metropolitan areas in the country are facing shortage of water. As
against the demand of 4,000 million litres/day in Mumbai in the year 2001, the
supply was only 1,030 million litres/day. The situation in some other cities were
(demand/supply in million litres/day): Bangalore 840/135, Bhopal 335/70, Chennai
1,894/105, Delhi 3,830/880, Hyderabad 956/186, and Kolkata 2,258/690.
Bangalore gets water from Cauvery and Arkavathi Rivers with the Cauvery
contributing 432 million litre/ day and Arkavathi’s share being 130 million litres,
while this caters to 4.5 million people of the city with an average per capita of 100
litres, the projected per capita consumption is 140 to 200 litres.
In the case of the National Capital Territory (NCT) Delhi, water supply is not only
deficient but also suffers from the problems of uneven distribution, unreliability,
large scale undetected leakages, poor and inefficient maintenance of system, non-
sustainable pricing of water and ignorance of the people about value of water.
Long term solutions lie not only in construction of new infrastructure but also in
demand management and conservation practices, in development of appropriate
strategies and regulatory framework, and in transforming of existing institutions
to become increasingly more efficient. Surface water contributes major share in
the Delhi’s total water supply. The allocation of water to Delhi is governed by
916 Chapter 18

interstate agreements. As per different interstate agreements, the allocation of water

for municipal purpose from various sources is shown in Table 13.
From Table 13, it is clear that out of availability of 1,149.20 MCM, about
295.2 MCM of surface water still remains unutilized. Delhi gets a major part of
its water supply from the Yamuna. The water demand in the capital city has been
estimated at 800 MGD (million gallons per day). Against this, the supply is only
650 MGD, resulting in a shortage of 150 MGD. Some houses also have borewells
to supplement the Delhi Jal Board (DJB) supply. Further, as many as 40% of the
Capital’s population are without adequate piped water supply. The demand for raw
water during the next 20 years is expected to increase by 75%.
In some parts of Delhi, like West Delhi, ground water is the main source
of water supply. The underground water reserves of Delhi are 1,900 MCM. As
there is over-withdrawal in some places, it might lead to alterations in the city’s
immediate sub-strata. Places like Mexico City have experienced subsidence and
collapse of buildings because of unplanned and excessive withdrawal of ground
water. According to reports, there has been steep decline in the level of groundwater
in certain pockets of Delhi during last 15 to 20 years. In 1977, the water table was
almost within 6 m in most parts of Delhi, the deepest level being 23 m in Mehrauli.
The level declined to 10 m by 1982 and was in the range of 10–20 m in1995 with
the deepest level being 35 m at Gadiapur, Chapparpur basin.
Based on a norm of 70 gallon per capita per day (GPCD) as per Delhi Master
Plan – 2002 Guidelines, the water requirement for NCT Delhi for 2001–02 stands
at 965 MGD. As per CPHEEO manual, the per capita per day water requirement
shall be 60 GPCD. Based on norm of 60 lpcd, the water requirement of Delhi
in March 2001 comes to 827 MGD against the supply capacity of 650 MGD of
DJB. The DDA’s working group on physical infrastructure has estimated Delhi’s
water requirement as 1,500 MGD by the year 2021 based on 50 GPCD norms for
projected population of 30 million.
Delhi’s total water demand stands at 750 MGD, while the supply is only
600 MGD. Added to this the 17 percent loss due to leakages and faulty pipes, the
deficit adds up to a substantial 270 MGD. Delhi’s water demand is met through
Bhakra dam (680 million litres), Yamuna River (1,000 million litres), Ramganga
dam (450 million litres) and some from groundwater. However, one-third of Delhi’s
population does not get drinking water from the Delhi Jal Board. Moreover, 30

Table 13. Annual availability and withdrawal of water for drinking purpose
in Delhi

River System Annual Availability Annual Withdrawal

(in MCM) (in MCM)

Yamuna 724.00 442

Ganga 178.80 166
Bhakra system 246.40 246
Total 1,149.20 854
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 917

percent of the population living in the 1,071 unauthorized colonies, 600 slum
clusters and a large number of villages depend on hand pumps and tubewells and
the rest on rivers and canals which are not fit for consumption.
DJB has already made some investment for the proposed Renuka Dam in
Himachal Pradesh, which will provide the capital city with 275 MGD of water. DJB
also plans to make investments in the Lakhwar Vyasi dam in Uttaranchal to get
nearly 100 MGD of water. Delhi will get an assured supply of 270 cusec from the
Tehri dam for which a water treatment plant has been constructed at Sonia Vihar.
Water will be brought here from the Upper Ganga Canal through close conduits.

18.7. WATERLOGGING

When the water table rises to such an extent that soil pores in the root zone of a crop
become saturated, resulting in restriction of the normal circulation of air, decline in
the level of oxygen and increase in the level of carbon dioxide, the area is said to
be waterlogged. Waterlogging problem is predominant in those areas which have
saline and brackish groundwater and canal irrigation is widely practiced. In India,
large areas have become waterlogged because of overuse of water for irrigation.
Such areas witness a rise in water table, leading to salinization and poor crop
productivity. The abundant supply of cheap irrigation water tempts the farmer to use
more water than the requirement of the crop. Many farmers harbour the notion that
the crop yield increases as more and more irrigation water is supplied. But in fact,
the excess water supplied to the field percolates into the soil. Due to percolation
of large quantities of water, the groundwater table may rise so much that it might
completely saturate the root zone of the crop. Further, in due course of time such
land turns saline or alkaline and ultimately becomes unfit for cultivation.
Waterlogging is very common in the arid tracts of the Indo-Gangetic plains of
north India, the arid tracts of Rajasthan and Gujarat, the semi-arid Deccan plateau
and coastal tracts. It has adversely affected the productivity in these areas. Overuse
of the available water mostly in head reaches of canals results in less availability
to tail-enders.

18.7.1. Norms for Categorization of Waterlogged Areas

The depth of the water table at which it tends to make the land waterlogged and
start harming the crops depends on the height of the capillary fringe and the type
of crop. The height of the capillary fringe is the height to which water will rise
above the water table due to capillary action. It is more in fined grained soils and
less in coarse-grained soils. For most of the agricultural soils, the height of the
capillary fringe varies from 0.9 to 1.5 m. Consider a crop whose yield is adversely
affected when soil up to 0.6 m below the surface gets saturated. This crop will start
deteriorating due to waterlogging when the water table is within 1.5 m 06 + 09
to 2.1 m 06 + 15 below the ground surface.
918 Chapter 18

Table 14. Norms for Categorization of Waterlogged Areas in Some States

State/ Agency Category Water table depth

below ground level (m)

i) Critically Waterlogged < 15

Haryana
ii) Moderately Waterlogged 1.5–3.0
Karnataka Waterlogged < 20
i) Fully Waterlogged Water at surface
Maharashtra
ii) Waterlogged < 12
i) Worst Zone < 10
ii) Bad Zone 1.0–2.0
Uttar Pradesh
iii) Alarming Zone 2.0–3.0
iv) Safe Zone > 30
i) Waterlogged area < 20
As per MOWR
ii) Potential waterlogged area 2.0–3.0
Working Group 1991
iii) Safe area > 30

Source: WG (1999).

Different states have adopted different norms to categorize waterlogged areas

depending upon prevailing soil types, crops grown, etc. Table 14 shows the norms
used by Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Maharashtra and Karnataka.
The Government of India and the states generally follow the norms adopted by
MOWR-WG as guidelines. However, as the agro-climatic and subsoil conditions in
different river basins are quite diverse, different states continue to adopt their own
norms.

18.7.2. Causes of Waterlogging

Being a continent size country, India has widely varying agro-climatic conditions
(see Chapter 1). Consequently, the causes, extent and occurrence of waterlogging
are also different. Rainfall induced waterlogging is found in inadequately drained
land throughout the country during the monsoon period. However, this is purely a
temporary phenomenon which gradually disappears as the monsoon withdraws.
With the objective of extensive and speedy development of irrigation in India
and to project an attractive benefit-cost ratio of the projects, provision of drainage is
rarely made during planning and execution of irrigation projects. Irrigation induced
waterlogging and salinity is mainly caused by application of irrigation water in
excess of crop needs. It is found in command areas of many irrigation schemes
throughout the country mostly in the form of waterlogging in the fields or as
waterlogging and soil salinity caused by it.
Following are the basic reasons behind waterlogging:
(i) Seepage from Canals: In a system of unlined canals, water percolates from
the channels and joins ground water. This causes a gradual rise of water table
in the region. For example, with the advent of the Ganga Canal, the water
table in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab rose from a depth of 12.2 m to about 4–6
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 919

meters below ground level in 100 years. Similarly, in the area commanded by
the Western Yamuna Canal, the water table rose at an annual rate of 16 cm.
Further, the rate of water table rise is faster in the Chambal canal system.
(ii) Over-Irrigation of Field: When large quantities of irrigation water are applied
to the fields, the excess water percolates deep into the ground, which results
in augmenting the groundwater storage and rising up of the water table.
(iii) Nature of Soil: Waterlogging depends upon the nature of the soil. A soil
having low permeability, such as a black soil, is prone to waterlogging due
to over-irrigation or flooding because of slow rate of movement of water
through it.
Inadequate drainage is the reason behind the formation of sodic salinized soils
crust in command areas in UP. Eventually this resulted in a highly salinised hard
pan and the land became unsuitable for cultivation. Gradual rise in water table
and related problems of water logging and soil salinity/alkalinity have surfaced
mainly because of the lack of drainage, improper waste management, inadequate
maintenance, etc. Improper planning of development works such as roads and
railways obstructs the natural flow of water and can cause waterlogging.

18.7.3. Extent of Waterlogging in India

The first signs of irrigation induced waterlogging and salinisation were reported
in the 1920s and the problem began to become widespread in certain districts of
Punjab and Haryana from 1950s. Yields were affected and some areas could not be
cultivated.
Several different estimates of waterlogged area in India are available. According
to the Working Group of the Ministry of Water Resources (1996), 2.46 M ha area
was water logged (see Table 15) in India at that time. CGWB has assessed the
area for which water table is within 2 m of the land surface at 3.1 M ha for the year
1998. Another assessment of waterlogged area in canal command was reported by
CSSRI (1997) according to which, the statewise figures of affected area vary from
those in Table 15 but the total affected area is reported to be 2.19 M ha. Chaddha
(2006) reports the water logged area (water table 0 to 2 m) to be 1.85 M-ha in May
1999 and at the same time, area prone to water logging at 10 M-ha. Waterlogging
is surfacing in both old (e.g. Chambal, Tungabhadra) and new (e.g. IGNP) projects.
According to Sandra Postel (Bio Science, Aug. 1998), about 20% of the command
areas in India are likely to be affected by salinisation and that crop yields have
reduced in at least 10% of the commands. But this is likely to be over-estimate.
Introduction of canal irrigation through the Bhakra System since 1953 in the
arid to semi-arid region of the western part of Haryana brought about a substantial
change in the groundwater regime both in respect of quality and quantity. More
than 60% of the area in the state has been classified as marginal (30%) saline land.
Rapid and constant rise in the water levels have been registered due to applications
of canal irrigation. About 0.286 M-ha area in Punjab has a water table depth of less
than 1.5 m even in the dry and hot month of June. The water table further rises by
920 Chapter 18

Table 15. Extent of Waterlogged Area in India

State Affected area (1,000 ha)

Andhra Pradesh 266.40

Assam Not available
Bihar 616.70
Gujarat 172.59
Haryana 249.00
Jammu & Kashmir 1.50
Himachal Pradesh 0.20
Karnataka 24.54
Kerala 11.61
Madhya Pradesh 73.12
Maharashtra 15.35
Orissa 196.26
Punjab 200.00
Rajasthan 179.50
Tamil Nadu 16.19
Uttar Pradesh 430.00
West Bengal Not available
Union Territories Not available
Total 2,455.96 thousand ha or 2.46 M ha

Source: MOWR Working Group (1996).

0.5 to 1.2 m during monsoon. These areas are normally subjected to waterlogging;
the degree depends upon the local topography of the area.
The Gangetic plain is the cradle of agro-based civilization in India. But currently,
almost 40% of the Gangetic plain suffers from acute salinity due to water logging,
the use of chemical fertilizer and inadequate drainage. Analysis of data has shown
that out of a total of 160 million ha of porous land in the country, about 100 million
ha is slowly becoming unproductive. India’s agricultural productivity is quite low at
1.6 tons/ha against a global average of 2.6 tons/ha and over 5 tons/ha in developed
countries. About 1.2 M ha in UP is facing problems because of high concentration
of exchangeable sodium. Such land is said to be having alkaline conditions (World
Bank, 1998). In Tamil Nadu saline and alkaline soils are spread over in 0.41 M ha
and acidic soils occur in 0.12 M ha (World Bank, 1995). In Orissa, water logging
is a major problem of the irrigated delta of the coastal zones: about 85,000 Ha of
the Mahanadi delta is affected (World Bank, 1995a).
The rise in ground water level has become a cause of worry in Rajasthan since
1997 after the commissioning of the Indira Gandhi Canal water to Jodhpur through
the Kailana and Takht Sagar lakes. The Kailana Lake is located about 12 km from
the city and has waters 12–16.7 m deep compared to the earlier times when it used
to be 3–12 m in depth.
In the Brahmaputra valley, shallow aquifers have witnessed a rise in the water
table during the last decade; the rise has been around 0.08 to 3.27 m. If the rate of
rise is not controlled, large parts of the basin may become unsuitable for cultivation.
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 921

In the valley on the northern bank, the rise is 0.13 to 2.0 m and on the southern
bank, the rising trend is 0.08 to 3.27 m. These waterlogged areas in Assam covers
an area of 23,500 ha.
Studies have indicated that there has been a considerable rise in the water table
in a number of irrigation command areas all over the country due to improper
water management. According to Ministry of Water Resources, the Krishna River
delta in AP has experienced a 2 to 4.4 m rise in the water table. In Karnataka,
the Chitradurga area has experienced 2 to 6.8 m increases. In MP, the rise has
been 2 to 9.3 m in certain areas. In Faridkot, Punjab, the rise has been 2 to 11.2 m
(Vaidyanathan, 1999).

18.7.4. Control of Waterlogging

Over the years, the problem of land degradation due to waterlogging has begun to
surface in varying magnitude and intensity in various parts of the country. In view of
the growing menace, there is now considerable awareness and many programs have
been launched to arrest degradation of lands. Several irrigation project authorities
are undertaking ameliorative measures in their commands.
Waterlogging problem can be tackled by providing adequate drainage. By means
of drainage, excess water which is harmful for crop growth is removed. The drainage
can be on the surface or below the surface. In large parts of Punjab, Haryana and
Rajasthan, where poor natural drainage is coupled with poor groundwater quality,
artificial drainage of agricultural lands is a must. States like Rajasthan and Haryana,
have taken up drainage works in about 19,000 hectares of land and sub-surface
pipe drainage system is being provided. The Indo-Canadian Rajasthan Agricultural
Drainage Research Project (RAJAD) is the largest project in progress in the country
where the feasibility of subsurface drainage in reclaiming waterlogged saline soils
of the Chambal Command is being researched in all its aspects and aimed is at
providing subsurface drainage in about 20,000 ha. The successful efforts made in
recent years in problem areas of Indo-Gangetic alluvial soils of Haryana and in
black soil regions in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan have shown the usefulness
and feasibility of sub surface drainage system in India.
Conjunctive use of ground and surface water is an effective way of tackling the
problem of waterlogging. Besides, overcoming the waterlogging problem, it has
many other advantages such as saving in cost and the optimum use of available
water. Integrated development and management of surface and ground water is
widely recognized as the most suitable strategy for irrigation development in alluvial
plains.
Bio-drainage which involves planting trees which help in removal of excess water
by evapotranspiration has also been attempted in a few cases. Bio-drainage is being
tried in IGNP command areas in Rajasthan. A study carried out in the command of
IGNP has indicated that eucalyptus and other plantations are affective in lowering
ground water table. Research on agricultural drainage is being carried out by CSSRI,
Karnal, by ICAR, Agricultural universities, WALMIs of state irrigation departments,
922 Chapter 18

and academic institutions. A three- pronged strategy appears to be workable for the
country. Prevention of the problem in newly irrigated areas, remedial measures for
areas where the problem has manifested in recent times, and reclamation of degraded
older areas. Due importance is now being given for reclamation of waterlogged areas
and a target of 60,000 ha was kept for reclamation during the Ninth 5-Year Plan.

18.8. SOIL SALINITY

Along with waterlogging, soil salinity is also associated with irrigation in many
parts of the world, India being no exception. In arid and semi-arid regions, soil
salinity is caused due to many reasons, the main being salt deposits during the
formation of the soil, saline shallow water table, and dissolved salts in water used for
growing crops. As a result of evaporation of soil moisture, salts are left behind and
their concentration in the root zone keeps on increasing. At some stage, the soil has
such a high concentration of salts that it interferes with the physiological activities
of most of the crops. A saline soil mostly has fluoride and sulphate of sodium,
calcium, and magnesium, while alkaline soils contain bicarbonates, carbonates and
silicates of sodium.

18.8.1. Classification of Salt-Affected Soils

The nature and intensity of salinity varies, depending upon the causes that are
responsible for the formation of saline soils. Soil salinity in coastal belt is caused by
sea-water intrusion and inundation, whereas the inland salinity is mostly encountered
in areas with high ground water tables. Expectedly, these areas mostly fall in
canal commands. The criteria laid down by the US Salinity Laboratory Riverside
(California), was adopted by the MOWR-WG to classify salt-affected soils as
indicated in Table 16.
In Table 17, ECe = electrical conductivity of the saturated soil paste extract
taken from the root zone of plants (usually to a depth of 1.2 m to 1.5 m) as averaged
over time and depth in deci-Siemen per meter (dS/m), and ESP = exchangeable
sodium percentage expressed in percentage.
In India, saline soils are mostly found in Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, West Bengal,
Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. The states
of Haryana, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh have the problem of alkali soils also. Saline

Table 16. Criteria adopted to classify salt-affected soils

Class ECe in dS/m ESP (%) pH

Saline soils >4 < 15 < 85

Saline alkali soils >4 > 15 Variable
Alkali <4 > 15 > 85

Source: WG (1999).
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 923

Table 17. State-Wise Salt Affected Area in India (Thousand ha)

SN State Total (saline/alkaline)

1 Andhra Pradesh 28
2 Bihar 224
3 Gujarat 911
4 Haryana 197
5 Karnataka 51
6 Madhya Pradesh 36
7 Maharashtra 5
8 Punjab 490
9 Rajasthan 70
10 Tamil Nadu 140
11 Uttar Pradesh 1150
Total 3302

Source: MOWR Working Group (1996).

sandy areas are mostly found in marine states. About 3.3 million ha area is reported
to be salt affected. The statewise distribution of salt-affected area is given in
Table 17.
Salt-affected areas in irrigation commands of major and medium schemes of 11
states was assessed by MOWR-WG (1991). It was reported that more than 97%
salt-affected area was located in seven states, viz., Uttar Pradesh (35%), Gujarat
(28%), Punjab (15%), Bihar (7%), Haryana (6%), Tamil Nadu (4%) and Rajasthan
(2%). The remaining 3% salt-affected area lies in Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.
As detailed in Table 18, the Working Group of the Ministry of Water Resources
(1991) reported 3.06 M ha as saline and 0.24 M ha as alkaline areas in the commands
of major and medium irrigation schemes in the country.

18.8.2. Measures to Prevent Soil-Salininty

The following measures are generally adopted to control water logging and soil
salinity:
a) Undertaking construction of appropriate surface drainage networks along with
irrigation conveyance networks in new schemes.
b) Lining of distribution networks at all vulnerable reaches to reduce seepage
losses.
c) Carrying out repairs of leaking and deficient structures causing unintended
seepage to minimize waterlogging.
d) Undertaking site-specific on-farm water management measures, such as
irrigation scheduling for water distribution and application, adoption of improved
surface irrigation lay outs, and use of sprinkler and drip system etc.
e) Training of irrigation personnel in scientific irrigation water management and
training of farmers to adopt improved irrigation practices.
924 Chapter 18

Table 18. The number of resettlers from some major projects

Project Country Number of resettlers

Three Gorges China 1 250 000

Sanmenxia China 319 000
Upper Krishna II India 220 000
MCIP III Irrigation India 168 000
Andhra Pradesh Irrigation II India 150 000
Gujarat Med. Irrigation II India 140 000
Sardar Sarovar India 127 000
Tehri India 105 000
Subarnarekha Group India 100 000
Srisalam India 100 000
Mahaweli I-IV Sri Lanka 60 000
Kariba Zambia and Zimbabwe 67 000

18.9. PROBLEMS IN CONSTRUCTION OF NEW PROJECTS

In recent times, new issues have emerged that have to be dealt with before taking
up a new WRD project. Due to these, there has been considerable delay in some
projects. On its part, the Government of India has recently simplified the procedure
for clearance of the major/medium and multipurpose WRD projects. The new
procedure entails a two-stage clearance. In the first stage, the soundness of the
proposal is established and in principle approval for preparation of DPRs is given.
The second stage requires necessary forest and environment clearance as also
clearance from the ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment/Tribal Affairs (if
it involves displacement of SC/STs).
In this section, we discuss the problems that are being faced in taking up new
WRD projects in India.

18.9.1. Rehabilitation and Resettlement

The issue of rehabilitation and resettlement (R & R) is of critical importance and it

affects all major reservoir projects. Since the population affected generally belongs
to the poorest strata of society, including tribal population, the R&R should be taken
as a challenge to improve the living conditions of these people by providing them
with better housing, better employment, better civic amenities and opportunities
for education, health, etc. irrespective of the cost involved. The various schemes
of the government can be combined to evolve a satisfactory R & R package in
consultation with the affected people.
In the densely populated foothill areas of India, any construction of large dams
is sure to inundate human settlements and fertile agricultural lands. In the case
of the proposed Tehri Dam, direct involuntary displacement will occur for about
80,000 people. Indirectly, a large number of villages would lose parts of their land
or access road to the nearest towns in the plains. The national R&R policy in India
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 925

stipulates that the “living standards of those displaced should be maintained at least
at the same level, if not improved, to what they were prior to their involuntary
displacement”. The richer and more influential residents of the town of Tehri as
well as the government offices have been rehabilitated in the newly constructed
New Tehri township. There are many problems, however, with the displaced people
of rural origin. Satisfactory rehabilitation is a term which is difficult to evaluate.
With the present level of marginalization of the upland people, whose habitat is
threatened by submersion, adequate and satisfactory compensation and rehabilitation
may remain difficult for some time to come. There is a need to redefine the ethical
and procedural dimensions of the process, on the basis of which new legislation
could be enacted for the purpose. There is no doubt that in an era characterized by
growth of a free market and privatization, compensation and rehabilitation, official
policy for land acquisition should be based on market values. Such a step, however,
is sure to push up the cost element of the projects. Its acceptance would also provide
the upstream people in the hills and mountains with good bargaining power for
agreeing to allow water projects for the benefit of downstream economies. The
disregard for ensuring proper rehabilitation and lack of human concern towards
displacement may not be possible under that the changed situation.
In view of the density of the present population in the lower parts of the Ganga
basin and scarcity of forest lands that could be used for rehabilitation, this basin
presents a difficult situation in terms of compensation to the involuntarily displaced
people. This is going to be increasingly important with growing awareness of the
upland people of their continued marginalization. The issue of displacement and
compensation should be sorted out through satisfactory and negotiated agreements.
If the mountain waters are economically essential for the residents of plains, the
people in headwaters should be adequately paid for by the consumers. Any effort
at making the upstream people sacrifice their economic interests will only enhance
the delay in project execution and lead to far more economic losses. The delay
in the case of the Tehri and Sardar Sarovar dams have already shown how costly
this can be. Lessons from these and many other projects show that if the water
potential of the Indian rivers has to be economically utilized, the development
of effective economic instruments to adequately compensate and rehabilitate the
displaced people should be an essential component of the project.
Displacement of population is one of the main criticisms against major dams. Any
development activity involves some displacement. A study carried out in respect
of a number of major dams indicates that the population displaced on account
of construction of dams is about 2–4% of the population benefited by irrigation
facilities which again is a very small percentage. It is a fact that in the past adequate
care was not taken of the displaced population. However, this defect is now being
rectified and it is being ensured within the project cost that the displaced population
is rehabilitated in such a way that they get a better standard of living than in the
existing/ pre-dam conditions. It will be desirable to have a National Rehabilitation
Policy to obviate this recurring controversy.
926 Chapter 18

Sometimes, it is also argued that tribal people should not be displaced at all, as
they cannot live in a different environment. This extreme approach is also faulty
and will result in perpetuation of their backwardness. In fact, the tribal population
has not yet joined the mainstream of economic development, as no efforts have
been made to improve their lot. Experience shows that the tribal people definitely
want to enhance their economic prosperity.
R&R of the population displaced or affected by a WRD project has been a hotly
debated topic of recent times. A major reason for opposition to WRD projects in
recent years is the displacement of population due to these projects. It is now a
concern because of the realization that displacement, by its very nature, results in
the breakdown of family and community networks, and causes social and economic
distress.
The problem of resettlement attains gigantic proportions in densely populated or
resource starved nations. In recent times, a number of dams have been constructed
or are being constructed in developing countries. Table 18 gives the number of
people that were or will be subject to displacement due to large water resources
projects. The Three Gorges Dam in China is likely to result in displacement of over
a million people. The Srisailam dam in South India has displaced about 100,000
people and the Sardar Sarovar project on Narmada will affect even more number of
people. In many cases, the actual displacement is much more than estimated. The
feasibility report of the Kiambere dam in Kenya estimated that some 1,000 people
would be displaced but during construction, this number turned out to be 6,000.
The requirement for funds for resettlement also increases day by day. In countries
where population densities are higher (e.g., India), this amount will be considerably
more. The finances required for resettlement of people affected by the Sardar
Sarovar Project in India are quite high.
R&R of tribals or hill-area people whose life styles and culture are radically
different from the people of plains needs careful attention. This problem is frequently
faced in India. The tribals are used to living in hills and forests form an integral part
of their life. They practice their own way of agriculture. Their relocation even in
command areas of nearby canals can inflict a cultural shock on them and could be
a cause of avoidable social conflict. It would be desirable to relocate them within
the forests on the fringes of the reservoir. Side-by-side, measures for their health
and economic uplift should also be initiated so that they are brought in the national
mainstream while retaining their own identity.
Importantly, R&R is not an administrative problem; it is a human problem. Since
R&R deals with people, pragmatic policy decisions with involvement of the affected
people at appropriate levels and stages is necessary. Many people, particularly the
old, who may have been born and brought up on that land, consider it as their
ancestral property and have an emotional and nostalgic attachment. Such cases
should be dealt with care, respect, and patience that they deserve. The use of force
should always be avoided and people should be motivated to move through giving
them a higher standard of living and sustainable means to lead a dignified life. It is
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 927

also necessary to ensure that the displaced people are made partners in prosperity
due to the project and do not turn into adversaries.

18.9.2. Submergence of Forest Areas

Every major dam project results in submergence of some forest area. Major dams
were responsible for about 2% of the forest land losses during the period 1951
to 1985 in India. While considerable protest is being raised about this loss, it is
intriguing that not much is being said or done for the 98% loss of forest area from
other causes. In addition, it must be realized that construction of storage means
submergence of some areas. Obviously, in view of the limited cultivable area, the
country can ill afford the loss of that area. Since most of the dams are located in
the upper reaches of a river basin, the submergence has to involve waste land or
forest land.
The submergence of forest land has also to be viewed in the context of the
benefits of irrigation over a larger area. Analysis of data from a number of major
projects indicates that the total area submerged by construction of dams varies from
3 to 10% of the area to be irrigated by these projects. The submergence of forest
area accounts for only about 1–2% of the area irrigated. It is thus obvious that the
loss of forest land is an insignificant percentage of the economic benefits to a large
area of land.
As per the current guidelines, the forest land submerged by major dams is to be
replaced by compensatory afforestation at project cost. Therefore, at present and in
future, there will not be any net loss of forests as a result of major dams.

18.9.3. Environmental Issues

Impact assessment is a pointer to the environmental compatibility of the projects in

terms of their location, suitability of technology, efficiency in resource utilization,
recycling and so on. EIA was introduced in India in 1978 and now covers water
resources development projects also. These days, Environmental Impact Assessment
is statutory for 29 categories of developmental projects including irrigation and
hydropower schemes. Typical adverse environmental impacts of water resources
development projects include submergence of forested areas, water logging, soil
salinity, landslides, threat to biodiversity, flora and fauna. Relevant aspects to this
topic are discussed in Chapter 20.

18.9.4. Financial Aspects

Presently, the Government of India is the major source of funding in the irrigation
sector, particularly for major and medium projects. Public investment in irrigation
and flood control sector as a percent of overall plan outlays has gone down very
much from 22.5% in the 1st Plan to about 6.5% in X Plan.
928 Chapter 18

Despite reduced allocation for the irrigation sector, the state governments have
taken up a number of new projects. This has resulted in thin spreading of resources
leading to time and cost overruns in most of the projects. As a result, benefits are
not commensurate with the investment. To promote early completion of projects
and derive benefits, the Government of India has taken up Accelerated Irrigation
Benefits Program (AIBP) in 1996–97 under which Central Loan Assistance is
provided to state governments.
Private investments in major/medium river valley projects have not been forth-
coming. This can be attributed to heavy investment, long gestation period, political
risk, and involvement of multi stakeholders. Recently, some companies have begun
investing money in the hydropower sector.
So far as minor schemes are concerned, adequate funds are available due to
substantial contribution from Rural Infrastructure Development Fund created by
NABARD. Such agencies have also provided funds for some medium schemes.
Very large parts of the investment on dug wells, bore wells, tube wells and lift
irrigation schemes as well as on pumps has been made by the private sector. Water
bonds are also one of the viable options for raising funds for water resources
projects. The Krishna Bhagya Jal Nigam (Karnataka), Maharashtra Krishna Valley
Development Corporation, etc., have adopted this approach to generate resources.
External Assistance in the water resources is currently being provided by the
World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, the European Union (EU), etc. Some
schemes are also being funded by the Japanese Bank for International Cooperation
(JBIC), Kreditanstalt Fur Wiederausban (Kfw), Germany and France on bilateral
basis.
World Bank has provided support for water resource projects since 1970. Nearly
77% of the World Bank assistance has been for the implementation of irrigation
projects, while 11% is towards consolidation of existing water resources infras-
tructure. The funding for multipurpose and other projects is about 9% and 3%,
respectively. In recent years, the World Bank funding is generally focused on
consolidation projects.

18.9.5. Problems Related with Command Area Development

Feedback from many major and medium irrigation projects reveal that utilization
of irrigation potential created was inadequate and the efficiency of the system
was poor. In 1974–75, the command area development program (CADP) was
initiated to ensure equitable and timely supply of irrigation water to hold agricultural
holdings within the command area of a project. Currently, CADP covers more than
200 projects in 22 states and 2 union territories, covering a culturable command
area of about 21 billion hectares. As large areas of the country suffer from soil
sediment and water logging, the focus of CADP is now being re-oriented for the
improvement of land and development of drainage facilities. It will be important
to formulate water management plans using data of soil survey and land use
capability.
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 929

18.10. CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACT ON WATER

RESOURCES
Although climate change has concerned scientists for many years, it became a major
international issue only in the late 1980s. The report of the World Commission on
Environment and Development (1987) of the United Nations focused international
attention on the threat climate change to the Earth’s environment. This led the United
Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO) to establish the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to
bring the world’s leading scientists together to assess climate change and devise
remedial steps.
India had signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) in 1993 and has initiated efforts to comply with the relevant obligations.
To fulfill the commitments and requirements of the UNFCCC, many research
programs have been initiated on (1) understanding climate change, (2) impacts of
climate change on social and economic development, and (3) response strategies.
India largely depends on fossil fuels to meet its energy requirements. Coal
accounts for about 60% of fossil fuel use in calorific terms followed by petroleum
products (30%) and the remaining by natural gas. The relative emission of carbon
dioxide CO2  for 1989–90 from coal, petroleum products and natural gas were
estimated at 328.4 Tg/yr (65%), 162.7 (32%) and 17.5 (3%), respectively (ALGAS,
India, 1998). Electricity generation in India accounts for the largest share of coal
consumption as out of the total installed electricity generation capacity 70% is
coal-based. Further, nearly 72% of the Indian population lives in rural areas and is
dependent on agricultural and related activities. They use biomass resources, like
wood, agricultural crop residues, dung, etc., for energy. In India, the amount of
biomass burnt annually is estimated to be about 426 Tg or about 6.3% of the global
level of 6,800 Tg/yr. India also has a large cattle population that contributes around
40% to total methane emissions from the country (ALGAS, India, 1998). Industrial
growth and increasing urbanization in India have led to associated environmental
changes. A variety of industrial processes are responsible for emissions of various
greenhouse gases, like CO2 , CH4 and N2 O.
Preliminary studies on the impact of a rise in sea level indicate that 1 mm rise
of sea level will inundate 0.41% of India’s coastal area and will put 7.1 million
persons at risk. Studies also suggest that as a result of global warming, cyclones
will become more frequent and destructive, making islands, such as Andamans and
Nicobar, Lakshadweep, highly vulnerable. The danger of frequent storms which
generally originate in the Bay of Bengal is, however, higher in the Andamans and
Nicobar than Lakshadsweep. Also, if sea level rises, fresh water aquifers of these
islands as well as the mainland will be subjected to saline intrusion.
The NATCOM (India’s National Communication, www.natcomindia.org) process
comprises comprehensive scientific and technical exercises for estimating GHG
emissions from different sectors, reduce uncertainties in current estimations, develop
sector- and technology-specific emission coefficients pertinent to India, and assess
the adverse impacts of climate change and strategies for adapting to these impacts.
930 Chapter 18

NATCOM will also provide the general description of steps taken or envisaged to
implement the convention. NATCOM will lead to developing a reliable database
and capacity that will help fulfill commitments under the Convention. The process
is also expected to initiate efforts to identify areas of Targeted Research on climate
change according to sustainable development plans of the country.
Himalayan glaciers feed seven of Asia’s greatest rivers – Ganga, Indus,
Brahmaputra, Salween, Mekong, Yangtze, and Huange He. According to experts,
the rapid melting of Himalayan glaciers will first increase the volume of water
in rivers, causing widespread flooding. But after a few decades, the situation will
change and the water levels in rivers will decline, meaning massive economic and
environmental problems for people in northern India, western China and Nepal.
As glacier water flows dwindle, the energy potential of hydroelectric power will
decrease, causing problems for industry as well as in irrigation. Nepal’s snow-fed
rivers have shown declining discharge and its annual average temperature rise of
0.06 degree Celsius has been noticed. Gangotri in India is receding at an average
rate of 23 metres a year.

18.10.1. Retreat of Glaciers

The Himalayas have one of the largest concentrations of glaciers outside the Polar
regions – there are nearly 1,500 glaciers and it is estimated that these cover an area
of about 33000 km2 . These glaciers provide water during dry season so that these
rivers run throughout the year. A useful feature of snow and glacial-melt runoff is
the fact that the glaciers release more water in a warm year and less water in a wet
(flood) year thus evening out variations in the flows. World Glacier Monitoring
Service publishes reports on fluctuations of glaciers. Recently IUGG (CCS) have
published this report covering the period 1995–2000 but no Indian glacier has been
listed in this report.
Fears have been expressed that a significant number of mountain glaciers are
shrinking due to climatic variations. The rate of retreat of several important glaciers
in the Himalaya is presented in Table 19. Almost 67% of the glaciers in the
Himalayan mountain ranges have retreated in the past decade. The mean equilibrium
line altitude at which snow accumulation is equal to snow ablation for glacier is
estimated to be about 50–80 m higher relative to the altitude during the first half of
the 19th Century.
In the recent years, some important changes have been noticed in the glaciers
and the snow covered areas in the Himalayas. Many prominent glaciers, such as
the Gangotri glacier are retreating. The rate of retreat of the snout of Gangotri
glacier has demonstrated a sharp rise in the first half of the 20th century. This
trend continued up to around the 1970s, and subsequently there has been a gradual
decline in its rate of retreat. Some of the possible causes of this retreat are increased
tourist activity leading to rise in the ambient temperature near the snout area and
atmospheric warming. The diminishing rate of retreat of the snout of the Gangotri
glacier could be a consequence of the diminishing rate of rise in the temperatures.
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 931

Table 19. Retreat of selected Himalayan glaciers

Name of Glacier Name of Glacier Area Year of Retreat (m)

Basin (sq. km) Observation
Total Rate/year

Bilare Bange Satluj 2.8 1962–1997 90 26

Shaune Garang Satluj 8.8 1962–1997 923 264
Janapa Garang Satluj 12.3 1962–1997 696 199
Milan Ganga 1966–1997 940 303
Dokariani Bamak Ganga 5.8 1962–1997 585 167
Gangotri Ganga 143 1977–1996 535 281
Chipa Dhauliganga 5.0 1961–2000 1 050 2692
Meola Dhauliganga 14.0 1961–2000 1 350 3462
Jhulang Dhauliganga 3.3 1962–2000 400 1053
Miyar Chenab 87.8 1961–1996 575 1643
Meru Bamak Ganga 4.7 1977–2000 395 1720
Parbati Parbati 188.0 1990–2001 578 5200

Although the warming processes continue unabated, the rate of rise in temperatures
in the Gangotri glacier area has nevertheless demonstrated a marked gradual decline
since the last quarter of the past century.
Parbati glacier is one of the largest glaciers in the Parbati river basin, Kullu
district, Himachal Pradesh. This glacier is fed by nearly 36 glaciers, covering an
areal extent of 188 sq. km. The glacier had retreated 578 m between 1990 and 2001
which amounts to about 52 m per year. This high rate of retreat of the glacier could
be because it is located in the lower altitude range. About 90% of the glacier is
located in the altitude range lower than 5,200 m which is about the average altitude
of the snow line at the end of the ablation season. The specific mass balance
of the glacier, estimated using accumulation area ratio method for the year 2001
is −86 cm. A high rate of retreat of the Parbati glacier will affect the availability
of flow in the river.
Global warming is likely to increase the melting of snow and glacier far more
rapidly than the accumulation. Glacial melt is expected to increase under changed
climate conditions, which would lead to increased summer flows in some river
systems for a few decades, followed by a reduction in flow as the glaciers disappear
(IPCC, 1998). If India wants to exploit the increased flow for beneficial use
(hydropower generation, irrigation) and to make sure that this high flow does not
cause damages, infrastructure in the form of reservoirs and power projects will have
to be put in place.

18.11. HYDROLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF HARD ROCK REGION

Even though there is no universally accepted definition of a hard rock, it is generally

understood that hard rocks are crystalline, (igneous and metamorphic) rocks. Some
hydrogeologists define “hard rocks” as igneous and metamorphic, non-volcanic and
932 Chapter 18

non-carbonate rocks. But other rock types (especially well cemented sedimentary
rocks often occurring in areas built also by crystalline rocks) may be characterized
by the same hydrogeological environment as crystalline rocks themselves. It is often
impossible to define exact geological boundary between “hard rocks” and some
other rock types. Therefore, in many hydrogeological studies, the term “hard rock”
is used in a wider sense, rather vaguely and not exactly defined. From a groundwater
exploration point of view, the term “hard rock” might include all rocks without
sufficient primary porosity and conductivity for feasible groundwater extraction.
Since a large part of India is covered by hard rocks, typical problems of this
region are being discussed separately here.

18.11.1. Hydrology of Hard Rocks

The hard rock region of India comprises Maharashtra, Karnataka, Goa, Parts of
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu & Kerala. Major portion of the Deccan basalt of hard
rock region in India is semiarid. Due to insufficient surface water, groundwater has
been an essential element in meeting domestic, agricultural and industrial demands.
In general, the groundwater potential of hard rocks is poor, though relatively high
yields may be obtained in restricted locations under a favorable combination of
topography and rainfall. The size and the frequency of openings in fractured rocks
are normally restricted to shallow depths, resulting in low void ratio and hydraulic
conductivity. The drainage developed in individual lava flows during intertrappean
periods gives rise to productive zones under favorable conditions of topography.
Western Ghats, from which most of the southern rivers originate, was formed by
hard volcanic rocks (Deccan traps), which have withstood the rigours of sun and
rain for ages. The rivers of the peninsula are of great antiquity, compared to the
youthful rivers of the north and their channels have reached the base level of erosion.
Two water-bearing zones can be generally identified (Narasimhan, 1990; Briz-
Kishor, 1983) in the hard rock area: the composed or weathered zone and water-
bearing joints and fractures. In the weathered and decomposed part of bedrock,
groundwater occupies the intergranular spaces of the formation material. The yield
of this zone is often limited and is seasonal in character. The groundwater flow
systems are of local type, where each local system has its recharge area at a
topographic high and its discharge area at a topographic low, which are adjacent
to each other. The intermediate and regional groundwater flow systems do not
exist because of negligible hydraulic conductivity with depth. The crystalline rocks
generally don’t possess original or primary openings, and fresh crystalline rocks
have less than 1% porosity and negligible hydraulic conductivity. The ability of
crystalline rocks to store and transmit water is dependent on the development
of secondary openings, which were formed by fracturing and weathering. The
weathered part of these crystalline rocks is of particular importance both as storage
zone for groundwater and as aquifer for open wells and shallow tube wells.
The occurrence and movement of groundwater in the Deccan basalt of hard rock
region is controlled by the fracture pattern. The fracture porosity forms the main
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 933

criteria in defining the ground water flow systems. The fractured zone generally
constitutes the potential aquifers and therefore the geometry of the fractured aquifer
system assumes considerable importance while exploring the groundwater in hard
rock terrain. Hence, the exploration, development and management of ground-
water in the hard rock basaltic terrain are very important. Groundwater in these
regions occurs under unconfined and semi-confined conditions. The presence of
vesicles, fractures, zeolites, intertrappean red-boles and tuffaceous formations give
rise to varying porosity in the basalt. The aquifer transmissivity ranges from 2 to
140 sq. m/day, higher values of which were noticed over fractured and jointed
basalt. Aquifer resistivity ranges from 10–30 ohm m over alluvium and 20–60 ohm
m over weathered basalt (Narayanpethakar et al., 1997).
The hydrology and groundwater resources in Deccan Traps have been studied
by many hydrologists. The black trap is hard, compact and is traversed by joints
to a shallow depth only up to 10 to 15 m. Beyond this depth, the rock becomes
more and more compact and the fresh presence of such a massive variety of trap is
noticed approximately from 630 m contour and below. Weathering extends hardly
to 0.5 to 1.0 m depth. The depth of water in the wells varies from 2 to 10 m. In
comparison, the pink trap appears to be a better aquifer. They are weathered to an
average depth of 12 to 15 m and have more blowholes and amygdoloidal structures
which are filled by secondary minerals like zeolites and silica. More of fractures
and fissures are noticed which help retain water percolated after rainfall. Pink traps
are seen at an approximate altitude of 660 to 675 m and extend approximately up to
630 m contour. The depth of water table in such formations varies from 6 to 12 m
depending upon the topography.
In the Deccan trap, ground water occurs under water table conditions in weathered
and jointed traps, and under confined conditions in the zeolitic and vesicular traps
wherever they are overlain by hard traps. The depth of weathering, in general varies
from 2 to 18 m. Wells range in depth from 3.7 to 17.8 m below ground level (bgl)
and the depth to water table ranges from 1.1 to 16.2 m bgl. The yield of dug wells
ranges from 20 m3 /day to 250 m3 /day for the pumping period of 2 to 8 hours. Wells
in valleys nearer to rivers and in zeolitic traps give better yield. The transmissivity
figures obtained by the Papadopulos and Cooper method range from 215 m2 /day to
150 m2 /day. The specific capacity of the wells ranges from 2.42 to 1913 m3 /h/m
and the unit specific capacity is in the range of 0.039 to 01995 m3 /h/m. The
Deccan trap does not contribute appreciably to tube well yields and the contained
water can be tapped only by constructing large-diameter wells.
The saturated fractures and joints found in the relatively unweathered bedrock at
greater depths are capable of yielding substantial quantities of water. The fractures
and joints are mostly horizontal and interconnected with a network of joints and
fissures. The yield from these zones is not readily affected by seasonal changes. In
the granite and gneiss of south India, such saturated zones are normally encountered
at depths ranging from 10 to 50 m. In tectonically disturbed areas, they may even
occur at a greater depth of 100 m or more. These saturated zones are usually
weathered and have a small vertical extent. The normal yield of a tube well tapping
934 Chapter 18

such zones is around 55 m3 /hour. Very low yields of about 450–900 liters/hour
are frequent, whereas quite large yields up to 90,000 liters/hour have been reported
from a few isolated tube wells. In the consolidated or fissured formation, the
occurrence of groundwater is restricted to weathered residue and fracture zones
having secondary porosity, and the yield is above 20 m3 /h in the Mesozoic and
Paleozoic formations, while it goes down to 5–20 m3 /h and even below 5 m3 /h in
the Precambrian and Archean formations.
Intensive exploratory drilling in igneous and other hard rocks in parts of penin-
sular India have shown that the openings at a greater depth become less pronounced
and less abundant and in some cases they are not favorable for the movement of
ground water. Relatively higher yields from hard rocks are obtained within 40 to
50 m depth from the surface. The optimum depth beyond which drilling is normally
not warranted is about 100 m, while rock type is commonly of secondary impor-
tance to the control of weathering and structure. The geometry of the fracture or
joint sets is determined by the types of the rocks and the stress to which they
have been subjected, besides the effect of weathering and relief which makes
the void space constituting the system progressively larger on approaching the
surface. The topographic conditions and the rainfall regime maintain a high level of
saturation in hard rocks. Thus topographic lows and high rainfall will offer a better
advantage.

18.11.2. Typical Hydrological Problems of Hard Rock Region

Variations in the geomorphological features as well as geohydrological differences
give rise to a variety of hydrological problems in this heterogeneous physiological
unit of peninsula. A discussion of major hydrological problems of the hard rock
region follows.

a. Groundwater Related Problems

Hard rock region is witnessing a growing demand for groundwater resources, as
adequate surface water sources are not available. Hence, there is an urgency to
quantify the availability of groundwater. The water balance technique has been
extensively used to make quantitative estimates of water resources and the impact
of anthropogenic activities on surface and groundwater.
Failure of open and borewells in many parts of the hard rock region are a common
phenomenon. This problem usually arises either because of over-abstraction in
existing wells or due to the failure in identifying the exact water bearing zones. In
the hard rock region, water exists mainly in fractures and joints but locating such
zones and predicting the flow processes is difficult. The problem is quite common
in northern districts of Karnataka and in many parts of Tamil Nadu.

b. Ground Water Quality Problems

Groundwater quality poses a serious health hazards in various parts of hard rock
region. The major contaminants founds in this region are high concentration of
Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 935

fluoride, chloride, sulphate, sodium and bicarbonate. Table 20 shows the ground
water pollution in the hard rock region of India.
Excessive salinity in drinking water is undesirable because of objectionable tastes
and the laxative effect associated with sulphate. Groundwater generally contains
higher dissolved solids concentrations compared to surface water of the same
locality. Most of the minerals present in greater amounts are those which contribute
to hardness (Calcium and Magnesium) and alkalinity (Bicarbonate, Carbonate and
Hydroxide). This is largely due to the increased amounts of carbon dioxide in
groundwater.
The quality of groundwater varies from place to place as well as from strata to
strata. It may also vary with seasons. The water drawn from strata at a particular
time of the year may be unsuitable, whereas it may be good enough at other times
of the year. The groundwater quality problem can be detected only by regular
monitoring of the quality of water. Status of research on groundwater quality in
hard rock regions is discussed below.
The highest value of fluoride was recorded in Bankapatti, where concen-
trations up to 17–20 mg/litre have been found. Fluorite Ca F2  is the most
common fluoride bearing mineral and occurs either as an igneous, metamorphic
or detrital mineral. The occurrence and distribution of fluoride in the shallow
aquifer in the upper reaches of Pennar basin has also been observed. Further,
high concentrations (1.5 mg/l) of fluoride have been found in groundwater at a
number of network stations in the Karnataka state comprising districts of Gulberga,
Bijapur, Raichur, Bellary, Chitradurga, Tumkur, Kolar, Shimoga, Dharwar and
Belgaum.

Table 20. Ground water pollution in Hard Rock Region

SN Pollutant State Districts of occurrences

Andhra Pradesh Krishna, Anatpur, Nellor, Chittoor,

1. Fluoride
Cuddapah, Guntur and Nalgonda
Tamil Nadu Chengalpett, Madurai
2. Salinity (Inland) Maharashtra Amravati, Akola
Andhra Pradesh Vishakapanam, E. Godavari, Krishna,
Prakasam, Nellure, Chittoor, Anatpur,
3. Nitrate
Cuddapah, Kurnool, Khamman and
Nalgonda
Karnataka Bidar, Gulbarga, Bijapur
Maharashtra Jalna, Beed, Nanded, Latur, Osmanabad,
Solapur, Satara, Sangali, and Kolhapur
Tamil Nadu Coimbatore, Periyar and Salem
Karnataka Dharwar, Belgaum
4. Chloride
Maharashtra Solapur, Satara, Amaravati, Akola and
Buldana
5. Zinc Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad
936 Chapter 18

c. Tank studies
Minor irrigation tanks are widely distributed in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh and Maharashtra to meet water requirements for agriculture and community
use. However, in many cases, there is no inventory of these tanks, their storage
capacities are not known and there is no information about inflow and outflow
from them. Some tanks have gone into disuse, because they were not properly
maintained. For proper management of tanks, it is necessary to prepare an inventory.
Therefore, it is essential to take up the studies to estimate the yield and other related
hydrological parameters, which are typical for hard rock regions. A coordinated
effort needs to be made to rejuvenate the tanks that are in poor state and these
should be used in an integrated manner.

d. Drainage problems in black soil areas

The drainage problem, particularly in irrigated heavy soils, is caused by over-
irrigation or by surface runoff resulting from excess rainfall. This kind of problem
has been reported in the black soil areas of Maharashtra and Karnataka. The
solution depends mainly upon the ratio of precipitation to the rate of downward
flow through the soil system consisting of poorly pervious layers and the presence
or absence of a pervious sub-soil. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a suitable
model for estimating field drainage requirement and install appropriate type of
drains.

18.12. THREAT TO BIODIVERSITY AND WETLANDS

About 6.5% and 12.5% of the world’s animal and plant species, respectively, are
found in India. Out of these almost 7,000 are endemic to the subcontinent. Unfor-
tunately, habitat destruction in both freshwater and coastal areas has endangered
many endemic species. Most vulnerable are the freshwater fish, since they are more
susceptible to water pollution and environmental change. Other endangered species
include freshwater aquatic animals like the Gangetic dolphin and several species of
aquatic birds, amphibians, reptiles and insects.
Wetlands in India cover a land area of about 4.1 M-ha. Most of these have become
degraded due to pollution and development pressures, like conversion of wetlands
for agriculture. This is threatening not only the local fauna but also the livelihood
of the residents dependent on the wetland ecosystem. In coastal areas, industrial
and domestic pollution has severely degraded estuarine and coastal environments.
Estimates show that over 20,000 million liters per day of mostly untreated domestic
sewage reaches India’s coastal areas (Development Alternatives, 2001).
Mangroves are one of the most biologically productive environments, but their
economic value has not been realized properly. Mangrove forests cover a signif-
icant portion of the coastal zone in India. Increasing development and destruction
arising from fodder and fuel-wood collection is threatening their existence, which
implies significant losses in terms of the overall biodiversity and the ecosystem
health.
CHAPTER 19
RESERVOIRS AND LAKES

A reference exists [see Rangachari et al. (2000)] to an ancient enquiry by

Rishi Narada of King Yudhistira (circa 3,150 BC): “Are the farmers sturdy and
prosperous? Are there dams full of water and big enough and distributed in different
parts of the kingdom and does agriculture not depend on rains only ?”. According to
some myths, dam engineering appears to have originated in India, for it is evidenced
by the development of embankment on sloping grounds around 1,500 BC. A rock
inscription near Junagarh in Gujarat describes a dam named Sudarashan, which
created a big reservoir near Mount Girnar. This dam was constructed during the
reign of Chandragupta Maurya and renovated during the reign of Ashoka. Rigveda
(2000–1500 BC), an ancient sacred book on wisdom, contains 1,028 hymns which
advocate building dams for irrigation purposes and caution against their breaches,
especially during war. A similar mention was made in Arthashastra, written in
330 BC by Kautilya, which advises kings to build dams and encourages people to
help in their construction by providing sites, approach roads, and free materials.
It considered breaching of a dam a serious offence and advised imposing severe
punishment against it. Rangachari et al. (2000) have stated that Magasthenes, the
Greek ambassador to the court of Emperor Chandragupta (circa 300 BC), recorded
that the district officers used to inspect the sluices by which water is distributed
into the branch canals (watercourses) so that every one may enjoy his fair share of
the benefit.
The Grand Anicut on the Cauvery was one of the earliest canal systems built,
dating back probably to the 2nd century (Sengupta, 1993). It is functional even after
nearly 2,000 years. Many earthen dams of moderate height were built in south India
from the very early days and there are presently over 39,400 such reservoirs in Tamil
Nadu alone (Rangachari et al. (2000). Many of these were built by the different
ruling dynasties between 500 AD and 1,500 AD. Advances in technology coupled
with greater confidence arising out of experience in undertaking such measures
boosted dam construction. The Ramappa Lake (1,213) in Andhra, Karla (1,514) and
Vihar (1,860) in Maharashtra, Rajsamand (1,671), Jai Samand (1,730) in Rajasthan
and the Barwasagar (1,500) are instances of such works of the past. The Periyar
Project which was completed in 1,895 involved the construction of a 48 m high and
378 m long concrete dam on the west-flowing Periyar River in Western Ghats.

937
938 Chapter 19

Dam engineering received a big boost especially after independence with the
construction of many reservoirs. Dams like Bhakra, Tungabhadara, Nagarjunasagar,
Hirakud, Idukki are a few examples among many others. Considering the growth in
population with consequent escalation in water demands for food grain production,
the country needs many more dams for harnessing the water resources. However,
the construction of new projects has slowed down during the last decade due to a
number of reasons, opposition on environmental ground being one of them. Mighty
water resources projects that are currently under construction are Sardar Sarovar
Project, Tehri Hydro Electric Project, and Almatti dam.

19.1. NEED FOR STORAGE RESERVOIRS

A dam contains a number of structural features other than the main wall itself.
Spillways are usually operated to discharge water when the reservoir level becomes
dangerously high. Dams built across broad plains may include long lengths of
ancillary dams and dykes. Weirs and barrages are constructed to divert river flow;
they do not have significant storage and cannot effectively regulate flows. A weir is
normally a low masonry or concrete wall. A barrage is a bigger (usually metallic)
structure across a wide river.
There are many reasons why storage projects are needed in India. The principal
function of a reservoir is regulation of natural streamflow by storing surplus water
in the high flow season to control floods and releasing the stored water in the dry
season to meet various demands. Generally, the major part of the annual streamflow
is available during a few months of rainy season. But the demands for water arise
all year round and therefore it is necessary to store the excess water in the rainy
months so that it can be used when the natural streamflow is not sufficient to meet
the demand. The water stored in a reservoir may be diverted by means of pipes or
canals to far away places where it is needed; this diversion results in spatial changes
of water availability. The water may also be kept in the reservoir and released later
for beneficial uses resulting in temporal changes. In short, the aim of a reservoir is
to match the temporal and spatial availability of water with demands. Depending
on the magnitude of natural inflows and demands at a particular time, the reservoir
storage is either built up or water is supplied from the storage.
Reservoirs also help transform the available resource into utilizable. Many river
basins of the country are water short basins. Despite nearly full development of
water resources of these basins, less than 30% of the cultivable area in many basins
is able to receive assured irrigation. Even now, large tracts of cultivable land on the
eastern coast of peninsular India depend on the vagaries of monsoons, making them
highly vulnerable. In fact, delta areas of major rivers systems have been protected
by the old irrigation systems. Most of these old projects have been rejuvenated and
modernized.
As a result of storing water, a reservoir provides a water head which can be
used for generation of electric power. The reservoir also provides an empty storage
space for moderating inflow peaks. A reservoir also provides a pool for navigation
Reservoirs and Lakes 939

to negotiate rapids, habitat for aquatic life and facilities for recreation and sports. It
enhances scenic beauty, promotes afforestation, and supports wild life. Thus, it is of
paramount importance for India to create as much storage space as possible so that
adequate quantity of water can be stored and be converted to utilizable resource.
The need for reservoirs can be appreciated by the fact that a large part of water
supply of Mumbai, Pune, Hyderabad, Bhopal, and Warangal cities is dependent
on reservoirs like Vaitarana, Tansa, Bhatsa, Khadakwasla, Panchet, Majira, Singur,
Kolar, and Sriramsagar. Numerous dams including Bhakra, Chambal valley projects,
Ujjani, Tungbhadra, Almatii, in the country are providing water to irrigate crops and
are essential for food security. Bhakra, Pong, Srisailam, and Balimela are generating
electricity at very small price. The super thermal power stations in Uttar Pradesh
are entirely dependent on the storage of Rihand reservoir for their water supply.
It is not rational to oppose the philosophy behind dams without going into merits
and demerits of the individual project. Without dams, it would be impossible to
ensure food security and supply of water for energy and industrial sectors in the
monsoon climate of India. As the precipitation over the country becomes more
erratic due to climate change, reservoirs would increasingly reduce our dependence
on the vagaries of monsoons. A rational approach would be to examine all the
options available to us and make the best use of our resources.

19.1.1. Classification of Dams

The Indian code classifies dams as small, intermediate, and large with respect to the
storage in the reservoir and hydraulic head. These are briefly described in Table 1.
Note that the design flood of a dam depends upon its type.
The International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) defines a dam as a
large dam if it has a damwall greater than 15 m in height (from the lowest general
foundation to the crest). However, dams between 10–15 m in height are also
classified as large dams if they satisfy at least any one of the following criteria:
• Crest length > 500 m,
• Reservoir capacity > 1 MCM,
• Maximum flood discharge > 2,000 m3/s,
• Dam has difficult foundation problem, and
• Dam is of unusual design.

Table 1. Classification of dams

Type of Dam Storage Capacity Hydraulic Inflow

(million m3  head (m) design flood

Small 05–10 75–12 100 year

Intermediate 10–60 12–30 SPF
Large >60 >30 PMF
940 Chapter 19

19.2. DAMS IN INDIA

Dams in India are constructed mainly for irrigation, hydroelectric generation, flood
control, and water supply; a few are constructed for other purposes. At the turn of
twentieth century (1900), there were 42 dams in India. During 1901 to 1950, about
250 dams were added. That is, at the time of the beginning of first five-year plan
period (1950–51), there were a total of about 300 dams. During the next twenty
years, there was a spurt in dam construction activity in which 695 dams were added,
bringing the total number of dams to nearly 1,000 up to the year 1970. The dam
building activity intensified during the next two decades and at the end of 1990,
the total number of Indian dams stood at 3,244 (not accounting for 236 dams for
which the year of construction is not available). Due to slow down in economy,
opposition on socio-economic grounds, and other reasons, only 116 dams could be
added between 1990 and 2000. India had 4,291 large dams and about 250 large
barrages by 2003, including 695 dams under construction. Distribution of large
dams in India according to their age is given in Table 2.
For better visualization, the age of dams is plotted in Figure 1. This figure shows
that our dams are getting old. Nearly 50 dams are more than 100 years old. An
implication of aging is that some of these dams would require replacement and
maintenance cost of this infrastructure will increase with time. Since replacement
of dams is proving to be very difficult, ways and means have to be found to prolong
the useful life of the created infrastructure.
Table 3 details live storage position of completed, ongoing and proposed projects
in various river basins of India. Table 3 shows that the live storage capacity is
the largest in the Ganga basin. Of course, this capacity comes from the dams on
tributaries while there is no major completed project on the main river. Next to
Ganga, Krishna River has the highest amount of storage. Upon completion of on
going projects, Narmada will be a highly regulated basin.
Table 4 summarizes the storage capacities created and projects under consider-
ation in various states of India. As can be seen, Andhra Pradesh has created the

Table 2. Distribution of large dams according to age

Year of completion Number of dams

Up to 1900 42
1901–1950 251
1951–1960 234
1961–1970 461
1971–1980 1,190
1981–1990 1,066
1991–2000 116
Year of construction not available 236
Under construction 695
Total 4,291

Source: CWC (1994).

Reservoirs and Lakes 941

1200
1000
Number of dams

800
600
400
200
0
> 100 100 to 55 45 to 55 35 to 45 25 to 35 15 to 25 < 15
Age of dams (years)

Figure 1. Distribution of dams and their age

maximum storage capacity among all the states and accounts for about 14% of the
storage capacity created in the country. Maharashtra is very close to it, accounting
for 12.7% of the capacity created. If, however, the projects under construction
are also considered, the first place is taken by Madhya Pradesh where the on-
going projects will add 2163 km3 of storage capacity. With this inclusion, Madhya
Pradesh will account for 16% of the total storage space of nearly 249 km3 .
Table 5 summarizes the distribution of dams in various states of India. Here the
first place is claimed by Maharashtra which has 1,229 dams followed by Madhya
Pradesh with 946 dams. Note that even after considering the on-going projects,
Maharashtra will continue to retain the first place since nearly 300 dams are under
construction and this will take the total number of dams to 1,529. This number is
more than the number of dams in the group ‘other states’.
Table 6 summarizes the state wise major large dams of India. Further, the dams
are also listed basin wise in each state.
There are a large number of tanks in the country whose water serves a variety of
uses such as societal needs and irrigation etc. Comparatively more tanks are present
in South India. Table 7 shows the distribution of small reservoirs and tanks in the
states of India.
Table 8 shows that number of medium and large storages and total number
of storages. Tamil Nadu has the maximum number of such structures whereas
Karnataka comes a distant second. Note that the scheme of classification of dams
in these tables is not the same as given in Table 1.
The analysis further reveals that more than 92% of the dams built in India mainly
serve the purpose of irrigation, 2.2% hydroelectric power generation, less than 1%
water supply and less than 35% serve a combination of purpose of irrigation, water
supply and hydropower generation. Table 9 gives the details of 50 highest dams
of India. As can be seen, 20 dams have height 100 m and above. Nearly 20 Indian
dams have height exceeding 100 m. Further 34 reservoirs have live storage capacity
more than 1 billion cubic m (BCM). Further, 10 dams have gross storage capacity
more than 5 BCM.
942 Chapter 19

Table 3. Storage projects in river basins of India

S. Name of Average Live storage (BCM)

N. the River annual
Basin flow Completed Ongoing Proposed Total
(BCM) projects projects projects

1 Indus (Area in 7331 1383 245 027 1655

Indian Territory)
2 a) Ganga 52502 3684 1712 2956 8352
b) Brahmaputra, 58560 110 240 6335 8845
Barak, and others
3 Godavari 11054 1251 1065 828 3144
4 Krishna 7812 3448 778 013 4239
5 Cauvery 2136 743 039 034 816
6 Pennar 632 038 213 – 251
7 EFR and rivers 2252 163 145 086 394
from Mahanadi
to Godavari and
Krishna to Pennar
8 EFR between 1646 142 002 – 144
Pennar and
Kanyakumari
9 Mahanadi 6688 849 539 1096 2484
10 Brahmani & 2848 476 024 872 1372
Baitarani
11 Subarnarekha 1237 066 165 159 390
12 Sabarmati 381 135 012 009 156
13 Mahi 1102 475 036 002 513
14 WFR of Kutch & 1510 431 058 314 803
Saurashtra
including Luni
15 Narmada 4564 660 1672 046 2378
16 Tapi 1488 853 100 199 1152
17 WFR from Tapi 8741 710 266 084 1060
to Tadri
18 WFR from Tadri 11353 1025 231 170 1426
to Kanyakumari
19 Minor rivers 3100 031 – – 031
draining to
Myanmar (Burma)
& Bangladesh
Total 1 86935 17373 7542 13230 38145

Source: CWC (2002).

Currently, the constructed dams have created a total live storage capacity of
177 km3 by the year 1995 as against 1560 km3 in the pre-plan period. Besides,
dams to create an additional live storage capacity of 75 km3 are under various
stages of construction. Also, dams under formulation/consideration will create
an additional live storage of 132 km3 when all the dams under construction
Reservoirs and Lakes 943

Table 4. Storage capacities km3  in different states

State Completed Under Construction Total

Andhra Pradesh 2485 712 3197

Assam – 105 105
Bihar 466 435 901
Goa 004 067 072
Gujarat 1492 725 2217
Himachal Pradesh 1381 011 1392
Jammu and Kashmir – – –
Karnataka 2156 301 2457
Kerala 462 162 623
Madhya Pradesh 1856 2163 4021
Maharashtra 2210 1292 3501
Manipur 040 012 052
Meghalaya 070 – 070
Nagaland – 122 122
Orissa 1429 330 1759
Punjab 002 234 237
Rajasthan 832 159 991
Tamil Nadu 672 004 676
Tripura 031 – 031
Uttar Pradesh 1629 706 2340
West Bengal 148 148
Pondicherry 001 – 001
Total 17373 7542 24915

Note: Storages having capacity 10 MCM and above are considered.

Source: CWC (2002), pp23.

Table 5. Distribution of dams in India

State Completed Under Construction Total

Maharashtra 1,229 (34%) 300 (43%) 1,529 (36%)

Madhya Pradesh 946 (26%) 147 (21%) 1,093 (25%)
Gujarat 466 (13%) 71 (10%) 537 (13%)
Other States 955 (27%) 177 (26%) 1,132 (26%)
Total 3,596 695 4,291

Note: Figure in the bracket is percentage of total under the column.

Source: CWC (2002).

and those under consideration are completed, India will have a total live storage
of 384 km3 , which is about 56% of assessed utilizable surface water resources
of 690 km3 .
Figure 2 illustrates another important point. It shows the number of days whose
average flows can be stored in various reservoirs in India. In this respect, the
storage capacity available in Tapi and Krishna is the highest in India, 230 and 220
days respectively. As compared to this, the Colorado dam in the USA has enough
944 Chapter 19

Table 6. Statewise and riverwise distribution of large dams

State Name of river Name of dam

Andhra Pradesh Godavari Sriram Sagar dam

Kaddam (tributary of Kaddam dam
Godavari)
Krishna Nagarjuna Sagar dam
Krishna Srisailam hydroelectric
project
Machkund Jalaput dam
Sileru Forebay dam
Bihar Badua Badua reservoir
Barakar Maithon dam
Barakar Tilaiya dam
Chandan Chandan reservoir
Damodar Panchet hill dam
Damodar Tenughat dam
Konar Konar dam
Subarnarekha Getalsud dam
Gujarat Banas Dantiwada dam
Machhundri Machhundri irrigation
scheme
Mahi Kadana reservoir
Raval Raval irrigation scheme
Sabarmati Dharoi dam
Sakra Tapar dam
Shetrunji Shetrunji irrigation
scheme
Tapi Ukai dam
Himachal Pradesh Beas Beas dam at Pong
Beas Pandhoh dam
Sutlej Bhakra dam
Karnataka Arkavally and Chamarajasagar dam
Kumudwathy
Bhadra Bhadra reservoir
Ghataprabha Hidkal dam
Harangi Harangi reservoir
Kabini Kabini dam
Krishna Narayanpur dam
Main Cauvery Krishnarajasagar dam
Malaprabha Indira Gandhi dam
Sharavathy Linganamakki dam
Talakalale Talakalale dam
Tungabhadra Tungabhadra dam
Vedavati Vani Vilasa Sagar dam
Kerala Ayalar Pothundy dam
Karuvannur Peechi dam
Malampuzha Malampuzha dam
Neyyar Neyyar dam
Periyar Idukki dam
Wadakkancherry Vazhani dam
Reservoirs and Lakes 945

Madhya Pradesh Barna Barna dam

Chambal Gandhi Sagar dam
Mahanadi Mahanadi reservoir project
Tawa Tawa dam
Maharashtra Ambi Tanaji Sagar dam
Aner Aner dam
Bagh Sirpur dam
Bhogawati Radhanagari dam
Boladwadi Stream Kolkewadi dam
Garvi Itiadoh dam
Godavari Paithan dam
Kadwa Karanjwan dam
Katepurna Katepurna dam
Koyna Koyna dam
Krishna Dhom dam
Mula Mula dam
Mutha Khadakwasla dam
Nira Vir dam
Nirguna Nirguna dam
Pawna Pawna dam
Pench Kamthikhairy dam
Pravara Wilson dam
Purna Sidheshwar dam
Purna Yeldari dam
Pus Pus dam
Waghadi Waghadi dam
Wuna Kanholi dam
Yelwandi Bhatghar dam
Orissa Kolab Upper Kolab dam
Machkund Balimela dam
Mahanadi Hirakud dam
Rajasthan Chambal Jawahar Sagar dam
Chambal Rana Pratap Sagar dam
Gomti Jaisamand tank
Tamil Nadu Aliyar Upper Aliyar dam
Amaravati Amaravathi dam
Avalanche Stream Avalanche dam
Bhavani Lower Bhavani dam
Bhavani Upper Bhavani dam
Cauvery Mettur (Stanley) dam
Emerald Emerald dam
Gatanandi Gatana dam
Karuppanadhi Karuppanadhi dam
Kodayar Kodayar dam I
Kodayar Kodayar dam II
Kodayar Peechiparai dam
Kundah Kundapalam dam
Manimuthar Manimuthar dam
Mukurthi Mukurthi dam
Nirar Lower Nirar dam
Palar Thirumurthi dam

(Continued)
946 Chapter 19

Table 6. (Continued)

State Name of river Name of dam

Palar-Porandalar Palar Porandalar dam

Paralayar Perunchani dam
Parambikulam Parambikulam dam
Parappalar Parappalar dam
Parson’s Valley Stream Parson’s valley dam
Pegumbahalla Pegumbahalla dam
Periyar Periyar dam
Ponnaiyar Sathanur dam
Porthimund Stream Porthimund dam
Ramanadhi Ramanadhi dam
Sandy Nullah Stream Sandy Nullah dam
Sholayar Sholayar dam
Thambraparani Thambraparani dam
Tributary of Western catchment
Karampuzha no.2 dam
Vaigai Vaigai dam
Varahapallam West West Varahapallam
dam
Uttaranchal Bhagirathi Maneri Bhali
hydroelectric project
(stage 1)
Ramganga Ramganga dam
Ganga Tehri dam
Uttar Pradesh Rihand Obra dam
Rihand Rihand dam
Tons Ichari dam
Betwa Matatila dam
West Kangsabati and Kumari Kangsabati-Kumari
Bengal dam
Mayurakshi Massanjore dam

Source: CBIP (1987) and others.

capacity to store mean flow of about 900 days or about 2.5 years. Further, Mahanadi,
Ganga and Brahmaputra are the rivers which carry large flow volumes but the
storage capacity in their basins is abysmally low at 80, 40, and 2 days, respectively.
Obviously, we need to create more storage space in India so that our rivers can be
regulated in a more meaningful way. This argument gets further buttressed when
one recalls that precipitation in India has very high temporal skewness due to
monsoon type climate.
Per capita storages in India and various countries are shown in Figure 3. It can
be immediately noticed that India has quite small storage space as compared to
other countries of similar characteristics. Further, precipitation is far more evenly
distributed in many other countries but despite that, they have attained a much
higher degree of regulation to beneficially use their water resources.
Reservoirs and Lakes 947

Table 7. Distribution of small reservoirs and irrigation tanks in India

States Small reservoirs Irrigation tanks Total

Number Area (ha) Number Area (ha) Number Area (ha)

Tamil Nadu 58 15 663 8 837 300 278 8,895 315,941

Karnataka 46 15 253 4 605 213 404 4,651 228,657
Andhra Pradesh 98 24 178 2 800 177 749 2,898 201,927
Orissa 1 433 66 047 – – 1,433 66,047
Gujarat 115 40 099 561 44 025 676 84,124
Rajasthan 389 54 231 – – 389 54,231
Bihar 112 12 461 – – 112 12,461
Uttar Pradesh 40 20 845 – 197 806 40 218,651
Kerala 21 7 975 – – 21 7,975
Madhya Pradesh 6 172 575 – – 6 172,575
West Bengal 4 732 – – 4 732
Haryana 4 282 – – 4 282
North East 4 1 639 – 600 4 2,239
Maharashtra – – – – – 119,515
Himachal Pradesh 1 200 – – 1 200
Total 2 331 551 695 16 803 933 862 19,134 1,485,557

Source: http://www.fao.org.

Table 8. Distribution of medium, large and total reservoirs in India

States Medium Large Total Storages∗

Number Area (ha) Number Area (ha) Number Area (ha)

Tamil Nadu 9 19,577 2 23,222 8,906 358,740

Karnataka 16 29,078 12 179,556 4,679 437,291
Andhra Pradesh 32 66,429 7 190,151 2,937 458,507
Orissa 6 12,748 3 119,403 1,442 198,198
Gujarat 28 57,748 7 144,358 711 286,230
Rajasthan 30 49,827 4 49,386 423 153,444
Bihar 5 12,523 8 71,711 125 96,695
Uttar Pradesh 22 44,993 4 71,196 66 334,840
Madhya Pradesh 21 169,502 5 118,307 32 460,384
Kerala 8 15,500 1 6,160 30 29,635
West Bengal 1 4,600 1 10,400 6 15,732
Northeast 2 5,835 – – 6 8,074
Himachal Pradesh – – 2 41,364 3 41,564
Maharashtra – 39,181 – 115,054 – 273,750
Haryana – – – – 4 282
Total 180 527,541 56 1,140,268 19,370 3,153,366
∗
includes data of Table 7.
948 Chapter 19

Table 9. Fifty highest Indian dams

Rank Name of Year of Dam’s feature Storage capacity Rank by

State
as per Dam completion (m) (MCM) Live
height storage
capacity
Height Length Gross Live

1 Tehri U/C Uttaranchal 261 575 3 540 2 615 19

2 Kishau U/C Uttaranchal 236 680 1 810 1 330 30
3 Bhakra 1963 Himachal 225 518 9 621 7 191 3
Pradesh
4 Lakhwar U/C Uttar 204 2 800 580 330 46
Pradesh
5 Idukki 1974 Kerala 169 366 1 996 1 460 28
6 Sardar U/C Gujarat 163 1 244 9 500 5 800 9
Sarovar
7 Srisailam 1984 Andhra 145 512 8 722 7 080 5
Pradesh
8 Jamrani 1990 Uttar 140 765 2066 2066 48
Pradesh
9 Chamera 1994 Himachal 140 295 3913 110 50
Pradesh
10 Cheruthoni 1976 Kerala 138 650 1 996 1 460 27
11 Pong 1974 Himachal 133 1 956 8 570 7 290 2
Pradesh
12 Ramganga 1974 Uttar 128 715 2 450 2 196 21
Pradesh
13 Nagarjuna 1974 Andhra 125 4 865 11 555 6 940 6
Sagar Pradesh
14 Salal 1960 J&K 118 630 285 285 47
(Rockfill)
15 Kakki 1966 Kerala 114 336 455 447 45
16 Sholayar 1971 Tamil Nadu 105 1 244 1527 1431 49
17 Koyna 1964 Maharashtra 103 805 2 797 2 652 17
18 Supa 1987 Karnataka 101 322 4 150 3 710 11
19 Idamalayar 1985 Kerala 100 375 1 153 1 018 33
20 Lower U/C Gujarat 100 903 630 581 44
Karjan
21 Rihand 1962 Uttar 90 9342 10 6083 8 97994 1
Pradesh
22 Ukai 1972 Gujarat 81 5 065 8 511 7 100 4
23 Bhadra 1963 Karnataka 72 440 2 025 1 785 25
24 Rengali Orissa 71 1 040 5 150 3 432 12
25 Balimela 1977 Orissa 70 372 3 610 2 676 16
26 Mettur 1934 Tamil Nadu 70 1 615 2 708 2 647 18
27 Bargi 1980 Madhya 69 5 337 3 920 3 180 14
Pradesh
28 Kadana 1979 Gujarat 66 575 1 542 1 203 32
29 Gandhisagar 1960 Madhya 65 514 7 746 6 910 7
Pradesh
30 Tenughat 1981 Jharkhand 63 408 1 023 814 40
Reservoirs and Lakes 949

31 Lower 1955 Tamil Nadu 62 8 797 9288 9078 37

Bhavani
33 Hirakud 1957 Orissa 61 1 248 8 136 5 818 8
32 Linganamakki 1965 Karnataka 61 2 749 4 418 4 276 10
34 Machkund NA Orissa 61 NA NA 893 38
35 Ghatprabha 1979 Karnataka 60 10 035 1 44870 1 387 29
36 Tawa 1974 Madhya 58 1 815 2 310 2 050 23
Pradesh
37 Rana Pratap 1967 Rajasthan 58 1 143 2 900 1 567 26
Sagar
38 Malprabha 1973 Karnataka 56 69 1 06839 866 39
39 Upper Kolab 1990 Orissa 55 631 1 215 935 35
40 Yeldari 1968 Maharashtra 51 350 934 809 41
41 Vanivilassagar 1901 Karnataka 50 4054 8503 802 42
42 Dharoi 1976 Gujarat 50 6 847 90788 77589 43
43 Almatti NA Karnataka 49 1 565 3 485 2 986 15
44 Hemavathy NA Karnataka 45 4 692 1 05083 10128 34
45 Sriramsagar 1983 Andhra 43 14 600 3 172 2 322 20
Pradesh
46 Mahi Bajaj 1986 Rajasthan 43 3 062 NA 2 070 22
Sagar
47 Kangsabati 1975 West Bengal 41 10 400 1 052 914 36
48 Krishnarajsagar 1932 Karnataka 40 2 620 1 3688 1 244 31
49 Somasila NA Andhra 38 NA 2 210 1 994 24
Pradesh
50 Tungabhadra NA Karnataka 36 2 449 3 73782 3 308 13

Source: CBIP (1987), CBIP (1996), CWC (2006), and others.

As of now, the storage capacity created (including projects under construction)

is about 50% of that ultimately possible. It is doubtful whether even the storage
capacity of 400 km3 can actually be created because of objections on environmental
and other grounds. It is interesting to note that the USA, which has almost the same
surface water potential, has already a storage capacity of about 700 km3 , i.e. about
the same as India’s ultimate storage capacity. Storage capacity in the former USSR
is of the order of 1100 km3 .

19.3. PROBLEMS IN DECISION MAKING FOR DAMS

Reservoir projects have immensely contributed in irrigation development in the

country and in generating cheap hydropower. Impressive progress in creating
irrigation facilities along with the other input has contributed in tremendous increase
in agricultural products and making India self-sufficient in food grains. In fact, in
recent past, India has even exported considerable quantities of food grains and other
agricultural products. Contributions in other fields such as flood control and water
supply are also immense.
In this section, we discuss some problems related with dam and reservoir
development.
950 Chapter 19
Per Capita Storage (Cubic meter)

7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0

a
a

lia

zil

ina

os

nd

ia
ric

pia
ssi

Ind
La
stra

Bra

aila
Ch

Af

tio
Ru

Au

Th

Eh
uth
So
Figure 2. Number of days of average flows that can be stored in reservoirs in various river basins in
India. For comparison, the data of Colorado River (USA) has also been plotted

19.3.1. Relative Economics of Projects

Sometimes, the opponents of major dams quote the capital cost of minor irrigation
projects to show that they are cheaper than major dams. Undoubtedly, the capital
cost of a minor dam will be low. However, minor dams normally do not have any
spillway to regulate flood waters and breaches are common. Experience with tanks
(small dams) in the states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Rajasthan has indicated
that, in years of high rainfall, breaches are frequent which require costly repairs.
Similarly, it is often advocated that the cost of groundwater development is very
cheap compared to that of surface water through major and medium irrigation.
This again is not true, as only the capital cost in both cases is taken into account;
the recurring annual maintenance cost in the case of groundwater is comparatively
high. Besides, normally the life of tubewells is about 20 years, while the useful

1000

800
Days of mean flow

600

400

200

0
a
o

pi

ri

ga

us

tra
ar
hn

ad
ad
ad

er

a
Ta

nn

d
an
av

pu
ris

an
uv
m

In
or

Pe

G
od

B'
K

ar

ah
l

Ca
Co

Figure 3. Per capita reservoir storage space in selected countries of the world
Reservoirs and Lakes 951

life of pumps is only ten years, at the end of which period complete replacement is
required. Therefore, if the annual costs over a period of 100 years – which is taken
as the economic life of a major project – are compared, taking into account both
the capital and the annual maintenance and replacement costs, the picture changes.
Even after considering the present cost of major and medium irrigation, the annual
cost becomes less compared with minor tanks and groundwater. At the same time,
to meet the needs of the country for agricultural production, irrigation has to be
provided through all the means, namely major and medium projects, minor surface
projects and also ground water.

19.3.2. Small Versus Big Dams

An oft-repeated discussion related to the dams is whether small dams are more
suitable than big dams. Basically, there are three places to store water: soil profile,
surface storages, and aquifers. The storage in soil profile is very important for
agriculture but only small quantities of water can be stored for a short period.
A comparative analysis of advantages, limitations, and key issues associated with
groundwater, a small reservoir, and a large surface reservoir are given in Table 10.
The main argument against big reservoirs is that they submerge large areas
compared to many small reservoirs. Any dam, big or small, needs a suitable site.

Table 10. Comparative advantages, limitations, and key issues associated with groundwater, small
surface reservoir, and a large surface reservoir

Groundwater storage Small surface reservoirs Large surface reservoirs

Advantages

Negligible evaporation Ease of operation Multipurpose

loss
Ubiquitous distribution Multiple use Large, reliable yield
Operational efficiency Groundwater recharge Carryover storage
Available on demand Low cost per m3 water
stored
Good water quality Groundwater recharge
Limitations

Slow recharge rate High evaporation loss Complexity of operations

fraction
Groundwater Relatively high unit cost Sedimentation
contamination
Cost of extraction Absence of over-year High initial investment
storage
Recoverable fraction Large gestation period
Requires good sites
Key Issues

Declining water levels Sedimentation Social and environmental

impacts
Rising water levels Population displacement Rehabilitation and
resettlement
Regulation of use Submergence
Groundwater pollution Environmental impacts
952 Chapter 19

One just cannot build a dam wherever one wants. If a major dam is to be replaced
by a number of small dams, there must be a number of suitable sites on the same
river. Keller et al. (2,000) argued that it is very difficult to construct safe small
dams. Of course, one will also have to build dams in lower reaches which will
mean more submergence (often of good agricultural land) due to flat slopes and
more population displacement due to higher population density.
It is useful now to examine some real cases. Consider Britain’s largest reservoir
Quoich on Quoich River near Fort Augustus in the Scottish Highlands. The lake
behind 38 m high earth-rockfill dam has a storage capacity of 3,828 million m3 .
According to Robbroeck (1996), if all British reservoirs are arranged in an ascending
order of size and their volumes and surface areas aggregated, the total volume of
the 327 smallest reservoirs would be needed to replace the volume of the largest,
and that the total submerged area would be 6,705 ha, 3.5 times the area submerged
by Quoich. A similar analysis for South Africa shows that 433 small reservoirs
would be needed to replace the volume (5,246 million m3 ) of the Gariep reservoir,
with an aggregate area 222 times larger. A comparison was also made by Shah
(1993) in India between the proposed Girna dam in the Mahanadi basin in Orissa
and a smaller Girna dam plus 8 satellite storages making up the same volume. In
case of smaller dams, the cost would be 150% higher, 60% more land would be
submerged, considerably less energy would be generated, and evaporation will be
50–60% higher.
Although social and environmental problems are probably not in direct proportion
to the area submerged, it can be safely deduced that a large number of small reser-
voirs will be far less acceptable from that point of view. Economics would also be
much worse: loss of advantage of scale, more site establishment, more spillways, and
diversion and outlet works. Silt accumulation is also substantially less, as the United
States Department of Agriculture figures show: reservoirs smaller than 10 acre feet
(ac-ft) silted up at an average rate of 3.5%/year, smaller than 100 ac-ft at 2.7%/year
and smaller than 1,000,000 ac-ft at 0.16%/year. This alone is a powerful argument
against a large number of small reservoirs. A comparative study of some key
characteristics of three sizes of structures is made in Table 11 to illustrate the
argument.
While dealing with hydropower projects, comparisons must look at impacts per
unit of output. The impacts of a single large hydro project must be compared
with the cumulative impacts of several small projects yielding the same power and
level of service. The most fundamental determinant of the nature and magnitude of
impacts of hydropower projects are the specific site conditions and not the scale of
the project (www.hydropower.org).
Clearly, the degree of regulation and reliability that is provided by a large dam is
not possible with a small tank. Small tanks tend to dry up fast during droughts as the
surface area is large. In such periods, major and medium projects are the mainstay
of water supply. One has to consider this aspect also when planning projects in
drought-prone and arid regions. To conclude, one must go for the optimal size of
the project rather than getting bogged down in small vs. big controversy.
Reservoirs and Lakes 953

Table 11. Contrast of characteristics of the High Aswan Dam, Dharoi reservoir, and a minor tank in
Sri Lanka

Characteristic High Aswan Dharoi reservoir Typical minor tank

Dam

Storage capacity 1689 km3 1321 km3 4.1 ha-m

Surface area 6 500 km2 138 km2 5.0 ha
Net irrigated area 2.648 million ha 36,827 ha 5.0 ha
Storage fraction of area 0.29 NA 0.4
times depth
Annual evaporation loss 14 km3 015 km3 2.0 ha-m
Annual evaporation depth 2.7 m 2.458 1.0 m
Dam height 111 m 45.87 m 2m
Crest length 3.830 m 1207 m 170 m
Embankment volume 44.3 million m3 NA 2 600 m3
Command area 3.4 million 773,778 ha < 10 ha
irrigated ha

19.3.3. Regional Disparities in Dam Construction

Besides the large regional variations in utilizable flows and good sites for dams,
there are large regional disparities in development of storage dams in the country. In
basins such as Satluj, Beas, Krishna, Pennar Cauvery, Mahi, Tapi, and Sabarmati,
more than 80% of the potential has already been developed. On the other hand, on
the tributaries of Brahmaputra and Barak, less than 5% of storage potential has been
developed. On the tributaries of Ganga, Yamuna, Mahanadi, and Godavari also
very less storage potential has been developed. Finally, there are no large reservoirs
on Ghagra, Gandak, and Kosi rivers which carry large flows. Of course, regional
disparities in economic and social development are noted across the country.
Among the states, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, and the North Eastern States
have least progress in creation of large reservoirs. Notably, the states with limited
financial resources have smallest development of LSD during the past 20 years.
As the reservoirs are catalysts in economic development, this regional disparity is
not a welcome sign. To overcome this problem, a financially strong public sector
undertaking may be assigned the responsibility to develop LSD having hydropower
component. There are a few such organizations in India in the field of hydropower.
Not the absolute number but the water storage capacity and hydraulic head
(energy generation capacity) of the reservoirs is of critical importance. Although
the largest number of dams have been built in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra,
these states could not harness as much benefits as Punjab, Haryana, and Western
Rajasthan where only three projects, namely Bhakra, Pong, and Pandoh with huge
storage capacities have provided assured irrigation to millions of hectares of land
and cheap hydropower for ground water extraction. Of course, besides the WRD
projects, the entrepreneurship and labour of the people also has a role to play in this
prosperity. The optimum development of water resources potential of Satluj, Beas,
and Ravi rivers through a system of large reservoirs, diversions, long distance water
954 Chapter 19

transfer and extensive canal network and the resulting socio-economic prosperity
of the region is an excellent model for similar development in other river basins
of India.
Although there is an extensive canal system in the Ganga basin, this is not
backed up by storage reservoirs in the headwater areas. This has hampered assured
irrigation through canals in the basin. The Tehri project is nearing completion now
and the benefits should start flowing soon. In many other rivers, such as Mahanadi
and Godavari, bulk of the monsoon runoff just flows to the unutilized and may also
cause damage on its way. Unfortunately, more than 60% of the cultivated area in
India is rainfed or dependent on the vagaries of monsoons. One can easily imagine
how the agricultural yields will increase if a substantial part of this area can be
provided with assured irrigation. As shown in many studies, besides increasing
productivity, this can lead to almost magical socio-economic transformation of the
country by removing poverty, unemployment, and promoting agro-based industries.

19.3.4. Design of Dam

There are many problems related with decision making for dams in India. According
to World Bank (1991), these are basic weaknesses in data, detailed engineering
design, and project planning and appraisal, resulting in inappropriate projects. Nine
projects were assessed by them in 1989, out of which seven had unacceptable
economic rate of returns (ERRs), all below opportunity cost of capital in India.
Projects are frequently plagued with cost and time overruns, poor implementation,
reduction in irrigated areas, reduction in yields, downward adjustments in cropping
patterns, etc. Further, optimistic design assumptions on water availability and
irrigation efficiency are made which are not supported by facts.
World Bank (1991) also noted that sensitivity analysis is rarely performed in
India in irrigation project planning. The benefit/cost ratios are calculated at the end
of project preparation, instead of a decision making aid during project identification
and when evaluating design alternatives. The scrutiny of key technical assumptions
and economic and financial evaluation are often weak. Although this evaluation by
the World Bank is quite old, things don’t seem to have improved much over time.
Due to increase of irrigation demands in excess of what can be accommodated
with available resources, too many projects were started by the state govern-
ments in (particularly in 1970s and 1980s) without proper investigation, and
spreading available resources thinly. Another weakness is that the management of
irrigation sector in India is highly centralized. Users have very little participation
in management of irrigation systems. While taking a decision, political interference
is common; there is little accountability and very little performance evaluation.
The available information on rainfall, stream flow, and climate are often inade-
quate or unreliable. Lack of adequate staff with desired qualifications for analysis
and design along with laxity in the technical and economic scrutiny of projects
before approval have contributed to a lowering in the quality of project reports.
Thakkar (1999) notes that many projects have been initiated by states without prior
Reservoirs and Lakes 955

mandatory approvals, and changes in the scope, design, and cost estimates are large
and frequent. Unfortunately, there are no rigorous and detailed analyses of the
factors responsible for revision in cost estimates or the justification for the large
divergence between projected and actual costs. The underestimation of costs leads
to higher final costs for the WRD projects. A study by Public Accounts Committee
of 32 projects showed cost escalation of 500% and beyond.
The entire project evaluation process is strictly internal to the government
agencies. Unlike many countries, public hearings are not held nor information is
disseminated to the general public. Due to this lack of transparency, mistakes often
propagate undetected. However, things seem to be changing recently. Feasibility
reports of some ILR proposals have been recently put in public domain on Internet.
The Right to Information act has been passed and implemented recently but it as
not yet made any impact on decision making in water sector.
In several cases, the projects have been started much before the mandatory
approval. Thakkar (1999) has cited many examples to support this statement. For
example, construction of Nagarjunasagar project in AP was started in 1955, whereas
the approval came in 1960; construction of Kosi project in Bihar was started in
1955, three years before getting the approval; construction on Malprabha project in
Karnataka started three years before the approval came in 1963; clearance for the
Tawa project in MP and Kangasabati in West Bengal came four to five years after
the commencement of construction work. In case of Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP),
even though final sanctions came only in 1988, the work on the project was started
much earlier in 1978, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) funded
studies started in 1980 and the World Bank loan was approved in 1985.
Possibly the underestimation of the costs were deliberate and not unintended.
Moreover, the large dam projects have invariably taken very long to be completed.
It is noted that very few projects have been completed within the stipulated target
date since independence. Singh (1997) has noted that average delay in the large
dam projects studied have been 160%.
Unsatisfactory quality of construction work in many cases due to neglect or
corruption is quite common. Paradoxically, there have been many notable develop-
ments in project planning and execution in infrastructure sector India but none in
water sector.

19.3.5. Construction of New Reservoirs

Construction of new WRD projects is becoming more difficult with the passage of
time. Future water resources development will become more complex and capital
intensive. Poor planning, lack of coordination, and inept management have been
the bane of many WRD projects that have been recently taken up in India.
Completion time of most medium and major projects is significantly higher than
the scheduled completion time. These days, completion of a multipurpose project
takes around 15 years or more; a major project takes about 10–12 years. There
956 Chapter 19

are many reasons behind time and cost overrun of water resources projects and the
chief among them are listed below.
a) Delays due to interstate and trans-boundary Issues: Most major Indian rivers
flow through more than one state and in addition, major northern rivers are
international. Construction of projects in their catchments requires agreements
among the involved entities which usually leads to excessive delay.
b) Delays due to environment, forest and rehabilitation and resettlement issues: Stiff
opposition is faced while constructing new projects on the plea that these damage
environment, submerge forest and agriculture lands, and require rehabilitation
and resettlement of large number of people. Construction of projects has been
stalled or even cancelled on these grounds. Consider the example of the Sardar
Sarovar Project on the Narmada River in Gujarat. At the time of Tribunal Award
in 1978, the number of project affected families was estimated around 8,000;
currently it is more than 40,000.
c) Insurgency: Adverse law and order has been responsible in delay or some recent
projects and survey and investigation work in some parts of the country suffers
on account of this factor.
d) Funding: Lack of funding has also resulted in delay in many WRD projects in India.
e) Suitable sites for large and medium storages are limited and most of them have
already been exploited. Naturally, the remaining sites are going to present more
difficult problems which increase construction time.
f) Institutional mechanisms need to be created or strengthened at State, grass-
roots and basin levels, particularly enhancing non-governmental stake holder
participation as a core to all institutional initiatives.
Basu and Joshi (2000) identified the following construction related reasons for
slippage in respect of time and cost over-run of WRD projects: (1) Insufficient
funding, (2) Delay in land acquisition, (3) Incomplete survey and investigation,
(4) Construction schedules were too optimistic, (5) Changes in design were made
during execution, (6) Cost and time estimates were inaccurate, (7) Underbidding by
contractors, and (8) Delays due to contractor related factors. The delay occurring
between submission of a proposal and sanction is the most significant reason for
delay among different phases of work.
Analysis shows that the present approach of project execution followed by many
government departments is inadequate and incomplete; the present practice of
scheduling does not meet the requirements; and the present practice of project
monitoring has not stood the test of time. Also inadequate are the present practice
of inventory management, manpower planning, and general estimating principles.
Appropriate level of details and proper documentation are not given in project
reports. Moreover, the level and commitment for quality control has significantly
dropped and there is an urgent need for a quality assurance system.
For the new and complex projects of current times, the simple technique of a
bar chart for planning, scheduling and monitoring are not enough. A conventional
approach which is based on experience and common sense is often not helpful when
making the decision to speed up project progress by incurring extra expenditure.
Reservoirs and Lakes 957

Programme Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) and Critical Path Method
(CPM) are extremely beneficial and effective in efficient management of projects
and should be followed. Of course, these techniques do not relieve the management
of the responsibility for making quick and right decisions.
The construction environment is prone to dispute and in the event of a dispute, the
progress of work suffers and slows down. Every contract has clause for arbitration
and dispute settlement but frequent resort to such measures is a costly and lengthy
process. Proper coordination and trust between the concerned department and
contractor is must for successful and timely implementation of a project. Both have
to work closely as partners to attain the desired goals. Cost escalation frequently
creates problems. It may be helpful to follow a construction cost index which will
result in realistic assessment of escalation of construction cost.
The present approach towards environmental consideration in project planning
and the execution phase is insufficient and inappropriate. All environmental issues
should be properly addressed in the project planning phase. Before starting a
construction project it is essential to assess the present environment without the
project, and the likely impact of the project on the environment when it is completed.
Taking into account certain environmental considerations during the construction
phase may help in the environmentally sound construction of projects. While large
dams are inevitable in the future development of India, all efforts should be made
to minimize submergence of land.
It will be better if project estimates are prepared by making suitable provision
for future escalation in price during the period of construction and uncertainty
in project cost and time forecast should be incorporated in project estimates and
schedules. Project execution on a turn-key basis may help to reduce time and cost
over-runs.

19.4. RESERVOIR OPERATION

After creation of storage facilities, the benefits that can be reaped from them
largely depend upon how efficiently these are managed. Water stored behind the
dams is a precious resource collected at a large cost and it is necessary that it is
used in an optimal manner. Scientifically developed operation procedures are not
available for a large number of reservoirs in India. While operation manuals have
been prepared for some major storage projects, for most Indian reservoirs, well-
defined and scientific operation policies do not exist. To that end, it is necessary
that optimum operation policies should be developed at least for all the important
reservoirs in the country. Expertise is available in the country and to begin with,
this exercise could be taken up for all the reservoirs in Table 9 Ht > 100 m. Later,
operation policies can be prepared for the other reservoirs.
Another related issue is that even where such manuals exist, these might have
been prepared long ago and the procedures may no longer be optimal as the basin
conditions might have undergone large changes over time (say, upstream utilization,
changes in downstream reaches) and the demands (purpose of dam, magnitude,
958 Chapter 19

and pattern of demands) may have changed. Moreover, the hydrology of the basin
might have undergone changes as a result of the so called climate change and
the other factors and this also calls that the design and operation practices of
storage projects should be periodically reviewed.
Studies have shown that improvement in operation of reservoirs by a few
percentage points translates into large sum of money. Systems analysis is an area
which has seen enormous growth in applications to water resources management
problems. The techniques that are commonly employed include simulation,
optimization, and multi-objective analysis. The current trend is to take a holistic
view of the river basin and take decisions after taking into consideration engineering,
financial, environmental, legal, and social aspects. Recent development in this field
includes genetic algorithms and fuzzy approaches, etc. Indigenously developed
softwares as well as expertise is available in the country and hence this aspect
should be given due importance.
Wherever a network of dams is present in a basin, these should be ideally
operated as an integrated system. This is what leads to synergy and is advocated by
professionals. Many countries are following this practice to their benefit. However,
in India this is rarely done. In case the projects are located in different states, there
is hardly any sharing of information and in some cases, sharing is discouraged. As
a result, individual reservoirs in many systems are operated in isolation. At times,
this leads to undesirable situations in which some reservoirs of the system may be
nearly full and some nearly empty. Although the national water policy advocates
basin planning and management, this is rarely practiced in the country and it is high
time that we create infrastructure to implement this concept.
Reservoir projects provide numerous benefits to the society. In the Indian context,
water is stored behind the dams is a precious resource which no operating engineer
can let off without expecting re-filling over the next few days/weeks. Further in
most projects, reservoirs are gradually filled during the monsoon season. Incidental
flood moderation is achieved and sometimes reservoirs are depleted if high flood
is anticipated. Such constraints create a situation when flood moderation storage is
exclusively unavailable when a flood wave impinges. In many of our projects, we
have gated spillways with large discharge capacity at the full reservoir level (FRL).
But arrangement like this places gates with high discharge capacity in the hands
of operating personnel. However, such a control has the potential to create intense
flooding downstream either due to human error or misjudgment. This fact makes
it necessary that very clear operation policies are communicated to the reservoir
staff and during the flood season, advance information on incoming flood rate and
volumes is available for judicious operation of spillway gates. Another necessary
facility is a dependable system for operators to fallback upon in case the normal
system break downs.
It has also been seen that construction of storages often reduces the occurrence of
relatively moderate floods and this tends to attract human activity to the downstream
flood plains. Occupations like growing melons, vegetables, and other crops or cattle
grazing or fishing begin. These people suffer damage when a big flood comes.
Reservoirs and Lakes 959

Such situations demand that no economic activity be permitted in the flood plains
downstream of a reservoir and whenever this is un-avoidable, reservoir operating
staff should warn people downstream before making big release to avoid loss of
human or cattle lives and other damages. At all major reservoirs particularly those
that are operated for flood control, a real-time forecast network and information
about condition in downstream is very essential.

19.5. HYDROLOGICAL ASPECTS OF DAM SAFETY

Safety of dams is vital as a failure can be catastrophic and huge investment and
time is needed to construct a dam. Aging of dams, high replacement cost, and
increasing difficulties in constructing new dams are the major forces to increasing
emphasis on dam safety and operation and maintenance. In India, some catastrophic
failures in past have led to focusing attention on hydrological aspects of dam safety.
This consists of the need of more critically monitoring the integrity of dams, in
evaluation of hazards due to failure of dam operation of spillways, review of design
flood, preparation of emergency action plan, etc.
The hydrological aspect is one of the major factors affecting safety of a dam.
International organization such as the World Bank have stressed on developing
hydrologic criteria to ensure a more specific direction for design flood estimation.
The hydrological aspects, which are of interest here, need a regular review of dam
safety with the availability of more and more hydro-meteorological data. For all
important dams under planning, dam-break study is a must and this study is also
being carried out now for major existing dams. A dam-break study attempts to
simulate the flooding conditions in the downstream areas should a dam fail. The
results help planners understand the risks and consequences of dam failure and in
design of necessary follow-up measures.

19.5.1. Flood Control Through Reservoirs

Flood management basically aims to reduce the frequency and magnitude of flood
damage caused by overflowing water. The structural measures keep water away
from flood prone areas. In the Indian context, water is impounded behind dams at
great cost and are a precious resource which should not be let off unless there is a
good possibility of re-filling the reservoir.
Many spillways of Indian dams have considerable discharge capacity at the full
reservoir level (FRL). This capacity may range from 100 year return period flood
to the PMF depending on storage available between FRL and maximum water level
in the reservoir. Thus gates with high discharge capacity are handled by operating
personnel and slip either due to human error or misjudgment can cause intense
flooding downstream. This fact makes it incumbent that both policies of reservoir
operation as well as advance information on incoming flood should be available for
judicious operation of gates. There should be an emergency operation system for
operators. Unfortunately, scientifically derived operation procedures are available
960 Chapter 19

for very few dams and many reservoirs are regulated based on ad-hoc rules. Many
operators are neither interested nor one trained to improve the performance of their
system.
Construction of storages often reduces the occurrence of relatively moderate
floods downstream of dams and tends to spread human activity to the downstream
flood plains. Occupations like growing melons, vegetables and other crops or cattle
grazing or fishing are resorted to. Such situations warrant that reservoir operating
staff has to warn people downstream even for normal release to avoid loss of human
or cattle lives. Further in the coastal areas the swell in the sea is important as any
releases at the time of swell can aggravate drainage congestion and this has to be
taken into account in the timing of reservoir releases.
One of the methods to control floods is to store the excess flood water in reservoirs
behind dams. For instance, the Hirakud Dam (Mahanadi River) has considerably
mitigated the problem of floods in the fertile Mahanadi delta. Likewise, the series
of dams constructed in the Damodar Basin, with one of the principal objectives
of flood control, have again substantially controlled the recurring flood menace
in the Damodar Basin. The Bhakra Dam has more or less solved the problem of
recurring floods in the Satluj River, where a large extent of the wide bed of the
Satluj below the Bhakra Dam is now put to intensive agricultural use. Surat, a
rich and prosperous town in Gujarat, which used to suffer serious flood damage, is
now largely protected by the Ukai Dam. Similarly, the problem of floods in quite
a few rivers has been mitigated by the moderation effected by the storage space
available in major reservoirs although of these were not specifically designed for
flood control.
As no major dams have so far been constructed in the Ganga (except Tehri which
is nearing completion) and Brahmaputra Basin, the problem of floods is faced year
after year. Of course, there is little scope for construction of dams on the major
northern tributaries of the Ganga in India as suitable sites for construction of major
dams are not available within Indian territory. This is a limitation in solving the
problem of floods in lower Ganga basin.

19.5.2. Failure and Safety of Dams

Dams may fail due to one or a combination of the following: i) foundation failure,
ii) inadequacy of spillway capacity, iii) poor construction, iv) uneven settlement,
v) improper operation, etc. Nearly 40% of large dam failures were reported due to
foundation failure, 23% due to inadequate spillway, 12% due to poor construction,
10% due to uneven settlement, and nearly 15 may be attributed to others. The most
common causes of failure are overtopping and internal erosion of dam structure.
Penman (1996) indicated that out of 2,700, dams 17 were reported to have failed
during first filling, 35 during operation caused by internal erosion, and 45 failed by
overtopping. Penman also concluded that maximum failures of newer dams have
been due to human error. The major concern for the older dams is the estimated
design floods, derived using the methods that were available before the time of
Reservoirs and Lakes 961

construction and were not well advanced. These dams have endured long periods
of operation. There have been about 200 dam failure cases all over the world and
nearly 8,000 people are reported to have lost their lives. Among the dam failures,
notably are Valont of Italy (1,963–2,600 lives); South Fork and Teton of USA
of 1889 and 1976 with 2,209 and 11 casualties, respectively; Tailing of Italy,
Malpasset of France, and Kantle of Sri Lanka in 1985, 1959, 1986 with 200, 421
and 100 lives, respectively. The Table 12 (ICOLD, 1995) indicates the number of
major dam failures up to 1965.
In India, 32 m high Waghad embankment dam failed in 1883 during construction.
Sometimes, small dams also cause major disaster. For example, 25 m high Tigra
dam failure in 1917 claimed 1,000 lives. The major disaster of Machhu II dam
failure in Gujarat (26 m, Masonry and Earth-fill dam) occurred in 1979 and led
to more than 2,000 casualties. Kaddam (22.5 m), Panshet (53 m), Khadakwasala
(20 m), Chikkhole (36.7 m), constructed respectively in 1957, 1961, 1875, and 1968
failed in the years 1958, 1961, and 1972.
Safety of dams is the responsibility of the agency that constructs and operates
them. In India, several unfortunate incidents in the last three decades have forced
to focus attention on the need to more critically monitor the integrity of dams. The
aspects of dam safety include flood warning system, instrumentation, inspection
and maintenance, seismic aspects, extreme precipitation events, seepage aspects etc.
The aspects related with design flood estimation have been covered in Chapter 5.
With the presence of over 4,000 large dams, India has a very good record in dam
safety. Detailed procedures of dam inspection are available in the country and are
carefully followed by the operating agencies.

19.5.3. Review of Historic Flood Events

Floods are chiefly caused by intensive rainfall. The Machhu II Dam disaster of
1979 is reported to have been caused due to local phenomenon of cloud burst.
The unprecedented flood of 1968 in Tapi River caused devastating downstream
inundation up to the city of Surat. The flood recorded of Ukai was 42475 m3 /s
from the catchment of 62000 km2 . Narmada flood of 1970 was 69500 m3 /s from a
drainage area of 87000 km2 and is considered to be the highest recorded. In 1973,
the Mahi, Sabarmati and Banas river basins experienced large floods, and so did

Table 12. Number of major dam failures up to 1965

Year No. of failures Year No. of failures

Before 1900 38 1940–1949 11

1900–1909 15 1950–1959 30
1910–1919 25 1960–1965 10
1920–1929 33 Unknown 25
1930–1939 15
962 Chapter 19

Table 13. Design floods and observed highest floods for a few projects

Projects Catchment Spillway Highest Revised

area km2  design observed spillway
flood flood design flood
m3 /s m3 /s m3 /s

Ukai 62 225 40 917 42 475 –

Kadana 25 206 23 100 33 000 49 544
Dharoi 5 476 11 212 14 150 21 662
Dantiwada 2 862 6 654 11 950 18 123
Machhu (II) 1 929 5 663 16 307 20 925
Damanganga 1 813 11 100 12 900 12 854
Machhu (I) 735 3 313 9 340 5 947

Damanganga River in 1976. In many parts of the world during last two decades,
the data have shown hydro-meteorological uncertainty and sharp deviations both in
frequency and intensity and extent of storms. Design floods and observed highest
floods for a few projects in Gujarat are given in Table 13.
It may be pointed out that the occurrence of a flood higher than the design flood
is not a failure of design engineers. Design flood is worked out by analysis of
past data and in future, extreme weather conditions which surpass the past values
can develop and may eventually result in higher floods. What is of paramount
importance is that such events are carefully analyzed and the practices and policies
are updated.

19.6. RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION

Owing to the geological and climatic peculiarities, rivers in India particularly the
Himalayan rivers carry some of the highest sediment loads in the world. A large
number of river valley projects have been constructed to serve various purposes.
A major input in the assessment of the economic performance and efficiency of
dams is the rate of sedimentation, both suspended material and bedload. One of
the principal factors, which threaten the longevity of such projects is the accumu-
lation of sediments in the reservoirs. Sedimentation reduces the storage capacity of
reservoirs and hence their ability to conserve water for various intended purposes.
Sedimentation also reduces the survival of aquatic species and restricts the use of
water for multiple purposes. It further increases evaporation due to the increase in
the exposure area of water.
Soil erosion and consequent transportation of silt by streams is a natural
phenomenon which is a function of soil and or rock type, slope, valley shape,
land use, and land cover of the catchment. The reservoirs by themselves do not
accelerate the sedimentation rate and their impact on soil erosion in the catchment,
if at all, is marginal.
Reservoirs and Lakes 963

19.6.1. Consequences of Reservoir Sedimentation

All rivers transport water as well as sediment and dam construction impacts the
transport of both substances but with important differences. As reservoirs age,
the impacts of sedimentation become severe and are attended with more care.
Consequences of reservoir sedimentation can be classified in two groups: upstream
consequences and downstream consequences.
a) Upstream Consequences
A wide range of sediment-related problems can occur upstream of dams as a result
of sediment trapping.
Storage loss: Sediment deposition in the reservoir pool gradually reduces the storage
capacity of the reservoir. After certain stage, the reservoir is unable to provide
useful service.
Delta deposition: The coarser portion of the inflowing sediment load is deposited
where rivers enter reservoirs, forming delta deposits, which not only deplete
reservoir storage but can also cause channel aggradations extending many kilometers
upstream from the reservoir. Channel aggradations can increase flooding of infras-
tructure, communities, and agricultural lands on floodplains; increase groundwater
levels, creating waterlogging and soil salinization; reduce navigational clearance
beneath bridges; and submerge upstream intakes.
Navigation and Recreation: Navigation can be severely impaired by sediment
accumulation, especially in delta areas and in the vicinity of locks. Recreational
access can be impaired when sediment accumulates at the periphery and boat ramps.
Abrasion: In hydropower facilities, sediments coarser than 0.1 mm greatly accelerate
the erosion of turbine runners and Pelton wheel nozzles. In case of high-head
operation, damage can be caused by even smaller particles.
Energy loss: Loss of storage reduces the ability to capture high flows for energy
generation.
Intakes and outlets: Sediments can block intakes and low-level outlet at dams and
can damage gates not designed for sediment pass.
Earthquake hazard: Sediment deposits have a greater mass than water. Therefore,
the presence of sediment against the dam can significantly increase the force of
earthquake shaking against the structure.
Ecology: Changes in sediment loading and sediment accumulation within the pool
can dramatically alter reservoir ecology, affecting species composition and fishing.
b) Downstream Consequences
River reaches downstream of dams suffer large environmental impacts due to flow
reduction and alteration of hydroperiod, reduction of sediment load, and altered
nutrient dynamics. Stream morphology downstream of dams can be dramatically
impacted by the reduction in the supply of bed material sediment. Clear water in
the river channel downstream of the dam will tend to scour the streambed. Channel
degradation can increase bank height and bank erosion rates, increase scour at
downstream bridges, lower water levels at intakes, and reduce navigational depth
964 Chapter 19

at critical locations. Sediment trapping by reservoirs reduces the suspended solids

concentration downstream, which may have many beneficial effects.

19.6.2. Management of Sedimentation

Engineering measures aim to reduce or prevent sheet erosion and gully erosion and
restore degraded agricultural and non-agricultural lands. They provide a necessary
gestation period and help build up a desired moisture regime to carry out other
measures of land stabilization, such as afforestation. Important principles to be kept
in view while planning engineering control measures are:
1. Increase the time of concentration and allow more runoff to be absorbed and
held by the soil,
2. Break a long slope into several short ones to reduce the flow velocity below
critical limits, and
3. Prevent excessive soil and water loss.
In the earlier times, it was assumed that sediment would settle only in the dead
storage. But this is not supported by actual observations. Actually, sedimentation
takes place throughout the reservoir. The sediment inflow rates need to be checked
up through reservoir resurveys. A practice in India is that the elevation capacity
table after 50 years of sediment deposition in the reservoir is used in simulation
studies for the project. IS: 12,182 (1987) “Guidelines for Determination of Effects of
Sedimentation in Planning and Performance of Reservoirs” is the national practices
on this topic. This standard emphasizes the need for periodic resurveys and has the
following main features:
a) The sedimentation rate is to be decided on the basis of observations of sediment
inflow and reservoir surveys.
b) The live storage is to be so planned that the benefits do not reduce for a period
of 50 years (full service time) for irrigation projects or 25 years for hydropower
projects connected to a grid on account of sedimentation.
c) The live storage is to be planned so that sedimentation beyond the outlet, causing
operational problems, would not occur for 100 years for irrigation projects and
75 years for hydropower projects.
d) If sedimentation is not serious, the conditions obtained at the end of full service
period are to be used throughout the simulation period. If the problem is serious,
studies are to be done by redistributing sediment and recomputing trap efficiency
in 10-year blocks. The extent of studies to be done is linked to the seriousness
of the problem, as assessed in a preliminary study. For this purpose, the problem
is categorized in three classes:
Insignificant – If the annual loss of capacity is less then 0.1 percent, the problem
is insignificant. No check on full service time needs to be made. The availability
of adequate feasible service time, however, has to be ensured.
Significant – If the annual loss of capacity is between 0.1 percent to 0.5 percent,
simulation or working table studies may be done for the reservoir geometry as
obtained at the end of the full service time. This would simplify the simulation
Reservoirs and Lakes 965

study, and would also ensure that the planned benefits are available for this period.
The availability of adequate feasible service time is also to be checked.
Serious – If the annual loss of capacity is beyond 0.5 percent, the recompilation
of trapping efficiency and reservoir geometry for every 10 years in the simulation
studies is preferred.
In the approach incorporated in the Indian Standard IS: 12,182 (1987), the end
of Phase-I will depict the end of the period in which the reservoir is capable of
yielding the full planned benefits. The Phase-II would depict a period when the
operation of the reservoir is also trouble free in regard to sedimentation, although
the efficiency of the reservoir gradually reduces. The Phase-III would be a period
of troubled operation, and unless some new engineering solutions are implemented,
the project may have to be given up in phase-IV or phase-V.
Some people suggest comprehensive soil conservation measures as panacea to
arrest and control soil erosion and thereby sedimentation of reservoirs. This is
neither possible nor practical. Firstly the cost of treatment would be prohibitive
(the rate of catchment area treatment for Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra basins
works out to more than Rs. 25,000/- per ha which for Tehri project would mean
an investment of over Rs. 900 crore at 2,000 price level and would take about 10
year time). Secondly the occurrence of big slides in these valleys is natural and
not necessarily caused by construction of any water resources project. There are
regions in the country whereon major project has been constructed yet instances of
soil erosion are observed.
Thus, a practical and constructive approach in this respect would be to make a
comprehensive catchment survey in respect of soil erosion and target those zones
which are likely to witness severe soil erosion.

19.6.3. Reservoir Sedimentation in India

On average, about 16.75 ton/ha/year of soil is lost through erosion every year in
India. This means that more than 5,000 million tons of topsoil is eroded annually.
Further, almost 173.64 M ha area (slightly half of the country), is threatened
by various types of degradation, such as salinity, alkalinity, water logged areas,
ravinous and gullied lands, areas under ravages of shifting cultivation, desertifi-
cation, etc. About 800 ha of arable land are being lost annually due to ingress
of ravines. Frequent occurrences of floods and droughts in different parts of the
country are, to some extent, evidence of improper land use in the catchments and
inadequate conservation of rainwater.
An important consideration in planning of reservoirs in India is gradual reduction
in the storage capacity due to deposition of the sediment brought by rivers. This
is particularly important in view of the fact that good storage sites are limited and
hence it is imperative to find ways and means to prolong the life of reservoirs and
to ensure that realistic assumptions about the rate of sedimentation are made at the
planning stage itself.
966 Chapter 19

In the 20 big and medium rivers of the country, the rate of land erosion is between
10 MT and 799 MT per sq. km. During the last few years, due to the deposition of
sediments, the capacity of Nizam Sagar Dam has gone down to almost half. Every
year about 330 MT of sediments are deposited in the Bhakra Nangal Dam and this
can be highly dangerous. In July 1970, the initial 12 km of upper Ganga canal near
Haridwar was thoroughly filled up with sediments which could only be cleaned in
six months at a considerable expense.
Although sedimentation surveys of reservoirs in India date back to early as 1870,
systematic surveys started only in 1958 when the Central Board of Irrigation and
Power undertook a coordinated scheme of reservoir sedimentation and entrusted this
task to several research stations in the country, viz., Karnataka Engineering Research
Station; Directorate of Irrigation Research, Bhopal; Maharashtra Engineering
Research Station; UP Irrigation Research Institute; Andhra Pradesh Engineering
Research Laboratory, etc. Under the scheme 28 major reservoirs were surveyed.
During the VIII five-year plan period, Central Water Commission also formulated a
scheme for carrying out capacity survey of thirty important reservoirs in the country
through consultants available in the field.
Details of surveys in respect of 144 reservoirs of the country have been collected
and analyzed by Central Water Commission (2001). An abstract showing the
average rate of sedimentation, percentage loss of storage and other useful infor-
mation are given in Table 14. The percentage of loss of capacity up to the last
survey has been given in the table and it varies from 0.65% to 60.47%. Out of 144
reservoirs, 46 reservoirs have lost less than 10% of their capacity, 34 reservoirs have
lost 10–20% of their capacity, 31 reservoirs have lost 20–30% of their capacity,
and 33 reservoirs have lost more than 30% of their capacity up to the last survey.
In all 47 reservoirs had lost more than 25% of their capacity up to the last survey.
Twenty-nine reservoirs have served more than 50 years of their useful life. The
sedimentation problem is high in Salal dam and is discussed in what follows.
Data of sixty-seven reservoirs with known design rate of sedimentation were
analyzed by CWC (2001). The results are given in Table 15. It is observed that the
actual rate of sedimentation is more than the design rate of sedimentation in most
of the reservoirs. In 16 reservoirs, the actual rate is more than 5 times the design
rate.
CWC (2001) reported analysis of sedimentation data of 144 reservoirs. The
annual percentage loss in gross storage (APL-GS) was worked out as

Total annual loss in gross storage of 144 reservoirs

APL − GS = ∗ 100
Total gross storage of 144 reservoirs
(1)

The other indicators were also computed in a similar manner. Table 16 contains
the results. The weighted average annual loss in gross storage due to siltation is
0.44%. Thus, assuming the current total gross storage at 217 km3 , the likely annual
loss due to siltation is 095 km3 . Based on the data of 42 reservoirs, the annual
Table 14. Sedimentation of Reservoirs in India (10% of storage and above)

Name of Name of River Year of first C.A in Storage Designed Number Observed Total Percentage
Reservoir impoundment sq. km capacity rate of of rata of storage annual loss
in siltation th. surveys siltation th. loss till of capacity
MCM Cu. m/sq. (Year of Cu. m/sq. last
km/yr last km/ yr survey
survey) (MCM)
Reservoirs and Lakes

Andhra Pradesh
Himayatsagar Issa 1927 1 30794 10779 NA 1(1976) 0.447 2863 0.54
Kaddam Kaddam 1958 2 65625 12443 NA 1(1977) 0.916 46251 1.96
Manjira Manjira 1966 16 7702 5094 NA 1(1977) 0.102 1874 3.34
Nizamsagar Manjira 1930 21 6940 84118 0238 3(1992) 0.378 50868 0.975
Sriramsagar Godavari 1970 91 7510 3 17194 0357 2(1994) 0.28 61646 0.81
Bihar
Konar Konar 1955 99715 28123 NA 1(1996) 1.750 7158 0.62
Maithon Barakar 1955 6 2940 1 34880 0905 6(1994) 1.075 26404 0.50
Panchet Hill Damodar 1956 10 8780 1 58100 0667 6(1996) 0.510 22291 0.35
Tilaiya Barakar 1953 98420 33583 NA 1(1997) 2.857 2812 0.84
Gujarat
Bhadar Bhadar 1983 40600 4672 0357 1(1995) 2.260 1101 1.96
Bramani Bramani 1953 69927 7495 0719 1(1986) 0.72 1662 0.67
Dantiwada Banas 1965 2 86090 4644 0361 3(1994) 1.748 14508 1.07
Dharoi Dharoi 1976 5 54000 90788 0286 5(2000) 0.763 10563 0.46
Dhatarwadi Dhatarwadi 1975 42994 3273 0190 1(1986) 1.254 593 1.65
Karjan Karjan 1984 1 40400 65772 0476 2(1998) 3.945 7751 0.84
Khodiyar Shetrunji 1967 38330 4035 0357 1(1987) 1.360 1041 1.29
Limbdi Bhogavo Limbdi Bhogavo 1960 33150 3015 NA 2(1986) 0.890 766 0.98
Machhu-11 Machhu 1972 1 92800 10055 0476 1(1997) 0.827 3986 1.59
Meshwo Meshwo 1968 25896 8212 00857 1(1997) 3.78 2849 1.18
Moj Bhadar(s) 1955 44030 5301 0357 2(1986) 1.031 1407 0.86
Ranghola Kalubhar 1952 37037 4452 0143 2(1986) 0.623 784 0.52
967

(Continued)
Table 14. (Continued)

Name of Name of River Year of first C.A in Storage Designed Number Observed Total Percentage 968
Reservoir impoundment sq. km capacity rate of of rata of storage annual loss
in siltation th. surveys siltation th. loss till of capacity
MCM Cu. m/sq. (Year of Cu. m/sq. last
km/yr last km/ yr survey
survey) (MCM)

Sasoi Sasoi 1954 56203 5102 NA 1(1986) 0.670 1205 0.74

Shetrunji Shetrunji 1959 4 31700 41541 NA 2(1996) 0.630 10672 0.60
Ukai Tapi 1972 62 2240 8 51000 0149 3(1992) 0.813 1 0131 0.595
Karnataka
Basavasagara Krishna 1970 47 8500 106737 00184 1(1990) 0.151 14491 0.68
Tungabhadra Tungabhadra 1953 28 1800 3 75117 0429 6(1993) 0.527 59364 0.40
Kerala
Anayirankal Panniar 1964 6568 4984 NA 1(1997) 7.11 1541 0.94
Kuttiyadi Kuttiyadi 1972 3900 3840 NA 1(1989) 16.77 1112 1.70
Madupetty Periyar 1967 10490 5522 NA 1(1995) 1.614 6433 0.31
Peechi Manali 1957 10710 11043 NA 2(1995) 7.570 3082 0.90
Ponmudi Panniyar 1962 22052 5154 NA 1(1992) 1.674 1108 0.72
Poringalkuttu Chalakudi 1957 51200 3199 NA 1(1993) 0.443 8157 0.71
Maharashtra
Asolamendha Jadam 1918 24600 9296 0994 2(1994) 1.602 2997 0.42
Ekruk Adelanalla 1871 41200 9430 0154 2(1991) 0.534 26436 0.234
Gangapur Godavari 1965 35740 21251 0335 1(1997) 2.30 4889 0.72
Khadakwasla Mutha 1870 50700 11000 NA 1(1940) 0.674 2392 0.31
Mangi Kanala 1955 30400 33839 0050 3(1995) 0.283 3435 0.253
Manar Manar 1969 1 58508 13835 0167 1(1999) 0.394 18726 0.451
Mhaswad Man 1888 1 24320 8694 0176 2(1990) 0.357 4524 0.51
Nalganga Nalganga 1963 31598 76201 0190 1(1985) 0.624 4338 0.26
Ramsagar Sur 1914 21235 11718 0206 1(1987) 0.953 1478 0.17
ShivajiSager Koyna 1961 89180 2 79745 0667 1(1986) 0.810 1805 0.03
Visapur Hanga 1937 41200 4276 0357 3(1988) 0.835 1755 0.80
Chapter 19
 Meghalaya
Yeldari Puma 1963 7 36200 93445 0357 1(1983) 0.577 8495 045
Umium Umium 1965 2 2150 18142 NA 1(1990) 2.61 1444 032
Orissa
Balimela Machkund 1972 4 908 3 61053 1046 1(1999) 2.131 28255 029
Hirakud Mahanadi 1957 83 3950 8 10500 025 4(1994) 0.635 1 9593 0653
Punjab
Bhakra Satluj 1958 56 9800 9 86800 0429 26(1998) 0.61 1 3904 035
Reservoirs and Lakes

Tamil Nadu
Aliyar Aliyar 1962 19500 10940 NA 2(1981) 0.848 314 015
Amaravathy Amaravathy 1958 83916 11716 NA 1(1986) 0.717 1684 051
Emerald Emerald 1961 58534 15675 NA 2(2000) 2.83 6626 0106
Avlanche Avalanche
Kaveripakkam Palar 1902 3108 4173 NA 2(1996) 1.644 4803 012
Krishnagiri Pannalaru 1957 54300 6825 NA 1(1976) 0.172 1778 137
Lower Bhavani Bhavani 1953 4 20000 93278 NA 4(1983) 0.30 37752 014
Manimutharu Kilmani Muthar 1958 16162 159734 NA 1(1980) 1.220 4324 012
Mettur Stanley Cauvery 1934 42 2000 2 70876 NA 2(1984) 0.253 53333 039
Mukurthy Pykara 1938 2525 50976 NA 1(1993) 11.80 16391 058
Pechipparai Kodaiyar 1907 17200 15027 NA 1(1992) 1.790 646 020
Perunchani Paralaiyar 1953 15949 6503 NA 2(1995) 1.154 4787 023
Pillur Bhavani 1966 94354 4440 NA 1(1982) 1.157 1727 243
Sathanur Ponniar 1957 10 8260 243828 NA 2(1982) 0.102 27526 047
Thirumurthy Palar 1966 8029 5480 NA 2(1994) 2.490 539 036
Upper Bhawani Kundah 1965 3359 101148 NA 1(1985) 5.460 36676 018
Vaigai Vaigai 1958 2 25330 19479 NA 3(1983) 0.40 22405 046
Veeranam Cauvery 1923 42735 40805 NA 1(1991) 0.449 13061 047
Wellington Vellar 1924 12950 7146 NA 1(1985) 2.046 1614 037
Uttar Pradesh
Dhukwan Batwa 1907 21 3400 10645 0042 5(1980) 0.030 4742 061
Matatila Betwa 1956 20 7200 1 13270 0133 9(1994) 0.469 36919 086
Nanak Sagar Deoha 1962 57000 20980 NA 1(1992) 1.212 2073 033
969

Source: CWC (2001).

970 Chapter 19

Table 15. Comparison between actual and design rate of sedimentation in some Indian
reservoirs

Actual rate of sedimentation Number of reservoirs

Less than design rate 8

1–2 times the design rate 13
2–3 times the design rate 14
3–4 times the design rate 8
4–5 times the design rate 8
More than 5 times the design rate 16

loss in live storage came out as 0.31% which implies that the likely annual loss in
the total live storage is 055 km3 . Assuming the average density of sediments to be
1137 ton/m3 based on observed data, the weight of the total sediment deposited in
all the Indian reservoirs is 1,080 M ton/year.

19.6.4. Empirical Equations for Indian Reservoirs

Various researchers have developed empirical equations to determine sedimentation
rates in Indian reservoirs, based on actual sedimentation data and sediment carrying
capacity of inflowing rivers. Some important equations are given next.

Dr. Khosla’s findings (1953)

The earlier designs of reservoirs in India were based on the silting rate as suggested
by Dr. A.N. Khosla which, on an average was, 3.6 ha-m per 100 km2 of catchment
area. Later surveys on some Indian reservoirs revealed that the actual silting experi-
enced by them has been much higher. Dr. Khosla proposed an enveloping curve of
the form:

y = 32/A072 (2)

where y = Annual silting rate in ha-m/100 km2 and A = catchment area at the site
in km2 .

Table 16. Annual percentage loss in gross, live and dead storages

Indicator Minimum Maximum Weighted Remarks

value value average

Annual percentage loss of 004 334 044 Based on weighted average

gross storage data of 144 reservoirs
Annual percentage loss of 011 500 140 Based on weighted average
live storage data of 42 reservoirs
Annual percentage loss of 003 162 031 Based on weighted average
dead storage data of 42 reservoirs

Source: CWC (2001).

Reservoirs and Lakes 971

Murthy’s equation
Murthy (1980) suggested the following equation to determine silt deposit in dead
storage zone:

S = KC n (3)

where S = Percent of total sediment in the dead storage, C = Percent of dead

storage capacity to total capacity, and K and n are constants depending on the type
of reservoir. Their values are given in Table 17.

Garde and Kothyari equation

An analysis of sediment yield from Indian catchments was carried out by Garde
and Kothyari (1985, 1986). Using data from 50 small and large catchments in India,
they developed the following relationship
 
Pmax 019
y = 002p060 Fe170 S 025 Dd010 (4)
P
where y = sediment erosion rate in cm, Pmax = average maximum monthly rainfall
in cm, S = average catchment slope, Fe = erosion factor. Further,

A i Si
S= (5)
A
1
Fe =  08AA + 06AG + 03AF + 01AW  (6)
Ai

where, AA = arable area km2 , AG = scrub and grass area km2 , AF = protected
forest area km2 , and AW = waste area km2 . Kothyari et al. (1986) derived the
following equation to predict annual sediment yield:
 
Pmax 019 m
y = 002Fe 17S 025 Dd010 Pa (7)
P
ya = annual sediment yield in cm, Pa = annual rainfall in cm, m = coefficient
depending on coefficient of variation, 0.6 to 0.607 for Cv changing from 0.1 to 0.7.

Table 17. Values of K and n in Murthy’s Equation

Reservoir Type Values of

K n

I (Lake) 330 078

II (Flood plain in foot hill) 933 056
III (Hill) 2512 035
IV (Gorge) 3236 030
972 Chapter 19

19.6.5. Trap Efficiency of Some Indian Reservoirs

The major reservoirs constructed in the country have capacity-inflow ratio (a

measure of detention time) ranging from 0.2 to 1.3. As per Brune’s curve, such
reservoirs are almost 100% efficient in trapping the incoming sediment. Relatively
few data have been obtained on the actual trap efficiency of existing reservoirs. In
order to arrive at the trap efficiency of some of the reservoirs, observations on the
sediment load entering into the reservoir from different sources at its head reaches
and the sediment load passing through the spillway and other outlet through the dam
and power house are needed. Varshney (1997) presented the results of observations
at Matatila Reservoir (UP), Hirakud Reservoir (Orissa), Govind Sagar (HP) and
Gandhi Sagar (MP) on sediment inflow and outflow. Briefly, the findings are given
below.

Matatila Reservoir
The trap efficiency for sand particles is 100% while that for the silt particles ranges
from 70 to 90% and for clay particles, it ranges from 60 to 90%. The overall
trap efficiency of the reservoir for the period 1962 to 1972 was found to vary
from 67 to 90%. According to Brune’s trap efficiency curve, this reservoir has a
capacity-inflow ratio 0.2 and a trap efficiency of 90%.

Hirakud Reservoir
The overall trap efficiency of the reservoir was found to vary from 65 to 90%.
The capacity-inflow ratio of Hirakud is 0.2 and according to Brune’s curve a trap
efficiency of about 92% is expected.

Gandhi Sagar
This reservoir has a capacity inflow ratio of 1.3 and the trap efficiency according
to Brune’s curve is almost 100%. Actual observations also support this.

Bhakra Reservoir
According to observations, the trap efficiency of the reservoir is almost 99%. The
Bhakra Reservoir has a capacity-inflow ratio of 0.7 and according to Brune’s curve
the trap efficiency works out to 95%.
It has been observed that in reservoirs having small sluicing capacity with respect
to normal floods and no reservoirs above them, the siltation rate is comparatively
high in the first 15–20 years of their operation and thereafter, it falls off. This is
because the obstruction by the dam causes the dips and the flanks of the storage
basin to fill up with silt in early years. A stage comes when the river section is
adjusted to carry the normal discharge and disposal of sediment load in the area
of reservoir is harmonized with the condition of flow. Besides the progressive
development of deltas above reservoir helps in trapping of some of the silt load.
Shrinkage and settlement of deposited silt also takes place due to superimposed
Reservoirs and Lakes 973

Table 18. Reduction of Sedimentation Rate with Time – Indian

Reservoirs

Sedimentation rate (ha-m/100 km/yr)

Reservoir
At first survey At last survey

Maithon 1253 906

Panchet 1213 336
Matatila 1182 529
Bhakra 653 566

loads of additional silt deposits. This results in reduction of silt volume thereby
reducing the computed sedimentation rate.
CWC studied data of four reservoirs in detail to determine the trends of siltation
rate with passage of time. The reservoirs chosen were Maithon and Panchet (both in
Bihar), Matatila (UP) and Bhakra (in HP). The conclusion drawn by CWC was: “The
enveloping curves of these reservoirs show that the silting rate has been compara-
tively higher during first 15–20 years and thereafter has fallen significantly”. The
data in respect of these four reservoirs are given in Table 18.
Use of remote sensing technique for reservoir sedimentation assessment is
becoming popular as this technique offers many advantages compared to the other
methods. Many organizations in the country are using remote sensing technique for
this purpose. Ministry of Water Resources had launched a scheme sometime ago
involving its concerned organizations to assess sedimentation rates in about 125
reservoirs. Results of this work are being published by the concerned organizations.
As an outcome of this effort, useful database has been created and the latest status
in important Indian reservoirs is now available.

19.7. LAKES

Under favorable conditions, depressions are formed on the earth’s surface. Large
depressions that are filled with water are described as lakes. Lakes receive water
as precipitation on their surface, from surface inflow and from ground water.
A lake loses water in the form of evaporation from its surface, streams flowing
out, contribution to ground water, etc. They may disappear through a process of
natural eutrophication involving the filling up with nutrient containing sediments.
The process of cultural or man made eutrophication is much faster than the slow
rate of natural eutrophication.
There are about 500,000 lakes on Earth, storing volume of water equaling
103,000 cub. km. Most of the world’s water lakes are found in North America
(25%), Africa (30%) and Asia (20%). The world’s lakes contain about four times
more fresh water than its rivers. Lakes are used extensively in many countries as
the natural centers of civilization. A lake plays a significant role in shaping the
hydrological, ecological, environmental, socio-economical balance of the region.
974 Chapter 19

Lake is also a place for sanctuary for migrating birds, development of flora and
fauna and an excellent spot for habitation of aquatic biota.
Lakes exist in all sizes and it is obvious that a small pond of 001 km2 is totally
different in most ways than lake of 50 km2 . For example, one of the Great Lakes
in North America with surface area of around 50000 km2 . Climate, geology and
anthropogenic influences are other factors that make each lake unique. Due to the
presence of a large number of lakes, Udaipur City in India is known as the city of
lakes. Figure 4 shows one of the lakes of Udaipur.

19.7.1. Differences Between Lakes and Reservoirs

Although lakes and man-made reservoirs appear to be similar on a casual look,
there are many fundamental differences (Table 19) between them and these also
influence the chemical and biological processes. The differences in capacity-inflow
ratio and water level fluctuations in lakes and reservoirs are largely responsible for
this difference in behavior. A small residence time means that many species do not
have an opportunity to reproduce in most reservoirs.
Both natural lakes and artificial reservoirs receive a wide variety of sediments
and nutrients as inputs and these get accumulated and deposited. There are large
variations in deposition rates depending on the catchment properties as well as
the properties of the water body (including regulation in case of reservoirs). In
general, the rate of sedimentation in man-made reservoirs is much higher compared
to natural lakes. The process of sedimentation leads to a gradual reduction in the
storage capacity and over time, the lake or reservoir may ultimately reduce to a
marshy land.
Geometrically, lakes and reservoir are quite different and the reason lies in their
origin. Natural lakes are typically circular or oval shaped. The central portion is
deepest in a lake. In contrast, the site for a reservoir is decided based on many

Figure 4. A picturesque lake of Udaipur

Reservoirs and Lakes 975

Table 19. Important differences between natural lakes and man-made reservoirs

Feature Natural lake Man-made Reservoir

Age 1000s of years 100s of years
Capacity-inflow ratio Large Wide range
Water level fluctuations Small Usually large and seasonal
Location of maximum depth Commonly near the center Close to the dam
Source of inflows Surface and subsurface Predominantly surface
Outlet of water Surface and subsurface Almost totally surface
Catchment : water surface Small Large
area
Shape Mostly oval or circular Usually linear or dendritic
Sediment and nutrient loading Low High
Bio-diversity Higher Lower
Primary productivity Lower Higher
Water quality gradients Concentric Longitudinal

factors; a deeper reservoir will have less surface area and less loss of water due to
evaporation. Such a reservoir is created where river slopes are high. The upstream
end of a reservoir has shallow depth and the maximum depth is near the dam. Since
most of the flow enters at the farthest upstream end and leaves at the downstream
end, there is a strong longitudinal flow and density currents may also be present.

19.7.2. Hydrology of Lakes

Hydrologic characteristics of lakes vary considerably because of difference in depth,

breadth, width, surface area, basin material, surrounding ground cover, reservoir,
prevailing winds, climate, surface inflows and outflows and other factors. Lakes may
have some common features but often exhibit different performance characteristics.
This individuality has environmental value and as such it presents the problem of
understanding both, the general nature of the system and variations due to local
conditions.
Lakes influence the local hydrology either directly or indirectly. In hydrologic
cycle, the water passing through the lake will be filtered both with respect to
its physical properties (including velocity) and its chemical properties. The water
balance of lakes is different than that of the rest of the drainage basin. Hence water
balance of a drainage basin having high percentage of lakes will be different than
low percentage dittos. Because of storage of large mass of water, a lake moderates
flood and climate factor in the region. Smaller the lake, the more responsive it is
to changes in energy inputs. Small lakes behave as a single system, but almost all
large lakes respond as a complex of sub-basins, each of which may be significantly
different in size, form and depth. The large free surface area of the lake provides a
great contact area between water and air and thus evaporation is enhanced. It is an
accepted fact that large lakes possess specific system characteristics that distinguish
them from small lakes.
976 Chapter 19

Heat storage in lakes helps stabilize the air temperature, minimizing and lagging
variation in adjacent region in winters and summers. Lakes also exhibit thermal
stratification like reservoirs. In order to evaluate the lake problems and more realistic
approach for their management, heat budget, nutrient budget and water budget of
lakes are needed.

19.7.3. Eutrophication

The word “eutrophic” is generally taken to mean “nutrient rich” and is used
sometimes a contrast to dystrophic (ill-nourished). Eutrophication is the biological
response of a water body to excess nutrient inputs. As a result of nutrient avail-
ability, production of biomass and its death and decay results in a number of
effects. Individually and collectively these result in impaired water use. The most
important of these effects are decreased dissolved oxygen levels, release of odorous
compounds (e.g. H2 S) and siltation. Many important lakes in India, e.g., Hussein
Sagar (Hyderabad), Nainital (Uttar Pradesh), Khajjiar (HP), and Dal (Jammu and
Kashmir) have reportedly progressed to advanced eutrophication levels.
Eutrophication has dramatically increased since the sixties, mostly in industrial
countries with intensified agriculture, due to excessive anthropogenic input loads of
plant nutrient, phosphorous and nitrogen. Therefore as contrast to natural eutrophi-
cation, the recent problem is anthropogenic eutrophication. This is usually observed
as the excessive growth of phytoplankton that turns standing water and sluggish
streams into green, often termed as “algae bloom”. It is frequently associated by
the increased growth of attached algae or macrophytes.

19.8. LAKES OF INDIA

Depending upon the depth of water and uses, the lakes are known by different
names in different parts of the country like, Jheels, Bheels, Marshes, Talab and
Tank. In India, the lakes have been extensively utilized, often resulting in overex-
ploitation. A national inventory of lakes entitled “The All-India Wetland Survey”
was completed in the mid 1980s.
Some lakes in India have significance from religious point-of-view. The city
of Amritsar in Punjab which is famous for the Golden Temple got this name
(Amritsar means the lake of nectar, the drink of Gods. He who drinks nectar
becomes immortal) because of the holy lake (see Figure 5). A bath in the lake water
is considered to be a privilege.
Similarly, a big artificial lake is present in the Kurushetra city (Haryana)
which was the venue of the famous Mahabharata war. Known as Brahma Sarovar
(Figure 6), this lake is fed by the water of Bhakra canals. A bath in this lake on
a full moon day as well as on the occasion of solar eclipse is considered to be
spiritually highly rewarding.
In the following, some important lakes of India are briefly described. After that,
summary information of some lakes will be given.
Reservoirs and Lakes 977

Figure 5. The holy lake of Amritsar with the Golden Temple

Figure 6. The Brahma Sarovar, in Kurushetra city (Haryana)

978 Chapter 19

19.8.1. Dal Lake

The Kashmir valley is gifted with exotic natural scenic beauty of its landscape and
water bodies, which have given it the sobriquet “paradise on the earth”. These water
bodies are of great ecological and socio-economic significance. The Dal Lake with
its multi-faceted eco-system and grandeur has been inviting the attention of national
and international tourists.
Dal Lake is one of the most beautiful lakes of India and is the second largest in
the J&K state. Being located in the heart of the Srinagar City (latitude 34  18 N,
longitude 74 91 E, average altitude of 1,583 m), Dal can be considered to be an
urban lake. Srinagar is the summer capital of J&K state. During winters when the
temperature may fall to as low as −11  C, the top crust of the lake freezes. Early
spring and summers are the wet periods when large rainfall occurs; the average
annual rainfall at this place is 655 mm. It is in this season that the snow melts in
the higher catchment which results in high discharge in Dachigam and Dara Nallah
which feed water into the lake. The maximum depth of the lake is reported to be
in the range of 6 to 9 m. The maximum area of the Dal Lake has been estimated to
be 24 sq. km out of which open water area is around 15.42 sq. km.
The normal temperature of the Srinagar varies from 11  C to 1  C in winters and
12  C to 30  C in summers. Mountains from three sides surround the lake. A large
number of gardens and orchards have been developed along the shores of the lake.
Another unique feature of the Dal Lake is hundreds of houseboats or floating houses
which provide an opportunity to tourists to reside on the lake in an atmosphere of
peace and tranquility. Of concern is the fact that many of these houseboats dump
their waste directly in the lake.
As stated earlier, Dal is a typical urban lake which is mainly used for tourism and
recreation. Fishery and harvesting of economically important water plants are of
secondary importance. During winter months the Dal water is also used for drinking
water purposes.
The Dal Lake basin can be classified into five basins, namely, 1. Nehru Park
Basin, 2. Nishat Basin, 3. Hazratbal Basin, 4. Nagin Basin, and 5. Brari Nambal
Basin. All the basins are interconnected with navigation routes in the shape of
intertwined waterways.
The water quality of Dal Lake has deteriorated considerably in the last three
decades. Dal Lake underwent far-reaching changes close to its banks and also in
the catchment. Two additional islands were built which further obstructed water
movements. A road was laid along the southwest part to improve communication,
which separated a large part of the lake creating marshy areas along the fringes
of Shankaracharya and Zabarwan mountains. This marshy land had since been
reclaimed and developed into huge residential and commercial complexes. With the
increase in the tourist influx, a large number of residential buildings, restaurants
and hotels have come up along the lakefront. The number of houseboats has also
increased. As a result of rapid and unplanned urbanization, a large quantity of
sewage finds its way into the lake water and at some locations, the lake water has
turned into a cesspool of filth.
Reservoirs and Lakes 979

Inflow and Outflow: A perennial inflow channel known as Telbal Nallah enters the
lake from the north and supplies 80% of the water from a high attitude lake called
Marsar Lake. Within the lake basin itself, there are number of springs, which act
as permanent water source to the lake.
Towards the southwest side, an outflow channel drains the lake water into a link
channel connected to the Jhelum River. Parallel to this exit, a stone lined canal
serves as a navigation lock used for movement of boats in and out of the lake. Flow
of water in the channel is regulated by two lock gates, which are generally open
when the level of the lake is higher than that of the river. The gates are closed
during floods in the Jhelum River to prevent the river water from entering into
the lake and resulting in inundation of the floating gardens and human settlements.
A small canal connects the Nagin basin of the Dal Lake with Anchar Lake and acts
as an additional outflow channel called Nallah Ameer Khan.

Nagin Lake
Nagin Lake is known as the ‘Jewel in the Ring’. It is considered to be the most
beautiful of the Dal Lake region. This lake gets its name (Nagin means female
snake) from a large number of trees, which encircle the small, deep blue lake. The
waters are edged by willow and poplar trees whose reflection is mirrored in the
lake. The lake water is pleasantly cool from mid-May to mid-September. Nagin
Lake, which is farther from the Srinagar town provides a magnificent view of the
mountains. Nagin is separated from the larger Dal Lakes by a narrow causeway. It
usually has a number of houseboats floating around its periphery.

19.8.2. Surinsar Lake

The Surinsar Lake is situated about 40 km to the north east of Jammu city at an
elevation of 605 m above mean sea level and lies at 75 02 30 east longitude and
32 46 30 north latitude. It is a fine picturesque sweet water lake with a circumference
of 2.496 km. The maximum length, breadth and depth of the lake are 888 m, 444 m
and 24.05 m respectively. The water spread of the lake varies from 27.92 to 29.14
hectares. The water level of the lake oscillates by about 1.20 m and touches its peak
during August. The excess water flows towards the western side of the lake and
goes into a channel lying by its side. The lake does not have any permanent inlet.
The main source of water is monsoon rain which is aided by certain natural springs.
The water usually comes from the surface drainage and runoff from the watershed
surrounding the lake. There are agriculture fields towards eastern side of the lake
and fine covered hills are situated towards the northern and western side.
The Surinsar Lake is nearly oval shaped with the deepest part towards its north
west. A small island is located inside the lake, more towards its north east and is
rich in terrestrial flora and fauna. The littoral zone of the lake has a thick vegetation
cover of emergent floating, submerged plants providing suitable cover for roosting
of migratory and nesting of the resident water fowl (known as Murgabi and Jal
Moorgi in the local language) in the lake.
980 Chapter 19

The Surinsar Lake is situated in the lower Shiwalik ranges of the Western
Himalayas. These outer hills are formed entirely of the younger tertiary rocks, the
geological studies of the area mainly comprises of anticlines. The rocks surrounding
the lake are mainly composed of sand stone, silt stones and shales of maroon to
buff colour.
The climate of the area is subtropical. Monsoon rains are received from July
to September. The average annual rainfall is 150 cm. Winters are mostly dry with
occasional rains during the month of January. The temperature, the atmosphere
and the water remain well above the freezing point. The air temperature during
summer ranges from 35 to 40  C. The temperature of the water surface ranges
from 17 to 29  C. The wind speed ranges from 1.5 to 5 km/ hour throughout
the year.
The catchment area of the Surinsar Lake is badly degraded due to large-scale
deforestation and denudation which, among other things, has caused a lot of siltation
into the lake. The precipitation received in the form of rain and snow cannot be
trapped in absence of vegetative cover. The top loose soil gets eroded and finds its
way into the lake as surface run off. The silt deposits have reduced water spread
area of the lake.

Water Quality of Lake

• With average pH values of the lake water varying from 8.27 to 3.43, the water
in the late is alkaline in nature.
• The average concentrations of major cations including calcium, magnesium,
sodium and potassium vary from 19.55 to 38.10 mg/1,6.80 to 13.37 mg/1,5.51 to
10.15 mg/1 and 2.64 to 4.01 mg/1 respectively.
• The average concentrations of major anions such as chloride, sulphate, bicar-
bonate, nitrate and phosphate vary from 3.75 to 9.75 mg/1,6.48 to 11.28 mg/1,
81.50 to 126.50 mg/1,3.14 to 5.05 mg/1 and 0.015 to 0.05 mg/1, respectively.
• Typical range of DO values is 7.39 mg/1 against prescribed minimum value
(6.0 mg/1) for Class-A drinking water (Indian Standards). The maximum value
of BOD is about 1.63 mg/1 during peak winter.
• The average values of calcium and magnesium hardness vary from 48.75 to
95.0 mg/1 and 28.0 to 55.0 mg/1, respectively.
• The lake water is good for irrigation purposes.

19.8.3. Mansar Lake

The Mansar Lake is located 55 km east of Jammu at a latitude of 32 41 N and
longitude of 75 05 E, 666 m. above mean sea level. The basin area of the lake
is 167 km2 . The maximum length and width of the lake is 1,204 m and 645 m
respectively. The annual average rainfall in the catchment area of the lake is
1,500 mm. The total volume of lake water is 1237 Mm3 . The maximum depth of
water in the lake is 38.25 m. The slope of the lake in between 0.0–5.75 m depth is
Reservoirs and Lakes 981

0.21 m/m, 5.57–10.75 m depth is 0.30 m/m (maximum) and 35.75–38.25 m depth is
0.04 m/m The Lake is fed by rainfall and groundwater.
Apart from the hydrological aspects, Mansar Lake has the religious importance
too. On the eastern bank of the lake there is a shrine of Sheshnag, a mythological
snake with six heads. Two ancient temples of Umapati Mahadev & Narsimha as
also a temple of Durga are situated in the vicinity of the Mansar Lake. People take
a holy dip in the water of the lake on festive occasions.
With all religions belief and heritage behind the Mansar Lake, it is popular tourist
destination also picking up its fame among the tourists with all its flora & fauna.
There is a wildlife sanctuary housing animals like Spotted Deer, Neelgai besides
water birds such as Cranes, Ducks, etc. Mansar Lake has a unique distinction:
probably it is the only sweet water lake in the world which has a huge population
of turtles. Turtles are known to normally prefer salt water bodies.
NIH has conducted study for bathymetry, sedimentation and water quality of this
lake. Mean rate of sedimentation of the lake is 023 ± 002 cm/year and life of the
lake is 9110 ± 790 years.

19.8.4. Khajjiar Lake

Khajjiar Lake and its surroundings are one of the most picturesque saucer shaped
plateaus and a tourist attraction. The watershed is located at a height of 1,940 m in a
valley between Dhauladhar and Pir Panjal ranges of the Himalayas. The watershed
lies at latitude of 325  N and longitude of 761  E. The size of the lake is not large
and is more or less like a pond of about 60 to 80 m radius. The green pastures
surrounding the lake are approximately 1.5 km long and 1.0 km wide. The lake
region experiences a moist temperature climate. Precipitation is in the form of
snow during January to March and rain during the south-west monsoon. The annual
average precipitation is 1.2 m. The soils are sandy loam in the meadow part, while
under the forest they are highly organic with humus and litter. The soil thickness
varies from 30 to 40 cm.
A thick forest of Deodar and Spruce Fir surrounds the Khajjiar Lake and the
meadow. The lake has a small floating island in the center. Currently the lake is
in a state of neglect with grass and weeds all over. The lake as such has plenty
of slush, weeds and decaying organic matter, resulting in the lake becoming more
or less like a swamp. However, the state government is planning to clear the lake
of weeds, divert water coming from rivulets feeding the lake, control the silt and
develop greener pastures around the lake.

19.8.5. Nainital Lake

The Nainital Lake is situated at an altitude of 1,937 m above sea level and is
1,433 m long and 423 m broad at its widest. The total surface area is about 4.65 ha
and the volume is approximately 8.33 MCM. The catchment area of the lake is
36 km2 ranging in height from 1,937 m to 2,600 m. The mean hillslope of the area
982 Chapter 19

is 19 where large part being confined to the slope group of 20 to 25 and the
maximum slope reaching 47 to 49 . The average slope of the snow view Sherka
Danda ridge is 18 , varying between 5 to 35 . At many places, the slopes exhibit
convex bulges resulting from continuing creep movement. The slopes are locally
broken by scarps and fringed at the base by a succession of debris cones and fans.
The bathymetric study reveals that the lake consists of two V-shaped basins, one
in the north and the other in the south with maximum depths of 27.3 m and 25.5 m
respectively. The depth of lake at the dividing ridge is 8.5 m. An outlet for draining
out excess water is situated at the north-eastern end. The shoreline is steep, except
at a few places where the drains have deposited silt and debris.
The annual rainfall is high in the catchment area of the lake and varies between
2,245 mm to 2,480 mm. The average monthly rainfall is 189 mm with a maximum
of about 624 mm in August and a minimum of about 2.4 mm in March. Besides
rainfall, there are occasional snowfalls in and around the lake catchment during the
winter, varying between 200 mm to 600 mm in recent years.
Deforestation of the surrounding hills is causing land slides due to which heavy
load of boulders and sediment get dumped in the lake from time to time. The lake
receives 30% of its total inflow as surface runoff from the catchment and 16% as
input from the direct rainfall. Total inflow from perennial drain such as Naina Devi
is 15% of the input. The rest of input is from smaller drains. Outflow from the lake
is in the form of springs.
The mean rate of sedimentation in the lake is 3462 m3 /year and life of the lake
is 2160 ± 80 years. However useful life of the lake is only 82 to 380 years. Trophic
state index is 74 indicating hypereutrophic conditions.

19.8.6. Harike Lake

A barrage was constructed in 1952 at Harike, at the confluence of Beas and Sutlej
rivers at about 60 km from Ferozpur, Punjab. Harike Lake came into being as a
result of the construction of this barrage. The lake is located at latitude of 31 10 N
and longitude of 74 56 E, 210 m above mean sea level. In the beginning, the lake
had water spread area of 41 sq. km. It is one of the six most important wetlands in
the country. Over the time, this lake began attracting migratory birds and became
famous. However, later on, the fast spreading hyacinth plants have reduced the open
water area to a mere 28 sq. km, leaving little space for migratory birds. Growth of
hyacinths in the Harike wetland has pushed it to the brink of an ecological disaster.
About 70% of the lake water surface is covered with water hyacinth. The major
problems, which are facing by the lake is acute soil erosion and silting. However,
a turn around began with the launch of “Operation Sahyog”, initiated jointly by
the Punjab Government and the Indian Army. World Wildlife Fund provided its
expertise to restore the lake to its former glory.
During the monsoon period, enormous quantity of water flows out of Harike
barrage. In the decade (1992–2002), the quantum of outflow water from Harike
barrage varied from 765 MCM to 11,735 MCM.
Reservoirs and Lakes 983

19.8.7. Loktak Lake

Loktak Lake is situated 38 km south of Imphal city, the capital of Manipur State.
The Manipur State has two distinct river basins, namely the Barak basin and the
Manipur basin. The Manipur River arises in the north at Karong. Its tributaries are
the Iril River, the Thoubal River, the Sekmai River, and the Khuga River. Manipur
River has been regulated by two barrages for irrigation and hydropower. The Imphal
barrage downstream of Lilong regulates the flow to irrigate about 6,000 ha area.
The second barrage at Ithai diverts the river flow into the Loktak Lake for lift
irrigation and a hydropower project.
Manipur is dotted with several shallow lakes, locally called pats. The important
pats are Lamphel Pat between the Nambul and Imphal Rivers; Waithou Pat between
the Iril and Thoubal Rivers; Ikoppat, Karung Pat and Lousi Pat between Thoubal
and Sekmai Rivers; and Khoidum, Lamjao and Pumlen Pat south of Sekmai River.
The Loktak Lake comprises about 20 small and large pats including Loktak, Takmu,
Ungamen, Laphupat, Thammumacha, Khulak, Vena and Tharopokpi are fairly large
(more than 80 ha). Two other pats just north of Loktak Lake are Sana pat and Utra
pat. During the rainy season, most of these pats become continuous and merge
under large sheet of water but these can be distinguished during the dry season at
a water level of about 766 m above msl.
Several small rivers and streams rising in the surrounding hills drain into these
pats on both sides of the Manipur River. The Nambul River and Nambol River are
two major streams from the north flowing into Loktak basin. Besides these, there
are over 34 small streams draining from the hills on the west into the Loktak basin.
Loktak Lake is connected to Manipur River by a small channel (about 15 m wide
and 3 m deep) called Khordak cut which drains the lake into the river during the
dry period. However, when the river is in spate, it flows back into the lake through
the channel. Similarly, the Pumlen pat is also connected to the Manipur River by
a narrow channel, the Marambakhong, which also allows flow both ways. Thus,
during the period of high flood, a large part of the valley on both sides of the
Manipur River becomes a large lake.
Loktak Lake had vast area of 2000 km2 in 1950 that reduced to 495 km2 in
1971 and 289 km2 in 1995. The maximum depth of lake has reduced from 29 m
in 1950 to about 20 m in 1980. The lake is located between longitudes 93 46 &
93 55 E and latitudes 24 25 &, 24 42 N. It is a shallow water lake, the depth
of which during dry season ranges between 0.5 m to 1.5 m. Main water body of
the lake is surrounded by shallow water stagnating over marshy/swampy land on
11 sides. About 40% of the lake surface area is covered by different types of weeds
both floating and submerged. Southern portion of Loktak Lake (south of Thanga,
Ithing and Sendra islands/hills) forms the Keibul Lamjao National Park and is
the only floating wildlife sanctuary in the world. It is composed of a continuous
mass of floating phumdi occupying an area of 40 sq. km. The park is the only
natural habitat of the most endangered mammal, the brow-antlered deer (Cervus
eldi eldi).
984 Chapter 19

Loktak Lake basin has a direct catchment area of 980 sq. km and indirect
catchment of 7,157 sq. km. Out of the direct catchment area, 430 sq. km is under
paddy cultivation, 150 sq. km under habitation/ settlement, and 400 sq. km under
forest. The direct catchment area in the hills covers 96 hill villages. The elevation
varies from 780 m at the foothills adjoining the central valley to about 2,068 m
above mean sea level at peak. A number of streams originate from the hill
ranges immediately to the west of the lake and these streams flow directly into
Loktak Lake.
The Loktak Development Authority has been created for integrated and
sustainable management of the resources of Loktak Lake. Its office is located at
Imphal.

19.8.8. Chilika Lake

Chilika is the largest brackish water lagoon that sprawls along the east coast of
India in the Mahanadi delta. It is a tidal lagoon created by a beach barrier berm that
developed by the accretion of the coastal sediments following the stabilization of
sea levels about 3,000 to 4,000 years ago. The pear shaped lagoon has a maximum
length of 64 km and an average width of 20 km. The water depth generally fluctuates
between 50 cm and 3.7 m. The water-spread area of the Lagoon varies between 906
and 1,105 sq. km. A 35 km long, narrow outer channel connects the main lagoon to
the Bay of Bengal, near the village Motto. The mouth connecting the channel to the
sea is close to the northeastern end of the Lagoon. High tide near this inlet mouth
drives in salt water through the channel during the dry months from December to
June. With the onset of the rains, the rivers falling into the northern zone bring
in fresh water currents that gradually push the seawater out. As a result of these,
the inlet mouth constantly changes its position. The inlet channel is connected with
Chilika at Magarmukh. The other connection with the Bay of Bengal is through
Palur Canal on the southeastern side. Several islands are located in the Lagoon
covering an area of 223 sq. km, which include hills situated both inside and around
the lagoon.
The total catchment area of the lagoon is 4,300 sq. km out of which 3,212 sq. km
(74%) lies in Eastern Ghats and 1,088 sq. km (26%) in Mahanadi River system.
About 30% of the catchment area is under degraded forest. The total annual fresh
water inflow into the lagoon by surface has been estimated at 1,760 MCM. Direct
precipitation to the Lagoon contributes 870 MCM of water. The total evaporation
loss from the lagoon has been estimated at 1,286 MCM. Chilika Development
Authority has estimated that 53 rivulets that drain in Chilika deposit about 365,000
tons of silt; the maximum contribution (89%) being from Mahanadi river system.
In general, lagoon water is alkaline with pH ranging from 7.1 to 9.6. The dissolved
oxygen values have been recorded between 3.3–18.9 mg/l. The salinity concen-
tration levels show remarkable variations, both temporally and spatially. A complex
combination of freshwater discharge, evaporation, wind conditions, and tidal inflow
of seawater govern the seasonal changes in salinity levels.
Reservoirs and Lakes 985

Biodiversity
The Chilika lagoon is identified as one of the hotspots of biodiversity in India.
The spatial and temporal variations in salinity in combination with nutrient rich
shallow warm water of the lagoon makes it a unique site rich in biodiversity.
It is the largest wintering ground far migratory waterfowl in the country. Based
on its unique biodiversity and socio-economic importance, Chilika Lagoon was
designated as a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention
of 1981.
Chilika supports some of the largest congregations of aquatic birds in the country,
particularly during the winter. Flocks of migratory waterfowl arrive from as far
as the Caspian Sea, Baikal Aral Sea, remote parts of Russia, Kirghiz steppes of
Mongolia, Central and South East Asia, Ladakh and the Himalayas. In 1989–90 an
estimated population of two million birds visited the lagoon. The lagoon hosts over
160 species of birds during the peak migratory season. Much of the Lagoon bottom
is covered by aquatic weeds.
During the last few decades, the lagoon has been showing signs of deterioration
mainly due to siltation and over-exploitation of its resources. The gradual transfor-
mation of brackish water characteristics of the lagoon into fresh water, increase in
freshwater weeds, reduction in fish productivity and changes in faunal diversity are
quite apparent.
The denudation of the catchment area, construction of dams, barrages and
other hydraulic structures and increasing anthropogenic pressures coupled with
natural processes have led to degradation of the Chilika Lagoon. Siltation has
seriously affected the Lagoon area, which has shrunk from 824 sq. km in 1972–73
to 750 sq. km in 1995. The cross section of the outer channel has also signif-
icantly reduced due to shoal formation, which leads to considerable hydraulic
head loss and poor flushing. The summer depth has also reduced to 0.3 m at
Magarmukh. Salinity in the lagoon has decreased significantly during the past
few decades while weed coverage has increased. CWPRS, Pune, carried out a
model study of the Chilika Lagoon to restore salinity level and increase its
productivity.
Chilika Lake Development Authority looks after the maintenance of the lake. Its
office is located at BJB Nagar, Bhubneshwar, Orissa.

19.8.9. Pushkar Lake

Pushkar is a famous pilgrimage center of Rajasthan. It is one of the few places on
the Earth where Lord Brahma (the creator of the universe) is worshipped. The city
has lent its name to the lake that lies inside it. In ancient times, the lake had a
waterspread of over 71 bighas. However, of late, the Pushkar Lake is dying due to
a variely of reasons. On an average the lake attracts 5,000 pilgrims daily. People
from all over the country converge here to wash off their sins and immerse the
ashes of their dead. The depth of water has plunged to just 1.5 m from a depth of
9 m observed in the late nineteen eighties. The condition of the depth lake is so bad
986 Chapter 19

that it can no longer sustain life. In the recent past, fish, weighing five to twenty
kilograms, have died in the viscous brown depths of the lake due to the lack of
oxygen.
Besides the authtopogenic causes, successive droughts have severely depleted
the natural water sources. The water depth in the lake is so shallow that it rakes
up the mud from the bed of the lake and forms a foul-smelling mixture. Over the
past 10 years the water level has been receding continuously, partly because of the
numerous tubewells dug by farmers living in the adjoining areas. The problem is
aggravated by the stealthy advance of the desert into this area. To maintain water
level in the lake, tubewells have been installed near its periphery. At times, these
tubewells are operated round-the-clock to withdraw water from aquifers and put it
in the lake.

19.8.10. Kolleru Lake

The scenic Kolleru Lake, situated in the Krishna and West Godavari districts of
Andhra Pradesh, 50 km east of Vijaywada at latitude of 16 30 N and longitude
of 81 15 E , 0–5 m above mean sea level, is spread over an area of more
than 900 sq. km. The lake area is about 1,090 km2 at the time of maximum flooding.
The lake has a maximum depth of more than 3.5 m when full during the rainy
season and a minimum depth of 1 m during summer. Kolleru Lake is one of the
largest freshwater inland lakes in the world and is one of the largest bird sanctuaries,
home to nearly 188 species of birds. It is also the world’s largest natural freshwater
fish producer – the produce is about 30,000 tonnes per year. The sedimentation
in the lake is high. The lake bed is rising at 2.5 cm/year. Unfortunately, the lake
is fast drying up due to indiscriminate exploitation and encroachment. High use
of inorganic fertilisers in the catchment area and in pisciculture has resulted in
increased nutrient load and reduction in storage capacity of the lake. A high growth
of aquatic weeds and eutrophication is rendering the lake unfit for sustenance of
aquatic animals like fish and freshwater otter. At the time of flooding in river
Krishna and Godavari, sea water gets trapped in middle of the lake which makes
the lake water saline.

19.8.11. Udhagamandalam and Kodaikanal Lakes

Due to growing human activity in the hilly regions and associated functions, such as
intensive agriculture, animal husbandry and opening of commercial establishments,
the Udhagamandalam (Ooty) and the Kodaikanal (Kodai) Lakes have come under
enormous pressure. The Ooty Lake is an artificial lake which was constructed
by John Sullivan, the first collector of Ooty. Originally it was intended to be an
irrigation tank but during the years 1823–1825, it was dredged and enlarged. This
lake is a big tourist attraction and supports water-based recreation. Over the years,
increasing siltation and eutrophication have inflicted enormous damage to the lakes.
The National Lake Conservation Programme (NLCP) broadly envisages pollution
abatement of the water bodies. The Ooty and Kodaikanal Lakes were chosen under
Reservoirs and Lakes 987

this programme to improve and restore the health of these lakes from the viewpoint
of ecology and tourism. The project components are conservation, protection and
restoration of forest cover, erosion control measures on agricultural and vacant lands
by permanent vegetative cover/engineering structures, desilting, and improvement
of treatment system for sewage and solid waste, including vermi-compost disposal.
Pollution in the Udhagamandalam Lake is mainly due to discharge of domestic
sewage in the lake. The situation in Kodaikanal Lake is less severe compared to
the Ooty Lake.

19.8.12. Other Lakes in India

Besides the lake described above, there are many small and big lakes in the country.
Some other important lakes are described in Table 20.
In addition to this, there are numerous lakes in Uttaranchal, which are listed in
Table 21. It can be seen from the table that the Nainital district has the largest area
under the lakes.

19.9. PROBLEMS OF INDIAN LAKES

During recent years, due to alteration of landscape in India by denuding forests,

urbanization, increasing tourist activities, and waste discharge in the lakes, sedimen-
tation and eutrophication of lake water have increased. Even many high altitude
lakes in Kashmir and in Garhwal Himalayas, which have remained clean and
without eutrophication for centuries, are showing signs of deterioration. The famous
Dal Lake of Kashmir, which covered about 40 km2 in the beginning of nineteenth
century, presently covers only about 20 km2 . Almost half of Renuka Lake (water
spread of 670 ha), the biggest lake of Himachal Pradesh in the lesser Siwaliks, is
slowly filling up with sediments. Things are much worse in the plains or in penin-
sular India. Upper Lake in Bhopal, Poondi, Red Hills in Madras and Osmansagar
in Hyderabad, sources of drinking water for their cities have shrunk considerably
in the recent past causing great hardship to the city dwellers. Not only that, in
many cases lakes of smaller sizes located in the urban areas are used as a dumping
spot of wastes, both solid and liquid, due to which the temperature structure of
the lake changes. As a result, many lakes in India are experiencing the problem of
eutrophication. Occurrence of inorganic nutrients in water and the resulting increase
in plant productivity has become a serious water quality consideration all over the
country.
Studies have been carried out in India mainly with ecological, environmental,
socio-economic, and limnological aspects of lakes. However, by far only a few lakes
have been studied and it is necessary to initiate studies of many more important
lakes. Besides, it is of utmost importance that the recommendations of these studies
are implemented in the right earnest.
In India, natural and/or manmade changes in storage of lakes, both in quality and
quantity of water, have altered not only the stream flow regime but also the water
balance of the region. Alteration of flow regime and quality of lake water, a common
Table 20. Salient features of some of the important lakes in India 988
Name Location Dimensions Storage Inflow Outflow Use of lake Other
water infor-
mation

Lakes in Rajasthan
Fatehsagar Lake North-west of L: 2.6 km, B: Gross, live, and Connected to CCA:
(Rajasthan) Udaipur city 1.8 km. Mean dead storage Swaroopsagar Lake 680 ha;
Depth: 5.4 m, capacity: 12.1, 7.0, through a canal. also used
Max Depth: and 51 Mm3 for
13.4 m, A: respectively. drinking
40 km2 purposes
Udaisagar Lake 13 km from the L: 4.0 km, B: Gross, live and dead Ahar River; Berach River CCA:
(Rajasthan) Udaipur city 2.5 km, D: storage capacity: Lake also originates from the 6,450 ha;
10.7 m, A: 31.15, 27.6 receives lake also used
104 km2 and 35 Mm3 industrial for fishing,
respectively. effluents and industrial,
domestic & drinking
waste. purpose.
Sardarsamand lake Pali, 55 km south of Max. depth Capacity is 88 Mm3 CCA:
(Rajasthan) Jodhpur. at 7.6 m, A: 10,336 ha.
confluence of Sukri 36 km2
and Guhiya Rivers
Rajsamand Lake Kankroli in L: 7.0 km, B: Gross, live and dead River Gomati, More than 4 000 m3
(Rajasthan) Rajsamand district at 2.5 km storage capacity: a tributary of of water/ day,
a distance of about 107.2, 98.7 Banas withdrawn through
65 km from Udaipur and 85 Mm3 tubewells by mines
city. Latitude: respectively. and other processing
25 04 N; longitude: units.
73 48 E
Chapter 19
Ramgarh Tal About 35 km Mean depth: Gross and live Banganga CCA:
(Rajasthan) north-east of Jaipur. 4.6 m; max storage capacity: River 9,990 ha.
Latitude and depth: 18.0 m, 59.0, 5898 Mm3 Also used
Longitude are CA: 760 km2 respectively. for
27 03 N and drinking
76 04 E supply to
Reservoirs and Lakes

Jaipur
Jaismond Lake About 51 km from Max depth: Average Due to
(Rajasthan) Udaipur; Latitude: 20 m; A: Rainfall: rapid
25 05 N and 30 km2 ; 800 mm; No defor-
Longitude: 73 28 E. stream estation
Altitude from msl: connected sediment
720 m. load in the
lake is
increasing.
Sambhar Lake About 64 km to the L: 32.0 km, D: By seasonal 78 km2 of Tropical
(Saline lake, west of Jaipur; 22.0 m, CA: rivers Bandi, the eastern monsoon
Rajasthan) Latitude: 27 00 N, 2330 km2 Medha, and arm of climate;
Longitude 75 00 E; several other Sambhar Lake often
Altitude from msl: streams Lake is dries in
360 m. devoted for early
salt summer
production.
Phulera lake (Saline Lies at 65 km to the A: 2 km2 Water level
lake, Rajasthan) north west of fluctuates
Sambhar; Latitude: from few
27 12 N, Longitude: cm to a
74 34 E maximum
of 2 m

(Continued)
989
 990
Table 20. (Continued)

Name Location Dimensions Storage Inflow Outflow Use of lake Other

water infor-
mation

Lakes in Rajasthan
Diwana lake (Saline Lies at 60 km to the A: 2 km2 20% of Water level
lake, Rajasthan) north west of Didwana fluctuates
Sambhar; Ltitude: Lake is from few
26 52 N, Longitude: used as salt cm. to a
75 11 E. pans. maximum
of 2 m.
Pichola Lake, Located in the Max L: Gross, storage Average Bechar River Municipal Due to
(Rajasthan) western part of 3.6 km, Max capacity: 1367 Mm3 rainfall: outflows from the supply to rapid
Udaipur city; B: 2.6 km. 700 mm: lake Udaipur defor-
latitude: 24 34 N, Min B: Sisarama City, estation
longitude: 73 41 E. 1.93 km, River, a irrigation, sediment
altitude: 587 m above Mean Depth: tributary of bathing, load is
msl 4.5 m, Max Kotra River is fishing, increasing
Depth: 10.5 m, the chief recreation year by
A: 108 km2 source of and socio- year
water cultural
activities
Rangasagar Lake Middle of the chain L: 1.03 km, B: Pichola lake Swaroopsagar lake
(Rajasthan) of lakes of Udaipur 0.25 km. Max to its southern on its northern
Depth: 7.0 m, side eastern part
A: 0136 km2
Swaroopsagar lake Lying to the south of Gross, live and dead Rangasagar Fatehsagar lake CCA of the
(Rajasthan) Rangasagar lake storage capacity lake through a canal complex:
of Pichola- 580 ha
Swaroopsagar
Chapter 19
 lake complex: 13.7,
9.0 and 467 Mm3
respectively.
Nalsarwar Lake 60 km south west of CA: 115 km2 Gets water Nalsarwar Large,
(Gujarat) Ahmedabad; latitude: only from Bird shallow,
22 47 N, longitude: monsoon Sanctuary fresh water
72 03 E, altitude: runoff on the lake; dries
Reservoirs and Lakes

11.5 m. above msl sides of the completely

lake, before
famous for onset of
migrating the
birds, even monsoon
from
Siberia
Pangon Tso Lake 100 km south east of Max Depth: Input to the Has Narrow
(Sikkim) Leh-Ladakh in Indus 100 m, CA: lake is only protected brackish
basin; latitude: 650 km2 from high lake, gets
33 50 N, longitude precipitation altitude frozen in
78 53 E, altitude: cold desert winter
4,218 m above msl National
Park
Wullar Lake (J & K) Lies at a distance of L: 24 km, B: Excess water Largest
60 km from Srinagar, 10 km. from the fresh-water
between Bandipore Jhelum, lake in
and Sopore India
Mirgund Lake (J & Located at a distance Max. depth: Fed by No visible outflow Shallow
K) of 15 km north west 1.05 m, A: precipitation from the lake fresh water
of Srinagar; latitude: 3 km2 only lake with
34 08 N, longitude: reed beds,
74 38 E, altitude: highly
1,580 m above msl. eutrophic
991

(Continued)
Table 20. (Continued)
992
Name Location Dimensions Storage Inflow Outflow Use of lake Other
water infor-
mation

Lakes in Rajasthan
Renuka Lake (H.P.) Located in Nahan, at L: 1.5 km, B: Fed by Destination Largest,
a distance of 173 km 0.3 km. Min monsoon for more narrow,
south west of Shimla; Depth: 5.0 m, runoff from than 600 oblong shaped
Latitude: 30 36 N, Max Depth: the catchment migratory natural water
longitude: 77 27 E, 10.0 m, A: area and birds, 443 body, a
altitude: 700 m above 05 km2 perennial species of pilgrim
msl. underground fauna, center of
source mammals, Renukaji
birds, (mother of
reptiles and Hanuman)
amphibians
Naukuchiatal Lake At 15 km from Mean Depth: A small artificial The deepest
Nainital; latitude: 21.89 m, Max outlet leading to and most
29 32 N, longitude: Depth: 41.25 m, Bhimtal Gadhera voluminous
79 21 E, altitude: maximum of the
1,320 m above msl. aerial extent Kumaun lakes
of the lake is
090 km2
Bhimtal Lake 5 km from Nainital; Min Depth: Perennial Outflow from the Largest
latitude: 29 21 N, 12 m, Max lake, receives lake goes to nanda amongst
longitude: 79 34 E, Depth: water from drain Kumaun lakes,
altitude: 1,345 m 24.75 m, direct rainfall irregular in
above msl. Volume of and catchment shape, shore
lake: runoff line index: 1.67,
4 245 × 103 m3 development
index: 1.74.
Chapter 19
Pullicat Lake (Tamil 45 km north of L: 60 km, B: 5 Fed by two Drinking,
Nadu) Chennai; latitude: to 15 km. rivers fishing,
13 25 to 13 55 N, Mean Depth: Separated and
longitude: 80 05 to 2.0 m, A: from Bay of navigation;
80 19 E, altitude: 720 km2 Bengal by Sri Lake has
0–10 m above msl. Harikota also a bird-
Island sanctuary
Reservoirs and Lakes

Upper Bhopal Lake Situated in Bhopal Min Depth: The lake is Spillway from the Encroached 1,100 years
(Madhya Pradesh) city; latitude: 3 m, Max fed by river lake is discharged by for old man
23 25 N, longitude: Area: 10 m, Kolans. 11 gates and joins agriculture, made fresh
77 15 E, altitude: Original A: Kalisor River which socio- water lake,
508 m above msl. 195 km2 : Area finally meets in economic polluted by
reduced in Betwa River activity, non point
2002: 30 km2 urban source
devel- pollution
opment like
transport domestic
facilities, and
recre- industrial
ational wastes
activities,
etc.
Chandpatta Lake 5 km east of Shivpuri Max depth: Lake is
(Madhya Pradesh) in Madhya National 12 m, A: eutrophic
Park; latitude: 2 km2 due to
25 26 N, longitude: organic
77 42 E, altitude: pollution
450 m above msl. and
sedimen-
tation.

(Continued)
993
Table 20. (Continued)

Name Location Dimensions Storage Inflow Outflow Use of lake Other 994
water infor-
mation

Lakes in Rajasthan
Sagar Lake (Madhya Situated in Sagar Max L: 1.247 km, Feeder Kanera Total annual
Pradesh) city; latitude: B: 1.207 km. Canal quantity of
23 50 N, longitude: Periphery: silt deposition
78 45 E, altitude: 5.23 km; Max about
517 m above msl. depth: 5.38 m, 4 500 m3
Mean depth:
2.48 m, A:
107 km2 ; Volume:
4 × 106 m3
Lonar Lake Situated 140 km. Circular Dia Underground Around 50,000
(Maharashtra) from Aurangabad; at Rim: feeding of the years old,
latitude: 20 10 N, 1.8 km, lake bringing largest and
longitude: 71 45 E, diameter at pollutant into oldest natural
altitude: 350 m above water surface: the lake lake of meteor
msl. 1.2 km. Mean origin in
depth: 100 m the world
Rudrasagar Lake, Located in the Max depth Input to the Spillway from the The lake A palace,
Tripura Agratala City of has been lake is lake is discharge to water is “Neer
Tripura; latitude: reduced from monsoon River Gomti which used for Mahal” was
20 15 N, longitude: 20 m to 6 m in runoff from flows downstream of fishing, constructed
92 10 E, altitude: 1950; Water the catchment the lake recreation, inside the
40 m above msl. spread area of area tourism lake. Night
the lake has and soils and
reduced to irrigation. sewage from
about 6 km2 Agartala is
from 12 km2 dumped
in 1950 into lake.
Chapter 19
Deepar Beel (Assam) Located 10 km south Max depth: The outflow from the Half lake Natural fresh
west of city of 4 m; A: lake goes to river dries in water lake,
Guwahati; latitude: 40 km2 Brahmaputra winter and famous for
26 10 N, longitude: depending upon the converted Jatia Hills
91 45 E, altitude: relative water level to rice fields. on the
53 m above msl. of the lake. continuous southern
encroachment side where
by the migrating
Reservoirs and Lakes

farmers birds collide

resulting in with the
shrinkage hills
of the lake and die
Pakhal Lake Located 40 km east A: 15 km2 Numerous
(Karnataka) of Warangal; latitude: ephemeral and
17 57 N, longitude: semi perennial
80 00 E, altitude: streams feed
85–90 m above msl. the lake
Krishnaraja Sagar Situated in the Mean depth: Several Man made
lake (Karnataka) Mysore city; latitude: 30 m, Max varieties of fresh water
18 45 N, longitude: depth: 100 m, flora and lake,
80 10 E, altitude: A: 75 km2 fauna are in constructed
100 m above msl. abundance during 1895–
in the lake 1940 by
and its King
catchment. Krishnaraja
Wodeyar IV.
Sultanpur Jheels Located 15 km west A: 137 km2 The lakes flood Excavation Lake is
(Haryana) of Gurgaon; latitude: during monsoon and of sand eutrophic
28 28 N, longitude: heavy rainfall. from bed due to
76 55 E, altitude: of the lake organic
220–230 m above for lime and urban
msl. industry. pollution.
995

Note: L=Length; B= Breadth: D; Depth; A= Lake Area; CA= catchment Area.

996 Chapter 19

Table 21. Lakes in the Uttaranchal State

Name of No. of Total Area Altitude Names of Lakes

the District lakes (in ha) range
(m)

Uttarkashi 5 800 2,330 to Dyodital, Nachiketatal,

3,352 Barsutal, Syabatal, Jakholtal
Chamoli 9 1420 2,230 to Brahmtal, Jha Tal,
3,900 Bheekaltal, Sukhatal, Dewtal,
Loktal, Basukital, Trijugi
Narayan Dhikharital
Tehri 6 395 1,700 to Masartal, Marintal, Jaraltal,
4,450 Chandyaratal, Banghanital,
Nekhrital
Rudraprayag 1 200 2,230 Dewaria tal
Nainital 9 26704 1,061 to Bhital, Naukuchiatal, Sattal,
1,600 Nainital, Khurpatal, Garur tal,
Lohakham tal, Hrish tal, Nal
Damyanti tal
Champawat 1 150 1,500 Shyamtital
Total 31 29669

problem faced everywhere, arising from increase in demand and developmental

activities, are resulting in the hampering of activities supported by these lakes. There
are also side effects of ecological imbalances in the region. Impact of degradation
is less in the initial stage but the cumulative impact in longer period proves to be
deleterious. In many cases, if the state of the problems and their remedial measures
is not looked into, it would be difficult to save the lakes and therefore, the adjoining
area from economical, hydrological, and environmental disasters.
Many lakes in India are under threat due to a variety of somewhat inter-related
reasons. So severe is the problem in some cases that the very existence of the lake
is under threat and in fact several lakes have either largely filled up or are close
to death. With a national perspective, the most important problems connected with
lakes are:
i. Heavy pollution and deterioration of the quality of water in the lakes,
ii. Loss of storage capacity due to siltation, dumping of garbage or intentional
filling-up,
iii. Reduction in inflow into the lakes due to upstream diversions, extractions, and
over-use of lake water, and
iv. Eutrophication and deterioration of lake water quality due to inflow of pollutants
from industries, and municipal areas.
Undoubtedly, concerted efforts are needed to main the health of our lakes and to
restore the status of those lakes that the deteriorating due to reasons stated here.
Such efforts are urgently needed because of the important role that these water
bodies play for the benefit of nature and the society.
CHAPTER 20
WATER QUALITY AND RELATED ASPECTS

The study of relationship between natural resources (water, air and land), human
beings, living creatures, plants and microorganism is known as ecology. Due to
tremendous increase in population and human activities, there is rampant degra-
dation of environment as well as natural resources. Environmental degradation is
caused by deforestation, soil erosion, unplanned industrialization, indiscriminate
use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture, water logging, and water pollution,
etc. Protection of water resources, abatement of water pollution, and restoration of
environment are necessary if the society wishes to continue to reap uninterrupted
benefits from the use of natural resources.
Water has a key role in sustaining ecological balance. The widespread scarcity,
gradual destruction and aggravated pollution of the water resources also lead to
degradation of ecology. Water quality issues are gaining recognition as river waters
are getting heavily polluted in many places and ground water quality at many places
is beginning to deteriorate. In view of this, the Parliament of India had passed
The Prevention and Control of Pollution Act. This was the first such enactment
and thereafter many acts/rules have come into force to protect the environment
and to safeguard against disposal of toxic industrial and hazardous wastes. The
Environment Protection Act 1986 is an umbrella act which covers all aspects
of environment including air, water and land. Under this act, Govt. of India is
empowered to take all measures, required for the protection and improvement of
the quality of environment and abating environmental pollution.
Water quality deterioration has serious implications for the supply of water for
drinking, irrigation, industrial use, and is important determinant of public health. The
level of natural contaminants such as fluoride and arsenic, and chemical pollutants
such as pesticides and insecticides, is high and rising at several places. Although
several studies and pilot programs sponsored by the Government and external
funding agencies are under way, by far these have had mixed success. New risks
are emerging from the rise in wastewater production and its inappropriate disposal
that accompanies the increased coverage and service levels.
Water pollution is acquiring a serious dimension in India as almost 70% of its
surface water resources and a large proportion of groundwater reserves are already
contaminated by biological, toxic organic and inorganic pollutants. In many cases,
997
998 Chapter 20

the available water has been rendered unsafe for domestic consumption, irrigation,
and industrial needs. Degradation of quality in turn leads to water scarcity as it
limits water availability for human use.

20.1. UN MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS

During the UN Millennium Summit in September 2000, a Millennium Decla-

ration was adopted by 189 nations. Eight goals drawn from the actions and targets
contained in the declaration were identified and it was agreed that these are to be
achieved by the year 2015. These goals are known as The Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) and these are supposed to respond to the world’s main development
challenges. The 8 MDGs break down into 18 quantifiable targets that are measured
by 48 indicators. The goals are:
Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger,
Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education,
Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women,
Goal 4: Reduce child mortality,
Goal 5: Improve maternal health,
Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases,
Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability, and
Goal 8: Develop a Global Partnership for Development.
Two targets under the Goal 7 are of relevance to water sector:
Target 1: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies
and programmes; reverse loss of environmental resources,
Target 2: Reduce by half the proportion of people without sustainable access to
safe drinking water.

20.2. WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENT FOR DIFFERENT USES

For any water body to function adequately in satisfying the desired use, it must
have corresponding degree of purity. Drinking water should be of highest purity.
As the magnitude of demand for water is fast approaching the available supply,
the concept of management of the quality of water is becoming as important as its
quantity.
Each water use has specific quality need. Therefore, to set the standard for the
desire quality of a water body, it is essential to identify the uses of water in that
water body. In India, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has developed
a concept of designated best use. According to this, out of the several uses of
water of a particular body, the use which demands highest quality is termed its
designated best use. Five designated best uses have been identified, as presented
in Table 1. This classification helps the water quality managers and planners
to set water quality targets and design suitable restoration programs for various
water bodies.
Water Quality and Related Aspects 999

Table 1. Designated best uses of water

Designated best use Class Criteria

Drinking Water Source A 1.Total Coliforms Organism

without conventional MPN/100ml shall be 50 or less
treatment but after disinfection 2. pH between 6.5 and 8.5
3. Dissolved Oxygen 6mg/l or more
4. Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5
days 20  C, 2mg/l or less
Outdoor bathing (Organised) B 1.Total Coliforms Organism
MPN/100ml shall be 500 or less
2. pH between 6.5 and 8.5
3. Dissolved Oxygen 5mg/l or more
4. Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5
days 20  C, 3mg/l or less
Drinking water source after C 1. Total Coliforms Organism
conventional treatment and MPN/100ml shall be 5000 or less
disinfection 2. pH between 6 and 9
3. Dissolved Oxygen 4mg/l or more
4. Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5
days 20  C, 3mg/l or less
Propagation of Wild life and D 1. pH between 6.5 and 8.5
Fisheries 2. Dissolved Oxygen 4mg/l or more
3. Free Ammonia (as N)
4. Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5
days 20  C, 2mg/l or less
Irrigation, Industrial Cooling, E 1. pH between 6.0 and 8.5
Controlled Waste disposal 2. Electrical Conductivity at 25  C
micro mhos/cm, maximum 2250
3. Sodium absorption Ratio Max. 26
4. Boron Max. 2mg/l
Below-E Not meeting any of the A, B, C, D &
E criteria

Source: CPCB (2005).

A colour coding is frequently used to depict the quality of water on maps:

Blue water – This water can be directly used for drinking, industrial use, etc.,
Green water – Water contained in soil and plants is termed as green water,
White water – Atmospheric moisture is white water,
Brown or grey water – Various grades of wastewater are shown by brown or
grey colour.
In India, CPCB has identified water quality requirements in terms of a few chemical
characteristics, known as primary water quality criteria. Further, Bureau of Indian
Standards has also recommended water quality parameters for different uses in the
standard IS 2,296:1992. Important water quality standards of IS code are shown in
Table 2.
1000 Chapter 20

Table 2. Water Quality standards in India (Source IS 2296:1992)

Characteristics Designated best use

A B C D E

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)mg/l, min 6 5 4 4 –

Biochemical Oxygen demand (BOD)mg/l, 2 3 3 – –
max
Total coliform organisms MPN/100ml, 50 500 5,000 – –
max
pH value 6.5–8.5 6.5–8.5 6.0–9.0 6.5–8.5 6.0–8.5
Colour, Hazen units, max. 10 300 300 – –
Odour Un-objectionable – –
Taste Tasteless – – – –
Total dissolved solids, mg/l, max. 500 – 1,500 – 2,100
Total hardness (as CaCO3 ), mg/l, max. 200 – – – –
Calcium hardness (as CaCO3 ), mg/l, max. 200 – – – –
Magnesium hardness (as CaCO3 ), mg/l, 200 – – – –
max.
Copper (as Cu), mg/l, max. 1.5 – 1.5 – –
Iron (as Fe), mg/l, max. 0.3 – 0.5 – –
Manganese (as Mn), mg/l, max. 0.5 – – – –
Cholorides (as Cu), mg/l, max. 250 – 600 – 600
Sulphates (as SO4 ), mg/l, max. 400 – 400 – 1,000
Nitrates (as NO3 ), mg/l, max. 20 – 50 – –
Fluorides (as F), mg/l, max. 1.5 1.5 1.5 – –
Phenolic compounds (as C2 H5 OH), mg/l, 0.002 0.005 0.005 – –
max.
Mercury (as Hg), mg/l, max. 0.001 – – – –
Cadmium (as Cd), mg/l, max. 0.01 – 0.01 – –
Salenium (as Se), mg/l, max. 0.01 – 0.05 – –
Arsenic (as As), mg/l, max. 0.05 0.2 0.2 – –
Cyanide (as Pb), mg/l, max. 0.05 0.05 0.05 – –
Lead (as Pb), mg/l, max. 0.1 – 0.1 – –
Zinc (as Zn), mg/l, max. 15 – 15 – –
Chromium (as Cr 6+ ), mg/l, max. 0.05 – 0.05 – –
Anionic detergents (as MBAS), mg/l, 0.2 1 1 – –
max.
Barium (as Ba), mg/l, max. 1 – – – –
Free Ammonia (as N), mg/l, max – – – 1.2 –
Electrical conductivity, micromhos/cm, – – – – 2,250
max
Sodium absorption ratio, max – – – – 26
Boron, mg/l, max – – – – 2

Guidelines are available to evaluate quality of water for irrigation. For irrigation,
water can be classified in five classes depending upon its chemical properties. The
criteria for the same are given in Table 3.
Indian Standards code IS 10,500:1991 prescribes specifications for drinking
water. These are given in Table 4.
Water Quality and Related Aspects 1001

Table 3. Guidelines for evaluation of irrigation water quality

Water class Sodium (Na) % Electrical SAR RSC meq/l

conductivity S/cm

Excellent <20 <250 <10 <1.25

Good 20–40 250–750 10–18 1.25–2.0
Medium 40–60 750–2,250 18–26 2.0–2.5
Bad 60–80 2,250–4,000 >26 2.5–3.0
Very bad >80 >4,000 >26 >3.0

Table 4. Drinking water specifications (IS 10,500:1991)

Characteristics Desirable limit Permissible limit

Essential Characteristics
Colour, Hazen Units, Max 5 25
Odour Unobjectionable –
Taste Agreeable –
Turbidity, NTU, Max 5 10
PH value 6.5 to 8.5 –
Total Hardness (as CaCo3 ), mg/l, Max 300 600
Iron (as Fe), mg/l, Max 0.3 1.0
Chlorides (as Cl), mg/l, Max 250 1,000
Residual free chlorine, mg/l, Max 0.2 –
Desirable Characteristics
Dissolved solids, mg/l, Max 500 2,000
Calcium as (Ca), mg/l, Max 75 200
Magnesium (as Mg), mg/l, Max 30 75
Copper (as Cu), mg/l, Max 0.05 1.5
Manganese (as Mn), mg/l, Max 0.1 0.3
Sulphate (as So4 ), mg/l, Max 200 400
Nitrate (as No3 ), mg/l, Max 45 100
Flouride (as F0, mg/l, Max 1.0 1.5
Phenolic compounds (as C6 H5 OH), mg/l, 0.001 0.002
Max
Mercury (as Hg), mg/l, Max 0.001 –
Cadmium (as Cd), mg/l, Max 0.01 –
Selenium (as Se), mg/l, Max 0.01 –
Arsenic (as As), mg/l, Max 0.05 –
Cyanide (as CN), mg/l, Max 0.05
Lead (as Pb), mg/l, Max 0.05 –
Anionic detergents (as MBAS), mg/l, Max 0.02 1.0
Chromium (as Cr 6+ ), mg/l, Max 0.05 –
PAH, mg/l, Max – –
Mineral oil, mg/l, Max 0.01 0.03
Pesticides, mg/l, MAX Absent 0.001
Alkalinity, mg/l, Max 200 600
Aluminum (as Al), mg/l, Max 0.03 0.2
Boron, mg/l, Max 1 5
1002 Chapter 20

After discussion on specifications for various uses of water, the attention is now
focused on various sources and activities that pollute water.

20.3. SOURCES OF POLLUTION

Sources of pollution can be divided basically into two groups, natural and anthro-
pogenic. The source can be further classified as either point or diffuse (non-point)
sources. Point sources enter the pollution transport routes as discrete, identifiable
locations and can be measured directly or otherwise quantified; and their impact
can be evaluated directly. Major point sources include effluent from industrial and
sewage treatment plants, and effluent from farm buildings or solid waste disposal
sites. Table 5 describes categories of major sources of ground water contamination.
Pollution from diffuse sources can be related to weathering of minerals, erosion
of virgin lands and forest including residues of natural vegetation, or artificial or
semi artificial sources. The last can be related directly to human activities such

Table 5. Categories of major sources of ground water contamination

Source Category

Point Line Diffuse

Municipal
Sewer leakage x x
Sewage effluent x x X
Sewer sludge x X
Urban runoff x x X
Solid wastes x
Lawn fertilizers X

Agricultural
Evapotranspiration and leaching (return flow) x
Fertilizers x
Soil amendments x
Pesticides and herbicides x
Animal wastes (Feedlots and dairies) x x
Stock piles x

Industrial
Cooling water x x
Process water x
Storm run-off x x
Boiler blow down x
Water treatment plant effluent x
Hydrocarbons x
Tank and pipeline leakage x x

Mining/oil field wastes

Hydrocarbons x
Mining wastes x x x
Water Quality and Related Aspects 1003

return flows from agricultural farming areas, wash-overs from animal feedlots,
construction sites, transportation, strip mining and others.
Causes of water pollution are diverse: untreated sewage, industrial discharge,
leaching from municipal waste, and drainage from the residues of agricultural
fertilizers and pesticides. This section provides a discussion on the major sources.

20.3.1. Domestic Sources of Pollution

With burgeoning cities and increasing industrialization, the quantum of waste

dumped into rivers has also increased. Tables 6 and 7 show the increasing urban-
ization and the growth of metro cities in India.
During the 50 year period from 1951 to 2001, urban population increased more
than four fold. By the year 2001, more than one-fourth of the total population
was living in urban agglomerations. From 1981 to 2001, the number of urban
agglomerations with population in excess of 1 million increased three times as
shown in Table 4. Out of 35 urban agglomerations with population exceeding
1 million, three had population exceeding 10 million in the year 2001: Mumbai
(16.38 million), Kolkata (13.22 million), and Delhi (12.8 million).
Rapidly increasing urbanization has given rise to a number of water-related
problems: water supply, wastewater generation and its collection, treatment and
disposal. Water for domestic and industrial use in urban areas is drawn from rivers,
streams, wells and lakes. Approximately 80% of the water supplied for domestic use
is turned into wastewater and in India, most of it is let out untreated. Consequently,
it either percolates into the ground and contaminates the aquifers or is dumped
into the nearby river causing pollution in downstream areas. Consequently, river
stretches near big cities are at their worst, e.g., Ganga at Kanpur, Yamuna at Delhi,
Gomti at Lucknow, Sabarmati at Ahmedabad, Musi at Hyderabad, and Adyar at
Chennai. Coliform count in Yamuna at Delhi reaches up to 10 crore per 100 ml.

Table 6. Increasing urbanization in India

Year → 1951 1991 2001 2021 (projected)

Number of Urban Agglomerations/towns 2,795 3,768 4,378 –

Urban population (million) 62.0 217.0 285.0 550.0
Percentage of total population 17.3% 25.72% 27.8% 41%

Table 7. Growth of metro cities in India

Year → 1981 1991 2001

Number of Urban Agglomerations (population over 1 million) 12 23 35

Population (million) 42 70 108
Percentage of urban population 26 32 39
1004 Chapter 20

The domestic sector is responsible for the majority of the wastewater generation
in India. About 50 million m3 of untreated sewage discharged into rivers per year
significantly contribute towards pollution of India’s fourteen major river systems.
The 22 largest cities in the country produce over 7,300 million liters of domestic
wastewater per day and only about 80% of it is collected for treatment (Development
Alternatives, 2001).
The number of Class-1 (population > 1 lakh) cities increased from 142 in 1978
to 299 in 1995, their combined population also nearly doubled from 60.3 million to
128.1 million. In the year 1995, the volume of water supply to these cities was 8,638
mld and the waster water generated by 299 Class-1 cities was 16,660 mld which
was approximately 81% of the water supplied. Only 74% of the total wastewater
generated is collected and only 24% of the wastewater is treated. Out of 299 Class-1
cities, 160 cities had sewerage cover for more than 75% of the population and in 92
cities, between 50 and 75% of population had sewerage coverage. On the whole,
70% of the population of Class-1 cities was provided with the sewerage facility.
Figure 1 shows the number, population, water supply, and wastewater – growth in
Class-1 cities for three past years.
From 1978 to 1995, the number of Class-2 cities (population 0.5 lakh to 1 lakh)
increased from 190 to 345; in this period their combined population increased from
12.8 million to 23.6 million. In the year 1995, the volume of water supply to these
cities was 1,936 mld and the waster water generated by 345 Class-2 cities was
1,650 mld which was approximately 85% of the water supplied. Less than 4% of
the wastewater was treated in 1995. Figure 2 shows the number, population, water
supply, and wastewater – growth in Class-2 cities for three past years.
Currently, there are more than 900 towns with population exceeding 50,000 and
these generate 26,000 mld of waste. Out of this, only about 7,000 mld is treated
before letting out and the rest, i.e., 19,000 mld is disposed off untreated. The gravity
of situation can be judged from the fact that in spite of sewage treatment plants,
only 1,400 mld of about 3,600 mld of sewage generated in Delhi is treated; the rest

25000
1978
20000 1988
1995
15000

10000

5000

0
Number Population Water Liter/Capita Wastewater Treatment
(lakh) supply (mld) /Day (mld) (mld)

Figure 1. Number, population, water supply, and wastewater – growth in Class-1 cities for three
past years. Note that the variables represent different features and the Y-axis scale should be viewed
accordingly
Water Quality and Related Aspects 1005

2000
1978
1600 1988
1995
1200

800

400

0
Number Population Water Liter/Capita Wastewater Treatment
(lakh) supply (mld) /Day (mld) (mld)

Figure 2. Number, population, water supply, and wastewater – growth in Class-2 cities for three
past years. Note that the variables represent different features and the Y-axis scale should be viewed
accordingly

of the untreated sewage is discharged into the Yamuna River. Twenty-seven cities
have only primary treatment facilities and forty-nine have primary and secondary
treatment facilities. The level of treatment available in cities with existing treatment
plant varies from 2.5% to 89% of the sewage generated.
Comparative data of water supply, wastewater generation, collection and
treatment in 1978, 1988 and 1995 for Class-1 and Class-2 cities is given in Table 8.
Population of Class-1 cities is nearly 5 times that of Class-2 cities but the water
supply in Class-1 cities is 10.6 times that of Class-2 cities and wastewater generation
is nearly 10.1 times more in Class-1 cities. Treatment of wastewater in Class-1 cities
is a lot larger, nearly 65 times that of Class-2 cities. Comparison of Indian cities with
those of the other countries shows that water supply and sanitation facilities are
woefully inadequate even in Class-1 cities in India. Under the circumstances, it is
easy to image the kind of unhealthy conditions that are prevalent in Class-2 cities.

Table 8. Water supply and sanitation status in Class-1 and Class-2 cities in three years

S. N. Item Class-1 cities Class-2 cities

1978 1988 1995 1978 1988 1995

1. Number 142 212 299 190 241 345

2. Population (million) 60 102 128 12.8 20.7 23.6
3. Water Supply (mld) 8,638 15,191 20,607 1,533 1,622 1,936
4. Per capita water supply 143 147 183 125 78 103
(LPCD)
5. Wastewater generated (mld) 7,007 12,145 16,662 1,226 1,280 1,650
6. Wastewater treated (mld) 2,756 2,485 4,037 67 27 62
7. Untreated disposed 61% 79.5% 76% 94.56% 97.88% 96.27%
wastewater (%)
1006 Chapter 20

Treated or partly treated or untreated wastewater is either disposed into natural

drains joining rivers or lakes, or is used for irrigation/ fodder cultivation, or diverted
to the sea; a combination of these is also followed the municipalities. The mode of
wastewater disposal in 118 cities is indirectly into the rivers/ lakes/ ponds/ creeks;
in 63 cities it is to the agriculture land; in 41 cities it is directly into rivers, and in
44 cities, wastewater is discharged both into rivers and on agriculture land.
In India, about 0.37 kg/capita/day of commercial & domestic wastes are produced.
Domestic wastewater contains high amount of organic matter. Industrial effluents
particularly from agro-based industries also contain high organic matter. When this
organic matter is oxidized in water through microbial activities, oxygen dissolved
in water is consumed. Since water has limited availability of oxygen, this results in
depletion of dissolved oxygen and the survival of aquatic life is endangered.
In many water bodies, massive input of organic matter sets off a chain of chemical
and biological events. This results in high bacterial population, cloudy appearance,
high BOD and strong disagreeable odour; all these symptoms indicate general
depletion of oxygen. During monsoon, the sludge deposited in such stretches is
flushed by flood water and stays in suspension, causing rise in oxygen consumption.
Heavy fish mortality occurs every year due to this sudden oxygen depletion, during
first flushing after the onset of monsoon.

20.3.2. Unsewered Domestic Waste

Most of the small towns and villages in India do not have running water supply or
sewered sanitation. Consequently, most residents in these places use open field for
defecation, with the remaining use pit-latrines or septic-tanks. Similar is the situation
in numerous jhuggy-jhopady (shanty town) that have sprung in the vicinity of big
cities and industrial complexes. Much of the bathing and washing (clothes, utensils
etc.) in these habitations is in or near a water body or near a hand pump/municipal
tap. This causes in-situ diffuse pollution or the waste water just flows and gradually
infiltrates or evaporates. Generation of liquid effluents is very small in villages but
most wastewater flows in the nearby depressions. Investigations show significant
quantities of pollutants including salts, nutrients, organisms, and micro-organisms
from such hamlets and rural areas reaching ground or surface water bodies through
leachate seepages and as washings in the storm run-offs. CPCB (1995) estimated
that on an average, 15 g of BOD5–20 per capita per day of the rural population
reaches the major rivers draining the basin; the amounts of pollutants percolating
to ground waters may be much larger.
Over the past four decades, the use of soaps and detergents has considerable
increased in towns as well as villages. Washing machines have also become common
in Indian households. Combined together, all these factors have led to signif-
icant increase in generation of pollution loads of salts, nutrients, organics, micro-
organisms, soaps, detergents and other chemicals per capita per day. Unfortunately,
provision of sewerage has lagged far behind water supply due to many reasons.
A large number of the cities/towns either do not have any sewerage system or the
system is overloaded or defunct. Even in metropolitan cities like Delhi, the entire
Water Quality and Related Aspects 1007

sewage is not treated. This results in large amount of uncollected and untreated
wastewater. Most of the pollution generated flows as sullage to streams and other
water-bodies through storm-drains or other channels. The bulk of pollution gets
retained on land to percolate, leach or get washed-off to streams or ground water
as in the case of pollutants from habitations of category (i) and (ii). Sewer lines are
also known to be break or leak due to: a) poor construction material, b) leakage
from corroded casting, and c) poor design of filter pack.
According to CPCB (1995) only about 40–50% of the populations of the major
Indian metro-cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Calcutta, Madras and Bangalore are served
by sewer systems. The percentage of sewered population is nearly negligible in most
of the rural areas and is quite meager (0 to 50%) in most medium and small towns.
Even where sewers exist, they often leak or overflow, releasing their contents. With
time, these join storm-water or surface drains, or percolate in the soil to reach
ground-water, or enter into streams.
Although during percolation, sewage loses part of bacteria while passing through
the soil and geological materials (natural purification), many cases of bacterial
pollution of ground water have been reported. This pollution may be due to direct
contamination of well water, due to cesspools near the well casing, or through gaps
between the casing and surrounding wells, resulting in infiltration of contaminated
water; many incidences of gastro-enteritis can be linked to sewage pollution of
ground water. When the polluted water is used for drinking purposes, it results in
the spread of this disease.
Methods of wastewater disposal include infiltration ponds, spreading or spraying
onto the ground surface and discharge to stream or dry stream beds, which if not
carefully regulated may provide a rapid pollution pathway to underlying, shallow
aquifers. In some areas, deep soakaways or abandoned wells are used for the
disposal of liquid domestic, industrial or farming wastes into aquifers. Lack of
monitoring, supervision or management adds to the problem.
Even if the intention is to dispose the waste at depth, improper sealing or corrosion
of well linings often produces leaks and subsequent pollution of the shallow ground
water which is used for water supplies. In urban areas covered by sewerage systems,
an economical and common method of partial treatment of sewage is wastewater
stabilization by retention in shallow oxidation lagoons before subsequent discharge
into rivers or onto land for irrigation systems. These lagoons are often unlined
and, if constructed over coarse-textured soils, may have high rates of seepage loss.
Further, the use of such effluent in irrigation may also lead to similar problems.
Most of the unplanned industrial complexes and industrial units scattered in urban
areas and the agricultural based industries in remote villages are examples of this.

20.3.3. Industrial Pollution

Whereas the advanced technology is being widely applied in production processes

by industries in India, proper treatment of industrial effluents has lagged far behind.
If a river, canal or any other surface body is present nearby, the industries in
1008 Chapter 20

most cases use this ‘opportunity’ to discharge their effluents in it without proper
treatment. Alternately, the effluents are discharged through unlined channels on land
or depressions near the plant. Although some of constituents present in effluents
may be absorbed by soil and unsaturated zone, this capacity is limited. With the
passage of time, toxic constituents percolate down to ground water and may damage
the entire aquifer system. In case of industrial units, effluent in most of the cases
are discharged into pits, open ground, or open unlined drains near the factories,
thus allowing it to move to low lying depressions resulting ground water pollution.
Many large industries often release wash-over from storage yards, waste dumping,
ash-ponds, sludge-pits etc. Partly-treated effluents, containing some pollutants, get
leached or washed to streams as diffuse pollution. A number of examples could
be cited, e.g., oily wastes present in the storm-water channel along an oil refinery,
ammonia pollution in ground water around a urea factory, pollution of ground water
near sugar factories in UP, etc.
The number of industries that can cause damage to ground water quality is
substantial. However, groundwater in the vicinity of the following industries
should be monitored regularly to check the adverse effects of effluents: 1) food
processing, (2) breweries and distilleries, (3) soaps and detergents, (4) dairy and
meat, (5) fertilizers and agricultural chemicals, (6) pharmaceuticals (7) textile and
rayon, (8) paper and allied products, (9) chemicals, (10) pharmaceuticals and
refineries, (1l) paints, varnishes and enamels, (12) steel and foundries, (13) electro-
plating, (14) explosives, (15) mining, (l6) wood preservation, (17) photofilms,
(18) nuclear fuel processing, and (19) rubber and tires.
The industries generating chemical pollution can be divided in two categories:
i) those which generate high TDS bearing wastes and (ii) those which generate toxic
wastes. The major contributors of pollution in terms of organic load are distilleries
followed by paper mills. Distilleries generate very concentrated wastewater which
is hard to treat. The paper and board mills also generate heavy organic pollution
load. A large number of paper mills are in small-scale sector and do not have
adequate arrangement for wastewater treatment. Thus, they create heavy pollution
in many areas. The other significant contributors of organic load are sugar and
engineering industries. Although there are guidelines regarding discharge of waste
by the industries, the implementation is tardy resulting in heavy pollution of water
bodies by these industries.
Major contributors of suspended solid load are thermal power plants that dispose
a significant quantity of cooling water, followed by paper mills and tanneries.
Thermal power plants generate large quantities of fly ash but this is not usually
dumped in water bodies. Thus, the major contributors of suspended solids in
treated effluent are paper mills followed by tanneries. Fertilizer industry and steel
industry generate toxic wastes consisting of cyanide and arsenic. Besides, steel
plants and oil refineries are the major contributors of phenol. Engineering indus-
tries contribute large quantities of effluents containing oil and grease followed
by oil refineries and edible oil (vanaspati) industry. Major pollution in terms of
ammonia load is contributed by fertilizer plants (nitrogen) followed by steel plants.
Water Quality and Related Aspects 1009

Tanneries generate higher concentration of chloride in hide processing whereas

fertilizer industry (phosphate) and oil refineries respectively generate Fluoride and
Sulphide. Mercury is generated by caustic soda industries which employ mercury
cell process.
Studies indicate extensive damages to the ground water quality from effluents of
electroplating wastes. High concentrations of cyanide (to the extent of 2 mg/l) and
hexavalent chromium (to the extent of 12.8 mg/l) have been observed in ground
water of Ludhiana, Punjab.
Available estimates of industrial waste production differ widely. Although the
industrial sector accounts for about 4% of the annual water withdrawals, its contri-
bution to water pollution, particularly in urban areas, is significant. The wastewater
generation from this sector has been estimated at 55,000 million m3 per day, out of
which 68.5 million m3 is discharged into river streams (MoWR, 2003). Of the total
pollution load, 40%–45% is contributed by the processing of industrial chemicals,
while nearly 40% of the total organic pollution, arises from the food industries
followed by industrial chemicals, and the pulp and paper industry.
Encouragement of cottage and small-scale industries through policies and
subsidies has been an important component of stated economic development
programme of Govt. of India. There were about 3 million such units in the
country at the turn of the last century. Majority of these units do not have
expertise about pollutant disposal systems. In past, such systems were not considered
necessary for these small units on the plea that these industries can not afford to
spend money on these paraphernalia which may even jeopardize their economic
viability. In fact, some of these industries have adopted highly polluting production
technologies such as chrome-tanning of leather, use of azo-dyes in fabrics, use
of cadmium in ornaments and silver-ware, electroplating with cyanide baths,
production of dye-intermediates and other toxic chemicals, etc. Many industrial
areas and peri-urban centres in the country such as Pali, Balotra, Patancheru,
Jajmau, Faridabad, Ghaziabad, etc. have many such units. Wastewater and sludge
from such congregations gets collected in unlined pits, stagnates in depressions
to percolate, flows to streams through storm-drains, or leaches or get washed-off
during the rainy season. Ultimately, such activities result in significant diffuse water
pollution.

20.3.4. Agricultural Practices

Agricultural land use and cultivation practices exert major influences on ground
water quality. Under certain circumstances, serious ground water pollution can be
caused by agricultural activities the influence of that may be very important because
of the large areas of aquifer affected. Of particular concern, in India, is the leaching
of fertiliser chemicals (e.g., nitrate) and pesticides from regular intensive cultivation
of crops. The impact of cultivation practices on ground water quality is greatest, as
are most anthropogenic effects, where relatively shallow, unconfined aquifers are
used for potable supply.
1010 Chapter 20

With the advent of green revolution, fertilizer consumption in the country has
grown several times. The consumption of N, P2 O5 and K2 O fertilizers in 1951–52
was 45,000, 11,000, 8,000 tones, respectively, which in the year 1982–83, rose to
4,362, 1,420, 735 thousand tones, respectively. Large numbers of cattle in rural areas
also generate wastes. Agricultural activities in rural areas which include application
of barn yard manure to soils, leakage from composting pits, increase in the use of
fertilizers and insecticide and unscientific management of crops, fertilizers and soil
water may result in ground water pollution. The efficiency of N-fertilizes in India is
about 30% for paddy (partly being lost by volatilization-microbial decomposition)
and about 50% for wheat. For potassium and phosphatic fertilizers, the efficiency
is around 50% and 15–20%, respectively (Handa, 1975).
In 1950, the use of fertilizers in India was 0.55 kg/ha. However, by 2001–02 this
figure increased to around 90.12 kg/ha (Kolanu and Kumar, 2004). The consumption
of pesticides, which rose from less than 1 million tones in 1948 to 66.36 million
tones during 1994–95, was around 43.59 million tones during 2001–02 (MoCF,
2002). Pesticides are often applied in quantities that are more than necessary in the
belief that without these, the crops will die. It has been reported that the largest
amount of pesticide is used by cotton growers. The chemical analyses results of
ground water at shallow levels indicate high concentrations of nitrate, potassium
at several places in the country. For high concentrations of nitrate, animal and
human wastes are also likely to be the contributing factors, besides the leaching of
nitrogenous fertilizers.
Some of the chemicals in these fertilizers and pesticides, which enter water bodies
through runoff, irrigation return flow, and leaching, are considered hazardous by
the World Health Organization (WHO). Such chemicals are banned or under strict
control in many countries. Water quality studies on the Ganga River indicate the
presence of chemicals, such as HCH, DDT, dimethoate, endosulfan and malathion
in quantities exceeding standards set by international organizations. Some of these
chemicals persist in the environment over long periods and some others are known
to accumulate in certain organisms. Consumption of such organisms increases risk
to human health.
A high level of fertilizer use has been associated with increased incidences of
eutrophication in several important water bodies of India, such as the Hussain Sagar
in Hyderabad and the Nainital Lake in Uttar Pradesh (MoWR, 2003). Eutrophi-
cation of water bodies is caused by nutrient enrichment. The resultant spurt in the
production of biomass and its death and decay causes a number of adverse effects,
including decreased dissolved oxygen levels, release of odorous compounds, and
siltation.
In India, a high proportion of the rural population in agricultural areas obtain
their domestic water supplies from shallow, private bore holes, which suffer the
impact of nitrate pollution to a much greater extent than the deeper, public supply
aquifers utilised for urban water supply. These deeper aquifers can also be affected
by nitrate contamination although this pollution often takes much more time to
percolate to these depths.
Water Quality and Related Aspects 1011

Increasing salinity resulting from the effects of irrigated agriculture is one or

the oldest and most widespread forms of ground water pollution. It is caused by
the dissolved salts in irrigation water being deposited following evaporation of the
water. The addition of further excess irrigation water merely leaches salts from the
soil and transfers the problem to the underlying ground water. Drainage waters from
irrigated agricultural land are always high in salts, since they also have to carry
the salts originally contained in the evaporated fraction of the irrigation water. In
economically developed areas this was appreciated long ago and arrangements were
made to drain away such saline water without causing undue damage to freshwater
bodies. In developing countries, while irrigation has been expanding exponentially,
little is done to tackle the problem of the high salinity return-waters.

20.3.5. Leachates and Wash-Overs

The most common method of disposal of solid municipal waste in India is by

deposition in landfills. Improper disposal of municipal solid waste is another cause
of surface and groundwater pollution. Most of the municipal waste collected is
dumped in low-lying areas outside the city/town limits, and many of the existing
landfills to dispose the waste are neither well-equipped nor managed efficiently
(TERI, 1998). Leaching from landfills and garbage pits transports toxic substances
and heavy metals to the water table. Runoff from garbage dumps and city streets
carries litter, particulate matter and chemicals to nearby streams and canals. The
annual production of total solid waste in India by the turn of the century was
estimated at around 2,000 million tones. This figure will undoubtedly continue to
increase with growing population.
Less attention was given in the past to the leaching of pesticides from agricultural
land to the underlying ground water in spite of the dramatic increase in the use of
pesticide formulations over the years. These days, the problem is receiving attention
but not much is being done to control it. There are currently few laboratories with
the capability of analyzing pesticides.
The principal threat to ground water comes from inadequately controlled landfills
where leachate generated from the fill material is allowed to escape to the
surrounding and underlying ground. The chemical composition of such leachate
depends on the nature and age of the landfill and the leaching rate. Most leachates
emanating from municipal solid wastes are not only high in organic content but
also contain some toxic material. Leachates from solid wastes of industrial origin,
however, often contain a much higher proportion of toxic constituents, such as
metals and organic pollutants. To minimize the impact of such landfills on ground
water quality and environment, it is necessary to properly design and build these
facilities to prevent pollution and put in place strict management controls to ensure
they are operated correctly. Unfortunately this is rarely done as few towns and
industries in the country make the requisite effort to ensure that their solid waste is
treated or disposed off properly.
1012 Chapter 20

Under certain hydrogeological conditions, unsewered domestic waste can cause

severe ground water contamination by pathogenic bacteria, nitrate and other pollu-
tants. Unsewered waste normally means septic tanks or pit latrines of the venti-
lated, dry or pour-flush types. There are important differences between the two
in relation to the risk of ground water contamination. Septic tank soakaways
discharge at a higher levels in the soil profile than pit latrines and such conditions
are preferable as far as the elimination of bacteria is concerned. Pit latrines are
often deep excavations (to allow a long useful life) and the soil may be entirely
removed thus offering less opportunity for bacterial death. Further the loading from
septic tanks is likely to be less compared to some of the pit latrine types. Septic
tanks are lined and their solid effluent of high nitrogen content is periodically
removed, whereas most pit latrines are unlined and the solid material remains in
the ground.

20.3.6. Effluents, Wash-Over from Cattle-Farms

Cattle-farms rarely have adequate arrangements to collect, treat, and properly

dispose their solid and liquid wastes. In villages, almost every home has a small
cattle-farm and the waste from these farms just flows over the ground to either
infiltrate or get accumulated in small depressions from where, they infiltrate or
water is evaporated. However, waste from these sources frequently does not contain
much harmful chemicals.

20.3.7. Leakages and Accidents

With increasing storage, handling and transport of various chemicals, including

those highly toxic and/ or hazardous, the contribution of these has been growing.
Accidents involving mineral oils, acids, chlorine, ammonia etc. are too well known.
A sizable part of chemicals spilled in such accidents travels to water bodies.

20.3.8. Mining Activities

A range of ground water pollution problems can be associated with mining activities.
The nature of the pollution depends on the materials being excavated and extracted.
Both surface and underground mines usually extend below the water table and often
dewatering is required to allow mining to proceed. The water pumped either directly
from the mine or from specially constructed bore holes, may be highly mineralized
and its usual characteristics include low pH and high levels of iron, aluminum, and
sulphate. Disposal of this mine drainage effluent to surface water or ground water
can cause serious impacts on water quality for all uses. Pollution of ground water
can also result from the leaching of mine tailings and from settling ponds and can,
therefore, be associated with both present and past mining activity.
Water Quality and Related Aspects 1013

20.3.9. Radioactive Substances

Ground water frequently contains trace levels of naturally occurring radioactive
substances or their by-products. The types and levels vary with area to depending
principally on subsurface materials. In addition to natural radii radioactive
substances in ground water can result from human activities. With increase in
nuclear plants for power generation, contamination of ground water by radioactive
sources may take place. Operations like mining and milling of radioactive ores,
chemical reprocessing and radioactive waste disposal can source of radioactive
pollution.

20.4. RIVER WATER QUALITY

Increase in population, urbanization and industrialization is causing an ever-
increasing threat to the quality of waters in rivers, lakes and ponds in India.
Each time water is used for some activity, its quality is degraded. Unfortunately,
the sanctity attached to rivers in the country does not ensure that the rivers are
clean. Pollution problems of various rivers have been discussed in the chapters on
individual rivers. The Ganga Action Plan and the Yamuna Action Plans have also
been described in details in the relevant chapter. Therefore, this section provides a
brief discussion on the topic.
Table 9 gives average chemical composition of some Indian rivers.
Water pollution varies in severity from one region to the other, depending on
the density of urban development, agricultural and industrial practices, and the
systems for collecting and treating wastewater. The Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB), India, has identified some of the polluted river stretches and possible
sources of pollution (Table 10). Most of the polluted stretches exist in and around
large urban areas.

Table 9. Average chemical composition (ppm) of some Indian Rivers

River HCO3 Cl S04 SiO2 Ca Mg Na K TDS

Brahmaputra 56 11 4 7 14 5 7 3 107
Cauvery 135 20 13 23 21 9 43 4 272
Ganga 128 10 11 18 25 8 11 3 241
Godavari 105 17 8 10 22 5 12 3 181
Gomti 274 9 15 15 30 19 27 5 394
Indus 64 5 23 5 54 12 10 0.3 173
Krishna 178 38 49 24 29 8 30 2 360
Mahanadi 122 23 3 17 24 13 14 8 224
Narmada 225 20 5 9 14 20 27 2 322
Tapi 150 65 1 16 19 22 48 3 322

Source: Subramanian (2004) and others.

1014 Chapter 20

Table 10. Some polluted river stretches in India

River Polluted stretch Desired Existing Critical Possible source of pollution

class class parameters

Chambal Downstream of C D/E BOD, DO Domestic and industrial waste

Nagda and from Nagda and Kota
downstream of
Kota
Damodar Downstream of C D/E BOD, Industrial wastes from Dhanbad,
Dhanbad Toxicity Durgapur, Asansol, Haldia and
Burnpur
Godavari Downstream of C D/E BOD Wastes from sugar industries,
Nasik and distilleries and food processing
Nanded industries
Gomti Lucknow to C D/E DO, BOD, Industrial wastes from
confluence with Coliform distilleries and domestic wastes
Ganga from Lucknow
Hindon Saharanpur to C D DO, BOD, Industrial and domestic wastes
confluence with Toxicity from Saharanpur and Ghaziabad
Yamuna
Kali Downstream of C D/E BOD, Industrial and domestic wastes
Modinagar to Coliform from Modinagar
confluence with
Ganga
Krishna Karad to Sangli C D/E BOD Wastes from sugar industries
and distilleries
Sabarmati Immediate B E DO, BOD, Domestic and industrial waste
upstream of Coliform from Ahmedabad
Ahmedabad up
to Sabarmati
Ashram
Sabarmati D E DO, BOD, Domestic and industrial waste
Ashram to Coliform from Ahmedabad
Vautha
Satluj Downstream of C D/E DO, BOD Industrial wastes from hosieries,
Ludhiana to tanneries, electro-plating and
Harike engineering industries and
domestic waste from Ludhiana
and Jalandhar
Downstream of C D/E Ammonia Wastes from fertilizer and
Nangal chloralkali mills from Nangal
Subarnarekha Hatia dam to C D/E -do- Domestic and industrial waste
Bharagora from Ranchi and Jamshedpur
Yamuna Delhi to C D/E DO, BOD, Domestic and industrial wastes
confluence with Coliform from Delhi, Mathura and Agra
Chambal
In the city B D/E DO, BOD, Domestic and industrial wastes
limits of Delhi, Coliform from Delhi, Mathura and Agra
Mathura and
Agra
Water Quality and Related Aspects 1015

20.5. GROUND WATER POLLUTION

In ground water evaluation, the quality is of nearly same importance as quantity –
physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of ground water determine its
usefulness for various uses, viz., irrigation, domestic, and industrial. Variation in
ground water quality occurs from place to place and at place from season to season.
The ground water quality data give important clue to the geological history of rocks
and indications of ground water recharge, discharge, storage and movement.
The most troublesome factor about ground water quality is that after pollution
has entered the sub-surface environment, it may remain hidden for many years,
is dispersed over wide areas, and renders ground water unsuitable for many uses.
If an aquifer is contaminated, it may have to be abandoned and this may require
development of costly alternate water supplies. Prevention is the best way to protect
ground water quality. Slow movement of ground water is a favorable factor when
the contaminants are degradable (biological, bacteriological or radioactive) with
time. In these cases, long underground detention times may more or less completely
remove undesired substances. On the other hand, slow movement causes long
contact with the subsurface minerals, most of which are soluble in water and may
cause natural degradation of subsurface water.
The ground water quality zones, viz., fresh (EC up to 2.0 ms/cm), marginal
(EC 2.0 to 6.0 ms/cm) and saline EC > 60 ms/cm have been demarcated in India
on the basis of electrical conductivity of water. The ground water in most of the
areas of the country is fresh. Brackish ground water occurs in the arid zones of
Rajasthan, close to coastal tracts in Saurashtra and Kutch, and in some zones in the
east coast and certain parts in Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh etc., which
are under extensive surface water irrigation. The fluoride levels in ground water
are considerably higher than the permissible limit in vast areas of Andhra Pradesh,
Haryana and Rajasthan and in some places in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu. In northeastern regions, ground water with iron contents above
the desirable limit occurs widely. Pollution due to human and animal wastes and
fertilizer application has resulted in high levels of nitrate and potassium in ground
water in some parts of the country.
Based on physiographic and geo-hydrological considerations, attempts have
been made to delineate different ground water provinces of India (Handa 1964).
Depending upon the chemical characteristics of ground water, Handa (1964) first
made an attempt to divide the country into six broad hydro-chemical provinces.
These are described in Table 11.
With this background, we described the common ground water contaminants.

20.5.1. Common Ground Water Contaminants

Common contaminants that are found in ground water and their effects are listed
in Table 12.
Ground water quality problems can be broadly divided in two categories:
those due to natural causes and those due to anthropogenic causes. The natural
1016 Chapter 20

Table 11. Ground water provinces based on hydro-chemical quality

A. Bicarbonate Ground water falling in the category is characterized by relatively high

type bicarbonate contents. The Cl and SO4 concentrations are normally below
2.0 and 1.0 mell respectively; the Cl  SO4 ratio is normally more than unity.
Coverage of this category is confined mainly to the humid and sub-humid
areas in India, viz., northeast (Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram,
Manipur and Tripura); eastern India (West Bengal, excluding Calcutta and
the coastal tracts); north India (Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
northern Punjab, north eastern Haryana, major parts of Uttar Pradesh
excluding some parts of southwestern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and parts of
Rajasthan and Gujarat). It also includes the whole of Madhya Pradesh,
Kerala (excluding the coastal fringe) and parts of Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
B. Bicarbonate-Chloride In this category, the dominance of bicarbonate is much less than as
type compared to the bicarbonate type ground water; the bicarbonates ions being
35 to 50 % of the total anions present. The concentration of chloride and
sodium ions is quite significant. The EC of these waters is generally below
2,500 microsiemens/cm, although in a few cases, ground water with EC up
to 5,000 microsiemens/cm have been encountered.
C. Chloride-Bicarbonate This category has chloride ions as the most prominent ions, followed by
type bicarbonate ions. The EC of these waters is generally above 5,000
microsiemens/ cm. The ground water falling in this category is normally
super-saturated with respect to calcite and dolomite, but under-saturated
with respect to gypsum and celestite.
D. Sulphate-Chloride Sulphate and chloride ions are the predominant anions, while among the
type cations, the sodium ions are the most important. Examples from this
category occur are found in Tiruchirapalli district in Tamil Nadu and
isolated patches in southern Haryana, southern Punjab and western
Rajasthan.
E. Choride-Sulphate type This category has chloride ions as the predominant ions followed by
sulphate ions. Among the cations, the anions are most important.
F. Chloride type The ground water belonging to this category is normally quite high in
dissolved mineral content and has Cl and Na as the dominant ions. The EC
of these waters is normally more than 15,000 microsiemens/cm, although in
some cases ground water having lower EC values can also be of the chloride
type. Northeast India and parts of Haryana come under this category.

causes are: arsenic pollution, occurrence of high salinity, high concentrations of

fluoride, and high concentrations of iron, etc. The anthropogenic causes are over-
exploitation, domestic pollution, industrial pollution, agricultural pollution, etc.
Some problems, such as seawater intrusion, could be due to both, natural as well
as anthropogenic causes.

20.5.2. Ground Water Quality Problems due to Natural Causes

Arsenic pollution
Arsenic pollution of ground water in West Bengal was first reported in the early
eighties. The occurrence of arsenic is mainly due to two reasons: natural and
Water Quality and Related Aspects 1017

Table 12. Common ground water contaminants and their effects

Contaminant Source Effects

Dissolved nitrate Sewage, fertilizers, air Blue baby disease

pollution, landfills & (Methamoglobinamia) in
industries children, formation of
carcinogens & acceleration of
eutrophication in surface
waters
Pathogens (bacteria & Sewage, landfills, septic Water borne diseases such as
viruses) tanks & livestock’s typhoid, cholera, dysentery,
polio, and hepatitis
Trace metals (arsenic, lead, Natural, industrial & mine These are toxic and
mercury, cadmium, copper, discharges, fly ash from carcinogenic and can cause
chromium & nickel) thermal power plants various types of diseases
Organic compounds (volatile Agricultural activities, street Various ailments of stomach,
& semi-volatile organic drainages, sewage landfills, breathing, etc.
compounds like petroleum industrial discharges, spills,
derivatives, and pesticides) vehicular emissions fall out
etc.

anthropogenic. Arsenic is widely distributed in nature and principally occurs in the

form of inorganic or organic compounds. Inorganic compounds consist of arsenite,
the most toxic form and arsenate the less toxic form. The main ores of Arsenic
are arsenopyrite, arpiment, realgar and arsenopalledenite. It is present in nature as
iron arsenate, iron sulphate and in calcareous soil as calcareous arsenolite. In flood
deposits, it is found as arsenite. The main anthropogenic sources are industrial waste,
phosphate, fertilizers, coal, oil, cement, mine tailing, smelting, ore processing, metal
extraction, metal purification, chemicals, glass, leather, textiles, alkali, petroleum
refineries, acid mines, alloys, pigments, insecticides, herbicides and catalysts.
The problem of arsenic contamination in ground water from the vast tract of
alluvial aquifers in Bengal, Bihar and UP is known to have affected a population of
about 50 million in different districts of India and an equal number in Bangladesh.
About 63 lakh people in West Bengal State live in the arsenic belt; 69 blocks are
arsenic-affected, while two are affected by fluoride. Arsenic in ground water have
been reported in a range (0.05–3.2) mg/l in shallow aquifers from 61 block in
8 districts of West Bengal namely Malda, Mushirbad, Nadia, North and South 24
Pargana, Bardhaman, Howrah, and Hugli.
In West Bengal, there is increasing concern of arsenic induced diseases due to
exposure of high concentration of arsenic in the Natural Geochemical environment.
In this area the source of arsenic is geogenic and associated with iron pyrites in
arsenic rich layers occurring in the alluvium along the Ganga River. The availability
of arsenic is possible due to excessive use of ground water irrigation (e.g. up to 80%
of the annual replenishable recharge in north 24 Parganas for multiple cropping
which causes dropping of water levels resulting exposure of the arsenic rich beds
to air – oxidation of the pyrite and soubilisation of arsenic).
1018 Chapter 20

Arsenic concentration in ground water has been found to be in excess of permis-

sible limit of 0.05 mg/l in a number of localized patches in Murshidabad and
North 24-Pargana Districts in West Bengal. Population in the area is reported to
be suffering from “Arsenic Dermatosis” by drinking arsenic rich ground water. In
Ramnagar and Domkal blocks of Murshidabad district, Arsenic levels range form
0.06 mg/l to 1.90 mg/l, while in North 24-Parganas, it ranges from 0.66 to 0.9 mg/l.
Consumption of ground water with elevated arsenic levels (up to 3700 g/l in
certain wells) over a prolonged period of time has resulted in serious health hazards,
especially among the rural and semi-urban population in the region. Symptoms of
arsenic toxicity are manifested as skin lesions, hyperkeratosis, melanosis, cancer
in different organs and several other health disorders, which in some cases have
proved to be lethal. Need of water for domestic as well as irrigation purposes had
triggered rapid development of ground water resources in the region during the last
two decades. Overdraft of ground water in an indiscriminate manner is one of the
key factors responsible for the spreading of arsenic epidemic in this region. A large
number of government organizations and NGO are working on this problem and to
find a lasting solution.

High salinity
There are large areas in the semi-arid and arid belt consisting parts of Rajasthan,
southern Punjab, southern Haryana and Gujarat where salinity of ground water
is moderate to fairly high. In several places in Rajasthan and southern Haryana,
the EC values of ground water are greater than 10,000 micro siemens/cm, making
water unpalatable (Handa 1979). In some of the areas, such as Kumher and Dig
(Rajasthan), Farruknagar and Sultanpur (Haryana), and Gujarat, salinity of ground
water is so high that salt is being manufactured by solar evaporation. For drinking
purposes, high salinity is one of the major ground water quality problems in these
areas. In parts of southern Punjab, UP, and AP, there are pockets where ground water
has EC values exceeding 5,000 microsiemens/cm. This topic has been discussed in
Chapter 6 also.

High fluoride
Fluoride is often called a two-edge sword – in small dosages, it has remarkable
influence on the dental system by inhibiting dental carries, while in higher dosages
causes dental and skeletal fluorosis. When present in concentration of 0.8–1.0 mg/L,
fluoride is beneficial for calcification of dental enamel especially for the children
below 8 years of age. At higher concentrations (1.5–2.0 mg F/L), fluoride effects
adversely and leads to dental fluorosis. At still higher concentration, (3–6 mg F/L)
skeletal fluorosis occurs. The disease affects the bone and ligaments. Intakes of
20–40 mg F/day over long period have resulted in crippling skeletal fluorosis.
High concentrations of fluoride in ground water are common in some of the
semi-arid areas of Rajasthan, southern Punjab, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Madhya Pradesh, and southern Haryana. Several areas of Andhra Pradesh have high
concentrations of fluoride in ground water (exceeding 5 mg/l). There are a number
Water Quality and Related Aspects 1019

of cases of dental and skeletal fluorosis in these areas. In several parts of Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, U.P., and other areas, fluoride concentrations of groundwater are more
than the permissible level of 1.5 mg/l. An extensive survey of the community water
supplies has shown that around 25 million people in rural areas consume water with
fluoride content more than this limit. Various authorities have given permissible
limits for fluoride content in drinking water as shown in Table 13. Concentrations
of fluoride in drinking water in different parts of the country varies from 0.5 to
50 mg/L.
Fluoride contaminated ground water is creating health problems in India. Nearly
90 million people including 6 million children in the country in 200 districts
in 15 states are affected with dental, skeletal and/or non-skeletal fluorosis. The
extent of fluoride contamination in ground water varies from 1.0 to 48 mg/l. The
fluoride affected states are: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Jammu
and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh.
In Rajasthan, in the absence of perennial rivers, surface and canal systems, ground
water remains the main source of drinking water for about 95% population. Ground
water of 18 districts contains high fluoride (2 to 20 mg/l) affecting approx. 3 million
people. Studies have revealed that three million people in the state are consuming
water with excess fluoride. Rajasthan has to depend on ground water resources to
a greater extent and in arid in semi-arid areas, the ground water is the only water
resource for drinking as well as agricultural purposes. According to the survey of
states for drinking water supply in rural habitation conducted by the Rajiv Gandhi
Drinking Water Mission, 9,741 villages and 6,819 habitations have fluoride content
more than 1.5 mg/l in ground water.
In Tamil Nadu, fluoride monitoring is carried out at 1286 observation wells by
TWAD Board throughout the State twice in a year – during pre-monsoon and post
monsoon periods. About 121 blocks in 19 districts are found to have high fluoride
concentration in ground water.

High iron content

High concentrations of iron in ground water have been found in several areas of
high rainfall particularly in north-eastern states. In Assam, some wells have an
iron content as high as 20 mg/l. In the Nadia district of West Bengal, the iron

Table 13. Permissible limit of fluoride in drinking water prescribed by various organizations

Name of the organization Desirable limit (mg/L)

Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) 0.6–1.2

Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) 1.0
The Committee on Public Health Engineering Manual and Code of Practice, 1.0
Government of India
World Health Organization (International Standards for Drinking Water) 1.5
1020 Chapter 20

concentration of 2–3 mg/l has been reported in ground water at several places.
In West Bengal, high concentrations of iron in ground water may be due to
lowering of redox potential which is because of the presence of organic matter.
Also, at a greater depth, lignite is found which can be associated with high iron
content.

Nitrate pollution
The problem of nitrate pollution in ground water is also severe in the country. The
state of Maharashtra alone showed severe problem of nitrate pollution. The studies
carried out by Central Ground Water Board in the state of Maharashtra revealed
that out of 688 samples, 518 (75.23%) samples had nitrates below desirable limit
(45 mg/l) while 125 (14.08%) samples had nitrate concentration above 100 mg/l.
The districts like Bhandara, Nagpur, and Pune had nitrate concentration above
45 mg/l. About 10.70% of total wells had nitrate concentration more than 45 mg/l
but in the samples from rest of the districts, nitrate concentration was between both
45 and 100 mg/l.
Under certain conditions, nitrate consumed by babies is reduced to nitrite which
reacts with haemoglobin present in the blood, thereby reducing the oxygen carrying
capacity of the blood and the skin turns blue. This disease is known as methe-
moglobinemia or ‘blue baby’ syndrome in babies. Nitrogen based fertilizers are
widely used in the country. The use has rapidly increased, partly because of subsidies
offered by the government. Fertilizer consumption in India was nearly 175 tonnes
in 2003–04 (Pangare et al. 2006).

20.5.3. Ground Water Pollution due to Anthropogenic Causes

Four main anthropogenic causes of ground water pollution can be readily identified:
over-exploitation, industrial, domestic, and agricultural. The first category also
includes areas of seawater intrusion. Ground water quality is being increasing
threatened by agricultural, urban & industrial wastes, which leach or are deliberately
injected into aquifers. Detailed discussion on these has already been provided in
Section 20.3.
Ground water in certain geological formations may not be of desired quality
for specific uses. Naturally occurring fluorides, arsenic and salinity are known to
adversely affect the quality of water for drinking water supplies.

20.5.4. Problems due to Over-Exploitation

The ground water supply is neither unlimited nor it is always available in good
quality. Due to uneven distribution of rainfall in time and space and ever-increasing
demand, water resources are over-exploited in many parts of the country. This is
resulting in shrinking of many water bodies and many ponds get dried up and
remain so for considerable period in a year. Maintaining desired quality in such
water bodies is difficult. In many cases, the abstraction of excessive quantities of
Water Quality and Related Aspects 1021

ground water has resulted in the drying up of wells, salt-water intrusion & drying
up of rivers that receive their base flows from ground water.
Most ground water quality problems caused by over-exploitation are difficult to
detect. The solutions are usually very expensive, time consuming and not always
effective. An alarming picture is emerging in many parts of our country. Ground
water quality is slowly but surely declining everywhere. Usually the contamination
is not detected until noxious substances actually appear in the water used. Unfortu-
nately by this time the pollution may already have dispersed over a large area.
Although the green revolution in Punjab and Haryana has brought prosperity,
it also brought the problems of soil and water degradation. While the irrigated
area in these states doubled during 1965–1995, increased groundwater pumping has
resulted in more than five meter fall in groundwater level in some places during
the last 25 years. This has forced farmers to lower the pumps and further deepen
the wells, increasing the cost of pumping and energy use and thus decreasing
profitability and efficiency of agriculture. As per the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research, the quality of deep groundwater in most parts of Haryana is marginal.
Pumping of highly saline water from greater depth could result in the use of saline
water for irrigation which will have serious unwanted consequences. In Delhi, the
fall has been more than 10 m at some places. Similarly, fall in water table has been
steep in some parts of Gujarat such as Mehsana.
A total of 106,019 sq. km area (about 31%) of Rajasthan comes under saline
ground water. Of this 88,675 sq. km area falls in Western Rajasthan districts of
Ganganagar, Barmer, Bikaner, Churu and Jaisalmer. The electrical conductivity of
ground water in Western Rajasthan is over 8 ds/cm and in Eastern Rajasthan, it is
over 6 ds/cm. Vast low lying alluvial tract from North-Western part of Banaskantha
district through the western part of Mehsana and Ahmedabad districts, western
and north-eastern parts of Surendranagar district, Southern part of Ahmedabad and
South-Western part of Kheda district in Gujarat are underlain by saline ground water
(EC 3.46 ds/cm). Ground water in Sangrur, Bhatinda, Ferozpur and Faridkot districts
in Punjab has high (about 11.30 ds/cm) salinity. Ground water is saline in almost
whole lift canal system of South-Western part of Haryana. About 3,766 sq. km. area
in Haryana is underlain by saline ground water.
The Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) formed under Environment
Protection Act (1986) has already taken initiatives to regulate withdrawal of ground
water. Similar restrictions on water abstraction from different water bodies and
meeting environmental flow requirement for rivers need to be assessed and ensured.

20.5.5. Land Use and Ground Water Pollution

Large scale, point sources of pollution such as industrial discharges, landfills &
subsurface injection of chemicals & hazardous wastes readily pollute ground water.
These sources are easy to detect and regulate. However, the difficult problem is
associated with non-point sources of pollution like leaching of agrochemicals and
animal wastes, subsurface discharges from septic tanks and infiltration of polluted
1022 Chapter 20

urban run-off and sewage. Non-point sources can affect a large swath of aquifers and
the remediation is difficult. The best way to handle non-point sources of pollution
is integrated land use and water management and control the use of fertilizers
and chemicals. Table 14 presents land-use activities and their potential threat to
ground water quality.

20.5.6. Ground Water Pollution Scenario in India

Leachates from compost pits, animal refuse of garbage dumping grounds nutrient
enriched return irrigation flows seepage from septic tanks, seepage of sewage etc.
has adversely affected the ground water quality in several parts of India. Solid
waste disposal is also adding to ground water pollution problem. With increase
of human and livestock population the quantum of waste produced has increased
tremendously. The estimated annual waste production from these sources is around
2,000 million tons. Studies on chemical composition of ground water in phreatic
zone have revealed that in many cases anomalously high concentration of Nitrate,
Potassium and even phosphate (total phosphate) are present in contrast to their
virtual absence or low concentration (NO3 and K less than 10 mg/l) in semi-confined
and aquifers. Unsystematic use of synthetic fertilizers coupled with improper water
management practices have resulted in deterioration of ground water quality in
many parts of the country.
Based on studies by CGWB, CPCB, and State Pollution Control Boards, state
wise details of contamination of ground water in some areas of the districts due to
various pollutants are given in Table 15.

Table 14. Land-use activities & their potential threat to ground water quality

Land use Activities that cause to ground water pollution

Residential Unsewered sanitation

Discharge of sewage on land and in stream
Infiltration from sewage or oxidation ponds
Leakage from sewer, solid waste disposal sites, landfills
Run-off from roads and urban areas
Industrial and Process water, effluent lagoon
Commercial Discharge of effluent on land and in stream
Leakage from tanks and pipeline, and accidental spills
Disposal of effluents through wells
Disposal of solid and hazardous wastes through landfill
Spillage and leakages of chemicals during handling
Mining Waste discharge from mines
Oilfield spillage at group gathering stations
Agriculture Application of agrochemicals, fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides
Irrigation with wastewater
Livestock rearing
Water Quality and Related Aspects 1023
Table 15. State wise details of contamination of ground water in some areas of the districts due to
various contaminants

Pollutant State Place of occurrences

Salinity Bihar Begusarai

(Inland) Delhi Najafgarh, Kanjhawala, and Mehrauli Blocks
Haryana Karnal, Sonepat, Rohtak, Hissar, Sirsa, Faridabad, Jind, Gurgaon,
Bhiwani, Mahendragarh
Madhya Pradesh Gwalior, Bhind, Morena, Jhabua, Khargaon, Dhar, Shivpuri,
Shajapur, Guna, Mandsor, Ujjain
Maharashtra Amravati, Akola
Punjab Bhatinda, Sangrur, Faridkot, Firozpur
Rajasthan Barmer, Jaisalmer, Bharatpur, Jaipur, Nagaur, Jalore, Sirohi,
Jodhpur
Uttar Pradesh Agra, Mathura, Mainpuri, Banda
Salinity Andhra Pradesh Vishakapatnam, East Godavari, West Godavari, Krishna, Guntur,
(Coastal) Prakasam
Gujarat Junagarh, Kachch, Varahi, Banskanta, Surat, Bharauch, Mehsana,
Ahmedabad, Surendranagar, Kheda, Jamnagar
Karnataka Bijapur, Raichur, Bellary, Dharwar
Kerala Ernakulam, Trichur, Alleppey
Pondicherry Pondicherry
Orissa Puri, Cuttak, Balasore
Tamil Nadu Karaikal, Nagapattanam, Pudukottai, Ramananthapuram, North
Arcot – Ambedkar, Dharampuri, Salem, Trichy, Coimbatore
West Bengal Haldia and 24 Parganas
Flouride Andhra Pradesh Cuddapah, Guntur, Nalgonda, Prakasam, Nellore, Anantapur,
Rangareddy, Adilabad
Bihar Giridih, Jamui, Dhanbad
Gujarat Banskanta, Kachch, Amreli, Surendranagar, Rajkot, Ahmedabad,
Mehsana, Sabarkantha
Karnataka Tumkur, Kolar, Bangalore, Gulbarga, Bellary, Raichur
Haryana Hissar, Kaithal, Gurgaon, Rohtak, Jind, Bhiwani, Mahendragarh,
Faridabad
Kerala Palaghat, Ananipur, Nellore, Chittoor.
Madhya Pradesh Bhind, Moerana, Guna, Jhabua, Chhindwara, Seoni, Mandla,
Raipur, Vidisha
Maharashtra Bhandara, Chandrapur, Nanded, Aurangabad
Orissa Bolangir, Bijapur, Bhubaneshwar and Kalahandi
Punjab Jalandhar, Amritsar, Bhatinda, Faridkot, Ludhiana & Sangrur
Rajasthan Barmer, Ganganagar, Jalore, Nagaur, Pali, Sirohi, Ajmer &
Bikaner
Tamil Nadu Dharampuri, Salem, North Arcot, Viluppuram, Tiruchirapalli,
Pudukottai, Chengalput, Madurai
U.P. Bulandshahar, Unnao, Agra, Aligarh, Mathura, Ghaziabad,
Meerut, and Rai Bareilly
West Bengal Birbhum
Sulphide Orissa Balasore, Cuttak, and Puri
Iron U.P. Mirjapur
Assam Darrang, Jorhat, Kamrup, Northern Bank of Brahmaputra
Orissa Parts of Coastal Orissa, Bhubneshwar

(Continued)
1024 Chapter 20

Table 15. (Continued)

Pollutant State Place of occurrences

Bihar E. Champaran, Muzaffarpur, Gaya, Mungher, Deoghar &
Madubani, Patna, Palamau, Nalanda, Nawada, Banka
Rajasthan Bikaner, Alwar, Bharatpur, Dungarpur
Tripura Dharmnagar, Amarpur, Agartala, Kamalpur, Khowai, and Parts of
Agartala Valley
West Bengal Midnapur, Howrah, Hoogly and Bankura,
Manganese Orissa Bhubaneshwar
U.P Moradabad, Basti, Rampur, Unnao
Arsenic West Bengal Malda, Murshidabad, Nadia, Malda, South-24 Paraganas, Hoogly,
Bardhaman, Howrah
Nitrate Bihar Patna, East Champaran, Gaya, Nalanda, Nawada, Banka, and
Bhagalpur.
Andhra Pradesh Vishakapatnam, East Godvari, Krishna, Prakasam, Nellore,
Chittoor, Anantapur, Cuddapah, Kurnool, Nalgonda,
Mehboobnagar, Rangareddy, Medak, Adilabad, and Khammam.
Delhi Naraina, Shahadara (Blocks)
Haryana Ambala, Sonepat, Jind, Gurgaon, Faridabad, Hissar, Sirsa, Karnal,
Kurukshetra, Rohtak, Bhiwani, Mahendragarh
Himachal Pradesh Kulu, Solan, Una
Uttar Pradesh Orai, Jhansi, Lalitpur, Faizabad, Sultanpur, Maharajganj,
Gorakhapur, Deoria
Karnataka Bidar, Gulbarga, and Bijapur
Madhya Pradesh Sehore, Bhopal, and West & Central part of state
Maharashtra Thane, Jalna, Beed, Nanded, Latur, Osmanabad, Solapur, Satara,
Sangli, Kolhapur, Dhule, Jalgaon, Aurangabad, Ahmednagar,
Pune, Buldana, Amravati, Akola, Nagpur, Wardha, Bhandara,
Chandrapur, Gadchiroli
Punjab Patiala, Faridkot, Firozpur, Sangrur & Bhatinda
Rajasthan Jaipur, Churu, Ganganagar, Bikaner, Jalore, Barmer, Bundi, and
Sawaimadhopur
Tamil Nadu Coimbatore, Periyar, and Salem
West Bengal Midnapur, Howrah, Uttar Dinajpur, Malda, Birbhum,
Murshidabad, Nadia, Bankura and Purulia
Delhi Shahadara and Mehrauli Blocks
Chloride Karnataka Dharwad, Belgaum
Madhya Pradesh Bhind, Shajapur and Sehore
Maharashtra Solapur, Satara, Amravati, Akola, and Buldana
Rajasthan Barmer, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, and Jalore
West Bengal Digha, Haldia
Zinc Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad, Osmania University campus
Delhi R.K. Puram
Rajasthan Udaipur
Chromium Punjab Ludhiana
Heavy Andhra Pradesh Anantapur, Mehboobnagar, Prakasam, Visakhapatnam, Cuddapah,
Metals Nalgonda
Assam Digboi
Bihar Dhanbad, Muzaffarpur, Begusarai
Haryana Faridabad
Himachal Pradesh Purwanoo, Kalaamb
Water Quality and Related Aspects 1025

Karnataka Bhadrawati
Madhya Pradesh Bastar, Korba, Ratlam, Nagda
Orissa Angul, Talcher
Punjab Ludhiana, Mandi, and Gobindgarh
Rajasthan Pali, Udaipur, Khetri.
Tamil Nadu Manali, North Arcot.
Uttar Pradesh Singrauli, Basti, Kanpur, Jaunpur, Allahabad, Saharanpur, Aligarh
West Bengal Durgapur, Howrah, Murshidabad, Nadia.
Delhi Alipur, Kanjhawala, Najafgarh, Mehrauli, and Shahdara Blocks

The Central Pollution Control Board undertook a major groundwater quality

survey and the report published in 1995 identified about 20 locations in various
states of India as critical sites of ground water pollution. CPCB found that industrial
effluents are the primary reason for ground water pollution. In the industrial and
urban fringe zones of cities, sub-soil water has already been polluted by industries
which release highly toxic substances. The wells in many residential areas are
contaminated with nitrate and detergents. Summary results of these studies are
given in Table 16.

20.6. GROUND WATER QUALITY

In the state of Haryana, the pesticides use was 5,100 ton in 1995–96. About 85
to 90% of this quantity dissipated into the environment. In 1994–95, 54% of the
pesticides used in agriculture and 94% used in public health in India were banned
or severely curtailed in the West. The eight Haryana districts through which the
Yamuna flows used 327,000 tones of chemical fertilizers. In addition, the towns of
Yamunanagar, Karnal, Sonepat and Panipat dump their own industrial and domestic
effluents into the river. Ten firms in Yamunanagar and Panipat alone dump 72
million litres per day of wastewater into the Western Yamuna Canal which brings
raw water to the Haiderpur water works in Delhi.
The National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) has estab-
lished that the seeds of the Nirmali tree cleanse muddy water by coagulating the
suspended impurities. Similarly, Cardamon leaves, drumstick (Moringa olifera)
seeds and many other herbs and roots, which are locally available and have been
traditionally in use for ages, also possess ability to clean polluted water.

20.7. POLLUTION IN COASTAL AREAS

Rivers contribute to coastal pollution by transporting a wide range of pollutants

through land drainage. About 135 billion metric tones (MT) of sediment and 32
billion MT of soluble matter enters the ocean through various Indian rivers each
year. This constitutes 90 per cent of the total waste going into the ocean; the rest
10% of the waste matter going into the ocean is constituted by wind, rain and
earthquakes. It may be noted that the water flowing through all Indian rivers is 5%
1026 Chapter 20

Table 16. Results of chemical analysis carried by CPCB

Area Industrial activities Ground water quality problem

Dhanbad (Bihar) Fertilizers, Chemicals, Low pH, high NO3 , Al, Ca, TDS, Fe, Mn,
Soft drink plants, Cr, Zn, Cu, and metals like Hg & Cd,
Cement explosive Pesticides and micro-organism
factory and Ancillary
units
Digboi (Assam) Oil refinery Fe and Mn were more than permissible limit.
Ni, Zn, Cd, Cr, Pb were also reported. Total
Coliform were also present.
Durgapur (West Coal field Heavy metals except Cu exceeded the
Bengal) desirable limit. Hg was also reported as high
as 9.5 mg/l. Phenolic compounds were in
traces. Total pesticides levels have violated
the desirable limit.
Howrah (West Bengal) Foundries, Heavy metals viz, Pb, Cd, Cr were very high
Electroplating & other and Zn, Cu, were within limit. Hg was also
mechanical type present Fe & Mn were also very high, CN &
Phenolic compounds in traces. EC, Cl, TDS
were some time very high. Pesticides were
also on high side.
Botharam Patncheru Pesticides, Phosphates, Hg & As were beyond limit, Cd,
(AP) Pharmaceuticals Fe, Mn & Pb also exceeded. Pesticides were
also found to be present. The Coliform were
also on higher side. TDS, Ca exceeded the
desirable limit.
Greater Cochin Fertilizer, Pesticides, Low acidity. Heavy metals, Pesticides etc.
(Kerala) Chemicals were present in low concentrations. The
presence of Total Coliform was the single
major concern. The Coliform of fecal origin
was also high.
North Arcot (TN) Tanneries, dyeing Units Hg, N, Cd, Pb & As were in traces. Zn, Cu,
Cr, Fe & Mn exceeded the limit at several
locations. Total Coliform was generally high
and feacal Coliform were also on higher side.
Bhadravathi Steel, Paper Mills Zn, Fe & Mn were reported to be high.
(Karnataka) Steel, Pesticides like Aldrin, Dieldrin, Lindane
& DDT were present in very high
concentrations. Pathogenic organisms were
also on higher side.
Ratlam, Nagda (MP) Distillery Dye TDS, TH, Hg, Pb were on higher side
(intermediates) considerable amounts of pesticides were also
Pharmaceutical reported. Fecal Coliforms were also present
(intermediates) particularly at Nagda.
Vapi (Gujarat) Dyes, pesticides, paper Phenolic compounds, cyanide & heavy
& pulp mills, organic metals were present within limit as per
& inorganic chemicals. drinking standards.
Chembur (Maharashtra) Petrolieum, refineries, TDS, Alkalinity, TH were
fertilizer &
petrochemical, thermal
Water Quality and Related Aspects 1027

power plant higher. Heavy metals, pesticides, phenolic

compounds were present in concentrations,
but not very significant. Coliform were on
higher side.
Korba (MP) Thermal power plants, The presence of Cd, Fe, Cr & Cu has
ancillary units, exceeded the presented limits, Pesticides
Aluminum industries, were also present. Coliform, F, TDS, B &
mining phenolic compounds also exceeded the
standards.
Singrauli (UP) Thermal Power Plants, Fe, Cr & Cu were present in predominance.
aluminum Plants, Presence of high Aldrine, Dieldrin &
organic chemicals Lindane levels were also observed. Beside
industries and other this F, Ca, Mg, B, Coliforms, Phenols
subsidiary units with exceeded the prescribed limit.
Carbon plants, caustic
soda & pesticides.
Mandi Gobindgarh Wooden, chemicals, Pb, Cu, Cd, exceeded the desirable limit of
(Punjab) electro-plating units drinking water, Phenolic compounds &
and other steel metals Cyanide was also present on higher side.
units.
Parwanoo (HP) Ancillary, general Presence of Cd, Pb, Fe, Mn were observed
industries, fruit on higher side. Traces of Pesticides were also
proceeding plant, present. Phenolic were above the toxic limit.
airopesticides.
Kala Amb (HP) Paper mills Phenolic compound were higher than the
toxic limit; Coliforms were also present.
Heavy metals like Cd, Pb & Mn and also
pesticides had polluted the ground water.
Pali (Rajasthan) Textile, dyes Lead and Zinc were found higher. Fluoride
concentration was noticed to be high. TDS,
and Cl were in concentrates exceeding
standards. Ground waters at some places
were rich in organic method.
Jodhpur (Rajasthan) Textile, steel, Heavy metals such as Fe, Cr, Mn, were
engineering foundry, higher. Pb was also present NO3 , were also
chemicals, minerals on higher side. Na, TDS exceeded the limit.
dye plastic, oil, pulses
and rubber.
Najafgarh (Delhi) Insecticides, Caustic EC, TDS both exceeded tin drinking water
Soda, Vanaspati, standards. Coliform, F, NO3 were found
Electroplating etc. significantly in higher values. Fe & Cr were
in levels exceeding standards limit.
Angul Talcher Thermal power station, Cr, Fe, Cd, Pb & F all were found in
fertilizers, chemicals, concentration level exceeding standards
mining activities & limits. NO3 values were high.
aluminum

Source: Central Pollution Control Board.

1028 Chapter 20

of the water flowing through all the rivers of the world but Indian rivers carry 35%
of the sediments that go to all the oceans in the world.
Concentrations of lead and cadmium (820 microgram per litre (mgpl) and
336 mgpl, respectively) have been observed in the Thane creek, Mumbai. The
mercury concentration is 778 mgpl in 12 the Karnataka towns that are situated
along the 300 km long coast, discharging untreated wastewater or about 30 tones
of organic load directly into coastal waters daily. Three major industries besides
a host of medium and small units along the coast dump 30,000 cubic metres of
industrial effluents into the sea everyday.
Along the Kerala coast, 14 municipal bodies discharge about 650 tones of organic
matter per day into coastal waters. Another 300,000 cubic m of industrial effluents,
emanating from 200 large and medium and 2,000 small scale industries are directly
discharged into the sea. The heavy traffic of marine vessels for fishing, port and
defence-related operations makes the coastal waters vulnerable to water quality
degradation. In the 1,050 km long Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry coasts, the major
polluting industries are textiles, chemicals, fertilizers, pulp, paper, cement, sugar,
mining and mineral processing. In Andhra Pradesh, which has a coastline of 980 km,
pollution is caused not just by industrial units but by port related operations at
Vishakhapatnam and Kakinada where intensive mechanized fishing leads to heavy
traffic of marine vessels. Similar problems exist in Orissa and West Bengal. The
water quality has deteriorated because of similar operations at the Haldia and
Calcutta ports. Besides, a large quantity of effluents from the Calcutta and other
municipal areas find their way into the coastal waters mainly through the Hooghly
estuary.

20.7.1. Sea Water Intrusion

The coastal tract of India extends over 5,400 km on mainland and 7,500 km including
the islands. Mainland coastal tract is densely populated. Anthropogenic activities
have increased the demand of water and stressed the limited fresh groundwater
resources. Although the coastal tract has enormous ground water potential, the avail-
ability of fresh ground water along the coastal stripe has always been a constraint
vis-à-vis the demands. At many places, because of increasing abstraction and
consequent disturbed hydrodynamic equilibrium, the seawater has intruded inland
contaminating the fresh groundwater.
In coastal areas, ground water salinity problems are widely present with varying
degrees. These problems are more extensive in the east coast in comparison to
west coast, due to greater ground water development. The coastal alluvial tracts,
including deltaic tracts of major rivers, such as the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the
Krishna, the Godavari, the Cauvery, have varying degrees of salinity. The major
causes of salinity of ground water in coastal areas can be attributed to: tidal water
ingress in upper aquifers, sea water ingress in lower aquifers, over-exploitation of
ground water, and less natural recharge of ground water.
Water Quality and Related Aspects 1029

Seawater intrusion is one of the most common forms of groundwater contam-

ination in coastal areas. This contamination is of major concern because even a
small proportion of seawater (about 2–3%) renders freshwater un-potable and may
lead to abandonment of aquifers in extreme cases. Sea Water intrusion occurs when
withdrawal lowers the hydraulic potential in a coastal aquifer, allowing seawater to
migrate inland.
Reports from coastal districts of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh
highlight the origin of seawater intrusion in response to increased demands for
domestic, industrial and irrigation purposes. The major factors for seawater ingress
in Gujarat are low natural recharge, overexploitation of groundwater by farmers
and industrial growth. In Thane district of Maharashtra, it is the intensive pumping
of groundwater associated with urban and industrial development projects that has
caused the problem. In coastal Andhra Pradesh, it is the lack of canal irrigation
facilities which necessitated heavy dependence on groundwater resulting in seawater
intrusion.
The south Chennai aquifer that holds substantial quantity of groundwater, meets
20% of the city’s water requirement. Due to constant pumping and improper
management, this aquifer is facing a severe threat of being contaminated. In drought
years, ground water is the sole safeguarding arrangement to meet the drinking water
requirement. Possible options and strategies for addressing the problems in each of
the above cases include site-specific technical solutions, legislative measures, and
social awareness.
In general the situations are encountered in coastal areas; saline water overlying
fresh water aquifer or fresh water overlying saline water or alternating sequence of
fresh and saline water aquifers. Some of the locations of sea water intrusion in India
are Coastal Saurashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Coastal
Orissa and Coastal West Bengal.

20.8. WATER RELATED DISEASES

Estimates suggest that nearly half of the world’s population suffers from diseases
that are associated with insufficient or contaminated water. Although, provision of
safe drinking water and sanitation has been one of the guiding principles of many
national and international programs (recall the MDGs discussed in the beginning
of this chapter), a significant amount of population, mostly poor people, are yet to
receive assured water supply. In 1981, International Drinking Water Supply and
Sanitation Decade was launched with the objective to give people access to drinking
water in quantity and of a quality equal to their basic needs. In India, the existing
water supply norms for rural population is 40 litres of drinking water per capita
per day (lpcd) and a public stand post or a hand pump for 250 persons. Further,
the sources of water supply should be within 1.6 km (1 mile) in plains, or within
100 metres elevation distance in hills. For urban population, the norm is 125 lpcd
piped water supply with sewerage system, 70 lpcd without sewerage and 40 lpcd
in towns with spot sources.
1030 Chapter 20

Water borne diseases are the most important water quality problems affecting
the society in India. These diseases are mainly due to inadequate arrangements
for transport, treatment, and disposal of wastes into natural water bodies, resulting
in contamination of both surface and ground waters. Moreover, contribution of
pathogens through diffuse sources is also quite significant. Thus, most of the surface
water bodies and many aquifers are contaminated. A large population of the country
still uses water directly for drinking and other uses without any treatment. Thus, they
are exposed to water borne diseases resulting in high incidence of such diseases.
Several states in India have been identified as endemic to fluorosis due to
abundance in natural occurring fluoride bearing minerals. There are nearly half
million people in India suffering from ailment due to excess of fluoride in drinking
water. In some villages of Rajasthan and Gujarat level of the fluoride goes up to
11.0 mg/lit.
Although iron content in drinking water may not affect the human system as
a simple dietary overload, but in the long run, prolonged accumulation of Iron in
the body may result in homochromatosis, where the tissues are damaged. In some
districts of Assam and Orissa, ground water have high iron content ranging from
1 to 10 mg/l. Iron levels are also high in the north-eastern and eastern parts of the
country (affecting 58,000 habitations or 29 million persons).
Inadequate treatment of human and animal wastes adds to the high incidence
of water-related diseases. Only about 14% of rural and 49% of urban inhabitants
(1997 estimates by Shukla, 1999) have access to adequate sanitation facilities, and
hence the water contaminated by human waste is frequently discharged directly into
watercourses or seeps into the groundwater from faulty septic tanks. As a result,
the level of fecal coliform bacteria in many rivers often exceeds WHO standards
which causes a number of gastrointestinal ailments among the population.
Water borne diseases are single most important factor, responsible for high human
mortality in India. Children are worst affected, especially in rural areas and urban
slums. In the past three decades, there has been considerable reduction in death
rates due to water related diseases such as cholera, typhoid and diarrhea diseases.
For example, cholera has been largely eliminated from West Bengal and Rajasthan
while cases of malaria are very few now. Important water-borne and water related
diseases, and the causative organisms are given in Table 17. Dengue fever still
occurs in many parts of the country during post monsoon season and there are
several deaths each year due to this. Some other water borne diseases are Hepatitis
A, polio and Amoebiasis. Amoebiasis is an infection of large intestine and is closely
related with poor sanitation. Scheistosomiasis is a water related disease which is
associated with perennial irrigation. Fortunately, this disease is not common in
India.
One of the main objectives of Government should be to improve health of
population and environment, notably air and water. Providing adequate nutrition,
drinking water and sanitation facilities will go a long way in overall development. To
attain this, it is necessary to establish protected areas for sources of drinking water
supply, suitable means of disposal of waste and develop appropriate mechanism and
Water Quality and Related Aspects 1031

Table 17. Water related diseases and Causative factors

Name of the disease Causative organism

Water-borne diseases Typhoid Salmonella typhi

Cholera Vibrio cholerae
Paratyphoid Slmonella parayphi
Gastroenteritis Enterotoxigenic
Bacterial dysentery Escherichia coli
Infectious hepatitis Hepatitis-A virus
Poliomycetis Polio-virus
Diarrhoeal diseases Rota-virus, Norwalk agent, other virus
Other symptoms of Echono-virus, Coxsackie-viru
enteric diseases
Amoebic dysentery Entamoeba hystolitica
Water-washed Scabies Various skin fungus species
diseases Trachoma Trachoma infecting eyes
Bacillary dysentery E. coli
Water-based diseases Schistosomiasis Schistosoma sp.
Guinea worm Guinea worm
Infection through Sleeping sickness Trapanosoma through tsetse fly
water related insect Malaria Plasmodium through Anaphelis
vectors
Infections primarily Hookworm Hook worm, Ascaris
due to defective
sanitation

regulations to reduce pollution. Public awareness campaign needs to be initiated to

encourage participation of community in protecting and improving environmental
quality.

20.9. WATER QUALITY MONITORING

The Central Water Commission (CWC) has a large network of stations for hydro-
logical observation. In addition to observation of river flow, CWC is also monitoring
water quality, covering all the major river basins of India; the details have been
given in Chapter 5. At present CWC is maintaining a three-tier laboratory system
for analysis of the water samples to determine quality indicators. The Level-I
laboratories are located at 319 field water quality monitoring stations on major
rivers of India where physical parameters such as temperature, colour, odour,
specific conductivity, total dissolved solids, pH and Dissolved Oxygen (DO) of
river water are observed. There are 21 Level-II laboratories located at selected
divisional headquarters to analyses the physico-chemical characteristics and bio-
chemical oxygen demand of river water. Three Level-III laboratories are functioning
at Varanasi, Delhi and Hyderabad which are equipped with sophisticated equip-
ments to analyse various, toxic elements, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, insecticides
and microbiological inhabitants of river water. The data generated is computerized
1032 Chapter 20

in data base system and disseminated in the form of hydrological yearbook, status
reports & bulletins.
To monitor the quality of ground water, Central Ground Water Board (CGWB)
uses a network of 14,995 stations. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
has set up a network of 480 stations to monitor water quality in collaboration
with various State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs). This network operates in a
3-tier system. Tier-1 caters to the need of Global Environment Monitoring System
(GEMS). It consists of 50 stations, which monitor 22 parameters on a monthly basis.
Nearly 430 stations form Tier-2 network under a programme known as ‘Monitoring
of Indian National Aquatic Resources’ (MINARS) on a monthly/quarterly basis.
Stations operated by SPCBs carry Tier-3 level monitoring. Overall, water quality
monitoring network covers 14 major, 12 medium, 9 minor river basins, 16 other
small rivers, 35 lakes, 24 aquifers, 3 creeks, 2 tanks, and 1 pond.
CPCB regularly monitors water quality of various Indian rivers at several places.
Summary results of this monitoring have been listed in the chapters of respective
rivers. Their web site may be referred to for further details and updated information.

20.10. WATER QUALITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS

IN INDIA

Many laws have been enacted in India to protect water and environment. A list of
relevant laws is given in Table 18. Some laws have also been enacted by the Sate
Governments.
A number of environment related laws have been passed and implemented in
India to protect environment. Some important laws are:
• The Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 as amended in 1988.
• The Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Cess, Act, 1974 as amended in
1991.
• The Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 as amended in 1987.
• The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

Table 18. Relevant laws to protect water and environment in India

Central Enactment

i The River Board Act, 1956

ii. The Merchant Shipping (Amendment) Act, 1970
iii. The water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
iv. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977
v. The Water Act, 1981
vi. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
vii. Environmental Impact Assessment Notification, 1994
State Enactment
i. Orissa River Pollution Act, 1953
ii. Maharashtra Prevention of Water Pollution Act, 1969
Water Quality and Related Aspects 1033

• The National Environmental Tribunal Act, 1995.

• The National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997.
Further, many projects now require environmental clearance from the Central
Government under the Environmental Impact Assessment Notification, 1994. These
are the projects that may cause serious harm the natural environment. A partial
list of the projects that are related to water sector and that require environmental
clearance is given below.
1. River valley projects including hydroelectric power, major irrigation projects
and their combination including flood control,
2. Ports, harbours, airports (except minor ports and harbours),
3. All tourism projects between 2,000 m – 500 m of High Water Line and at
locations with an elevation of more than 1,000 meters with investment of more
than Rs. 5 crore.
4. Thermal power plants.
5. Mining projects (major minerals) with leases more than 5 ha.
6. Tarred roads in Himalayan and/or forest areas.

20.11. EPILOGUE

Water is the most essential natural resource for life next to air and is likely to
become a critical scarce resource in many region of the world in the coming decades.
In order, for any water body to function adequately, in satisfying any one of the
beneficial uses, it must have corresponding degree of purity. For example drinking
water needs highest purity of water, whereas disposal of wastes can be done in any
quality of water. In recent years, as the demand for water has nearly approached
in magnitude to the available supply. The concept of management of the quality
of water is quite as important and obligatory as its quantity has since been widely
recognized and strongly advocated throughout the world.
CHAPTER 21
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS, INTER-STATE WATER
DISPUTES AND TREATIES

Broadly speaking, the utilization of water in India comes under the jurisdiction
of states. But it is important to note that even for a river which flows entirely
in one state, it is possible that one state’s intervention might produce detrimental
environmental or social consequences (for example submergence, water logging,
etc.) in another. Water withdrawal in a state may also have an impact on groundwater
aquifers in the adjacent state. Moreover, operation of a dam may cause inundation
in areas beyond the boundaries of the state or nation. All these aspects empha-
size the need for coordinated approach towards water resources utilization in the
country.

21.1. CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS REGARDING WATER

Under the Indian constitution, a state government has the power to make laws in
respect of water resources of that state. The Parliament has the power to legislate
the regulation and development of interstate rivers. Thus the authority of the state
Government over water can be exercised, subject to certain limitations that may
be imposed by the Parliament.
Here it is important to make clear distinction between an inter-state river and an
intra-state river. A river that lies within one state from its source to its mouth is an
intra-state river and any river which flows in the territory of two or more states is
an inter-state river.
The legislative framework of the constitution related to water is based on Entry
17 of the State List, Entry 56 in the Union List, and Article 262 of the Constitution.
These are:
a) Entry 17 in List II (State List) in Schedule VII
Water, that is to say, water supplies, irrigation and canals, drainage and embank-
ments, water storage and water power subject to the provisions of Entry 56 of
List-I.
1035
1036 Chapter 21

It can be seen immediately that it is not an unqualified entry. Although water is in

the State List, this is subject to the provisions of Entry 56 in the Union List, which
reads as:
b) Entry 56 of List I (Union List):
Regulation and development of inter-state rivers and river valleys to the extent to
which such regulation and development under the control of the Union is declared
by Parliament by law to be expedient in the public interest.
c) Also relevant here are the provisions of Article 262:
(1) Parliament may by law provide for the adjudication of any dispute or complaint
with respect to the use, distribution or control of the waters of, or in, any
Inter-State river or river valley.
(2) Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, Parliament may by law provide
that neither the Supreme Court nor any other court shall exercise jurisdiction
in respect of any such dispute or complaint as is referred to in clause (1).
Some other articles and entries may also have a bearing on the matter.
Article 248 (Residuary powers of legislation):
Parliament has exclusive power to make any law with respect to any matter not
enumerated in the Concurrent List or State List.
Article 254: Inconsistency between laws made by Parliament and laws made by
the Legislatures of States
1. If any provision of a law made by the Legislature of a State is repugnant to
any provision of a law-made by Parliament which Parliament is competent to
enact, or to any provision of any existing law with respect to one of the matters
enumerated in the Concurrent List, then, subject to the provisions of clause (2),
the law made by Parliament, whether passed before or after the law made by
the Legislature of such State, or, as the case may be, the existing law, shall
prevail and the law made by the Legislature of the state shall, to the extent of
the repugnancy, be void.
Provided that nothing in this clause shall, prevent Parliament from enacting at
any time any law with respect to the same matter including a law adding to,
amending, varying or repealing the law so made by the Legislature of the State.
So far the Parliament has not made much use of the powers vested in it by the
Entry 56 of the Union List. In view of the supremacy of the parliament, it is not
totally right to say that water is a state subject. Moreover, most of India’s important
rivers are inter-state. Hence, water is potentially as much a union subject as a state
subject. Further, the legislative power of a state under Entry 17 has to be exercised
in such a manner that the interests of other states do not suffer adversely and a
dispute is created.
The power and role given to the Union Government with regard to the
management of inter-state rivers is very important and necessary. In this context,
the provisions of Entry 20 in the Concurrent List, namely, economic and social
planning, are also quite relevant. By virtue of this provision, the major and medium
irrigation, hydropower, flood control and multi-purpose projects are required to
seek clearance of the central government for inclusion in the national plan.
Constitutional Provisions 1037

21.1.1. Water Rights

Traditionally water has been considered a social commodity which is a “basic

requirement” for life. In India in ancient times, a fundamental premise was that
nobody who is thirsty should be denied water, whatever be his income, purchasing
power, and status. Even these days, the first thing that is offered to a guest is
water to drink. This privileged social status of water was based on the doctrine
of ‘essential service’ or ‘public service’. Of late, due to various reasons among
which scarcity being the chief, water and related services are becoming more and
more an economic asset with production and conservation costs, utilization values,
opportunity costs, and demands that vary with price.
In traditional societies like India, water was perceived as the common property
of society rather than belonging to any individual. The term ‘water rights’ refers to
the right to use water. The riparian system considers that anybody who owns land
on the banks of a stream has a right to reasonable use of water for his needs. At
the same time, he has a duty to let the water go beyond his land without unduly
diminishing its quality and quantity.
The need to consider water rights arises when water resources are scarce and
rigid attitude of users requires clear definition of rights and entitlements. According
to the Indian Easements Act (1882) the government has the sole right to regulate
the collection, detention and distribution of the waters of rivers and streams flowing
in natural channels and/or natural lakes or ponds or the water flowing, collected,
detained or distributed in/or by any channel constructed at the public expense for
irrigation. Many experts have argued that the state may claim such a right for
the major and medium rivers and the communities should have a right to utilize
waters of small rivers and minor streams. It is argued that this approach would lead
to more sustainable use of water. However, this might results in disputes due to
encroachments in each other’s jurisdiction.
The Indian Easements Act (1882) confers on the owner of the land, the right to
collect and dispose, within his own limits, all water under the land which does not
pass in a defined channel. This enables the owner full control of the water beneath
his property and he is free to withdraw and use it as he feels appropriate. However,
this has led to a situation where a resourceful farmer can dig deeper tube-wells and
pump large quantities of water and thereby deprive nearby land owners from their
legitimate rights. This has also resulted in mining of ground water in many places.
Besides quantity, the quality of ground water has deteriorated due to uncontrolled
disposal of industrial wastes, sewage and use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
The Government of India formulated a model bill to regulate groundwater quantity
and quality and has created a groundwater authority to enforce use. According to the
model ground water control bill, the state governments will have powers to restrict
construction of structures for ground water abstraction for all uses, exempting small
and marginal farmers provided these structures are for their exclusive use. No
permission is necessary if water is to be withdrawn with manual devices. So far
groundwater legislation has been enacted only in a few states.
1038 Chapter 21

The Central Ground Water Authority has been constituted to check indiscriminate
withdrawal of ground water and to issue directions to protect ground water resources
of the country. Note that the constitution of this authority implies a change from
the unrestricted use of ground water to a controlled withdrawal regime by way
of licensing. The state governments are supposed to establish state ground water
authorities to implement the rules and monitor.

21.2. RIVER BOARDS ACT

With the objective of promoting integrated development of the waters of inter-state

rivers, the Parliament of India had enacted the River Boards Act (RBA), 1956,
under Entry 56 of List I. This act contemplates the constitution of river boards by
the Governments of India in consultation with State Governments. These boards
are supposed to advise and promote integrated development of water resources of
inter-state rivers for beneficial purposes and for flood control. The highlights of the
River Boards Act (1956) are (Gosain and Singh 2005):
• RBA provides for the establishment of River Boards for regulation and
development of interstate rivers either on the request of a riparian state or even
otherwise.
• Different boards may be established for different interstate rivers.
• The board is to consist of the Chairman and such other members as the
Central Government deems fit to appoint. They must be persons having
special knowledge and experience in irrigation, electrical engineering, flood
control, navigation, water conservation, soil conservation, administration or
finance.
• Functions of the board are set out in detail in Section 13 of the Act. Subject wise,
they are very wide, covering conservation of the water resources of the interstate
river, schemes for irrigation and drainage, development of hydroelectric power,
schemes for flood control, promotion of navigation, control of soil erosion and
prevention of pollution.
Although the national water policy supports basin wise planning and management
and this appears to be a rational and optimal way, there is no real river basin authority
in India. The Betwa River Board was set up by a separate enactment specifically to
oversee a particular project. The Brahmaputra Board was also established by a
parliamentary enactment and was vested with powers of execution of projects.
However, its role has been confined largely to the preparation of a Master Plan
for the Brahmaputra basin. Likewise, the Bansagar Control Board was set up to
supervise specific projects; the Narmada Control Authority came into being with
well-defined functions under the orders of the Narmada Waters Dispute Tribunal;
and the role of Ganga Flood Control Commission is limited to preparation of
master plans for flood control in the Ganga basin. Clearly, there is a need to
establish appropriate organizations for the planned development and management
of a river basin.
Constitutional Provisions 1039

21.3. INTER-STATE WATER DISPUTES (ISWD)

Most big rivers in India have catchments in more than one state or are of inter-
state in character. Disputes do arise amongst the basin states regarding utilization,
distribution or control of water in these inter-state rivers. It is also common to see
disputes in the interpretation of the terms governing the use or control of water
resources while implementing such agreements.
Presently, there is no well-defined procedure to allocate water of inter-state rivers
and tribunals are doing this task when there is a dispute. At international level,
guidelines such as “the Helsinki Rules” have been formulated for resolving inter-
state water disputes all over the world and these were taken into account by tribunals
while resolving the water disputes. The guidelines have been codified by the U.N.
Convention on the law of the non-navigational use of international watercourses
and adopted by the U.N. General Assembly in 1997.
Broadly, ISWD are settled by either of two processes: negotiations or adjudi-
cation. There is also the possibility of mediation by a senior political leader or
statesman. Of course, such processes do not foreclose arbitration or adjudication.
Conflict resolution through a dialog is a workable approach to solve ISWD and it
should always be tried first. But there have been instances when this process could
not yield the desired results.
Adjudication involves study and solution of a dispute or controversy. There is a
view that adjudication is not the best means of settling ISWD. Another argument
against the adjudication of ISWD by judicial tribunals is that such disputes do
not involve questions of law but questions technical nature involving hydrology,
engineering, agriculture, climate, meteorology, sociology, and so on, and should be
dealt with scientific spirit.
The provisions of the Interstate Water Disputes Act, 1956 state that a State
Government which has a water dispute with another State Government may request
the Central Government to refer the dispute to a Tribunal for adjudication. The
Central Government, if it is of opinion that the dispute cannot be settled by negoti-
ation shall refer the dispute to a Tribunal:
• The Tribunal should consist of a Chairman and two other members, nominated
by the Chief Justice of India from among persons who, at the time of such
nomination, are Judges of the Supreme Court.
• The Tribunal can appoint assessors to advise it in the proceedings before it.
• On the reference being made by the Central Government, the Tribunal adjudicates
the matter and gives its award. The award is published and is final and binding
on the parties.
• Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and other courts in respect of the dispute
referred to the Tribunal is barred.
• The Central Government may frame a scheme, providing for all matters necessary
to give effect to the decision of the Tribunal. The scheme may, inter-alia, provide
for establishing an authority for implementing the award.
The ISWD Act of 1956 provides that the Union Government shall publish the
decision of the Tribunal in the Official Gazette and the decision shall be final and
1040 Chapter 21

binding on the parties to the dispute and shall be implemented by them. To facilitate
their functioning, water tribunals have court-equivalent powers for gathering of
information, requiring witnesses to testify and recovering the costs of the tribunal.
But the central government cannot enforce the tribunal’s award if a state government
refuses to implement the award. Thus the tribunals lack the most important power –
the litigants know that the tribunal cannot enforce its decisions. The ISWD Act
states:

Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law, neither the Supreme Court nor any other court
shall have or exercise jurisdiction in respect of any water dispute which may be referred to a Tribunal
under this Act.

This provision could be interpreted as vesting water tribunals with a status equivalent
to the Supreme Court meaning thereby that the decisions of the tribunals have
the same force as those of the Supreme Court. However, the tribunal’s decisions
have been questioned in the courts. In general, the resolution of water disputes is
complicated by various aspects of centre-state relations.
The wide scope for discretion, the extensive bargaining and the multiplicity of
potential vetoes work in tandem to undermine the clarity and transparency needed
for speedy dispute resolution. In May 2002, the ISWD Act was amended by placing
time limits on tribunals.
The existing processes and institutions for resolving inter-state river disputes are
not sufficiently well defined. All too often this causes delays in settling a dispute.
It is, therefore, better that the dispute resolution mechanism is clearly defined.
Long delays can be too very costly in utilizing water resources in India and project
funding.
There are four reasons behind delays in settling water disputes under the
ISWD Act.
1. Delays in constituting tribunals. Under the ISWD Act (Section 21.4), the Union
government is required to set up a tribunal only when it is satisfied that the
dispute can not be settled by negotiations. Theoretically, the Union Government
centre can withhold the decision to set up a tribunal for a long time till it is
satisfied that negotiations had failed. In past, the Godavari and Krishna disputes
started in the mid 1950s and the states began formal requests for reference in
the early 1960s. After a long delay, the disputes were referred to tribunals in
1969. Similarly, in the Cauvery dispute, two of the basin states, i.e., Tamil Nadu
and Kerala, asked for reference to set up a tribunal in the 1970s but the tribunal
was constituted only in 1990. The 2002 amendment to the ISWD Act places a
limit of one year on the central government to constitute a tribunal which should
shorten such delays.
2. Delays in reaching a decision. The Krishna dispute tribunal took four years to
arrive at a decision while the Godavari Tribunal took 10 years. Some other
tribunals have not reached final decisions even after longer periods. Of course,
at times there are delays in assembling facts and hearing arguments. Attempts at
a political level to reach solutions may also delay the functioning of tribunals.
Constitutional Provisions 1041

The new amendment to the ISWD Act places time limits, but still these are too
long (up to six years, with possibilities for extension).
3. Delays and uncertainties in enforcement, due to delays in notifying the orders of
tribunals in the official gazette of the Government of India. Although this step
of adjudication should be quick, the process took three years in the case of the
Krishna award and one year in the case of the Godavari award. These delays go
against the spirit behind the dispute settlement process.
4. Finally, some tribunal decisions have been difficult to enforce. State govern-
ments have sometimes rejected tribunal awards; the Ravi-Beas Tribunal award
was not accepted by the Punjab government and has not been implemented so
far. More recently the Punjab assembly has terminated all previous water related
agreements. Due to some reason, the central government has avoided notifying
the award. In the case of the Cauvery dispute, the Karnataka government
sought to nullify the tribunal’s interim order through an ordinance. Though
the Supreme Court pronounced that the ordinance was unconstitutional, the
Karnataka government was unwilling to implement the tribunal’s interim order,
until a compromise was reached through political negotiations.
Such instances go against the underlying philosophy that the awards of the tribunal
are final and binding. This also tends to make the dispute resolving mechanism an
endless process, at time hoping that the divine intervention will set the things right.
ISWD are serious national problems. Many disputes are lingering on for quite
some time because there is lack of will and determination on the part of the
concerned parties to find a permanent solution to the problem. Earlier, the problem
was confined to river major systems but now it seems to be spreading even to
minor sources. Frequent and severe droughts have further aggravated the situation,
causing problems like poverty, migration, etc. Due to the disputes, large quantities
of water remain unutilized. These problems are not insurmountable however. An
amicable solution can be found, given enough will and desire of the concerned
parties to reach an agreement.
According to Iyer (1994), while an inter-state water dispute may not involve
questions of formal law, it does involve questions of principles relating to water-
sharing and water rights. Successive tribunals have discussed issues of riparian
rights and the various theories on the basis of which the states concerned argue
their case for a certain share in the flows of a river: the territorial sovereignty
theory, the ‘natural flows’ theory, the prior appropriation or prescriptive rights
theory, the theory of equitable apportionment for beneficial uses, and so on. Some
people believe that a negotiated settlement is the more appropriate course. The
central government has in the past shown preference for a negotiated settlement
and the adjudication process at different times. In general, a negotiated settlement
is preferable to arbitration and voluntary adoption for arbitration is preferable to
adjudication. However due to its nature any process of adjudication requires a
considerable amount of time and this results in delays in settling the dispute.
Although the River Boards Act was passed in 1956 after ISWD Act, it came into
force only in 1957, much later than ISWD. However, no river boards have been
1042 Chapter 21

established under RBA so far. The fact is that the various governments which have
come at the Central level in the country have directly resorted to adjudication in
case the negotiations fail, without going in for the intermediate step of arbitration
as provided in the RBA. The result has been an overuse of the ISWD act which has
led to a lot of wastage of time as well as resources of the nation as a whole (Gosain
and Singh 2005). In place of this practice, if the Central government had gone in
for setting up of a river board for each and every interstate river in the country, the
problems would have been resolved long ago.
A comparison of the ISWD Act and the RBA (Gosain and Singh 2005) reveals
the following differences in their provisions:
• The ISWD Act falls under the purview of judicial functions of the government
whereas the RBA is an expression of the welfare and developmental functions
of the government.
• RBA provides for a suo moto action on the part of the Central Government whereas
the ISWD Act provides for the action of the Central Government in only those cases
in which it is approached by the State Governments of the riparian states concerned.
• RBA is a comprehensive act that provides for the overall development of the
river basin as a whole whereas the ISWD Act is limited to resolving disputes
over the shared water resources.
• Under Section 21.8 of the ISWD Act, any matter that can be referred to arbitration
under the RBA cannot be brought before any Tribunal under the ISWD Act. This
makes it clear that the intention of the framers of the two laws was to encourage
the application of the RBA while the ISWD Act was to be used only sparingly
and that too as a last resort.
• The Tribunal created under the ISWD Act ceases to function after its decision
is made whereas the River Boards created under the RBA are permanent bodies
which are involved in all the aspects of river basin planning, development and
management.
Failure of the adjudication process to provide timely resolution of ISWD has
led to several attempts to improve the situation. In 1983, the National Water
Resources Council (NWRC) was created by a central government resolution. With
the Prime Minister as Chairman, its membership includes Chief Ministers of States,
Lieutenant Governors of Union Territories and several union ministers. The NWRC
met first in October 1985 and adopted the National Water Policy in 1987. This
policy emphasized an integrated and environmentally sound basis for developing
national water resources. NWRC, however, provided no specific recommendations
for institutions to achieve this and has been an effective body.
So far in India, the following five tribunals have been set up to adjudicate water
disputes:
i. Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal (in April, 1969),
ii. Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal (in April, 1969),
iii. Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal (in October, 1969),
iv. Ravi and Beas Waters Tribunal (in April, 1986), and
v. Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (in June, 1990).
Constitutional Provisions 1043

Three Tribunals have already given their final awards and the remaining two
Tribunals (Cauvery and Ravi-Beas) are still adjudicating the issues referred to
them. The Government of India has constituted the Second Krishna Water Dispute
Tribunal in 2005.The details of these tribunals are given in what follows.

21.4. GODAVARI WATER DISPUTE TRIBUNAL

The Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal (GWDT) headed by Justice Bachawat was
constituted by the Government of India in April 1969. After considering the matter,
the Tribunal gave its award in July, 1980. In fact, this award referred to a series of
agreements among the party states. Brief details of such agreements are given here.
According to the award:
1. The agreement on Polavaram Project provides for diversion of 2 266 Mm3
of the Godavari Water from Polavaram Project to Krishna River upstream of
Vijayawada Anicut. The water thus diverted in the Krishna will be shared as
given in Table 1 among Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Maharashtra.
2. The Inchampalli Multipurpose Project will be a joint venture of Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh and will be executed and operated under the
directions of a Tripartite Inter-State Control Board. The cost of storage, power
and benefits will be shared by these States in agreed proportions. Andhra Pradesh
is allowed to divert 2 407 Mm3 of waters from Inchampalli Reservoir for its use.
The remaining available water is to be used for power generation at Inchampalli
Power House. After hydropower generation, Andhra Pradesh can use water in
any manner.
3. As per the award any alteration, amendment or modification to any of the
provision of the Tribunal can be made by agreement between the party States
or by legislation of Parliament.

21.4.1. Discussions of 6.10.1975

A meeting between the chief ministers of Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh was
held in Hyderabad on the 6th October 1975. The discussions related to the clearance
of the projects and the use of waters of Godavari River and its tributaries. After
discussions, the following points were agreed to:
1. Maharashtra can use for their beneficial use all waters up to the Paithan dam
site on the Godavari and up to Siddheswar dam site on the Purna.

Table 1. Allocation of Godavari water by GWDT among three states

State Flow

In TMC In MCM

Andhra Pradesh 45 1 2744

Karnataka & Maharashtra 35 9912
Total 80 2 2656
1044 Chapter 21

2. (i) From the waters in the area of Godavari basin below the Paithan dam site on
the Godavari and below the Siddeswar dam site on the Purna and below the
Nizamsagar dam site on the Manjra and up to Pochampad dam site on the
Godavari, Maharashtra can utilize waters not exceeding 1 700 Mm3 for new
projects including any additional use over and above the present sanctioned
or cleared utilization, as the case may be.
(ii) Andhra Pradesh can go ahead with building its Pochampad Project with
FRL 1,091 and MWL 1,093 and is free to utilize all remaining waters up to
the Pochampad dam site in any manner it chooses for its beneficial use.
3. (i) In the Manjira sub-basin above the Nizamsagar dam site, Maharashtra
can utilize waters not exceeding 623 Mm3 for new projects including any
additional use over and above the present sanctioned or cleared utilisation
as the case may be.
(ii) Andhra Pradesh can withdraw 113 Mm3 for drinking water supply to
Hyderabad city from their proposed Singur project on the Manjira.
(iii) Andhra Pradesh can construct Singur project with a storage capacity of
850 Mm3 . Andhra Pradesh can also use 1 443 Mm3 under Nizamsagar
project.
4. Maharashtra concurs with the agreement arrived at between the States of Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka in regard to the use proposed by Karnataka in the Manjira
sub-basin upstream of the Nizamsagar dam site.
5. Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh will be free to use an additional quantity of
8 496 Mm3 of water each below the Pochampad dam site for new projects.
6. Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh agree in principle to the taking up of the
Inchampalli Project with FRL as commonly agreed to by the interested States,
viz., Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
7. Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh agree to take up the joint projects at the
appropriate time with agreed utilization: Lendi Project, Lower Penganga Project,
and Pranhit Project, and to set up joint committees for this purpose.
8. The States of Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh agree that this agreement will
be furnished to the Government of India and a report will be submitted before
the Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal at the appropriate time.

21.4.2. Discussions of 7.11.1975

In this meeting between the chief ministers of the Madhya Pradesh and Andhra
Pradesh held at New Delhi, discussions related to the clearance of the projects
and use of the water of Godavari River and its tributaries. After discussions, the
following points were agreed.
1. Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh will be free to use an additional gross
quantity of 8 496 Mm3 each, out of the water in the Godavari River and its
tributaries below the Pochampad Dam site for new projects.
2. Madhya Pradesh concurs generally with the agreement between Andhra Pradesh
and Maharashtra on 6-10-1975. The quantity of the 8 496 Mm3 mentioned in
Constitutional Provisions 1045

clause I above will not be in addition to 8 496 Mm3 already agreed between
Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.
3. In agreeing to 8 496 Mm3 referred to in clauses I and II above, for Andhra
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh on its part, has taken into account the estimated
requirements within the basin only.
4. Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh agree in principle to the taking up of the
Inchampalli project with F.R.L., as commonly agreed to by the interested states,
viz., Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
5. It is also agreed that Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh will consider the
feasibility of taking up the Inchampalli project as a joint project with costs
and benefits equitably shared amongst the above 3 States in accordance with a
common agreement.
6. Madhya Pradesh agrees to the taking up of Taliperu project by Andhra Pradesh
involving the use of 142 Mm3 (Gross) of water out of the 8 496 Mm3 agreed
to in Clause I and to the submersion of river bed only in Madhya Pradesh.
Andhra Pradesh agrees to put up at its cost such protective measures as would be
necessary in consultation with Madhya Pradesh to prevent submersion of other
areas in Madhya Pradesh.
7. The States of Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh agree that nothing in this
agreement will be treated as a concession by either state in respect of any of
their contentions in any other water dispute with any other state or with respect
to the dispute regarding the sharing of the balance of water in Godavari and its
tributaries.
8. The States of Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh agree that this agreement
will be furnished to the Government of India and they would be requested to
expedite the clearance of the projects. This Agreement will also be jointly filed
before the GWDT at the appropriate time.

21.4.3. Discussions of 9.12.1975

In the meeting between the chief ministers of Orissa and Madhya Pradesh held
at New Delhi, the discussions related to the use of waters of Godavari River and
the clearance of the projects of Orissa and Madhya Pradesh. After discussions the
following agreement was reached:
I. Pending final allocation of the Godavari water, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa
will be free to use additional gross quantity of 8 496 Mm3 and 5 664 Mm3
respectively, out of the water of the Goadvari basin below the Pochampad Dam
site for new projects in such manner as they deem fit.
II. In agreeing to 5 664 Mm3 referred to in Clause I for Orissa, Madhya Pradesh
on its part has taken into account the estimated requirements within the basin
only. All the utilization by Orissa and Madhya Pradesh contemplated in the
various Clauses shall be only as a part of the 5 664 Mm3 and 8 496 Mm3 ,
respectively, agreed to in Clause I above. The States of Orissa and Madhya
1046 Chapter 21

Pradesh will not be entitled on the basis of the subsequent Clauses to utilize in
any way more than 5 664 Mm3 and 8 496 Mm3 , respectively.
III. Below the dam sites of the Upper Indravati Project, as proposed by Orissa, there
is a catchment area of about 4,800 sq. km in the Indravati sub-basin up to the
Orissa border with Madhya Pradesh. From this catchment there is some natural
flow across the Jaura Nallah to Sabari (Kolab) River. It was agreed that Orissa
will ensure at its border with Madhya Pradesh a flow of 1 274 Mm3 in the
Indravati and its tributaries at 75% dependability for use by Madhya Pradesh.
In the years of shortage, the shortage will be shared proportionately between
the two states and the assurance of flow in the Indravati and its tributaries,
referred to above, will stand proportionately reduced. Both the states agree to
joint gauging at suitable points to ascertain the yield data and to ensure the
flow of 1 274 Mm3 at 75% dependability of the proportionately reduced flow
in years of shortage that has to flow below the common border. The figure of
1 274 Mm3 is on the assumption of total yield of 5 777 Mm3 from the Indravati
sub-basin in Orissa and 2 577 Mm3 utilization for the Upper Indravati Project.
If the assessment of 5 777 Mm3 is found to be high and the correct figure is
lower than 5 777 Mm3 and the utilization for the Upper Indravati Project gets
reduced from the figure of 2 577 Mm3 then the figure of 1 274 Mm3 will get
reduced in the same proportion.
IV. In view of the agreement incorporated in the above clauses, Madhya Pradesh
agrees to the clearance and execution of Upper Indravati Project, as proposed
and submitted by Orissa to the Government of India. Orissa also agrees to the
clearance and execution of Bodhghat Project, as may be modified by Madhya
Pradesh taking into account the water availability specified in Clause III.

21.4.4. Discussions of 19.12.1975

On the basis of a series of discussions held between the representatives of the States
of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Andhra Pradesh, an agreement was arrived
at regarding the sub-basin wise allocation of the waters of the Godavari and its
tributaries downstream of the Pochampad Dam in the States of Andhra Pradesh, the
projects therein and other allied matters taking into consideration the allocations
already agreed to.

21.5. KRISHNA WATER DISPUTE TRIBUNAL

The Krishna Water Dispute Tribunal (KWDT), headed by Justice R.S. Bachawat,
was constituted in April 1969 for adjudication of inter-state water dispute regarding
the sharing of Krishna waters. The KWDT gave its award in 1973, and it was
published in 1976. As per this award, 75% dependable flow of the Krishna water
at Vijaywada was assessed as 2,060 TMC (58 339 Mm3 ) which was allocated as
given in Table 2.
Constitutional Provisions 1047

Table 2. Allocation of Krishna water by KWDT among three states

State Allocation in TMC Allocation in Mm3

Maharashtra 560 15,859

Karnataka 700 19,824
Andhra Pradesh 800 22,656
Total 2060 58,339

The KWDT addressed three issues: (1) the extent to which the existing uses
should be protected as opposed to future or contemplated uses; (2) diversion of
water to another watershed; and (3) rules governing the preferential uses of water.
The tribunal relied on the principle of equitable apportionment for allocation of
water.
About the first issue, KWDT decided that projects that were in operation or
under consideration as in September 1960 should be preferred to contemplated
uses and should be protected. It also directed that except by special consent of the
parties, a project committed after 1960 should not be entitled to any priority over
contemplated uses. Regarding the second issue, the tribunal decided that diversion
of the Krishna water was legal when water was diverted to areas outside the river
basin but within the political boundaries of the riparian states. It was silent regarding
the diversion of water to areas of non-riparian states. As for the third issue, KWDT
concluded that all existing uses based on diversion of water outside the basin would
receive protection.
After deliberating over the issue, KWDT passed the following order:
• That the States of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh will be free to
use ground water within their respective sites in the Krishna basin. The use of
underground water by any State shall not be reckoned as use of the water of the
Krishna River.
• That the waters of the Krishna River be allocated to the three States of
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh for their beneficial use to the extent
provided in Table 2.
• The states are not permitted to use in any water year more than the specified
quantity of water of the Krishna River.
In addition, liberty was given to Andhra Pradesh to use in any water year any
excess flows that may be available without conferring any right whatsoever in the
matter. The Tribunal allowed the States to utilize their allocated share of water for
any project as per their plans.
• Beneficial use shall include any use of the water of the Krishna River by any State
for domestic, municipal, irrigation, industrial, hydropower generation, navigation,
pisciculture, wildlife protection and recreation purposes.
• Evaporation losses from reservoirs of projects using 85 Mm3 or more annually
shall be excluded in computing the 10% figure of the average annual utilizations
mentioned in selected sub-clauses of the order.
1048 Chapter 21

• The depletion of the waters of the Krishna River in any manner whatsoever,
including losses of water by evaporation and other natural causes from man-made
reservoirs and other works. Without deducting in the case of use for irrigation
the quantity of water may return after such use to the river.
The uses of water shall be measured in the manner indicated below:
Domestic and municipal water supply: 20% of the quantity of water diverted or
lifted from the river or any of its tributaries or from any reservoir, storage or canal.
Industrial Use: 2.5% of the quantity of water diverted or lifted from the river or
any of its tributaries or from any reservoir, storage or canal.
Recently, the Government of India has constituted the Second Krishna Water
Dispute Tribunal.

21.5.1. The Almatti Dam Dispute

The Almatti dam is part of the Upper Krishna Project, a joint venture of the states of
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra. Karnataka planned the Upper Krishna
project (consisting of reservoirs at Almatti and Narayanpur) to use 4897 Mm3
(173 TMC) of water in two stages: 3 369 Mm3 (119 TMC) in the first stage and
1528 Mm3 (54 TMC) in the second stage. Narayanpur reservoir has been completed
but the construction of the Almatti dam was under dispute. The Bacchawat Tribunal
(the Krishna Water Dispute Tribunal) stated that Karnataka had proposed to
complete the Almatti dam in the second stage of the project, without specifying
the exact full height. The Central Water Commission had given clearance to build
the Almatti dam to a height of 519 m in the first stage. However the Karnataka
government interpreted the Bacchawat award to mean the full height of the project
as it had proposed. This envisaged a final full reservoir level of 524.25 m. The
problem of Almatti pertains to the storage of what Andhra Pradesh believes to be
an excessive quantity of water into the Srisailam and Nagarjunasagar reservoirs and
the Krishna barrage at Vijayawada which sustains the main rice bowl of Andhra
Pradesh.
In the case of Almatti, the height of the dam or its storage capacity has been the
issue of dispute. The proposed 524.25 m high Almatti dam can hold 6 429 Mm3 of
water whereas the allocation for the entire Upper Krishna Project was 4 899 Mm3 .
The argument of Karnataka that it will use the extra 54 TMC feet (1 529 Mm3 )
of water to generate power is not convicting to Andhra Pradesh because this water
can irrigate 540,000 acres of land. Andhra Pradesh feels that Karnataka will delay
flows to Andhra Pradesh in a normal year by detaining more water at the dam.
In 1996, the then Prime Minister appointed a committee of four ministers to
resolve the dispute. They constituted an expert committee in 1997 who opined that
the stage had not reached for Karnataka to go in for a higher storage capacity
and that the full reservoir level be kept at 518.7 m in the second stage. The group
suggested that it was not necessary for Karnataka to build a bigger storage. In
July 1998, the case was referred to a five-judge bench of the Supreme Court.
Here, the major issues were the interpretation of Article 262 of the constitution
Constitutional Provisions 1049

and Section 21.11 of the Inter State Water Disputes Act-1956. Karnataka sought
the apex court’s directions in regard to distribution and allocation of surplus water
of the Krishna River. But Andhra Pradesh demanded to restrain Karnataka from
raising the height of the Almatti dam from 519 m to 524 m and certain other relief.

21.6. NARMADA WATER DISPUTE TRIBUNAL

Under the Inter-State Water Disputes Act, 1956, the Central Government constituted
Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal (NWDT) on 6th Oct. 1969 to adjudicate upon the
sharing of Narmada waters and for Narmada River valley development. Justice V.
Ramaswami was the chairman of NWDT. The Tribunal gave its Award on 7th Dec.,
1979. The Award specified a quantum of utilizable waters at 75% dependability
to be shared by the four States of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and
Rajasthan as stated in Table 3.
The Tribunal determined that the height of the Sardar Sarovar Dam should
be fixed for Full Reservoir Level (FRL) of 138.68 m (455 ft) and also directed
the Government of Gujarat (GOG) to take up and complete the construction of
the dam accordingly. According to Clause-16 of the final orders of the Tribunal,
the parameters of shares of utilizable waters by the States, FRL of the reservoir
and Full Supply Level (FSL) of Navagam Canal are made subject to review at any
time after a period of 45 years from the date of publication of the Award of the
Tribunal in the official gazette.
The Tribunal has assessed the utilizable quantity of water at 75% dependability on
the Narmada at Sardar Sarovar dam site as 28 MAF (34,537.45 MCM) considering
the inflow at 75% dependability as 27.01 MAF (33,316.0 MCM) and bringing this up
to 28 MAF (34,537.45 MCM) considering regeneration, carryover and evaporation
loss. As per the NWDT report, the evaporation loss is 4 MAF, regeneration or
return flow (+)2 MAF (2,467 MCM) and carry over (+)3 MAF (3,700 MCM).

21.6.1. Decisions of the Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal

The important decisions of the Tribunal are:
(i) The Full Reservoir Level of Sardar Sarovar Dam was fixed at 138.68 m.
(ii) The power benefits from the project are to be shared as: Madhya Pradesh
57%, Maharashtra 27%, and Gujarat 16%. The cost of power component of

Table 3. Allocation of Narmada water by NWDT among four states

State Allocation in MAF Allocation in Mm3

Gujarat 900 11 10132

Madhya Pradesh 1825 22 51101
Maharashtra 025 30837
Rajasthan 050 61674
Total 2800 3453744
1050 Chapter 21

the project is to be shared by Gujarat, M.P. and Maharashtra in the ratio of

their benefits in power.
(iii) M.P. has to make a uniform release of 8.12 MAF (10,015.86 MCM)
ex-Maheshwar to meet the requirements of Gujarat and Rajasthan from Sardar
Sarovar Dam in a normal year having 28 MAF (34,537.45 MCM) flow.
(iv) The Indira Sagar project is to be taken up by MP and completed with a FRL
of 262.13 m (860 ft) either concurrently or earlier than the construction of
Sardar Sarovar.
(v) Gujarat is required to credit to MP each year 17.63% of the expenditure on
Indira Sagar dam.
(vi) The allocation of Unit I – Dam and Appurtenant works cost between irrigation
& power was done as 43.9% and 56.1%. The irrigation component of the
project is to be shared by Gujarat and Rajasthan in the ratio of water allocation
for the dam and canal.
(vii) An organization, viz., Narmada Control Authority (NCA) was set up for
implementation of the decision of the Tribunal. A Review Committee was
also set up under Union Ministry of Water Resources to review decisions of
the Authority.
(viii) For efficient, economical and early execution of Unit I & III of Sardar
Sarovar Project, a construction advisory committee was set up. The Review
Committee was empowered to decide on issues on which there is disagreement
in the construction committee.
(ix) The decisions of the Tribunal are subject to review after a period of 45 years
from the date of publication of the final award in the Gazette of Govt. of India.

21.6.2. Rules of Regulation

As per the NWDT award, NCA shall frame the rules of regulation and water
accounting within the ambit of given guidelines. The procedure for preparing this
account and rules of regulation are spelled out by the Tribunal. The Authority shall
also ensure implementation of the orders of the Tribunal in respect of the quantum
and pattern of regulated releases by M.P.
The water year is to be reckoned from 1st July to 30th June of the next calendar
year. The Authority has to determine the volume of water flowing in the Narmada
River and its tributaries in a water year. The utilizable flow in excess or falling short
of 28 MAF is to be shared by the four party States in the same ratio as allocation
of utilizable quantum of Narmada waters at 75% dependability, i.e., 28 MAF.
The requirements at Sardar Sarovar have to be met by releases by
MP ex-Maheshwar and by inflows from the intermediate catchment between
Narmadasagar and SSP surplus to the requirements of MP and Maharashtra. The
releases ex-Maheshwar works out to be 8.12 MAF and uniform monthly releases
of 0.677 MAF (835.06 MCM) would make up this amount. Although it would be
fully known only in October whether the year is normal, surplus or deficit, the
releases by MP in the filling period would have to be more or less on the basis of a
Constitutional Provisions 1051

normal year. As the months of July and early part of August are crucial for Kharif
sowing, it is important that regulatory arrangements are made to ensure due shares
of various parties.
The Authority was directed to review the ten-day releases made by M.P. at least
once a month and even often made considered necessary for directing any change
in the releases. NCA would also ensure by directing the releases by MP that there
is sufficient utilizable water in Sardar Sarovar at all times to meet the requirements
of the next ten days subject to water being available in the storage of M.P. after
taking into account the proportionate requirements of M.P. For this purpose, Gujarat
and Rajasthan are required to intimate their requirements of the 10-day period well
in advance.
The Narmada Control Authority was directed by the Tribunal to determine, from
time to time, the volume of water stored by each state in reservoirs and other
storages and it may, for that purpose, adopt any device or method. Further, the
water available in the live storage of the various reservoirs on 30th June shall be
reckoned as an inflow to be shared in the next water year.
Note that the apportionment relates to actual withdrawals and not consumptive
use. The available utilizable waters on any date will be inclusive of return flows and
exclusive of evaporation losses in various reservoirs. The Tribunal did not specify
how regeneration is to be worked out but as per the NWDT report, regeneration
including return flow should be taken as 10% of irrigation use in upstream major,
medium and minor projects in any month with a lag of one month. Further, 60%
of the water used for domestic and industrial purposes within the Narmada basin
may be taken as return flow uniformly available throughout the year.
The surplus water shall first be utilized for filling up the reservoirs to their
capacity and further extra surplus water should be utilized for irrigation and other
purposes only after that has been ensured. After meeting the storage require-
ments and withdrawals, the surplus waters in the filling period which would go
waste to sea even without generating power can be allowed to be utilized by
party States to the extent they can. Gujarat is required to inform NCA and the
designated representative of all the concerned states whenever water starts going
waste to sea as also when flows cease. During the period of such flows, the
party States, whose reservoirs are spilling and the spill water cannot be stored
elsewhere, may utilize such flows from the said reservoirs as they like and such
utilization will not count either towards allotment of supplies to them nor will it
establish prescriptive rights.

21.7. RAVI AND BEAS WATER TRIBUNAL

Punjab and Haryana, the main parties involved in this dispute, are both agricultural
surplus states, also termed as the ‘granary of India’. Both states produce large
quantities of grains. In view of the scarcity and uncertainty of rainfall in this arid
area, irrigation is the mainstay of agriculture and is responsible for its tremendous
progress. With the introduction and widespread adoption of high-yielding varieties
1052 Chapter 21

of food grains by forward looking farmers of these states, irrigation became

increasingly important from the late 1960s onwards. Through an inter-state meeting,
an initial agreement on the sharing of the waters of the Ravi and Beas after partition
of India was reached in 1955.
With the reorganization of Punjab in November 1966, Punjab and Haryana were
carved out as successor states. Thereafter, the present dispute between Punjab and
Haryana about Ravi-Beas water started. Four perennial rivers, Ravi, Beas, Satluj
and Yamuna, flow through these states.
As a result of protests by Punjab against the 1976 agreement allocating water
from Ravi-Beas, further discussions were conducted (now including Rajasthan as
well), and a new agreement was accepted in 1981. This agreement faced opposition
and a series of events led to the constitution of a tribunal to examine the Ravi-Beas
issue in 1986. Both states sought clarifications of aspects of the award by this
tribunal, but the centre has not provided these. Hence, the original award has not
been notified (listed in the government gazette to give it final force), and does not
have the status yet of a final, binding decision.
On the basis of the flow data available from 1921–45, the waters of the Ravi and
the Beas (mean flows) were estimated to be 15.85 MAF (19,550.66 MCM) over
and above the actual pre-partition use. In an inter-state meeting convened by the
Central Government in January 1955, these waters were allocated to various states
as: Rajasthan 8.00 MAF (9,767.8 MCM); Punjab 7.20 MAF (8,881 MCM); and
Jammu and Kashmir 0.65 MAF (801.76 MCM).
The Indus Waters Treaty was signed in 1960 whereby waters of the three eastern
rivers (the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj) were reserved for exclusive use by India.
The state of Punjab was reorganized with effect from 1 November 1966 and this
raised the question of Haryana’s share in the waters allocated to Punjab under the
1955 agreement.
In exercise of the power conferred by the Punjab Reorganization Act, Central
Government issued a notification in March 1976 allocating 3.5 MAF (4,317 MCM)
to Haryana out of the 7.2 MAF (8,881 MCM) earlier allocated to the composite
Punjab state. However, Punjab was not happy with this decision. Therefore, after
a number of discussions, a fresh agreement was accepted between the party states
in December 1981 whereby the available supplies were estimated to be 17.17
MAF (21,178.86 MCM) on the basis of the 1921 to 1960 flow series. These were
allocated to different states as: Punjab 4.22 MAF (5,205 MCM); Haryana 3.50
MAF (4,317 MCM); Rajasthan 8.60 MAF (10,608 MCM); Jammu and Kashmir
0.65 MAF (801.76 MCM); and Delhi Water Supply 0.20 MAF (246.7 MCM).
Even after this agreement, sharing of water resources continued to be a politically
live issue in Punjab. An accord called The Punjab Settlement was signed between
the then Prime Minister of India and Sant Longowal on 24th July 1985. In the
accord, the clauses relevant to water were as follows:
(a) Quantum of usage of waters from the Ravi-Beas System by different states as
on 1st July 1985 should be verified by a tribunal.
Constitutional Provisions 1053

(b) The claim of Punjab and Haryana regarding their shares in the remaining waters
was to be referred to for adjudication to a tribunal the decision of which would
be binding on both parties.
Accordingly, the tribunal was constituted on 2nd April 1986. It was to give its award
within a period of six months, which was extended thereafter. Since the main dispute
was over the allocation of waters between the Punjab and Haryana the tribunal
examined various factors in the Punjab and Haryana, such as the geographical area,
basin area, cultivable area, water requirements, population density, extent of arid
areas, rainfall, etc. It found that the ratios of these parameters between Punjab and
Haryana varied from 1.05 to 1.30. Finally, it allocated the waters between Punjab
and Haryana in the ratio of 1.3:1. Apart from accepting the 1981 assessment of
the available water by the Central Government as 17.17 MAF (21,113.5 MCM),
the tribunal also considered the surplus water available below the base stations,
of which 40% (amounting to 2,882 MCM) was considered utilizable. Out of these
utilizable supplies, only 60% (i.e., 1,369 MCM) was considered for allocation
between Punjab and Haryana. Thus, the final allocation among the various states
as given by the tribunal was: Rajasthan 8.60 MAF (10,608 MCM); Jammu and
Kashmir 0.65 MAF (801.76 MCM); Delhi Water Supply 0.20 MAF (246.7 MCM);
Punjab 5.00 MAF (6,167.4 MCM); Haryana 3.83 MAF (4,724.2 MCM): total 18.28
MAF (22,548 MCM).

21.8. CAUVERY WATER DISPUTE

The Cauvery basin covers large parts of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and a small part
of Kerala and the Union Territory of Pondicherry. Being riparian to the river, the
states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and the Union Territory of Pondicherry,
are entitled to the Cauvery water in a reasonable and beneficial manner.
The dispute over the sharing of Cauvery water goes back to the 19th century.
An agreement was made between the then states of Mysore and Madras in 1924
under which Mysore became entitled to construct a dam known as Krishnarajasagar
across the Cauvery River. The Mysore Government was at liberty to carry out
future extensions of irrigation in Mysore under the Cauvery and its tributaries to
an extent fixed at 110,000 acres in addition to the area of irrigation fixed under
the Rules and Regulations. The Madras Government was at liberty to construct any
new storage reservoirs on the Bhavani, Amaravathi or Noyil rivers. The agreement
was open to reconsideration at the expiry of fifty years from the execution date.
After expiry of the agreement in 1974, water allocation between Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu required a fresh solution. Although Kerala and Pondicherry were not
parties to the 1924 agreement, these are involved in the present dispute.
The Cauvery dispute is between a downstream state (Tamil Nadu) that has a long
history of irrigated agriculture by the use of Cauvery water and an upstream state
(Karnataka) that was a late starter in irrigation development but has made rapid
progress and has the advantage of being an upper riparian with greater control over
the flows. Clearly, the two major parties to the dispute are Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu, although the original issues dated back to colonial times. Between 1968 and
1054 Chapter 21

1990, more than 25 meetings were held at the ministerial level but no agreement
could be reached. Hence, the Cauvery Water Dispute Tribunal was constituted
under the ISWD Act 1956.
Presently, the grievance of Karnataka is that its late start on irrigation devel-
opment should not curtail its right to make the maximum use of Cauvery water
for agricultural and other development. Tamil Nadu feels threatened because its
long established agriculture using the Cauvery water now critically depends on
diminishing flows as a result of upstream development.
Intermittent talks between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu went on for over two
decades from the 1970s onwards but did not produce any result. On their part,
the Government of India made unsuccessful efforts to bring about an agreement.
While the central government favoured a negotiated settlement, on a petition by
some Tamil Nadu farmers to get assured irrigation water from the Cauvery, the
Supreme Court of India ordered the Central Government to immediately establish
a tribunal. Accordingly, the Government of India established the Cauvery Water
Dispute Tribunal (CWDT) on June 02, 1990.
The share of water claimed by basin states in the Tribunal is as under:
a) Karnataka – 13 169 Mm3 .
b) Tamil Nadu – Flows in accordance with the agreements of 1892 and 1924.
c) Kerala – 2 826 Mm3 .
d) Union Territory of Pondicherry – 263 Mm3 .
The Tamil Nadu State filed a petition before CWDT praying that the state of
Karnataka be directed not to impound or utilize water of the Cauvery River beyond
the extent impounded or used by them as on 31.5.1972, as agreed to by the
Chief Ministers of Cauvery basin states and the Union Minister for Irrigation and
Power. It further sought passing of an order restraining the state of Karnataka from
undertaking any new projects, dams, reservoirs, canals, etc. The Union Territory
of Pondicherry sought an interim order from the Tribunal directing the states of
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu to release the water already agreed to (2 650 Mm3 )
during the months from September to March.
There was a basic difference between Tamil Nadu on the one hand and the central
government and Karnataka on the other in their approach towards the sharing of
the Cauvery water. The Tamil Nadu government argued that since Karnataka was
constructing dams on the Cauvery River and was expanding ayacuts (irrigation
works), Karnataka was unilaterally diminishing the supply of waters to Tamil
Nadu, and adversely affecting the prescriptive rights of the already acquired and
existing ayacuts. The government of Tamil Nadu also maintained that the Karnataka
government had failed to implement the terms of 1892 and 1924 agreements relating
to the use, distribution and control of the Cauvery waters. It asserted that the
entitlements of the 1924 agreement were permanent, and that only those clauses
that dealt with utilization of surplus water for further extension of irrigation in
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, beyond what was contemplated in the 1924 agreement
could be changed. In contrast, Karnataka questioned the applicability of the 1924
agreement, emphasizing equity and regional balance in future sharing arrangements.
Constitutional Provisions 1055

There were several reasons why the negotiations of 1968–90 failed to find a
consensus. There was a divergence of interest between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
on the question of pursuing negotiations. Karnataka was interested in prolonging
the negotiations and avoiding the reference to a tribunal to gain time to complete
its new projects.
While the Cauvery Tribunal passed an interim order in 1991, it could not be
implemented. In the end, the process of political bargaining led to the imple-
mentation of the interim order, and the formation of a Cauvery River Authority
and Monitoring Committee in 1998. These bodies continue to meet, and the final
outcome of the tribunal is awaited.

21.9. YAMUNA WATER DISPUTE

Yamuna is a tributary of Ganga whose waters in the head reaches have been
largely utilized. Out of a total available flow of about 7.6 MAF (9,374.5 MCM)
at Tajewala and about 9.6 MAF (11,841 MCM) at Okhla, almost 85% to 90% of
the waters are already being utilized mainly for irrigation in Uttar Pradesh and
Haryana, mostly from Tajewala Barrage and additionally from Okhla Barrage. A
small portion is also being utilized for Delhi Water Supply and some irrigation in
Rajasthan.
No major storage reservoir has been constructed in the Yamuna basin to regulate
river flow. Barring a few days in the monsoon season, all the available flows
at Tajewala are diverted for irrigation in Uttar Pradesh and Haryana through the
Eastern and Western Yamuna Canals. Consequently, the Yamuna is virtually dry
downstream of the Tajewala Barrage. Even the capital city of Delhi, situated on
the banks of the river, gets only 30% of its present drinking and municipal water
requirements from the Yamuna. Due to negligible flow in the river in the lean
season, there is also a problem of Yamuna pollution in Delhi.
In the head reaches of Yamuna, two sites have been identified for construction
of dams – at Kishau in Uttaranchal and at Renuka in Himachal Pradesh. These two
will have storage capacities of about 1,603.5 MCM (about 13% of annual flows).
However, neither of these dams have been sanctioned and taken up for construction
till date on account of a dispute among the states on sharing of the Yamuna
waters. A number of technical and political inter-state meetings have failed to
resolve the dispute and come to an agreement. The claims of all the basin states
aggregate to about 26 MAF (32,070.5 MCM), while the available water is far less,
only about 10 MAF (12,334.8 MCM).
Although a consensus was supposed to have reached in 1989, no agreement could
be signed among the party states. In the absence of an agreement on sharing of
waters of Yamuna, the Kishau dam project could not be taken up. As a result of
delay, among the sufferers is the city of Delhi since all the feasible sources to meet
its domestic water supply have been exhausted, and its supply critically hinges on
the Kishau and Tehri Dams.
1056 Chapter 21

21.9.1. Satluj-Yamuna Link Canal Dispute

In 1965 the Punjab Government appointed two committees: an expert committee

of engineers called the Food Committee of Land and Water Use in Punjab and
a committee known as the Haryana Development Committee. These committees
were appointed to review the order of the Punjab Government of 1961. After
a scientific study, the first committee recommended the allocation of 4.56 MAF
(5,624.7 MCM) of water to areas now called Haryana out of 7 MAF (8,634.4
MCM) available for Punjab according to an agreement reached on January 29,
1955. The second committee recommended the allocation of Ravi-Beas waters for
Haryana based on the principle of equitable apportionment between Haryana and
Punjab.
A high level committee of independent experts was appointed by the Central
Government in 1970. In its report of 1971, the committee recommended allocation
of 3.78 MAF (4,662.58 MCM) water to Haryana. In another recommendation,
Mr. D.P. Dhar, the then Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission who was
also asked to examine the question, suggested in 1973 that 3.74 MAF (4,613.22
MCM) water be allocated to Haryana.
In 1976, the Central Government allocated 3.5 MAF (4,317.2 MCM) of water to
Haryana and 3.5 MAF to Punjab on the completion of further conservation works
on the Ravi. It was decided that the share of Punjab would not exceed 3.5 MAF
(4,317.2 MCM). If the availability of water in the Beas at Mandi increased, Haryana
would get a pro-rata share of erstwhile Punjab according to the 1955 agreement.
Based on the analysis of flow series of 1921–45, the surplus water in Ravi-Beas
Rivers was estimated as 15.85 MAF (19,551 MCM). However, on the basis of
the 1921–60 flow series, the net surplus of these rivers was estimated as 17.17
MAF (21,179 MCM), an increase of 1.32 MAF (1,628.2 MCM). This increase was
distributed between Punjab and Rajasthan: Punjab was allotted 0.72 MAF (888.11
MCM) and Rajasthan 0.60 MAF (740.1 MCM). Punjab was, therefore, allocated
total 4.22 MAF (5,205 MCM). Punjab was also allowed to use all the water that
Rajasthan was unable to use out of its share of 8.60 MAF (10,608 MCM).
Subsequently, there a demand from various quarters that issue of water allocation
be referred to a tribunal. This demand was accepted and included in the Rajiv-
Longowal accord. On April 2, 1988, the Ravi and Beas Waters Tribunal, headed
by Justice V. Balakrishna Eradi, was appointed. The tribunal submitted its report
on January 30, 1987. The Eradi Tribunal allocated the water of Satluj Yamuna link
between Rajasthan, Punjab Haryana, J & K and Delhi as given in Table 4.
The SYL canal project was initiated to transfer water from Ravi and Beas Rivers
and as per the agreement between the two states and the Central Government, the
allocation of water of these rivers was made among Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan.
The Satluj-Yamuna Link (SYL) Canal has been a major political issue in Punjab
and Haryana in the recent times. Punjab has opposed the construction of the canal
on the plea that the state has the sole right over its river waters by applying the
riparian principle.
Constitutional Provisions 1057

Table 4. Allocation of water of Satluj-Yamuna link by Eradi

tribunal in 1987

Name of state Allocation of water

In Million acre feet In Million m3

Punjab 500 6 16740

Haryana 383 4 72422
Rajasthan 860 10 60793
J&K 065 80176
Delhi 020 2467

Source: Satluj-Yamuna Link: Troubled Waters, The Times of

India, New Delhi, August 5, 2004.

The construction work on the canal was stopped after militants gunned down two
senior engineers connected with the project in 1990. By then, only a few km of the
total 121 km of the canal portion on the Punjab side had been constructed. A large
sum of money has been spent by the State and the Central governments on the
SYL in the Punjab portion alone. Haryana has already constructed the entire 90 km
stretch of the canal in anticipation of getting river water from Punjab. On a writ
petition filed by the Haryana Government, the Supreme Court gave a directive to
central government in 2002 to take up the construction work in the Punjab portion
of the Canal and to complete it within a year.
In July 2004, the Punjab Assembly passed the Punjab Termination of Agreements
Act. According to this act, Punjab government has abrogated water accords prior
to 1991 with all other states. The matter is now under consideration.

21.10. INTERNATIONAL TREATIES

The settlement of international water disputes through treaties is the most effective
and popular medium of resolving such disputes. Of course, this mode is equally
suitable for intra-national conflict resolution.
There are three main water related international treaties relevant to India:
• The Indus water Treaty between India and Pakistan,
• The Mahakali Treaty between India and Nepal, and
• The Ganga Treaty between India and Bangladesh.
In the following, we cover very briefly the background, nature of dispute, important
features of the treaties and the manner in which they have been operating.

21.10.1. Indus Water Treaty (1960)

After the Partition of India and Pakistan in 1947, an understanding on the sharing
of water of Indus River between the two countries became necessary to facilitate
the development of water resources of this basin. After prolonged talks between
the two Governments, the Indus Water Treaty was signed in September 1960.
1058 Chapter 21

According to this Treaty, waters of the three western rivers (the Jhelum, the
Chenab, and the Indus itself) were allocated to Pakistan, and those of the three
eastern rivers (the Ravi, the Beas and the Sutlej) were allocated to India. Certain
restrictions about water utilization were placed on India which is the upper riparian
country. The highlights of the Treaty are:
• India has not been allowed to build storages on the rivers where water has been
allocated to Pakistan.
• Restrictions have also been imposed on the extension of irrigation development
in India. Less significant restrictions have been placed on Pakistan, being the
lower riparian.
• The Treaty contains provisions regarding the exchange of data on project
operation, extent of irrigated agriculture, etc.
• The Treaty provides for certain institutional arrangements. A permanent Indus
Commission consisting of a Commissioner each for India and for Pakistan has
been set up and there are periodical meetings and exchanges of visits between
the two sides.
• Detailed guidelines were included in the Treaty for conflict-resolution. The Indus
Commission is the first step for conflict resolution. If an agreement cannot
be reached at the Commission level, the dispute is to be referred to the two
governments. If the governments too fail to reach an agreement, the Treaty
provides an arbitration mechanism.
The Indus Water Treaty is a successful instance of conflict-resolution. It has been
working reasonably well despite the strained political relationship between India
and Pakistan. Importantly, it continued to be honoured even during wars between
the two countries. Undoubtedly differences do arise from time to time, but these
usually get resolved within the framework of the Treaty. Minor differences are
settled within the Commission, and major disputes go to the two Governments.
One of the important differences that arose during the 1970s was connected with
the Salal Hydro-Electric Project in Jammu and Kashmir. This conflict could not
be settled at the level of commissioners and was referred to the two governments.
After lengthy negotiations, the issue was eventually resolved.
Another major unresolved dispute is regarding the Tulbul Navigation Project (or
the Wular Barrage Project) on the Jhelum River. Pakistan has raised objections to
this project on the ground that it involves the creation of storage on a river that is
allocated to Pakistan and this constitutes a violation of the Treaty. India’s view is
that no storage has been created and the proposed barrage will merely provide a
head of water temporarily to extend the period during which navigation is possible.
Further, such regulation will also benefit Pakistan. The intergovernmental talks on
the subject have not been successful.
Another long-pending dispute is regarding the Baglihar project which is a run-
of-the-river scheme. In this case, the two countries have significant differences:
India feels that there is no violation of agreement while Pakistan feels that there
is. This dispute could not be settled at the commissioner and government levels.
Ultimately, Pakistan approached the World Bank who had brokered the Treaty. But
Constitutional Provisions 1059

the World Bank has refused to get involved and the dispute remains unresolved.
The matter has gone for arbitration by a third party. The World Bank has appointed
Swiss expert Prof. Raymond Lafitte to mediate the dispute.

21.10.2. Mahakali Treaty

The Mahakali Treaty, signed in February 1996 between India and Nepal, pertains
to sharing water of a river by the same name. Now the Treaty is in force and is
in the process of implementation, although there have been ups and downs in its
implementation.
The Mahakali Treaty basically aims at an integrated development of water
resources in the Mahakali River and has been finalized on the basis of equal
partnership. The Mahakali originates in Nepal and forms the border between the
two countries for a considerable distance. The scope of the Treaty covers the Sarada
Barrage, the Tanakpur Barrage and the proposed Pancheswar project. From the
Sarada Barrage, the Treaty gives Nepal 28.3 cumec (1000 cusec) of water in the
wet season and 4.25 cumec (150 cusec) in the dry season. This quantity is to be
supplied from the Tanakpur Barrage if the Sarada Barrage turns non-functional.
Further, the Treaty also directs that not less than 9.91 cumec (350 cusec) should
flow downstream of the barrage to maintain and preserve the ecosystem of the river.
On Tanakpur, the Treaty reaffirmed the Nepalese sovereignty over the land (2.9 ha)
needed for building the eastern afflux bund, as well as the 9 ha of pondage area.
In lieu of the eastern afflux bund, the Treaty gave Nepal the right to 28.3 cumec
(1,000 cusec) of water in the wet season and 8.5 cumec (300 cusec) in the dry
season; and 70 million kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electricity (as against the earlier
agreed figure of 20 million kWh).
When the Pancheswar Project comes into being and augments the availability
of water in dry season at Tanakpur, Nepal would be provided with additional
water and additional energy. Nepal will bear a portion of the cost of generation
of incremental energy. The Pancheswar Project, which was to be located on the
Indo-Nepal boundary and was to be a joint project. For this project, some general
principles applicable to border rivers (an important one being “equal entitlement
in the utilization of the waters of the Mahakali River without prejudice to their
respective existing consumptive uses of the waters”) were laid down. These were
further elaborated in a document exchanged by the two Prime Ministers. The
detailed project report (DPR) was to be jointly prepared in six months; the energy,
irrigation and flood control benefits to the two countries were to be assessed, and
the capital cost shared accordingly; the power benefit was to be assessed on the
basis of savings in costs as compared with the relevant alternatives available and
so on. There was to be a bi-national Mahakali River Commission, guided by the
principles of equality, mutual benefit and no harm to either party. There would also
be a specific joint entity to develop, execute and operate the Pancheswar Project.
There were other provisions relating to the life of the Treaty (75 years), review
after 10 years, arbitration in the event of disputes, etc.
1060 Chapter 21

Although, the Treaty is formally in operation but the progress in its implemen-
tation has been tardy. The DPR which was to have been prepared in six months got
stalled partly because of certain technical differences.

21.10.3. Ganga Water Sharing

The dispute between India and Bangladesh (East Pakistan till 1971) over the sharing
of the Ganga water arose when in 1960s the Indian government decided to construct
a barrage at Farakka, close to Indo-Bangladesh border. The objective behind the
construction of the Farakka Barrage was to increase the lean period flow of the
Bhagirathi-Hooghly branch of Ganga to increase the water depth at the Kolkota
port which was threatened by siltation. As irrigation withdrawals increased in
Bangladesh, dispute arose between India and Bangladesh over the sharing of the
lean season flow at Farakka. The inadequacy of water during the lean season to
meet the assessed demands in the two countries is the root cause of the conflict.
The Bangladesh government feels that the reduction in flow caused damage to
agriculture, industry and ecology in the basin in Bangladesh. The government of
India feels that such misgivings are misplaced. Because of the inability of the
concerned governments to come to any lasting agreement over the last few decades
on sharing the river water, this problem has grown and now it is also viewed as a
case of upstream-downstream dispute.
In the relationship between India and Bangladesh, the dispute over Ganga water
was an important component for over two decades. In 1977, the two countries
reached a five-year agreement on water sharing which was signed in November
1977. However, the basic issues remained un-solved and hence, the agreement was
not renewed and lapsed in 1982. Later, a proposal was mooted by India to augment
the flow of Ganga at Farakka by constructing a barrage across the Brahmaputra
at Jogighopa in India and transfer water to Farakka through a canal. A proposal
from Bangladesh was to construct a series of reservoirs on the tributaries of Ganga
in Nepal. But this would have brought Nepal also in the picture. None of these
proposals could be implemented.
According to the Bangladesh view of this dispute, there was a “unilateral
diversion” of the waters of the Ganga by India at Farakka to the detriment of
Bangladesh and the resulting reduction in flows had severe adverse effects on
Bangladesh. It was also projected that this was a case of a large and more powerful
country disregarding the interests of a small and weaker neighbour. This has been
one topic on which there has been complete unanimity in Bangladesh. Sentiments
grew to such an extent that India was projected as being responsible for all water
related disasters, whether drought or floods and the Farakka project was supposed
to be the cause behind all water related problems.
The perceptions on the Indian side were entirely different. Ganga River is closely
intertwined with the religious and social life of the people. Also important are
the legitimate needs of the Kolkota Port in the light of siltation and growth of
future traffic.
Constitutional Provisions 1061

After the liberation of Bangladesh, the general perception was that two countries
should strive to establish stable and friendly relations. Thus, the position of
Bangladesh was unbelievable to many Indians and the general feeling was that
Bangladesh had taken an un-necessarily rigid and unreasonable stand on this issue.
It was felt that Bangladesh had greatly overstated its water needs and its claim
was disproportionate to its fair share by any logic. Regarding diversion of water
for the Kolkota port through the Farakka Barrage, the view was that Bangladesh
had magnified the adverse effects due to reduced flows and it was unfair on their
part to blame India for flood problem. A further complication was the feeling on
the parts of the concerned State Governments in India that their interests had not
been properly addressed by the Central Government during bilateral talks with
Bangladesh. For several years after 1990, there was a virtual stalemate between the
two governments on this issue.
Finally, an agreement was reached and a Treaty on the sharing of Ganga water
between India and Bangladesh was signed on 12 December 1996. The Treaty is
essentially regarding the sharing of lean-season flows, although there is an article
which recognizes the need for cooperation in finding a solution to the long-term
problem of augmentation. The sharing formula agreed in the Treaty is related to
actual flows at various levels and not to 75% dependable flows as in past agreements.
The basic formula is that of equal sharing of the lean-season flows by the two
countries. This applies to a range of flows, with two modifications at the upper
and lower extremes. At the upper end, there is a slight increase in India’s share
to enable it to divert 1,132.66 cumec (40,000 cusec) (the full diversion capacity of
the Farakka feeder canal) at a flow level of 2,123.74 cumec (75,000 cusec) instead
of 2,265.33 cumec (80,000 cusec). Above 2,123.74 cumec (75,000 cusec), India’s
share is held at 1,132.66 cumec and the balance goes to Bangladesh.
Some people view the Treaty as a political rather than a technical settlement.
Although the issue now stands resolved, some people feel that it has not been
resolved for ever. The Treaty is a 30-year Treaty (renewable further), with a
provision for a review at the end of five years, or even at the end of two years, if
either party wants it.

21.11. COOPERATION WITH NEIGHBORING COUNTRIES

FOR JOINT WATER RESOURCES PROJECTS

Since most Himalayan rivers originate either in Nepal or Bhutan, International

collaboration is necessary between India and these upstream countries.
There is a huge demand for electricity and water in densely populated India
and Bangladesh which are downstream countries. The two upstream countries,
Nepal and Bhutan, have an enormous hydropower potential that is largely untapped.
Selling of hydropower will be an effective instrument for economic growth in
these countries. On the other hand, sorting out a mutually acceptable sharing and
augmentation arrangement will only help the growth of the economies of Eastern
India and Bangladesh. While there is no doubt that, in the interest of the largely
1062 Chapter 21

poor population living in the GBB, the water flowing in the rivers of the basin could
be a tremendous economic resource, collaborations among the riparian countries
on joint projects is seriously handicapped by many obstacles. The removal of these
obstacles requires a very high level of political stature and leadership in the region.
Here, we first discuss the cooperation between India and Bhutan and then between
India and Nepal.

21.11.1. Bhutan-India Collaboration

Although the geographical area of the mountain kingdom of Bhutan is only

45,000 sq. km, it receives copious precipitation which is drained by several major
rivers, such as Wangchu (Raidak), Mochu (Sankosh), and Dangmechu (Manas).
Originating in Bhutan, these rivers enter India. It is estimated that the total
hydropower potential of Bhutan at 30% load factor is 20,000 MW. Although there
is limited demand for electricity in Bhutan, there is a large demand for power
from the areas of India across the border. Naturally, collaboration between the two
countries is a win-win situation for both. This idea led to the Bhutan-India accord in
1974 for the construction of the 336 MW run-of-river Chukha hydropower project
on the river Wangchu. This plant was designed, financed and constructed through a
grant and loan agreement between Bhutan and India. An autonomous Indo-Bhutan
Chukha Project Authority which had staff from Bhutan and India constructed the
project. The Chukha project is a fine example of Indo-Bhutan friendship and cooper-
ation. The availability of power from this project increased electricity consumption
in Bhutan, sparked some industrial growth, contributed significantly to Bhutan’s
revenue, and provided the eastern region of India with much needed electricity.
However, the project has also generated some controversies and differences between
Bhutan and India.
According to Verghese & Iyer (1992), there are several potential collaborative
projects between India and Bhutan, full development of which, within a decade,
could raise Bhutan’s installed capacity to about 2,400 MW. If mere market forces
of supply and demand for peak power were decisive, the Chukha project would
have been followed up with several others. A wider and deeper examination of the
issues, however, leads to different viewpoints which need to be appreciated to have
a realistic understanding of the impediments to effective collaboration between the
two countries. Verghese & Iyer (1992) stated that “the Royal Government of Bhutan
has been disinclined to pursue any such initiative [of collaboration] for the moment
on socio-cultural and other considerations”. Surely, mere economic growth is not
the guiding factor in this and many other cases.
The controversies and differences related to the Chukha project identify several
important obstacles to effective upstream-downstream cooperation. These contro-
versies, are less environmental or economic and more cultural and political. There
were some problems in selling electricity produced by Bhutan, a technically less
equipped and small upstream country, to India, a technically superior, larger
economy, and a monopoly buyer. Undoubtedly, for a larger economy such as India,
Constitutional Provisions 1063

the quantitative importance of the hydroelectric projects in Bhutan is not very

high. But, because of its smaller economy, the same projects can make a huge
impact on economic transformation in Bhutan. Thus, Bhutan had to negotiate in
a buyer’s market while the decisions on the project were taken. More recently,
increasing contact of Bhutan with the rest of the world, easy availability of interna-
tional aid from global sources and enhancement of her own technical competence
have made Bhutan much more sensitive towards her bargaining position in the
agreements between the two countries. Such sensitivities have substantially reduced
early prospects of further cooperation between the two countries. The difficulties in
reaching a simple sales agreement for Chukha electricity between the governments
of Bhutan and India is a good indicator of the degree of the difficulties associated
with developing new collaborations on joint water development projects.

21.11.2. Nepal-India Collaboration

Although the nature of the upstream-downstream linkage of both Bhutan and Nepal
with India is largely similar, cooperative development of water resources between
India and Nepal has a longer history and wider dimension. Among the first formal
agreement for cooperation between India and Nepal was made as far back as 1927
for the construction of a barrage near Tanakpur across the Sharda River (Mahakali)
which forms the western border between the two countries. The two countries have
deep cultural ties, friendly links and extensive people-to-people interaction in the
region. Nepal’s immense hydropotential of 45,824 MW cannot be economically
utilized within the country and the growing industrial economy of India will surely
be willing to buy the peak power produced in Nepal. Collaboration on water projects
to harness the water resources and control floods are in the joint interest of both
countries. In the case of Nepal-India collaboration, both hydropower and irrigation
have received significant attention, while flood control is also expected to be an
important element in future large dam projects. However, the problems associated
with collaboration between a technically superior and economically stronger India,
as noted in the case of Bhutan, are also present in the case of Nepal. The Sharda
barrage, instead of paving the way for more and larger cooperative projects, has
also generated mistrust.
In 1950s, two project agreements materialized; a barrage on the Kosi River in
1954 and another barrage on Gandak River in 1959. The Trisuli project which
supplies electricity to the capital city of Nepal, Kathmandu, was constructed by
India.
In the case of India-Nepal cooperation, political differences have also been an
obstacle for progress in larger collaborative projects such as on the Karnali at
Chisapani, with hydropower potential of more than 12,000 MW. Analysing the
background for the Nepali attitude behind this complex situation, Gyawali (1991)
concluded that in the last three decades, Nepali people have begun to realize the
value of their flowing water. Another cause behind growing distrust between India
and Nepal was the feeling in Nepal that India had used its influence to the detriment
1064 Chapter 21

of Nepal. A proof of the sensitivity of Nepali people is the provision in the Nepali
constitution that any treaty related with natural resources must be ratified by a
two-thirds majority in the national legislature.
Large storage dams on Mahakali, Karnali, Gandak and Kosi are necessary for
the development of large quantities of hydropower and this can harbinger progress
and prosperity in Nepal and India. In addition to hydropower, these projects will
also moderate floods and augment flows during dry periods. Efforts should be made
to reach agreements that are fair and beneficial to both the parties because that is
the only way for long-term sustainable development of resources and to establish
friendly relations with neighbours.
CHAPTER 22
INTER-BASIN WATER TRANSFER

22.1. INTRODUCTION
India has 16% of the world’s population, 4% of the world’s freshwater resources
and 2% of world’s land area. In India, precipitation distribution is highly variable –
both temporally and spatially. The rainfall over the country is primarily associated
with tropical depressions originating in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
Nearly 80% of the annual precipitation is received during 4 months of summer
monsoon season. Spatially, precipitation varies from less than 100 mm in Western
Rajasthan to more than 10,000 mm in parts of Meghalaya. Large parts of the country
are not only in deficit in rainfall but also subject to large variations, resulting in
frequent droughts and causing immense hardship to the population and enormous
loss to the nation. The uncertainty of occurrence of rainfall coupled with prolonged
dry spells and large fluctuations in seasonal and annual rainfall is a serious problem
in the country. The water availability even for drinking purposes becomes critical,
particularly in the summer months as the rivers dry up and the ground water recedes.
Regional variations in precipitation lead to situations when some parts of the
country do not have enough water even for raising a single crop while intense
rainfall in some other parts creates havoc due to floods. Floods are a recurring
feature, particularly in Brahmaputra and Ganga Rivers, which carry close to 60% of
the river flows of the country. Table 1 shows the water resources potential and per
capita water availability in the river basins of India. Due to topographical and other
constraints, only 690 BCM of surface water out of 1,869 BCM and 432 BCM of
ground water can be put to beneficial use. The reasons behind lesser quantities of
utilizable flows are the skewed spatial distribution of these flows and that potentially
good storage sites are not available in basins with plenty of water resources.
As can be seen from Table 1, nearly 60% of the potential is available in the
Ganga-Brahmaputra-Barak River system in the north. About 11% is available in the
high rainfall region of the Western Ghats which flows down through many small
west flowing rivers. Hardly 16% of the potential is available in all the rivers –
including mighty rivers like Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery – of the
peninsular India flowing towards east.
To illustrate disparities in the water availability, the per capita water avail-
ability for the year 2000 and projected data for the year 2025 for major basins
1065
1066 Chapter 22

Table 1. Water Resources Potential of River Basins of India

S. N. Name of the River Basin Average Estimated Per capita Ground

annual utilizable water water
potential surface availability potential
as per water m3  km3 
NCIWRDP km3 

1. Indus (Area in Indian 7331 4600 1,757 265

Territory)
a) Ganga 52502 25000 1,260 17157
2.
b) Brahmaputra, Barak, 67741 2400 14,616 3507
and others
3. Godavari 11054 7630 2,026 4065
4. Krishna 6981 5800 1,058.0 2641
5. Cauvery 2136 1900 7500 123
6. Pennar 632 686 6480 493
7. East flowing and rivers 2252 1311 188
from Mahanadi to
Godavari and Krishna to
Pennar 650.0
8. East flowing rivers 166 1673 182
between Pennar and
Kanyakumari
9. Mahanadi 6688 4999 2 546 1646
10. Brahmani & Baitarani 2848 1830 2 696 405
11. Subarnarekha 1237 681 1 392 182
12. Sabarmati 381 193 182 32
13. Mahi 1102 310 1 057 40
14. West flowing rivers of 1510 1498 631 1123
Kutch & Saurastra
including Luni
15. Narmada 4564 3450 2 855 1083
16. Tapi 1488 1450 1 091 827
17. West flowing rivers 8741 1194
from Tapi to Tadri
3,366 17.69
18. West flowing rivers from 11353 2427
Tadri to Kanyakumari
19. Area of inland drainage Negligible Negligible –
in Rajasthan desert
20. Minor rivers draining to 3100 14 616 –
Myanmar (Burma) &
Bangladesh
Total 1 95287 69000 43198

in India is shown in Figure 1. It can be seen here that per capita utilizable water
in Sabarmati basin is 182 m3 /year (1991 census), 2050 m3 /year in Mahanadi,
2900 m3 /year in Narmada basin and more than 14000 m3 /year in the Brahmaputra
basin. The utilizable water per ha of culturable area varies from 1244 m3 /ha in
the Sabarmati basin to 8320 m3 /ha in the Mahanadi. Table 2 further illustrates the
Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1067

Basinwise Per Capita Water Availability

Sabarmati 2025 (Projected)

2000
Mahi
Tapi
Narmada
Pennar
Cauvery
Krishna
Godavari
Brahmani & Baitarani
Mahanadi
Brahamaputra Barak
Ganga
Indus
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000

Per capita per year (cubic m)

Figure 1. Per capita per year water availability for selected Indian basins

skewed distribution of water availability. Such a large variation in the availability of

water has created a flood-drought-flood syndrome in the country, with some areas
suffering from flood damages, while some other areas facing acute water shortage
in many years.
In addition to the water availability, there are large variations in the demand
of water. The reason is that population, industries, and agricultural areas are not
always located at places where water is abundant. Consequently, some river basins
have excess water compared to the present and projected needs whereas others just
do not have enough water even to meet their present needs. Further, the water-short
areas may not be part of the same basin as the surplus areas. Since water is a prime
input in many economic activities, its shortage seriously downgrades the quality of
life as well as economic development.
The total annual requirement of freshwater from various sectors as estimated for
the year 2010, 2025 and 2050 is shown in Table 3 for two scenarios of demands: low

Table 2. Skewed distribution of water resources in India

Basin Area M-ha Water Utilizable

resource km3 surface water
km3

Ganga- Brahmaputra- 110.13 (33.5%) 1,202 (62%) 274 (40%)

Barak
West flowing rivers 11.31 (3.5%) 201 (10%) 36 (5%)
south of Tapi
Other basins 207.29 (63%) 550 (28%) 380 (55%)
Total 328.73 1953 690
1068 Chapter 22

Table 3. Annual water requirement km3  for different uses

Uses Year Year 2010 Year 2025 Year 2050

1997–98
Low High % Low High % Low High %

Irrigation 524 543 557 78 561 611 72 628 807 68

Domestic 30 42 43 6 55 62 7 90 111 9
Industries 30 37 37 5 67 67 8 81 81 7
Power 9 18 19 3 31 33 4 63 70 6
Inland 0 7 7 1 10 10 1 15 15 1
Navigation
Environment– 0 5 5 1 10 10 1 20 20 2
Ecology
Evaporation 36 42 42 6 50 50 6 76 76 7
Losses
Total 629 694 710 100 784 843 100 973 1,180 100
Population 1,146 1,157 1,286 1,333 1,346 1,581
(million)

Source: NCIWRD (1999).

growth and high growth. Note that the available water will be just enough to meet
the projected requirements and if the population grows at higher rates, there might
be a shortage of water.
The river basin is a fundamental unit for water resources planning and
management. This concept has received wide support from engineers and planners.
But in view of the shortage of water in some basins, a question that can be asked
is: should we not examine the possibility of a nationwide sharing of resources?
A positive answer is the main reason for looking for transfer of water from a surplus
basin to a deficit basin. Creation of storage and inter-basin transfer of water from
surplus to deficit regions is a rational option to overcome the problems caused by the
mismatch of supply and demands. Inter-basin transfer of water over long distances
has been mooted as a long-term strategy for India for meeting the increasing water
demand in water short areas.

22.2. INTER-BASIN WATER TRANSFER

In the event of a shortage of water in an area, two options are available: supply
management and demand management. In supply management, steps are taken
to increase the availability of water and the means that can be adopted include
interbasin transfer of water, artificial recharge, desalinization of water, etc.
The term water transfer refers to the transport of water through engineering
structures, usually across river basins for some beneficial purpose. Interbasin Water
Transfer (IBWT) is one of the possible solutions of water deficiency and is
somewhat similar to other alternatives, such as dams, desalination, groundwater
extraction, etc. IBWT involves transportation of surplus water from a basin to
Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1069

another basin, which is deficient in water. The starting point of IBWT is an unsus-
tainable situation in the receiving basin in the sense that it suffers from recurrent
water shortages. If the surplus and deficient basins are not near to each other,
which quite often is the case, this will involve transfer of water over long distances,
sometimes of the order of thousands of kilometers. IBWT is an ancient approach
and under certain conditions, it is a rational measure. In fact, most water resources
development projects involve some kind of water transfer, may be over only short
distances. Diversion of water by IBWT increases the resilience of the water system
and decreases the risk of shortages.
The most common purpose of IBWT projects is water demand of agricultural
areas or mega cities. As the human settlements are not always near the places of
water occurrence or the available water may be inadequate to meet all demands
at a place, waters have been transferred from one basin to another since time
immemorial.
Typically long distance water transfer is carried out to improve national/regional
economy, self-sufficiency in national/regional agricultural outputs and to remove
regional disparities in development activities. The special attributes of long distance
water transfer are:
1. Large amounts of water is transferred,
2. Water is transferred over large distances,
3. Infrastructure costs are large,
4. There is a possibility of extensive and irreversible environmental consequences,
and
5. Such projects have significant influence on the economy of the receiving area.
Most commonly, canals carry water from one basin to another; tunnels and pipelines
are used to negotiate ridges. However, the final selection depends on the topography
of the area, climate, soil properties en-route, and the volume of water involved.
Many IBWT projects involve pumping of water in some stretches when a mountain
is to be crossed and construction of a tunnel is not feasible. To the extent possible,
a gravity flow system is preferred over a system that involves pumping, even if a
slightly longer route is to be employed. The running cost of a system with pumping
is significantly higher and this places an additional burden on the infrastructure
particularly in those countries, which are deficient in electric energy. Additional
maintenance problems arise if water to be pumped contains sediments because these
cause much wear and tear.

22.2.1. The Need of Inter-Basin Water Transfer in India

An overview of the water availability in various regions of India shows that except
for the northern part, the north-east part and the Western Ghats areas, there is
existing/expected scarcity of water elsewhere. To meet the water demands in the
water scarce parts of the country, one option is to transfer water from surplus areas
to deficit areas. With this scenario, the possibilities of transferring water from one
river basin to the others were thought of.
1070 Chapter 22

IBWT from surplus to deficit regions is one of the options for augmenting
utilizable water resources. IBWT in India is expected to augment irrigation potential
and will also mitigate recurring floods and droughts. By creating storage reservoirs
on surplus rivers, viz., Brahmaputra and Ganga (particularly their northern tribu-
taries), Mahanadi, Godavari and west flowing rivers originating from the Western
Ghats and connecting them to other parts of the country, regional imbalances could
be reduced significantly and large benefits by way of additional irrigation, domestic
and industrial water supply, hydropower generation, navigational facilities, etc.
would accrue.
The growing water stress faced in some of the regions and resulting restlessness
and political fallouts amongst states (e.g., Cauvery) is well known. Some of the
peninsular basins in India like Vaigai; Cauvery, Krishna, Pennar, Sabarmati, etc.,
have virtually exploited their intra-basin resources fully. Gradually, more and more
river basins will become water scarce in the coming decades. This is essentially
due to the increasing population and resulting needs for the society, which is on
the increase continually. Measures to stabilize the population are likely to result in
success by around mid 21st century but by that time, Indian population might reach
1.6 to 1.8 billion. Thus there will be a pressure on water for the demands in respect
of food production, people sector needs (drinking, industrial and other uses) besides
environmental requirements and ecological needs (aquatic systems and the Nature
Sector). A long range planning for the country’s overarching self reliant economy
indicates the need for augmenting supplies in deficit basins by other means. If ILR
could help face these requirements, should this program not be given a serious
consideration?
India uses nearly 70% of its water for agriculture. Population projection and per
capita food grain requirements indicate that by the year 2050, India should produce
around 550 million tones of food grains for the projected population of around
1,600 millions. Development of irrigation coupled with high yielding varieties of
crops may be the only strategy available to achieve the required production.
The ultimate irrigation potential from in-basin development has been estimated to
be 113 million hectares (M-ha). In-basin water resources development alone cannot
increase the irrigated area beyond a certain limit. But to achieve a food production
level of 550 million tones, it is imperative that the irrigation potential is enhanced.
A major strategy to achieve an increase in irrigation potential is IBWT.
Many large towns and mega cities, particularly those situated in water deficit
basins, are facing problems in meeting their municipal and industrial water demands.
In 1991, the urban agglomerations were 3,768 with a combined population of
217 millions (26% of the total population). Metropolitan cities with more than
a million people were 23 in 1991 accounting for nearly one-third of the total
population. By the year 2050, urban population in India is expected at 820 millions
which would be nearly 50% of the total population. As the economic status of
the people improves, per capita water demand will also grow. Meeting the water
requirement of large cities will be a challenging task. In many large cities like Mumbai,
Delhi, Hyderabad and Chennai; water demands are already being met through IBWT.
Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1071

Apart from these, rural areas are also facing problems in domestic water supply,
particularly during years of less rainfall. During drought, ground water recharge is
less and the sources for meeting domestic requirements get exhausted well before
the onset of the next monsoon, resulting in an acute shortage of water, even for
drinking. IBWT may be a lasting solution to meet the water requirements of such
chronically water short areas.

22.3. PLANNING FOR IBWT PROJECTS

IBWT has been an option in water management for a long time in many parts of
the world and will remain so in the future. Before any large-scale water transfer
project is taken up, it would be helpful to mull over the following questions:
• Is water transfer the only option to overcome the present and likely problems?
• Is water transfer the most efficient alternative?
• What are the tradeoffs involved in the water transfer?
• Is the requisite institutional and infrastructural support available?
As per the practice being followed in India, if the water available in a basin is more
than the demands that are likely to arise in future, then this basin is considered as
a water surplus basin. The volume of water over and above the projected demands
is labeled as surplus for that basin and this can be made available for transfer to
other deficient basins.
An important issue in IBWT is the sharing of water resources between the
donor and receiving basins. Sustainable development in both basins should be
practiced through shared economical and social benefits from the project. In the
donor basin, water transfer must not have negative impacts on the sustainability of
water use. Water transfer agreements should take care of monitoring and periodical
assessment, with the possibility of adjustments of mutual obligations.
IBWT projects are generally cost-effective solutions and technical problems are
seldom the limiting factor except for those projects that involve long distances of
transfer. The necessity or otherwise of an IBWT project can be evaluated using the
following criteria:
1. The recipient basin must have a substantial deficit in meeting the present or
projected future water demands after considering alternative water supply sources
and all reasonable measures for reducing the water demand.
2. The future development of the donor basin must not be substantially constrained
by the water scarcity.
3. An IBWT project should be taken up after comprehensive environmental impact
assessment (EIA) and should indicate that it will not substantially degrade
environmental quality within the area of origin or area of delivery.
4. A comprehensive assessment of socio-cultural impacts must indicate a reasonable
degree of certainty that the project will not cause socio-cultural problems in the
donor or recipient basins.
5. The net benefits from transfer must be shared equitably between the donor and
recipient basins.
1072 Chapter 22

EIA is a necessary step in the evaluation of any major IBWT project. Due to serious
and long-term environmental implications, EIA should be an important part, and
not just a formality for project clearance. Importantly, EIA should not be viewed
as an obstacle to the project. Due to water transfer, the ecological balance in the
recipient basin may improve, and the transfer of water can help sustain cultural
and emotional values that are associated with a water body. Jain and Singh (2003)
have described the various aspects that should be considered while formulating an
IBWT project.

22.4. IBWT PROJECTS IN OTHER COUNTRIES

IBWT concept has been in practice for a long time. In arid and semi-arid regions,
IBWT is sometimes crucial to alleviate acute water shortages and to strengthen the
resilience of water systems in case of droughts. In many countries, interbasin water
transfer projects are taken up because they often offer the most attractive solution
to a given water problem. These projects are often necessary because in many
instances, the regions where water resources are abundant are not necessarily the
regions where most of the population resides or where the industrial or agricultural
activities are concentrated. For example, about 60% of water in Canada flows
towards the north, while 90% of the population and majority of industries are
concentrated within 300 km of its border with the United States (Sewell, 1985).
Some existing and under construction IBWT projects in Canada include Kemano,
Churchill Diversion, Welland Canal, James Bay, and Churchill Falls. Table 4 gives
an overview of IBWT schemes world wide.
The Lingua Canal (completed in 214 BC) and the Grand Canal (completed in
605 AD) are two examples of IBWT from ancient China. Recently completed
projects in China include Biliuha-Dalian interbasin water supply system and trans-
basin transfer of water of Luhana River to the Tiajian and the Tengshan. The
southern part of China is abundant in water resources whereas the northern part
is water deficient. The basin of Huang He, Huai He, and Hai He Rivers suffer
from water deficiency. The Chang Jiang River basin is abundant in water resources
and this will be the main basin to supply water to north China. Hence, the
south-to-north water transfer was conceived as a long-term solution to this problem.
In fact, this project includes three components: the west, middle and east route
with respective serving areas. The east route component was to be taken up first.
In the middle route component, a large amount of water from Han Jiang and
Chang Jiang (middle reaches) rivers will be transferred. Diversion of Quiantang
River water and diversion of Yellow River surpluses are other ambitious proposed
projects.
The major water transfer projects that have been proposed for the United States
include the North American Water & Power Alliance, the Texas Water Plan, and
the California State Water Project. The Texas Water Plan envisages redistribution
of water in Texas and New Mexico to meet the needs up to the year 2020. The
California State Water Project, the first phase of which was completed in 1973,
Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1073

Table 4. Overview of IBWT schemes world wide

S. N. Country Number Number of Water transfer by Water transfer by

of proposed completed proposed schemes
completed schemes schemes (BCM/Year)
schemes (BCM/Year)

Americas
1 Bolivia – 1 – 0.2
2 Brazil 3 2 5 2.5
3 Canada 38 10 262 464
4 Chile 2 – 3.15 –
5 USA 19 7 38 382
Total Americas 62 20 308 849
Europe
6 Czech Rep 4 2 15 2.2
7 Finland 1 – 0.09 –
8 France 5 – 2.35 –
9 Germany 2 – 0.47 –
10 Portugal 1 – 0.01 NA
11 Romania 3 NA NA NA
12 Russia 5 2 60 47
13 Spain 3 1 1.3 1
Total Europe 24 5 79 51
Asia/Australia
14 Australia 1 – 1.5 –
15 China 6 3 NA 45
16 India 27 30 56 150
17 Iraq 6 – 16 –
18 Japan 1 – NA –
19 Malaysia 1 1 NA 0.14
20 Pakistan 8 – 100 –
Total 50 34 173 196
Asia/Australia
Africa
21 Morocco 1 – 1.5 –
22 South Africa 24 – 2.5 –
23 Sudan 1 – 7.3 –
Total Africa 26 – 11 –
Grand Total 162 59 571 1,096

Source: Thatte (2005).

provides for diversion of 4 cubic km of flow from better watered northern California
to the drier central and southern parts of the state. The conveyance system comprises
a 715 km California Aqueduct, a complex system of lined and unlined canals,
pumping stations, siphons and tunnels. The lift involved is nearly 1,000 m (IWRS,
1996). Similarly the waters of the Colorado River (an international river between
U. S. A. and Mexico) are being diverted outside the basin to the Imperial Valley
in California. In Mexico, the project for water supply of Mexico City through
1074 Chapter 22

the transfer of ground waters from the Lerma basin was completed in 1958. The
Mahaveli–Ganga project of Sri Lanka includes several IBWT links.
A notable IBWT scheme executed in the former USSR is the Irtysh Karganda
scheme in the central Kazakhistan. The link canal is about 450 km long with a
maximum capacity of 75 m3 /s and the lift involved is 14 to 22 m. There is another
plan to transfer 90,000 MCM from the north flowing river to the area in south.
Other proposals include partial redistribution of water resources of northern rivers
and lakes of European part to the Caspian Sea basin involving 2 M-ha-m of water.
More examples include IBWT for urban drinking water supply in Spain, France, and
Germany; for irrigation, drinking water and hydropower in India, navigation and
environmental aspects in Europe, and for environmental improvement in U. S. A.
and Australia. Glubev and Biswas (1985) and IWRA (1986) contain many case
studies of IBWT projects.

22.5. PAST INDIAN EXPERIENCES ON INTER-BASIN

WATER TRANSFER

Interbasin transfer of water is not a new concept; it has been in practice in India for
over five centuries. The Western Yamuna Canal and the Agra Canal for carrying
water from the Himalayas to the distant parts of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan
were built in the Mughal times and carried water from the Himalayas to the distant
parts of Punjab, U.P. and Rajasthan. The Kurnool–Cuddapah Canal (1860–1870)
and Periyar-Vaigai Project (1896) were built in the 19th Century. In recent times,
the Indira Gandhi Canal diverts waters to the deserts of Rajasthan. The Sardar
Sarovar project will help transfer water from Narmada basin to the Sabarmati and
Saurashtra areas of Gujarat. The Telugu Ganga project is another classic example
of IBWT.
Dr. K. L. Rao, the then Irrigation Minister of India mooted the first ever
large-scale long distance transfer of water in India in 1975. He proposed the
National Water Grid of India in which the famous Ganga–Cauvery Link was
one of the components (see Figure 2). The Ganga–Cauvery link was planned
for diversion of the surplus discharge in the Ganga near Patna to Pennar and
Cauvery basins. The total lift involved was of the order of 565 m and the net
power requirement was 5,000 to 7,000 MW for 150 days. The irrigation benefit
was assessed to be about 4 M-ha but the project had no flood control benefits
(IWRS 1996). Though this proposal generated considerable interest and excitement,
a closer scrutiny showed that the proposal was extremely expensive. Another
proposal that received considerable publicity during the 1970s was the Garland
canal by Captain Dastur. He proposed a 4,200 km long Himalayan canal and a
9,300 km long southern Garland canal with a connection between the two canals.
Figure 3 shows the Dastur proposal. However, the proposal was found to be
technically infeasible and economically not viable and was not given further
consideration.
Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1075

Figure 2. National water grid proposed by Dr. K. L. Rao

The increasing requirement of water in many parts of the world to meet varied
demands especially in arid and semi-arid regions has given a boost to large inter-
basin transfers in the last few decades. Accordingly, many schemes of large-scale
water transfer projects have been planned and some of them implemented and are
standing as a landmark for over all development of respective regions.
ILR has been in vogue in India even prior to the 20th century. The Telugu
Ganga Project is a fine example of not only of hydraulic engineering but also of
Inter-State cooperation which has been recently implemented primarily to meet the
1076 Chapter 22

Figure 3. The Garland Canal proposal of Capt. Dastur

pressing need of water supply to the Chennai metropolitan area. The Beas-Satluj
link in combination with the Indira Gandhi Nahar Project (IGNP) is an example
of how large inter basin transfers have brought about all round socio-economic
growth with overall enhancement in the ecology and environment of the region. The
transfer of surplus waters of Ravi, Beas and Satluj to Rajasthan right up to Jaisalmer
and Barmer through the IGNP has eliminated drought conditions by transforming
desert wasteland into an agriculturally productive area by bringing irrigation and
vegetation. The recently commissioned Sardar Sarovar Canal has linked more than
8 rivers to the North of Narmada River and is on the threshold of dramatically
transforming the scarcity regions of Gujarat and Rajasthan.
Some landmark projects are described in what follows.
Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1077

22.5.1. Indus Basin Project

In North India, inter sub-basin transfers in the Indus basin and Rajasthan canal
project are some of the projects executed in the 19th & 20th centuries. In the Indus
Basin a diversion dam, Pandoh, 140 km upstream of Pong Dam on the Beas, enables
diversion of water from the Beas to the Bhakra reservoir on the Satluj River and
generates 165 MW of power on the way. The Beas–Satluj link is 37.25 km long.
It includes a 25 km long tunnel through difficult rock formations. The Rajasthan
Canal diverts water from the Himalayas to the deserts of Rajasthan. The project
comprises a huge multi-purpose project constructed across the Beas River at Pong,
a barrage at Harike and a grand canal system. There are other examples also like
the Sarda Sahayak (1960) and the Ramganga-Ganga Link (1978).

22.5.2. Periyar Project

The Periyar dam (47.28 m high) is a unique structure built during 1887–95 in the
Western Ghats on the Periyar River. The dam was built to create a reservoir and
divert the stored waters to the east tunneling through the Western Ghats. The hilly
ridge between the Periyar and Vaigai basins was crossed by a tunnel (1,739 m
long, discharge capacity of 40.75 cumec) with an open cutting in the foreshore of
the Periyar Lake. The diverted water would augment the flow in the east flowing
Vaigai River in the then Madras Presidency for irrigating the drought prone regions
of the Madurai and Ramanathapuram districts. Perhaps this was the earliest attempt
of transbasin diversion of water of such a large magnitude in the world.
Initially the project provided irrigation to 0.58 lakh ha, which has since been
extended to 0.81 lakh ha. With the formation of lake, there was a big boost to
the flora and fauna. No habitation that existed at the dam site or the water spread
had to be shifted and no affected person required to be rehabilitated in this project.
Practically no loss has been sustained, whereas the benefits have flowed in abundant
measure from the time of completion of the project in 1895.
This project transformed the entire area from drought prone to a flourishing green
belt and the standard of living improved beyond expectation. The project originally
envisaged benefits for 36,423 ha of first crop paddy and 24,282 ha of second crop
paddy. The hydropower scheme was completed in 1965 with four units of 35 MW
totaling to 140 MW. Now the total ayacut is more than 81,000 ha. The secondary
benefits like setting up of several industries in Madurai and other areas, tourism and
trade have developed. The lake is also serving for fresh water fishing and several
tons of fish are harvested daily. The monetary value of benefits that flow each year
itself have far exceeded the total amount spent on the project.

22.5.3. Parambikulam Aliyar Project

The project is a complex multi-basin multi-purpose project of seven streams, five

flowing towards the west and two towards the east. These have been dammed and
1078 Chapter 22

their reservoirs interlinked by tunnels. The water is ultimately delivered to drought

prone areas in the Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu and the Chittur area of Kerala
state. The command area for irrigation is presently about 162,000 ha. There is a
185 MW of power generation capacity at four power houses. This project was built
during the second and third five-year plans.

22.5.4. Kurnool–Cudappah Canal

The famous Kurnool–Cudappah (KC) Canal was originally constructed by the
Madras Irrigation Company in 1866 during the British rule of India. The scheme
was taken over by the government in 1882. A 8.23 m high anicut was built on
the Tungabhadra River upstream of Kurnool town. A 304 km long canal with a
capacity of 84.9 cumec at its head extends from the Krishna basin to the Pennar
basin and irrigates 52,746 ha. The scheme serves the irrigation and water supply
needs of a part of the Kurnool and Cuddapah districts in the Pennar basin with
the waters diverted from the Tungabadhra River of the Krishna Basin. The Pennar
basin, as is well known, is a zone of poor and uncertain rainfall and has witnessed
many famines in the past. After completion of the KC canal, the area served by it
has become free from famine.

22.5.5. Telugu Ganga Project

This project has been recently implemented primarily to meet the pressing need
of water supply to the Chennai metropolitan area. It brings the Krishna water
from the Srisailam reservoir through an open canal, first to the Somasila reservoir
in the Pennar valley. This involves rock cuts up to 35 m deep. From Somasila,
the water is taken through a 45 km canal to Kandaleru and then to the Poondi
reservoir in Tamil Nadu through another 200 km long canal. By mutual agreement,
3,394 MCM (12 TMC) of water will be delivered to Tamil Nadu at the border from
the Krishna basin. The canal also irrigates 2.33 lakh ha in Andhra Pradesh en-route.
The project was made possible by Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
voluntarily foregoing 1,415.85 MCM (5 TMC) each from their entitlements. This
project is a fine example of not only of hydraulic engineering but also of Inter-State
cooperation.

22.5.6. Diversion of Ravi–Beas–Satluj Water Through Indira Gandhi

Nahar
The Beas–Satluj link in combination with the Indira Gandhi Nahar Project (IGNP)
is an example of how IBWT has brought about socio-economic growth with overall
enhancement in the ecology and environment of the region. Under the Indus Water
Treaty, the water of three eastern rivers, viz., Satluj, Beas and Ravi, were allocated
to India. As the land to be benefited in India lies mostly to the east and south of
these rivers, it was planned to interlink river and convey water to canal systems
Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1079

for serving vast tracts in India. The main storage on the Satluj is at Bhakra,
while that on the Beas is at Pong. The Bhakra system provides irrigation to 26.3
lakh ha of new area besides the stabilization of existing irrigation on 9 lakh ha. The
aggregate generation capacity of power on the Bhakra Nangal Project is 1,354 MW.
A diversion dam, Pondoh, 140 km upstream of Pong on the Beas, enables diversion
of water from the Beas to the Bhakra reservoir and generates 165 MW of power.
The Beas–Satluj link is 37.25 km long of which 25.45 km is tunnel through
difficult rock formations. The capacity of the tunnel is 254.70 cumec. Another dam
on the Ravi namely, the Ranjit Sagar dam, provides additional water to the Beas
and also generates a large amount of power. A large quantity of water of this system
is diverted to the Indira Gandhi Canal for irrigation in Rajasthan state. Among the
major benefits of the IGNP are mitigation of drought conditions in Jaisalmer and
Barmer, and generation of hydropower. As a result of assured irrigation, about a
2 million ha area has been transformed from the desert wasteland to an agriculturally
productive area and one can see a lot of vegetation at places which were barren.
Additional agricultural production alone has been estimated to be worth nearly
Rs. 2,000 crore annually. The water of IGNP is also being used to meet domestic
needs as well as the needs of army posts near the border. To sum up, the project
has dramatically changed the living standard and socio-economic conditions of the
people in the region.
As per the Indus water treaty of 1960, the waters of eastern flowing rivers of India,
like the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj, have been fully allocated to the unrestricted
use by India. The average flow of water from eastern rivers was estimated as 43,153
MCM. Among the states in India, water allocation was made in 1981 as given in
Table 5.
Kutch is an extremely water scarce arid region. The Government of Gujarat has
examined the possibility of bringing the Indus water to Kutchh by the Indira Gandhi
Canal by extending it from Rajasthan State.

22.5.7. Tungabhadra Project

Agreements signed among the Governments of Madras, Hyderabad and Mysore
between 1944 and 1946 facilitated construction of the Tungabhadra project. This
project is essentially a dam across the Tungabhadra River from which the left

Table 5. Allocation of water of Indus basin among the Indian states

State Water share (MCM) Water share (MAF)

Punjab 5,203.00 422

Haryana 4,315.28 35
Rajasthan 10,603.26 86
Delhi 2466 02
Jammu & Kashmir 8014 065
Total 21,169.5 1717
1080 Chapter 22

and the right bank canal systems originate and carry water to far away places.
Construction of the project commenced in 1945 and it was completed in phases
from 1953 onwards. This scheme is an important inter basin scheme transferring
the Tungabhadra water to drought prone areas of the country.

22.5.8. Cauvery Mettur Project

The Cauvery Mettur Project was an important work completed during the British
rule of India. It largely serves the delta of the Cauvery River but also irrigates
areas outside the basin. This scheme was first contemplated by Arthur Cotton in
1834. Col. Ellis reformulated this scheme in 1910 to secure adequate supplies for
the delta irrigation for double and single crops, as also for extension of benefits
to new areas. The project continued to serve well till the 1970s. Thereafter, some
problems came up because of the differences among the basin states. Presently, the
matter is under consideration of the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal.

22.5.9. Inter Basin Transfer of Water Through Narmada Main Canal

Work on the Sardar Sarovar project in the Narmada Basin is nearing completion
and water has begun to flow in the Narmada main canal. This canal will carry the
Narmada water to far-flung areas in Saurashtra across many river basins. The canal
will feed water en-route to rivers from 13 escapes on crossings. There are plans
to fill the rivers and dams in Saurashtra and North Gujarat with a 1,232.9 MCM
(1 MAF) flood waters of Narmada River allocated to each region. In the Saurashtra
region, filling of 17 rivers and dams through the Saurashtra branch of the Narmada
main canal has been proposed in phase I. Plans have also been made for storage of
flood waters of Narmada in 25 dams in different river basins in the drought prone
region of Saurashtra. For the drought prone North Gujarat Region, plans are to fill
the dams, such as Mazam, Meshwo, Dharoi, Hathmati, Guhai, Mukteshwar, Sipu
and Dantiwada, by Narmada floodwater through pipelines.
The benefits of Narmada canal have already begun to flow. Large areas in Gujarat
that were facing severe water shortage year after year are no longer cursed by
drought. Similarly, many rivers which used to remain dry except the monsoon
months now have flow for longer periods. Canal water is also being used to recharge
aquifers at many places.

22.6. OBJECTIVES OF INTER-BASIN TRANSFERS OF WATER

While planning IBWT schemes, the Government of India has articulated the
following broad objectives:
1. Equitable distribution of available water resources within the nation or regions,
2. Increased economic and water use efficiency,
3. Self-sufficiency in basic water related outputs such as food,
Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1081

4. Providing in-situ livelihood and employment opportunities in various parts of

the nation. This is necessary so that the migration of population, seasonal or
permanent, short distance or long distance, is avoided through a balanced regional
economic development.
Besides economic development, long distance water transfer proposals should also
be planned as tools for employment generation, environmental improvement, and
poverty alleviation.

22.6.1. Options to Inter-Basin Transfers

Before discussing IBWT any further, it is a good idea to examine other options to
overcome water deficit. The possible options that need serious consideration are:
1. To meet growing food demands, evolve new crops which give higher yields
while consuming less water,
2. Evolve cropping patterns and crop varieties suitable for local agro-climatic
conditions,
3. Ensure efficient use of available water through measures such as
• Watershed management, water harvesting and micro irrigation,
• Improved recharge and conjunctive use of surface and ground waters,
• Water saving in distribution and field application,
• Reuse and recycling of water,
4. Rationalize prices to reflect the scarcity value of water,
5. Target subsidies in tariffs for water and power keeping in view the paying
capacity while avoiding wastage.
All these options have to be tested meticulously both at policy and field levels and
need to be simultaneously adopted, if necessary. While the technological improve-
ments in agriculture and water management will continue unabated, they are not
likely to solve the massive water shortage faced in many regions in India. In that
situation, it is important to consider IBWT through interlinking of rivers.

22.7. NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE PLAN

The then Union Ministry of Irrigation (now the Ministry of Water Resources) came
up with the National Perspective Plan (NPP) for Water Resources Development in
the year 1980. The national perspective plan has two components: The Himalayan
Rivers development and the Peninsular Rivers development. The Peninsular rivers
development component comprises 16 link canals and the Himalayan rivers devel-
opment component comprises 14 link canals. The Himalayan Rivers component
envisages construction of reservoirs on the Ganga and Brahmaputra Rivers and
their major tributaries as well as canals to transfer surplus flows from the eastern
region to the western region. Detailed feasibility studies for this component are in
progress. While the second component will be an inter-state venture, the first will
involve neighbouring countries too.
1082 Chapter 22

A distinctive feature of NPP is that the transfer of water is essentially by gravity

and only in small reaches by lifts (not exceeding 120 m). The total length of links in
the scheme will be about 11,000 km. On completion, these would provide additional
irrigation benefits of 35 M-ha including 10 M-ha by increased use of ground water.
This is over and above the ultimate irrigation potential of 140 M-ha from major,
medium and minor projects. Further, the scheme wi1l generate 34,000 MW of
power, apart from benefits of flood control, navigation, water supply, fisheries,
salinity and pollution control, etc. The initial estimates had put the cost of the
whole project at 5.6 lakh crore. The links of the scheme are shown in Figure 4.
The scheme was prima-facie found to be technically feasible and economically
viable (IWRS 1996).
When NPP is implemented completely, it would give additional irrigation benefits
of 25 million ha from surface waters and about 10 million ha by higher use of
ground water. The additional generation of hydropower will be on the order of
34,000 MW. Besides, the country would also get large benefits from domestic
water supply, flood control, drought mitigation, navigation, fisheries, development
of infrastructure, control of pollution, and improvement of environment. The link

Figure 4. Overview of links of river linking scheme

Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1083

Available

Development potential with IBWT

Annual renewable water (km3)

Development potential without IBWT

Actual development with IBWT

Actual development without IBWT

Projected

1950 2000

Figure 5. Diagram showing the effect of IBWT on utilization (Curve for the future depict expected
scenario) of water resources. Adapted from Thatte (2003)

system is conceived on the basis of “substitution and exchange”. Figure 5 is a

conceptual representation showing how IBWT will enhance water utilization.
Some state governments have suggested some changes in the alignment and
design of the links proposed by NWDA. These are under consideration and some
of these changes may be incorporated in the final design.

22.7.1. Highlights of NPP

Among the major highlights of the NPP to inter-link rivers are the following:
• This scheme will permit simultaneous solution of two critical problems of water
management in India – floods and droughts. The construction of new projects
will, to a large extent, help in attainment of these twin objectives.
• Many cities will get additional water (total about 12 km3 ) to meet municipal
water supply demands.
• It will provide assured irrigation to additional 35 M-ha of land (25 million ha
from surface water and 10 million ha by ground water). This area is about 25%
of the ultimate irrigation potential of the country.
• Peak flood discharge at many locations will be reduced by about 30% due to
regulation of reservoirs.
• Additional electricity to the tune of 34,000 MW can be generated.
• The rivers and canals can be used to transport goods and traffic at less cost and
in an environmentally friendly manner.
1084 Chapter 22

• There are possibilities of additional benefits from drought mitigation, fisheries,

development of infrastructure, control of pollution, and improvement of
environment.
To the extent possible, links are proposed to run by gravity. At all major pumping
stations, reversible pump turbines are proposed so that pumping is done in off
peak hours and during peak hours the system is operated to generate more power
for the grid.
At this stage, a detailed discussion of two components of NPP is in order.

22.8. HIMALAYAN RIVERS DEVELOPMENT COMPONENT

The Himalayan component envisages construction of storage reservoirs on the

main Ganga and Brahmaputra Rivers and their principal tributaries in India and
Nepal so as to conserve monsoon flows for irrigation and hydro-power gener-
ation, besides flood control. Links will transfer surplus flows of the Kosi, Gandak
and Ghagra to the west. In addition, the Brahmaputra-Ganga Link will augment
dry-weather flow of the Ganga. Surplus flows that will become available on
account of inter-linking of the Ganga and the Yamuna are proposed to be trans-
ferred to the drought prone areas of Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat. With this
proposal about 14 Mha-m of additional water would be available from these
river systems for irrigating an estimated 22 M-ha in the Ganga-Brahmaputra
basin apart from Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat. It would also provide
1,120 cumec to Calcutta Port and would provide navigation facility across the
country. It will also provide flood moderation in the Ganga-Brahmaputra system.
The Himalayan component will benefit not only India but also Nepal and
Bangladesh.
Fourteen links are proposed in the Himalayan component. These are shown in
Figure 6 and are listed in Table 6.
In view of the ongoing dispute on the sharing of the Ganga water with Bangladesh,
little details of this component are available. In broader terms, storages and links
of the Himalayan component are of mammoth size. Due to size, topography
and other reasons, construction and environmental problems might be enormous.
Further, there appears to be some anomalies in the planning of this component.
Since no additional storages are proposed on the Ganga and the Yamuna, their
monsoon flows will continue to go to the Bay of Bengal while huge funds
are to be spent to transfer water of Kosi, Ghagra, Gandak and Sarda to the
West. The Satluj Yamuna link (which has not been made operational due to
inter-state dispute) would transfer water from west to east, the proposed Sarda-
Yamuna link towards east will flow in the opposite direction. Similarly, the
Narmada canal transfers Narmada waters across Sabarmati towards North-West,
the proposed Rajasthan-Sabarmati link will flow in the opposite direction towards
South-east.
Highlights of some important links of the Himalayan Component are discussed
in the following.
Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1085

Figure 6. Himalayan component of the ILR scheme

Table 6. Proposed Fourteen Links in the Himalayan Component

1 Kosi–Mechi 2 Kosi–Ghagra
3 Gandak–Ganga 4 Ghagra–Yamuna
5 Sarda–Yamuna 6 Yamuna–Rajasthan
7 Rajasthan–Sabarmati 8 Chunar–Sone Barrage
9 Sone Dam–South Tributaries of Ganga 10 Brahmaputra–Ganga (MSTG)
11 Brahmaputra–Ganga (JTF)(ALT) 12 Farakka–Sunderbans
13 Ganga–Damodar-Subernarekha 14 Subernarekha–Mahanadi
1086 Chapter 22

22.8.1. Manas–Sankosh–Tista–Ganga (MSTG) Link

Interlinking of the Brahmaputra with the Ganga, the Subernarekha and the Mahanadi
is proposed to transfer waters of the Brahmaputra to benefit areas in Assam, West
Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand and Orissa. The Manas-Sankosh-Teesta-Ganga link is an
important link in this component. This link envisages diversion of surplus water from
Manas and Sankosh rivers in the Brahmaputra basin to augment flows of the Ganga
upstream of Farakka. A link to the Peninsular component through Subernarekha
and Mahanadi is also envisaged. For this link high dams are proposed at Manas and
Sankosh with storage capacities of 8.75 BCM and 4.93 BCM, respectively (Singh
2002). A substantial part of the cost of these dams will be allocated to hydropower
generation. The 114 km long link canal between Manas and Sankosh will have a
discharge capacity of 3725 m3 /s. Beyond Sankosh and up to the Teesta barrage,
the link canal is 137 km long with a capacity of 1092 m3 /s. Clearly, this will be a
huge canal which will cross major drainages. The MSTG link passes through the
narrow chicken neck in West Bengal (north of Bangladesh) and may have security
aspects.

22.8.2. Ghaghra–Yamuna Link

The Ghagra-Yamuna link project is an inter-dependent link under the Himalayan

Component of NPP. A study reveals that the Ghagra River (known as Karnali in
Nepal) at the proposed the Chisapani dam site has surplus water. It is proposed that
the existing requirement of water for the Sarda Sahayak Pariyojna, Saryu Nahar
Pariyojna and various pump canals would be met from the proposed Gandak–Ganga
link project and the water saved thereby could be diverted from the proposed
Chisapani reservoir through the Ghagra–Yamuna link canal. The height of proposed
dam is 175 m. A regulating dam downstream of the Chisapani dam is proposed
with a full reservoir level of 200 m and a minimum drawdown level 193 m. The
link canal shall join Yamuna River in Etawah district of Uttar Pradesh. The total
length of the link canal would be about 417 km with its depth varying from 8 m in
the head reach to 5 m in the tail reach and the width varying from 85.5 m in the
head reach to 18 m towards the tail end.
The status of existing and additional irrigation facilities proposed under the
Ghagra–Yamuna link project is given in Table 7.
The link canal project will have a direct positive impact on the farmers of
central region of U.P. because of additional production and job opportunities would
improve their socio-economic conditions.

22.8.3. Sarda–Yamuna–Rajasthan–Sabarmati Link Canal

This is a continuous link having a combination of three links, viz., the Sarda-
Yamuna link, the Yamuna-Rajasthan link, and the Rajasthan-Sabarmati link. This
link canal is planned to divert 17,906 MCM (14.52 MAF) water of Himalayan rivers.
Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1087

Table 7. Status of proposed existing and additional irrigation facilities under the Ghagra – Yamuna link
project

S.N. Name of en-route CCA Annual Additional Proposed

command en-route irrigation in irrigation in intensity
of the the existing new areas & of
link (ha) command intensification irrigation
taken over by in existing (%)
the link canal areas from the
(ha) link canal (ha)

1 Un-irrigated areas 1 05 630 −− 2 53 512 240

(western side
including delta area)
2 Part of Sarda Canal 12,20 675 6 04 234 6 16 441 100
Command
3 Part of Lower Ganga 9,16,236 7 55 895 1 60 341 100
Canal including
PLGC
4 Un-irrigated areas of 3,93,755 −− 3 93 755 100
Uttar Pradesh
Total 26 36 296 13 60 129 14 24 049

Its length will be 1,835 km out of which 75 km will be in Gujarat State. A total of
4 states, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat, are to be benefited by this
link. About 1,627 MCM (1.32 MAF) water has been allocated to North Gujarat
which is only 9% of the total divertible water at the canal head. A total 7.38 lakh ha
area is to be irrigated by the Rajasthan-Sabarmati link, out of which 5.35 lakh ha
in Rajasthan and 2.03 lakh ha in Gujarat.

22.8.4. Yamuna–Rajasthan Link Canal Project

The Yamuna-Rajasthan link proposal is an extension of the proposed Sarda–Yamuna

Link beyond the Yamuna to provide irrigation to the drought prone areas of Haryana
and Rajasthan. It envisages diversion of 8 657 Mm3 of water from the Sarda basin
at Purnagiri. The Yamuna–Rajasthan link is to take off from the right bank of
proposed Yamuna barrage and passes through the Karnal, Sonipat, Jind, Hisar
and Bhiwani districts of Haryana and Churu, Hanumangarh, Ganganagar, Bikaner,
Jodhpur and Jaisalmer districts of Rajasthan and ends on the Jaisalmer-Hamira-Shri
Mohangarh Road at a distance of 4.5 km from village Kanod towards Jaisalmer.
The length of the link canal is 786 km, out of which 196 km lies in Haryana and
the rest 590 km in Rajasthan. The design discharge at head and tail are 572 cumec
and 344 cumec, respectively. The longitudinal slope of the canal is 1:20,000. The
full supply depth and bed width of the canal at head are 7 m and 53 m, respectively.
The Yamuna–Rajasthan link will provide an annual irrigation of 244,200 ha in the
districts of Ganganagar, Bikaner, Jodhpur and Jaisalmer of Rajasthan.
1088 Chapter 22

22.8.5. Rajasthan–Sabarmati Link Project

The Rajasthan-Sabarmati link canal is an extension of the proposed

Yamuna–Rajasthan Link. The link envisages a transfer of 5,924 Mm3 water available
at the tail end of the Yamuna-Rajasthan link for drought prone areas of Rajasthan
and Gujarat. The length of the canal is about 725 km out of which 650 km lies in
Rajasthan and the rest 75 km in Gujarat. The design discharge at the head and the
tail are 344 cumec and 60 cumec, respectively. The full supply depth and bed width
of the canal at its head are 6 m and 39 m, respectively. The link canal on its way
will cross the Luni River & its tributaries and the Banas River.
The Rajasthan-Sabarmati link will provide an annual irrigation of 535,000 ha in
the districts of Jaisalmer, Barmer and Jalor of Rajasthan. The total annual irrigation
thus envisaged in Rajasthan State through the above two interbasin water transfer
links works out to be 779,200 ha.
Further, interlinking the Gandak, the Ghagra, the Sarda and the Yamuna, all
tributaries of the Ganga, on to Rajasthan and the Sabarmati aims at transferring the
waters of Gandak and Ghagra Rivers to benefit areas in Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal,
Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bihar and Jharkhand. Other important links proposed
in the Himalayan component are the Kosi-Ghagra, Gandak–Ganga, Ghagra–Yamuna
and Sarda–Yamuna links to supplement the supplies of the Ganga and the Yamuna
and for further transfer of water towards the west to Rajasthan and Gujarat. A large
canal parallel and to the east of the existing Rajasthan canal is proposed which will
be extended beyond the tail of the present Rajasthan canal and be linked to the
Sabarmati.

22.9. PENINSULAR RIVERS DEVELOPMENT COMPONENT

The main component of Peninsular Rivers Development is the “Southern Water

Grid” which is envisaged to link Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Pennar, and Cauvery
rivers. The peninsular scheme was envisaged to provide additional irrigation benefits
of over 13 million ha. The Peninsular component comprises the following four
parts:
1. Diversion of surplus flows of Mahanadi and Godavari to Krishna, Pennar,
Cauvery and Vaigai.
2. Diversion of west-flowing rivers of Kerala and Karnataka to the east.
3. Inter-linking small rivers flowing along the west coast, north of Mumbai and
south of Tapi.
4. Inter-linking the southern tributaries of Yamuna.
The peninsular component of ILR has 13 major water storage/diversion structures
situated in four basins. Three non-storage structures, viz., Dowlaiswaram barrage,
Prakasam barrage, and Grand Anicut and storage node (Narayanpur) cater to only
irrigation, while six storage nodes, viz., Inchampalli, Almatti, Nagarjunasagar,
Pulichintala, Krishnarajasagar, and Mettur will serve both irrigation and power
needs. One storage node, viz., Somasila is operated to meet domestic and irrigation
Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1089

needs and two storage nodes, viz., Polavaram and Srisailam are multi-purpose
projects serving domestic, irrigation, and hydropower demands.
Among these, the interlinking of Mahanadi, Godavari–Krishna–Cauvery rivers
will require the construction of a number of large dams and big canals. This system
will be one of the largest and ambitious water transfer projects. The system will
require huge financial outlays and will have immense influence on economic, social
and environmental growth of the region. Logically, therefore, it would be necessary
to closely examine the various components and arrive at the best solution. It is
pertinent to note that water need not be transferred from a surplus basin, just because
it is available. Before adopting such transfers, it would be necessary that all the
resources of the recipient basin are put to the optimum use.
Sixteen links are proposed in the Peninsular Component. These are shown in
Figure 7 and are listed in Table 8. Salient features of the links are given in
Table 9.
In the following, highlights of some important links of the Peninsular Component
are described.

22.9.1. Mahanadi (Manibhadra)–Godavari (Dowlaiswaram) Link

This link has been proposed between the Manibhadra reservoir on Mahanadi River to
the Dowlaiswaram barrage on the Godavari. It will divert 11,176 Mm3 of water out
of which 3,854 Mm3 is proposed to be used for irrigation of en-route command area
and 6,500 Mm3 would be delivered at the Dowlaiswaram barrage. The Manibhadra
reservoir has gross and live storages of 9,375 Mm3 and 6,000 Mm3 , respectively.
The total length of the link canal is about 932 km. The design discharge of the
link canal is 627 cumec as its head. The full supply levels at the head and tail are
74.00 m and 13.81 m, respectively.

22.9.2. Godavari (Inchampalli)–Krishna (Nagarjunsagar) Link

This link canal is proposed to divert 16,426 Mm3 from the Inchampalli dam on
Godavari River. Out of this, 14,200 Mm3 will be transferred to the Nagarjunsagar
reservoir on the Krishna River. The total length of the link canal will be about
298.7 km, including a 9 km long tunnel. The FSL at the head and tail are 142.00 m
and 182.765, respectively, with a design discharge of 1,219 cumec. The link would
involve a total lift of 116 m in four stages. For this purpose, power needed would
be 1,705 MW.

22.9.3. Inchampalli–Pulichintala Link

This link has been proposed to divert 3,901 Mm3 of surplus water from the Godavari
and 470 Mm3 of Inchampalli Right Bank Canal. Each year, the link would provide
1,382 Mm3 of water in the existing Nagarjunasagar Left Bank Canal command,
746 Mm3 in the proposed new area by extension of the Nagarjunasagar Left Bank
1090 Chapter 22

Figure 7. Peninsular component of the ILR scheme

Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1091

Table 8. Proposed links in the Peninsular Component

1 Mahanadi(Manibhadra)–Godavari 2 Godavari (Inchampalli)–Krishna

(d/s) (Nagarjunsagar)
3 Godavari (Inchampalli Low 4 Godavari (Polavaram)–Krishna
Dam)–Krishna (Nagarjunsagar Tail (Vijaywada)
Pond)
5 Krishna (Almatti)–Pennar 6 Krishna (Srisailam)–Pennar
7 Krishna (Nagarjunsagar)–Pennar 8 Pennar (Somasila)–Cauvery (Grand
(Somasila) Anicut)
9 Cauvery (Kattalai)–Vaigai–Gundar 10 Ken–Betwa
11 Parbati–Kalisindh–Chambal 12 Par–Tapi–Narmada
13 Damanganga–Pinjal 14 Bedti–Varda
15 Netravati-Hemavati 16 Pamba–Achankovil-Vaippar

Canal command, 1623 Mm3 in the existing Nagarjunasagar Right Bank Canal
command through the proposed Pulichintala Right Bank Canal and 470 Mm3 in
the command of the Inchampalli Right Bank Canal. In addition to the dam at the
Inchampalli, a dam at Pulichintala on the Krishna River has been proposed. The
total length of the lift channel will be 270 km including a 25.5 km long tunnel.
The FSL at the head and tail will be 106.68 m and 69.68 m, respectively. The link
is proposed to be operated for only 240 days in a year with a head discharge of
263 m3 /sec.

22.9.4. Godavari (Polavaram)–Krishna (Vijaywada) Link

This link canal has been proposed to divert 4,903 Mm3 which include 1 448 Mm3
for Polavaram RBC command, 2,265 Mm3 for the Krishna delta as committed
under the Godavari Water Dispute Tribunal award and 1,190 Mm3 for existing
ayacut in the Krishna Delta. The proposed Polavaram Barrage will be used to
divert the Godavari water to the existing Prakasam Barrage of the Krishna River at
Vijayawada. The total length of the link canal will be 174 km and head discharge
will be 361 cumec. The canal will operate round the year. The FSL at the head and
tail are 40.23 m and 27.96 m, respectively.

22.9.5. Krishna (Srisailam)–Pennar Link

The link has been proposed to divert 2,310 Mm3 of water from the Srisailam
reservoir to Adinimmayapalli Anicut. The water would mostly flow through natural
rivers and it is expected that about 2,095 M m3 would reach the Somasila reservoir.
This water is in exchange for surplus waters of the Mahanadi transferred from the
Godavari to the Nagarjunasagar. The total length of the channel would be 171.30 km
and design discharge will be 186 cumec. This channel would run for 180 days in
a year.
1092 Chapter 22

Table 9. Salient features of the Peninsular Components

S. N. Name of the FSL at Length Discharge Annual En-route use Losses

Link Head/ km m3 /sec volume/ Mm3
(m) Tail Transfer Irrigation M&I
(m) Mm3 Vol. Mm3
Mm3 /Area
ha.

1 Manibhadra 74/13.81 932 627 11,176/ 3,854/ 802 822

(Mahanadi) to 6,500 4,54,229
Dowlaiswaram
(Godavari)
2 Inchampalli 142/ 299 1,219 16,426/ 1,850/ 237 376
(Godavari) to 182.77 14,200 3,19,708
Nagarjunasagar
(Krishna)
3 Inchampalli 106.68/ 270 263 4,371 4,221/ – 150
(Godavari) to 69.68 6,94,882
Pulichintala
(Krishna)
4 Polavaram to 40.232/ 174 361 4,903/ 1,448/ 162 150
(Godavari) 27.965 3,305 1,48,418
Vijaywada
(Krishna)
5 Almatti (Krishna) 510/ 564 208.12 1,980 1,778/ 56 202
to Pennar 434.4 2,34,589
(Pennar)
6 Srisailam 268.15/ 171.3 186 2,310/ – – 215
(Krishna) to 156.51 2,095
Pennar (Pennar)
7 Nagarjunasagar 151.67/ 394 555 12,146/ 3,166/ 124 332
(Krishna)- 102.63 8,648 5,60,606
Somasila (Pennar)
8 Somasila (Pennar) 91.96/ 538 616.4 8,565/ 3,170/ 1,105 385
to Grand Anicut 59.7 3,855 4,91,200
(Cauvery)
9 Kattalai Regulator 100.75/ 250 174.14 2,252 2,007/ 185 136
(Cauvery) to 78.865 3,53,337
Vaigai (Vaigai)

Note : (i) In column 9, the upper figure indicates the gross diversion while the lower gives the quantity
reaching the receipt river. The difference is accounted for the en-route irrigation and losses. (ii) In
column 10, the upper figures are volume used en-route and the lower figures are area irrigated en-route.
Source: NCIWRD (1999), NWDA, and others.

22.9.6. Krishna (Nagarjunasagar)–Pennar (Somasila) Link

This proposed link would divert 12,146 Mm3 of water from the Nagarjunasagar
reservoir to Pennar River at Somasila. Out of this quantity, 2356 Mm3 will be
utilized to irrigate part of the command of the Nagarjunasagar RBC, about 810 Mm3
Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1093

will be used for en-route irrigation and 8648 Mm3 will be transferred to the
Somasila reservoir. It is important to note that in most interlinking canals, provision
has been made for en-route irrigation. Without this, farmers in the en-route area
are likely to oppose water transfer and this might create many problems. The total
length of the canal is 394 km and its design discharge is 555 cumec. The canal will
be operated for 240 days in a year.

22.9.7. Pennar (Somasila)–Cauvery (Grand Anicut) Link

The aim of this link is to transfer 8565 Mm3 of water from the Pennar to
the Cauvery. Of this quantity, 3170 Mm3 would be used for en-route irrigation,
279 Mm3 for en-route domestic and industrial uses, 876 Mm3 for the Chennai city
water supply and 3855 Mm3 would be transferred to the Cauvery River at Grand
Anicut. About 385 Mm3 water is likely to be lost during transmission. The total
length of the canal will be 538 km and its design discharge will be 616.38 cumec.
The canal will be operated for 365 days in a year.

22.9.8. Cauvery (Kattalai Regulator)–Vaigai-Gundar Link

The link has been proposed to transfer 2 252 Mm3 of water from the Cauvery River
to the Vaigai River to provide irrigation to 353,337 ha annually. The FSLs of the
250 km long link canal at the head and the tail will be 100.75 m and 78.865 m,
respectively. This will be a lined canal which would be operated round the year.

22.9.9. Krishna (Almatti)–Pennar Link

The canal linking Krishna (Almatti) with Pennar (587 km long) will take off from
right bank of the Almatti dam across the Krishna River in Karnataka with FSL of
510.00 m. The canal will run through Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh before joining
Maddileru, a tributary of the Pennar near the Malakavemula village. A balancing
reservoir is also proposed at Kalavapalli in Anantapur district. The canal will
also supplement the Bukkapatnam tank across Chitravathi River. The link canal
will carry about 1980 Mm3 water during the Kharif season and irrigate about
70,000 ha in Karnataka and 190,000 ha in the Anantapur district of AP. Allocation
of 56 Mm3 has also been made for domestic and industrial uses. There is a possi-
bility of additional ground water recharge around the Kalavapalli reservoir and the
Bukkapatnam tank.

22.9.10. Ken–Betwa Link

The Ken-Betwa and the Parbati–Kalisindh–Chambal links of the ILR project are
the links on which urgent attention is being focused by the Government. The
feasibility report of the Ken–Betwa link is available in the public domain at
www.riverlinks.nic.in.
1094 Chapter 22

The Ken-Betwa link envisages diversion of surplus waters of Ken basin to water
deficit Betwa basin. This link canal will provide irrigation to water short areas of
upper Betwa basin of MP and also to en-route areas of MP & UP. It is proposed
to transfer 1020 Mm3 of water from Ken basin to provide irrigation in Madhya
Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Apart from drinking water facility and en-route irrigation
of 47,000 ha in Chhatarpur & Tikamgarh districts of Madhya Pradesh and Hamirpur
& Jhansi districts of UP, provision for downstream commitments of 1375 Mm3 for
MP and 850 Mm3 of water for UP has also been kept.
A dam is proposed on Ken River at Daudhan, 2.5 km upstream of existing Gangau
weir. The 75% dependable yield of Ken at Daudhan site has been assessed as
6188 Mm3 . The net water availability at dam site after accounting all the upstream
requirements is 3291 Mm3 . The downstream commitments from Ken at Daudhan
are 2225 Mm3 . Out of which, 850 Mm3 is provided to UP and 1375 Mm3 to MP
as per Interstate agreement (1981) on Ken River. The surplus water for diversion
at Daudhan is 1 020 Mm3 . Out of which, 659 Mm3 will be transferred to Betwa
River upstream of Parichha weir and 312 Mm3 will be utilized in the en-route
command.
The dam proposed at Daudhan is an earthen dam with two power houses (installed
capacities of 3 × 20 MW and 2 × 6 MW). One Power House will be a pumped
storage scheme. The design discharge of the link canal at its head is 72 cumec.
The link canal after traversing about 230 km will outfall in existing Barwa Sagar
reservoir from where the diverted water will join Betwa river through a natural
stream in the upstream of Parichha weir. An area of 1.27 lakh ha in the Raisen and
Vidisha districts of Madhya Pradesh will be benefited by water from this link. This
link will also provide annual irrigation to 47,000 ha area en-route in the drought
prone Chhatarpur and Tikamgarh districts of MP and Hamirpur and Jhansi districts
of UP. The link will also provide 1175 Mm3 water for domestic uses in the en-route
villages of Chhatarpur and Tikamgarh districts of MP and Hamirpur and Jhansi
districts of UP.
The total cost of the link project has been estimated as Rs. 1,989 crore (1994–95
price level). The annual benefits accrued from the project are estimated to Rs. 450
crore (1994–95 price level). The Benefit-Cost ratio for the Ken-Betwa link project
as a whole comes to 1.87. The internal rate of return of the project works out to
13.00%.
The Consensus Group of the MoWR has held a series of meeting to resolve the
differences among the part states. Finally, a MOU was signed between UP and MP
in August 2005. This has paved the way for preparation of the Detailed Project
Report (DPR) for the link.

22.9.11. Par–Tapi–Narmada Link Canal

This link canal was proposed to divert surplus water of the rivers, like Par, Auranga,
Ambica, Purna and Tapi, up to Vadodara branch of Narmada Command. About
1,350 MCM surplus water is proposed to be diverted by the Par-Tapi link canal
Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1095

up to Ukai Dam and 2,904 MCM surplus water is proposed to be diverted by the
Tapi-Narmada link canal (including 1,554 MCM surplus water of Tapi at Ukai).
The total length of the Par–Tapi–Narmada link canal is 402 km–the length of the
Par-Tapi link will be 177 km and the Tapi–Narmada link will be 225 km. Seven
reservoirs are proposed in the upstream catchment area of 2,573 sq. km. The link
canal passes through dense forest and hilly region.

22.9.12. Damanganga–Pinjal Link Canal

The proposed Damanganga-Pinjal Link Project envisages the construction of reser-

voirs at Bhugad and Khargihill. The gross storage of these two reservoirs will be
426.39 & 460.79 million cubic meters (MCM) and live storage will be 400 & 420.56
MCM, respectively. The FRL will be 163.87 m and 154.52 m, respectively. The
reservoirs will be connected by 16.85 km long pressure tunnel of 5.00 m diameter.
Another 25.70 km long and 5.25 m diameter tunnel will connect Khargihill and
Pinjal reservoirs. The surplus water from Bhugad and Khargihill reservoirs will be
transferred through pressure tunnels to Pinjal reservoir for onward transmission to
Greater Mumbai. This link canal is proposed to supply 909 MCM water annually
to Mumbai City to improve the existing inadequate availability of domestic and
industrial water.
The project lies partly in the Valsad district of Gujarat and partly in Nasik and
Thane districts of Maharashtra. The Bhugad dam site on Damanganga River will
intercept 141 km2 catchment area of Gujarat State. It will be located near Bhugad
village in the Nasik district and Modushi village in Valsad district. The Khargihill
dam will be constructed on the Vagh River near Behapada village in Thane. The
Bhugad-Khargihill and Khargihill-Pinjal tunnels lie entirely in Maharashtra.

22.9.13. Pamba–Achankovil–Vaippar Link Project

The proposed Pamba-Achankovil-Vaippar Link project has three storage reser-

voirs, two tunnels, necessary canal system and a few power generating units. The
Punnamedu reservoir (reservoir-2) is located on river Pamba Kal Ar in Pamba basin
in Kerala state, which serves a part/full of its downstream mandatory requirements
and supplies surplus water to reservoir-1 through tunnel-2. The Achankovil Kal Ar
reservoir (reservoir-1) located on the Achankovil Kal Ar River in the Achankovil
river basin of Kerala state, supplies water for irrigation purposes to the state of
Tamil Nadu, through tunnel-1 to the main canal. The water from the main canal
is then distributed to the command area of Vaippar basin in Tamil Nadu state.
Besides this, reservoir-1 releases 10 MCM of water daily during six hours of peak
load period for power generation. The Achankovil reservoir (reservoir-3), which is
located on Achankovil River in the Achankovil river basin of Kerala state, besides
acting as a pumped storage scheme accommodating the water drawn from the
upstream reservoir-1, also serves the purpose of releasing water downstream to
meet its downstream mandatory demands. The 10 MCM of water drawn to the
1096 Chapter 22

downstream reservoir-3 from reservoir-1 for power generation is pumped back to

reservoir-1 in a 16 hours period. Also, if there is deficit at reservoir-1, the surplus
water of reservoir-3 can be pumped back to reservoir-l.

22.10. PRESENT STATUS OF ILR

While planning activities for these schemes was proceeding at their own pace, a
public interest litigation (PIL) was filed in the Supreme Court of India against
inordinate delays in interlinking of rivers. After hearing the arguments, the Supreme
Court directed the Government of India to initiate interlinking of rivers in a period
of 10 years in a time bound framework.
This decision has resulted in a flurry of activities in this important sector. A Task
Force (TF) was constituted by the Government of India to work out the modalities
for implementing the scheme as per the time frame that indicates completion of all
the feasibility reports by the year 2005 and the detailed project reports by 2006 and
implementation by 2016. The TF had formulated action plans to achieve the targets.
Terms of reference for preparation of detailed project reports (DPR) have been
finalized and DPRs for a few schemes are being initiated. The task force was wound
up in 2004. Subsequently, a special cell has been constituted under MoWR to take
up further follow-up action on the ILR program. Currently, preparation of detailed
project reports is in progress. The consensus building process among the states for
taking up the preparation of DPR is in progress. After an agreement was signed
between UP and MP for preparation of DPR for the Ken-Betwa link, the work has
commenced. MoWR has also constituted a committee with officers from the Central
Government, representatives of concerned State Governments, environmentalists,
social scientists and other experts to make ILR a mutually consultative process.
Besides this, dialogue with the States at the highest political level is also needed to
expedite the process of consensus.
ILR projects would require undertaking a mammoth construction program. Nearly
12,500 km of canals would be constructed to transfer/distribute water from water-
rich zones to water-short areas. These links would move about 173 billion m3 of
water, equivalent to one-fourth of the water in the Brahmaputra from the water
surplus river basins to the deficient ones. Besides dams and canals, navigation locks,
bridges and other structures like barrages for diversion, tunnels, would form part
of the envisaged program. Some interesting relevant details are given in Table 10.

Steps in implementation
The steps involved in the implementation of link schemes after completion of the
feasibility reports are:
• Negotiations and agreements amongst the concerned States regarding sharing of
surplus water and other project benefits/outcomes,
• Preparation of Detailed Project Reports (DPRs),
• Technical, environmental, economic approvals and investment clearance by the
Planning Commission,
Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1097

Table 10. Some broad details of works involved in ILR

Item Size / quantity based on rough calculations

Number of dams to be constructed 32

Length of the link canals (lined) 9,629 km
Length of distribution network up to minors 12,468 km
(lined)
Size of link canals Width varying from 3 m to 155 m and depth
varying from 1.5 m to 10 m
Lining involved 737 million square meters
Number of canal structures 4,291
Drinking water supply 101 districts and Greater Mumbai, NCR of
Delhi, Chennai, Kanpur and Lucknow cities
Employment generation 58 lakh man years

• Financing agreements,
• Construction, and
• Operation.
At present, most links are at the first and second stage.

22.10.1. Financing of the Project

As indicated earlier the total cost of the project has been roughly estimated
to be of the order of Rs. 560,000 crore (Rs. 5,600 billion, 1 crore = 1∗ 107 ) or
US $ 114 billion. This includes the cost of the power generation component. It may
be noted that this is an approximate estimation. When DPRs are ready and actual
costs of different projects are worked out, the final figure may be different than
these numbers. Also, this cost does not include yearly inflation, costs of ecology,
environment, wildlife, resettlement and rehabilitation of displaced people. It is
pertinent to note that the GNP of India for 1998–99 was Rs. 1,110,000 crore. The
estimated expenditure is more than twice the entire irrigation budget of India since
1950. It is the feeling of the opponents of the project that this huge expenditure is
bound to push the country into more debt and might lead to privatization of water
resources, denying basic water access to the poor.
Financing of the project would require careful consideration. Much of the finance
would have to come from the public finance or from international funding agencies
through soft loans. Special instruments may also have to be launched for this
purpose. It may be possible to attract private investment on build-own-operate-
transfer (BOOT) basis over a long period. The cost recovery also would pose serious
challenges.
The sizeable investment required for implementation of the project can be
classified into cost of developing the infrastructure, social, environmental and other
costs. The ILR program can be developed through pure public investment and/or
public-private partnerships including stakeholder involvement. The development of
the irrigation infrastructure would require government support. There is a distinct
1098 Chapter 22

possibility of generating large quantum of investible funds in the system. The

savings level in India has been increasing over the last 30 years from 14.6% of GDP
in 1970–71 to 24.0% of GDP in 2001–02. If the national savings level grows at
this rate, it is expected to reach the level of other Asian countries such as Thailand
(31%) in the next 12 years. This increase in savings can generate additional funds
required.
A detailed mechanism to channel available funds into this program is a challenge.
As far as hydropower is concerned, there is encouraging scope for implementation
through public-private partnerships or Independent Power Producer agreements.
Based on the independent revenue generation potential, these projects can be struc-
tured appropriately to attract financing by the private sector. The public-private
partnership could be in various forms including traditional public contracts, build-
operate-transfer (BOT) contracts, concessions or joint ventures. Considering the
increases in aggregate assets of all the banks and financial institutions, the yearly
investment requirement for these hydropower projects may be feasible subject to
projects being structured in an appropriate manner. The detailed approach to struc-
turing and funding such projects would also need to be evolved.

22.10.2. Challenges and Prospects

Some interlinking proposals are gigantic in nature. Some of the ideas mooted for
the long-distance transfer of water may be techno-economically feasible but may
require investment funds of a magnitude which cannot easily be found. They need
to be examined from the point of view of environmental impact or social costs. Any
proposal for large-scale inter-basin transfers needs to be approached with caution.
Apart from the cost aspect, the implementation of the scheme is a very challenging
task involving a large number of issues, both technical and others.
It is certain that in the ultimate scenario of development, some basins will be
surplus in water while several other basins will face an acute shortage of water. Intra-
state river transfers in India fall entirely under the purview of the concerned state
but the inter-state water transfers fall under the purview of the central government.
To begin with, a good strategy would be to concentrate on two or three ILR projects
that are most promising candidates and where there is absolutely no doubt about the
need and feasibility of IBWT. These projects could be taken up as a demonstration
to showcase the techniques of analysis. A promising case is the Ken-Betwa link in
central India.
A broad-based national perspective is essential for optimum development. In the
following, various issues associated with ILR are briefly discussed.

22.10.3. Change in the Basin Level Planning Concept

It is widely accepted that a river basin (or a sub-basin in the case of very large
river basins) should be considered a unit for planning and management of water
resources in the framework of integrated water resources management (IWRM).
Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1099

Here integration should be across many dimensions: all the sources of water
(rainwater, surface water, and groundwater); all over the catchment from head waters
down to the coastal area; use of water in various sectors (domestic use, irrigation,
industrial use, maintenance of quality and ecosystems, equity in distribution of
water between head-end users and tail-enders in the basin, etc.).
The IWRM concept is generally followed in India. Inter-State Water Dispute
Tribunals adjudicate the disputes and allocate waters of a river basin among the
co-basin states by following IWRM strategy.. The water dispute tribunal awards do
not discuss about IBWT unless agreed upon by the co-basin states for any specific
proposal. The ILR proposals call for IBWT from river basins like the Godavari and
the Krishna for which water dispute tribunals have already given their awards. The
ILR proposals go beyond the tribunal awards and adjustments to the awards are
necessary to take into account the changed scenario of course, have to be made with
the cooperation and involvement these if co-basin states. In fact, long-term planning
by individual states has to be reoriented to take into consideration the inter-basin
transfer schemes. While examining the economic soundness of interbasin water
transfer, the criteria and methodology of economic analysis as applicable to the
other water resources projects should normally be applicable.
The National Water Policy supports the use of non-conventional methods, such
as IBWT, after meeting the legitimate requirements of the donor basin. The question
of diversion of waters from a basin outside the basin boundary was examined in
detail by the Krishna water dispute tribunal. The tribunal had decided that the
diversion of water outside the river basin by a state is legally valid and the need
for diversion outside the basin is relevant to equitable allocation. They however
suggested that more weight should be given to the inter-basin use. Note that the
supply of Narmada waters to the state of Rajasthan (which is not a basin state) is
as per the agreement signed among the party states.
Most of the links of NPP work on the innovative principle of substitution
and exchange. Substitution envisages that the surplus water is delivered at the
downstream use points in the basins facing water deficit, substituting for the existing
committed releases from the upstream locations. In exchange, water will be drawn
from the upper reservoir to cover the needy upland areas in other basins, wherever
feasible. Thus the command areas being served by existing projects are taken over
by the inter-basin water transfer links and the water thus saved is tapped as exchange
from a higher level in the headwater zone of the river. This way the upland areas
of the basin can be benefited without resorting to high pumping.
The concept of substitution and exchange calls for a careful and integrated
operation of the whole system. In some cases it may alter the basic planning of the
projects proposed by the State Governments.

22.10.4. Water Rights and Ownership of Water

This is a very pertinent question in the context of IBWT. In India, all surface water
is fully controlled by the Government. Water users do not have any well-defined
1100 Chapter 22

rights in the form of water licenses etc. The allocation of the waters of a river
or a river basin to the various parts of the state falls under the jurisdiction of
the government. However, the actual ownership of water which is an element of
the natural environment remains questionable. If one accepts ‘ownership’ of the
concerned state government, the following observations require attention:
• Water is a property of basin States, and can be transferred to non-basin States
only by basin States.
• Only the basin State and not the Union Government decides whether there is
surplus water in a basin.
• The basin State is free to use or dispose off the surplus water in the manner that
they deem fit.
The other popular concept of ownership of water is that of a negative community.
In this concept, water is ‘common’ for all but owned by none, including the
government. Accordingly, there can be no property rights, only ‘usufruct’ rights
exist. Usufruct right is the right to use and enjoy the profits and advantages of
something belonging to another as long as that thing is not damaged or altered in
any way. The usufruct rights of the State are related to needs and uses, and are
incapable of being sold. Delegation of these rights to the actual users within the
state is possible.
In the international context, the present conventions (the international conventions
for non-navigable use of international rivers) limit allocations of an international
river to the co-basin nation states though this is not explicitly stated. In semi federal
setup as India, the position is different. The States in India are not sovereign and
the parliament has supreme power to enact legislation on any matter.
Considering both the issues of ownership and allocations, in Indian context,
Mohile et al. (2005) suggested to firmly adopt the conceptual framework of treating
water as a ‘negative community’. Side-by-side, we need to frame appropriate laws
regarding allocation of waters of interstate basins to non-co-basin states. Such laws
will definitely serve vital national interests and will avoid many potential conflicts.
Many inter-state issues arise out of different interpretations of the ownership
rights in respect of water. By interlinking of rivers water is transferred from a
location (in a state) in a water rich river basin to water deficit basin(s). A question
that is usually asked is whether the state from which water is transferred owns this
water? Is it justified that the state should be compensated for agreeing to transfer
water outside the state? Some experts strongly disagree with the suggestion about
water royalty arguing that water cannot be compared with other natural resources
such as oil and minerals. The question of water right is compounded by the fact
that water is primarily a state subject in the Constitution of India. Another relevant
question is whether only the state from where water is transferred to another state
has to agree for the transfer of water or all the co-basin states have to agree for
it? A classic example of the Telugu Ganga Project for supplying drinking water to
Chennai city from Krishna can be quoted here.
The sensitivities about water transfer is leading to a situation that the States
from which water is to be transferred to other States are challenging the studies
Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1101

establishing that surplus water is available in the basin for transfer to outside the
basin. NWDA studies have established that all the waters of some water rich basins
cannot be fully utilized within the basins at present and in near future and could
be fruitfully used in water deficit basins. The States in general do not agree with
the studies and try to act as the protectors of the water ‘rights’ of the States. This
issue needs to be resolved before attempting to implement the interlinking of rivers
scheme.

22.10.5. Defining Surplus and Deficit Basins

Besides identifying surplus and deficit basins, it is equally important to quantify

the amount of surplus water in a basin. It is very much likely that there will be
disagreements and the finally agreed quantity will be a ‘compromise solution’.
Experience from some recent disputes (the on-going Cauvery water dispute, dispute
between Delhi and UP on Ganga water, between Delhi and Haryana on Yamuna
water, etc.) shows that this might indeed be the toughest part of negotiations.
Unfortunately, so far we do not have any standard methodology for this purpose.
Poor quality of data or absence of requisite data further complicates the picture
since widely different assumptions can be made. Also, there is no consensus as
to how ground water should be accounted for. Conjunctive use of surface and
ground water is being emphasized in the country but still it is not a part of the
feasibility reports. A realistic estimation of projected water demands is another
dimension which plays a crucial role in estimation of surplus or deficit. Irrigation
requirements account for about 70% of future water requirements and different
experts can arrive at widely different estimates and yet be in a position to justify their
estimates.
This aspect needs greater attention while quantifying the availability of surplus
water in a basin. This also necessitates formulating an acceptable procedure with
the participation of academicians, researchers, professionals, planners, and decision
makers as it involves many gray areas depending upon an individual’s viewpoint.

22.10.6. Environmental Concerns, Resettlement and Rehabilitation

With monsoonic type of climate in India, it is necessary to construct dams to store

the water and use it throughout the year. Construction of dams naturally involves
submergence of lands and habitation leading to environmental, ecological and reset-
tlement and rehabilitation problems. About 4 to 5 lakh people may get affected or
displaced due to creation of reservoirs and canals in the ILR projects. The displaced
persons are to be provided with proper Rehabilitation and Resettlement (R&R)
packages to ensure that their socio-economic condition improves after resettlement
at new places and good models are available for the purpose. The ‘National R&R
Policy’ is also in place, and it is necessary that it is implemented with due care and
attention.
1102 Chapter 22

Due to construction of storages, about 79,000 ha of forest land is likely to come

under submergence. Sufficient provisions are to be made for the protection of
forests by means of raising compensatory afforestation, catchment area treatment
and other land and water management programs. Bio-diversity likely to be affected
particularly in Himalayas due to the construction of reservoirs. Preservation of the
precious stock would have to be taken care of through gene-banks. It could also
be used for new growth, where necessary. Environmental impact assessment and
suitable mitigation measures for adverse effects should form an integral part of
the program. However, no specific unmanageable adverse impact is likely to result
from ILR.

22.10.7. Alternatives to Interlinking of Rivers

The huge cost and the social and environmental concerns involved in the inter-
linking of rivers have aroused opinions against the interlinking of rivers in general
emphasizing the necessity for considering available other options. Other options are
mainly oriented towards more efficient use of the available waters in a river basin
through watershed development and water harvesting, improving the recharge of
ground water, conjunctive use of ground water with surface water, water saving in
various uses of water and reuse, and recycling of water.
Of course, the development of local water resources through watershed manage-
ment, water harvesting, etc. needs to be done simultaneously with the implemen-
tation of any scheme for interlinking of rivers. However, watershed management
and water harvesting are unlikely to solve the massive problems, since the intense
rainfall during storms cannot be conserved and in semi-arid and arid regions the
rainfall is much less than the requirements. Similarly the other measures advocated
have only limited scope; they will no have any significant impact on the water
requirement that will be confronting the people of India in the future. Although
demand management is necessary, this has its own limits.

22.10.8. System Study of Inter-Basin Water Transfer

Systems analysis provides a framework for consideration of various alternatives

and options and their analysis in an interdisciplinary approach; it can draw on
the expertise in various disciplines and use the various state of the art tools of
modeling, simulation, integrated ecological and economic cost-benefit analysis, and
assessments of impacts. In addition to using these tools, it is important to use the
concepts of integrated water resource management, integrating the policies of land
use, water and energy with appropriate focus on the linkages among them, river
basin as a unit for planning and management, and the role of recycling and reuse
of water.
Inter-basin transfer of water is a complex program of water management. The
NPP proposals we firmed up, based on sub-basin wise water balance studies.
These studies have not analyzed the performance reliability of the system over a
Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1103

long period of operation. Further, the effect of carry-over capacities and operation
policies of the major reservoirs in the system in making up the deficit or augmenting
the surplus has also not been investigated. Jain et al. (2005) have carried out a
system study of the peninsular component of the scheme. Detailed system studies
are necessary for all the projects.

22.10.9. Risks Associated with ILR Scheme

Since the proposed interbasin water transfer project will be the biggest such exercise
in terms of investment and geographical extent in India and indeed in any other
country of the world, it will have a profound influence on national economy. On
the other hand, any major setback on such a large project will have a devastating
influence on national economy. Therefore, it is necessary to examine the associated
risks before undertaking such a gigantic task. However, in view of the fact that the
implementation of the project has received tremendous push due to the directive
from the Supreme Court of India, the associated technical, political, and social
aspects may not be examined as thoroughly and as meticulously as required. But
in the interest of national development, it is necessary that all genuine concerns are
carefully examined before a final commitment is made. Besides, working in haste,
some important aspects may be overlooked and these may cause trouble later.
It is necessary to highlight the risks associated with the scheme so that these can
be suitably accounted for in planning and execution of the project. This will, inter
alia, help identify the steps that require more attention.

22.10.10. Technology of Interlinking

The envisaged ILR involves the transfer of large volumes of water across distant
geomorphologic entities through link channels. As far as the question of techno-
logical competence is concerned, enough experience is available in the country
to construct the civil engineering structures. However, considerations governing
planning, design, implementation and operation of each of the subsystems associated
with the task of ILR will have to be treated in an integrated manner.
It is important to take a holistic view of water resources development and
management in river basins rather than just confining the task to interlinking of
rivers for inter-basin transfers of water. Second, a truly interdisciplinary and system-
analytic approach should be adopted. Experts from many disciplines should be
involved while taking decisions. Third, all views, including those who are critical
of the whole concept of ILR, should be taken seriously. Decisions should be taken
on the basis of facts, analysis and rationality rather than passion and sentiment.
Whenever there are issues on which people hold extreme and opposite views, recon-
ciliation should be always attempted to reach the acceptable ground. The interests
of the vulnerable and disadvantaged sections of the population should be considered
with great sensitivity and empathy.
1104 Chapter 22

Energy will be required for lifting water to negotiate adverse gradients of inter-
linking. Hence, provision of energy will be an essential element of the design and
operation of some link channels. For example, for transferring water for Incham-
palli dam on Godavari to Krishna, a lift of about 116 m is involved. Most link
channels will cover long distances; some of them will carry large discharges. The
link channels are bound to cross several natural rivers. This will require numerous
and costly cross-drainage works and will affect natural drainage of the en-route
area. Acquisition of land may lead to massive problems of ecological disturbance,
rehabilitation, and relief. In fact this aspect may cause discontent and resistance
amongst the general public.

22.10.11. Political Consensus

Achieving political consensus between water-surplus and water-deficit basin states

for IBWT is going to be difficult. For the water-surplus basin states it is a politically
sensitive subject and the opposition parties may try to exploit the issue so as to
derive political mileage. In some cases, the political response depends on whether
the same political party is ruling at the center and the state or not. It is difficult
but not impossible to achieve political consensus among the states and develop
win-win solutions by negotiations. At the same time, there should be legislative
support which could be adopted if negotiations tend to become endless.
While the receiving States readily agree to the link proposals, the donor States
have generally opposed the idea. As expected, the donor States have reservations
about the surpluses that are worked out in various river basins. Some States feel
that the existing tribunal awards will get disturbed and hence no water can be
taken out of the basin. Further, the link proposals may have adverse effect on
existing irrigation and power generation. Also, the reliability and adequacy of the
long distance water transfers are being questioned. Similarly, acquisition of land
for the storage structures and long and wide link canals could pose a serious
problem.
The pre-feasibility studies for the various links in the Himalayan Component have
taken into consideration the existing, ongoing and proposed dams on the common
river systems in Nepal, Bhutan and India. These studies need to be further detailed,
surveyed and investigated in cooperation with Nepal and Bhutan. All relevant issues
will have to be sorted out through bilateral discussions.

22.10.12. Institutional Aspects

Attention should be paid not only to the planning, financing and construction
aspects and to create appropriate institutional set ups for management. Some
re-engineering of the existing institutions and agencies in the water sector and
establishment of new institutions may be necessary. A body for regulation of inter-
state rivers, for example, Central Water Regulatory Board, might be necessary.
Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1105

Strong and competent institutions will be necessary for sustenance of the system
and its efficient working.

22.10.13. Transparency in Working

The organizations involved in the ILR works should maintain transparency and
openness in all activities. Recently, many pre-feasibility and feasibility reports have
been put in public domain to enable the experts and public to understand the basic
philosophy. This will increase credibility of the government and inspire trust in
the public and the experts who are generally wary of bureaucratic functioning.
Thereafter, they may contribute to improving planning, designs, and management
and decisions that have the support of the majority can be arrived at.

22.11. OPPOSITION TO THE ILR SCHEME

It is understandable that there will be opposition to divert water from a basin by the
local people who may feel deprived of something which they consider their own.
The various agencies and NGO’s related to environmental issues are also expected
to oppose such proposals. There is a distinct possibility that these issues might gain
more importance than the technical and financial aspects. Clearly, the proposals
require careful examination. According to preliminary estimates, the Peninsular
component will submerge 2.5 lakh ha area and will require rehabilitation and
resettlement of nearly 4.5 lakh persons. Besides, all the concerned state governments
will have to arrive at an agreement for these projects.
While activating the government machinery, the judgment by the Supreme Court
of India has also aroused considerable interest and curiosity about this scheme.
Expectedly, there has been a lot of opposition from various quarters (for example,
see Patkar, 2004). The main arguments of the opponents are that against the claims
of the government, the project will neither solve the flood control nor the drought
problem of India. Further, the introduction of irrigated agriculture in arid areas of
the kind appropriate to wet areas may be unwise. A project of such gigantic nature
will have serious environmental, economic, and social impacts which have not been
studied as meticulously as needed. Another concern is that the entire planning work
is being done under secrecy and the government should make available all the
relevant data and reports in the public domain so that the citizens are aware of what
is happening and can provide and make informed inputs.
It will be important that the demands and concerns of all sections of the society
are carefully considered so that the final solution is in the larger interest of the
nation. Key questions posed by the opponents of ILR are enumerated below.

Drought alleviation
Questioning the claim that ILR will help in drought alleviation, the opponents state
that most of the uplands and dry lands of India are distant from rivers, and at
elevations of 300 m to 1,000 m above mean sea level. Therefore, ILR will serve
1106 Chapter 22

very few such areas. According to them, the primary answer to drought has to be
local; it is only thereafter, and in some very unpromising places where rainwater-
harvesting may not be feasible or may yield meager results, that the bringing in of
some external water may need to be considered.

Irrigation
The question pertaining to water for irrigation is fundamental in nature. The augment
runs as follows (Iyer, 2005). In irrigated areas, the question is whether large demands
for additional irrigation water should be unquestioningly accepted and met through
supply-side solutions, such as large dams or IBWT. Should serious attempts not be
made to improve water-use efficiency in irrigated agriculture, get more value out of
a given quantum of water, reduce water demand, and minimize the need for supply-
side projects? In the context of the prevailing low efficiency of water-conveyance
in canal systems and water-use in irrigated agriculture, bringing in more water
from another basin would really amount to the provision of more water for being
wasted. It would also mean that there would be no motivation at all for changing
cropping patterns and shifting from water-intensive crops to crops that need less
water; on the contrary, the tendency to grow water-consuming crops would receive
strong encouragement. In arid or drought-prone areas, the introduction of irrigated
agriculture of a kind that is appropriate to wet areas may be unwise. The opponents
even argue that the Rajasthan Canal project was a misconceived project.

Gigantism/altering nature
This will be a massive intervention in nature, a severe case of technological hubris,
of a kind that (one thought) had been discredited and was a thing of the past. Appre-
hensions about gigantism have been sought to be set at rest with the explanation
that the flows will be largely by gravity with lifts (not exceeding 120 meters) at a
few selected points, and that the need for a transfer of water through natural barriers
will be obviated. The critics have raised two questions. First, such an approach may
be possible in some cases, but its feasibility in some thirty projects seems prima
facie doubtful. This, like the claim that the project will be a net generator of large
quantities of electricity, needs to be looked at very carefully. Secondly, if indeed
the links are to be largely by gravity with a few modest lifts, will such an approach
not limit the extent of water transfer and the scope of the project? Can large claims
still be made for the project?

Impacts and consequences

The adverse impacts and consequences of large-scale interventions have been
observed in many projects and will need to be studied carefully in the case of each
of the proposed links. Leaving aside submergence, displacement, impacts on flora
and fauna, and so on, one must take note of one point, namely, that before diverting
water and reducing downstream flows we must make sure that serious consequences
will not follow. With the ‘linking of rivers’ project one may be headed for other
Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1107

unforeseen disasters and may discover this too late. A degree of caution seems
warranted before the Government embarks on this enterprise.

Generating new conflicts?

We have not so far been able to persuade sates within a basin to share river water
(e.g., the Cauvery Dispute). Instead of resolving such intra-basin disputes through
better, more economical and more cooperative management of the resources of the
basin, should we try to bring water from another and more distant basin? Further,
even if we assume that the conflict within a water-short river-basin will be eased by
importing external water, such an effort may initiate new conflicts between basins.
Several State Governments are opposed to, or lukewarm about ILR. Bihar, West
Bengal, Punjab, Maharashtra and Kerala are examples. Kerala is stoutly opposed
to the proposed Pamba-Achankovil-Vaippar link. There is also some opposition on
the part of Karnataka to the idea of the eastward diversion of west-flowing rivers. It
may be argued that we should not allow ourselves to be deterred by such political
difficulties, but is it really necessary to generate several new inter-state conflicts?
The proposals include a Brahmaputra-Teesta (or alternatively, a Brahmaputra
Ganga) link, but one wonders whether major diversions from the Brahmaputra are
likely. In any case, perhaps we need not discuss this further except to say that the
sensitivities of the Northeastern States must be kept in mind.
Turning to international aspects, there are serious apprehensions about this project
in Nepal and Bangladesh. These may be justified or misconceived, but criticisms
of the kind that one heard in earlier years from Nepal in relation to the Kosi and
Gandak Projects and from Bangladesh in relation to the Farakka Barrage are being
voiced again. It is very necessary for the Government of India to explain matters
and minimize if not eliminate misunderstandings.

Need for examination of individual links

If we proceed from the ‘concept’ or umbrella project to the individual links, it is clear
enough that in each case there will have to be an examination of the calculation of
surplus, and deficit, the need for the transfer/link, whether it represents the best out
of the available options, its techno-economic soundness and viability, the projected
benefits, the environmental/ecological implications and remedial measures, the
human aspects (displacement, resettlement and rehabilitation, and the rights and
risks of the affected people), the international dimensions (if any), and in the light of
all these, a comprehensive techno-socio-economic-ecological analysis of the balance
of costs and benefits (including the non-quantifiable aspects) and an appraisal of
the project for an investment decision. We do not know what the outcome of that
process will be: all projects may pass the test; all may fail; or some may survive a
stringent scrutiny while others may not.

Pre-empting of resources
If this mammoth project, not reckoned earlier in the planning processes, is now
to be inserted into the 5-year plan, there may be a pre-empting of resources, and
1108 Chapter 22

a distraction of attention from the things that need to be done. Plan outlays are
barely adequate even for the completion of projects already undertaken. From
the Sixth Plan onwards the stress has been on consolidation rather than on new
starts. Against that background, it seems strange to embark on a major river-linking
undertaking. The rough figure mentioned in the Supreme Court in this context was
Rs. 560,000 crore. That figure is likely go up in the course of actual implementation,
but even if we ignore that point, the pre-empting of resources of this magnitude for
this project will render the whole planning process meaningless. Equally important
is effective demand management through improved efficiency and economy in
water use, whether in agriculture or in industry or in domestic and municipal
uses. A preoccupation with the gigantic river-linking project may prevent adequate
attention to them.

22.12. CONCLUSION

Obviously, there are many questions that need to be answered and many answers
that need to be questioned. For some reason, the information that is necessary to
examine the proposals is not in public domain and is not accessible. Pre-feasibility
and feasibility reports are said to have been prepared but these are also not available.
Only one feasibility study report of the Ken-Betwa Link is in public domain. The
fact that the information is not being made available has generated considerable
skepticism and distrust. If this information is shared, it will only lead to better
decision making since if some one is working in secrecy, there is no room for new
ideas to flourish and mistakes may remain undetected.
Basin-wise studies indicate that in spite of the technical constraints and apprehen-
sions of the states in assessing the water balance of river basins, some basins will be
surplus in water, while several other basins will face acute shortages of water. To
meet the ever-growing demands for increased food grain production and domestic
and industrial water requirements, water resources development at state/basin level
alone may not be adequate. A broad based national perspective is essential for
optimum utilization of the water resources. The NPP is likely to facilitate meeting
the demands of water-short regions and needs to be pursued.
We have to move progressively beyond the limited vision of satisfying the
interest of a river basin. Harnessing water of surplus basins by inter-linking rivers
is rational. Once the feasibility of inter-linking of rivers is established, discussions
and negotiations between the states concerned with Central Government’s support
should be held for preparation of detailed project reports and the execution of the
projects.
The National Commission on Integrated Water Resources Development Plan
(1999), while agreeing that inter-basin transfer of water is a very important and
extraordinarily large complex programme of water management, has emphasized
that the basic problems are not techno-economic, but those of political, social and
emotional character. As the Commission has aptly put it, the country’s political
Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1109

system and civil society have to evolve institutions and techniques to deal with
them and arrive at solutions in the best interest of the people.
Finally, interlinking of rivers is not panacea. Alone, it will not solve all water-
related problems of the country. Concepts, such as water conservation, optimal
regulation of existing facilities, rainwater harvesting, watershed management, water
reuse, etc. will continue to be highly relevant and this grand scheme will be an
important supplement to these. A holistic view of the scenario is always important
and necessary.
CHAPTER 23
INSTITUTIONS IN THE FIELD OF HYDROLOGY
AND WATER RESOURCES

The Government of India (GOI) conducts its business through various ministries.
Under each ministry, there may be departments, academic and research insti-
tutes, and public sector undertakings. Each ministry has thus a large hierarchical
structure. The apex website giving extensive information about the Government
of India and links to the various ministries and organizations under it is
http://www.nic.in. This website is maintained by the National Informatics Center.
Information on this site is carefully arranged and a powerful search engine is also
provided. This site is considered an authentic source about GOI and some of the
information given in this chapter has originated from this site.

23.1. MAIN ORGANIZATIONS DEALING WITH WATER

RESOURCES IN INDIA

A large number of organizations in India are associated with planning, development,

management, research, and education in the field of water resources. This chapter
provides an overview of the major organizations and their work. Table 1 displays
the roles of various types of organizations in different tasks associated with water
resources development and management.
For the purpose of subsequent discussion, the organizations have been classified
into the following broad categories: central government organizations, state
government organizations, research and academic organizations, river basin organi-
zations, non-governmental organizations, and international organizations. We begin
our discussion with the central government organizations.

23.2. MINISTRIES INVOLVED IN WATER SECTOR

Seven different ministries are associated with water sector under different subject
domain as shown below.
Besides, some other ministries of the Govt. of India are involved in water sector.
A discussion about these follows.
1111
1112 Chapter 23

Table 1. Responsibilities for water sector functions by organizations

Task Central and State Private NGOs Professional

Governments sector bodies

Policy formulation M S S
Planning, analysis, and design M S S S
Construction M M
Management M M S S
Financing M M
Research M S M
Capacity building M S M

Note: M = major role, S = supporting role.

23.2.1. Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR)

In India, the Ministry of Water Resources is the nodal ministry responsible for
the development and utilization of water resources. However, due to inter- and
multi-disciplinary nature of development, several other ministries, e.g., Ministries
of Agriculture, Power, Environment and Forest, Surface Transport, Urban Affairs,
Rural Development, and Science and Technology, are also involved in the water
sector.
The Ministry of Water Resources is headed by a cabinet rank minister. Usually,
a Minister of State is also appointed in the ministry but there have been instances in
the past when the Minister of State had the independent charge of the ministry. The
Secretary (water resources) is the topmost civil servant (officer) in the ministry and
he is assisted by a number of officers. A highly hierarchical system of decision-
making is followed in the ministries in India and one can notice long movement of
files which often slows down decision making.

S. N. Ministry/Department Subject domain

i. Water Resources Irrigation, command area development, flood control,

ground water.
ii. Rural Development Rural drinking water supply and rural sanitation,
watershed programmes.
iii. Urban Development Urban drinking water and urban sanitation.
iv. Environment Pollution control
v. Power Hydropower
vi. Shipping Inland navigation
vii. Planning Commission Allocation of Plan funds for various sectors and
investment clearance.
Institutions of Hydrology and Water Resources 1113

The main functions of the Ministry of Water Resources are:

(a) Overall planning, policy formulation, coordination and guidance in the water
sector.
(b) Coordination, mediation and facilitation in regard to the resolution of differences
or disputes relating to inter-state rivers and overseeing of the implementation
of inter-state projects.
(c) Overall planning for the development of water resources, assessment of
utilizable resources and formulation of policies for exploitation, overseeing of
and support to the State level activities.
(d) Regulation of ground water and creating mass awareness for artificial
recharge.
(e) Formulation of the national water development perspective and determination
of the water balance of different basins/ sub-basins.
(f) Negotiations with the neighboring countries, such as Bangladesh, Bhutan,
China, Nepal and Pakistan, in regard to river waters, water resources develop-
ment projects, and the operation of international treaties relating to water.
(g) Technical guidance, scrutiny, clearance and monitoring of irrigation, flood
control and multi-purpose projects (major/medium) of States.
(h) Overall policy formulation, planning and guidance in respect of minor irrigation
and command area development, and the administration and monitoring of
centrally sponsored schemes in these areas.
(i) Operation of the central network for flood forecasting and warning on important
rivers, the provision of central assistance for some State schemes in special
cases and preparation of flood control master plans for the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra River systems.
(j) Providing special central financial assistance for specific projects and assistance
in obtaining external assistance from the World Bank and other international
agencies.
(k) Infrastructural, technical and research support for sectoral development at the
State level.
The Central Water Commission (see section 23.3.1) is the technical wing of
Ministry of Water Resources and deals with technical matters pertaining to surface
water development. The Central Ground Water Development Board (section 23.3.2)
is responsible for development, assessment and management of ground water
resources. The other important organizations under the Ministry of Water Resources
include the National Institute of Hydrology, the National Water Development
Agency, the Central Water and Power Research Station, the Brahmaputra Board,
and the Ganga Flood Control Commission. A large number of river basin authorities
have also been set up for the development and management of water resources of a
particular basin, e.g., the Bhakra Beas Management Board and the Damodar Valley
Corporation.
The office of MoWR is located in Shram Shakti Bhavan at Rafi Marg in
New Delhi – 110 001. The Homepage of the MoWR is: www.wrmin.nic.in. It contains
many useful data and other information about water resources of India.
1114 Chapter 23

23.2.2. Ministry of Agriculture

This ministry looks after all matters related to agriculture. The work of Ministry of
Agriculture is organized under three Departments, viz., Department of Agriculture
and Cooperation, Department of Agricultural Research & Education/ICAR, and
Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying.
The Department of Agriculture and Cooperation is responsible for the formulation
and implementation of national policies and programmes aimed at achieving rapid
agricultural growth through optimum utilization of the country’s land, water, soil
and plant resources. The department is entrusted with the responsibility of collection
and maintenance of database of a wide range of statistical and economic data. The
department is also associated with management of natural calamities, e.g., flood,
drought, cyclone, etc.
Agriculture in India is the most vulnerable activity to climate change, especially
in the arid and semi-arid tropics. It is expected that 1 m rise in the sea-level will
to inundate about 1,700 km2 of agricultural land in Orissa and West Bengal alone.
The increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events will also have
a direct bearing on agriculture. To build capacity and deal with climate change
issues related to agriculture, a Climate Change Cell has been set up in Ministry of
Agriculture.
To strengthen research, education and human resources development in agriculture,
the Ministry of Agriculture has launched the National Agriculture Technology
Project, through its national grid comprising 46 institutes including universities,
research centers and regional stations in the Ninth Plan Period (1997–2002). All of
these form a large infrastructure for research and outreach activities. The office of
the Ministry of Agriculture is located in Krishi Bhavan in New Delhi – 110 001.
The Homepage of the Ministry of Agriculture is: http://agricoop.nic.in/about.htm.

23.2.3. Ministry of Power

The Ministry of Power is primarily responsible for the development of electrical

energy in the country. Among the responsibilities of the Ministry are matters
concerned with perspective planning, policy formulation, monitoring of the imple-
mentation of power projects, and the administration and enactment of legislation
in regard to thermal and hydro power generation, transmission, and distribution.
This Ministry looks after all matters relating to hydroelectric power (except
small/mini/micro hydel projects of and below 25 MW capacity). It is also concerned
with research, development and technical assistance relating to hydroelectric and
thermal power and transmission system network. The Ministry of Power is the
coordinating agency for matters relating to energy efficiency for all conventional
energy sources.
Two organizations under this ministry, viz., the National Thermal Power Corpo-
ration Limited and the National Hydro-electric Power Corporation Limited are
involved in the construction and management of power projects. So far, these two
Institutions of Hydrology and Water Resources 1115

organizations have constructed many large projects. North Eastern Electric Power
Corporation Limited is responsible for power projects in the north-eastern region of
India. Recall that about one-third of hydropower potential of India is available in
this region. Another organization under this ministry, the Tehri Hydro Development
Corporation, is involved in hydropower development through the construction of
the Tehri and other projects in the Uttaranchal state. Likewise, Satluj Jal Vidyut
Nigam Limited is involved in the development of power potential of the Satluj
River.
The office of Ministry of Power is located in Shram Shakti Bhavan at Rafi
Marg in New Delhi – 110 001. The Homepage of the Ministry of Power is:
http://powermin.nic.in.

23.2.4. Ministry of Environment & Forests

The Ministry of Environment & Forests is the nodal agency for the planning,
promotion, co-ordination and overseeing of the implementation of environmental
and forestry programmes. The Ministry is also the nodal agency in the country for
the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). As elaborated on its website,
the principal activities undertaken by Ministry of Environment & Forests consist of
conservation and survey of flora, fauna, forests and wildlife, prevention and control
of pollution (including, of course, water pollution), afforestation and regeneration
of degraded areas, and protection of environment. The main tools utilized for this
include surveys, impact assessment, control of pollution, regeneration programmes,
support to organizations, research to solve problems, collection and dissemination
of environmental information and creation of environmental awareness among all
sectors of the country’s population.
The MoEF is the nodal agency for the subject of climate change in India. It
has created various mechanisms for increasing public awareness and enhancing
research in climate change by giving grants for wide-ranging research programmes
and creating centers of excellence.
The office of Ministry of Environment & Forests is located in Paryavaran Bhavan,
CGO Complex, at Lodhi Road in New Delhi – 110 003. Their homepage is:
http://envfor.nic.in.

Environmental information system (ENVIS)

Realizing the importance of environmental information, the Environmental Infor-
mation System (ENVIS) was established by the MoEF in 1982 as a plan programme.
ENVIS is a decentralized system with a network of distributed subject-oriented
centers. The aims of the ENVIS are to ensure the integration of national efforts in
environmental information collection, collation, storage, retrieval and dissemination
to all concerned (http://www.envis.nic.in). To assess the environment for pollution
control, toxic chemicals, central and offshore ecology, the centers of ENVIS have
been set up in different organizations in India. ENVIS supports environmentally
1116 Chapter 23

sound and appropriate technology, bio-degradation of wastes and environment

management research.
Since environment is a multidisciplinary subject, it is necessary to built a compre-
hensive information system on the environment for the involvement and effective
participation of a range of institutions and organizations working in different spheres
of the environment. To that end, ENVIS network comprising of 85 ENVIS Nodes
and 25 ENVIS Centers covering the diverse subject areas of environment have
been established. The Ministry of Environment and forest has the focal point of
ENVIS.

23.2.5. Ministry of Surface Transport

Transport is a critical infrastructure for the social and economic development of a

country, influencing its pace, structure, and pattern. Within its fold, the Ministry
of Surface Transport encompasses shipping and ports, national waterways, and
inland water transport. The headquarters of this Ministry is located in the Parivahan
Bhavan at Parliament Street in New Delhi – 110 001.
An autonomous body under this ministry, the Inland Waterways Authority of
India (IWAI), is responsible for the regulation and development of inland waterways
for the purposes of shipping and navigation. IWAI was set up in October 1986
under the Inland Waterways Authority of India Act, 1985. The three waterways
that have been declared as National Waterways and taken up for development are:
• Allahabad-Haldia stretch of the Ganga Bhagirathi Hooghly River system
(1620 km) as National Waterway 1,
• Saidiya Dhubri stretch of the Brahmaputra River system (891 km) as National
Waterway 2, and
• Kollam Kottapuram stretch of West Coast Canal (168 km) along with
Champakara Canal (14 km) and Udyogmandal Canal (23 km) as National
Waterway 3.
The major waterways projects currently in progress are shown in Table 2

Table 2. Major waterways projects in progress

Project Responsible organization

Kakinada-Marakkanam NW-4 Waterway Project Inland Waterways Authority of India

Inland Waterways (Thiruvananthapuram-Kasargode) Project Government of Kerala
Inland Waterways (Dakshina Kannada) Project Government of Karnataka
Inland Waterways (Udupi) Project Government of Karnataka
Honavar-Gerusoppa Inland Waterways Project Government of Karnataka
Kodibag-Kadra Inland Waterways Project Government of Karnataka
Kochi-Kollam Waterway Project Inland Waterways Authority of India
Inland Water Transport Terminal (Gaighat) Inland Waterways Authority of India
Institutions of Hydrology and Water Resources 1117

23.2.6. Ministry of Urban Affairs

The Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO)

is the technical wing of the Ministry of Urban Affairs and Employment, functioning
as the nodal organization at the national level to deal with urban water supply and
sanitation, including solid waste management. The department is working on the
three schemes for supplying of fresh water: Pesticides in potable water – develop-
ment of removal technology, waste water recycling and groundwater recharge by
natural methods, and rapid evaluation of performance of waste water treatment by
dip slide technique.
Their contact address is: Adviser (PHEE), CPHEEO, Ministry of Urban Affairs
and Employment, Nirman Bhavan, New Delhi – 110 001.

23.2.7. Ministry of Rural Development

This Ministry’s main objective is to alleviate rural poverty and ensure improved
quality of life for the rural population, especially those below the poverty line.
Two departments under this Ministry are concerned with water resources: the
Department of Land Resources and the Department of Drinking Water Supply.
The department of land resources implements schemes to increase the bio-mass
production by developing wastelands in the country. It also undertakes development
of desert areas and drought prone areas in the country. The major programmes
concerning land resources are the Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), The
Desert Development Programme (DDP), and the Integrated Wasteland Development
Programme (IWDP). These aim at increasing the soil and moisture conservation
and productivity of the wastelands of the country.
The provision of drinking water supply and extension of sanitation facilities to the
rural poor are the main activities of the department of drinking water supply. The
major programmes of this department are The Swajaldhara, the Accelerated Rural
Water Supply Programme (ARWSP), and the Total Sanitation Programme (TSP).
The initiative Swajalhara was launched in December 2002, empowering the
Panchayats (village level administrative bodies) to formulate, implement, operate
and maintain drinking water projects. A related scheme, known as Hariyali was
initiated in January 2003, to strengthen and involve Panchayati Raj Institutions in
the implementation of Watershed Development Programmes. The homepage of the
Ministry of Rural Development is: http://rural.nic.in.

23.2.8. Planning Commission

The Planning Commission of India was set up in March 1950, among other things, to
promote a rapid rise in the standard of living of the people by efficient exploitation
of the resources of the country. It was entrusted with the responsibility of assessing
all resources of the country, augmenting deficient resources, formulating plans for
the most effective and balanced utilisation of resources and determining priorities.
1118 Chapter 23

The Prime Minister is the Chairman of the Planning Commission, which works
under the overall guidance of the National Development Council.
Since 1951, the development of India has been pursued through 5-years plans,
meaning that the planning time scale is 5 years. The first Five-year Plan was
launched in 1951 and two subsequent five-year plans were formulated till 1965.
Two successive years of drought, devaluation of the currency, a general rise in
prices and erosion of resources disrupted the planning process and after three
Annual Plans between 1966 and 1969, the fourth Five-year plan was started in
1969. The Eighth Plan could not take off in 1990 due to the fast changing political
situation at the Center and the years 1990–91 and 1991–92 were treated as Annual
Plans. The Eighth Plan was finally launched in 1992. Since the launch of the
Ninth Plan in 1997, the emphasis on the public sector has become less pronounced
and the current thinking on planning in the country, in general, is that it should
increasingly be of an indicative nature. The tenth plan was launched in 2002.
The office of Planning Commission is located in Yojna Bhavan at Parliament
Street in New Delhi – 110 001. The Homepage of the Planning Commission is:
http://planningcommission.nic.in.

23.2.9. Ministry of Science & Technology

The Ministry of Science and Technology (MST) came into being in 1985. Main
departments under this ministry are the Department of Science and Technology, the
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the Department of Biotech-
nology. The homepage of Ministry of Science & Technology is: http://mst.nic.in.
Two organizations under MST have an important and useful role in water sector.
These are the India Meteorological Department (IMD) and the National Center for
Medium Range Weather Forecasting function under MST. More information about
these is given in later sections.
The Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC)
is an autonomous organization established by the Department of Science and
Technology. The main aims of TIFAC are to monitor global trends, to formulate
preferred technology options for India, promote key technologies and undertake
technology assessment and forecasting studies in selected areas of the national
economy. Many Technology Assessment and Technomarket Survey Study reports
have been prepared by TIFAC and are available on the homepage of TIFAC at
www.tifac.org.in.

23.2.10. Department of Space

Government of India had set up Space Commission and Department of Space (DOS)
in June 1972. Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) under DOS executes
the space programme. In the mid-1970s, meteorology and weather forecasting were
selected among the thrust areas by the Indian Space Programme. ‘Bhaskara’, one of
the earliest satellites, had a microwave payload to study the atmosphere and ocean.
Institutions of Hydrology and Water Resources 1119

The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) series was conceptualized as a multi-purpose

geostationary satellite system for communications, meteorology, oceanography, and
weather services. In late 1980s, the INSAT 1 series was launched, which carried a
Very High Resolution Radiometer (VHRR) payload that operated in two spectral
bands—visible (0.55– 0.75 mm) and thermal infrared (10.5–12.5 mm). The INSAT
system is designed to provide the following services:
i. Round the clock surveillance of weather systems and operational parameters
for weather forecasting,
ii. Collection and transmission of meteorological, hydrological and oceanographic
data from remote/inaccessible areas, and
iii. Timely dissemination of warning of impending disasters dissemination of
meteorological information.
Summary information on the development and deployment of satellites in India is
presented in Table 3; an exhaustive list is available with ISRO.
The INSAT 2 series includes many satellites to ensure the continuity of services
in an enhanced manner. INSAT facilities are also being used for real-time hydro-
meteorological data collection in some basins.

Indian remote sensing programme

Under the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) program, ISRO has launched a
series of land observation satellites. The operational first generation RS satellites
IRS-1A and IRS-1B were placed in near-polar, sun-synchronous orbit, with repet-
itive time of 22 days. The satellites had two Linear Imaging Scanning Sensors
(LISS-I and LISS-II) for providing data in four spectral bands: Visible, Infra Red
(IR) and Near Infra Red (NIR). Their ground resolutions were 72.5 m and 36.25 m,
respectively. The second generation, operational, multi-sensor satellites IRS-1C and
IRS-1D were launched in 1995 and 1997. These were placed in near-polar, sun-
synchronous orbit with a repetitive time of 22 days. These satellites have three
on-board cameras. The PANchromatic (PAN) camera operates in the panchromatic
region of the EM spectrum and has a spatial resolution of 5.8 m. It can be steered up
to 26 across-track, thus enabling generation of steoroscopic imagery and improved
revisit capability. The Linear Imaging Self Scanner-III (LISS-III) camera operates in
four spectral bands: three in Visible/ Near Infrared (VNIR) and one in Short Wave
Infrared (SWIR) region. It has a resolution of 23.5 m in VNIR bands (swath 141 km)
and 70 m in SWIR band. The Wide Field Sensor (WiFS) is a coarse resolution
camera with spatial resolution of 188.3 m. A satellite for oceanographic studies,
namely, IRS-P4 (OCEANSAT-1) having an ocean color monitor with 8 spectral
bands and a multi-frequency scanning microwave radiometer operating in four
frequencies has been recently launched to enable measurement of physical and
biological ocean parameters.
In view of rapid developments taking place in space technology and increasing
application of remote sensing and GIS techniques, ISRO has planned a number
of future satellite IRS missions. These will provide cadastral level information up
to 1:5,000 scale thematic applications, vegetation and multi-crop discrimination,
1120 Chapter 23

Table 3. Indicative list of development and deployment of Indian satellites

Satellite Launch Date Achievements

Aryabhata 19.04.1975 First Indian satellite. Provided technological

experience in building and operating a satellite
system.
Bhaskara-I 07.06.1979 First experimental remote-sensing satellite.
Carried TV and microwave cameras.
Ariane Passenger Payload 19.06.1981 First experimental communication satellite.
Experiment (APPLE) Provided experience in building and operating
a three-axis stabilized communication satellite.
Rohini Technology Payload 10.08.1979 Intended for measuring in-flight performance
(RTP) of first experimental flight of SLV-3, the first
Indian launch vehicle. Could not be placed in
orbit.
Rohini (RS-1) 18.07.1980 Used for measuring in-flight performance of
second experimental launch of SLV-3.
Rohini (RS-D1) 31.05.1981 Used for conducting some remote-sensing
technology studies using a landmark sensor
payload.
Stretched Rohini Satellite 24.03.1987 Carried payload for launch vehicle
Series (SROSS-1) performance monitoring and for Gamma Ray
astronomy. Could not be placed in orbit.
Stretched Rohini Satellite 13.07.1988 Carried remote sensing payload of German
Series (SROSS-2) space agency in addition to Gamma Ray
astronomy payload. Could not be placed in
orbit.
Indian National Satellite 10.04.1982 First operational multi-purpose communication
(INSAT-1A) and meteorology satellite.
INSAT-1B 30.08.1983 Identical to INSAT-1A. Served for more than
design life of seven years.
INSAT-1D 12.06.1990 Identical to INSAT-1A.
INSAT-2A 10.07.1992 First satellite in the second-generation
Indian-built INSAT-2 series. Has enhanced
capability than INSAT-1 series.
INSAT-2B 23.07.1993 Second satellite in INSAT-2 series. Identical
to INSAT-2A.
INSAT-2C 07.12.1995 Has mobile satellite service, business
communication and television outreach
beyond Indian boundaries.
INSAT-2E 03.04.1999 Multipurpose communication and
meteorological satellite
INSAT-3B 23.03.2000 Multipurpose communication and
meteorological satellite
INSAT-3C 24.01.2002 Multipurpose communication and
meteorological satellite
INSAT-3A 10.04.2003 Multipurpose communication and
meteorological satellite
INSAT-3E 28.09.2003 Multipurpose communication and
meteorological satellite
Indian Remote Sensing 17.03.1988 First operational remote-sensing satellite.
Satellite (IRS-1A)
Institutions of Hydrology and Water Resources 1121

Indian Remote Sensing 20.09.1993 Carried remote-sensing payloads. Could not

Satellite (IRS-1E) be placed in orbit.
Indian Remote Sensing 15.10.1994 Carried remote-sensing payload.
Satellite (IRS-P2)
Indian Remote Sensing 28.12.1995 Carries advanced remote-sensing cameras.
Satellite (IRS-1C)
Indian Remote Sensing 21.03.1996 Carries remote-sensing payload and an X-ray
Satellite (IRS-P3) astronomy payload.
Indian Remote Sensing 29.09.1997 Same as IRS-1C.
Satellite (IRS-1D)
Kalpana 2003 Exclusive meteorological satellite, VHRR.
IRS-P6 (RESOURCESAT-1) 17.10.2003 Carries 3 cameras: a high resolution LISS-4
operating in 3 spectral bands with 5.8 m
spatial resolution and steerable; a medium
resolution LISS-3 operating in 3 spectral
bands with 23.5 m spatial resolution; and an
Advanced Wide Field Sensor (AWiFS)
operating in 3 spectral bands with 56 m
spatial resolution.
CARTOSAT – 1 05.05.2005 Moves in sun-synchronous orbit, has 2
cameras on-board, resolution 2.5 m, can
provide stereo view.
IRS - P4 (OCEANSAT) 2005 Primarily built for ocean applications.
Carries on board an Ocean Colour Monitor
(OCM) and a Multi-frequency Scanning
Microwave Radiometer (MSMR).

Source: http://www.isro.org/sat.htm and others.

species level discrimination etc. Further details of satellites and data can be obtained
from http://www.isro.org or http://www.nrsa.gov.in.
The headquarters of ISRO are at Antariksh Bhavan, New BEL Road, Bangalore
560 094. The home page can be accessed at www.isro.org.

23.3. CENTRAL GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS

AND UNDERTAKINGS

This section briefly describes important central government organizations that deal
with water.

23.3.1. Central Water Commission

Central Water Commission (CWC) is a premier technical organization in the country

in the field of water resources since 1945 and is presently functioning as an attached
office of the Ministry of Water Resources. The Commission is charged with the
general responsibility of initiating and coordinating schemes for control, and conser-
vation and utilization of water resources throughout the country. Water resources
development schemes that are submitted by the concerned State Governments are
1122 Chapter 23

examined by CWC from technical and economic angles and if found suitable, are
recommended for funding. CWC may also undertake investigations, construction
and execution of a scheme, if required.
Under the existing organizational setup, the Central Water Commission is headed
by a Chairman who also holds the status of Ex-officio Secretary to the Government
of India. CWC has three technical wings, namely, the Designs and Research Wing,
the Water Planning and Projects Wing, and the River Management Wing. Each of
these wings is headed by an officer designated as Member. Members are assisted by
officers of the rank of Chief Engineer, Director/Superintending Engineer, Deputy
Director/Executive Engineer, Assistant Director/Assistant Executive Engineer and
other engineering and non-engineering supporting staff. A Human Resources
Management Unit headed by a Chief Engineer looks after administrative and
accounts matters.
A training unit, known as the National Water Academy (NWA), has been set-
up under the CWC in Pune. This academy is headed by a Chief Engineer. NWA
conducts training courses related to water resources for the in-service engineers of
Central and State Governments.
CWC has a large network of field offices all over the country. It has
thirteen regional offices located in Bangalore, Bhopal, Bhubaneshwar, Chandigarh,
Coimbatore/Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Lucknow, Nagpur, Patna, Shillong,
Siliguri and Vadodara. Each of these offices is headed by a Chief Engineer.
Under these regional offices, there are circle offices, division offices, and so
on. CWC operates a large network of stream gauging stations on important
rivers of the country. Observed data from these stations are used, among
other purposes, for assessment of water resources and flood forecasting. CWC
offices maintain a close coordination with the concerned state government
departments.
The contact address of CWC is: The Chairman, Central Water Commission
(CWC), Sewa Bhawan, R.K. Puram, New Delhi – 110 066. Homepage is:
www.cwc.nic.in

23.3.2. Central Ground Water Board

The Central Ground Water Board is entrusted with the responsibility of hydro-
geological surveys, exploration, assessment, development, and management of
ground water resources in the country. The Board is mainly responsible for the
following activities:
• Systematic hydro-geological surveys and their reappraisal,
• Ground water exploration aided by drilling,
• Monitoring of national hydrograph network stations,
• Periodic assessment of ground water resources,
• Publication of maps and reports,
• Findings ground water source for drought affected states under the National
Drinking Water Mission,
Institutions of Hydrology and Water Resources 1123

• Construction of deposit wells,

• Hydro-geological and hydro-meteorological, chemical and geophysical studies,
• Mathematical modelling studies including pollution aspects,
• Data storage and retrieval,
• Water balance and artificial recharge studies,
• Studies on conjunctive use of ground water and surface water,
• Training in activities related to ground water, and
• Reviewing regulation of ground water development.
Similar to CWC, CGWB also has a large network of stations all over the
country. The contact address of CGWB is: The Chairman, Central Ground
Water Board (CGWB), New CGO Complex, NH-IV, Faridabad 121 001,
Haryana.

23.3.3. National Institute of Hydrology (NIH)

The National Institute of Hydrology, a Govt. of India Society under the Ministry
of Water Resources is conducting basic, applied and strategic research in the field
of hydrology and water resources development since December 1978. The Institute
has carried out research in various areas of hydrology and successfully completed
a number of sponsored/consultancy projects in the country. The Institute with its
headquarter at Roorkee has six regional centers located at Belgaum, Jammu, Sagar,
Kakinada, Patna and Guwahati.
The mandate of NIH is:
• to undertake, aid, promote and coordinate basic, applied and strategic research on
all aspects of hydrology, contributing to sustainable water resources development
in the country;
• to act as a repository of knowledge and information, and dissemination of the
same in the country;
• to act as a center of excellence for transfer of technology, human resource
development and institutional development in specialized areas of hydrology;
• to conduct user defined, demand-driven research through consultancy in the field
of hydrology; and
• to cooperate and collaborate with relevant national and international organizations
in achieving the above objectives.
The research and development activities in the Institute are being carried out
under the following six scientific divisions: Agricultural Hydrology, Environmental
Hydrology, Ground Water Hydrology, Hydrological Investigations, Surface Water
Hydrology, and Water Resources Systems. Five well equipped laboratories with
state-of-art instruments are available to provide the necessary support to field
studies: Hydrological Instrumentation, Nuclear Hydrology, Remote Sensing & GIS,
Soil Water, and Water Quality.
The contact address of NIH is: The Director, National Institute of
Hydrology, Jal Vigyan Bhavan, Roorkee-247 667, Uttaranchal. Homepage:
www.nih.ernet.iniah
1124 Chapter 23

23.3.4. Central Water and Power Research Station

The Central Water and Power Research Station (CWPRS) is engaged in R & D
work in the areas of water and energy resources development and water borne
transport. The main functions of this organization are:
• Planning, organizing and undertaking specific research studies to evaluate, alter,
modify or redesign the proposals and/or to redefine the objectives therein relating
to all phases of water resources development, including water-borne transport,
environmental aspects;
• Carrying out basic or fundamental research necessary aimed at the furtherance
of knowledge relevant to water resources and related sciences;
• Rendering consultancy and/or advisory services to the Central and State Govern-
ments as may be called upon;
• Disseminating research findings and building up of a technical database in water
resources; and
• Promoting/ assisting research activities in State and other institutions concerned
with water resources, and carrying out training for research manpower.
The contact address of CWPRS is: The Director, Central Water & Power Research
Station, P.O. Khadakwasla, Pune-411 024. Homepage: www.mah.nic.in/cwprs.

23.3.5. National Water Development Agency (NWDA)

This Agency was set up in 1980 to promote scientific development for optimum
utilisation of water resources in the country and for preparing feasibility reports for
inter-basin transfer of water. The main objectives of NWDA are:
• To promote scientific development for optimum utilisation of water resources in
the country.
• To carry out detailed surveys and investigations of the possible storage reservoir
sites and interconnecting link in order to establish feasibility of the proposal of
Peninsular Rivers Development and Himalayan Rivers Development Components
of National Perspective for water resources development.
• To carry out detailed studies about the quantum of water in various Penin-
sular/ Himalayan River Systems and transfer of water to other basins/States after
meeting reasonable needs of basin States in the foreseeable future.
• To prepare feasibility reports of various components of the scheme relating to
Peninsular Rivers Development and Himalayan Rivers Development.
NWDA has many regional offices all over the country. The contact address of
NWDA is: The Director General, National Water Development Agency (NWDA),
18–20 Community Center, Saket, New Delhi 110 017.

23.3.6. Water and Power Consultancy Services (India) Limited

The Water and Power Consultancy Services (India) Limited (WAPCOS) provides
an integrated package of consultancy services in the water resources sector. It is an
Institutions of Hydrology and Water Resources 1125

organization under the Ministry of Water Resources. The main objects for which
the company was established are:
• To provide engineering and related technical and consultancy services for devel-
opment of water resources, irrigation and drainage, electric power, flood control
and water supply projects.
• To establish, provide, maintain and perform procurement, inspection, management
of construction and related services in connection with the construction of water
resources development projects, thermal power stations, and transmission and
distribution systems.
The company carries out business relating to:
• pre-investment investigations, planning, design, supervision of construction,
operation and maintenance of works involved in the development and utilisation
of water resources, generation and utilisation of electric power; and
• topographic surveys, aerial photography, hydrological surveys, meteorological
surveys, geological surveys, material surveys, underground resources investiga-
tions, soil surveys and land classification surveys.
WAPCOS has provided its services for a large number of projects within India
and abroad. Its head office is located at: Kailash, 26 Kasturba Gandhi Marg, New
Delhi. Their Homepage is: www.wapcos.net.

23.3.7. Narmada Control Authority

The Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal, constituted to adjudicate upon the water
dispute pertaining to Narmada River, in its final order has provided for the setting
up of a machinery for implementing its directions and decisions. Accordingly, the
Central Government framed the Narmada Water Scheme, inter-alia, constituting the
Narmada Control Authority (NCA) to give effect to the decisions of the Tribunal.
Accordingly, NCA was set up in 1980 mainly for the purpose of overseeing
the implementation of the award of the Narmada Water Dispute Tribunal (1979)
for planning and management of the river basin, including storage apportionment,
regulation and control of Narmada waters, sharing of power benefits from Sardar
Sarovar Project, etc. The Authority is headed by the Secretary, Union Ministry of
Water Resources as Chairman. The Executive Member of the Authority is in-charge
of administrative working. The funding of the Authority is from the States of
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Rajasthan in equal share. A Review
Committee headed by the Union Minister of Water Resources and Chief Ministers of
the States of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan as members has
been set-up to take final decisions on matters of any disagreement in the Executive
Committee. The decisions of the Review Committee are final and binding on all
co-basin states. The main functions of the Authority are:
• Overall co-ordination and direction of the implementation of all the projects in
Narmada Basin, including the engineering works, the environmental protection
measures and the rehabilitation programme and to ensure the faithful compliance
1126 Chapter 23

of the terms and conditions stipulated by the Central Government at the time of
clearance of the aforesaid projects.
• To do any or all things necessary, sufficient and expedient for the implementation
of the order of the tribunal with respect to:
• the storage, apportionment, regulation and control of the Narmada waters,
• sharing of power benefits from Sardar Sarovar Project,
• regulated releases by Madhya Pradesh, and
• acquisition of lands and properties likely to be submerged by the concerned
States for the Sardar Sarovar Project.
Besides the activities of implementation of environmental safeguards and Reset-
tlement and Rehabilitation activity in Sardar Sarovar Project, the Authority is now
implementing the first phase of the scheme for setting up a hydro-met network in
the Narmada basin. The head office of NCA is in Indore, Madhya Pradesh.
A contract was signed by NCA with M/s ECIL in September, 1996 for imple-
mentation of Real Time Data Acquisition System (RTDAS) Network comprising
26 Remote Stations (RS) and a Master Control Center (MCC) located at Indore.
Depending upon the configuration, the Remote stations, will automatically collect
various hydro- meteorological data such as water level, rainfall, evaporation, radiation,
wind speed and direction, relative humidity and ambient temperature and transmit the
same, via INSAT-2B to the MCC. The work is in an advanced stage of implementation.

23.3.8. India Meteorological Department (IMD)

The India Meteorological Department (IMD) was established in 1875. It is the

national meteorological service and the principal government agency in matters
relating to meteorology, seismology and allied subjects. IMD has units all over
the country which are engaged in collecting meteorological and seismological
data besides providing various meteorological services. Its main objective is to
provide meteorological information for weather sensitive activities, such as aviation,
shipping, agriculture, irrigation, off-shore oil exploration, and industries. IMD also
issues warnings against severe weather phenomena, such as cyclones, dust-storms,
heavy rains, and cold and heat waves. Besides, it also provides climatological infor-
mation, records earthquakes and promotes research in meteorology. The department
maintains an extensive network of modern observatories all over the country.
IMD also carries out operation and coordination of 22 types of atmospheric
monitoring networks. The list of these atmospheric monitoring networks is presented
in Table 4. Meteorological/climatological, air pollution and other specialized obser-
vation of trace atmospheric constituents are included in this list. Meteorological
observations began in India as early as 1793, after the establishment of the
first observatory at Madras (now Chennai). IMD maintains 559 surface meteo-
rological, about 35 radio-sonde and 64 pilot balloon stations for monitoring the
upper atmosphere. IMD also made specialized observations for agro-meteorological
purposes at 219 stations and monitor radiation parameters at 45 stations. Besides,
IMD also has 70 observatories that monitor current weather conditions for aviation.
Institutions of Hydrology and Water Resources 1127

Table 4. Atmospheric monitoring networks

SN Type of observatory Number

1 Surface observatories 559

2 Pilot balloon observatories 65
a. RS/RW observatories 34
b. Only RS observatories 1
3 Aviation current weather observatories 71
4 Aviation forecasting offices at national and international airports 19
5 Regional area forecast center 1
6 Storm detecting radar stations 17
7 Cyclone detection radar stations 10
8 High-wind recording stations 4
9 Stations for receiving cloud pictures from satellites
a. Low-resolution cloud pictures 7
b. High-resolution cloud pictures 1
c. INSAT – 1B cloud pictures (SDUC stations) 20
d. APT Stations in Antarctica 1
e. AVHRR station 1
10 Data Collection Platforms through INSAT 100
11 Hydro-meteorological observatories 701
a. Non-departmental rain gauge stations
i. Reporting 3 540
ii. Non-reporting 5 039
b. Non-departmental glaciological Observations (non-reporting)
i. Snow gauges 21
ii. Ordinary rain gauges 10
iii. Seasonal snow poles 6
12 Agro-meteorological observatories 219
13 Evaporation stations 222
14 Evapotranspiration stations 39
15 Seismological observatories 58
16 Ozone monitoring
a. Total ozone and Umkehr observatories 5
b. Ozone-sonde observatories 3
c. Surface ozone observatories 6
17 Radiation observatories
a. Surface 45
b. Upper air 8
18 Atmospheric electricity observatories 4
19 (a) Background pollution observatories 10
(b) Urban Climatological Units 2
(c) Urban Climatological Observatories 13
20 Ships of the Indian voluntary observing fleet 203
21 Soil moisture recording stations 49
22 Dew-fall recording stations 80

Source: http://www.imd.ernet.in
1128 Chapter 23

Although, monitoring of extreme events is done at all the weather stations by

the India Meteorological Department, the monitoring and forecasting of tropical
cyclones is specially done through three Area Cyclone Warning Centers as well
as three cyclone warning centers located at Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata,
and Ahmedabad, Vishakhapatnam and Bhubaneshwar respectively. These warning
centers issue warnings for tropical storms and other severe weather systems affecting
Indian coasts. To observe and forewarn severe weather events, particularly tropical
cyclones, storm and cyclone detections radars have been installed all along the coast
and some key inland locations. The radar network upgraded work using Doppler
Radars is under progress at many locations.
IMD also monitors climate to detect change, predict climate change, and
determine the effects of climate change; and contributes to global observational
efforts. A National Climate Center (NCC) has been established at IMD’s research
wing in Pune to undertake climate research, applications, data collection and
management, and impact awareness studies. Data collected from the network of
observations are archived at the Department’s National Data Center in Pune. IMD
has a dedicated meteorological telecommunication network with the central hub at
New Delhi. The Center holds over 65 million records in its archives. The National
Meteorological Telecommunication Center (NMTC) under IMD functions as a
Regional Telecommunication Hub (RTH) under the WWW Global Telecommuni-
cation System.
The IMD homepage (http://www.imd.ernet.in) contains dynamically updated
information on all-India weather and forecasts, special monsoon reports, satellite
cloud pictures updated every three hours, Limited Area Model (LAM) generated
products and prognostic charts, special weather warnings, tropical cyclone infor-
mation and warnings, weekly and monthly rainfall distribution maps, earthquake
reports, etc. It also contains a lot of static information, including temperature and
rainfall normals over the country and an overview of the activities and services
rendered by IMD.
In the field of earth and atmospheric sciences, a center for exchange of satellite
data has been established at IMD New Delhi. IMD has installed about 100 meteoro-
logical data collection platforms (DCP) all over the country. IMD plays an important
role in collaboration with the National Physical Laboratory (www.npl-cgc.ernet.in)
for long-term data collection related to climate change at the Indian base in East
Antarctica (Schirmacher Oasis) where a Station known as Maitri is operational
since 1983. The head office of IMD is located in New Delhi. Their contact address
is: India Meteorological Department, Mausam Bhawan, Lodhi Road, New Delhi.

23.3.9. Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR)

ICAR is a R & D organization under the Ministry of Agriculture, which acts as

a repository of information and provides consultancy on agriculture, horticulture,
resource management, animal sciences, agricultural engineering, fisheries, agricul-
tural extension, agricultural education, and agricultural communication. It coordinates
Institutions of Hydrology and Water Resources 1129

agricultural research and development programmes and develops linkages at national

and international level with related organizations for improvement in agricultural
practices and to enhance the quality of life of the farming community.
The principal executive officer of ICAR is the Director-General who is also the
Secretary to the Government of India in the Department of Agricultural Research
and Education (DARE). The Director General is assisted by eight Deputy Directors-
General - one each in-charge of Crop Sciences, Natural Resource Management,
Animal Sciences, Agricultural Education, Agricultural Extension, Fisheries, Horti-
culture and Agricultural Engineering.
ICAR has established various research centers to meet the agricultural research
and education needs of the country. It pursues human resource development in
the field of agricultural sciences by setting up numerous agricultural universities
spanning the entire country. The Technology Intervention Programmes also form an
integral part of ICAR’s agenda which establishes Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs)
responsible for training, research and demonstration of improved technologies. For
further information, please log on to http://www.icar.org.in/

23.3.10. Water Technology Center for Eastern Region, Bhubaneswar,

Orissa

It is a pioneer research institute in the area of sustainable water management under

Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). The goal of WTCER is to develop
and transfer improved water management technologies for sustainable agricultural
production in the eastern region.

23.3.11. National Water Resources Council

The National Water Resources Council (NWRC) was set up by the Government
of India in March 1983. The Prime Minister is the Chairman, Union Minister of
Water Resources is the Vice-Chairman and Union Ministers of Finance, Agriculture,
Rural Development, Planning, Urban Development, Energy, Surface Transport and
Science and Technology, Chief Ministers of State and Administrators/Lt. Governors
of the Union Territories are the Members. Secretary, Ministry of Water Resources
is the Secretary of the Council. The functions of the Council are as follows:
• To lay down the national water policy and to review it from time to time.
• To consider and review water development plans submitted to it (including
alternative plans) by the National Water Development Agency, the River Basin
Commission, etc.
• To recommend acceptance of water plans with such modifications as may be
considered appropriate and necessary.
• To give directions for carrying out such further studies as may be necessary for
full consideration of the plans or components thereof.
1130 Chapter 23

• To advise on the modalities of resolving inter-state difference with regard to

specific elements of water plans and such other issues that arise during planning
to implementation of the projects.
• To advise practices and procedures, administrative arrangements and regulations
for the fair distribution and utilisation of water resources by different beneficiaries
keeping in view optimum development and the maximum benefits to the people.
• To make such other recommendations as would foster expeditious and environ-
mentally sound and economical development of water resources in various
regions.
The Council is supposed to meet at least once in a year but it has not played an
effective role in India’s water resources development.

23.3.12. National Water Board

The Government of India constituted the National Water Board (NWD) in

September 1990 with the Secretary, Ministry of Water Resources, as its Chairman.
The Secretaries of concerned Union Ministries, the Chairman (Central Water
Commission), and the Chief Secretaries of States/Union Territories are its members.
The functions of the Board are:
• To review the progress of the implementation of the National Water Policy and
report to the Council.
• To recommend the setting up of appropriate organizations and institutions for
the integrated development of water resources as envisaged under the National
Water Policy.
• To make recommendations on the pattern of financing of the water development
projects for speedy and systematic development of the water resources.
• To suggest guidelines for the development and training of personnel required for
the water sector.
• To make suggestions for undertaking appropriate programmes and investment
priorities in the water sector for achieving the objective of the National Water
Policy.
• To consider any matter/problem associated with the development and
management of the nation’s water resources and as may be brought up before it.
The Board normally meets once a year.

23.3.13. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)

BIS is an autonomous body under the Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Govt. of India.
It has been established under the Bureau of Indian Standards Act with the main
functions as standardization, quality certification of products and services.
Water resources department is one of the departments of BIS. The water resources
division council looks after the work of Water Resources Department. The work of
this department is accomplished through sectional committees listed in Table 5.
Institutions of Hydrology and Water Resources 1131

Table 5. Sectional committees of the Water Resources Department of BIS

SN Title of the sectional committee

1 WRD 1 Hydrometry
2 WRD 2 Terminology Related to River Valley Projects
3 WRD 3 Ground Water and Related Investigations
4 WRD 5 Geological Investigation and Subsurface Exploration
5 WRD 6 Water Resources Planning, Management And Evaluation
6 WRD 8 Foundation and Substructures
7 WRD 9 Dams and Reservoirs
8 WRD 10 Spillways including Energy Dissipaters
9 WRD 12 Hydraulic Gates And Valves
10 WRD 13 Canals and Cross Drainage Works
11 WRD 14 Water Conductor Systems
12 WRD 15 Hydroelectric Power House Structures
13 WRD 16 Hydraulic Structures Instrumentation
14 WRD 21 Safety in Construction, Operation and Maintenance of River Valley Projects
15 WRD 22 River Training and Diversion Works
16 WRD 23 Measurement of Works of River Valley Projects
17 WRD 24 Environmental Assessment and Management of Water Resource: Projects
18 WRD 25 Geosynthetics

A list of standards relevant to this book is given in Appendix x. The website

of BIS can be found at http://www.bis.org.in. Its head office is at Manak Bhavan,
9-Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg, New Delhi.

23.3.14. Central Pollution Control Board

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) is the national apex body for
assessment, monitoring and control of water and air pollution. The CPCB in collab-
oration with the State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) monitors the quality of
fresh water resources of the country through a network of 480 monitoring stations
located all over the country. Based on such monitoring, 13 heavily polluted and 26
medium-polluted river stretches have been identified.
CPCB, a statutory organization, was constituted in September, 1974 under the
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. Further, CPCB was entrusted
with the powers and functions under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, 1981. It serves as a field formation and also provides technical services to
the Ministry of Environment and Forests of the provisions of the Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986. Principal functions of the CPCB, as spelt out in the Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and the Air (Prevention and Control
of Pollution) Act 1981, and relevant to Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 are:
(i) to promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the States by
prevention, control and abatement of water pollution, and (ii) to improve the quality
of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in the country.
1132 Chapter 23

The Parliament of India enacted the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act (1974) to maintain and restore wholesomeness of our water bodies. One of the
mandates of CPCB is to collect, collate and disseminate technical and statistical
data relating to water pollution.
The major functions of the Central Board at the national level are:
• Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning prevention and control
of water and air pollution and improvement of the quality of air.
• Plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for the prevention,
control or abatement of water and air pollution;
• Co-ordinate the activities of the State Boards and resolve disputes among
them;
• Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and
sponsor investigation and research relating to problems of water and air pollution,
and for their prevention, control or abatement;
• Plan and organize training of persons engaged in programme on the prevention,
control or abatement of water and air pollution;
• Organize through mass media, a comprehensive mass awareness programme on
the prevention, control or abatement of water and air pollution;
• Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water and
air pollution and the measures devised for their effective prevention, control or
abatement;
• Prepare manuals, codes and guidelines relating to treatment and disposal of
sewage and trade effluents as well as for stack gas cleaning devices, stacks and
ducts;
• Disseminate information in respect of matters relating to water and air pollution
and their prevention and control; and
• Lay down, modify or annul, in consultation with the State Governments
concerned, the standards for stream or well, and lay down standards for the
quality of air;

23.3.15. National Environment Engineering Research Institute

The National Environment Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur, was

established in the year 1958, as Central Public Health Engineering Research Institute
(CPHERI) and renamed in 1974 as National Environmental Engineering Research
Institute (NEERI). While fulfilling its commitment towards the societal missions,
NEERI has made significant contributions in identified thrust areas such as:
• Environmental Monitoring
• Environmental Biotechnology
• Hazardous Waste Management
• Environmental Systems Design, Modeling & Optimization
• Environmental Impact & Risk Assessment and Audit
• Environmental Policy Analysis.
Institutions of Hydrology and Water Resources 1133

NEERI is engaged in providing solutions to environmental and natural resource

problems. The office of NEERI is located at Nehru Marg, Nagpur – 440 020. The
home page of the NEERI is http://neeri.nic.in/.

23.3.16. Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI)

Research activities pertaining to various aspects of arid zones are being conducted
at the Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur. This Institute was
established with the prime objective to undertake research into sand-dune stabi-
lization, afforestation of the arid saline land of Rann of Kutch, Aravalli Hills, and
the Indira Gandhi Nahar Project (IGNP) command area.
A Desert Afforestation Station was established in 1952 at Jodhpur, which was
later expanded into Desert Afforestation and Soil Conservation Station in 1957, and
finally upgraded to Central Arid Zone Research Institute in 1959. CAZRI became an
ICAR institute in 1968. Many of the developed technologies were transferred to the
field through various developmental programmes, including Drought Prone Area
Programme (DPAP) and Desert Development Programme (DDP) of Government
of India, initiated in 1972 and 1978, respectively.
There are four regional stations of CAZRI at Jaisalmer, Bikaner and Pali in
Rajasthan and Bhuj in Gujarat to carry out location specific research. Besides, there
are four experimental field areas located in different agro-ecological sub-regions.

23.3.17. Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM)

This institute was established under the UNDP’s Special Fund Project as the Institute
of Tropical Meteorology (ITM) at Pune in 1962 under the India Meteorological
Department (IMD). In 1971, the Government of India gave it an autonomous status
with a new name, i.e., the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM). The
IITM functions under the Department of Science and Technology, Government of
India.
IITM is a national center for basic and applied research in monsoon meteorology
of the tropics in general with special reference to monsoon meteorology of India and
neighbourhood. Its primary functions are to promote, guide and conduct research in
the field of meteorology. The office of IITM is located at Dr. Homi Bhabha Road,
Pune. The web site is www.tropmet.res.in.
IITM has made significant contributions in weather forecasting, climatology and
global change, hydrometeorology, monsoon, climate modelling, weather modifi-
cation, instrumentation for the observational studies, and studies relating to land-
surface processes. Following are its significant achievements:
• Developed weather forecasting models on different scales by identifying various
teleconnections and related predictors.
• Constructed long homogeneous series of monsoon rainfall and surface air
temperature to study their spatial and temporal variability and regional climate
change.
1134 Chapter 23

• Documented the tele-connections of the Indian rainfall with El Nino events.

• Developed a multilevel global spectral model for investigation of the dynamics
and predictability of monsoon flow.
• Developed an ocean model to simulate surface climatology and to study the
interannual variability of the North Indian Ocean.
• Published an Atlas containing generalised Probable Maximum Precipitation
(PMP) charts for different parts of India.
• Developed instruments for measurements of various atmospheric electric param-
eters for the study of atmospheric electricity under different environmental
conditions and of different micrometeorological parameters in the atmospheric
boundary layer.
• Undertaken the study of monsoon variability on different time scales using
different global climate models.

23.3.18. National Center for Medium Range Weather Forecasting

The National Center for Medium Range Weather Forecasting is the premier insti-
tution in India to provide medium range weather forecasts through deterministic
methods and to render agro-meteorological advisory services to farmers. The center
offers challenging research opportunities in numerical weather prediction, diagnostic
studies, and crop weather modeling. Its objectives are: i) development of operational
and regional scale numerical weather prediction (NWP) models for forecasting
weather in medium range (3-10 days) time scale, ii) to inform and guide the farmers
in advance to undertake various farming activities based on the expected weather,
iii) to set-up 127 agrometeorological advisory service (AAS) units, each unit repre-
senting one of the 127 agroclimatic zones spread all over India, and iv) to set-up
satellite based V-SAT Network for enabling stable/fast dedicated communication
with AAS units.
At NCMRWF, R&D activities on various areas of meteorology are carried out to
improve the quality of medium range weather forecasts. All the research efforts lead
to the development and improvement of the Operational Weather Forecast System
of NCMRWF. The contact address of NCMRWF is: Mausam Bhavan Complex,
Lodi Road, New Delhi-110 003, Home page www.ncmrwf.gov.in.

23.3.19. Central Electricity Authority

The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) is a statutory organization, under Ministry

of Power. The authority comprises a Chairman and six full time Members. Chairman
is the head of the organization and the Members are over all in-charge of different
functional wings, such as Planning, Thermal, Hydro, Grid Operation and Distri-
bution, Economic & Commercial. The CEA website is at www.cea.nic.in. Its
head office is: Central Electricity Authority, Ministry of Power, Sewa Bhawan,
Institutions of Hydrology and Water Resources 1135

R.K. Puram, New Delhi-110,066. The Authority has been entrusted with the
following main functions:
• To develop a sound, adequate and uniform national power policy, formulate
short-term and perspective plans for power development and co-ordinate the
activities of planning agencies in relation to the control and utilization of national
power resources.
• To act as arbitrators in matters arising between the State Government or the
Electricity Board and a licensee or other person as provided in the Electric
(Supply) Act.
• To collect and record data concerning generation, distribution and utilization
of power and carry out studies relating to cost, efficiency, losses, benefits and
similar matters.
• To make public from time to time information secured under the Act and to
provide for the publication of reports and investigation;
• To advise any State Government Board, Generating Company or any other
agency engaged in the generation or supply of electricity on such matters as will
enable such Government, Board, generating company or other agency to operate
and maintain the power system under the ownership or control in an improved
manner and where necessary in co-ordination with any other Government, Board,
generating company or other agency owing or having the control of another
power system;

23.3.20. G. B. Pant Institute for Himalayan Environment &

Development

The Government has established the G.B. Pant Institute for Himalayan Environment
and Development in Almora, Uttaranchal, with the specific mandate for gener-
ating and strengthening the knowledge about the ecology and sustainable devel-
opment of the Indian Himalayas. The Institute is also involved in integrating and
collecting traditional knowledge for sustainable and integrated development of
watersheds.

23.3.21. National River Conservation Directorate

The Central Ganga Authority (established in 1985) was concerned with policies
for works to be taken up under the Ganga Action Plan. With the approval of
the National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) in July 1995, the Central Ganga
Authority has been renamed as the National River Conservation Directorate
(NRCD). NRCD coordinates the implementation of the schemes under the Ganga
and other Action Plans and has important role in improvement in river water quality
and environment in India. Its office is located at Paryavaran Bhavan, CGO Complex,
Lodi Road, New Delhi. Further details about NRCD are available at its Website:
http://envfor.nic.in
1136 Chapter 23

23.3.22. National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC)

National Hydroelectric Power Corporation was incorporated under the Company’s

Act (1956) in 1975 as a Central Government Enterprise for hydro power devel-
opment in Central Sector. Since then, NHPC has become the largest organization for
hydropower development in India, with capabilities to undertake all the activities
from conceptualization to commissioning in relation to setting up of hydro projects.
NHPC’s areas of expertise in hydropower projects include detailed project report
preparation; geological & geo-technical studies; design & engineering; underground
construction - tunnels, shafts, power houses, transformer galleries; construction
equipment, planning & management; operation & maintenance; and renovation,
modernization & uprating.
Major projects that have been constructed or are under construction by NHPC
include Dulhasti (390 MW), Chamera –II (300 MW), Dhauliganga –I (280 MW),
Teesta –V (510 MW), Indirasagar (JV) (1,000 MW), Sewa –II (120 MW), Purulia
PSS (JV) (900 MW), Omkareshwar (JV) (520 MW), Teesta low dam –III (132
MW), and Parbati -II (400 MW). Thus the total installed capacity created by NHPC
stands close to 4,550 MW. Homepage of NHPC at www.nhpcindia.com contains
latest details about the organization.

23.3.23. National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC)

National Thermal Power Corporation Limited (NTPC) is the largest thermal power
generating company of India. NTPC is a public sector company incorporated in
the year 1975 to accelerate power development in the country as a wholly owned
company of the Government of India. Within a span of 30 years, NTPC has emerged
as a national power company, with power generating facilities in all the major
regions of the country.
NTPC’s core business is engineering, construction and operation of power gener-
ating plants and also providing consultancy to power utilities in India and abroad.
By the year 2006, the installed capacity of plants owned by NTPC was 23,750 MW.
Recognizing its performance and potential, the Government of the India has
identified NTPC as one of the Navratnas (jewels) of Public Sector. Recently, NTPC
has also made forays in the field of hydropower generation. Homepage of NTPC
at www.ntpc.co.in contains detailed information about the organization.

23.4. RIVER BASIN ORGANIZATIONS

This section describes some important organizations that have been set-up to deal
with planning and management of specific river basins or to attend to some water
resources related problem in a river basin. Three types of river basin organizations
have been set-up in India:
• For execution or regulation of projects: Damodar Valley Corporation,
Tungabhadra Board, Bhakra-Beas Management Board, Mahi Control Board,
Institutions of Hydrology and Water Resources 1137

Chambal River Board, Betwa River Board, Bansagar Control Board, and Upper
Yamuna River Board.
• For preparation of master plan of a basin: Ganga Flood Control Commission,
Brahmaputra Board, and Sone River Commission.
• For implementation of Tribunal award: Narmada Control Authority.
Please note that all the organizations included here may not precisely meet the
requirements of a river basin authority. Some of these are described next.

23.4.1. Damodar Valley Corporation

After the catastrophic flood of 1943, the Governor of Bengal appointed the Damodar
Flood Enquiry Committee to suggest remedial measures, suggested creation of
an Authority similar to that of Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) in the United
States. Mr. W.L. Voorduin, a senior engineer of TVA, prepared the preliminary
memorandum embodying the outline of a plan designed for achieving flood control,
irrigation, power generation and navigation. As a result, the Damodar Valley Corpo-
ration (DVC) came into existence in 1948 for the development and management
of the basin as a whole. The functions of DVC include promotion and operation
of irrigation, water supply, drainage, hydro-electric and thermal power generation,
flood control navigation, afforestation, control of soil erosion, public health, agricul-
tural, industrial, economic and general well being in the Damodar Valley. The
Corporation is headed by a Chairman with two members appointed by the Central
Government.
The Damodar Valley Project, as envisaged by Mr. Voorduin, was a multipurpose
project to afford flood control, to generate 200 MW power and to provide irrigation
facilities to about 0.308 Mha in West Bengal by constructing eight dams and a
barrage. However, it was later decided to have only four dams, namely, Tilaiya,
Konar, Maithon and Panchet and a barrage at Durgapur under the control of DVC.
Subsequently, Tenughat dam was constructed by the Government of Bihar mainly
for industrial water supply. The flood absorption capacity of 1,867 MCM could
only be created as against the originally planned figure of 3,580 MCM due to the
reduced scope of work. At present, as against the broader scope envisaged originally
for functioning of DVC, irrigation has been handed over to the Government of
West Bengal, the Tenughat Project operates outside the purview of DVC and the
navigation has hardly taken off. DVC now continues to be in existence for the
management and operation of all the projects under its control, excluding water and
power distribution to consumers.

23.4.2. Ganga Flood Control Board and Ganga Flood Control

Commission

The Government of India had set up the Ganga Flood Control Board in 1972. It was
also decided to set up the Ganga Flood Control Commission (GFCC) for attending
1138 Chapter 23

to the specific works of Ganga basin and for assisting the Ganga Flood Control
Board. The important functions assigned to GFCC are:
• To prepare a comprehensive plan of flood control for the Ganga basin. The field
investigation and collection of data for the purpose will be carried out by the
State Governments.
• To draw out a phased and coordinated programme of implementation of works
in the basinwise plans.
• To advise the concerned states to follow guidelines in respect of quality control
material specifications, and maintenance in order to ensure the implementation
of works and the maintenance thereof to proper standards.
• To evaluate the performance of major flood control measures executed by the
states, including all the inter-state flood control schemes.
• To make an assessment of the existing waterways under the road and rail bridge
and to determine additional waterways to be provided for reducing the drainage
congestion to reasonable limits.
• To monitor the execution of the important flood control schemes particularly
those receiving central assistance or being executed under the central sector:
• Examination of flood control drainage, anti-water logging and anti erosion
schemes of Ganga sub basin states except for the schemes of the States of
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and NCT of Delhi
The Commission is headed by a Chairman. In addition, it has two full time Members
and part time Members from the states of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal Madhya
Pradesh, CWC, CWPRS, Ministry of Surface Transport Railway Board and Chief
engineers of all co-basin States of Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan and NCT
of Delhi. So far, the GFCC has completed the master plans of 23 river systems of
Ganga basin.

23.4.3. Brahmaputra Board

The Brahmaputra Board was set up in 1980 to prepare a master plan for the control
of floods in the Brahmaputra valley giving due regard to the overall development
and utilisation of the water resources of the valley for irrigation, hydropower,
navigation and other beneficial purposes. The Board is headed by a Chairman and
has one member each from the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur,
Tripura, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh apart from members from the Central
Water Commission, Central Electricity Authority, Geological survey of India and
India Meteorological Department. The main functions of the Board are:
• Preparation of plan for flood control and utilisation of water resources for various
uses;
• Preparation of detailed reports and estimates for the proposed projects; and
• Construction, maintenance and operation of multi-purpose projects with the
approval of Central Government.
The Board has so far prepared a Master Plan Part-I for main stem of Brahmaputra
River, Part-II for the Barak Sub-basin and Master Plan for nine tributaries of
Institutions of Hydrology and Water Resources 1139

Brahmaputra River and six rivers of Tripura under the Master Plan Part-III. North
Eastern Hydraulic and Allied Research Institute (NEHARI) under Brahmaputra
Board also carries out hydraulic model studies and soil material research.
The works under progress include surveys and investigation for preparation of
Master Plans in addition to survey and investigation of specific drainage schemes,
multi-purpose projects, viz., Pagladiya, Tipaimikh, Subansiri, Dihang, Lohit and
Kulsi. The Board is also setting up North Eastern Hydraulic and Allied Research
Institute at North Guwahati. The headquarters of the board are at Guwahati.

23.4.4. Farakka Barrage Project, Farakka

The Farakka Barrage Project is designed to serve the need of preservation and
maintenance of the Calcutta Port by improving the regime and navigability of the
Bhagirathi-Hoogly River system. The Farakka Barrage Project organization has
been assigned the work of execution of the following principal components of the
project:
• A 2,245 m long barrage across the Ganga River at Farakka with rail-cum-road
bridge, necessary river training works and a head regulator on the right side.
• A 213 m long barrage across the Bhagirathi River at Jangipur.
• Feeder Canal of 1,133 cumec carrying capacity and 38.38 km long, taking off
the head regulator on the right of the Farakka Barrage.
• Navigation works, such as locks, lock channels, shelter basins, navigation lights
and other infrastructure.

23.4.5. Upper Yamuna River Board (UYRB)

The Upper Yamuna River Board (UYRB) is a subordinate office of the Union
Ministry of Water Resources. This Board was created as a follow-up of a MoU
that was signed in 1995 amongst the party basin states for the sharing of the waters
of Yamuna River up to and including Okhla Barrage. The Board has been set up
primarily for:
• regulation of the allocation of available flows amongst the beneficiary states and
also for monitoring the return flows;
• monitoring conserving and upgrading the quality of surface and ground water;
• maintaining hydro-meteorological data for the basin;
• over-viewing plans for watershed management; and
• monitoring and reviewing the progress of all projects up to and including Okhla
barrage.
The head office of the Board is in New Delhi.

23.4.6. Tungabhadra Board

The Tungabhadra Board was constituted for completion of the Tungabhadra Project
and for its operation and maintenance. The Board is in charge of the common
1140 Chapter 23

portion of the Tungabhadra Project. The Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal has made
a specific provision in its Award for the use of Tungabhadra waters by the States
of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The responsibility for carrying out these specific
provisions relating to the use of Tungabhadra waters has been entrusted to the
Tungabhadra Board by the Tribunal. The Board is regulating water for irrigation,
hydropower generation and other uses from the reservoir.
The Board consists of the Chairman, a member representing Government of
India, and two Members, one each representing the States of Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka. The Government of Andhra Pradesh and the Government of Karnataka
provide funds in an agreed proportion.
The working table for canal wise distribution of water to the States is prepared
every year by the Tungabhadra Board in consultation with the State Govern-
ments, and is reviewed from time to time during the water year. The regulation
of water is carried out in accordance with this working table. The quantum of
water assessed during the water year 2000–2001 was 4,956 MCM. Two power
houses are maintained by the Tungabhadra Board, with a total installed capacity
of 72.00 MW. Nearly 200.00 million units of power is generation during a water
year. The generated power is shared between the States of Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh in the ratio of 20:80.

23.4.7. Bhakra Beas Management Board

The Bhakra-Nangal and Beas Projects were originally the joint ventures of the
States of erstwhile Punjab and Rajasthan. On reorganisation of Punjab in 1966, the
Bhakra Management Board was constituted by the Government of India in 1967
for the administration, maintenance and operation of Bhakra-Nangal Project. On
completion, the Beas Project works were transferred to Bhakra Management Board
in 1976 and it was renamed as Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB).
The Board is under the Ministry of Power and has been assigned administration,
maintenance and operation of Bhakra & Nangal projects on Sutlej River and Beas
Project (Unit I & Unit II) on Beas River. The Board consists of a whole time
Chairman, two whole time Members, and one representative each from the States
of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh besides two representatives
from Government of India (one each from Ministry of Power and Ministry of Water
Resources). The functions of BBMB are:
a. to regulate the supply of Sutlej, Ravi and Beas waters to the States of Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan, Delhi and Chandigarh (UT), and
b. to distribute power from Bhakra Nangal and Beas projects to the States
of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and
Chandigarh (UT).
The Bhakra Nangal Project comprises of Bhakra Dam (225 m high), Nangal Dam to
feed Nangal Hydel Channel and Anandpur Sahib Hydel Channel, and Nangal Hydel
Channel, 65 km long with head discharge of 354 cumec. Beas Project comprises of
two units – Unit I, the Beas-Sutlej Link Project and Unit-II, the Beas Dam at Pong:
Institutions of Hydrology and Water Resources 1141

Unit I consists of Pandoh Dam (76 m high); Pandoh Baggi Tunnel (13.1 km long,
254.9 cumec capacity), Sundernagar Hydel Channel (11.8 km long, 240.7 cumec
capacity), and Sundernagar Sutlej Tunnel (12.35 km long, 403.5 cumec capacity);
and Balancing reservoir with a capacity of 3.7 MCM. Unit II, the Beas Project
consists of Pong Dam (132.6 m high).
The office of BBMB is at: Bhakra Beas Management Board, 19-B, Madhya
Marg, Chandigarh.

23.4.8. Bansagar Control Board

The Bansagar Control Board was set up by the Government of India in 1976.
The Board functions from Rewa (Madhya Pradesh) accordance with an agreement
reached between the Governments of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in
1973 for sharing the waters of Sone River and the cost of the Bansagar Dam. The
resolution was amended in 1990.
The objectives of the board are to ensure an efficient, economical and early
execution of Bansagar dam, including all connected works in Madhya Pradesh,
excluding the canal systems. The Union Minister of Water Resources is the
Chairman of the Board and the Minister of State for Water Resources, Union
Minister of Power, Chief Ministers, Minister-in-Charge of Irrigation and Finance
of the three States and Minister-in-Charge of Electricity of Madhya Pradesh are
its members. The Executive Committee set up under the Chairmanship of the
Chairman, Central Water Commission, manages the day-to-day affairs of the Board.

23.4.9. Betwa River Board

In accordance with the inter-state agreement of July 1972 between Uttar Pradesh
and Madhya Pradesh, a decision was taken to constitute a Control Board for the
execution of the Rajghat Dam Project, a joint venture of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar
Pradesh. Accordingly, the Betwa River Board was constituted by the Ministry of
Water Resources for an efficient, economical and early execution of the project.
The headquarters of the Board are in Jhansi (Uttar Pradesh).
The Union Minister of Water Resources is the Chairman of the Board. Union
Minister of Power, Union Minister of State for Water Resources, Chief Ministers
and Ministers-in-charge of Finance, Irrigation and Power of the two States are its
members. An executive committee of the board headed by the Chairman, Central
Water Commission, manages the activities of the Board.

23.5. STATE GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS

23.5.1. Water and Land Management Institutes (WALMIS)

Recognizing the need for educating the canal managers and canal water users,
Water & Land Management Institutes (WALMIs) were established in a number
1142 Chapter 23

of states during late 1980s. In addition to train canal managers and in-service
staff of irrigation departments, WALMIs also conduct training courses for farmers
covering efficient water management in the field. The first WALMI was established
in Maharashtra in Aurangabad in 1980, followed by a similar Institute in Gujarat
at Anand. Subsequently, WALMI’s were set up in Hyderabad, Patna, Bhopal,
Bhubaneswar, Kota, Trichy, Dharwad and NOIDA. A list of WALMI’s is given in
Table 6.

The basic objectives of WALMIs (WG 1999) are:

1. To provide in-service training of multidisciplinary nature to the personnel
engaged in irrigated agriculture activities,
2. To undertake applied/action research on land, water and crop management,
3. Activities which will promote optimization of water use and land resources,
including consultancy services, publication of literature, holding seminars and
workshop etc.
4. Organizing training programme at project level for field operators and farmers
for transfer of technology to the grass root level.
The WALMIs were conceived as state-government-supported, autonomous, inter-
disciplinary training institutes, with learning through action research. However, the
performance of the WALMIs has been highly skewed; some are doing well and
some not. Many WALMIs do not have adequate faculty.

23.5.2. Central Design Organizations

Most state governments have established design organizations under the irriga-
tion/water resources ministries for the purpose of design of hydraulics structures.
Most such organizations do routine design work but at a few places, good research

Table 6. List of WALMIs in India with years of establishment

Name of institution/ location State Year of Establishment

WALMI, Aurangabad Maharashtra 1980

WALMI, Anand Gujarat 1980
WALMI, Hyderabad Andhra Pradesh 1983
WALMI, Patna Bihar 1984
WALMI, Bhopal Madhya Pradesh 1984
WALMI, Bhubneshwar Orissa 1984
IMTI, Kota Rajasthan 1984
IMTI, Trichy Tamil Nadu 1984
WALMI, Dharwad Karnataka 1985
WALMI, NOIDA Uttar Pradesh 1985
Center for Water Resources Development & Kerala 1988
Management (CWRDM), Calicut

Source: WG (1999).
Institutions of Hydrology and Water Resources 1143

work has also been and is being carried out. Water being the state subject, the state
governments have very important role to play and development and management
of the country. In this context, these design organizations have a key role to
play.

23.5.3. Up Irrigation Research Institute

Beginning with a small research cell under the Irrigation Department in Lucknow
in 1927, U.P. Irrigation Research Institute (UPIRI) came into being in the present
form in Roorkee in 1954. It is a research station engaged in R and D activ-
ities for various multipurpose river valley projects in India. This station is
associated with all the major activities of project planning, execution and operation,
namely: (i) Investigation, (ii) Design, (iii) Execution, and (iv) Operation and
Monitoring. Headed by a Director, UPIRI has three main wings: (i) Hydrology,
(ii) Sub-surface exploration, and (iii) Material testing. A field station has been
setup at Bahadarabad (about 15 km away) on the banks of the Upper Ganga
Canal. It gets water supply from canal at 14 cumec for testing hydraulic
models.
UPIRI has been providing basic help to the project formulators in the following
fields: a) Runoff measurements, b) Sediment transport and sedimentation studies,
c) Evapotranspiration, d) Seepage from canal systems, e) Rainfall and irrigation
recharge to ground water, f) Foundation investigations and in-situ tests, g) Soil and
rock mechanics, h) Advising on most viable layout of hydraulic structures, and
i) Suggesting river training and appurtenant works.
UPIRI has made contributions in evolving unconventional designs of intake fall
for a number of hydropower projects. It has also developed energy dissipators
on important irrigation systems. Some important achievements of the institute
are: Sharda type fall, hopper type sediment excluders and ejectors for canals,
design of spillway of Rihand and Lakhwar dams, and model studies for the
Tehri dam. UPIRI has also played an important role in suggesting the alignment
of the new head regulator for Parallel Lower Ganga Canal, (PLGC) taking off
from existing Narora Barrage. Detailed information about UPIRI is available at:
www.uttranchalirrigation.com/iri/iri-home.htm.

23.5.4. AP Engineering Research Laboratory

The Andhra Pradesh Engineering Research Laboratory (APERL) is a research

and development organization under the Ministry of Irrigation and CAD,
Government of Andhra Pradesh. It was established in 1945, and is located
just downstream of Himayatsagar reservoir, near the city of Hyderabad.
Apart from the main laboratories at Himayatsagar, Hyderabad, it has three
regional soil testing laboratories. Further details about APERL are available at:
http://www.ap.gov.in/apirrigation/organisations/aperl.htm.
1144 Chapter 23

23.5.5. Central Water Resources Development and Management

(CWRDM)
The Central Water Resources Development and Management (CWRDM) Center,
originally established at Thiruvananthapuram, was shifted to Calicut in 1979. The
center initially had six scientific divisions, dealing with surface water, ground
water, water management-agriculture, water quality and environment, education and
extension, and library and documentation. After a decade, scientific divisions to
deal with computer applications and isotope hydrology were added. To take care of
the special R&D needs of different hydro-ecologic regions of Kerala, five regional
centers are also in operation since 1990. The CWRDM is one among the Water
and Land Management Institutes (WALMIs) started in 1990 by the Ministry of
Water Resources. CWRDM also conducts many training programs for government
officials and farmers. The center had academic and research linkages with many
universities abroad.
The center has substantially contributed to the scientific studies and water
management in the region. The hydrologic data generated by CWRDM are expected
to be of immense use to the water managers of Kerala. CWRDM has played
important role in supporting the Kerala Government in sorting out several water
management issues.

23.5.6. North Eastern Regional Institute for Water and Land

Management
North Eastern Regional Institute of Water and Land Management (NERIWALM),
Tezpur, Assam an Autonomous Society under North Eastern Council, Government
of India. This institute was set up at Tezpur in December, 1989 by the NEC
basically to impart training to the in-service professionals, NGOs and the farmers
of the North Eastern Region. It has also been further developed as a research and
consultancy institute on all matters relating to water and land management.
The institute has been conducting short courses so far. Recently, NERIWALM
has taken initiative to open P.G. Diploma Course in Water and Land Management
to provide training to the in-service personnel (engineers and scientists) to be
sponsored by irrigation and agriculture departments of the states of the North Eastern
region.

23.6. ACADEMIC ORGANIZATIONS

Hydrology and water resources are an important field of teaching and research
at many academic institutions in India. The major organizations are mentioned in
what follows. Besides, there have been significant efforts at many other engineering
colleges but these were basically due to personal initiative and efforts of a few
individuals and ended when that person moved elsewhere. At a number of agricul-
tural universities, quite naturally, water subjects are taught and research is conducted
with focus on irrigation water management.
Institutions of Hydrology and Water Resources 1145

23.6.1. IITs and NITs

Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) are the topmost institutes for under-graduate
technical teaching in India. These are located in Roorkee (www.iitr.ernet.in),
New Delhi (www.iitd.ernet.in), Kanpur (www.iitk.ac.in), Mumbai (www.iitb.ac.in),
Chennai (www.iitm.ac.in), Kharagpur (www.iitkgp.ernet.in), and Guwahati
(www.iitg.ernet.in). Comprehensive information about the IITs is available at their
respective web-sites. The IITs and the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
(www.iisc.ernet.in), have made admirable contributions to hydrology teaching and
research in the country. At the Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, the Institute of
Technology has close linkages with IIT .
Currently, there are eighteen National Institutes of Technology (NITs). Earlier,
these were known as regional engineering colleges which have been upgraded to
play a crucial role in technical education in India. At many NITs, useful work is
being carried out in the field of water resources. Other notable institutes in the field
of water resources are: the JNU New Delhi; JNTU, Hyderabad; and .

23.6.2. Center for Water Resources (Anna University)

Anna University (www.annauniv.edu) is a prestigious institute in the field of

engineering and technology. It was started as a survey school in 1794. The Center for
Water Resources (CWR) was established at the Anna University in 1979 to pursue
teaching, research, consultancy and impart training programmes in hydrology and
water resources engineering. It is basically the upgraded hydraulics division of the
Department of Civil Engineering, Guindy College of Engineering. The Center had
offered a Postgraduate Diploma course of one-year duration in Hydrology and Water
Resources Engineering, between 1983 and 1991. This course was sponsored by
UNESCO. These days, CWR is engaged in a range of activities including teaching,
research, and consultancy.

23.6.3. Water Technology Center at IARI, New Delhi

The Water Technology Center (WTC), established in 1969 at the Indian Agricultural
Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi is an inter-disciplinary facility for research,
teaching, training and extension in the area of Water Resources Management in
agriculture. Today, the Center addresses a wide range of activities centering around
water management at on-farm level, large irrigation commands and watersheds.
It renders guidance to farmers, policy makers and administrators at state and
national levels on various aspects related to water management. The Center offers
consultancy services on water management in agriculture. The headquarters of the
All India Coordinated Research Project on Agricultural Drainage are also located
here.
With the initiation of the Command Area Development Programme in 1974,
the research expanded to include development of scientific guidelines for water
1146 Chapter 23

distribution and management in irrigation project areas. A post-graduate course on

Water Science and Technology is running since 1996.
The objectives of the center are:
• To initiate and conduct basic and applied research at all India level in all aspects
of crop water management leading to more efficient use of water and land
resources,
• To provide instruction in all aspects of water management at different levels and
locations,
• To collaborate with agricultural universities and other institutions and agencies
in the organization and development of water management research, teaching
and extension programme.
• To facilitate exchange of information on crop water management and related
issues,
• To assist personnel of agricultural universities, irrigation departments, agricultural
departments, and various institutions of Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR), in improving their professional capabilities.
The home page of the center can be accessed at http://www.iari.res.in/divisions/wtc/.

23.7. PROFESSIONAL SOCIETIES

Several professional societies are working in India in the field of water resources.
In the following, activities of three national level societies are described.

23.7.1. Indian Association of Hydrologists (IAH)

Indian Association of Hydrologists (IAH) was established in year 1977 under the
Society Registration Act, 1860 of Government of India. The IAH headquarters is
currently located at National Institute of Hydrology in Roorkee.
The objectives of IAH are to advance the study of hydrology and related subjects
and promote their application, disseminate the knowledge and application in the
field, to honor individuals for their pioneering and meritorious contribution in the
field of hydrology by electing them as honorary life members or inviting them
to be patrons of the association and to publish relevant literature. The association
maintains a close liaison with the Indian Associations dealing with the hydrology
and related subjects.
IAH has been publishing “Hydrology Journal” on a quarterly basis since 1980.
The Journal has a wide circulation covering members from 15 countries. It is
devoted to the publication of scientific papers of national and international signif-
icance in the field of hydrology and water resources. The contact address of
IAH is: The Secretary, Indian Association of Hydrologists, National Institute of
Hydrology, Jal Vigyan Bhawan, Roorkee – 247 667, Uttaranchal, India. Its website
is: www.nih.ernet.iniah.
Institutions of Hydrology and Water Resources 1147

23.7.2. Indian Water Resources Society (IWRS)

The Indian Water Resources Society (IWRS) was founded in 1980 at the Water
Resources Development Training Center (WRDTC), the then University of Roorkee.
The aims and objectives of IWRS, inter-alia, include:
• The advancement of research, planning, development, management and
education, as well as establishment of a common meeting group of physical,
biological and social scientists, engineers, and other persons, concerned with
water resources.
• To provide a focal point for the collection, organization and dissemination of
ideas and information relating to the broad spectrum of water problems.
• To provide a forum for communication in water resources science and technology
through its meetings and publication.
• To honour individuals for their pioneering and meritorious contribution in the
field of water resources, by electing them as Honorary Life Members or inviting
them to be Patrons of the society.
IWRS organizes lectures, meetings, group discussions and national level workshops
and seminars on subjects of common interest. It has organized a number of
workshops and seminars on various subjects. As an annual event, it organizes the
curtain raiser function of Water Resources Day in Delhi on World Water Day. The
society publishes a quarterly technical journal (published in January, April, July
and October) which contains technical papers on all aspects of water resources.
Another important annual event is Dr. Kanwar Sain Memorial Lecture which is
delivered by an eminent expert on a topic relevant to water resources development.
The contact Address for IWRS is: The Secretary, Indian Water Resources
Society, Department of Water Development and Management, Indian Institute of
Technology, Roorkee – 247 667, Uttaranchal, India.

23.8. NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS (NGOs)

Many NGOs are active in the field of water resources in India. However,
only a handful of them have made any worthwhile contribution. Besides, most
NGOs are limited to social aspects of WRD projects. An introduction to selected
NGOs and their activities is given in the following. By no means, the list is
exhaustive.

23.8.1. Center for Science and Environment (CSE)

The Center for Science and Environment, started in 1980, is a leading environ-
mental NGO specializing in sustainable natural resource management. Its strategy
of knowledge-based activism has won it admiration for its quality of campaigns,
research and publications. As noted from its web-site (http://www.cseindia.org),
CSE promotes solutions for India’s numerous environmental threats – of ‘ecological
1148 Chapter 23

poverty’ and extensive land degradation on one hand, and rapidly growing toxic
degradation of uncontrolled industrialization and economic growth on the other.
CSE’s role is to help India create a sustainable society even in the worst of
circumstances, marked by poverty, illiteracy, inequality, and population growth.
CSE’s organisational culture is built around an information-knowledge-wisdom
chain that helps make people aware of the emerging problems and helps in building
constituencies. CSE identifies solutions (intellectual leadership) and then pushes
for change through lobbying with politicians and bureaucrats. CSE’s educational
and training programmes are knowledge investments that seek to build capacities
of managers and future leaders. The Center’s efforts are built around five broad
activities: Communication for Awareness, Research and Advocacy, Education and
Training, Documentation, and Pollution Monitoring.
The CSE has also published the State of Global Environmental Negotiations
(GEN) reports, which uncovered the issues and politics involved in these negotia-
tions. It has launched a campaign to establish an equitable framework for a system
of global environmental governance for climate change negotiations, and has been
playing an important role at several international environmental negotiations. The
CSE is also involved in creating awareness about climate change through research
and publications. It has proposed strategies to address ecology, economy, social
justice and equity.
The office of CSE is located at: 41, Tughlakabad Institutional Area, New
Delhi-110 062, India.

23.8.2. The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI)

TERI was established in 1974. In the initial period, the focus was mainly on
documentation and information dissemination activities. Around 1982, research
activities in the fields of energy, environment, and sustainable development were
initiated. The motivation for these activities was the belief that efficient utilization
of energy, sustainable use of natural resources, large-scale adoption of renewable
energy technologies, and reduction of all forms of waste would drive the process
of development towards sustainability.
TERI has seven research divisions: Regulatory Studies and Governance Division,
Policy Analysis Division, Energy-Environment Technology Division, Bioresources
and Biotechnology Division, Information Technology and Services Division, Action
Programmes, and Sustainable Development Outreach. It has established regional
centers in Bangalore, Goa, Guwahati, and Kolkata, and a presence in Japan and
Malaysia. It has set up affiliate institutes: TERI– NA (Tata Energy and Resources
Institute, North America) Washington DC, USA, and TERI–Europe, London, UK.
TERI is also involved in training, capacity building, and education. In 1999, it set
up the TERI School of Advanced Studies, recognized as a deemed university by
the University Grants Commission, India.
TERI’s maintains an informative website (www.teriin.org). It contains substantial
updated information with particular reference to India. TERI publishes research
Institutions of Hydrology and Water Resources 1149

journals, newsletters, and has produced many documentary films on topics ranging
from rural resources to global warming.

23.8.3. Tarun Bharat Sangh (TBS)

Tarun Bharat Sangh is an NGO working on issues of natural resource management

and watershed development in semi-arid region. The organization has done path-
breaking work in helping communities to come together, mobilize their own
resources and regenerate the traditional water harvesting structures known as johads.
As a result of this work covering around 600 villages, aquifers and ground water
sources have been recharged and two rivers (Arvari and Ruparel) which had been
dry for a generation, have again become perennial streams. Community organiza-
tions (Lok Samitis) initiated by TBS are directly implementing the ‘Pavdi’ watershed
initiative of the Government of Rajasthan. The TBS, which had been set up in 1975,
has built 4,500 johads in 850 villages over more than 6,500 kilometers over the last
15 years. Four rivers – Aravali, Ruparel, Bhagwani, Sarsa and Jahajwali – which
had been reduced to drains were flowing round the year. The primary beneficiaries
of the regeneration of water resources have been women, who have experienced an
improvement in the material conditions of their lives.
In recognition of the exemplary work done, Mr. Rajendra Singh, the founder of
TBS was chosen for the prestigious Ramon Magsaysay Award for the year 2001.
The office of TBS is located at Village Bhikampura, P.O. Kishori, Block Thanagazi,
Alwar, Rajasthan.
TBS helps in building dams or Johads and also repairing the existing ones.
Interestingly, they give help with some conditions. For example, in Nimbi TBS
wanted 25% of the cost of the dam to be borne by the villagers, and each villager
had to donate either money or labour. In addition, deforestation and alcoholism had
to be stopped at once. Villagers were ready to take drastic measures to improve
their lot and pitched in with all they had. It took just a few years for the water level
to rise, wells to get recharged and sub-surface water levels to rise.

23.8.4. Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA)

The construction of large dams on the River Narmada in central India and its
impact on millions of people living in the project affected areas has become one
of the most important social issues in contemporary India. The Narmada Bachao
Andolan (NBA or Save Narmada Movement) is a people’s movement which started
in 1985. It is a non-governmental organization which is active in the field of
environment in general and ‘saving’ Narmada River from destruction by mega
river valley projects in particular. Leadership to the movement is provided by
Ms. Medha Patkar. NBA employs tactics that are entirely non-violent; sit-ins,
fasts, rallies, marches, and petitions in the court of law. While NBA has opposed
every large WRD project, it has not provided any long-term master plan to tackle
water related problems in India. Now that the Sardar Sarovar Project has been
1150 Chapter 23

completed to a substantial extent, the activists of NBA are protesting every move
to increase the height of the dam. NBA alleges that the Madhya Pradesh and
Gujarat governments had colluded to raise the height of the Sardar Sarovar dam
without proper measures to rehabilitate the affected people. NBA believes that
thousands of the villagers would be rendered homeless if the height of the dam
is raised further since the government has not made enough efforts for R&R.
information about the activities of NBA are available at many web-sites, including
www.narmada.org.

23.8.5. Development Alternatives

Development Alternatives (DA) is a non-profit research, development and consul-

tancy organization established in 1983. Its work includes design, development
and dissemination of appropriate technologies, environmental resource management
methods, and effective institutional systems. DA’s outreach activities seek to
create awareness among various stakeholders, such as NGOs, government agencies,
industries, financial institutions, and communities on climate change issues. Its
Climate Change Center (CCC) has developed training modules on incorporating
sustainable development concerns in climate change projects in India. The Urban
Environment System Group has a nationwide programme called CLEAN—India,
to raise awareness about energy and resource conservation, and mobilizing commu-
nities for response measures.

23.8.6. The Sathya Sai Trust

Although water is not the main focus of work of this Trust, it is included here
in view of a major water related initiative that it has undertaken. Rayalaseema
region of South India which includes districts of Bellary, Anantapur, Cuddapah, and
Kurnool, is a drought-prone region. Well water, if at all available, unfortunately has
too much fluoride in it. In 1994, the Sathya Sai Central Trust, headed by Sathya Sai
Baba stepped in to undertake a water supply project to bring water to the drought-
stricken area of Rayalaseema, in South India. Other partners in this project were
M/S Larsen & Toubro Limited and the Government of Andhra Pradesh. Never has
a project of this magnitude been executed within a short span of less than a year.
The project covers 20,000 kilometers and includes more than 750 villages hitherto
without water. Nearly 2,500 kilometers of pipelines were laid (approximately the
distance from Bangalore to Delhi) and 268 overhead storage tanks were constructed.
Some of the summer storage tanks that were constructed are over 100 acres in area.
Probably it was the first time that a public charitable trust had ever undertaken
such a major infrastructure project anywhere in India.
Institutions of Hydrology and Water Resources 1151

23.9. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

In this section, we describe a few international organizations related with water

whose headquarters are located in India.

23.9.1. International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage

The mission of ICID is to stimulate and promote the development and appli-
cation of the arts, sciences and techniques of engineering, agriculture, economics,
ecology and social sciences in managing water and land resources for irrigation,
drainage, flood control and river training and for research in a more comprehensive
manner adopting up-to-date techniques for sustainable agriculture in the world.
ICID has by now about half-a-century of experience in the promotion and transfer
of water management technology and in the handling of related issues. Building on
its past experience, accomplishments, and the comprehensive water management
framework, ICID strives to promote programs to accelerate and enhance sustainable
growth of irrigated agriculture.
Any recognized country, independently administered by a sovereign government
and having interest in the activities of the Commission, is eligible to become its
member. The member countries participate in the activities of the Commission
through their National Committees constituted by them to further the objects of the
Commission in their countries. Starting with 11 founding member countries in June
1950, 87 countries have so far been admitted to the fold of ICID for sharing its
efforts in the direction of sustainable irrigation. Currently 70 countries are actively
participating.
The head office of ICID is located at 48 Nyaya Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi.
Their homepage is: www.icid.org.

23.9.2. International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics

(ICRISAT)

ICRISAT is an international organization concerned with agricultural development

in semi-arid tropics (SATs). A SAT is characterized by limited and erratic rainfall,
nutrient-poor soil, and unpredictable weather. ICRISAT is one of the 16 centers of
the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR, homepage:
www.cgiar.org). It has been entrusted with the conservation and management of
the seeds of five crops that are crucial in the diets of the poor: sorghum, millet,
groundnut, chickpea, and pigeon pea. ICRISAT maintains a large gene bank and a
district level database of farming systems. Headquarters of ICRISAT are located at
Patancheru in Andhra Pradesh. It has seven regional offices in Africa.
1152 Chapter 23

23.10. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT SETUP IN WATER

RESOURCES
In India, most research and development activities in water sector are funded
by the Government and are undertaken in central or state government organi-
zations and academic institutions. Recently, some NGOs have also taken up
research projects but these are mostly related to social aspects of water resources
development and management. Institutes under the Ministry of Water Resources,
under ICAR in the Ministry of Agriculture, under Ministry of Science and
Technology, and the institutes in the State Governments under ministries of Water
Resources/Irrigation/Command Area Development are the major contributors to
research in water resources.
A number of agricultural universities conduct research on water management
using funds channeled mainly by the Indian Council of Agriculture Research.
Engineering institutions also do considerable water related research. Notable
among the academic institutions are: the IITs; the Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore; Anna University, Chennai; JNU New Delhi; Jadavpur University,
Kolkata; M. S. University, Vadodara; JNTU & Osmania University, Hyderabad;
BHU, Varanasi; National Institute of Technology, Surathkal; GB Pant University,
Pantnagar; Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana; and many others. Among
the laboratories under various ministries, those involved in research and devel-
opment related to water are: the National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad;
Regional Remote Sensing Service Centers; Space Application Center, Ahmedabad;
Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad; the National Environment Engineering
Research Institute, Nagpur; the Bhabha Atomic Research Center, Mumbai; Snow
and Avalanche Study Establishment, Chandigarh; and many more.
In the state governments departments, water related research is done mainly
through Irrigation Research Institutes/River Research Institutes. In particular, the
U.P. Irrigation Research Institute, Roorkee; the Irrigation and Power Research
Institute, Amritsar; the Gujarat Engineering Research Institute, Vadodara; Karnataka
Engineering Research Institute, K.R. Sagar; Maharashtra Engineering Research
Institute, Nasik; and Hydraulic Research Laboratory, Poondy (Tamil Nadu) are
conducting noteworthy research. Apart from these, twelve Water and Land
Management Institutes (WALMIs)/Irrigation Management and Training Institutes
(IMTI) have also been set up. Among the existing WALMIs, those at Aurangabad
(Maharashtra), Anand (Gujarat) and IMTI, Trichi (Tamil Nadu) and the Center for
Water Resources Development and Management, Calicut, are active in conducting
research on irrigation management.
Three organizations under the Ministry of Water Resources, viz., NIH, CWPRS,
and CSMRS are fully devoted to R&D in the water sector. NIH is devoted to
systematic and scientific studies in all aspects of hydrology with the objective
of improving the present practices in planning, design and operation of water
resources projects. CWPRS is the premier national institute for research in the
area of hydraulics of water resources structure related to irrigation, hydropower,
navigation, coastal works and related instrumentation. CSMRS is involved in
Institutions of Hydrology and Water Resources 1153

Table 7. R and D activities in the Ministry of Water Resources

S. N. Activities Committee

1 Preparation of overall policy and plans for Science & Technology Advisory Committee
R&D in the field of water resources (STAC) of Ministry of Water Resources.
development.
2 Finalization of research programme of Technical Advisory Committees of the
various research institutes of MoWR and its respective institutes.
monitoring.
3 Support to academic institutes and other Standing Advisory Committee (SAC).
research establishments for taking up
research schemes.
4 Monitoring of research schemes of other R & D implementation and monitoring
organizations. committee.

research related to construction materials, concrete technology, geophysics, rock

and soil mechanics. Other organizations of the Ministry of Water Resources, viz.,
Central Water Commission, Central Ground Water Board, Brahmaputra Board, and
National Water development Agency are also actively involved in studies related
with water and these are described in Section 23.3 & 23.4.
The MoWR provides financial assistance by way of grants to academicians/
experts in the recognized laboratories/institutes under a R&D programme to promote
research in the field of water resources. Under the existing arrangements, the R&D
activities in the MoWR are planned and monitored through the committees shown
in Table 7

Table 8. Various Indian National Committees (INCs) and their subject domains

Committee Subject domain

INC for Hydrology Meteorology, surface water hydrology, evaporation control, ground water
(INCOH) hydrology and management, instrumentation, real time systems, application
of GIS and remote sensing.
INC for Hydraulics Managements of floods, hydraulic structures (including masonry and concrete
(INCH) structure), river and estuarine hydraulics, river morphology, ground water
hydraulics, instrumentation for seismic and geophysical measurements, open
channel flow, pipe flow, hydraulic machinery, city water supply, and ports
and harbours.
INC for Irrigation and Irrigation, drainage, agronomy, water management, environmental impact
Drainage (INCID) and socio- economic aspects of water resources projects, plasticulture
development, geo-textiles.
INC for Geo-technical Rock mechanics & tunneling technology; soil mechanics & foundation
Engineering (INCGE) engineering; and instrumentation and measurement techniques.
INC for Construction Construction materials, concrete technology and structures.
Materials and
Structures (INCCMS)
1154 Chapter 23

Considering wide range of topics covered by water resources engineering, five

Indian National Committees (INCs), have been constituted to coordinate the R&D
program. The five INCs and their subject domain are described in Table 8.
The INCOH was constituted in 1982 as High Level Technical Committee on
Hydrology. In addition to coordination of R&D in Hydrology, its main function
is to coordinate effective participation by India in the International Hydrological
Programme (IHP) of UNESCO, Operational Hydrology Programme of WMO, and
other inter-governmental programmes of hydrology in which India may wish to
participate. INCID, besides looking after the R&D work in irrigation and drainage
is also functioning as a national committee for ICID and coordinates all activities
related to ICID.
CHAPTER 24
CONCEPTS OF WATER GOVERNANCE FOR INDIA

Water is a state subject in India which loosely implies that the state governments
have the sole authority and responsibility to manage water resources of that state and
the role of the central government is mainly limited to interstate projects. But almost
all major rivers in India flow through more than one state which brings the central
government in picture in all major projects. The central government also has the
sanctioning and monitoring role with respect to technical, social, and environmental
aspects of all major and medium projects. Through the Planning Commission, the
central government decides allocation of funds to state governments. The central
government also makes decisions with respect to Command Area Development
projects. Major research institutes are also under central government. Clearly, the
central government has substantial influence on state policies and practices with
respect to the water sector.
As per the National Water Policy (2002) of the Government of India, water
allocation priorities in the planning and operation of systems should broadly be:
(i) drinking water, (ii) irrigation, (iii) hydropower, (iv) ecology, (v) agro-industries
and non-agricultural industries, and (vi) navigation. In view of the current status
of freshwater in India and the problems that are likely to arise in future, a well
thought-out and planned long-term strategy is needed for sustainable water resources
management in India. Key components of such a strategy are proposed in this
chapter. Needless to say, the strategy has to be multi-pronged and all the stake-
holders, including the general public, will have to be involved in the decision
making and implementation.
In this chapter, we discuss the major initiatives that need to be taken up for
improved water governance. Good quality data is the key to all hydrologic analyses –
all decisions and management actions are based on data. Therefore, the discussion
begins with hydrological information system in India.

24.1. HYDROLOGICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (HIS)

A necessary pre-requisite to wise water management is accurate, comprehensive
and timely hydrologic data and data about the economic, social and environ-
mental dimensions. Rainfall stations constitute the bulk of the hydro-meteorological
1155
1156 Chapter 24

network and are mainly owned by the state departments. India Meteorology
Department (IMD) collects and archives data from selected stations. The climate
stations are mainly maintained by IMD; very few states have good network of
climatic stations. Many rainfall and climate stations are quite old (ranging from
20 to 100 years) and many of these have not been adequately maintained in the
recent past. Further, the observation networks of central and state agencies often
have many duplications and gaps.
Surface water gauging stations have primarily been set up to collect water level
and discharge data. At some of these stations, sediment and water quality parameters
are also observed. Stations belonging to the Central Water Commission (CWC) are
located on major rivers, whereas those of the states are on smaller tributaries and
sub-tributaries. CWC mainly gathers data for assessing overall water resources of
the country, to resolve interstate water sharing issues, and for flood forecasting.
The networks of state agencies cover the basins more intensely and provide data
for planning & designing smaller water resources projects.
It may be noted that in many states, very rich hydrologic data are available:
• Andhra Pradesh: 300∗ 35 station years (rainfall), 150∗ 25 station years (reservoir
data),
• Gujarat: 300∗ 30 station years (rainfall), 150∗ 20 station years (Gauge and
Discharge data),
• Karnataka: 400∗ 50 station years (rainfall),
• Maharashtra: 500∗ 40 station years (rainfall), 200∗ 25 station years (GD data), and
• CWC: 265∗ 25 years of data (GD & sediment data).
Most ground water (GW) observations have been through open dug wells, tapping
the upper unconfined aquifers. Usually, observations are taken four times a year: pre-
monsoon, monsoon, post-monsoon, and winter season. Presumably, these represent
the troughs and peaks of the water table hydrograph, but these are too sparse to
yield reliable conclusions. Awareness about water quality data has grown in the
last few decades, primarily due to huge deterioration in the quality of dwindling
water resources. Whereas the river gauging authorities take samples at the gauging
stations, the pollution control boards take observations for surveillance near indus-
trial or urban centers. In the past, water quality laboratories were inadequate in
numbers and capabilities. Insufficient finances have also marred operations.

24.1.1. Problems in the Availability and Use of Hydrologic Data

Despite immense efforts and money spent in collecting hydrological data, the actual
use in India continues to be very limited. There are a number of reasons behind it.
• In most cases, no inventory of the data is available at a centralized place and
hence the user has to visit the offices of the data collecting agencies at different
locations to get the requisite data. If the concerned person in the office is not
available (may be on leave), it may not be possible to locate the data.
• Most data is in the form of paper manuscripts.
• The manuscripts get deteriorated with time and at times precious data are lost.
Concepts of Water Governance for India 1157

• Many observers have received little or no training in data collection and are
not aware of the utility and significance of the data that they are collecting.
Frequently, this is the least priority job for them and there are instances when
the data is recorded by the observer without actually visiting the site.
• The observation procedures are non-standard and non-uniform across the
agencies. Hence, it is not possible to ascertain the quality of data.
• There are duplications in data collection efforts among the involved agencies
as well as large areas where no agency has any station. This makes the spatial
coverage highly uneven.
• Streamflow data of many river basins, such as the Ganga and the Brahmaputra,
are treated as confidential and not available to general users. Likewise, many
state governments do not share river gauge and discharge data observed by them
on the pretext of interstate water disputes. As a result, flow data from more than
one-third of the country, accounting for 40% of the utilizable surface water of
the country, are not in public domain.
Ever reducing financial support, coupled with poor staffing due to restrictions on
new recruitment, has rendered many river gauging and meteorological stations
(except of CWC and a few states) non-operational. The observation processes on
most stations are manual, although a few automatic equipment have been installed
recently. Velocity is mainly measured by current (flow) meters; floats were in vogue
in many states.
Unfortunately, the hydrologic information systems in many parts of the world are
inadequate. Difficulties arise due to the lack of funds, non-standard procedures for
data collection, quality assurance, data management, and dissemination. In India,
the availability of meteorological data is very good, that of surface water satisfactory
(although the quality of data is doubtful at many locations), and data on ground
water and its quality is limited. Although the ground water availability maps have
been prepared for certain locations, extraction rates are often not available.

24.1.2. Upgrading of his Through the Hydrology Project

To overcome most of the above deficiencies and to improve the HIS in India, a giant
step was taken by completing an ambitious Hydrology Project Phase 1 (HP-1). HP-1
was aimed at developing and improving the existing HIS of various government
agencies in nine peninsular states of India: Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa and Tamil Nadu. The
states covered under the first phase of the Hydrology Project and location of 31
data centers established under the project are shown in Figure 1. Five central
government organizations participated in the project: Central Water Commission,
Central Groundwater Board, National Institute of Hydrology, India Meteorology
Department, and Central Water & Power Research Station. This assisted in gathering
reliable and spatially intensive data on water quantity and quality and storage of
this data in computerized databases.
1158 Chapter 24

Figure 1. The states covered under Hydrology Project 1 (total area of 1.7 million sq. km) and location
of data centers

HP-1 in India was a concerted effort to implement a state-of-the-art HIS for

efficient dissemination of information. Augmentation and upgrading of various
networks have provided fresh impetus to the (geo) hydrological monitoring in
the country. Data processing with decentralised hierarchical structure ensures a
completely participatory approach. The system will promote greater interaction
between different HIS agencies and also ensure uniformity of tools and procedures.
Improvements in infrastructure and institutional support are beginning to reflect in
terms of the availability of organised hydrological databases and timely availability
of better quality data to the user. It would only be fitting that the improved system
further grows and the experience gained is utilised for similar improvements in all
other states of India. Recent techniques, such as remote sensing and Geographic
Information System (GIS) coupled with field based monitoring stations, may be
utilized to monitor the data in real time and update the database. Special attention
was paid to standardization of procedures for data observation and validation. Here,
issues faced while upgrading the hydrological data acquisition and management
system under HP are highlighted.

24.1.3. Salient Features of his Developed in HP-1

The primary objective of the HP was to develop a comprehensive, reliable, acces-

sible and sustainable HIS in the concerned agencies, with emphasis on:
Concepts of Water Governance for India 1159

• collection of reliable and spatially intensive data on SW/GW quantity and quality,
• standardised procedures for various activities,
• dedicated hydrological data processing software,
• storage of data in well-defined databases,
• efficient dissemination of information, and
• institutional & human resources development
The overall objective of this HIS (see Figure 2) is to assist in implementing the
Government of India’s policies and strategies. Article 2 of India’s National Water
Policy stipulates the need for establishing a well-defined water information system.
The new HIS was conceptualized and set-up through a number of steps as discussed
in what follows.

Review of observation networks

The existing observational networks were thoroughly reviewed from three view
points: (a) to establish new stations in the areas that were inadequately covered
earlier or to replace non-representative stations with dedicated sites, (b) to avoid
duplication of stations across agencies, and (c) to improve frequency and accuracy
of observations through automated equipment and standard procedures. Compre-
hensive list of equipment and detailed specifications for each of these were drawn
and equipment was procured by respective agencies. The old and defunct equipment
was replaced with standard ones to reduce variability in observations on account of
the use of non-standard equipment.
A major improvement in the meteorological network was by reactivating many
old non-functional rainfall stations. Field inspections revealed that improperly

Overall structure of HIS

USERS

CWC IMD STATE CGWB

DATA STORAGE/
NDSC/ NDSC/
NDSC SDSC DISSEMINATION
RDSC RDSC
HYDROLOGICAL
RDPC SDPC SWDPC SGWDPC RDPC VALIDATION
SECONDARY
DDPC DDPC rDPC DDPC VALIDATION

DATA ENTRY/
SDDPC SDDPC dDPC UDPC PRIMARY VALIDATION

FIELD FIELD FIELD FIELD FIELD OBSERVATIONS

DATA FLOW INTER-AGENCY DATA VALIDATION DATA EXCHANGE

Figure 2. Overall structure of HIS and flow of data

1160 Chapter 24

located stations, ill maintained or defunct equipment and sub-standard observation

practices were common. To revitalize the network about 460 new stations were
added and another 1,530 stations upgraded. Many new full climatic stations were
also set up. Figure 3 shows a typical hydro-met observatory set-up under HP-1.
The main improvements of river gauging stations were the introduction of digital
recorders. Floats were replaced by current meters. In total, about 560 stations
were upgraded and another 330 new stations were established. New techniques of
discharge measurements, such as Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCPs), were
introduced. Integrated bathymetric survey equipment for reservoir sedimentation
surveying (Figure 4) were been introduced in all the participating states.
The objective of GW network is to provide improved understanding of quantity
and quality of GW systems. Previously, there were about 27,000 observation wells in
the project area, of which only about 6% were tubewells while others were open dug
wells. These were not maintained adequately. Under the project, about 7,900 new

Figure 3. A typical hydro-met observatory set-up under HP-1

Figure 4. Measurement of discharge using moving boat method

Concepts of Water Governance for India 1161

piezometers were added. These are also being used for water quality monitoring.
The network was optimized by integrating piezometers of different agencies. Nearly
6,400 piezometers were installed with Digital Water Level Recorders (DWLRs) to
ensure measurement of head at the desired frequency (ranging from 1 to 6 hours).
An extensive network for monitoring SW quality at about 675 locations and GW
at about 29,000 locations was established and stations categorized into “Baseline”,
“Trend” and “Flux”/“Surveillance” stations. Frequency of sampling and parameters
to be analyzed for each category of stations were documented (Hydrology Project
2003a, 2003b). A comprehensive water quality laboratory development programme
was completed by establishing or upgrading 290 laboratories that are capable of
handling all water quality (WQ) analysis requirements. Analysis procedures for
various parameters were standardized and documented (Hydrology Project 2003c).

Data processing, analysis and reporting

The existing system of manual or limited computerized data processing was
replaced by fully computerized data processing using dedicated and user-friendly
software. The raw data are passed through a series of operations, typically: data
entry, validation, filling-in gaps, compilation in different forms, and obtaining the
commonly required statistics, etc. Of particular importance is assuring the quality
and reliability of the data through validation procedures. Reports bring out the
salient characteristics of the hydrological regime of the region. Detailed procedures
have been described in Hydrology Project (2003a, b, c).
Both surface water (SW) and GW agencies have employed dedicated software.
HYMOS, a hydrological data processing software developed by WL  Delft
Hydraulics of The Netherlands, was employed for all hydro-meteorological, SW
quantity and quality data processing and a comprehensive GW data processing and
resource estimation software GEMS has been developed by an Indian company.
About 200 SW data processing centers (DPCs) and 180 GW data processing centers
(DPCs) were established.
The primary modules for SW and GW are called Surface Water Data Entry
System (SWDES) and Ground Water Data Entry System (GWDES) respectively.
The first module is for easy data entry and preliminary validation while the second
module carries out spatial consistency checks, data correction/completion, compi-
lation & analysis. The higher level modules carry hydrological validation and
reporting.
The Technical Assistance team of HP developed both these software. These have
Microsoft Access database structure at the back-end and the front-end was built
using Visual Basic for Application on Windows platform. The data entry screens
of these systems look like the manuscripts used by observers for data recording.
Comprehensive scrutiny of data is provided by graphical visualization. The software
have become highly popular owing to user-friendly features. Another very useful
work has been the digitization of about 10 themes (e.g., river drainage system,
contours, geological setup, administrative units, etc.) on a 1:50,000 scale for the
whole project area.
1162 Chapter 24

Huge volumes of historical data, mostly in manuscript or chart form, were

available with many agencies. Some of this was even being lost due to gradual decay
of manuscripts. A comprehensive program of historical data entry and processing
had been formulated and completed. Such a mammoth organization of hydrological
data was accomplished for the first time for a substantial part of the country. This
would certainly unfold an excellent opportunity for all concerned to be able to
easily access and use historical hydrological information.

Data storage and dissemination

All historical and current data were stored in well-defined computerized databases
using industry standard SQL databases. For this, a data storage software WISDOM
was developed by a private vendor. Both raw and processed data were stored to avoid
loss of information. Features of data administration like data security, protection
from data corruption, and controlled accessibility were implemented. An efficient
query system aided with graphical visualization through maps for identifying the
required data has been provided on the web. Hydrological data users can search
and select the required information and make on-line requests to the data centers.
Figure 5 conceptually shows the flow of data between HIS and the users.

Human resource development

An extensive training program was implemented to ensure skill building for all the
personnel involved in HIS. A whole range of subjects, including SW, GW and WQ

ADDITIONAL
INFORMATION

HIS
DATA
USERS
STORAGE
• DECISION MAKERS
• POLICY MAKERS PROCESSING
• DESIGNERS
• RESEARCHERS VALIDATION
• OPERATORS
RECORDING
• USERS AGENCIES
ACTIONS /
STUDIES /USE SENSING

OBJECT
WATER RESOURCES / WATER USE
SYSTEM
SYSTEM

Figure 5. Flow of data between HIS and users

Concepts of Water Governance for India 1163

data acquisition, data entry and processing, were covered. Most training courses
were institutionalized through the designated institutions called the Central Training
Institutes (CTIs). A three-pronged approach was followed for imparting training to
a large number (about 10,000) of trainees, using the concept of “training of trainers
(ToT)”. A core group of motivated officers of each state and/or CTIs were trained
who subsequently trained the actual trainees. Comprehensive and well laid out
training documents and presentation materials were prepared to ensure uniformity
and standardization.

24.1.4. Important Issues in Upgrading of HIS

Various issues that require attention while upgrading a HIS in Indian circumstances
are elaborated here.

Problems with data acquisition systems

Although most of the observation stations are operational, problems of non-
functioning DWLRs were noticed at some sites. The working of some of the makes
was not trouble-free in the rugged environment at many of the remote observation
stations. A crucial factor for the low success rate of the DWLRs was the non-
availability of the maintenance facility locally. Moreover, due to the lack of planning
some agencies are not able to ensure timely availability of consumables. Vandalism
and theft were also reported at some remote locations. Round the clock vigil of the
equipment is not possible in many cases and it takes away the benefit of getting
digital data without continuously manning the equipment. An indigenous mainte-
nance support and manufacturing venture is essential for long-term sustainability
and widespread use of such sophisticated equipment.

Development of dedicated data processing and management systems

Significant progress has been made in computerizing data processing and
management. Huge amount of historical data has been organized in well-defined
databases. Routine data processing has been institutionalized using dedicated
software. A comprehensive training program has helped staff learn data management
using these software. Although a good understanding has been developed by the
personnel at most of the data processing centers, much is still desired in a few
instances. The data entry and primary validation software (SWDES and GWDES)
are well understood and used extensively but more efforts are needed for data
processing and analysis modules (HYMOS & GEMS).
A good beginning has been made by developing a data management and dissem-
ination software, WISDOM. Since the software was completed at the fag end of the
project, sufficient regularity and completeness could not be achieved. Some more
efforts are still required to make the web-based data dissemination regular, effective
and efficient. Since this activity is basically to disseminate information to the data
users, it would be important that the personnel involved in this activity have more
service oriented outlook. Although a transparent data dissemination policy has been
1164 Chapter 24

formulated, its implementation in the right earnest would increase the use of the
hydrological data manifold. Importantly, upkeep of these databases in future should
be meticulous and the software be upgraded on the basis of experience gained. It
would be necessary to have close coordination between all state and central agencies
to retain the characteristics of uniformity, standard tools and database formats.

Follow-up of HIS protocols and data sharing among agencies

HIS protocols defining all activities, the respective time frames and the person(s)
responsible to carry out the same were clearly laid down. A few offices have
internalized these protocols but a majority of offices have yet not fully implemented
them. For the first time, various state and central agencies have started mutual
exchange of data for validation, aimed at ensuring spatial consistency. However,
there is scope for further improving the effectiveness of this activity. Cases of
poor timeliness and inferior data quality can still be easily spotted. To arrest this
slackness, a mechanism of HIS performance review is urgently required to be
instituted at higher levels in the system. A national HIS coordination mechanism
must be evolved to take up this responsibility. Positive attitude as exhibited by all
the agencies in agreeing to follow the protocols and exchange data would be very
helpful in consolidating and furthering this concept and practicing it with much
more objectivity and regularity.

Periodic training requirement

Although the project has been successfully completed, there is a possibility of the
created facilities withering away, the trained staff moving elsewhere and things
gradually returning to the pre-project stage. New staff may join the department and
will require adequate training before being able to contribute properly. Also, in this
phase of reducing government expenditures there are very limited chances of new
recruitment and therefore it would be quite practical to start training suitable existing
staff for specialized jobs rather than waiting for the new staff. For all such reasons,
efforts and provisions are required to make HIS training a continuous activity.
The Central Training Institutions have sufficient strength to carry on these training
programmes in future. Again, the important key for the success of such activity will
lie in the initiatives taken by the departments in identifying their training needs and
approaching the central training institutions with the same. Similarly, in the central
training institutions should be showing due enthusiasm in taking upon themselves
the responsibility in providing the desired training support.

24.1.5. Post-project Follow-up

Significant progress has been made under HP, as far as development of HIS is
concerned. However, the assumption that everything has been done with the required
efficacy and that all components of HIS are working with the desired efficiency
would be a gross misjudgment. HIS, as developed under HP, must be viewed as
a good start only and provisions have to be available for making it even more
Concepts of Water Governance for India 1165

comprehensive, so as to be called a true water information system (WIS). Two

important issues that should be taken up in the post-project period are as under.
With the completion of HP, all agencies in various states have set up updated
observation networks and are collecting and processing data in a standardized
manner. Expectedly, some agencies are more successful than others in operation of
HIS. In view of insufficient time available for using, practicing, demonstrating and
testing the effectiveness of the developed systems within the project period, it will be
desirable that there is further consolidation of all HIS activities. Due consideration
is to be given to: (a) all observation stations to have requisite material and staff, (b)
further optimization of network and adjustment in monitoring frequencies wherever
required, (c) bringing more water bodies (like reservoirs, tanks and lakes) under the
purview of HIS (d) internalization of data validation, analysis and dissemination,
(e) further promotion of data exchange among agencies (e.g., CPCB utilizing flow
information collected by CWC while interpreting WQ data of its stations), and
(f) objectively reaching out to the potential data users.
In the post HP-1 scenario, unfortunately the flow of data from a few states to
the users has not at all improved. Due to interstate disputes about sharing of river
waters, some states have stopped sharing gauge and discharge data observed by
them. This goes against the basic spirit of HIS and negates the very purpose behind
its creation.

Horizontal expansion and vertical expansion

HP was originally formulated for the whole country but was finally taken up
only for the nine peninsular states. By all ac4counts, there has been a significant
improvement in the HIS status. Implementing components such as those covered
in HP in the remaining parts of the country is equally necessary and would be a
logical follow up. It is hoped that such horizontal expansion covers the remaining
parts of the country at the earliest.
Having strengthened the non-real time components, the next step is to ensure
that the system is also able to respond to the real-time data needs. On the basis of
available experience in setting up conventional flood forecasting systems and the
lessons learnt during HP, the systems have to be upgraded and/or established in the
identified basins/sub-basins. Another area that needs to be furthered is the Integrated
Water Resource Management (IWRM). Fully integrated river basin management
has seldom been practiced in India. Experience from working towards development
of an IWRM will hugely benefit while setting up the River Basin Organizations
(RBOs), as stipulated in the National Water Policy.

24.1.6. Hydrology Project Phase 2

HP-1 was concluded in the year 2003 and many valuable experiences were
gained during this project. As a follow up of HP-1, the Government of India
has signed another agreement with the World Bank for the second phase of the
Hydrology Project. In this phase, besides the states that were part of HP-1 (Andhra
1166 Chapter 24

Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,

Orissa, Tamil Nadu) four new states have been added to the list: Goa, Punjab,
Himachal Pradesh, Pondicherry. Development of Decision Support Systems for
water resources planning and real-time forecasting and development of hydrologic
design aids are the main activities that have been planned under HP-2 by using the
HIS of HP-1.

24.2. WATER CONSERVATION

Broadly speaking, water conservation implies improving the availability of water
through augmentation by means of storage of water in surface reservoirs, tanks,
soil, and geologic formations. It emphasizes the need to modify the space and time
availability of water to meet demands. This concept also highlights the need for
judicious use of water which is of utmost necessity because of rapidly dwindling
water availability in the country. Per capita availability was about 5200 m3 in the
year 1951 which fell to 2200 m3 in 1991, 1820 m3 in 2001. It is expected to further
fall to 1340 m3 in 2025 and 1140 m3 in the year 2050 (See Figure 6).
If one looks at utilizable water resources in major river basins, these resources in
the Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Godavari basins are 73.31, 525.02, 629.05 and
11054 km3 per year, respectively. The storages available in these basins, including
projects under construction, are 16.28, 54, 3.5, and 3016 km3 . Thus, only a small
fraction of the available water is being regulated in these basins at present. These
basins are subject to frequent flooding, making the argument for storage even
stronger. Overall, out of 690 km3 of utilizable surface water, the storage capacity
created so far is only 177 km3 . Ongoing projects will add another 70 km3 and those
under planning 132 km3 . Table 19.3 gives basin wise storage position in the country.
Note that even after completing the planned projects, 45% of the potential will

6000
Water availibility (m3) per capita

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
1951 1991 2001 2025 2050

Figure 6. Per capita water availability in India for some past and future years. Note that the ordinates
on x-axis are not even-spaced
Concepts of Water Governance for India 1167

remain unutilized. In view of rapidly rising population and demands for water, it
will be necessary to conserve adequate quantity of water for later use.
No matter how freshwater is used—whether for agriculture, industry, or domestic
purposes —there exists a huge potential for better conservation and management.
On the demand side, a variety of economic, administrative and community-based
measures can help conserve water. Side-by-side, it is necessary to control the growth
of population, since India’s large population is putting massive stress on all natural
resources.

24.2.1. Water Conservation in Agriculture

Since agriculture accounts for about 83% of all water withdrawn, the greatest potential
for water conservation lies in increasing irrigation efficiency. Just a 10% improvement
in irrigation efficiency could conserve enough water to double the amount available for
drinking. In India, sprinkler irrigation is being adopted in Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar
Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat and Maharashtra. The use of sprinkler irrigation saves
about 56% of water for the fall crops of Bajra and Jawar, while for Cotton, the saving
is about 30% as compared to the traditional gravity irrigation.
Drip irrigation systems that deliver water directly to the crop roots are in limited
use in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Maharashtra, mainly for irrigation of
coconuts, coffee, grapes and vegetables. Experimental studies on sugarcane, banana
and fruit crops have shown a very high profitability in addition to water conser-
vation. Thus, there is an urgent need for large-scale adoption of sprinkler and drip
irrigation in various parts of the country.
An important supplement to water conservation is to minimize its wastage. In
urban water supply, for example, almost 30% of the water is wasted due to leakage,
carelessness, etc., while most metro cities face deficit in supply of water. It is,
therefore, imperative to prevent wastage. In industries also, there is potential for
economy in the use of water. Prices of water for all uses should be fixed, keeping
in mind its economic value, control of wastage, and the ability of users to pay. As
water is becoming scarcer, pricing will be an important factor in avoiding wastage
and ensuring optimal use.

24.2.2. Rainwater Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is the process to capture and store rainfall for its
efficient utilization and conservation to control its runoff, evaporation and seepage.
Some of the benefits of RWH are:
i. It increases water availability;
ii. It checks the declining water table;
iii. It is environmentally friendly;
iv. It improves the quality of groundwater through dilution, mainly of fluoride,
nitrate, and salinity; and
v. It prevents soil erosion and flooding, especially in urban areas.
1168 Chapter 24

Even in ancient days, people were familiar with the methods of conservation of
rainwater and had practiced them with success. Different methods of RWH were
developed to suit the geographical and meteorological conditions of the region
in various parts of the country. Traditional rainwater harvesting, which is still
prevalent in rural areas, is done by using surface storage bodies, such as lakes,
ponds, irrigation tanks, temple tanks, etc. For example, Kul (diversion channels)
irrigation system which carries water from glaciers to villages is practiced in the
Spiti area of Himachal Pradesh. In the arid regions of Rajasthan, RWH structures,
locally known as Kund (a covered underground tank), are constructed near the
house or a village to tackle the drinking water problem. In Meghalaya, Bamboo
Rainwater Harvesting for tapping of stream and spring water through bamboo pipes
to irrigate plantations is widely prevalent. The system is so perfected that about
18 to 20 litres of water entering the bamboo pipe system per minute is transported
over several hundred meters.
There is a need to recharge aquifers and conserve rainwater through water
harvesting structures. In urban areas, rainwater will have to be harvested using
rooftops and open spaces, parks, etc. Harvesting rainwater not only reduces the
possibility of flooding, but also decreases the community’s dependence on ground-
water for domestic use. These days RWH is being taken up on a massive scale in
many states in India.
In the Pani Roko Abhiyan (a programme to stop the overland flow of water
and allow it to infiltrate) the Kallipura Panchayat of the Jhabua block, the village
community has constructed 613 check dams and three stop-dams. They have also
completed the task of recharging a large number of hand pumps by constructing
recharging pits. Similarly, the villagers of Bhagor and Manpura panchayats have
built tanks to store water for their needs and to recharge ground water. Encouraged
by the success of the Pani Roko Abhiyan, the Madhya Pradesh Government had
decided in principle to institutionalize it in the State.
In earlier times, the Jhabua district in Western Madhya Pradesh was rich in forest
and wildlife. But gradually the growing demand for timber and farmland ate up the
forests. Slowly, wells dried up, perennial sources of water disappeared, and rains
washed down the soil. This soil which clogged the channels, increasing the spread
of water and the resultant flooding and devastation. People started migrating from
Jhabua in search of work. In 1994, the Rajiv Gandhi Watershed Mission helped by
the state government launched a programme of water harvesting by erecting trenches
on the hill slopes to slow down the flow of water and through tree plantation. The
project was a success – after a few years, one could see a rise in the water table in
villages where work had completed to conserve water. Even during the drought of
2002, 88% pumps in the watershed villages were working and there was water in
every well dug in such areas.
The low-lying area around the Tughlakabad Fort in Delhi suggests of the
enormous amount of water it used to collect in earlier times. During the 12th
century, the Khiljis had built a reservoir in the plains of Siri, the second city of
Delhi, to harvest water from the Aravali hills. A large tank was built by Sultan
Iltutmish inside Qila Rai Pithora of Mehrauli.
Concepts of Water Governance for India 1169

Limitations of Rain Water Harvesting

Revival of traditional systems and RWH are desirable and can be of help but
they have their limitations. Of course, there are a few success stories like those of
Relagaon Siddhi (Maharashtra), Alwar (Rajasthan), etc. mainly due to the dedication
of those involved with these works. But there are also many failures in such attempts
across the country. Some people have made exaggerated claims that RWH can meet
a major part of current water demands. In the monsoon and (semi)arid climate of
India, it will not be a good idea to store large quantities of water in small reservoirs.
Lakhs of tanks would have to be constructed. These tanks will submerge millions
of hectares of land, most of it fertile and cultivated. Loss of water by seepage will
be large and more importantly, most of these tanks will be dry in summer months.
Situation will be worse if the monsoon failed. Further, large scale storage of water
in the headwater region and diversion affects water availability in the downstream
areas. To sum up, rain water harvesting can have an important but a limited role in
water conservation.

24.2.3. Recycle and Reuse of Water

Another way through which we can improve freshwater availability is by recycle

and reuse of water. It is said that in the city of Frankfurt, Germany, every drop of
water is recycled eight times. The use of water of lesser quality, such as reclaimed
wastewater, for cooling and fire fighting is an attractive option for large and
complex industries to reduce their water costs, increase production and decrease
the consumption of energy. This conserves better quality waters for potable use.
Currently, recycling of water is not practiced on a large scale in India and there
is considerable scope and incentive to use this alternative. Gupta and Deshpande
(2004) state that recyclable water ranges between 103 to 177 km3 /year for low and
high population projections but these estimates appear to be on higher side.

24.2.4. Desalination of Water

Since 1970, there has been a significant commercial development using various
desalination technologies, including distillation, reverse osmosis, and electrolysis.
This technology is suitable for use in areas where freshwater is scarce, but saline
water is available and energy is cheap. Compared to water recycling technologies,
desalination presents fewer health risks.
Desalination, as currently practiced, mostly uses fossil fuels. Solar and wind
energy are available in abundance in India and may be explored as alternative
sources for this purpose in coastal states. Between the high capital and energy
requirements, desalinated water costs several times more than water supplied by
conventional means. But the costs are now coming down. Current production cost
is about Rs. 50 (nearly one Euro) per m3 (Times of India, New Delhi, dated 30 July
2004). Many facilities in coastal regions are using reverse osmosis for desalinization.
For example, at Kalpakkam reactor, Tamil Nadu, 1.8 million litres water is being
1170 Chapter 24

produced per day. It is expected that as the costs come down, desalinization would
become commercially viable in the next 6 to 8 years.
The National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT, www.niot.res.in) has
developed a Low Temperature Thermal Desalination (LTTD) plant. It makes use
of the temperature difference which exists between the warm surface water and
deep sea cold water. The technology was first demonstrated in a pilot project of
5,000 litres/day at Chennai and is now being used at a 100,000 litres/day plant at
Kavaratti.

24.3. WATER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT AND ENVIRONMENT

RESTORATION

Implementation of water pollution prevention strategies and restoration of ecological

systems are integral components of all development plans. Somehow, this aspect
has not been given adequate attention in the past in India. As a result, the quality
of water in many of our rivers is extremely bad and many lakes and ponds have
become dumping sites for waste products. To preserve our water and environment,
we need to make systematic changes in the way we grow our food, manufacture
the goods, and dispose off the waste (Lazaroff, 2000). For this purpose, society and
individuals should have a greater knowledge and ability to bring about the required
changes. Widely and readily available technical help about ‘how to do this’ will
accelerate the process.
In India, agriculture is the biggest user and polluter of water. If pollution by
agriculture is reduced, it would improve water quality and would also eliminate
cost incurred for treatment of diseases. This would entail learning how to use less
chemicals while boosting yields, e.g., eliminating the use of fungicides by planting
more diverse varieties of grains and switching to organic farming so that a fewer
chemicals are introduced on farms. Like all other inputs, there is an optimal quantity
of fertilizer for given conditions and excess application does not improve crop yield.
Pricing of fertilizers and pesticides as well as appropriate legislation to regulate
their use will also go a long way in stopping indiscriminate use.
Industries need to carefully treat their waste discharges. Manufacturers may
reduce water pollution by reusing materials and chemicals and switching over
to less toxic alternatives. Industrial symbiosis, in which the unusable wastes
from one product/firm become the input for another, is an attractive solution.
Also, there is a need to encourage reductions or replacement of toxic chemicals,
possibly through fiscal measures. Pollution taxes in the Netherlands, for example,
have helped the country slash discharges of heavy metals, such as mercury and
arsenic, into waterways by up to 99% between 1976 and the mid-1990s. Many
countries discourage the use of equipment that contains harmful chemicals (such as
thermometers that contain mercury). Such measures in India will also be helpful.
Environmental improvement and restoration should be planned and implemented
such that the freshwater resources are protected and their quality is maintained
and/or enhanced. A broad perspective is needed that unites social, economic,
Concepts of Water Governance for India 1171

and environmental concerns in a landscape where upland forests and rangelands,

wetlands, and agricultural and urban areas are integrated. An understanding of
watershed linkages allows for long-term and sustainable solutions to a variety
of natural resource problems. Model efforts in this direction include the capture,
storage and safe release of water and the prevention of accelerated soil erosion
through hydraulic structures and vegetation.
The Ministry of Environment and Forests serves is the focal point for environ-
mental and water quality programmes. Other government departments in carrying
out environmental protection activities are Central and State Pollution Control
Boards, and the National River Conservation Authority (formerly Central Ganga
Authority). A total of 1,532 grossly polluting industries in 24 States/Union Terri-
tories have been identified under the National River Action Plan. Comprehensive
River Basin Documents for Ulhas, Brahmaputra, Pennar, Indus Part II, Rishkulya
and Chaliyar Rivers are under preparation.
While utilizing water and land resources, their ability to serve other uses is often
degraded either inadvertently or due to carelessness. Efforts should be made to
restore landscapes and ecosystems to more efficiently protect water quality, aquatic
and wildlife. On the legislative front, we require laws to check littering as well
as to implement “polluter pays” principle. More importantly, these laws should be
strictly enforced.
The National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) plans to tackle river pollution
by building new sewage treatment plants where necessary, diverting raw sewage
flowing in open drains to these plants, constructing sanitation facilities to check
open defecation on river banks, setting up crematoria (electric or improved wood
based), etc. Under NRCP, polluted stretches of major rivers have been identified
for sewage collection and treatment. Currently, 153 towns have been included in
NRCP. Out of these, 74 are located on the Ganga River, 21 on the Yamuna, 12 on
the Damodar, 6 on the Godavari, 9 on the Cauvery, 4 each on the Tungabhadra and
the Satluj, 3 each on the Subarnarekha, the Betwa, the Wainganga, the Brahmini,
the Chambal and the Gomti, 2 on the Krishna, and 1 each on the Sabarmati, the
Khan, the Kshipra, the Narmada and the Mahanadi. According to the Planning
Commission, about 45% of the cleaning of the Ganga has been completed. However,
the overall progress is poor because of delays in land acquisition and slow pace of
work by municipal corporations.
The National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP) was initiated in 1994 to clean
important urban lakes with have high levels of silting and pollution. Ten lakes
were initially identified – Ooty, Kodaikanal, Powai, Dal, Sukhna, Sagar, Nainital,
Udaipur, Rabindra Sagar and Hussain Sagar. However, work has started on only
one lake. The progress regarding other lakes is slow because of various reasons.

24.3.1. Environmental Flows (EF)

An environmental flow (EF) is the water regime provided within a river, wetland
or coastal zone to maintain ecosystem and their benefits where there are competing
1172 Chapter 24

water uses and where flows are regulated. Environmental flows provide critical
contributions to river health, economic development and poverty alleviation. They
ensure the continued availability of many benefits that healthy river and ground-
water systems bring to society. Environmental flows normally include the flow
requirements in rivers and estuaries for maintenance of riverine ecology. Some
people view EF as wastage of water but clearly this is a narrow view.
Most Indian rivers have monsoon-driven hydrological regimes, where 70% to
80% of the annual flow occurs in 3 to 4 months. Such rivers fall into the category
of highly variable flow regimes. The total environmental flow requirement (EFR)
for most of the Indian rivers range between 20% to 27% of the renewable water
resources. But these EFR estimates may be considered as preliminary. These need
verification through comprehensive basin-specific assessments of EFR. At the same
time, it is important to appreciate that the EFR allocations of less then about 20% of
the mean annual flow are likely to degrade any river beyond the limits of possible
re-habilitation. An additional factor, not yet considered in the assessment, is that a
reduction in river flows decreases the ability of a river to cope with pollution loads.
These loads are known to be massive in many Indian basins.
Un-utilizable portion of surface runoff in most Indian basins is adequate to meet
EFR. Only in a few basins, namely Pennar, West flowing rivers in Kutch, Saurashtra
and Luni, Cauvery and east flowing rivers between Pennar and Kanyakumari, EFR
exceeds the un-utilizable runoff. In these basins, a part of the potentially utilizable
water resources has to be earmarked for EFR.

24.4. INTER-BASIN WATER TRANSFER (IBWT)

The vast variation, both in space and time, in the availability of water in different
regions of India has created a flood-drought-flood syndrome with some areas
suffering from flood damages and other areas facing acute water shortages.
The States of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and
Maharashtra are the worst drought prone States. The States of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
West Bengal, Orissa and Assam face severe flood problems. Inter-basin transfer of
water in India is a long-term option to partly overcome the spatial and temporal
imbalance of the availability and demand of water resources.
Recently, this topic has gained immense importance in India particularly in view
of the proposed scheme of interlinking of rivers (ILR). Due to this reason, it is
discussed in detail in Chapter 22. We may emphasize here that interbasin transfer
of water at a mammoth scale may not be necessary in India. Nevertheless, IBWT
is a rational option for solving water related problems.

24.5. GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT

To protect aquifers from over-exploitation, an effective groundwater management

policy oriented towards the promotion of efficiency, equity, and sustainability
is required. Agricultural holdings in India are highly fragmented and the rural
Concepts of Water Governance for India 1173

population density is large. The exploitation of groundwater resources should be

regulated so as not to exceed the recharging possibilities, as well as to ensure
social equity. The detrimental environmental consequences of over-exploitation of
groundwater need to be effectively prevented by the central and state governments.
Integrated and coordinated development of surface water and groundwater resources
and their conjunctive use should be envisaged right from the project planning stage
and should form an integral part of the project implementation. Over-exploitation
of groundwater should be avoided, especially near the coast to prevent intrusion of
seawater into freshwater aquifers (National Water Policy, 2002).
A joint management approach combining government administration with active
people participation is a promising solution. The government can initiate a variety
of programs and controls for recharge and discharge and implement regulatory
measures, such as well spacing norms, control drilling of new wells by issuing
permits, regulation of water intensive crops, and pricing of electricity for lifting
groundwater. Elected committees through which the interests of all stakeholders
can be voiced could govern these programs, especially in overexploited areas.
These committees can allocate quota for utilizing water in such areas for every few
years based on the current cropping pattern. It is essential that the quota be set
corresponding to efficient irrigation techniques. To the extent possible, conjunctive
use of surface water and groundwater should form an integral part of groundwater
management policy.
In critically overexploited areas, bore-well drilling should be regulated till the
water table attains the desired elevation. Artificial recharge measures need to be
urgently implemented in these areas. Amongst the various recharge techniques,
percolation tanks are least expensive in terms of initial construction costs. Many
such tanks already exist but a vast majority of these structures have silted up. In
such cases, cleaning of the bed of the tanks will make them reusable. Promotion of
participatory action in rehabilitating tanks for recharging would go a long way in
augmenting groundwater supply.
Due to declining water table, the cost of extraction of groundwater has been
increasing over time and wells often go dry. This poses serious financial burden
on farmers. Hence, special programs need to be designed to support these farmers.
Finally, the role of government will have to switch from that of a controller
of groundwater development to that of a facilitator of equitable and sustainable
development.

24.5.1. Conjunctive Use of Water

Conjunctive use is the coordinated management of surface and groundwater

resources, taking advantage of their complementary properties. The objectives of
such coordination may be higher agricultural production, improved sustainability
of the system and/or more acceptable socio-economic equity. The conjunctive
use concept recognizes the unified nature of the surface water and ground water
resources as a single natural resource and takes advantage of interactions between
1174 Chapter 24

them in planning the use of water from the two resources. Interactions between
surface water and groundwater resources include contribution to base flow from
groundwater, recharge to groundwater from fields irrigated with surface water,
artificial recharge of surface water to groundwater, indirect use of ground water
through augmentation of tube wells into canals, and recharge from irrigation
conveyance system to ground water. This topic has been covered in detail in
Chapter 6.

24.5.2. Artificial Recharge of Ground Water

Artificial ground water recharge is resorted to in areas facing excessive lowering

of water levels. These techniques are in vogue mainly in alluvial and other uncon-
solidated formations. However, on account of greater development of ground water
in hard rock areas in recent years, attempts are also being made to adopt effective
methods of recharge in such formations. The choice of a particular recharge method
and its effectiveness depends upon the hydrogeological characteristics, viz., lateral
and vertical continuity of aquifers, direction of ground water movement, intercon-
nections between aquifers tapped by various structures, and hydraulic characteristics
of aquifers.
Frequently used methods of artificial recharge in drought prone areas are
percolation tanks, check dams, and percolation canals. Check dams are quite
effective in limestones and other hard rock areas with steep slopes. Further, they
serve the twin purpose of ground water recharge and soil conservation.
While preparing the National Perspective Plan for recharge to ground water
by utilizing surplus monsoon run-off, the non-committed surplus monsoon run-
off was assessed by CGWB vis-à-vis the available sub-surface space. This study
was carried under different hydrogeological situations and assessment was made to
saturate the vadose zone up to 3 m below ground level. The plan envisaged local
conservation of surplus monsoon runoff through artificial ground water recharge.
The surplus and feasible utilizable figures for various basins are given in Table 1.
The surplus monsoon runoff for creation of subsurface ground water storage was
estimated as 864 BCM. Saturating the vadose zone up to 3 m depth below ground
level will create sub-surface storage potential of 591 BCM. Since the monsoon
runoff is not uniform in all the basins, this will result in surplus and deficit of
monsoon runoff vis-à-vis the water required to recharge the vadose zone. Hence,
this potential needs modification keeping in view the availability of monsoon runoff
and storage potential of vadose zone. Consequently, the retrievable storage potential
would be 175 BCM. Substantial crop area can be irrigated by additional sub surface
storage.
In India, the area which requires artificial recharge to ground water has been
estimated to be 448,760 sq.km. This excludes the hilly terrain of Jammu and Kashmir
(J&K), Himachal Pradesh (H.P.), Uttaranchal, North Eastern (N.E.) states, arid
regions of Western India, and islands. In rural areas, artificial recharge by modifying
natural movement of surface water through percolation tanks, check dams, nala
Concepts of Water Governance for India 1175

Table 1. Water availability and potential for enhanced recharge

Basin Water Sub-surface Feasible Retrievable Water availability to meet

available storage ground ground requirement of ground
for potential for water water water storage
recharge recharge storage storage
Excess Deficit

Indus 31326 143903 31326 21665 112577

Ganga 238126 125076 125076 94930 113050
Brahmaputra 307752 19177 19177 15883 288575
Barak No Storage Potential
Godavari 53124 8145 8145 5818 4479
Krishna 17835 8970 8970 6407 8865
Cauvery 8132 4746 4746 3406 3386
Pennar 2742 1940 1940 1386 802
EFR between 8562 832 832 594 7730
Krishna &
Pennar, and
Mahanadi &
Godavari
EFR between 10882 5731 5731 4145 5151
Pennar and
Kanyakumari
Mahanadi 26187 2055 2055 1468 24132
Brahmani & 14603 483 483 345 14120
Baitarani
Subarnarekha 4406 868 868 630 3538
Sabarmati 1489 8134 1489 1116 6645
Mahi 4587 1883 1883 1345 2704
WFR of 5814 150181 5814 4371 144367
Kachchh &
Saurashtra
including Luni
Narmada 10244 77356 10244 7687 67112
Tapi 3830 4448 3830 2752 618
WFR of Tapi 65612 907 907 648 64705
to Tadri
WFR of Tadri 49537 518 518 370 49019
to Kanya
Kumari
Areas of NIL 25310 NIL NIL 25310
Inland
drainage in
Rajasthan
Minor rivers No Storage Potential
draining to
Bangladesh &
Myanmar
Total 864700 590573 233943 174963 630126 356629

Note: EFR = East Flowing Rivers, WFR = West Flowing Rivers.

1176 Chapter 24

bunds, gully plugs, Gabion structures, sub-surface techniques of recharge shaft,

well recharge, etc. have been recommended. Attempts to conserve ground water
flow through ground water dams have also been made in different states. The
Master Plan envisages construction of 2.25 lakh artificial recharge structures in
rural areas. This number includes 37,000 percolation tanks, 110,000 check dams/
nala bunds/gully plugs/anicuts, etc., 48,000 recharge shafts/dug well for recharge,
revival of about 1,000 ponds, and 26,000 gully plugs and Gabion structures. In
J&K, H.P., Uttaranchal, N.E. states, and Sikkim, emphasis is being placed on spring
development and 2,700 springs have been identified for development.
A ground water recharge scheme has been formulated specially for Thar Desert
of Rajasthan. About 70 BCM of water can be recharged to the deep water table
areas of Thar Desert. IGNP water can be utilized during monsoon period to recharge
the depleted aquifers through multipurpose lift canal system. There is potential to
build up vast sub-surface reservoirs in Thar Desert.
Percolation tanks are very effective in recharging ground water aquifers and
increase of yield of downstream wells. These have been used for artificial recharge
in the hard rock formations in basalts, granites and other crystalline rocks in Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, AP, and MP. Romani and Sharma (1989) have given a detailed
account of percolation tanks constructed in Jhabua district (M.P.) where the rocks are
Deccan basalts and Bagh beds. Pardhasaradhi (1989) has described the effectiveness
of percolation tanks from Siva and Man River basins in Maharashtra where the
rock types are Deccan traps. The rate of seepage from these tanks was found to
vary from 15 to 75 mm/day. A study of some tanks done in the state of Maharashtra
indicates that for five tanks under study, 100 new wells have come up and increase
in irrigated area is 355 ha (Saksena 2000). In zones with gentler slopes, percolation
tanks generally perform better than check dams and are also cost effective.
Percolation by periodic release of water in canals and natural channels was tried
in Anantpur District (AP). The area is underlain by Tadipatri shale of Cuddapah
Group. This method of recharge was found to be effective and the ground water
levels rose by 12 m.

24.5.3. Ground Water Dams

A ground water dam is an impervious subsurface structure which stops the lateral
outflow of ground water, thereby augmenting water availability in an area. It may
also serve as collecting structure that diverts ground water flow to recharge adjacent
aquifers or to raise the ground water table in an aquifer with a limited flow of
ground water, making it accessible for pumping. Damming ground water is a mean
of bridging over seasonal dry periods. The purpose of the sub-surface dam is to
arrest the movement of ground water out of a sub basin. The method of storing
under ground water has received considerable attention during the last few years.
Damming ground water for conservation purposes is not a new concept. Ground
water dams were constructed on Islands of Sardinia in Roman times and structures
in Tunisia show that damming of ground water was practiced by old civilizations in
Concepts of Water Governance for India 1177

North Africa. Most recently various small scale ground water damming techniques
have been developed and adopted in many parts of the world, notably in India,
southern and eastern Africa, Brazil and Japan.
Such structures have been constructed in the past in many countries. In India, the
oldest example is perhaps from Ottapalam in Palghat district of Kerala constructed
during 1962–64. According to Singhal (1992) this dam, constructed in 1962–64,
is made up of a 4-inch plastered brick wall. It has a length of 155 m and has
a depth of 5 to 9 m. The catchment area of the dam is about 10 ha and water
is used for irrigation of 3.2 ha of paddy during October-December, and 1.2 ha of
paddy during the dry season. In 1979, another subsurface dam was constructed by
CGWB in Palghat, Kerala. It has a catchment area of 20 ha. The bedrock consists
of gneisses and granites. A subsurface dam, made of plastic sheets, was built in
Octacamund, Tamil Nadu, in 1981. CGWB has also constructed ground water
dams at other places in Kerala. Sinha and Sharma (1990) and Saksena (2000)
have given a detailed account of the design and criteria of site selection for these
structures.

24.6. WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

For an equitable and sustainable management of shared water resources, flexible,

holistic approach of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is required,
which can cater to hydrological variations in time and space and changes in socio-
economic needs along with societal values. Watershed is the unit of management in
IWRM, where surface water and groundwater are inextricably linked and related to
land use and management. Watershed management aims to establish a workable and
efficient framework for the integrated use, regulation and development of land and
water resources in a watershed for socio-economic growth. A conceptual framework
for IWRM depicting the objectives, the inputs, and the tools is given in Fig. 7.

Objectives:
To meet societal
needs and
aspirations. W – watershed
Constraints: management
Socio-economic
Political
Cultural

Inputs: W Tools:
Watershed Technology,
resources economics, and
management

Figure 7. A conceptual framework for IWRM

1178 Chapter 24

Typical objectives of watershed development programs include:

(i). Raising the productivity of irrigated and rain-fed agriculture and non-arable
lands,
(ii). Encouraging the sustainable management and optimal use of surface and
groundwater,
(iii). Reducing soil erosion,
(iv). Conserving forests and other natural vegetation,
(v). Creating employment (both directly and indirectly), and
(vi). Promoting increased individual and collective responsibility for natural
resources management and strengthening the social institutions.
Local communities play a central role in the planning, implementation and
funding of activities within participatory watershed development programs. In these
initiatives, people use their traditional knowledge, available resources, imagination
and creativity to develop watershed and implement community-centered programs.
The All India Soil and Land Use Survey (AISLUS) has delineated watersheds at
the national level and have delineated watersheds larger than 20,000 ha. They have
adopted the scheme shown in Table 2 to identify watersheds.
Thus the code of the example watershed Bhairabanki in Table 2 would be 2A2A6.
Currently, many programs, campaigns and projects are underway in different parts
of India to spread mass awareness and mobilize the general population in managing
water resources. Some of these are being implemented by the central/state govern-
ments, while others have been taken up by various Non-Governmental Organizations
(NGOs). The underlying watchword/motto for these programs is that “each one of
us is responsible for the current state of water resources and environment in the
country, and we cannot wait for someone else to solve it.” A few water conservation
efforts are briefly described in what follows.
Hariyali: Hariyali (meaning ‘greenery’) is a watershed management project,
launched by the central government, which aims at enabling the rural population
to conserve water for drinking, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation as well as
generate employment opportunities. The project is being executed by the Gram
Panchayats (village governing bodies) with people’s participation; the technical
support is provided by the block (sub-district) administration.

Table 2. Hierarchical coding of watersheds by AISLUS.

Details Region Basin Catchment Sub- Watershed

catchment
Type Numeric Alphabet Numeric Alphabet Numeric
Characters 1 1 1 1 1
Example
Code 2 A 2 A 6
Name Ganga basin Lower Ganga Kasai to Lower Kasai Bhairabanki
Damodar on up to
right bank of Kansabati
Bhagirathi
Concepts of Water Governance for India 1179

Neeru-Meeru: Another good example of water conservation efforts is the ‘Neeru-

Meeru’ (Water and You) program launched in May 2000 by the Government of
Andhra Pradesh. During the last three years, an additional storage space of more
than 1,800 million m3 has been created by constructing various water harvesting
structures, such as percolation tanks, dugout ponds, check dams, etc., through
people’s participation. A water literacy drive ‘Jalachaitanyam’ (water awareness)
has created a large-scale awareness about conservation measures and sustainable
management of water resources in the state.
Water Harvesting: Tarun Bharat Sangh (Young India Association) or TBS
is an NGO which promotes sustainable water management through rainwater
harvesting in Rajasthan. Since 1986, TBS has helped with building or restoring
nearly 10,000 water harvesting structures in Alwar and the neighboring districts
in the Aravalli hills of northeastern Rajasthan. These structures not only hold
surface water but recharge the groundwater as well. The central message of TBS
is that good water management requires good land management. Emphasis is also
put on protecting forests. The efforts of villagers are visible in the form of rising
water table and regenerated forests on the rocky slopes of the Aravalli hills.
Despite the above success stories, so far there is no appreciable improvement
on watershed resources utilization on national level. Undoubtedly, coordinated
watershed development programs need to be encouraged and awareness about
benefits of these programs must be created among the people. It is also pertinent to
note that recently inflows to many lakes and reservoirs have decreased considerably.
For instance, the Pichola Lake in Udaipur has almost dried on account of reduced
inflows. Gandhisagar Reservoir in the Chambal basin is being able to fill up only
partly due to meager inflows. A reason behind this may be large changes in the
upstream catchment. It is, therefore, necessary that any watershed development
activity should be holistically planned and carried out so that unintended and
undesirable consequences can be avoided.

24.7. IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

That the global warming is taking place is a fact and the consequences of the climate
change require attention. The impact of climatic change may be more severe in
developing countries, such as India, where agriculture supports more than half of
the population and has a critical influence on economy. Despite the uncertainties
about the magnitude and directions of climate change and the possible impacts,
measures must be taken to minimize the anthropogenic causes of climate change
and mitigate its adverse effects.
Surface temperature records reveal that the 1990s have been the warmest decade
of the last millennium in the Northern Hemisphere and 1998 was the warmest year.
Anthropogenic-induced CO2 emissions are said to be the dominant factor causing
the observed global warming. Substantial increases in greenhouse gases are likely in
the future as a consequence of which global mean surface temperature is expected to
increase scenarios and between 25 and 58  C for high emission scenarios by 2100
1180 Chapter 24

with respect to 1990 (IPCC, 2001). Globally averaged precipitation is projected to

increase and the global mean sea level is likely to rise by 0.14 to 0.80 m by the
year 2100.
The summer monsoon is the predominant source of water for the country.
Naturally, the interest is to know the likely impacts of climate change and global
warming on the monsoons. Rainfall fluctuations over the last century have been
largely random with no systematic annual or seasonal pattern. However, areas of
increasing trend in the seasonal rainfall have been found along the West Coast,
North Andhra Pradesh and Northwest India and those of decreasing trend over East
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Northeast India during recent years. An analysis of air
temperature data by Pant & Kumar (1997) has shown a warming trend of 057  C
per hundred years for India.
To predict the changes in temporal as well as spatial variability of the monsoon
rainfall in response to increases in radiative forcing of the atmosphere, climate
change scenarios over India under four emission possibilities were studied by Lal
(2001). These scenarios cover a wide range of driving forces of future emissions.
Among these, the scenario B1 projects the most conservative future emission of
greenhouse gases while A2 scenario is characteristic of higher rates of emissions.
According to Lal (2001), the area-averaged annual mean surface temperature rise
over India by 2080s is likely to range between 35  C and 55  C (least in B1 scenario
and maximum in A2 scenario). During summer monsoon, the warming may range
between 29  C and 46  C. The projected surface warming is more pronounced
during winter than during summer monsoon season. A marginal increase of about
7 to 10% in area-averaged annual mean precipitation is projected over the Indian
subcontinent by 2080s. A decline of between 5 to 25% in area-averaged winter
precipitation is likely. During the monsoon season, an increase in area-averaged
precipitation of about 10 to 15% over the land regions is projected and this will result
in more frequent floods. A decrease of between 10 and 20% in winter precipitation
over most parts of central India is expected for 2050s. Lal (2000) has concluded
that the year-to-year variability in rainfall over central India during the monsoon
season may not significantly change in the future. More intense rainfall spells are,
however, expected over India in the future.
Some of the most pronounced year-to-year variability in climate features and the
extreme weather events, such as droughts in many parts of Asia, have been linked
to El Niño events. At least half the severe failures of the Indian summer monsoon
since 1871 have occurred during El Niño years (Webster et al., 1998). In the event
of enhanced anomalous warming of the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean, such as
that observed during the 1997–98 El Niño, more frequent droughts in some parts
of India are possible.
Formation of monsoon depressions and tropical cyclones over the Bay of Bengal
and the Arabian Sea shows a falling trend since 1970. However, an increase in
sea surface temperature due to climate change should lead to increase in cyclone
intensity, higher storm surges, and an enhanced risk of disasters along the east coast
of India. Climate change can also pose an additional threat to the mountainous region
Concepts of Water Governance for India 1181

of India. Extreme precipitation events in the Himalayas may cause higher runoff,
frequent slope failures, and more soil erosion and sedimentation in this region.

24.7.1. Coping with Climate Change and Adaptation

Climate change is just one of the many factors influencing the hydrologic cycle.
One may assume that no special efforts or plans are required to protect against
surprises or uncertainties. But this complacency by water managers may lead to
severe impacts that could be prevented by simple actions taken now. In addition to
climate change, population growth, land use changes, industrial growth, and increase
in demands for various uses are also occurring simultaneously. A change in drought
or flood risks due to climate change has the greatest implications for human well-
being. Climate change is likely to produce, in many places over the country and over
long-time horizons, hydrologic surprises (or shocks), variabilities, and extremes of
a nature different from the one for which the current systems were designed and
built. Relying solely on traditional methods and assuming that sufficient time and
information will be available before the onset of large or irreversible change to
permit managers to respond appropriately;
Many steps need to be taken to cope up with the climate change impacts on
future water resources management in India:
(i) A well-planned national climate and water monitoring and research program
should be developed as a collaborative effort between government departments
and leading scientific organizations;
(ii) Decision makers should begin a systematic re-evaluation of engineering
designs, operating rules, contingency plans, and water allocation policies for
managing water resources in view of potential climate changes;
(iii) In view of regional variations, the state governments should begin assessing
the likely climate impacts and the effectiveness of different operation and
management options;
(iv) Improvements in the efficiency of end uses and the management of water
demands must now be considered major tools for meeting future water needs,
particularly in water-scarce regions. Water demand management and institu-
tional adaptation are the primary components for increasing system flexibility
to meet uncertainties of climate change;
(v) Assumptions about the probability, frequency, and severity of extreme events
used for planning and their impact should be carefully re-evaluated;
(vi) Methods must be used that explicitly incorporate uncertainty into the decision
process; and
(vii) New infrastructure with long-life should be designed considering a wider
range of climate variability than shown by the historical record.
Records of past climate and hydrological conditions are no longer considered to be
reliable guides to the future (Jain and Lall, 2001). Climate change will be imposed on
the top of current and future non-climate stresses. In some cases, these changes will
be larger than those expected from population growth, land-use changes, economic
1182 Chapter 24

growth, and other non-climate factors. Another crucial fact is that the time lags
between identifying the nature of the problems, understanding them, prescribing
remedies, and implementing them are long. Hence, waiting for relative certainty
about the nature of climate change before taking actions to reduce climate-change
related risks might prove far more costly than taking certain pro-active management
and planning steps now.
The areas for further research in this field include:
(a) Improvements in methods to downscale climate information to improve under-
standing of small-scale processes that affect water systems;
(b) Research on how summer monsoon will be affected due to climate change and
its effect on water resources systems;
(c) Research on how the behaviour of cyclones and other extreme hydrologic events
might change; and
(d) How climate change might affect recharge rates and response of aquifers.

24.8. WATER PRICING

Effective and efficient utilization of valuable water resources along with control of
wastage and demands requires an appropriate pricing policy. There is a need for
integrated pricing structure especially in groundwater extraction for different uses.
The pricing policy should match not only the costs of supply (i.e., O & M and capital
costs) but also opportunity costs, economic externality costs and environmental
externality costs. Integrated pricing structure demands significant changes in current
laws, regulatory mechanisms, operational transparency and facilities.
While drafting water pricing, water rights should be well defined without which
the issue of water pricing and its enforcement could not be effective. Further,
the water price should not only be determined on the basis of pure economic
considerations alone; social considerations should as well be given rightful place.
Also there is the need to target the subsidies to the needy groups whose social and
economic status justifies such support. Another important point in this context is
affordability of water by the users and its equity implications.
Ensuring an economic value to water without sacrificing social and environmental
imperatives in a democratic system is a challenge for both the government and the
society. If water prices are to be fixed so as to be able to control demands, it requires
significant changes in regulating mechanism, operational procedures, accountability,
and high quality of facilities. A steep rise in prices will invite opposition from the
users. Hence, the water rates can be best increased in a phased manner. At the same
time, frequent tinkering with rates causes confusion and distrust among the users.

24.9. PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT AND CAPACITY BUILDING

The principle objective of public involvement and capacity building should be to

make various sections of the society aware of the issues and implications of decisions
related to freshwater resources. This approach stresses the need to view freshwater
Concepts of Water Governance for India 1183

resources in a holistic way and recognizes the fact that the socio-economic and
hydro-environmental systems are mutually dependent. It is necessary to undertake a
vigorous mass campaign to educate the various sections of the society about water
conservation and efficient use. To that end, Water Resources Day is being observed
every year on March 22 as part of a mass awareness programme.
When the communities begin to view water resources to be their own common
property, they ensure that these are used in a sustainable manner. Capacity building
should be perceived as the process whereby a community equips itself to become
an active and well-informed partner in decision making. The process of capacity
building must be aimed at both increasing access to freshwater resources and
changing the power relationships between the stakeholders.
Capacity building is not only limited to officials and technicians but must also
include the general awareness of the local population regarding their responsibil-
ities in the sustainable management of the freshwater resources. Policy decisions
in any water resources project should be directed to improve knowledge, attitude
and practices about the linkages between health and hygiene, provide higher
water supply service levels (quantity, quality, equity, reliability, coverage and
access), and to improve environment through safe disposal of human waste.
Sustainable management of freshwater requires decentralized decisions by giving
authority, responsibility and financial support to communities to manage their
natural resources and thereby protect the environment. So far, the involvement of
communities in water resources planning and management in India is very little and
is mostly confined to small irrigation areas. Efforts for dissemination of information
from the government agencies are also minimal.

24.9.1. Use of Advanced Technology

Water resource development strategy, particularly for the surface water projects so far
has focused on selection of best sites. The future development in water resources is
going to be more challenging as most of the best sites have been developed. Selection
of new sites will need advanced technical know-how for investigation, more elaborate
planning and design as also to address the various constraints which will be associated
with such developments. Due attention will have to be paid to social and environ-
mental issues. This would mean relatively higher cost for the project. Technical know
how for planning and design will have to be an important component in addressing
many challenges. Important developments have taken place in information technology
and instruments and these are now being gainfully employed in water sector in India.
A few important fields are described in what follows.

Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques

Remote sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) have an important role
in water resources development and management. Space is the ideal vantage point
to make primary observations from which plethora of useful information can be
derived for input to various hydrological studies. The space born multi spectral data
1184 Chapter 24

enable generating timely, reliable and cost effective information on various natural
resources, namely surface water, ground water, landuse/cover, soil, forest cover and
various environmental hazards, such as waterlogging, salinity and alkalinity, soil
erosion by water etc. Multitude of spatially related data concerning topography,
geomorphology, climatology, etc. along with satellite derived information can be
appropriately integrated through GIS. India is among the pioneering countries that
have launched remote sensing satellites.

Nuclear & Isotope Techniques

Isotope techniques have emerged as a viable tool to study various hydrological
processes like, stream flow generation, groundwater flow and its salinisation, soil
moisture movement through unsaturated zone and recharge to groundwater, and
surface water and groundwater interaction, etc. Nowadays, these techniques are
widely used in developed and developing countries. Every developed country
has a national isotope database developed through a network of precipitation
sample collection stations. Precipitation samples along with groundwater and major
rivers water samples are collected and analysed for environmental stable and
radioisotopes. The national isotope database provides the isotopic input functions
to the various facets of hydrological cycle thus enabling carrying out important
hydrological studies. In India, neither national isotope database nor any network
of precipitation sample collection stations have been established for environ-
mental isotopic analyses. Therefore, there is a need to establish sample collection
stations covering all the major geographical regions in the country. National
level programmes are being launched to make use of nuclear techniques in water
sector.

Hydrological Instrumentation
In addition to the conventional monitoring system, country needs advanced obser-
vation systems for hydrological variables. Efficient and automatic sensing, data
logging and communication features of the hydrological and hydro-meteorological
observation systems enable faster collection of data and unattended operation of
remote stations for long periods. The latest electronic sensors and data loggers
consume less power than the electromechanical recorders that are presently used
in the country. Many Automatic Weather Stations that can measure a number of
hydro-meteorological variables have been recently installed. Robust digital water
level recorders (DWLRs) are increasingly being used for river stage and ground
water level observations providing near continuous records. However, the major
hindrance in use of these equipment is their high cost and non-availability of
facilities for cost effective maintenance and repair.

24.9.2. Gender Issues in Water Management

Women are involved in various ways in the management of irrigation systems and
rural water supply. In most Indian homes, women have the major role in water
Concepts of Water Governance for India 1185

management. In many villages, women have the responsibility to draw water for
domestic consumption and carry it over long distance on foot, often in adverse and
hot climate. Sub-groups of women assist village water and sanitation committees
in many states. The Pani Panchayat in the Anuli irrigation project in Orissa is
entirely managed by women (Planning Commission 2006). In Gujarat, the Self
Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) has trained women in the maintenance
of hand pumps. Now that women have reservations in panchayats, their role in
water management will also become more important. Therefore, if the involvement
of women self-help groups in water management is increased, it is likely to result
in improvement in the water use efficiency.

24.10. INITIATIVES NEEDED IN WATER SECTOR IN INDIA

While India has 16% of the world’s population, its share in the world’s fresh water is
only 4% and it has only 2% of world’s land. Precipitation is confined to a relatively
short season over a year which makes irrigation imperative for reliable agricultural
production and necessitates river regulation. Per capita availability of 1700 m3 is
required to be free of water stress, while availability below 1000 m3 (this amount is
made up of 200 m3 for domestic/industrial use, 200 m3 for environment and ecology,
and 600 m3 for food security) is termed as water scarcity. In India, the per capita
availability in the year 2001 was 1820 m3 and per capita storage was 207 m3 . But
this estimate is somewhat misleading, considering that about 630 BCM of water in
the Ganga-Brahmaputra is unutilizable. Hence the actual per capita availability is
only 1200 m3 . Presently, 9 river basins with 20 crore population are already under
water scarce conditions.
The falling per capita availability reflects the effect of rising population. The
average availability is therefore likely to fall below the water-stress level in the
near future and given the wide variations across the country the situation is likely
to be worrisome. The per capita storage in the country of about 207 m3 is much
less than the storage created in many of the countries as described in Chapter 19.
Even if all ongoing and potential storages are completed, the per capita storage will
increase only up to 400 m3 . Rapidly increasing population and loss of storage due
to sedimentation will further reduce the per capita storage.
The growing population and increasing water use in India are making freshwater
scarce and polluted and posing a major threat to them. In the past, Indian scientists
had ushered the green revolution by increasing food production. A new water
revolution is needed to preserve, harness, develop and manage water resources
keeping in view their quantity and quality. Undoubtedly, scientists will have a
major role in the next blue revolution too but it would be necessary to involve all
the stakeholders. It would be important to induce individuals and communities to
appreciate their options, evaluate them, and then choose the one that is the most
appropriate. Only when the empowered communities understand their rights and
duties and assume their responsibilities, they can be true partners in the development
of water resources.
1186 Chapter 24

24.10.1. Issues and Challenges in Water Sector

In the earlier chapters, details about water uses and problems have been given. The
country thus seems to be on the threshold of a water crisis in the near future unless
remedial steps are taken soon. To sum up, the main issues/problems in water sector
in India are:
• Rapidly increasing demand for water accompanied by limited and variability;
• Extensive pollution of surface water and increasing pollution of ground water
due to extensive agriculture, urbanization, industrialization, etc.;
• Provision of potable water to all villages, which is one of the monitorable targets
of the Tenth Plan;
• Recurring problem of floods and droughts;
• Provision of assured supply of good quality water for domestic use in cities;
• Overuse of ground water and ineffectiveness of legislation to check it;
• A large number of on-going irrigation projects (more than 350 major and medium
irrigation projects) with a huge balance cost exceeding Rs. 90,000 crore;
• A gap of nearly 14 M ha between created and utilized irrigation potential;
• Low water use efficiency in irrigation (25% to 35%) and in urban water supply
(30% to 40% losses);
• Low tariffs for both irrigation and urban water supply, which do not cover even
the operation and maintenance (O&M) costs;
• Water logging in canal command areas and drainage of surplus water;
• Inter- and intra-state water sharing disputes;
• Low coverage of urban and rural sanitation, leading to hygiene problems and
water borne diseases;
• Growing problem of urban solid waste management and pollution from lechates;
and
• Multiplicity of ministries/departments dealing with water.

24.10.2. Future Governance Strategy

The future strategies for water resources development and management have to take
into consideration the above facts and issues. In view of restricted fund and other
resources, relatively higher costs of the projects and the constraints, it is necessary
to identify the strategic areas for focused attention. Similarly, management issues
have to be given due emphasis and future planning will necessarily be a composite
package of development and management. This can be achieved only with active
participation of the stakeholders at all stages of development and management. But
for that to happen, the government functioning will have to be more transparent,
forthcoming, and participatory.
In future water resources management in India, the following aspects will have
to be given due consideration:
• Most of the good project sites are already exploited and hence future develop-
ments will be much more challenging than the past;
Concepts of Water Governance for India 1187

• Besides technical aspects, social and environmental issues will dominate all future
planning and it will be difficult to proceed with a project unless it has social
support and acceptance;
• The imbalance resulting from over-utilization in one region and under-utilization
in another will need to be addressed (equity issue);
• Efforts are required to optimally utilize the created potential in a systematic
manner;
• Restricted fund availability calls for strict financial management;
• Co-ordination among the various agencies dealing with water sector;
• Problems of land acquisition and environment & forest clearance for the projects
which often delay the work needs to be streamlined;
• Project-affected people need to be resettled and rehabilitated with care and
respect;
• Delay in completion of the projects due to water disputes on sharing of waters
between upper and lower Riparian states, control, operation and regulation of
releases;
• Shift from project specific planning to integrated basin planning; and
• Improving water use efficiency through better water management.

Priority Areas
In view of the limited financial resources available and to appropriately address
the needs of the society, it is necessary to prioritize the activities and support them
accordingly. The Government of India has identified the following priority areas:
• Completion of on-going projects,
• Revival and restoration of existing water bodies,
• Command area development and PIM,
• Flood management and erosion control,
• Dam safety and rehabilitation, and
• Rural drinking water supply and sanitation.
The priority will, however, vary from region to region.
Based on the issues, challenges, and priority areas, the following initiatives are
needed for the sake of good water governance:
• Identify critical projects as national projects and ensure their timely completion;
• Efforts to be made to achieve the Millennium Development Goals related to
drinking water supply and sanitation;
• As is being done in other infrastructure projects, employ modern management
tools for decision making in water sector projects and to monitor the progress;
• Water tariff for irrigation and other uses should be fixed to encourage saving as
well as provide subsidized services to the needy;
• Anything that is given free including electricity for agriculture is likely to be
wasted and this practice should be stopped;
• Review the issue of ownership rights on groundwater, as legislation to control
over-exploitation has not been successful;
1188 Chapter 24

• Improve coordination among the agencies involved in water related matter at

central and state government level; and
• Increase recycle and reuse of water and modernization of industrial process to
reduce water demand

Important recommendations of Task Forces

Various Task Force/Task Groups have been constituted by the government to study
and make recommendations on different aspects of water resources, such as floods,
efficient utilization, environmental aspects, etc. Many recommendations of short-
term and long-term have been made by them and the important recommendations
are as follows:
1. Introduce schemes for system rehabilitation, ground water development and
artificial recharge;
2. Promote cropping patterns suited to specific agro-climatic zones;
3. Include command area development works as part of the project;
4. Funds may be provided to states as additional central assistance to maintain
embankments;
5. Community participation in maintenance of embankments should be encouraged;
6. The AIBP needs to focus not only on completing projects but also maximizing
creation of potential at a given cost;
7. There should be full central funding of the flood component in storage dams;
8. State governments should be persuaded to implement flood plain zoning;
9. Increase the cost limit of major projects needing environment clearance from
Rs. 100 crore to Rs. 250 crore;
10. Increase the cultural command area limit for major projects needing
environment clearance from 10,000 ha to 25,000 ha; and
11. Exempt irrigation projects from the need to pay net present value of submerged
forest area.

24.10.3. Future Research Directions

Indian researchers have done a commendable work in the field of hydraulics,

hydrology, sediment transport, and irrigation management. The research and devel-
opment work on design of unlined channels in alluvial soils by Kennedy, Lacey and
several other irrigation engineers; and hydraulic analysis of barrages on permeable
foundations conducted by Dr. Khosla and his team have found international accept-
ability. In recent times, one cannot fail to notice the large number of research
findings that are published by Indian experts through various outlets, such as inter-
national journals, conferences, books, and technical reports and that have created
a major impact in the field of water resources. Despite logistics and infrastructure
limitations, leading institutes of India have provided their expert services to almost
all major projects in the country and have fulfilled their role. Their contribution to
water management is praiseworthy.
Concepts of Water Governance for India 1189

The country is facing a number of challenges in the water sector. In addition to

the topics suggested elsewhere in the book, research on the following broad topics
will be beneficial to the nation:
i) Methodology for integrated water resources assessment in a river basin under
the various scenarios of land-use land-cover change and climate change;
ii) Optimal development of unutilized water resources;
iii) Improvement in the efficiency of present utilization and closing the gap
between the demand and supply;
iv) Enhancement of the level of utilizable resource from the present estimate of
1,122 BCM to a higher potential;
v) Hydrological assessments and predictions in ungauged basins;
vi) Likely impacts of global warming and climate change on hydrologic systems
in India and adaptation techniques;
vii) Optimal and sustainable methods suited for Indian conditions for water
resources utilization while maintaining and improving the health of
environment and eco-systems;
viii) Participatory decision making to resolve water related disputes using the
modern technological advancements; and
ix) Low cost water treatment using locally available materials.

24.11. EPILOGUE
Water is a major factor in each of the three pillars of sustainable development –
economic, social, and environmental. India has to initiate a series of measures to
ensure that her people have access to clean water and sanitation, there is food
security, and there are no water related conflicts. Water must meet the needs of the
present population and those of future generations. To that end, sincere efforts will
have to be continued, year-after-year, for the sake of peace, socio-economic growth
and making the Earth a beautiful place to live.
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http://www.uttranchalirrigation.com/iri/iri-home.htm
http://www.wrmin.nic.in
http://www.ncmrwf.gov.in
http://www.wapcos.net
http://www.isro.org
www.isro.org
Appendix A

ABBREVIATIONS

BBMB : Bhakra Beas Management Board

BIS : Bureau of Indian Standards
CAZRI : Central Arid Zone Research Institute
CDO : Central Design Organization
CGWB : Central Ground Water Board
CPCB : Central Pollution Control Board
CWC : Central Water Commission
CWPRS : Central Water and Power Research Station
DVC : Damodar Valley Corporation
ET : Evapotranspiration
GD or G & D : Gauge & Discharge
GOI : Government of India
HP : Hydropower
IAH : Indian Association of Hydrologists
ICAR : Indian Council of Agriculture Research
ICID : International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage
IITM : Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology
IMD : India Meteorological Department
INCOH : Indian National Committee on Hydrology
IIT : Indian Institute of Technology
IRI : Irrigation Research Institute
IRS : Indian Remote Sensing Satellite
ISO : International Standards Organization
IWRS : Indian Water Resources Society
NBA : Narmada Bachao Aandolan
NCA : Narmada Control Authority
NIT : National Institute of Technology
NTPC : National Thermal Power Corporation
NHPC : National Hydroelectric Power Corporation
NIC : National Informatics centre
NIH : National Institute of Hydrology
NWDA : National Water Development Agency
MOEF : Ministry of Environment & Forest

1215
1216 Appendix A

MOWR : Ministry of Water Resources

MOA : Ministry of Agriculture
PMF : Probable Maximum Flood
SPF : Standard Project Flood
TERI : The Energy and Resources Institute
UH : Unit Hydrograph
UT : Union Territory
WALMI : Water & Land Management Institute
WRD : Water Resources Development
WQ : Water Quality
Appendix B

CONVERSION FACTORS

Conversion factors – length

cm m km inch foot mile

cm 1 0.01 1 × 10−5 0.3937 0.032808 62137 × 10−6

m 100 1 0.001 39.37 3.2808 62137 × 10−4
km 105 1,000 1 39,370 3,280.8 0.62137
inch 2.54 0.0254 254 × 10−5 1 0.083333 15783 × 10−5
foot 30.48 0.3048 3048 × 10−4 12 1 18939 × 10−4
mile 16093 × 105 1,609.3 1.6093 63,360 5,280 1

Example to use this table: 1 mile = 16093 km.

Conversion factors – area

square meter hectare square km square foot acre square mile

square meter 1 10−4 10−6 10.764 24711 × 10−4 3861 × 10−7

hectare 104 1 0.01 107,639 2.4711 0.003861
square 106 100 10764 × 107 247.11 247.11 0.38610
kilometer
square foot 0.092903 92903 × 10−6 92903 × 10−4 1 22957 × 10−5 35870 × 10−8
acre 4,046.9 0.40469 0.0040469 43.560 1 0.0015625
square mile 2590 × 106 259.0 2.59 27878 × 107 640 1

1217
1218 Appendix B

Conversion factors – volume

Liter m3 ha-m ft3 acre-ft Thousand

million
cu ft
(TMC)

liter 1 0.001 10−7 0.035315 81071 × 10−7 3531 × 10−7

m3 1,000 1 10−4 35.315 811071 × 10−4 3531 × 10−10
hectare meter 107 104 1 353,147 8.1071 3531 × 10−4
ft3 28.317 0.028317 28317 × 10−6 1 22957 × 10−5 1 × 10−9
acre-foot 1,233.5 × 103 1,233.5 0.12335 43,560 1 4356 × 10−5
Thousand 28317 × 109 28317 × 106 2,831.7 1 × 109 4356 × 10−5 1
million cu ft

Indian Units
The units that are popularly used in India and their equivalents are described herein.
1 BCM = 1∗ 109 m3
1 crore = 10 million = 100 lakh = 10000000
1 cumecm3 /s = 35315 cusecft 3/s
1 lakh or lac = 100,000 = 0.1 million
1 million = 10 lakh
1 MAF = 12335 million m3
1 MCM = 1∗ 106 m3
1 TMC = 28317 million m3
Other Units
1 pound lb = 4536 gm
1 ton (tonne) = 1,000 kg
1 horsepower = 745.7 watt
1 nautical mile = 1.151 miles = 1.852 km
Appendix C

NATIONAL WATER POLICY

NEED FOR A NATIONAL WATER POLICY

1.1 Water is a prime natural resource, a basic human need and a precious national
asset. Planning, development and management of water resources need to be
governed by national perspectives.
1.2 As per the latest assessment (1993), out of the total precipitation, including
snowfall, of around 4,000 billion cubic metre in the country, the availability from
surface water and replenishable ground water is put at 1,869 billion cubic metre.
Because of topographical and other constraints, about 60% of this i.e. 690 billion
cubic metre from surface water and 432 billion cubic metre from ground water,
can be put to beneficial use. Availability of water is highly uneven in both space
and time. Precipitation is confined to only about three or four months in a year
and varies from 100 mm in the western parts of Rajasthan to over 10,000 mm at
Cherrapunji in Meghalaya. Rivers and under ground aquifers often cut across state
boundaries. Water, as a resource is one and indivisible: rainfall, river waters, surface
ponds and lakes and ground water are all part of one system.
1.3 Water is part of a larger ecological system. Realising the importance and
scarcity attached to the fresh water, it has to be treated as an essential environment
for sustaining all life forms.
1.4 Water is a scarce and precious national resource to be planned, developed,
conserved and managed as such, and on an integrated and environmentally sound
basis, keeping in view the socio-economic aspects and needs of the States. It is one
of the most crucial elements in developmental planning. As the country has entered
the 21st century, efforts to develop, conserve, utilise and manage this important
resource in a sustainable manner, have to be guided by the national perspective.
1.5 Floods and droughts affect vast areas of the country, transcending state
boundaries. One-sixth area of the country is drought-prone. Out of 40 million
hectare of the flood prone area in the country, on an average, floods affect an area
of around 7.5 million hectare per year. Approach to management of droughts and
floods has to be co-ordinated and guided at the national level.
1.6 Planning and implementation of water resources projects involve a number of
socioeconomic aspects and issues such as environmental sustainability, appropriate
resettlement and rehabilitation of project-affected people and livestock, public health
1219
1220 Appendix C

concerns of water impoundment, dam safety etc. Common approaches and guide-
lines are necessary on these matters. Moreover, certain problems and weaknesses have
affected a large number of water resources projects all over the country. There have
been substantial time and cost overruns on projects. Problems of water logging and
soil salinity have emerged in some irrigation commands, leading to the degradation
of agricultural land. Complex issues of equity and social justice in regard to water
distribution are required to be addressed. The development and overexploitation of
groundwater resources in certain parts of the country have raised the concern and need
for judicious and scientific resource management and conservation. All these concerns
need to be addressed on the basis of common policies and strategies.
1.7 Growth process and the expansion of economic activities inevitably lead to
increasing demands for water for diverse purposes: domestic, industrial, agricultural,
hydropower, thermal power, navigation, recreation, etc. So far, the major consumptive
use of water has been for irrigation. While the gross irrigation potential is estimated
to have increased from 19.5 million hectare at the time of independence to about 95
million hectare by the end of the Year 1999–2000, further development of a substantial
order is necessary if the food and fiber needs of our growing population are to be met
with. The country’s population which is over 1,027 million (2001 AD) at present is
expected to reach a level of around 1,390 million by 2025 AD.
1.8 Production of food grains has increased from around 50 million tonnes in
the fifties to about 208 million tonnes in the Year 1999–2000. This will have to be
raised to around 350 million tonnes by the year 2025 AD. The drinking water needs
of people and livestock have also to be met. Domestic and industrial water needs
have largely been concentrated in or near major cities. However, the demand in
rural areas is expected to increase sharply as the development programmes improve
economic conditions of the rural masses. Demand for water for hydro and thermal
power generation and for other industrial uses is also increasing substantially. As
a result, water, which is already a scarce resource, will become even scarcer in
future. This underscores the need for the utmost efficiency in water utilisation and
a public awareness of the importance of its conservation.
1.9 Another important aspect is water quality. Improvements in existing
strategies, innovation of new techniques resting on a strong science and technology
base are needed to eliminate the pollution of surface and ground water resources, to
improve water quality. Science and technology and training have to play important
roles in water resources development and management in general.
1.10 National Water Policy was adopted in September, 1987. Since then, a
number of issues and challenges have emerged in the development and management
of the water resources. Therefore, the National Water Policy (1987) has been
reviewed and updated.

INFORMATION SYSTEM

2.1 A well-developed information system, for water related data in its entirety, at
the national/state level, is a prime requisite for resource planning. A standardised
national information system should be established with a network of data banks
Appendix C 1221

and data bases, integrating and strengthening the existing Central and State level
agencies and improving the quality of data and the processing capabilities.
2.2 Standards for coding, classification, processing of data and methods/
procedures for its collection should be adopted. Advances in information technology
must be introduced to create a modern information system promoting free exchange
of data among various agencies. Special efforts should be made to develop and
continuously upgrade technological capability to collect, process and disseminate
reliable data in the desired time frame.
2.3 Apart from the data regarding water availability and actual water use,
the system should also include comprehensive and reliable projections of future
demands of water for diverse purposes.

WATER RESOURCES PLANNING

3.1 Water resources available to the country should be brought within the category
of utilisable resources to the maximum possible extent.
3.2 Non-conventional methods for utilisation of water such as through inter-basin
transfers, artificial recharge of ground water and desalination of brackish or sea
water as well as traditional water conservation practices like rainwater harvesting,
including roof-top rainwater harvesting, need to be practiced to further increase the
utilisable water resources. Promotion of frontier research and development, in a
focused manner, for these techniques is necessary.
3.3 Water resources development and management will have to be planned
for a hydrological unit such as drainage basin as a whole or for a sub-basin,
multi-sectorally, taking into account surface and ground water for sustainable use
incorporating quantity and quality aspects as well as environmental considerations.
All individual developmental projects and proposals should be formulated and
considered within the framework of such an overall plan keeping in view the existing
agreements/awards for a basin or a subbasin so that the best possible combination
of options can be selected and sustained.
3.4 Watershed management through extensive soil conservation, catchment-area
treatment, preservation of forests and increasing the forest cover and the construction
of check-dams should be promoted. Efforts shall be to conserve the water in the
catchment.
3.5 Water should be made available to water short areas by transfer from other
areas including transfers from one river basin to another, based on a national
perspective, after taking into account the requirements of the areas / basins.

INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISM

4.1 With a view to give effect to the planning, development and management
of the water resources on a hydrological unit basis, along with a multi-sectoral,
multi-disciplinary and participatory approach as well as integrating quality, quantity
and the environmental aspects, the existing institutions at various levels under the
water resources sector will have to be appropriately reoriented/reorganised and even
1222 Appendix C

created, wherever necessary. As maintenance of water resource schemes is under

non-plan budget, it is generally being neglected. The institutional arrangements
should be such that this vital aspect is given importance equal or even more than
that of new constructions.
4.2 Appropriate river basin organisations should be established for the planned
development and management of a river basin as a whole or sub-basins, wherever
necessary. Special multidisciplinary units should be set up to prepare comprehensive
plans taking into account not only the needs of irrigation but also harmonising
various other water uses, so that the available water resources are determined and
put to optimum use having regard to existing agreements or awards of Tribunals
under the relevant laws. The scope and powers of the river basin organisations shall
be decided by the basin states themselves.

WATER ALLOCATION PRIORITIES

5 In the planning and operation of systems, water allocation priorities should be

broadly as follows:
• Drinking water
• Irrigation
• Hydropower
• Ecology
• Agro-industries and non-agricultural industries
• Navigation and other uses.
However, the priorities could be modified or added if warranted by the area / region
specific considerations.

PROJECT PLANNING

6.1 Water resource development projects should as far as possible be planned

and developed as multipurpose projects. Provision for drinking water should be a
primary consideration.
6.2 The study of the likely impact of a project during construction and later
on human lives, settlements, occupations, socio-economic, environment and other
aspects shall form an essential component of project planning.
6.3 In the planning, implementation and operation of a project, the preservation
of the quality of environment and the ecological balance should be a primary
consideration. The adverse impact on the environment, if any, should be minimised
and should be offset by adequate compensatory measures. The project should,
nevertheless, be sustainable.
6.4 There should be an integrated and multi-disciplinary approach to the planning,
formulation, clearance and implementation of projects, including catchment area
treatment and management, environmental and ecological aspects, the rehabilitation
of affected people and command area development. The planning of projects in hilly
areas should take into account the need to provide assured drinking water, possibilities
Appendix C 1223

of hydro-power development and the proper approach to irrigation in such areas, in

the context of physical features and constraints of the basin such as steep slopes, rapid
run-off and the incidence of soil erosion. The economic evaluation of projects in such
areas should also take these factors into account.
6.5 Special efforts should be made to investigate and formulate projects either in,
or for the benefit of, areas inhabited by tribal or other specially disadvantaged groups
such as socially weak, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. In other areas also,
project planning should pay special attention to the needs of scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes and other weaker sections of the society. The economic evaluation
of projects benefiting such disadvantaged sections should also take these factors
into account.
6.6 The drainage system should form an integral part of any irrigation project
right from the planning stage.
6.7 Time and cost overruns and deficient realisation of benefits characterising most
water related projects should be overcome by upgrading the quality of project prepa-
ration and management. The inadequate funding of projects should be obviated by an
optimal allocation of resources on the basis of prioritisation, having regard to the early
completion of on-going projects as well as the need to reduce regional imbalances.
6.8 The involvement and participation of beneficiaries and other stakeholders
should be encouraged right from the project planning stage itself.

GROUND WATER DEVELOPMENT

7.1 There should be a periodical reassessment of the ground water potential on

a scientific basis, taking into consideration the quality of the water available and
economic viability of its extraction.
7.2 Exploitation of ground water resources should be so regulated as not to
exceed the recharging possibilities, as also to ensure social equity. The detrimental
environmental consequences of overexploitation of ground water need to be effec-
tively prevented by the Central and State Governments. Ground water recharge
projects should be developed and implemented for improving both the quality and
availability of ground water resource.
7.3 Integrated and coordinated development of surface water and ground water
resources and their conjunctive use, should be envisaged right from the project
planning stage and should form an integral part of the project implementation.
7.4 Over exploitation of ground water should be avoided especially near the
coast to prevent ingress of seawater into sweet water aquifers.

DRINKING WATER

8.1 Adequate safe drinking water facilities should be provided to the entire
population both in urban and in rural areas. Irrigation and multipurpose projects
should invariably include a drinking water component, wherever there is no
1224 Appendix C

alternative source of drinking water. Drinking water needs of human beings and
animals should be the first charge on any available water.

IRRIGATION
9.1 Irrigation planning either in an individual project or in a basin as a whole
should take into account the irrigability of land, cost-effective irrigation options
possible from all available sources of water and appropriate irrigation techniques
for optimising water use efficiency. Irrigation intensity should be such as to extend
the benefits of irrigation to as large a number of farm families as possible, keeping
in view the need to maximise production.
9.2 There should be a close integration of water-use and land-use policies.
9.3 Water allocation in an irrigation system should be done with due regard
to equity and social justice. Disparities in the availability of water between head-
reach and tail-end farms and between large and small farms should be obviated
by adoption of a rotational water distribution system and supply of water on a
volumetric basis subject to certain ceilings and rational pricing.
9.4 Concerted efforts should be made to ensure that the irrigation potential
created is fully utilised. For this purpose, the command area development approach
should be adopted in all irrigation projects.
9.5 Irrigation being the largest consumer of fresh water, the aim should be to get
optimal productivity per unit of water. Scientific water management, farm practices
and sprinkler and drip system of irrigation should be adopted wherever feasible.
9.6 Reclamation of water logged / saline affected land by scientific and cost-
effective methods should form a part of command area development programme.

RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION

10.1 Optimal use of water resources necessitates construction of storages and the
consequent resettlement and rehabilitation of population. A skeletal national policy
in this regard needs to be formulated so that the project affected persons share the
benefits through proper rehabilitation. States should accordingly evolve their own
detailed resettlement and rehabilitation policies for the sector, taking into account
the local conditions. Careful planning is necessary to ensure that the construction
and rehabilitation activities proceed simultaneously and smoothly.

FINANCIAL AND PHYSICAL SUSTAINABILITY

11.1 Besides creating additional water resources facilities for various uses,
adequate emphasis needs to be given to the physical and financial sustainability of
existing facilities. There is, therefore, a need to ensure that the water charges for
various uses should be fixed in such a way that they cover at least the operation
and maintenance charges of providing the service initially and a part of the capital
costs subsequently. These rates should be linked directly to the quality of service
Appendix C 1225

provided. The subsidy on water rates to the disadvantaged and poorer sections of
the society should be well targeted and transparent.

PARTICIPATORY APPROACH TO WATER RESOURCES

MANAGEMENT

12.1 Management of the water resources for diverse uses should incorporate a
participatory approach; by involving not only the various governmental agencies
but also the users and other stakeholders, in an effective and decisive manner, in
various aspects of planning, design, development and management of the water
resources schemes. Necessary legal and institutional changes should be made at
various levels for the purpose, duly ensuring appropriate role for women. Water
Users’ Associations and the local bodies such as municipalities and gram panchayats
should particularly be involved in the operation, maintenance and management of
water infrastructures / facilities at appropriate levels progressively, with a view to
eventually transfer the management of such facilities to the user groups / local
bodies.

PRIVATE SECTOR PARTICIPATION

13.1 Private sector participation should be encouraged in planning, development

and management of water resources projects for diverse uses, wherever feasible.
Private sector participation may help in introducing innovative ideas, generating
financial resources and introducing corporate management and improving service
efficiency and accountability to users. Depending upon the specific situations,
various combinations of private sector participation, in building, owning, operating,
leasing and transferring of water resources facilities, may be considered.

WATER QUALITY

14.1 Both surface water and ground water should be regularly monitored for
quality. A phased programme should be undertaken for improvements in water
quality.
14.2 Effluents should be treated to acceptable levels and standards before
discharging them into natural streams.
14.3 Minimum flow should be ensured in the perennial streams for maintaining
ecology and social considerations.
14.4 Principle of ‘polluter pays’ should be followed in management of polluted
water.
14.5 Necessary legislation is to be made for preservation of existing water bodies
by preventing encroachment and deterioration of water quality.
1226 Appendix C

WATER ZONING
15.1 Economic development and activities including agricultural, industrial and
urban development, should be planned with due regard to the constraints imposed
by the configuration of water availability. There should be a water zoning of the
country and the economic activities should be guided and regulated in accordance
with such zoning.

CONSERVATION OF WATER

16.1 Efficiency of utilisation in all the diverse uses of water should be optimised
and an awareness of water as a scarce resource should be fostered. Conservation
consciousness should be promoted through education, regulation, incentives and
disincentives.
16.2 The resources should be conserved and the availability augmented by
maximising retention, eliminating pollution and minimising losses. For this,
measures like selective linings in the conveyance system, modernisation and rehabil-
itation of existing systems including tanks, recycling and re-use of treated effluents
and adoption of traditional techniques like mulching or pitcher irrigation and new
techniques like drip and sprinkler may be promoted, wherever feasible.

FLOOD CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT

17.1 There should be a master plan for flood control and management for each
flood prone basin.
17.2 Adequate flood-cushion should be provided in water storage projects,
wherever feasible, to facilitate better flood management. In highly flood prone
areas, flood control should be given overriding consideration in reservoir regulation
policy even at the cost of sacrificing some irrigation/power benefits. (Ministry of
Water Resources 7 April 1, 2002)
17.3 While physical flood protection works like embankments and dykes will
continue to be necessary, increased emphasis should be laid on non-structural mea-
sures such as flood forecasting and warning, flood plain zoning and flood proofing
for the minimisation of losses and to reduce the recurring expenditure on flood relief.
17.4 There should be strict regulation of settlements and economic activity in
the flood plain zones along with flood proofing, to minimise the loss of life and
property on account of floods.
17.5 The flood forecasting activities should be modernised, value added and
extended to other uncovered areas. Inflow forecasting to reservoirs should be insti-
tuted for their effective regulation.

LAND EROSION BY SEA OR RIVER

18.1 The erosion of land, whether by the sea in coastal areas or by river
waters inland, should be minimised by suitable cost-effective measures. The States
and Union Territories should also undertake all requisite steps to ensure that
Appendix C 1227

indiscriminate occupation and exploitation of coastal strips of land are discouraged

and that the location of economic activities in areas adjacent to the sea is regulated.
18.2 Each coastal State should prepare a comprehensive coastal land
management plan, keeping in view the environmental and ecological impacts, and
regulate the developmental activities accordingly.

DROUGHT-PRONE AREA DEVELOPMENT

19.1 Drought-prone areas should be made less vulnerable to drought-associated

problems through soil moisture conservation measures, water harvesting practices,
minimisation of evaporation losses, development of the ground water potential
including recharging and the transfer of surface water from surplus areas where
feasible and appropriate. Pastures, forestry or other modes of development which
are relatively less water demanding should be encouraged. In planning water
resource development projects, the needs of drought-prone areas should be given
priority.
19.2 Relief works undertaken for providing employment to drought-stricken
population should preferably be for drought proofing.

MONITORING OF PROJECTS

20.1 A close monitoring of projects to identify bottlenecks and to adopt timely

measures to obviate time and cost overrun should form part of project planning and
execution.
20.2 There should be a system to monitor and evaluate the performance and
socio-economic impact of the project.

WATER SHARING/DISTRIBUTION AMONGST THE STATES

21.1 The water sharing/distribution amongst the states should be guided by a

national perspective with due regard to water resources availability and needs within
the river basin. Necessary guidelines, including for water short states even outside
the basin, need to be evolved for facilitating future agreements amongst the basin
states.
21.2 The Inter-State Water Disputes Act of 1956 may be suitably reviewed and
amended for timely adjudication of water disputes referred to the Tribunal.

PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT

22.1 There is an urgent need of paradigm shift in the emphasis in the management
of water resources sector. From the present emphasis on the creation and expansion
of water resources infrastructures for diverse uses, there is now a need to give greater
emphasis on the improvement of the performance of the existing water resources
facilities. Therefore, allocation of funds under the water resources sector should
1228 Appendix C

be re-prioritised to ensure that the needs for development as well as operation and
maintenance of the facilities are met.

MAINTENANCE AND MODERNISATION

23.1 Structures and systems created through massive investments should be

properly maintained in good health. Appropriate annual provisions should be made
for this purpose in the budgets.
23.2 There should be a regular monitoring of structures and systems and
necessary rehabilitation and modernisation programmes should be undertaken.
23.3 Formation of Water Users’ Association with authority and responsibility
should be encouraged to facilitate the management including maintenance of
irrigation system in a time bound manner.

SAFETY OF STRUCTURES

24.1 There should be proper organisational arrangements at the national and state
levels for ensuring the safety of storage dams and other water-related structures
consisting of specialists in investigation, design, construction, hydrology, geology,
etc. A dam safety legislation may be enacted to ensure proper inspection, mainte-
nance and surveillance of existing dams and also to ensure proper planning, inves-
tigation, design and construction for safety of new dams. The Guidelines on the
subject should be periodically updated and reformulated. There should be a system
of continuous surveillance and regular visits by experts.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

25.1 For effective and economical management of our water resources, the frontiers
of knowledge need to be pushed forward in several directions by intensifying
research efforts in various areas, including the following:
• Hydrometeorology;
• Snow and lake hydrology;
• Surface and ground water hydrology;
• River morphology and hydraulics;
• Assessment of water resources;
• Water harvesting and ground water recharge;
• Water quality;
• Water conservation;
• Evaporation and seepage losses;
• Recycling and re-use;
• Better water management practices and improvements in operational technology;
• Crops and cropping systems;
• Soils and material research;
Appendix C 1229

• New construction materials and technology (with particular reference to roller

compacted concrete, fiber reinforced concrete, new methodologies in tunneling
technologies, instrumentation, advanced numerical analysis in structures and back
analysis);
• Seismology and seismic design of structures;
• The safety and longevity of water-related structures;
• Economical designs for water resource projects;
• Risk analysis and disaster management;
• Use of remote sensing techniques in development and management;
• Use of static ground water resource as a crisis management measure;
• Sedimentation of reservoirs;
• Use of sea water resources;
• Prevention of salinity ingress;
• Prevention of water logging and soil salinity;
• Reclamation of water logged and saline lands;
• Environmental impact;
• Regional equity.

TRAINING

26.1 A perspective plan for standardised training should be an integral part of water
resource development. It should cover training in information systems, sectoral
planning, project planning and formulation, project management, operation of
projects and their physical structures and systems and the management of the water
distribution systems. The training should extend to all the categories of personnel
involved in these activities as also the farmers.

CONCLUSION

27.1 In view of the vital importance of water for human and animal life, for
maintaining ecological balance and for economic and developmental activities of
all kinds, and considering its increasing scarcity, the planning and management of
this resource and its optimal, economical and equitable use has become a matter of
the utmost urgency. Concerns of the community need to be taken into account for
water resources development and management. The success of the National Water
Policy will depend entirely on evolving and maintaining a national consensus and
commitment to its underlying principles and objectives. To achieve the desired
objectives, State Water Policy backed with an operational action plan shall be
formulated in a time bound manner say in two years. National Water Policy may
be revised periodically as and when need arises.
Source: Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India, 2002.
Appendix D

INDIAN STANDARDS RELATED TO HYDROLOGY

AND WATER RESOURCES

Identifier TITLE

HYDROMETRY

IS 1191:2003 Hydrometric determination – Vocabulary and Symbols

IS 1192:1981 Velocity area Methods for measurement of flow of water in open channels (first
revision)
IS 1194:1960 Forms for recording measurement of flow of water in open channels
IS 2912:1998 Liquid flow measurement in open channels – Slope-area method
IS 2951:1965 Recommendation for estimation of flow of liquids in closed conduits
Part 1: Head loss in straight pipes due to friction resistance
Part 2: Head loss in valves and fittings
IS 3910:1992 Requirements for rotating element current meters (cup type) for water flow
measurement (first revision)
IS 3911:1994 Surface floats – Functional requirements (First Revision)
IS 3912:1993 Sounding rods – Functional requirements (first revision)
IS 3913:2005 Specification for suspended sediment load samplers (first revision)
IS 3917:1966 Specification for scoop type bed material samplers
IS 3918:1966 Code of practice for use of current meter (cup type) for water flow measurement
IS 4073:1967 Specification for fish weights
IS 4080:1994 Vertical staff gauges – Functional requirements (First Revision)
IS 4477:1975 Methods of measurement of fluid flow by means of venturi meters
Part 2 Compressible fluids
IS 4858:1968 Specification for velocity rods
IS 4890:1968 Methods for measurement of suspended sediment in open channels
IS 4986:2002 Code of practice for installation of rain-gauge (non-recording type) and
measurement of rain (second revision)
IS 4987:1994 Recommendations for establishing net work of raingauge stations
IS 5542:2003 Guide for storm analysis (first revision)
IS 6062:1971 Method of measurement of flow of water in open channels using standing wave
flume-fall

(Continued)

1231
1232 Appendix D

Appendix D (Continued)

Identifier TITLE

IS 6063:1971 Method of measurement of flow of water in open channels using standing wave
flume
IS 6064:1971 Specification for sounding and suspension equipment
IS 6330:1971 Recommendation for liquid flow measurement in open channels by weirs and
flumes-end depth method for estimation of flow in rectangular channels with a free
overfall (approximate method)
IS 6339:1971 Methods of analysis of concentration, particle size distribution and specific gravity
of sediment in streams and canals
IS 8389:2003 Code of practice for installation and use of raingauges, recording (second revision)
IS 9108:1979 Liquid flow measurement in open channels using thin plate weirs
IS 9115:2002 Method for estimation of incompressible fluid flow in closed conduits by bend
meters (first revision)
IS 9116:2002 Specification for water stage recorder (float type) (first revision)
IS 9118:1979 Method for measurement of pressure by means of manometer
IS 9119:1979 Method for flow estimation by jet characteristics (approximate method)
IS 9163:1979 Dilution methods of measurement of steady flow
Part 1: constant rate injection method
IS 9922:1981 Guide for selection of method for measuring flow in open channels
IS 12752:1989 Guidelines for the selection of flow gauging structures
IS 13083:1991 Liquid flow measurement in open channels- flat-V weirs
IS 13084:1991 Liquid flow measurement in open channels – round nose horizontal crest weirs
IS 13371:1992 Code of Practice for calibration (rating) of rotating element current meters in straight
open tank
IS 14359:1996 Echo sounders for water depth measurements
IS 14371:1996 Measurement of liquid flow in open channels – Parshall and SANIIRI flumes
IS 14573:1998 Liquid flow measurement in open channels – Velocity area methods – collection and
processing of data for determination of errors in measurement
IS 14574:1998 Measurement of liquid flow in open channels by weirs and flumes- end depth
method for estimation of flow in non rectangular channels with a free overfall
(approximate method)
IS 14615:1999 Measurement of fluid flow by means of pressure differential devices
Part 1: Orifice plates, nozzles and venturi tubes inserted in circular cross-section
conduits running full.
IS 14673:1999 Liquid flow measurement in open channels by weirs and flumes – Triangular profile
weirs
IS 14869:2000 Liquid flow measurement in open channels Rectangular, trapezoidal and U-shape
flumes
IS 14973:2001 Measurement of fluid flow in closed conduits Velocity area method using Pilot
Static Tubes
IS 14974:2001 Liquid flow measurement in open channels by weirs and flumes – Rectangular
broad-crested weirs
IS 14975:2001 Measurement of fluid flow in open channels – Stream lined triangular profile weirs
IS 15117:2002 Hydrometric determination- Cable way system for stream gauging
IS 15118:2002 Measurement of liquid flow in open channel – Water level measuring devices
IS 15119:2002 Measurement of liquid flow in open channels
Part 1: Establishment and operation of a gauging station (superseding IS 2914:1964)
Part 2: Determination of the stage-discharge relation (superseding IS 2914:1964)
IS 15122:2002 Measurement of liquid flow in open channels under tidal condition (superseding IS
2913:1964)
Appendix D 1233

IS 15123:2002 Hydrometric determination – Flow measurement in open channels using

structures-Trapezoidal broad crested weirs (superseding IS 4362:1992)
IS 15124:2002 Liquid flow measurement in open channels – Sampling and analysis of
gravel-bed-material
IS 15352:2003 Liquid flow measurement in open channels – Position fixing equipment for
hydrometric boats
IS 15353:2003 Liquid flow measurement in open channels by weirs and flumes – V- shaped broad
crested weirs
IS 15358:2003 Liquid flow measurement in open channels – Flow measurement under ice conditions
IS 15359:2003 Liquid flow measurement in open channels Measurement of suspended sediment
transport in tidal channels
IS 15360:2003 Measurement of liquid flow in open channels – Bed material sampling
IS 15362:2002 Liquid flow measurement in open channels – Flow measurements in open channels
using structures-:compound gauging structure
IS 15454:2004 Liquid flow measurement in open channels – Velocity area method using a restricted
number of verticals
IS 15527:2004 Measurement of liquid flow in open channels Measurement in meandering rivers and
in streams with unstable boundaries

TERMINOLOGY RELATED TO RIVER VALLEY PROJECTS

IS 4410:1991 Glossary of terms relating to river valley projects
Part 1: Irrigation practice
IS 4410:1967 Part 2: Project planning
IS 4410:1988 Part 3: River and river training
IS 4410:1982 Part 4: Drawings
Part 5: Canals
IS 4410:1983 Part 6: Reservoirs
IS 4410:1982 Part 7: Engineering geology
IS 4410:1992 Part 8: Dams and dam section
IS 4410:1982 Part 9: Spillways and syphons
IS 4410:1988 Part 10: Hydro-electric Power station including water conductor system
IS 4410:1972 Part 11: Hydrology Section
Section 1 General terms
Part 11/Section 2 Precipitation and run-off
IS 4410:1973 Part 11/Section 3 Infiltration and water losses
IS 4410:1973 Part 11/Section 4 Hydrographs
IS 4410:1977 Part 11/Section 5 Floods
IS 4410:1994 Part 11/Section 6 Ground water
IS 4410:1984 Part 11/Section 7 Quality of water
IS 4410:1993 Part 12 Diversion works
IS 4410:1985 Part 13 Operation, maintenance and repairs of river valley projects
IS 4410:1977 Part 14 Soil conservation and reclamation
Section 1 Soil conservation
Part 14/Section 2 Reclamation
IS 4410:1973 Canal structures
Part 15/Section 1 General terms
Part 15/Section 2 Transitions
Part 15/Section 3 Flumes
Part 15/Section 4 Regulating works
IS 4410:1992 Part 15/Section 5 Cross drainage works

(Continued)
1234 Appendix D

Appendix D (Continued)

Identifier TITLE

IS 4410:1999 Part 16 Gates and valves

Section 1 Gates
IS 4410:1981 Part 16/Section 2 Valves
IS 4410:1977 Part 17 Water requirements of crops
IS 4410:1983 Part 18 Energy dissipator devices – Stilling basins
IS 4410:1996 Part 19 Grouting
IS 4410:1983 Part 20 Tunnels
IS 4410:1987 Part 21 Flood control
IS 4410:1994 Part 22 Barrages and weirs
IS 4410:1999 Part 23 Hoists, cranes and other related terms
GROUND WATER RELATED INVESTIGATIONS

IS 13969:1994 Guidelines for sampling of groundwater

IS 14476:1998 Test pumping of water wells – Code of practice
Part 1 General
Part 2 Hydro-geological considerations
Part 3 Pre-test planning
Sec 1 General aspects
Part 3 Sec 2 Test design
Part 3 Sec 3 Observation wells
Part 3 Sec 4 Test wells
Part 4 Pre-test observations
Part 5 Pumping test
Part 6 Special tests
Part 7 Post test observations and presentation of data
Part 8 Water level and discharge measuring devices
Part 9 Well development

WATER RESOURCES PLANNING, MANAGEMENT AND EVALUATION

IS 4008:1985 Guide for presentation of project report for river valley projects (first revision)
IS 4186:1985 Guide for preparation of project report for river valley projects (first revision)
IS 4877:1968 Guide for preparation of estimate for river valley projects
IS 5510:1969 Guide for soil surveys for river valley projects
IS 6748:1973 Recommendations for watershed management relating to soil conservation
Part 1 Agronomic aspects
IS 7560:1974 Guidelines for allocation of cost among different purposes of river valley projects
IS 10336:1983 Guidelines for preparation of completion reports of multi-purpose river valley
projects
IS 13028:1991 Guidelines for overall planning of river basin
IS 13142:1991 Proforma for reporting progress of benefits created by river valley projects
IS 13218:1992 Proforma for reporting progress during construction for river valley projects
Part 1 Irrigation works
IS 13218:1991 Part 2 Hydel works
IS 13218:1992 Part 3 Flood Control
IS 13668:1993 Guidelines for fixing intensity of irrigation
IS 13739:1993 Guidelines for estimation of flood damages
IS 14519:1998 Guidelines for fixing rates for irrigation water
IS 15087:2001 Guidelines for planning and design of drainage in irrigation projects
Appendix D 1235

DAMS AND SPILLWAYS

SP 55:1993 Design aid for anchorages for spillway piers, training walls and divide walls.
IS 4997:1968 Criteria for design of hydraulic jump type stilling basins with horizontal and sloping
apron
IS 5186:1994 Design of chute and side channel spillways – Criteria (first revision)
IS 6512:1984 Criteria for design of solid gravity dams (first revision)
IS 6934:1998 Recommendations for hydraulic design of high ogee over-flow spillways (first
revision)
IS 7365:1985 Criteria for hydraulic design of bucket type energy dissipators (first revision)
IS 7894:1975 Code of practice for stability analysis of earth dams
IS 8605:1977 Code of practice for construction of masonry in dams
IS 8826:1978 Guidelines for design of large earth and rock fill dams
IS 9296:2001 Guidelines for inspection and maintenance of dam and appurtenant structures (first
revision)
IS 9297:1979 Recommendations for lighting, ventilation and other facilities inside the dam
IS 9429:1999 Code of practice for drainage system for earth and rockfill dams(first revision)
IS 10135:1985 Code of practice for drainage system for gravity dams, their foundations and
abutments (first revision)
IS 10137:1982 Guidelines for selection of spillways and energy dissipators
IS 10635:1993 Freeboard requirements in embankment dams Guidelines (first revision)
IS 11155:1994 Construction of spillways and similar overflow structures – Code of practice (First
Revision)
IS 11216:1985 Code of practice for permeability test for: masonry (during and after construction)
IS 11223:1985 Guidelines for fixing spillway capacity
IS 11485:1985 Criteria for hydraulic design of sluices in concrete and masonry dams
IS 11527:1985 Criteria for structural design of energy dissipators for spillways
IS 11772:1986 Guidelines for design of drainage arrangements of energy dissipators and training
walls of spillways
IS 12169:1987 Criteria for design of small embankment dams
IS 12200:2001 Code of practice for provision of water stops at transverse contraction joints in
masonry and concrete dams (first revision)
IS 12720:1993 Criteria for structural design of spillway training walls and divide walls (second
revision)
IS 12731:1989 Hydraulic design of impact type energy dissipators: Recommendations
IS 12804:1989 Criteria for estimation of aeration demand for spillways and outlet structures
IS 12966:1992 Code of practice for galleries and other openings in dams
Part 1 General requirements
IS 12966:1990 Part 2 Structural design
IS 13048:1991 Recommendations for hydraulic design of duck bill spillways
IS 13144:1991 Recommendations for provision of facilities outside dams
IS 13195:1991 Preliminary design, operation and maintenance of protection works downstream of
spillways – Guidelines
IS 13551:1992 Criteria for structural design of spillway pier and crest
IS 13645:1993 Guidelines for grouting the upstream face of masonry dams
IS 14591:1998 Guidelines for temperature control of mass concrete for dams
IS 14690:1999 Quality control during construction of earth and rockfill dams – Recommendations
IS 14954:2001 Distress and remedial measures in earth and rockfill dams-Guidelines
IS 15058:2002 Specification for PVC waterstops at transverse contraction joints in masonry and
concrete dams

(Continued)
1236 Appendix D

Appendix D (Continued)

Identifier TITLE

LAKES AND RESERVOIRS

IS 5477:1999 Methods for fixing the capacities of reservoirs

Part 1 General requirements
IS 5477:1994 Part 2 Dead storage (first revision)
IS 5477:2002 Part 3 Live storage (first revision)
IS 5477:1971 Part 4 Flood storage
IS 6518:1992 Code of practice for control of sediment in reservoirs (first revision)
IS 6939:1992 Methods for determination of evaporation from reservoirs (first revision)
IS 7323:1994 Operation of reservoirs – Guidelines (first revision)
IS 8237:1985 Code of practice for protection of slope for reservoir embankments (first revision)
IS 12182:1987 Guidelines for determination of effects of sedimentation in planning and
performance of reservoirs
IS 13665:1993 Sedimentation in reservoirs – Method of measurement
IS 14654:1999 Minimizing evaporation losses from reservoirs Guidelines
IS 15472:2004 Guidelines for planning and design of low level outlets for evacuating storage
reservoirs
HYDRAULIC GATES AND VALVES

IS 4622:2003 Recommendations for structural design of fixed wheel gates (third revision)
IS 4623:2000 Recommendations for structural design of radial gates (second revision)
IS 5620:1985 Recommendations for structural design criteria for low head slide gates (second
revision)
IS 6938:1989 Code of practice for design of rope drum and chain hoists for hydraulic gates (first
revision)
IS 7326:1992 Penstock and turbine inlet butterfly valves for hydropower stations and systems
Part 1 Criteria for structural and hydraulic design (first revision)
IS 7326:1992 Part 2 Guidelines for design and selection of control equipment (first revision)
IS 7326:1976 Part 3 Recommendations for operations and maintenance
IS 7332:1991 Spherical valves for hydropower stations and systems
Part 1 Criteria for structural and hydraulic design (first revision)
IS 7332:1993 Part 2 Guidelines for design and selection of control equipment (first revision)
IS 7332:1994 Part 3 Recommendations for operation and maintenance of spherical valves (first
revision)
IS 7718:1991 Recommendations for inspection, testing and maintenance of fixed wheel and slide
gates (first revision)
IS 9349:1986 Recommendations for structural design of medium and high head slide gates (first
revision)
IS 10021:2000 Guidelines for de-icing systems for hydraulic installations (first revision)
IS 10096:1983 Recommendations for inspection, testing and maintenance of radial gates and their
hoists
Part 1: Inspection, testing and assembly at the manufacturing stage Section 1 Gates
IS 10096:1986 Part 1 Section 2 Rope Drum Hoists
IS 10096:1983 Part 2 Inspection, testing and assembly at the time of erection
IS 10096:2002 Part 3 After erection (first revision)
IS 10210:1993 Criteria for design of hydraulic hoists
IS 11228:1985 Recommendations for design of screw hoists for hydraulic gates
IS 11793:1986 Guidelines for design of float-driven hoisting mechanism for automatic gated control
IS 11855:2004 General requirements for rubber seals for hydraulic gates (first revision)
Appendix D 1237

IS 13041:1991 Recommendation for inspection, testing and maintenance of hydraulic hoist (After
erection)
IS 13591:1992 Criteria for design of lifting beams
IS 13623:1993 Criteria for choice of gates and hoists
IS 14177:1994 Guidelines for painting system for hydraulic gates and hoists
IS 15466:2004 Specification for rubber seals for hydraulic gates

CANALS AND CROSS DRAINAGE WORKS

IS 3872:2002 Code of practice for lining of canals with burnt clay tiles (first revision)
IS 3873:1993 Laying cement concrete/stone slab lining on canals code of practice (second revision)
IS 4515:2003 Stone pitched lining for canals – Code of practice (second revision)
IS 4558:1995 Code of practice for under-drainage of lined canals (second revision)
IS 4701:1982 Code of practice for earthwork on canals
IS 4839:1992 Maintenance of canals – Code of practice
Part 1 Unlined canals (second revision)
Part 2 Lined canals (second revision)
Part 3 Canal structures, drains, jungle clearance, plantation and regulation (second
revision)
IS 5256:1992 Code of practice for sealing expansion joints in concrete lining on canals (first
revision)
IS 5690:1982 Guide for laying combination lining for existing unlined canals (first revision)
IS 5968:1987 Guide for planning and layout of canal system for irrigation (first revision)
IS 6004:1980 Criteria for hydraulic design of sediment ejector for irrigation and power canals (first
revision)
IS 6522:1972 Criteria for design of silt vanes for sediment control in off taking canals
IS 6936:1992 Guide for location, selection and hydraulic design of canal escapes (first revision)
IS 7112:2003 Criteria for design of cross section for unlined canals in alluvial soil (first revision)
IS 7113:2003 Code of practice for soil-cement lining for canals (first revision)
IS 7114:1973 Criteria for hydraulic design of cross regulators for canals
IS 7331:1981 Code of practice for inspection and maintenance of cross-drainage works (first
revision)
IS 7495:1974 Criteria for hydraulic design of silt selective head regulator for sediment control in
off taking canals
IS 7784:1993 Code of practice for design of cross drainage works
Part 1 General features (first revision)
IS 7784:1995 Part 2 Specific requirement
Section 1 Aqueducts
IS 7784:2000 Part 2/Section 2 Super passages (first revision)
IS 7784:1996 Part 2/Section 3 Canal siphons
IS 7784:1999 Part 2/Section 4 Level crossings
IS 7784:2000 Part 2/Section 5 Syphon aqueducts (first revision)
IS 7871:1975 Criteria for hydraulic design of groyne walls (curved wing) for sediment distribution
at off take points in a canal
IS 7873:1975 Code of practice for lime concrete lining for canals
IS 7880:1975 Criteria for hydraulic design of skimming platform for sediment control in off taking
canal
IS 7986:1976 Code of practice for canal outlets
IS 8835:1978 Guidelines for planning and design of surface drains
IS 9097:1979 Guide for laying lining of canals with hot bitumen or bituminous felts
IS 9447:1980 Guidelines for assessment of seepage losses from canals by analytical method

(Continued)
1238 Appendix D

Appendix D (Continued)

Identifier TITLE

IS 9451:1994 Guidelines for lining of canals in expansive soils (second revision)

IS 9452:1993 Code of practice for measurement of seepage losses from canals
Part 1 Ponding method (first revision)
IS 9452:1980 Part 2 Inflow Outflow method
IS 9452:1988 Part 3 By seepage meter method
IS 9698:1995 Lining of canals with polyethylene film – Code of practice (first revision)
IS 9913:2000 Code of practice for construction of cross drainage works (first revision)
IS 10430:2000 Criteria for design of lined canals and guidelines for selection of type of lining (first
revision)
IS 10646:1991 Canal linings – Cement concrete tiles – Specification (first revision)
IS 11809:1994 Lining for canals by stone masonry – Code of practice (first revision)
IS 12331:1988 General requirements for canal outlets
IS 12379:1988 Code of practice for lining water courses and field channels
IS 13143:1991 Joints in concrete lining of canals – sealing compound specification

RIVER TRAINING AND DIVERSION WORKS

IS 6966:1989 Guidelines for hydraulic design of barrages and weirs

Part 1 Alluvial Reaches (first revision)
IS 7349:1989 Guidelines for operation and maintenance of barrages and weirs (first revision)
IS 7720:1991 Criteria for investigation, planning and layout of barrages and weirs (first revision)
IS 8408:1994 Planning and design of groynes in alluvial river guidelines (first revision)
IS 9461:1980 Guidelines for data required for design of temporary river diversion works
IS 9795:1981 Guidelines for the choice of type of diversion works
Part 1 Coffer dams
IS 10084:1982 Design of diversion works – criteria
Part 1 Coffer dams
IS 10084:1994 Part 2 Diversion channels and open cut or conduit in the body of dam
IS 10751:1994 Planning and design of guide banks for alluvial river Guidelines (first revision)
IS 10788:1984 Code of practice for construction of diversion works
Part 1 Cellular coffer dams
IS 11130:1984 Criteria for structural design of barrages and weirs
IS 11150:1993 Construction of concrete barrages – Code of practice (first revision)
IS 11532:1995 Construction and maintenance of river embankments (levees) Guidelines (first
revision)
IS 12094:2000 Guidelines for planning and design of river embankment (levees) (first revision)
IS 12892:1989 Guidelines for the safety of barrage and weir structures
IS 12926:1995 Construction and maintenance of guide banks in alluvial rivers – Guidelines (first
revision)
IS 13877:1993 Planning and design of fish pass- Guidelines
IS 13912:1993 Closure of diversion channel and open cut or conduit in the body of dam- Code of
practice
IS 14262:1995 Planning and design of revetments – Guidelines
IS 14592:1998 Guidelines for planning and design of river powerhouses integrated with barrages
Part 1 Investigation, planning and layout
IS 14815:2000 Design flood for river studies of barrages and weirs Guidelines
IS 14955:2001 Hydraulic model studies of barrages and weirs Guidelines

These standards can be obtained from the Bureau of Indian Standards, Manak Bhawan, Bahadur Shah
Zafar Marg, New Delhi, or their regional offices.
INDEX

Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme, 833 Durgapur, 361

Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme, Ellis Choultry, 779
1117 Farakka, 338, 397, 1139
Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers, 1160 Galudih, 616
Actual Vapor Pressure, 179, 180 Girijapuri, 356
Aeolian Sand Tract, 247 Gola, 385
Agricultural, 3, 9, 41, 47, 804, 1009 Grand, 701, 709, 718
Development Projects, 34 Guddu, 473
Economy, 43 Hati, 689
All India Soil and Land Use Survey, 1178 Hipparagi, 662, 665
Angami System, 825 Ithai, 463
Aqueduct Katapathar, 381
Kohina Nala, 375 Kharkai, 616
Mawapura, 375 Kota, 387
Solani, 365 Mahananda, 360, 464
Arabian Sea, 3, 7, 9, 15, 18, 580, 743 Nangal, 490, 491
Aravalli System, 238 Narora, 339, 1143
Area Underlain By Nedungal, 778
Saline Ground Water, 277 Nellore, 737
Semi-Consolidated Sediments, 248 Okhla, 346, 1139
Artesian Flow, 285 Pashulok, 384
Asian Countries, 3, 334 Prakasam, 641, 670
Atmospheric Sangam, 737
Humidity, 180 Shah Nahar, 500
Monitoring Networks, 1127 Tanakpur, 385
Pressure, 156, 188 Tirukkoilur, 778
Water Balance, 71, 72 Tunga, 642, 643
Water Vapor, 188 Upper Sarda, 376, 765, 767
Uttiramerur, 778
Wazirabad, 345
Bahuguna, Sunderlal, 380 Wular, 1059
Baitarani, 624, 625, 634, 635 Baseflow, 231
Projects, 636, 638 Basin
Water Quality, 639 Achencoil, 751
Barrage Agniaru, 779
Aliyabad, 778 Amaravathi, 701, 703, 708
Beehar, 390 Arkavathi, 701, 703, 706
Cheyyaru, 728, 773, 778 Baira Nalla, 483, 499
Cotton (Dowleswaram), 608, 674, 684 Barak, 299, 333.334, 419, 428, 429, 461, 878

1239
1240 Index

Basin (Continued) Water Demand & Waste Water, 632

Barna, 355, 358, 516, 517, 534, 551 Water Withdrawals and Uses, 628, 631
Burhabalang, 612, 614 Brahmaputra, 6, 12, 70, 299, 304, 333, 335, 338,
Chhota Tawa, 518 419, 421, 422, 423, 425, 427, 445, 460
Coleroon, 709 Annual Weather Phenomenon, 434, 435
Damodar, 360, 960 Board, 1137
Ganjal, 517, 518, 534 Completed Projects, 463
Gundlakamma, 770 Discharge, 340, 450, 451, 452
Jamtara, 518, 520, 550 Electrical Conductivity (EC), 437
Noyil, 701, 703, 708 Estimated Hydro Potential, 462
Palar, 770, 773 Flood Control Commission, 453
Pambaru, 780 Floods, 451, 454, 455, 456, 457, 878
Ponnaiyar (Pennayaru), 701, 709, 773, Gauge Hydrographs, 456
775, 777 Ground Water Potential, 442
Ravi, 6, 473, 481, 483 Ground Water Quality, 441
Rushikulya, 765, 766 Hydrometeorology, 429, 446, 447
Satpura, 238 Irrigation Potential, 461
Sher, 521, 522, 534 Sediment, 456, 458, 459
Shimsha, 701, 703, 706 Soils, 436, 437
Sonar, 354 Surface Water Resources, 461
Subarnarekha, 612, 616 Brahmigiri Hills, 702
Suddegedda, 768 Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), 1130
Suvarnavathi, 701, 703, 707
Tawi, 480
Tirumanimuttar, 701, 709, 780 Calamity Relief Fund (CRF), 899
Tondiaru, 777 Cambay Region, 285
Vamsadhara, 765 Canal
Vellar, 773, 775, 779 Agra, 346, 367
Wangath, 501 Betwa, 374
Bay of Bengal, 7, 9, 15, 16, 18, 333, 334, 701 Bist Doab, 485, 493
Beach Chambal, 390
Mandvi, 789 Dhasan, 374
Betwa River Board, 1141 Ganga Systems, 365, 366, 367, 369, 1143
Bhabar, 7, 244, 285, 500 Garland, 1076
Bhagirathi River, 25, 299, 305, 306, 336, Ghagar, 375
376, 377 Ghataprabha Left and Right Bank, 290
Bhakra Beas Management Board, 1140 Grand Anicut, 937
Bhakra-Beas System, 490, 492, 494, 495, 837 Indira Gandhi, 291, 490, 496, 497, 498, 510,
Bhangar, 7 1078, 1079
Bharai, 817 Irrigation, 800
Bhutan-India Collaboration, 1062 K.C., 739
Biosphere Reserve, 50, 469 Kattalai Scheme, 710
Black River, 303 Ken, 375
Blaney-Criddle Method, 161 Khari Cut, 586
Blue Water, 999 Kurnool-Cudappah, 1078
Bokh Feeder, 587 Lakhoti Branch, 292, 366
Brackish Water, 297 Lower Bhavani Project, 708
Brahma Sarovar, 977 Mahi – Kadana, 292
Brahmani, 300, 621, 622, 624, 625, 626, 633, 636 Maliya Branch, 545
Arable Land & Irrigated Land, 630 Narmada, 545
Ground Water Availability, 627 Orissa, 607
Irrigation & Water Need, 634 Pattamundai, 607
Projects, 636, 638 Perimbikulam Main, 708
Index 1241

Rajasthan, 496, 1077 Conjunctive Use, 286, 287, 1173

Ranbir, 479 Consolidated and Fissured Formations, 259
Rohilkhand, 376 Constitution of India, 1035, 1036, 1100
Sarda, 376 Constitutional Provisions Regarding Water, 1035
Satluj Yamuna Link, 345 Constraints in Rainfed Areas, 813
Shedhi Limbhasi, 545 Construction of New Reservoirs, 924, 955
Sirhind, 804 Consumptive Use, 74, 160
Upper Bari Doab, 501, 804 Contamination of Ground Water, 1013
Visweswaraiah, 716 Continent-Wise Percentage of Developed
Yamuna, 293, 345, 346, 370, 371, 374 Hydropower Potential, 842
Cardamom Hills, 7 Conventional Flood Forecasting Systems, 1165
Cautley, Proby Thomas, 794 Cotton, Arthur, 684, 793
Cauvery, 7, 300, 301, 701, 702, 703, 704, 705, Craig Formula, 218
706, 937 Cretaceous System, 240
Climate and Geology, 710 Critical and Over-Exploited Areas, 278, 329
Delta, 710 Crop Area and Production in J & K, 475
Ground Water Potential, 714 Cuddapah System, 237, 238, 248
Projects, 715, 725 Cyclonic Storms, 119, 188
Surface Water Resources, 711
Water Dispute Tribunal, 1053, 1080
Water Quality Levels, 726 Dalton’s Law, 156
Center Daman and Diu, 789
Arid Zone Research Institute, 1133 Dambreak Studies, 216
Design Organizations, 1142 Damodar Valley Corporation, 392, 1137
Electricity Authority, 1134 Dams, 214, 939, 954, 960
Ganga Authority, 1171 Dams in India, 940, 948
Ground Water Authority, 1037 Danish Hydraulic Institute, 534
Groundwater Board, 1157 Darcy’s Law, 260
Highlands, 7 Dastur, 1076
Pollution Control Board, 938, 1131, 1171 Data Storage and Dissemination, 1162
For Science and Environment, 1147 Deccan Traps, 237, 250
Tract, 244 Decision Support Systems, 1166
For Water Resources, 1145 Declining Water Table, 1173
Central Training Institutes, 1162 Defining Surplus and Deficit River Basins, 1101
Central Water and Power Research Station, Delft Hydraulics of The Netherlands, 1161
1124, 1157 Delta
Central Water Commission, 1121, 1156, 1157 Thanjavur, 718
Chakbandi, 816 Department of Drinking Water Supply, 1117
Chandra-Bhaga Waters, 490 Department of Land Resources, 1117
Chaturvedi Formula, 252 Department of Science and Technology, 1118
Cherrapunji, 9, 12, 113, 143, 335, 431 Department of Scientific and Industrial Research,
Climate 1118
Tropical, 18, 371, 430 Department of Space, 1118
Climate and Precipitation, 348 Depressions and Cyclonic Storms, 119
Climate Change Depth-Area-Duration
Impacts, 929, 1179, 1181 Analysis, 129, 134, 136, 148
Cloud Bursts, 883 Depth-Duration-Frequency, 145
Coastal Desert
Areas, 7, 18, 245, 302, 435 Thar, 7
Cold Weather Season, 20 Design Flood, 212, 213, 215, 216, 217, 218,
Colour Coding, 999 222, 225, 962
Command Area Development Programme, 828 Design Storm, 130, 131
Common Ground Water Contaminants, 1015 Designated Best Uses of Water, 999
1242 Index

Dicken Formula, 218 Eutrophication, 976

Disaggregation of Daily Data, 100 Evaporation, 65, 67, 75, 155, 156, 157, 164, 166,
Diversion from River Sources, 74 167, 168
Diversion Project Evaporimeters, 162
Giri, 384, 565, 570, 952 Evapotranspiration, 9, 73, 74, 75, 76, 159,
Diversion Weir 160, 184
Singapore, 576
Doab, 6
FAO-56 Penman-Monteith Method, 162
Domestic Sources of Pollution, 1003
Field Application Efficiency, 74
Domestic Waste
Float Method, 199
Unsewered, 1006
Flood, 874, 880, 882, 961
Domestic Water Needs, 801
Control Projects, 213, 217, 959
Dravindian, 239
Damage Assessment of Assam, 453
Drinking Water, 913, 998, 1001, 1019
Forecasting, 234
Drought, 892, 893, 895, 900
Frequency Analysis, 218, 231
Actions to Minimize Impacts, 903
Management Measures, 884
Agricultural, 893
Prone Area of Bihar, 879
Occurrences (Historical), 895 Flow Measuring Structures, 202
Past Centuries, 896 Flow of Data Between HIS and Users, 1162
Prediction and Mitigation, 902 Fluoride
Prone Area Programme (DPAP), 1117 High Concentrations, 1018
Prone States, 1172 Food Demand, 47
Proofing, 327 Food Grain, 83, 800
Food Security of India, 47
East Coast, 7, 15, 16 Foot of Lower Shivaliks, 476
East Flowing Rivers, 764, 770, 771, 772, 773, Forest
779, 783, 784, 785 Conservation Act, 40, 1980
Eastern Ghats, 4, 5, 7, 701 Forest Areas
Ecological Balance, 997 Submergence, 927
Economic Development Through Irrigation, 837 Forest Survey of India, 35
Effective Rainfall Forests
Calculation, 225 Classification, 34, 37, 38
Effective Vertical Hydraulic Conductivity, 263 Forests of Assam, 467
Effluent Seepage, 76 Formation Characteristic, 264
Effluents, Wash-Over From Cattle-Farms, 1012 Formation of Cyclones, 21
Framji, K.K., 794
El Niño, 17, 873, 1180
Frequency Methods, 213
Electrical
Frequency of Maximum Rainfall of Different
Formulae, 219
Durations, 138
Logging, 255
Freshwater Resources, 316
Method, 218
Friction Slope, 203
Relationship For Ganga Plains, 252
Fringe Belt Adjoining the Shield, 244
Environment Protection Act 1986, 997
Environmental
Appraisal Committee, 380 G. B. Pant Institute For Himalayan
Concerns, Resettlement and Rehabilitation, 1101 Environment & Development, 1135
Degradation, 997 Gambharia Nalla, 638
Flows (EF), 1171, 1172 Ganga, 4, 6, 70, 299, 305, 333, 336, 337,
Information System (Envis), 1115 341, 343
and Other Aspects, 467 Action Plan, 412
Eradi Tribunal, 1056 Annual Discharge, 340, 342
Estimation of Mean Areal Precipitation, 101 Areas, 335, 339
Estimation of Missing Data, 99 Average Annual Rainfall, 340
Index 1243

Bhagirathi-Hoogly River System, 863 Radio Isotope Study, 27

Brahmaputra-Barak River System, 6, 333, 1065 Raktvarn, 25
Delta, 363 Swachand, 25
Dolphin (Platanista Gangetia), 413 Yamunotri, 344
Floods, 878 Global Radiation, 191
Ground Water, 418 Global Warming, 1179
Hydroelectric Potential, 343 Godavari, 7, 300, 301, 673, 674, 675, 677, 691
Major Polluting Industries, 413 Allocation of Water By GWDT, 1043
Net Sown Area, 343 Annual Average Observed Runoff, 683
Problems in Water Resources Development, 408 Climate, 680
Sarda-Yamuna Ramganga Grid, 383 Delta System, 684, 686
Storage Potential, 342 Flood, 694, 698
At Varanasi, 340 Rainfall Pattern, 680
Water Quality, 411, 414 Soils, 679
Water Resources Development Projects, 365, Temperature, 680
399, 403, 409 Water Dispute Tribunal, 676, 1043
Water Sharing, 1060 Water Quality Levels, 681, 682
Yamuna Doab, 367 Water Resources Projects, 682, 684, 695, 697
Ganga Chukki, 707 Gomti, 355, 590, 784
Ganga Flood Control Board, 1137 Kalyani Doab, 355
Ganga of South, 301, 701 Water Quality, 355
Gangetic Floodplains, 55 Gomukh, 23, 336
Garde and Kothyari Equation, 971 Gondwana System, 239
Gauge-To-Gauge Correlation, 234 Greater Ganga System
Gawaligarh Hills, 564 Schematic Diagram, 333, 407
Gender Issues in Water Management, 1184 Green Water, 999
Geological Information, 236 Gross Domestic Product, 41
Geology, 235 Ground Water, 235, 279, 329
Geomorphological Features, 235 Artificial Recharge, 1174
Gerald Lacey, 795 Assessment, 269, 270, 274, 277
Glacier, 6 Balance Equation, 267
Chaturangi, 25 Consumptive Use Efficiency, 74
Chhota Shigri, 27 Contamination, 1002, 1023
Chong Khundam, 883 Dams, 1176
Dokriani, 26 Data Entry System (GWDES), 1161
Gangotri, 23, 24, 25 Data Processing Centers, 1161
Garhwal Himalaya Group, 23 Development Scenario, 324, 329
Ghanohim, 25 Draft, 75, 282, 283, 327
Indian Himalayan, 22 Estimation Committee, 266, 280
Kailash, 423 Extraction, 59, 283, 284, 288, 327, 1173
Kalikundi, 481 Flow, 65, 73, 76, 77, 265
Kangchunga, 423 Irrigation, 325, 800
Kanglung Kang, 419 Level Fluctuation Method, 270
Kangri, 423 Management, 1172
Kirti, 25 Overexploitation, 264, 912
Kolhai, 26 Pollution, 1007, 1015, 1020, 1022
Lapchung, 423 Potential in India, 260, 321, 329, 442
Lunkar, 423 Potential in Indo-Nepal, 418
Maindi, 25 Quality, 258, 284, 997, 1016, 1025
Meru, 25 Reservoir, 248
Namcha Barwa, 424 Resources, 75, 226, 258, 266, 268, 269, 320,
Nyenchen Tanglha, 423 321, 323, 330, 419
Punjab Himalaya Group, 23 Runoff, 67
1244 Index

Ground Water (Continued) Koti Bhel, 404, 405

Static, 259, 261, 262 Kuttiyadi, 762
Storage, 76 Loktak, 463
System, 235 Mahatma Gandhi (Jog Falls), 743, 760
Gujarat Maheshwar, 548, 549
Water Supply And Sewerage Board (GWSSB), Maneri Bhali, 384
546 Nathpa Jhakri, 486, 498
Gulf of Khambhat, 302, 587 Nogli, 509
In Operation, 850
Pench, 692
Hard Rock Formations, 248
Purulia, 1136
Hard Rock Region
Pykara Singara, 758
Hydrological Problems, 931
Rammam, 464
Hariyali, 1117, 1178
Rangit, 464
Haryana State Minor Irrigation, 293
Renu Sagar, 386
Hasdeo Bango, 599, 608
Sabarigiri, 758
Haveli System, 826
Salal, 500, 501, 1058
Heavy Rainfall, 20, 21, 113
Sharvathy, 760
Helsinki Rules, 1039
Sholayar, 761, 762
Himadri, 6
Sivasmudram, 707
Himalaya, 6, 15, 23, 40, 128, 299, 348
Small Projects, 852, 856, 863
Himalayan Region, 15, 40, 334, 434
Himalayan Rivers Development Component, Teesta, 310, 428, 464, 467, 1136
1081, 1084 Under Construction, 853
Himayatsagar, 648 Upper Sileru, 679, 691, 693
Hindon – Kali Nadi Doab, 292 in Uttaranchal, 404, 405
HIS, 1158, 1159, 1163 Vishnuprayag, 382
Historic Flood Events Hydroelectrical Potential of Nepal, 848
Review, 961 Hydrographic Features, 68
Human Resource Development, 1162 Hydrologic
Hydro-Meteorological Network, 59, 1155 Abstractions, 67
Hydroelectric Potential, 335, 461, 854, 855 Budget, 65
Indian Rivers in Other Countries, 847 Cycle, 58, 65
Hydroelectric Project Data, 193, 232, 1156
Baglihar, 502, 1059 Design of Projects, 211, 213
Bhaba, 486 Water Balance, 72, 73, 77
Bhira, 757 Hydrological
Bhivpuri, 757 Aspects of Dam Safety, 959
Chibro, 384 Data Processing Software, 1161
Chilla, 384 Data Users, 1162
Chukha, 462 and Hydrogeological Parameters, 278
Dehar, 354, 493, 495 Information System (HIS), 1155
Dhalipur, 384 Instrumentation, 1184
Dhauliganga, 382, 392, 1136 Observations, 194, 256
Dulhasti, 490, 502, 1136 Hydrology, 3, 58, 59
Ghanvi, 486 of Basalts, 250
Gunguwal and Kotla, 491 of Lake, 56
Hathiari, 381 Research Directions, 1188
Indirasagar, 1136 Hydrology Project, 99, 256, 1158, 1165
Kakkad, 759 States Covered, 1158
Kalinadi, 757, 759 Upgrading of HIS, 1157
Khara, 384 Hydropower of India, 846, 848, 858
Khodri, 384 Hysteresis, 208
Index 1245

IBWT Projects Occurrence of Floods, 153

Planning, 1071 Per Capita Water Availability, 1166, 1167
IBWT Schemes Physical Environment, 3
World Wide Overview, 1072, 1073 Physiographic Divisions, 5, 237
Importance of Fracture Studies, 249 Political Divisions, 9
Improvement in Water Use Efficiency, 821 Polluted River Stretches, 1014
Incremental Isohyetal Method, 148 Population, 47, 79, 80, 82
Independent Catchment Population Affected By Floods, 876
Between Netravathy and Chandragiri, 745 Potential Evapotranspiration, 159, 165, 167
Between Sharavathi and Chakra River, 744 Pre-Monsoon Season Rainfall, 112
Between Varahi and Netravathi River, 745 Principal Himalayan Rivers, 299, 301
India Pristine Rivers, 6
Agriculture Scenario, 42, 46 Problems Related With Command Area
Agro-Climatic Zones, 43, 46, 909 Development, 928
Arid and Semi-Arid Zones, 897, 907, 908 Productivity of Selected Crops, 813
Atmospheric Water Balance, 73 Projected Foodgrain and Feed Demand, 84
Classification of Urban Areas, 80 Projections of Population, 81
Coastal and Inland Rivers, 302 Pumped Storage Development, 854, 858
Conjunctive Use, 288, 289 Rainfall, 15, 21, 104, 109, 112, 113, 114,
Crop Damages By Floods, 877 144, 152
Cropping Pattern, 43 Ramsar Wetlands, 53
DAD Values of Severe Rainstorms, 139 Range of Infiltration Rates, 254
Distribution of Dams and reservoirs, 940, Salient Features of Some Lakes, 988
943, 947 Salt Affected Areas, 923
Distribution of Past Severe Rainstorms, 122 Scanty Rainfall Areas, 21
Drought Prone Areas, 151, 152, 897 Severe Rainstorms, 119
Electric Energy Scenario, 843 Skewed Distribution of Water Resources, 1067
Evaporation, 165 Soils, 29
Fauna, 49 Standard Snow Gauge Being Used, 93
Flood Management, 884 Statewise Forest Coverage, 36
Flood Prone Areas, 152, 153, 874, 877 Statewise Irrigation Status, 906
Flora, 49 Sub-Continent, 9, 15
Foodgrain Production, 907 Temperature, 169, 170, 174, 175, 434
Gross Irrigated Area, 804, 812 Utilizable Water Resources, 71
Hydro-Meteorologically Homogenous WALMI’s, 1142
Sub-Zones, 223 Water Balance, 70, 71
Hydrogeology, 236, 237 Water Poverty Index, 85
Importance of Forests, 41 Water Quality, 1000, 1032
Important Rivers, 300 Water Related Problems, 872
Infiltration Studies, 252, 253 Water Resources Potential, 1066
Inter-Basin Water Transfer, 1069 Waterlogged Area, 920
Irrigation Development, 811, 825 Wetlands, 52, 56
Land Use Classification, 32, 33 India Meteorology Department, 14, 87, 165,
Main Centers of Rainstorms, 140 1118, 1126, 1156, 1157
Main Organizations Dealing With Water Indian
Resources, 1111 Forestry Policy, 40
Major Geological Formations, 238 Mangroves, 39
Major River Basins, 297, 298, 312, 314, 317, Ocean, 4, 15
318, 942 Standard Time, 4
Major Stratigraphic Divisions, 237 Indian Association of Hydrologists, 1146
Mean Daily Temperature, 169 Indian Council of Agriculture Research, 1128
Meteorological Sub-Divisions, 27 Indian Easements Act (1882), 1037
Navigable Waterways, 862 Indian Institute of Science, 1145
1246 Index

Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Integrated Water Resources Management,

133, 1133 1177
Indian Institutes of Technology, 1145 Intensity-Duration-Frequency, 146
Indian Lakes Inter-Basin Water Transfer, 1068, 1080,
Problems, 987 1081, 1172
Indian National Committees, 1153 Past Indian Experiences, 1074
Indian Remote Sensing Programme, 1119 System Study, 1102
Indian Reservoirs Inter-State Water Disputes, 1039
Empirical Equations, 970 Interlinking
Loss of Storages, 970 Alternatives, 1102
Sedimentation, 967, 973 Himalayan Component, 1085
Trap Efficiency, 972 Peninsular Component, 237, 1090, 1091, 1092
Indian River Basins Political Consensus, 1104
Floods, 878 Present Status, 1096
Indian Rivers Technology, 1103
Average Chemical Composition, 1013 Intermontane Valleys, 246
Indian Satellites International Commission
Development and Deployment, 1120 on Irrigation and Drainage, 1151
Indian Water Resources Society, 1147 on Large Dams, 939
India’s Renewable Energy Sources, 845 International Crop Research Institute For
Indo-Gangetic Alluvium, 30 Semi-Arid Tropics, 1151
Indus, 4, 6, 308, 333, 473, 474, 475, 478, 1077
International Drinking Water Supply and
Allocation of Water among Indian States, 1079
Sanitation Decade Program, 801
Climatic Features of Jammu Division, 478
Irrigation, 804
Contour Cultivation, 477
Commission, 73
Dams and Water Transfer, 504
For Drought Proofing, 905
Efficient Water Management, 510
Micro, 823
Flash Floods, 508
Return Flow, 279
Flow Diagram, 479
Sprinkler and Drip, 822, 823
Ganga-Brahmaputra Alluvial Tract, 244
Irrigation Potential, 805, 806, 809
Hydroelectric Projects, 511
Irrigation Water Quality, 1001
Replacement Project, 507
Seasonal Flow, 489 Irrigation Water Requirement, 74
Seasonal Snowmelt Runoff, 97 Island
Surface Water Potential, 488 Andaman & Nicobar, 3, 9, 15, 785, 787, 788
Valley Civilization, 6, 333 Great Nicobar, 788
Wastewater Discharges, 509, 510 Hydrology and Water Resources, 785
Water Bodies, 504 Lakshadweep, 3, 9, 788
Water-Borne Diseases, 510 Majuli, 425
Water Quality of Rivers, 510 Pitti, 788
Water Resources, 489, 490, 507 Isohyetal Maps, 102, 148
Infiltration, 3, 67, 251, 1007
Infiltration Rate
Empirical Relations, 252 Jahnavi, 306
Inflow Design Flood, 214, 215 Jalachaitanyam, 1179
Inglis Formula, 218 Jammu & Kashmir
Inland Water Resources, 297 Water Bodies, 505
Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI), Jharai, 817
1116 Jhumming, 460
Institutional Aspects, 1104 Jurassic System, 240
Integrated Bathymetric Survey Equipment, 1160 Justice Bachawat, R.S., 1043, 1046
Integrated Wasteland Development Programme, Justice Balakrishna, Eradi V., 1056
1117 Justice Ramaswami, V., 1049
Index 1247

Kalingarayan Channel, 708 Udhagamandalam, 986

Kanchenjunga, 6 Wular, 476, 490
Kandi Belt, 476, 477 Lakes and Reservoirs
Kaneval Tanks, 545 Differences, 974
Kankarbeds, 244 Land Slides, 509, 883
Karakoram Stage, 241, 473 Large Dams
Kendrapara, 607 Statewise and Riverwise Distribution, 944
Khadar, 7 Lift Irrigation Project
Khandesh Plains, 566 Singatalur, 665, 669
Khapuria Kalan-Tonga Area, 533 Link Project
Khari River, 746 Beas-Satluj, 493, 1079
Khasi and Jaintia Hills, 12 Cauvery–Vaigai-Gundar, 1093
Khatawar, 817 Damanganga-Pinjal, 1095
Khosla, A. N., 792, 970 Ghaghra – Yamuna, 1086
Killivally Rivers, 761 Godavari-Krishna, 1089, 1091
Kirpich Equation, 221 Inchampalli-Pulichintala, 1089
Konkan Coast, 7, 15 Ken-Betwa, 1093
Kosi Krishna – Pennar, 1091, 1093
Problems, 359 Mahanadi-Godavari, 1089
Krishna, 301, 308 Manas-Sankosh-Tista-Ganga, 1086
Annual Average Observed Runoff, 651 Overview of Links, 1082
Deltaic Plain, 649 Pamba-Achankovil-Vaippar, 1095
Desired and Existing Water Quality Status, 652 Par-Tapi-Narmada, 570, 1094
Gross Flow at Vijayawada, 651 Parbati-Kalisindh-Chambal, 1094
Major Water Resources Projects, 651, 670, 671 Pennar - Cauvery, 1093
State-Wise Drainage Area, 642 Sarda-Yamuna-Rajasthan-Sabarmati, 1086,
Surface Water Potential, 650 1087, 1088
Under Construction Projects, 673 Satluj-Yamuna, 1056
Water Dispute Tribunal, 672, 1046, 1140 Long Range Monsoon Forecast, 149
Kul (Diversion Channels), 826, 1168 Lysimeter, 160

Mahadeo Hills, 561

Lake Effect, 157 Mahanadi, 7, 300, 308, 597, 598, 600,
Lakes, 56, 57, 973, 975, 976, 996 636, 689
Andhra, 757 Climate, 602
Chilika, 984 Delta, 605
Dal, 476, 978 Gauge-Discharge Sites, 603
Khajjiar, 476, 981 Index Map, 598
Kodaikanal, 986 Major and Medium Projects, 605, 609, 610
Kolleru, 986 Pan Evaporation Data, 603
Loktak, 51, 463, 983 Soils and Land Use, 603
Manchhar, 475 Statewise Distribution of Drainage Area, 598
Mansar, 476, 980 Water Availability, 604, 605
Mansarover, 419, 484 Water Quality Aspects, 609, 610
Nagin, 476, 979 Mahi, 309, 561, 589, 590, 591
Nainital, 981 Water Quality, 595
Oxbow, 297 WRD Projects, 545, 592, 593, 594
Pichola, 1179 Major River Basins of India, 114, 315
Pushkar, 985 Major Waterways Projects, 1116
Rakastal, 484 Malabar Coast, 7
Ramappa, 937 Malwa Plateau, 7
Surinsar, 979 Mangroves, 39
Udaipur, 974 Mawsynram (Near Cherrapunji), 21
1248 Index

Measurement of Water Disputes Tribunal, 556, 1049

Discharge, 193, 197 Water Quality, 534, 535
Rainfall, 87 Water Resources, 528, 530
Sediments, 208 Water Resources Projects, 534, 538, 539,
Seepage Losses From Canals, 255 552, 553
Snow, 92 Narmada Bachao andolan (NBA), 543, 1149
Stage, 196 Narmada Control Authority, 513, 546, 557, 1125
Transpiration, 158 Narmada Valley Development Authority, 546
Meteorological National Center For Medium Range Weather
Disturbances, 120, 122 Forecasting, 1134
Drought, 893 National Commission on Agriculture, 74
Homogeneous Subdivisions, 105 National Environment Engineering Research
Observations, 87 Institute, 1132
Ministry of Agriculture, 1114 National Hydro-Electric Power Corporation
Ministry of Environment & Forests, 1115 Limited, 1114, 1136
Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources, National Institute of Hydrology, 1123, 1157
846 National Institute of Ocean, 1170
Ministry of Power, 1114 National Institutes of Technology, 1145
Ministry of Rural Development, 1117 National Lake Conservation Plan, 1171
Ministry of Science & Technology, 1118 National Park
Ministry of Surface Transport, 1116 Corbett, 382
Ministry of Urban Affairs, 1116 Kaziranga, 469
Ministry of Water Resources, 1112 National Perspective Plan, 1081
Minor Rivers of Tripura and Mizoram National River Action Plan, 1171
State-Wise Distribution of Drainage Area, 784 National River Conservation Directorate, 1135,
Mokama Group of Tals, 890, 891 1171
Monsoon, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 148 National Thermal Power Corporation Limited,
Mountain 1114, 1136
Kailash, 6, 482 National Water Board, 1130
Mountain Range National Water Development Agency, 1124
Dhaola Dhar, 481 National Water Grid (K L Rao), 1075
Dhauladhar, 478 National Water Policy (2002), 1155
Erramala, 727 National Water Resources Council, 1129
Haramosh, 473 National Waterway
Kirthar, 473 Sadia to Bangladesh Border, 471
Nallamala and Velikonda, 727 Natural Contaminants, 997
Pir-Panjal, 247, 478 Navigation Project, 861
Satpura, 561, 564 Tulbul, 1059
Shiwalik, 6, 7, 128, 241, 348, 481 Neelam Sanjiva Reddy Sagar, 654
Sulaiman, 473 Neeru-Meeru, 1179
Vindhyan, 4, 5, 7, 237, 239, 243, 591 Nepal-India Collaboration, 1063
Zanskar, 247, 478 Non-Irrigation Use, 74, 75
Mountains, 6, 7, 334, 335, 338, 358, 473, 565, 727 Norms for Recharge, 279, 281
Norms For Water Supply, 802
North Eastern Regional Institute For Water and
Narmada, 7, 300, 301, 309, 513, 514, 525, Land Management, 1144
529, 531 North India Plains
Allocation of Water by NWDT, 1049 Maximum (Observed) Rainfall Depths, 144
Climate, 522, 527 Northeastern Region – Water Resources
Flood, 554, 961 Potential, 420
Observed Runoff, 532 Northern Hemispheric Temperatures, 17
Rainfall, 524, 526 Nuclear & Isotope Techniques, 1184
Index 1249

Observation Networks Rainfall

Review, 1159 Data, 103, 272, 331
Onset and Withdrawal of Monsoons, 16, 18 Depth-Area-Duration, 147
Optimum Network Design, 92 Infiltration Factor, 273
Organizations Types, 87
Academic, 1144 Rainfed Agriculture, 810
Central Government, 1121 Raingauge stations, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91
International, 1151 Rainstorm Analysis, 129
Non-Governmental, 1147, 1178 Rainwater Harvesting
State Government, 1142 Bamboo, 1168
Rajamundry Sandstone, 248
Rajiv-Longowal Accord, 1056
Palmer Drought Severity Index, 901
Rao, K.L., 792
Pan Coefficient Values, 164
Rashtriya Barh Ayog, 874
Pandoh-Baggi Tunnel, 493
Rating Curve, 206, 207, 208, 210
Pani Panchayat, 1185
Rational Method, 218, 220
Pani Roko Abhiyan, 1168
Rationalization of PMP Procedures, 130
Papanasi Temple, 657
Ravi and Beas Water Tribunal, 1051, 1056
Participatory Irrigation Management, 808, 830
Ravi-Beas Link, 490, 495
Patkar, Medha, 1149
Recharge, 76, 273, 274, 276, 279, 280, 282
Peninsular Rivers Development Component,
Recycle and Reuse of Water, 860, 1169
1081, 1088
Red River, 303
Pennar, 300, 670, 701, 727, 727, 728, 729, 731,
Regional Disparities in Dam Construction,
732, 737, 741
953
Land Use, 736
Regional Flood Frequency Relationships, 233
Water Availability and Demand, 738
Regional Flow-Duration Models, 212
Water Resources Projects, 736, 739, 740, 741
Regulator
Per Capita Water Availability, 800
Kallandiri, 783
Periyar-Vaigai System, 780, 781, 782
Memathur, 775
Phi ( Index Values, 226
Peranai, 783
Piezometric Level, 255, 441
Sethiathope, 776
Planning Commission, 1117
Toludur, 776
Plateau
Rehabilitation and Resettlement, 924
Chottanagpur, 7
Relative Economics of Projects, 950
Deccan, 7
Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques, 1183
Peninsular, 7
Republic of India, 9
Thuamul-Rampur, 679
Reservoir Operation, 957
Tibetan, 434, 445
Reservoir Sedimentation
Pleistocene Period, 237, 241, 243
Consequences, 963
Pollution, 997, 1007, 1016, 1020, 1025
Retreat of Glaciers, 930
Power Regression Model, 149
Retreat of Selected Himalayan Glaciers, 931
Pre-Cambrian Era, 237
River
Precipitation, 65, 70, 73, 74, 88, 89, 101, 120,
Adyar, 773
134, 135, 235
Agar, 601
Pressure Pillows, 93
Ajay, 362
Principal Crops Production, 43
Alaknanda, 299, 336, 382
Professional Societies, 1146
Algur, 706
Alseed Khad, 484
Radiation, 189, 190 Amazon, 297, 334
Radioactive Substances, 1013 Ambuliyaru, 779
Radiometers Ana, 480
Flat-Plate, 189 Anairvari, 776
1250 Index

River (Continued) Burhi Gandak, 358

Anas, 591 Burhner, 520
Andhari, 679 Butane, 357
Andi Odai, 709 Chakan, 352
Aner, 566 Chandan, 304
Araikaduhalla, 707 Chandra, 479, 490
Aran, 679 Chandrabhaga, 564
Aril, 355 Chandraprabha, 356
Ariyar, 709 Charan Ganga Khad, 484
Arna, 564, 679 Charmanvati, 304
Arpa, 601 Chenab, 6, 473, 478, 480
Arun Kosi, 358 Chenjiaru, 777
Arunavati, 566 Cherthono, 761
Asan, 384 Cheruthoni, 761
Asoi, 748 Chilakaleru, 770
Atrai, 428 Chinnakarai, 708
Ayyar, 709 Chinnar, 701, 708, 774, 776
Azan, 358 Chitravati, 728, 732, 735
Bachleri, 480 Chuha, 355
Badanadi, 766 Congo, 334
Badanalla, 765 Coonoor, 708
Bagh, 679 Cooum, 773
Baghua, 766 Dabawali Khad, 484
Bagi, 480 Daksinaganga, 309, 673, 701
Bagmati, 303, 359 Daman, 748
Bahuda, 765 Damanganga, 748, 750
Baindurhole, 744 Darua, 362
Baink, 354 Dauna, 360
Bamani, 391 Deccan, 240, 300
Banaiya, 748 Deo, 634
Banas, 352 Deoha (Gorra), 355
Bandi, 679, 747 Desang, 451
Banganga, 350 Dhanei, 766
Banjar, 520 Dhansiri, 451
Barai, 599 Dharla, 428
Bari, 358 Dhasan, 354, 374
Bearma, 354, 374 Dhobai, 360
Beas, 6, 129, 291, 473, 481, 482 Dhund, 353
Bembla, 678 Dibong, 451
Betwa, 353 Dihang, 424
Bewas, 354 Dikhow, 451
Bhadar, 592 Doddahalla, 708
Bhadra, 642 Donala Khad, 484
Bhaga, 479 Draining Into Bangladesh, 784
Bhaledh, 499 Dudhna, 674, 678
Bhamri, 360 Dunarki, 482
Bhandarn, 634 Durgavati, 356
Bhini, 482 Duvvaleru, 770
Bhurburi, 360 Eluru, 765
Borgong, 425 Erai, 678
Bori, 565 Eru, 583
Buray, 565 Gachai, 355
Burhi-Dihing, 451 Gamrola Khad, 484
Index 1251

Gangan, 355 Kamandalaru, 773, 778

Gautami Godavari, 674 Kameri, 747
Gej, 601 Kane, 362
Ghaghara, 307, 338, 356, 357 Kangira, 634
Ghambhar Khad, 484 Kanhan, 692
Ghanerav Nadi, 746 Kanhar, 357, 679
Ghantihole, 744 Kankrauli, 353
Ghod, 645 Kanur, 362
Ghodahado, 766 Kar, 678
Goalundo, 338 Karamnasa, 356
Golumuttapaya, 649 Karanga, 678
Gomai, 566 Karmai, 591
Guhiya, 747 Karnafulli, 784
Gundar, 779 Karunuti, 356
Guria Nadi, 747 Katpurna, 564
Gurpur, 745 Kavundi Aru, 773
Halai, 678 Kavundiarum, 773
Hanp, 601 Ken, 354
Harohar, 358 Khairi, 634
Hasdo, 601 Khajuri, 356
Henne, 728 Kharakhari, 766
Hindon, 350, 365 Kharhara, 599
Hinglo, 362 Khari, 353
Hiran, 519, 534, 591 Khari Kherwa, 746
Hiranyakeshi, 647 Kharun, 601
Honhole, 707 Kho, 355
Hooghly, 307 Khowai, 784
Hyphasis, 481 Kiul, 357
Ib, 599, 601 Kodamurutti, 709
Jainti, 362 Koel, 357, 622
Jaldhaka, 428 Kolar, 521, 534, 552
Jam, 678 Kollur, 744
Jamaleru, 770 Konduleru, 770
Jamuna, 427 Konkeru, 770
Janjavathi, 767 Kopra, 354
Jayamangali, 728, 735 Kortalaiyar, 773
Jhelum, 473, 478, 501 Kothari, 353
Jia-Bharali, 425, 451 Kotri, 679
Jojari, 747 Krishnawati, 747
Jomkai, 355 Ksipra (Markandeya), 310
Jonk, 598, 599, 601 Kumbarhole, 703, 744
Jumbudi, 748 Kumudavali, 643, 728
Kabul, 473 Kunderu, 728, 735
Kadanur, 703 Kundlika, 757
Kaith, 354 Kundlu Ki Khad, 484
Kakkabe, 703 Kundur, 362, 739
Kalab, 679 Kunleru, 773
Kalai, 789 Kunu, 352
Kali, 6, 349, 358 Kurram, 473
Kalisil, 353 Kusai, 634
Kalisindh, 310, 352 Kusumba, 581
Kallaruc, 774 Lakshmanathirtha, 703, 715
Kamala, 359 Lambadug, 501
1252 Index

River (Continued) Nallar, 708

Lendi, 678 Nandira (Berudi), 679
Lidder, 480 Nandiyar, 709
Little Gandak, 356 Narangi, 679
Lohand Khad, 484 Nari Odai, 709
Lohit, 308, 451 Neela, 757
Luni, 746 Neeru, 480
Lunkar Khad, 484 Nile, 297, 303, 657
Madar, 357 Nira, 645
Madisalhole, 745 Niredurgihalla, 707
Madu, 678 Ong, 599, 601, 608
Maha, 748 Onguraru, 777
Mahuadih, 598 Orsang, 521
Malana, 500 Padma, 333, 338, 427, 766
Malaprabha, 301, 653 Palasan, 350
Man, 645 Pamba, 758, 759, 774
Manas, 425, 451 Panchnad, 358
Manchu, 356 Panjhra, 565
Mand, 599, 601 Papagani, 735
Mandratanaya, 765 Papangi, 728
Maner, 674, 678 Parwan, 352
Manjara, 674, 678, 686, 688 Pasupaleru, 770
Manneru, 770 Patalganga, 305
Manu, 784 Patalia, 748
Marusudar, 480 Pathro, 362
Mashi, 353 Pavanje, 745
Matelio, 748 Pedhi, 564
Mayangadi, 358 Peerchu, 509
Mayurakshi, 360, 392 Penganga, 674, 678, 679
Mazam, 583 Pennai Aru, 775, 777, 778
Meghna, 333, 340, 427 Penneru, 728
Mej, 352 Phunpharia Bala, 747
Mekaleru, 770 Po-Tsangpo, 424
Mithari, 747 Pohru, 478
Moozhiyar, 759 Pranhita, 674, 678
Morand, 517, 591 Pugal, 480
Morel, 353 Pun-Pun, 309, 357
Morhar, 357 Pungar, 709
Moyar, 708 Punya Damini Bhima, 303
Muhuri, 784 Purna, 237, 564, 674, 678, 679
Mukurthy, 758 Pusaro, 360
Mula, 645, 674, 677, 691, 757 Raidak, 428
Mulki, 691, 745 Raipur Luni, 747
Mun, 564 Rallavagu, 770
Muran, 679 Rapti, 356
Murna, 564 Sabari, 674, 679
Musa, 648 Sagi, 748
Musi, 648, 770 Sai, 355
Mutha, 645 Sanganurpallan, 708
Nadisalu, 745 Sankh, 622, 637
Nagavali, 765, 766 Sanwan, 350
Nagavathi, 708 Saraswati, 311
Nalganga, 564 Sarayu, 309, 355, 356
Index 1253

Sarhali Khad, 484 Ujh, 482, 501

Sarvori, 493 Ulan, 358
Seer Khad, 484 Umtru, 465
Seethanadhi, 745 Upper Marudaiyar, 709
Seonath, 598, 599 Vag, 748
Shankargundi, 744 Vaghur, 565
Shedhi, 480, 583 Vaippar, 779
Sheorinarayan, 598 Vaniaru, 774
Shetrunji, 750 Vannattangarai, 708
Shiriya, 745 Varada, 643
Shutudri, 484 Varaha, 765
Sikrahana, 358 Varshalei, 779
Sina, 645 Vasishta Godavari, 674
Sindh, 308, 310, 473, 478, 501 Vasistanadi, 776
Sipra, 310 Vedavati, 643
Sirsa Nadi, 484 Vegavathi, 728, 767
Siruvani, 708 Veluthodu, 759
Siswan Nadi, 485 Venkatapur, 744
Sita, 634 Venna (Kanher), 666
Siul, 499 Venumuleru, 770
Soan Nadi, 484 Vidha Ganga, 673
Soel Khad, 484 Vogarivagu, 771
Sohal, 480 Voleru, 770
Som, 590 Vonkala, 748
Somesar, 746 Vottigedda, 767
Sone, 310, 357, 385 Waghari, 679
Sonhad, 358 Wakal, 581
Sukhar Khad, 484 Wan, 564
Sukri, 746, 747 Wangchu, 465
Sumer Nadi, 746 Wardha, 674, 678
Surhi, 601 Wena, 678
Suri, 350 Wong, 428
Survarnamukhi, 735, 767, 773 Yagachi, 705
Sutar, 482 Yedamavinahole, 744
Swarna, 745 Yenehole, 707, 745
Swat, 473 River Basin Organizations, 1136, 1165
Swetanadi, 776 River Boards Act, 1038
Talan, 482 River of Sorrow, 359
Tambraparni, 647, 779 Rivers
Tamchok Khambab Kangri, 419 East Flowing, 300
Tanadava, 765 Inland Drainage Basin, 303
Teegaleru, 770 Mythological Naming, 303
Tel, 599, 602, 608 Snow-Fed, 285
Tepra, 360 West Flowing, 300
Thirot, 480 Rivers of Punjab
Tidi, 590 Water Quality, 510
Tirna, 678 Rocks, 7, 237, 241, 248, 249
Tirthan, 493
Tista, 6, 427
Tons, 349 Sabarmati, 561, 578, 579, 580, 581, 582
Trisuli, 358 Major Projects, 583, 588
Tsangpo (Brahmaputra), 299, 358, 423 Sain, Kanwar, 793
Tumuni, 362 Salinity, 1018
1254 Index

Sangam, 312 Bhopalpatnam, 674, 684, 690

Sathya Sai Trust, 1150 Bommanhalli, 757
Satluj, 6, 291, 473, 485, 486, 487 Bursar, 502
Climatic Conditions, 486 Chambal, 293, 304, 350, 352, 389
Floods, 508 Chamera, 499, 500, 502, 1136
Hydropower Potential, 488, 500 Chandil, 615
Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam Limited, 1115 Chekkanur, 718
Satluj-Yamuna Link Canal Dispute, 1056 Chikkhole, 707, 961
Satmala Hills, 561 Chutak, 502
Sea Water Intrusion, 1028 Dadaraghati, 638
Self Employed Women’s Association, 1185 Derjang, 639
Shahpura-Bhedaghat Area, 533 Dharma, 643
She Model, 534 Dharoi, 583, 584
Shejpali, Block and Satta Systems, 818 Doyang, 463, 464
Singh, Bharat, 795 Dudhawa, 607
Small Versus Big Dams, 951 Emerald, 719
Snow and Glacier, 4, 22, 882 Gandak, 293, 304, 338, 358, 399
Snow Gauge, 93, 94, 95 Gandhisagar, 387, 389, 972, 1179
Snowfall, 12, 93, 123 Gangao, 375
Soil, 30, 31, 436, 735 Gariep, 952
Erosion, 997 Getalsud, 617
Salanisation, 254 Ghatprabha, 290, 301, 647, 654, 658, 660, 665
Salinity, 922 Glenmorgan, 758
Solar Radiation, 189 Gobind Sagar, 491
Sources of Pollution, 1002 Gohira, 638
South-Western Peninsula, 17 Gomukhi, 776
Southern (Assam) Mountainous Region, 435 Gondali, 608
Southwest and Northeast Monsoons, 15, 87 Guhai, 583, 586
Spillway Design Flood, 214 Hagari-Bommanhalli, 643
Stanley, George Frederick, 718 Halali (Samrat Ashok Sagar), 354, 387
State Pollution Control Boards, 1131 Haldia, 616
Storage Project Harabhanghi, 765, 769
Akhuapada, 635 Harangi, 703, 704, 721, 722
Almatti, 641, 654, 655, 1048 Harike, 496, 510, 982
Anjanapura, 643 Harnav, 581, 583, 584
Aswan, 657 Hathmati, 582, 585, 586
Aunali, 638 Hathnur, 570
Avalanchi, 719 Hemavathi, 703, 705, 715, 721, 722, 723
Baghla, 397 Hidkal, 659
Bahoribund, 519 Hirakud, 290, 599, 605, 606, 636, 960, 972
Baigul, 397 Hulical, 759
Balimela, 690, 691 Icha, 616
Baner, 502 Idamalayar, 759
Bansagar Tons, 390 Idukki, 761
Barwasagar, 937 Inchampalli, 674, 684, 685, 1043
Baspa, 486, 499 Indrasi, 585
Bassi, 499 Indravati, 674, 689, 690
Baura, 616 Jai Samand, 937
Bennihora, 662, 663 Jakham, 591, 592
Bhadha, 643, 662, 663 Jambhira, 616
Bhakra-Nangal, 484, 485, 490, 491, 960, 972 Jamrani, 385
Bhavani, 701, 703, 708, 718 Jawahar Sagar, 389
Bhima, 301, 303, 645, 646, 662, 664 Jawai, 583, 747
Index 1255

Jayakwadi, 674, 684 Mukerian, 500

Jurala, 641 Mulshi, 757
Kabini, 701, 706, 719, 721, 723, 724 Murumsilli, 607
Kadamparai, 758 Mylavaram, 737
Kadana, 593, 684 Nagarjunasagar, 641, 657, 658, 759, 955
Kaddam, 689, 961 Narayanpur, 641, 653, 654
Kadra, 758 Narmadasagar, 547
Kakki, 758 Nerunjipettai, 718
Kalaput, 693 Nimoo Bazgo, 503
Kalpsaar, 587 Nizamsagar, 684, 688, 1044
Kanjhari, 634, 635 Nongkhylle, 465
Kansabahati, 637, 955 Nugu, 719
Kapur, 679, 689 Obra, 389
Karanja, 686 Omkareshwar, 548, 549, 1136
Karla, 937 Osmansagar, 648, 668, 670
Karnali, 356, 398, 462 Pagladiya, 465
Khadakwasala, 961 Pahari, 375
Khandong, 463 Paithan, 1044
Kishanganga, 502 Palitana, 750
Kishau, 385 Panam, 593
Kodasalli, 758 Pancheshwar, 398, 462
Kodayar, 761 Panchet, 361, 395, 961
Kol, 503 Pandoh, 490
Konar, 361, 394 Parbati, 352, 391, 493, 500, 503, 1136
Koneripatti, 718 Pegumbahallah Forebay, 720
Kopili, 451, 463 Periyar, 759, 761, 780, 782, 937, 1077
Kosi, 308, 338, 355, 358, 359, 398, 955 Pillur, 720
Koyna, 664 Pitamahal, 637, 638
Krishna, 7, 300, 641, 642, 644, 649, 650, 653, Pochampad, 1044
666, 670 Podagada, 679, 689
Krishnagiri, 289, 775 Polavaram, 674, 684, 685, 1043
Krishnarajasagar, 701, 702, 707, 715, 716 Pong, 481, 490, 494, 495
Kundah Palam, 708, 719, 720 Pravara, 674, 684, 691
Kyrdemkulai, 465 Problems in Decision Making, 949
Lachaura, 375 Pulichintala, 641, 657
Limla, 586 Quoich, 952
Linganamakki, 760, 761 Rajghat, 386
Machhu, 748, 749, 961 Rajsamand, 937
Machkund, 693 Ramganga, 354, 382
Madurantakam, 773 Ramiala, 639
Mahi Bajaj Sagar, 593 Ramsagar, 391
Maithon, 361, 394, 395 Rana Pratap Sagar, 389
Malprabha, 644, 664, 666, 667, 955 Ranganadi, 425, 464
Manair, 688, 689 Rani Avanti Bai Sagar (Bargi), 549, 550
Mandira, 637 Ranjit Sagar, 490, 496, 504
Mangala, 508 Ravishankar Sagar, 605, 607
Manibhadra, 608 Remal, 635
Manimukta, 775, 776 Rengali, 636, 637, 690
Markendaya, 647, 665, 669, 774 Renuka, 397
Massanjore, 392 Rihand, 357, 385, 386, 939
Matatila, 391, 972 Sagileru, 728, 733, 734, 735
Mettur, 701, 703, 717, 718, 719, 774 Salanadi, 634, 635
Mitti, 750 Sanjay Sarovar, 693
1256 Index

Storage Project (Continued) Watrak, 583, 587

Sankosh, 425, 451, 462 Working Expenses and Receipts, 835
Saptakoshi, 462 In Vicinity of Dehradun, 384
Sarda-Sahayak, 291, 355 Storms, 87, 131, 132
Sardar Sarovar, 537, 540, 541, 546, Stream Gauging Networks, 193, 194
955, 1150 Subarnarekha, 310, 611, 612, 613
Sathanur, 741, 775 Observed Runoff, 615
Savahaklu, 760 Projects, 615, 618, 619
Sei, 581, 583 Water Pollution Problems, 620
Sewa, 503, 1136 Water Quality Levels, 623
Shanan, 501 Sunshine, 39, 50, 167, 184, 186, 192, 363
Siang, 424, 465 Surface Water and GW Agencies, 1161
Siddheswar, 360, 1044 Surface Water Data Entry System (SWDES),
Siyom, 466 1161
Somasila, 737, 740, 741 SW Data Processing Centers, 1161
Sondur, 607 Swajaldhara, 1117
Sriram Sagar, 674, 683, 688
Srisailam, 641, 654, 656
Stanley, 703 Tajmahal, 346
Subansiri, 466, 625 Tank
Subbareddysagar, 769 Damavas, 584
Supa, 759 Palakmati, 517
Talakalake, 760 Pariej, 545
Tandula, 599, 608 Patera, 584
Tapovan Vishnugarh, 382 Percolation, 1176
Tarbela, 507 Tapi, 300, 301, 310, 561, 562, 563, 564, 566,
Tawa, 522, 551, 955 567, 568, 570, 961
Tehri, 376, 377, 378, 379, 960 Floods, 573
Telugu Ganga, 670, 1078 Groundwater Potential, 577, 578
Thein (Ranjit Sagar), 501 Meteorological Data, 567, 569
Tigra, 961 Population and Agriculture, 566, 568
Tilaiya, 361, 394 Water Quality, 578, 579
Tillari, 756 Water Resources Projects, 570, 571, 577
Tipaimukh, 467 Tarun Bharat Sangh, 1149, 1179
Totaladoh, 692 Task Force, 1188
Tungabhadra, 289, 301, 310, 641, 642, 643, Tehri Hydro Development Corporation, 1115
659, 661, 665, 701, 1079 Terai Region, 7, 244
Ujjani, 645 Terrace Cultivation, 825
Ukai, 562, 570, 572, 960, 961 The Energy And Resources Institute, 1148
Umiam, 465 Thermal Power Station
Umrong, 463 Anpara, 386
Upper Aliyar, 761 Harduaganj, 382
Upper Kolab, 690, 692 Rihand Nagar, 386
Upper Tunga, 664, 668 Shakti Nagar, 386
Upper Wainganga, 674, 678, 679, 693 Talchur, 690
Uri, 501, 504 Vindhya Nagar, 386
Vaigai, 779, 780, 782 Thermometers, 168
Vanivilas Sagar, 660, 662 Thiessen Polygon Method, 101
Varahi, 759 Thomason College of Civil Engineering, 363
Vidur, 777 Thunderstorms, 20
Vihar, 937 Tidal Waves, 18
Vyasi, 381 Tracer Technique, 255
Index 1257

Transitional Season, 17 Pricing, 1182

Transmissivity, 243, 250 Related Diseases, 1029, 1030, 1031
Transpiration, 67, 75, 158 Rights, 1037, 1099, 1182
Treated Wastewater, 1006 Samples, 258
Treaty Supply for Metropolitan Cities, 915
Indo-Pak, 490, 507, 1057, 1079 Technology Center, 1129, 1145
International, 1057 Temperature, 178
Mahakali, 1059 Tribunals, 1039
Tri-Partite Agreement, 618, 620 Use Efficiency, 800
Triassic System, 240 Withdrawal, 74, 76, 737
Tsunamis, 884 Water and Power Consultancy Services (India),
Tungabhadra Board, 1139 1124
Tutulia (The Western Channel), 428 Water Fall
Bhara Chukki, 702, 707
U.N. General Assembly, 1039 Dhuandhara, 514
U.N. Millennium Development Goals, 998 Gagana Chukki, 702
UH Studies, 218, 228 Kapildhara, 513
Ukai Operation policies, 574, 576 Nandhar, 515
Union List, 1036 Sahastradhara, 514
Union Subject, 1036 Shivasamudram, 702
UP Irrigation Research Institute, 1143 Water Quality, 156, 470, 639, 650, 739
Urban Drainage, 880 Water Resources, 3, 15, 71, 193, 335, 419, 1152
Development Training Centre, 1147
Valley of Euphrates, 6 Professionals, 791
Varahamihira, 58, 61 Project, 210, 330, 616, 808
Vembanad Estuary, 751 Requirement, 799
Visvesvaraya, 791 Waterlogging, 76, 254, 891, 917, 918, 997
Vrindavan Garden, 717 Watershed, 218, 1117, 1177
Bhairabanki, 1178
Warabandi or Osrabandi, 816 Hierarchical Coding, 1178
Water Weather Disturbances, 19, 20, 87
Availability, 71, 212, 872, 1175 Weighing Type Lysimeter, 160
Balance, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 75 Weir
Budget Equation, 65 Anderson, 361
Conservation, 1166, 1167 Bariarpur, 375
Demand, 799, 802, 815, 845, 861, 866 Bhimgoda, 366
Depth and Soil Type, 157 Birupa, 607, 625
Derelict, 297 Chhapra, 584
Desalination, 1169 Dahigaon, 570
Distribution Practices in India, 816 Dhukwan, 374
Diverted from Rivers, 75 Dhupal, 587
Electrical Conductivity, 258 Dupdhal, 658
Governance, 1186 Hathmati, 586
Harvesting, 1179 Himatnagar, 586
Information System, 1165 Kakrapar, 562, 570
Initiatives Needed in India, 1185 Kenyatta, 584
Issues and Challenges, 1186 Lodhama, 464
Level Recorder, 197, 1161 Mamrechi, 584
Losses Due To Evaporation, 168 Nirallapallam, 720
Management Problems, 335 Well, 75, 264, 265, 1007
Pollution, 997, 1003, 1170 West
Poverty Index, 84, 85 Coast, 7, 14, 15, 87, 285
1258 Index

West (Continued) World Water

Flowing River System, 743, 744, 745, Inventory, 69
751, 752, 753, 754, 763, 764 Reserves, 70
Westerly Current, 15 Wright’s Southern Oscillation Index, 151, 873
Western
Deserts, 14, 15
Ghats, 4, 5, 7, 15, 87, 641, 701 Yamuna, 311, 338, 344, 346, 347, 348
Wetland, 51, 55, 56, 470 Action Plan, 413
White Water, 999 River Board, 1139
Wildlife Sanctuaries, 469 Water Dispute Tribunal, 1055
WISDOM, 1162 Water Quality Levels, 587, 588
World Yamunotri Temple, 344
Health Organization (WHO), 1010 Yellow River, 303
Hydropower Generation, 842, 843
Major Rivers, 298
Storage Projects, 950 Zabo System, 825