UNIT-III

Magnetic and Superconducting materials

Magnetic and Superconducting materials
Permeability, Field Intensity, Magnetic Induction, Magnetization, Magnetic
Susceptibility, Origin of Magnetic Moment, Bohr Magneton. Hysteresis behavior
of Ferro Magnetic materials based on Domain theory. Hard and Soft Magnetic
Materials, Properties of Anti-Ferro and Ferri Magnetic Materials and their
applications,
Super conductivity, effect of Magnetic Field, Critical current density, Meissner
effect, Type-I and Type-II superconductors, BCS theory, applications of
superconductors.
Introduction
Magnetism arises from the Magnetic Moments or Magnetic dipoles of Magnetic
Materials.
 When the electrons revolve around the nucleus Orbital magnetic moment arises,
similarly when the electron spins, spin Magnetic moment arises.
 The permanent Magnetic Moments can arise due to
 The orbital magnetic moment of the electrons
 The spin magnetic moment of the electrons, and
 The spin magnetic moment of the nucleus.
Note: Magnetic moment due to nucleus spin is very small compared to other two, hence can be
neglected.
Magnetic Dipole:
It is system consisting of two equal and opposite magnetic poles separated by a finite
distance(2l).

Magnetic Moment:
It is defined as the product of its pole strength(m) and distance between the two poles.
i.e., Magnetic moment of a dipole =2lm
Units: ampere-meter2
Magnetic dipole may arises when current flows in a conducting wire. In this case, the
magnetic moment is defined as the product of current passing through the wire and cross section
area of the wire.
i.e., Magnetic moment =iA , Units: ampere-meter2
Note: It is a vector quantity pointing from south to north pole.

Magnetic Induction or Magnetic flux Density(B):

The number of lines of magnetic force (or) flux passing through unit area
perpendicularly is known as Magnetic Induction.
 B = Φ/A = Magnetic Flux/area
Units: wb/m2 or Tesla.
Magnetic field intensity (H):
The force experienced by a unit north pole placed at a point in a Magnetic Field is
known as Magnetic field strength (or) Magnetic Field Intensity.
Units : A/m
Permeability( µ ):
The permeability (μ) is a measure of the amount of magnetic lines of forces penetrating through
a material.
The Magnetic induction B is proportional to the applied Magnetic field intensity H, i.e.,

B H
B  H
B

H
Where µ is permeability of a medium and is measured in Henry per meter.
Hence, the magnetic permeability is defined as the ratio of the magnetic flux density to the
applied magnetic field intensity.
 The permeability of free space(μ0) has a value of 4πX10-7Hm-1

Relative permeability (µr):

The ratio of absolute permeability of a medium to that of permeability of free space is called
relative permeability µr of the substance.


r 
0
B/H B
r  
B0 / H B0

Magnetization(M or I):
“Magnetization refers to the process of converting a non-magnetic material into a
Magnetic material”.
 The measure of the magnetization of a magnetized specimen is called intensity of
magnetization. It is defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume.
Magnetic Susceptibility(χm):

The intensity of Magnetization (M) is directly related to the applied field magnetic field
intensity (H) M H
M  m H
M
magnetic susceptibility  m 
H
Note: which produces the magnetization and it has no units.
Relation between the susceptibility(χm) and Relative permeability(µr):
Induced flux density in a material of magnetic permeability μ in the presence external magnetic
field intensity H is given by
B  H

B  r 0 H (  r  )
0
B  r 0 H  0 H  0 H

B   0 (  r  1) H   0 H
B  0 I  0 H
B  0 (I  H )
I
Since,  r 1
H
I

H

  r  1

Note: For non-magnetic substances susceptibility is zero & relative permeability is unity.
Problems:
1). The magnetic field in the interior of certain solenoid has the value of 6.5 X 10-4 T, when
the solenoid is empty. When it is filled with iron, the field becomes 1.4T. Find the relative
permeability of iron.
( Hint: χm=M/H χm= 2153.84 μr=1+χm.
Ans: μr= 2154.84 ) ( (or) μr=1+(M/H))
2). Find the relative permeability of a ferromagnetic material if a field of strength 220
amp/meter produces a magnetization 3300 amp/meter in it.
(Hint: μr=1+(M/H) Ans: μr= 16)
3). The magnetic field intensity in a piece of ferric oxide is 106 amp/meter. If the susceptibility
of the material is 1.5X10-3, calculate the magnetization of the material and the flux density.
(Hint: χm=M/H ,M=χmH & B=μo (M+H)
Ans: M=1.5X103A/m B= 1.257T)
4). A paramagnetic material has a magnetic field intensity of 104 amp/meter. If the
susceptibility of the material at room temperature is 3.7X10-3, calculate the magnetization and
the flux density in the material.
(Hint: χm=M/H ,M=χmH & B=μo (M+H)
Ans: M=37A/m B= 0.0126T or wb/m2)
Origin of Magnetic Moment:
The permanent magnetic moment in a material originates from the orbital motion and
spinning motion of electrons in an atom.
Orbital Magnetic moment of the electron and Bohr Magneton:
The orbital moment of an electron arises in principal because the electron in an orbit about
the nucleus can be considered to be a small circulating current about the nucleus and this current
produces a magnetic field.
 Let ‘m’ be the mass of the electron and ‘r’ the radius of the orbit in which it moves with
angular velocity ‘ω’.
The loop current produced by the electrons in an atom is given by
I=Charge of the electron/time = -e/T
where, ‘T’ is time taken by the electron to make one revolution around the nucleus i.e., T=2π/ω

Therefore, I = - eω/2π
Where ‘ω’ is angular velocity of the electron
As we know that the Magnetic moment is the product of magnitude of current and area of
loop i.e.,
µm = (Current) (Area of loop)=I.A

e er 2
m   (r 2 )  
2 2
e
m   (mr 2 )
2m
e
 m  ( ) L - - - - - (1)
2m
2
where L=mωr is the orbital angular momentum of electron.
The minus sign indicates that the magnetic moment μm is anti-parallel to the angular
momentum ‘L’.
The possible orientation of the angular momentum vector when placed in an external
magnetic field is given by
ml h
Ll , B  - - - - - (2) ( where, m l  l (l  1) )
2

Combining equation (1) & (2),  e  ml h

 m   
 2m  2
 eh 
  ml
 4m 
 m    B ml    B l (l  1)

 eh 
where B    24
  9.27  10 ampere  meter
2
is called Bohr Magneton.
 4m 
 Note: Bohr Magneton is the accepted unit for measuring the magnetic moment of atomic
systems.

Spin Magnetic moment of the electrons:

Besides the orbital motion of an electron, it rotates about its own axes.

Substituting the value of magnetic spin angular momentum in equation (1), we get
 e  ms h
 s   
 2m  2
1  eh 
  
2  4m 
B 1
s   ( ms   )
2 2
i.e., spin magnetic moment is half of a Bohr Magneton. µs=9.4X10-24 A-m2.
Nuclear Spin Magnetic moment:
Similar to electrons, the protons present in nucleus possess spin, the vectorial sum of all the
protons spin is equal to the nuclear spin.
The nuclear magnetic moment is expressed in the unit of nuclear Magneton is
eh
n   5.05 10 27 A  m 2
4M p
Where Mp is the mass of the proton.
Classification of Magnetic Materials:
Based on different characteristics the magnetic materials are broadly classified into three
types. i.e., Dia, Para & Ferro magnetic materials.Further ferro-magnetic materials are classified
into Anti Ferro & Ferri Magnetic materials.
 Domain theory of ferromagnetism:
According to Weiss, ferromagnetic material consists of a number of regions or domains, which
are spontaneously magnetized.
 Each domain spontaneous magnetization is due to parallel alignment of all magnetic
dipoles.
 The direction of spontaneous magnetization varies from domain to domain.
 The resultant magnetization may hence be zero or nearly zero.
 When an external field is applied there are two possible ways of alignment of a random
domain.

 By motion of domain walls: The volume of the domains that are favorably oriented
with respect to the magnetizing field increases at the cost those that are unfavorably
oriented.
 By rotation of domains: When the applied magnetic field is strong, rotation of the
direction of magnetization occurs in the direction of field.
 In the process of domain growth, four types of energies are involved.
i) Exchange energy: It is the energy required in assembling the atomic magnets into a
single domain and this work done is stored as potential energy.
The volume of the domain may vary 10-2 to 10-6 cm3.
ii) Anisotropy energy: In ferromagnetic crystals, energy of magnetization is found to be a
function of crystal orientation. i.e., crystals have easy and hard directions of magnetization.
iii) Domain wall energy or the Bloch wall energy:
A thin region that separates
adjacent domains magnetized in different directions is called domain wall or Bloch wall.
Thickness the Bloch walls are about 200 to 300 lattice constant.

iv) Magnetostriction energy:

The change in the dimension of a ferromagnetic material when it is magnetized is known as
Magnetostriction.
Magnetostriction energy is the energy due to the mechanical stresses generated by domain
rotation.
Magnetostriction effect is used in generation of ultrasonic waves
Hysteresis
The striking property of Ferro Magnetic materials is the relation between Magnetization and
the strength of Magnetic field. This property is called Hysteresis.
OR
The lagging of Magnetization behind the applied magnetic field is called the Hysteresis.

Explanation to Hysteresis Loop :

• If we start with no Magnetized specimen (M=0) with the increasing values of

magnetizing field H.
• The Magnetization of the specimen increases from zero to higher values and attains its
maximum value at a point P, at this point the Magnetization referred as Saturation
Magnetization..
• When we increase Magnetic field H there is no further increment in Magnetic moment.
• When we decrease Magnetic field H to Zero, the Magnetization M attains point Q.
• At this point Magnetization referred as Residual Magnetization Mr.
• Further if we increase the Magnetic field from zero to negative values, the Magnetization
of material becomes zero at a point R, at that point the Magnetic field -Hc is referred as
Coercivity of the specimen.
• If we increase Magnetic field H in reverse direction Magnetization of material reaches its
peak value at a points S.
• On reversing the polarities of Magnetic field and increasing its strength the
Magnetization slowly decreases first to residual value then to zero and finally increases to
saturation state and touches the original saturation curve.
• The area of loop indicates the amount of energy wasted in one cycle of operation.
Anti-ferromagnetic Materials:
Arrangement of magnetic moments such that the magnetic moments of atoms or ions cancel
out causing zero net magnetization.
Properties of Anti-ferromagnetic Materials:
1). Spin alignment is in anti-parallel manner with same magnitude

2).Susceptibility(χm) is positive and small.

3). The temperature at which anti-ferromagnetic material converts into paramagnetic material is
known as Neel’s temperature(TN).
4). Susceptibility(χm) is inversely proportional to the temperature. The variation of susceptibility
with temperature is shown in fig.
χm = C/(T+θ) (T>TN)

5).Examples: FeO, MnO, Cr2O, MnF2 etc…

Ferrimagnetic Materials:
Magnetic behavior obtained when ions in a material have their magnetic moments aligned
in an anti-parallel arrangement such that the moments do not completely cancel out and a net
magnetization remains.
Properties of Ferri-magnetic Materials:
1). Spin alignment is in anti-parallel manner with Different magnitude

2).Susceptibility(χm) is positive and very large for these materials.

3). Susceptibility(χm) is inversely proportional to the temperature. The variation of susceptibility
with temperature is shown in fig.
χm = C/(T±θ) (T>TN)

4). The temperature at which ferrimagnetic material converts into paramagnetic material is know
as Neel’s temperature(TN).
5).Examples: Ferrites(Me2+OFe2O3 or Me2+Fe2O4), ZnFe2O4, CuFe2O4, ZnCuFe2O4,etc.
Superconductivity
Superconductivity was first discovered in 1911 by the Dutch physicist,Heike Kammerlingh
Onnes.
“Certain metals and alloys exhibit almost zero resistivity (infinite conductivity) when they are
cooled to sufficiently low temperatures. This phenomenon is called Superconductivity”.
General Properties of Superconductors:
1. TRANSITION TEMPERATURE: The temperature at which a normal substance changes to
a superconducting substance and vice-versa is called the critical temperature ( Tc ) or the
transition temperature.
Different materials have different transition temperature(Tc) values.
Hg, Tc =4.2K; Lead, Tc =1.19K; Tungsten, Tc =0.01K; Tin ,Tc =0.39K; Cadmium Tc
=0.55K etc..

2). Critical magnetic field (Hc )

The state of superconductivity that exists for a given magnetic field at a given temperature is
called critical magnetic field.
3).Effect Of Current:
When an electric current is set up in a superconductor, it can persist for a long time even
without any emf. Due to the presence of the persistent current, a superconductor also produces a
magnetic field.

4).Isotopic Effect: The phenomenon of decrease of critical temperature with increasing atomic
mass is called isotopic effect.

5).Specific Heat, 6).Cooper Pair Of Electrons, 7).Energy Band Gap

Note: The dependence of the temperature on the magnetic field can be represented by

Meissner Effect:
When a weak Magnetic field is applied to a superconducting specimen at a temperature T c , the
magnetic flux lines are expelled & the specimen acts as an ideal Dia magnet. This effect is called
Meissner effect.

Types of superconductors
Based on diamagnetic response superconductors can be classified as
1) Type - I superconductors (or) Soft superconductors
2) Type - II superconductors (or) Hard superconductors
Critical current density:
The maximum current density at which the superconductivity disappears is called the critical
current density.
Note:An electrical current in a wire creates a magnetic field around the wire.
The strength of the magnetic field increases as the current in the wire increases.
Because superconductors are able to carry large currents without loss of energy, they are well
suited for making strong electromagnets.
Introduction to BCS theory of Superconductivity:
A theory of superconductivity formulated by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and Robert
Schrieffer. It explains the phenomenon in which a current of electron pairs flows without
resistance in certain materials at low temperatures. This can happen, so the theory says, when a
single negatively charged electron slightly distorts the lattice of atoms in the superconductor,
drawing toward it a small excess of positive charge. This excess, in turn, attracts a second
electron. It is this weak, indirect attraction that binds the electrons together, into a Cooper pair.
 A pair of free electrons coupled through a phonon is called a Cooper pair.
 Each Cooper pair consists of two electrons having opposite moments and opposite spins.
Applications of superconductors
superconductors:
 Making the strong electromagnets without expense of electrical energy.
 Construct superfast computers. (Peta
(Peta-flop computers)
 Almost all zero power loss electrical transmission lines.
 High speed eed transportation is possible.
possible.(Superfast trains)
 Very fast electrical switching.
 Generating of high magnetic fields.
 Built the logic & storage functions iin computers.
 SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interface Device).
SQUID is a device which used to measure the magnetic fields (or) used to study tiny
magnetic signals.
SQUID consists of two superconductors separated by thin insulating layers to form two
parallel Josephson junctions.
SQUIDS are used in measuring faint signals in the human brain or heart by sensing the
magnetic fields created by the neurological currents. Other applications include the
construction of highly sensitive gradiometers, magnetomete
magnetometersrs and voltmeters.

 SMES (Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage)

Note: electromechanical-systems (MEMS) are machines which range in size from a

Micro-electromechanical
few micrometers to a few millimeters
millimeters.. They may operate as actuators, motors, generators, or
switches and have applications in fields as diverse as electro communications, automotive,
aerospace, astronomy, ophthalmometry, biotechnology, and logistics.
Magnetic MEMS
• Permanent magnets (Hard magnets) are ideal for use in MEMS
• — The interactions between two magnets or between a magnet and soft magnetic
materials or between a magnet and current carrying coils can be used to produce forces or
torques.
• — They produce magnetic fields and gradients which are effective over long distances
allowing for large-throw
throw and/or wide
wide-angular actuation.
Maheshwar Reddy Mettu
Asst. Professor of Physics
Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology