Part 1: Nature of Mathematics

Mathematics
- study of pattern and structure
- fundamental to physical and biological sciences, engineering and information technology, to economics and
increasingly to the social sciences
- useful way to think about nature and the world
- tool to quantify, organize and control our world, predict phenomena and make life easier for us
- helps organize patterns and regularities in our world
- has numerous applications in the world making it indispensable

Nature of Mathematics
- reveals hidden pattern that help us understand the world around us
- it is a diverse discipline that deals with data, measurements and observations from sciences; with inference,
deduction and proof; and with mathematical models of natural phenomena, of human behavior, and of social
systems
- as a practical matter, mathematics is a science of pattern and order
- its domain are numbers, chance, form, algorithms and change
- relies on logic rather than on observation as its standard truth yet employs observation, simulation and
experimentation as means of discovering the truth.
- its special role in education is a consequence of its universal applicability
- theorems and theories are both significant and useful; the best results are also elegant and deep
- through theorems, it offers science both foundation of truth and a standard of certainty
- offers distinctive modes of thought which are both versatile and powerful, including modelling, abstraction,
optimization, logical analysis, inference from data and use of symbols
- experience with mathematical mode of thought builds mathematical power – a capacity of mind of increasing
value in this technological age that enables one to read critically, identify fallacies, detect bias, assess risk and
suggest alternatives
- empowers us to understand better the information-laden world

Why is

mathematics important in nature?

- makes our life orderly and prevents chaos
- powers our reasoning, creativity, abstract or spatial thinking, critical thinking, problem solving ability and even
effective communication skills
- a methodical application of matter

What is the nature of mathematics as a language?

- is a universal language, symbols and organization to form equations are the same in every country of the world
Where can you find math in nature?
- flower petals, sunflower seeds, pinecone, pineapple, pineapple crown, shape of hurricane and form of shells

Is math based on nature?

- the idea follows the observation that nature is full of patterns, Tegmark contends the mathematical structure
found in the natural world shows that math exists in reality

Mathematicians
 Leonardo Pisano Bigollo – the greatest European mathematician of the middle ages
 Rene Descartes – French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist who invented analytic geometry
 Alan Mathison Turing – an English mathematician, computer scientist, logician, etc.
 Isaac Newton – English mathematician who invented calculus in the mid to late
 1660s
 Galileo Galilei – Italian astronomer the father of modern physics
 Archimedes – a Greek mathematician, discovers the relation between the surface and volume of the sphere and
its circumscribing cylinder

Patterns and Numbers in Nature and the World

 Patterns
o irregular, repeated or recurring forms or designs; studying this help students in identifying relationships and
finding logical connections to form generalizations and make predictions
 Patterns in Nature
o visible regularities of form found in the natural world; these patterns recur in different contexts and can
sometimes be modelled mathematically
 Natural Patterns
o Symmetries, Trees, Spirals, Meanders, Waves, Foams, Tessellations, Cracks, Stripes

Pattern
 Regular
 Repeated
 Recurring forms of designs
 Identify relationship
 Find logical connections to form generalization
 Examples are layout of tiles, design of buildings and the way we tie our shoelaces
Symmetry
 Drawing and imaginary line across an object resulting to parts mirroring each other
 Bilateral symmetry is a type of symmetry that both left and right portions are the same
 Examples of bilateral symmetry are butterfly and Leonardo da Vinci’s Vitruvian man
 Rotational symmetry is a type of symmetry that depends on the number of sides or faces an object has in which
should result to having the same appearance as the original position
 Angle of Rotation refers to the smallest measure of angle that a figure can be rotated while still preserving the
original position
 Order of Rotation is the more common way of describing rotational symmetry
360 °
Formula: angle of rotation=
n

*Why do bees use hexagon and not any other polygons?

- Bees use hexagon to make a very efficient use of the space and it also stores more honey. Hexagonal formation
is more optimal in making use of the available space.

Packing problem:
Square

areaof the circles

×100 %
area of the square
2
πc m
¿ ×100 %
4 c m2

≈ 78.54 %

Hexagon

sid e ∙ √ 3
2
A=
4
2 √3
A=( 2 cm) ∙
4
A=6 √ 3
2
Area of circles=3 πc m

area of the circles

×100 %
area of the hexagon
2
3 πc m
¿ 2
×100 %
6√3c m

≈ 90.6 %

Stripes
 Patterns you see in animals may seem random designs, but they are believed to be governed by mathematical
equation
 The chemical factors in the cell determine growth patterns and influence factors like hair color (Allan Turing, a
mathematician)
 The two chemical processes: reaction and diffusion
  Three variables that could affect the orientation of stripes:
o The substance that amplifies the density of stripe patterns
o The substance that changes one of the parameters involved in the stripe formation
o The physical change in the direction of the origin of the stripe
 Examples are sunflowers, shells of snail and flower petals
 A refined spiral structure is called equiangular spiral

Population Growth
- mathematics used to model population growth with the formula:
rt
A=Pe
Where:
A = size of the population growth after it grows
P = initial number of people or population
e = Euler’s constant (2.718)
r = rate of growth (if % is given, must convert to decimal)
t = time
 The population growth formula can be manipulated according to what’s needed, the formula are as follows:
A
P= rt
e
r ¿ ln ( AP )∗100∧t=ln ( PA )
 When we are asked to find the unknown exponent of a variable, take the natural logs of both sides
 Another equation:

( )
nt
r
A=P0 1+
n
Where:
A = size of the population growth after it grows
P = initial number of people or population
n = annually (1), semi-annually (2), monthly (12), daily (365), weekly (57), cordially (4)
r = rate of growth (if % is given, must convert to decimal)
t = time

Fibonacci
 Leonardo of Pisa – Fibonacci (a nickname of Leonardo)
o Fibonacci is the greatest European mathematician of the middle ages
o 1170-1240 (Leonardo Pisano Bigollo)
o Introduced the Hindu-Arabic number system in Europe
 Origin of Fibonacci sequence
o Discovered after an investigation on the reproduction of rabbits
o It took one year to confirm the Fibonacci sequence
o First introduced in his Liber Abbaci (Book of Calculation) in 1202
o First investigated by Indian mathematician (Pingala, Virahanka, Hemachandra) and was popularized by
Fibonacci
 The Fibonacci spiral is an approximation of the golden spiral created by drawing circular arcs connecting the
opposite corners of squares in the Fibonacci tiling
 Fibonacci tiling are square whose side lengths are successive Fibonacci sequence
 It is an integer in the infinite sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, …, each succeeding term is the sum of the two
immediately preceding, can also be a negative integer
 The adding of the last two numbers of the sequence forms what is known as golden rectangle
 Jacques Binet’s (1543) formula is used when looking for nth Fibonacci number
 [( ) ( ) ]
n n
1 1+ √ 5 1−√ 5
F n= −
√5 2 2
 Fibonacci in nature can be observed for example: sunflower, pinecones, etc.
Golden Ratio
 Often denoted by the Greek letter ϕ (phi)
 Approximately equal to 1.618
 Ratio of two quantities is the same as the ratio of their sum to the larger value of the two quantities
 Can be expressed as the ratio between two numbers
o Formula:
o A = bigger value, B= small value
a a+b
=
b a
 The golden ratio in nature:
o Mona Lisa
o Notre Dame Cathedral
o Parthenon
 Artists who is believed to use the golden ratio:
o Leonardo Da Vinci
o Michael Angelo
o Sandro Botticelli
 Musicians who use golden ratio:
o Mozart
o Bach
o Beethoven
o Debussy
o Schubert
 First called as the Divine Proportion in the early 1500s
 Relationship between numbers in Fibonacci sequence where plotting the relationship on scales results in a spiral
shape
 Can be deduced in an isosceles triangle, can be applied to our body, our DNA, Earth and moon relationship, and
male and female honey bees
 The golden ratio describes predictable patterns on everything from atoms to huge stars in the sky.
 The ratio is derived from something called the Fibonacci sequence, named after its Italian founder, Leonardo
Fibonacci.
 Nature uses this ratio to maintain balance, and the financial markets seem to as well.

Mathematical Language and Symbol

- Language is a systematic way of communication with other people use of sounds or convention symbols
- A system of words used in a particular discipline
- A system of abstracts, codes which represents antecedent events and concept and arrange in ordered sequence
to form words
- Language was invented to communicate ideas to others
- Language of mathematics was designed to write numbers, sets, functions, and perform operations
 Symbols commonly used in Mathematics
The ten digits 0, 1, 2, 3, …, 9
Operations +, -, ×, ÷
Sets ꓴ (union), ꓵ (intersection), ꓛ (superset), C (subset)
Variables a, b, c, x, and y
Special Symbols ¿ ,<,> ,≤ , ≥ , π …
Logic Symbols ~ (knot), ˄ (conjunction), ˅ (disjunction), → ( if ∧then ) ,↔( if , only if )
Set Notation N (natural numbers), W (whole numbers), Z (integers), Q (rational numbers), R (real numbers), C
 (complex numbers)

 Some important sets

N {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, …}
W {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, …}
Z {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
Q Set of rational numbers (terminating and repeating decimals)
Q’ Set of irrational numbers (non-terminating and non-repeating decimals)
R Includes N, W, Z, Q, Q’
C Set of complex numbers (ex. A + Bi)
 Common Symbols

 The Grammar of Mathematics

- The mathematical notation used for formulas has its own grammar not dependent on a specific natural
language, but shared internationally by mathematicians regardless of their mother tongues.
 Characteristics of the Mathematics Language
- Precise (accurate)
- Concise (sufficient information)
- Powerful (expresses complete thought)
 Difficulties
- The word “is” could mean equality, inequality or member in a set
- Different use of number (cardinal, ordinal, nominal, ratio)
- Mathematical objects may be represented in many ways such as sets and functions
- The words “and” and “or” means differently in mathematics from its English use.
Exercises:
Give the error of the following:
1. 5 C N – No error, because 5 is a subset of natural numbers
2. Given the function x + 15, find the value of f(4) – Has error, using the functional notation we can write f(x) = y,
x+15 is an expression and it should be f(x) = y + 15
3. (1, 2) є f where f is a function – No error, because (1, 2) is an ordered pair associated with the function
4. x > 2 or x < 1 is equivalent to 2 < x < 1 – No error

Translate each sentence using mathematical equation:

 1. 0 is an integer [ Z = 0 ]
2. x is a multiple of 5 [ x = {5, 10, 15, 20, …} ]
3. x is an odd number [ x = {1, 3, 5, 7, …} ]
4. the value of x ranges from -2 to 5 [ -2≤ x ≥ 5 ]
Variables
- represented by a letter like x and y
- symbol for unknown value
- allows you to give a temporary name to what you are looking for to come up with a concrete computation
 Writing Sentences using Variables
- Use variables to rewrite the following sentences more formally:
1. Are there numbers with the property that the sum of their squares equals to the square of their sum?
- are there numbers x and y with the property x 2 + y2 = (x + y)2
- do there numbers x and y such that x 2 + y2 = (x + y)2
2. Give any real number, its square is nonnegative
- given any real number r, r2 is nonnegative
- for any real number r, r2 ≥ 0
Some Important Kinds of Mathematical Statements
 Universal Statement
- Says that a certain property is true for all elements in a set. “For all”
- Ex. All positive numbers are greater than zero.
All nonnegative numbers are greater than zero.
 Conditional Statement
- Says if one thing is true then some other things also has to be true. “If-then”
- Ex. If 378 is divisible by 18 then 378 is divisible by 6.
 Existential Statement
- Says that there is at least one thing for which the property is true.
- Ex. There is a prime number that is even.
Universal Conditional Statements
- A statement that is both universal and conditional.
- Ex. For all animals a, if a is a dog, then a is a mammal.
- They can be rewritten in ways that make them appear to be purely universal or purely conditional
- Ex. If a is a dog, then a is a mammal.
If an animal is a dog, then the animal is mammal.
For all dogs a, a is a mammal.
All dogs are mammals.
Rewriting a Universal Conditional Statement
Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement.
1. For all real number x, if x is nonzero then x2 is positive.
- If a real number is nonzero, then its square is positive.
- For all nonzero real number x, x2 is positive.
- If x is a nonzero number, the x2 is positive.
- The square of any nonzero real number is positive.
- All nonzero real number have positive squares.
Universal Existential Statement
- A statement that is universal because its first part says that a certain property is true for all objects of a given
type, and it is existential because its second part asserts the existence of something.
- Ex. Every real number has an additive inverse.
All numbers have additive inverse.
For all real numbers r, there is an additive inverse for r.
For all real number r, there is a real number s, such that s is an additive inverse.
Rewriting a Universal Existential Statement
Fill in the blank to rewrite the following statement.
1. Every pot has a lid.
 - All pot has lid.
- For all pots p, there is a lid for p.
- For all pots p, there is a lid L such that L is a lid for p.

Existential Universal Statement

- A statement that is existential because its first art asserts that a certain object exists, and is universal because
its second part says that the object satisfies a certain property for all things of a certain kind.
- Ex. There is a positive integer that is less than or equal to every positive integer.
Rewriting an Existential Universal Statement
Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement.
 There is someone in my class who is at least as old as every person in my class.
- Some person in my class is at least as old as every person in my class.
- There is a person p in my class that p is at least as old as every person in my class.
- There is a person p in my class with the property that for every person q in my class, p is at least as
old as q.

The Language of Sets

- It is a well-defined collection of distinct objects.
- Usually represented by capital letter.
- Objects are separated by comma.
- Objects that belongs to the set are the elements or members of the set.
- Can be represented by listing its element between braces.
- Said to be well-defined if the elements in a set are specifically listed.
- Ex. A = {a, i, e, o, u}
B = {set of plane figures}
C = {Ca, Au, Ag}
 Notation
- If S is a set, the notation,
- x є S means that x is element of S
- x not an element of S
- a variation of notation is used to describe a very large set.
 {1, 2, 3, …, 100} refers to the set of all integers from 1 to 100
 {1, 2, 3, …} refers to the set of all positive integers
- The symbol … is called ellipses and is read as “and so forth”
 Power Set
 Using the Set-Roster Notation
- A set may be specified using the set-roster notation by writing all elements between braces.
- Ex. Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 1, 2} and C = {1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3}. What are the elements A, B, and C? How are A,
B, and C related?
- A, B, C have exactly the same three elements. Therefore, A, B, and C are simply represented in different
ways.
- Is {0} = 0? No. since it is a set that has an element of 0.
- How many elements are in the set {1, {1}}? Two.
- For each nonnegative integer n, let Un = {n, -n}. Find U1 U2 U3
- U1 = {1, -1}
- U2 = {2, -2}
- U3 = {0, -0} = {0, 0}
 Cartesian Sets of Numbers
- Some important sets of the following:
- N = {1, 2, 3, …} = set of natural numbers
- W = {0, 1, 2, 3, …} = set of whole numbers
- Z = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …} = set of integers
- Q = set of rational numbers
 - Q’ = set of irrational numbers
- R = set of real numbers
- C = set of complex numbers

 Set-Builder Notation
- Let S denote and let P(x) be a property that elements of S or may not satisfy. We define a new set to be
the set of all elements x in S such that P(x) is true. We denote this set as follows:
- {x є S I P(x)} – the set of all elements x in S such that P(x) is true.
 Using the Set-Builder Notation
- Given the R the set of real numbers, Z the set of all integers, and Z+ the set of all positive integers,
describe the following sets:
- {x є R I -2 < x > 5} = R = {-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
- {x є Z I -2 < x > 5} = Z = {-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
- {x є Z+ I -2 < x > 5} = Z+ = {1, 2, 3, 4}
 Definitions of Regarding Sets
- A set is finite if the number of elements is countable.
- Ex. A = {even numbers less than 10}
B = {days in a week}
- A set is infinite if the number of elements cannot be counted.
- Ex. A = {even numbers greater than 20}
B = {odd numbers}
 Equal and Equivalent Sets
- Equal sets are set with the same element and cardinality (number of elements).
- Equivalent sets are set with the same number of elements or cardinality.
 Joint and Disjoint Sets
- Joint sets are set with common elements (interaction).
- Disjoint sets are set with no common elements.
 Universal Set
- Set of all elements. We use the letter U to denote universal set.
 Empty or Null Set
- A set that contains no elements. The symbol Ø or {} represent the empty set.
 Subsets
- If A and B are sets, then A is called a subset of B, written A ⊆ B, if, and only if, every element of A is also
an element of B.
- A ⊆ B means that, for all elements x, if x is an element of A then x is an element of B.
 Proper Subset
- Let A and B be sets, A is a proper subset of B, if, and only if, every element of B is in B but there is atleast
one element of B that is not in A.
- Ex. Let A = Z+, B = {n є Z I 0 ≤ n ≥ 100} and C = {100, 200, 300, 400, 500}.
- B ⊆ A = False since 0 is not a positive integer.
- C is a proper subset of A = True
- C and B have at least one element in common = True
- C ⊆ B = False
- C ⊆ C = True since every set is a subset of itself.
 Distinction between є and ⊆
- Which of the following are true statements?
- 2 є {1, 2, 3} = True
- {2} є {1, 2, 3} = False
- 2 ⊆ {1, 2, 3} = False
- {2} ⊆ {1, 2, 3} = True
- {2} ⊆ {{1}, {2}} = False
- {2} є {{1}, {2}} = True
 - When finding elements, don’t use braces, but when looking for subset, use braces.

 Ordered Pair
- Given elements A and B, the symbol (a, b) denotes the ordered pair consisting of a and b together with
the specification that a is the first element of the pair and b is the second element. Two ordered pairs (a,
b) and (c, d) are equal if, and only if, a = c and b = d.
- Ex. Is (1, 2) = (2, 1)? = No.
Is (3, 5/10) = (√ 9, ½) = Yes.
What is the first element of (1, 1)? = 1
 Cartesian Product
- Given sets A and B, the cartesian product of A and B, denoted A x B and read as “A times B”, is the set of
all ordered pairs (a, b) where a is in A and b is in B.
- Ex. Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {u, v}. Find A x B, B x A, B x B
A x B = {(1, u), (2, u), (3, u), (1, v), (2, v), (3, v)}
B x A = {(u, 1), (u, 2), (u, 3), (v, 1), (v, 2), (v, 3)}
B x B = {(u, u), (u, v), (v, u), (v, v)}
- How many elements are in A x B, B x A, and B x B?
AxB=6
BxA=6
BxB=4
Language of Relations and Functions
 Relation
- Relations abound in daily life. People are related to each other in many ways as parents and children,
teachers, and students, employers and employees, and many others. In business things that are bought
are related to their cost and the amount paid is related to the number of things bought.
- It is a rule that relates values from a set of values (domain) to a second set of values (range).
- Elements of the domain can be imagined as input to a machine that applies a rule to these inputs to
generate one or more outputs.
- It is also a set of ordered pairs. (x, y) Ex. R = {(1,2), (2,4), (3,6), (4,8), (5,10)}
 Relation as a Subset
- Let A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} and define a relation R from A to B as follows: Given any (x, y) є A x B, (x, y) є
R means that x-y/2 is an integer.
- State explicitly which ordered pairs are in A x B and which are in R.
 A x B = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3)}
o (1, 1) an element of R
o (1, 2) not an element of R Thus, R = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 2)}
o (1, 3) an element of R
o (2, 1) not an element of R
o (2, 2) an element of R
o (2, 3) not an element of R
- Is 1 R 3? Is 2 R 3? Is 2 R 2?
 Yes, because (1, 3) an element of R
 No, because (2, 3) not an element of R
 Yes, because (2, 2) an element of R
- What are the domain and range of R?
 R = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 2)}
o Domain: 1, 2
o Range: 1, 3, 2
 Function
- A relation where each element in the domain is related to only one value in the range by some rule.
- Element of the domain can be imagined as input to a machine that applies a rule so that each input
corresponds only to one output.
- A set of ordered pairs (x, y) such that no two ordered pairs have the same x-value but different y-values.
- Can be represented in different ways:
 Table of values
 Ordered pairs
 Graph
 Equation
- Which of the following are functions?
 f = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 5), (4, 5)} – function
 g = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (3, 7)} – not a function
 h = {(1, 3), (2, 6), (2, 9), …, (n, 3n)} – function
- Which of the following mapping diagrams represent functions?
 One is to one – function
 Many is to one – function
 One to many – not a function
- The vertical line Test
 A graph represents a function if and only if each vertical line intersects the graph at most once.
o Function
o Function
o Function
o Not a function
o Not a function

- Which of the following represents a function?

 Y = 2x + 1 - function
 Y = x2 – 2x + 2 - function
 X2 + y2 = 1 – not a function
 Y = sqrt (x + 1) - function
 Y = 2x + 1/ x – 1 – function
- Evaluating a function
 q(x) = x2 – 2x + 2 at x = 2
 q(2) = (2)2 – 2(2) + 2
 q(2) = 2
  f(x) = 2x + 1 at x = 3x – 1
 f(3x – 1) = 2(3x – 1) + 1
 f(3x – 1) = 6x - 1

Part 2: Problem Solving and Reasoning (Inductive and Deductive)

 Problem
- In English, a problem is any question or matter involving doubt, uncertainty or difficulty or a question
proposed for solution or discussion.
- In business, a problem is a perceived gap between the existing state and a desired state or a deviation
from a norm or a standard status of a problem.
- In mathematics, a problem is a statement requiring a solution, usually by means of mathematical
operation/geometric construction.
 Problem Solving
- Method - the ways or techniques used to get answer which will usually involve one or more problem
solving strategies.
- Answer - a number or quantity or some other entity that the problem is asking for.
- Solution - the whole process of solving a problem including the method of obtaining the answer and the
answer itself.
- Method + answer = solution
- Is a process ---an ongoing activity in which we take what we know to discover what we don't know. It
involves overcoming obstacle by generating hypothesis, testing those predictions and arriving at
satisfactory solution.
 Three basic functions involved in problem solving:
- Seeking information
- Generating new knowledge
- Making decisions
 Mathematical Reasoning
- It is an essential skill in mathematics, most especially in problem solving.
- It refers to the ability of a person to analyze problem situations and construct logical arguments to
justify the process or hypothesis, to create both conceptual foundations and connections, in order for
him to be able to process the information.
- With the development of mathematical reasoning, student recognize the mathematics makes sense and
can be understood, they learn how to evaluate situation, select problem solving strategies, draw logical
conclusion, develop and describe solutions and recognize how those solution can be applied.
- Reasoning uses "also" statement that consists of two clauses, the first clause begin with “if” and the
second clause start with “then”. These clauses are commonly known as hypothesis and conclusion.
- Inductive and deductive reasoning are two fundamental forms of reasoning for mathematicians.

Inductive Reasoning

- Is the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining specific examples.

- The conclusion form by inductive reasoning is called the conjecture since it may or may not be correct. It
involves looking for pattern and making a generalization.
- Example: When you notice that all the dogs you see around you are black and white, so you make the
conclusion that all dogs around the world are also black and white. Not correct. The information gave
you a starting hypothesis to test out.
- Use inductive reasoning to predict a number. (3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18) (1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21)
- Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture
Problem Solving with Patterns
\

KenKen Puzzle and Logic Puzzle

Polya’s 4-Steps in Problem-Solving Strategy
2.1. Frequency Distribution Table
In this section, you will learn how to construct frequency distributions. Most often, this can be done by
your computer, but it is important to go through the process to understand how frequency distributions are
actually put together.

An ungrouped frequency distribution is merely an arrangement of the data usually from the
highest to the lowest or it can be from lowest to highest that shows the frequency of occurrence of the
different values of the variable. It is used when there is small number of observations.
A grouped frequency distribution is an arrangement of data that shows the frequency of
occurrence of value falling within arbitrary defined ranges of the variable known as class intervals.

Let’s define some terms necessary in constructing grouped frequency distribution.

 Class Interval – refers to the grouping bounded by the lower limit and the upper limit.

 Class Limit – refers to the lowest and the highest value that can be entered in each class. The lowest
value that can go in each class is known as the lower class limit and the highest value that can go in
each class is called the upper class limit.

 Class Mark or Class Midpoint – refers the representative of each class interval. This value can be
obtained by adding the lower limit and upper limit then divided by 2. It is denoted by x .

 Class boundaries – refers to the true boundaries of a class interval. It can be obtained by simply adding
0.5 to the upper limit and subtracting 0.5 to the lower limit.

 Class size – refers to the length or width of the class interval.

2.2. Construction of a Frequency Distribution
Now, we will consider the procedure on how to construct a frequency distribution. The construction of
this distribution is a very simple activity that requires the following steps:

1. Get the highest and the lowest value in the distribution. Let H be the highest value and L be the
lowest value.

2. Determine the range of the raw data. The range is defined as the difference between the highest
and the lowest value in the distribution.
R=H−L

3. Determine the number of classes. In the determination of the number of classes, it should be noted
that there is no standard method to follow. Generally, the number of classes must not be less than
5 and should not be more than 15. In some instances, however, the number of classes can be
approximated by using the relation
k =1+3.3 log n
where
k =number of classes
n=the sample ¿ ¿

4. Determine the size of the interval. The value of c can be obtained by dividing the range by the
desired number of classes. Hence,
R
c=
k

5. Construct the classes. In constructing the classes, we first determine the lower limit of the
distribution. This lower limit's value can be chosen arbitrarily as long as the lowest value shall fall
on the first interval and the highest value to the last interval.

6. Determine the frequency of each class. The number of frequencies is determined by counting the
number of items that fall in each class.

2.3 Derived Frequency Distribution

Given a frequency distribution, we can construct other frequency distributions like the relative
frequency distribution and the cumulative frequency distribution.

2.3.1 Relative Frequency Distribution

 Relative frequency distribution table is another table that describes the frequency distribution in
terms of percentages. The relative frequency denoted by “%f” can be obtained by dividing the class
frequency by the sample size and multiplying the result by 100. The formula for converting the class
frequency to percent, we have
 f
%f = (100)
n
where
%f =relative frequency for each classinterval
f =freqeuncy of each class
n=the sample ¿ ¿

2.3.2 Cumulative Frequency Distribution

 Cumulative frequency distribution can also be derived from the frequency distribution. This
distribution can be obtained by simply adding the class frequency. There are two types of a cumulative
frequency distribution. These are as follows:
■ Less than cumulative frequency distribution – refers to the distribution whose frequencies
are less than or below the upper class boundary they correspond to. We shall let ¿ cumf be less
than cumulative frequency.
■ Greater than cumulative frequency distribution – refers to the distribution whose
frequencies are greater than or above the lower class boundary they correspond to. We shall let
¿ cumf be greater than cumulative frequency.