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Data Structures and Algorithms in Python Slides

The document discusses data structures and algorithms. It defines data structures as different ways of organizing data on a computer that can be used effectively. Algorithms are defined as sets of steps to accomplish a task. Common data structures like arrays, linked lists, stacks and queues are presented. Examples of algorithms used in daily life and by big companies are provided. The importance of data structures and algorithms in computer science and interviews is explained.

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100% found this document useful (6 votes)

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Data Structures and Algorithms in Python Slides

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Data Structures and Algorithms in Python

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Elshad Karimov
Elshad Karimov
@karimov_elshad
in/elshad-karimov
Elshad Karimov
@karimov_elshad
in/elshad-karimov
What are Data Structures?

• Data Structures are di erent ways of organizing data on your computer,

that can be used e ectively.

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What are Data Structures?

• Data Structures are di erent ways of organizing data on your computer,

that can be used e ectively.

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What are Data Structures?

• Data Structures are di erent ways of organizing data on your computer,

that can be used e ectively.

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What is an Algorithm?
• Set of steps to accomplish a task

Step 1: Choosing ooring Step 2: Purchase and bring

Step 5: Trim door casing Step 4: Determine the layout Step 3: Prepare sub ooring

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Algorithms in our daily lives

Step 1 : Go to bus stop

Step 2 : Take a bus

Step 3: Go to o ce

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Algorithms in our daily lives

Step 1 : Go to Starbucks

Step 2 : Pay money

Step 3: Take a co ee

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Algorithms in Computer Science
• Set of rules for a computer program to accomplish a task

Input Data

Calculation

Stop when answer found

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Sample algorithms that are used by big companies

• How do Google and Facebook transmit live video across the internet?

Compression algorithms

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Sample algorithms that are used by big companies

• How to nd shortest path on the map?

Compression algorithms

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Sample algorithms that are used by big companies

• How to nd shortest path on the map?

Dijkstra’s algorithm
min min
B∞
Bv2
Bv 3 E∞
Ev5
Ev

2 1 4 9
min
A
Av0 6 D∞
Dv3
Dv G∞
Gv14
Gv

5 7

C∞
Cv5
Cv 8 F13
∞
Fv13
Fv
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Sample algorithms that are used by big companies

• How to arrange solar panels on the International Space Station?

Optimization and scheduling algorithms

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What makes a good algorithm?

1. Correctness

2. E ciency

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Why are Data Structures and Algorithms important?

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Why are Data Structures and Algorithms important?

Input data

Da
Output ta
Str
uc
tur
es
an
dA
lgo
rith
Processing
ms

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Why are Data Structures and Algorithms important?

Algorithms

COMPUTER SCIENCE

ALGORITHMS

Algorithms

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Why are Data Structures and Algorithms important?

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Why are Data Structures and Algorithms in INTERVIEWS?

• Problem solving skills

• Fundamental concepts of programming in limited time

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Types of Data Structures
Data Structures

Primitive Non Primitive

Integer

Float Linear Non Linear

Character Tree

String Static Dynamic Graph

Boolean
Array Linked List

Stack

Queue

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Primitive Data Structures

DATA STRUCTURE Description Example

INTEGER Numbers without decimal point 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,1000

FLOAT Numbers with decimal point 3.5, 6.7, 6.987, 20.2

CHARACTER Single Character A, B, C, F

STRING Text Hello, Data Structure

BOOLEAN Logical values true or false TRUE, FALSE

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Types of Algorithms

- Simple recursive algorithms

- Divide and conquer algorithms
- Dynamic programming algorithms
- Greedy algorithms
- Brute force algorithms
- Randomized algorithms

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Types of Algorithms

Simple recursive algorithms

Algorithm Sum(A, n)

if n=1
return A[0]
s = Sum(A, n-1) /* recurse on all but last */
s = s + A[n-1] /* add last element */
return s

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Types of Algorithms

Divide and conquer algorithms

- Divide the problem into smaller subproblems of the same type, and solve these subproblems recursively

- Combine the solutions to the subproblems into a solution to the original problem

Examples: Quick sort and merge sort

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Types of Algorithms

Dynamic programming algorithms

- They work based on memoization

- To find the best solution

Greedy algorithms

- We take the best we can without worrying about future consequences.

- We hope that by choosing a local optimum solution at each step, we will end up at a global optimum solution

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Types of Algorithms

Brute force algorithms

- It simply tries all possibilities until a satisfactory solution is found

Randomized algorithms

- Use a random number at least once during the computation to make a decision

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What is Recursion?
Recursion = a way of solving a problem by having a function calling itself

- Performing the same operation multiple times with di erent inputs

- In every step we try smaller inputs to make the problem smaller.

- Base condition is needed to stop the recursion, otherwise in nite loop will occur.

A programmer's wife tells him as he leaves the house: "While you're out, buy some milk."

He never returns home and the universe runs out of milk. 🤣 🤣 🤣 AppMillers
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What is Recursion?
Recursion = a way of solving a problem by having a function calling itself

def openRussianDoll(doll):
if doll == 1:
print("All dolls are opened")
else:
openRussianDoll(doll-1)

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Why Recursion?

1. Recursive thinking is really important in programming and it helps you break down big
problems into smaller ones and easier to use
- when to choose recursion?
‣ If you can divine the problem into similar sub problems
‣ Design an algorithm to compute nth…
‣ Write code to list the n…
‣ Implement a method to compute all.
‣ Practice

2. The prominent usage of recursion in data structures like trees and graphs.

3. Interviews

4. It is used in many algorithms (divide and conquer, greedy and dynamic programming)

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How Recursion works?

1. A method calls it self

2. Exit from in nite loop

def recursionMethod(parameters):
if exit from condition satisfied:
return some value
else:
recursionMethod(modified parameters)

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How Recursion works?

def firstMethod():
secondMethod()
print("I am the first Method")

def secondMethod():
thirdMethod()
print("I am the second Method")

def thirdMethod():
fourthMethod()
thirdMethod()
print("I am the third Method")
secondMethod()
def fourthMethod():
print("I am the fourth Method") rstMethod()

STACK Memory

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How Recursion works?

def recursiveMethod(n):
if n<1:
print("n is less than 1") recursiveMethod(1)
else:
recursiveMethod(n-1) recursiveMethod(2)
print(n)
recursiveMethod(3)

recursiveMethod(4)
recursiveMethod(4) 4
recursiveMethod(3) 3
STACK Memory
recursiveMethod(2) 2
recursiveMethod(1) 1
recursiveMethod(0) n is less than 1

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Recursive vs Iterative Solutions

def powerOfTwo(n): def powerOfTwoIt(n):
if n == 0: i = 0
return 1 power = 1
else: while i < n:
power = powerOfTwo(n-1) power = power * 2
return power * 2 i = i + 1
return power

Points Recursion Iteration

Space efficient? No Yes No stack memory require in case of iteration

Time efficient? No Yes In case of recursion system needs more time for pop
and push elements to stack memory which makes
recursion less time efficient

Easy to code? Yes No We use recursion especially in the cases we know

that a problem can be divided into similar sub
problems.

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When to Use/Avoid Recursion?

When to use it?

- When we can easily breakdown a problem into similar subproblem

- When we are ne with extra overhead (both time and space) that comes with it

- When we need a quick working solution instead of e cient one

15
- When traverse a tree

- When we use memoization in recursion

9 23

- preorder tree traversal : 15, 9, 3, 1, 4, 12, 23, 17, 28

3 12 17 28

1 4
When avoid it?

- If time and space complexity matters for us.

- Recursion uses more memory. If we use embedded memory. For example an application
that takes more memory in the phone is not e cient

- Recursion can be slow

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How to write recursion in 3 steps?

Factorial

- It is the product of all positive integers less than or equal to n.

- Denoted by n! (Christian Kramp in 1808).
- Only positive numbers.
- 0!=1.

Example 1
4! = 4*3*2*1=24

Example 2

10! = 10*9*8*7*6*5*4*3*2*1=36,28,800

n! = n*(n-1)*(n-2)*…*2*1

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How to write recursion in 3 steps?

Step 1 : Recursive case - the ow

n! = n * (n-1) * ( n-2) * … * 2 * 1 n! = n * (n-1)!

(n-1)!

(n-1)! = (n-1) * (n-1-1) * (n-1-2) * … * 2 * 1 = (n-1) * (n-2) * (n-3) * … * 2 * 1

Step 2 : Base case - the stopping criterion

0! = 1
1! = 1

Step 3 : Unintentional case - the constraint

factorial(-1) ??
factorial(1.5) ??

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How to write recursion in 3 steps?
def factorial(n):
assert n >= 0 and int(n) == n, 'The number must be positive integer only!'
if n in [0,1]:
return 1
else:
return n * factorial(n-1)

factorial(4) = 24

factorial(4) 6

4 * factorial(3) 2

3 * factorial(2)

2 * factorial(1)

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Fibonacci numbers - Recursion

Fibonacci sequence is a sequence of numbers in which each number is the sum of the two
preceding ones and the sequence starts from 0 and 1

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89…

Step 1 : Recursive case - the ow

5=3+2 f(n) = f(n-1) + f(n-2)

Step 2 : Base case - the stopping criterion

0 and 1

Step 3 : Unintentional case - the constraint

bonacci(-1) ??
bonacci(1.5) ??

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Fibonacci numbers - Recursion

def fibonacci(n):
assert n >=0 and int(n) == n , 'Fibonacci number cannot be negative number or non integer.'
if n in [0,1]:
return n
else:
return fibonacci(n-1) + fibonacci(n-2)

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89…

bonacci(4) =3 2 1

bonacci(3) + bonacci(2) 1 0

bonacci(1) + bonacci(0)
1 1

bonacci(2) + bonacci(1)

1 0

bonacci(1) + bonacci(0)

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Interview Questions - 1
How to nd the sum of digits of a positive integer number using recursion ?

Step 1 : Recursive case - the ow

10 10/10 = 1 and Remainder = 0 f(n) = n%10 + f(n/10)

54 54/10 = 5 and Remainder = 4

112 112/10 = 11 and Remainder = 2

11/10 = 1 and Remainder = 1

Step 2 : Base case - the stopping criterion

n =0

Step 3 : Unintentional case - the constraint

sumofDigits(-11) ??
sumofDigits(1.5) ??

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Interview Questions - 2
How to calculate power of a number using recursion?

Step 1 : Recursive case - the ow

xn=x*x*x*..(n times)..*x

24=2*2*2*2 xn = n * xn-1

xa * xb=xa+b
x3 * x4=x3+4

Step 2 : Base case - the stopping criterion

n=0
n=1
Step 3 : Unintentional case - the constraint
power(-1,2) ??
power(3.2, 2) ??
power(2, 1.2) ??
power(2, -1) ??

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Interview Questions - 3
How to nd GCD ( Greatest Common Divisor) of two numbers using recursion?

Step 1 : Recursive case - the ow

GCD is the largest positive integer that divides the numbers without a remainder

gcd(8,12) = 4 Euclidean algorithm

8=222 gcd(48,18) gcd(a, 0)=a

Step 1 : 48/18 = 2 remainder 12 gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, a mod b)
12 = 2 * 2 * 3
Step 2 : 18/12 = 1 remainder 6
Step 3 : 12/6 = 2 remainder 0

Step 2 : Base case - the stopping criterion

b=0

Step 3 : Unintentional case - the constraint

Positive integers
Convert negative numbers to positive
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Interview Questions - 4
How to convert a number from Decimal to Binary using recursion

Step 1 : Recursive case - the ow

Step 1 : Divide the number by 2

Step 2 : Get the integer quotient for the next iteration
Step 3 : Get the remainder for the binary digit
Step 3 : Repeat the steps until the quotient is equal to 0

13 to binary
10 1010
1101 f(n) = n mod 2 + 10 * f(n/2)

Division by Quotient Remainder

2
13/2
10/2 6
5 1
0
101 * 10 + 0 = 1010
6/2
5/2 3
2 0
1
10 * 10 + 1 = 101
3/2
2/2 1 1
0

1/2 0 1 1 * 10 + 0 = 10

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Dynamic programing & Memoization

900 850

Total : 900 + 850 = 1750

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Dynamic programing & Memoization
static int bonacci(int i) { 
if (i == 0) return 0; 
if (i == 1) return 0; 
return bonacci(i-1)+ bonacci(i-2); 
b(5)
}

b(4) b(3)

b(3) b(2) b(2) b(1)

b(2) b(1) b(1) b(0) b(1) b(0)

b(1) b(0)

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Dynamic programing & Memoization
static int b(int n)
  {
/* Declare an array to store
Fibonacci numbers. */ b(5)
int f[] = new int[n+2]; // 1 extra
to handle case, n = 0
int i;

/* 0th and 1st number of the b(4) b(3)
series are 0 and 1*/
f[0] = 0;
f[1] = 1; b(3) b(2)

for (i = 2; i <= n; i++)
  {
/* Add the previous 2 numbers b(2) b(1)
in the series
and store it */
f[i] = f[i-1] + f[i-2];
  }
b(1) b(0)

return f[n];
  }

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Big O
Big O is the language and metric we use to describe the e ciency of algorithms

Size : 1TB

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Electronic - O(s)

Physical - O(1)

Types

O(N), O(N2), O(2N)

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h Time complexity : O(wh)

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Algorithm run time notations

- City tra c - 20 liters

- Highway - 10 liters
- Mixed condition - 15 liters

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Algorithm run time notations

- Best case
- Average case
- Worst case

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Algorithm run time notations

Quick sort algorithm O(N2)

O(N log N)

O(N)

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Big O, Big Theta and Big Omega

• Big O : It is a complexity that is going to be less or equal to the worst case.

• Big - Ω (Big-Omega) : It is a complexity that is going to be at least more than the best
case.
• Big Theta (Big - Θ) : It is a complexity that is within bounds of the worst and the best
cases.
n
5 4 10 … 8 11 68 87 12 … 90 13 77 55 9

Big O - O(N)

Big Ω - Ω(1)

Big Θ - Θ(n/2)

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Algorithm run time complexities

Complexity Name Sample
O(1) Constant Accessing a speci c element in array
O(N) Linear Loop through array elements
O(LogN) Logarithmic Find an element in sorted array
O(N2) Quadratic Looking ar a every index in the array twice
O(2N) Exponential Double recursion in Fibonacci

O(1) - Constant time

array = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
array[0] // It takes constant time to access first element

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Algorithm run time complexities

O(1) - Constant time

random card

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Algorithm run time complexities
Complexity Name Sample
O(1) Constant Accessing a speci c element in array
O(N) Linear Loop through array elements
O(LogN) Logarithmic Find an element in sorted array
O(N2) Quadratic Looking ar a every index in the array twice
O(2N) Exponential Double recursion in Fibonacci

O(N) - Linear time

array = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
for element in array:
print(element)
//linear time since it is visiting every element of array

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Algorithm run time complexities

O(N) - Linear time

Speci c card

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Algorithm run time complexities
Complexity Name Sample
O(1) Constant Accessing a speci c element in array
O(N) Linear Loop through array elements
O(LogN) Logarithmic Find an element in sorted array
O(N2) Quadratic Looking ar a every index in the array twice
O(2N) Exponential Double recursion in Fibonacci

O(LogN) - Logarithmic time

array = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
for index in range(0,len(array),3):
print(array[index])
//logarithmic time since it is visiting only some elements

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Algorithm run time complexities

O(LogN) - Logarithmic time

Binary search

search 9 within [1,5,8,9,11,13,15,19,21] N = 16

compare 9 to 11 → smaller N = 8 /* divide by 2 */
search 9 within [1,5,8,9] N = 4 /* divide by 2 */
compare 9 to 8 → bigger N = 2 /* divide by 2 */
search 9 within [9] N = 1 /* divide by 2 */
compare 9 to 9
return
2k = N → log2N = k

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Algorithm run time complexities

O(N2) - Quadratic time

array = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

for x in array:
for y in array:
print(x,y)

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Algorithm run time complexities

O(N2) - Quadratic time

array = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

for x in array:
for y in array:
print(x,y)

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Algorithm run time complexities

O(N2) - Quadratic time

O(2N) - Exponential time

def fibonacci(n):
if n <= 1:
return n
return fibonacci(n-1) + fibonacci(n-2)

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Algorithm run time complexities

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Space complexity

an array of size n an array of size n*n

O(n) O(n2)

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Space complexity - example

def sum(n):
if n <= 0:
return 0
else:
return n + sum(n-1)

1 sum(3)
2 → sum(2) Space complexity : O(n)
3 → sum(1)
4 → sum(0)

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Space complexity - example

def pairSumSequence(n):
sum = 0
for i in range(0,n+1):
sum = sum + pairSum(i, i+1)
Space complexity : O(1)
return sum

def pairSum(a,b):
return a + b

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Space complexity - example

Java Python
static int sum(int n) { def sum(n):
if (n <= 0) { if n <= 0:
return 0; return 0
} else:
return n + sum(n-1); return n + sum(n-1)
}

Javascript Swift
function sum(n) {  func sum(n: Int) -> Int {
if (n <= 0) {  if n <= 0 {
return 0;  return 0
}  }
return n + sum(n-1);  return n + sum(n: n-1)
} }

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Drop Constants and Non Dominant Terms

Drop Constant

O(2N) O(N)

Drop Non Dominant Terms

O(N2+N) O(N2)

O(N+logN) O(N)

O(2*2N+1000N100) O(2N)

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Why do we drop constants and non dominant terms?

- It is very possible that O(N) code is faster than O(1) code for specific inputs
- Different computers with different architectures have different constant factors.

Fast computer Slow computer

Fast memory access Slow memory access
Lower constant Higher constant

- Different algorithms with the same basic idea and computational complexity might have slightly
different constants

Example: a(b-c) vs ab - a*c

- As →∞, constant factors are not really a big deal

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𝑛
Add vs Multiply

for a in arrayA: for a in arrayA:

print(a) for b in arrayB:
print(a, b)
for b in arrayB:
print(b)

Add the Runtimes: O(A + B) Multiply the Runtimes: O(A * B)

- If your algorithm is in the form “do this, then when you are all done, do that” then you add the runtimes.

- If your algorithm is in the form “do this for each time you do that” then you multiply the runtimes.

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How to measure the codes using Big O?

No Description Complexity

Any assignment statements and if statements that are executed once regardless of the size
Rule 1 of the problem O(1)

Rule 2 A simple “for” loop from 0 to n ( with no internal loops) O(n)

Rule 3 A nested loop of the same type takes quadratic time complexity O(n2)

A loop, in which the controlling parameter is divided by two at each step

Rule 4 O(log n)

Rule 5 When dealing with multiple statements, just add them up

sampleArray 5 4 10 … 8 11 68 87 …

def findBiggestNumber(sampleArray):
biggestNumber = sampleArray[0] O(1)

} }
for index in range(1,len(sampleArray)): O(n)
if sampleArray[index] > biggestNumber: O(1) O(n)
biggestNumber = sampleArray[index] O(1)
O(1)
print(biggestNumber) O(1)

Time complexity : O(1) + O(n) + O(1) = O(n)

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How to measure Recursive Algorithm?

sampleArray 5 4 10 … 8 11 68 87 10

def findMaxNumRec(sampleArray, n):

if n == 1:
return sampleArray[0]
return max(sampleArray[n-1],findMaxNumRec(sampleArray, n-1))

Explanation:

A= 11 4 12 7 n=4

findMaxNumRec(A,4) max(A[4-1],12) max(7,12)=12

findMaxNumRec(A,3) max(A[3-1],11) max(12,11)=12

findMaxNumRec(A,2) max(A[2-1],11) max(4,11)=11

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How to measure Recursive Algorithm?

sampleArray 5 4 10 … 8 11 68 87 10

def findMaxNumRec(sampleArray, n): M(n)

if n == 1: O(1)
return sampleArray[0] O(1)
return max(sampleArray[n-1],findMaxNumRec(sampleArray, n-1)) M(n-1)

}
M(n)=O(1)+M(n-1)
M(n)=1+M(n-1)

M(1)=O(1) =1+(1+M((n-1)-1))
=2+M(n-2)
M(n-1)=O(1)+M((n-1)-1) =2+1+M((n-2)-1)

M(n-2)=O(1)+M((n-2)-1) =3+M(n-3)
.
.
=a+M(n-a)
=n-1+M(n-(n-1))
=n-1+1
=n

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How to measure Recursive Algorithm that make multiple calls?

def findMaxNumRec(sampleArray, n):

if n == 1:
return sampleArray[0]
return max(sampleArray[n-1],findMaxNumRec(sampleArray, n-1))

def f(n):
if n <= 1:
return 1
return f(n-1) + f(n-1)

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How to measure Recursive Algorithm that make multiple calls?

def f(n):
if n <= 1:
return 1
return f(n-1) + f(n-1)

Level
f(4) 0

f(3) f(3) 1

f(2) f(2) f(2) f(2) 2

f(1) f(1) f(1) f(1) f(1) f(1) f(1) f(1) 3

20+21+22+…+2n=2n+1-1
2n-1 O(2n)
N Level Node# Also can be expressed.. or..

4 0 1 20 O(branchesdepth)
3 1 2 2 * previous level = 2 21
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1 3 8 2 * previous level = 2 *22=23 23

Time Complexity : O(N)

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Interview Questions - 2
What is the runtime of the below code?

def printPairs(array):
for i in array:
for j in array:
print(str(i)+","+str(j))
}
O(n2)
O(n)
O(1)
O(n2)

Time Complexity : O(N2)

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Interview Questions - 3
What is the runtime of the below code?

def printUnorderedPairs(array):
for i in range(0,len(array)):
for j in range(i+1,len(array)):
print(array[i] + "," + array[j])

1. Counting the iterations 2. Average Work

1st n-1 Outer loop - N times

2nd n-2
. Inner loop?

}
.
1 1st 10
2nd 9
(n-1)+(n-2)+(n-3)+..+2+1 . =5 10/2
.
n n/2
=1+2+…+(n-3)+(n-2)+(n-1) 1

=n(n-1)/2
=n2/2 + n n*n/2 = n2/2 O(N2)
=n2

Time Complexity : O(N2)

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Interview Question - 4
What is the runtime of the below code?

def printUnorderedPairs(arrayA, arrayB):

for i in range(len(arrayA)):
for j in range(len(arrayB)):
if arrayA[i] < arrayB[j]:
print(str(arrayA[i]) + "," + str(arrayB[j]))

def printUnorderedPairs(arrayA, arrayB):

for i in range(len(arrayA)):
for j in range(len(arrayB)):
O(1)

b = len(arrayB)

a = len(arrayA)

Time Complexity : O(ab)

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Interview Question - 5
What is the runtime of the below code?

def printUnorderedPairs(arrayA, arrayB):

for i in range(len(arrayA)):
for j in range(len(arrayB)):
for k in range(0,100000):
} O(ab)
O(1)
?
print(str(arrayA[i]) + "," + str(arrayB[j])) O(1)

a = len(arrayA)
b = len(arrayB)

100,000 units of work is still constant

Time Complexity : O(ab)

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Interview Question - 6
What is the runtime of the below code?

def reverse(array):
for i in range(0, int(len(array)/2)): O(N/2) O(N)
other = len(array)-i-1 O(1)
temp = array[i] O(1)
array[i] = array[other] O(1)
array[other] = temp O(1)
print(array) O(1)

input output
1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1

Time Complexity : O(N)

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Interview Questions - 7
Which of the following are equivalent to O(N)? Why?

1. O(N + P) , where P < N/2 O(N)

2. O(2N) O(N)
3. O(N+logN) O(N)
4. O(N + NlogN) O(NlogN)
5. O(N+M)

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Interview Question - 8
What is the runtime of the below code?

def factorial(n): M(n)

if n < 0:
return -1
elif n == 0:
return 1
else:
}
return n * factorial(n-1)
O(1)

M(n-1)

n! = 1*2*3*…*n
M(n)=1+M(n-1)
3! = 1*2*3=6
=1+(1+M((n-1)-1))

}
M(n)=O(1)+M(n-1)
=2+M(n-2)

M(0)=O(1) =2+1+M((n-2)-1)
=3+M(n-3)
M(n-1)=O(1)+M((n-1)-1) .
.
M(n-2)=O(1)+M((n-2)-1) =a+M(n-a) Time Complexity : O(N)
=n+M(n-n)
=n+1
=n

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Interview Question - 9
What is the runtime of the below code?

def allFib(n):
for i in range(n):
print(str(i)+":, " + str(fib(i)))

def fib(n):
if n <= 0:
return 0 branchesdepth O(2N)
elif n == 1:
return 1
return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2)

b(1) 21 steps
b(2) 22 steps
b(3) 23 steps
Total work = 21+22+23+24+…+2n
b(4) 24 steps
= 2n+1-2
…

b(n) 2n steps

Time Complexity : O(2N)

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fi
fi
fi
fi
fi

Interview Question - 10
What is the runtime of the below code?

def powersOf2(n):

}
if n < 1:
return 0
elif n == 1: O(1)
print(1)
return 1
else:
prev = powersOf2(int(n/2))

}
curr = prev*2
print(curr)
O(1)
return curr

n=50

powersOf(50) return 32
Time Complexity : O(logN)
powersOf(25) return 16
powersOf(12) return 8
powersOf(6) return 4
powersOf(3) return 2 x2
powersOf(1) return 1

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Arrays

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Arrays

- It is a box of macaroons.
- All macaroons in this box are next to each other
- Each macaroon can be identi ed uniquely based on their location
- The size of box cannot be changed
“a”
4 3 1 6 8 10
[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

- Array can store data of speci ed type

- Elements of an array are located in a contiguous
- Each element of an array has a unique index
- The size of an array is prede ned and cannot be modi ed

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fi
fi
fi
fi
What is an Array?
In computer science, an array is a data structure consisting of a collection of elements , each
identi ed by at least one array index or key. An array is stored such that the position of each
element can be computed from its index by a mathematical formula.

4 3 1 6 8 10
[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

Why do we need an Array?

3 variables - What if 500 integer?

- Are we going to use 500 variables?
number1
number2
The answer is an ARRAY
number3

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Types of Array

Arrays

One Dimensional Multi dimensional

Two dimensional

Three dimensional

Four dimensional

.
.
.

N dimensional

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Types of Array
One dimensional array : an array with a bunch of values having been declared with a single index.

a[i] —> i between 0 and n a[2] a[5]

5 4 10 11 8 11 68 87 12
[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]

Two dimensional array : an array with a bunch of values having been declared with double index.

a[i][j] —> i and j between 0 and n a[0][4] a[2][5]

[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]
[0] 1 33 55 91 20 51 62 74 13
[1] 5 4 10 11 8 11 68 87 12
[2] 24 50 37 40 48 30 59 81 93
Three dimensional array : an array with a bunch of values having been declared with triple index.
a[i][j][k] —> i , j and k between 0 and n
a[2][0][2]
a[0][0][1]

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Types of Array
One dimensional array :

5 4 10 11 8 11 68 87 12

Two dimensional array

1 33 55 91 20 51 62 74 13
5 4 10 11 8 11 68 87 12
24 50 37 40 48 30 59 81 93

Three dimensional array

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Arrays in Memory
One Dimensional

5 4 10 11 8 11 68 87 12

Memory

5 4 10 11 8 11 68 87 12

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Arrays in Memory
Two Dimensional array

1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9

Memory

Row 1 Row 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Row 2

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Arrays in Memory
[[[ 0, 1, 2],
[ 3, 4, 5]],
Three Dimensional array
[[ 6, 7, 8],
[ 9, 10, 11]],

[[12, 13, 14],

[15, 16, 17]]]

Memory

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

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What is an Array?

I’m an
Array

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What is an Array?

0 1 2 3 4 5

Not allowed

0 true. 2 “a” “c” 5

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Creating an array

When we create an array , we:

• Assign it to a variable
• Define the type of elements that it will store
• Define its size (the maximum numbers of elements)

myArray =

myArray = 1 2 3

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Creating an array (Array Module)

from array import *

arrayName = array(typecode, [Initializers])

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Insertion

myArray = “a” “b” “c”

[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

myArray[3] = “d”

myArray[5] = “f”

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Insertion

“f”

“a” “b” “c” “d” “e”

[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

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Insertion

“f”

“a” “b” “c” “d” “e”

[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

“f” “a” “b” “c” “d” “e”

[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] AppMillers
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⚠ Wait A minute! What Happens if the Array is Full?
“f”

“a”
[0]
“b”
[1]
“c”
[2]
“d”
[3]
“e”
[4]
💥
“h”
[5]
FULL❗

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Insertion , when an array is full.

“a” “b” “c” “d” “e” “h”

[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

“a” “b” “c” “d” “e” “h”

[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12]

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Array traversal

myArray = “a” “b” “c” “d” “e” “f”

[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

myArray[0] = “a”
myArray[1] = “b”
myArray[2] = “c”
myArray[3] = “d”
myArray[4] = “e”
myArray[5] = “f”

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Array traversal

def traverseArray(array):
for i in array:
print(i) }
O(n)
O(1)
O(n)

Time Complexity : O(n)

Space Complexity : O(1)

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Access an element of Two Dimensional Array

For example:

myArray = “a” “b” “c” “d” “e” “f”

[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

myArray[0] = “a”

myArray[3] = “d”

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Access array element

How can we tell the computer which particular value we would like to access?

INDEX

[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

<arrayName>[index]

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Access an element of array
def accessElement(array, index):

}
if index >= len(array): O(1)
print('There is not any element in this index') O(1)
O(1)
else:
print(array[index]) O(1)

Time Complexity : O(1)

Space Complexity : O(1)

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Finding an element

myArray = “a” “b” “c” “d” “e” “h”

[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

myArray[2]

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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Finding an element

Is this the element?

“a” “b” “c” “d” “e” “h”

[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

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Finding an element
def searchInArray(array, value):

}
for i in array: O(n)
if i == value: O(1)
O(n) O(n^2)
return arr.index(value)
return "The element does not exist in this array" O(1)

Time Complexity : O(n)

Space Complexity : O(1)

}
O(n)
O(1)
O(n)
O(1)
O(1)

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Deletion

❌
“a” “b” “c” “d” “e” “h”
[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

Not allowed‼

🚫
“a” “c” “d” “e” “h”
[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

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Deletion

❌
“a” “b” “c” “d” “e” “h”
[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

“a” “c” “d” “e” “h”

[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

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Deletion

❌
“a” “b” “c” “d” “e” “h”
[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

Time Complexity : O(n)

Space Complexity : O(1)

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Inserting a value to two dimensional array

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Array type codes in Python

The 'u' type code corresponds to Python’s obsolete unicode character

(Py_UNICODE which is wchar_t). Depending on the platform, it can be 16 bits or 32
bits.

'u' will be removed together with the rest of the Py_UNICODE API.

Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0.

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Built in functions of arrays in Python

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Time and Space Complexity in One Dimensional Arrays

Operation Time complexity Space complexity

Creating an empty array O(1) O(n)
Inserting a value in an array O(1)/O(n) O(1)
Traversing a given array O(n) O(1)
Accessing a given cell O(1) O(1)
Searching a given value O(n) O(1)
Deleting a given value O(1)/O(n) O(1)

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Two Dimensional Array
An array with a bunch of values having been declared with double index.

a[i][j] —> i and j between 0 and n

1 33 55 91 20 51 62 74 13
5 4 10 11 8 11 68 87 12
24 50 37 40 48 30 59 81 93

Day 1 - 11, 15, 10, 6

Day 2 - 10, 14, 11, 5
Day 3 - 12, 17, 12, 8
Day 4 - 15, 18, 14, 9

When we create an array , we:

• Assign it to a variable
• Define the type of elements that it will store
• Define its size (the maximum numbers of elements)

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Insertion - Two Dimensional array

1 10 11 15
5 4 10 ?
24 50 37 ?

Adding Column

3 1 10 11 3 1 10 11

6 5 4 10 6 5 4 10
9 24 50 37 9 24 50 37

Time Complexity = O(mn)

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Insertion - Two Dimensional array

1 10 11 15
5 4 10 ?
24 50 37 ?

Adding Row

3 6 9 1 10 11 3 6 9

5 4 10 1 10 11

24 50 37 5 4 10
24 50 37

Time Complexity = O(mn)

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Access an element of Two Dimensional Array
One dimensional array

5 4 10 11 8 11 68 87 12
[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]

Two dimensional array

a[i][j] —> i is row index and j is column index

a[0][4] a[2][5]
[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]
[0] 1 33 55 91 20 51 62 74 13
[1] 5 4 10 11 8 11 68 87 12
[2] 24 50 37 40 48 30 59 81 93

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Traversing Two Dimensional Array

1 33 55 91

5 4 10 11

24 50 37 40

1 33 55 91
5 4 10 11
24 50 37 40

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Traversing Two Dimensional Array

Is this the element?

1 33 55 91

5 4 44 11

24 50 37 40

The element is found

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Deletion - Two Dimensional array

1 10 11

5 4 10

24 50 37

Deleting Column

1
❌1 10 11 10 11

5 5 4 10 4 10
24 24 50 37 50 37

Time Complexity = O(mn)

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Deletion - Two Dimensional array

1 10 11

5 4 10

24 50 37

Deleting Row

1 10 11
❌1 10 11
5 4 10
5 4 10
24 50 37
24 50 37

Time Complexity = O(mn)

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Time and Space Complexity in 2D Arrays

Operation Time complexity Space complexity

Creating an empty array O(1) O(mn)
Inserting a column/row in an array O(mn)/O(1) O(1)
Traversing a given array O(mn) O(1)
Accessing a given cell O(1) O(1)
Searching a given value O(mn) O(1)
Deleting a given value O(mn)/O(1) O(1)

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When to use/avoid Arrays

When to use
- To store multiple variables of same data type

- Random access

When to avoid

- Same data type elements

- Reserve memory

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Summary

• Arrays are extremely powerful data structures

• Memory is allocated immediately

• Elements are located in contiguous locations in memory

• Indices start at 0

• Inserting elements

• Removing elements.

• Finding elements

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Python Lists
A list is a data structure that holds an ordered collection of items.

[ Milk, Eggs, Cheese, Butter ]

Elements or items

[10, 20, 30, 40] Integers

['Edy, 'John’, 'Jane’] Strings

[‘spam’, 1, 2.0, 5] String, integer, oat

['spam', 2.0, 5, [10, 20]] String, integer, oat, nested list

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fl
fl
Arrays vs Lists
Similarities
[10, 20, 30, 40]

Di erences
[10, 20, 30, 40]

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ff
Time and Space Complexity in Python Lists

Operation Time complexity Space complexity

Creating a List O(1) O(n)
Inserting a value in a List O(1)/O(n) O(1)
Traversing a given List O(n) O(1)
Accessing a given cell O(1) O(1)
Searching a given value O(n) O(1)
Deleting a given value O(1)/O(n) O(1)

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Array / List Project

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Find Number of Days Above Average Temperature

How many day's temperature? 2

Day 1’s high temp: 1

Day 2’s high temp: 2

Output

Average = 1.5
1 day(s) above average

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Array/List Interview Questions - 2

Write a program to find all pairs of integers whose sum is equal to a given number.

[2, 6, 3, 9, 11] 9 [6,3]

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Array/List Interview Questions - 2

Write a program to find all pairs of integers whose sum is equal to a given number.

[2, 6, 3, 9, 11] 9 [6,3]

- Does array contain only positive or negative numbers?

- What if the same pair repeats twice, should we print it every time?
- If the reverse of the pair is acceptable e.g. can we print both (4,1) and (1,4) if the given sum is 5.
- Do we need to print only distinct pairs? does (3, 3) is a valid pair forgiven sum of 6?
- How big is the array?

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Array/List Interview Questions -7

Rotate Matrix - Given an image represented by an NxN matrix write a method to rotate
the image by 90 degrees.

1 2 3
Rotate 90 degrees
4 5 6

7 8 9

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Array/List Interview Questions -7
Rotate Matrix - Given an image represented by an NxN matrix write a method to rotate
the image by 90 degrees.

1 2 3 7 2 1 7 4 1

4 5 6 4 5 6 8 5 2

7 8 9 9 8 3 9 6 3

for i = 0 to n
temp = top[i]
top[i] = left[i]
left[i] = bottom[i]
bottom[i] = right[i]
right[i] = temp

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Dictionaries
A dictionary is a collection which is unordered, changeable and indexed.

Miller : a person who owns or works in a corn mill

Key Value

myDict = {“Miller” : “a person who owns or works in a corn mill”,

mill”}
“Programmer" : "a person who writes computer programs"}

0 1 2
myArray = “Miller” “Programmer” “App Miller”

myArray[0] Miller

myDict[“Miller”] a person who owns or works in a corn mill

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Dictionaries

0 1 2

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Dictionaries

Key Edy Tedy Amy

Value

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Dictionary in Memory
A hash table is a way of doing key-value lookups. You store the values in an array, and then use a
hash function to nd the index of the array cell that corresponds to your key-value pair.

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Dictionary in Memory

engToSp = {'one': 'uno', 'two': 'dos', 'three': 'tres'}

one hash() index = 3

1592767615893995073

3 one uno

4
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Dictionary in Memory

engToSp = {'one': 'uno', 'two': 'dos', 'three': 'tres'}

two hash() index = 1

7028402403723223041

1 two dos

3 one uno

4
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Dictionary in Memory

engToSp = {'one': 'uno', 'two': 'dos', 'three': 'tres'}

three hash() index = 1

7028402403723223041

1 two dos

3 one uno

4 three tres
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Dictionary in Memory

engToSp = {'one': 'uno', 'two': 'dos', 'three': 'tres'}

ten hash() index = 1

7028402403723223041

1 two dos ten diez

3 one uno

4 three tres
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Dictionary all method

Cases Return Value

All values are true TRUE

All values are false FALSE

One value is true (others are false) FALSE

One value is false (others are true) FALSE

Empty Iterable TRUE

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Dictionary any method

Cases Return Value

All values are true TRUE

All values are false FALSE

One value is true (others are false) TRUE

One value is false (others are true) TRUE

Empty Iterable FALSE

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Dictionary vs List

Dictionary List

Unordered Ordered

Access via keys Access via index

Collection of key value pairs Collection of elements

Preferred when you have unique key values Preferred when you have ordered data

No duplicate members Allow duplicate members

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Time and Space Complexity in Python Dictionary

Operation Time complexity Space complexity

Creating a Dictionary O(len(dict) O(n)
Inserting a value in a Dictionary O(1)/O(n) O(1)
Traversing a given Dictionary O(n) O(1)
Accessing a given cell O(1) O(1)
Searching a given value O(n) O(1)
Deleting a given value O(1) O(1)

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Tuples
- What is a tuple? How can we create it ?
- Tuples in Memory
- Accessing an element of Tuple
- Traversing / Slicing a Tuple
- Search for an element in Tuple
- Tuple Operations/Functions
- Tuple vs List
- Tuple vs Dictionary
- Time and Space complexity of Tuples

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What is a Tuple?
A tuple is an immutable sequence of Python objects

Tuples are also comparable and hashable

t = 'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'

t = ('a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e')

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Tuples in Memory

Sample Tuple

‘a’ ‘b’ ‘c’ ‘d’ ‘e’

Memory

‘a’ ‘b’ ‘c’ ‘d’ ‘e’

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Time and Space Complexity in Python Tuples

Operation Time complexity Space complexity

Creating a Tuple O(1) O(n)

Traversing a given Tuple O(n) O(1)

Accessing a given element O(1) O(1)

Searching a given element O(n) O(1)

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What is a Linked List?
Linked List is a form of a sequential collection and it does not have to be in order. A Linked
list is made up of independent nodes that may contain any type of data and each node has a
reference to the next node in the link.
Cars (nodes)

Head

Tail

Links
- Each car is independent
- Cars : passengers and links (nodes: data and links)

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What is a Linked List?
Cars (nodes)

Head

Tail

Links

Head 001 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 null Tail

001 111 222 333

Nodes : data and references

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What is a Linked List?
Linked List is a form of a sequential collection and It does not have to be in order. A Linked
list is made up of independent nodes that may contain any type of data and each node has a
reference to the next node in the link.

Head 001 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 null Tail

001 111 222 333

Nodes Pointers
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Linked Lists vs Arrays

Linked List = Head 1 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

Array = 0 1 2 3 4 5

- Elements of Linked list are independent objects

- Variable size - the size of a linked list is not prede ned
- Insertion and removals in Linked List are very e cient.
- Random access - accessing an element is very e cient in arrays

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ffi
ffi
fi
Types of Linked Lists
- Singly Linked List
- Circular Singly Linked List
- Doubly Linked List
Singly Linked List
- Circular Doubly Linked List
Head 001 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

Circular Singly Linked List

Head 001 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333
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Circular Singly Linked List

Head 001 Player1 111 Player2 222 Player3 333 Player4 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Types of Linked Lists

Doubly Linked List

Head 001 null 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Types of Linked Lists

Head 001 null S1 111 001 S2 222 111 S3 333 222 S4 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Types of Linked Lists

Circular Doubly Linked List

Head 001 333 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Types of Linked Lists

Cmd+shift+tab

Head 001 333 APP1 111 001 APP2 222 111 APP3 333 222 APP4 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Linked List in Memory

Arrays in memory : 0 1 2 3 4 5

y
or
em
M

0 1 2 3 4 5

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Linked List in Memory

Linked list:

Head 1 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 null

2
y
or
em
M

4
Tail 5 1 Head

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Creation of Singly Linked List

Create Head and Tail, initialize with null

Head 111 Node

1 null

111
Tail 111
Create a blank Node and assign a value
to it and reference to null.

Link Head and Tail with these Node

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Creation of Singly Linked List

Create Head and Tail, initialize with null O(1)

Create a blank Node and assign a value to

it and reference to null. O(1)

Link Head and Tail with these Node O(1)

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Insertion to Linked List in Memory

1. At the beginning of the linked list.

2. After a node in the middle of linked list
3. At the end of the linked list.

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Insertion to Linked List in Memory

Insert a new node at the beginning 0

Head 1 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 null

2 0
y
or
em
M

4
5 1 ❌ Head

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Insertion to Linked List in Memory

3
Insert a new node after a node

Head 1 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 null

2 0
y

❌
or
em

Head
M

4
5 1
3

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Insertion to Linked List in Memory

Insert a new node at the end of linked list 3

Head 1 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 null

3 2 0
y
or
em

Head
M

4
5 1

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Insertion Algorithm
No
Node value - create node
head=None?
Location - assign value

Yes
- head = node
- tail = node
Yes
- node.next = head
Location = rst
- head = node

- node.next = null Yes

Terminate - last.next = node Location = last
- tail = node

No
- Find location (loop)
- current.next = node
- node.next =nextNode
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Singly Linked List Insertion at the beginning

Head 444
001 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 null Tail

001 111 222 333

- node.next = head
- head = node 6
444

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Singly Linked List Insertion at the end

Head 001 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 444

null Tail

001 111 222 333

- node.next = null
- last.next = node 6 null
- tail = node
444

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Singly Linked List Insertion in the middle

Head 001 1 111 2 222 4 333

444 5 null Tail

001 111 222 333

- nd location (loop)
- current.next = node 6 333
- node.next =nextNode
444

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Singly Linked list Traversal

Head 001 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 null

Check Yes - Loop all nodes

Start Head? - Print value

Terminate

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Singly Linked list Search

Head 001 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 null

Check Yes If
Start nodeValue Head? nodeValue=currentNode

Yes
No

Terminate

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Singly Linked list Deletion
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting any given node
- Deleting the last node

Case 1 - one node

Head 001
null 1 null

001

Tail 001
null

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Singly Linked list Deletion
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting any given node
- Deleting the last node

Case 2 - more than one node

Head 001
111 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Singly Linked list Deletion
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting any given node
- Deleting the last node

Head 001 1 111 2 222

333 4 333 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Singly Linked list Deletion
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting any given node
- Deleting the last node

Case 1 - one node

Head 001
null 1 null

001

Tail 001
null

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Singly Linked list Deletion
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting any given node
- Deleting the last node

Case 2 - more than one node

Head 001 1 111 2 222 4 333

null 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333
222

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Singly Linked list Deletion Algorithm

No
Location head=None?

Yes
- head = null
- tail = null
Yes
Location = rst
- head = rst.next

No
- head = null
- tail = null

Yes
Terminate - Find node before last node Location = last
(loop)
- beforeLast.next = null
- tail = beforeLast

No
- nd location (loop)
- current.next = nextNode.next
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Delete entire Singly Linked list

Head 001
null 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333
null

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Time and Space complexity of Singly Linked List

Time complexity Space complexity

Creation O(1) O(1)
Insertion O(n) O(1)
Searching O(n) O(1)
Traversing O(n) O(1)
Deletion of a node O(n) O(1)
Deletion of linked list O(1) O(1)

Head 001 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333
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Circular Singly Linked List

Singly Linked List

Head 001 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

Circular Singly Linked List

Head 001 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333
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Creation of Circular Singly Linked List

Head 001

1 001

001
Tail 001

Start
nodeValue - Create Blank Node
- node.next=node
- node.value=nodeValue

Terminate - head=node
- tail=node

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Circular Singly Linked List - Insertion

- Insert at the beginning of linked list

- Insert at the speci ed location of linked list
- Insert at the end of linked list

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001
444 1 111 2 222 3 333 4 001
444

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Circular Singly Linked List - Insertion

- Insert at the beginning of linked list

newNode

6 001

444

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001
444 1 111 2 222 3 333 4 001
444

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Circular Singly Linked List - Insertion

- Insert at the speci ed location of linked list

newNode

6 222

444

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 1 111 2 222

444 3 333 4 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Circular Singly Linked List - Insertion

- Insert at the end of linked list

newNode

7 001

555

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 1 111 2 222 3 333 4 001

555

001 111 222 333

Tail 333
555

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Insertion Algorithm - Circular singly linked list

nodeValue Check Yes - create newNode

location Linked? - assign value

- newNode.next = head Yes

- head = newNode location = rst ?
- tail.next = newNode

Terminate - newNode.next = tail.next Yes

- tail.next = newNode location = last ?
- tail = newNode

No
- nd location (loop)
- newNode.next = currentNode.next
- currentNode.next = newNode
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fi

Circular Singly Linked List - Traversal

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 1 111 2 222 3 333 4 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

print(node1.value) 1
Check Yes
Start
print(node2.value) 2 Head? print(currentNode.value)

print(node3.value) 3

print(node4.value) 4 No

Terminate

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Circular Singly Linked List - Searching

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 1 111 2 222 3 333 4 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

Check Yes
nodeValue If currentNode=node
Head?

No
Yes

Terminate

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Circular Singly Linked list - Deletion
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting any given node
- Deleting the last node

Case 1 - one node

Head 001
null 1 null
001

001

Tail 001
null

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Circular Singly Linked list - Deletion
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting any given node
- Deleting the last node

Case 2 - more than one node

Head 001
111 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 111
001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Circular Singly Linked list - Deletion
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting any given node
- Deleting the last node

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 1 111 2 222

333 4 333 5 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Circular Singly Linked list - Deletion
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting any given node
- Deleting the last node

Case 1 - one node

Head 001
null 1 null
001

001

Tail 001
null

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Circular Singly Linked list - Deletion
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting any given node
- Deleting the last node

Case 2 - more than one node

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 1 111 2 222 4 333

001 5 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333
222

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Circular Singly Linked list Deletion Algorithm

No
Location head=None?

Yes
- head = none
- tail = none
- rst.next = none
Yes
Location = rst
- head = rst.next
- tail.next = head

No
- head = none
- tail = none
- rst.next = none
Yes
Terminate - Find node before last node Location = last
(loop)
- Tail = curNode
- curNode.next = head

No
- nd location (loop)
- current.next = nextNode.next
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fi
fi

Circular Singly Linked list - Deletion Algorithm

node1 node2 node3 node4 node5

Head 001 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 444 6 001

001 111 222 333 444

Tail 444

deleteNode(head, location):
if head does not exist:
return error //Linked list does not exist
if location = rstNode’s location
if this is the only node in the list
head=tail=node.next=null
else
head=head.next
tail.next = head
else if location = lastNode's location
if this is the only node in the list
head=tail=node.next=null
else
loop until lastNode location -1 (curNode)
tail=curNode
curNode.next = head
else // delete middle node
loop until location-1 (curNode)
curNode.next = curNode.next.next AppMillers
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Circular Singly Linked list - Deletion Algorithm

node1 node2 node3 node4 node5

Head 001 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 444 6 001

001 111 222 333 444

Tail 444

Head 001
null 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 null
001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333
null

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Delete entire Circular Singly Linked List

node1 node2 node3 node4 node5

Head 001 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 444 6 001

001 111 222 333 444

Tail 444

deleteLinkedList(head, tail):
head = null
tail.next = null
Tail = null

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Time and Space complexity of Circular Singly Linked List

Time complexity Space complexity

Creation O(1) O(1)
Insertion O(n) O(1)
Searching O(n) O(1)
Traversing O(n) O(1)
Deletion of a node O(n) O(1)
Deletion of linked list O(1) O(1)

node1 node2 node3 node4 node5

Head 001 1 111 2 222 4 333 5 444 6 001

001 111 222 333 444

Tail 444

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Doubly Linked List
Singly Linked List

Head 001 1 111 2 222 3 333 4 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

Doubly Linked List

Head 001 null 1 111 001 2 222 111 3 333 222 4 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Creation of Doubly Linked List

Head 111

null 5 null

111
Tail 111

Start
nodeValue - Create Blank Node - node.next=Null
- node.value=nodeValue - node.prev=Null

Terminate - head=node
- tail=node

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Doubly Linked List

Head

111
Tail

createDoublyLinkedList(nodeValue):
create a blank node
node.value = nodeValue
head = node
tail = node
node.next = node.prev = null

Time complexity : O(1)

Space complexity : O(1) AppMillers
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Doubly Linked List - Insertion

- Insert at the beginning of linked list

- Insert at the speci ed location of linked list
- Insert at the end of linked list

Head 001 null 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Doubly Linked List - Insertion

- Insert at the beginning of linked list

newNode

null 10 001

002

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001
002 002
null 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Doubly Linked List - Insertion

- Insert at the speci ed location of linked list

newNode

111 20 222

555

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 null 1 111 001 2 222

555 111
555 4 333 222 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Doubly Linked List - Insertion

- Insert at the end of linked list

newNode

333 20 null

444

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 null 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 null
444

001 111 222 333

Tail 333
444

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Insertion Algorithm - Doubly linked list

nodeValue Yes - create newNode

check Head?
location - assign value

- newNode.prev = None
Yes
- newNode.next = head
location = rst ?
- head.prev = newNode
- head = newNode

- newNode.next = None
Yes
Terminate - newNode.prev = tail
location = last ?
- tail.next = newNode
- tail = newNode

- nd location-1 (loop)
- newNode.next = currentNode.next No
- newNode.prev = currentNode
- newNode.next.prev = newNode
- currentNode.next = newNode AppMillers
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Insertion in Doubly Linked List

newNode

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 null 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Insertion Algorithm - Doubly Linked List
newNode

003
Head 001 null 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

insertInDoublyLinkedList(head, nodeValue, location):

if head does not exist:
return error //Linked list does not exist
else
create blank node (newNode) Time complexity : O(1)
newNode.value = nodeValue
if location = rstNode’s location Space complexity : O(1)
newNode.prev = null
newNode.next = head
head.prev = newNode
head = newNode
else if location = lastNode's location
newNode.next = null
newNode.prev = tail
tail.next = node
tail = node
else // delete middle node
loop until location-1 (curNode)
newNode.next = curNode.next AppMillers
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newNode.prev = curNode
curNode.next = newNode
fi
Doubly Linked List - Traversal

Head 001 null 1 111 001 2 222 111 3 333 222 4 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

print(node1.value) 1
Check Yes Loop head to tail
Start
print(node2.value) 2 Head? print(currentNode.value)

print(node3.value) 3

print(node4.value) 4 No

Terminate

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Doubly Linked List - Reverse Traversal

Head 001 null 1 111 001 2 222 111 3 333 222 4 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

print(node4.value) 4
Check Yes Loop tail to head
Start
print(node3.value) 3 Head? print(currentNode.value)

print(node2.value) 2

print(node1.value) 1 No

Terminate

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Doubly Linked List - Search

Head 001 null 1 111 001 2 222 111 3 333 222 4 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333
No

Check Yes If
Start nodeValue=currentNode
nodeValue Head?

Yes
No

Terminate
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Traversal in doubly linked list

Head 001 null 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

traversalDoublyLinkedList():
if head == null:
return //There is not any node in this list
loop head to tail:
print(currentNode.value)

Time complexity : O(n)

Space complexity : O(1) AppMillers
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Reverse Traversal in doubly linked list

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 null 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

reverseTraversalDoublyLinkedList(head):
if head == null:
return //There is not any node in this list
loop tail to head:
print(currentNode.value)

Time complexity : O(1)

Space complexity : O(1) AppMillers
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Searching a node in doubly linked list

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 null 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

searchForNode(head, nodeValue):
loop head to tail:
if currentNode.value = nodeValue
print(currentNode)
return
return // nodeValue not found

Time complexity : O(n)

Space complexity : O(1) AppMillers
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Doubly Linked list - Deletion
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting any given node
- Deleting the last node

Case 1 - one node

node1

Head 001
null null 1 null

001
Tail null
001

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Doubly Linked list - Deletion
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting any given node
- Deleting the last node

Case 2 - more than one node

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 111
001 null 1 111 null
001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

AppMillers
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Doubly Linked list - Deletion
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting any given node
- Deleting the last node

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 null 1 111 001 2 222

222 111 4 333 111
222 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

AppMillers
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Doubly Linked list - Deletion
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting any given node
- Deleting the last node

Case 1 - one node

node1

Head 001
null null 1 null

001
Tail null
001

AppMillers
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Doubly Linked list - Deletion
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting any given node
- Deleting the last node

Case 2 - more than one node

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 null 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333

null 222 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333
222

AppMillers
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Doubly Linked list Deletion Algorithm

No
Location head=None?

Yes
- head = none
- tail = none
Yes
Location = rst
- head = head.next
- head.prev = null

No
- head = none
- tail = none

Yes
Terminate Location = last
- tail = tail.prev
- tail.next = null

No
- nd location-1 (loop)
- curNode.next = curNode.next.next
- curNode.next.prev = curNode
AppMillers
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fi
fi

Deleting a node in doubly linked list- Algorithm

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 null 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

deleteNode(head, location):
if head does not exist:
return error //Linked list does not exist
if location = rstNode’s location
if this is the only node in the list Time complexity : O(n)
head=tail=null
else Space complexity : O(1)
head=head.next
head.prev = null
else if location = lastNode's location
if this is the only node in the list
head=tail=null
else
loop until lastNode location -1 (curNode)
tail=curNode
curNode.next = head
else // delete middle node
loop until location-1 (curNode)
curNode.next = curNode.next.next
curNode.next.prev = curNode AppMillers
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Deleting entire doubly linked list- Algorithm

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001
null null 1 111 001
null 2 222 null
111 4 333 null
222 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333
null

AppMillers
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Time and Space complexity of doubly linked list

Time complexity Space complexity

Creation O(1) O(1)
Insertion O(n) O(1)
Searching O(n) O(1)
Traversing (forward, backward) O(n) O(1)
Deletion of a node O(n) O(1)
Deletion of linked list O(n) O(1)

Head 001 null 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Circular doubly linked list

Doubly linked list

Head 001 null 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

Circular Doubly linked list

Head 001 333 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

AppMillers
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Creation of Circular Doubly Linked List

Head 001

001 11 001

001
Tail 001

Start
nodeValue - Create Blank Node - head=node
- node.value=nodeValue - tail=node

Terminate - node.next=node
- node.prev=node

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Circular Doubly Linked List - Insertion

- Insert at the beginning of linked list

- Insert at the speci ed location of linked list
- Insert at the end of linked list

Head 001 333 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

AppMillers
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Circular Doubly Linked List - Insertion

- Insert at the beginning of linked list

newNode

333 6 001

444

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001
444 444
333 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 001
444

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

AppMillers
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Circular Doubly Linked List - Insertion

- Insert at the speci ed location of linked list

newNode

111 20 222

555

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 null 1 111 001 2 222

555 111
555 4 333 222 5 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

AppMillers
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Circular Doubly Linked List - Insertion

- Insert at the end of linked list

newNode

333 20 001

444

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 444

333 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 001
444

001 111 222 333

Tail 333
444

AppMillers
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Insertion Algorithm - Circular Doubly linked list

nodeValue Yes - create newNode

check Head?
location - assign value

- newNode.prev = tail
Yes
- newNode.next = head
location = rst ?
- head.prev = newNode
- head = newNode
- tail.next = newNode

- newNode.next = head
- newNode.prev = tail
Yes
Terminate - head.prev = newNode location = last ?
- tail.next = newNode
- tail = newNode

- nd location-1 (loop)
- newNode.next = currentNode.next No
- newNode.prev = currentNode
- newNode.next.prev = newNode
- currentNode.next = newNode AppMillers
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Circular Doubly Linked List - Traversal

Head 001 333 1 111 001 2 222 111 3 333 222 4 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333
No

print(node1.value) 1
Loop head to
Check Yes tail
Start
print(node2.value) 2 Head? print(currentNode.value)
If currentNode=
tail
print(node3.value) 3

print(node4.value) 4 No
Yes

Terminate

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Circular Doubly Linked List - Reverse Traversal

Head 001 333 1 111 001 2 222 111 3 333 222 4 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333
No

print(node4.value) 4
Check Yes Loop tail to head
Start
print(node3.value) 3 Head? print(currentNode.value
If currentNode =
head

print(node2.value) 2

print(node1.value) 1 No
Yes

Terminate

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Circular Doubly Linked List - Search

Head 001 333 1 111 001 2 222 111 3 333 222 4 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333
No

Check Yes If
Start nodeValue=currentNode
nodeValue Head? or if currentNode = tail

Yes
No

Terminate

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Circular Doubly Linked list - Deletion
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting any given node
- Deleting the last node

Case 1 - one node

node1

Head 001
null 001
null 1 001
null

001
Tail null
001

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Circular Doubly Linked list - Deletion
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting any given node
- Deleting the last node

Case 2 - more than one node

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 111
001 333 1 111 333
001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 001
111

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Circular Doubly Linked list - Deletion
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting any given node
- Deleting the last node

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 333 1 111 001 2 222

333 111 4 333 111
222 5 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Circular Doubly Linked list - Deletion
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting any given node
- Deleting the last node

Case 1 - one node

node1

Head 001
null 001
null 1 001
null

001
Tail null
001

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Circular Doubly Linked list - Deletion
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting any given node
- Deleting the last node

Case 2 - more than one node

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 333

222 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333
001 222 5 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333
222

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Circular Doubly Linked list Deletion Algorithm

No
Location head=None?

Yes - head.prev = none

- head.next = none
- head = none
- tail = none
Yes
- head = head.next Location = rst
- head.prev = tail
- tail.next = head

- head.prev = none No
- head.next = none
- head = none
- tail = none
Yes
Terminate - tail = tail.prev Location = last
- tail.next = head
- head.prev = tail

No
- nd location-1 (loop)
- curNode.next = curNode.next.next
- curNode.next.prev = curNode
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Deleting entire circular doubly linked list

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001
null null
333 1 111 001
null 2 222 null
111 4 333 null
222 5 001
null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333
null

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Circular doubly linked list - creation

Head 11
001

Tail

createCircularDoublyLinkedList(nodeValue): Time complexity : O(1)

create a blank newNode Space complexity : O(1)
newNode.value = nodeValue
head = newNode
tail = newNode
newNode.next = newNode.prev = newNode

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Circular doubly linked list - insertion

node1 node2 node2 node4

Head 001 333 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Circular doubly linked list - traversal

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 333 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

traversalCircularDoublyLinkedList():
if head == null:
return //There is not any node in this list
loop head to tail:
print(currentNode.value)
if currentNode.value = tail:
terminate

Time complexity : O(n)

Space complexity : O(1)

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Circular doubly linked list - reverse traversal

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 333 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

reverseTraversalCircularDoublyLinkedList():
if head == null:
return //There is not any node in this list
loop tail to head:
print(currentNode.value)
if currentNode.value = head:
terminate

Time complexity : O(n)

Space complexity : O(1)

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Circular doubly linked list - searching for a node

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 333 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

searchForNode(head, nodeValue):
loop head to tail:
if currentNode.value = nodeValue
print(currentNode)
return
if currentNode.value = tail:
terminate
return // nodeValue not found

Time complexity : O(n)

Space complexity : O(1)

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Deleting a node in doubly linked list
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting the last node
- Deleting any node apart from the rst and the last

Deleting the rst node

Case 1- there is only one node in the list

node1

Head 001 001 1 001

001

Tail 001

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Deleting a node in circular doubly linked list
- Deleting the rst node
- Deleting the last node
- Deleting any node apart from the rst and the last

Deleting the rst node

Case 1- More than one node in the list

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 333 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Deleting a node in circular doubly linked list

Deleting the last node node

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 333 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Deleting a node in circular doubly linked list

Deleting the node from the middle

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 333 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Deleting a node in circular doubly linked list- Algorithm
node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 333 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

deleteNode(head, location):
if head does not exist:
return error //Linked list does not exist
if location = rstNode’s location
if this is the only node in the list
head.prev=head.next=head=tail=null Time complexity : O(n)
else
head=head.next
Space complexity : O(1)
head.prev = tail
tail.next = head
else if location = lastNode's location
if this is the only node in the list
head.prev=head.next=head=tail=null
else
tail = tail.prev
tail.next = head
head.prev = tail
else // delete middle node
loop until location-1 (curNode)
curNode.next = curNode.next.next AppMillers
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Deleting entire circular doubly linked list- Algorithm

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 333 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

deleteLinkedList(head, tail): Time complexity : O(n)

tail.next = null
loop head to tail: Space complexity : O(1)
curNode.prev=null
head=tail=null

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Time and Space complexity of circular doubly linked list

Time complexity Space complexity

Creation O(1) O(1)
Insertion O(n) O(1)
Searching O(n) O(1)
Traversing (forward, backward) O(n) O(1)
Deletion of a node O(n) O(1)
Deletion of linked list O(n) O(1)

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 333 1 111 001 2 222 111 4 333 222 5 001

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

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Interview Questions - 1 : Remove Duplicates

Write code to remove duplicates from an unsorted linked list

node1 node2 node3 node4

Head 001 1 111 2 333

222 1 333 3 null

001 111 222 333

Tail 333

currentNode = node1
tempSet = {1} {1,2} {1,2,3}

while currentNode.next is not None:

If next node’s value is in tempSet

Delete next node
Otherwise add it to tempSet

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Interview Questions - 2 : Return Nth to Last

Implement and algorithm to nd the nth to last element of a singly linked list.

P1 P2

node1 node2 node3 node4 Node5

Head 001 1 111 2 222 0 333 3 444 5 null

001 111 222 333 444

Tail 444

N=2 Node4
pointer1 = node1 pointer2 = node2
= node2 = node3
= node3 = node4
= node4 = node5

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Interview Questions - 3 : Partition
Write code to partition a linked list around a value x, such that all nodes less than x
come before all nodes greater than or equal to x.

node1 node2 node3 node4 Node5

Head 001 11 111 3 222 9 333 10 444 15 null

001 111 222 333 444

Tail 444

x = 10
node2
currentNode = node1
Tail = node1
3 null
currentNode.next = null 111
node1

Head 001 11 null

001

Tail 001

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Interview Questions - 3 : Partition
Write code to partition a linked list around a value x, such that all nodes less than x
come before all nodes greater than or equal to x.

node1 node2 node3 node4 Node5

Head 001 11 111 3 222 9 333 10 444 15 null

001 111 222 333 444

Tail 444

x = 10 node3

currentNode = node1
9 null
Tail = node1 222
currentNode.next = null
node2 node1

Head 111 3 001 11 null

111 001

Tail 001

node1 node2 node3 node4 Node5

Head 001 11 111 3 222 9 333 10 444 15 null

001 111 222 333 444

Tail 444

node4
x = 10
10 null
currentNode = node1
Tail = node1 333
currentNode.next = null
node3 node2 node1

Head 222 9 111 3 001 11 null

222 111 001

Tail 001

node1 node2 node3 node4 Node5

Head 001 11 111 3 222 9 333 10 444 15 null

001 111 222 333 444

Tail 444

x = 10 Node5

currentNode = node1 15 null

Tail = node1 444
currentNode.next = null
node3 node2 node1 node4

Head 222 9 111 3 001 11 333 10 null

222 111 001 333

Tail 333

node1 node2 node3 node4 Node5

Head 001 11 111 3 222 9 333 10 444 15 null

001 111 222 333 444

Tail 444

x = 10

currentNode = node1
Tail = node1
currentNode.next = null
node3 node2 node1 node4 Node5

Head 222 9 111 3 001 11 333 10 444 15 null

222 111 001 333 444

Tail 444

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Interview Questions - 4 : Sum Lists
You have two numbers represented by a linked list, where each node contains a single digit.
The digits are stored in reverse order, such that the 1's digit is at the head of the list. Write a
function that adds the two numbers and returns the sum as a linked list.

list1 = 7 -> 1 -> 6 617

617 + 295 = 912 sumList = 2 -> 1 -> 9
list2 = 5 -> 9 -> 2 295

617 7 + 5 = 12
+ 295 1+9+1 = 11
6+2+1 = 9
912

7 1 6
2 1 9
5 9 2

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Interview Questions - 5 : Intersection
Given two (singly) linked lists, determine if the two lists intersect. Return the intersecting node.
Note that the intersection is de ned based on reference, not value. That is, if the kth node of
the rst linked list is the exact same node (by reference) as the jth node of the second linked
list, then they are intersecting.

Intersecting linked lists

3 1 5 9
7 2 1

2 4 6

Non - intersecting linked lists

3 1 5 9 7 2 1

2 4 6 7 2 1

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Interview Questions - 5 : Intersection
Given two (singly) linked lists, determine if the two lists intersect. Return the intersecting node.
Note that the intersection is de ned based on reference, not value. That is, if the kth node of
the rst linked list is the exact same node (by reference) as the jth node of the second linked
list, then they are intersecting.

Intersecting linked lists

listA 3 1 5 9
7 2 1
listB 2 4 6

len(listA) = 7
7-6=1
len(listB) = 6

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What is a Stack?

Stack is a data structure that stores items in a Last-In/First-Out manner.

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What is a Stack?

Stack is a data structure that stores items in a Last-In/First-Out manner.

LIFO method

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What is a Stack?

Stack is a data structure that stores items in a Last-In/First-Out manner.

40
30
20
10

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Why do we need a Stack?

udemy.com gmail.com linkedin.com appmillers.com

appmillers.com
linkedin.com Stack
gmail.com
udemy.com

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Stack operations

- Create Stack
- Push
- Pop customStack()
- Peek
- isEmpty
- isFull
- deleteStack

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Push() method

customStack = [ ]

customStack.push(1)

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Push() method

customStack = [1]

customStack.push(2)
customStack.push(1)

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Push() method

customStack = [1,2]

customStack.push(3)
customStack.push(2)

2
1

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Push() method

customStack = [1,2,3]

customStack.push(4)
customStack.push(3)

3
2
1

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Push() method

customStack = [1,2,3,4]

customStack.push(4)

4
3
2
1

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Pop() method

customStack = [1,2,3]
[1,2,3,4]

customStack.pop() 4

4
3
2
1

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Pop() method

customStack = [1,2]
[1,2,3]

customStack.pop() 3

3
2
1

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Pop() method

customStack = [1]
[1,2]

customStack.pop() 2

2
1

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Pop() method

customStack = []
[1]

customStack.pop() 1

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Pop() method

customStack = []

customStack.pop()
The stack is Empty

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Peek() method

customStack = [1,2,3,4]

customStack.peek() 4

4
3
2
1

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isEmpty() method

customStack = [1,2,3,4]

customStack.isEmpty() False

4
3
2
1

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isFull() method

customStack = [1,2,3,4]

customStack.isFull() False

4
3
2
1

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delete() method

customStack = [1,2,3,4]

customStack.delete()

4
3
2
1

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Stack creation

Stack using List

- Easy to implement
- Speed problem when it grows

Stack using Linked List

- Fast Performance
- Implementation is not easy

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Time and Space complexity of Stack operations with List

Time complexity Space complexity

Create Stack O(1) O(1)
Push O(1) / O(n^2) O(1)
Pop O(1) O(1)
Peek O(1) O(1)
isEmpty O(1) O(1)
Delete Entire Stack O(1) O(1)

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Stack using Linked List

Create a Stack

Create an object of Linked List class

Head null

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Stack using Linked List

push() Method
2 null
111

222

Head null
222
111 1 null

111

2
1

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Stack using Linked List

push() Method
3 null
222

333

Head 222
333 2 111 1 null

222 111 3
2
1

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Stack using Linked List

pop() Method

Head 333
222 3 222 2 111 1 null

333 222 111 3

2
1

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Stack using Linked List

pop() Method

Head 222
111 2 111 1 null

222 111

2
1

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Stack using Linked List

peek() Method

Head 333 3 222 2 111 1 null

333 222 111 3

2
peek()
return head.value 1

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Stack using Linked List

isEmpty() Method

Head 333 3 222 2 111 1 null

333 222 111 3

isEmpty()
2
If head is None: 1
True

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Stack using Linked List

delete() Method

Head 333 3 222 2 111 1 null

333 222 111 3

2
delete()
head = None 1

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Time and Space complexity of Stack operations with Linked List

Time complexity Space complexity

Create Stack O(1) O(1)
Push O(1) O(1)
Pop O(1) O(1)
Peek O(1) O(1)
isEmpty O(1) O(1)
Delete Entire Stack O(1) O(1)

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When to use / avoid Stack

Use:
- LIFO functionality
- The chance of data corruption is minimum

Avoid: 4
- Random access is not possible 3
2
1

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What is a Queue?

Queue is a data structure that stores items in a First-In/First-Out manner.

A new addition to this queue happens at the end of the queue.

First person in the queue will be served rst

FIFO method - First in First Out
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What is a Queue?

Queue is a data structure that stores items in a First-In/First-Out manner.

End Front

50 40 30 20 10

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What we need Queue Data Structure?

Utilize rst coming data rst , while others wait for their turn.

FIFO method - First In First Out

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What we need Queue Data Structure?

Point sale system of a restaurant

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What we need Queue Data Structure?

Printer queue

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What we need Queue Data Structure?

Call center phone systems

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Queue Operations

- Create Queue
- Enqueue
- Dequeue
- Peek
- isEmpty
- isFull
- deleteQueue

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Queue Operations

Implementation
1. Python List
- Queue without capacity
- Queue with capacity (Circular Queue)
2. Linked List

1 2 3

Head 111 1 222 2 333 3 null

111 222 333

Tail 333

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Create Queue using Python List no capacity

customQueue = [ ]

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Enqueue() method

customQueue = [ ]

customQueue.enqueue(1)

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Enqueue() method

customQueue = [1]

customQueue.enqueue(2)
customQueue.enqueue(1)

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Enqueue() method

customQueue = [1,2]

customQueue.enqueue(3)
customQueue.enqueue(2)

2 1

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Enqueue() method

customQueue = [1,2,3]

customQueue.enqueue(4)
customQueue.enqueue(3)

3 2 1

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Enqueue() method

customQueue = [1,2,3,4]

customQueue.enqueue(4)

4 3 2 1

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Dequeue() method

customQueue = [2,3,4]
[1,2,3,4]

customQueue.dequeue() 1

4 3 2 1

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Dequeue() method

customQueue = [3,4]
[2,3,4]

customQueue.dequeue() 2

4 3 2

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Dequeue() method

customQueue = [4]
[3,4]

customQueue.dequeue() 3

4 3

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Dequeue() method

customQueue = []
[4]

customQueue.dequeue() 4

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Dequeue() method

customQueue = []

customQueue.dequeue()
The queue is Empty

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Peek() method

customQueue = [1,2,3,4]

customQueue.peek() 1

4 3 2 1

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isEmpty() method

customQueue = [1,2,3,4]

customQueue.isEmpty() False

4 3 2 1

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isFull() method

customQueue =[1,2,3,4]

customQueue.isFull()

4 3 2 1

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delete() method

customQueue = [1,2,3,4]

customQueue.delete()

4 3 2 1

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Time and Space complexity of Queue operations with Python List

Time complexity Space complexity

Create Queue O(1) O(1)
Enqueue O(n) O(1)
Dequeue O(n) O(1)
Peek O(1) O(1)
isEmpty O(1) O(1)
Delete Entire Queue O(1) O(1)

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Queue creation

Queue using List

- Easy to implement
- Speed problem when it grows

Queue using Linked List

- Fast Performance
- Implementation is not easy

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Queue with xed capacity (Circular Queue)
List relocation

“a” “b” “c” “d” “e” “h”

[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

“a” “b” “c” “d” “e” “h”

[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12]

Shifting cells left

“a” “b” “c” “d” “e” “h”

[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

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Queue with xed capacity (Circular Queue)

Create Queue

Size = 6
Start = -1
Top = -1

None None None None None None

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Queue with xed capacity (Circular Queue)

Enqueue and Dequeue Methods

enqueue(5)

Start = 0
Top = 0

S T

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Queue with xed capacity (Circular Queue)

Enqueue and Dequeue Methods

enqueue(6)

Start = 0
Top = 10

5 6

S T

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Queue with xed capacity (Circular Queue)

Enqueue and Dequeue Methods

enqueue(7)

Start = 0
Top = 21

5 6 7

S T

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Queue with xed capacity (Circular Queue)

Enqueue and Dequeue Methods

enqueue(8)

Start = 0
Top = 32

5 6 7 8

S T

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Queue with xed capacity (Circular Queue)

Enqueue and Dequeue Methods

dequeue() 5

Start = 1
0
Top = 5

5 6 7 8 3 1

S T

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Queue with xed capacity (Circular Queue)

Enqueue and Dequeue Methods

dequeue() 6

Start = 2
1
Top = 5

5 6 7 8 3 1

S T

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Queue with xed capacity (Circular Queue)
5 6 7 8 3 1

S T

5 6 7 8 3 1

T S

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Queue with xed capacity (Circular Queue)

Enqueue and Dequeue Methods

enqueue(9)

Start = 2
Top = 05

5
9 6 7 8 3 1

S T

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Queue with xed capacity (Circular Queue)

Peek method

peek() 5

Start = 0
Top = 5

5 6 7 8 3 1

S T

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Queue with xed capacity (Circular Queue)

Peek method

peek() 6

Start = 1
Top = 5

5 6 7 8 3 1

S T

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Queue with xed capacity (Circular Queue)

isFull method

isFull() True

Start = 0
Top = 5

5 6 7 8 3 1

S T

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Queue with xed capacity (Circular Queue)

isFull method

isFull() False

Start = 1
Top = 5

5 6 7 8 3 1

S T

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Queue with xed capacity (Circular Queue)

isEmpty method

isEmpty() False

Start = 1
Top = 5

5 6 7 8 3 1

S T

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Queue with xed capacity (Circular Queue)

Delete method

delete()

Start = 1
Top = 5

5 6 7 8 3 1

S T

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Queue with xed capacity (Circular Queue)

Delete method

delete()

Start = -1
Top = -1

None None None None None None

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Time and Space complexity of Circular Queue operations

Time complexity Space complexity

Create Queue O(1) O(n)
Enqueue O(1) O(1)
Dequeue O(1) O(1)
Peek O(1) O(1)
isEmpty O(1) O(1)
isFull O(1) O(1)
Delete Entire Queue O(1) O(1)

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Queue using Linked List

Create a Queue

Create an object of Linked List class

Head null

Tail null

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Queue using Linked List

enQueue() Method

Head null
111 1 null
222 2 null

111 222
2 1

Tail null
222
111

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Queue using Linked List

enQueue() Method

Head null
111 1 null
222 2 null
333 3 null

111 222 333

3 2 1

Tail null
222
333
111

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Queue using Linked List

deQueue() Method

Head 111
222 1 222 2 333 3 null

111 222 333

3 2 1

Tail 333

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Queue using Linked List

deQueue() Method

Head 222
333 2 333 3 null

222 333
3 2

Tail 333

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Queue using Linked List

peek() Method

Head 111 1 222 2 333 3 null

111 222 333

3 2 1

Tail 333

peek()
return head.value

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Queue using Linked List

isEmpty() Method

Head 111 1 222 2 333 3 null

111 222 333

3 2 1

Tail 333

isEmpty()
If head is None:
True

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Queue using Linked List

delete() Method

Head 111
null 1 222 2 333 3 null

111 222 333

3 2 1

Tail 333
null

delete()
head = None
tail = None

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Time and Space complexity of Queue operations using Linked List

Time complexity Space complexity

Create Queue O(1) O(1)
Enqueue O(1) O(1)
Dequeue O(1) O(1)
Peek O(1) O(1)
isEmpty O(1) O(1)
Delete Entire Queue O(1) O(1)

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Time and Space complexity Queue : List vs Linked List

List with capacity

List no capacity limit Linked List
(Circular Queue)
Time Space Time Space Time Space
complexity complexity complexity complexity complexity complexity

Create Queue O(1) O(1) O(1) O(n) O(1) O(1)

Enqueue O(n) O(1) O(1) O(1) O(1) O(1)
Dequeue O(n) O(1) O(1) O(1) O(1) O(1)
Peek O(1) O(1) O(1) O(1) O(1) O(1)
isEmpty O(1) O(1) O(1) O(1) O(1) O(1)
isFull - - O(1) O(1) - -
Delete Entire Queue O(1) O(1) O(1) O(1) O(1) O(1)

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Python Queue Modules

Collections module

Queue Module

Multiprocessing Module End Front

4 2 5 3 2 1

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Python Collections Module

The collections.deque Class

Methods End Front

- deque()
- append()
- popleft()
4 2 5 3 2 1
- clear()

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Python Queue Module

FIFO queue Queue(maxsize=0)

LIFO queue - Stack

Priority queue End Front

Methods
- qsize() 4 2 5 3 2 1
- empty()
- full()
- put()
- get()
- task_done()
- join()

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Python Queue Module

FIFO queue Queue(maxsize=0)

LIFO queue - Stack

Priority queue End Front

Methods
- qsize() 4 2 5 3 2 1
- empty()
- full()
- put()
- get()
- task_done()
- join()

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When to use / avoid Queue

Use:
- FIFO functionality
- The chance of data corruption is minimum

Avoid:
- Random access is not possible
3 2 1

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Interview Questions - 1 : Three in One

Describe how you could use a single Python list to implement three stacks.

[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]

For Stack 1 — [0], [1], [2] [0, n/3)

For Stack 2 — [3], [4], [6] [n/3, 2n/3)
For Stack 3 — [7], [8], [9] [2n/3, n)

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Interview Questions - 2 : Stack Min
How would you design a stack which, in addition to push and pop, has a function min which
returns the minimum element? Push, pop and min should all operate in O(1).

push(5) min() 5

push(6) min() 5

push(3) min() 3
push(7) min() 3
7
pop() min() 3

pop() min() 5
3
6
5

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Interview Questions - 3 : Stack of Plates
Imagine a (literal) stack of plates. If the stack gets too high, it might topple. Therefore, in real
life, we would likely start a new stack when the previous stack exceeds some threshold.
Implement a data structure SetOfStacks that mimics this. SetOfStacks should be composed of
several stacks and should create a new stack once the previous one exceeds capacity,
SetOfStacks.push() and SetOfStacks.pop() should behave identically to a single stack (that is,
pop( ) should return the same values as it would if there were just a single stack).

Follow Up:
Implement a function popAt (int index) which performs a pop operation on a speci c sub - stack.

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fi
Interview Questions - 3 : Stack of Plates
Imagine a (literal) stack of plates. If the stack gets too high, it might topple. Therefore, in real
life, we would likely start a new stack when the previous stack exceeds some threshold.
Implement a data structure SetOfStacks that mimics this. SetOfStacks should be composed of
several stacks and should create a new stack once the previous one exceeds capacity,
SetOfStacks.push() and SetOfStacks.pop() should behave identically to a single stack (that is,
pop() should return the same values as it would if there were just a single stack).

Follow Up:
Implement a function popAt (int index) which performs a pop operation on a speci c sub - stack.
pop( )

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Interview Questions - 4 : Queue via Stacks

Implement Queue class which implements a queue using two stacks.

Dequeue()
Enqueue()

7
3
6
5
Stack1 Stack2

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Interview Questions - 5 : Animal Shelter
An animal shelter, which holds only dogs and cats, operates on a strictly " rst in, rst out"
basis. People must adopt either the "oldest" (based on arrival time) of all animals at the
shelter, or they can select whether they would prefer a dog or a cat (and will receive the
oldest animal of that type). They cannot select which speci c animal they would like. Create
the data structures to maintain this system and implement operations such as enqueue,
dequeueAny, dequeueDog, and dequeueCat.

First In First Out

Newest Oldest

🐈 🐕 🐈 🐈 🐈 🐕 🐈 🐕

Enqueue(Dog)
Enqueue(Cat)

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Interview Questions - 5 : Animal Shelter
An animal shelter, which holds only dogs and cats, operates on a strictly " rst in, rst out"
basis. People must adopt either the "oldest" (based on arrival time) of all animals at the
shelter, or they can select whether they would prefer a dog or a cat (and will receive the
oldest animal of that type). They cannot select which speci c animal they would like. Create
the data structures to maintain this system and implement operations such as enqueue,
dequeueAny, dequeueDog, and dequeueCat.

First In First Out

Newest Oldest

🐈 🐕 🐈 🐈 🐈 🐕 🐈 🐕

DequeueAny()
DequeueDog()
DequeueCat()

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Interview Questions - 6 : Animal Shelter

Implement MyQueue class which implements a queue using two stacks.

7
3
6
5

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What is a Tree?
A tree is a nonlinear data structure with hierarchical relationships between its elements
without having any cycle, it is basically reversed from a real life tree.

Drinks

Hot Cold

Tea Co ee Non alcoholic Alcoholic

Green Black Americano Latte Cappuccino Cola Fanta Soda Wine Beer

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What is a Tree?
A tree is a nonlinear data structure with hierarchical relationships between its elements
without having any cycle, it is basically reversed from a real life tree.
Drinks

Hot Cold

Tea Co ee Non alcoholic Alcoholic

Green Black Americano Latte Cappuccino Cola Fanta Soda Wine Beer

Properties:
- Represent hierarchical data
- Each node has two components : data and a link to its sub category
- Base category and sub categories under it

N2 N3

N4 N5 N6

N7 N8

Tree Properties:
- Represent hierarchical data
- Each node has two components : data and a link to its sub category
- Base category and sub categories under it

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Why a Tree?

- Quicker and Easier access to the data

- Store hierarchical data, like folder structure, organization structure, XML/HTML data.

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Why a Tree?
The le system on a computer

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Why a Tree?

- Quicker and Easier access to the data

- Store hierarchical data, like folder structure, organization structure, XML/HTML data.
- There are many di erent types of data structures which performs better in various situations
- Binary Search Tree, AVL, Red Black Tree, Trie

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Tree Terminology root

N1
Root : top node without parent
Edge : a link between parent and child
Leaf : a node which does not have children
Sibling : children of same parent edge N2 N3
Ancestor : parent, grandparent, great grandparent of a node

N4 N5 N6

sibling

N7 N8

leaf

ancestors of N7 N4 N5 N6

N7 N8

Depth of N4 = 2 N4 N5 N6

N7 N8

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Tree Terminology
N1
Root : top node without parent
Edge : a link between parent and child
Leaf : a node which does not have children
Sibling : children of same parent
N2 N3
Ancestor : parent, grandparent, great grandparent of a node
Depth of node : a length of the path from root to node
Height of node : a length of the path from the node to the deepest node

Heigh of N3 = 1 N4 N5 N6

N7 N8

N4 N5 N6
Depth of tree = 0

N7 N8

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Tree Terminology
N1
Root : top node without parent
Edge : a link between parent and child
Leaf : a node which does not have children
Sibling : children of same parent
N2 N3
Ancestor : parent, grandparent and great grandparent of a node
Depth of node : a length of the path from root to node
Height of node : a length of the path from the node to the deepest node
Depth of tree : depth of root node
Height of tree : height of root node N4 N5 N6

Height of tree = 3

N7 N8

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Binary Tree
- Binary trees are the data structures in which each node has at most two children,
often referred to as the left and right children

- Binary tree is a family of data structure (BST, Heap tree, AVL, red black trees, Syntax tree)

N2 N3

N4 N5 N6

N7 N8

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Why Binary Tree?

- Binary trees are a prerequisite for mode advanced trees like BST, AVL, Red Black Trees

- Hu man coding problem , heap priority problem and expression parsing problems can be
solved e ciently using binary trees,

N2 N3

N4 N5 N6

N7 N8

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Types of Binary Tree

Full Binary Tree

N2 N3

N4 N5

N7 N8

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Types of Binary Tree

Perfect Binary Tree

N2 N3

N4 N5 N6 N7

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Types of Binary Tree

Complete Binary Tree

N2 N3

N4 N5 N6 N7

N9 N10

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Types of Binary Tree

Balanced Binary Tree

N2 N3

N4 N5 N7

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Binary Tree

- Linked List
- Python List (array)

Drinks

Hot Cold

Tea Co ee Non alcoholic Alcoholic

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Binary Tree

Linked List
222 Drinks 333
111

444 Hot 555 666 Cold 777

222 333

null Tea null null Co ee null null Cola null null Fanta null
444 555 666 777

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Binary Tree

Python List
Drinks

Hot Cold

Tea Co ee Non alcoholic Alcoholic

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Left child = cell[2x]

Right child = cell[2x+1]

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Binary Tree

Python List
Drinks

Hot Cold

Tea Co ee Non alcoholic Alcoholic

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Drinks Hot Cold

Left child = cell[2x] x = 1 , cell[2x1=2]

Right child = cell[2x+1] x = 1 , cell[2x1+1=3]

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Binary Tree

Python List
Drinks

Hot Cold

Tea Co ee Non alcoholic Alcoholic

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Drinks Hot Cold Tea Co ee

Left child = cell[2x] x = 2, cell[2x2=4]

Right child = cell[2x+1] x = 2, cell[2x2+1=5]

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ff
Binary Tree

Python List
Drinks

Hot Cold

Tea Co ee Non alcoholic Alcoholic

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Drinks Hot Cold Tea Co ee Non alcoholic Alcoholic

Left child = cell[2x] x = 3, cell[2x3=6]

Right child = cell[2x+1] x = 3, cell[2x3+1=7]

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Create Binary Tree using Linked List

- Creation of Tree N1
- Insertion of a node
- Deletion of a node
- Search for a value
- Traverse all nodes N2 N3

- Deletion of tree

N4 N5 N6 N7

newTree = Tree()

N9 N10

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Traversal of Binary Tree

Depth rst search N1

- Preorder traversal
- Inorder traversal
- Post order traversal
Breadth rst search N2 N3
- Level order traversal

N4 N5 N6 N7

N9 N10

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PreOrder Traversal of Binary Tree

Root Node

N2 N3

Left Subtree

N4 N5 N6 N7

Right Subtree
N9 N10

N1 N2

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PreOrder Traversal of Binary Tree

Root Node

N2 N3

Left Subtree

N4 N5 N6 N7

Right Subtree
N9 N10

N1 N2 N4 N9 N10

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PreOrder Traversal of Binary Tree

Root Node

N2 N3

Left Subtree

N4 N5 N6 N7

Right Subtree
N9 N10

N1 N2 N4 N9 N10 N5 N3 N6 N7

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PreOrder Traversal of Binary Tree

Root Node

N2 N3

Left Subtree

N4 N5 N6 N7

Right Subtree
N9 N10

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InOrder Traversal of Binary Tree

Left Subtree

N2 N3

Root Node

N4 N5 N6 N7

Right Subtree
N9 N10

N9 N4

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InOrder Traversal of Binary Tree

Left Subtree

N2 N3

Root Node

N4 N5 N6 N7

Right Subtree
N9 N10

N9 N4 N10 N2 N5

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InOrder Traversal of Binary Tree

Left Subtree

N2 N3

Root Node

N4 N5 N6 N7

Right Subtree
N9 N10

N9 N4 N10 N2 N5 N1 N6 N3 N7

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InOrder Traversal of Binary Tree

Left Subtree

N2 N3

Root Node

N4 N5 N6 N7

Right Subtree
N9 N10

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PostOrder Traversal of Binary Tree

Left Subtree

N2 N3

Right Subtree

N4 N5 N6 N7

Root Node
N9 N10

N9 N10

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PostOrder Traversal of Binary Tree

Left Subtree

N2 N3

Right Subtree

N4 N5 N6 N7

Root Node
N9 N10

N9 N10 N4 N5 N2

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PostOrder Traversal of Binary Tree

Left Subtree

N2 N3

Right Subtree

N4 N5 N6 N7

Root Node
N9 N10

N9 N10 N4 N5 N2 N6 N7 N3 N1

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PostOrder Traversal of Binary Tree

Left Subtree

N2 N3

Right Subtree

N4 N5 N6 N7

Root Node
N9 N10

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LevelOrder Traversal of Binary Tree

Level 1 N1

Level 2 N2 N3

Level 3 N4 N5 N6 N7

Level 4 N9 N10

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LevelOrder Traversal of Binary Tree

Level 1 N1

Level 2 N2 N3

Level 3 N4 N5 N6 N7

Level 4 N9 N10

N1 N2 N3 N4 N5

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LevelOrder Traversal of Binary Tree

Level 1 N1

Level 2 N2 N3

Level 3 N4 N5 N6 N7

Level 4 N9 N10

N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N9 N10

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LevelOrder Traversal of Binary Tree

N2 N3

N4 N5 N6 N7

N9 N10

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Searching for a node in Binary Tree

Level Order Traversal

Level 1 N1

N5 Success

Level 2 N2 N3

Level 3 N4 N5 N6 N7

Level 4 N9 N10

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Insert a node in Binary Tree

- A root node is blank

- The tree exists and we have to look for a rst N1
vacant place

N2 N3

Level Order Traversal

newNode N4 N5 N6 N7

N9 N10 new

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Delete a node from Binary Tree

Level Order Traversal N1

N2 N3

N4 N5 N6 N7

N9 N10

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Delete a node from Binary Tree

Level Order Traversal N1

N2 N10
N3

N4 N5 N6 N7

N9 N10

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Delete entire Binary Tree

rootNode = None
N1
rootNode.leftChild = None
rootNode.rightChild = None

N2 N3

N4 N5 N6 N7

N9 N10

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Create Binary Tree using Python List

N2 N3

N4 N5 N6 N7

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Left child = cell[2x]

Right child = cell[2x+1]

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Create Binary Tree using Python List

N2 N3

N4 N5 N6 N7

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
N1 N2 N3

Left child = cell[2x] x = 1 , cell[2x1=2]

Right child = cell[2x+1] x = 1 , cell[2x1+1=3]

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Create Binary Tree using Python List

N2 N3

N4 N5 N6 N7

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
N1 N2 N3 N4 N5

Left child = cell[2x] x = 2, cell[2x2=4]

Right child = cell[2x+1] x = 2, cell[2x2+1=5]

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Create Binary Tree using Python List

N2 N3

N4 N5 N6 N7

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7

Left child = cell[2x] x = 3, cell[2x3=6]

Right child = cell[2x+1] x = 3, cell[2x3+1=7]

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Create Binary Tree using Python List

newBT = BTclass()

Fixed size Python List

lastUsedIndex N2 N3

N4 N5 N6 N7

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7

Left child = cell[2x] x = 3, cell[2x3=6]

Right child = cell[2x+1] x = 3, cell[2x3+1=7]

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Insert a node in Binary Tree

- The Binary Tree is full

- We have to look for a rst vacant place N1

newNode N2 N3

Left child = cell[2x] x = 5, cell[2x5=10]

N4 N5 N6 N7

N8 N9 new

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 N9 New

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Searching for a node in Binary Tree (python list)

N5 Success Level 1 N1

Level 2 N2 N3

Level 3 N4 N5 N6 N7

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7

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PreOrder Traversal of Binary Tree (python list)

Root Node

N2 N3

Left Subtree

N4 N5 N6 N7

Right Subtree
N9 N10

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PreOrder Traversal of Binary Tree (python list)

Root Node

N2 N3

Left Subtree

N4 N5 N6 N7

Right Subtree
N9 N10

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InOrder Traversal of Binary Tree (python list)

Left Subtree

N2 N3

Root Node

N4 N5 N6 N7

Right Subtree
N9 N10

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InOrder Traversal of Binary Tree (python list)

Left Subtree

N2 N3

Root Node

N4 N5 N6 N7

Right Subtree
N9 N10

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PostOrder Traversal of Binary Tree (python list)

Left Subtree

N2 N3

Right Subtree

N4 N5 N6 N7

Root Node
N9 N10

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PostOrder Traversal of Binary Tree (python list)

Left Subtree

N2 N3

Right Subtree

N4 N5 N6 N7

Root Node
N9 N10

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LevelOrder Traversal of Binary Tree (python list)

Level 1 N1

Level 2 N2 N3

Level 3 N4 N5 N6 N7

Level 4 N9 N10

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LevelOrder Traversal of Binary Tree (python list)

N2 N3

N4 N5 N6 N7

N9 N10

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Delete a node from Binary Tree (python list)

Level Order Traversal N1

deepestNode = lastUsedIndex

N2 N3

N4 N5 N6 N7

N8 N9

N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 N9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
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Delete a node from Binary Tree (python list)

Level Order Traversal N1

N2 N9
N3

N4 N5 N6 N7

N8 N9

N1 N2 N9
N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 N9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
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Delete entire Binary Tree (python list)

N1
customList = None

N2 N3

N4 N5 N6 N7

N9 N10

N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 N9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
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Binary Tree (Python List vs Linked List)

Python List with capacity Linked List

Space Space
Time complexity Time complexity
complexity complexity

Create Binary Tree O(1) O(n) O(1) O(1)

Insert a node to Binary Tree O(1) O(1) O(n) O(n)
Delete a node from Binary Tree O(n) O(1) O(n) O(n)
Search for a node in Binary Tree O(n) O(1) O(n) O(n)
Traverse Binary Tree O(n) O(1) O(n) O(n)
Delete entire Binary Tree O(1) O(1) O(1) O(1)
Space e cient? No Yes

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What is a Binary Search Tree?

- In the left subtree the value of a node is less than or equal to its parent node’s value.
- In the right subtree the value of a node is greater than its parent node’s value
70

50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40

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What is a Binary Search Tree?

- In the left subtree the value of a node is less than or equal to its parent node’s value.
- In the right subtree the value of a node is greater than its parent node’s value
70

50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40

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Why Binary Search Tree?

- It performs faster than Binary Tree when inserting and deleting nodes

50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40

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Common Operations on Binary Search Tree

70
- Creation of Tree
- Insertion of a node
- Deletion of a node
- Search for a value 50 90
- Traverse all nodes
- Deletion of tree

30 60 80 100

20 40

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Create Binary Search Tree

50 90

30 60 80 100

newTree = BST()
20 40

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Insert a node to Binary Search Tree

10 70
Smaller Bigger

50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40

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Insert a node to Binary Search Tree

10 70
Smaller Bigger

50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40

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Insert a node to Binary Search Tree

95 70
Smaller Bigger

50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40

AppMillers
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Traversal of Binary Search Tree

Depth rst search 70

- Preorder traversal
- Inorder traversal
- Post order traversal
Breadth rst search 50 90
- Level order traversal

30 60 80 100

20 40

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PreOrder Traversal of Binary Search Tree

Root Node

50 90

Left Subtree

30 60 80 100

Right Subtree

20 40

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PreOrder Traversal of Binary Search Tree

Root Node

50 90

Left Subtree

30 60 80 100

Right Subtree

20 40

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InOrder Traversal of Binary Search Tree

Left Subtree

50 90

Root Node

30 60 80 100

Right Subtree

20 40

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InOrder Traversal of Binary Search Tree

Left Subtree

50 90

Root Node

30 60 80 100

Right Subtree

20 40

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PostOrder Traversal of Binary Search Tree

Left Subtree

50 90

Right Subtree

30 60 80 100

Root Node

20 40

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PostOrder Traversal of Binary Search Tree

Left Subtree

50 90

Right Subtree

30 60 80 100

Root Node

20 40

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LevelOrder Traversal of Binary Search Tree

Level 1 70

Level 2 50 90

Level 3 30 60 80 100

Level 4 20 40

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LevelOrder Traversal of Binary Search Tree

50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40

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Search for a node in Binary Search Tree

40 70

50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40 Found

AppMillers
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Delete a node from Binary Search Tree

Case 1: The node to be deleted is a leaf node

Case 2: The node has one child
Case 3: The node has two children
70

50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40

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Delete a node from Binary Search Tree

Case 1: The node to be deleted is a leaf node

50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40

AppMillers
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Delete a node from Binary Search Tree

Case 2: The node to be deleted has a child node

50 90

30 60 80 100

AppMillers
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Delete a node from Binary Search Tree

Case 3: The node to be deleted has two children

70
80

50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40

AppMillers
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Delete a node from Binary Search Tree

Case 3: The node to be deleted has two children

70
80

50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40 85

AppMillers
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Delete entire Binary Search Tree

rootNode = None
70
rootNode.leftChild = None
rootNode.rightChild = None

50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40

AppMillers
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Time and Space complexity of Binary Search Tree

Time complexity Space complexity

Create BST O(1) O(1)
Insert a node BST O(logN) O(logN)
Traverse BST O(N) O(N)
Search for a node BST O(logN) O(logN)
Delete node from BST O(logN) O(logN)
Delete Entire BST O(1) O(1)

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What is an AVL Tree?
An AVL tree is a self-balancing Binary Search Tree (BST) where the di erence between
heights of left and right subtrees cannot be more than one for all nodes.

50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40

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ff
What is an AVL Tree?
An AVL tree is a self-balancing Binary Search Tree (BST) where the di erence between
heights of left and right subtrees cannot be more than one for all nodes.

Height of leftSubtree = 3
di erence = 1
Height of rightSubtree = 2 50 90

Height of leftSubtree = 1
di erence = 0
Height of rightSubtree = 1
30 80 100

Height of leftSubtree = 2
di erence = 2
Height of rightSubtree = 0

20 40

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ff
ff
ff
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What is an AVL Tree?
An AVL tree is a self-balancing Binary Search Tree (BST) where the di erence between
heights of left and right subtrees cannot be more than one for all nodes.

If at any time heights of left and right subtrees di er by more than one, then rebalancing is
done to restore AVL property, this process is called rotation

50 90

30 80 100

20 40
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Examples

Height of leftSubtree = 2
di erence = 0
Height of rightSubtree = 2
70

Height of leftSubtree = 1
di erence = 0
Height of rightSubtree = 1 50 90

Height of leftSubtree = 1
di erence = 0
Height of rightSubtree = 1
30 60 80 100

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ff
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Examples

Height of leftSubtree =3
di erence =1 70
Height of rightSubtree = 2

Height of leftSubtree =2
di erence = 1
Height of rightSubtree = 1 50 90

Height of leftSubtree = 1
di erence = 0
Height of rightSubtree = 1

30 40 80 100
Height of leftSubtree = 1
di erence = 1
Height of rightSubtree = 0

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ff
ff
ff
Examples
70

Height of leftSubtree = 4
di erence = 2
Height of rightSubtree = 2
50 90

30 40 80 100

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Why do we need AVL Tree?

10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70

Search for 60
20
Time complexity is O(N)
30

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Why do we need AVL Tree?

Search for 60
20 40

Time complexity is O(LogN)

30 20 60

40
10 30 50 70

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Common operations on AVL Trees

- Creation of AVL trees,

- Search for a node in AVL trees
- Traverse all nodes in AVL trees 40
- Insert a node in AVL trees
- Delete a node from AVL trees
- Delete the entire AVL trees 20 60

10 30 50 70

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Create AVL Tree

newAVL = AVL() 70

rooNode = None
leftChild = None
rightChild = None 50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40

Time complexity : O(1)

Space complexity : O(1)

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PreOrder Traversal of AVL Tree

Root Node

50 90

Left Subtree

30 60 80 100

Right Subtree

20 40

Time complexity : O(n)

Space complexity : O(n)

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InOrder Traversal of AVL Tree

Left Subtree

50 90

Root Node

30 60 80 100

Right Subtree

20 40

Time complexity : O(n)

Space complexity : O(n)

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PostOrder Traversal of AVL Tree

Left Subtree

50 90

Right Subtree

30 60 80 100

Root Node

20 40

Time complexity : O(n)

Space complexity : O(n)

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LevelOrder Traversal of AVL Tree

50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40

Time complexity : O(n)

Space complexity : O(n)

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Search for a node in AVL Tree

80 70

50 90

30 60 80 100

Found

20 40

Time complexity : O(LogN)

Space complexity : O(LogN)

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 1 : Rotation is not required

Case 2 : Rotation is required 70

50 90

30 60 80 100

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 1 : Rotation is not required

50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 2 : Rotation is required

70
LL - left left condition
LR - left right condition
RR - right right condition
RL - right left condition 50 90

30 60 80 100

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 2 : Rotation is required

10 70

LL - left left condition

50 90

30 60 80 100

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 2 : Rotation is required

LL - left left condition

50 90

30 60 80 100

Left

20
Left

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 2 : Rotation is required

LL - left left condition

Right rotation 50 90

30 60 80 100

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 2 : Rotation is required

LL - left left condition

20 70

Right rotation - example 2

50 90

30 60

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 2 : Rotation is required

LL - left left condition

70
Left
Right rotation - example 2

50 90
Left

30 60

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 2 : Rotation is required

LL - left left condition

Right rotation - example 2

50 90

30 60

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Insert a node in AVL Tree
Right rotation - example 2

70 50

50 90 30 70

30 60 20 60 90

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Insert a node in AVL Tree
Algorithm of Left Left (LL) Condition

rotateRight(disbalancedNode):
newRoot = disbalancedNode.leftChild None
disbalancedNode.leftChild = disbalancedNode.leftChild.rightChild
newRoot.rightChild = disbalancedNode
update height of disbalancedNode and newRoot
return newRoot

20 20
30 newRoot =

newRoot =
10 10 30
20

disbalancedNode = 30

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Algorithm of Left Left (LL) Condition

rotateRight(disbalancedNode):
newRoot = disbalancedNode.leftChild
disbalancedNode.leftChild = disbalancedNode.leftChild.rightChild
newRoot.rightChild = disbalancedNode
update height of disbalancedNode and newRoot
return newRoot

Time complexity : O(1)

Space complexity : O(1)

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 2 : Rotation is required

25 70

LR - left right condition

50 90

30 60 80 100

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 2 : Rotation is required

LL - left right condition

50 90

30 60 80 100

Left

20
Right

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 2 : Rotation is required

LR - left right condition

1. Left rotation 50 90
2. Right rotation

30 60 80 100

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 2 : Rotation is required

LR - left right condition

1. Left rotation 50 90
2. Right rotation

30 60 80 100

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Insert a node in AVL Tree
LR - left right condition

1. Left rotation
2. Right rotation

70 70 70

50 90 50 90 50 90

30 60 80 100 30 60 80 100 25 60 80 100

20 25 20 30

25 20

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Insert a node in AVL Tree
Algorithm of Left Right (LR) Condition
Step 1 : rotate Left disbalancedNode.leftChild
Step 2 : rotate Right disbalancedNode

rotateLeft(disbalancedNode):
newRoot = disbalancedNode.rightChild
disbalancedNode.rightChild = disbalancedNode.rightChild.leftChild
newRoot.leftChild = disbalancedNode
update height of disbalancedNode and newRoot
return newRoot

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Algorithm of Left Right (LR) Condition
Step 1 : rotate Left disbalancedNode.leftChild
Step 2 : rotate Right disbalancedNode

30 newRoot = 20

disbalancedNode = 20
disbalancedNode = 10
10

20 10

newRoot =
20 AppMillers
10 www.appmillers.com

Insert a node in AVL Tree

Algorithm of Left Right (LR) Condition
Step 1 : rotate Left disbalancedNode.leftChild
Step 2 : rotate Right disbalancedNode
rotateRight(disbalancedNode):
newRoot = disbalancedNode.leftChild
disbalancedNode.leftChild = disbalancedNode.leftChild.rightChild
newRoot.rightChild = disbalancedNode
update height of disbalancedNode and newRoot
return newRoot

20
30
20
newRoot =
newRoot =
10 30
20 10

10 disbalancedNode = 30

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Algorithm of Left Right (LR) Condition
Step 1 : rotate Left disbalancedNode.leftChild
Step 2 : rotate Right disbalancedNode

Time complexity : O(1)

Space complexity : O(1)
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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 2 : Rotation is required

70 50

RR - right right condition

40 60

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 2 : Rotation is required

RR - right right condition

40 60
Right

65
Right

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 2 : Rotation is required

RR - right right condition

40 60
Left rotation

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 2 : Rotation is required

75 50

RR - right right condition

40 65
Left rotation - example 2

60 70

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 2 : Rotation is required

50
Right
RR - right right condition

40 65
Left rotation - example 2
Right

60 70

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 2 : Rotation is required

RR - right right condition

40 65
Left rotation - example 2

60 70

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Insert a node in AVL Tree
RR - right right condition

Left rotation

50 65

40 65 50 70

60 70 40 60 75

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Insert a node in AVL Tree
Algorithm of Right Right (RR) Condition

Step 1 : rotate Left disbalancedNode

40 40
30
newRoot =
disbalancedNode =
50
30 50
40

disbalancedNode = 30

50 AppMillers
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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Algorithm of Right Right (RR) Condition

Step 1 : rotate Left disbalancedNode

Time complexity : O(1)

Space complexity : O(1)

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 2 : Rotation is required

65 50

RL - right left condition

40 60

AppMillers
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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 2 : Rotation is required

RL - right left condition

40 60
Right

70
Left

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 2 : Rotation is required

RL - right left condition

40 60
1. Right rotation
2. Left rotation

AppMillers
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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Case 2 : Rotation is required

RL - right left condition

40 60
1. Right rotation
2. Left rotation

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Insert a node in AVL Tree
Algorithm of Right Left (RL) Condition
Step 1 : rotate Right disbalancedNode.rightChild
Step 2 : rotate Left disbalancedNode

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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Algorithm of Right Left (RL) Condition
Step 1 : rotate Right disbalancedNode.rightChild
Step 2 : rotate Left disbalancedNode

30 newRoot = 35

disbalancedNode = 35

disbalancedNode = 40
40
40
35

newRoot =
35 AppMillers
40 www.appmillers.com

Insert a node in AVL Tree

Algorithm of Right Left (RL) Condition
Step 1 : rotate Right disbalancedNode.rightChild
Step 2 : rotate Left disbalancedNode

35
35
30 newRoot =
newRoot =
30 40
40

disbalancedNode = 30
40
AppMillers
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Insert a node in AVL Tree

Algorithm of Right Left (RL) Condition
Step 1 : rotate Right disbalancedNode.rightChild
Step 2 : rotate Left disbalancedNode

Time complexity : O(1)

Space complexity : O(1)
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Insert a node in AVL Tree (all together)

Case 1 : Rotation is not required

Case 2 : Rotation is required
- Left Left condition (LL)
- Left Right condition (LR)
- Right Right condition (RR)
- Right Left condition (RL)

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Insert a node in AVL Tree (all together)

30,25,35,20,15,5,10,50,60,70,65 - Left Left condition (LL)

- Left Right condition (LR)
- Right Right condition (RR)
30
- Right Left condition (RL)
Right rotation

Left 25 35

Left 20

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Insert a node in AVL Tree (all together)

30,25,35,20,15,5,10,50,60,70,65 - Left Left condition (LL)

- Left Right condition (LR)
Right rotation - Right Right condition (RR)
30
- Right Left condition (RL)
Left

Left 20 35

15 25

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Insert a node in AVL Tree (all together)

30,25,35,20,15,5,10,50,60,70,65 - Left Left condition (LL)

- Left Right condition (LR)
- Right Right condition (RR)
20
- Right Left condition (RL)

Left 15 30

Left rotation
5 Right 25 35
Right rotation

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Insert a node in AVL Tree (all together)

30,25,35,20,15,5,10,50,60,70,65 - Left Left condition (LL)

- Left Right condition (LR)
- Right Right condition (RR)
20
- Right Left condition (RL)

10 30
Left rotation

5 15 25 35 Right

50 Right

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Insert a node in AVL Tree (all together)

30,25,35,20,15,5,10,50,60,70,65 - Left Left condition (LL)

- Left Right condition (LR)
- Right Right condition (RR)
20
- Right Left condition (RL)
Left rotation

10 30 Right

5 25 50 Right
15

35 60

AppMillers
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Insert a node in AVL Tree (all together)

30,25,35,20,15,5,10,50,60,70,65 - Left Left condition (LL)

- Left Right condition (LR)
- Right Right condition (RR)
20
- Right Left condition (RL)

10 50
Left rotation

5 30 60 Right
15

25 35 70 Right rotation

Left

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Delete a node from AVL Tree

Case 1 - The tree does not exist

Case 2 - Rotation is not required
Case 3 - Rotation is required (LL, LR, RR, RL)

50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40

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Delete a node from AVL Tree

Case 2 - Rotation is not required

- The node to be deleted is a leaf node

50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40

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Delete a node from AVL Tree

Case 2 - Rotation is not required

- The node to be deleted has a child node

50 90

30 60 80 100

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Delete a node from AVL Tree

Case 2 - Rotation is not required

- The node to be deleted has two children

70
80

50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40 85

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Delete a node from AVL Tree

Case 3 - Rotation is required

- Left Left Condition (LL)
- Left Right Condition (LR)
- Right Right Condition (RR)
70
80
- Right Left Condition (RL)

50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40 85

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Delete a node from AVL Tree

Case 3 - Rotation is required

Left Left Condition (LL)

70
80

Right rotation

50 90
Left

30 60 80 100

Left

20 85

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Delete a node from AVL Tree

Case 3 - Rotation is required

Left Right Condition (LR)

70
80

50 90
Left
Left rotation

30 60 80 100

Right

20 85

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Delete a node from AVL Tree

Case 3 - Rotation is required

Left Right Condition (LR)

70
80

Right rotation
50 90

30 60 80

20 85

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Delete a node from AVL Tree

Case 3 - Rotation is required

Right Right Condition (RR)

70
80
Left rotation

50 90
Right

30 60 80 100

Right

70 85

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Delete a node from AVL Tree

Case 3 - Rotation is required

Right Left Condition (RL)

70
80

50 90
Right
Right rotation

30 60 80 100

Left

55 85

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Delete a node from AVL Tree

Case 3 - Rotation is required

Right Left Condition (RL)

70
80

Left rotation

50 90

60 80 100

55 85

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Delete a node from AVL Tree (all together)

Delete 40 - Left Left Condition (LL)

70
80
- Left Right Condition (LR)
- Right Right Condition (RR)
- Right Left Condition (RL)
50 90

Right rotation

30 60 80 100

20 40 70 110

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Delete a node from AVL Tree (all together)

Delete 15 - Left Left Condition (LL)

The tree is balanced 70
80
- Left Right Condition (LR)
- Right Right Condition (RR)
- Right Left Condition (RL)
50 90

20 60 80 100

15 30 40 110

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Delete a node from AVL Tree (all together)

Delete 40 - Left Left Condition (LL)

The tree is balanced 70
80
- Left Right Condition (LR)
- Right Right Condition (RR)
- Right Left Condition (RL)
50 90

20 60 80 100

30 40 110

AppMillers
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Delete a node from AVL Tree (all together)

Delete 60 - Left Left Condition (LL)

The tree is disbalanced 70
80
- Left Right Condition (LR)
- Right Right Condition (RR)
Right rotation - Right Left Condition (RL)
50 90

Left rotation

20 60 80 100

30 110

AppMillers
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Delete a node from AVL Tree (all together)

Delete 80 - Left Left Condition (LL)

The tree is disbalanced 70
80
- Left Right Condition (LR)
- Right Right Condition (RR)
Left rotation
- Right Left Condition (RL)
30 90

20 50 80 100

110

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Delete a node from AVL Tree (all together)

Insert 105 - Left Left Condition (LL)

70
80
- Left Right Condition (LR)
- Right Right Condition (RR)
- Right Left Condition (RL)
30 100

20 50 90 110

105

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Delete a node from AVL Tree (all together)

Delete 90 - Left Left Condition (LL)

70
80
- Left Right Condition (LR)
- Right Right Condition (RR)
Left rotation - Right Left Condition (RL)
30 100

Right rotation

20 50 90 110

105

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Delete a node from AVL Tree (all together)

- Left Left Condition (LL)

5
70
- Left Right Condition (LR)
- Right Right Condition (RR)
- Right Left Condition (RL)
10

10 20

5 15

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Delete entire AVL Tree

rootNode = None
70
rootNode.leftChild = None
rootNode.rightChild = None

50 90

30 60 80 100

20 40

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Time and Space complexity of AVL Tree

Time complexity Space complexity

Create AVL O(1) O(1)
Insert a node AVL O(logN) O(logN)
Traverse AVL O(N) O(N)
Search for a node AVL O(logN) O(logN)
Delete node from AVL O(logN) O(logN)
Delete Entire AVL O(1) O(1)

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Binary Search Tree vs AVL

BST AVL
Create Tree O(1) O(1)
Insert a node Tree O(N) O(logN)
Traverse Tree O(N) O(N)
Search for a node Tree O(N) O(logN)
Delete node from Tree O(N) O(logN)
Delete Entire Tree O(1) O(1)

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What is a Binary Heap?
A Binary Heap is a Binary Tree with following properties.

- A Binary Heap is either Min Heap or Max Heap. In a Min Binary Heap, the key at root must
be minimum among all keys present in Binary Heap. The same property must be
recursively true for all nodes in Binary Tree.
- It’s a complete tree (All levels are completely lled except possibly the last level and the
last level has all keys as left as possible). This property of Binary Heap makes them
suitable to be stored in an array.

10 20

30 40 50 60

70 80
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Why we need a Binary Heap?
Find the minimum or maximum number among a set of numbers in logN time. And also we want
to make sure that inserting additional numbers does not take more than O(logN) time

Possible Solutions

- Store the numbers in sorted Array

5 10 20 30 40 50

Find minimum: O(1)

Insertion: O(n)
4
- Store the numbers in Linked List in sorted manner

Head 111 1 222 2 333 3 null

111 222 333

Tail 333
null

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Why we need a Binary Heap?
Find the minimum or maximum number among a set of numbers in logN time. And also we want
to make sure that inserting additional numbers does not take more than O(logN) time

Practical Use

- Prim’s Algorithm
- Heap Sort
- Priority Queue

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Types of Binary Heap
Min heap - the value of each node is less than or equal to the value of both its children.
Max heap - it is exactly the opposite of min heap that is the value of each node is more than or
equal to the value of both its children.

5 80

10 20 70 60

30 40 50 60 50 40 30 20

70 80 5 10

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Common operations on Binary Heap

- Creation of Binary Heap,

- Peek top of Binary Heap 5
- Extract Min / Extract Max
- Traversal of Binary Heap
- Size of Binary Heap
- Insert value in Binary Heap 10 20
- Delete the entire Binary heap

30 40 50 60
Implementation Options
- Array Implementation

- Reference /pointer Implementation

70 80

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Common operations on Binary Heap

10 20

30 40 50 60

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
5 10 20 30 40 50 60

Left child = cell[2x]

Right child = cell[2x+1]

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Common operations on Binary Heap
- Creation of Binary Heap
Initialize xed size List
set size of Binary Heap to 0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

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Common operations on Binary Heap
- Peek of Binary Heap
5
Return List[1]

10 20

30 40 50 60

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
5 10 20 30 40 50 60

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Common operations on Binary Heap
- Size Binary Heap
5
Return number of lled cells

10 20

30 40 50 60

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
5 10 20 30 40 50 60

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Common operations on Binary Heap
- Level Order Traversal
5

10 20

30 40 50 60

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
5 10 20 30 40 50 60

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Insert a node to Binary Heap

5
1

10 20

30 40 50 60

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
5 10 20 30 40 50 60

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Insert a node to Binary Heap

5
1

10 20

30 40 50 60

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
5 10 20 30
1 40 50 60 30

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Insert a node to Binary Heap

10 20

1 40 50 60

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
5 10
5 20 30
10
1 40 50 60 30

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Extract a node from Binary Heap

10 20

30 40 50 60

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
5 10 20 30 40 50 60 80

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Extract a node from Binary Heap

10 20

30 40 50 60

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
80 10 20 30 40 50 60

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Extract a node from Binary Heap

80 20

30 40 50 60

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10 80 20 30 40 50 60

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Delete entire Binary Heap

customList = None 10

80 20

30 40 50 60

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10 80 20 30 40 50 60

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Time and Space complexity of Binary Heap

Time complexity Space complexity

Create Binary Heap O(1) O(N)
Peek of Heap O(1) O(1)
Size of Heap O(1) O(1)
Traversal of Heap O(N) O(1)
Insert a node to Binary Heap O(logN) O(logN)
Extract a node from Binary Heap O(logN) O(logN)
Delete Entire AVL O(1) O(1)

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What is a Trie?
A Trie is a tree-based data structure that organizes information in a hierarchy.

Properties:

- It is typically used to store or search strings in a space and

time e cient way.
AB
- Any node in trie can store non repetitive multiple characters
- Every node stores link of the next character of the string
- Every node keeps track of ‘end of string’

I AIM

AIR, AIT, BAR, BIL, BM

RT R L

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What is a Trie?
A Trie is a tree-based data structure that organizes information in a hierarchy.

AIR
A

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What is a Trie?
A Trie is a tree-based data structure that organizes information in a hierarchy.

AIT
A

RT
R

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What is a Trie?
A Trie is a tree-based data structure that organizes information in a hierarchy.

BAR
A
AB

I A

RT
R R

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What is a Trie?
A Trie is a tree-based data structure that organizes information in a hierarchy.

BIL
A
AB

I A
AI

RT
R R L

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What is a Trie?
A Trie is a tree-based data structure that organizes information in a hierarchy.

BM
A
AB

I A
AIM
AI

RT
R R L

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Why we need Trie?
To solve many standard problems in e cient way

- Spelling checker
- Auto completion
A
AB

I A
AIM
AI

RT
R R L

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Why we need Trie?
To solve many standard problems in e cient way

- Spelling checker
- Auto completion
A
AB

Map

Characters Link to Trie Node

I A
AIM
AI

RT
R R L
End of String

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Common operations on Trie

- Creation of Trie A
AB
- Insertion in Trie
- Search for a String in trie
- Deletion from Trie
I A
AIM
AI

RT
R R L

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Common operations on Trie

- Creation of Trie
Physically
Map

Characters Link to Trie Node

Logical

Initialize Trie() class

End of String

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Insert a string in a Trie
Case 1 : A Trie is Blank
APP
Dictionary

Characters Link to Trie Node

Dictionary
End of String = N
Characters Link to Trie Node

End of String = Y

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Insert a string in a Trie
Case 2: New string’s pre x is common to another strings pre x
API
Dictionary

Characters Link to Trie Node

Dictionary
End of String = N
Characters Link to Trie Node

P
I

Dictionary
End of String = N
Characters Link to Trie Node

Dictionary

Characters Link to Trie Node

End of String = Y

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fi
fi
Insert a string in a Trie
Case 3: New string’s pre x is already present as complete string
APIS
Dictionary

Characters Link to Trie Node

Dictionary
End of String = N
Characters Link to Trie Node

P
I

Dictionary
End of String = N
Characters Link to Trie Node

Dictionary

Characters Link to Trie Node

Dictionary End of String = Y

S
Characters Link to Trie Node

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End of String = Y www.appmillers.com

End of String = Y
fi
Insert a string in a Trie
Case 4: String to be inserted is already presented in Trie
APIS
Dictionary

Characters Link to Trie Node

Dictionary
End of String = N
Characters Link to Trie Node

P
I

Dictionary
End of String = N
Characters Link to Trie Node

Dictionary

Characters Link to Trie Node

Dictionary End of String = Y

S
Characters Link to Trie Node

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End of String = Y
Search for a string in a Trie
Case 1: String does not exist in Trie

BCD
B A

Return : The string does not exist in Trie

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Search for a string in a Trie
Case 2: String exists in Trie

API
A

Return : TRUE

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Search for a string in a Trie
Case 3: String is a pre x of another string, but it does not exist in a Trie

AP
A

Return : FALSE

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Delete a string from Trie
Case 1: Some other pre x of string is same as the one that we want to delete. (API, APPLE)

I P

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Delete a string from Trie
Case 2: The string is a pre x of another string. (API, APIS)

I P

S L

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Delete a string from Trie
Case 3: Other string is a pre x of this string. (APIS, AP)
Dictionary

A
Characters Link to Trie Node

P End of String = N
Dictionary

Characters Link to Trie Node

I
Dictionary
End of String = N
Characters Link to Trie Node

I
S

End of String = Y

Dictionary Dictionary

Characters Link to Trie Node Characters Link to Trie Node

End of String = Y End of String = N

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Delete a string from Trie
Case 4: Not any node depends on this String (K)

A
AK Dictionary

Characters Link to Trie Node

K
P
Dictionary
End of String = N
Characters Link to Trie Node

I P

Dictionary Dictionary
End of String = N

S Characters Link to Trie Node Characters Link to Trie Node

End of String = Y End of String = N

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Practical use of Trie
- Auto completion

- Spelling checker

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What is Hashing?
Hashing is a method of sorting and indexing data. The idea behind hashing is to allow large
amounts of data to be indexed using keys commonly created by formulas

Magic function

Apple 18

Application 20

Appmillers 22

0 1 .. 18 19 20 21 22 23
.. Apple Application Appmillers

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Why Hashing?
It is time e cient in case of SEARCH Operation

Time complexity for

Data Structure
SEARCH

Array/ Python List O(logN)

Linked List O(N)

Tree O(logN)

Hashing O(1) / O(N)

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Hashing Terminology
Hash function : It is a function that can be used to map of arbitrary size to data of xed size.
Key : Input data by a user
Hash value : A value that is returned by Hash Function
Hash Table : It is a data structure which implements an associative array abstract data type, a
structure that can map keys to values
Collision : A collision occurs when two di erent keys to a hash function produce the same
output.

Hash Function

Key Magic function

Hash Value

Apple 18

Application 20 Hash Table

Appmillers
22

0 1 .. 18 19 20 21 22 23

.. Apple Application Appmillers AppMillers

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ff
fi
Hashing Terminology
Hash function : It is a function that can be used to map of arbitrary size to data of xed size.
Key : Input data by a user
Hash value : A value that is returned by Hash Function
Hash Table : It is a data structure which implements an associative array abstract data type, a
structure that can map keys to values
Collision : A collision occurs when two di erent keys to a hash function produce the same
output.

Hash function

ABCD 20

ABCDEF 20
ABCDEF

Collision

0 1 ..

..
18 19 💥
20
ABCD
21 22 23

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ff
fi
Hash Functions

Mod function

def mod(number, cellNumber):

return number % cellNumber

mod(400, 24) 16

mod(700, 24) 4

0 1 .. 4 5 .. 16 .. 23

.. 700 .. 400 ..

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Hash Functions

ASCII function

def modASCII(string, cellNumber):

total = 0
for i in string:
total += ord(i)
return total % cellNumber

modASCII("ABC", 24) 6

A 65 65+66+67 = 198 24
192 8
B 66
6
C 67

0 1 .. 6 7 .. 16 .. 23

.. ABC .. ..

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Hash Functions

Properties of good Hash function

- It distributes hash values uniformly across hash tables

Hash function

ABCD 20

ABCDEF 20
ABCDEF

Collision

0 1 ..

..
18 19 💥
20
ABCD
21 22 23

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Hash Functions

Properties of good Hash function

- It distributes hash values uniformly across hash tables
- It has to use all the input data
ABCD

ABCDEF
Hash function

ABC 18

Collision

0 1 ..

..
💥
18
ABCD
19 20 21 22 23

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Collision Resolution Techniques
Hash function

ABCD 0
2

💥
Collision
1
EFGH 2
2 ABCD EFGH
IJKLM 3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

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Collision Resolution Techniques

Resolution Techniques

Direct Chaining Open Addressing

Linear Probing

Quadratic Probing

Double Hashing

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Collision Resolution Techniques

Direct Chaining : Implements the buckets as linked list. Colliding elements are stored in this lists

0
1
Hash function 2 111 ABCD 222
Null EFGH 333
Null IJKLM Null

3 111 222 333

ABCD 2 4
5
EFGH 2
6
IJKLM 2
7 444 Miller Null
Miller 7 444
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

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Collision Resolution Techniques
Open Addressing: Colliding elements are stored in other vacant buckets. During storage and
lookup these are found through so called probing.
Linear probing : It places new key into closest following empty cell

0
1
Hash function 2 ABCD
3 EFGH

ABCD 2 4 KLM
5
EFGH 2
6
IJKLM 2
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14 AppMillers
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15
IJ
Collision Resolution Techniques
Open Addressing: Colliding elements are stored in other vacant buckets. During storage and
lookup these are found through so called probing.
Quadratic probing : Adding arbitrary quadratic polynomial to the index until an empty cell is found

0 12, 22, 32, 42..

1
Hash function
2 + 12 = 3
2 ABCD
3 EFGH 2 + 22 = 6
ABCD 2 4
5
EFGH 2
6 KLM
IJKLM 2
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14 AppMillers
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15
IJ
Collision Resolution Techniques
Open Addressing: Colliding elements are stored in other vacant buckets. During storage and
lookup these are found through so called probing.
Double Hashing : Interval between probes is computed by another hash function

0
1
Hash function 2 ABCD
3 2 + 4= 6
ABCD 2 4
2 + 4= 6
5
EFGH 2
6 EFGH 2 + (2*4) = 8
IJKLM 2
7
8 KLM
9
Hash 2
10
11
EFGH 4 12
13
IJKLM 4
14 AppMillers
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15
IJ
Hash Table is Full

Direct Chaining
This situation will never arise.

Hash function

0 111 NOPQ Null

ABCD 2 111
EFGH 1
1 222 EFGH Null
555 RSTU Null

222 555
IJKLM 3 2 333 ABCD Null

NOPQ 0 333
3 444 IJKLM
RSTU 1 Null

444

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Hash Table is Full

Open addressing
Create 2X size of current Hash Table and recall hashing for current keys

Hash function

0 NOPQ 0 NOPQ
ABCD 2

EFGH 1
1 EFGH 1 EFGH

IJKLM 3 2 ABCD 2 ABCD

NOPQ 0
3 IJKLM 3 IJKLM
RSTU 1
4 RSTU

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Pros and Cons of Collision resolution techniques

Direct chaining
- Hash table never gets full
- Huge Linked List causes performance leaks (Time complexity for search operation becomes O(n).)

Open addressing
- Easy Implementation
- When Hash Table is full, creation of new Hash table a ects performance (Time complexity for
search operation becomes O(n).)

‣ If the input size is known we always use “Open addressing”

‣ If we perform deletion operation frequently we use “Direct Chaining”

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ff
Pros and Cons of Collision resolution techniques

Hash function

0 NOPQ Linear Probing

ABCD 2
1 EFGH
EFGH 1
2 ABCD
IJKLM 3
3 IJKLM
NOPQ 0
4 RSTU
RSTU 1

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Personal Computer
Practical Use of Hashing

Password veri cation

Password: 123456

Google Servers
Hash value: *&71283*a12

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Practical Use of Hashing

Password veri cation

File system : File path is mapped to physical location on disk

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Practical Use of Hashing
File system : File path is mapped to physical location on disk

Path: /Documents/Files/hashing.txt

1 /Documents/
Files/hashing.txt Physical location: sector 4

3
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Pros and Cons of Hashing

✓On an average Insertion/Deletion/Search operations take O(1) time.

x When Hash function is not good enough Insertion/Deletion/Search operations take O(n) time

Operations Array /Python List Linked List Tree Hashing

Insertion O(N) O(N) O(LogN) O(1)/O(N)

Deletion O(N) O(N) O(LogN) O(1)/O(N)

Search O(N) O(N) O(LogN) O(1)/O(N)

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What is Sorting?

By de nition sorting refers to arranging data in a particular format : either

ascending or descending.

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What is Sorting?

By de nition sorting refers to arranging data in a particular format : either

ascending or descending.

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What is Sorting?
Practical Use of Sorting
Microsoft Excel : Built in functionality to sort data
Online Stores: Online shopping websites generally have option sor sorting by price,
review, ratings..

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Types of Sorting?

Sorting

Space used Stability

In pace Out of place Stable Unstable

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Space used
In place sorting : Sorting algorithms which does not require any extra space for sorting
Example : Bubble Sort

70 10 80 30 20 40 60 50 90

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Out place sorting : Sorting algorithms which requires an extra space for sorting
Example : Merge Sort

70 10 80 30 20 40 60 50 90

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

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Stability
Stable sorting : If a sorting algorithm after sorting the contents does not change the
sequence of similar content in which they appear, then this sorting is called stable
sorting.

Example : Insertion Sort

70 10 80 40 20 40 60 50 90

10 20 40 40 50 60 70 80 90

UnStable sorting : If a sorting algorithm after sorting the content changes the sequence
of similar content in which they appear, then it is called unstable sort.
Example : Quick Sort

70 10 80 40 20 40 60 50 90

10 20 40 40 50 60 70 80 90

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Stability
UnStable sorting example

Unsorted data Sorted by name Sorted by age (stable) Sorted by age (unstable)
Name Age Name Age Name Age Name Age
Renad 7 Nick 6 Nick 6 Nick 6
Nick 6 Parker 7 Richard 6 Richard 6

{
Richard 6 Renad 7 Parker 7 Renad 7
Parker 7 Richard 6 Renad 7 Parker 7
So a 7 So a 7 So a 7 So a 7

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fi
fi
fi
Sorting Terminology
Increasing Order
- If successive element is greater than the previous one
- Example : 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 ,11
Decreasing Order
- If successive element is less than the previous one
- Example : 11, 9, 7, 5, 3, 1

Non Increasing Order

- If successive element is less than or equal to its previous element in the sequence.
- Example : 11, 9, 7, 5, 5, 3, 1
Non Decreasing Order
- If successive element is greater than or equal to its previous element in the sequence
- Example : 1, 3, 5, 7, 7, 9, 11
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Sorting Algorithms

Bubble sort
Selection sort
Insertion sort
Bucket sort
Merge sort
Quick sort
Heap sort

Which one to select?

- Stability
- Space e cient
- Time e cient

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Bubble Sort

- Bubble sort is also referred as Sinking sort

- We repeatedly compare each pair of adjacent items and swap them if
they are in the wrong order

5 9 3 1 2 8 4 7 6

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Bubble Sort

- Bubble sort is also referred as Sinking sort

- We repeatedly compare each pair of adjacent items and swap them if
they are in the wrong order

5 3 1 2 8 4 7 6 9

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Bubble Sort

- Bubble sort is also referred as Sinking sort

- We repeatedly compare each pair of adjacent items and swap them if
they are in the wrong order

3 1 2 5 4 7 6 8 9

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Bubble Sort

- Bubble sort is also referred as Sinking sort

- We repeatedly compare each pair of adjacent items and swap them if
they are in the wrong order

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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Bubble Sort

- Bubble sort is also referred as Sinking sort

- We repeatedly compare each pair of adjacent items and swap them if
they are in the wrong order

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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Bubble Sort

- Bubble sort is also referred as Sinking sort

- We repeatedly compare each pair of adjacent items and swap them if
they are in the wrong order

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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Bubble Sort

- Bubble sort is also referred as Sinking sort

- We repeatedly compare each pair of adjacent items and swap them if
they are in the wrong order

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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Bubble Sort

- Bubble sort is also referred as Sinking sort

- We repeatedly compare each pair of adjacent items and swap them if
they are in the wrong order

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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Bubble Sort

- Bubble sort is also referred as Sinking sort

- We repeatedly compare each pair of adjacent items and swap them if
they are in the wrong order

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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Bubble Sort

When to use Bubble Sort?

- When the input is already sorted

- Space is a concern
- Easy to implement

When to avoid Bubble Sort?

- Average time complexity is poor

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Selection Sort
- In case of selection sort we repeatedly nd the minimum element and
move it to the sorted part of array to make unsorted part sorted.

Sorted array Unsorted array

5
1 7 4 3 8 6 1 9 2
min

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Selection Sort
- In case of selection sort we repeatedly nd the minimum element and
move it to the sorted part of array to make unsorted part sorted.

Sorted array Unsorted array

1 7
2 4 3 8 6 5 9 2
min

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Selection Sort
- In case of selection sort we repeatedly nd the minimum element and
move it to the sorted part of array to make unsorted part sorted.

Sorted array Unsorted array

1 2 4
3 3 8 6 5 9 7
min

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Selection Sort
- In case of selection sort we repeatedly nd the minimum element and
move it to the sorted part of array to make unsorted part sorted.

Sorted array Unsorted array

1 2 3 4 8 6 5 9 7
min

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Selection Sort
- In case of selection sort we repeatedly nd the minimum element and
move it to the sorted part of array to make unsorted part sorted.

Sorted array Unsorted array

1 2 3 4 5
8 6 5 9 7
min

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Selection Sort
- In case of selection sort we repeatedly nd the minimum element and
move it to the sorted part of array to make unsorted part sorted.

Sorted array Unsorted array

1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 7
min

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Selection Sort
- In case of selection sort we repeatedly nd the minimum element and
move it to the sorted part of array to make unsorted part sorted.

Sorted array Unsorted array

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9 7
min

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Selection Sort
- In case of selection sort we repeatedly nd the minimum element and
move it to the sorted part of array to make unsorted part sorted.

Sorted array Unsorted array

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
8 8
min

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Selection Sort
- In case of selection sort we repeatedly nd the minimum element and
move it to the sorted part of array to make unsorted part sorted.

Sorted array Unsorted array

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
min

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Selection Sort
- In case of selection sort we repeatedly nd the minimum element and
move it to the sorted part of array to make unsorted part sorted.

Sorted array Unsorted array

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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Selection Sort

When to use Selection Sort?

- When we have insu cient memory

- Easy to implement

When to avoid Selection Sort?

- When time is a concern

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Insertion Sort
- Divide the given array into two part
- Take rst element from unsorted array and nd its correct position in
sorted array
- Repeat until unsorted array is empty

Sorted array Unsorted array

3
2
5 3
4 4 7 2 8 6 9 1

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Insertion Sort
- Divide the given array into two part
- Take rst element from unsorted array and nd its correct position in
sorted array
- Repeat until unsorted array is empty

Sorted array Unsorted array

2 3 4 5 7
6 8 6 9 1

Sorted array Unsorted array

2
1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1

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Insertion Sort

When to use Insertion Sort?

- When we have insu cient memory

- Easy to implement
- When we have continuous in ow of numbers and we want to keep
them sorted

When to avoid Insertion Sort?

- When time is a concern

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fl
Bucket Sort

- Create buckets and distribute elements of array into buckets

- Sort buckets individually
- Merge buckets after sorting

5 3 4 7 2 8 6 9 1

- Number of buckets = round(Sqrt(number of elements))

round(sqrt(9)) = 3

- Appropriate bucket = ceil(Value * number of buckets / maxValue)

ceil(5*3/9) = ceil(1.6) = 2

Bucket 1 Bucket 2 Bucket 3

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Bucket Sort

- Create buckets and distribute elements of array into buckets

- Sort buckets individually
- Merge buckets after sorting

3 4 7 2 8 6 9 1

- Number of buckets = round(Sqrt(number of elements))

round(sqrt(9)) = 3

- Appropriate bucket = ceil(Value * number of buckets / maxValue)

ceil(3*3/9) = ceil(1.3)
ceil(4*3/9) ceil(1) = =
12

5
Bucket 1 Bucket 2 Bucket 3

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Bucket Sort

- Create buckets and distribute elements of array into buckets

- Sort buckets individually
- Merge buckets after sorting

7 2 8 6 9 1

- Number of buckets = round(Sqrt(number of elements))

round(sqrt(9)) = 3

- Appropriate bucket = ceil(Value * number of buckets / maxValue)

ceil(7*3/9) = ceil(0.6)
ceil(2*3/9) ceil(2.3) = 1
3

3 5 4
Bucket 1 Bucket 2 Bucket 3

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Bucket Sort

- Create buckets and distribute elements of array into buckets

- Sort buckets individually
- Merge buckets after sorting

8 6 9 1

- Number of buckets = round(Sqrt(number of elements))

round(sqrt(9)) = 3

- Appropriate bucket = ceil(Value * number of buckets / maxValue)

ceil(8*3/9) = ceil(2)
ceil(6*3/9) ceil(2.6)
==23

3 2 5 4 7
Bucket 1 Bucket 2 Bucket 3

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Bucket Sort

- Create buckets and distribute elements of array into buckets

- Sort buckets individually
- Merge buckets after sorting

9 1

- Number of buckets = round(Sqrt(number of elements))

round(sqrt(9)) = 3

- Appropriate bucket = ceil(Value * number of buckets / maxValue)

ceil(9*3/9) = ceil(0.3)
ceil(1*3/9) ceil(3) = =
31
- Sort all buckets (using any sorting algorithm)

3 2 5 4 6 7 8
Bucket 1 Bucket 2 Bucket 3

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Bucket Sort

- Create buckets and distribute elements of array into buckets

- Sort buckets individually
- Merge buckets after sorting

- Number of buckets = round(Sqrt(number of elements))

round(sqrt(9)) = 3

- Appropriate bucket = ceil(Value * number of buckets / maxValue)

- Sort all buckets (using any sorting algorithm)

3 2 1 5 4 6 7 8 9
Bucket 1 Bucket 2 Bucket 3

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Bucket Sort

- Create buckets and distribute elements of array into buckets

- Sort buckets individually
- Merge buckets after sorting

- Number of buckets = round(Sqrt(number of elements))

round(sqrt(9)) = 3

- Appropriate bucket = ceil(Value * number of buckets / maxValue)

- Sort all buckets (using any sorting algorithm)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Bucket 1 Bucket 2 Bucket 3

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Bucket Sort

When to use Bucket Sort?

- When input uniformly distributed over range

1,2,4,5,3,8,7,9 1,2,4,91,93,95

When to avoid Bucket Sort?

- When space is a concern

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Merger Sort

- Merge sort is a divide and conquer algorithm

- Divide the input array in two halves and we keep halving recursively until they
become too small that cannot be broken further
- Merge halves by sorting them

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Merge Sort

6 4 3 7 5 1 2

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Merge Sort

6 4 3 7 5 1 2

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Merge Sort

When to use Merge Sort?

- When you need stable sort

- When average expected time is O(NlogN)

When to avoid Merge Sort?

- When space is a concern

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Quick Sort
- Quick sort is a divide and conquer algorithm
- Find pivot number and make sure smaller numbers located at the left of pivot
and bigger numbers are located at the right of the pivot.
- Unlike merge sort extra space is not required

70 10 80 30 90 40 60 20 50 10 20 30 40 50 80 60 70 90

10 30 40 20 50 80 60 70 90 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

10 20 40 30 50 80 60 70 90 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

10 20 30 40 50 80 60 70 90 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

3 5 8 1 2 9 4 7 6

L L R R P

3 5 4 1 2 9 8 7 6

L LLR R P

3 5 4 1 2 6 8 7 9

L L R R P

1 2 4 3 5 6 8 7 9

L R LPP

1 2 3
4 3
4 5 6 8 7 9

L R P L LRR LPP

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 7
8 9

L R P

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Quick Sort

When to use Quick Sort?

- When average expected time is O(NlogN)

When to avoid Quick Sort?

- When space is a concern

- When you need stable sort

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Heap Sort

- Step 1 : Insert data to Binary Heap Tree

- Step 2 : Extract data from Binary Heap
- It is best suited with array, it does not work with Linked List

Binary Heap is a binary tree with special properties

- The value of any given node must be less or equal of its children (min heap)
- The value of any given node must be greater or equal of its children (max heap)

10 20

30 40 50 60

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70 80
Heap Sort

- Step 1 : Insert data to Binary Heap Tree

- Step 2 : Extract data from Binary Heap

15 10 40 20 50 10 30 45 5

10 40

20 50 10 30

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Heap Sort

- Step 1 : Insert data to Binary Heap Tree

- Step 2 : Extract data from Binary Heap

15 10 40 20 50 10 30 45 5

15 10

20 50 40 30

45 5
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Heap Sort

- Step 1 : Insert data to Binary Heap Tree

- Step 2 : Extract data from Binary Heap

5 10

10 10

15 50 40 30

45 20
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Heap Sort

- Step 1 : Insert data to Binary Heap Tree

- Step 2 : Extract data from Binary Heap

5 10 10 15 20 30

15 30

20 50 40 45

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Heap Sort

- Step 1 : Insert data to Binary Heap Tree

- Step 2 : Extract data from Binary Heap

5 10 10 15 20 30 40 45 50

45 50

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Sorting Algorithms

Name Time Complexity Space Complexity Stable

Bubble Sort O(n2) O(1) Yes

Selection Sort O(n2) O(1) No

Insertion Sort O(n2) O(1) Yes

Bucket Sort O(n logn) O(n) Yes

Merge Sort O(n logn) O(n) Yes

Quick Sort O(n logn) O(n) No

Heap Sort O(n logn) O(1) No

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What is a graph? Why do we need it?

Graph Terminologies

Types of graphs. Graph Representation

Traversal of graphs. (BFS and DFS)

Topological Sorting

Single source shortest path (BFS, D kstra and Bellman Ford )

All pairs shortest path (BFS, D kstra, Bellman Ford and Floyd Warshall algorithms)

Minimum Spanning Tree (Kruskal and Prim algorithms)

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ij
ij
What is Graph?

Graph consists of a nite set of Vertices(or nodes) and a set of Edges which
connect a pair of nodes.

Node

A D

Edge
B F
C
K

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Why Graph?

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Graph Terminology

- Vertices (vertex) : Vertices are the nodes of the graph

- Edge : The edge is the line that connects pairs of vertices

V1 V3

V2 V4
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Graph Terminology

- Vertices : Vertices are the nodes of the graph

- Edge : The edge is the line that connects pairs of vertices
- Unweighted graph : A graph which does not have a weight associated with any edge
- Weighted graph : A graph which has a weight associated with any edge
- Undirected graph : In case the edges of the graph do not have a direction associated with them
- Directed graph : If the edges in a graph have a direction associated with them

V1 V3

8 12 V5

V2 V4
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Graph Terminology

- Vertices : Vertices are the nodes of the graph

V1 V3

V2 V4
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Graph Terminology

- Vertices : Vertices are the nodes of the graph

V1 V3

V2
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Graph Terminology

- Vertices : Vertices are the nodes of the graph

V2 V3

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Graph Types
Graph

Directed Undirected

Weighted Unweighted Weighted Unweighted

Positive Negative Positive Negative

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Graph Types

1. Unweighted - undirected

V1 V3

V2 V4

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Graph Types

1. Unweighted - undirected
2. Unweighted - directed

V1 V3

V2 V4

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Graph Types

1. Unweighted - undirected
2. Unweighted - directed
3. Positive - weighted - undirected

3
V1 V3

2
5
4 V5

3
V2 V4
3

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Graph Types

1. Unweighted - undirected
2. Unweighted - directed
3. Positive - weighted - undirected
4. Positive - weighted - directed
3
V1 V3

2
5
4 V5

3
V2 V4
3

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Graph Types

1. Unweighted - undirected
2. Unweighted - directed
3. Positive - weighted - undirected
4. Positive - weighted - directed
5. Negative - weighted - undirected
-3
V1 V3

2
-5
4 V5

3
V2 V4
3
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Graph Types

1. Unweighted - undirected
2. Unweighted - directed
3. Positive - weighted - undirected
4. Positive - weighted - directed
5. Negative - weighted - undirected

6. Negative - weighted - directed

-3
V1 V3

2
-5
4 V5

3
V2 V4
3 AppMillers
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Graph Representation

Adjacency Matrix : an adjacency matrix is a square matrix or you can say it is a 2D array. And
the elements of the matrix indicate whether pairs of vertices are adjacent or not in the graph

A B C D E
A B
A 0 1
0 1
0 1
0 0

B 1
0 0 0 0 1
0
E
0
C 1 0 0 0
1 0

C D
0
D 1 0 0
1 0 0
1

E 0 1
0 0 1
0 0

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Graph Representation

Adjacency List : an adjacency list is a collection of unordered list used to represent a graph.
Each list describes the set of neighbors of a vertex in the graph.

A B C D
A B
B A E

E C A D
D A C E
C D B D
E

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Graph Representation
If a graph is complete or almost complete we should use Adjacency Matrix

If the number of edges are few then we should use Adjacency List

A B C D E
A B C D
A 0 1
0 1
0 1
0 0
B A E
B 1
0 0 0 0 1
0
C A D
0
C 1 0 0 0
1 0
D A C E
0
D 1 0 0
1 0 0
1
E B D
E 0 1
0 0 1
0 0

A B

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C D
Graph Representation
Python Dictionary implementation

A B { A : [B, C, D],
B: [A, E],
C: [A,D],
E
D: [A,C,E],
E: [B,D] }
C D

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Graph in Python

Dictionary implementation

{ A : [B, C],
B: [A, D, E],
B C
C: [A,E],
D: [B,E,F],
E: [C,D,F],
F: [D, E]}
D E

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Graph Traversal
It is a process of visiting all vertices in a given Graph

A B - Breadth First Search

- Depth First Search

C D G

E F

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Breadth First Search
BFS is an algorithm for traversing Graph data structure. It starts at some arbitrary node of a
graph and explores the neighbor nodes (which are at current level) rst, before moving to the
next level neighbors.

Level 1 A B

Level 2 C D G

Level 3 E F

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Breadth First Search Algorithm

BFS
A B
enqueue any starting vertex
while queue is not empty
p = dequeue()
if p is unvisited
mark it visited
enqueue all adjacent C D G
unvisited vertices of p

A B C D G E F
E F

Queue A B C D G E F F F
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Depth First Search

DFS is an algorithm for traversing a graph data structure which starts selecting some arbitrary
node and explores as far as possible along each edge before backtracking

A B

C D G

E F

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Depth First Search Algorithm
Stack
DFS A B
G
push any starting vertex
while stack is not empty
B
p = pop()
if p is unvisited
mark it visited D
Push all adjacent C D G
unvisited vertices of p G

A C E F D B G E
E F

A
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BFS vs DFS

Level 1 A B A B

G C D G
Level 2 C D

Level 3 E F E F

BFS DFS

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BFS vs DFS

BFS DFS

How does it work internally? It goes in breath rst It goes in depth rst

Which DS does it use internally? Queue Stack

Time Complexity O(V+E) O(V+E)

Space Complexity O(V+E) O(V+E)

If we already know that the

If we know that the target is close to the
When to use? staring point
target vertex is buried very
deep

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fi
Topological Sort

Topological Sort: Sorts given actions in such a way that if there is a dependency of one action
on another, then the dependent action always comes later than its parent action.

Buy
breakfast
Exercise fruits

Prepare
Breakfast
Bath

Wash
dishes
Breakfast

Work

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Topological Sort Algorithm
Stack

if a vertex depends on currentVertex: A B

Go to that vertex and
then come back to currentVertex
else B
Push currentVertex to Stack
C D
D

ABCDEHFG A
E
BACDEHFG C

E H F G
BDACEFGH
F

H
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Single Source Shortest Path Problem

A single source problem is about nding a path between a given vertex (called source) to all
other vertices in a graph such that the total distance between them (source and destination) is
minimum.
The problem:
- Five o ces in di erent cities.
- Travel costs between these cities are known.
- Find the cheapest way from head o ce to branches Paris
10 Rome
in di erent cities
Paris
Rome 5
10

5
London Barcelona 10
35
London Barcelona 10

Berlin
30
20 10
Berlin

10
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ff
ffi
ff
fi
ffi
Single Source Shortest Path Problem
- BFS
- Dijkstra’s Algorithm
- Bellman Ford

BFS - Breadth First Search

A
Level 1 A B

B C
Level 2 C D G

Level 3 E F

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BFS for SSSP

BFS
null
A
enqueue any starting vertex
A
while queue is not empty B
p = dequeue()
if p is unvisited
mark it visited B B
A
enqueue all adjacent unvisited vertices of p C D G
update parent of adjacent vertices to curVertex

A B C D G E F C D
E F

Queue A B C D G E F F F
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Why BFS not work with weighted graph

Graph Type BFS

Unweighted - undirected OK

Unweighted - directed OK

Positive - weighted - undirected X

Positive - weighted - directed X

Negative - weighted - undirected X

Negative - weighted - directed X

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Why BFS not work with weighted graph

10 50

A B C A

30 5 9 30
B 6 B
D E F G

7 20

H I

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Why does DFS not work with SSSP?

DFS has the tendency to go “as far as possible” from source, hence it can never nd “Shortest Path”

B C

D E F

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fi
Dijkstra’s Algorithm for SSSP

min min
B∞
Bv2
Bv 3 E∞
Ev5
Ev

2 1 4 9
min
A
Av0 6 D∞
Dv3
Dv G∞
Gv14
Gv

5 7

C∞
Cv5
Cv 8 F13
∞
Fv13
Fv
min min

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Dijkstra’s Algorithm with negative cycle

A path is called a negative cycle if:

There is a cycle (a cycle is a path of edges or vertices wherein a vertex is reachable from itself)
Total weight of cycle is a negative number

A 3
B
4
-6 1
6
E
1 2
C D

1 + 3 + (-6) = -2

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Dijkstra’s Algorithm with negative cycle

We cannot never nd a negative cycle in a graph

3 Path from A to B = 6 + 1 = -5
A B
= -5+3+(-6)+1 = -7
4
-6 = -7+3+(-6)+1 = -9
6 1
E = -9+3+(-6)+1 = -11
1 2
C D

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Bellman Ford Algorithm

Single Source Shortest Path Algorithm

Graph Type BFS Dijkstra Bellman Ford

Unweighted - undirected OK OK OK

Unweighted - directed OK OK OK

Positive - weighted - undirected X OK OK

Positive - weighted - directed X OK OK

Negative - weighted - undirected X OK OK

Negative - weighted - directed X OK OK

Negative Cycle X X OK

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Bellman Ford Algorithm

Bellman Ford algorithm is used to nd single source shortest path problem. If there is a
negative cycle it catches it and report its existence.

A 3
B
4
6 1
6
E
1 2
C D

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Bellman Ford Algorithm
∞ ∞
A 3 B
If the distance of destination vertex > (distance of
4
6 0 source vertex + weight between source and destination
6 1 vertex):
E
Update distance of destination vertex to (distance of
1 2
C D source vertex + weight between source and destination
∞ 2 ∞ vertex)

Edge Weight Distance Matrix

A->C 6
Vertex Distance
A->D 6
B->A 3 A ∞
C->D 1 B ∞
D->C 2 C ∞
D->B 1
D ∞
E->B 4
E->D 2 E 0

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Bellman Ford Algorithm

∞ 4∞E
A 3 B
If the distance of destination vertex > (distance of
4
6 0 source vertex + weight between source and destination
6 1 vertex):
E
Update distance of destination vertex to (distance of
1 2
C D source vertex + weight between source and destination
∞ 2 2∞E vertex)

Edge Weight Distance

Distance Matrix Matrix
A->C 6
Vertex Distance Iteration 1
A->D 6 Vertex Distance
Distance Parent
B->A 3 A ∞
A ∞ ∞ -
C->D 1 B ∞
B ∞ 4 E
D->C 2 C ∞
D->B 1 C ∞ ∞ -

E->B 4 DD ∞ ∞ 2 E
E->D 2 EE 0 0 0 -

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Bellman Ford Algorithm

7∞B 3
4DE
A 3 B
If the distance of destination vertex > (distance of
4
6 0 source vertex + weight between source and destination
6 1 vertex):
E
Update distance of destination vertex to (distance of
1 2
C D source vertex + weight between source and destination
4∞D 2 2E vertex)

Edge Weight Distance Distance

Matrix Matrix
A->C 6 Iteration
Iteration11 Iteration 2
A->D 6 Vertex Distance
Distance
Distance
Distance Parent
Parent Distance Parent
B->A 3
A ∞
∞ ∞∞ -- 4+3=7 B
C->D 1
B ∞
∞ 44 EE 2+1=3 D
D->C 2
D->B 1 C ∞
∞ ∞∞ -- 2+1=4 D

E->B 4 D ∞
∞ 22 EE 2 E
E->D 2 E 00 00 -- 0 -

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Bellman Ford Algorithm

6B
7 3D
A 3 B
If the distance of destination vertex > (distance of
4
6 0 source vertex + weight between source and destination
6 1 vertex):
E
Update distance of destination vertex to (distance of
1 2
C D source vertex + weight between source and destination
4D 2 2E vertex)

Edge Weight Distance Matrix

Distance Matrix
A->C 6 Iteration 1 Iteration
Iteration 22 Iteration 3
A->D 6 Vertex Distance
Distance Parent Distance Parent
Parent Distance Parent
B->A 3
A ∞ ∞ - 4+3=7 B
B 3+3=6 B
C->D 1
B ∞ 4 E 2+1=3 D
D 3 D
D->C 2
D->B 1 C ∞ ∞ - 2+1=4
2+1=3 D
D 4 D

E->B 4 D ∞ 2 E 2 EE 2 E
E->D 2 E 0 0 - 0 -- 0

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Bellman Ford Algorithm

6B 3D
A 3 B
If the distance of destination vertex > (distance of
4
6 0 source vertex + weight between source and destination
6 1 vertex):
E
Update distance of destination vertex to (distance of
1 2
C D source vertex + weight between source and destination
3D 2 2E vertex)

Edge Weight Distance Matrix

A->C 6 Iteration 1 Iteration 2 Iteration 3 Iteration 4
A->D 6 Vertex Distance
Distance Parent Distance Parent Distance Parent Distance Parent
B->A 3
A ∞ ∞ - 4+3=7 B 3+3=6 B 6 B
C->D 1
B ∞ 4 E 2+1=3 D 3 D 3 D
D->C 2
D->B 1 C ∞ ∞ - 2+2=4 D 4 D 4 D

E->B 4 D ∞ 2 E 2 E 2 E 2 E
E->D 2 E 0 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 -

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Bellman Ford Algorithm

Edge Weight Final Solution

A->C 6
Vertex Distance from E Path from E
A->D 6
B->A 3 A 6 E -> D -> B -> A
C->D 1 B 3 E -> D -> B
D->C 2 C 4 E -> D -> C
D->B 1
D 2 E -> D
E->B 4
E->D 2 E 0 0

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Bellman Ford Algorithm with negative cycle

∞ ∞
A 3 B
If the distance of destination vertex > (distance of
4
-6 0 source vertex + weight between source and destination
6 1 vertex):
E
Update distance of destination vertex to (distance of
1 2
C D source vertex + weight between source and destination
∞ 2 ∞ vertex)

Edge Weight Distance Matrix

A->C 6
Vertex Distance
A->D -6
B->A 3 A ∞
C->D 1 B ∞
D->C 2 C ∞
D->B 1
D ∞
E->B 4
E->D 2 E 0

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Bellman Ford Algorithm with negative cycle

∞ 4E
A 3 B
If the distance of destination vertex > (distance of
4
-6 0 source vertex + weight between source and destination
6 1 vertex):
E
Update distance of destination vertex to (distance of
1 2
C D source vertex + weight between source and destination
∞ 2 2E vertex)

Edge Weight Distance Matrix

A->C 6 Iteration 1
A->D -6 Vertex Distance
Distance Parent
B->A 3
A ∞ ∞ -
C->D 1
B ∞ 4 E
D->C 2
D->B 1 C ∞ ∞ -

E->B 4 D ∞ 2 E
E->D 2 E 0 0 -

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Bellman Ford Algorithm with negative cycle

7B 3D
A 3 B
If the distance of destination vertex > (distance of
4
-6 0 source vertex + weight between source and destination
6 1 vertex):
E
Update distance of destination vertex to (distance of
1 2
C D source vertex + weight between source and destination
4D 2 2E vertex)

Edge Weight Distance Matrix

A->C 6 Iteration 1 Iteration 2
A->D -6 Vertex Distance
Distance Parent Distance Parent
B->A 3
A ∞ ∞ - 4+3=7 B
C->D 1
B ∞ 4 E 2+1=3 D
D->C 2
D->B 1 C ∞ ∞ - 2+2=4 D

E->B 4 D ∞ 2 E 2 E
E->D 2 E 0 0 - 0 -

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Bellman Ford Algorithm with negative cycle

6B 3D
A 3 B
If the distance of destination vertex > (distance of
4
-6 0 source vertex + weight between source and destination
6 1 vertex):
E
Update distance of destination vertex to (distance of
1 2
C D source vertex + weight between source and destination
4D 2 1A vertex)

Edge Weight Distance Matrix

A->C 6 Iteration 1 Iteration 2 Iteration 3
A->D -6 Vertex Distance
Distance Parent Distance Parent Distance Parent
B->A 3
A ∞ ∞ - 4+3=7 B 3+3=6 B
C->D 1
B ∞ 4 E 2+1=3 D 3 D
D->C 2
D->B 1 C ∞ ∞ - 2+2=4 D 4 D

E->B 4 D ∞ 2 E 2 E 7+(-6)=1 A
E->D 2 E 0 0 - 0 - 0

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Bellman Ford Algorithm with negative cycle

Edge Weight Distance Matrix

A->C 6 Iteration 1 Iteration 2 Iteration 3 Iteration 4
A->D -6 Vertex Distance
Distance Parent Distance Parent Distance Parent Distance Parent
B->A 3
A ∞ ∞ - 4+3=7 B 3+3=6 B 6 B
C->D 1
B ∞ 4 E 2+1=3 D 3 D 3 D
D->C 2
D->B 1 C ∞ ∞ - 2+2=4 D 4 D 4 D

E->B 4 D ∞ 2 E 2 E 7+(-6)=1 A 6+(-6)=0 A

E->D 2 E 0 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 -

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Edge Weight
A->C 6

Bellman Ford Algorithm with negative cycle A->D -6

B->A 3
6B 3D C->D 1
A 3 B D->C 2
D->B 1
4
-6 0 E->B 4
6 1
E E->D 2
1 2 If the distance of destination vertex > (distance of
C D
4D 2 source vertex + weight between source and destination
0A
vertex):
Update distance of destination vertex to (distance of
source vertex + weight between source and destination
vertex)

Distance Matrix
Iteration 1 Iteration 2 Iteration 3 Iteration 4 Iteration 5
Vertex Distance
Distance Parent Distance Parent Distance Parent Distance Parent Distance Parent
A ∞ ∞ - 4+3=7 B 3+3=6 B 6 B 4 B
B ∞ 4 E 2+1=3 D 3 D 3 D 0 D
C ∞ ∞ - 2+2=4 D 4 D 4 D 0 D
D ∞ 2 E 2 E 7+(-6)=1 A 6+(-6)=0 A 1 A
E 0 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 -

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Bellman Ford Algorithm with negative cycle

Edge Weight Final Solution

A->C 6
Vertex Distance from E Path from E
A->D 6
B->A 3 A 6 E -> D -> B -> A
C->D 1 B 3 E -> D -> B
D->C 2 C 4 E -> D -> C
D->B 1
D 2 E -> D
E->B 4
E->D 2 E 0 0

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Why does Bellman Ford run V-1 times?

- If any node is achieved better distance in previous iteration, then that better distance is used to
improve distance of other vertices
- Identify worst case graph that can be given to us

∞
76 ∞
43
A 3 B
A
10 20 30 40
B C D E
4
-6 0
6 1
E
60
∞ 50
∞ 30
∞ 0
1 2 10 20 30
C D A B C D
∞ 2 ∞

A->B
B->C
C->D

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BFS vs Dijkstra vs Bellman Ford

Graph Type BFS Dijkstra Bellman Ford

Unweighted - undirected OK OK OK

Unweighted - directed OK OK OK

Positive - weighted - undirected X OK OK

Positive - weighted - directed X OK OK

Negative - weighted - undirected X OK OK

Negative - weighted - directed X OK OK

Negative Cycle X X OK

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BFS vs Dijkstra vs Bellman Ford

BFS Dijkstra Bellman Ford

Time complexity O(V2) O(V2) O(VE)
Space complexity O(E) O(V) O(V)
Implementation Easy Moderate Moderate
Limitation Not work for weighted graph Not work for negative cycle N/A
OK OK OK
Unweighted graph Use this as time complexity is good and Not use as implementation not Not use as time complexity
easy to implement easy
is bad

X OK OK
Weighted graph Use as time complexity is Not use as time complexity
Not supported
better than Bellman is bad

X X OK
Negative Cycle Use this as others not
Not supported Not supported
support

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All pair shortest path problem
What is single source shortest path?
A single source problem is about nding a path between a given vertex (called source) to all
other vertices in a graph such that the total distance between them (source and destination) is
minimum.

- Five o ces in di erent cities.

- Travel costs between these cities are known.
- Find the cheapest way from head o ce to branches Paris
10 Rome
in di erent cities
Paris
Rome 5
10

5
London Barcelona 10
35
London Barcelona 10

Berlin
30
20 10
Berlin

10
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All pair shortest path problem
All pair shortest path problem is about nding a path between every vertex to all other vertices
in a graph such that the total distance between them (source and destination) is minimum.

The problem:
- Five o ces in di erent cities.
- Travel costs between these cities are known.
- Find the cheapest way to reach each o ce from
every other o ce
Paris
10 Rome

5
35
London Barcelona 10

30
20
Berlin

10
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All pair shortest path problem
Paris Paris Paris
10 Rome 10 Rome 10 Rome

5 35 5 5

London Barcelona 10 London Barcelona 10 London Barcelona 10

20 30 20
Berlin Berlin Berlin

10 10

Paris Paris Paris

Rome Rome Rome

5 35 5 35 5 35
London Barcelona 10 London Barcelona 10 London Barcelona 10

20 20 20
Berlin Berlin Berlin

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Dry run for All pair shortest path problem
6
∞ ∞
3
4
A 3 Source Vertex E Path
B
A E->D->B->A
4
6 0
6 1 B E->D->B
E
1 2 C E->D->C
C D
∞
2 2 ∞
2 D E->D

E -
Dijkstra

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Dry run for All pair shortest path problem
4
∞ ∞
1
A 3 Source Vertex E Path Source Vertex D Path
B
A E->D->B->A A D->B->A
4
6 ∞
6 1 B E->D->B B D->B
E
1 2 C E->D->C C D->C
C D
∞
2 2 0 D E->D D -

E - E N/A
Dijkstra

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Dry run for All pair shortest path problem

A 3 Source Vertex E Path Source Vertex D Path

B
A E->D->B->A A D->B->A
4
6
6 1 B E->D->B B D->B
E
1 2 C E->D->C C D->C
C D
2 D E->D D -

E - E N/A
Dijkstra , BFS and Bellmand Ford

Source Vertex C Path Source Vertex B Path Source Vertex A Path

A C->D->B->A A B->A A -

B C->D->B B - B A->D->B

C - C B->A->C C A->D->C

D C->D D A->D D A->D

E N/A E N/A E N/A

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Floyd Warshall

A 8 Given Iteration 1
B
A B C D via A A B C D
4 A 0 8 ∞ 1 A 0 8 ∞ 1
1 1 B ∞ 0 1 ∞ B ∞ 0 1 ∞
2 C 4 ∞ 0 ∞ C 4 4+8=12 0 4+1=5

D C D ∞ 2 9 0 D ∞ 2 9 0
9

If D[u][v] > D[u][viaX] + D[viaX][v]:

D[u][v] = D[u][viaX] + D[viaX][v]

C -> B
If D[C][B] > D[C][A] + D[A][B]:
D[C][B] = D[C][A] + D[A][B]

∞ > 4 + 8 = 12

C -> D
If D[C][D] > D[C][A] + D[A][D]:
D[C][D] = D[C][A] + D[A][D]
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∞ > 4 + 1 = 5

Floyd Warshall

A 8 Given Iteration 1
B
A B C D via A A B C D
4 A 0 8 ∞ 1 A 0 8 ∞ 1
1 1 B ∞ 0 1 ∞ B ∞ 0 1 ∞
2 C 4 ∞ 0 ∞ C 4 4+8=12 0 4+1=5

D C D ∞ 2 9 0 D ∞ 2 9 0
9

If D[u][v] > D[u][viaX] + D[viaX][v]: Iteration 2

D[u][v] = D[u][viaX] + D[viaX][v] via B A B C D
A 0 8 8+1=9 1
A -> C
B ∞ 0 1 ∞
If D[A][C] > D[A][B] + D[B][C]: C 4 12 0 5
D[A][C] = D[A][B] + D[B][C] D ∞ 2 2+1=3 0

∞ > 8 + 1 = 9

D -> C
If D[D][C] > D[D][B] + D[B][C]:
D[D][C] = D[D][B] + D[B][C]
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9 > 2 + 1 = 3

Floyd Warshall

A 8 Given Iteration 1
B
A B C D via A A B C D
4 A 0 8 ∞ 1 A 0 8 ∞ 1
1 1 B ∞ 0 1 ∞ B ∞ 0 1 ∞
2 C 4 ∞ 0 ∞ C 4 4+8=12 0 4+1=5

D C D ∞ 2 9 0 D ∞ 2 9 0
9

If D[u][v] > D[u][viaX] + D[viaX][v]: Iteration 2 Iteration 3

D[u][v] = D[u][viaX] + D[viaX][v] via B A B C D via C A B C D
A 0 8 8+1=9 1 A 0 8 9 1
B ∞ 0 1 ∞ B 1+4=5 0 1 1+4+1
=6

C 4 12 0 5 C 4 12 0 5
D ∞ 2 2+1=3 0 D 3+4=7 2 3 0

Iteration 4 Final answer

via D A B C D A B C D
A 0 1+2=3 3+1=4 1 A 0 3 4 1
B 5 0 1 6 B 5 0 1 6
C 4 5+2=7 0 5 C 4 7 0 5
D 7 2 3 0 D 7 2 3 0 AppMillers
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Why Floyd Warshall algorithm?

A 8 Given Iteration 1 Iteration 2

B
A B C D via A A B C D via B A B C D
4 A 0 8 ∞ 1 A 0 8 ∞ 1 A 0 8 8+1=9 1
1 1 B ∞ 0 1 ∞ B ∞ 0 1 ∞ B ∞ 0 1 ∞
2 C 4 ∞ 0 ∞ C 4 4+8=12 0 4+1=5 C 4 12 0 5
D C D ∞ 2 9 0 D ∞ 2 9 0 D ∞ 2 2+1=3 0
9
Iteration 3 Iteration 4 Final answer
via C A B C D via D A B C D A B C D
A 0 8 9 1 A 0 1+2=3 3+1=4 1 A 0 3 4 1
E
B 1+4=5 0 1 1+4+1
B 5 0 1 6 B 5 0 1 6
=6

C 4 12 0 5 C 4 5+2=7 0 5 C 4 7 0 5
D 3+4=7 2 3 0 D 7 2 3 0 D 7 2 3 0

- The vertex is not reachable

- Two vertices are directly connected
This is the best solution
It can be improved via other vertex
- Two vertices are connected via other vertex
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Floyd Warshall negative cycle

A -8
B -8+1+4=-3

4
1 1
2
D C
9

- To go through cycle we need to go via negative cycle participating vertex at least twice

- FW never runs loop twice via same vertex

- Hence, FW can never detect a negative cycle

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Which algorithm to use for APSP?

Graph Type BFS Dijkstra Bellman Ford Floyd Warshall

Unweighted - undirected OK OK OK OK

Unweighted - directed OK OK OK OK

Positive - weighted - undirected X OK OK OK

Positive - weighted - directed X OK OK OK

Negative - weighted - undirected X OK OK OK

Negative - weighted - directed X OK OK OK

Negative Cycle X X OK X

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Which algorithm to use for APSP?

BFS Dijkstra Bellman Ford Floyd Warshall

Time complexity O(V3) O(V3) O(EV2) O(V3)

Space complexity O(EV) O(EV) O(V2) O(V2)

Implementation Easy Moderate Moderate Moderate

Not work for negative Not work for negative

Limitation Not work for weighted graph N/A
cycle cycle
OK OK OK OK
Unweighted graph Use this as time complexity is Not use as priority Not use as time
good and easy to implement Can be used
queue slows it
complexity is bad

X OK OK OK
Weighted graph Not use as time Can be preferred as
Not supported Can be used complexity is bad
implementation easy
X X OK X
Negative Cycle Use this as others not
Not supported Not supported No supported
support

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Minimum Spanning Tree
A Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) is a subset of the edges of connected, weighted and undirected graph which :
- Connects all vertices together
- No cycle
- Minimum total edge

Real life problem

- Connect ve island with bridges
- The cost of bridges between island varies based on di erent factors
- Which bridge should be constructed so that all islands are accessible and the cost is minimum

5 5

10 10

20 15 15
35
25
10 10

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Minimum Spanning Tree
Real life problem

35 20 15

25
10

Minimum spanning Tree Single source shortest path

5 5

10 10

15 20 15

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Disjoint Set

It is a data structure that keeps track of set of elements which are partitioned into a number of
disjoint and non overlapping sets and each sets have representative which helps in identifying
that sets.

- Make Set
- Union
- Find Set

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Disjoint Set
makeSet(N) : used to create initial set
union(x,y): merge two given sets
ndSet(x): returns the set name in which this element is there

A B C D E

union(A,B)
ndSet(B)
AB C D E

union(A, E)

ABE C D ndSet(E)

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Kruskal’s Algorithm
It is a greedy algorithm
It nds a minimum spanning tree for weighted undirected graphs in two ways
- Add increasing cost edges at each step
- Avoid any cycle at each step

A 5 B A 5 B
15 15

E 13 10 E
8 8
20 6 6
C D C D

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Kruskal’s Algorithm Pseudocode

Kruskal(G):
A 5 B
for each vertex:
    makeSet(v) 15
sort each edge in non decreasing order by weight
E 13 10
for each edge (u, v): 8
    if findSet(u) ≠ findSet(v):
    union(u, v) 20 6
    cost = cost + edge(u,v) C D

Cost = 0 +5 +6 +8 +15=34
A 5 B
15

E 8

6
C D

A
AB
ABCD
ABCDE B CD
C D E
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Time and Space complexity of Kruskal’s Algorithm

Kruskal(G):
for each vertex:
makeSet(v) O(v)
sort each edge in non decreasing order by weight O(eloge)

}
for each edge (u, v): O(e)
    if findSet(u) ≠ findSet(v):        O(1)
    union(u, v) O(ev)
O(v)
    cost = cost + edge(u,v) O(1)

Time complexity : O(V+ElogE+EV) = O(Elog(E))

Space complexity : O(V+E)

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Prims Algorithm
It is a greedy algorithm
It nds a minimum spanning tree for weighted undirected graphs in following ways
1. Take any vertex as a source set its weight to 0 and all other vertices’ weight to in nity
2. For every adjacent vertices if the current weight is more than current edge then we set it
to current edge
3. Then we mark current vertex as visited
4. Repeat these steps for all vertices in increasing order of weight

10 5
∞
10 5
∞
5 B D
B D
10 0
0
30
15 A
A 8

20
6 C E
C E
6 8
∞
15
20
6 ∞
8

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Kruskal vs Prim’s
Kruskal
- Concentrates on Edges
- Finalize edge in each iteration
A 5
5 5 A 5 B
A 5 B
A B A B B
15
15
E
10 8
E 13 8
8
C
6 D 6
20 C
6 D
C D
C
6 D

Prim’s
- Concentrates on Vertices
- Finalize Vertex in each iteration

A
5 A 5 A 5 A 5 A 5
B B B B B
15 15 15 15 15

E 13 10 E 13 10 E 13 10 E 13 10 E 13 10
8 8 8 8 8
20 20 20 20 20
C
6 D C
6 D C
6 D C
6 D C
6 D

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Kruskal vs Prim’s
Kruskal
- Concentrates on Edges
- Finalize edge in each iteration
A 5
5 5 A 5 B
A 5 B
A B A B B
15
15
E
10 8
E 13 8
8
C
6 D 6
20 C
6 D
C D
C
6 D

Prim’s
- Concentrates on Vertices
- Finalize Vertex in each iteration

A
5 A 5 A 5 A 5 A 5
B B B B B
15 15 15 15 15

E 13 10 E 13 10 E 13 10 E 13 10 E 13 10
8 8 8 8 8
20 20 20 20 20
C
6 D C
6 D C
6 D C
6 D C
6 D

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Kruskal vs Prim’s
Kruskal Applications

- Landing cables
- TV Network
- Tour Operations
- LAN Networks
- A network of pipes for drinking water or natural gas.
- An electric grid
- Single-link Cluster

Prim’s Applications

- Network for roads and Rail tracks connecting all the cities.
- Irrigation channels and placing microwave towers
- Designing a ber-optic grid or ICs.
- Traveling Salesman Problem.
- Cluster analysis.
- Path nding algorithms used in AI(Arti cial Intelligence).

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What is Greedy Algorithm?
- It is an algorithmic paradigm that builds the solution piece by piece
- In each step it chooses the piece that o ers most obvious and immediate bene t
- It ts perfectly for those solutions in which local optimal solutions lead to global solution

Global solution

Local solutions

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What is Greedy Algorithm?

- Insertion Sort
- Selection Sort
- Topological Sort
- Prim’s Algorithm
- Kruskal Algorithm

- Activity Selection Problem

- Coin change Problem
- Fractional Knapsack Problem

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Greedy Algorithms

- Insertion Sort
- Selection Sort
- Topological Sort
- Prim’s Algorithm
- Kruskal Algorithm

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Greedy Algorithms
Insertion Sort

Sorted array Unsorted array

5 3 4 7 2 8 6 9 1

Sorted array Unsorted array

2 3 4 5 7 8 6 9 1

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Greedy Algorithms
Selection Sort

Sorted array Unsorted array

5 7 4 3 8 6 1 9 2

Sorted array Unsorted array

1 2 3 4 8 6 5 9 7
min

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Greedy Algorithms
Topological Sort
Stack
A

A
ACEH E

C
H

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Greedy Algorithms
Prims Algorithm
It is a greedy algorithm
It nds a minimum spanning tree for weighted undirected graphs in following ways
1. Take any vertex as a source set its weight to 0 and all other vertices’ weight to in nity
2. For every adjacent vertices if the current weight is more than current edge then we set it
to current edge
3. Then we mark current vertex as visited
4. Repeat these steps for all vertices in increasing order of weight
10 5
∞
10 5
∞
5 B D
B D
10 0
0
30
15 A
A 8

20
6 C E
C E
6 8
∞
15
20
6 ∞
8

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Greedy Algorithms
Kruskal’s Algorithm

It is a greedy algorithm
It nds a minimum spanning tree for weighted undirected graphs in two ways
- Add increasing cost edges at each step
- Avoid any cycle at each step

A 5 B A 5 B
15 15

E 13 10 E
8 8
20 6 6
C D C D

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Activity selection problem
Given N number of activities with their start and end times. We need to select the maximum
number of activities that can be performed by a single person, assuming that a person can
only work on a single activity at a time.

Activity A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6
Start 0 3 1 5 5 8 2 Activities
Finish 6 4 2 8 7 9

Activity A3 A2 A1 A5 A4 A6
Start 1 3 0 5 5 8 4 Activities
Finish 2 4 6 7 8 9

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Activity selection problem

Sort activities based on finish time

Select first activity from sorted array and print it

For all remainin activities:

If the start time of this activity is greater or equal to the
finish time of previously selected activity then select this
activity and print it

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Coin Change Problem

You are given coins of di erent denominations and total amount of money. Find the minimum
number of coins that you need yo make up the given amount.
In nite supply of denominations : {1,2,5,10,20,50,100,1000}

Example 1

Total amount : 70

Answer: 2 —> 50 + 20 = 70

Example 2

Total amount : 122

Answer: 3 —> 100 + 20 + 2 = 121

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Coin Change Problem

You are given coins of di erent denominations and total amount of money. Find the minimum
number of coins that you need yo make up the given amount.

In nite supply of denominations : {1,2,5,10,20,50,100,1000}

Total amount : 2035

2035 - 1000 = 1035 Result : 1000 , 1000, 20 , 10, 5

1035 - 1000 = 35
35 - 20 = 15 Answer: 5
15 - 10 = 5
5-5=0

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Coin Change Problem

Find the biggest coin that is less than given total number

Add coin to the result and subtract coin from total number

If V is equal to zero:
Then print result
else:
Repeat Step 2 and 3

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Fractional Knapsack Problem

Given a set of items, each with a weight and a value, determine the number of each item to
include in a collection so that the total weight is less than or equal to a given limit and the
total value is as large as possible.

10 kg, Value : 20

20 kg, Value : 10

30 kg

10 kg, Value : 30

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Fractional Knapsack Problem
Given a set of items, each with a weight and a value, determine the number of each item to
include in a collection so that the total weight is less than or equal to a given limit and the
total value is as large as possible.

100 / 20 = 5 120 / 30 = 4 60 / 10 = 6

20 kg, Value : 100 30 kg, Value : 120 10 kg, Value : 60

100 + 120 = 220

60 + 100 + 120*2/3 = 240

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50 kg
Fractional Knapsack Problem
Given a set of items, each with a weight and a value, determine the number of each item to
include in a collection so that the total weight is less than or equal to a given limit and the
total value is as large as possible.

60 / 10 = 6 100 / 20 = 5 120 / 30 = 4

10 kg, Value : 60 20 kg, Value : 100 30 kg, Value : 120

100 + 120 = 220

60 + 100 + 120*2/3 = 240

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50 kg
Fractional Knapsack Problem

Calculate the density or ratio for each item

Sort items based on this ratio

Take items with the highest ratio sequentially until weight allows

Add the next item as much (fractional) as we can

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What is Divide and Conquer Algorithm?
Divide and conquer is an algorithm design paradigm which works by recursively breaking down a
problem into subproblems of similar type, until these become simple enough to be solved directly. The
solutions to the subproblems are then combined to give a solution to the original problem.

Example : Developing a website

Website

Module 1 Module 2 Module 3

Sub M1 Sub M2 Sub M3 Sub M4 Sub M5

Func 1 Func 1
Func 2 Func 2
Func 3 Func 3
Func 4 Func 4
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What is Divide and Conquer Algorithm?

Problem

Sub Problem Sub Problem

Subproblem Subproblem Subproblem Subproblem

Solution to Sub Problem Solution to Sub Problem

Solution to Problem

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Property of Divide and Conquer Algorithm

Optimal Substructure:
If any problem’s overall optimal solution can be constructed from the optimal solutions of its
subproblem then this problem has optimal substructure

Example: Fib(n) = Fib(n-1) + Fib(n-2)

Why we need it?

It is very e ective when the problem has optimal substructure property.

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Common Divide and Conquer Algorithms

Merge Sort

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Common Divide and Conquer Algorithms

Merge Sort

6 4 3 7 5 1 2

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Common Divide and Conquer Algorithms

Merge Sort

6 4 3 7 5 1 2

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Common Divide and Conquer Algorithms

Quick Sort

3 5 8 1 2 9 4 7 6

L L R R P

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Common Divide and Conquer Algorithms

Quick Sort

3 5 4 1 2 9 8 7 6

L LLR R P

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Common Divide and Conquer Algorithms

Quick Sort

3 5 4 1 2 6 8 7 9

L L R R P

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Common Divide and Conquer Algorithms

Quick Sort

1 2 4 3 5 6 8 7 9

L R LPP

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Common Divide and Conquer Algorithms

Quick Sort

1 2 3
4 3
4 5 6 8 7 9

L R P L LRR LPP

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Common Divide and Conquer Algorithms

Quick Sort

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 7
8 9

L R P

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Fibonacci Series
De nition : a series of numbers in which each number is the sum of the two preceding numbers. First
two numbers by de nition are 0 and 1.

Example : 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 ….

Fibonacci(N) = Fibonacci(N-1) + Fibonacci(N-2)

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Fibonacci Series
De nition : a series of numbers in which each number is the sum of the two preceding numbers. First
two numbers by de nition are 0 and 1.
Example : 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 ….

Fib(6)

Fib(4)
Fib(5)

Fib(4) Fib(3)
Fib(3) Fib(2)

Fib(3) Fib(2) Fib(4) Fib(3) Fib(2) Fib(1)

Fib(2) Fib(1)

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Fibonacci Series
De nition : a series of numbers in which each number is the sum of the two preceding numbers. First
two numbers by de nition are 0 and 1.

Example : 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 ….

Fibonacci(N) = Fibonacci(N-1) + Fibonacci(N-2)

Fibonacci(N):
If n < 1 return error message
If n = 1 return 0
If n = 2 return 1
Else
return Fibonacci(N-1) + Fibonacci(N-2)

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Number Factor
Problem Statement:
Given N, nd the number of ways to express N as a sum of 1, 3 and 4.

Example 1
- N=4
- Number of ways = 4
- Explanation : There are 4 ways we can express N. {4},{1,3},{3,1},{1,1,1,1}

Example 2
- N=5
- Number of ways = 6
- Explanation : There are 6 ways we can express N. {4,1},{1,4},{1,3,1},{3,1,1},{1,1,3},{1,1,1,1,1}

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Number Factor
Problem Statement:
Given N, nd the number of ways to express N as a sum of 1, 3 and 4.

Example:
- N=5
- Number of ways = 6
- Explanation : There are 6 ways we can express N. {4,1},{1,4},{1,3,1},{3,1,1},{1,1,3},{1,1,1,1,1}

f(4) {4}, {1,3}, {3,1}, {1,1,1,1}

f(4) + 1 {4, 1}, {1,3,1}, {3,1,1}, {1,1,1,1,1}

f(2) + 3 {1,1} {1,1,3}

f(1) + 4 {1} {1,4}

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Number Factor
Problem Statement:
Given N, nd the number of ways to express N as a sum of 1, 3 and 4.

NumberFactor(6)

NumberFactor(5) NumberFactor(3) NumberFactor(2)

NumberFactor(4) NumberFactor(2) NumberFactor(1)

AppMillers
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Number Factor
Problem Statement:
Given N, nd the number of ways to express N as a sum of 1, 3 and 4.

NumberFactor(N):
If N in (0,1,2) return 1
If N = 3 return 2
Else
return NumberFactor(N-1) + NumberFactor(N-3) + NumberFactor(N-4)

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House Robber
Problem Statement:
- Given N number of houses along the street with some amount of money
- Adjacent houses cannot be stolen
- Find the maximum amount that can be stolen

Example 1

6 7 1 30 8 2 4

Answer
- Maximum amount = 41
- Houses that are stolen : 7, 30, 4

Option1 = 6 + f(5)
Max(Option1, Option2)
Option2 = 0 + f(6)

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House Robber
Problem Statement:
- Given N number of houses along the street with some amount of money
- Adjacent houses cannot be stolen
- Find the maximum amount that can be stolen

maxValueHouse(0)

maxValueHouse(2) maxValueHouse(1)

maxValueHouse(4) maxValueHouse(3) maxValueHouse(3) maxValueHouse(2)

maxValueHouse(houses, currentHouse):
If currentHouse > length of houses
return 0
Else
stealFirstHouse = currentHouse + maxValueHouse(houses, currentHouse+2)
skipFirstHouse = maxValueHouse(houses, currentHouse+1)
return max(stealFirstHouse, skipFirstHouse)

AppMillers
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Convert String
Problem Statement:
- S1 and S2 are given strings
- Convert S2 to S1 using delete, insert or replace operations
- Find the minimum count of edit operations

Example 1

- S1 = “catch”
- S2 = “carch”
- Output = 1
- Explanation : Replace “r” with “t”

Example 2

- S1 = “table”
- S2 = “tbres”
- Output = 3
- Explanation : Insert “a” to second position, replace “r” with “l” and delete “s”

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Convert String
Problem Statement:
- S1 and S2 are given strings
- Convert S2 to S1 using delete, insert or replace operations
- Find the minimum count of edit operations

Example

- S1 = “table” Delete f(2,3)

- S2 = “tgable”

- S1 = “table” Insert f(3,2)

- S2 = “tble”

- S1 = “table” Replace f(3,3)

- S2 = “tcble”

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Convert String
Problem Statement:
- S1 and S2 are given strings
- Convert S2 to S1 using delete, insert or replace operations
- Find the minimum count of edit operations

findMinOperation(s1, s2, index1, index2):

If index1 == len(s1)
return len(s2)-index2
If index2 == len(s2)
return len(s1)-index1
If s1[index1] == s2[index2]
return findMinOperation(s1, s2, index1+1, index2+1)

Else
deleteOp = 1 + findMinOperation(s1, s2, index1, index2+1)
insertOp = 1 + findMinOperation(s1, s2, index1+1, index2)
replaceOp = 1 + findMinOperation(s1, s2, index1+1, index2+1)
return min(deleteOp, insertOp, replaceOp)

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Zero One Knapsack Problem

Problem Statement:
- Given the weights and pro ts of N items
- Find the maximum pro t within given capacity of C
- Items cannot be broken

Example 1

🥭Mango
🍎 🍊
Apple Orange
🍌 Banana
Weight : 3 Weight : 1 Weight : 2 Weight : 5
Pro t : 31 Pro t : 26 Pro t : 17 Pro t : 72

Knapsack Capacity : 7

Answer Combinations

- Mango (W:3, P:31) + Apple (W:1,P:26) + Orange (W:2, P:17) = W:6, Pro t:74
- Orange (W:2, P:17) + Banana (W:5,P:72) = W:7, Pro t:89
- Apple (W:1,P:26) + Banana (W:5,P:72) = W:6, Pro t:98

AppMillers
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fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
Zero One Knapsack Problem
Problem Statement:
- Given the weights and pro ts of N items
- Find the maximum pro t within given capacity of C
- Items cannot be broken

Example 1

🥭Mango
🍎 🍊
Apple Orange
🍌
Banana
Weight : 3 Weight : 1 Weight : 2 Weight : 5
Pro t : 31 Pro t : 26 Pro t : 17 Pro t : 72

Knapsack Capacity : 7

Subproblems:

Option1 = 31 + f(2,3,4)
Max(Option1, Option2)
Option2 = 0 + f(2,3,4)

AppMillers
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fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
Zero One Knapsack Problem
Problem Statement:
- Given the weights and pro ts of N items
- Find the maximum pro t within given capacity of C
- Items cannot be broken

zoKnapsack(items, capacity, currentIndex):

If capacity<=0 or currentIndex<0 or currentIndex>len(profits)
return 0
Elif currentItemWeight <= capacity
Profit1 = curentItemProfit + zoKnapsack(items, capacity- currentItemsWeight, nextItem)
Profit2 = zoKnapsack(items, capacity, nextItem)
return max(Profit1, Profit2)
Else
return 0

AppMillers
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fi
fi

The Longest Common Subsequence (LCS)

Problem Statement:
- S1 and S2 are given strings
- Find the length of the longest subsequence which is common to both strings
- Subsequence: a sequence that can be driven from another sequence by deleting some elements
without changing the order of them

ABCDE ACE ABCE

ADE ABDE
ACB

Example

- S1 = “elephant”
- S2 = “erepat”
- Output = 5
- Longest String : “eepat”

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The Longest Common Subsequence (LCS)
Problem Statement:
- S1 and S2 are given strings
- Find the length of the longest subsequence which is common to both strings
- Subsequence: a sequence that can be driven from another sequence by deleting some elements
without changing the order of them

Example

- S1 = “elephant”
- S2 = “erepat”
- Output = 5
- Longest String : “eepat”

Subproblems:

Option1 = 1 + f(2,8 : 2,7)

Option2 = 0 + f(3,8 : 2,7) Max(Option1, Option2, Option3)

Option3 = 0 + f(2,8 : 3,7)

Example

- S1 = “elephant”
- S2 = “erepat”
- Output = 5
- Longest String : “eepat”

findCLS(s1, s2, index1, index2):

If index1 == len(s1) or index2 == len(s2):
return 0
If s1[index1] == s2[index2]
return 1 + findCLS(s1, s2, index1+1, index2+1)

Else
op1 = findCLS(s1, s2, index1, index2+1)
op2 = findCLS(s1, s2, index1+1, index2)
return max(op1, op2)

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The Longest Palindromic Subsequence (LPS)

Problem Statement:
- S is a given string
- Find the longest palindromic subsequence (LPS)
- Subsequence: a sequence that can be driven from another sequence by deleting some elements
without changing the order of them
- Palindrome is a string that reads the same backward as well as forward

MADAM

Example 1

- S = “ELRMENMET”
- Output = 5
- LPS: “EMEME”

Example 2

- S = “AMEEWMEA”
- Output = 6
- LPS: “AMEEMA”

AppMillers
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The Longest Palindromic Subsequence (LPS)
Problem Statement:
- S is a given string
- Find the longest palindromic subsequence (LPS)
- Subsequence: a sequence that can be driven from another sequence by deleting some elements
without changing the order of them
- Palindrome is a string that reads the same backward as well as forward

Example 1

- S = “ELRMENMET”
- Output = 5
- LPS: “EMEME”

Subproblems:

Option1 = 2 + f(2,8)

Option2 = 0 + f(1,8) Max(Option1, Option2, Option3)

Option3 = 0 + f(2,9)

Example 1

- S = “ELRMENMET”
- Output = 5
- LPS: “EMEME”

findLPS(S, startIndex, endIndex):

If startIndex > endIndex:
return 0
If s1[startIndex] == s2[endIndex]
return 2 + findLPS(s, startIndex+1, endIndex+1)

Else
op1 = findCLS(s, startIndex, endIndex-1)
op2 = findCLS(s, startIndex+1, endIndex)
return max(op1, op2)

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The Longest Palindromic Substring (LPS)

Problem Statement:
- S is a given string
- Find the longest palindromic substring (LPS)
- Substring: contiguous sequence of characters within a string
- Palindrome is a string that reads the same backward as well as forward

Example 1

- S = “ABCCBUA”
- Output = 4
- LPS: “BCCB”

AppMillers
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The Longest Palindromic Substring (LPS)
Problem Statement:
- S is a given string
- Find the longest palindromic substring (LPS)
- Substring: contiguous sequence of characters within a string
- Palindrome is a string that reads the same backward as well as forward

Example

- S = “MAMDRDM”
- Output = 5
- LPS: “MDRDM”

Subproblems: If remaining string is palindromic also

Option1 = 2 + f(2,6)

Option2 = 0 + f(2,7) Max(Option1, Option2, Option3)

Option3 = 0 + f(1,6)

Example 1

- S = “ELRMENMET”
- Output = 5
- LPS: “EMEME”

findLPS(S, startIndex, endIndex):

If startIndex > endIndex:
return 0
If s1[startIndex] == s2[endIndex]
return 2 + findLPS(s, startIndex+1, endIndex+1)

Else
op1 = findCLS(s, startIndex, endIndex-1)
op2 = findCLS(s, startIndex+1, endIndex)
return max(op1, op2)

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Minimum cost to reach the last cell

Problem Statement:
- 2D Matrix is given
- Each cell has a cost associated with it for accessing
- We need to start from (0.0) cell and go till (n-1,n-1) cell
- We can go only to right or down cell from current cell
- Find the way in which the cost is minimum

Example

4 7 8 6 4 4 7 8 6 4

6 7 3 9 2 6 7 3 9 2

3 8 1 2 4 3 8 1 2 4

7 1 7 3 7 7 1 7 3 7

2 9 8 9 3 2 9 8 9 3

Min Cost : 36

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Minimum cost to reach the last cell
Problem Statement:
- 2D Matrix is given
- Each cell has a cost associated with it for accessing
- We need to start from (0.0) cell and go till (n-1,n-1) cell
- We can go only to right or down cell from current cell
- Find the way in which the cost is minimum

4 7 8 6 4

6 7 3 9 2

3 8 1 2 4

7 1 7 3 7

2 9 8 9 3

Subproblems:

Option1 = y + 9 +3 f(4,3)
Min(Option1, Option2)
Option2 = z + 7 + 3 f(3,4)

findMinCost(twoDArray, row, col):

If row == -1 or col == -1:
return inf
If row == 0 and col == 0:
return twoDArray[row][col]

Else
op1 = findMinCost(twoDArray, row-1, col)
op2 = findMinCost(twoDArray, row, col-1)
return cost[row][col] + min(op1, op2)

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Number of paths to reach the last cell with given cost

Example Total cost : 25

Answer 1 Answer 2
4 7 1 6 4 7 1 6 4 7 1 6

5 7 3 9 5 7 3 9 5 7 3 9

3 2 1 2 3 2 1 2 3 2 1 2

7 1 6 3 7 1 6 3 7 1 6 3

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Number of paths to reach the last cell with given cost
Problem Statement:
- 2D Matrix is given
- Each cell has a cost associated with it for accessing
- We need to start from (0.0) cell and go till (n-1,n-1) cell
- We can go only to right or down cell from current cell
- We are given total cost to reach the last cell
- Find the number of ways to reach end of matrix with given “total cost”

4 7 1 6

5 7 3 9

3 2 1 2

7 1 6 3

Subproblems:

Option1 = y + 2 = 22 f(3,4,22)
Sum(Option1, Option2)
Option2 = z + 6 = 22 f(4,3,22)

numberOfPaths(twoDArray, row, col, cost):

if cost < 0:
return 0
elif row == 0 and col == 0:
if twoDArray[0][0] - cost == 0:
return 1
else:
return 0
elif row == 0:
return numberOfPaths(twoDArray, 0, col - 1, cost - twoDArray[row][col])
elif col == 0:
return numberOfPaths(twoDArray, row-1, 0, cost - twoDArray[row][col])
else:
op1 = numberOfPaths(twoDArray, row-1, col, cost - twoDArray[row][col])
op2 = numberOfPaths(twoDArray, row, col-1, cost - twoDArray[row][col])
return op1+op2

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What is Dynamic Programming?

Dynamic Programming (DP) is an algorithmic technique for solving an optimization problem by
breaking it down into simpler subproblems and utilizing the fact that the optimal solution to the overall
problem depends upon the optimal solution to its subproblems

Example : 1

1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 7

1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 2 = 9

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What is Dynamic Programming?
Dynamic Programming (DP) is an algorithmic technique for solving an optimization problem by
breaking it down into simpler subproblems and utilizing the fact that the optimal solution to the overall
problem depends upon the optimal solution to its subproblems

Optimal Substructure:
If any problem’s overall optimal solution can be constructed from the optimal solutions of its
subproblem then this problem has optimal substructure

Example: Fib(n) = Fib(n-1) + Fib(n-2)

Overlapping Subproblem:
Subproblems are smaller versions of the original problem. Any problem has overlapping sub-problems if
nding its solution involves solving the same subproblem multiple times
Fib(4)

Fib(3) Fib(2)

Fib(2) Fib(1) Fib(1) Fib(0)

Fib(1) Fib(0)
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Top Down with Memoization
Solve the bigger problem by recursively nding the solution to smaller subproblems. Whenever we
solve a sub-problem, we cache its result so that we don’t end up solving it repeatedly if it’s called multiple
times. This technique of storing the results of already solved subproblems is called Memoization.

Example : 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 ….

Fibonacci(N) = Fibonacci(N-1) + Fibonacci(N-2)

Fibonacci(N):
If n < 1 return error message
If n = 1 return 0
If n = 2 return 1
Else
return Fibonacci(N-1) + Fibonacci(N-2)

Time complexity : O(cn)

Space complexity : O(n)

AppMillers
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fi
Top Down with Memoization
Solve the bigger problem by recursively nding the solution to smaller subproblems. Whenever we
solve a sub-problem, we cache its result so that we don’t end up solving it repeatedly if it’s called multiple
times. This technique of storing the results of already solved subproblems is called Memoization.

Example : 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 ….

Fibonacci(N) = Fibonacci(N-1) + Fibonacci(N-2)

Fib(6)

Fib(5) Fib(4)

Fib(4) Fib(3) Fib(3) Fib(2)

Fib(3) Fib(2) Fib(2) Fib(1) Fib(2) Fib(1)

Fib(2) Fib(1)

AppMillers
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fi
Top Down with Memoization
Solve the bigger problem by recursively nding the solution to smaller subproblems. Whenever we
solve a sub-problem, we cache its result so that we don’t end up solving it repeatedly if it’s called multiple
times. This technique of storing the results of already solved subproblems is called Memoization.

Example : 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 ….

Fibonacci(N) = Fibonacci(N-1) + Fibonacci(N-2)

Fib(6)

Fib(5) Fib(4)

Fib(4) Fib(3) Fib(3) Fib(2)

Fib(3) Fib(2) Fib(2) Fib(1) Fib(2) Fib(1)

Fib(2) Fib(1)

Example : 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 ….

Fibonacci(N) = Fibonacci(N-1) + Fibonacci(N-2)

Fibonacci(n):
if n < 1 return error message
if n = 1 return 0
if n = 2 return 1
if not n in memo:
memo[n] = Fibonacci(n-1, memo) + Fibonacci(n-2, memo)
return memo[n]

Time complexity : O(n)

Space complexity : O(n)

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Top Down with Memoization

Solve the bigger problem by recursively nding the solution to smaller subproblems. Whenever we
solve a sub-problem, we cache its result so that we don’t end up solving it repeatedly if it’s called multiple
times. This technique of storing the results of already solved subproblems is called Memoization.

Example : 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 ….

Fibonacci(N) = Fibonacci(N-1) + Fibonacci(N-2)

Fib(6)

Fib(5) Fib(4)

Fib(4) Fib(3) Fib(3) Fib(2)

Fib(3) Fib(2) Fib(2) Fib(1) Fib(2) Fib(1)

Fib(2) Fib(1)

Example : 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 ….

Fibonacci(N) = Fibonacci(N-1) + Fibonacci(N-2)

F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
0 1 F4 + F5 0 1 1 F2 + F3 F3 + F4 F4 + F5

F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
0 1 F3 + F4 F4 + F5 0 1 1 2 F3 + F4 F4 + F5

F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
0 1 F2 + F3 F3 + F4 F4 + F5 0 1 1 2 3 F4 + F5

F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
0 1 F1 + F2 F2 + F3 F3 + F4 F4 + F5 0 1 1 2 3 5

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Bottom Up with Tabulation
Tabulation is the opposite of the top-down approach and avoids recursion. In this approach, we solve the
problem “bottom-up” (i.e. by solving all the related subproblems rst). This is done by lling up a table.
Based on the results in the table, the solution to the top/original problem is then computed.

Example : 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 ….

Fibonacci(N) = Fibonacci(N-1) + Fibonacci(N-2)

F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
0 1 F4 + F5 0 1 1 F2 + F3 F3 + F4 F4 + F5

F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
0 1 F3 + F4 F4 + F5 0 1 1 2 F3 + F4 F4 + F5

F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
0 1 F2 + F3 F3 + F4 F4 + F5 0 1 1 2 3 F4 + F5

F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
0 1 F1 + F2 F2 + F3 F3 + F4 F4 + F5 0 1 1 2 3 5

AppMillers
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fi
fi
Bottom Up with Tabulation
Tabulation is the opposite of the top-down approach and avoids recursion. In this approach, we solve the
problem “bottom-up” (i.e. by solving all the related subproblems rst). This is done by lling up a table.
Based on the results in the table, the solution to the top/original problem is then computed.

Example : 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 ….

Fibonacci(N) = Fibonacci(N-1) + Fibonacci(N-2)

F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
0 1 F1 + F2 0 1 1 2 F3 + F4

F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
0 1 1 0 1 1 2 3

F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
0 1 1 F2 + F3 0 1 1 2 3 F4 + F5

F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
0 1 1 2 0 1 1 2 3 5

Example : 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 ….

Fibonacci(N) = Fibonacci(N-1) + Fibonacci(N-2)

def fibonacciTab(n):
tb = [0, 1]
for i in range(2, n + 1):
tb.append(tb[i - 1] + tb[i - 2])
return tb[n-1]

Time complexity : O(n)

Space complexity : O(n)

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Top Down vs Bottom Up

Problem Divide and Conquer Top Down Bottom Up

Fibonacci numbers O(cn) O(n) O(n)

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Top Down vs Bottom Up

Top Down Bottom Up

Easy to come up with solution as it Di cult to come up with

Easyness is extension of divide and conquer solution

Runtime Slow Fast

Unnecessary use of stack

Space e ciency Stack is not used
space

When to use Need a quick solution Need an e cient solution

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ffi
ffi
ffi
Is Merge Sort Dynamic Programming?
1.Does it have Optimal Substructure property?
2.Does it have Overlapping Subproblems property?

6 4 3 7 5 1 2

6 4 3 7 5 1

4 6 3 7 1 5 2

3 4 6 7 1 2 5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Where does the name of DP come from?

Dynamic Programming?

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Dynamic Programming - Number Factor problem
Problem Statement:
Given N, nd the number of ways to express N as a sum of 1, 3 and 4.

Example 1
- N=4
- Number of ways = 4
- Explanation : There are 4 ways we can express N. {4},{1,3},{3,1},{1,1,1,1}

Example 2
- N=5
- Number of ways = 6
- Explanation : There are 6 ways we can express N. {4,1},{1,4},{1,3,1},{3,1,1},{1,1,3},{1,1,1,1,1}

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Dynamic Programming - Number Factor problem
Problem Statement:
Given N, nd the number of ways to express N as a sum of 1, 3 and 4.

NumberFactor(N):
If N in (0,1,2) return 1
If N = 3 return 2
Else
return NumberFactor(N-1) + NumberFactor(N-3) + NumberFactor(N-4)

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Dynamic Programming - Number Factor problem

Problem Statement:
Given N, nd the number of ways to express N as a sum of 1, 3 and 4.

NumberFactor(8)

NumberFactor(7) NumberFactor(5) NumberFactor(4)

NumberFactor(6) NumberFactor(4) NumberFactor(3)

NumberFactor(4) NumberFactor(2) NumberFactor(1)

NumberFactor(3) NumberFactor(1) NumberFactor(0)

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Dynamic Programming - Number Factor problem
Problem Statement:
Given N, nd the number of ways to express N as a sum of 1, 3 and 4.

NumberFactor(8)

NumberFactor(7) NumberFactor(5) NumberFactor(4)

NumberFactor(6) NumberFactor(4) NumberFactor(3)

NumberFactor(4) NumberFactor(2) NumberFactor(1)

NumberFactor(3) NumberFactor(1) NumberFactor(0)

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Dynamic Programming - Number Factor problem
Problem Statement:
Given N, nd the number of ways to express N as a sum of 1, 3 and 4.

NumberFactor(N):

If N in (0,1,2) return 1
If N = 3 return 2

Else
rec1 = NumberFactor(N-1)
rec2 = NumberFactor(N-3)
rec3 = NumberFactor(N-4)

return rec1 + rec2 + rec3

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Dynamic Programming - Number Factor problem

Problem Statement:
Given N, nd the number of ways to express N as a sum of 1, 3 and 4.

NumberFactor(N, dp):

If N in (0,1,2) return 1
If N = 3 return 2

Else
rec1 = NumberFactor(N-1)
rec2 = NumberFactor(N-3)
rec3 = NumberFactor(N-4)

return rec1 + rec2 + rec3

AppMillers
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Dynamic Programming - Number Factor problem

Problem Statement:
Given N, nd the number of ways to express N as a sum of 1, 3 and 4.

NumberFactor(N, dp):

If N in (0,1,2) return 1
If N = 3 return 2
Elif N in dp return dp[N]
Else
rec1 = NumberFactor(N-1)
rec2 = NumberFactor(N-3)
rec3 = NumberFactor(N-4)

return rec1 + rec2 + rec3

AppMillers
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Dynamic Programming - Number Factor problem

Problem Statement:
Given N, nd the number of ways to express N as a sum of 1, 3 and 4.

NumberFactor(N, dp):

If N in (0,1,2) return 1
If N = 3 return 2
Elif N in dp return dp[N]
Else
rec1 = NumberFactor(N-1)
rec2 = NumberFactor(N-3)
rec3 = NumberFactor(N-4)
dp[N] = rec1 + rec2 + rec3

AppMillers
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Dynamic Programming - Number Factor problem

Problem Statement:
Given N, nd the number of ways to express N as a sum of 1, 3 and 4.

NumberFactor(N, dp):

If N in (0,1,2) return 1
If N = 3 return 2
Elif N in dp return dp[N]
Else
rec1 = NumberFactor(N-1)
rec2 = NumberFactor(N-3)
rec3 = NumberFactor(N-4)
dp[N] = rec1 + rec2 + rec3
return dp[N]

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Dynamic Programming - Number Factor problem

Problem Statement:
Given N, nd the number of ways to express N as a sum of 1, 3 and 4.

NumberFactor(N, dp): Step 1

If N in (0,1,2) return 1
If N = 3 return 2
Elif N in dp return dp[N] Step 2
Else
rec1 = NumberFactor(N-1)
rec2 = NumberFactor(N-3)
rec3 = NumberFactor(N-4)
dp[N] = rec1 + rec2 + rec3 Step 3
return dp[N] Step 4

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Dynamic Programming - Number Factor problem

Problem Statement:
Given N, nd the number of ways to express N as a sum of 1, 3 and 4.

Top Down Approach

NF(0) NF(1) NF(2) NF(3) NF(4) NF(5) NF(6) NF(7) NF(0) NF(1) NF(2) NF(3) NF(4) NF(5) NF(6) NF(7)
0 1 1 2 NF6+NF4+NF3 0 1 1 2 2+1+1=4 NF4+NF2+NF1 NF5+NF3+NF2 NF6+NF4+NF3

NF(0) NF(1) NF(2) NF(3) NF(4) NF(5) NF(6) NF(7) NF(0) NF(1) NF(2) NF(3) NF(4) NF(5) NF(6) NF(7)

0 1 1 2 NF5+NF3+NF2 NF6+NF4+NF3 0 1 1 2 2+1+1=4 4+1+1=6 NF5+NF3+NF2 NF6+NF4+NF3

NF(0) NF(1) NF(2) NF(3) NF(4) NF(5) NF(6) NF(7) NF(0) NF(1) NF(2) NF(3) NF(4) NF(5) NF(6) NF(7)
0 1 1 2 NF4+NF2+NF1 NF5+NF3+NF2 NF6+NF4+NF3 0 1 1 2 2+1+1=4 4+1+1=6 6+2+1=9 NF6+NF4+NF3

NF(0) NF(1) NF(2) NF(3) NF(4) NF(5) NF(6) NF(7) NF(0) NF(1) NF(2) NF(3) NF(4) NF(5) NF(6) NF(7)

0 1 1 2 NF3+NF2+NF0 NF4+NF2+NF1 NF5+NF3+NF2 NF6+NF4+NF3 0 1 1 2 2+1+1=4 4+1+1=6 6+2+1=9 9+4+2=15

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fi
Dynamic Programming - Number Factor problem
Problem Statement:
Given N, nd the number of ways to express N as a sum of 1, 3 and 4.

Bottom Up Approach

NF(0) NF(1) NF(2) NF(3) NF(4) NF(5) NF(6) NF(7) NF(0) NF(1) NF(2) NF(3) NF(4) NF(5) NF(6) NF(7)
0 1 1 2 NF3+NF2+NF0 0 1 1 2 2+1+1=4 NF4+NF2+NF1 NF6+NF3+NF2 NF6+NF4+NF3

NF(0) NF(1) NF(2) NF(3) NF(4) NF(5) NF(6) NF(7) NF(0) NF(1) NF(2) NF(3) NF(4) NF(5) NF(6) NF(7)

0 1 1 2 2+1+1=4 NF4+NF2+NF1 0 1 1 2 2+1+1=4 4+1+1=6 NF6+NF3+NF2 NF6+NF4+NF3

NF(0) NF(1) NF(2) NF(3) NF(4) NF(5) NF(6) NF(7) NF(0) NF(1) NF(2) NF(3) NF(4) NF(5) NF(6) NF(7)
0 1 1 2 NF3+NF2+NF0 NF4+NF2+NF1 NF6+NF3+NF2 0 1 1 2 2+1+1=4 4+1+1=6 6+2+1=9 NF6+NF4+NF3

NF(0) NF(1) NF(2) NF(3) NF(4) NF(5) NF(6) NF(7) NF(0) NF(1) NF(2) NF(3) NF(4) NF(5) NF(6) NF(7)

0 1 1 2 NF3+NF2+NF0 NF4+NF2+NF1 NF6+NF3+NF2 NF6+NF4+NF3 0 1 1 2 2+1+1=4 4+1+1=6 6+2+1=9 9+4+2=15

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fi
Dynamic Programming - Number Factor problem
Problem Statement:
Given N, nd the number of ways to express N as a sum of 1, 3 and 4.

Bottom Up Approach

def numberFactor(n):
tb = [1,1,1,2]
for i in range(4, n+1):
tb.append(tb[i-1]+tb[i-3]+tb[i-4])
return tb[n]

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fi

House Robber
Problem Statement:
- Given N number of houses along the street with some amount of money
- Adjacent houses cannot be stolen
- Find the maximum amount that can be stolen

Example 1

6 7 1 30 8 2 4

Answer
- Maximum amount = 41
- Houses that are stolen : 7, 30, 4

Option1 = 6 + f(5)
Max(Option1, Option2)
Option2 = 0 + f(6)

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House Robber
Problem Statement:
- Given N number of houses along the street with some amount of money
- Adjacent houses cannot be stolen
- Find the maximum amount that can be stolen

maxValueHouse(0)

maxValueHouse(2) maxValueHouse(1)

maxValueHouse(4) maxValueHouse(3) maxValueHouse(3) maxValueHouse(2)

maxValueHouse(0)

maxValueHouse(2) maxValueHouse(1)

maxValueHouse(4) maxValueHouse(3) maxValueHouse(3) maxValueHouse(2)

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House Robber
Problem Statement:
- Given N number of houses along the street with some amount of money
- Adjacent houses cannot be stolen
- Find the maximum amount that can be stolen

maxValueHouse(houses, currentHouse, tempDict): Step 1

If currentHouse > length of houses
return 0
Else
stealFirstHouse = currentHouse + maxValueHouse(houses, currentHouse+2)
skipFirstHouse = maxValueHouse(houses, currentHouse+1)
return max(stealFirstHouse, skipFirstHouse)

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House Robber
Problem Statement:
- Given N number of houses along the street with some amount of money
- Adjacent houses cannot be stolen
- Find the maximum amount that can be stolen

maxValueHouse(houses, currentHouse, tempDict): Step 1

If currentHouse > length of houses
return 0
Else
If currentHouse not in tempDict: Step 2
stealFirstHouse = currentHouse + maxValueHouse(houses, currentHouse+2)
skipFirstHouse = maxValueHouse(houses, currentHouse+1)
return max(stealFirstHouse, skipFirstHouse)

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House Robber
Problem Statement:
- Given N number of houses along the street with some amount of money
- Adjacent houses cannot be stolen
- Find the maximum amount that can be stolen

maxValueHouse(houses, currentHouse, tempDict): Step 1

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House Robber
Top Down Approach
Problem Statement:
- Given N number of houses along the street with some amount of money
- Adjacent houses cannot be stolen
- Find the maximum amount that can be stolen

H0 H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H5
6 7 1 30 8 2 4
HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6)
max(H0+HR2, HR1)

HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6)

max(H0+HR2, HR1) max(H1+HR3, HR2)

HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6)

max(H0+HR2, HR1) max(H1+HR3, HR2) max(H2+HR4, HR3)

HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6)

max(H0+HR2, HR1) max(H1+HR3, HR2) max(H2+HR4, HR3) max(H3+HR5, HR4)

HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6)

max(H0+HR2, HR1) max(H1+HR3, HR2) max(H2+HR4, HR3) max(H3+HR5, HR4) max(H4+HR6, HR5)

HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6)

max(H0+HR2, HR1) max(H1+HR3, HR2) max(H2+HR4, HR3) max(H3+HR5, HR4) max(H4+HR6, HR5) max(H5+HR7, HR6)

HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6)

max(H0+HR2, HR1) max(H1+HR3, HR2) max(H2+HR4, HR3) max(H3+HR5, HR4) max(H4+HR6, HR5) max(H5+HR7, HR6) max(H6+HR8, HR7)
House Robber
Top Down Approach
Problem Statement:
- Given N number of houses along the street with some amount of money
- Adjacent houses cannot be stolen
- Find the maximum amount that can be stolen

H0 H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H5
6 7 1 30 8 2 4
HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6)
max(H0+HR2, HR1) max(H1+HR3, HR2) max(H2+HR4, HR3) max(H3+HR5, HR4) max(H4+HR6, HR5) max(H5+HR7, HR6) max(H6+HR8, HR7)

HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6)

max(H0+HR2, HR1) max(H1+HR3, HR2) max(H2+HR4, HR3) max(H3+HR5, HR4) max(H4+HR6, HR5) max(H5+HR7, HR6) 4

HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6)

max(H0+HR2, HR1) max(H1+HR3, HR2) max(H2+HR4, HR3) max(H3+HR5, HR4) max(H4+HR6, HR5) max(2+0, 4)=4 4

HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6)

max(H0+HR2, HR1) max(H1+HR3, HR2) max(H2+HR4, HR3) max(H3+HR5, HR4) max(8+4,4)=12 4 4

HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6)

max(H0+HR2, HR1) max(H1+HR3, HR2) max(H2+HR4, HR3) max(H3+HR5, HR4) 12 4 4

HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6)

max(H0+HR2, HR1) max(H1+HR3, HR2) max(H2+HR4, HR3) 34 12 4 4

HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6)

41 41 34 34 12 4 4
House Robber
Bottom Up Approach
Problem Statement:
- Given N number of houses along the street with some amount of money
- Adjacent houses cannot be stolen
- Find the maximum amount that can be stolen

H0 H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H5
6 7 1 30 8 2 4

HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6) HR(7) HR(8)

max(H0+HR2, HR1) max(H1+HR3, HR2) max(H2+HR4, HR3) max(H3+HR5, HR4) max(H4+HR6, HR5) max(H5+HR7, HR6) max(H6+HR8, HR7) 0 0

HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6) HR(7) HR(8)

max(H0+HR2, HR1) max(H1+HR3, HR2) max(H2+HR4, HR3) max(H3+HR5, HR4) max(H4+HR6, HR5) max(H5+HR7, HR6) 4 0 0

HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6) HR(7) HR(8)

max(H0+HR2, HR1) max(H1+HR3, HR2) max(H2+HR4, HR3) max(H3+HR5, HR4) max(H4+HR6, HR5) 4 4 0 0

HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6) HR(7) HR(8)

max(H0+HR2, HR1) max(H1+HR3, HR2) max(H2+HR4, HR3) max(H3+HR5, HR4) 12 4 4 0 0

HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6) HR(7) HR(8)

max(H0+HR2, HR1) max(H1+HR3, HR2) max(H2+HR4, HR3) 34 12 4 4 0 0

HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6) HR(7) HR(8)

max(H0+HR2, HR1) max(H1+HR3, HR2) 34 34 12 4 4 0 0

HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6) HR(7) HR(8)

max(H0+HR2, HR1) 41 34 34 12 4 4 0 0

HR(0) HR(1) HR(2) HR(3) HR(4) HR(5) HR(6) HR(7) HR(8)

41 41 34 34 12 4 4 0 0
House Robber
Problem Statement:
- Given N number of houses along the street with some amount of money
- Adjacent houses cannot be stolen
- Find the maximum amount that can be stolen

Bottom Up Approach

def houseRobberBU(houses, currentIndex):

tempAr = [0]*(len(houses)+2)
for i in range(len(houses)-1, -1, -1):
tempAr[i] = max(houses[i]+tempAr[i+2], tempAr[i+1])
return tempAr[0]

Convert String
Problem Statement:
- S1 and S2 are given strings
- Convert S2 to S1 using delete, insert or replace operations
- Find the minimum count of edit operations

Example 1

- S1 = “catch”
- S2 = “carch”
- Output = 1
- Explanation : Replace “r” with “t”

Example 2

- S1 = “table”
- S2 = “tbres”
- Output = 3
- Explanation : Insert “a” to second position, replace “r” with “l” and delete “s”

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Convert String
Problem Statement:
- S1 and S2 are given strings
- Convert S2 to S1 using delete, insert or replace operations
- Find the minimum count of edit operations

findMinOperation(s1, s2, index1, index2):

If index1 == len(s1)
return len(s2)-index2
If index2 == len(s2)
return len(s1)-index1
If s1[index1] == s2[index2]
return findMinOperation(s1, s2, index1+1, index2+1)

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Convert String
Problem Statement:
- S1 and S2 are given strings
- Convert S2 to S1 using delete, insert or replace operations
- Find the minimum count of edit operations

minOper(0,0)

minOper(1,0) minOper(0,1) minOper(1,1)

minOper(2,0) minOper(1,1) minOper(2,1)

minOper(1,1) minOper(0,2) minOper(1,2)

minOper(2,1) minOper(1,2) minOper(2,2)

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Convert String
Problem Statement:
- S1 and S2 are given strings
- Convert S2 to S1 using delete, insert or replace operations
- Find the minimum count of edit operations

minOper(0,0)

minOper(1,0) minOper(0,1) minOper(1,1)

minOper(2,0) minOper(1,1) minOper(2,1)

minOper(1,1) minOper(0,2) minOper(1,2)

minOper(2,1) minOper(1,2) minOper(2,2)

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Convert String
Problem Statement:
- S1 and S2 are given strings
- Convert S2 to S1 using delete, insert or replace operations
- Find the minimum count of edit operations
Top Down Approach
def findMinOperation(s1, s2, index1, index2, tempDict): Step 1
if index1 == len(s1):
return len(s2)-index2
if index2 == len(s2):
return len(s1)-index1
if s1[index1] == s2[index2]:
return findMinOperation(s1, s2, index1+1, index2+1, tempDict)
else:
dictKey = str(index1)+str(index2)
if dictKey not in tempDict:
Step 2
deleteOp = 1 + findMinOperation(s1, s2, index1, index2+1, tempDict)
insertOp = 1 + findMinOperation(s1, s2, index1+1, index2, tempDict)
replaceOp = 1 + findMinOperation(s1, s2, index1+1, index2+1, tempDict)
tempDict[dictKey] = min (deleteOp, insertOp, replaceOp) Step 3
return tempDict[dictKey] Step 4

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Convert String
Problem Statement:
- S1 and S2 are given strings
- Convert S2 to S1 using delete, insert or replace operations
- Find the minimum count of edit operations
Bottom Up Approach
def findMinOperationBU(s1, s2, tempDict):
for i1 in range(len(s1)+1):
dictKey = str(i1)+'0'
tempDict[dictKey] = i1
for i2 in range(len(s2)+1):
dictKey = '0'+str(i2)
tempDict[dictKey] = i2

for i1 in range(1, len(s1)+1):

for i2 in range(1, len(s2)+1):
if s1[i1-1] == s2[i2-1]:
dictKey = str(i1)+str(i2)
dictKey1 = str(i1-1)+str(i2-1)
tempDict[dictKey] = tempDict[dictKey1]
else:
dictKey = str(i1)+str(i2)
dictKeyD = str(i1-1)+str(i2)
dictKeyI = str(i1)+str(i2-1)
dictKeyR = str(i1-1)+str(i2-1)
tempDict[dictKey] = 1 + min(tempDict[dictKeyD], min(tempDict[dictKeyI],tempDict[dictKeyR]))
dictKey = str(len(s1))+str(len(s2))
return tempDict[dictKey]

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Zero One Knapsack Problem

Problem Statement:
- Given the weights and pro ts of N items
- Find the maximum pro t within given capacity of C
- Items cannot be broken

Example 1

🥭Mango
🍎 🍊
Apple Orange
🍌 Banana
Weight : 3 Weight : 1 Weight : 2 Weight : 5
Pro t : 31 Pro t : 26 Pro t : 17 Pro t : 72

Knapsack Capacity : 7

Answer Combinations

- Mango (W:3, P:31) + Apple (W:1,P:26) + Orange (W:2, P:17) = W:6, Pro t:74
- Orange (W:2, P:17) + Banana (W:5,P:72) = W:7, Pro t:89
- Apple (W:1,P:26) + Banana (W:5,P:72) = W:6, Pro t:98

Example 1

🥭Mango
🍎 🍊
Apple Orange
🍌
Banana
Weight : 3 Weight : 1 Weight : 2 Weight : 5
Pro t : 31 Pro t : 26 Pro t : 17 Pro t : 72

Knapsack Capacity : 7

Subproblems:

Option1 = 31 + f(2,3,4)
Max(Option1, Option2)
Option2 = 0 + f(2,3,4)

zoKnapsack(items, capacity, currentIndex):

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fi
fi

Zero One Knapsack Problem

Problem Statement:
- Given the weights and pro ts of N items
- Find the maximum pro t within given capacity of C
- Items cannot be broken

Knap(7,0)

Knap(4,1) Knap(7,1)

Knap(3,2) Knap(4,2) Knap(6,2) Knap(7,2)

Base Knap(3,3)
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Zero One Knapsack Problem
Problem Statement:
- Given the weights and pro ts of N items
- Find the maximum pro t within given capacity of C
- Items cannot be broken

Top Down Approach

def zoKnapsack(items, capacity, currentIndex, tempDict): Step 1
dictKey = str(currentIndex) + str(capacity)
if capacity <=0 or currentIndex < 0 or currentIndex >= len(items):
return 0
elif dictKey in tempDict:
return tempDict[currentIndex]
Step 2
elif items[currentIndex].weight <= capacity:
profit1 = items[currentIndex].profit + zoKnapsack(items, capacity-items[currentIndex].weight, currentIndex+1, tempDict)
profit2 = zoKnapsack(items, capacity, currentIndex+1, tempDict)
tempDict[dictKey] = max(profit1, profit2) Step 3
return tempDict[dictKey] Step 4
else:
return 0

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Zero One Knapsack Problem

Problem Statement:
- Given the weights and pro ts of N items
- Find the maximum pro t within given capacity of C
- Items cannot be broken

Bottom Up Approach

def zoKnapsackBU(profits, weights, capacity):

if capacity <= 0 or len(profits) == 0 or len(weights) != len(profits):
return 0
numberOfRows = len(profits) + 1
dp = [[0 for i in range(capacity+2)] for j in range(numberOfRows)]
for row in range(numberOfRows-2, -1, -1):
for column in range(1, capacity+1):
profit1 = 0
profit2 = 0
if weights[row] <= column:
profit1 = profits[row] + dp[row + 1][column - weights[row]]
profit2 = dp[row + 1][column]
dp[row][column] = max(profit1, profit2)
return dp[0][capacity]

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A Recipe for Problem Solving

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A Recipe for Problem Solving

Algorithm : is a set of steps fo accomplish a certain task

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A Recipe for Problem Solving

💣
5 STEPS FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

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A Recipe for Problem Solving

UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM

EXPLORE EXAMPLES

BREAK IT DOWN

SOLVE / SIMPLIFY

LOOK BACK REFACTOR

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Step 1 - UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM

1. Can we restate the problem in our own words?

2. What are the inputs that go into the problem?

3. What are the outputs that come from the problem?

4. Can the outputs be determined from the inputs? In

other words do we have enough information to solve this
problem?

5. What should I label the important piece of data that

are the part of a problem?

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Step 1 - UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM

Write a function that takes two numbers and returns their sum

1. Can we restate the problem in our own words?

Implement addition

2. What are the inputs that go into the problem?

Integer? Float? Or?

3. What are the outputs that come from the problem?

Integer? Float? Or?

4. Can the outputs be determined from the inputs? In other words do

we have enough information to solve this problem?

Yes

5. What should I label the important piece of data that are the part of a
problem?

Add, Sum AppMillers

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A Recipe for Problem Solving

UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM

EXPLORE EXAMPLES

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Step 2 - EXPLORE EXAMPLES

1. Start with simple examples

2. Progress to more complex examples

3. Explore examples with empty

4. Explore the examples with invalid inputs

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Step 2 - EXPLORE EXAMPLES

Write a function with takes in a string and

returns count of each character in the string

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Step 3 - BREAK IT DOWN

Write out the steps that you need to take

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SOLVE / SIMPLIFY

Solve the Problem

If you cannot…
Simplify the Problem

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SOLVE / SIMPLIFY

Simplify the Problem

• Find the core dif culty

• Temporarily ignore that dif culty
• Write a simpli ed solution
• Then incorporate that dif culty

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fi
fi
fi
fi
LOOK BACK REFACTOR

• Can we check the result?

• Can we drive the result differently?
• Can we understand it at a glance?
• Can we use the result or method for some other
problem?
• Can you improve the performance of your
solution?
• How other people solve this problem?

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Summarize
UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM

EXPLORE EXAMPLES

BREAK IT DOWN

SOLVE / SIMPLIFY

LOOK BACK REFACTOR

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Searching Algorithm
Searching Algorithm

Linear Search

Binary Search
Searching Algorithm
Searching Algorithm
Linear Search

Search for 7

5 9 3 1 2 8 4 7 6
No No No No No No No Yes

Time complexity : O(N)

Space complexity : O(1)

Linear Search

1 2 3 3
4 5 6 8 7 9
Linear Search in Python
Linear Search Pseudocode
- Create function with two parameters which are an array and a value
- Loop through the array and check if the current array element is equal
to the value
- If it is return the index at which the element is found
- If the value is never found return -1

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Binary Search
Binary Search

- Binary Search is faster than Linear Search

- Half of the remaining elements can be eliminated at a time, instead of
eliminating them one by one
- Binary Search only works for sorted arrays.

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Binary Search

Searching for 6

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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Binary Search Pseudocode

- Create function with two parameters which are a sorted array and a value
- Create two pointers : a left pointer at the start of the array and a right
pointer at the end of the array.
- Based on left and right pointers calculate middle pointer
- While middle is not equal to the value and start<=end loop:
- if the middle is greater than the value move the right pointer down
- if the middle is less than the value move the left pointer up
- If the value is never found return -1

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Binary Search Time Complexity

Worst and Average Case Best Case

O(log n) O(1)

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Binary Search Time Complexity
Searching for 12

[2,4,5,9,11,13,14,15,19,20,22,23,27,30,32,39]

Step 1 [2,4,5,9,11,13,14,15,19,20,22,23,27,30,32,39]

Step 2 [2,4,5,9,11,13,14]
Not Found
Step 3 [11,13,14] 16 elements = 4 Steps

Step 4 [11]

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Binary Search Time Complexity

Searching for 72

[2,4,5,9,11,13,14,15,19,20,22,23,27,30,32,39,42,44,45,49,51,53,54,55,59,60,62,63,67,70,72,79]

Step 1 [2,4,5,9,11,13,14,15,19,20,22,23,27,30,32,39,42,44,45,49,51,53,54,55,59,60,62,63,67,70,72,79]

Step 2 [42,44,45,49,51,53,54,55,59,60,62,63,67,70,72,79]

Step 3 [59,60,62,63,67,70,72,79] 72 Found

32 elements = 5 Steps
Step 4 [67,70,72,79]
Log2N 2x = N

Step 5 [72,79]
AppMillers
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Binary Search Time Complexity

Searching for 12

[2,4,5,9,11,13,14,15,19,20,22,23,27,30,32,39]

Step 1 [2,4,5,9,11,13,14,15,19,20,22,23,27,30,32,39]

Step 2 [2,4,5,9,11,13,14]
Not Found
Step 3 [11,13,14] 16 elements = 4 Steps

Step 4 [11] Log216 = 2x =16 = 24 =222*2=16

AppMillers
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Binary Search Time Complexity

Searching for 72

[2,4,5,9,11,13,14,15,19,20,22,23,27,30,32,39,42,44,45,49,51,53,54,55,59,60,62,63,67,70,72,79]

Step 1 [2,4,5,9,11,13,14,15,19,20,22,23,27,30,32,39,42,44,45,49,51,53,54,55,59,60,62,63,67,70,72,79]

Step 2 [42,44,45,49,51,53,54,55,59,60,62,63,67,70,72,79]

Step 3 [59,60,62,63,67,70,72,79] 72 Found

32 elements = 5 Steps
Step 4 [67,70,72,79]
Log232 = 2x =32 = 25 =2*2*2*2*2=32

Step 5 [72,79]
AppMillers
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Binary Search Time Complexity

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Cracking Tree and Graph Interview Questions
Route Between Nodes
Problem Statement:

Given a directed graph and two nodes (S and E), design an algorithm to find out whether there is a route from S to E.

E
A —> E False

F A A —> J True

A —> I True
I C D B

H G J

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Route Between Nodes
Problem Statement:

Given a directed graph and two nodes (S and E), design an algorithm to find out whether there is a route from S to E.

F A Pseudocode
- Create function with two parameters start and end nodes
- Create queue and enqueue start node to it
- Find all the neighbors of the just enqueued node and
I C D B enqueue them into the queue
- Repeat this process until the end of elements in graph
- If during the above process at some point in time we
encounter the destination node, we return True.
- Mark visited nodes as visited
H G J

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Minimal Tree
Problem Statement:
Given a sorted (increasing order) array with unique integer elements, write an algorithm to create a binary search tree
with minimal height.
Root Node

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Left Subtree Right Subtree

3 8

2 4 7 9

1 6
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List of Depths
Problem Statement:
Given a binary search tree, design an algorithm which creates a linked list of all the nodes at each depth (i e , if you
have a tree with depth D, you’ll have D linked lists)

Level 1 1 1 None

001

Level 2 2 3 2 111 3 None

001 111

Level 3 4 5 6 7

4 111 5 222 6 333 7 None

001 111 222 333

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List of Depths
Problem Statement:
Given a binary search tree, design an algorithm which creates a linked list of all the nodes at each depth (i e , if you
have a tree with depth D, you’ll have D linked lists)

custDict
Pre Order Traversal Keys Values

1 3 1
001

2 3 2 2 111 3
001 111

4 5 6 7 1 4 111 5 222 6 333 7

001 111 222 333

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Check Balanced
Problem Statement:
Implement a function to check if a binary tree is balanced. For the purposes of this question, a balanced tree is
defined to be a tree such that the heights of the two subtrees of any node never differ by more than one.

Balanced Binary Tree

N2 N3

N4 N5 N6

Balanced Binary Tree

N4 N5

The Binary Tree is Balanced if:

- The right subtree is balanced

- The left subtree is balanced
- The difference between the height of the left
subtree and the right subtree is at most 1 N2 N3

N4 N5 N6

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Validate BST
Problem Statement:

Implement a function to check if a binary tree is a Binary Search Tree.

The Binary Tree is Binary Search Tree if:

- The left subtree of a node contains only nodes with keys less than the node’s key
- The right subtree of a node contains only nodes with keys greater than the node’s key
- These conditions are applicable for both left and right subtrees

2 4

1 4 1 3

True
2 5
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False

Validate BST
Problem Statement:

Implement a function to check if a binary tree is a Binary Search Tree.

Min Max
-∞ <= 3 <= ∞

-∞ <= 2 <= 3 3<= 8 <= ∞

-∞ <= 1 <= 2 -∞<= 5 <= 8 <= 9 <= ∞

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Validate BST
Problem Statement:

Implement a function to check if a binary tree is a Binary Search Tree.

Min Max
-∞ <= 3 <= ∞

-∞ <= 2 <= 3 3<= 8 <= ∞

-∞ <= 1 <= 2 -∞<= 5 <= 8 <= 9 <= ∞

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Successor
Problem Statement:

Write an algorithm to find the next node (i.e in-order successor) of given node in a binary search tree. You may
assume that each node has a link to its parent.

4 In-order successor of 1 is 2

In-order successor of 3 is 4

8 In-order successor of 2 is 3
2

1 3 5 9

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Successor
Problem Statement:

Write an algorithm to find the next node (i.e in-order successor) of given node in a binary search tree. You may
assume that each node has a link to its parent.

- If right subtree of node is not None, then successor lies in right subtree.
- If right subtree of node is None, then successor is one of the ancestors.

2 8

1 3 5 9

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Build Order
Problem Statement:

You are given a list of projects and a list of dependencies (which is a list of pairs of projects, where the second project is
dependent on the first project). All of a project's dependencies must be built before the project is. Find a build order that
will allow the projects to be built. If there is no valid build order, return an error.

Input:
Projects : a, b, c, d, e, f
Dependencies: (a, d), (f, b), (b, d), (f, a), (d, c)
Output:
e, f, a, b, d, c

a b c

d e f

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Build Order
Problem Statement:

a b c Find nodes with dependencies

a, b, c, d

Find nodes without dependencies

e, f
d e f

Find order by taking out nodes without dependencies.

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First Common Ancestor
Problem Statement:

Design an algorithm and write code to find the first common ancestor of two nodes in a binary tree. Avoid storing
additional nodes in a data structure. NOTE: This is not necessarily a binary search tree.

First Common Ancestor of 33 and 88

44 77 44

22 99

35 88 90 95

33
54
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First Common Ancestor
Problem Statement:

55
findNodeinTree()
findNodeinTree(88, left-44) True
findNodeinTree(33, left-44) True
44 77
findNodeinTree(88, left-22) True
findNodeinTree(33, left-22) False

22 99 Return root (44)

35 88 90 95

33
54
AppMillers
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First Common Ancestor
Problem Statement:

44 77

22 99

35 88 90 95

33
54 AppMillers
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