C.

K TEDAM UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AND APPLIED SCIENCES

FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS

NAVRONGO CAMPUS

B.Sc. APPLIED PHYSICS

PRACTICAL PHYSICS – PHY 191/2

Name:…………………………………………………………………., ID. No.……...………

Group No:……….

Prepared By:

Aaron N. Adazabra & Philip K. Mensah

2021/2022

1
 CONTENT
Page
Introduction 3
Laboratory Rules 3

General Safety Precautions 4

Materials Required for your Practical Work 4

Graphical Methods 4
General rules for graphing 4
Experiment:
1. Graphical Treatment of Laboratory Data 8
2. Measurement of fundamental quantities 9
3. Measurement of derived quantities 11
4. Determination of Acceleration Due to Gravity, g,
by means of a Compound Pendulum 12
5. Measurement of the Refractive Index, µ of a Glass Prism 14
6. Measurement of Acceleration Due to Gravity, g, from an Inaccessible height, H 16
7. Measurement of the focal length of an inaccessible converging lens by displacement
method 19
8. Investigation of Variation of p.d. of Cell and Measurement of Internal Resistance 21
9. Measurement of the Internal Resistance of a Cell by the Potentiometer 23

2
 INTRODUCTION
This revised compilation of experiments in practical physics covers selected experiments
relating to the theoretical courses PHY 101/102. The experiments illustrate basic techniques,
observations, quantitative measurement, graphical representation, analysis and deductions
from the data and error analysis.

The manual is prepared to give you an opportunity to read up the next experiment you plan to
do. Students should plan their practical work first before an experiment is carried out. The
best technique is to read the relevant sections of this manual, and other relevant text books
and lecture notes as supplement, before coming into the laboratory. As you proceed through
each experiment, record your results and comments in a coherent way. Use your laboratory
notebook (or file) as a diary and be prepared to answer questions on any aspect of the work
that you have done. Record every assignment in your physics laboratory workbook.

Experiments are to be carried out by students in groups as recommended in the Table of

Summary of Experiments. For a student who is absent from an experiment, the teacher can
fix another date for the student to carry out the experiment. We hope you will appreciate the
effort put into making this collection available to you and that you will find it very useful.

LABORATORY RULES
• Eating in the laboratory is prohibited.
• Food items brought into the laboratory shall be confiscated.
• Students who are 30 minutes late to the laboratory shall be turned away.
• Mobile Phones are prohibited to be used in the laboratory.
• Coping is not allowed; perform the experiment yourself or with your laboratory
group.
• Do not litter the laboratory – Put all rubbish in the dustbins.
• All bags/handbags must be on the side benches.
• Student should dress decently; you must wear your lab coat during laboratory session.
• Sickness and Hospital attendance must be proved with written evidence.
• Theft is not tolerated in the laboratory.

3
GENERAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
• Follow strictly instructions from the laboratory instructor or technician.
• Do not short – circuit any electrical wires.
• Do not tamper with any Voltage source in the laboratory.
• Handle all apparatus with maximum care.
• Absolute concentration or attention is needed at every stage in all experiments.
• Examine the apparatus to be used, and if you have any doubts about any of it ask for a
demonstration.
• Put your apparatus away at its proper place when you have finished

MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR YOUR PRACTICAL WORK

Students need to carry the following materials into the laboratory

• Laboratory Manual and Workbook
• Notebook/ Exercise Book
• Graph Book
• Mathematical Set
• One Foot Ruler, Pencil, Eraser and Sharpener
• Electronic Scientific Calculator

GRAPHICAL METHODS

One of the most useful tools the mathematician uses is the ‘graph’. The graphical method of
dealing with the results is stressed in this manual, and where possible it should always be
applied. We use graphs for four main purposes, that is to
• deduce an average value of a ratio,
• investigate how much individual values vary from the mean,
• show how one quantity varies with another, and
• deduce the mathematical relationship between two quantities

GENERAL RULES FOR GRAPHING

The purpose of many experiments is to find the relationship between measured variables. A
good way to accomplish this task is to plot a graph of the data and then analyze the graph.
These guidelines should be followed in plotting your data.

1. Use a sharp pencil. A broad–tipped pencil will introduce unnecessary inaccuracies.

4
 2. Draw your graph on a full page of graph paper. A compressed graph will reduce the
accuracy of your graphical analysis.
3. Give the graph a concise title.
4. The dependent variable should be plotted along the vertical and the independent along
the horizontal axis.
5. Label the axes and include units.
6. Select a scale for each axis and start each axis at zero, if possible.
7. Draw a straight line or curve through the data points.
As an example, let us consider the study of the speed of an object (dependents variable) as a
function of time (independent variable). The data are as follows:

Speed (m/s) Time(s)

0.45±0.06 1
0.81±0.06 2
0.91±0.06 3
1.01±0.06 4
1.36±0.06 5
1.56±0.06 6
1.65±0.06 7
1.85±0.06 8
2.17±0.06 9

Using the above guidelines, the data are graphed below. The graphed data show that the
speed v is a linear function of time t. the general equation for a straight line is:
Y = mx + b, where m is the slope of the line and b, the vertical intercept, which is the value of
y where x = 0. Let v = y.

A Graph of Speed versus Time

2.5

2.0

1.5
V(m/s)

1.0

0.5

0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
t(s)

5
X = t, a = m, and vo = b; then, V = at + vo (m/s).

This is the form of the equation for the line drawn through the data, where Vo is the value of
the velocity at t = 0 and a is the slope of the line; that is the acceleration of the object. From
the graph, we see that Vo = 0.32 m/s. To determine the slope, select two points on the line,
but not data points, which are well separated, then:

A = slope = ΔV/Δt = (23.5 -0.40) / (10.0 – 0.5) = 0.20 m/s2

The equation for the line is V = 0.20t + 0.32 (m/s)

As a second example, let us consider the study of the distance traveled by an object as a
function of time. The data are as follows:

Distance(m) Time(s)
0.20±0.05 1
0.43±0.05 2
0.81±0.05 3
1.57±0.10 4
2.43±0.10 5
3.81±0.10 6
4.80±0.20 7
6.39±0.20 8

In this instance, a straight line through the data points would not be acceptable. An inspection
of the graph suggests that d is proportional to tn, where n >1; for example, d may be a
quadratic function of time and, hence, n = 2. Suppose that we know the theoretical relation
1 2
between d and t is: d = at
2
where a is the object’s acceleration. Often, it is useful to know if the data agree with the
theory. If the data follow the above theoretical relation, then a graph of d versus t 2 should
result in a straight line.

6
A Graph of Distance versus time: this shows a nonlinear relation.

A Graph of d versus t2: this yields a linear relation.

The graph of d versus t2 indicates that d is a linear function of t2 and, hence, that the data
agree with the theoretical relation. The equation for the straight line is: d = mt2 + do (m)

where m is the slope and do is the vertical intercept.

7
 EXPERIMENT ONE

GRAPHICAL TREATMENT OF LABORATORY DATA

Supposing the change in mass M, of a rocket moving in outer space is given by the equation:

−
(v −v0 )
M = M 0e 2
;

[Assuming that no external forces are acting on the rocket]

Where M0, and v0 are the initial mass and velocity of the of the rocket respectively,

v, is the final velocity of the rocket.

If the initial velocity and mass of the rocket were 72 km/h and 454 pounds (lb) respectively;

a. Tabulate the readings for M (in Kg) and v (in ms-1), (20 ≤ v ≤ 32) ms-1 at 1 ms-1
interval

b. Plot a suitable graph for the above data.

c. In a single sentence describe the relationship between M and v.

d. Linearize the above relation [Make v the independent variable and M, the dependent.]

e. Draw a table of values for the linearized independent and dependent variables for the
same interval as in (a).

f. Draw a graph for the linearized relation in (d) above.

g. In a single sentence comment on the graph draw.

h. Determine the slope of the graph.

i. What is the significance of the slope?

j. What is the velocity of the rocket at 2M = M0

k. State the condition under which the initial velocity of the rocket will be equal to its
final velocity.

8
 EXPERIMENT TWO

MEASUREMENT OF FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES

The following simple experiments are aimed at providing students with the skill of taking
basic measurements to obtain some fundamental quantities in Physics. These include
‘length’, ‘time’ and ‘mass’.
The student, therefore, is required to follow strictly the instructions provided in each
experiment.

APPARATUS:
Metre rule, Vernier calipers, micrometer screw gauge, stop watch, spring balance, top – pan
balance, retort stand, 50g mass, helical spring and pointer.

METHOD:
1.0 Measurement of mass:
Place the stone provided on the top – pan balance and record the mass of the stone accurately
in grams (g). Estimate the weight of the stone. [Take g = 10 m/s]

2.0 Measurement of time:

Take the time for 22 oscillations of a compound pendulum, which has been hung at the five –
cm (5.0 cm) mark. Estimate the period (T) and state any precaution (s) taken.

3.0 Measurement of length

(a) Measurement of length with the meter rule:
Measure the lengths of the 3 sides of the box provided; thus, obtain the length, (L), width (W)
and height (H) of the box provided.

(b)Measurement of length with the Vernier Calipers:

• Measure the diameter (d) of the GH¢ 0.20 coin provided.

• Measure the radius of the spherical bob provided.
• Measure the height, external and internal diameters of the cylinder provided.

(c) Measurement of length with the Micrometer Screw gauge:

Use the micrometer screw gauge to measure the diameter (d) and thickness (t) of the GH¢
0.20 coin provided (or your own).

9
Tabulate your results using the format below:

Diameter of Coin (d)/cm Thickness of Coin (t)/cm

d1± δd d2±δd d3±δd T1±δt t2±δt t3±δt

Where δd and δt are the possible errors in measuring the diameter and thickness of the coin
respectively.

• Measure the thickness of the cylinder provided, using the micrometer screw gauge.
• Measure the radius of the spherical bob provided.

QUESTION
State the general precaution (s) that should be observed in the measurement of length.

10
 EXPERIMENT THREE

MEASUREMENT OF DERIVED QUANTITIES

Generally, these are obtained from the combination of two or more fundamental quantities. In
other words, they are secondary quantities that are evaluated from formulae relating two or
more of the fundamental quantities. For example, ‘speed’ is a derived quantity obtained by
dividing distance traveled by ‘time taken’; that is,
Dis tan ce
Speed =
Time

APPARATUS: Metre rule, Vernier callipers, micrometer screw gauge, stop watch, spring
balance, top – pan balance, retort stand, 50g mass, helical spring and pointer.
METHOD:
Measurement of Area

• Evaluate the area of the side of the box marked ‘X’

• Measure the area of the circular surface of the Gh¢ 0.20 coin.
• Measure the area of the circular base of the cylinder provided.

Measurement of Volume

• With the length (l), Width (W) and height (H) of the cuboid or box measured,
evaluate the volume of the cuboid in: (a) cm3 and (b) m3.
• Measure the volume of the Gh¢ 0.20 coin.
• Measure the volume of the cylinder provided in SI units.
Measurement of density

• Weigh and record the masses of the Gh¢ 0.20, cuboid and cylinder on the top – pan
balance
• With the volumes of these objects obtained earlier, find their densities in : (a) kg/m3
(b) g/cm3
• By the displacement method, obtain the volume of the stone provided and then
evaluate its density in: (a) kg/m3 and (b) g/cm3.
MEASUREMENT OF POTENTIAL ENERGY

• Hang the 50g mass on the helical spring fixed to the retort stand and the vertically
placed meter rule.
• Allow the mass to slide gently along the length of the meter rule.
• Read and record carefully the vertical distance travelled by the mass with the aid of
the pointer
• Time also when the mass reaches its rest position

QUESTIONS
1. Now, evaluate the potential energy of the mass in SI units.

2. At what rate is work done by the mass? [Take g = 10 m/s2]

11
 EXPERIMENT FOUR
Determination of Acceleration Due to Gravity, g, by means of a Compound Pendulum

A +h Point of suspension

G (centre of mass)
G
o G
C

mg
APPARATUS:
A point of suspension from a retort stands and clamp, meter rule with holes drilled at 5 cm
apart and a stopwatch.

METHOD:
1. Insert the needle through the hole nearest the end A of the meter rule and note its
length, h from the centre of mass, G. Determine the period, T of small oscillations of
the bar by taking the time for at least 20 oscillations.
2. In steps of 5 cm, determine the period of oscillation of the bar for eight other values of
h.

THEORY:
The period of small oscillations, T of a rigid body of mass, m suspended by a horizontal axis
through O as shown is given by:

I
T = 2
mgh

Where I is the moment of inertia about the axis through O, h is the distance of the point of
suspension O from the centre of mass G. Writing IG by using the theorem of parallel axes, the
moment of inertia of the body about the centre of mass is given by

12
I = IG + Mh2 and IG = mk2 where k is the radius of gyration about the centre of gravity. Thus,
the periodic time is;

mk 2 + mh 2 k 2 + h2
T = 2  T = 2
mgh gh

QUESTIONS:
1 Tabulate your results and indicate all measurement errors.
2 Plot a graph of T2h against h2
3 Deduce the values of g and k.
4 Hence, calculate the acceleration due to gravity (g)
5 Discuss your results
6 State the precautions (if any) in the experiment.

13
 EXPERIMENT FIVE

Measurement of the Refractive Index, µ of a Glass Prism

A

600

d
I e
r1 I2
G H K
F

Fig. 5.0 B

B C

Fig. 5.1

APPARATUS:

An equilateral prism, 4 optical pins, 4 drawing pins, drawing board, cardboard sheet and

meter rule.

METHOD:

Place the glass prism ABC on a sheet and draw its outline. Remove the prism and draw the
normal, using a protractor and ruler. Draw the incident ray, I, with I = 36 degrees and insert
two pins, F and G at about 5 cm separation. View these through the prism and insert two

14
other pins at H and K so that they appear to be in line with the images of F and G. Measure
the angles of deviation, d and emergence, e. Repeat the experiment for values of I = 41o, 46o,
51o and 66o. Tabulate your results.

THEORY:

The path of a ray through the prism ABC is shown in Figure 5.0, where I1 is the angle of
incidence at face AB and r1 is the corresponding angle of refraction. The ray is deviated
towards the normal inside the prism to strike the face AC, where the angle of incidence is I2.
The ray finally emerges deviated away from the normal to face AC; e is the angle of
refraction or emergence; d is the angle of deviation (i.e. the angle between the original and
final directions of the ray) and A is the refracting angle of the prism.

The path of the ray looks like that shown in Figure 5.0, as long as I2 is less than the critical
angle of the prism, which is equal to 41.50. It is found that a ray emerges clearly from the face
AC for angles of I1 between 30 and 70 degrees. However, for smaller angles of incidence, for
instance I1 = 5, 10, 15 degrees, etc; the ray does not emerge from the face AC but through the
face BC as shown in Figure 5.1. For such smaller angles of I1, the corresponding values of I2
are greater than the critical angle for glass and hence, the rays become totally reflected so as
to emerge from face BC.

RESULTS:

a) Plot a graph of (d-e) against I and determine the slope.

b) Measure and record the intercept on both axes.
c) On a separate sheet, plot a graph of d against I.
d) From your graph in c) above, obtain the minimum deviation, dm and the angle of
incidence at minimum deviation.
e) Estimate the refractive index, µ, using the formula:
dm + A
Sin
= 2 , where A = 60o
A
Sin
2

f) Determine the error in µ.

g) Explain why it is advisable to use very small or very large values of I in performing
this experiment. Verify this experimentally.

15
 EXPERIMENT SIX

MEASUREMENT OF ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY, g FROM AN

INACCESSIBLE HEIGHT, H.

APPARATUS:

Spherical bob B, Thread T, Stop – watch, Pointer for reference mark, Metre rule

Lab Ceiling

l
H

Laboratory Floor

METHOD:

Attach a very long piece of thread, to the pendulum bob. Fix the top of the thread firmly to
the ceiling so that the bob just clears the floor as shown in the diagram above. Using a metre
rule measure the height, x of the pendulum bob centre above the ground starting with x =
10.0 cm. Now set the bob oscillating through a small angle, and beginning your counting
through the equilibrium position of the bob, find the time for 25 complete oscillations.
Repeat the counting for another 25 complete oscillations then take the average of the two
times measured.

By shorting the thread each time, increase the height of the pendulum bob 10.0 cm up to a
value of x = 80.0 cm. On each occasion, find the height of the pendulum bob in meters and
the time for 25 complete oscillations.

16
RESULTS

Record your measurements in the format below.

x/cm x/m T1/s T2/s TA /s = (T1+T2)/2 T/s= TA/25 T2/s2

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

Where T1 is the time for first measurement of 25 complete oscillations;

T2 is the time for second measurement of 25 complete oscillations;

TA is the average of the two measurements;

T is the period;

x height of pendulum above ground.

CALCULATIONS:

Find the period T, the time for one complete oscillation, then calculate T2 and enter them in
the table of measurements above.

GRAPH:

Plot a graph of T2 versus x, and draw the best straight line passing through the points.
Calculate the slope of the graph and record the intercept I on the T2 – axis.

17
THEORY:

l
The period, T is given by T = 2 [1]
g

Where g is the acceleration due to gravity and

l is the length of thread from the inaccessible point (ceiling) to the centre of

pendulum bob.

From the diagram l = H – x, Where H is the height of the ceiling

From equation [1]

H −x
T = 2 [2]
g

Then, simplifying,

4 2 H 4 2 x
T =
2
− [3]
g g

The equation of a straight line is given as

Y = c + mx [4]

Where c is the y – intercept (that is at the point where x = 0)

m is the gradient (slope) of the straight line

x is the independent variable,

Y is the dependent variable.

Comparing equation [4] to equation [3]

4 2 4 2
Slope(m) = − g = −
g slope

QUESTIONS

1. Calculate the value of g.

2. Find y – intercept, I and hence determine the Height, H of the ceiling from the
ground.

3. State the precautions observed during the experiment.

18
 EXPERIMENT SEVEN

MEASUREMENT OF FOCAL LENGTH OF AN INACCESSIBLE CONVERGING LENS

BY DISPLACEMENT METHOD

L2 L1 S

M1 l M2

APPARATUS:

Illuminated object O, screen S, converging lens mounted in a short tube on a stand carrying a
mark M, metre rule.

METHOD:

Measure the focal point of the lens approximately by focusing the image of a distant object, a
window, for example, on the wall. Set the illuminated object O and screen S about six times
the focal length apart, and measure their separation l carefully. Move the lens about, near the
screen until a diminished image is formed on the screen with the lens L1, and adjust its
position until the image is sharply focused. Record the reading of the mark, M1 on the lens
holder base on a metre rule laid along the bench. Move the lens away from the screen until, at
a second position L2, a magnified image is formed on the screen. Again, adjust the position of
the lens for the sharpest focus, and record the new readings of the mark, M2. The difference
between the two readings is the displacement, d of the lens.

Vary l over as wide a range as possible, and repeat the measurement of d, taking about six
sets of readings.

19
MEASUREMENTS:

1st reading of 2nd reading of Displacement d Separation l /cm l2 –d2/cm2

mark of M1/cm mark of M2/cm /cm

CALCULATION:

l2 − d 2
By the theory, f, l and d are related by the expression f = (1)
4l

Hence, l2 – d2 = 4f.l

GRAPH:

Plot a graph of (l2- d2) versus l.

Draw the line of greater and lesser slope, passing through the origin, which just fail to lie on
majority of the plotted points.

By equation (1) the gradient of the line = 4f...cm.

QUESTIONS

1. With the aid of a well labeled diagram explain the term focal point of a lens.

2. What is the focal length of the lens in cm?

20
 EXPERIMENT EIGHT

Investigation of Variation of p.d. of Cell and Measurement of Internal Resistance

D D

A S A S

R R C

(i) (ii)

APPARATUS

1.5 V dry cell D, voltmeter V (0 – 2V), ammeter A (about 0 – 0.5A), rheostat R (about 30Ω
max,), 2 V accumulator C, switch S.

METHOD

1. Connect the cell D, ammeter A, rheostat R, and switch S in series, and the voltmeter
V across the terminals of the cell, as shown in figure (i) above. Set the rheostat at its
maximum value, close the switch and read the current I and the pd, V. Vary the
rheostat, and take about four pairs of readings of current and p.d. over as wide a
range as possible, only closing the switch for as long as is necessary to take each
reading, to avoid possible changes in e.m.f.
2. Connect the accumulator C, with its positive pole connected to that of the cell, as
shown in figure (ii). Reverse the connections to the ammeter (unless it is of a centre –
zero type). Again setting the rheostat to its maximum value, read the current I now
being passed through the cell, and the p.d. developed across its terminals. Decrease
the resistance, and again take about four pairs of readings over as wide a range as the

21
 meters allow. Record the values of current with a minus sign, as it is being passed in
the opposite direction to that in part (i)

MEASUREMENTS

Current I/A + + + + - - - -
P. d. across cell /V

GRAPH

Plot the values of current I, and p.d. V, taking the sign of the current in part (ii) to be
negative. Since the p.d. V is given by V = E – Ir when the cell supplies current, and by V = E
+ Ir when current is ‘forced’ through the cell, then:

(i) The e.m.f E is the value of V when I = 0.

(ii) The gradient of the line = r
Record the value of E: E= … V

Measure the gradient: r = …Ω

QUESTIONS

1 From your experiment, what is the e.m.f of the cell?

2. Find also the internal resistance of the cell.

3. Does the internal resistance of the cell change with time? If it does, suggest how

this change could be investigated.

22
 EXPERIMENT NINE

Measurement of the Internal Resistance of a Cell by the Potentiometer

+ C K1

A G B

P K2
D

S R

APPARATUS

Dry cell D, resistance box R (about 0 – 50Ω), switch S, potentiometer, key K1, galvanometer
G and protective resistance P with shorting key K2, jockey J, accumulator C.

METHOD

Connect the accumulator C to the ends A, B of the potentiometer wire. Connect the positive
pole of the cell D to the same end, A, connected to the positive pole of C. Join the
galvanometer G and its protective resistance P to the jockey J and to the negative pole of D.
Connect the resistance box R and switch S across the terminals of the cell D.

With the switch S open, find, to the nearest cm, the position of the balance point, removing
the protective resistance to obtain the final balance length lo, corresponding to E, the e.m.f. of
cell D; this is the terminal p.d. when it passes no current. Then, with R set at about 10 Ω,
close S and quickly measure the position of the new balance point. Open S as soon as this has
been done. Reduce the value of R in roughly five equal steps to 1 Ω, and each time, obtain
the balance length as quickly as possible. At the end of the experiment, keep the switch S
open, and re-measure the open – circuit balance length lo.

23
MEASUREMENTS

Length of wire for cell D on open circuit = lo=...m

R/ Ω
l/m
(1/R)/ Ω-1

lo/l

CALCULATION

E −V E −V  E −V 
r= = = R
Internal resistance I V /R  V 

l −l  l 
r =  o  R =  o − 1 R.......... .......... .......... ...(1)
 l  l 
Or
lo 1
= r   + 1.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( 2)
l R

GRAPH

Plot a graph of (lo/l) versus 1/R. From equation (2), this will be a straight line of gradient r.
Measure the gradient, a/b, of the best straight line drawn through all the points.

r = a/b = … Ω

QUESTION

1. Deduce the internal resistance of the cell from the experiment you performed.

2. Discuss your results

24