Ask a

Scientist
Robert Winston

For my grandchildren:
Tzofia, Eliana, Stella, Aron, and Isaac
 Contents 6–7 Foreword

8–9 Why is science so important?

The 100 questions What makes someone a scientist?
cover these six main Can we ever be 100% sure?
science topics, colour
coded as follows:
10–11 What is my body made of?
Chemistry Could you create a human being
in a laboratory?

12–13 When did time begin?

Human
body Why is there no air in space?
What is dark matter doing
in space?

Physics 14–15 How was the first person born?

16–17 Why does water feel wet?

Natural
science Why are there bubbles in
boiling water?
Why doesn’t oil mix with water?

Earth
18–19 Could you jump off the world?
Why is there less gravity on the Moon?

Space
20–21 Why is the sky blue?
Why do I see different colours
in the sky at sunset?

2
22–23 Will scientists bring back the
dinosaurs? 40–41 How does a honeybee
know what job to do?
Is it possible to find a fossil that
no one has discovered yet? Why do bees lose their stinger
when they sting?

24–25 Where does my belly button go?

42–43 How do our eyes work so
we can see?
26–27 Why does ice cream melt? Why do people blink?
Is fire a solid, liquid, or gas? How do two eyes make one picture?

28–29 How do maglev trains work? 44–45 How do you make gears spin?
How does a maglev train stop? How do elevators work?

30–31 Does a butterfly remember its

time as a caterpillar? 46–47 Why do freckles come in dots on
your face?
How do butterflies sleep?
How do spiders make webs?
48–49 Why doesn’t rain taste salty?
How is fog made?
32–33 How do we get taller?
Why is the sea salty?
What causes growing pains?

50–51 Do dogs cry?

34–35 How do animals camouflage?

52–53 How do bogies get in my nose?

36–37 Is there a magnet so strong
that it will pull us by the iron
in our blood? 54–55 Why will the Sun explode and
make us extinct?
38–39 How does Velcro® stick?

3
 72–73 How many galaxies are there?
How old is the Solar System?
56–57 Why don’t jellyfish tentacles
get tangled? Does Earth shrink, expand, or
remain the same over time?
How do fish see at night?

74–75 Did dinosaurs have wings?

58–59 How do the molecules in air
produce air pressure?
How many atoms in a penny? 76–77 Why do we need a brain?
What do neurons do?
60–61 Why does chocolate taste Is it possible to transfer a
so nice? human brain into a robot?

62–63 When electricity travels through 78–79 How does the Moon affect the
wires what does it look like? tides of the sea?
How does electricity get in your
body to shock someone?
80–81 Why doesn’t it tickle when you
tickle yourself?
64–65 Why do my muscles hurt when
I exercise?
82–83 How do birds fly?
Why does my brother smell
when he exercises? Could humans ever fly?

66–67 Is there an extinct species 84–85 How do planes go so fast?

of penguin?
86–87 Why does our skin go all wrinkly
68–69 How does a light light up? in the bath?

70–71 Why do chemicals explode 88–89 Why does the Sun seem to follow
when mixed together? me everywhere I go?
Why is the Moon sometimes
out in the day?

4
90–91 How do you make toilet paper?
108–109 Do aliens exist?
What is at the other end
92-93 Why do stars twinkle? of a black hole?

94–95 What’s inside your face and head 110–111 Do plants have feelings?
other than your brain?
Can plants speak?
Why do different foods taste
sweet, sour, and bitter? Are there any meat-eating plants?

96–97 Why can’t we live without trees? 112–113 Why do humans get old and die?
Why do trees swallow carbon
dioxide? 114–115 Why are bubbles round and not
any other shape?
98–99 How does our body heal?
Why do people itch? 116–117 How do you fall asleep?
Why do you feel cold with Why do we dream and how do
a fever? dreams appear in our brain?

100–101 Why do some trees lose leaves 118–119 Why do we pollute Earth?
in the summer? What are we going to do with all
the waste?
102–103 How do volcanoes erupt? How can we stop pollution?
How do rocks turn into lava?
120–121 Why, when you’re doing boring
things, does time go slowly…?
104–105 How exactly is glass made?
Why are diamonds so hard?
122–125 Glossary

106–107 Why does our hair turn grey

when we get older? 126–127 Index

5
 In the pages of this book, many
answers include words that are
picked out in larger type. This
means that the words are
expanded upon on the page.

You’ll find a glossary at the

back of the book that
explains any words that you
might find tricky to
understand.

6
 Foreword
‘‘ These are some of the commonest questions that you have asked
me during my many visits to schools. We also collected questions
from children across the UK, from mainland Europe, and from
countries such as Canada, the USA, India, China, and Japan.
What is intriguing is that wherever you live, very
similar questions crop up everywhere.

This book is my attempt to answer you. Often, many of the

wonderful questions you pose are ones that most adults don’t
dare ask. I am delighted that you have been ready to ask. It is
important that you are never embarrassed about not knowing
something. By asking a question you do what good scientists do.
Scientists see something they don’t understand and pose a
question. Then they consult other scientists and search for any
knowledge about the subject they can find. Finally, they plan to
find an answer by doing an experiment. Some of your questions in
this book are ones I couldn’t answer. So I looked stuff up and
sometimes consulted other scientists. Whilst I have done only a
few of the experiments myself, the answers I give often depend
on experiments done by other scientists.

And just occasionally there’s a question that nobody can yet

answer. This is why science is so exciting. Because if you become
‘‘
a scientist you may find answers to things which are yet unknown.

7
 i s s ci e nc e
Wh y ?
p or t a n t
so im is b o o k , m a d e b y th e s c
th c
ie n
ol
c
d
e of
, h u n g ry,

‘‘
d in g th ri n g w i
You’re r e a
r e n o t s h iv e
I ’v e w r it ten,
e fu ll y you a w it h what
o p r e d on a
printing. H ss. When you’re bo or take a journey
and in da
rkne a c o m p uter, t o li v e lo n ger,
w a tc h T V, use a ll a r e likely m in ates
yo u ca n iend s . Y o u cien c e d o
e e y o u r fr h u m a n s . S us ed
s to s v io u s b e m is
bu a n a n y pre A n d it can
lt h ie r liv es th
o r g r a n te d .
ll y im p o r tant
h ea w e t a k e it f . S o it i s rea
w o rld , y et
o u s p la n et
t e r s o th at
our o r o u r p reci s c ie n ‘‘
ce bet
us nd s is
and harm one of us understa how best to use th
that each io n s a b o ut
w i s e deci s d ge.
w e ta k e l k n o w le
powerfu

8
 What mak
someone a es
‘‘
work and
People be
reasons. W

could be f
com e
hen I was
tried expe
s
e
riments, w
ig
s c
cientists f
o
i e ntist?
ht I wante
r many di
d to learn
fferent
how thing
rustrating hich most s
saw the e , b u t was also f l y d idn ’ t work. T
xquisite b u n. W h e his
through a e au t y o f p n I was olde
microscop lants and rI
planets an e . At 14 I ma a ni m al tissues
d craters d e a telescop
made a ra on the M e and saw
dio that d oon. Whe
id n n I was 16
switched i ’ t actually ca I finally
science wa t on. At u tch fire w
niversity I hen I
s not just saw that
interesting ‘‘
do immen
se good in . I learnt its value
all walks to
of life.

C a n w e ev e r
0% s u re?
be 10 , I think it is better
‘‘
th in k s o. In fact ve what
I don’t k y o u h a
w h e n y ou thin
to be unsure,
e ve n
g. A n d t o m y mind
o o f o f s omethin
looks like the
p r
m o‘‘
r e w e fin d ou t
n c e w e do, the
the more s cie
. N o t b e in g sure is
h a t w e d o n ’ t know
about w e do s c ience.
wh y w
9
 What is my
body made of ? Protein is stored

‘‘
here until it’s wanted
by the cell.
Your body is made of about 37 trillion
(or 37,000,000,000,000) tiny cells.
There are about 200 different cell types,
which make muscle, nerves, brain, fat,
glands, blood, liver, skin, and so on. However,
it is even more complicated – your skin has
its own cells that make hair, and others that
make colour for your hair. Some make
sweat and others help you tan in the Sun.
You have even more bacteria cells in and
on your body – about 40 trillion of them.
Most bacteria actually keep us healthy,
but they are also the main reason why
‘‘
we smell a bit bad if we don’t wash.

Nerve cells carry

messages throughout
your body.
Cells
Messages travel
as electrical signals. Inside a cell there are different
structures, each with a particular
job to do to keep the cell healthy
and functioning normally. The cell’s
control centre is the nucleus.
10
 Could you create
a human being
The nucleus is
the cell’s control
centre. It stores These rough

in a laboratory?
the cell’s DNA. tubes make
proteins.

‘‘ We can’t make a human in

a lab because cells cannot be
made artificially. If we could
make a basic cell, we might
This produces be able to turn it into a
energy to
power the cell. human egg cell or even a
sperm cell. Then we could
create a human embryo.
These are small,
storage bags that
contain nutrients
and waste.
‘‘
This is not possible at
present, but might be in
the distant future.

Embryo
An embryo may
develop to become
a baby in the womb.
These clean up the
cell, getting rid of
By the end of eight
These smooth waste and invaders weeks, all of its
tubes make such as germs. body organs have
and store fats. begun to form.
Human
embryo

11
 When did time
begin?
Big Bang
The Universe was born in
a huge explosion. It took
380,000 years for the
first atoms to form, and

‘‘
180 million years for the
Some Ancient Greek philosophers first stars to shine.
believed that the Universe had existed
forever. Today, scientists think the Universe Philosophers
started about 14 billion years ago with the From the 6th century bce,
Big Bang. This was presumably when Greek philosophers began
to question the world
time began. Since then, the Universe seems around them. Using logic
to have been expanding from a tiny point. and reason, they tried to
understand what they saw.
Before the Big Bang, time and the laws of
physics did not exist. At some time in the
future, the Universe may start to contract,
‘‘
so it’s possible it will eventually end. But
do treat people really nicely just in case
time stops in the next week.
12
 Why is there no air in space?
‘‘ Space is a near-vacuum with virtually no matter,
including air, in it. The mixture of gases (mostly
nitrogen and oxygen) that we call air is held close to
Earth’s surface by gravity. As we go upwards from Earth, ‘‘
gravity decreases and the air gets thinner. By about 100 km
(62 miles) above our planet we reach space.

Wh
at is c e?
dark matter doin g i n s p a

‘‘ Scientists believe that everything we see in space – planets,

stars, and galaxies – is only a tiny part of all the matter
that exists in the Universe. The rest is invisible dark
matter. We think dark matter exists because stars
‘‘
and galaxies move faster than we’d expect, so
there must be unseen matter giving a
gravitational pull on them. kh
oles on page 109.
ac
bl
ut
a bo

Dark matter
Find out more

We cannot see dark matter.

However, we think it is unevenly Most of what
spread in space, and clusters we think of as
space is actually
of it exert a gravitational force dark matter.
on stars and galaxies.
How was the first
person born?
This ape-like Australopithecus
forest-dweller climbed afarensis held its
trees, but it could body fairly upright
also walk on two legs. when it walked. Homo erectus
could run and used
sharp stones as
cutting tools.

Ardipithecus ramidus Australopithecus afarensis Homo erectus

‘‘ From a scientific point of view, there could be no ‘first

person’. This is because of evolution – a very slow,
gradual process that continued in many parts of the world
at the same time. Another thing to mention is that just
as mammals in the wild deliver and breast-feed their ‘‘
young without assistance from another individual, early
humans would have mostly given birth without having help.
14
This species
had a strong,
Evolution
muscular body and
a large brain. The first humans appeared in
Africa between 8 and 6 million
years ago. Since then, there
have been many human species,
but all are now extinct apart
from Homo sapiens.
Homo heidelbergensis
hunted large animals using
stone-tipped spears. Modern humans have less body hair,
longer legs, and shorter arms than
their extinct, ape-like relatives.

We think Homo sapiens has

been on Earth for 100,000 years.
Each new generation takes about
20 years to produce children, and
so there have only been about
5,000 generations since
humankind began!

Homo heidelbergensis Homo sapiens

Polar bear cubs stay Female chimps

with their mums for usually have one
baby at a time.
Mammals 30 months.

Mammals are animals with a

backbone and body hair, and they
A mother pig
feed their babies milk. Almost all may suckle at
mammals give birth to live young, least 10 piglets
apart from platypuses and at once!
echidnas, which lay eggs. Young
mammals stay with their mother
until they can find their own food. Human babies learn to
crawl at 6–10 months.
15
 Surface tension

Why Forces between liquid molecules

make the surface of a liquid

does water
behave like a stretched, elastic skin.
This is called surface tension.

feel Surface tension pulls

wet?
water droplets into
shape, and gravity
pulls them down into
teardrop-like shapes.

‘‘ Strictly
speaking, water
isn’t ‘wet’. If you stick
your finger in a glass of
Surface tension allows some
water, it does not feel wet. insects to walk on water.

However, pull it out of the water,

and your finger is wet and feels
wet. Wetness is the ability of a
Water molecules are
fluid to stick to the surface of a packed together closely.
solid. Pure water is quite wet, but it
sticks to surfaces more if it’s mixed Water molecules
with soap – when it becomes ‘wetter’. Each water molecule is made of
three tiny things called atoms,
This is because the forces that bind two of which are hydrogen and
the water molecules together ‘‘ one is oxygen. That’s why water
has the formula H2O.
are loosened, and this reduces the
water’s surface tension.
+ + =
2 hydrogen 1 oxygen H2 0
atoms atom
16
 ‘‘
Steam is invisible. What you
see above boiling water are Water has some air dissolved
clouds of water droplets very
slightly cooler than steam. in it. As the water is heated,
the air is no longer dissolved
and forms bubbles that rise to
the surface. Once the water is
Why boiling, the bubbles are not
are there filled with air but with water

bubbles in
vapour, or steam. At 100ºC
(212ºF), water ceases to be a

boiling water?
‘‘
liquid and forms a gas, so
these bubbles are the gaseous
form of water – steam.
Fin
do 1 15.
ut m
ore ab es 11 4 –
out bubbles on pag

Why doesn’t oil mix with water?

‘‘ Oil is less dense (lighter) than water,
so it floats on top of the water. Water
molecules bind so closely to each other
that water does not readily mix with
Washing-up
liquid lifts oil
and grease off
oil, unless you introduce something
like soap that loosens the
‘‘ dirty dishes.

water molecules.
17
‘‘ The simple answer to this is no. This is because of something
called gravity, which is an invisible force that pulls objects
together and keeps us on Earth. All objects attract, or pull
on, each other with gravity, and very large objects such
as stars and planets have greater mass and apply
more force. Jupiter, for example, is the Solar
System’s largest planet and has almost
‘‘
2.5 times more gravity than Earth.

Could you
jum
p off
Gr
av
ity

th
Born i
Newto n 1643, En
e
study n was one glish scie
wor
he sa gravity. T h of the fir ntist Isaac
t s
from under an aere’s a stor t people to
himse it and hit h pple tree, y that whi
lf is a le
the sk why the a head. Ne n apple fe
ld?
y. ppl wto ll
force He formed e didn’t fal n asked
of a lu
object Earth’s gr theory tha p into
s towa av t
rds th ity pulls al the
of the e l
Earth centre
.

18
 W hy is the ‘‘The strength of the pull of gravity
depends on the size of the object.
Earth is larger than the Moon, with
more mass, so the pull of gravity
on Earth is stronger than it is on
the Moon. This is why astronauts ‘‘
re

can jump higher and more

less
easily on the Moon.

gr
avit Find

y on the Moon?
out m
ore abo .
u t gravity on pages 78–79
Mass
The mass of an object is the amount
of stuff, or matter, that it contains.
The more matter there is inside it, the
greater the object’s mass. Weight is
the amount of force acting on an object.

= =

Jupiter vs Earth Moon vs Earth

Let’s say you weigh around 30 kg (66 lb) If you were on the Moon, you would weigh
on Earth. If you were standing on Jupiter just under 5 kg (11 lb), about the same as a
you would weigh about 72 kg (160 lb) – cat. This is because gravity is about
that’s about the weight of an adult male. one-sixth what it is on Earth, since the
Moon is smaller with less mass.
19
 Why is the sky blue?
‘‘ Although the light from the Sun looks white, it’s actually made
up of all the colours of the rainbow. Light travels in waves,
and each colour of light has its own wavelength – some
colours have short waves, while others have long waves. When
sunlight reaches Earth’s atmosphere, it hits gas molecules and
floating dust particles. This scatters the different colours. More
short-wave blue light is scattered towards our eyes than colours
with longer wavelengths, making the sky seem blue. Violet has
‘‘
an even shorter wavelength, so you’d expect the sky to look
violet. However, human eyes are more sensitive to blue than
violet, so we see a blue sky, not a violet one.

Wavelength
Colours at the red end of the
light spectrum have longer waves
than those at the violet end.

Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Light blue
Blue

Violet
20
 Rainbow Why do I see
You see a rainbow when the Sun is
behind you and it’s raining in front.
different colours
As white sunlight shines through
millions of raindrops, it splits into in the sky at
sunset?
an arc of different colours.

Light is bent, or
refracted, as it
‘‘ As the Sun sinks in the
sky to the horizon, it has to
shine through much more
of Earth’s atmosphere and
passes into and
out of the raindrop. therefore travels through
more particles and dust.
The blue light gets
scattered even more, and
‘‘
then the longer wavelength
light – like red and yellow –
becomes more visible.

Each wavelength
is refracted at
a different angle. The light spreads
out into a spectrum.

21
 i e nti s t s bri n g b a ck
Wi ll s c
dinosaurs?
the Borealopelta
markmitchelli was
discovered in 2011 in
Alberta, Canada. It
is one of the world’s
best-preserved
dinosaur fossils.

s 74–75.
ou t m or e ab ou t dinosaurs on page
Find

‘‘ A few scientists have tried, but I think there’s little chance

of success. They hope to retrieve dinosaur DNA from
blood or a skeleton, or possibly from a biting insect such as a
mosquito. The problem is, DNA breaks down as it ages. So ‘‘
far, nobody has retrieved intact DNA strands from more than
about one million years ago – long after dinosaurs died out.

Dinosaur DNA Mosquito

To recreate a dinosaur, scientists would This ancient mosquito is trapped
need its complete DNA, not just bits of in amber – fossilized tree sap.
it. As dinosaurs became extinct over Its body may contain the DNA
60 million years ago, this is unlikely to of dinosaurs whose blood it
be found. You’d also need a dino mum sucked millions of years ago.
to incubate, or look after, the egg.
22
 Is it possible to find a fossil
that no one has discovered yet?

‘‘ Yes! In August 2018, scientists found a previously

unknown worm that lived more than 400 million
years ago in the UK. New fossils are discovered
each week and new species are often
identified. So far, around 1,000 different
types of dinosaur have been found,
but we’ve probably dug up
only a small fraction of all
‘‘ New species
The new species of worm was found
the species that existed. in 430-million-year-old rocks in the
UK. Called Thanahita distos, it was
a worm-like creature with legs.

Jurassic Coast
cliffs at West Bay
in Dorset

On holiday in Dorset, UK, I

was just 12 when I found a fossil
trilobite, a common sea species that was
a bit like a very large centipede. It lived
about 200 million years ago.

T r il
obite
 Where does
my belly
button go?
Inni
eb
ut
Innies and outies
ton
n
t to

After the umbilical cord Ou tie b u

has been cut, the stub
of the cord falls off. This
leaves a scar, which is
what your belly button
really is. People with
“outies” just have a little
bit more scar tissue
than people with “innies”.

24
‘‘ It doesn’t go anywhere, but it did once! When you were in your
mum’s womb, the only thing that connected you to her was
your umbilical cord. This went from your belly button (or
umbilicus) to the placenta, an organ attached to the lining of
the womb. The cord carried blood from your mum’s placenta
to your body, providing all the nutrients and oxygen you ‘‘
needed to keep you healthy until birth. After you were born,
the cord was cut. All that’s left is your belly button.
Placenta
The placenta is your
life-support system
Womb when you’re in the womb.

The womb, also called

the uterus, is the organ
in which babies develop.
It’s a hollow chamber
with muscular walls.

Umbilical cord
The umbilical cord is
up to 60 cm (24 in) long.

Nutrients
Nutrients are the substances in food
that we need for energy and growth.
The umbilical cord carries nutrient-rich
blood from the mother to her baby.
25
 Why does ice
cream m e l t?
‘‘
Ice cream is
mostly made of
All matter can exist in one of several states. This water, which melts
at 0°C (32°F).
mostly depends on temperature. Very cold things
turn solid: for example, water becomes ice. As it
gets warmer, the molecules in a substance move
faster and it turns to liquid, or melts. When heated
more, gas, like steam, is formed. Interestingly,
when you put any gas under high pressure it can
become liquid again, even though it is still hot.
Different substances become solids, liquids,
‘‘
and gases at varying temperatures.

Solids Liquids Gases

A solid has a fixed Liquid molecules Gas molecules
shape. Its molecules are further apart are far apart and
can vibrate, and can than solid molecules, can move freely,
hardly move allowing the liquid so a gas always
position. to flow. spreads out.
26
 Plasma
Plasma often forms when a
gas gets so hot that electrons
break away from their atoms.
That’s what happens inside
a plasma ball, or lamp.

‘‘
les on pages 5 8– 59.

Fire is none
of these states of matter.
This is a rather mysterious
question and the answer is also a
molecu

problem. Fire is actually a chemical

bo u t

reaction that is occurring in a hot gas. The

a
ore
out m

chemical reaction is between oxygen and the

Find

substance that’s burning. There is a fourth

state of matter, called plasma, which is often
‘‘
very hot indeed. In a way, fire is closest to
plasma. This forms when atoms start to break
up into their different parts.

Is fire a solid,
liquid, or gas?
27
 o mag lev trains wo rk?
How d

‘‘ If you’ve played with

attract and similar p
current flows throug
magnets, you’ll know
oles repel each othe
h a wire it creates a
that opposite poles
r. When an electrica
n electromagnet.
l
Powerful electromag
nets on a maglev tra
track. T he train ‘flo in affect those on th
ats’ on the magnetic e
the track without to field, and is kept on
uching it by metal g
forwards, and becau uides. Magnets driv
se the train does no e it ‘‘
frictionless. T his enable t touch the track it
is
s it to run fast using
less energy.
S

Two south poles (or two

Frictionless
north poles) repel – they
push away from each other. Friction is a force that slows
S

down moving things by pulling

N

against the direction of the

Opposite poles (a north and movement. Smooth surfaces
Poles a south) attract – they pull
towards each other.
slipping past each other
create less friction or
The two ends of a magnet are are frictionless.
called poles. The grey iron filings
on these magnets show what can Skates gliding on ice create an
happen when two poles meet. almost frictionless surface.
28
 The train’s smooth and
streamlined shape helps
it to move through the
air at speed.

Maglev train in Shanghai, China

How does a maglev tr

ain stop?
‘‘ When current flows
in the track pull and
propelling it forward
through them, electr
push on magnets in
s. When braking,‘‘
omagnets
the train,
the current
is reversed, so the e
lectromagnets pull a
push in the opposite nd
direction.
These magnets
stop the train
touching the
Braking These magnets
sides of the
track.
lift the train Front view
A maglev doesn’t have brakes above the track,
move it forwards,
with moving parts like a normal and slow it down.
train. To slow down and stop,
the direction of the magnetic
fields is simply reversed. When current flows one way, the magnets
interact and speed up the train. When current
flows the other way, the magnets’ fields switch
direction and bring the train to a halt.

29
 Does a butterfly remember
its time as a caterpillar?

‘‘ A butterfly has four stages of

development – egg, caterpillar (larva),
chrysalis (pupa), and adult. I doubt if
they remember anything from the
‘‘
three early stages!
Foures
4. Adult
The winged adult emerges

stag from the chrysalis.

1. Egg 2. Caterpillar
Adult females The caterpillar
lay tiny eggs hatches and spends
on plants. its time feeding.
3. Chrysalis
Inside a silk cocoon,
the caterpillar’s

p?
body changes.

How
do bu tterf lies sle e
‘‘ Butterflies don’t actually sleep. Instead, they
rest at night, or in the day when the sunlight
is poor, or if it is cool, raining, or cloudy. ‘‘
Butterflies rest Sometimes they rest hidden among leaves or
and wait for warm,
dry weather. while hanging upside down from branches.
30
 Silk
Spider silk is made of protein.
It’s incredibly stretchy and is
one of the strongest of all
natural materials.

Sticky silk
traps insects.

The spider‘s web Silk emerges

is often a geometric from openings
pattern, with the on the spider’s
strands laid out at abdomen.
regular intervals.
How

bs ? e
The spider wraps

w
its prey before

spid
eating it.
do

ers make
‘‘ Not all spiders make webs, but many species make silk
from tiny glands in the tip of their abdomen. Each of these
glands can make a different type of silk – silk that builds
the basic web, sticky silk for catching insects, and fine silk
for wrapping up captured prey. Spiders often start a web
from a long ‘trailing’ silk that floats in the wind before
‘‘
it sticks to a nearby surface, such as a branch.
31
 How do
we get
taller?
‘‘ A gland called the pituitary,
which is attached under the
brain, produces growth
hormone. This circulates
in the blood and acts on
the liver to produce another
hormone called ‘growth
factor’. These two hormones
stimulate muscle, bone,

Giant of a man
‘‘
and other tissues to make
more cells, so that your
On rare occasions, the pituitary gland can
work too much. Possibly the tallest man who
body grows.
ever lived was American Robert Wadlow,
who grew to an enormous 2.72 m (8 ft 11 in).
This was probably because his pituitary
gland was extra-large and produced too
much growth hormone.

32
 Pituitary
What causes
Hormones are chemicals made by
glands. They’re like messengers,
travelling in your blood and telling
growing
pains?
different bits of your body what
to do. The pituitary is the main
hormone-producing gland.

The pituitary is
about the size
of a pea.
‘‘ Some children get aching legs at
night. People often call these
aches ‘growing pains’. It’s not
clear what causes the pains, but
The tiny pituitary, at the
base of the brain, makes most doctors think it’s nothing
eight important hormones.
to do with growing. Children who
are very active or who have
Growth hormone very flexible joints seem more
likely to have achy legs at
The pituitary gland releases eight
doses of growth hormone every day.
The hormone makes your body’s cells
divide and multiply. Most growth
‘‘
night. Unless they have other
symptoms as well, it’s usually
hormone is released at night. nothing to worry about.
Growth hormone levels fall sharply
once you’re an adult.

33
How do animals
camouflage? Stick insects
look like…
sticks!

Leopard
With its spotted coat, the leopard
blends in with the background.
It is careful not to move, or moves
very slowly. It is much easier to
spot a moving animal than one
that keeps still.

Chameleon
A chameleon can change
its skin colour and pattern
to camouflage itself or to
signal to other chameleons.

34
‘‘ Animals use camouflage to blend in with their surroundings so
they can hide from predators or sneak up on prey. Camouflaged
animals are coloured and patterned to match their surroundings.
Toads, for example, are green and brown like the forest floor,
while the spots on a leopard merge with the shadows of trees
and grasses. Some iguanas and tree snakes are green to match
leaves, and the Arctic hare is hard to detect in snow. A few ‘‘
animals, like the chameleon and the octopus, can change their
skin colour chemically to match whatever they are sitting on.

Arctic hare
The Arctic hare’s fur is
snow-white in winter. Its
coat turns grey-brown in
summer, to hide it among
plants and rocks.

Keeping hidden
It’s not just animals that
use camouflage. This photographer is
wearing camouflage to get close-up shots
of wildlife. Soldiers also use camouflage –
greens and browns to hide in jungles and
forests, or sandy colours when in the desert.
35
 magnet
Is there a
so strong that it will pull
us by the iron in our blood?

‘‘ Unlike the iron in a nail, which is ferromagnetic,

the iron in our red blood cells is in a different
form, and is hardly magnetic at all.
Even if you were in the strongest
magnetic field, you would not
feel any pulling. Your brain has
billions of nerve fibres that
conduct electricity like wires.
When electricity flows it creates The steel in a
a magnetic field around a wire. We car is pulled by
a magnet because
have machines that can detect increases in it contains iron.

magnetism in a brain when it is working hard.

Yet in school, when you are trying to do tough ‘‘
You are not
maths, the magnetic field you produce is so magnetic. You
only have about
faint that your heads will not stick together. 3 g (0.1 oz) of
iron in your body.

36
 Red blood cells Magnetic field
These blood cells get their red colour from Every magnet is surrounded by
a protein called haemoglobin, which contains a magnetic field – a zone in which
iron. Haemoglobin collects oxygen as red it can pull on other objects. The
blood cells pass through the lungs. pulling force loops around the
poles at each end of the magnet.

A magnetic field is invisible,

but you can see its effects
by sprinkling iron filings
around a magnet.

Red blood cells

A scrapyard magnet is an carry oxygen
electromagnet – it’s only around the body.
magnetic when electricity
flows through it.

The mineral magnetite

Find out more about magnets on pages 28–29.

is naturally ferromagnetic.
It will attract objects
containing iron, such
as steel pins.

Ferromagnetic
Some metals, such as iron and nickel,
become magnetized when put in a magnetic
field and stay magnetized even after the field
is removed. We say they are ferromagnetic.

37
‘‘ You may want to use a magnifying glass to
look at two attaching Velcro® strips.

tick?
You’ll see that one strip has tiny
hooks, while the other has little
loops. When pressed together,
® s

o
the hooks grip the loops so
that the two strips stick –

r
an example of science and

c
engineering imitating nature.

l
George de Mestral,
a Swiss engineer, invented it,
eventually selling more than
50,000 km (30,000 miles)
of his strips each year.
‘‘ do e s Ve
George de Mestral
w
When out walking in 1941,
George de Mestral noticed
o

that his trousers and his dog

were covered in prickly seed
cases called burs. He found H
that the burs clung to clothes
and fur because they were
covered in tiny hooks. This
gave him the idea for
Velcro® – a new way
to fasten things.

38
 Velcro®
Remember that if the Velcro®
on your trainers no longer sticks,
it’s not George de Mestral’s fault
– your shoes are filthy! Clean the
Velcro® with a stiff brush and it
should work again.

The green hooks

attach to the
blue loops.

S p a ce -a
ge
t

e ch
nolo
gy
Hoo
k-
not s and-loo
e p
spac em high fastene
e mi -tech rs
NASA ssions, enou might
perfe found t but in th gh for
ct ha e1
from for stopp t Velcro® 960s
grav flo in wa
ity. T ating ar g equipm s
land he ou e
ed o Apollo a nd in ze nt
faste n the Mo stronau ro
ners o ts
on th n had V who
helm eir e lcr
ets, t suits and o®
oo.

39
 h o n e y b e e
ow do e s a
k now wh a t jo b to
d o?
H

‘‘A fascinating question –

scientists at Imperial College,
London, where I work, are still
trying to find out using powerful
microscopes and brain scans. The
bee’s brain is tiny. Yet it can
navigate its way across many
Queen kilometres, can remember where Worker
The queen is the Female workers
only bee in the hive
that lays eggs – up
to 2,000 per day!
it has been, and works with other
bees in their different roles,
‘‘ collect nectar and
pollen, clean the
hive, and look after
the queen and the
building complex structures. young bees.

Bee’s brain Drone Roles

Drones are stingless
male bees. Their job is
A bee’s brain is smaller to mate with the queen. The different
than a pinhead. Bees can types of bee in a
do amazing things with hive all have their
their tiny brains! own jobs to do.
40
‘‘A bee’s stinger is like a little hollow needle with barbs
attached to it. Once you are stung, it cannot be pulled out
by the bee. Sadly, when the bee stings, its stinger and
some internal organs are pulled out and the bee dies. Only
‘‘
honeybees lose their stinger, and only the females sting.

When a honeybee stings,

the bulb-shaped venom
sac inside its body pumps
melittin into the wound.
Stinger
The stinger injects
melittin, the bee’s acid
venom, which causes
the pain and itching
after you are stung.

The sharp,
slanting barbs

Wh
stop the stinger

stin bees lose ing? r

from being pulled

y do th e i out of the wound.

ger when they st 41

 How do our eyes
work so we can see? The image from the lens does
not pass through air like in a
camera but through a watery
fluid and onto the retina.
Retina The lens focuses, or brings
The cells of the retina together, the light rays to
are sensitive to light form an image on the retina.
and some can detect
colour as well.

The image on the

retina is upside down.
Your brain turns it the
right way up.

Cornea
The clear outer layer, the
cornea, is very sensitive. Even
Optic nerve when it is gently touched,
we shut our eye immediately.
This is to protect the
A large nerve called the optic eye from damage.
nerve connects with the brain.

‘‘ The eye has a lens and cornea at the front. At the back
is a layer of cells called the retina. Light entering the eye
passes through the lens onto the retina. As it hits the retina,
it sets off an electrical signal that travels along the optic
‘‘
nerve to the brain to tell us what we are seeing.
42
 ‘‘
Why do people
Blinking protects the delicate cornea,
and keeps it moist by spreading
a watery fluid across the surface.
This also cleans the eye to prevent
irritation from dirt. We also blink when
Light rays
bounce off the
object you’re
looking at and
enter your eye.
we are nervous. Fish don’t blink –
they don’t have eyelids. They show
‘‘
they’re nervous in other ways.
blin
k?

How do two eyes

make one picture?
‘‘
ht eye’s view ft eye’s view
Rig Le
Each eye sees things
slightly differently.
The brain merges the
information from both eyes, Try holding your
hand in front of
You can see that
the hand looks
which gives stereoscopic you. Look at it
with only your
slightly different
with only your
(three-dimensional) vision.
This is how we can tell how
‘‘ right eye open. left eye open.

far away something is.

43
 e g e ars s pin
a k

?
m
Teeth
do you

Here, the large wheel

has 20 teeth and the
small one has 10. The
small wheel turns twice
The large as fast, but with half
wheel turns
the force. Some gears,
w

more slowly.
like those on a bike,
are linked by a chain.
Ho

The small
wheel turns
more quickly.

‘‘ A gear is a pair
of toothed wheels that fit
together. As one wheel turns, its
teeth connect, or mesh, with the
second gear’s teeth, making the second
wheel turn in the opposite direction. When
the wheels are different sizes, they turn at
different speeds. A big wheel spins a small
‘‘
wheel faster, but with less force. A
small wheel turns a large wheel with
more force but less speed.
44
 How do Pulleys

elevators
A pulley is a wheel with a rope
around it. It makes heavy objects
easier to lift by changing the
direction of the force. Pulling on the
rope at one end lifts something up

work? at the other end.

Electric motor

‘‘
Pulley
Powered by an electric motor, an
elevator winds a passenger car up
and down using gears, pulleys,
and cables. Attached to the
other end of the cables is a
counterweight. This moves
up when the passenger car
descends and moves down when
the car rises. Electronic switches
start and stop the elevator, and
a safety brake prevents the car
‘‘
falling if the elevator breaks down.

Counterweight

Counterweight
This counterweight balances the
weight of the car by moving in
the opposite direction to it. This Passenger car
reduces the amount of energy
needed to lift the car.
 come i n dots
ckl
e s

on
Why do fre

your face?
Melanin
Melanin is released deep
down in the epidermis, the
protective layer of the
skin, and travels
Surface
to the surface.
t
a bou 7.
re 8
u t mo s 8 6 –
o ge
Find on pa Epidermis
skin
 ‘‘ When skin is exposed to the Sun, it goes brown. This
brown pigment is called melanin. The cells in your
skin that make it are called melanocytes, and they
become active after sunlight. People who get a nice tan
have melanocytes scattered evenly throughout the skin.
However, some people have clusters of melanocytes.
These produce melanin unevenly, so after exposure
they get freckles and have to be careful about
sunburn. It is said that freckles tend to run in ‘‘
families, and certainly there are several
genes that are likely to be responsible.
Sunburn
If you are freckly,
be much more
careful in the Sun
because your skin doesn’t
have enough melanin to
protect you from sunburn.
Always wear sun cream,
Freckles, hair colour, and
a hat, and shades. Mum whether your hair is straight Dad
or curly are just three
characteristics decided
by the genes you get from
your mum and dad.

Genes
Olivia Noah Jasmine
Genes are instructions passed on
to you from your parents. From
the colour of your skin and eyes
to how tall you are, the way you Olivia’s hair is straight Noah’s hair is as Jasmine’s hair is
and light-brown like her black and curly as curly like her mum’s.
look, and how your body’s made dad’s, and she also has his mum’s. He has Like her, she has
are all down to your genes. freckles like him. freckles like his dad. no freckles.
47
 As water droplets join
together and become too

Why
heavy, they fall as rain.

doesn’t
rain taste
Water cycle
Water is constantly moving
between the land, rivers,
oceans, and the sky. This is
salty?
called the water cycle.

Rivers don’t get very salty

The rainwater because they are constantly
returns to the seas. refilled with fresh rainwater.

How is fog made?

Morning fog often
clears as the Sun

‘‘
warms the air.

Fog is a cloud that forms close to the

ground. When warm air containing water
vapour cools, the drop in temperature
sees the vapour change into tiny water
‘‘
droplets. These hang in the air as fog.
‘‘ Rain is made from pure

Su
n
water that has mostly
evaporated from the sea and
formed clouds. When the clouds Evaporation
cool, this causes rainfall. This is When water evaporates, it
part of the water cycle. Heating changes from a liquid to an
invisible gas called water
from the Sun causes evaporation, vapour. When this turns back
but salt remains dissolved in the sea. to liquid, we say it condenses.

Rainwater doesn’t taste salty, but may

taste different from drinking water as
when it falls through our atmosphere,
‘‘
it picks up dust and other particles. Clouds are made of
tiny water droplets
that are so small
they float in air.

Plants suck up moisture

from the ground and Water vapour from
release water vapour the sea cools in the air
from their leaves. and condenses into clouds.

Why is the sea salty? Salt from sea spray

has formed on this

‘‘
beach log.

Salt (sodium chloride) is one of the commonest

minerals. It is found naturally in rocks and it easily
‘‘
dissolves in water. When it rains, water dissolves
salt from the rocks. The rainwater washes this
salt into rivers, which carry it into the sea.
 o dog s cry?
D

‘‘ Biologists think that only humans truly shed tears.

Dogs don’t cry, though their eyes may look watery
sometimes, and nor do our closest relatives, apes.
However, animals certainly feel and show emotion.
‘‘
Rabbits, dogs, and most mammals make all kinds of
noises that show distress, anxiety, or sadness.
50
 Sad Surprised

Human emotion
These children are showing their
feelings very clearly! A scientist
called Dr Paul Ekman from
California, USA, said there are
six key emotions that humans
show in their facial expressions. Happy A ng r y
These are: happiness, surprise,
sadness, anger, disgust, and
fear. People all over the world
use similar expressions to show
these emotions.

A lifetime’s worth of
tears is enough to
have a bath in.

Emotion
Most animals don’t show their
emotions on their faces like we do. Yet
the sounds they make can give us a
clue to their feelings. Monkeys might
screech and cats hiss to show they’re
Tears upset or as a warning to keep away.

It’s calculated that an average

person will shed about
65 litres (14 gallons) of tears
Screech!
during their lifetime – a bit more
if they grow up with several
younger brothers or sisters
who constantly annoy them!
Hiss!

51
 How do b o g
ie s get

‘‘ Bogies are a mixture of dead cells shed

from the inside of your nose, partly dried
mucus, and clumps of tiny living things, called
bacteria. They get their dark colour from the dirt
we breathe in from the outside air, which is
trapped by our nose hair, and they may be green
‘‘
or bluish when we have an infection from
bacteria that are that colour.

Breathe
Infection
The last thing your
body wants is for When the body gets
dirt to get into your infected, we sneeze
lungs when you or cough a lot as a
breathe. This is way of getting rid
why bogies are of the mucus that
so important! contains the virus.
This helps rid the
body of the infection.

52
 my nose?
in
Mucus
Mucus is a slimy, sticky fluid that
coats the inside of your nose. It
may look disgusting, but it has an
important job to do. It traps dirt,
pollen, and even viruses (tiny things
that can cause colds).

Mucus and nose hairs

work together to collect
dirt and dust. This is
where bacteria can form.

Small hairs line the

inside of your nose.

Dirt and mucus

combine to
form bogies!

When we breathe in
air through our nose,
we also breathe in
dust and dirt.
53
 Why will the
Sun explode
and make us
Sun
The Sun is a star.
Stars are vast balls
extinct?
of amazingly hot gases,
mainly hydrogen and
helium, held together by
gravity. Stars come in different
sizes. They also vary in terms of
temperature, colour, brightness,
and in what they contain.

As a red giant, the

p a ri s o n Sun would be much,

om
much larger, but
also cooler.
c

Red giant
Si z e

Red giants are small or medium-sized stars

The Sun White dwarf that are running out of hydrogen fuel.
The surface layers of the star are pushed
out due to lack of hydrogen and the star
Red giant
swells to many times its normal size.
54
‘‘ Only really big stars end their lives with a

on pages 8 8–89.
massive explosion. The good news is that our
Sun is a medium-sized star, so won’t explode!
When the Sun runs out of fuel, it is likely to

t the Sun
swell up as a red giant. Then it will puff

ou
away its outer layers, leaving just a fading,

ore ab
cooler core called a white dwarf.

out m
Nobody knows exactly when this will

Find
happen, but it won’t be for billions
of years so we are not likely to
become extinct before your great, ‘‘
great, great, great, great, great Extinct
Extinct means to die out
grandchildren leave school! completely – forever. The
dinosaurs, for example, became
extinct about 65 million years ago.

White dwarf
A white dwarf is the last stage in the life
of a star like the Sun. It is the collapsed The dinosaurs probably
died out when a huge
core of a red giant. White dwarfs are still meteorite, or space
hot, and very dense, and they continue to rock, struck Earth.
glow faintly for billions of years.
55
 ’ t je lly f i sh tenta
c le s
hy
d o n
a n g le d ?
W
ge t t Tentacles
Jellyfish tentacles drift
freely in the current.
They sting, grab, and
haul in their prey.

‘‘
Jellyfish rarely
get tangled
tentacles. Even
though they don’t have
a brain, they recognize their own
cells and don’t sting themselves or
their own species. Also, they are
covered with a protective layer of
mucus keeping them slippery, Mucus
which helps. However, occasionally,
if they are sick or in water without Jellyfish are
covered in slimy
‘‘
a proper steady current, they can
get knotted. I would not like to try
mucus that helps
to protect them
from infection. A sick jellyfish that
can’t untangle itself
to untangle them, would you? may break off the
knotted tentacles.

56
Ho
‘‘ Fish are generally very sensitive to light, so they can
see in very dim light. Deep down under the sea,
the water filters out longer wavelengths, leaving only
blue light that fish’s eyes are particularly adapted to.
In very deep water, there is no light at all and many
deep-sea fish are luminescent – they make
wd

their own light. Most fish are also sensitive

f is to vibration, so they use organs in ‘‘

see at night?
o

h
their sides to detect movement
or changes in water pressure.

Dim light
By day, sunlight doesn’t reach
This toothy anglerfish
below 200 m (660 ft). The moon uses a glowing lure
and stars illuminate surface to attract prey in
waters a little at night. the darkness.
Luminescent
Some deep-sea fish
make light using special
chemicals, while others
have light-producing
bacteria living in
their bodies.

57
 How do the molecules
in air produce air pressure?

‘‘ Air pressure is the weight of the

atmosphere pressing on you. The gas
molecules that make up air (mainly nitrogen
and oxygen) may be incredibly small, but
because each one has a tiny amount of
mass, Earth’s gravity still gives them weight. On a mountaintop,
the air molecules are
The combined weight of the huge numbers more spaced out, so
the air pressure is
lower. The air is thinner
of molecules in the atmosphere presses so we feel the need to
breathe faster to get
down on everything below – including us. Air enough oxygen.
pressure is greatest at ground level, since
there is a large weight of air overhead. The
higher you go, the less air there is above
‘‘
you, so the less pressure there is.
Air molecules are closely
packed at ground level, so
Atmosphere the air pressure is greater.

The air molecules in the

atmosphere are constantly
on the move, bouncing off
each other and everything
around them.

58
How many
atoms
in a penny?

‘‘ A UK penny weighs about 3.6 g (0.13 oz). I chose a

US penny as it weighs less, about 2.5 g (0.09 oz),
which made the maths easier. A US penny
contains zinc and copper. It has 2.24 x 1022 zinc
atoms and 5.92 x 1020 copper atoms, making
a total of 200,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
atoms. I admit this amount is only approximate,
as it took me quite a long time to count them
all and, because they are so small, I may
‘‘
have counted some atoms twice!
Find ou

Nucleus
Atoms
t more

Atoms are the building

about a

blocks of everything in
the Universe. Inside an
toms o

atom, electrons whizz

around the atom’s
n
page 10

core, or nucleus.
Electron
. 5

59
 do e s
Why
o cola te
ch st e so ni ce ?
t a nergy
is a h ig h - e
our
food. It
b r a in and
e

‘‘
o la t o n
Choc stimulants, which 0,000 years ago, the a c t
contains d . A b o ut 1 0 b le o u t on
u s f e el goo ve r y v uln era w eak
a k e s e r e w it h
m
h u m a n w
w a n im als t h e y
early lains. T hey wer ood was scarce eir e s lo , s o
p .F l th
African r y poo r c la w s
n e rg y t o fu e
e th a n d v e
i v e th e m e
. T o d a y, we
te w o u ld g o u ld ea t u gh
d th a t ‘‘ t h e y c e n th o
ate foo n e x t t ime h oc o la t e, ev
s u nt il the o d s, lik ec
bodi e n e r gy f o
e hi g h -e
still cr a v d th e m .
e a lly ne e
n ’ t r
we do
Milk is high in
protein and is often
High-energy added to chocolate.

We get energy from these Sugar is a type of

three major groups: proteins, Cocoa butter is
carbohydrate. Cacao a kind of fat.
fats, and carbohydrates. All beans also contain
three are found in chocolate. carbohydrates.

60
 Chocolate
Chocolate is made from the beans,
or seeds, of the cacao plant. After
harvesting, the beans are processed
to make two ingredients: chocolate
liquor and cocoa butter, which are
then blended to make chocolate.

Find
out m
ore
a bout
Cacao bean tast
e buds
on p
ag e
95.

Early humans
Weapons helped early
humans catch animals Over time, early humans learned
more easily, and to survival skills. They were able to get
take larger prey. more food to eat, and this helped
them become cleverer. Eventually, they
became the species we are today,
Homo sapiens.
They threw wooden
spears tipped with
sharpened flints to
bring down animals.

61
 c tricity
W hen ele
trave ls through wi re s

what does it look li ke?

‘‘ Electricity is the passage of electrons – tiny

parts of an atom that are too small to be seen. You
can, however, see the effects of electricity. If a strong
electric current is passed through thin, uncovered wire,
it meets resistance, and the wire may heat up. If the
wire gets very hot, it starts to glow and becomes red
‘‘
or white hot. Sparks also show electricity in action.

Sparks
Sparks are like mini lightning
Sparks may
fly when trains
bolts. Strong electricity acts
pick up electricity on tiny molecules in the air
from overhead causing it to glow.
cables.
62
How doeselectricity
get in your body to
shock someone? Conductors

‘‘
Good
When we rub against objects, such
Our bodies contain lots
as our clothes, electrons can move from the of salty water, which
conducts electricity well.
objects and onto us. This builds up a charge Most metals are also
good conductors.
of static electricity. Human bodies are good
conductors, meaning that electricity flows
easily through us. So if we touch someone Bad

else, this charge may leap across to them as Materials that don’t
a tiny electric current, giving a
conduct electricity,
such as rubber, are
called insulators.
‘‘
mini-shock. Never play with electricity,
as a sudden severe shock can burn your
skin or even stop your heart. Electric
current
A current is a stream of
The shock when we moving electrons. When you
touch someone else connect a bulb to a battery, a
makes us jump, but
it’s not painful. current flows through a wire
to the bulb and lights it up.

63
 Lactic acid
Lactic acid causes the burning
we feel when we work our
muscles extra hard. This painful
sensation gets us to slow down
or stop exercising altogether, to
prevent muscle damage and
allow the body to recover.
On a long bike ride,
lactic acid can build
up in a cyclist’s legs.

‘‘ During exercise, glucose combines with

oxygen, producing energy to drive our muscles.
As the muscles heat up, all oxygen in the blood
supplied to our muscles is used up, and the
glucose breaks down into lactic acid. This
may be the cause of pain during exercise, but
soreness afterwards is probably caused by
something else. If you think this is
‘‘
complicated, so do scientists!

Why do my
muscles hurt
when I exercise?
64
 Why does my
brother smell
when he exercises?

‘‘ The pong is made by bacteria that feed

on your brother’s sweat. Depending on his age,
your brother may have more than 40 trillion
bacteria cells living inside or on his body. After
childhood, the bacteria on the skin increase and
many of them love wet, hidden places like a
teenager’s armpits or feet. Try to get your
brother to use soap when he showers. If
he won’t, chase him into the garden after
‘‘
he exercises and hose him down.

Bacteria
Bacteria are microscopic living things, each
made up of just a single cell. Some bacteria
are harmful, but those on our skin and in
our breathing passages and gut actually
help us to stay healthy.
‘‘ Yes, there are a few. One named Palaeeudyptes lived
some 40 million years ago. Also called the colossus penguin,
this huge bird was about 1.6 m (5 ft 3 in) tall and weighed
around 115 kg (254 lb). Palaeeudyptes was discovered
in 2014 by Argentinian scientists working in Antarctica.
Anthropornis was another extinct Antarctic giant.

nc t
i
Carolina Acosta, who studied fossils in the region,
‘‘
says this was ‘a wonderful time for penguins,
when 10 to 14 species lived together
ex t
along the Antarctic coast’.

e an
Is ther 1.3 m
(4 ft 3 in)

1.2 m
(4 ft)
Southern
birds
Today, penguins
are only found in the
southern hemisphere. 0.6 m
The largest species (2 ft)
is the emperor penguin,
which lives in Antarctica.

Even the biggest adult emperor

penguins weigh less than half as
much as Palaeeudyptes did.
66
 cie s of pe ngu
spe in
Palaeeudyptes

?
Scientists think Palaeeudyptes could have
stayed underwater for 40 minutes when
diving for fish – 15 minutes longer than
today’s record holder, the emperor penguin.
Anthropornis
Before Palaeeudyptes
1.6 m was discovered, the
(5 ft 3 in) largest extinct penguin
known was Anthropornis.
It was a bit shorter
than Palaeeudyptes
and weighed nearly
83 kg (183 lb).

67
How does ‘‘When electricity
moves through the wire

a light
inside a bulb, the wire
gets hot and glows. This is

light
because the wire, called a
filament, is very thin and resists
the flow of electric current, changing

up?
electrical energy into heat and light.
The filament is usually made of a metal
called tungsten, which melts at very high
temperatures. To prevent the filament from
burning up, all the oxygen is removed from the
bulb. The oxygen is replaced with an inert gas
(one that does not react). Some bulbs are filled
‘‘
with halogen gas, such as iodine or bromine.

LED lamps
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) make light
by passing electricity through a material
called a semiconductor. Lamps that use
LEDs are more efficient than other types
of bulb – they last much longer and they
use less power. This is because very little
energy is lost as heat.

68
 The inert gas in
a bulb is often
nitrogen or argon.

Tungsten
filament Insulated
light fitting

This inert gas

in this bulb is
halogen.

Tungsten
The tungsten filament is very thin
and fragile. If a bulb is dropped on
Tungsten
the floor, the bulb may not crack, filament
but the filament can easily break.

Halogen
Using halogen gas in the bulb
helps protect the filament. Halogen
bulbs last about twice as long as
other types of bulbs.

69
‘‘ Chemicals usually don’t explode when

lode
p
mixed. Try adding table salt (sodium

x
chloride) to vinegar (acetic acid) –
nothing much happens and it
doesn’t even taste nice! For an
explosion to happen there has

e
to be a fierce reaction

ls
between the chemicals.

mica
Energy is released, usually
as heat, and gases form
from previously solid or e
h
liquid molecules. When
c
gases are produced
o
and heated they
expand rapidly
d

and this causes

‘‘
hy

an explosion.
W

Fierce reaction
A reaction is when two or more things
are put together and cause a chemical
change. Cola gets its bubbles from
carbon dioxide dissolved in the drink.
Popping mints into diet cola makes
bubbles form quicker than in normal A foaming fountain
of diet cola and gas
cola – so quickly that the diet cola bubbles erupts from
gushes from the bottle! the bottle.

70
when
mix
3. Bang
The gunpowder in the
main chamber explodes.
The colourful sparkles are
made by burning chemicals
called metal salts.

ed t
og ether? 2. Whoosh
As the fuse ignites
a small amount of
gunpowder, hot
gases launch the
rocket into the sky.

1. Fizz
Once lit, the
fizzing fuse
provides the
Find heat to start
out the reaction.
ho
w
vol
can
o
es e

Expand rapidly
x
plode on

Fireworks contain gunpowder.

pages 102–103.

Gas, but no explosion! When lit, gunpowder reacts

with oxygen in the air to
The yeast you add to bread dough breaks down
starch in the flour, releasing bubbles of carbon produce hot gases that
dioxide gas. The bubbles make the dough rise spread out, or expand,
before baking. Luckily it’s a slow reaction – quickly and create
otherwise baking would be a risky business! an explosion.
71
 How many
galaxies are there?

‘‘ The Hubble Space Telescope spent a

long time photographing a tiny patch of the sky,
collecting faint light from the edge of the visible
Universe. It found 10,000 galaxies in that small area.
From Hubble’s observations, astronomers estimated
that there were 100 to 220 billion galaxies across the
whole sky. New research suggests there are more
‘‘
galaxies in the Universe that we can’t detect with
our telescopes, and that the real total is
around 2 trillion (2 million million).

Hubble Space
Galaxies Telescope
A galaxy is a huge group of Orbiting above Earth’s
stars held together by gravity. atmosphere, Hubble can take
The biggest galaxy, IC 1101, is much clearer photographs
about 50–60 times bigger than than telescopes on
our galaxy, the Milky Way. the ground.

72
 How old is the
Solar System? Solar System

‘‘ Judging from the age The Solar System’s eight

planets are made of
of rocks in meteorites, material that was left over
after the Sun formed.
‘‘
scientists think that the
Solar System is roughly
4.6 billion years old. The Sun

Jupiter Mercury

Earth
Venus
Saturn
Mars

Does Earth shrink, Uranus

expand, or remain the Neptune

same over time?

‘‘ We think that Earth stays roughly
the same size. Measurements of
Earth’s radius suggest that at the
‘‘
moment it’s growing by a tiny
amount – around 0.1 mm
(0.004 in) a year.
73
 ‘‘
Strictly speaking, most dinosaurs didn’t have wings,
but some of their close reptile relatives did. The
most famous dinosaur-like creature was
Pterodactylus, whose wings measured about
1 m (3.5 ft) from tip to tip. However, a winged lizard
called Quetzalcoatlus was even more
Did ve w
h

o
d i n in
a

g s
s? a ur
Quetzalcoatlus
was covered
in feathers.

s
Quetzalcoatlus
This gargantuan reptile lived
around 70 million years ago and
snacked on small dinosaurs!
 impressive. It had a wingspan of 15 m (50 ft) –
that’s a bit longer than a London bus. It had a
massive beak and it must have needed a lot of
‘‘
energy just to take off. Quetzalcoatlus cruised by
soaring, and scientists think it had a top speed
Pterodactylus’ wings
of more than 80 kph (50 mph). were long and
powerful.

Pterodactylus
This reptile had an extra-long
fourth finger that supported
each wing. Its name means
“winged finger”.

Birds
Did you know, some relatives
of dinosaurs still exist today?
They’re called birds! They
are the living descendants
A nine-year-old child would of small, feathered dinosaurs.
have been dwarfed by the
huge Quetzalcoatlus.
75
Wh
y do we ne ed a
Movement
br

ain?
Planning
movements Touch Awareness
of space

Thinking and Making

personality Emotional images
understanding
Hearing
Speech
Fro

Memory Seeing
of The brain is
nt

bra roughly divided into

in

‘‘
areas that carry
Coordination out specialized
Your brain helps functions.

you read this book – to see, think, Functions

imagine, work things out, and remember.
Complex functions such
It controls functions like your heartbeat as thinking, memory,
and breathing. Your brain also helps you to speaking, and movements
are controlled by the
feel warmth, pain, and touch, and emotions cortex – the brain’s
wrinkly outer layer.
like sadness, happiness, and anger. Yet not
all animals need a brain – some sea
‘‘
creatures are able to live without them.

Sea creatures
A tunicate, or sea squirt, swims around like
a tadpole, its tiny brain helping it to see and
move. As an adult, it attaches to a rock and
eats its own eye, main nerve, and brain. It
then lives with just a mouth and a stomach!
76
 ‘‘ Neurons are nerve cells that
conduct electricity to help you
move and feel. Your brain has
about 80 billion neurons, all

W
connected together to help ‘‘
hat o ? you think, move, and perform

do neurons d
your body’s vital functions.

‘‘ No, because it
has no way of gett
a blood supply, no
ing
nutrition, and no w
ay
of connecting up to
the robot, even wit
h
electric wires. But
who
knows? Maybe it w
possible in a hundr
‘‘
ill be
ed
years or so?

tra n s fe r a
robot?
I s i t p o s si b l e t o
br ai n i n t o a
human 77
 The Moon’s
gravity tugs

Moon
on the oceans.

How does the

affect the tides
High tide

of the sea?

‘‘ Tides are caused by the pull of the

Moon’s gravitational force on Earth.
This pull is greatest on the side of Earth
facing the Moon. Here, gravity tugs the
sea into a bulge, causing a high tide. At the
same time, on the opposite side of Earth,
where the Moon’s pull is weaker, the ocean
bulges the other way, causing a second high
tide. Low tides are caused when the Moon’s
gravitational pull is at its weakest point. As
‘‘
Earth rotates, each ocean on Earth has two
high tides and two low tides roughly every
24 hours.
Low tide

Find out more about the

Moon on page
89.

78
 High tide Low tide

Tides
Earth’s rotation and the position of Gravitational force
the Moon make the tides rise and
fall. During high tide, the sea comes Gravity is an invisible force between
in and water covers the land. At low objects. The Moon’s gravity pulls more
tide, the sea goes out and uncovers strongly on one side of Earth than the
the land again. other, making the sea bulge as high tides
on opposite sides of the planet. Earth’s
gravity is stronger than the Moon’s gravity
and this keeps our oceans in place.

Bulge on the side of Earth Where the Moon’s

furthest from the Moon gravity is strongest, the
causes high tide. Low tide sea is pulled into a bulge.

High tide High tide

Earth rotating
Low tide

79
W hy
doesn’ t it tickle
‘‘ When you try to tickle yourself
you have to move part of your own body.
Your brain controls this movement, so it
knows you are going to do and feel something.
However, when you are tickled by somebody
else, there is always an element of surprise
or uncertainty that your brain cannot predict.
The part of the brain that usually predicts
your own movement is called the cerebellum,‘‘
but it doesn’t know what the person sitting
next to you is going to do.

Tickle
Some experts think that we became
ticklish to improve our self-defence skills
– we developed these reflexes (automatic
movements) to protect exposed areas
of the body. Others think that laughing
when tickled helps us bond as humans.
80
 when you tick
le y Motor cortex

our
self
?
Tick
zo n e l
s

e
Armpits
Neck
The cerebellum helps you
control your movements.
Stomach
Sides
Brain
An area towards the front of the Feet
brain called the motor cortex
controls your voluntary muscles
(those under your conscious
control). The cerebellum, among
People can feel ticklish in different
other things, helps you balance and places, but these are among
makes sure your muscles work the most common areas. Some
together so that you move in people start to laugh before they
a smooth, coordinated way. are actually tickled!
81
 ly ?
i r d s f
How do b

Having thin, hollow

bones makes a
bird lighter.

Birds have very strong

chest muscles, so they can A bird’s body is slim and
flap their wings and rise. streamlined, so it cuts easily
through the air.

‘‘ Birds’ wings are slightly curved over the top, but

flatter underneath. This means that as a flapping or
gliding bird moves through the air, the air going over the
wing has to travel further than the air travelling below it.
‘‘
This lowers the air pressure above the wing, creating an
upwards force called lift that helps flying.
82
 Wings
Could humans
A bird’s flapping wings ever fly?
‘‘
pull it into the sky and
thrust it forwards. The Humans have always
long, stiff feathers push wanted to fly. Since earliest
against the air, providing
extra lift and thrust. times, people have strapped
homemade wings onto
Difference in air
pressure above
their arms and flapped
and below
creates lift Lower air about on hilltops trying to
pressure above
the wing take off. Yet we are fatter
than birds, our bones are not
hollow, and we have feeble
Higher air chest muscles, so jumping off
pressure below
the wing a hill was always likely to be
painful. Today, humans can
Tail feathers help it
to steer and brake.
fly… but only because we
hit on the clever idea of
‘‘
making aircraft.

Gulls can launch

themselves into the
air from sheer cliffs.

Gliding
Long-winged birds can
glide great distances,
only flapping their wings Eagles often glide
upwards on rising
occasionally. This way of air currents. This
flying saves energy. is called soaring.
83
 ne s go
pla
? do
H f as
ow t
so w b ir ds fl y on pages 82
–8 3 .
Find out ho

History of flight

X-43A
The record-breaking X-43A
jet reached speeds of
nearly 11,300 kph
Wright brothers biplane (7,000 mph) in 2004.
The Wright Flyer made
the first engine-powered flight
at Kitty Hawk beach in North Carolina, Curtiss Robin J-1
USA, in 1903. The Flyer’s first flight was This propeller-driven aircraft was first flown
a short hop of 36 m (120 ft) in in 1928. In 1929 it set an endurance record
12 seconds. of flying for 17 1/2 days. Its angled propeller
blades reduced air pressure in the front of
the aeroplane, pulling it forwards.

84
 Drag
Drag is a force that tries to slow planes
down. It’s caused by friction from the air
as the plane flies forwards.
Jet engines
When a jet aircraft burns
fuel, jets of hot gases
shoot out of the back of
its engines and thrust the
plane forwards.

Streamlined
Fast jets have smooth,
pointed shapes so they cut
through the air easily and
Direct
ion of keep drag to a minimum.
drag

‘‘ Throughout the history of flight, planes have got

faster and faster. To fly fast, a plane has to overcome
drag (air resistance), so fast planes are very streamlined.
The fastest planes have jet engines. Jet planes can
generate much more power than earlier planes, which had
propellers. They can also fly much higher – a propeller can’t
work very high up in the sky, because the air is too thin. The
thinner air also means that there is less resistance, making
planes even speedier. The fastest jet, the X-43A, flew at an
‘‘
altitude of more than 30 km (20 miles).
85
‘‘ The natural oil on the surface of the skin is called
sebum, which gets washed off in your bath.
Then water passes through the skin
and the tissues underneath swell up.
Some scientists think this wrinkly
effect is a result of evolution. They
claim it makes it easier to grip wet
things. Our ancestors spent hours
fishing for foodstuffs under water,
so perhaps wrinkles helped them to
grab what they wanted to eat. It’s a
clever idea, but who knows if
it is right? When you are in
the bath, do wrinkles help
you pick up a slippery bar
‘‘
of soap or a rubber duck?

86
Why does our skin go all
 The epidermis is the Glands make oily
skin’s outer covering. sebum to coat and
protect the skin.
The dermis contains
blood vessels, sweat
glands, and hair follicles.

Nerve endings
detect touch,
Tiny blood vessels, heat, or pain.
Skin called capillaries, lie
near the surface.

The skin is made of two layers,

the epidermis and the dermis.
The skin protects you and keeps Fishing
47.

out germs. When we put our

6–4

fingers in water, the wrinkly effect Before early people invented rods,
ges

is increased by nerve fibres in the

pa

nets, and spears, they caught fish

on

skin, which narrow, or constrict, with their hands. Some scientists

kin

fine blood vessels.

ts

believe that wrinkly fingers would

ou
ab

have helped them grab fish

e
or

more easily, giving them a

tm
ou

better chance of surviving.

Fin
d

Fish are slippery and

difficult to grasp.

wrinkly in the bath? 87

 s e e m t o
S un wh e re I
r y g o
e
h e
e ve ?
follow m t
doe
s
Why

‘‘ Strictly speaking, the Sun doesn’t follow us – we follow the

Sun. That’s because Earth is in orbit around the Sun. As
Earth rotates on its axis, the Sun’s position in the sky is
‘‘
always changing, but only very slowly. The Sun seems to be in
the same position whenever we look up, giving the impression
that the Sun is following us around.

88
 Sun
Why is the Moon
sometimes out
The Sun is about 1,392,000 km

day?
(864,940 miles) in diameter.
You could line up 109 Earths
across the face of the Sun.
in the
Earth travels
939,886,400 km
(584,018,150 miles)
in a single orbit
of the Sun.
‘‘ The Moon is very luminous
because it has a pale surface
and because it is very close to
Earth. Its orbit around Earth
is not a perfect circle and
varies a bit. If the Moon is in
the right position, it may
Earth rotates on its axis, reflect the Sun’s rays off its
giving us day and night. This
makes the Sun appear to pale surface towards Earth –
‘‘
move across the sky.
and that’s when we see it
in the daytime.
Orbit
Earth travels around, or orbits,
the Sun, held in place by the Sun’s
gravity. It takes Earth a year to
complete one orbit of the Sun.

From our position on the

ground, we don’t usually notice
the Sun’s movement, but we
see its effects, such as
lengthening shadows.
 How d
o you make
‘‘ It seems that one of the first nations involved in making
toilet paper was China. By the 1300s, when China was a
great empire ruled by Emperor Hongwu, it was made in
large quantities. Toilet paper is strong tissue paper made
from very fine wood chips. These are ground into flakes and
stirred in water until they form a mush called pulp. This is
dried and rolled out into long sheets. The resulting paper is
‘‘
soft and has tiny air holes, which help it absorb liquid.

Making toilet paper

water is removed from
trunks are stripped of T he the
e s dry the pulp an
Tre n
ches, the shredded heir
t roller ickness to m d pres pulp
th s .
bran r and chemicals and m bar a
right ng sheet of t ke one it int H
w a te to m ix k lo issue am o
ug
ake e d pap az
e
an h

the gly
p er.
d

in
wit .
ulp

1. P 2. M r
reparing the pulp aking the pape
90
 toilet paper?
Recycled roll
Some toilet paper is made
from old newspapers.
Emperor Hongwu These are turned back into
pulp, cleaned, and made
into new toilet rolls.
The Chinese Emperor Hongwu Recycling paper like this
(who was born in 1328) and his means that we cut down
family are said to have liked their fewer trees… and that’s
comfort. They used 15,000 sheets great for the planet!
of toilet paper a year, each one
soft and perfumed. This was an
improvement on ancient times.
People in the Middle East 2,000
years ago used to use pebbles to
wipe themselves. This must have
been quite uncomfortable!

cut into stri

paper is ps,
h e
xt, f pieces), and wound ont perfor
t T he toilet rolls are pa
e c
N r of
a a n
o
t toilet rolls! A sa card ated and sent to shops, w kaged
e g i bo h
t ak e
m cutting them into sm slices ard
w buy them to use at ere w up
(so tube up,

alle h om e
r r th e.
you s to

oll
ese

can
s.

3. W g 4. W s
inding and cuttin rapping the roll
91
 winkle?
Why d
os
ta rs t

Stars
The stars we see
are part of a vast
family of stars called
the Milky Way galaxy.
It contains about
200 billion stars.

92
‘‘ Stars don’t actually twinkle. For example, our Sun is a
star, but because it is so close it gives what is largely a
powerful, steady light that comes straight through the
atmosphere surrounding Earth. Other stars are far
away, so their light rays seem more feeble. Our
atmosphere is always in slight movement, so as
the light rays from these distant stars
‘‘
hit it, we see a twinkling effect.

Atmosphere
The atmosphere is like a
blanket of gases surrounding
Earth. It’s mostly made of
nitrogen and oxygen. We call Strong light from
this gassy mixture air, and it the Sun travels
is constantly on the move. straight through
the atmosphere.
star
ant Sun
Dist

Weak light from

a star is bent and
bounced around by
moving air, so the
star seems to twinkle.

e
pher
os
tm
A

93
 f a c e a n d h e ad
o ur b r ai n?
y your
n sense organs
a ‘‘
e
h
Your head contains your
insid
. It also holds your jaws
t
and teeth. Your face includes the muscles that
help you smile and show emotions. There are
other

nerves that connect with the brain, called cranial

nerves. The brain itself is protected by the fluid and
membranes surrounding it. Inside your skull are
What’s

air-filled spaces that vibrate when you speak or

the unique sound

‘‘
sing and that give you
Optic nerve
The optic nerve sends
of your voice. signals from 125 million light
receptors in the eye to the
brain’s visual cortex.

Ea
r
ssels

Spinal
column
Tongue
Blood ve

Sense organs The sides, back,

and tip of your
tongue have more
Your sense organs are your taste buds than
eyes and ears, and your the middle.
mouth, nose, and tongue.
Ep
They contain cells called igl
ott
receptors that tell your brain is
about the world around you.
94
 ‘‘Your tongue and mouth have about 8,000 taste buds.
The nerve endings of the taste buds can identify different
molecules in the food we eat. We think that taste buds
are programmed to recognize just five tastes: sweet,
‘‘
salty, sour, bitter, and savoury, also called umami.

o di f f
so
e
u
rr,
e nt
d
y e et, and fo
sw b
Wh

Skull

od r?
itt
te

s
tas

e
Nasal cavity
Scent receptors at the
top of the nasal cavity
send messages to the
brain so it can work out
what you’re smelling.

Cells
The cells in your
nose and mouth are
very sensitive and help
h

you tell the difference

ut

Mo
between lots of flavours.

Teeth
Taste buds
Taste buds are found on folds and
bumps on the tongue’s surface.
Each taste bud is a cluster of
taste-detecting receptors.
 h y c an’ t we live
W hout tree
wit s ?
Burning fossil fuels
gives off CO2 .
‘‘ Apart from their beauty, fruits, and
valuable wood, trees are a crucial part of the
carbon cycle. They take in carbon dioxide
from the air and give off oxygen. We wouldn’t ‘‘
survive if the air had lots of carbon dioxide in
Dead animals and plants
it, so we literally need trees for life.
release carbon back into
the air when they decay.

Carbon cycle
All living things contain carbon. So too do many
non-living things, such as fossil fuels, rocks, and air.
Carbon constantly moves between living things, the
oceans, the atmosphere, and the land.

Deforestation
world, people
Unfortunately, in some parts of the
the land for
are cutting down forests and using
. If we cut
farming. This is called deforestation
t of carbon
down too many trees, the amoun
. We need to
dioxide in the atmosphere will rise
of trees to life.
be much more aware of the value
 Why do trees swallow
carbon dioxide?

Energy from
sunlight powers
‘‘ Trees and other green plants use
carbon dioxide (CO2) to make their
food – a sugar called glucose. The
leaves absorb carbon dioxide, and the
Green plants the plant.
absorb CO2
from the air. tree combines it with water taken in
by its roots to make glucose. This
process is called photosynthesis,
Animals eat and it’s powered by sunlight.
plants, which
contain carbon.
They breathe
Oxygen is a waste product of
out CO2. photosynthesis, so the tree
releases it into the air.
Breathing this oxygen
‘‘
keeps us animals alive.
Find

The plant
releases oxygen
ou

into the air.

t m

Photosynthesis
o

The plant absorbs

re a b

carbon dioxide
from the air. The plant
out trees on pages 100–

absorbs water During photosynthesis, leaves

through its roots. use a green substance called
chlorophyll to absorb energy
from sunlight. Chlorophyll is also
the substance that gives
leaves their green colour.
10 1.

97
 o e s our body heal?
d
‘‘ When you cut yourself, damaged tissue
w
releases chemical messages into your bloodstream.
Ho

Red blood cells gather to form a clot to stop bleeding,

while white blood cells fight any bacteria and infection.
New cells grow from the edge of the wound, and cells
called fibroblasts enter the scab to make strong,
fibrous tissue and a substance called collagen, which
forms a scar. New blood vessels and nerves grow into
the area and new skin cells complete the healing and
replace some collagen. When you are very young, you
‘‘
heal so well that you may not scar at all.
Red blood cells are The surface of the clot
Clot trapped by protein
strands called fibrin, Scab hardens into a scab.
The scab falls off when
forming a clot. the wound underneath
has healed.

98
 Why do p e o p l e itch? Scratching tells
your nerves to stop
sending itchy signals

‘‘
to your brain.
Skin contains nerve endings that are
stimulated when they come into contact with
certain things that irritate or inflame the skin.
These include dust, insects, allergies, drugs, bugs,
and disease. The same nerves that register pain
‘‘
send itchy messages to your brain, which can
trigger a response to scratch the area and
ease the itching.

r ?
cold
Why do yo a feve
u feel with

‘‘ Your brain has a built-in thermostat

Hypothalamus
that controls temperature called the The sugar-cube-sized
hypothalamus tries to
hypothalamus. One of its many jobs keep all our body
is to keep your temperature at 37°C systems in balance so
we stay healthy.
(98.4°F). When your hypothalamus
senses that you’re too hot,
it sends signals to your
sweat glands to sweat
‘‘
to cool you. Sweating may
make you feel too cold,
When you shiver, it’s
the hypothalamus
trying to keep your
so you shiver. body temperature
normal.
99
‘‘ Trees do not normally shed, or drop, leaves in summer,

se
unless their environment is threatened – for example, after

lo
a long spell of hot weather with little rain, when
there is much less moisture in the soil. Under
these difficult conditions, a tree sheds
ees
tr
its leaves, putting it into dormancy.
Evergreen conifers Deciduous
often have leaves trees have large

e
shaped like flat leaves.

om
needles or scales.
Why do s
Trees
There are two main types of tree:
deciduous and evergreen. Deciduous
trees shed all their leaves in
autumn and winter. Evergreen
trees, such as most conifers,
normally keep their leaves
all year round.

re about trees on page 96

Find out mo –97.

The seasons
Spring Summer The leaves of a deciduous
Spring sunshine and By summer, the tree
tree sprout in spring, and by
rains cause new leaves has lots of leaves
to burst from buds. to allow it to absorb summer the tree is thick with
Many trees also as much sunlight green leaves. The leaves
flower in spring. as possible. capture sunlight and use it
100
 The tree stays like this until rain returns. A similar thing

leav
happens if there is heavy flooding with dirty or
contaminated water over a long period. Also, trees

es i
may lose leaves if they are infected, perhaps
with a virus or a fungus, or infested with
insects. This can occur throughout the
year and may protect the tree from
‘‘
disease and other threats.
nt
he s
Dormancy
ummer?
Dormancy is similar to
hibernation. Just as animals
hibernate in winter, so plants slow
everything down in the winter
months to help them survive.
Bare trees may look dead, but
they’re really just resting!

to make food for the tree. Autumn Winter

In autumn, the days In winter, days are
In autumn, the leaves turn get shorter and there the shortest of all and
red, orange, and gold is less sunshine. The the soil may be frozen.
before dropping off. In leaves change colour The tree has now lost
winter, the tree is bare. and start to fall. all its leaves.
101
 How do
volcanoes
erupt?
‘‘ In a few parts of the world, where
Earth’s crust is quite thin or cracked,
molten rock, called magma, is quite close to
the surface. Sometimes magma oozes through
cracks on the deep ocean floor. At other times,
magma and volcanic gas build up until they blast
open the rocky surface in a massive explosion. Ash,
dust, and gas shoot up to 20 km (12.5 miles) into
‘‘
the atmosphere, and hot magma (now called lava)
rains down. Lava may also flow over the land,
burning everything in its path.

Magma
Crust As rocks are melted by
the intense heat inside our
The crust is Earth’s hard outer layer. planet, gooey magma forms
Under this is a softer layer, the mantle, deep underground, in Earth’s
while the centre is called the core. lower crust and upper mantle.
102
 How do rocks turn into lava?
‘‘ Rock never turns directly into lava. Lava is what we call
magma when it erupts out of volcanoes. Rocks melt
underground to form magma, and it’s only when the magma
bursts or oozes onto Earth’s surface that we call it lava.
Rocks near or at the surface can melt and turn to magma
too if they get pushed deep underground by the movement
‘‘
of the huge rocky slabs that make up Earth’s crust.

Geothermal energy
Earth’s inner heat is called geothermal energy.
Scientists and engineers have discovered how
to put it to good use. They drill down to where
water trapped underground is heated by
magma until it turns to steam. This turns
turbines that power electricity generators. It’s
a pollution-free way of making electricity.

The steam turns turbines in

Steam from water power stations. When the steam
heated by magma is fed cools, it turns back to water, and
into the power station. is pumped back underground.

103
‘‘ Glass is silica, made from melted

c tly i s
a
sand. Sand has to be heated to
very high temperatures before
it melts – at around 1,700ºC

x
How e
(3,000ºF). When it cools, it
loses its yellow colour. Such
high temperatures need a
powerful furnace, so it’s
remarkable that humans
first made glass around
5,500 years ago, when it
was highly prized for
jewellery. Today, glass has
many uses, and people
make flat glass sheets
‘‘
for window panes.

Glass can be blown

Flat glass into different shapes
when molten.

Flat glass for window

panes is made by melting Lime
sand, lime, and soda. The (calcium Roller Cutter
oxide)
molten glass is floated in
a bath of liquid tin so it Molten glass
forms sheets, then it’s Molten tin Finished
Sand Soda glass
Cooling
cooled and cut to size. (silica) (sodium Furnace Tin bath chamber pane
carbonate)

104
 Why are
diamonds
so
hard?
gla

‘‘ Diamond, one of the hardest natural

ss mad
substances, is pure carbon. In a
diamond, each carbon atom is closely
attached to other carbon atoms and
‘‘
bonded firmly, giving it amazing strength.
e

Diamond-tipped
?

dentist’s drill.

Sand feels soft

because it is
made of many fine Each diamond atom forms
grains, but each a pyramid shape with its
grain is quite hard. four neighbours, making
diamond super-hard.
Carbon
Carbon is interesting because
it exists in many different
forms. Graphite in pencil lead
is pure carbon – it is not
Silica actually lead at all. However,
unlike diamond, this form
Silica occurs naturally as sand, of carbon is so soft you Graphite’s carbon
and it’s also found in many rocks. atoms are arranged in
can write with it. sheets that slide over
Silica is also used to make silicon each other, so graphite
chips for computers. crumbles easily.
105
 We are all born with genes
that determine our hair
colour. The actual colour
comes from a pigment
called melanin, which is
made in the hair follicles.

Follicle
A follicle is a tube of
tissue surrounding the
root of a hair. The follicle
is buried in the skin –
like a bulb buried in soil.

Wh
yd Hair follicle

oe s Flower bulb

our h
air turn
‘‘ The root each hair grows from is in a follicle. This
makes the pigment, or colouring agent, that gives your
hair its colour. As we age, follicles produce less pigment
so hair may become grey. Many people are prone to
turn grey because of the genes they carry. Some claim a
106
 Find
out
mor
ea
bo u
ta
gei
ng
on
pa
g es
1 12

– 11
3.
Age
How quickly people go grey as

?
they get older depends mainly on

r
their genes. Yet stress, smoking,

e
and illnesses may make it happen
faster and at a younger age.

old
e g et
grey whe n w Boo
!

sudden shock can cause grey hair. So, it’s probably

best not to hide and suddenly shout ‘Boo!’ at your
parents. However, if they are going grey it’s probably
because of their genes – which you may have inherited
‘‘
– and nothing to do with your dreadful behaviour!
107
‘‘ They may do, but we don’t really know. Astronomers have
detected nearly 4,000 exoplanets orbiting other stars.
Of these, only around 50 or so planets lie in the so-called
‘Goldilocks Zone’. This means that they orbit far enough away
from their star to not be too hot for life, and close enough to
it to not be too cold. In California, USA, the Search for
Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) Institute has scientists
working day and night hoping to detect signals from alien
‘‘
civilizations. Perhaps we are lucky that we’ve
not found them and they Launched in 1977, the
two Voyager spacecraft
haven’t found us. each carry a disc, called
Golden Record

a Golden Record, of
recordings and images
to tell aliens about life
on Earth.

Signals

Do
aliens
We send out signals from
Earth in the hope that there
could be someone out there.
Alien signals might come in
the form of radio waves or
flashes of laser light.

exist?
SETI uses radio
telescopes to listen
for signals and
examine newly
found exoplanets.
108
 Exoplanets
Exoplanets are planets beyond our
own Solar System that orbit, or
travel around, a Sun-like star.
‘‘ It’s unlikely that there is another end
to a black hole. A black hole is not
a hole in the usual sense of the
word. It is better to think of it as
These planets are a very long way
away. For example, Kepler-22b is an area in space where gravity
more than 5,850 trillion km is so strong that everything pulled
(3,640 trillion miles) from Earth.
into it is massively squeezed into
Ke
ple a tiny point. The gravitational
force is so great that nothing can
r-2
2b

escape from the area – even light

is permanently trapped by the
‘‘
intense gravity of a black hole.

It would take a signal from

Kepler-22b nearly 620 years

e oth e r e nd
h
t
hole?
to reach Earth!

a t
a ck
i s
W ha t
of a bl
 Light

l a n t
A flower’s leaves turn to face

p s
the Sun so they can collect
more sunlight to make food
for the plant. Light also

o
warms the flower, making it

D
e li ng
more attractive to insects.

h ave fe s? The Mimosa pudica

is a member of the
pea family.

‘‘ It depends what you

mean by feelings. There
is no evidence, I think, of
emotions or pain, but plants
can sense light, with flowers
turning towards the Sun during
the day. The Mimosa pudica, which
Touch originally came from South America,
responds to touch. When touched
The Mimosa pudica ’s
reaction to touch may
fool plant-eaters into
thinking that the leaves
lightly, the plant’s leaves fold and
droop for several minutes – that’s
‘‘
are not good to eat. why gardeners like to play with it!
110
 Can plants speak?
‘‘ No, but they can communicate with each other.
When attacked by insects, many plants release
molecules into the air or soil. These molecules ‘warn’
other parts of the plant to defend themselves by
releasing special chemicals. Plants growing nearby
can intercept these signals and then resist insect
‘‘
attacks using the same chemical response.

‘‘ Yes. The Venus flytrap,

e a
Are there any
t-e
m plaa tin
for instance, catches
insects in its jaw-like
leaves. Meat-eating
plants like this live on
poor soil and get extra nts
g
nutrition from insects
?

and small animals. In

spite of what you may
‘‘
see in movies, I don’t
think they have ever
swallowed a child.
 Why do humans
get old and die?
‘‘
DNA’s
All animals age and eventually die. Humans age twisted-ladder
shape is called
from the first day of life. At just 48 hours old, a double helix.

nine months before birth, some cells in our body

start to die. Fortunately, they’re replaced by new ones.
After birth, this process continues and eventually cells
are not always replaced by new ones – or if they are,
the copies are not perfect. The DNA copying process,
which makes new cells, gradually wears out. We have
much longer lives than most animals, but some fish,
whales, and tortoises, for instance, can live even longer.
In Bermuda, scientist Dr Andrea Bodnar has found
creatures like sea urchins that live up to 200 years,
‘‘
because their cells do not age like those of humans.

Chromosomes
DNA is found in the nucleus
of a cell, coiled up tightly into
structures called chromosomes.
There are 46 chromosomes
in each nucleus and these
form 23 pairs.
 DNA
DNA is short for deoxyribonucleic
acid. One molecule of DNA has millions
of atoms arranged in two spiral
strands. DNA is found in all our cells.
Our ability to repair DNA decreases
as we get older. Damage builds up,
Four different chemicals
called bases (shown here in causing ageing and, eventually, death.
different colours) form the
“rungs” of the DNA ladder.

The longest-living land animals

are the giant tortoises of the
Galápagos Islands. I’ve met one
of these myself – Harriet. She
died a few years ago, having met
the great scientist Charles Darwin
Bases give instructions nearly 180 years earlier!
for making proteins – the
body’s building materials.

Bases are arranged in pairs,

and their order forms a code,
like letters forming words.

Find out more about

ageing on pages 106–107.

113
 el s round and n
ot
‘‘
bubb

any
A soap bubble is full of air,
with a thin film of soapy water
surrounding it. The water molecules push

other shap
against each other and pull the water into
a ball shape. This force of attraction
between the water molecules is called
re

surface tension. The force pulls the

a

bubble into the shape with the smallest

surface area for the amount of
hy

‘‘
air it holds. This shape is always
W

e
a ball shape, or sphere.

Surface area
?
When you blow a
bubble, air gets
trapped by a film The surface area is the outside
of soapy water.
layer of something. These three
shapes have the same volume
(space inside them), but the
sphere has the smallest
surface area.

Cube Pyramid Sphere

 Bubble
Soap
A bubble is a bit like a sandwich.
The thin film that surrounds a
Water
bubble has two layers of soap with
a layer of water in between. Bubbles
burst when the water between the Air
two layers evaporates.
Soap

Water molecules pull

together. This surface
tension creates the
bubble’s surface.

Monster bubbles
Adding a liquid called glycerine to your soap solution
makes the water evaporate more slowly, giving you
stronger, bigger, longer-lasting bubbles. As you wave
your bubble wand, the bubbles may start off as long,
strange shapes, but they eventually become round.

Bubbles want to be
round, no matter
what their size!

115
 How do
you fall asleep?
‘‘ We fall asleep because our body is tired and also our
brain has a rhythm. If you regularly go to bed at 9:00 pm
you are likely to feel sleepy at 10:00 pm, even if you had
a nap in the afternoon. This rhythm is controlled by about
50,000 cells – a ‘clock' in an area of the brain called the
hypothalamus. It is affected mostly by daylight, by when
you eat, and by temperature. When we are very young
we need more sleeping hours. Ancient people like
me need at least five hours. Not getting enough sleep
can cause bad health. If you can't sleep, get into
‘‘
a dark, quiet place, wrap up warm,
stop worrying, and let
your body go floppy.

Sleeping hours
The number of hours we need to
sleep reduces as we grow older.
Newborn babies need the most
sleep – up to 17 hours a day.
116
 Why do we and how dream
do dreams appear in our brain?

‘‘ We don’t really know why we dream. Dreams have

fascinated, enchanted, saddened, and frightened people
since written records began. People have tried to
interpret dreams without much success. Some dreams
are creative – artists are often inspired by dreams and
some scientists have claimed this, too. I have brilliant
ideas during my dreams, but can never remember
‘‘
what they were about afterwards.

Sleep (in hours)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Dreams
There are several phases of
Light
sleep sleep. The electrical activity in
the brain changes during each
phase of sleep. Dreams occur
at the beginning or often
during lighter sleep, just
REM is before we wake up. Then our
when most eyes move rapidly. This is
dreams occur.
called REM sleep (rapid eye
If you wake from movement sleep).
Deep deep sleep, you feel
sleep really groggy.
117
‘‘ Our main problem is our dependence on fossil fuels.
We use these fuels to power our towns and cities, and for
transport. When fossil fuels burn, they produce carbon
dioxide. This gas is called a greenhouse gas, because it traps
the Sun’s heat in the atmosphere, rather like glass trapping
‘‘
heat in a greenhouse. Farm animals make things worse,
as they produce methane, another

te E ar th?
greenhouse gas.

lo lu Burning fossil
fuels produces
carbon dioxide.
p

e
er
ph
Fossil fuels
os
we
m
At

Coal, oil, and natural gas

Methane comes
do

from farm animals are fossil fuels, made

and rotting waste. from the fossilized
remains of living things.
They formed underground
Why

over millions of years.

Greenhouse
gases trap
heat and warm
Climate change
the planet.
Greenhouse gases are
heating up the Earth. This
Some heat process is called global
passes through warming. It is changing
the atmosphere.
Earth’s climate.
118
 What are we going to do
with all the waste?
‘‘ We humans are too wasteful. Large amounts of
waste are buried or thrown into the sea. More waste
could be recycled and the rest turned into energy by
It’s even been thought
that we could blast our
rubbish into space, but
‘‘
burning it. However, burning produces carbon dioxide,
so scientists are researching how to capture the
rocket launches would carbon dioxide to make burning safer.
cause even more pollution.

How can we stop pollution?

‘‘ We could improve things if we took the
evidence for climate change more seriously.
We can start by using renewable energy sources.
This means energy from sources that won’t
‘‘
run out, such as sunlight, wind, and waves.
These energy sources do not produce
greenhouse gases.

Wind turbines, like

this one, use wind
energy to generate
electricity. A group
of wind turbines is
called a wind farm.

119
 Why, when you’re doing
boring things,
does time go
slowly...
‘‘ Standing on planet Earth, time
does not change. But I agree,
time does seem to go slowly
when you’re bored – and far too
Are we nearly
there yet?

fast when you are having fun.

This might be something to do
with our perception of time.
If only time would stand still when
we are eating an ice lolly – but
‘‘
time and temperature make
certain that your lolly melts at
a constant rate. Time
In physics, time is a measurement of how
long something takes to happen. It is
recorded in seconds, minutes, and hours.
Time only goes in one direction, from the
past to the present, and then into the future.
Time can’t be stopped or go backwards.
120
 ...and why, when you’re
doing something
, does fun
time go
so fast?

Perception
Psychologists are interested in how we
experience, or perceive, time. When we’re
having fun, we’re interested in what’s going on
around us – our brain is active and we feel
that time flies. When we’re bored, our brain
is less busy and time seems to drag.
Glossary
cerebellum crust
Part of the brain that Earth’s hard, rocky surface –
has many functions, including the planet’s outermost layer
balance, coordinating
movement, and memory dark matter
Invisible matter found in space.
abdomen Big Bang cerebral cortex It produces gravity, pulling on
Also called your “tummy”, it Idea that the Universe began Surface layer of the brain’s stars and galaxies
contains your digestive system in a huge explosion nearly 14 cerebrum, where information is
and most major organs million years ago processed decay
When a dead plant or animal
absorb black hole cerebrum rots (or in physics when an
To soak up or take in Region in space with condensed Largest part of the brain, energy source decreases)
matter where gravity is so strong involved with activities such as
air that no light can escape thought and emotion dense
Mixture of gases in our When particles in a substance
atmosphere. It is mostly bond characteristics are packed tightly together
nitrogen and oxygen, with Force between atoms or Features that make us what we
tiny amounts of carbon molecules that holds them are, such as the colour of our dermis
dioxide and argon together eyes or hair and how we look Layer of tissue in the skin below
and behave the epidermis
air pressure camouflage
Force of air molecules pressing Colour, markings, movement, chemical diameter
on objects and surfaces or body shape helping animals Any substance made up of Distance across a circle,
or plants to hide in their atoms and molecules, including measured across its centre
air resistance surroundings any liquid, solid, or gas
Force that slows down an object dinosaurs
moving through air capillaries chlorophyll Extinct reptiles living between
Tiny blood vessels carrying Green chemical used by plants 245 to 65 million years ago
altitude blood to and from cells to absorb light for making
Height above ground, usually energy during photosynthesis dissolved
measured above sea level carbohydrate When a substance mixes
Sweet and starchy foods that chromosome completely with a liquid to
astronomer are rich in carbohydrates are Tightly coiled strand of DNA produce a solution it is said
Scientist who studies the stars, broken down by the body and in the nucleus of a cell. to have dissolved
planets, and space are a major source of energy Chromosomes carry genes
DNA
atmosphere carbon chrysalis Deoxyribonucleic acid. A
Layer of gases and particles Non-metal atom present in Hard capsule in which a chemical that stores genetic
surrounding Earth many different molecules, caterpillar changes into information inside living cells
including those in all living things a butterfly
atom on Earth dormancy
Tiny particle of matter. Atoms collagen Resting stage in a plant’s life
can bond together to form carbon cycle Protein that the body uses to cycle when active growth slows
larger particles called molecules Circulation of carbon from the build tissues or to heal wounds or stops
atmosphere, through living
bacteria things and back into the condensation double helix
Microscopic single cells living in atmosphere Change of a gas or vapour into Shape of a DNA molecule with
soil, water, or on the bodies of liquid, usually after cooling two strands twisted around
plants and animals carbon dioxide each other
Gas made of one atom of core
base carbon and two oxygen atoms, Earth’s hot centre, made up drag
One of four different chemicals released by animals and taken mostly of iron and nickel The force slowing an object
forming the “rungs” of a DNA in by plants down as it moves through a
“ladder” cornea liquid or a gas
cells Highly sensitive clear layer
Basic units from which all living at the front of the eye electric current
things are made A flow of electricity,
counterweight consisting of electrons
Weight that balances moving through
another weight a material

122
electrical conductor haemoglobin
Any substance through which Protein in red blood cells that
electricity flows easily exoplanet absorbs oxygen from the lungs,
Planet beyond the Solar System galaxy then releases it as blood that is
electrical insulator that orbits another star Vast collection of stars, gas, and pumped round the body
Material that reduces or dust held together by gravity
stops the flow of electricity experiment hair follicle
Controlled test to see if there is gas Group of cells in the skin
electrical resistance evidence to support a scientific State of matter with no shape, from which hair grows
Measure of how much idea because its molecules whizz
a material resists the flow around freely. A gas will always halogen
of an electric current extinct spread out, given the chance One of a group of very reactive
Plant or animal species that has substances. The main halogens
electrical signal died out and no longer exists generator are: fluorine, chlorine, bromine,
Signals in the form of pulses Device that converts energy and iodine
of electricity fat into electricity
Major source of energy found herbivore
electromagnet in foods and in body tissues genes Animal that only eats plants
Coil of wire wrapped around Inherited part of the DNA that
a piece of iron. When electricity ferromagnetic controls a specific function hibernation
flows through the coil, the iron Iron-containing material Deep sleep or period of resting
becomes a magnet becoming magnetic when geothermal energy of some animals, usually during
placed in a magnetic field Energy harnessed from hot winter
electron rocks deep underground
Particle with a negative fibroblast hormone
electric charge that orbits Cell that produces collagen gland Chemical “messenger” travelling
the nucleus of an atom and other fibres Organ or group of cells in the blood, which controls
producing fluids or chemical a particular function
embryo filament messages such as sweat, saliva,
Fertilized egg during the first Fine thread or wire. A light bulb or hormones hypothalamus
eight weeks of its development has a metal filament that glows Part of the brain that links the
that can grow to become when electricity passes through it global warming body’s nervous and hormone
a baby Rise in the average temperature systems. It keeps the body in
fluid of Earth’s atmosphere, caused a stable condition, so that
energy Substance, usually a liquid, by increasing levels of carbon everything works normally
What makes things happen. that can flow dioxide and other greenhouse
Light, sound, electricity, heat, gases incandescent
and nuclear power are forms fog Giving out light as a result
of energy. Energy is stored in Clouds of tiny water droplets glucose of being heated
all matter including food that form in the lower Type of sugar found in the
atmosphere, often containing bloodstream; the body breaks inert
engineering particles of dust or smoke it down to release energy Unreactive. Inert chemicals do
Using science and technology not combine easily with other
to design and build things force gravitational pull chemicals
Push or pull between objects, Force of gravity between large
epidermis which may change their speed, objects, such as between the lactic acid
Outer layer of the skin direction, or shape Earth and the Moon Chemical that builds up in your
muscles during tough exercise,
equator fossil gravity when your body breaks glucose
Imaginary circle around a Remains or impression of a Force of attraction that large down to release energy
planet or moon. It is the widest prehistoric plant or animal, dense objects exert, or give off
diameter halfway between the often preserved in rock lens
North and South Poles greenhouse gas Clear rounded structure,
fossil fuel Gas in the atmosphere that which in the eye focuses light
evaporation Fuel made from the compressed traps heat and warms the on the retina
When a liquid changes remains of plants or animals planet. Greenhouse gases
to a vapour dying millions of years ago, include carbon dioxide lift
for example, coal and methane Upward force produced by
evolution a wing as air moves past it
Development of a species over friction gunpowder
many generations as it adapts Dragging force reducing Explosive mixture of the light ray
to its environment movement of an object through chemicals sulfur, carbon, Light travelling along
contact with something else and potassium nitrate a straight path

123
 matter muscle philosopher
Anything that has mass and Body tissue that contracts to Person who uses logical
takes up space – the stuff from produce movement. Muscles argument to understand the
which everything in the Universe are made up of long cells called nature of the Universe, life’s
is made muscle fibres meaning, and how people
should behave
melanin NASA
Brownish pigment found USA’s National Aeronautics and pigment
light spectrum in the skin, hair, and eyes Space Administration, in charge Pigment gives colour to a
Rainbow colours seen when light of American space exploration material. For example, melanin
is split up into its different colours melanocytes gives your hair its colour
Cells in the skin producing nerve
liquid melanin Bundle of nerve cells carrying pituitary gland
State of matter that flows, electrical signals through Master gland underneath the
taking the shape of its container. melittin the body brain that signals to other
A liquid can flow because its Substance in bee venom that glands to release hormones
molecules slip and slide over causes pain and irritation when neuron
each other we’re stung Another word for a nerve cell placenta
Organ in the womb that takes
luminescent membrane nucleus oxygen and nutrients from a
Ability to produce light Thin lining around a cell, organ, Central part of an atom; or in a mother’s blood and passes
or other part of the body living cell, the centre that them into the baby’s
maglev train controls its functions bloodstream. It is connected to
Train that uses magnetic forces meteorite the baby by the umbilical cord
to float above its track, so that it Piece of rock or metal from nutrition
moves with minimal friction space that enters Earth’s Process of obtaining food or plasma
atmosphere and reaches the raw materials (nutrients) needed Very hot, electrically charged
magma ground without burning up to stay alive state of matter, in which the
Squidgy, molten rock in Earth’s electrons are freed from
mantle and crust. When it erupts microscope optic nerve their atoms
onto the surface, magma is Optical instrument that enlarges One of a pair of nerves carrying
called lava the image of an object using a signals from the retina to the pollution
system of lenses brain Substances, such as bacteria,
magnetic field factories, cars, and farming, that
Force around a magnet that microscopic orbit contaminate the environment
affects other nearby objects Object that is so small it can Path of a body in space, such as
often only be seen through a a moon around its planet or protein
magnetic poles microscope Earth around the Sun Building blocks of life that are in
Two points on a magnet where our cells. Proteins are essential
the magnetic force is strongest, Milky Way organ for growth and repair of the
called the magnet’s north and Galaxy containing our Solar Major structure with a specific body’s tissues. Also found in
south poles System function. Organs in the body foods such as milk and cheese
include the brain, kidneys, liver,
magnifying glass minerals and heart psychologist
Hand-held lens made of glass Naturally occurring solids in Scientist who studies human
or plastic that makes objects rocks or metals not formed from organelle behaviour and the workings of
appear larger plant or animal material. Part of a cell with a specific the mind
Minerals can also mean function. For example,
mammals chemicals that the body uses ribosomes make proteins, and radius
Warm-blooded animals in food and drinking water mitochondria generate energy Distance from the centre of a
with fur or hair that feed circle to its outside edge. It is
their young on milk molecule particle half the diameter of a circle
Particle of matter made of Tiny speck of matter, such as an
mantle at least two atoms linked by atom or molecule. Atoms receptor
Thick, dense layer of rock under forces called bonds themselves contain even smaller Body in a cell that responds
Earth’s crust. Some of the particles, including electrons, to messages from other cells.
mantle is partly molten mucus protons, and neutrons Some nerves are receptors
Slippery liquid protecting the that sense changes in our
mass tubes and cavities in your body, perception surroundings and send
Amount of matter in an object keeping surfaces moist Understanding of the world signals to the brain
or people around us gained
through our senses

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recycling sebum streamlined uterus
Reusing your waste, saving Oily liquid produced by the Having a smooth, narrow, often Also called the womb, it is the
resources and energy skin that keeps skin and hair pointed shape to pass easily organ in the abdomen where
soft and flexible through air or water. Birds, for a baby develops before birth
red blood cell example, are streamlined
Blood cell that carries semiconductor vacuum
oxygen around the body Material that only conducts substance Total absence of matter
electricity under certain Particular type of material
red giant environmental conditions vaporize
Star near the end of its life that such as temperature Sun To turn from a solid or liquid
has cooled and swelled Medium-sized star at the centre into a gas
massively sense organs of a Solar System
Your eyes, ears, nose, and taste vapour
reflex buds, and also the skin, which surface area Another word for gas, especially
Automatic reaction to has receptors for touch, Size of the entire surface of a a gas evaporating from a liquid
something affecting the body, temperature, and pain shape, often a triangle, square, that is not hot enough to boil
such as withdrawing your finger cube, or sphere
the moment it touches Solar System venom
something hot Planets and their moons and surface tension Poison used by animals to
bodies, such as asteroids and Force in the surface of water. It protect themselves against
refract comets, that orbit our Sun creates a delicate skin that can other animals or to injure,
Bend or change the direction of support tiny objects, such as paralyze, or kill them
a light ray as it passes from one solid insects
material to another, such as State of matter with a relatively virus
through air to water fixed shape. Solids don’t flow taste buds Microscopic, non-living germ
much, nor change shape like Receptors on your tongue and in consisting of a package of
REM sleep liquids and gases your mouth that can identify chemicals. It takes over a cell to
Period of light sleep when you certain chemicals in the foods make copies of itself, and may
tend to dream. REM stands for southern hemisphere you eat cause disease
“rapid eye movement”. During Half of the Earth that lies south
this stage of sleep, you cannot of the equator thrust visual cortex
move but your eyes flicker Force that pushes an aircraft, Part at the back of your brain
species boat, or vehicle forwards. In that deals with signals coming
renewable energy Living things that have very planes, thrust comes from from your eyes
Source of energy that will not similar genes, look alike, and propellers or jet engines
run out, such as sunlight, wave can breed with each other water cycle
power, or wind power tissue Non-stop movement of Earth’s
spherical Group of similar cells that water between the oceans, sky,
reptile Ball-shaped carries out a function, such as and land
Cold-blooded animal with a muscle tissue
backbone and scaly skin. Most star water vapour
reptiles lay eggs Vast ball of hot, glowing turbine Water droplets in a gaseous
gas in space Machine that uses a stream of state. It can condense in the
resists liquid or a gas to turn a air to form clouds
Works against, or in opposition static electricity generator and produce
to, something Positive or negative electric electricity wavelength
charge on an object’s surface Distance between the peak of
respire produced when it loses or gains umami one wave of energy, such as
Living things respire when using electrons. Lightning is an Savoury taste recognized by light or sound, and the peak
oxygen to release energy from example of static electricity your taste buds of the next wave
nutrients
steam umbilical cord white dwarf
retina Gaseous state of water formed Cord containing blood vessels Small, dense remains of a
Layer of light-sensitive cells when water boils and expands connecting a baby to the dying star
inside the back of the eye placenta in the mother’s womb
stereoscopic vision wingspan
scab Single image that our brain Universe Distance between the tips of the
Hard crust that forms from a forms by combining the two All of space and everything wings of a bird, insect, or aircraft
clot and collagen over a wound slightly different views from each that it contains
eye. It enables us to see in
three-dimensions (3D)

125
Index
A carbon dioxide 70, 71, 96–97,
electric shocks 63
electricity 62–63, 68–69,
77, 103
electromagnets 28, 29, 37
electrons 27, 59, 62, 63
elevators 45
embryos 11
graphite 105
gravity 13, 18–19, 54, 58, 78,
79, 89, 109
greenhouse gases 118, 119
growing pains 33
growth 32–33
growth hormone 32, 33
ageing 106–107 118, 119 emotions 50–51, 76, 110 gunpowder 71
air 13, 17, 58, 96 caterpillars 30 emperor penguins 66
air pressure 58, 82, 83, 84 cells 10–11, 33, 95, 98, 112, 113 energy 64, 70, 97, 119
air resistance 85 cerebellum 80, 81 epidermis 46, 87
H
haemoglobin 37
aircraft 84–85 chameleons 34–35 evaporation 49, 115
hair 10, 47, 106–107
aliens 108–109 chemical reactions 27, 70–71 evergreen trees 100
hair follicles 87, 106
amber 22 chlorophyll 97 evolution 14–15, 86
halogen bulbs 68, 69
anger 51, 76 chocolate 60–61 exercise 64–65
happiness 51, 76
anglerfish 57 chromosomes 112 exoplanets 108, 109
healing 98, 113
animals 34–35, 50–51, 76, 101, chrysalises 30 experiments 9
heartbeat 76
112, 113 climate change 118, 119 explosions 70–71, 102
heat 70
Antarctica 66 clots 98 extinction 22, 54, 55, 66
hibernation 101
Anthropornis 66, 67 clouds 48, 49 extraterrestrial life 108–109
hiding 34–35
Arctic hares 35 collagen 98 eyes 42–43, 94
Homo sapiens 15, 61
atmosphere 21, 58, 93, 96, colour spectrum 20, 21
honeybees 40, 41
102, 118 communication 111
atoms 12, 16, 27, 59, 105 condensation 49
F Hongwu, Emperor 90, 91
facial expressions 51 hook-and-loop fasteners 38,
autumn 101 conductors 63
fats 60 39
core, Earth’s 102
fear 51 hormones 32–33
corneas 42, 43
B cortex 76, 81
ferromagnetism 36, 37 Hubble Space Telescope 72–73
babies 15 fevers 99 human body 10–11, 24–25,
counterweights 45
bacteria 10, 52, 57, 65, 98 fibroblasts 98 32–33, 36–37, 42–43, 46–47,
cranial nerves 94
balance 81 fire 27 50–53, 64–65, 76–77, 80–81,
crust, Earth’s 102, 103
bases 113 fireworks 71 86–87, 94–95, 98–99,
current, electric 28, 29, 36, 63
bee stings 41 fish 57 106–107, 112–113, 116–117
bees 40–41 fishing 86, 87 hydrogen 54
belly buttons 24–25 D flat glass 104 hypothalamus 99, 116
bicycles 44 dark matter 13 flight 74–75, 82–85
Big Bang 12 Darwin, Charles 113 flowers 110
birds 66–67, 75, 82–83 de Mestral, George 38, 39 fog 48
I
infection 52, 98, 101
birth 14, 15, 24–25 death 112–113 follicles 87, 106
insects 30–31, 40–41
black holes 109 deciduous trees 100–101 food 60–61, 97, 101, 111
insulators 63
blinking 43 defence 34–35, 111 fossil fuels 96, 118
iron 36–37
blood 36–37, 98 deforestation 96 fossils 22, 23
itching 41, 99
blood vessels 87, 98 dermis 87 freckles 46–47
bogies 52–53 diamonds 105 friction 28, 85
boiling 17 dinosaurs 22–23, 55, 74–75 fun 121 J
boredom 120, 121 disease 99, 101, 107 functions 76, 77 jellyfish 56
brains 36, 40, 43, 76–77, 80–81, disgust 51 fungi 101 jet engines 85
94, 99, 116, 117, 121 DNA 22, 112–113 Jupiter 18, 19
braking 29 dormancy 100–101
breathing 52, 53, 65, 76 double helix 112
G
bubbles 17, 70, 71, 114–115 drag 85
galaxies 13, 72, 92 K
gases 17, 26, 27, 58, 70, 71, Kepler-22b 109
burning 27, 63, 68, 71, 85, 96, dreams 117
93, 102, 118
102, 118, 119 drones 40
gears 44
butterflies 30
genes 47, 106, 107 L
E geothermal energy 103 lactic acid 64
C early humans 14–15, 60, 61, glands 31, 32–33, 87 laser light 108
camouflage 34–35 86, 87 glass 104–105 laughter 80, 81
capillaries 87 ears 94 gliding 82, 83 lava 102–103
carbohydrates 60 Earth 18–19, 21, 58, 73, global warming 118 leaves 97, 100–101
carbon 96, 105 78–79, 88–89, 93, 96, glucose 64, 97 LED lamps 68–69
carbon cycle 96–97 102–103, 118–119 glycerine 115 lenses 42
eggs 11, 15 “Goldilocks Zone” 108 leopards 34, 35

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lifespan 112, 113 penguins 66–67 shapes 114 trees 96–97, 100–101
lift 82, 83 perception 120, 121 shivering 99 trilobites 23
light bulbs 68–69 philosophers, Ancient Greek 12 sight 42–43, 94 tungsten filaments 68, 69
light waves 20, 57, 93 photosynthesis 97 signals 108, 111 tunicates (sea squirts) 76
liquids 16–17, 26, 70 pituitary gland 32, 33 silica 104–105 turbines 103, 119
luminescence 57 placenta 25 silk 31
lungs 37, 52 planets 13, 73, 109 skin 10, 46–47, 65, 86–87,
plants 97, 110–111 98–99
U
umbilical cord 24–25
plasma 27 sky, colour of 20–21
M poles 28, 37 sleep 30, 116–117
Universe 12, 13, 72
maglev trains 28–29
pollution 118–119 smell, sense of 95
magma 102, 103
magnetic fields 28, 36, 37
power stations 103 soap 16, 17, 114, 115 V
pregnancy 25 solar energy 119 Velcro® 38–39
magnetite 37
proof 9 Solar System 73 venom 41
magnets 28, 29, 36–37
propellers 84, 85 solids 26, 70 Venus flytrap 111
mammals 14, 15
proteins 10, 11, 60, 113 space 13, 54–55, 72–73, 92–93, vibrations 57, 94
mantle, Earth’s 102
Pterodactylus 74–75 108–109, 119 viruses 52, 53, 101
mass 18, 19
pulleys 45 space-age technology 39 volcanoes 102–103
matter 13, 19, 26
sparks 62 Voyager spacecraft 108
meat-eating plants 111
species 23
melanin 46, 47, 106 Q speech 94
melanocytes 47 queen bees 40
speed 44 W
melittin 41 Quetzalcoatlus 74–75 waste 119
sperm 11
melting 26 water 16–17, 86
spiders 31
membranes 94 water cycle 48–49
methane 118
R spring 100
stars 12, 13, 54–55, 92–93 water molecules 16, 17, 114,
radio telescopes 108
milk 14, 15 115
radio waves 108 states of matter 26–27
Milky Way 72, 92 water pressure 57
radius, Earth’s 73 static electricity 63
Mimosa pudica 110 water vapour 17, 48, 49
rain 48–49 steam 17, 26, 103
molecules 16, 17, 20, 26, 58, 62, wave energy 119
rainbows 20, 21 stereoscopic vision 43
70, 95, 111, 113, 114, 115 wavelengths, light 20, 21, 57
receptors 94, 95 stick insects 34
Moon 19, 78–79, 89 webs, spiders’ 31
recycling 91, 119 stingers 41
mosquitoes 22 weight 19
red blood cells 36–37, 98 streamlining 82, 85
motor cortex 81 wetness 16
red giants 54, 55 stress 107
mouth 94, 95 wheels 44
reflexes 80 summer 100
movement 76, 77, 80, 81 white blood cells 98
refraction 21 Sun 54–55, 88–89, 93, 110, 118
mucus 52–53, 56 white dwarfs 55
REM sleep 117 sunburn 47
muscles 64, 81 wind turbines 119
renewable energy 119 sunlight 20, 21, 57, 97, 100,
110, 119 wings 74–75, 82–83
retinas 42
winter 101
N rivers 48, 49 sunset 21
wires 62, 63, 68, 77
nerves 87, 94, 95, 99 robots 77 surface area 114
surface tension 16, 114, 115 womb 25
neurons 10, 77 rock 102, 103
surprise 51, 80 wood pulp 90
Newton, Isaac 18 rotation, of Earth 88–89
sweat 10, 65, 87, 99 worker bees 40
nitrogen 58, 93
Wright brothers 84
noses 52–53, 94, 95
nucleus (atoms) 59
S wrinkly fingers 86–87
nucleus (cells) 10–11, 112
sadness 51, 76 T
salt (sodium chloride) 49 taste buds 94, 95
nutrition 11, 25, 77, 111
sand 104–105 tears 50, 51 X
teeth, gears 44 X-43A 84, 85
scabs 98
O scars 98 temperature 26, 48, 99
octopuses 35 science, importance of 8 tentacles 56 Y
oil 17 scientists 9 thinking 76, 77 yeast 71
optic nerve 42, 94 scratching 99 thrust 83
orbits 88–89 sea 48, 49, 78, 79, 119 ticklishness 80–81
oxygen 25, 27, 37, 58, 64, 68, sea urchins 112 tides 78, 79
71, 93, 96, 97 seasons 100–101 time 12, 120–121
sebum 86, 87 toads 35
semiconductors 68 toilet paper 90–91
P senses 76, 94–95, 110 tongues 94, 95
pain 33, 41, 64, 76, 87, 99, 110 tortoises, giant 113
SETI (Search for Extraterrestrial
Palaeeudyptes 66, 67 touch 76, 87, 110
Intelligence) 108
paper 90–91

127
 Acknowledgements
DK would like to thank the following: Caroline Hunt for proofreading; Helen Peters for the index;
Nityanand Kumar (DTP Designer) and Seepiya Sahni (Art Editor) for work on cutouts; Abigail
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