B U I L D I NG

Martin Loomis
T E A CH E R S
2ND EDITION
A Constructivist Approac

BUILDING TEACHERS
h to Intr
oducing Education

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SE/Martin/Loomis - Building Teachers: A Constructivist Approach to Introducing Education, 2nd Edition ISBN -978-1-133-94301-3 ©2014 08/08/12 2:14 PM
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 Society

School

Student

Self

T o conceptualize the content, context, and organization of

this book, think of a series of concentric circles that looks like a
target. Who is at the center of this target? YOU are. This book
starts with YOU. The “bull’s-eye” of the target symbolizes your
self—what you, the reader, already know and believe about
teaching, learning, and schools. The circles represent the student,
the school, and society respectively. Why do you suppose we
have chosen this conceptualization? Consider how the circles are
organized. What might this diagram indicate about your place in
the scheme of beginning to study teacher education? Consider
the sizes of the circles. What might they indicate about the
breadth and complexity of topics addressed in this book? Would
you think that the lines between the circles should be solid? Why
or why not? Keep this conceptualization in mind as you progress
through this book and your program of teacher education.

43013_FM_IFC_IBC_ptg01.indd 1 31/08/12 4:16 PM

 B U I L D I NG
T E A CH E R S
SECOND EDITION

A Constructivist Appro
ach to
Int roducing Education

David Jerner Martin

Kennesaw State University

Kimberly S. Loomis
Kennesaw State University

Australia Brazil Japan Korea Mexico Singapore Spain United Kingdom United States

43013_FM_SE_ptg01.indd 1 31/08/12 7:09 PM

 Building Teachers: A Constructivist Approach © 2014, 2007 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
to Introducing Education, Second Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
David Jerner Martin and Kimberly S. Loomis
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43013_FM_SE_ptg01.indd 2 31/08/12 5:06 PM

 This work is dedicated to

Marilyn Kern Loomis and the memory of A. Reeve Loomis, Jr.

The memory of Mary Lou Martin

And all the teachers, professors, colleagues, and students who have taught us

43013_FM_SE_ptg01.indd 3 31/08/12 4:10 PM

 Brief Contents

Preface xxiii
To the Student 1

PA R T I SELF 5
C H AP TER 1 Teaching Excellence and You 6
C H AP TER 2 Your Philosophy of Education 34

PA R T I I STUDENT 67
C H AP TER 3 The Student: Common Needs 68
C H AP TER 4 The Student and the Teacher: Acknowledging
Unique Perspectives 93
C H AP TER 5 The Student and the Teacher: Acknowledging
Unique Abilities 126

PA R T I I I SCHOOL 157
C H AP TER 6 Purposes of Schools 158
C H AP TER 7 Structure of Schools 182
C H AP TER 8 The School and the Student: Expectations and
Responsibilities 200
C H AP TER 9 The School and the Teacher: Expectations and
Responsibilities 223

PA R T I V SOCIETY 253
C H AP TER 10 Historical Perspectives 254
C H AP TER 11 School Governance and Finance 291
C H AP TER 12 Social Issues and the School’s Response 319
C H AP TER 13 Teachers, Students, and the Law 340
C H AP TER 14 Education Reform: Standards and Accountability 365

PA R T V BUILDING A TEACHER 395

C H AP TER 15 Your Motives for Teaching 396

iv

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 Contents
Preface xxiii
To the Student 1

PART I SELF 5
1 Teaching Excellence and You 6
Characteristics of Excellent Teachers and Effective Teaching: Your Beliefs 8
■ Building Block 1.1 Your Favorite Teachers 8
Characteristics of Excellent Teachers and Effective Teaching:
Outsider Perspectives 10

White Cross Productions/Getty Images

■ Building Block 1.2 Outsider Perspectives 11
Components of Excellence in Teaching 11
Characteristics of Excellent Teachers and Effective Teaching:
Views from Teachers 12
■ TeachSource Video Teaching as a Profession: What Defines Effective
Teaching? 12
■ From the Field Being an Effective Teacher 13
Characteristics of Excellent Teachers and Effective Teaching: The Media 14
Teachers in Films 14
■ Building Block 1.3 Movies about Teachers 15
■ TeachSource Video Freedom Writers: Teachers Can Inspire Students toLearn and Achieve 15
Teachers on TV and in the News 15
Characteristics of Excellent Teachers and Effective Teaching: The Experts 17
Characteristics of Excellent Teachers and Effective Teaching: The Research 18
Research Involving Perceptions 19
Research Involving Teacher–Student Relationships 21
Research Involving Student Achievement 21
Characteristics of Excellent Teachers and Effective Teaching: Psychologists 21
Glasser and the Quality School 21
■ Controversies in Education Test Scores and Measures of Teacher Excellence 22
■ Building Block 1.4 The Quality School 23
Combs and Perceptual Psychology 23
■ Building Block 1.5 My Beliefs 24
Characteristics of Excellent Teachers and Effective Teaching: The Federal Government 25
Characteristics of Excellent Teachers and Effective Teaching: Professional Standards 26

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 National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) 26
The Teacher Education Accreditation Council (TEAC) 28
The Council for the Accreditation or Education Preparation (CAEP) 28
Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC) 28
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) 28
State Certification Requirements 29
■ Building Block 1.6 Assessment of Your Field Experiences 29
Putting It All Together 30
■ Building Block 1.7 Putting It All Together: Attributes of Effective Teachers 30
■ Technology & Education: Does Technology Make a Teacher Effective? 31
Summary 32

2 Your Philosophy of Education 34

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The Nature of Philosophy 35
What Is Philosophy? 36
Branches of Philosophy 36
Educational Philosophy 39
■ Building Block 2.1 Characteristics of Educational
Philosophies 39
■ Controversies in Education The Power of Beliefs in Education: Homework 42
Schools of Philosophic Thought 43
■ Building Block 2.2 Exploring Educational Philosophies 43
Perennialism 43
■ Building Block 2.3 Your Thoughts about Perennialism 45
Essentialism 45
■ Biography Mortimer Jerome Adler 45
■ Biography E. D. Hirsch, Jr. 47
■ Building Block 2.4 Your Thoughts about Essentialism 47
Progressivism 47
■ Biography John Dewey 49
■ Biography Jean Paul Sartre 50
■ Building Block 2.5 Your Thoughts about Progressivism 49
Existentialism 49
■ Building Block 2.6 Your Thoughts about Existentialism 50
Social Reconstructionism 50
■ Biography Paulo Freire 52
■ Building Block 2.7 Your Thoughts about Social Reconstructionism 52
The Eclectic Approach 52
■ From the Field One Teacher’s Philosophies 53
■ Building Block 2.8 Reexamining Your Philosophical Beliefs about Education 54
A Continuum of Schools of Philosophic Thought 54
■ TeachSource Video Philosophical Foundations of American Education: Four Philosophies in Action 54

vi CONTENTS

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 School Philosophy and Mission Statements 55
Philosophic Perspectives of Non-Eurocentric Cultures 55
Theories of Educational Psychology 56
■ Building Block 2.9 Educational Psychologies 57
Humanism 57
Behaviorism 58
Information Processing 58
■ Technology and Education Programmed Instruction and Video Games 59
Constructivism 60
■ TeachSource Video Using Information Processing Strategies: A Middle School Science Lesson 60
■ TeachSource Video Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development: Increasing Cognition in an Elementary
Literacy Lesson 60
■ Building Block 2.10 Educational Psychologies in the Classroom 61
Your Philosophy of Education 61

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■ Building Block 2.11 My Philosophy of Education 61
■ From the Field Putting Students to Work in the Classroom 62
Metaphors 63
■ Building Block 2.12 Metaphors 63
Summary 63

PART II STUDENT 67
3 The Student: Common Needs 68
Students’ Needs and Motivations 69
■ Building Block 3.1 Your Motivation 69
Basic Needs 70
■ Building Block 3.2 Basic Needs 70
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 70
■ Building Block 3.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 73
Other Basic Needs Theories 73
■ Biography Abraham Maslow 73
■ Building Block 3.4 Basic Needs Revisited 75
The Influence of Basic Needs on Academic Motivation 75
Cognitive Needs 75
Cognitive Development 75
■ Building Block 3.5 Cognitive Readiness 76
Stages of Cognitive Development 77
■ Building Block 3.6 Cognitive Developmental Stages and Needs 79
The Influence of Cognitive Needs on Academic Motivation 79
■ Biography Jean Piaget 79

vii

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 ■ Controversies in Education Criticism of Piaget’s Theory 80
Psychosocial Needs 80
■ Building Block 3.7 Some Psychosocial Predicaments 81
Stages of Psychosocial Development 81
■ Biography Erik Erikson 83
Psychosocial Needs and Academic Motivation 83
■ Building Block 3.8 The Psychosocial-Sensitive Classroom 83
■ TeachSource Video Social and Emotional Development: The Influence of Peer Groups 84
General Academic Needs 85
■ Building Block 3.9 The Scary First Day of School 85
■ Building Block 3.10 Academic Needs 86
■ From the Field Differentiating the Classroom 88

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Instruction that Addresses Student Needs 88
■ Building Block 3.11 Putting Together What You
Know—Common Needs 89
■ Technology and Education Getting Technical on the
First Day of School 90
Summary 91

4 The Student and the Teacher: Acknowledging

Unique Perspectives 93
The Nature of Diversity 94
■ Building Block 4.1 Teachers and Students as . . . Shoes 94
■ Building Block 4.2 Classroom Diversity 96
Students’ Unique Perspectives and Characteristics 96
Cultural Diversity 97
Population Diversity 97
Diversity and Educational Perspectives 99
Teaching that Acknowledges Cultural Diversity 99
■ Building Block 4.3 Identifying Assumptions and Expectations 100
Multicultural Education 103
■ TeachSource Video Culturally Responsive Teaching: A Multicultural Lesson for Elementary
Students 104
English Language Learners 104
■ Building Block 4.4 A Second Language 106
Teaching that Acknowledges English Language Learners 107
■ TeachSource Video Bilingual Education: An Elementary Two-Way Immersion Program 107
■ Controversy in Education The Debate over Bilingual Education 108
■ TeachSource Video The Debate over Bilingual Education 108
■ From the Field Teaching all Learners 109
Religion 110

viii CONTENTS

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 ■ Building Block 4.5 Religions 111
Teaching that Acknowledges Religions 111
Socioeconomic Status 112
■ Building Block 4.6 Socioeconomic Status and School 113
Teaching that Acknowledges Socioeconomic Status 114
■ Building Block 4.7 Teaching Students of Poverty 115
Gender 115
■ Building Block 4.8 Activities for Boys and Girls 116
Teaching that Acknowledges Gender 118
■ TeachSource Video Gender Equity in the Classroom: Girls and Science 118
■ Controversies in Education Gender Equity: Single-Sex Classrooms and Schools 119
■ Building Block 4.9 Your Gender Biases 119
Sexual Orientation 120
Teaching that Acknowledges Sexual Orientation 121
■ Building Block 4.10 Your Sexual Orientation Biases 121
Putting It All Together 121
■ Technology and Education Different Strokes for Different Folks 122
■ Building Block 4.11 Metaphors Revisited 122
Summary 123

5 The Student and the Teacher: Acknowledging

Unique Abilities 126
Exceptional Children and the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act 127
■ TeachSource Video Inclusion: Classroom Implications for the General

White Cross Productions/Getty Images

and Special Educator 130
■ Controversies in Education Special Issues in Special Education 131
Learning Disabilities 131
Response to Intervention 131
Dyslexia 132
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 132
Autism 133
Teaching that Acknowledges Disabilities 134
■ Building Block 5.1 Teaching Students with Disabilities 134
■ Technology and Education Assistive Technology 135
■ TeachSource Video Assistive Technology in the Inclusive Classroom: Best Practices 135
Cognitive Abilities 136
■ Building Block 5.2 Intelligence Tests 137
Measuring Cognitive Ability 137
People Who Are Gifted and Talented 138
■ Building Block 5.3 Teaching Students Who Are Gifted and Talented 139

ix

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 Multiple Intelligences 140
■ Building Block 5.4 Your Primary Intelligences 141
■ Biography Howard Gardner’s Biography in His Own Words 142
Teaching that Encompasses Multiple Intelligences 142
■ Building Block 5.5 Multiple Intelligences 145
Learning Styles 145
■ Building Block 5.6 Your Comfort Zones 145
■ Building Block 5.7 Exploring Learning Modalities 146
Teaching that Includes the Primary Learning Styles 147
■ Building Block 5.8 Learning Styles in the Classroom 147
Teaching that Acknowledges Unique Abilities 147
Co-Teaching 148
■ From the Field Teaching All Students through Leadership 149
Differentiated Instruction 150
A Final Word about Unique Perspectives and Abilities 151
■ Building Block 5.9 Teaching All Students in the Classroom 151
Constructivism and Teaching Students with Unique Abilities 152
■ Building Block 5.10 Constructing Information 153
■ Building Block 5.11 My Philosophy of Education Revisited 154
Summary 154

PART III SCHOOL 157

6 Purposes of Schools 158

Common Purposes of Schools 159
■ Building Block 6.1 Questions about the Purposes of Schools 159
Purposes of Schools as Seen by Government
Agencies 159
Purpose of Schools as Seen in Mission
White Cross Productions/Getty Images

Statements 162
■ Building Block 6.2 School Mission Statements 162
■ Building Block 6.3 The Purposes of Schools 163
■ From the Field Developing a Mission 164
Factors Influencing the Purposes of Schools 165
■ Building Block 6.4 Unique Perspectives and Purposes
of Schools 165
Influence of Grade Level on School Purpose 165
■ Building Block 6.5 Purposes and Goals of Elementary Schools 165
■ Building Block 6.6 Adolescent Needs and the Purposes and Goals of Middle Schools 167
■ Building Block 6.7 Purposes and Goals of Secondary Schools 168
Influence of School Location on Its Purpose 169

x CONTENTS

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 Nontraditional Schools 171
■ TeachSource Video Rethinking How Kids Learn: KIPP (Knowledge is Power Program) Schools Use
Effective Schools Correlates 171
Charter Schools 171
■ Building Block 6.8 Charter Schools in Your State 172
Magnet Schools 172
■ TeachSource Video A Positive School Climate Reduces the Achievement Gap 173
Education Management Organizations 173
■ Controversies in Education Education Management Organizations 174
Home Schools 174
■ Building Block 6.9 Home Schooling 175
Alternative Schools 176
Vocational Schools 176
Private Schools 176
■ Building Block 6.10 Types of Private Schools 177
Online Learning and Virtual Schools 177
Your Hypothetical School 178
■ Building Block 6.11 Mission of a Hypothetical School 178
■ Technology and Education Virtual Teaching and Learning 179
Summary 180

7 Structure of Schools 182

Needs of Schools 183
■ Building Block 7.1 Parts of a School 183

White Cross Productions/Getty Images

Physical Facilities 184
■ Building Block 7.2 Identifying a School’s Structure from Its
Purpose 184
The Middle School as an Example 184
■ Technology and Education Use of Technology in Schools 185
Physical Requirements of Schools 186
Personnel 187
Teachers 187
■ Building Block 7.3 Optimal Class Size 187
■ Controversies in Education Does Class Size Matter? 189
Teachers with Specialties 190
■ TeachSource Video Collaborating with School Specialists: An Elementary Literacy Lesson 190
■ From the Field A Special Education Teacher 191
Administrators 192
■ Building Block 7.4 The Principal’s Jobs 192
■ Building Block 7.5 Teachers versus Administrators 193
Professional Support Personnel 193
Nonprofessional Personnel 194

xi

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 Scheduling 194
Annual Schedule 195
■ Building Block 7.6 Yearly School Schedule 195
Daily Schedule 195
■ Building Block 7.7 School Schedules 196
Putting It All Together 197
■ Building Block 7.8 Structure of Your Hypothetical School 197
Summary 197

8 The School and the Student: Expectations

and Responsibilities 200
Student Safety in the School 201
Physical Safety 201
■ Building Block 8.1 Safe Schools 202
Intellectual Safety 203
■ Building Block 8.2 Intellectual Safety 203
Emotional Safety 204
■ Building Block 8.3 Bullies and Bullying 205

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■ From the Field A Safe Learning Environment 206
School Responses to Safety Issues 208
Increased Security and Prevention 208
Zero-Tolerance Policies 210
Anti-Bullying Programs 211
■ TeachSource Video Cyberbullying 211
■ Controversies in Education GSA or No GSA 212
The Teacher’s Role 212
■ Building Block 8.4 Helping Students Feel Safe 213
Classroom Management and Discipline 213
■ Building Block 8.5 Discipline in the Classroom 214
■ Building Block 8.6 Classroom Behavior Expectations 214
■ From the Field Becoming a Classroom Manager 218
■ Technology and Education Electronic Gadgets and Students 220
Summary 221

9 The School and the Teacher: Expectations

and Responsibilities 223
The School’s Expectations of the Teacher 224
■ Building Block 9.1 A Teacher’s Life in School 224
■ Building Block 9.2 Teachers’ Tasks 225
Instructional Duties 225
Noninstructional Duties 226
■ Building Block 9.3 Extracurricular Activities 228

xii CONTENTS

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 Certification 229
■ Building Block 9.4 My Teacher Preparation Program 230
Professional Development 232
■ From the Field The First Practicum 233
■ TeachSource Video Mentoring First-Year Teachers: Keys to Professional Success 234
■ Building Block 9.5 Professionalism 235
Legal Requirements 239
The Teacher’s Expectations of the School 241
■ Building Block 9.6 The Teacher’s Expectations 241
Teacher Salaries 241
■ Building Block 9.7 School Salary Scales 242
Salary Increases 243
Tenure 244
■ Controversies in Education Merit Pay 245
■ TeachSource Video Teacher Incentive Pay: Pay For Performance 246
Working Conditions 247
■ Building Block 9.8 Let’s Get Specific: What Do You Need? 247
Materials and Resources 247
■ Technology and Education Technology for Teachers 248
Support 249
Joys of Teaching 250
Summary 251

PART IV SOCIETY 253

10 Historical Perspectives 254

Basic Educational History Considerations 255
Education in the Colonial Period 257
■ Building Block 10.1 Colonial Schools 257
New England Colonies 258
Middle Atlantic Colonies 261
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■ Biography John Locke 262

Southern Colonies 262
■ Building Block 10.2 Your Thoughts about Colonial Education 262
Education in the Young Nation Period 263
■ Building Block 10.3 Schools in the Young Nation Period 263
Changing Purpose of Education in the Young Nation
Period 264
■ Building Block 10.4 Educational Thought in the Middle Atlantic and Southern Colonies 264
Expansion 264
Teacher Preparation in the Young Nation Period 265

xiii

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 Land Grant Colleges 266
Influential Educators in the Young Nation 267
■ Biography Johann Pestalozzi 267
■ Biography Horace Mann 267
■ Biography Johann Friedrich Herbart 267
■ Building Block 10.5 Your Thoughts about Education in the Young Nation Period 268
Education in the Progressive Nation Period 268
■ Building Block 10.6 Schools in the Progressive Nation Period 269
Standardization of Education 270
Working Conditions of Teachers 271
Literacy 272
Teacher Preparation 272
Progressivism 272
■ Building Block 10.7 Your Thoughts about Education in the Progressive Nation Period 273
Education in the Postwar Period 273
■ Building Block 10.8 Schools in the Postwar Period 274
Federal Involvement in Education 274
Curriculum 275
■ TeachSource Video Foundations: Aligning Instruction with Federal Legislation 276
Education and Religion 276
Education of Catholics 276
■ Building Block 10.9 Your Thoughts about Education in the Postwar Period 277
Education in the Modern Period 277
■ Building Block 10.10 Schools in the Modern Period 278
Educational Reform during the Modern Period 278
Improvement of Teaching 279
■ Technology and Education The Evolution of Instructional Technology 280
■ Building Block 10.11 Your Thoughts about Education in the Modern Period 280
Education of Minorities 281
Education of African Americans 282
Education of Native Americans 284
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Education of Hispanic Americans 285

■ From the Field Remembering Lawrence Cremin 286
Education of Asian Pacific Americans 287
Summary 288

11 School Governance and Finance 291

The Stakeholders in U.S. Education 292
■ Building Block 11.1 Who Is in Control? 292
■ Building Block 11.2 Control and the Stakeholders 293
Governance 294

xiv CONTENTS

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 Building-Level Governance 294
System-Level and Local Governance 296
■ Building Block 11.3 Your School District 296
State-Level Governance 297
■ Controversies in Education Textbooks and Evolution 299
The Role of the Federal Government in Education 301
■ Building Block 11.4 Control and the Stakeholders . . . Again 302
Other Influences on Education and Schools 302
■ Building Block 11.5 Standardized Testing 303
■ Building Block 11.6 Teacher Unions 305
Financing Education 305
■ Building Block 11.7 Adding It Up 305
Local Funding 306
■ Building Block 11.8 Property Taxes and Equity 306
State Funding 307
■ Building Block 11.9 Sources of Revenue in Your State 307
■ Building Block 11.10 Lotteries and Education 310
Federal Funding 310
■ TeachSource Video Education and Equity 310
Private Funding 311
■ TeachSource Video High Schools in Low-Income Communities
Receive a Failing Grade 311

White Cross Productions/Getty Images

■ Building Block 11.11 Commercialism in the School 312
Issues in School Governance and Finance 313
Technology and the Digital Divide 313
■ From the Field Online Education for K–12 Teachers 315
School Choice and Voucher Systems 316
Summary 317

12 Social Issues and the School’s Response 319

Social Issues 320
■ Building Block 12.1 Social Issues 320
Social Issues that Affect Emotional Health 321
■ Building Block 12.2 Social Issues and Emotions 321
Changing Family Structure 321
■ TeachSource Video Divorce and Children 322
The Struggling Economy and Unemployment 324
Consequences of Emotional Health Issues and the School’s Response 325
■ Building Block 12.3 Reducing the School Dropout Rate 326
Social Is sues that Affect Physical Health 328
■ Building Block 12.4 Health Concerns 328
Nutrition and Childhood Obesity 328

xv

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 ■ TeachSource Video Childhood Obesity and School Nutrition 329
■ Building Block 12.5 Childhood and Adolescent Obesity 330
Drugs and Alcohol 330
■ Building Block 12.6 Drugs and Alcohol 331
Sex-Related Issues 331
■ Technology and Education Sexting 332
■ Controversies in Education Teen Pregnancy 333
■ Building Block 12.7 Sex Education 333
Social Issues that Affect the Community 333
Gang Activity 334
Service Learning 335
■ From the Field Service Learning 336
■ Building Block 12.8 Society and the Schools 337
Summary 338

13 Teachers, Students, and the Law 340

Sources of Laws and Regulations Impacting Schools 341
■ Building Block 13.1 It’s the Law! 341
Federal Sources of Laws and Regulations 342
State Sources of Laws and Regulations 342
Local Sources of Laws and Regulations 343
The Courts 343
Teachers and the Law 344 White Cross Productions/Getty Images

Teacher Certification 344

■ Building Block 13.2 Revocation of Teaching
Certificates 345
Employment 345
■ Building Block 13.3 Contracting for a Job 346
Noninstructional Duties 346
■ Building Block 13.4 What Are My Assignment Options? 347
Tenure 347
Dismissal 347
■ Building Block 13.5 Is This Incompetence? 348
■ Building Block 13.6 Is This Immorality? 350
■ Building Block 13.7 Is This Another Case of Immorality? 352
Teacher Rights 352
■ Building Block 13.8 Celebrating the Teacher’s Religion 352
■ Technology and Education I Found It on the Internet! 354
Legal Liability 355
Students and the Law 356
Due Process 356
Pregnancy and Marriage 357

xvi CONTENTS

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 Freedom of Speech and Expression 357
■ Building Block 13.9 Is This Libel? 357
Dress and Appearance 358
Search and Seizure 359
Privacy of Records 360
Corporal Punishment 361
■ Building Block 13.10 What Are the Students’ Rights? 362
■ Building Block 13.11 Putting It Together 362
Summary 363

14 Education Reform: Standards and Accountability 365

What Is Education Reform? 366
■ Building Block 14.1 Education Reform Topics 366
Curriculum and Instruction Reform 367
■ Building Block 14.2 Meaningful Curriculum 368
■ Building Block 14.3 Hands-On Teaching 368
Common Core State Standards 369
■ TeachSource Video Common Core Standards: A New Lesson Plan for America 370
■ Controversies in Education The Common Core State Standards 371
Social Studies Curriculum 371
■ Building Block 14.4 Learning Social Studies 372
■ Building Block 14.5 Modern Social Studies Curriculum 374
Science Curriculum 374
■ Building Block 14.6 Learning Science 374
■ Building Block 14.7 Modern Science Curriculum 377
Mathematics Curriculum 377
■ Building Block 14.8 Learning Mathematics 377
■ Building Block 14.9 Modern Mathematics Curriculum 378
■ From the Field Teaching the Standards 379
English Language Arts Curriculum 380
■ Building Block 14.10 Learning English and Language Arts 380
■ TeachSource Video School Reform: One High School Literacy Initiative 381
■ Building Block 14.11 Modern Language Arts Curriculum 382
The Impact of Reform on Instruction and Assessment 382
Instruction 382
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■ Building Block 14.12 What Would You Do with Curriculum? 383

■ TeachSource Video Reading in the Content Areas: An
Interdisciplinary Unit on the 1920s 384
■ From the Field An Odyssey into 21st-Century Learning 385
Assessment Reform 386
■ Building Block 14.13 Assessing Your Achievement 386
Authentic Assessment 387

xvii

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 Summative and Formative Assessment 387
■ Building Block 14.14 Using Assessment Data 388
Teacher Education Reform 388
Subject-Matter Knowledge 389
Pedagogical Knowledge and Skills 389
Methods of Teacher Preparation 389
Incentives and Accountability 390
Teacher Induction 390
■ TeachSource Video Mentoring First-Year Teachers: Keys to Professional Success 391
■ Technology and Education Technology in the Subject Areas 392
Summary 293

PART V BUILDING A TEACHER 395

15 Your Motives for Teaching 396
Identifying Your Reasons for Teaching 397
Self 397
■ Building Block 15.1 Your Self as a Teacher 398
The Student 399

White Cross Productions/Getty Images

The School 400
■ Building Block 15.2 The Place Called School 401
Society 401
■ Building Block 15.3 The Big Picture 401
What Do Teachers Say? 402
■ TeachSource Video Becoming a Teacher: Choices and Advice from the Field 402
■ Building Block 15.4 I’m Outta Here! 405
■ From the Field A Member of the Community 406
■ Building Block 15.5 So You Want (Or Don’t Want)
to Be a Teacher? 406
Teaching as a Profession 406
Professional Organizations 407
Your Chosen Profession 407
■ TeachSource Video The First Year of Teaching: One Colleague’s Story 409
■ Building Block 15.6 Your Philosophy of Education . . . Again 409
■ From the Field Getting Better Every Day 410
Summary 411

Glossary 413
References 419
Index 437

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 Features

BUILDING BLOCKS 4.7 Teaching Students of Poverty 115

4.8 Activities for Boys and Girls 116
1.1 Your Favorite Teachers 8 4.9 Your Gender Biases 119
1.2 Outsider Perspectives 11 4.10 Your Sexual Orientation Biases 121
1.3 Movies about Teachers 15 4.11 Metaphors Revisited 122
1.4 The Quality School 23 5.1 Teaching Students with Disabilities 134
1.5 My Beliefs 24 5.2 Intelligence Tests 137
1.6 Assessment of Your Field Experiences 29 5.3 Teaching Students Who Are Gifted
1.7 Putting It All Together: Attributes of Effective and Talented 139
Teachers 30 5.4 Your Primary Intelligences 141
2.1 Characteristics of Educational Philosophies 39 5.5 Multiple Intelligences 145
2.2 Exploring Educational Philosophies 43 5.6 Your Comfort Zones 145
2.3 Your Thoughts about Perennialism 45 5.7 Exploring Learning Modalities 146
2.4 Your Thoughts about Essentialism 47 5.8 Learning Styles in the Classroom 147
2.5 Your Thoughts about Progressivism 49 5.9 Teaching All Students in the Classroom 151
2.6 Your Thoughts about Existentialism 50 5.10 Constructing Information 153
2.7 Your Thoughts about Social 5.11 My Philosophy of Education Revisited 154
Reconstructionism 52 6.1 Questions about the Purposes of Schools 159
2.8 Reexamining Your Philosophical Beliefs about 6.2 School Mission Statements 162
Education 54
6.3 The Purposes of Schools 163
2.9 Educational Psychologies 57
6.4 Unique Perspectives and Purposes
2.10 Educational Psychologies in the Classroom 61 of Schools 165
2.11 My Philosophy of Education 61 6.5 Purposes and Goals of Elementary Schools 165
2.12 Metaphors 63 6.6 Adolescent Needs and the Purposes and Goals
3.1 Your Motivation 69 of Middle Schools 167
3.2 Basic Needs 70 6.7 Purposes and Goals of Secondary Schools 168
3.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 73 6.8 Charter Schools in Your State 172
3.4 Basic Needs Revisited 75 6.9 Home Schooling 175
3.5 Cognitive Readiness 76 6.10 Types of Private Schools 177
3.6 Cognitive Developmental Stages and Needs 79 6.11 Mission of a Hypothetical School 178
3.7 Some Psychosocial Predicaments 81 7.1 Parts of a School 183
3.8 The Psychosocial-Sensitive Classroom 83 7.2 Identifying a School’s Structure
3.9 The Scary First Day of School 85 from Its Purpose 184
3.10 Academic Needs 86 7.3 Optimal Class Size 187
3.11 Putting Together What You Know—Common 7.4 The Principal’s Jobs 192
Needs 89 7.5 Teachers versus Administrators 193
4.1 Teachers and Students as . . . Shoes 94 7.6 Yearly School Schedule 195
4.2 Classroom Diversity 96 7.7 School Schedules 196
4.3 Identifying Assumptions and Expectations 100 7.8 Structure of Your Hypothetical School 197
4.4 A Second Language 106 8.1 Safe Schools 202
4.5 Religions 111 8.2 Intellectual Safety 203
4.6 Socioeconomic Status and School 113 8.3 Bullies and Bullying 205

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 8.4 Helping Students Feel Safe 213 13.4 What Are My Assignment Options? 347
8.5 Discipline in the Classroom 214 13.5 Is This Incompetence? 348
8.6 Classroom Behavior Expectations 214 13.6 Is This Immorality? 350
9.1 A Teacher’s Life in School 224 13.7 Is This Another Case of Immorality? 352
9.2 Teachers’ Tasks 225 13.8 Celebrating the Teacher’s Religion 352
9.3 Extracurricular Activities 228 13.9 Is This Libel? 357
9.4 My Teacher Preparation Program 230 13.10What Are the Students’ Rights? 362
9.5 Professionalism 235 13.11Putting It Together 362
9.6 The Teacher’s Expectations 241 14.1 Education Reform Topics 366
9.7 School Salary Scales 242 14.2 Meaningful Curriculum 368
9.8 Let’s Get Specific: What Do You Need? 247 14.3 Hands-On Teaching 368
10.1 Colonial Schools 257 14.4 Learning Social Studies 372
10.2 Your Thoughts about Colonial Education 262 14.5 Modern Social Studies Curriculum 374
10.3 Schools in the Young Nation Period 263 14.6 Learning Science 374
10.4 Educational Thought in the Middle Atlantic 14.7 Modern Science Curriculum 377
and Southern Colonies 264 14.8 Learning Mathematics 377
10.5 Your Thoughts about Education in the 14.9 Modern Mathematics Curriculum 378
Young Nation Period 268
14.10Learning English and Language Arts 380
10.6 Schools in the Progressive Nation Period 269
14.11Modern Language Arts Curriculum 382
10.7 Your Thoughts about Education in the Progressive
Nation Period 273 14.12What Would You Do with Curriculum? 383
14.13Assessing Your Achievement 386
10.8 Schools in the Postwar Period 274
10.9 Your Thoughts about Education 14.14Using Assessment Data 388
in the Postwar Period 277 15.1 Your Self as a Teacher 398
10.10 Schools in the Modern Period 278 15.2 The Place Called School 401
10.11 Your Thoughts about Education 15.3 The Big Picture 401
in the Modern Period 280 15.4 I’m Outta Here! 405
11.1 Who Is in Control? 292 15.5 So You Want (Or Don’t Want)
11.2 Control and the Stakeholders 293 to Be a Teacher? 406
11.3 Your School District 296 15.6 Your Philosophy of Education . . . Again 409
11.4 Control and the Stakeholders . . . Again 302
11.5 Standardized Testing 303 CONTROVERSIES IN EDUCATION
11.6 Teacher Unions 305 Test Scores and Measures of Teacher Excellence 22
11.7 Adding It Up 305 The Power of Beliefs in Education: Homework 42
11.8 Property Taxes and Equity 306 Criticism of Piaget’s Theory 80
11.9 Sources of Revenue in Your State 307 Bilingual Education 108
11.10 Lotteries and Education 310 Gender Equity: Single-Sex Classrooms and Schools 119
11.11 Commercialism in the School 312 Special Issues in Special Education 131
12.1 Social Issues 320 Education Management Organizations 174
12.2 Social Issues and Emotions 321 Does Class Size Matter? 189
12.3 Reducing the School Dropout Rate 326 GSA or No GSA 212
12.4 Health Concerns 328 Merit Pay 245
12.5 Childhood and Adolescent Obesity 330 Textbooks and Evolution 299
12.6 Drugs and Alcohol 331 Teen Pregnancy 333
12.7 Sex Education 333 The Common Core State Standards 371
12.8 Society and the Schools 337
13.1 It’s the Law! 341 TECHNOLOGY & EDUCATION
13.2 Revocation of Teaching Certificates 345 Does Technology Make a Teacher Effective? 31
13.3 Contracting for a Job 346 Programmed Instruction and Video Games 59

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 Getting Technical on the First Day of School 90 TEACHSOURCE VIDEOS
Different Strokes for Different Folks 122 Teaching as a Profession: What Defines Effective
Assistive Technology 135 Teaching? 12
Virtual Teaching and Learning 179 Freedom Writers: Teachers Can Inspire Students toLearn
Use of Technology in Schools 185 and Achieve 15
Electronic Gadgets and Students 220 Philosophical Foundations of American Education: Four
Philosophies in Action 54
Technology for Teachers 248
Using Information Processing Strategies: A Middle
The Evolution of Instructional Technology 280
School Science Lesson 60
Sexting 332
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development: Increasing
I Found It on the Internet! 354 Cognition in an Elementary Literacy Lesson 60
Technology in the Subject Areas 392 Social and Emotional Development: The Influence of Peer
Groups 84
FROM THE FIELD Culturally Responsive Teaching: A Multicultural Lesson for
Elementary Students 104
Being an Effective Teacher 13
Bilingual Education: An Elementary Two-Way Immersion
One Teacher’s Philosophies 53 Program 107
Putting Students to Work in the Classroom 62 The Debate over Bilingual Education 108
Differentiating the Classroom 88 Gender Equity in the Classroom: Girls and Science 118
Teaching all Learners 109 Inclusion: Classroom Implications for the General and
Teaching All Students through Leadership 149 Special Educator 130
Developing a Mission 164 Assistive Technology in the Inclusive Classroom: Best
A Special Education Teacher 191 Practices 135
A Safe Learning Environment 206 Rethinking How Kids Learn: KIPP (Knowledge is Power
Program) Schools Use Effective Schools
Becoming a Classroom Manager 218 Correlates 171
The First Practicum 233 A Positive School Climate Reduces the Achievement
Remembering Lawrence Cremin 286 Gap 173
Online Education for K–12 Teachers 315 Collaborating with School Specialists: An Elementary
Service Learning 336 Literacy Lesson 190
Teaching the Standards 379 Cyberbullying 211
An Odyssey into 21st-Century Learning 385 Mentoring First-Year Teachers: Keys to Professional
A Member of the Community 406 Success 234
Getting Better Every Day 410 Teacher Incentive Pay: Pay For Performance 246
Foundations: Aligning Instruction with Federal
Legislation 276
BIOGRAPHY Education and Equity 310
Mortimer Jerome Adler 45 High Schools in Low-Income Communities Receive a
E. D. Hirsch, Jr. 47 Failing Grade 311
John Dewey 49 Divorce and Children 322
Jean Paul Sartre 50 Childhood Obesity and School Nutrition 329
Paulo Freire 52 Common Core Standards: A New Lesson Plan for
America 370
Abraham Maslow 73
School Reform: One High School Literacy Initiative 381
Jean Piaget 79
Reading in the Content Areas: An Interdisciplinary Unit on
Erik Erikson 83
the 1920s 384
Howard Gardner’s Biography in His Own Words 142
Mentoring First-Year Teachers: Keys to Professional
John Locke 262 Success 391
Johann Pestalozzi 267 Becoming a Teacher: Choices and Advice from the
Horace Mann 267 Field 402
Johann Friedrich Herbart 267 The First Year of Teaching: One Colleague’s Story 409

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43013_FM_SE_ptg01.indd 22 31/08/12 4:11 PM
 Preface
Welcome to the second edition of Building Teachers: A Constructivist Approach to Intro-
ducing Education. Being a teacher in today’s society is difficult. Students have heard or
read about many of the challenges facing teachers, such as accountability, standardized
testing, integrating technology effectively into teaching, engaging and motivating all stu-
dents to learn, addressing diversity including students with special needs, managing the
classroom, and working with parents and the community, among others. Those of us who
have been in education for any length of time know, however, that the rewards of teaching
can make meeting those challenges head-on very worthwhile. How can this book help you
and your teacher education students begin their preparation? Certainly, there is a lot they
already know about education. But, there is also a lot that they don’t know and, of course
there is a lot that they don’t even realize that they don’t know. This book is a great place
for them to start their program. It is packed with individual inquiries, descriptions of best
practices, and some of the suggested solutions to today’s challenges. The material we pres-
ent is entirely research-based and has been shown to be effective.

The Constructivist Approach

This book is constructivist in nature. It is markedly different from other introduction to edu-
cation textbooks. From the ground up, we designed it around a constructivist framework
that reflects our sincere belief that people learn best when they are able to construct their
own knowledge and understandings of any given topic. Its purpose is to encourage students
who are interested in becoming teachers to construct basic understandings of what it means
to be a teacher. We wrote it to help instructors and students actually implement the construc-
tivist approach. This means that the book is interactive in nature and inductive in approach.
We begin each chapter by asking students to explore what they already know about the
topic at hand, and we encourage them to build on that knowledge by investigating additional
information from the research, the media, government agencies, professional societies, psy-
chologists, philosophers, other teachers, and many other sources. We then ask students to con-
struct new understandings by combining the new information with their existing information.
We included all the topics normally found in an introduction to education course, although
they might not be in the same order as in a traditional textbook. The information and issues are
current, complex, and important for anyone thinking about a career in education to consider.

Organization of the Text

The overall organization of the text can be represented by a set of concentric circles in which
the Self is in the center, and the Student, School, and Society occupy larger circles that en-
compass the inner ones (see the inside front cover). Thus, students begin with an exploration
of what they already know about education (Self). Then, as they progress onward through
the material (and outward through the concentric circles), they consider the Student, the
Schools, and Society, while recalling the context of their earlier explorations. The lines be-
tween those concentric circles blur as students build personal and powerful understandings
of the complex relationship between the rewards and challenges of teaching.
Because this textbook may be different from others in the students’ experience, To the Student
provides a short introduction designed to familiarize readers with the nature of the book, how
to use it to develop their own understandings, and how to use its various features.
Part I deals with the Self—the individual student and his or her beliefs and informed
opinions about education. In Chapter 1, students examine the characteristics of excellent
teachers and exemplary teaching. In Chapter 2, students consider the conclusions they de-

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 veloped in Chapter 1, together with research findings, contemporary thinking about educa-
tion, and philosophies and psychologies to develop their own philosophy of education that
will provide a personal and flexible framework to guide them through the rest of the text.
Part II extends the explorations beyond the Self to the Student in the classroom. It asks
readers to think about how students are alike, how they are different, and how these char-
acteristics factor into the complex relationships teachers have with students. In Chapter 3,
readers explore ways in which students are alike, their common needs, and general motiva-
tional factors. Chapter 4 asks readers to explore the unique perspectives of the students they
will be teaching, such as cultural, language, and religious diversity; socioeconomic status;
gender; and sexual orientation. In Chapter 5, they explore the unique abilities of students
in such areas as learning disabilities, intelligence, and learning styles and preferences.
Part III helps students extend their awareness of the Self and Students to the context
of the School. In Chapter 6, they examine purposes of schools, and in Chapter 7, they
look at how the purpose of a school is reflected in its structure. Chapter 8 guides the
exploration of what schools expect of students and what students expect of schools, in-
cluding an investigation of behavior management techniques. Chapter 9 focuses on what
schools expect of teachers and what teachers expect of schools.
Part IV further broadens students’ understandings by looking at education in the context
of our Society. Chapter 10 deals with the historical foundations of education in the United
States. In Chapter 11, students explore broad concepts of governance and finance. In Chap-
ter 12, they consider additional social issues to which schools feel they should respond, and
Chapter 13 guides students through an exploration of the legal and ethical issues to which
schools, teachers, and students are accountable. In Chapter 14, they consider contemporary
trends and issues in accountability, curriculum standards, and educational reform.
Part V (Chapter 15) returns students to their thinking about what makes excellent
teachers and exemplary teaching and asks them to examine their motives for wanting—or
not wanting—to be a teacher.

Distinctive Features of this Text

Because this book is written with a constructivist orientation, it actively engages students by
encouraging intellectual interaction. Students consider what they already know about the top-
ics, explore additional and new information, and then construct new understandings.

Unique Interactive Features

Several special features promote student interaction and are highlighted in textboxes
throughout the chapters.

Building Blocks
The Building Block features comprise the basic tools of learning and serve as inquiry activities
for student explorations. Some Building Blocks ask students to reflect on existing knowledge,
some ask them to reflect on contemporary problems and issues, and some ask them to put
together new knowledge with their existing knowledge and describe and give reasons for their
conclusions. The Building Blocks can be used in several ways—as assignments before reading
the textual material, as short beginning-of-class activities, as springboards for class discussions,
as homework assignments, as tools for assessment, and so on. The Building Blocks are intended
to foster the constructivist nature of the book; student responses to the Building Blocks are one
of the better ways of seeing how they are constructing information. For the most part, the
Building Blocks do not presuppose any “right” or “wrong” answers; they are intended to en-
able students to express and examine their own thinking. Some ask students to compare their
conclusions with those of the authors. Hopefully there will be a degree of congruence.

TeachSource Videos
New! This feature includes a set of award-winning Video Cases that allow your students to
go on virtual field observations in the context of the current discussion. The videos provide

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 students with a chance to hear from real educators in real classroom settings. The Video Cases
and other engaging video clips provided on the Education CourseMate website offer critical-
thinking questions and give students ample opportunities for reflection and discussion.

From the Field

Students hear from award-winning teachers in the From the Field features (formerly
called “From the Teacher”). These first-person testimonies from teachers across the United
States are personal accounts of rewarding experiences and challenges from the field.

Controversies in Education
New! Controversies in Education features present opposing perspectives on current is-
sues and encourage students to consider the various sides of each story. Examples include
controversies surrounding bilingual education and the inclusion of Gay-Straight Alliances
on middle school and high school campuses.

Technology & Education

Technology & Education features describe specific kinds of technology that are used in
education, along with their applications to teaching and learning. Examples include the use
of mobile devices for teaching and learning and the use of online resources in instruction.

Biography
Biography features detail professional and personal information about prominent indi-
viduals in the education field and provide insight into how these people influenced school-
ing in the United States.

Integrated Themes: Diversity, Technology, and More

The topics students explore in this book are interdependent. To this end, you will find that
we have integrated important themes throughout several chapters instead of treating them
as independent topics. For example, material on diversity, social issues, and current trends
in education are addressed not only in specific chapters, but also in the context of several
other chapters. The No Child Left Behind and Race to the Top legislation is addressed
throughout the text and gives students the opportunity to explore their effects on educa-
tion in the United States today in a variety of contexts.
The material on technology is infused throughout the text, and individual elements of
technology are addressed contextually where they are most meaningful.

Correlation to Standards
This textbook supports the InTASC (Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support
Consortium) standards. Chapter Objectives are correlated with the standards; and in the
Deconstructing the Standards features at the end of each chapter, students are asked to
analyze ways in which their investigations helped them apply the standards. Students are
also asked to locate and consider their own state standards for educators in the context
of what they have learned from their inquiries. Specific correlations between the InTASC
standards and the contents of this textbook are provided inside the back cover.

Additional Learning Aids

There are several additional learning aids at the beginning, throughout, and at the end of
every chapter. These aids include:

New—Chapter Objectives at the beginning of each chapter are correlated to the re-
lated InTASC Standards.
Open-ended questions integrated throughout the chapter encourage readers to pause
and consider their ideas.

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 New—Key Terms are defined in the margins where they appear in the chapters, and
a full Glossary is also included in the back of the book.
New—Web Searches are features in the margins that ask students to put their web
searching skills in action to find additional information and websites on current top-
ics and issues.
Many Internet sites are suggested and can be accessed through direct links on the
Education CourseMate website.
End-of-chapter elements include the following:
A Summary of key chapter concepts
A list of Key Terms and Concepts for quick review
The Construct and Apply feature asks students to draw on the conclusions that they
have made throughout the chapter and apply them to new and different situations.
The Deconstructing the Standards features ask students to analyze how the topics
and activities in the chapter address the InTASC Standards with which the chapter
objectives are correlated, and extend this analysis into the readers’ state standards.
The Your Portfolio feature contains suggestions for artifacts that can be included
in the students’ learning portfolio.

New Topic Coverage in

the Second Edition
In addition to general updates and refinements, we have introduced many new topics,
have expanded other topics, and have deleted topics that seem less important now than
they used to be. Key changes include:

Chapter 1
New material on the new Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation

Chapter 2
New material on homework

Chapter 3
New material on bullying
Increased emphasis on motivation

Chapter 4
New comprehensive section on cultural diversity and multiculturalism
Expanded section on English language learners, especially teaching subject matter to ELLs
New material on socioeconomic status and achievement
Increased material on gender and sexual orientation

Chapter 5
New section on Response to Intervention (RTI)
Expanded section on ADHD
New section on autism

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 Additional material on existential intelligence
New sections on co-teaching and differentiated instruction

Chapter 6
New material on No Child Left Behind, Blueprint for Reform, waivers, and other
federal government initiatives
Revised section on education management organizations (EMOs)
New section on online learning and virtual schools together with supportive technologies

Chapter 7
New material on the current thinking about class size

Chapter 8
New material on physical safety in schools
New and comprehensive section on bullying, cyberbullying, and anti-bullying measures
New material on sexual harassment and sexual orientation

Chapter 9
Expanded section on teacher certification to include virtual forms of teacher prepara-
tion for certification and Teach for America
New material on teacher merit-based salary administration
Expanded section on mentoring to include online professional development opportunities

Chapter 10
Expanded material on Asian Americans

Chapter 11
New section on the digital divide to reflect current technological trends
New section on school choice and the voucher system

Chapter 12
Entire chapter rewritten to reflect current social issues of concern to schools, espe-
cially family structures, unemployment, school dropouts, after-school programs, nu-
trition, childhood obesity, drugs and alcohol, gangs, sexual behavior, service learning,
immigration, parent incarceration, and homelessness

Chapter 13
Updated to include recent court rulings

Chapter 14
New section on curriculum and instruction reform
New section on the Common Core Standards
Expanded treatment of differentiated instruction and interdisciplinary approaches

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 Chapter 15
New material on teacher attitude
New material on teaching as a profession

Accompanying Teaching
and Learning Resources
We have developed several new ancillary support items to go with Building Teachers that
can support and enhance the text experience and an instructor’s presentation of the
course. From planning to presentation to testing, materials are available to provide stu-
dents with an engaging and relevant exposure to the broad scope of topics in education.

Education CourseMate Website

Cengage Learning’s Education CourseMate brings course concepts to life with interactive
learning, study, and exam preparation tools that support the printed textbook. Course-
Mate includes an integrated eBook, glossaries, flash cards, quizzes, TeachSource videos, a
downloadable field observation guide, and more—as well as Engagement Tracker, a first-
of-its-kind tool that monitors student engagement in the course. The accompanying in-
structor website, available through login.cengage.com, offers access to password-pro-
tected resources such as an electronic version of the instructor’s manual, test bank files,
and PowerPoint® slides. CourseMate can be bundled with the student text. Contact your
Cengage sales representative for information on getting access to CourseMate.

Online Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank

The instructor’s resource manual contains resources created by David Martin and Kimberly
Loomis and designed to streamline and maximize the effectiveness of your course prepara-
tion. It includes a variety of resources to aid instructors in preparing and presenting text
material in a manner that meets their personal preferences and course needs. It presents
chapter-by-chapter suggestions and resources to enhance and facilitate learning. The
manual includes an introduction, chapter outlines/objectives, chapter strategies, supple-
mentary readings, and a test bank including multiple-choice, matching, and essay questions
for those instructors who wish to use more traditional assessment methods.

Online PowerPoint Slides

These vibrant, Microsoft PowerPoint lecture slides for each chapter assist you with your lecture,
by providing concept coverage using images, figures, and tables directly from the textbook!

ExamView
Available for download from the instructor website, ExamView® testing software includes
all the test items from the printed Test Bank in electronic format, enabling you to create
customized tests in print or online.

Field Experience Companion

Available for download from the instructor website, the Field Experience Companion is
ideal for use in courses with a required field component. This activities workbook—
created specifically for use with Building Teachers—contains suggestions for several
exercises that are related to the application of the material in the chapter. The workbook
also gives students a means by which they can more easily correlate what they’ve learned
in the text and your course to the observations and hands-on activities they accomplish
during their field experiences.

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 WebTutor
Jump-start your course with customizable, rich, text-specific content within your Course
Management System. Whether you want to Web-enable your class or put an entire course
online, WebTutor™ delivers. WebTutor offers a wide array of resources including access
to the eBook, glossaries, flash cards, quizzes, TeachSource videos, and more.

Acknowledgments
This work would not have been possible without the support and help of a great many
people. We are especially grateful to the following:
Lisa Mafrici, managing development editor, who patiently offered strong ideas, gentle
guidance, and a tremendous amount of help in every aspect of this work. Also a spe-
cial thanks to the entire editorial and production staff at Cengage Learning for their
insightful and strong collaboration in pulling together this work.
Dr. Lynn Stallings, who helped with the material on mathematics and who provided
great support and encouragement through the whole process of writing this book.
All the instructors of the introduction to education course at Kennesaw State Univer-
sity, especially the course coordinator, Professor Beth Marks, who provided sugges-
tions for content, organization, and editing.
Dr. Linda Webb, who wrote Chapter 13, “Teachers, Students, and the Law” for the
first edition.
Dr. Bryan Gillis, who helped with the material on the language arts.
Dr. Guichun Zong, who helped with the material on social studies.
All the many professional colleagues who have supported our work through the years.
The students in our introduction to education classes who have shown us what works
and what doesn’t; we have used many of their ideas and vignettes in this book.

We would also like to acknowledge all of the professors who reviewed Building Teachers
and provided invaluable feedback and suggestions at various stages in the writing and
revising. We thank the following reviewers of the second edition:

Elizabeth Dorman, Regis University

Virginia Garland, University of New Hampshire
Linda Harvest, Essex County College
Leanna Manna, Villa Maria College
Beth Marks, Kennesaw State University
Raja Nasr, Marymount University
Barbara Stern, James Madison University
Janet Stramel, Fort Hays State University
Renee Sturm, Medaille College
Curtis Visca, Saddleback College
Colleen Wilson, Jacksonville University

In addition, we thank the numerous reviewers of the first edition of this text:
Harvey Alvy, Eastern Washington University
Lloyd Anderson, Bismarck State College
Patricia Bason, Elon University
John J. Bertalan, Hillsborough Community College
Robert E. Bleicher, California State University–Channel Islands

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 John Bruno, Florida State University
Ted Bulling, Jr., Nebraska Wesleyan University
Susan Carson, Grand Valley State University
Margaret Denny, Louisiana State University
Elizabeth D. Dore, Radford University
John A. Ellis, Valparaiso University
Steven R. Greenberg, Bridgewater State College
Susan Allen Gulledge, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
Gwendolyn Guy, East Carolina University
Ann S. Hernandez, University of Saint Francis
Charles Howell, Minnesota State University, Moorhead
Edward Janak, University of Wyoming
Robert Leahy, Stetson University
William Patrick Leedom, Shawnee State University
Delinda Dent Lybrand, Eastern Kentucky University
Helena Mariella-Walrond, Bethune-Cookman College
Wendy L. McCarty, University of Nebraska, Kearney
Anthony P. Murphy, College of St. Catherine
Raja T. Nasr, Marymount University
Terry Nourie, Illinois State University
Melvin J. Pedras, University of Idaho
Rachel G. Ragland, Lake Forest College
Dutchie S. Riggsby, Columbus State University
Rochelle P. Ripple, Columbus State University
Richard F. Rodriguez, Western New Mexico University
Robert Shearer, Miami University
Rosemary Traoré, Florida State University
Cara Livingstone Turner, University of Charleston
Alexander Urbiel, Ramapo University
Laura M. Wendling, California State University–San Marcos
Carol S. Whelan, Tulane University
Ginger Williams, Oglethorpe University
Henry S. Williams, Sr., Central Washington University
Carlisle E. Womack, Bainbridge College

We also wish to extend a note of thanks to the following individuals who served as spe-
cialist reviewers for specific chapters of the manuscript:

Richard M. Gargiulo, University of Alabama, Birmingham

Paul Gorski, Hamline University
Gerald Gutek, Loyola University
Leslie S. Kaplan, Newport News Public Schools
William Owings, Old Dominion University
DAVID JERNER MARTIN
KIMBERLY S. LOOMIS

xxx PREFACE

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 AP Images/Seanna O'Sullivan
To The Student
SERIOUSLY. READ THIS FIRST. Welcome to your textbook. This textbook
is different from others you have read. Most textbooks tell you the information you
are supposed to learn, but this one asks you to come to your own conclusions. To be
sure, this book offers a great deal of information about education, but our primary
goal is for you to use this information to build your own ideas rather than to simply
memorize the ideas of others.
This text is written from a constructivist viewpoint, which means you will be
asked to construct your own conceptualizations about education by combining the
information presented in the text with your own prior experiences. Because no two
people have the same prior experiences, we expect each individual will construct
something different.
Most textbooks assume readers have limited or no knowledge about the topics
presented. However, we know you already have a great deal of information about
education. You amassed this information through being a student yourself, through
discussions with family members or friends who work in the field of education,
through watching public portrayals of education in movies and TV shows, through
hearing or reading about education in the news, and through Internet search engine
headlines, online videos, and blogs, as well as many other sources.

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 The way people learn is by attaching new information to the information they already
have, thereby building their own personal conceptualizations. Accordingly, we have writ-
ten a book that enables you to do just that. It encourages you to recall the information
you already know about teaching and schools, and it then introduces new ideas and helps
you put the two together. Learning in this manner is consistent with a learning theory
called constructivism.
If people learn best in a constructivist environment, then it makes sense that teachers
should teach using constructivist-based methods. Because you are learning about teach-
ing, we believe the organization of this textbook should be especially conducive to learn-
ing, and it should model the best way of teaching. Your venture into this method of
learning consists of three main steps:

1. You will use your prior knowledge and experiences to help establish your familiarity
with the material presented.
2. You will obtain new information and experiences from the text, your class work, your
fieldwork, and other sources.
3. You will draw your own personal conclusions by combining your prior knowledge
with the new information and experiences. These conclusions will likely be different
from the conclusions of others because each person has different prior experiences.

By using this text, you will approach this course in a manner similar to the way you
will approach the act of teaching. It is our conviction that you will become a better
teacher as a result of using this book because you will be learning the basic material about
education in a way that parallels the best way of teaching.
This textbook has several unique features that will help you in your constructions.
Here are a few examples:

Building Blocks are the meat of this book. They will help you:
Recall what you already know
Develop new information
Think and draw conclusions
Stimulate informal and formal reflection
Summarize topics
Here is an example:

BUILDING BLOCK What Do You Expect from a Textbook?

1. Why do you suppose your instructor requires you to purchase a textbook?
2. What do you expect from a textbook?
3. How can a textbook engage you as a learner?
4. Based on what you have read so far, how do you think this textbook will ad-
dress the expectations that you and your instructor have?
5. How does this textbook use Building Blocks to engage learners?

2 To The Student

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 From the Field features are essays written by experienced teachers, new teachers, and
student teachers about their experiences as teachers. Here is an example:

FROM THE FIELD

From a Student
I  have just now finished reading Chapter 1 of our new
textbook, and I wanted to make a few comments.
always had quotes all over the room. You have provided
some really thought-provoking quotes in this book that one
First of all, reading this chapter has in some way put a day may be seen on the walls of my classroom. The Building
greater desire in me to teach, and not only to teach but also Blocks are a really interesting and unique aspect of this
to be the best teacher there is! The section that lists the book and one I haven’t seen in this form in any other book I
basic conditions of teaching was very interesting, and I have read. I really like the idea of the Building Blocks, and I
found the five “beliefs” very helpful as well. Something I am believe they challenge the reader to think!
really enjoying about this book is that the authors have
taken many quotes and ideas from other people, enabling
the reader to think about multiple ideas and methods of Rebecca, a teacher education student
teaching. When I was in school, I remember the teachers who used a prior edition of Building Teachers

Biographies are included as appropriate so you can tell the background of some of
our more prominent educators. Here are two examples:

Kimberly S. Loomis is a through college levels for 25 years. Many of her

professor of science education in the presentations and publications focus on inquiry teaching
Department of Secondary and strategies, and are grounded in constructivist learning
Middle Grades Education at theory. Currently, her work is focused on using inquiry
Kennesaw State University. She has teaching in the field of wolf education and in exploring the
Courtesy of Kimberly Loomis

taught science and education effective use of informal science education centers and
courses at the middle grades national parks by science learners and teachers.

David Jerner Martin he taught science and mathematics for 18 years at the
is a retired professor of science elementary, middle grades, and high school levels. He is
education in the Department of author of Elementary Science Methods: A Constructivist
Elementary and Early Childhood Approach, currently in its sixth edition, and Constructing
Education at Kennesaw State Early Childhood Science. He has made numerous
Courtesy of Dave Martin

University, where he taught presentations fostering process-oriented constructivist

education and science education for inquiry science teaching and has consulted on this topic
21 years. Prior to his university work, both at home and abroad.

To The Student 3

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 Controversies in Education address current topics in education that are controversial
and present several sides of each issue for you to grapple with as you form your own
opinion.
TeachSource Video features are short video clips relevant to topics addressed in each
chapter. Teachers, administrators, students, and others involved in education provide
their opinions and insights, and demonstrate their skills in these informative virtual
field experiences to provide a context for the application of your learning and to
provoke further thought and exploration.
Technology and Education features address the growing use of technology to assist
teachers in teaching and managing classrooms. These features will help you find ways
to use technology to support learning.
Web Resources challenge you to use your web-surfing skills to find more information
about important topics.

You will find that issues related to diversity in education are purposely not set apart
as separate features in this text. Instead, these issues are featured as integral parts of the
topics addressed in each chapter.
This text and its supporting ancillary materials are arranged in a manner that encour-
ages you to interact with the material presented rather than memorize its content. By
using this textbook, you will begin to build your knowledge about teaching and learning
in a way that parallels the most effective way of teaching—the constructivist way. Enjoy
your explorations.
David Jerner Martin
Kimberly S. Loomis

4 To The Student

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 Society

School

Student

Self

Self
PA R T

I
pedagogy The art and science of THIS TEXTBOOK DEALS with pedagogy, which is the art and science
teaching.
of teaching. Part I of this book deals with your self. You already know a lot
about effective teaching. In the two chapters that make up Part I, you will look
at yourself as a prospective teacher. You will investigate the characteristics of
excellent teachers and effective teaching, comparing your beliefs with the
beliefs of others and the results of research, and you will use these
comparisons to augment and refine your existing ideas of what it means to be
an excellent teacher. In addition, you will examine your philosophical and
psychological convictions about high-quality teaching, and you will compare
your beliefs with the major philosophies and psychologies that form the
foundation for education. Using these comparisons, you will continue to
augment and refine your personal ideas of what it means to be an excellent
teacher.
The primary goal of Part I is to help you construct personal and valid
conceptualizations about the role of teachers.

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 © Jeff Greenberg/PhotoEdit Inc.
CHAPTER

1 Teaching Excellence
and You
SCHOOLS ARE WONDERFULLY rich and exciting. Students walk in the
footsteps of great thinkers, explore the natural world, master and expand numerous
aspects of literacy, experience the joys and inspirations of the arts, and participate in
many other enriching activities.
How does this happen? Through a good teacher.
You have decided that you might want to be a teacher, and you probably believe
you will be a good one. But considering the tremendous amount of information and
experiences—often conflicting—to which you have been exposed, you may be
asking yourself, “Just what is good teaching, anyway?”
Research shows that the teacher is the most important factor in the classroom
(DuFour and Marzano, 2011). In fact, in their seminal study of the records of over
three million students in elementary grades in Tennessee, Sanders and Rivers (1996)
found that not only is the teacher the single most dominant factor affecting student
achievement, but that the effects of both very effective and ineffective teachers
remained with the students for at least two years, regardless of the effectiveness
of the teachers the student has later. In fact, according to David Imig, past
president and chief executive officer of the American Association of Colleges for

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 Teacher Education, the quality of the teacher is 20 times more important in student
learning than any other factor (2002). A high-quality teacher is more important to
student learning than class size, funding, academic specialty, the school building or
campus, the makeup of the student population, or anything else.
The purpose of this chapter is to help you identify qualities of teaching
excellence that effective teachers possess. You will begin by examining these factors
from the perspective of your own familiarity with education. Everyone has had
experiences with schools—as students, employees, volunteers, parents, concerned
citizens, and as just plain members of society. From your experiences, you have
acquired much knowledge and many feelings about excellence in teaching. You
will then examine public portrayals of education, as in movies, television shows,
newspaper and magazine articles, and information found on the Internet—both old
and new—and you will explore relationships between these portrayals and your own
thoughts and feelings about teaching and education. Finally, you will compare all this
with research, expert opinion, and the positions of professional education societies to
refine your personal conceptualizations of excellent teachers and effective teaching.
This chapter invites you to participate in several activities designed to help you
bring your current thinking to the surface. You will be amazed at how much you
already know about good teaching!
In this chapter, you will use a constructivist approach—combining what you already
know with new information, to reach your own conclusions about what constitutes effective
teachers and teaching. The constructivist perspective suggests that learning occurs best
when you question your own preconceived ideas. This happens through exposure to
experiences you must reconcile with the understandings you already have. This chapter
sets the stage for you to identify your current understandings of excellent teachers and
effective teaching and begin to question, enlarge, and refine these understandings in
light of new experiences. These experiences include listening to others; watching
movies and television newscasts and programs; reading newspapers and magazines;
checking out material on the Internet; studying the work of researchers, educational
experts, and psychologists; and familiarizing yourself with current standards for high-
quality teachers. At the end of the chapter, you will put all this information together as
you reconsider and refine your ideas about what it means to be an excellent teacher.

Chapter Objectives
As a result of your explorations in this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Describe your beliefs about excellence in teaching.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
2. Investigate others’ beliefs about excellence in teaching.
Standard #8: Instructional Strategies; Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical
Practice
3. Examine the results of research on excellent teachers and effective teaching.
Standard #8: Instructional Strategies; Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical
Practice
4. Reflect on educational experts’ theories about excellence in teaching.
Standard #8: Instructional Strategies; Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical
Practice
5. Survey the standards for excellence in teaching established by professional educational organizations.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
6. Formulate your conclusions about characteristics of excellent teaching.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice

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 Characteristics of Excellent Teachers
and Effective Teaching: Your Beliefs
Everyone has favorite teachers. Your experience as a student has given you invaluable
insight into factors that characterize excellent teachers and effective teaching. In fact, you
may have decided to consider teaching because you were affected by a particular teacher.
To begin, look at your beliefs about the characteristics of excellent teachers and effective
teaching.

BUILDING BLOCK Your Favorite Teachers

1.1 Think back to your precollege years (elementary school, middle school, junior high,
or high school) or your previous college experience:
Who were your favorite teachers? Why?
In whose classes did you learn the most? What did these teachers do to help you
learn?
Were your favorite teachers also the teachers in whose classes you learned the
most? (You may have identified the same person in your answers to both ques-
tions, or you may have identified different individuals.)
Which characteristics on your list relate to personality?
Which characteristics on your list relate to the teaching itself?
Now look at the opposite side:
Who were your least favorite teachers? Why?
In whose classes did you learn the least? Why?
Were your least favorite teachers also the teachers in whose classes you learned
the least?
Which characteristics on your list relate to personality?
Which characteristics on your list relate to the teaching itself?
Save this list; you will use it again later.

You probably ended up with a fairly long list of your favorite teachers’ attributes.
Note that you have been considering two separate but related notions: personality char-
acteristics and teaching characteristics. Students in introductory education classes similar
to yours have come up with many characteristics they identify with excellent teachers and
effective teaching. Figure 1.1 shows the words these students used to identify personality
characteristics.
According to a survey conducted by eSchool News (2011), an online education newsletter,
the five most prevalent things students say they want from education are the following:

1. Real-world application and relevancy

2. Choice
3. Innovation
4. Teacher mentors
5. Interactive technology

Note how these are similar to the characteristics of excellent teaching, which you
have already explored.

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 Approachable
Accepting Respectful
Democratic
Caring
Interested in their subjects
Emotionally mature
Flexible
Compassionate Comfortable Well-rounded

Humorous
Empathetic Fair
Enthusiastic Encouraging

Kind Personable
Patient
Figure 1.1

▲
Interested in students
Passionate Personality characteristics of
excellent teachers identified by
Friendly
students.
© Cengage Learning 2014

Being consistent in classroom

Management
Using creative teaching methods

Relating subject matter to real life

Communicating high expectations

Utilizing hands-on activities

Involving students
Listening to students Monitoring student work and progress

Providing enough time for students to formulate answers to questions

Figure 1.2

▲
Providing clear directions and feedback Characteristics of effective
teaching identified by students.
© Cengage Learning 2014

Figure 1.2 shows the characteristics of effective teaching that these students described.
What can you conclude about the characteristics of excellent teachers and effective
teaching? It seems clear that several characteristics identify excellent teachers and
effective teaching, and that different students identify different characteristics. Some of
these characteristics reflect the teacher’s personality and some reflect the teacher’s
instructional skill.
Personality plays a large role in teaching. Perhaps someone who knows you well has
told you, “You’d be a good teacher!” Has this person ever seen you teach in a class-
room? Probably not. What made this person think you would be a good teacher? It
must be something about your personality. Maybe you have had experience working
with young people. Some people seem to attract small children; others seem able to
establish an immediate rapport with young adults. Maybe you are a “good explainer”
and have found that others understand ideas better thanks to something you said or
demonstrated. People who possess this connection with children and young adults have
not necessarily had actual teaching experience. Yet something about their personalities
enables them to establish the kind of relationship that is foundational in creating a
learning environment.

CHAPTER ONE Teaching Excellence and You 9

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 Instructional skills also factor into effective teach-
ing. David Berliner (1985), a major researcher in edu-
cation, identifies three components of instructional
skills:

Planning: Skills that occur before the instruction,

including planning for content, time allocation,
grouping, pacing, and student activities.
Implementation: Skills that occur during the in-

© Michelle D. Bridwell/PhotoEdit Inc.

struction, including monitoring student under-
standing during the lesson, adjusting the lesson to
meet unexpected requirements, questioning, com-
municating high expectations, managing small and
large group activities, and minimizing off-task
behaviors.
Reflection and assessment: Skills that occur after
What are the characteristics the instruction, including assessment of student
of an excellent teacher? performance, feedback, reflection, and manage-
ment of tests and grades.

These skills can be learned, practiced, and refined.

In your teacher preparation program, you will focus on
developing the full array of teaching skills.
In Building Block 1.1, you identified some strong
feelings about what qualities effective and ineffective
teachers possess, and about what constitutes effective
and ineffective teaching. The characteristics you re-
member of the effective teachers probably are those
you most want to emulate. And the characteristics of
© Dynamic Graphics Group/Creatas/Alamy

the ineffective teachers are those you most want to

avoid. You may want, for example, to be passionate
about teaching; to explain concepts so everyone un-
derstands; and to be caring, compassionate, and
communicative while maintaining effective and con-
sistent behavior management in your classroom. But
under no circumstances do you ever want to belittle
or humiliate students or have ineffective behavior
Engaging, knowledgeable, management in your classroom.
and positive teachers make
learning enjoyable for
students.

Characteristics of Excellent Teachers

and Effective Teaching: Outsider Perspectives
You have looked at the qualities of excellent teachers and effective teaching through
your experiences as a student. Those experiences have given you invaluable insights
into factors that characterize excellent teachers and effective teaching. Your thoughts
about teaching and education also may be influenced by other experiences you have
had. Let us look at teacher excellence and teaching effectiveness from the perspective
of a parent, a teacher’s aide, a school volunteer, a company executive, or local business
owner who might hire graduates from the local school system, or a concerned, tax-
paying citizen.

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 Outsider Perspectives BUILDING BLOCK
Think of teachers from the viewpoint of an outsider. You might want to imagine that 1.2
you are a specific outsider such as a parent, or you might want to consider your own
parents when they were in school.
Taking the outsider’s viewpoint, list the characteristics about teachers you
would consider to be effective.
Taking the outsider’s viewpoint, list the characteristics about the teachers you
consider to be the least effective.
Did you identify new characteristics or any characteristics different from the
ones you cited in Building Block 1.1?
What concerns influenced your perspective in this Building Block?
Save your list; you will use it again later.

Are the characteristics of quality teaching you identified from the perspective of an
outsider the same as those you identified from the perspective of a student? In all prob-
ability, there were differences. As students, we value certain characteristics of teachers;
as parents or other outsiders, we may find we value other attributes. For example, as a
student, you may put very high value on mutual respect between teacher and student
and on classroom order. As a parent, however, you may place higher priority on attri-
butes such as communication with the home and student performance on achievement
tests.
As you have seen, there are different ways of looking at what constitutes quality in
teaching. Perspective is influenced by the stakes someone has in education. A student’s
perspective is likely to be different from a parent’s; the stakes are different. Can you see
how they are different?

Components of Excellence in Teaching

We have been discussing two aspects of effective teaching: attributes of excellent
teachers (personality) and attributes of effective teaching (instructional skill). We
can construct a Venn diagram showing these two categories in two overlap-
ping circles (see Figure 1.3). One circle is labeled Personality Characteristics
and contains the personality traits that you indicated are associated with
excellent teachers. For example, the attributes of caring, fair, and friendly
would be listed in this circle. The other circle is labeled Instructional Personality
Excellence
Instructional
Skills and contains the instructional abilities that you indicated are as- in
Characteristics Teaching Skills
sociated with effective teaching, such as providing clear directions and
utilizing hands-on materials.
Many attributes we associate with excellence in teaching are func-
tions of both personality and instructional skill; these attributes occupy the
area of intersection of the two circles, which is labeled Excellence in Teach-
ing. For example, teachers whose lessons are clear and understandable know
how to teach the concepts in the lessons, and also act in an understanding and ▲ Figure 1.3
encouraging way while they teach the lessons. Teachers who succeed in engaging students Venn diagram showing attributes
in their learning also are accepting and empathetic. Teachers whose students have a of personality and instructional skill.
sincere desire to learn also are fair, reliable, and often humorous. © Cengage Learning 2014
It is important to realize that you do not have to possess all the personality charac-
empathetic Having understanding
teristics that have been identified to be an effective teacher. However, if any are identified of or participating in someone else’s
that you feel might help you become a more effective teacher, by all means try to feelings or ideas.

CHAPTER ONE Teaching Excellence and You 11

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 assimilate them. For example, if you learned that effective teachers exhibit a sense of
humor, you might try to kid around or joke with your students a bit more.
This Venn diagram in Figure 1.3 may be used to show how the art of teaching
and the science of teaching come together to form excellence. The art of teaching
often is considered a function of personality, and the science of teaching often is
considered a function of instructional skill. When both are effective, we have excel-
lence in teaching.

Characteristics of Excellent Teachers and

Effective Teaching: Views from Teachers
Some of the best information about the desirable characteristics of teachers
comes from teachers themselves. Throughout this textbook, we include “From
the Field” features, in which experienced, novice, and preservice teachers from
TeachSour
ce Video across the United States describe their thoughts about various topics from the
point of view of the classroom teacher. Many of the experienced teachers have
View the TeachSource Video Case, been named Teacher of the Year in their respective states as testimony to their
“Teaching as a Profession: What Defines excellence, and many others have received the prestigious Teacher of Honor
Effective Teaching?” In this video, you’ll see award from Kappa Delta Pi, the international honor society in education. You
vivid examples of the various dimensions can read what one Teacher of the Year has to say about effective teachers and
of teaching excellence––from developing
teaching in the From the Field feature on the next page.
command of one’s subject matter and
drawing upon one’s own emotional Linda Darling-Hammond, a noted educator at Stanford University, wrote
intelligence, to setting up an effective that the personality characteristics we have been discussing could be thought of
learning environment. Throughout the video, as teacher qualities (2009). She lists the following qualities as being among those
you’ll hear from educators themselves, that research has identified as contributing to teacher effectiveness:
those who, in the words of student teacher
Caitlin Hollister, “love what they do and take 1. Strong intelligence and verbal skills that enable teachers to organize and
on challenges.” Also be sure to watch the
Bonus Videos. After watching this video,
explain information
answer the following questions: 2. Strong content knowledge
1. How are the characteristics of excellent 3. Strong pedagogical content knowledge, which is the knowledge of how
teachers described by the educators in to teach the content to others, and the ability to develop higher higher-order
this video like those you have already
thinking skills in learners
learned about?
2. What does the video say that excellent
4. An understanding of who is being taught to accommodate and support
teachers do when confronted with special needs in learning and language
teaching subject matter about which they 5. The ability to adapt instruction and the learning environment in response
are unsure? to the needs of learners
3. Why do teachers need to know the
characteristics of the development of To examine teacher perceptions of qualities of excellent teachers, Educational
students?
Leadership (2010/2011) asked educators to respond to a questionnaire asking
4. What is meant by a teacher’s “emotional them to state what they believe is the main quality of excellence in teaching. A
intelligence”?
few examples follow:

pedagogical content Humility in an age of hubris—Sonia Nieto, professor emerita, University of

knowledge The knowledge of how Massachusetts
to teach the content to others and
the ability to develop higher-order Excitement about learning—Joseph Semadeni, fifth-grade teacher, Wyoming
thinking skills in learners.
Making meaning—Johanna Mustacchi, media library teacher, New York
Reflecting on how you teach—Pete Hall, elementary school principal, Washington
Willingness to grow—Deirdra Grode, codirector/principal K–12, New Jersey
Designing good questions—Terrence Clark, superintendent, New York State

12 CHAPTER ONE Teaching Excellence and You

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 FROM THE FIELD
Being an Effective Teacher
Linda Winburn

Winburn
I   n a world of rapidly shrinking education budgets warm, glowing lamps, framed

Courtesy of Linda
and ever-increasing concerns about new prints, and rugs; when I sit
government mandates, my philosophy behind what I do among them in a group
every day in the classroom does not change—teach all discussion listening and
children! Albert Einstein said what is so applicable in my questioning; and when I learn
classroom: “It is the supreme art of the teacher to awaken along with my students and admit that we can research
joy in creative expression and knowledge.” This thinking the answer together. It happens, too, as I understand that
drives me to inspire young minds and empower them to no two students learn the same way, and I vary my
seek creative expression and knowledge in a student- teaching style and differentiate learning.
centered, engaging classroom. I believe that I, as a I know that teachers must respect students and seek
teacher, must recognize and develop the potential in all to understand their complex world of emotional highs
students through challenging and stimulating material that and lows. If a teacher backs a child into a corner, that
is directly related to their lives. I build on their previous child will come out fighting. I rely on the philosophy in
learning accomplishments and tackle their challenges. I my classroom that I used with my own four children—
tell my students that the quotation “the more you know, give children choices, but make sure that all the choices
the more you want to grow” will ring true for them for a are good ones. I know this works; I have not written a
lifetime. Students should be challenged to immerse discipline notice in my classroom in years. My students
themselves in a world of learning that will take them to understand that they have control of their learning and
the highest levels of expectations, greatest wisdom, and behavior.
lifelong striving. The curriculum meets the academic, I know my personal teaching style and philosophy.
social, and physical needs of students, while challenging Both were acknowledged by a student teacher who said to
them to discover their inherent curiosities in a world that me, “I’ve never seen so much learning in such a creative
is constantly changing. classroom. Students are actively participating by research-
I know that I must actively involve parents as ing, questioning, discussing, and moving from activity to
co-teachers in the classroom by providing varied activity, and even actively involved in teacher instruction.”
opportunities for them to engage in my classroom as This style reflects my philosophy about awakening the joy
curriculum presenters, field study chaperones, writing in creative expression and knowledge. It is not one that
coaches, mock trial attorney coaches, and service project came easily or overnight.
supporters. As teachers, we must understand that parents Teachers must constantly research new strategies to
are their child’s first teachers. We must see our students facilitate learning and bring the curriculum to life. We
through the eyes of the parents and build relationships with must be willing to recognize that students’ explorations
families. Meeting students and families on their playing and investigations may lead a lesson in another
fields of life bridges the world of school to the world of direction—we must celebrate their insights. We must
family and community and unites us as scholars in a quest adopt a philosophy of teaching that says we can make a
for a common goal—lifelong learning in an ever-changing, difference in our students’ lives—one child at a time. We
global world, while maximizing each child’s potential. do this as we facilitate a classroom that leads students to
I know students must learn to think critically and then understand the challenges of a constantly changing world
develop conclusions that will result in more questions and and as we lead them to discover for themselves new and
a quest for more answers. “The one real object of deeper truths with real problems that are relevant to the
education is to have a man in the condition of continually past, present, and future.
asking questions” (Bishop Creighton). This happens when
teachers challenge students’ thinking and then offer a safe
environment for inquiry. I do this best when I open myself 2005 South Carolina Teacher of the Year
to building relationships with my students—sharing my Summit Parkway Middle School
own challenges and celebrations and allowing them to Richland School District Two
share theirs. It happens when I welcome students with a Columbia, South Carolina
smile and personal comment into a classroom filled with
© Cengage Learning 2014

CHAPTER ONE Teaching Excellence and You 13

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 Characteristics of Excellent Teachers
and Effective Teaching: The Media
You have examined teaching from your personal experience as a student and from expe-
riences that you may have had in other roles. But there is still more information to con-
sider in thinking about excellence in teaching.
Let us look at the issue of effective teaching from the perspective of the media.

Teachers in Films
Movies sometimes portray fictional
conceptualizations of teachers and
teaching based on true stories.
Although intended for entertain-
ment, these movies present some
insight into society’s general views
of what teachers do, and they may
depict examples of both effective
and ineffective teaching. For exam-

© Barbara Laing/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images

ple, Dangerous Minds (Smith, 1995),
based on fact, stars Michelle Pfeiffer
as Lou Ann Johnson, an ex-Marine
who wants to become a high school
English teacher. Her first class com-
prises supposed troublemakers who
seem to have more important things
to take care of than learning poetry.
To gain control and the ability to
teach, Ms. Johnson uses unconven-
Lou Ann Johnson (center) with tional techniques, such as teaching
former students karate and reciting Bob Dylan lyrics,
as she tries to associate school with
her students’ lives. This film shows
many characteristics of excellence in
teaching, such as relating subject
matter to real life; involving students
and listening to them; and being car-
ing, accepting, compassionate, and
mature.
Stand and Deliver (Menendez,
1988) is the true story of Jaime
Escalante, a tough high school math-
ematics teacher who motivates his
classes of potential losers to amazing
achievements. Mr. Escalante believes
in his students; holds extremely high
expectations; and exhibits great
enthusiasm, interest, and passion for
his subject—all qualities of an excel-
lent teacher.
AP Images

Jaime Escalante

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 Movies about Teachers BUILDING BLOCK
Do you remember watching movies that deal with teaching? The movies you 1.3
remember may not be documentaries or dramas; they could be comedies. What
specific characteristics of effective teaching can you recall? It is well known that
Hollywood often skews reality. What do these movies tell the public about teachers
Use your favorite search
and teaching? Based on the understandings of teaching you have developed so far, engine to find the official
do you believe that the teaching characteristics portrayed are realistic? website of Waiting for
”Superman“ where you can read
a very interesting discussion of
excellence in teaching.
You might enjoy watching one or more movies that portray teachers. A few ex-
amples include Waiting for “Superman” (documentary, 2010); The School of Rock
(PG13, 2003); The Emperor’s Club (PG13, 2002); October Sky (PG, 1999); Good
Morning, Miss Toliver (TV documentary, 1994, available through the Public
Broadcasting System, PBS); Kindergarten Cop (PG13, 1990); Lean on Me
(PG13, 1989); Fast Times at Ridgemont High (R, 1982); Ferris Bueller’s Day
Off (PG13, 1986); and To Sir, with Love (unrated, 1967). TeachSour
While you are watching these movies, ask yourself questions such as the fol-
ce Video
lowing, which are based on the material you have been studying so far:
View the ABC News video, “Freedom
Writers: Teachers Can Inspire Students to
How is the teaching done? Learn and Achieve.” This video offers an
What are the movie teacher’s most effective characteristics? interview with Erin Gruwell, the teacher who
inspired the movie Freedom Writers. This
What are the teacher’s least effective characteristics? story is about a high school English teacher
What are the most and the least effective lessons? who taught the art of writing to students
whom others had written off. In the video,
What makes them so? Erin speaks about the transformation her
students made as a result of becoming “dia-
rists” of their own experiences.
After watching this video, answer the
Teachers on TV and in the News following questions:
1. How would you describe Ms. Gruwell’s
The information you get from journalists may play a role in forming your opin- effectiveness as a teacher?
ions about the characteristics of effective teaching. You get this information from 2. Where do you think the students in
television shows, TV newscasts and news programs, newspapers, magazines, Ms. Gruwell’s class got their ideas about
radio, and the Internet. Television is an important source of information. Educa- effective teachers and teaching?
3. Describe the aspects of Ms. Gruwell’s
tion is often the topic of news programs, both locally and nationally. These reports personality and instructional strategies
can focus on everything from providing recognition for the accomplishments of a that made her teaching excellent.
particular teacher, student, or school to investigations of school board members 4. How are the aspects you listed in #3 like
and activities, budget expenditures, and inappropriate behavior of teachers. those you have already determined are
Other times you may see weekly programs about schools that are dramas characteristics of excellent teachers and
effective teaching?
or comedies. School shows from the past include a popular teacher-focused
television show called Boston Public. This show offered a fictional, behind-
the-scenes look at the professional and personal lives of teachers and administrators
at a midsize, urban high school. In 2009, a TV series called Glee first premiered. It
told the story of a high school Spanish teacher who took over the school’s failing glee
club. Throughout the seasons of the show, the glee club members, labeled as losers by
the other students in the school, learn to accept themselves for their various talents Have you seen any of these
classic TV shows about teachers
and attributes. The show also addresses many social issues that impact schools and
and teaching? You can find
teaching such as bullying and sexuality, and it portrays some very good and very bad
episodes or clips on YouTube
teachers. Friday Night Lights was started in 2006, and centers around the trials and simply by searching for them.
tribulations of small-town Texas football players, as well as their friends, families, How do these shows present
coaching staff, and school. education in relation to how we
Other classic TV shows include Saved by the Bell (1989–1993), The White see it being presented by shows
Shadow (1978–1981), Welcome Back, Kotter (1975–1979), and Room 222 (1969– that are currently on TV?
1974).

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 Student Reactions to the Portrayal
of Teachers in Films
The following are reactions from students in introductory education classes, written in
response to the films Dead Poets Society and Mr. Holland’s Opus. Dead Poets Society
(1989) stars Robin Williams as Mr. Keating, a literature teacher who pushes his students
to be involved, to think, and to use their minds. His teaching style is unconventional and
opposes the traditional lecture method with its requirements for accurate recitation.
One student said the following about Dead Poets Society:

When I become a teacher, I would like to mimic some of Mr. Keating’s

teaching styles. I like the idea of his unconventional methods of teaching.
He was always able to maintain the interest of the class. Lessons were
taught in an interesting and fun way. I liked the idea of eliminating the parts
of the curriculum that seem to be irrelevant to real life. I think Mr. Keating
had good intentions. He knew how to get the students to learn and want to
participate. However, I think he seemed to want to be more their peer than
their teacher. Like Mr. Keating, when I teach I want to be unafraid, bold,
and ambitious.

Mr. Holland’s Opus (1995) stars Richard Dreyfuss as Mr. Holland, a music teacher who has
been trying all year to teach his music students to appreciate the classics, with little
success. In an attempt to relate the material to his students’ lives, he begins a lesson by
playing what the students think are excerpts from a popular song. All the students can
name the song and the artist. They are surprised, however, when Mr. Holland reveals that
the piece was actually written by a classical composer and then used by the popular
band. Following this, the students are eager to learn more.
College students wrote the following reactions to Mr. Holland and his qualities as a
teacher:

At the beginning of the movie, Mr. Holland personified many of those qualities
that are not wanted in a teacher. He had poor lecture skills, taught straight out
of the book, was not enthusiastic, and did not want to be in the classroom. As
he learned the tricks of the trade, he began to incorporate many interesting
techniques into his teaching. He involved the students, included real-life
scenarios, was creative, and was very passionate about his profession. His
transformation from one of the worst teachers to one of the greatest teachers
shows that while he didn’t have the qualities of a good teacher in the
beginning, he still had the heart—and that is what made him a good teacher. I
hope my future students will see me as a vital part of their lives and as
someone who cares and makes a difference.

Network and local TV stations frequently report on teachers and school activities and
sometimes present opposing sides of controversial issues, such as the growing controversy
over the benefits of the Head Start program discussed on National Public Radio (Jones,
2005).
Print material also is a very important source of information about education. News-
papers and popular magazines regularly report on educational issues and offer pros and
cons related to education, such as the controversy surrounding the use of standardized
test scores in making high-stakes education decisions (see Controversies in Education,
page 22).
You will have many opportunities to think through educational issues during this
course. Be sure to keep up with the current news and opinions about education given by
the media. For each, ask yourself, “Is this news story realistic? Does this item really por-
tray education as we know it?”

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 Characteristics of Excellent Teachers
and Effective Teaching: The Experts
You have looked at effective and ineffective teachers and teaching from several view-
points: your own beliefs, outsiders, teachers, and the media. You have also heard ideas
from students in your class and you have read ideas generated by students in other classes
and by practicing educators. You have identified what you believe are the most important
attributes of effective teachers and teaching and of ineffective teachers and teaching,
thereby becoming conscious of your thoughts about what constitutes good and bad teach-
ing. How do your thoughts compare with those of the experts?
Sometimes it’s interesting to come across a quote you can strongly identify with be-
cause it is consistent with your beliefs. Several quotations written by individuals who are
not necessarily classroom teachers but who are deeply involved with education follow.
How strongly do you agree or disagree with each?

That type of scholarship which is bent on remembering things in order to answer

people’s questions does not qualify one to be a teacher.
—Confucius

The teacher’s job is limited to offering the materials, and it suffices if she demon-
strates their use; after that, she leaves the child with his work. Our goal is not so
much the imparting of knowledge as the unveiling and developing of spiritual energy.
—Maria Montessori

The man who can make hard things easy is the educator.
—Ralph Waldo Emerson

I have one rule—attention. They give me theirs and I give them mine.
—Sister Evangelist, RSM, teacher in Montana

I had learned to respect the intelligence, integrity, creativity, and capacity for deep
thought and hard work latent somewhere in every child; they had learned that I
differed from them only in years and experience, and that I, an ordinary human be-
ing, loved and respected them. I expected payment in kind.
—Sybil Marshall, on 18 years as a teacher
in a one-room schoolhouse in rural England

You cannot teach a man anything; you can only help him find it within himself.
—Galileo

A child must feel the flush of victory and the heart-sinking of disappointment before
he takes with a will to the tasks distasteful to him and resolves to dance his way
through a dull routine of textbooks.
—Helen Keller

A teacher must believe in the value and interest of his subject as a doctor believes in
health.
—Gilbert Highet, The Art of Teaching

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 Teaching is an instinctual art, mindful of potential, craving of realization, a pausing,
seamless process.
—A. Bartlett Giamatti, president, Yale University, 1978–1986,
and president, National Baseball League, 1986–1989

Much that passes for education is not education at all but ritual.
—David P. Gardner, president, University of Utah, 1973–1983

We don’t receive wisdom; we discover it for ourselves after a journey that no one
can take for us or spare us.
—Marcel Proust

Search the Internet for

additional quotes about
The extent to which you agree or disagree with these statements may be an indicator
education and/or about your of how you are constructing your ideas about effective teaching. All these quotations are
content area. Use your favorite from outstanding educators. Were any of them particularly meaningful to you? There are
search engine and search for literally thousands of memorable quotations on education by outstanding individuals.
terms such as “Education Consider starting a collection of meaningful quotations to read when you want inspira-
Quotes” or “(Content Area) tion or when the going gets tough.
Quotes,” inserting your content Many prominent educators have suggested basic qualities of effective teaching.
area in the parentheses, to see Gurney Chambers, former dean of the College of Education at Western Carolina Univer-
what you can find. sity, identified five fundamental traits common to what he called “great teachers” (Cham-
bers, 2000):

1. Great teachers are empathetic and see things from the students’ perspectives.
2. Great teachers are energetic.
3. Great teachers have high expectations.
4. Great teachers are concerned with the whole child.
hidden curriculum What children 5. Great teachers perceive the hidden curriculum (the learning that goes on but that is
learn in school that is not content not part of the daily course of study) in the classroom.
related, but rather a part of being
in a school. The hidden curriculum
includes the procedures and routines Parker Palmer, the founder and senior partner of the Center for Courage & Renewal,
of school functions. an organization that oversees the “Courage to Teach” program for K–12 educators, rein-
forces the observation that excellent teachers demonstrate a variety of personality traits
and classroom skills. Additionally, Palmer says excellent teachers show that they value
academic and personal relationships with their students, whereas poor teachers seem
disconnected from their students and seem to work at keeping the academic material
disconnected with the result that students can neither establish relationships with the in-
formation nor take ownership of it (Palmer, 1998).

Characteristics of Excellent Teachers

and Effective Teaching: The Research
Many experts in education have conducted extensive research into the subject of excellent
teachers and excellence in teaching. We refer to educational research throughout this
textbook. Educational research takes many forms and serves many functions, but its pri-
mary purpose is to inform educators on issues of best practice. As a student preparing to
enter the field of education, you are advised to study the referenced material, question the
usefulness of its results to classroom practice, and determine whether you accept its

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 conclusions. Questioning is the key to intelligent consumption of research. When you
question, you become a proactive consumer of research. Ask yourself questions such as
those that follow as you review research reports:

What is the purpose of the research?

Who is the intended audience?
What methodology did the researchers use?
Does the analysis seem valid?
Is the research useful to teachers?

Research Involving Perceptions

A great deal of educational research has focused on characteristics of quality teaching
from the perspectives of different groups of people. From the accounts that follow, try to
gain an idea of some of the commonalities and some of the differences in thinking among
different groups about the characteristics of excellence in teaching. Pay particular atten-
tion to the differences among ethnic groups.

Perceptions of Teacher Excellence by Students

A considerable amount of the research has dealt with the perceptions students have of perceptions Mental images of what
their teachers. In 2009, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation funded a massive research one experiences.
project called the Measures of Effective Teaching (MET) Project to measure several as-
pects of effective teaching. The study included surveying almost 30,000 students about
their perceptions of their teachers’ effectiveness. The survey asked students to agree or
disagree with statements that described the teacher and the teaching in the classroom; the
descriptions were classified into seven categories of characteristics of the teacher and
teaching (Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, 2010). They are:

1. Caring about students (providing encouragement and support during learning)

2. Controlling behavior (encouraging cooperation and collaboration among peers)
3. Clarifying lessons (helping students realize that they can learn the skills and informa-
tion successfully)
4. Challenging students (emphasizing effort and perseverance)
5. Captivating (making lessons relevant and interesting to
students)
6. Conferring with students (respecting students’ contri-
butions to the lesson)
7. Consolidating knowledge (relating and connecting
ideas for learning)

The power of student perceptions was represented in

the initial findings of the MET Project, which covered just
© Photodisc Collection/Getty Images

math and English language arts teachers in grades four

through eight. The study found that:

Student perceptions of a given teacher’s strengths and

weaknesses are consistent across the different groups of
students they teach. Moreover, students seem to know
effective teaching when they experience it: student per-
ceptions in one class are related to the achievement Students appreciate teachers
gains in other classes taught by the same teacher. Most important are students’ who are inspiring, communicative,
perception of a teacher’s ability to control a classroom and to challenge students enthusiastic, knowledgeable,
with rigorous work. (Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, 2010, p. 9) and caring.

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 Minor, Onwuegbuzie, and Witcher (2000) asked
students in introductory education classes to identify
the characteristics of excellent teachers. The authors
grouped the characteristics students identified into
seven basic categories:

Student-centeredness
Effective classroom and behavior management
Competent instruction
Ethics
Enthusiasm about teaching

© Randy Faris/CORBIS
Knowledge of subject
Personableness

Young, Whitley, and Helton (1998) examined char-

Excellent teachers have a acteristics of effective teachers perceived by students at
sense of humor. different levels of maturity: high school, college fresh-
men, and college seniors. These researchers found that the two most important indicators
of teacher effectiveness according to these students are how knowledgeable the teacher is
and how much the students learn. They also identified humor in the classroom, the ability
to inspire students, effective parent–teacher communications, and friendliness as impor-
tant attributes.

Perceptions of Teaching Excellence by Teachers

Some educational research has involved practicing teachers. In one study, Norton (1997)
found that first-year teachers described effective teachers in the following ways:

Caring
Committed
Highly creative
Reflective
locus of control A characteristic Having a “strong internal locus of control” (believing in one’s own abilities)
that describes whether an individual
attributes responsibility for failure or
success to internal or external factors.
Perceptions of Teacher Excellence in Diverse Populations
Other educational research has focused on the perceptions of people of different national-
socioeconomic Involving both social ity, affiliation, socioeconomic group, and ethnicity. For example, McDermott and
and economic factors. Rothenberg (2000) studied the perceptions of effective teachers in a high-poverty urban
ethnicity Affiliation with a group that neighborhood. They found that exemplary urban teachers are those who build respectful
has general customs, language, and and trusting relationships with students and their families. Students felt that effective
social views and based on common
racial, national, tribal, religious, teachers are those who show respect, provide comfort, provide personal connections,
linguistic, or cultural origin or exhibit humor, and use a variety of learning techniques. Parents felt that effective teachers
background. are those who have positive relationships with the children and good communication with
the parents.
You have probably noticed that students perceive effective teachers as being caring
teachers. Indeed, students who are in classrooms led by teachers who care about them
perform better academically (Crosnoe, Johnson, and Elder, 2004). Categories of caring
behaviors that have been identified by diverse populations of students include interper-
sonal skills, behaviors that help to increase students’ academic performance, and fairness
(Tosolt, 2008a). However, a study of 825 middle-grade students found that the qualities
of a caring teacher might vary according to ethnicity. Because “caring” is demonstrated
primarily by communication, students have different definitions of behaviors that indicate
caring based on their culture and language. The implication is that even though teachers

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 may think they are doing their best to form caring relationships with their students, some
minority students may not interpret the teachers’ behaviors as such because their behav-
iors do not conform with the students’ ideas of caring. Teachers must be familiar with
students’ lives at home, must talk to their students about what the students need in a re-
lationship, and must be willing to exhibit behaviors in the classroom that meet those
needs (Tosolt, 2008b).

Research Involving Teacher–Student Relationships

Roorda, Koomen, Spilt, and Oort (2011) studied the research that dealt with positive and
negative associations between teachers and students and the effects these relationships
have on both the engagement and the achievement of students. They found that the effects
of both positive and negative relationships on student engagement were medium to large,
but that the effect on student achievement was small. They also found that the effects in
the higher grades were the strongest, but that the effects of negative relationships were
strongest in elementary school.

Research Involving Student Achievement

As mentioned previously, students believe that one of the characteristics of effective
teachers is that they care about their students, and that students who are in classrooms
led by teachers who care about them tend to perform better. Research on effective
teachers and teaching often is tied to student achievement. This means that one of the ma-
jor measures of a teacher’s excellence is how well his or her students achieve. See the
following Controversies in Education section to examine some issues related to judging
teacher effectiveness by student performance.
As you have reviewed the collection of information presented by prominent educators
and the research, you have seen that excellence in teaching is characterized by a myriad
of factors, many of which you have already identified. These factors seem to center on
instructional skill and the teacher’s relationship with students.

Characteristics of Excellent Teachers

and Effective Teaching: Psychologists
What do psychologists say about effective teachers?
Educational psychologists are psychologists whose pri-
mary interest is in the area of education. Some educa-
tional psychologists work with students in schools,
© Craig Ferre Photography/Courtesy William Glasser Institute

some work with school accountability and administra-

tive programs, and some specialize in research. We will
focus our attention on the psychologists who specialize
in research. More detail about major psychologies of
learning is given in Chapter 2.

Glasser and the Quality School

William Glasser (pictured here) is one of the pioneer
educational psychologists of the United States. Trained
as a psychiatrist, he became interested in education in
the 1960s and 1970s. He developed the “Quality School”
approach in which he holds that all human beings have William Glasser

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 CONTROVERSIES in Education

Test Scores and Measures of Teacher Excellence

T   here is a great deal of controversy regarding how
teaching effectiveness can be measured for
Using data from student achievement in class may also
provide information on teacher effectiveness. To judge
purposes of merit pay or job retention. The methods for teachers’ impact on student achievement, some schools or
evaluating teachers vary from state to state and sometimes school systems require teachers to collect data from
even from school system to school system within the same pretests and posttests over units of instruction. Student
state. During a time of economic uncertainty, such issues gains from pretest to posttest is considered to be a good
become increasingly important as many teachers must be representation of the teacher’s effectiveness. Additionally,
“let go.” How do principals decide who to keep? How do the pretest–posttest gains data may be a better measure of
principals decide who should get the highest merit pay teacher effectiveness than scores on achievement tests
increases? And, for that matter, should there be a merit because the teacher may be able to control the instruction
system of pay increases for teachers at all? Or should all for the previously mentioned special circumstances that
teachers receive the same increase every year because they affect student performance. Also, while presenting this data
aren’t responsible for which students are in their classes? from student class performance to administrators, teachers
An obvious source of data for determining teacher may reflect on it and their own performance and provide
effectiveness lies in student achievement. But what data evidence of improving their performance over time through
should be used? Standardized test scores? Class modifying instruction and materials.
performance? Both? If standardized test scores are used, Many school systems use a combination of student
we must ask how well these scores indicate student achievement and teacher performance assessments to
achievement and whether this achievement can be linked judge the effectiveness of teachers. During the school year,
directly to the teacher or if other factors affect it. Darling- an administrator from the school may visit a teacher’s
Hammond (2009) outlines several reasons why standardized classroom to observe and evaluate the instruction. A formal
test scores alone may not be a good indicator of teacher evaluation instrument that has been adopted for use by the
effectiveness. For one, the population of students assigned school system or the state usually guides the administrator
to any one teacher may differ greatly from the population in this observation and evaluation. These instruments have
assigned to another teacher. A teacher may have several been developed by experts and have been informed by
students whose performance on standardized tests is research on effective teachers and teaching.
impacted by their home life; they may have difficult family So, as you have seen, many sources of information
situations, be homeless, or experience other circumstances may be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a teacher;
that contribute to poor attendance or distractibility while the most commonly used data are scores on standardized
learning in the classroom or taking a test. A teacher may achievement tests, pretest–posttest gains, and teacher
have students in the class who have other challenges observations. Please note that, even though there are
related to learning and test taking such as special problems with using student achievement on standardized
education or language needs. tests as a measure of teacher effectiveness, usually, the
In addition, standardized test scores don’t allow for general public only has access to these test scores.
other influences on student performance that exist at the Therefore, the general public uses only these test scores
school: Students have other teachers who may motivate to form their opinions about the effectiveness of teachers
them to acquire some skills that are typically learned in a and schools.
different teacher’s course. For example, a science teacher
may apply the skills learned in a math course, and the WHAT DO YOU THINK?
student, seeing this application, may gain a deeper
understanding of the math skill in science class rather than 1. What criteria do your local school systems use to
when he learned it in math class. A student writing a evaluate teacher effectiveness?
research paper for her history teacher may refine and 2. If you can, obtain a copy of any evaluation
develop the skills originally learned in her English class. Yet, instruments that are used. How do the criteria on
these distinctions are not represented in the scores for these instruments compare with the characteristics
math or English on the standardized tests. of effective teachers and teaching that you already
Teachers also have varying levels of access to identified? In your opinion, can this instrument really
instructional resources such as textbooks, computers and identify teachers of excellence?
other technology, laboratory equipment, and manipulatives. 3. To what extent do you believe that scores on
Certainly a teacher who has access to and uses such standardized achievement tests are indicative of
resources may design and implement more effective excellence in teaching? Why?
instruction than one who does not, and therefore may be
evaluated as being more effective.

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 five basic needs: love, power, freedom, fun, and survival. In Glasser’s approach, the basic
premise of quality education is that “we will work hard for those we care for (love), for
those we respect and who respect us (power), for those who allow us to think and act for
ourselves (freedom), for those with whom we laugh (fun), and for those who help us
make our lives secure (survival)” (Glasser, 1993, p. 30). He identifies six basic conditions
under which quality teaching is done in school:

1. There must be a warm, supportive classroom environment.

2. Students should be asked to do only meaningful work.
3. Students are always asked to do the best they can do.
4. Students are asked to evaluate their own work and improve it.
5. Quality work is always good.
6. Quality work is never destructive. (Glasser, 1993, pp. 22–25)

Glasser believes that good teachers are those who design lessons and create learning
environments that are relevant and satisfying to students.

The Quality School BUILDING BLOCK

Look again at the six conditions of the Quality School outlined by Glasser. How do 1.4
these conditions compare with the characteristics of effective teaching you have
listed?

Combs and Perceptual Psychology

Arthur Combs (1993) investigated what makes peo-
ple good “helpers” (including teachers, counselors,
clergy, nurses, and therapists). Combs (pictured here)
concluded that what makes an effective helper is not
knowledge and not methodology. Rather, the effec-
tiveness of a helping professional is a result primarily
of that individual’s beliefs (or perceptions). Teachers
and other helping professionals behave in terms of
their beliefs. Combs identified five areas of beliefs:
Beliefs about the kind of data to which we should be
tuned: Good helpers tune into data concerned
with people questions; poor helpers tune into
Courtesy of The Field Psych Trust

data concerned with things questions.

Beliefs about what people are like: Good helpers
believe people are able; poor helpers doubt that
people are able.
Beliefs about self (self-concept): Good helpers see the
self in essentially positive ways and are self-actual-
Arthur Combs
izing; poor helpers see the self in essentially nega-
tive ways.
Beliefs about purpose (what is truly important): Good helpers see their purpose to be
essentially a freeing behavior; poor helpers see their purpose to be essentially a con-
trolling behavior.
Beliefs about methods: Good helpers utilize self-revealing methods; poor helpers utilize
self-concealing methods.
Beliefs are innate and are integrated into one’s personality. They are based on the
life experiences that occur from earliest childhood onward. We cling to our beliefs

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 because they are deeply rooted in our experience. Beliefs drive people’s actions.
Combs tells the story of a little boy who was lost in the halls of his elementary school
on the first day of school. The principal saw the boy and escorted him to his class-
room. The teacher, who was in the middle of a lesson, stopped and went to greet the
boy, who was worried about being late. She showed she believed that this boy was
important when she said, “Welcome! I am so glad you are here!” rather than scolding
him for being late.
If a teacher believes a particular student is a troublemaker, the teacher unconsciously
will interpret some of the student’s behaviors as disruptive and will act accordingly.
Similarly, if you, the teacher, believe that each student can learn, you will act differently
from the teacher who believes there will always be one or two students each year who
simply do not have what it takes to achieve.

BUILDING BLOCK My Beliefs

1.5 Consider the following questions carefully and purposefully:
What do you believe about students? Do you believe all students are capable
and can learn?
What do you believe about yourself as a teacher?
How do your beliefs compare with those Combs identified as integral to
effective teachers?

Good teachers examine their beliefs and change them in light of new evidence. Is this
difficult? Yes. It is possible? Most assuredly. Because teachers’ beliefs are so crucial to
professional behavior, we ask you to examine your beliefs on a number of issues and fac-
tors throughout this textbook.

The quotations that follow about the power of beliefs seem appropriate:

Whatever one believes to be true either is true or becomes true in one’s mind.
—John C. Lilly
U.S. physician, neuroscientist, and philosopher

The real difficulty in changing the course of any enterprise lies not in developing
new ideas but in escaping from the old ones.
—John Maynard Keynes
British economist

There is a principle which is a bar against all information, which is proof against all
arguments, and which cannot fail to keep a man in everlasting ignorance—that
principle is contempt prior to investigation.
—Herbert Spencer
English philosopher

Perhaps the most important single cause of a person’s success or failure education-
ally has to do with the question of what he believes about himself.
—Arthur Combs
U.S. educational psychologist

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 Characteristics of Excellent Teachers and
Effective Teaching: The Federal Government
Even the federal government has become involved in the discussion of the characteristics
of effective teachers and teaching. On January 8, 2002, President George W. Bush signed
into law the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB). This act is the most recent reau-
thorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), originally signed into
law by President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1965. NCLB increases the federal role in K–12
education and aims to close the achievement gap between disadvantaged and minority
students and their peers. The act is based on four basic principles (U.S. Department of
Education, 2002):
1. Stronger accountability for results
2. More choices for parents and students
3. Increased flexibility and local control
4. Emphasis on teaching methods that have been proved to work

The act specifically addresses the quality of U.S. teachers and aims to increase the
academic achievement of all students by enhancing the quality of their teachers. High-
quality teachers are defined as those who demonstrate subject-matter knowledge and
skills in basic subject areas, and are licensed by the state in which they teach, hold at least
a bachelor’s degree, and demonstrate competence in core academic subjects.
NCLB was scheduled for reauthorization by Congress in 2007. However, President
Barack Obama and Secretary of Education Arne Duncan have new and different ideas
about the way the federal government should support education. Consequently, the reau-
thorization of ESEA has been postponed, and the Race to the Top strategy, funded by the
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, has been used as an interim measure.
Race to the Top emphasizes four areas:

Decisions about teaching children based on data

Talent(s)
Turning around chronically low-performing schools
Tailoring the teaching to the needs of the community

Moving forward, President Obama presented a more comprehensive plan in March

2010 (U.S. Department of Education, 2010), which he calls the Blueprint for Reform. The
Blueprint “builds on significant reforms already made in response to the Race to the Top”
(ibid., p. 3), and introduces major changes with the goal of the United States becoming
“the most educated country in the world” (Richardson, 2009, p. 24).
The Blueprint for Reform emphasizes four areas:

1. Improving teacher and principal effectiveness to ensure that every person has a great
teacher and every school has a great leader
2. Providing information to families to help them evaluate and improve their schools,
and to educators to help them improve their students’ learning
3. Implementing college- and career-ready standards, and developing assessments
aligned with those standards
4. Improving student learning and achievement in the lowest-performing schools in the
United States by providing intensive support and effective interventions

Of particular note is the intent of the administration to shift the focus of the standard-
ized tests to measuring the growth of each student regardless of the performance level at
which he or she starts.

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 There are concerns with this new proposal. The National Education Association and the
American Federation of Teachers feel that the Blueprint signals an increase in federal control
and that, although it provides teachers with more responsibility, it provides no additional
authority. In addition, the professional organizations see a continued reliance on standardized
tests which, as we have seen, are intrinsically unreliable measures of achievement.
Most recently, President Obama has announced a plan that offers flexibility from the
key provisions of NCLB in exchange for firm commitments to reforms that boost student
achievement (U.S. Department of Education, 2011). As of this writing, forty-four states,
the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico have signaled their intent to seek ESEA flexibil-
ity. Nineteen states have been approved (U.S. Department of Education, 2011, 2012).
Meanwhile, Congress continues to work on a reauthorization of the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act and No Child Left Behind to craft a bill that does the desired
job of promoting academic achievement of all children and also receives the nods of the
major professional organizations. When the revised version is passed, its major provisions
will be posted on this textbook’s website.
You should bear in mind that the reauthorization of ESEA has not been passed and
has not been signed into law. And when the new law is passed, it will take some time for
the details to reach the level of the school districts. Meanwhile, most states still are ac-
countable to the provisions of No Child Left Behind.
We will leave our discussion of federal involvement in education at that for now, but
you will investigate many of the provisions, criticisms, and consequences of federal legis-
lation throughout this book, this course, and throughout your teacher education program.

Characteristics of Excellent Teachers

and Effective Teaching: Professional Standards
You have done a great deal of work constructing your understanding of what effective
teaching is. Now, let us look at statements from professional organizations within the
teaching profession itself. After all, it is those in the teaching profession who set the
professional standards. Over the past decade, education professionals have worked to
build a quality system to assure that every child is taught by a caring and competent
teacher. Several important groups have established standards for quality teaching and
the preparation of high-quality teachers. These groups include the National Council for
Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE), the Teacher Education Accreditation
Council (TEAC), the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (In-
TASC), the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS), and individ-
ual state licensing agencies. (Note that NCATE and TEAC merged in 2012 to form the
Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation – CAEP.) These groups are
staffed by educators and obtain extensive input from other educators in shaping their
standards. They all have one interest in mind—to staff every classroom with high-
quality teachers.
Let us look at the standards of these national organizations. As you examine the
standards, compare them with the ideas you constructed about the characteristics and
attributes of excellent teachers and excellent teaching. Are they similar?

National Council for Accreditation

of Teacher Education (NCATE)
accreditation The formal, official
approval signifying that the require- NCATE has been one of the primary bodies responsible for accrediting teacher prepara-
ments of excellence described in tion institutions. Accreditation means that an institution has met all formal official
professional standards developed by
professionals in a particular discipline requirements of excellence described in the professional standards developed by the pro-
have been met. fessionals in that discipline. Institutions accredited by NCATE have met rigorous,

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 NCATE-established standards for the preparation of teachers. In many states, teacher
preparation institutions are required to be accredited by NCATE in order for their gradu-
ates to be eligible for teaching certification in that state. The Teacher Education Accredita-
tion Council (TEAC) also accredits teacher preparation institutions, and the American
Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE) is developing standards for the
preparation of teachers. However, NCATE has been the largest and most well-known
accreditation body.
NCATE is a coalition of 33 national associations that represent all aspects of the
education profession. Its mission is to help establish high-quality teacher, specialist, and
administrator preparation (National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education,
2002, p. 1). In 2011, 656 teacher preparation institutions were accredited and 70 more
were candidates for accreditation by NCATE. Twenty-five states had adopted the
NCATE standards as their state teacher education unit standards as of 2009. Institu-
tions are reviewed every seven years for compliance with the standards. Reviews are
made by committees of professors from other NCATE-accredited teacher preparation
institutions, who are trained by NCATE, and are assembled as a team to review a spe-
cific institution.
NCATE requires teacher preparation institutions to meet the criteria inherent in six
broad standards. The standards, in effect as of 2008, were developed by professionals in
the field of teacher education and deal with the following:

1. Candidate knowledge, skills, and dispositions

2. Assessment system and unit evaluation
3. Field experience and clinical practice
4. Diversity
5. Faculty qualifications, performance, and development
6. Unit governance and resources

Standard 1 identifies standards for effective teacher candidates. This standard

describes basic characteristics of excellent teachers.

NCATE Standard for Effective Teacher Candidates

1. Content knowledge. Teacher candidates know the subject matter that they plan to
teach and can explain important principles and concepts delineated in professional,
state, and institutional standards.
2. Pedagogical content knowledge. Teacher candidates have a broad knowledge of
instructional strategies that draws upon content and pedagogical knowledge and
skills delineated in professional, state, and institutional standards to help all students
learn. They facilitate student learning of the subject matter through presentation of
the content in clear and meaningful ways and through the integration of technology.
3. Professional and pedagogical knowledge and skills. Teacher candidates can apply
their professional and pedagogical knowledge and skills delineated in professional,
state, and institutional standards to facilitate learning. They consider the school,
family, and community contexts in which they work and the prior experience of
students to develop meaningful learning experiences.
4. Student learning. Teacher candidates focus on student learning. Teacher candidates
assess and analyze student learning, make appropriate adjustments to instruction,
and monitor student progress. They are able to develop and implement meaningful
learning experiences for students based on their developmental levels and prior
experience.
5. Professional dispositions. Candidates are familiar with the professional dispositions
delineated in professional, state, and institutional standards. Candidates demonstrate
classroom behaviors that are consistent with the ideal of fairness and the belief that
all students can learn. Their work with students, families, colleagues, and communities
reflects these professional dispositions.
(National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education, 2010)

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 The Teacher Education Accreditation Council (TEAC)
An alternative to NCATE, the Teacher Education Accreditation Council (TEAC) is a ma-
jor accrediting agency that has accredited teacher preparation programs in over 100 schools
and colleges of education. TEAC was founded in 1997, to foster preparation of compe-
tent, caring, and qualified professional educators. TEAC requires the teacher preparation
program being considered for accreditation or continuing accreditation to present evi-
dence to justify its case that it prepares professional educators who are competent, caring,
and qualified.

The Council for the Accreditation

of Education Preparation (CAEP)
In late 2010, NCATE and TEAC announced plans to merge with each other to form a new
accrediting body, the Council for the Accreditation of Education Preparation (CAEP). The
initial standards developed for accreditation by CAEP are comprised of a blend of the
NCATE and TEAC standards. The goals of CAEP are to raise the performance of
candidates as practitioners in our nation’s P–12 schools and to raise standards for evi-
dence that supports claims of quality by combining the best of both NCATE and TEAC,
thereby raising the stature of the entire profession. It is anticipated that CAEP will begin
reviewing teacher education programs for accreditation in 2013 (NCATE News and Press
Releases, 2012).

Interstate New Teacher Assessment

and Support Consortium (InTASC)
InTASC is a group of educators representing state education agencies, higher education
institutions, and national educational organizations. Formed within the Council of Chief
State School Officers, InTASC has developed a “set of model core teaching standards that
outline what teachers should know and be able to do to ensure that every K–12 student
reaches the goal of being ready for college or the workforce in today’s world”
(InTASC, 2011). In 2011, this group presented an updated set of standards that replaces
the standards published in 1992 (Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010). These
standards were designed to be compatible with the certification standards of the National
Board for Professional Teaching Standards (presented in the next section) and are used by
many institutions as benchmarks for effective teacher preparation programs. Indeed,
many institutions show how their programs are aligned with the InTASC standards. We
have grounded this text in the 2011 InTASC standards.
The standards are provided on the inside back cover of this book for your reference.
This is the time for you to study the standards carefully so you will be familiar with
the way this textbook and the InTASC standards are integrated. Note especially that the
Chapter Objectives listed at the beginning of each chapter are correlated to the appropri-
ate InTASC standard so you are aware of how the standard is addressed. Additionally, the
end of each chapter contains a section called “Deconstructing the Standards,” which asks
you to put in writing the ways you have become familiar with the intent of each of the
referenced standards.

National Board for Professional

Teaching Standards (NBPTS)
Teachers can acquire certification at the national level after they have been certified at the
state level and have taught for at least three years. National certification, recognized in all
states, shows that a teacher has demonstrated characteristics and competence of the high-
est order. National certification is a long and demanding process administered by NBPTS.

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 It requires passing six exercises of thirty minutes each, administered in an examination
setting, and receiving passing scores on a series of portfolios demonstrating the candi-
date’s teaching of certain lessons, reflections on the planning and results of the lessons,
proposed changes, interpretations of the instructional activity in terms of sound instruc-
tional practice, and describing the teacher’s impact of accomplishments outside the class-
room with families, the community, and/or colleagues. Review of these materials is carried
out by groups of teachers and other education professionals who have been trained in the
rubrics used to assess the materials.
The NBPTS consists of classroom teachers and public school administrators. Its
mission is to advance the quality of teaching and learning through the following activities:

Maintaining high and rigorous standards for what accomplished teachers should
know and be able to do
Providing a national voluntary system certifying teachers who meet these standards
Advocating related education reforms to integrate national board certification in
American education and to capitalize on the expertise of national board–certified
teachers (National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 1999)

NBPTS identifies five core propositions that describe the knowledge, skills, and dis-
positions that characterize accomplished teaching.

The Five Core Propositions of the National Board

for Professional Teaching Standards
Teachers are committed to students and their learning.
Teachers know the subjects they teach and how to teach those subjects to
students.
Teachers are responsible for managing and monitoring student learning.
Teachers think systematically about their practice and learn from experience.
Teachers are members of National Board for Professional Teaching Standards
learning communities.

State Certification Requirements

Each state has its own set of certification requirements. Find your state’s education
preparation and certification requirements; these requirements have great influence on
the nature and content of your teacher preparation program. Compare these require-
ments to the competencies and dispositions you will be required to demonstrate as
you progress through your program. You will satisfy some of these requirements in
this course. You will satisfy others in future courses. You will satisfy still others in
your field experiences. 

Assessment of Your Field Experiences BUILDING BLOCK

As teacher candidates progress through their programs, they will be assigned to 1.6
several field experiences. The teaching and professional behavior they exhibit
during their field experiences and student teaching are evaluated using criteria
that correlate with standards developed by state and national accreditation
agencies:
What competencies are you expected to demonstrate in your field experiences?
How do these competencies compare with the professional standards?

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 Putting It All Together
From your explorations in this chapter, you can see that many characteristics contrib-
ute to excellence in teachers and teaching. You have investigated these characteristics
from numerous sources: yourselves as students, outsiders, the media, research, expert
educators, psychologists, the federal and state governments, and professional educa-
tion organizations. Now it is time for you to summarize all this material. In so doing,
you will continue to construct your own ideas as to what constitutes a good teacher
and good teaching.
Your conclusions are entirely your own, formed on the basis of your personal experi-
ences and previous knowledge, as well as the new information to which you have been
exposed in class and by reading this chapter. There are no right or wrong responses to this
activity. However, there are valid conclusions. You can validate your conclusions by re-
flecting on the progression of your thinking as you read through this chapter and partici-
pate in the suggested activities. Perhaps your ideas about effective teaching have been
reinforced. Perhaps you have integrated some new ideas into your original understanding.
Perhaps your original understanding has undergone radical revisions. Whatever the case,
you are now ready to draw some definite conclusions.
This is the first of many situations you will encounter in this book where there are no
right or wrong answers. In this case, there simply is no consensus on the attributes all
excellent teachers possess. What is important is that you have brought your own experi-
ences and ideas together with those of others and constructed your own understanding. 

BUILDING BLOCK Putting It All Together: Attributes of Effective Teachers

1.7 Combine the material you developed in the Building Blocks of this chapter with the
new information you explored.
List the most important attributes you now believe characterize excellence in
teaching.
Explain why you selected these attributes and why you believe they are
important.
Compare these attributes with those you selected in the earlier activities. Which
attributes do you still believe to be important? Which do you believe less
important than you originally thought? Which have you added?
Keep the work you do in this Building Block; you will use it again in later
chapters. 

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 TECHNOLOGY Does Technology Make a Teacher Effective?
& EDUCATION
H  ow have you seen teachers use technology effec-
tively? How have you seen teachers use technology
Response system technology (“clickers”) for on-the-fly
assessments of student learning
ineffectively? If you consider the pervasiveness of technology Interactive whiteboards (such as Smart Boards) to
in today’s society, it should not surprise you that effective present information interactively for students
teachers know how to integrate technologies into classroom E-mail to communicate with parents and students
instruction and management. Electronic spreadsheets or databases to keep track of
In this chapter, you have identified some characteristics grades, attendance, and other data
of effective teachers. How can technology contribute to Podcasts to provide additional content information
effective teaching? Remember that merely using technology for interested students
does not make teaching effective. The teacher makes the Applications that allow teachers to design and create
technology effective. When a teacher directs students to a online multimedia interactive posters
flashy website or has them create a fancy electronic slide
Of course, the list is not exhaustive and is constantly
show, these assignments do not necessarily enhance the
changing! You will read more about these technologies
lesson. The use of technology in instruction must be guided
throughout this text, and we will ask you to carefully consider
by the teacher’s professional knowledge and skills to the end
their use in teaching.
of enhancing the instruction.
Technology can help teachers add to their professional
Teachers should not separate technology from other
knowledge when it serves as a resource for content information
instructional tools, such as textbooks and manipulatives, as if it
and provides teaching ideas. As you already know, the Internet is
were an effective tool in and of itself. Technology does not au-
a vast source of content information and instructional ideas. You
tomatically engage students, nor does it automatically improve
can find almost anything by searching on the Internet. Many
learning. Teachers must determine where and how the use of
teachers share their lessons, classroom management, and
technology would be most appropriate in any given lesson,
discipline plans by posting these online. It is necessary, however,
based on learning objectives, state standards, and students’
to evaluate all Internet-accessible information in terms of
needs. As a teacher, you must apply what you know about stu-
credibility, accuracy, and applicability for use in your classroom.
dents and how they learn when making decisions about when,
You must verify the credibility of all web-based content
how, or even if you should use technology in your teaching.
information. The best way is to check the site author’s credentials.
Effective teachers possess strong content-area
Is the author an individual, an organization, or a company? If the
knowledge, efficient organizational skills, and a repertoire of
author is an individual, what are his or her credentials regarding
teaching methods and activities that keep learners engaged.
the content? Is the author (whether an individual or an
How can technology help teachers express these
organization) biased in any way that might affect the presentation,
characteristics in their teaching?
inclusion, or exclusion of content on the site?
Teachers can use technology to present instruction, keep
Similarly, classroom management ideas are frequently
students active, produce instructional materials, and manage
posted online. But, not all classroom management or
classroom records and information. Following is a list of some
discipline plans posted on the Internet are good. How will
of the ways teachers can use technology to enhance their
you know if a particular plan is good? Some website owners
teaching effectiveness:
review information before they post it. In all cases, however,
Television programs and DVDs for students to view you must use your knowledge and skills in your content area
educational programs and pedagogy to evaluate what you find, judging its
YouTube for students to view clips of demonstrations, appropriateness for use in your classroom.
events, or educational programs Technology also can help teachers be more productive.
Online animations (such as those found in BrainPop) Teachers can use word-processing applications to create
to present short content information cartoons and to handouts, quizzes, and tests. Teachers may use a database
assess student learning program to manage student records, a spreadsheet program
Electronic slide shows with color, graphics, sound, to calculate student grades, and e-mail to communicate with
video, and animation to present content students and parents. When used together with the student
Content-area software on CD-ROMs for students to record database, a word-processing program can generate
use independently or in groups personalized letters asking parents to volunteer, informing
Content-related Internet sites projected for the class them of classroom events, or sharing good news; this is
or viewed on individual computers especially useful for large classes like those frequently
Teacher-made websites and blogs to post interesting encountered in high school.
content information, calendars, syllabi, and events The use of technology can contribute to teacher
Word-processing and publishing programs to create effectiveness by helping teachers increase professional
neat and colorful handouts, signs, and bulletin boards knowledge, present information, and increase productivity.
Assistive and adaptive technologies for students with How does using available technologies contribute to
special needs excellence in teaching?

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 CHAPTER RESOURCES S U M M A RY
You have explored a great deal of information about excellent teachers and effective
teaching in this chapter, and this is just the beginning of your introduction to education.
You already have your own very good conceptualizations about excellent teachers
and effective teaching.
-
dents, outsiders, the media, researchers, exemplary educators, psychologists, pro-
fessional organizations, and governmental agencies. The ideas from these sources
are probably very consistent with your own ideas.

(including knowing the students personally), being empathetic, helping to increase

student achievement, having high expectations for all learners, being consistent
and fair, and caring about students. Effective teachers must also have strong con-
tent knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, and verbal skills.

so that it is supportive, keeping students active and busy and making the lesson
relevant to students. Effective teaching encourages students to use higher-order
thinking skills and is responsive to the needs of students.

Key Terms and Concepts

Accreditation, 26 Locus of control, 20 Perceptions, 19
Empathetic, 11 Pedagogical content Socioeconomic, 20
Ethnicity, 20 knowledge, 12
Hidden curriculum, 18 Pedagogy, 5

Construct and Apply

1. List the characteristics of excellent teachers and effective teaching that are common to all the
groups you investigated.
2. What do you think is the ultimate measure of a teacher’s effectiveness? Explain your response.
3. To what extent do you believe an individual’s personality characteristics can be learned and
refined?
4. Which characteristics of an effective teacher would you like to develop within yourself? What
kinds of experiences could help you develop these characteristics?
5. Discuss how Venn diagrams are used in education, such as locating the commonalities between
two scientific theories, elements of literature, and so on.
6. Which skills do you expect to learn as you participate in your teacher preparation program?
7. Where and how do you expect to gain experience in developing these skills?

Deconstructing the Standards

1. Recall the InTASC Standards associated with the objectives for this chapter:
Standard #8: Instructional Strategies reads, “The teacher understands and uses a vari-
ety of instructional strategies to encourage learners to develop deep understanding of content
areas and their connections, and to build skills to apply knowledge in meaningful ways.”
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice reads, “The teacher en-
gages in ongoing professional learning and uses evidence to continually evaluate his/her
practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and actions on others (learners, families,
other professionals, and the community), and adapts practice to meet the needs of each
learner.”
a. What part(s) of these standards does this chapter address?
b. How will the concepts in this chapter help you apply these standards as a teacher?

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 CHAPTER RESOURCES
2. Use your favorite search engine to find your state’s standards for certification. When you find
it, bookmark the site. You will refer to it often as you progress through this book.
a. How are your conclusions about effective teachers and teaching represented in your state
certification standards?
b. How do the InTASC Standards compare to your state’s certification standards regarding
effective teaching?
c. Do you believe the degree of representation concerning effective teaching is adequate in
your state certification standards? Why or why not?

Your Portfolio
During your teacher preparation program, you will be asked to demonstrate your achievement of
certain competencies. Many education departments ask students to demonstrate their competencies
through portfolios. A portfolio demonstrates the student’s mastery of various concepts and skills. It
is not a scrapbook; it is a record of the student’s achievements. The portfolio can be “pen and paper,”
but it is more likely to be electronic now; an electronic portfolio is known as an “e-portfolio.”
In this chapter, you have considered numerous factors dealing with qualities of excellent teach-
ers and teaching. Begin to develop your portfolio by selecting two or three pieces of evidence that
show your mastery of this topic and putting them in your portfolio. This evidence may come from
work done in class, work done out of class, summaries of class discussions, or field experience
assignments.
Also include a copy of the requirements for the teacher preparation program you plan to pur-
sue and a copy of your state’s requirements for the certification you plan to seek.
Keep your portfolio in a safe place, and be ready to add to it throughout this course. If you are
using an e-portfolio, be sure to save it frequently after each new addition.

Education CourseMate Resources

Check out this text’s Education CourseMate website (at www.cengagebrain.com) for more informa-
tion about effective teacher qualities, interactive study tools, and useful resources. You will find the
TeachSource videos, a guide for doing field experiences, glossary flashcards, activities, tutorial quiz-
zes, direct links to the websites mentioned in the chapter, and more.

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 © AgStock Images, Inc./Alamy
CHAPTER

2 Your Philosophy
of Education
IN CHAPTER 1, you looked at qualities of effective teachers and effective
teaching. You examined these attributes from several perspectives: your own
thoughts and feelings, the ideas of classmates and other preservice teachers, the
media, the Internet, educational research, educational psychologists, and
professional associations. After considering this new information and using it to
augment your own initial ideas, you developed a list of the most important attributes
you believe characterize effective teachers.
Your work in Chapter 1 may have left you with the impression that all teachers
should have the same qualities and should teach in the same way if they are to
achieve excellence. Nothing could be further from the truth.
Doubtless, there are areas where your thoughts about teaching excellence are
decidedly different from those of others, even though you may agree in principle on
the qualities that characterize effective teachers. These thoughts are based in large
measure on your beliefs and predispositions.
Your beliefs and predispositions about teaching and education have a profound
impact on how you teach and what you teach, just as your beliefs and predispositions

34

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 about living have a profound impact on how you live your life. As human beings, we
carry beliefs from tradition, experience, education, religion, and socialization, and
we revise and refine them through experience. Over time, these beliefs become
stronger as we find they serve us well and prove to be true for us. These beliefs
ultimately become our philosophy of life.
The same can be said about teaching. You have current beliefs which you are
beginning to think about and which you are beginning to modify in response to new
experiences and your explorations of new information. What you know and come to
believe about education will become stronger through the experiences you will have
in your teacher preparation program. Over time, you will learn more and more about
education and will revise and refine your beliefs as a result of your experiences.
These beliefs will form the basis of your ever-evolving philosophy of education.
There are many different philosophies in education that motivate the approaches
excellent teachers exhibit. In this chapter, you will consider several prominent
philosophies that guide U.S. education and find where your current beliefs fit. You
will examine your own philosophical beliefs, compare them with these basic
philosophies of education, study the applications of these philosophies in schools,
investigate prominent psychologies that seek to explain the mechanism of learning,
and put all this together as you develop your own tentative philosophy of education
that will guide your inquiries through the rest of this course.

Chapter Objectives
As a result of your explorations in this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Explore the nature of philosophy by examining the main branches of philosophy.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
2. Relate the main branches of philosophy to educational issues and educational philosophy.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
3. Investigate the schools of philosophic thought in education and examine your thoughts about each.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
4. Describe the primary characteristics of humanist, behaviorist, information processing, and constructivist
educational psychologies.
Standard #2: Learning Differences
5. Develop your personal preliminary philosophy of education.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice

The Nature of Philosophy

Let us eavesdrop on a conversation between two students who have just finished their
explorations in Chapter 1 of this text:

“Sure,” says one, “I agree that teachers should be respectful, listen to the kids, and
show a sense of humor. But, that doesn’t mean I am going to let them run my
classroom. I am the authority, and I am going to run it my way.”
The other preservice teacher responds, “I agree that teachers should show
respect to students, should listen to students, and should have a sense of humor.
But if they are to learn anything at all, they have to have a say-so about what goes
on in the classroom.”

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 Here are two people with the same thoughts about the qualities of effective teachers
but opposite thoughts about how to run the classroom. One believes teachers must have
total control of the classroom if students are to learn; the other believes teachers must
allow students to have an input into what goes on in the classroom if they are to learn.
These two people differ fundamentally in their beliefs about the most effective prac-
tices in the classroom. They have different views about human beings and human nature,
and they have different beliefs and concepts about how people learn, especially in schools.
In short, they have different philosophies of education.

What Is Philosophy?
The word philosophy comes from two Greek words philos, which means “love,” and sophy,
which means “wisdom.” Literally speaking, then, philosophy means “love of wisdom.” In
common use, philosophy refers to the general beliefs, concepts, and attitudes possessed by
an individual or group. You have a philosophy of life that consists of a set of general beliefs,
concepts, and attitudes about life, and you probably have a philosophy of education in
which you have a set of general beliefs, concepts, and attitudes about education.
Throughout history, people have struggled to find answers to fundamental questions
such as:

What is real?
What do we know?
How do we know what we know?
What is of value?
What is logical?
What is beautiful?
What is right? What is wrong?

There are many complex and elusive questions about life, education, and other areas
of our existence that are similar to these questions. There are also many different, com-
plex, and elusive answers to these questions. The study of these kinds of questions is the
substance of philosophy.

Branches of Philosophy
To facilitate the studies of these kinds of questions, philosophy has been arranged into
several branches, each addressing different, but related, questions. The chief branches are
metaphysics The branch of
philosophy concerned with questions metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, and logic (see Figure 2.1).
of reality.
epistemology The study of Metaphysics
knowledge. Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that addresses questions of reality. Metaphysics
axiology The branch of philosophy is concerned with such philosophical questions as:
concerned with values.
logic The branch of philosophy
concerned with reasoning. What is reality?
ontology The branch of metaphysics Are people basically good or bad?
concerned with the nature of being
and reality. What is the nature of the world in which we live?
cosmology The branch of What is the nature of being and of reality? (a branch of metaphysics called
metaphysics in philosophy concerned ontology)
with the origin and structure of the
universe. What is the origin and what is the structure of the universe? (a branch of metaphysics
theology The branch of metaphysics called cosmology)
in philosophy concerned with God
and the relations among God, What or who is God? What are the relations among God, humankind, and the
mankind, and the universe. universe? (a branch of metaphysics called theology)

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 Branch of Philosophy Chief Topic Questions Related to Education

What is knowledge?
Are students basically capable people or
Ontology Reality incapable people?
How does our view of knowledge
determine what should be taught?

How orderly should my classroom be?

Should the curriculum be structured or
Metaphysics Cosmology The Universe determined by students?
Should I teach the theory of evolution or
creationism?
What texts should I use as authoritative?

Is it possible to motivate all students to

want to learn?
Theology God Is a student’s ability to learn innate
or acquired?
Should all people have the same access
to education?

Should teachers lecture, ask questions,

Epistemology Knowledge provide experiences, or encourage
activities to enable students to learn?
How do scientists do science?

Are students basically good or bad?

How should I treat students?
How should students treat others
and me?
Should my behavior management system
Values
be punitive or encouraging?
Axiology Ethics What different understandings of
Aesthetics “beautiful” might there be in my
classroom?
What values should be taught in
character education?
What is the importance of art education
and music education in schools?
Figure 2.1
Should I use deductive or inductive ▲
Branches of philosophy and
Logic Reasoning reasoning in my lessons?
How can I understand the ways my representative educational
students are reasoning? questions associated with each.
© Cengage Learning 2014

In classrooms, teachers invoke metaphysical issues regularly when they make deci-
sions about what they should teach on any particular day, how they should organize
the classroom to facilitate maximum learning, and what motivational strategies they
should use. Several metaphysical questions related to educational situations are shown
in Figure 2.1.

Epistemology
Epistemology is the study of knowledge and how we come to know. This branch of phi-
losophy seeks to answer several basic questions, such as:

What is knowledge?
What is truth?
Where did knowledge originate?

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 How do we come to know?
How do we learn?
As you can imagine, much of your teacher preparation program will deal with
epistemological topics. For educators, epistemology (the nature of knowledge and
learning) and its cousin, pedagogy (the art and science of teaching), are the primary
areas of concern. Figure 2.1 also shows a few education-related questions that deal
with epistemological ideas.

Axiology
Axiology is the branch of philosophy that deals with values. Axiology seeks to answer
such questions as:

What is of value?
What values are essential?
What is morality? Is morality defined by our actions or our thoughts? (a branch of
axiology called ethics)
What is beauty? (a branch of axiology called aesthetics)
What is beautiful?
Axiology addresses our thinking about what teacher-student interactions should be
and how teachers should behave toward students. As you will learn, according to
Abraham Maslow, axiology also addresses one of the basic needs of human beings—the
need for aesthetic satisfaction. Figure 2.1 shows a few education-related questions dealing
with axiological concerns.

Logic
deductive reasoning The type of Logic is the branch of philosophy that deals with reasoning. There are two basic
reasoning that proceeds from the types of reasoning: deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning. In deductive rea-
most general to the most specific. soning, thinking proceeds from the most general concepts to the most specific
inductive reasoning The type of examples. In inductive reasoning, thinking proceeds from the most specific examples
reasoning that proceeds from the
most specific to the most general. to the most general concepts; generalizations are derived from the specific examples
(see Figure 2.2).

Most general information

Deductive Inductive
Reasoning Reasoning

Figure 2.2
▲

Deductive versus inductive

reasoning. Most specific information
© Cengage Learning 2014

As you may have observed, this entire text uses an inductive approach.
The following sets illustrate deductive and inductive reasoning:

Deductive reasoning Inductive reasoning

All humans are mortal I am mortal.

I am human. You are mortal.

Therefore I am mortal. We are humans.

Therefore humans are mortal.

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 A famous puzzle in deductive logic, “Who Owns the Zebra?,” was published by Life
magazine in 1962. You can access this puzzle through the direct link available on the
Education CourseMate web site.
Figure 2.1 shows a few education-related questions dealing with concerns of logic.

Educational Philosophy
Whereas general philosophy seeks to answer questions about metaphysics, epistemology,
axiology, and logic, educational philosophies extend to questions about the general be-
liefs, concepts, and attitudes people have about education. You have already looked at
some general philosophical questions as they apply to education. In this chapter, we nar-
row our focus to six basic questions:

What should be taught?

Who should decide what should be taught?
Why should this material be taught?
How should this material be taught?
What should the teacher’s role be?
What should the student’s role be?

There are many possible answers to these questions based on various factors. The
answers differ according to the person considering the questions and what that person’s
culture, ethnicity, experiences, and beliefs are. The answers differ from one historical time
period to another, from region to region, and among different kinds of schools, such as
public, private, parochial, charter schools, and home schools. The answers change as the
cultural makeup of our country becomes increasingly diversified.
What are your responses to these questions? You probably have some initial thoughts
and ideas based on your beliefs and past experiences. These thoughts represent the begin-
nings of your philosophy of education.
To help you move toward finding your own personal niche in the world of educa-
tional philosophy, let us start with an examination of your personal beliefs about what is
important and what is not important in education.

Characteristics of Educational Philosophies BUILDING BLOCK

Study the statements in each of the following groups and circle the numbers of the 2.1
statements with which you agree. Then consider the questions that follow. (This
activity can also be found on the CourseMate website so you can print it out or take
the inventory electronically.)

GROUP I
1. The most important knowledge for students to learn in school are the profound
truths discovered and developed in the past.
2. Above all, schools should develop students’ abilities to think deeply, analytically,
and creatively.
3. Drill and acquisition of factual knowledge are very important components of
the learning environment.
4. There is certain basic information that everyone must know.

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 5. When it comes to knowledge, the teacher is the most authoritative person in the
classroom.
6. Students should study great works that have been validated by society over
time.
7. Students should focus primarily on learning the knowledge and insights their
teachers impart.
8. The teacher should be a strong authority figure in the classroom.
9. Ideal teachers present knowledge to students and interpret it for them to ensure
that they understand it correctly.
10. The curriculum in a given grade or subject should be the same for everyone.

GROUP II
1. The student is the receiver of knowledge.
2. The curriculum of schools should center on the basic subjects of reading,
writing, history, mathematics, and science.
3. Students should not be promoted from one grade to the next until they have
mastered certain key material.
4. Recitation and demonstration of acquired knowledge are essential components
of learning.
5. The curriculum of a school should consist primarily of the skills and subjects
that are essential for all students to know.
6. Schools should reflect the social and economic needs of the society they serve.
7. Lecture-discussion is the most effective teaching technique.
8. Memorization, drill, and practice are the keys to learning skills.
9. Teaching by subject area is the most effective approach.
10. Effective classrooms are quiet and orderly.

GROUP III
1. Schools should prepare students for analyzing and solving the types of problems
they will face outside the classroom.
2. New material is best taught through facilitating students in their own investigations.
3. Teachers must stress the relevance of what students are learning to their lives
outside, as well as inside, the classroom.
4. Many students learn best by engaging in real-world activities rather than by
reading.
5. Art lessons should focus primarily on individual expression and creativity.
6. Students should be active participants in the learning process.
7. The curriculum of a school should be built around the personal experiences and
needs of students.
8. Teachers should be seen as facilitators of learning.
9. Students should have substantial input into the curriculum being studied.
10. Classrooms should have areas for large group discussion and small group inquiries.

GROUP IV
1. Students should be permitted to determine their own rules in the educational
process.
2. Schools should offer students choices in what to study and when classes are held.
3. Ideal teachers are constant questioners.
4. Effective learning can be unstructured, informal, and open.
5. The purpose of the school is to help students understand and define themselves
and find the meaning of their existence.

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 6. It is more important for a student to develop a positive self-concept than to
learn specific subject matter.
7. Students should be permitted to determine their own curriculum.
8. The ideal teacher helps students identify their most effective methods of study.
9. The furniture in the classroom should be movable by both students and teachers
to meet multiple and flexible purposes.
10. Teachers function as facilitators and resource persons rather than as instructors.

GROUP V
1. Schools should foster change through orderly means when dealing with contro-
versial issues.
2. Schools must place more emphasis on teaching about the concerns of minorities
and women.
3. The United States must become more cooperative economically with countries
such as Japan, China, and Mexico, and schools have an obligation to provide
the education students need to facilitate such change.
4. Schools should plan substantial social interactions in their curriculum.
5. The primary aim of schools is to prepare students to accomplish social reform.
6. Education should focus on injustices and inequities in society and ways of solv-
ing these difficulties.
7. Teachers should be committed to achieving a new social order.
8. Students should learn to identify problems and situations that affect society.
9. Students should focus on community building in their classes rather than obedi-
ence of the teacher’s directions.
10. Community service and involvement with community projects are essential
components of education.
Each group represents a particular philosophy of education—a set of beliefs,
concepts, and attitudes about what should happen in schools. Different philosophies
contend that education ought to be handled in ways that are markedly different
from the contentions of other philosophies.
The five philosophies of education discussed in this chapter are the primary sets
of educational beliefs that govern education in the United States. Although many
other philosophies of education exist and many philosophies originate from non-
European roots, the five presented here represent the mainstream of thinking about
education in the United States.
Is there a group in which you agreed with all or most statements? Which one?
Is there a group in which you disagreed with all or most statements? Which
one?
In which group or groups did you agree with some of the statements and dis-
agree with others?
If you had to select only one group that represents your beliefs about education,
which would it be? What is its name?
In this Building Block, Group I contains statements with which perennial-
ists strongly agree. Group II contains statements with which essentialists
strongly agree. Group III contains statements with which progressivists strongly
agree. Group IV contains statements with which existentialists strongly agree.
Group V contains statements with which social reconstructionists strongly
agree.
From this activity, you can identify one or more labels for your philosophic
thoughts.

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 CONTROVERSIES in Education

The Power of Beliefs in Education: Homework

A  s you can imagine, each of the philosophies
shown in Building Block 2.1 have different
assignments to calculate grades (compared with
20 percent in Canada, 14 percent in Japan, and 9 percent
convictions about homework. Some educators stress the in Singapore). However, Vatterott (2011) found that
importance of children doing homework to acquire grading homework did not increase achievement; in fact,
mastery. Some stress doing homework as a means to solve there was a negative correlation between grading
problems generated by classroom discussions. Homework homework and increased achievement.
has become part of the fabric of U.S. education and is On the other hand, there is a growing revolt against
given from kindergarten through the senior year of high homework. Perhaps the most outspoken author on this
school. Homework assignments are meant to be subject is Alfie Kohn. He has argued for many years that
completed outside of class—at home, at a different homework has a negative impact, or, at best, no value.
nonschool venue, or during study halls or free time at He cites Harris Cooper, the nation’s foremost researcher
school, and sometimes even during after-school of topics dealing with homework (and whose summary of
supervised times. Homework as traditionally viewed research you just read from the article by Cooper,
consists of answering specific questions or reading Robinson, and Patall, 2006). According to Kohn, Cooper
particular material that relates to that day’s studies or says, “There is no evidence that any amount of homework
helps prepare students for the next day’s studies. Most improves the academic performance of elementary
schools and many individual classrooms or middle grades students” (Cooper, Robinson, & Patall 2006, as cited in
and high school classes also have homework policies. Kohn, 2006, p. 13), and he makes the point that results of
These policies are often posted online. In writing for the research can be (and often are) slanted to support the
website About.com: Teaching, Meador (n.d.) provides an bias of the consumer of the research. So, for example,
example of homework policies that says schools believe the statement that doing homework has “little or no
“the purpose of homework should be to practice, effect” can be interpreted to mean that there is an effect,
reinforce, or apply acquired skills and knowledge.” The and therefore homework works because the word little is
College Board (2012) states that homework has several included in the statement. A large body of research
purposes: reinforcement of what has been learned during concludes that homework relates to little or no increase
the day; building study habits that are essential in college; in achievement.
preparing for classes; and getting a sense of progress. Thus, it appears that the homework issue is a
It is nearly universally agreed (among students) that conundrum, with people on both sides of the issue citing
doing homework is a painful and undesirable task. research and personal experience to bolster their
Homework has been made somewhat less painful through arguments. Besides, as you saw in Chapter 1, families and
the use of telephone help lines, online tutoring, studying the community have great influences on what happens in
together with peers, parental assistance, and, yes, even school, and the vast majority of parents want their children
the Internet. Mendicino, Razzy, and Heffernan (2009) to bring homework home. What to do? The New York
found that, in a class of fifth graders, students learned Times reports that schools and school districts across the
significantly more math from web-based homework assign- nation are rethinking their homework policies, suggesting
ments than from traditional homework assignments. alternatives, and reducing the homework requirements,
Because the primary purpose cited for giving especially in elementary schools (Hu, 2011). But this reform
homework is to increase achievement, let us take a look at is just beginning. With time, we will see more and more
the research. Cooper, Robinson, and Paul (2006) reviewed alternatives to the current homework situation being
the research done about homework between 1987 and implemented in schools.
2003; they found that the research generally showed that
homework had a positive effect on achievement, and that WHAT DO YOU THINK?
this effect was stronger in middle school and high school
than in elementary school. In his introductory article to a 1. What are some reasons why teachers should give
special issue of the Journal of Advanced Academics, homework?
Benbenutty (2011) writes, “Homework is an important and 2. What are some reasons why teachers should not give
an effective educational supplement” (p. 185), and that homework?
“Research has established that homework has a positive 3. What are some alternatives to traditional homework
effect on learning, particularly at the middle and secondary assignments?
school levels” (p. 186). Baker and LeTendre (2005) report 4. When you are a teacher, will you give homework? Or
that some 70 percent of U.S. teachers use homework not? Explain your response.

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 Schools of Philosophic Thought
Let us examine the five philosophies presented in Building Block 2.1 in a bit more detail.
While you are doing this, compare the inventory you took with the discussions of each
philosophy. Ask yourself where you agree and where you disagree. In this manner, you
can interpret your initial thoughts about educational philosophies, and you can judge
whether you are satisfied with the label(s) you gave yourself, or whether any labels are
appropriate.

Exploring Educational Philosophies BUILDING BLOCK

In this Building Block, you will become better acquainted with the major philoso- 2.2
phies of education. Answer the six questions we raised earlier for each philosophy
shown in the following table. Use your exploration of philosophies in Building
Block 2.1 and your current understandings of what should occur in schools to help
you in your thinking.
What are the root words for the terms perennialism, essentialism, progressivism,
existentialism, and social reconstructionism?
Based on the root words for each of the five philosophies, what inferences can
Use your favorite search
you make about the following questions?
engine to explore the websites
of several schools. Do they post
Social homework policies? See if they
Perennialism Essentialism Progressivism Existentialism Reconstructionism have online or any other kind
of resources for help with
What should homework available.
be taught?

Who should
decide what
is taught?

Why should
this material
be taught?

How should
this material
be taught?

What should
the teacher’s
role be?

What should
the student’s
role be?

Perennialism
As you probably have surmised, the root word of perennialism is “perennial.” The phi-
losophy of perennialism advances the idea that the focus of education should be the
universal truths conveyed through the classic and profound thoughts and works that

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 have lasted through the centuries and have recurred in each generation. Like a perennial
plant that returns year after year, these thoughts and works are everlasting. They have
withstood the test of time and are as important and relevant today as they were when first
conceived. The enduring wisdom of the past is a guide to the present.
Examples of these classic materials include works of great literature, findings of great
scientists, and timeless concepts of history. High school students study Shakespeare’s
plays, Homer’s Iliad, Melville’s Moby Dick, Newton’s laws of motion, Einstein’s theories,
and other works that have become part of today’s classic repertoire. Students take courses
that focus on the traditional subjects of reading, writing, language, mathematics, science,
history, and the arts. Elementary and middle school students prepare for more advanced
work by studying basic subjects from the perspective of the classic tradition in a tightly
controlled and well-disciplined atmosphere. Perennialists believe the emphasis of school
should be the mastery of content and the development of reasoning skills in the arts and
sciences, and that thoughtful consideration of the classical works is the way to achieve
these goals.
Perennialists believe that truth does not depend on time or place but rather is the
same for all people. They believe the same curriculum should be required of all stu-
dents. Their reasoning is twofold: (1) Because the goal of school is to teach the truth,
and the truth is the same for everyone, the curriculum must be the same. (2) Because
people are born equal and have the same opportunities, to give some students a cur-
riculum that is different from that of others is to treat them differently and is a form
of discrimination.
Who decides what should be taught? Society at large makes these decisions be-
Use your favorite search cause it is society that has validated the importance of these works over time and has
engine to find out more about continued to hold these classics in high esteem. Many individuals have assembled
the philosophy of Paideia and canons of material they believe should be taught. Noteworthy is Mortimer Adler,
Mortimer Adler. whose 1982 work The Paideia Proposal describes a system of education based on the
classics. His book has led to the development of an innovative school model called the
Paideia (pronounced py-DAY-ah) program. The Paideia Group has worked with sev-
eral hundred schools in all grade levels throughout the United States since its incep-
tion. Teachers use three basic methods of teaching: (1) didactic teaching in which the
teacher lectures (10 percent to 15 percent of the time); (2) Socratic seminars1 in which
the teacher uses directed questioning to help students
arrive at desirable answers (15 percent to 20 percent of
the time); and (3) coaching in which the teacher coaches
students in the academic subjects (60 percent to
70 percent of the time) (Brandt and Voke, 2002; Na-
tional Paideia Center, 2011). The outcomes of these
three types of instruction are knowledge acquisition,
achievement in mathematics and language skills, and an
increase in understanding of basic ideas (National Pai-
deia Center, 2011).
In the 1930s, Adler and Robert Maynard Hutchins,
then president of the University of Chicago, organized the
classics into a set of more than 400 works titled Great
© Image State/Alamy

Books of the Western World (1952), which they believed

would enable students to become independent and critical
thinkers. They held that people can discover the truths
through their senses and their reasoning—that they do not
Of the five philosophies of
education—perennialism,
essentialism, existentialism,
progressivism, or social 1
The Socratic method is patterned after the way the Greek philosopher Socrates taught. He believed
reconstructionism—which is people were born with all the information they need in life and that all people were born with the same
demonstrated in this basic information. Through skillful question-and-discussion sessions with students, he would be able to
elementary classroom? get his students to bring this hidden information to the surface.

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 construct truths because they are already in existence. The Great Books of the Western
World represent the fruit of these discoveries made by other people; as students read and
discuss them, they, too, can encounter the great truths of the universe.
Of course, because perennialists believe the primary goal of school is for students to
learn what others have created and to use this knowledge in their own lives, teachers are
expected to present this material to the students. There is little or no room for students to
venture into tangents of their own interest; the curriculum must be covered. A teacher’s
role is to impart knowledge. To do this, teachers hold seminars, engage students in
Socratic discussions, foster directed readings of great books, explain principles and
concepts, and lecture as effectively as possible, presenting dynamic lessons with all the
interest-grabbing devices available. The work is demanding, and the classroom is disci-
plined.
The student’s role is to discuss, examine, and reexamine the information presented by
the teacher with the ultimate goal of learning the content.

Your Thoughts about Perennialism BUILDING BLOCK

Review the statements associated with perennialism (Group I) in Building 2.3
Block 2.1. What key words in these statements describe the perennialist phi-
losophy of education?
How did the inferences you made about perennialism in Building Block 2.2
compare with the textbook’s description of this educational philosophy?
What do you think are the strengths of perennialism as applied to education?
What do you think are the weaknesses of perennialism as applied to education?

Essentialism
The philosophy of essentialism takes its name from the word essential. Essentialists be-
lieve there are certain basic or essential knowledge, skills, and understandings students
should master. Essentialists assert that, over time, society has found that certain skills,
such as reading, writing, calculating, and computer skills, are needed for people to func-
tion effectively. Accordingly, certain subjects, such as the language arts, mathematics,

Mortimer Jerome he taught at the University of Chicago during the 1930s.

At the University of Chicago, he advocated the adoption of
Adler (1902–2001) was born in the classics as a main part of the curriculum, although the
New York City, the son of an
rest of the faculty disagreed.
immigrant jewelry salesman. He
Adler believed in providing the same liberal
dropped out of school at the age of
education without electives or vocational classes for all
14 to become a copy boy for a
© Bettmann/CORBIS

people. He believed education should teach people

New York newspaper, but, hoping to
(1) to think critically, (2) to use their leisure time well,
become a journalist, he took courses
(3) to earn their living ethically, and (4) to be responsible
in writing at Columbia University.
citizens in a democracy. He believed that people should
While there, he became intensely
become lifelong learners.
interested in philosophy. He
Mortimer Adler is best known in the education
completed his course work but did not graduate because
community for his devotion to the adoption of the
he had not completed the physical education requirement.
classics as the mainstream of education, the Paideia
He later earned his PhD at Columbia. Adler served as a
schools, and his insistence that students read key works
professor of psychology at Columbia during the 1920s, and
of Western literature and philosophy.

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 science, history, and computer training, are essential for people to gain the knowledge and
skills they need. According to the essentialist viewpoint, this knowledge and these skills
will always be needed. Thus, we can say that society at large decides in general what these
essentials are. Businesses, banks, manufacturers, retailers, and others provide input to the
institutions of education, detailing the strengths and weaknesses they see in high school
graduates. The educators, in turn, use this input to help them develop programs of study
that will prepare students to enter the workforce. Because most of the people who provide
input into the educational system are concerned with students mastering the basic skills
of reading, writing, and basic mathematics (the “three Rs”), the programs developed
naturally reflect these concerns. Thus, essentialism can be termed the “back-to-basics”
approach to education.
Essentialism has been the guiding philosophy of education in the United States for a
very long time. (You will consider this again in Chapter 10, when you investigate the his-
tory of U.S. education.) The Soviet launching of Sputnik in October 1957 rekindled this
thinking. The United States felt deeply humiliated by the Soviet success. Our scientists had
been working on launching a U.S. spacecraft for a number of years in order to be first in
the race to space. When the Soviets beat the United States, citizens asked, “How did this
happen? How did the United States, with all its technological capabilities, all its talent,
and all its money, not achieve the goal of being first in space?” As so often happens, edu-
cation took much of the blame.
Two opposing views addressed the seeming weaknesses in American education. One
advocated an increased emphasis on education in science, mathematics, and technology
and an increase in inquiry teaching strategies. This thrust was strengthened by the Woods
Hole Conference of 1959, chaired by Jerome Bruner and attended by scientists, mathema-
ticians, psychologists, and technology specialists (Bruner, 1965). The conference affirmed
the increasing momentum in science, mathematics, and technology education; it also
called for studying less material but studying it in greater depth and requiring students to
inquire and figure things out for themselves.
The other view was a growing concern that U.S. students were not mastering the
basic material of reading, writing, mathematics, science, and other areas. This concern
was later highlighted in A Nation at Risk, the 1983 report of the President’s Commission
on Excellence in Education (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983).
The report essentially said that U.S. children were at risk for lagging behind other na-
tions in achievement of basic subjects and that we had better teach our children to read,
write, and do mathematics—and we had better do it now. In 1998, the Center for Educa-
tion Reform reaffirmed these findings in A Nation Still at Risk. These are the same con-
cerns as those that underlay the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (The No Child Left
Behind Executive Summary, 2001). This wide support for a back-to-basics curriculum
and the emphasis on basic subjects has eclipsed the recommendations made at the
Woods Hole Conference.
You can access the full text and executive summary of A Nation at Risk through a
direct link on the Education CourseMate website.
In essentialist education, students receive instruction in the basic subjects of reading,
writing, mathematics, science, history, foreign language, and technology. Unlike perennial-
ism, which emphasizes a canon of great works and classics, essentialism emphasizes fun-
damental knowledge and skills that business and political leaders believe members of
today’s society need to know to be productive in the workplace.
Teachers transmit this essential knowledge and expect students to learn it. Teachers
are considered repositories of knowledge to be transmitted. This means educators develop
and employ a sequence of topics in each subject, progressing from less complex to more
complex material through successive grade levels. It also means using lecture and recita-
tion, discussion, drill and practice (sometimes called “drill and kill”), and a variety of
teaching and learning materials to ensure that students learn the content. For example, a
middle grades social studies teacher might give a lecture on why large cities are located
where they are, using maps and videos as aids, rather than having students investigate the
phenomenon for themselves by engaging in map exploration activities.

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 The role of the students is to learn the content and skills being taught and to demon-
strate their mastery of them on achievement tests, often in the form of standardized tests
that are used to make local, regional, statewide, and national comparisons.
E. D. Hirsch, Jr., has written extensively on what should be included in essentialist
education. His works include Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know
(Turtleback Books, 1988), The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy: What Every
American Needs to Know (Houghton Mifflin, 1987), and The New First Dictionary of Use your favorite Internet
Cultural Literacy: What Your Child Needs to Know (Turtleback Books, 2004). In addi- search engine to find out more
tion, he has published several volumes in his Core Knowledge Series that deal with what about the Core Knowledge
children in elementary grades should know (Hirsch, 1994–1999). Hirsch’s work could be Foundation that E. D. Hirsch, Jr.
considered perennialist in nature except for its emphasis on science, which reflects his established.
essentialist viewpoint.

E. D. Hirsch, Jr. (b. 1928) is a prominent figure in through eighth grade. The foundation is a major source of
the theories underlying essentialist education. He holds research, theory, and practical lessons and assessments for
degrees from Cornell and Yale, and he retired as the all recommended subjects in pre-K–8 schools. Although his
university professor of education and humanities at the Core Knowledge schools operate nationwide, critics have
University of Virginia. He is founder and chairman of the challenged Hirsch’s essentialist theories, contending that
Core Knowledge Foundation, a nonprofit organization students who use the Core Knowledge curriculum are
dedicated to the establishment of a curriculum of Core taught what to think rather than how to think and that the
Knowledge, a sequenced body of knowledge perspective is Eurocentric, giving only minor attention to
recommended by the foundation to be taught in preschool non-Eurocentric influences.

Your Thoughts about Essentialism BUILDING BLOCK

Review the statements associated with essentialism (Group II) in Building 2.4
Block 2.1. What key words in these statements describe the essentialist philoso-
phy of education?
How did the inferences you made about essentialism in Building Block 2.2 com-
pare with the description of this educational philosophy?
What do you think are the strengths of essentialism as applied to education?
What do you think are the weaknesses of essentialism as applied to
education?

Progressivism
The educational philosophy of progressivism takes its name from the word progressive.
The dictionary defines progressive as “making use of or interested in new ideas, findings,
or opportunities” and “. . . an educational theory marked by emphasis on the individual
child, informality of classroom procedure, and encouragement of self-expression”
(Merriam-Webster, 2012). Thus, the philosophy of progressivism espouses the idea that
the focus of education should be students rather than content and that whatever is taught
should be meaningful. To progressivists, the purpose of education is to prepare students
to be lifelong learners in an ever-changing society.
One of the key figures in the progressivist movement was John Dewey. Dewey’s
writings and his work at the Laboratory School at the University of Chicago, where he

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 tested and refined his educational ideas, have produced tremendous innovations in U.S.
education. To Dewey, the traditional school where students sat in rows and passively
received information imparted by the teacher was ineffective. He argued that if stu-
dents are to learn, they must be involved with real problems and meaningful questions,
must solve problems according to a scientific method, must be free to develop their
own theories and their own conceptualizations, and must be encouraged to test their
conclusions in real situations. The progressivist movement focused on several basic
principles:2

1. Students should be free to develop naturally.

2. Student interest should guide the teaching.
3. The teacher should be a guide, not a taskmaster.
4. Student development should involve the whole student, and should include physical,
mental, moral, and social growth.
5. Schools should attend to the physical development of students.
6. There should be school–home cooperation to meet the needs of students realistically.

Progressivists focus the curriculum on the needs of students. These needs include
academic, social, and physical needs and are fueled by the interests of the students.
Therefore, the material to be studied is determined jointly among the school, the teacher,
and the students. Learning is considered a natural response to curiosity and the need to
solve problems. In the progressivist school, teachers expose students to many new
developments in science, technology, literature, and the arts to show that knowledge is
constantly changing. Progressivists believe that students should study great ideas and
thoughts of the past, but they also believe knowledge is changing and the job of students
is to learn how to learn so that they can cope successfully with new challenges in life and
discover what truths are relevant to the present.
Of prime importance is the idea that knowl-
edge that is true in the present may not be true in
the future. Costa (2007) estimates that by the
year 2020, the amount of knowledge in the world
will double every 73 days. Considering that 2020
is not that far off, what do you think of that pro-
posal? Not only is knowledge expected to grow
exponentially, but new knowledge will replace
old knowledge and old knowledge will become
obsolete.
Progressivist teachers engage students in inqui-
ries that the students themselves develop. Students
learn from one another in addition to the teacher, so
the progressivist classroom fosters social learning by
having students work in cooperative groups. Pro-
gressivist teachers are facilitators, resource people,
and co-inquirers. The primary role of students is to
© Richard Hutchings/PhotoEdit Inc.

develop new and deeper understandings continu-

ously through their own investigation. Thus, in an
elementary education progressivist mathematics
class dealing with place value, we see children in
small groups using various kinds of manipulatives
to develop their own understandings of place value
and helping one another clarify their ideas. The
Which philosophy of teacher facilitates these activities but does not lec-
education encourages active, ture.
hands-on learning, like using
mathematics manipulatives in 2
From “The Principles of Education,” stated by the Progressive Education Association in 1924; cited in
a math lesson? Tyack, 1967, pp. 347–48.

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 John Dewey (1859–1952) He rejected authoritarian teaching methods and
was born on a farm near Burlington, advocated the importance of experiential education—
Vermont. He was arguably the most learning by doing. He also stressed the importance of the
© Hulton Archives/Getty Images influential U.S. educator in the development of the person.
20th century. He graduated from the Dewey’s ideas were adopted by the “progressivist
University of Vermont, and after education” movement, but they frequently were distorted,
three years of teaching, earned his with the result that, contrary to Dewey’s intentions,
doctorate at Johns Hopkins subject-matter education was often neglected in favor of
University. Dewey taught philosophy classroom entertainment or vocational education.
at the University of Michigan and To some of Dewey’s admirers, he was the greatest
the University of Minnesota before educator who ever lived. On the other hand, many
becoming chair of the Department of attribute the “ills” of U.S. education to the influence of his
Philosophy, Psychology, and Pedagogy at the University of ideas. Whatever one believes about John Dewey, there is
Chicago. He developed the university’s Laboratory School no mistaking the fact that he taught generations of
in 1896, and directed it for the next seven years, students to examine ideas carefully and objectively before
pioneering experimental efforts and translating their results deciding on their own conclusions or course of action.
into practice. Because of disagreements with the university Several of Dewey’s quotes are apropos:
over the Laboratory School, Dewey left in 1904, to become
a professor of philosophy at Columbia University. “Anyone who has begun to think places some por-
In addition to his contributions in the areas of tion of the world in jeopardy.”
philosophy, psychology, politics, and social thought, “Education is not preparation for life; education is
Dewey was instrumental in developing modern education life itself.”
theory. His was a prominent voice in educational “Every great advance in science has issued from a
philosophy, with an emphasis on progressivism. new audacity of the imagination.”

Your Thoughts about Progressivism BUILDING BLOCK

Review the statements associated with progressivism (Group III) in Building 2.5
Block 2.1. What key words in these statements describe the progressivist phi-
losophy of education?
How did the inferences you made about progressivism in Building Block 2.2
compare with the description of this educational philosophy?
What do you think are the strengths of progressivism as applied to education?
What do you think are the weaknesses of progressivism as applied to education?

Existentialism
Existentialism focuses on the existence of the individual. Existentialists emphasize that
people are responsible for defining themselves. To exist is to choose, and the choices
people make define who they are. According to the existentialist point of view, people
have two choices: They can either define themselves, or they can choose to be defined by
others. The existentialist believes the only “truth” is the “truth” determined by the indi-
vidual. Individuals determine for themselves what is meant by such terms as right, wrong,
beautiful, ugly, true, false, and the like. Existentialists truly believe that “beauty is in the
eye of the beholder.” Existentialists believe that, whereas the great thinkers of the past had
their own ways of thinking about life and the natural world, their thoughts were uniquely
theirs, and today’s students need to find their own ways of thinking and develop their own
conclusions.
In the existentialist classroom, students determine what they need to study, guided,
of course, by the teacher. The idea is for students to come to their own understandings.
Because every student is different, no single set of learning outcomes is appropriate for

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 Jean-Paul Sartre (1905– vested in man, himself. People are entitled to be hu-
1980), a leader of existentialism, was man with dignity, and a human is a human only when
born in Paris. After earning his doc- he or she is entirely free and accepts responsibility for
torate, he taught philosophy in this freedom. Sartre’s basic premise was that life has
French high schools until he was no meaning or purpose except for the personal goals
© Hulton Archive/Getty Images

drafted into the army at the start of each person sets. This philosophy captured the atten-
World War II. He was captured by tion of post–World War II Europeans who were yearn-
the Germans, but escaped and be- ing for freedom, and it is embraced today by people
came a leader in the resistance who believe they have the freedom to take responsi-
movement. bility for their own actions.
The philosophy of existential- Although Sartre was principally a novelist, essayist,
ism became very popular in and playwright (he won the Nobel Prize in Literature in
Europe after the war. According to existentialism, we 1964), his works captured the essence of his philosophy
first exist and then we define ourselves through the and have become the underpinnings of today’s applica-
choices we make. Sartre believed man’s responsibility is tion of existentialism to education.

all students. Teachers and the school lay out the topics that are considered appropriate
for the students to study at each grade level, and the students make their own meaning-
ful choices.
The teacher is a facilitator, working with each student to help him or her find appro-
priate materials and the best methods of study. The teacher is also a resource—one of
many resources that also include other students, books, great works, contemporary
works, the Internet and other technological resources, television programs, newspapers
and magazines, and other people.
In the existentialist classroom, students do many different things and study many dif-
ferent topics at the same time. For example, in a science class, a group of three or four
students might be dissecting a frog, using models, manuals, and drawings to guide their
work; another group might be watching a video on the human circulatory system (using
headphones); and yet another group might be recording the observations they had previ-
ously made of the night sky in chart form. The teacher moves from group to group, work-
ing to facilitate the investigations, probing for understandings, and challenging students’
conclusions.
The role of the student is to pursue his or her investigations of the chosen topic until
the desired learning and understandings have taken place.

BUILDING BLOCK Your Thoughts about Existentialism

2 .6 Review the statements associated with existentialism (Group IV) in Building
Block 2.1. Which key words in these statements describe the existentialist phi-
losophy of education?
How did the inferences you made about existentialism in Building Block 2.2
compare with the description of this educational philosophy?
What do you think are the strengths of existentialism as applied to education?
What do you think are the weaknesses of existentialism as applied to education?

Social Reconstructionism
Social reconstructionism is particularly germane in today’s shrinking world. As its name
suggests, the social reconstructionist philosophy of education asserts that society needs to
be changed (reconstructed) and that schools are the ideal instrument to foster such

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 changes. Social reconstructionists believe that world crises require the use of education to
facilitate the development of a new social order, one that is truly democratic in nature.
Schools are seen as agents of the reformation of society rather than as transmitters of
knowledge.
To this end, teachers help their students understand the validity and urgency of social
problems. The determination of which of the many important and controversial social
problems should be studied is made through democratic consensus of the students under
the leadership of the teacher. There is an abundance of social problems at the local,
national, and global levels that can be the focus of the curriculum. Examples include
violence, hunger, poverty, terrorism, inflation, inequality, racism, sexism, homophobia,
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), pollution, homelessness, substance abuse,
bullying, and many others. In social reconstructionism, the students select the social pri-
orities to be studied and decide on the educational objectives to be attained from the
study. The curriculum integrates all the traditional subjects into single thematic interdis-
ciplinary units. The students and teacher work together to uncover, solve, and propose
solutions to the selected problems. The teacher helps students explore the problems, sug-
gests alternative perspectives, and facilitates student analysis and conclusion formation.
Throughout the study, the teacher models the democratic process. Teaching methodolo-
gies include simulation, role playing, group work, internships, work–study programs, and
other forms of cooperation with the community and its resources.
Similar to their role in the existentialist classroom, students in a social reconstruction-
ist class engage in many different activities to study the agreed-upon topic, such as
researching through the Internet, reading case histories, analyzing multiple aspects of the
topic, formulating predictions, proposing and justifying workable revisions and solutions,
and taking action to implement these solutions.
Examples of actual social-reconstructionist projects include nationwide literacy pro-
grams, and providing potable water sources in Africa. You may have had the opportunity
to experience a social reconstruction curriculum during your freshman year at your col-
lege or university. Often institutions of higher education design first-year experiences for
entering students to include not only orientations to college life and tips on time manage-
ment and study habits, but also the chance to participate in a service learning activity service learning A teaching strategy
that may promote social change. According to the National Service Learning Clearing- that engages students in meaningful
service to their communities through
house, service learning “integrates meaningful community service with instruction and integration of community issues and
reflection to enrich the learning experience, teach civic responsibility, and strengthen the school curriculum.
communities” (National Service Learning Clearinghouse, 2011). The National Resource
Center for the First-Year Experience and Students in Transition conducted a national
survey of first-year programs. A survey of 1,019 institutions found that 40.3 percent of
the responding institutions with first-year programs reported that their first-year experi-
ence included a service learning component (National Resource Center for the First-Year
Experience and Students in Transition, 2009). Such service learning activities include both
a chance to provide service to the community, and an agenda to promote social change.
College students in first-year seminars may organize and participate in many national
initiatives as part of a service learning activity that serves to promote social change. One
example is Take Back the Night (TBN). TBN is an initiative that involves organizing
peaceful marches in an effort to end violence against women and children. Another na-
tional example is the Day of Silence, sponsored by the Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Educa- Learn more about these
national organizations by finding
tion Network (GLSEN), which encourages people to participate in a day of silence to
their websites on the Internet.
advocate for the quashing of bullying and harassment of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and trans-
Use your favorite browser to
gendered students in schools. In yet another example, the organization called Dogs De- locate other opportunities to
serve Better works to promote legislation that would make chaining dogs outside illegal. promote social change. Consider
Their website offers ideas on how individuals can get involved in hopes of promoting acting on what you find!
change.
Social reconstructionist service learning projects do not have to be focused on
national movements. There are also plenty of opportunities locally for students to become
involved. Notice that the examples provided here are not only appropriate for college
students, but students in grades K–12 can also organize events to support social change.

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 Paulo Freire (1921–1997) Pedagogy of the Oppressed, a significant and highly
was a Brazilian educator who, popular education book, he discussed his belief that
although educated in law, became education must involve dialogue and mutual
interested in education after he had understanding and must nurture respect between student
Courtesy of the Paul Freire Institute

children. He worked in literacy and teacher, stressing that this was the key to the
campaigns with the poor in Brazil to liberation of the oppressed. According to Freire,
help them overcome their sense of education is a two-way exchange of beliefs, thoughts,
powerlessness and empower and ideas, unlike the traditional system of schooling,
themselves. Because he challenged which he called a “banking approach” in which the
the ruling elite, he was exiled from teacher makes deposits of information into the students.
Brazil during a military coup in 1964. He believed that true knowledge can result only from
He taught at Harvard University from experiences in which students inquire into unknown
1969 until 1979, when he was able to return to Brazil. In phenomena and thereby establish their need for further
1988, he assumed the position of minister of education for knowledge. He believed that teachers must be sensitive
the City of São Paulo, a large city that contains two-thirds to their students’ viewpoints and lifestyles.
of Brazil’s schools. According to Freire, students must be viewed as
Freire is considered among the most influential being in charge of their own education and destinies.
educational thinkers in the late 20th century. He has been Once they arrive at this point, they can find their own
a major figure in progressive education, especially as it ideas and then begin to “reconstruct” society on the
relates to empowering poor and oppressed adults. In his basis of their new and validated conclusions.

A social reconstructionist curriculum helps students become involved and successful

in school by promoting civic engagement and social skills (Furco and Root, 2010). As you
can infer, social reconstructionist principles are important in helping guide schools, teach-
ers, and students toward a multicultural emphasis.
Social reconstructionism is a very influential and powerful philosophy, especially
when its goals of social reform are combined with other philosophies such as progressiv-
ism and existentialism. Critics of social reconstructionism are concerned with its
singularity of purpose (the formation of a utopian democratic world society) and the in-
doctrination of students into this purpose. However, the new world order of the 21st
century may well need the type of impact that can be given by students whose education
is provided in a social reconstructionist environment.

BUILDING BLOCK Your Thoughts about Social Reconstructionism

2 .7 Review the statements associated with social reconstructionism (Group V) in
Building Block 2.1. What key words in these statements describe the social
reconstructionist philosophy of education?
How did the inferences you made about social reconstructionism in Building
Block 2.2 compare with the description of this educational philosophy?
What do you think are the strengths of social reconstructionism as applied to
education?
What do you think are the weaknesses of social reconstructionism as applied to
education?

The Eclectic Approach

Many people find they agree with some of the statements and premises of several of the
philosophies but disagree with other parts.

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 FROM THE FIELD

One Teacher’s Philosophies

Kathy Heavers

Heavers
C  ome observe my classroom. Students have assigned Students finish their per-

Courtesy of Kathy
seats. They receive a list of upcoming assignments sonal essay and go on to a
once every three weeks. On the board are posted the as- goals essay, which can also be
signments due the previous class meeting, the assignments used with school and scholar-
due that day, and the assignments due during the next ship applications. After indi-
week. Papers to be handed back are in the center of each vidual exploration and listening to essays developed by for-
table, and materials we will be using during the class period mer students, each student outlines his or her career goal,
are stacked neatly in a pile at the edge of the table. I deter- education goal (two-year, four-year, vocational, technical,
mine the curriculum. The first 45 minutes are mine to present military, or apprenticeship), major, and choice of school(s),
information, take questions, and facilitate teacher-directed as no single set of curricular outcomes is appropriate for all
activities; the last 45 minutes constitute student work time. students. Carefully, the students craft their goals essay.
Sounds pretty structured doesn’t it? Perennialism perhaps? Teacher and peer evaluations result in several drafts before
Take a closer look. The students are seated at hexagonal the final copy is submitted. Acceptance to a postsecondary
tables scattered throughout the room, not desks in a straight school and funding are the desired outcomes. Individual
row. If seats weren’t assigned, students would sit at the same students, individual traits, individual goals. Teacher facili-
table, in the same chair, usually by a friend, all semester long. tates investigation, working with each student to probe for
Instead, I change the seating arrangements every four weeks understanding and determine approach. Existentialism?
so that students will have sat at each table and with every So what philosophy most closely approximates not
person in the class by the end of the semester. Most likely only my beliefs about education but my practices as well?
they will have met classmates they never knew before (and I At the beginning of my career, as a traditional English
still have control over seating arrangements if there are con- teacher, it was perennialism. I addressed the rigorous cur-
flicts). Is it looking more like progressivism? riculum others determined and imparted the knowledge,
Students have a three-week list of assignments so that dealing mostly with the classics. We covered the material
they can see what is coming up, have time to think about primarily through lecture and direct questioning, with some
their approach to the assignments, budget their time, and self-expression periodically as a motivator.
work ahead should they choose. If they were absent, the I moved on to essentialism in a class called Skills Lab.
board reminds them of what was due the day they missed. Students worked to improve reading, listening, study, and
Today’s assignments tell everyone what will be covered that critical thinking skills, all essential for success, not only in
day, and the upcoming assignments allow them to work school but also in the real world. My approach was one of
ahead should they finish the work due that day. Students progressivism. I prepared students to be lifelong learners. I
budget their own time and have total control over what they pretested each student to determine ability level and then
accomplish. Students have total control? Is this existentialism? engaged that student in hands-on activities on that level.
As soon as the students are seated at their tables, they Although the class began with teacher-directed activities,
look through the corrected papers and take theirs, so these were followed by individual students working their way
corrected work is retrieved by each student before the through “stations” focusing on the goals of the class. There
tardy bell rings; no time is wasted distributing handouts to were 24 students, each working on his or her own ability level
the class because they are already at the individual tables. at a station, improving personal skills in that area. Individual-
Organization is modeled, and one by one, students begin ity … informality of classroom procedure … meaningful …
to pick up on that mode of operation. One by one? student-focused … teacher as facilitator … progressivism.
Progressivism or existentialism? And now, although there are aspects of progressivism in
Although I determine the curriculum, it is based on what my Senior Seminar class, I have moved on again, to existen-
postsecondary school admissions and scholarship committees tialism. Why all this movement over the years? The subject
require. Each student determines his or her approach to the matter demanded it. The needs of the students determined
assignments. I assign a personal essay for use with school or it. And my change in philosophy influenced it. Education is
scholarship applications, but each student begins by listing his not a static field; my years of experience have prompted me
or her three most outstanding character traits. The student to grow and change … shift and adjust … to the benefit of
then asks two acquaintances to list what they consider to be the students and to the renewed interest of the teacher.
his or her three most outstanding traits. Each student then
chooses on which of the nine traits he or she will focus and
how he or she will develop the essay. Is this progressivism with 2005 Colorado Teacher of the Year
an emphasis on the individual child and encouragement of Montrose High School
self-expression, or is it existentialism where the truth is deter- Montrose County School District
mined by the individual and the thoughts uniquely their own? Montrose, Colorado

© Cengage Learning 2014

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 If you embrace some of the tenets of two or more philosophies, you are said to be
eclectic Selecting from a variety of eclectic in your philosophical thoughts about education. Eclecticism is an approach in
sources. which you select and use what you consider to be the most appropriate portions of several
different philosophies. For example, you may believe students should learn classic and
other timeless concepts (perennialism) as well as the basics (essentialism), but also that
students should accomplish their studies through investigating, inquiring, and discovering
on their own (progressivism). Or, you may believe in using group work to help students
increase their academic knowledge (progressivism) and in encouraging students to make
responsible choices about what to study (existentialism), but also insist that their choices
include topics that have an impact on society and social issues (social reconstructionism).

BUILDING BLOCK Reexamining Your Philosophical Beliefs about Education

2 .8 Take a few minutes to reexamine your philosophical tenets in education as revealed
by your initial thoughts in Building Blocks 2.1 and 2.2, and refined by your studies
in this chapter. Then, write your answers to the following questions:
1. What do you believe should be taught? To which of the philosophies is this the
closest?
2. Who do you believe should decide what should be taught? To which of the
philosophies is this the closest?
3. Why do you believe this material should be taught? To which of the philoso-
phies is this the closest?
4. How do you believe this material should be taught? To which of the philoso-
phies is this the closest?
5. What do you think the teacher’s role should be? To which of the philosophies is
this the closest?
6. What do you think the student’s role should be? To which of the philosophies
is this the closest?

TeachSour
ce Video
A Continuum of Schools of Philosophic Thought
View the TeachSource Video Case, “Philo- The five major philosophies of education you have explored can be placed on
sophical Foundations of American Educa-
tion: Four Philosophies in Action,” to see a a continuum, with the highest amount of curriculum direction provided by
demonstration of three of the educational teachers, educators, and society on the left and the highest amount of curricu-
philosophies you’ve been learning about in this lum direction provided by students on the right (see Figure 2.3).
chapter, plus an additional one, and the impli-
cations of each for classroom practices. You’ll
On the left (no political analogy implied) of Figure 2.3 is the perennialist phi-
also observe how various teachers draw upon losophy in which society at large, through numerous citizen and political task
these philosophies to shape various aspects of forces, has established certain basic classics and truths that should be transmitted
their teaching—everything from the arrange- to students; this curriculum preserves the liberal arts tradition. Then comes essen-
ment of desks, to the selection of texts and the tialism, in which the educators have determined the basic subjects and skills all
role of the teacher. Be sure to watch all four
segments and the bonus videos. After watch-
students must know and be able to do based on society’s determination of basic
ing the videos, answer the following questions: subjects and skills.
1. What are the educational philosophies Next is progressivism, in which the teacher and the students jointly decide
you saw in the first three videos? What what is important to learn—basic classics and truths, basic skills, and current and
are the defining characteristics of each? changing topics. This is followed by social reconstructionism, in which classes of
2. The last video shows critical theory in which students decide what to learn based on a democratic decision of which of the many
you may have identified similarities with societal ills should receive their attention. On the right is existentialism, in which
existentialism and social reconstructionism. students decide what to learn based primarily on their perceived needs and
What characteristics did you recognize that interests.
would make you think of existentialism?
Other philosophies, such as idealism, realism, experimentalism, and critical
What characteristics would make you think
of social reconstructionism? theory, impact education, but we have focused in this chapter on the philosophies
we believe are basic to education.

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 Educational Philosophy Continuum

Perennialism Essentialism Progressivism Social Reconstructionism Existentialism

Figure 2.3

▲
Curriculum determined Curriculum determined Curriculum jointly Curriculum determined Curriculum
by society by society and teachers determined by democratically by determined Educational philosophy
teachers and teachers by students continuum.
students and students
© Cengage Learning 2014

School Philosophy and Mission Statements

Most schools formalize their educational philosophies in written mission statements. A
mission statement gives the school’s basic purpose and goals and often provides insight
into its prevailing educational philosophy.
Portions of actual mission statements of a few schools are given here. As you read
them, try to identify their primary educational philosophies. What aspects of the mission
statement lead you to that specific philosophy?

Mission Statement of a Public Elementary School:

The mission of our school is to offer all students an opportunity to achieve their
greatest potential by providing the highest quality of learning. We believe that
with the guidance of our staff, the involvement of parents, and the encouragement
of the community, all students can learn and master basic academic skills. Our
mission is to provide each child with a superior education and necessary skills to
lead them in becoming self-sufficient, productive citizens in our ever-changing
world.
Mission Statement of a Public Middle School:
Our mission is to provide a unique learning experience for all students which will
be academically challenging, interdisciplinary in nature, and which will reflect the
values of the local community and of society as a whole. Students will be enabled
to develop individually while being given the means to recognize their own self-
worth, and to achieve their role as knowledgeable and responsible members of
the society of the future.
Mission Statement of a Public High School:
The mission of our school is to provide each student with a safe learning environ-
ment and an equitable opportunity to develop competencies necessary to become
a productive member of society.
Mission Statement of a Private School:
We believe that a child learns best within an environment which supports each
individual’s unique process of development. We emphasize cognitive and physical Use your favorite search
development along with global awareness and peaceful conflict resolution. The engine to find mission
teacher functions as a “guide” to help students carry out many different kinds of statements of schools in your
area. Are they consistent with
research following their interests, and develop their curiosity and a love of learn-
what you think about education?
ing. Our priorities are for students to make intelligent choices, focus and concen-
Would you want to teach at
trate, and engage in caring and purposeful interaction with the environment and these schools? Why or why not?
with others.

Philosophic Perspectives of Non-Eurocentric Cultures

The educational philosophies we have discussed so far are steeped in European philo-
sophical traditions. These philosophies are the driving force behind U.S. education. Using
this Eurocentric view, you have examined what you think is important in education and
how those thoughts inform the beginnings of your philosophy of education.

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 However, as you have seen, our philosophy of
education is strongly influenced by who we are
and what our beliefs are. Tradition and culture are
very important factors in the formation of our
beliefs. Many teachers grew up in non-Eurocentric
cultures, and many received their education in
countries other than the United States. Cultural
diversity among students is the norm in the class-

Can’t re-license, will replace © Banana Stock/Alamy

room, and groups that used to be considered the
minority are rapidly becoming the majority in
many school districts. Thus, the cultural heritages
of the teacher and students in a classroom are very
likely to be different from each other. This means
your philosophy of education could be in conflict
with the philosophical beliefs of your students and
their families. As a teacher, you must be aware and
respectful of the values of your students, their
families, and the community, even if these values
differ from your own convictions. Activities and
An important aspect of the
philosophy of education of
teaching methodologies that are inconsistent with the value structures of any particular
effective teachers is an awareness culture represented in your classroom may limit motivation and may precipitate conflict
of their students’ diversity. between what the student experiences at school and at home. You must recognize and
deal with these differences to avoid misunderstandings that can interfere with your ef-
fectiveness as a teacher. In Chapter 4, you will explore in more detail cultural diversity
and how it affects teaching.

Theories of Educational Psychology

This investigation into educational thought would not be complete without a look at the
basic and pervasive psychologies of education. Whereas one’s educational philosophy
focuses on the now-familiar questions of what should be taught, how it should be taught,
and what teachers and the students should do in the teaching/learning process, educa-
tional psychologies deal with ways in which the mind actually behaves while it is
learning—that is, how learning occurs. As you will see, educational psychologies exert
strong influences on teaching and philosophical practices, and teaching and philosophical
practices exert strong influences on educational psychologies. They help provide struc-
tures for teaching methodologies, curriculum selection, and assessment procedures. You
will examine educational psychologies in detail as you progress through your teacher
preparation program.
As with philosophies, there are no right or wrong psychologies. During this discus-
sion, you will examine your own thoughts and form your own conclusions. In so doing,
you are forming the platform on which you will construct your personal conceptualiza-
tion of excellence in teaching. And, as you have seen, excellent teachers have many
different qualities.
There are many psychologies—many ways of explaining how people learn and what
motivates them to behave the way they do. In this section, we focus on four psychologies
that have different understandings of the human mind and therefore different applica-
tions in school. Humanism focuses on the need for personalization to achieve meaningful
learning. Behaviorism explains learning in terms of external factors and stimulation.
Information processing explains learning through analysis of how the brain processes
new and stored information. Constructivism holds that learning occurs by attaching new
experiences to existing knowledge in meaningful ways.

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 Educational Psychologies BUILDING BLOCK
Write down a few situations in which: 2.9
1. The teacher tried to see things your way. What educational psychology does this
seem to represent?
2. The teacher encouraged you to come up with your own ideas. What learning
theory does this seem to represent?
3. The teacher tried to encourage you to learn by promising you rewards. What
psychological theory does this seem to represent?
4. The teacher taught you how to memorize long lists of information. What learn-
ing theory does this seem to represent?

Let us examine these four theoretical approaches to learning.

Humanism
The psychology of humanism emphasizes people’s intrinsic capacities for personal growth humanism The psychological
and their abilities and desires to control their own destinies. Humanists believe people are approach that stresses people’s
capacity and desire for personal
capable of learning through their own efforts. You became somewhat familiar with hu- growth.
manist principles in Chapter 1, when you looked at the work of William Glasser and
Arthur Combs.
Humanism was formalized as a psychology in the 1960s. Humanists believe it is
necessary for teachers to understand the perceptions of individual students—to find
how things seem from the students’ point of view. Humanists see two basic components
of learning: (1) the acquisition of information and (2) the individual’s personalization
and internalization of that information. According to humanists, teachers not only must
know their subjects and see that the material is properly organized and presented but
also must help students make personal meaning out of the material.
Humanism is well represented by the work of Glasser and Combs and also by the
work of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Maslow developed a hierarchical theory
of human motivation that asserts that people become self-actualized to accomplish
higher motives after they have fulfilled certain basic needs. (You will investigate
Maslow’s hierarchy in Chapter 3.) Rogers developed the “person-centered” approach
to psychology that says if we approach a person with empathy, genuineness, and non-
possessive warmth, we can enable that person to grow and develop maximally
(Rowan, 2001). He believed that people have a natural desire to learn and that learn-
ing must be meaningful, self-initiated, and free from threat. To Rogers, the teacher is
a facilitator of learning, acting as a guide and providing students with the needed
resources.
Rather than focusing exclusively on the material to be taught, humanist educa-
tors also focus on the people who are doing the learning. They focus on people’s
feelings, interests, likes, dislikes, abilities, and other personal qualities. Humanist
educators believe learning is an “inside job”—that people learn through their own
intrinsic efforts. This contrasts with other approaches that focus on pouring the in-
formation into the student without particular regard for the individual. Humanist
educators believe teachers are not essential as a condition for learning; students can
learn through their own internal efforts. They believe teachers cannot “teach” some-
thing to an entire class of students and expect every student will learn it. Humanist
teachers adopt a position of “facilitator” to help students find and implement their
most effective ways of learning.

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 Behaviorism
behaviorism The psychological Behaviorism is a psychology that contends that learning is shaped by the environment.
approach that explains behavior by According to behaviorists, the behavior of an individual is formed more by the actions
examining external experiences.
and reactions of other people than by the individual’s own free will. The psychology of
classical conditioning A form behaviorism arose in the late 1940s, and was based on the work of the Russian physiolo-
of learning in which an organism gist Ivan Pavlov, who developed the concept of classical conditioning through his research
learns to associate a stimulus with a with dogs. In Pavlov’s scheme, dogs can be conditioned to salivate in response to the ring-
nonrelated response.
ing of bells, even though the bell ringing has nothing to do with actually receiving food.
operant conditioning An approach B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) extended the work of Pavlov to develop his operant
to learning in which the consequences conditioning theory. According to Skinner, a person’s behavior is a function of its con-
of a behavior produce changes in the sequences; that is, it is what happens afterward, not before, that influences behavior.
likelihood that the behavior will occur
again. This has come to be known as behaviorism. To visualize this theory, imagine a student
who takes an algebra test. The teacher announces that a candy bar will be given to
every student who earns a perfect score. A student gets a perfect score on the first test,
gets the candy bar, and, according to behavioral theory, studies hard for the next test
because of the expected reward. As another example, suppose you begin a conversation
with your neighbor during class. The instructor stops the class and reprimands you.
According to behavioral theory, you will not talk with your neighbor again because
you want to avoid similar consequences in the future. It is the reprimand that has
shaped your future behavior. The basic principle is that the consequences of any behav-
ior will cause an increase, decrease, or no change in the likelihood of that behavior
occurring again.
The psychology of behaviorism has wide use in the classroom. As you can imagine,
numerous classroom and behavior management strategies, such as the rules-rewards-
punishment approach, are grounded in behaviorism. (You will investigate methods of
classroom management in Chapter 8.) Many instructional strategies are behaviorist in
programmed instruction A teaching nature. Programmed instruction was one of the earliest educational applications of
strategy in which students work behaviorism; this has given way to computer programs, interactive CD-ROMs, computer-
their way through small chunks of
information. At the end of each part, based tutorial programs, and other computer-assisted instruction applications. Behavior-
students are tested over the material. ist teachers tend to favor drill, repetition, and reward-based teaching methodologies.
Correct answers earn praise as a Much debate surrounds the efficacy of using a behavioral approach in motivation.
reward and the student progresses on
to additional information. Incorrect Certainly there are times when rewards and punishments foster students’ attainment of
answers result in remediation. desired goals. We all are behaviorists to some extent. Who, for example, has not wondered
how much credit would be given for certain tasks accompanying a college course? Indeed,
report cards themselves can be considered behaviorist in nature.
There is ongoing debate between those who believe humanism is the best approach
to education and those who believe behaviorism is the best approach. Humanists sub-
scribe to the idea that the most meaningful motivations are related to the internal satisfac-
tions that come from doing well and that students learn to work for their own intrinsic
feelings of accomplishment. For example, the inward uplifting feeling you get from pre-
senting a well-prepared report is far more motivating and satisfying than receiving an
external reward from the professor (although that is comforting as well). In the behavior-
ist classroom, students learn to work for rewards given by the teacher.
We take no sides on the humanism versus behaviorism issue. Both have strengths, and
both have limitations. You will study these theories in detail in later courses, after which
you can make up your own minds.

information processing theory A Information Processing

cognitive psychology that explains
learning by manipulation of sensory Information processing theory focuses on how the brain processes information by
register, short-term memory, and attending to stimuli, receiving information, processing information, storing information
long-term memory. in working (short-term) and long-term memory, and retrieving information. According
cognitive psychology The to the information processing approach (often called cognitive psychology), people
psychological approach that explains
behavior by examining mental have the ability to manipulate information in thinking, problem solving, and other intel-
processes. lectual operations by using three basic mental processes: attending to sensory input in

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 TECHNOLOGY Programmed Instruction and Video Games
& EDUCATION
A  good example of the influence of behaviorism in the
classroom is programmed instruction, a method of
“Incorrect” response. If the response was correct, the
computer provided positive reinforcement in the form of
teaching attributed to B. F. Skinner because of his concern praise. If the response was incorrect, the computer referred
about the difficulty in providing suitable academic the student to additional screens that reteach the information;
reinforcements to each student in a class. In programmed after reviewing this additional material, the student tried a
instruction, the unit or lesson is broken into a series of very similar question.
small steps that are presented in sequence. Each step Perhaps you recognize this type of format from video
requires a response from the students. If a student is correct, games. The elements of operant conditioning—reward and
the teacher provides some form of reinforcement, such as punishment—are used in a wide variety of educational games
“Good for you!” “Yes!!!” “Great job!” and the like, and the and simulations that are quite a bit more sophisticated than
student is permitted to move to the next step. If the student the initial programmed instruction applications available
is incorrect, he is referred to material designed to teach the when personal computers first found their way into schools.
concept. Color and animation, nonlinear progression through the
In the 1950s and 1960s, programmed instruction was program, and access to customizable options make these
presented in text form. When computers became available, educational games fun and engaging. They are extremely
the system was computerized. Typically, in these early forms accessible for home use in gaming systems and online. Also,
of electronic programmed instruction, a piece of information with the availability of personal technologies such as
was presented on the screen and the student was asked to smartphones and tablets, these programs are now highly
enter a response to a question about the information. The portable.
computer gave feedback that the answer was a “Correct” or

Stimuli
the sensory register, encoding the attended information in the
working memory, and retrieving information from the long-
term memory.
Information processing psychology was developed in the
late 1950s, when computer technology was being developed. It
was formed partly as a reaction to limitations seen in the behav- Sensory
iorist approach to education and partly to use the computer as Register
a model for the way people think.
Lost
According to the information processing theory, people first
take information into their brains by paying attention (attend- Attention
ing) to stimuli coming their way. The information enters the
cognitive processing system through the senses and is taken into
the sensory register. If the individual does nothing with the in-
formation in the sensory register, it is lost. This occurs, for ex-
ample, when the teacher is lecturing and the student is day- Working
dreaming; the teacher’s words reach the student’s ears and (short term)
stimulate the hearing receptors, but nothing happens to them memory
beyond the sensory register. On the other hand, if the person Lost
pays attention to the information, it is transferred to working
(or short-term) memory where it can be processed and trans-
ferred to the long-term memory. Or, if nothing is done to process
the information, it is soon lost. Once in long-term memory, the
Processing/
information is never lost (although it may be difficult to re- Retrieval
Learning
trieve) (see Figure 2.4).
According to the information processing theory, processing
begins in working memory, where new information and infor- Figure 2.4
▲

mation retrieved from long-term memory interact with each Information processing
Long term
other. The result is a change in memory. It is the teacher’s re- model.
memory
sponsibility to help students develop processes that support the © Cengage Learning 2014

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 needed changes in memory. This is carried out by employing strategies such as
TeachSour the following:
ce Video
Organizing information carefully
View the TeachSource Video Case, Linking new information to existing knowledge
“Using Information Processing Strategies:
A Middle School Science Lesson.” In this Recognizing the limits of attention
video, you’ll see how middle school teacher Recognizing the limits of working (short-term) memory
E. J. Beucler translates theory into practice
as he demonstrates to his students how to Providing encoding strategies to ensure that new information is meaningful
absorb information, process it, and apply it
to a chemistry lesson. Also be sure to watch It is important to note that the terms sensory register, working memory, and
the bonus videos. After watching the videos, long-term memory refer to processes rather than actual structures. Medical and
answer the following questions:
psychological research currently is taking place to ascertain the actual physiolog-
1. What strategies does Mr. Beucler use to
ical workings of the brain; some day we may have information processing models
help his students process (repeat, review,
rehearse) the information? that show how the brain cells themselves work in attending, perceiving, storing,
retrieving, and manipulating information.
2. Why is it necessary to provide opportuni-
ties for students to access the information
in several different ways? Constructivism
3. What are some examples of the different
ways students may need to access infor-
Constructivism is an approach to teaching and learning that asserts that people
mation so that they successfully process actively construct their own understandings of information—that learners com-
it, moving it from working memory to bine new information with existing information such that the new knowledge
long-term memory? provides personal meaning. In the constructivist viewpoint, people build their
own knowledge and their own representations of knowledge from their own
constructivism A learning theory experience. Learning does not occur by transmitting information from the
that proposes that students teacher or the textbook to the student’s brain; instead, each student constructs his or her
construct their own knowledge by
combining information they already own personal and valid understanding of this information.
have with new information, so that Jean Piaget (1896–1980), a Swiss child psychologist, gave structure to the idea of
new knowledge takes on personal constructivism. Piaget viewed the acquisition of knowledge as a continually developing
meaning to the student.
process rather than as an end state. He viewed the mind as an aggregation of cognitive
schemata (sg. schema) Cognitive
structures. structures he called schemata (singular: schema). Again, it is important to note that the
term schema, as well as other terms in Piaget’s theories, refers to processes rather than
actual structures. According to the constructivist view, schemata are opened, enlarged,
divided, and connected to one another in response to the influx of information into a
person’s mind. Because no two people have had the same experiences, the schemata
each individual possesses are unique to that individual and are linked to one an-
other in ways that represent the unique experiences the individual has had and the
TeachSour
ce Video unique connections the individual has made between and among those experiences.
In a sense, schema theory is like a set of computer files; each computer user labels
files in his or her own way and groups them in folders unique to that person.
View the TeachSource Video Case, Independently, in the 1920s and 1930s, Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934), a Russian
“Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development:
Increasing Cognition in an Elementary psychologist, also developed basic constructs of constructivism, but his work was
Literacy Lesson.” In this video, you’ll see not known to the Western world until much later. Whereas Piaget focused on the
how developmental psychologist, Dr. Francis individual nature of constructing knowledge, Vygotsky emphasized the role other
Hurley, draws upon this theory to support stu- people have in an individual’s construction of knowledge. In our computer anal-
dents’ abstract thinking in a lesson on poetry.
You’ll also see how students engage with the
ogy, Vygotsky would say that a person set up files in a unique way but used the
lesson on several levels, and will have access input of other people to get started, resulting in some similarities between this
to their writing samples. After watching this person’s filing system and that of others. Among Vygotsky’s contributions to edu-
video, answer the following questions: cation is his description of a “zone of proximal development,” which is the region
1. How does the learning taking place of activity that learners can navigate independently, but with some assistance from
depend on a “guide” or “facilitator”? the teacher, other people, and other sources.
2. How does what you saw in the Constructivist teachers help students make sense by helping each student attach
video represent what is called social the new information to information he or she already possesses. This process is often
constructivism? (Consider that to be
“social,” learning has to be shared
called constructing information, hence the term constructivism. The role of construc-
with at least one other person.) tivist teachers is to facilitate learning—to provide a variety of learning experiences
that enable each student to learn in his or her own unique way and to construct the

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 information such that it makes sense to that individual. Constructivist teachers ask students
for their conclusions and their explanations rather than repetitions of what the teacher Use your favorite Internet
search engine to find more
presented. To constructivist teachers, it is far more important to listen than to tell.
information about the
As you know, this entire text is constructivist in nature. We have described the ways
educational psychologies
it is designed to engage students at the beginning of Chapter 1, and you will revisit this mentioned in this chapter.
concept periodically throughout the text.

Educational Psychologies in the Classroom BUILDING BLOCK

Review your responses to the questions in Building Block 2.9. Do you still feel the 2.10
same way? Are there any changes?
List two or three situations in which you believe your learning was facilitated
using each of the following approaches to education:
Humanism
Behaviorism
Information processing
Constructivism

Your Philosophy of Education

You have examined several basic philosophies and psychologies of education and have
looked at your own thoughts. Now, you are ready to develop your own tentative philoso-
phy of education—one that is personal to you.

My Philosophy of Education BUILDING BLOCK

Write a short preliminary philosophy of education. Consider these kinds of ques- 2.11
tions:
What is the purpose of education? (What goals do you want your students to
achieve?)
What content should be taught? Why?
How will you teach? Why?
What are the teacher’s roles and responsibilities?
What are the students’ roles and responsibilities?
Your philosophy should be a well-thought-out synthesis of your thinking about
your own teaching, not merely a compilation of answers to these questions. The
questions are offered only to stimulate your thinking.
Compare your philosophy of education with the primary philosophies and psy-
chologies you explored in this chapter. With which one or ones does your philoso-
phy most favorably compare? Briefly explain why.
This activity is deliberately given at the beginning of the course to give you a
chance to reflect on your own thinking and to review your thoughts as you move
along. As such, your statement will not be an all-inclusive opus, nor will it be de-
finitively refined. Rather, it will be an expression of your ideas about the teaching/
learning experience as you see it now. You will use this statement to guide you in
your construction and reconstruction of your thinking about quality education as
you progress through the course.
Save this philosophy statement; you will use it again later.

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 FROM THE FIELD

Putting Students to Work in the Classroom

Winburn
Angela Teachey
W 

Courtesy of Linda
hen I began my teaching career in the mid-1990s, I accumulating ideas on the
taught mathematics the way I had been taught. My board and by making as many
pedagogical choices were not really conscious decisions relevant connections as we can.
because I was never exposed to any other ways of teach- Students then work on
ing. Back then, I worked REALLY hard while teaching. I was additional practice for homework. I am by no means
in the front of the room with my trusty chalkboard and suggesting that it is possible to create investigative activi-
overhead projector, and I painstakingly developed every ties for every class period, and I understand that sometimes
concept for my students and worked through seemingly teachers have to move quickly through certain topics to
thousands of examples in easy-to-follow steps. I thought I meet curricular demands. In addition, creating effective and
was doing a great job, but my students’ achievement never engaging investigations takes time and creativity. I suggest
seemed to meet my expectations. that teachers gradually create and incorporate them over a
For a long time, I blamed my students for their lacklus- period of years.
ter performance. I thought that they did not study enough Although my teaching style has numerous benefits,
and that they didn’t do their homework. Sometimes, that there are challenges of keeping students actively engaged
may have been the case, but I eventually realized that there in class. Teachers often discover that their students have
was more to the story. When I began graduate school, my not been required to work hard in their previous classroom
experience as a teacher made me more thorough and experiences, and that they are resistant to change. Teach-
reflective. ers who are committed to maintaining active learning in
I realized that mathematics is learned by actually doing their classes have to be persistent in helping students to
mathematics, not by watching others do it. When I dis- develop collaborative skills and encouraging them to exer-
cussed my thoughts with colleagues who teach in other dis- cise patience in figuring out challenging concepts on their
ciplines, they said the same of their subject matter. In other own. Teachers have to remember that it is important for
words, learning is not a spectator sport. I began to formu- students to struggle with concepts, but they also have to
late strategies for making my classroom a more active envi- be sensitive to times when students’ struggles become
ronment for my students. overly frustrating. Often, a leading question or a little hint
Following are some suggestions from my own experi- can point a group of students in the right direction without
ence. First, it is very important to establish a classroom giving too much away.
where active engagement is welcome and expected. At my To step away from the board and allow students to ex-
school, our mathematics classrooms are arranged in pods plore concepts on their own requires courage, confidence,
of three or four desks, and we expect students to begin and humility. Teachers have to be confident and brave
discussing homework problems in their pods immediately enough to accept that class may not always proceed the
after arriving in class (whether or not the teacher has way they planned it and to explore the various avenues
arrived). We establish this expectation in the early days of that students’ investigations may present. Sometimes, they
school, and we remain consistent throughout the year. Stu- have to admit that they may not know something if a stu-
dents are immediately engaged in content discussions. We dent poses an interesting or difficult question that the
often ask them to present their solutions to challenging teacher has never considered. Asking other students for
homework problems; by explaining their thinking to others, input or assigning the investigation of the question as a
students deepen their own understanding of concepts. research assignment are two strategies for dealing with this
Equally as important is establishing an environment that type of situation.
honors and promotes student participation. At the begin- Managing student behavior can also be challenging in
ning of the year, I ask my students to help create a list of an active learning environment. Allowing student input in
classroom policies that require the respect for and participa- establishing class participation procedures is helpful, but it
tion of all students. I have found that students are much is also important for teachers to provide structure for activi-
more likely to comply with policies that they have devel- ties and to make their expectations very clear. Be sure to
oped themselves than with policies that I impose on them. hold groups accountable for their work by requiring them
In presenting material to students, I try to create struc- to present their findings to the class or by asking them to
tured investigative activities that allow them to explore the hand in work to be evaluated. Changing group assignments
concepts for themselves. For example, I may ask students frequently (I do it after every test) keeps groups from
to use technology to look at a variety of graphs of func- becoming too social and from stagnating.
tions, and I will provide some guiding questions that lead In my experience, the benefits of creating an active
them to recognize the patterns I want them to detect. classroom far outweigh the challenges. Rarely do I hear a
Toward the end of each investigation, we “debrief” by

(Contiued)

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 student say, “I’m bored.” Best of all, I love interacting with greater confidence in their problem-solving skills and in
my students in the classroom. I can “eavesdrop” on their their content knowledge.
group discussions and gain insight into how they are think-
ing, and I often learn new ideas and perspectives from my
students. I leave my classes excited, invigorated, and full of Angela L. Teachey, PhD
ideas for future activities. My students leave my class with North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics
© Cengage Learning 2014

Metaphors
One last comment dealing with your beliefs about education involves the use of metaphor A figure of speech in
which two seemingly unlike objects
metaphors. Researchers have looked at metaphors and teachers’ latent beliefs about or ideas are compared based on
teaching as indicated by the metaphors they choose to characterize their role as a teacher something they have in common.
(Mahlios, Massengill-Shaw, and Taylor, 2010; Taylor, 2010; Patchen and Crawford,
2011; Alger, 2009). For example, teachers characterizing themselves as “captains of their
ships” may be very strong leaders, reluctant to transfer responsibility for learning to
children.

Metaphors BUILDING BLOCK

Take a minute or two and think about a metaphor you would use to characterize 2.12
your role as a teacher. Do you consider yourself the captain of your ship? A bus
driver? An explorer? A gardener?
Think about the metaphors that could be used to describe what a teacher does,
and select one you believe most closely represents your current thinking about what
a teacher’s role is. Write it down and explain what it means.
Refer to the metaphor you choose frequently during this course; consider whether
you want to change it. This may be one of the better indicators of how you are con-
structing the content of the course. 

SU M M A RY RESOURCES
Philosophy is our way of knowing, and it encompasses metaphysics, epistemology,
axiology, and logic.
CHAPTER
what should be taught, who should decide what should be taught, why should this
material be taught, how should this material be taught, and what should the roles
of the teacher and the student be?

❍ Perennialists believe schools should transmit the accumulated wisdom of past

generations to today’s students in a disciplined environment.
❍ Essentialists believe students should learn basic material such as the “three Rs”;
the teacher is the authority, and the students’ job is to learn the material.

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 Progressivists believe schools should develop thinking and problem-solving
CHAPTER RESOURCES
❍

skills in students and should help students learn how to keep up with change;
students and teachers are co-inquirers into areas of study that the school system
and the teacher determine.
❍ Existentialists believe schools should teach students to make responsible choices
as free individuals and should encourage them to study what is of interest to
them through individual discovery and inquiry; the teacher functions primarily
as a facilitator.
❍ Social reconstructionists believe it is the duty of schools to educate students to
influence the reconstruction of society.
❍ Education in the United States is driven by these Eurocentric philosophies.
However, many students and teachers subscribe to non-Eurocentric perspec-
tives, and their beliefs and expectations may differ from those governing main-
stream education in the United States.
❍ Most people are eclectic in their philosophical stances.
There are several psychologies that describe beliefs about the way people learn.
Humanists believe people are intrinsically capable and desirous of growing and
learning. Behaviorists believe people’s behavior is shaped by their environment and
its extrinsic forces. Information processing theorists believe people learn through
proper manipulation of the sensory register and short- and long-term memory
functions. Constructivists believe people actively construct their own understand-
ings by combining new information with prior experiences.

will serve as a jumping-off point for your continued inquiries and constructions.

Key Terms and Concepts

Axiology, 36 Epistemology, 36 Ontology, 36
Behaviorism, 58 Humanism, 57 Operant conditioning, 58
Classical conditioning, 58 Inductive reasoning, 38 Programmed instruction, 59
Cognitive psychology, 58 Information processing Schemata (singular:
Constructivism, 60 theory, 58 schema), 60
Cosmology, 36 Logic, 36 Service learning, 51
Deductive reasoning, 38 Metaphor, 63 Theology, 36
Eclectic, 54 Metaphysics, 36

Construct and Apply

1. Suppose you are a sixth-grade teacher and you have to teach all the subjects. How would you
set up your classroom if you were a
a. Perennialist?
b. Essentialist?
c. Progressivist?
2. A high school English teacher has decided to teach a four-week unit on U.S. poetry.
a. Describe how this teacher would teach this material if she subscribed to the essentialist
philosophy of education.
b. Describe how this teacher would teach this material if she subscribed to the progressivist
philosophy of education.

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 CHAPTER RESOURCES
3. Fill in the following columns with the major concepts pertaining to each educational philoso-
phy discussed in this chapter. Then, fill in the last column to represent your own philosophical
thoughts.

Perennialism Essentialism Progressivism Existentialism Social Recon- Yours

structionism

What should
be taught?

Why should it
be taught?

How should it
be taught?

What should
the teacher’s
role be?

What should
the student’s
role be?

4. Suppose you were teaching a class of fourth graders. List several things you might do in your
classroom that reflect each of the following approaches to teaching and learning:
a. Humanism
b. Behaviorism
c. Information processing
d. Constructivism

Deconstructing the Standards

1. Recall the InTASC standards associated with the objectives for this chapter:
Standard #2: Learning Differences reads,
“The teacher uses understanding of individual differences and diverse cultures and com-
munities to ensure inclusive learning environments that enable each learner to meet high
standards.”
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice reads,
“The teacher engages in ongoing professional learning and uses evidence to continually
evaluate his/her practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and actions on others
(learners, families, other professionals, and the community), and adapts practice to meet
the needs of each learner.”
a. What part(s) of these standards does this chapter address?
b. How will the concepts in this chapter help you apply these standards as a teacher?
2. Use your favorite search engine to find your state’s standards for certification. When you find
it, bookmark the site. You will refer to it often as you progress through this book.
a. How are your conclusions about educational philosophy represented in your state certifica-
tion standards?
b. How do the InTASC Standards compare to your state’s certification standards regarding
educational philosophy?
c. Do you believe the degree of representation concerning educational philosophy is adequate
in your state certification standards? Why or why not?

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 Your Portfolio
CHAPTER RESOURCES In this chapter, you have considered many factors dealing with several philosophies and psycholo-
gies of education. Select two or three pieces of evidence that show your mastery of this topic and
put them in your portfolio. This evidence could include your educational philosophy statement,
other work done in class, work done out of class, or field experiences where you have had the op-
portunity to demonstrate your philosophy by implementing some aspect of classroom activity based
on your philosophy.

Education CourseMate Resources

Check out this text’s Education CourseMate website (at www.cengagebrain.com) for more infor-
mation about philosophies and psychology of education, interactive study tools, and useful re-
sources. You will find the TeachSource Videos, a guide for doing field experiences, glossary flash
cards, activities, tutorial quizzes, direct links to all the websites mentioned in the chapter, and more.

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 Society

School

Student

Self

Student
PA R T

II
IN PART I, you saw that many characteristics of effective teachers affect
student achievement, and you saw that many different types of effective
teaching are consistent with these characteristics. You saw yourself and your
beliefs about effective teaching as primary influences on your understanding of
the most effective ways of teaching. You added new experiences and
understandings to your original beliefs and predispositions, building your
preliminary philosophy of education.
In Part II, you will explore the most important element of education—the
students.
We hear a lot about the many ways in which students are different. Phrases
such as these permeate discussions about education:
“All students must learn.”
“Individualize your instruction.”
“Teachers must meet the needs of every student.”
Certainly students differ from one another in many ways. The concept of
student uniqueness, however, has received so much emphasis that we tend to
forget there are also ways in which students are alike.
It is important to understand differences among students so that you can
tailor their education to meet their needs. It is equally important to understand
commonalities among students, so that you can provide suitable motivation
and learning experiences for all your students. The three chapters of Part II
invite you to look at how students are alike, how they are different, and how
you can accommodate all students in your classroom. In Chapter 3, you will
investigate students’ common needs and how these needs are related to
motivation. In Chapter 4, you will investigate the unique perspectives students
bring to school, and in Chapter 5, you will investigate students’ unique abilities.

67

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 © Peter Hvizdak/The Image Works
CHAPTER

3 The Student:
Common Needs
OTHER THAN YOURSELF, your experiences with school, and your beliefs
about education, the most significant influence on your teaching is—and should
be—your students. Students bring with them many different characteristics that
affect their academic achievement. Yet they are alike in so many ways and have
many common needs.
This chapter is devoted to the exploration of needs shared by all students.
Among these are basic human needs, cognitive needs, and psychosocial needs. You
will investigate each of these categories from the viewpoint of your own experiences
and understandings and through the theories and conclusions of researchers. You will
find ways these common needs can be satisfied for all students in your classroom.
Because motivation is a primary concern in teaching, and because motivation is
closely linked to needs, you will investigate ideas about the relationships between
needs and motivation. You will consolidate what you already know about students
with the work of others to construct your own conceptualizations of students’
common needs, how students are alike, and how they are motivated in school.

68

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 Chapter Objectives
As a result of your explorations in this chapter, you will be able to: FPO
1. Investigate the nature of motivation and its requirements.
Standard #1: Learner Development
2. Investigate theories of common basic human needs and how these needs
relate to student motivation.
Standard #1: Learner Development
3. Inquire into the nature of cognitive development, its relationship to student needs, and its influence on
academic motivation.
Standard #1: Learner Development
4. Explore commonalities of psychosocial development, its relationship to student needs, and its influence
on academic motivation.
Standard #1: Learner Development
5. Identify general academic needs of all students.
Standard #3: Learning Environments

Students’ Needs and Motivations

If you ask teachers, “What is the problem with our students today?” you are likely to hear
answers such as “They’re not responsible,” “They’re not disciplined,” or “They’re not moti-
vated to learn.” Often, teachers place the responsibility for student difficulties in the laps of
their families or on their environments: “Her parents just don’t care!” “He’s from the bad part
of town; what do you expect?” However, when students are in classrooms, it is up to the
teacher to provide engaging instruction and motivate them to learn. But what affects student
motivation to learn? To answer this question, let us investigate what motivation entails.

Your Motivation BUILDING BLOCK

What would it take to get you to put down this book, stand up, find a crowd of 3.1
people, step out in front of them, and cluck like a chicken? Would $5 do it? How
about $10? Maybe $50 or $100? What semi-outrageous act would you perform for
$100? Why would you do it? What would motivate you to do such a thing?

You might do this act for the money, assuming that the amount of
money was enough to make the action worthwhile. Maybe you even
said you need the money. You might even do it for free, just to make
people laugh and get their attention. Whatever the reason, you would
not perform this outrageous act unless you were motivated to do it.
© Ellen B. Senisi/The Image Works

The concept of motivation includes the perception of a need and

an action taken to meet that need. If you perceived a need for extra
money, that need would give you the drive to do whatever you had to
do to get some money. Your behavior would be driven by your need,
with the money acting as a motivational force. Similarly, the drive to
meet a need motivates students to exhibit particular behaviors, includ-
ing the behaviors associated with learning.
We want our students to be motivated to learn. But motivation can What motivates student learning? For
occur only after certain needs common to all students are addressed. some students, awards encourage
These needs include basic human needs of survival and self-fulfillment, student learning and achievement.

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 basic needs Those needs that must be cognitive needs, and psychosocial needs. Basic needs are those needs that people must
met for people to live satisfied lives.
have met to live satisfied and happy lives. Cognitive needs are those related to thinking
cognitive needs Those needs
associated with learning, knowing,
and solving problems. Psychosocial needs are those associated with people getting along
and understanding. with themselves and with others. The nature of these needs changes with development,
psychosocial needs Those needs but these needs are essentially the same for all students at given developmental stages.
associated with getting along with
one’s self and others.

Basic Needs
All learners have the same basic needs, regardless of their differences in beliefs, interests,
and goals. Whether and how these needs are met for any student affects that student’s
motivation to learn. Let us try to identify some of the common basic needs students bring
to the classroom.

BUILDING BLOCK Common Basic Needs

3.2 1. Imagine yourself as a three-year-old child. What are your needs? (Do not limit
yourself to material things.)
2. Next imagine yourself as an early teenager. Do you still have the needs you
identified as a three-year-old? Have any gone away? Are there any new needs?
3. Then think about yourself at your current age. How have your needs changed?
Which, if any, have remained?
4. Finally, anticipate your needs as a senior citizen. Identify new needs and needs
that will no longer exist.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

In Chapter 2, you saw that people become actualized to accomplish higher learning only
after they have fulfilled certain basic needs. What needs did you identify in Building
Block 3.2? Which are associated with survival? Which are associated with protection?
Which are associated with learning?
Psychologist Abraham Maslow (1968) identified seven categories of basic needs com-
mon to all people:

1. Physiological needs (needs for food, water, and shelter)

2. Needs relating to safety and security
3. Needs relating to love and belongingness
4. Needs relating to self-worth and self-esteem
hierarchy An order of rank.
5. The need to know and understand (cognitive needs)
deficiency needs In Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs, those needs that 6. Aesthetic needs (needs relating to creativity, beauty, or art)
are critical to a person’s well-being 7. Self-actualization needs (needs relating to the ability to fulfill one’s potential)
and that must be satisfied first and
foremost. These include physiological
needs, safety and security, love and Maslow represented these needs as a hierarchy in the shape of a pyramid (see
belonging, and self-worth and self- Figure 3.1). A hierarchy is an arrangement that ranks people or concepts from lowest to
esteem. highest. According to Maslow, individuals must meet the needs at the lower levels of the
growth needs In Maslow’s hierarchy pyramid before they can successfully be motivated to tackle the next levels. The lowest
of needs, the upper three levels
of needs, which humans will try to four levels represent deficiency needs, and the upper three levels represent growth needs.
satisfy after their deficiency needs
have been met. These levels include Physiological Needs
the need to know and understand,
aesthetic needs, and the need for Notice that the physiological needs are the foundation of the pyramid. Why do you sup-
self-actualization. pose these needs occupy this position?

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 Self-
Actualization
Growth Needs Needs

Aesthetic Needs

Need to Know
and Understand

Self-Worth and Self-Esteem Needs

Love and Belongingness Needs

Deficiency Needs
Safety and Security Needs

Figure 3.1

▲
Physiological Needs
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
© Cengage Learning 2014

Maslow suggested that the first and most basic need people have is the need for sur-
vival: their physiological requirements for food, water, and shelter. People must have food
to eat, water to drink, and a place to call home before they can think about anything else.
If any of these physiological necessities is missing, people are motivated above all else to
meet the missing need. Have you ever had a hard time paying attention to what the pro-
fessor is saying when you are hungry? Some of your future students may not have had
breakfast—or dinner the night before, and some may be homeless and may live in shelters
or even cars. Free and reduced breakfast and lunch programs have been implemented in
schools to help students meet their physiological need for food.

Safety and Security Needs

After their physiological needs have been satisfied, people can work to meet their needs
for safety and security. (But the physiological needs must be met first.) Safety is the feeling
people get when they know no harm will befall them, physically, mentally, intellectually,
or emotionally; security is the feeling people get when their fears and anxieties are low.
How does this relate to students in school? What threats to their physical, mental, intel-
lectual, or emotional security might students perceive in school?
Have you seen metal detectors outside of schools? Police roaming the halls? These, of
course, are deterrents to violence, thereby providing a degree of physical safety. Equally
important is the assurance of intellectual safety. Intellectual safety is the feeling you get
when you know that your responses and contributions in class will be received with intel-
ligent respect. No one will pronounce your contributions wrong or dumb or use any other
put-downs; in an intellectually safe classroom, all responses are equally valuable.
Emotional safety is similar to intellectual safety in that people feel they are accepted
for who they are in the classroom, no matter what. Perhaps one of the most prevalent
threats to the safety and security of your students is the incidence of bullying. Certainly,
bullying has been at the forefront of concerns posed by media in recent years. As a teacher,
it is your duty to address bullying not only in your classroom, but also throughout the
school and its community. The topic of bullying is a powerful and emotion-packed one;
you will explore this topic in detail in Chapter 8.

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 Love and Belongingness Needs
After the physiological needs and the needs for survival and
for safety and security have been met, an individual can be

© Jim Jordan Photography/Getty Images/Photographer‘s Choice

motivated to meet the needs represented at higher levels of
the pyramid. On the third level of the pyramid are needs
associated with love and belonging. These needs are met
through satisfactory relationships—relationships with fam-
ily members, friends, peers, classmates, teachers, and other
people with whom individuals interact. Satisfactory rela-
tionships imply acceptance by others. Having satisfied their
physiological and security needs, people can venture out
and seek relationships from which their need for love and
belonging can be met.
Think about students of the age that you desire to
teach. What do they need from their teacher and the people
with whom they establish relationships that will assure
Students can meet each other’s them they are accepted?
need for love and belonging by
sharing and talking. Self-Worth and Self-Esteem Needs
Once individuals have satisfactorily met their need for love and belonging, they can begin
to develop positive feelings of self-worth and self-esteem, and act to foster pride in their
work and in themselves as people. Before they can work toward self-esteem, however,
they must feel safe, secure, and part of a group such as a class in school. As a teacher, you
must help students in your classes develop positive feelings about themselves and thus
begin to satisfy their needs for self-worth and self-esteem. You can do this by attending
to the environment that you create in your classroom. Students should be given opportu-
nities to interact with one another, and they should feel that your classroom is a place
where they will not be harassed, ridiculed, or humiliated by other students or by the
teacher.

The Deficiency Needs

These first four levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs are essential for a person’s well-
being and must be satisfied before the person can be motivated to seek experiences that
pertain to the upper levels. If a student cannot meet one or more of these needs, that
student is unlikely to be motivated to pursue any of the needs in the succeeding levels.
Because of this, the first four levels of needs are called deficiency needs. Fortunately,
many students come to school with the deficiency needs already met—at home; in peer
groups; in church, scouting, athletic, or music groups; in other groups; or in some com-
bination of these. However, some students who come to school do not have these needs
met elsewhere and they look to the school for help in satisfying these needs. And all
students must meet these deficiency needs in some way before they can successfully
work at learning.1

The Need to Know and Understand

The fifth level of Maslow’s pyramid represents an individual’s need to know and under-
stand. According to Maslow’s hierarchy, motivation to know and understand cannot
occur until the deficiency needs have been met to the individual’s satisfaction. As you can
imagine, the need to know and understand is a primary area of focus for education and
is a topic on which we will concentrate. One of our primary jobs as educators is to mo-
tivate students so they will want to know and understand.

1
While Madeline Cartwright was principal of a North Philadelphia elementary school, she took extraordi-
nary steps to help children in her school meet their deficiency needs. Her account is chronicled in the book,
For the Children: Lessons from a Visionary Principal (Cartwright and D’Orso, 1999).

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 Aesthetic Needs
Aesthetic refers to the quality of being creatively, beautifully, or artistically pleasing; aes- aesthetic Creatively, beautifully, or
thetic needs are the needs to express oneself in pleasing ways. Decorating your living artistically pleasing.
room, wrapping birthday presents attractively, washing and waxing your car, and keeping
up with the latest styles in clothing are all ways of expressing your aesthetic sense. People
are motivated to meet this need only after the previous five needs have been met.

The Need for Self-Actualization

At the top of the pyramid is the need for self-actualization, which is a person’s desire to self-actualization The state of having
become everything he or she is capable of becoming—to realize and use his or her full become everything a person is
capable of becoming, realizing one’s
potential, capacities, and talents. This need can be addressed only when the previous six full potential, capacities, and talents.
have been satisfied. It is rarely met completely; Maslow (1968) estimated that less than
one percent of adults achieve total self-actualization.

The Growth Needs

The upper three levels of the pyramid constitute a person’s growth needs. Growth needs
can never be satisfied completely. Contrary to the deficiency needs, for which motivation
diminishes when a need is satisfied, as growth needs are met, people’s motivation to meet
them increases. The more these needs are satisfied, the more people want to pursue them.
For example, the more one comes to understand a certain topic, the more one’s motiva-
tion to learn more about that topic increases. Have you experienced this yourself? In what
situation? We hope you are experiencing this increased motivation to learn in your intro-
duction to education course.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs BUILDING BLOCK

Look at the needs you identified at various ages in Building Block 3.2. For each 3.3
need, identify one or more categories of needs from Maslow’s hierarchy with which
it can be associated:
How does the pattern of needs change as age increases?
What other patterns can you notice?
For each of Maslow’s needs, list some actions you could take to help you meet
these needs yourself.

Other Basic Needs Theories

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is common to all people and is widely accepted as a model
for understanding and explaining motivation. However, other researchers and theorists
also have identified human needs common to all people.

Abraham Maslow, where he received his B.A., M.A., and Ph.D. degrees in
psychologist (1908–1970), was one psychology. He taught psychology at the University of
of the founders of the humanist Wisconsin and later at Brooklyn College, where he came
psychology movement. He is most in contact with many European intellectuals such as Adler,
widely known for his view that Fromm, and other European psychologists. Maslow
people are motivated by successive moved to Brandeis University in Waltham, Massachusetts,
© Bettmann/CORBIS

hierarchical needs. where he served as chair of the department of

Born in Brooklyn, Maslow stud- psychology until his retirement in 1969.
ied at the University of Wisconsin,

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 Noted psychologist William James (1892–1962), whose work Maslow studied, devel-
oped a theory that organizes basic human needs into three categories:

1. Material needs, including physiological and safety needs

2. Social needs, including the needs for belongingness and esteem
3. Spiritual needs

Mathes (1981) proposed three levels of motivational needs: physiological, belonging

(including security and self-esteem), and self-actualization.
Alderfer (1972) developed a hierarchy based on Maslow’s work, called the existence,
relatedness, and growth (ERG) theory. In the ERG view, individuals must satisfy their
requirements for existence (physiological and safety/security needs) and relatedness with
other people (love/belonging and self-esteem needs) before they can grow in the areas of
learning and self-accomplishment.
Alderfer correlated the needs in his hierarchy with actions typically required to
meet these needs and ways people typically work to satisfy the needs. For example, to
meet existence needs, Alderfer says individuals place a priority on acquiring material
and psychological necessities, even if resources are limited. To meet relatedness needs,
individuals participate in relationships with others in which they share ideas and feel-
ings. For the growth needs, individuals act upon themselves or the environment to
solve problems, leading to a creative product. These efforts engender a sense of ac-
complishment and contribution. Table 3.1 shows details of Alderfer’s hierarchy of
needs.
As noted in Chapter 1, Glasser (1993) identified five basic needs common to human
beings:

1. Love (to care for and be cared for by others)

2. Power (to respect and be respected by others)
3. Freedom (to be allowed and encouraged to think for oneself)
4. Fun (to be able to laugh with others)
5. Survival (to make life secure)

In his choice theory, Glasser (1998) states that people are genetically predisposed to
act to satisfy these five needs. In fact, Glasser argues that people choose how to behave
partly as a result of this genetic influence.
Another group that has expanded on the basic needs that Maslow and others de-
scribed is the Search Institute, a nonprofit organization that works to identify what every
child needs for success. Through research conducted in the 1990s, the Institute has
described sets of “developmental assets” of healthy and well-adjusted young people that
represent the relationships, opportunities, and personal qualities that young people need

TABLE 3.1 Alderfer’s Hierarchy of Needs (ERG Theory)

Need Action Required How Met

Existence Acquire material and Attain what is needed, which becomes a

physiological necessities priority, even if resources are limited

Relatedness Participate in Share ideas and feelings, give and

relationships with others receive respect, understand, accept, and
validate acceptance by others

Growth Act upon self or Solve problems, leading to a sense of

environment to make accomplishment and contribution
creative products
© Cengage Learning 2014

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 to avoid risks and to thrive (Search Institute, n.d.). Forty separate developmental assets
divided into external assets and internal assets have been described for several age and
grade levels, including early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence. Typical as-
sets are family support, service, and concern for social justice. The Search Institute has
determined that the more of these 40 assets individuals have, the more likely the indi- Find the Search Institute
on the Internet, and explore the
viduals are to experience academic success and make positive life choices that will keep
40 developmental assets
them from engaging in risky behaviors; that these assets are the building blocks of
identified by the Search Institute
healthy development that assist young people in growing up to be healthy, caring, and for the age student you wish to
responsible individuals. They have also found that, in the United States, regardless of teach. Determine their impact
region, most young people have less than 50 percent of the 40 identified assets (Search on educational practice.
Institute, 2011).

Basic Needs Revisited BUILDING BLOCK

Look again at people’s basic needs identified by Maslow, James, Mathes, Alderfer, 3.4
and Glasser:
What are the commonalities? Which needs (if any) are addressed by only one
researcher?
How do students meet these needs?
How does the school help students meet these needs?
How do teachers help students meet these needs in the classroom?

The Influence of Basic Needs on Academic Motivation

Recall your thoughts on how the satisfaction of physiological, safety, and social needs
influences a student’s motivation to study and learn. How do these needs affect your in-
structional decisions? Motivation is a requirement for effective learning, and the lack of
fulfillment of basic growth needs hinders motivation. Teachers should provide an atmo-
sphere to foster accomplishment of some of these needs such as the need for safety and
security, the need for love and belongingness, and the need for self-worth. When teachers
provide such an atmosphere, the motivation for learning is high. When teachers ignore the
basic needs, the motivation for learning is low.

Cognitive Needs
Maslow’s fifth level is the need to know and understand. As mentioned earlier, teachers
focus primarily on this need; it is the one we are most prepared to help students meet.
To do this, we must be aware that a student’s potential for achievement is strongly
influenced by the levels of cognitive development that all students go through, as well
as socioeconomic status, English language proficiency, level of education achieved by
parents, and other factors that also contribute to academic achievement (Christian,
2008). Motivation is promoted by giving students tasks that are within the learner’s
cognitive capabilities.

Cognitive Development
Cognitive development is the intellectual development of the mind. As people grow cognitive development The
and mature, they progress through several increasingly sophisticated stages of cognitive intellectual development of the mind.

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 development, representing increasingly complex abilities to think and process informa-
tion. People progress through the stages in the same order, but individuals move
through the stages at different rates. Thus, at certain ages, most students tend to be at
certain cognitive stages, and they need to be taught with strategies that are appropriate
for their cognitive level. Older students have more highly developed abilities to think
and reason than young children do. For example, you would not try to teach algebra to
first graders, and you probably would not require high school seniors to memorize
nursery rhymes; these tasks normally are inappropriate for the cognitive levels of the
students at those ages. Instead, you would teach algebra to older students and you
would teach nursery rhymes to kindergartners to align the activities with the students’
levels of cognitive development.
Let us consider the differences in people’s cognitive capabilities as they grow and
mature. To get an idea of cognitive growth, compare the reasoning ability of a three-
year-old with your own reasoning as you think about the concepts presented in Build-
ing Block 3.5.

BUILDING BLOCK Cognitive Readiness

3.5 Look at this magnificent second-grade riddle: Which weighs more, a pound of feath-
ers or a pound of lead?
Did you catch yourself? You have a pound of each, of course! They weigh the
same. The riddle is a trick question that might make a seven-year-old slip up be-
cause, based on experience, children of that age “know” that lead weighs more than
feathers.
Let us try something else. Suppose you have two empty glass containers like
those labeled A and B in the illustration. You also have a pitcher holding
500 milliliters of water. If you pour half of the water in container A and the other
half in container B, which container has more water?

500 ml

What was your answer? In fact, both containers hold the same amount of
water: 250 milliliters. However, a three-year-old would have told you that con-
tainer A holds more water. Why would the young child say that? Even if you
measured the amount of water in front of the child and poured the same measured
amount into each container, the child would say that container A holds more wa-
ter and would give the same answer when the demonstration was performed
again. Why? What is different about your cognitive abilities from those of a young
child?
How would it affect the child emotionally if you, the teacher, kept performing
this demonstration, asking the same question, and insisting that the volume of water
in each container was the same? What needs does this child have with regard to
instruction that is influenced by his or her stage of cognitive development?

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 The concepts demonstrated in Building Block 3.5 deal with conservation. Conservation consevation With regard to cognitive
development, the ability to recognize
is one of the defining characteristics of two of Piaget’s cognitive stages; it is the ability to that the amount of material does
recognize that the amount of material does not change when its volume or shape changes. not change when volume or shape
Young children are not able to reason that the different shapes of the containers make the changes.
volumes only appear to be different. There are many such examples of young children’s
reasoning abilities. Young children believe a nickel is worth more than a dime because the
nickel is bigger. Young children believe there are more pennies in a row if there are spaces
between the coins than if the pennies touch each other. Young children believe there is
more clay in a cigar-shaped cylinder than there is in a ball from which the cylinder is
made—even when they see the ball rolled out into the cylindrical shape.2

Stages of Cognitive Development

According to Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget, all students progress through
the same series of cognitive developmental stages as they get older. Piaget identified four
stages, which progress from infancy through adulthood (Piaget, 1972). These stages, in
the order in which students progress through them, are as follows:

1. Sensorimotor
2. Preoperational
3. Concrete operational
4. Formal operational

Table 3.2 shows the stages and the basic characteristics associated with each. Each
stage represents more advanced capability (not accomplishment) for cognitive processing
than the previous stages. Look at the characteristics associated with each level. How do
your students’ levels of cognitive development relate to their basic needs? How do the
levels of your students’ cognitive development affect your decisions about how to teach?

Sensorimotor Stage
The earliest stage, the sensorimotor stage, is characteristic of children in infancy.
During this stage, children’s thinking abilities consist largely of interacting with their

TABLE 3.2 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage Approximate Age Characteristics

Sensorimotor Infancy Information obtained through physical

interaction with objects

Preoperational Toddler and young Information obtained from increased use of

child symbolism and language
Limited logic Egocentric perspective
Difficulty in reversing and conserving

Concrete Elementary and Information obtained from manipulation of

operational early adolescence concrete objects
Logical and reversible thinking
Concept of conservation develops

Formal Adolescence and Information obtained through manipulation

operational adulthood of symbols generalized to abstract
concepts

2
Piaget developed several tasks to assess children’s cognitive development. The tasks are given in
Appendix A of Charlesworth and Lind (2010), Math and Science for Young Children (6th ed.), Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
© Cengage Learning 2014

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 environment—what is around them. It is crucial to the intellectual development of chil-
dren that they be given the opportunity to act on their environment in unrestricted (but
safe) ways to start building the richest experiential bank they can. In later years, they will
draw upon these experiences to make sense of what they are learning.

Preoperational Stage
The second stage is the preoperational stage, characteristic of toddlers and young chil-
dren. During this stage, children begin to develop an understanding of symbols such
as letters, words, numerals, pictographs, and the like. Perhaps the most significant area
of development during this stage is the acquisition of language. Preoperational chil-
dren are egocentric in perspective; their thought is based on what they see or experi-
ence, not on what someone else has done. They cannot put themselves in someone
else’s shoes and tell, for example, what Janie probably saw with the magnifying glass;
they can only tell what they saw. They are not able to reverse operations easily. For
instance, they can learn that 6 plus 2 equals 8, but they are not able to make the re-
verse operation spontaneously that 8 minus 2 equals 6. Preoperational children also
lack the maturity of thought that allows for conservational thinking, as you saw in
Building Block 3.5.

We adults continue to be preoperational in our thought processes to a certain extent.

How many people turn the map upside down when driving south? How many can follow
directions to someone else’s house but have difficulty finding their way back? And, to see
how good you really are at conservation, go to an aquarium store and ask to see the var-
ious aquariums with, say, a ten-gallon capacity. It can be very difficult for us to believe
that all the shapes hold the same amount of water.

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget’s third stage is the concrete operational stage, characteristic of elementary school
and early adolescent children. During this stage, children must see, hear, feel, touch, smell,
taste, or in some other way use their senses to know. “Seeing is believing” for concrete
operational students. They must manipulate real objects such as globes, mathematics
cubes, science apparatus, and the like to gain understandings of the principles involved.
When thinking, they think in terms of real objects rather than abstractions without ob-
jects associated with them. For example, when concrete operational children think about
proportions, they need to visualize goldfish in a goldfish bowl, or pizzas, or some other
object; they have difficulty calculating proportions from mathematical abstractions. In
their thinking, they must either actually see or manipulate objects or visualize manipulat-
ing them. Concrete operational children have difficulty thinking without this crutch. As
they gain maturity, concrete operational people can reverse thinking, and they gain in-
creased capabilities of conservation. Many adults remain at this stage, never fully develop-
ing their formal operational thinking powers. (Remember that a cognitive stage represents
the capability of intellectual development. It does not represent the accomplishment of
that level.)

Formal Operational Stage

The fourth and uppermost stage is the formal operational stage, characteristic of ado-
lescents and adults. In this stage, people have the ability to think and reason abstractly
without requiring concrete examples. For example, a person in the formal operational
stage will be able to imagine what it would be like if there were no gravity. However,
this stage is not limited to older people; many younger students in the concrete opera-
tional stage are capable of some formal operational thinking. In Piagetian theory, the
ability to do formal operations is the ultimate achievement in human intellectual
development.

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 Lawson (1978) identified five basic aspects of formal operational thought to help
Use your favorite search
clarify what is meant by formal operations:
engine to find out more about
Piaget’s stages of cognitive
Proportional reasoning (What are the proportions of boys and girls in your class?)
development. See if you can find
Isolation and control of variables (If you are sick and take an aspirin, eat a bowl of more examples of different tasks
chicken soup, and go to bed early, which made you feel better?) that learners are able or not able
Probabilistic reasoning (What are the chances you will win the lottery?) to do in each stage. Have you
noticed any of the children that
Correlational reasoning (To what extent do people’s heights correlate with the grades you know exhibit abilities that
they earn in school?) represent cognitive
Combinatorial reasoning (How many different words can you make from the letters development?
in the word mountains?)

Notice that we illustrated the formal operations skills with concrete examples. What
does that tell about our ability to think and reason in formal operations?
Students may arrive at each stage at different times and may take different amounts
of time before they are ready to reason in the subsequent stage.

Cognitive Developmental Stages and Needs BUILDING BLOCK

Go back to that three-year-old child and the water demonstration you thought 3.6
about in Building Block 3.5. Using Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, explain
why the child would give the same incorrect answer again and again, even when you
carefully explain that it is wrong. Recall the emotions you said the child would feel
as you were attempting to explain this demonstration. How would the child’s lack
of understanding affect his or her motivation? As a teacher, what do you need to
know about the cognitive development of the students in your class?

The Influence of Cognitive Needs

on Academic Motivation
Recall your thoughts on how students’ levels of cognitive development influence the kind
of learning opportunities they need. How do these needs affect your instructional deci-
sions? Motivation is a precursor to learning, and preparing activities and materials that
are appropriate for the cognitive levels of development of your students is necessary for
both motivation and learning. Asking students to work beyond their abilities will frus-
trate them. Asking them to work at levels below their abilities will bore them. Either of
these emotions will crush any motivation students may have had.

Jean Piaget (1896–1980), a labs, where he questioned the “right-or-wrong” nature of

biologist and psychologist, was intelligence tests and began to ask how children reason.
born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland, Piaget watched children at play, talked with them
the son of a professor of medieval and recorded the conversations in detail, and
literature. At age 11, he wrote a conducted research with them to try to discover their
© Farrell Grehan/CORBIS

short paper on an albino sparrow; reasoning processes and how their minds develop. His
that paper is considered the start research focused on the child’s concepts of space, time,
of his brilliant scientific career. In number, causality, and perceptual and moral
high school, he narrowed his development. His work led to the now-famous four
scientific interest to mollusks, and stages of intellectual development. Less known, but
he maintained his interest in this perhaps more important, are his theories of schema,
area for the rest of his life. He received his doctorate in equilibration, and personal constructivism developed
science in 1918, and worked in European psychology from his exacting and thorough investigations.

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 CONTROVERSIES in Education

Criticism of Piaget’s Theory

A  lthough widely recognized, Piaget’s theory of
cognitive development is not without its critics.
children progress through the stages was dependent on
previous experience.
Bohlin, Durwin, and Reese-Weber (2009) have compiled a
Piaget has been criticized for proposing “stages” of
list of the main criticisms and counterarguments, outlined
cognitive development when it has been observed that
as follows:
individuals do not acquire all the abilities of the next
Critics contend that Piaget underestimated the abilities stage of cognitive development all at once, but rather
of young children. In fact, children who are in the might display only some of the abilities at first,
preoperational stage of development are able to acquiring others at a later time. In other words, children
perform concrete operational tasks if the instructions don’t cross a line into the next stage of cognitive
for the tasks are modified so that they can understand development all at once. It has been suggested that
them. However, it is thought that these preoperational perhaps these stages are really “changes” that
children are not able to perform the concrete tasks individuals go through as their cognitive abilities
because they are thinking in concrete ways, but rather develop.
it is because they approach the task in preoperational
Piaget has also been criticized for underestimating the
ways. For example, suppose a preoperational child is
impact of culture and prior schooling in his cognitive
presented with twenty poker chips, equally divided and
development theories.
arranged into two lines of ten. The top line of chips is
spread out farther than the other. The preoperational Finally, because of limitations in Piaget’s research (such
child, not yet able to understand the concept of as the fact that he observed mainly his own children),
conservation, will report that the top line contains more critics have argued that his theory does not apply to
chips. According to the critique, a preoperational child, other cultures. Counterarguments note that the
given simplified instructions, will say that both rows developmental stages Piaget described have been
have the same number of chips. However, it is thought exhibited by individuals all over the world, and that
that instead of using mathematical reasoning to Piaget did acknowledge that culture and exposure to
understand number conservation as a concrete educational experiences affect the progression through
operational child would, a preoperational child simply the stages.
counts the number of chips in both rows.
When considering Piaget’s stages of development, WHAT DO YOU THINK?
others have criticized the theory saying that the rate of 1. How have you observed Piaget’s different stages of
progression through the stages cannot be accelerated. cognitive development in individuals?
However, Piaget did not really focus on if or how these 2. Do you remember experiencing them yourself? What
stages could be accelerated. He was more interested in do you remember?
what changes occurred in cognitive abilities as children 3. What do you make of the criticisms and
develop. Piaget proposed that the rate at which counterarguments regarding Piaget’s theory?

Psychosocial Needs
A third way in which learners are alike is their progress through the stages of psycho-
psychosocial development social development. Psychosocial development refers to the growth people experience
Development of psychological and in forming self-concepts, their ways of interacting with others, and their general atti-
social factors within an individual.
tudes toward the world. The development is both personal and social, and thus is
termed psychosocial. Remember that a basic need of all people is to feel loved and to
have a sense of belonging.
Schools and classrooms are social places. Individuals go through stages of psychoso-
cial development, just as they go through stages of cognitive development. You have
found that students’ motivation and their potential for academic achievement are strongly
influenced by both their basic needs and their level of cognitive development. The same is
true of their level of psychosocial development.

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 Some Psychosocial Predicaments BUILDING BLOCK
Consider how you would respond in each of the following situations. Also consider 3.7
how different responses might encourage or discourage future behavior in the stu-
dent. Are these behaviors the kind you would want a learner in your classroom to
exhibit?
Suppose a four-year-old reports that last year’s teacher told her she must have
grown a foot over the summer vacation. She then shows you a self-portrait with
three feet, complete with shoes and socks on each. What will you say? What message
will this send to the child? What behaviors will be encouraged and discouraged?
Suppose this same four-year-old child tells you her mother “goed to the store.”
What will you say? What message will this send to the child? What behaviors will
be encouraged and discouraged?
Now imagine the child is in fourth grade and is hanging upside down on the
playground’s jungle gym. Alarmed, you yell at her, telling her to be careful and to
hold on with her hands. What message will this send? What behaviors will be en-
couraged and discouraged?
Finally, imagine the child as a middle-school student asking a question such as,
“Why is the sky blue?” Perhaps this question is a little off the topic being discussed,
or perhaps the student has caught the teacher off guard. Suppose the teacher says,
“Why don’t you find the answer to that question for us and share it with the class
tomorrow?” What message is the student receiving? Or suppose a student asks a
question about something the class has already covered and is met with laughs and
taunts from the other students. What message is this student receiving? What behav-
iors will be encouraged and discouraged?

Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson (1968) believed that people develop psychologically throughout their life-
times. This development depends on social interactions with their parents, siblings,
peers, teachers, other adults, and other people who enter their life. His theory of devel-
opment is called his psychosocial theory because development involves psychological psychosocial theory Theory
development of the individual, which depends on the individual’s social interactions. addressing the psychological
and social aspects of identity
According to Erikson, individuals must address certain challenges or life crises at dif- development.
ferent periods of their lives, and other people play a large role in how individuals deal
with these predicaments. Individuals are faced with specific tasks in each level of
development that will enable them to resolve the predicament. Depending on how in-
dividuals are encouraged in their attempts to resolve a crisis, the individuals’ needs for
continued development are either met or not met, and motivation is correspondingly
increased or decreased.
For example, the psychosocial development task prevalent in toddlers’ lives is to
develop a firm sense of autonomy—the certainty that they can control their environ-
ment. Toddlers want to try ideas for themselves (think of the so-called terrible twos)
without always having to depend on others. It is essential that parents, teachers, and
other adults permit toddlers to explore freely but safely and do things for themselves,
while providing guidance and encouragement. Children who discover they can perform
by themselves develop a sense of autonomy. Those who are discouraged, ignored,
scolded, or punished develop a sense of shame for having demonstrated what they think
is bad behavior, and they develop a feeling of doubt that they have the wherewithal to
make things happen. For a child to progress in a healthy psychological and social man-
ner to the next stage of life, this dilemma must be resolved such that the child develops
at least some degree of autonomy. Thus, this stage is identified as the autonomy stage
versus shame and doubt stage.

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 In Eriksonian psychology, each stage is represented by a continuum ranging from
total positive resolution to total negative resolution. Of course, most people resolve their
crises somewhere between the extremes, but the crises must be resolved in some manner
before resolution of the successive stages can be achieved. This can either be positive or
negative in nature. The manner in which the crises are resolved has a lasting effect on the
individual’s view of his world and of himself as a person, and affects the way the person
resolves each of the subsequent stages. Table 3.3 shows Erikson’s psychosocial stages in
summary form.

TABLE 3.3 Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Stage Age Expected Resolution

Trust Infancy Learns to trust that needs will be met by constants

vs. in the environment (parents, physical objects)
mistrust or
Will mistrust and will act to get needs met, even if
the actions are inappropriate

Autonomy Toddler Learns to control environment and self

vs. or
shame and doubt Will experience shame and/or doubt regarding
perceived inappropriate self-control

Initiative Early Learns to explore and initiate activities and tasks

vs. childhood or
guilt Will feel guilt regarding what they feel are
inappropriate actions

Accomplishment/ Childhood Learns to measure success by comparison to a

industry standard
vs. or
inferiority Will feel inferior when performance is below that
standard

Identity Adolescence Learns to identify a concept of self by associating

vs. with certain groups of people who have similar
role confusion values
or
Will vacillate between several roles, never forming
a definitive association or conviction

Intimacy Young adult Learns to commit to long-term relationships with

vs. others
isolation or
Will retreat into isolation

Generativity Middle Learns to contribute to or affect the environment

vs. adulthood or workplace so as to affect future generations;
stagnation seeks satisfaction through productivity in career,
family, and other interests
or
Will feel that work and efforts are leading to no
significant contribution

Ego identity/ Late Looks back on life as well lived with little regret
integrity adulthood or
vs. Will feel life has been wasted
despair
© Cengage Learning 2014

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 Erik Erikson (1902–1994) At Berkeley, Erikson studied the Lakota and Yurok
was born of Danish parents in Indians, whose children and adolescents faced difficul-
Germany. In high school, he focused ties finding their place in the world because of conflicts
on becoming an artist; after between the very strong native traditions taught by
graduating, he wandered around their families and the instruction of the teachers in the
Europe visiting museums and American schools they attended. The children’s white
© Bettmann/CORBIS

sleeping under bridges, living a teachers found them difficult to work with, and their
carefree and rebellious life. When he parents believed they had been corrupted by a foreign
was 25, Erikson taught at an culture. Erikson’s studies led him to analyze the conflicts
experimental school for American people go through on their way to adulthood.
students, one of the early In 1960, Erikson took a position as a professor at
Montessori schools. While there, he developed his interests Harvard, and he stayed there until his retirement in
in psychology and sociology. In 1928, he began 1968. He is best known for his epigenetic principle,
psychoanalytic training at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute, which says people develop through the unfolding of
where Anna Freud was his analyst. Soon after graduating in their personalities in eight stages, each of which in-
1933, Erikson left for the United States. He started a volves certain developmental tasks that are psychosocial
psychoanalytic practice in Boston, began research at Harvard, in nature.
and later moved to the University of California at Berkeley.

Psychosocial Needs and Academic Motivation

In Eriksonian psychology, each stage must be resolved successfully in some manner before
resolution of the successive stages can be achieved. Motivation depends largely on suc-
cessful resolution of the predicament in each stage. Effective teachers work with their
students to foster these resolutions. How do the ways in which students resolve their
psychosocial needs influence their motivation to succeed in school? First, think about the
questions presented in Building Block 3.8.

The Psychosocial-Sensitive Classroom BUILDING BLOCK

In this activity, you will pay special attention to the psychosocial stages of initia- 3.8
tive versus guilt, accomplishment/industry versus inferiority, and identity versus
role confusion; these are the stages most children encounter while they attend
school.
First, consider young children whose psychosocial struggles are with initiative
versus guilt. How might you provide opportunity for your students to take initiative
in your classroom without feeling guilty?
Next, consider elementary school children whose psychosocial struggles are with
industry versus inferiority. How might you provide the opportunity for your students
to be industrious in your classroom without suffering feelings of inferiority?
Finally, consider high school students whose psychosocial struggles are with
identity versus role confusion. What kinds of classroom interactions could you pro-
vide to help students form their sense of identity? What effect would discouraging
adolescents from social interaction have during this stage of development? What
basic needs does forming a sense of identity through the establishment of relation-
ships address?

The complete stages of Erikson’s psychosocial theory are shown in Table 3.3. However,
let us focus primarily on the stages teachers are most likely to encounter in their classes.

Initiative versus Guilt

Young children three to six years old are in the psychosocial stage of initiative versus guilt.
As we have seen, children at this stage seek to improve their language skills and to explore

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 their environments to learn what they can about what they live with every day. According
to Erikson, those who are encouraged to explore and who succeed in their efforts develop
positive feelings of initiative. Those who are discouraged, severely corrected, or punished
for their explorations and language exploits develop negative feelings of guilt—guilt for
having attempted something they believe they should not have tried. Success breeds mo-
tivation, and lack of success thwarts motivation.
Did you conclude that children in this stage of development need to be given multiple
and varied opportunities to explore? These explorations can occur in the schoolyard, on
field trips, at school assemblies, through play, in hundreds of interesting classroom ac-
tivities, and at home.

Industry versus Inferiority

Children of elementary school age are in the psychosocial stage of accomplishment/
industry versus inferiority. Their primary goal in life is to do—do anything. They want to
learn all about everything, and they want to learn how to do everything, from swimming
the breast stroke to playing chess to reciting the names of the constellations and identify-
ing models of cars that go by. Successful accomplishment of these tasks fosters a desire to
do even bigger and better things, resulting in feelings of accomplishment and industry and
good feelings about themselves and their abilities. On the other hand, children who are
discouraged from these extremely important developmental activities or who are criti-
cized and scolded for doing them will develop feelings of inferiority—feelings they are not
as good as others.
Did you conclude that elementary school children need to perform activities at which
they can be successful? There are many different ways students can get involved, and there
are many different activities students can use to learn basic concepts. These activities
range from reading and writing to drawing, play acting, and even composing rap songs
and producing mini operas. When a student’s desire for industry is encouraged, that stu-
dent will feel competent and capable, will be motivated to accomplish bigger and better
feats, and will increase his or her expectation for success. However, if a student is made
to feel inferior, he or she will experience a sense of failure and incompetence, leading to
low motivation.

Identity versus Role Confusion

TeachSour Adolescents have quite a different but equally difficult predicament in their lives:
ce Video identity versus role confusion. Adolescents constantly ask the question, “Who am
I?” Physical changes, coupled with cognitive changes and a growing sense of
View the TeachSource Video Case, wondering about their identity, cause adolescents to turn away temporarily from
“Social and Emotional Development: The their parents and to try out different roles among people of their own age to see
Influence of Peer Groups.” In this video,
what “fits.” Concurrently (and often surreptitiously), adolescents look to parents
you’ll observe how a drama teacher draws
her students out on their experiences with and other adults, including teachers, for positive role models. At this age, stu-
peer pressure (such as feeling the need dents experiment with various educational, sexual, recreational, and occupa-
to identify with a particular social group) tional roles in their attempts to find and become themselves. Those who are
through open discussion. Then you’ll see successful in their search discover their personal identities; those who are not
how students use drama to gain perspective
successful develop feelings of role confusion that must be addressed before they
on the real-life situations they encounter,
the different choices they can make, and can progress through subsequent stages and live happy, successful, and contented
the potential consequences. Be sure to view lives.
the bonus videos as well. After watching the Did you decide it is important to encourage multiple relationships in high
video clips, answer the following questions: school? These can be fostered through classroom-based interactions, group proj-
1. How could a teacher of basic subjects ects, participation in extracurricular activities, and a host of other means. When
(mathematics, science, and the like) draw a student is helped to form a positive self-identity, that student develops the
students out like the drama teacher did?
virtues of loyalty, commitment, self-reliance, and independence. But if they do
2. How much of her classroom time do you
not know which group to affiliate with or commit to, adolescents can find them-
suppose the teacher devotes to these
discussions of peer pressure? selves spread so thin they become burdened with feelings of not belonging
3. What would she do if she had a pre-
to any group. With which of Maslow’s basic needs do you associate this level
scribed curriculum she had to cover? of psychosocial development? Is it a deficiency or growth need? What does
that mean?

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 General Academic Needs
Let us put all of this together. You have made some important inferences about common
needs of students. We hope you have found that all students have the same basic human
needs and all students have needs that are affected by their levels of cognitive and psycho-
social development. It is time to focus on how these needs are represented academically.
We will start by imagining the first day of school or class. What needs must be met? What
can the teacher do to alleviate concerns and ensure these needs are satisfied?

The Scary First Day of School BUILDING BLOCK

Take a moment to remember the first day of school. It doesn’t matter what grade 3.9
level you focus on; it probably isn’t too hard to recall the anxiety you may have felt.
Make a list of the questions or concerns you had in your mind at that time.
Then think of the first day of the class in which you are using this textbook.
What were you worried about? What did you need to know? Why did you need to
know it? Did your teacher help you relax your anxieties? If so, how?
Now consider a student entering your classroom on the first day of school.
What do you think that student needs? How do these needs affect the student’s in-
centive to learn? How can you help meet those needs?

Other preservice teachers have reported that, on

the first day of school, they were concerned about be-
ing in the right place, understanding what they were
expected to do, and not being embarrassed. They
wanted to be reassured that they were indeed in the
right classroom with the right teacher, and they wanted
to know how to behave in the classroom so that they
fit in and didn’t stand out from everybody else. Their
teachers helped make them more comfortable by shar-
ing their expectations, explaining classroom proce-
dures, and establishing personal relationships with the
students.
Even when you entered your college classroom, you
may have had some of these same questions, concerns,
© Catherine Ledner/Getty Images

and anxieties. These concerns are basically the same for

students of all ages. In his seminal article, Brooks (1985)
identified seven classroom questions that students need
answered on the first day of school:

1. Am I in the right room?

2. Where am I supposed to sit? Peer relationships in middle and
3. What are the rules in this classroom? high school help students form
4. What will I be doing this year? positive self-identity, which
encourages progress through the
5. How will I be graded? other stages of psychosocial
6. Who is my teacher as a person? development, according to
7. Will the teacher treat me as a human being? Erikson.

How do the needs you listed in Building Block 3.9 compare to these questions? Were
the seven needs met in the class you are now in? How about in other college classes? How

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 will you respond to these concerns (most of which are never spoken aloud) with your
future students?
Try to link these questions to the needs identified in Maslow’s hierarchy. Many of
them have to do with the needs for safety, love and belonging, and self-esteem.
From this exercise, you can tell that students share basic concerns when they begin a
school year or a new class. These concerns stem from anxieties that their classroom needs
might not be met—that the teacher might minimize or misinterpret students’ basic human
needs, cognitive needs, and psychosocial needs. Will the teacher make all students feel
accepted and valued? Or is the teacher inclined to ridicule those who don’t think as he or
she does? Are the teacher’s academic expectations appropriate for the students’ age and
experience levels? Or are those expectations too difficult or (equally disturbing) too easy?
Will the teacher foster independence or require conformity to the rules?
Familiarity with these concerns helps us understand how we must structure our
teaching and our interactions with students to satisfy their fundamental needs, thereby
motivating students to maximum achievement. For, as you have seen, meaningful learning
cannot take place unless the basic human needs, cognitive needs, and psychosocial needs
of each student have been recognized and addressed.
The application of these fundamental needs in school settings can be combined into
a few central principles of teaching. Jones and Jones (2013) listed academic needs that are
basic to all students. Their list offers a good summary of where this chapter has been
leading us. Students have the academic need to

Understand and value learning goals.

Understand the learning process.
Be actively involved in the learning process and relate subject matter to their own
lives.
Take responsibility for their own learning by following their own interests and setting
goals.
Experience success.
Receive appropriate rewards for performance gains.
See learning modeled by adults as an exciting and rewarding activity.
Experience a safe, well-organized learning environment.
Have time to integrate learning.
Have positive contact with peers.
Receive instructions matched to their learning style.
Be involved in self-evaluating their learning and effort.

How do these academic needs relate to the three categories of needs you have been
investigating in this chapter? In Building Block 3.10, you will associate the academic
needs listed by Jones and Jones with Maslow’s needs hierarchy, Piaget’s stages of cognitive
development, and Erikson’s psychosocial ladder.

BUILDING BLOCK Academic Needs

3.10 The academic needs that Jones and Jones identified are shown in the left column of
the following table. Read through the list and show how each might be related to
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, and Erikson’s
psychosocial ladder by filling in the empty cells. Use the questions in the right col-
umn to guide your discussions; they are the kinds of questions competent teachers
constantly ask themselves to be sure they are meeting their students’ needs to
maximize motivation and achievement.

Continued

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 What are the implications of this completed chart for you as a teacher?

According to Jones Maslow’s Piaget’s Stages of

and Jones, students Hierarchy of Cognitive Erikson’s Questions to Foster
need to . . . Needs Development Psychosocial Ladder Discussion

Understand and value How could you help a

learning goals. student understand learning
goals and attach value to
them?

Understand the learning What could you do to help

process. students understand their
learning?

Be actively involved in the Why is being actively

learning process and relate involved important? Why is
subject matter to their own it important for subject
lives. matter to be relevant?

Take responsibility for their How does giving students

own learning by following responsibility help meet
their own interests and some of their common
setting goals. needs?

Experience success. How will the experience of

success affect expectations?

Receive appropriate How will motivation be

rewards for performance affected if a reward is
gains. meaningful to the student?
What kinds of rewards are
most meaningful?

See learning modeled by What common need does

adults as an exciting and the reward of learning and
rewarding activity. understanding fulfill?

Experience a safe, well- How does a well-organized

organized learning classroom lead to a feeling
environment. of security?

Have time to integrate What emotions can result

learning. from feeling rushed?

Have positive contact with How is peer contact

peers. important to psychosocial
development?

Receive instructions How does this relate to

matched to their learning cognitive development?
style.

Be involved in self- Why would having the

evaluating their learning opportunity to self-evaluate
and effort. be motivating to a student?

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 FROM THE FIELD
Differentiating the Classroom
Brenda Zabel

Zabel
E

Courtesy of Brenda
ffective teachers create opportunities for students topics we deal with in class.
to take control of their own learning. By designing The students take special
lessons that allow students to explore a concept at a level pride in finding a song that is
and pace that is appropriate and that accommodates indi- somehow connected to one of our
vidual learning styles, teachers empower students to more technical topics, such as roundworm parasites or the
achieve in the classroom and beyond. Students who per- human respiratory system.
ceive they have choices in the classroom are much more Another way in which I attempt to empower my students
motivated to become engaged and persevere in the face to learn is by providing them different options about how to
of challenge than are students who perceive their educa- demonstrate their understanding of an important learning
tion as being force-fed as if from an already established, objective. During a project that occurs in a unit on human
prescribed procedure. histology, students first select a team of students with whom
When students are empowered to learn, rather than they want to work to research one specific type of human
instructed to learn, they take ownership in the quantity and tissue selected by the team. The team members divide up
quality of the products they produce, whether those the work of finding out what the characteristics of the tissue
products be written documents, oral presentations, are, how the tissue functions when it is healthy, and how it
simulated models, or electronic multimedia performances. functions when it is diseased, and they prepare a group
Students who feel they have some control over where, how, presentation to share their information with other teams of
and how much they learn about a subject have a greater students who did not research the same tissue. All through
vested interest in the amount and quality of time and energy the project, the students have choices and control over their
they are willing to devote to important curricular topics both progress. The group presentation usually mirrors the
inside and outside of the traditional classroom and the individual and collective strengths of the members of each
traditional school day. One of the most important things group. For example, a team of students with dramatic skills
teachers do is provide opportunities for students to discover might choose to perform a short one-act play, while another
and communicate ways in which key instructional outcomes team with more musicianship could compose and perform an
are relevant and applicable in the students’ daily lives. original musical score. A team with an artistic flair might
In the high school zoology and human physiology create an elaborate poster painting or three-dimensional
classes I teach, one nontraditional tool that I use to model while a different team might choose to deliver their
empower students is music. Music is a highly motivational information as a television newscast. Regardless of the
medium for most teenagers. Early in the school year, my format of the final product, students appreciate and respond
teaching colleagues and I provide a theme song to positively to being given the opportunity to show what they
accompany each new learning unit. For example, prior to have learned in a variety of ways, determined by them, rather
beginning a learning unit on reptiles, we might play Elton than in one standard pattern way determined by the teacher.
John’s “Crocodile Rock” for all 300 of our students in a
“concert hall” setting prior to a large-group class meeting.
It usually doesn’t take long for the students to begin 2005 Nebraska Teacher of the Year
suggesting their own theme songs for upcoming units. We Westside High School
honor these requests by playing the students’ choices and Westside Community Schools
reward their efforts to find real-world connections for the Omaha, Nebraska
© Cengage Learning 2014

Instruction that Addresses Student Needs

You have found that students are alike in many ways, possessing common basic, cogni-
tive, and psychosocial needs. You have seen there are many successful approaches to
teaching based on people’s feelings, ideas, beliefs, and philosophical views. And you have
identified characteristics of excellent teachers and effective teaching. Recognizing that
numerous factors influence teaching and learning, you might ask, “How do we implement
these factors in our classrooms?” To answer that question, let us correlate the characteristics

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 of excellent teachers and effective teaching with the fundamental student needs discussed
in this chapter.

Putting Together What You Know—Common Needs BUILDING BLOCK

Take a blank sheet of paper and turn it sideways (landscape orientation). Divide it 3.11
into thirds horizontally by drawing two lines from top to bottom (see diagram). At
the top of the first column, write Students’ Basic Human, Cognitive, and Psychoso-
cial Needs. List the basic needs you have found in this chapter to be common to all
students.
Next, make a heading for the middle column of your paper: Attributes of Effec-
tive Teachers and Excellent Teaching. In this column, write the primary attributes you
decided are characteristic of effective teachers and excellent teaching in Chapter 1.
Finally, make a heading for the right column: Students’ General Academic Needs.
List the general academic needs you have found in this chapter to be common to all
students. (See diagram.)

Students’ Basic Human, Attributes of Effective

Cognitive, and Psychosocial Teachers and Excellent Students’ General
Needs Teaching Academic Needs

Draw lines from each of the basic needs in the left column to one or more at-
tributes of effective teachers and excellent teaching in the middle column that might
help address that need. Similarly, draw lines from each of the academic needs in the
right column to one or more attributes of effective teachers and excellent teaching
in the middle column that might help address that need.
What does your paper look like? Are there many lines, all crisscrossing each
other? Or are the connections few and far between? Can you modify or add to the
list in the middle column to let you make more connections to the list in the left and
right columns? If so, make those modifications or additions and connect them to the
appropriate needs.
What teaching skills might accompany the connections?

Use your favorite search

engine to find resources for
In Building Block 3.11, you related basic student needs and basic academic needs to teachers available on the
characteristics of effective teachers and excellent teaching. Now that you’ve done that, Internet. You may have to get
creative with your search terms,
what do you believe are the most valuable attributes of good teachers? Which of these do
but you can find many materials
you currently possess? Which do you believe you need to develop or refine?
that are already made or
As you continue your explorations in this course, keep in mind that students are alike websites that let you create
in many ways, including their basic human needs, their cognitive characteristics, and their materials like handouts,
psychosocial development. Look for specific examples of ways in which students are alike, calendars, rubrics, videos, and
and look for how you can provide instruction and classroom environments that meet the posters yourself.
needs common to all students.

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 TECHNOLOGY Getting Technical on the First Day of School
& EDUCATION
I n this chapter, you have identified needs that are
common to all students. It is important for teachers
How do the technologies match up with the questions?
How can these technologies help teachers answer these
to acknowledge these needs and meet them in their class- student questions effectively and efficiently? Write the letter
room environments and instruction. Teachers can use tech- of a technology in the blank by any of Brooks’s questions that
nology in addressing many of these needs. technology might help answer. You may have more than one
Let us review Brooks’s list of questions that students letter per blank. You may have no letters in some blanks. You
have on the first day of school: may be able to think of some technology that is not listed. By
all means, write it in! There are myriad other technological
_____ 1. Am I in the right room?
applications we have not mentioned.
_____ 2. Where am I supposed to sit? Most of the students’ first-day-of-school questions have
to do with a need to know. Teachers can use word-processing
_____ 3. What are the rules in this classroom?
or publishing programs, PowerPoint, or other online resources
_____ 4. What will I be doing this year? and applications to create signs and posters informing
students of the room number, the teacher’s name, the
_____ 5. How will I be graded?
subject(s) taught, and the bell schedule. Word-processing
_____ 6. Who is my teacher as a person? and publishing programs often contain templates for
newsletters, which teachers can use to inform students and
_____ 7. Will the teacher treat me as a human being?
parents of classroom events and activities. Teachers can
Now, consider some of the technologies that were develop and maintain a class website, wiki, or blog with
introduced in Technology and Education in Chapter 1: information, or the teacher can e-mail the information to
students and their families. (Keep in mind, however, that not
A. Television programs and DVDs for students to view
all of your students will have Internet access at home.) This
educational programs
initial communication with students and parents is invaluable
B. YouTube for students to view clips of demonstrations,
in establishing an effective learning environment that will set
events, or educational programs
the tone for the rest of the year.
C. Online animations (such as those found in BrainPop)
What about the last question: “Will the teacher treat me
to present short content information cartoons and to
as a human being?” The technologies teachers use to
assess student learning
introduce themselves to a class can do the same for students.
D. Electronic slide shows with color, graphics, sound,
Students would welcome the opportunity to introduce
video, and animation to present content
themselves by writing a paragraph, sending an e-mail,
E. Content-area software on CD-ROMs for students to
creating a slide presentation or poster, or drawing an
use independently or in groups
electronic picture using programs available on the Internet to
F. Content-related Internet sites projected for the class
give the teacher information about them beyond what is
or viewed on individual computers
contained in student records.
G. Teacher-made websites and blogs to post interesting
How can technology help meet some of students’
content information, calendars, syllabi, and events
common needs? Using the technologies described earlier
H. Word-processing and publishing programs to create
contributes to a safe and well-organized learning
neat and colorful handouts, signs, and bulletin
environment. Computer-assisted instruction allows students
boards
to be actively involved with their own instruction, often
I. Assistive and adaptive technologies for students with
controlling the pace of their learning. Given guidelines and
special needs
broad topics, students can search the Internet for information
J. Response system technology (“clickers”) for on-the-
or use appropriate content-area software. This technology
fly assessments of student learning
appeals to several learning styles, and can be visual,
K. Interactive whiteboard (such as Smart Boards) to
auditory, and tactile all at once. As teachers model the use
present information for students
of technology to find and present content information,
L. E-mail to communicate with parents and students
students will feel comfortable and will be motivated to do
M. Electronic spreadsheets or databases to keep track of
the same.
grades, attendance, and other data
Is technology absolutely necessary to meet needs you
N. Podcasts to provide additional content information
have learned about in this chapter? Of course not. But tech-
for interested students
nology can help.
O. Applications that allow teachers to design and create
online multimedia interactive posters

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 SU MM A RY

CHAPTER RESOURCES
In this chapter, you have investigated ways in which students are alike:
All students have fundamental, common needs, and the fulfillment of these needs
is prerequisite to successful motivation. Maslow developed a pyramidal hierarchy
of seven basic needs common to everyone. According to Maslow, all people have
these same basic needs, and people must fulfill these needs to some degree in order
to exist as human beings. People must satisfy needs that are lower on the pyramid
before they can be motivated to satisfy needs at higher levels. Other researchers’
basic needs theories are similar to Maslow’s hierarchy and to one another’s.
Piaget theorized that people pass through four increasingly sophisticated stages of
cognitive development. Each stage represents higher levels of people’s capacities to
think, reason, and solve problems.
Erikson theorized that people pass through several phases of psychosocial develop-
ment. Each phase is characterized by a crisis that must be resolved; how a crisis is
resolved may either foster or hinder a person’s continued healthy development.
All students have general academic needs that the teacher must meet to facilitate
learning and maintain an effective learning environment.
The theories of basic needs, cognitive needs, and psychosocial needs are all related
to motivation.
Through your work in this chapter, you were able to relate common basic needs to
common classroom and academic needs. Your final task was to recall characteristics of
effective teachers and excellent teaching, and to correlate these characteristics with stu-
dents’ needs. Having completed this exercise, you can see why you must learn teaching
skills and strategies that are effective for all students.
Although all students are alike in that they have similar needs, they are unlike in that
they bring unique perspectives and characteristics to these needs. These unique perspectives
heavily influence how common academic needs are met. This is the subject of Chapter 4.
Remember, however, that no matter how different those faces look and how unlike those
abilities are, excellent teaching addresses the basic needs common to all students.

Key Terms and Concepts

Aesthetic, 73 Conservation, 77 Psychosocial development, 80
Basic needs, 70 Deficiency needs, 70 Psychosocial needs, 70
Cognitive development, 75 Growth needs, 70 Psychosocial theory, 81
Cognitive needs, 70 Hierarchy, 70 Self-actualization, 73

Construct and Apply

1. Think back to the teachers you identified as your favorite and your least favorite in Chapter 1.
Identify several reasons why you chose these teachers. Which of these reasons relate directly to
increasing or decreasing your motivation? What emotions did you experience in your interac-
tions with these teachers in their classrooms? How were your needs met or not met in the
classrooms of these teachers?
2. How do Glasser’s five basic needs and Maslow’s seven hierarchical needs relate to each other?
3. Suppose you have a student in your class whose parents have just divorced. What needs will
this student most likely express in the classroom? What can you do in an academic situation
that would help to meet these needs?
4. Consider your experience in higher education. How have your professors met or not met your
academic needs? What suggestions do you have for them?
5. Because behavior is driven by needs, students may display unacceptable or inappropriate be-
havior if their needs are not being met. Describe the kind of behavior you might observe in

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 your classroom if the following needs were not being met. Then describe what the teacher
CHAPTER RESOURCES might do to alleviate these concerns:
a. The student needs to know he is in the right place.
If he is unsure, he might _____________________________________________.
The teacher can solve this anxiety by ___________________________________.
b. The student needs to know who you are and whether you’re a nice teacher.
If she doesn’t know, she might ________________________________________.
The teacher can solve this anxiety by ___________________________________.
c. The student needs to know what he is expected to do in this class.
If he doesn’t know what the teacher’s expectations are, he might _____________.
The teacher can solve this anxiety by ___________________________________.
d. The student needs to know that she is not going to be embarrassed in this class.
If she is afraid she will be embarrassed, she might ________________________.
The teacher can solve this anxiety by __________________________________.
e. The student needs to know how to act and behave in this class.
If he doesn’t, he might ______________________________________________.
The teacher can solve this anxiety by __________________________________.

Deconstructing the Standards

1. Recall the InTASC Standards associated with the objectives for this chapter:
Standard #1: Learner Development reads, “The teacher understands how learners
grow and develop, recognizing that patterns of learning and development vary individually
within and across the cognitive, linguistic, social, emotional, and physical areas, and designs
and implements developmentally appropriate and challenging learning experiences.”
Standard #3: Learning Environment reads, “The teacher works with others to cre-
ate environments that support individual and collaborative learning, and that encourage
positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation.”
a. Which part(s) of these standards does this chapter address?
b. How will the concepts in this chapter help you apply these standards as a teacher?
2. Use your favorite search engine to find your state’s standards for certification. When you find
it, bookmark the site. You will refer to it often as you progress through this book.
a. How are your conclusions about students’ common needs represented in your state certifi-
cation standards?
b. How do the InTASC Standards compare to your state’s certification standards regarding
meeting students’ common needs?
c. Do you believe the degree of representation concerning student needs is adequate in your
state certification standards? Why or why not?

Your Portfolio
For your portfolio, include evidence that shows you understand the common needs of students. You may
have been able to address specific students’ common needs at some time. If so, add a narrative of what
you did and why you did it. You may wish to use the material you prepared in Building Block 3.11.
What activities have you been involved in that help students experience a sense of love or be-
longing? In what ways have you helped students satisfy the need to know or understand? How have
you helped a particular student see his or her own potential and talent? Do you have evidence of
these interactions? Reflect on your experiences and use them as evidence in your portfolio.

Education CourseMate Resources

Check out this text’s Education CourseMate website (at www.cengagebrain.com) for more informa-
tion about common student needs, interactive study tools, and useful resources. You will find the
TeachSource Videos, a guide for doing field experiences, glossary flashcards, activities, tutorial quiz-
zes, direct links to all of websites mentioned in the chapter, and more.

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 © Steve Skjold/Alamy

CHAPTER

4 The Student
and the Teacher:
Acknowledging
Unique Perspectives
FOR YOUR STUDENTS to learn, they must know that you care about them.
In Chapter 3, you found that all students have certain common needs. Yet every
student has a unique perspective and is different from every other student in many
ways. How can you demonstrate to all your students that they are important and
that you care about them?
Among students’ common needs are the needs to feel a sense of belonging,
acceptance, respect, and self-esteem, as well as the need to feel loved. Students need to
know you hear them, see them, care about them, and recognize them as human beings.
For your students to know that you really care about them, you must recognize,
acknowledge, and honor the unique characteristics and perspectives each individual
brings to the classroom. These characteristics and perspectives influence how
students learn and how their needs can be met.

93

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 Students come to our schools with tremendously diverse backgrounds, traditions,
values, expectations, experiences, strengths, limitations, and preferences. They are
different in countless ways, some of which are easier to identify than others. Many of
these differences have been shown to influence academic achievement. In this
Diversity The condition chapter, you will investigate student diversity, including several unique perspectives
of being different from
one another.
that impact learning. And you will investigate how you can teach acknowledging these
perspectives so that each student feels accepted, respected, and motivated to learn.

Chapter Objectives
As a result of your explorations in this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Investigate the nature of diversity.
Standard #1: Learner Development; Standard #2: Learning Differences
2. Describe the nature of cultural diversity, and suggest teaching techniques that acknowledge
cultural diversity.
Standard #1: Learner Development; Standard #2: Learning Differences
3. Describe the complexities associated with English language learners, and suggest teaching techniques
that acknowledge English language learners.
Standard #1: Learner Development; Standard #2: Learning Differences
4. Describe the variety of religions in the United States and the challenges this variety brings to schools,
and list teaching techniques that acknowledge religion.
Standard #1: Learner Development; Standard #2: Learning Differences
5. Describe the nature of socioeconomic status, and suggest teaching techniques that acknowledge
socioeconomic status.
Standard #1: Learner Development; Standard #2: Learning Differences
6. Describe gender equity, and list teaching techniques that acknowledge gender differences.
Standard #1: Learner Development; Standard #2: Learning Differences
7. Describe the nature and types of sexual orientation, and suggest teaching strategies that acknowledge
sexual orientation.
Standard #1: Learner Development; Standard #2: Learning Differences

The Nature of Diversity

Let us begin by investigating what you already know. The following activities and simula-
tions will help you reflect on your knowledge and beliefs about diversity and draw conclu-
sions about the diversity represented in classrooms.

BUILDING BLOCK Teachers and Students as . . . Shoes

4.1 Try exploring the diversity you find among the shoes in your closet.
Consider every pair of shoes you own. Go to your closet and have a look. Select
one shoe from each pair you own and put the shoes you selected in a pile. Also, if
you can, gather one of each pair of shoes belonging to everyone in your household;
add these shoes to the pile.
Separate the shoes in your pile into two groups. What characteristics did you
use to separate them?
Then separate the shoes in each of the two groups into two subgroups for a
total of four piles. What characteristics did you use to separate them?

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 One more time: If you have enough shoes in the four piles, separate each into
two piles or at least separate one of the piles into two. This should give you between
five and eight piles of shoes. Name each group with a descriptive name such as sports
shoes, brown shoes, canvas shoes, high-heeled shoes, children’s shoes, and so on.
What if each shoe was a student? Each shoe-student would have the character-
istics of the shoe, complete with the material it is made of, its color, its size, its
purpose, and whether it is a right or a left shoe. Each shoe-student would be in a
group with a label that describes the group’s purpose or characteristics. None of
these can be changed; they are who they are.
Look at the shoes you have on. Suppose the shoes you are wearing represent the
teacher. This shoe-teacher has the purpose, the looks, and the characteristics of your
shoes, and none of these things can be changed. You, the shoe-teacher, are who you are.
Now suppose you, the shoe-teacher, plan a unit for your students, the shoe-
students. The lessons are to be active, requiring student participation. What activity
are your shoes particularly well suited for? Suppose the first lesson includes this
activity. As the shoe-teacher, you are able to conduct and participate in this activity
fairly easily and successfully. Is the same true for your shoe-students? For example,
suppose you have on hiking boots. Your first lesson might include a five-mile hike
on rocky terrain. Which of your shoe-students can participate easily in this lesson?
Which will give it a fairly good try? Are there shoe-students for whom you would
need to make special accommodations? What would these accommodations be?
Suppose day two involves walking three miles. Which of your shoe-students can
participate easily in this lesson? Which will give it a fairly good try? Are there some
shoe-students for whom walking three miles would be too easy? What accommoda-
tions would you make for the students who might find this activity too hard or for
whom this activity might not be challenging enough?
Suppose the final day of your unit has your shoe-students going on a job inter-
view. Which of your shoe-students can participate easily in this lesson? Which will
give it a fairly good try? Are there shoe-students for whom you would need to make
special accommodations? What would these accommodations be?
Now, consider your own shoes. If you make the assumption that the shoe-students
in your classroom have the same preferences you have and learn in the same way you
do, you are ignoring the unique characteristics and perspectives of your shoe-students.
Is it fair or appropriate for teachers to make assignments based on their own
learning or teaching preferences? What could you do as a teacher to accommodate
all your shoe-students within a unit of study? Would it be possible to accommodate
all the shoe-students within a single lesson?

From the activity in Building Block 4.1, you can infer

that everyone in a classroom, including you, is unique and
has a unique set of characteristics that affect how he or
she approaches learning. Many of these characteristics
cannot be changed and must be accommodated in the
classroom. This applies to students in all classes (includ-
ing the students in your introduction to education class).
We hope that you also discovered that it is possible to
make accommodations so everyone can participate in the
lessons.
Jim West/The Image Works

To effectively teach all children,

teachers must recognize their
own assumptions and beliefs
about diversity.

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 Building Block 4.1 used the analogy of comparing shoes to students to prompt you
to draw conclusions based on appearances and characteristics. However, no matter how
good an analogy is, at some point, it breaks down. Making assumptions and then deci-
sions based on students’ outward appearances can be very dangerous. Let’s explore this
further in the next Building Block.

BUILDING BLOCK Classroom Diversity

4.2 Suppose you have been given your first teaching job and it is the first day of school.
You have been assigned a class of 29 students.
You already have looked through student records to get some background
information about your students, and you now spend some time watching your
students and talking with them as they interact with you and with one another. You
make the following observations:
There are 15 boys and 14 girls in your class of 29 students.
Of the boys, two seem indifferent to team sports.
There is one girl who seems to be a bit of a bully or tomboy.
Seven students are Hispanic.
There are six African Americans.
Four students are Vietnamese.
Twelve students are white.
One student wears a yarmulke (a skullcap worn by Jewish males).
The special education coordinator has identified several students as having special
needs: Four of your students have a learning disability and two students are gifted.
One student has muscular dystrophy and is in a wheelchair.
Your examination of the school records tells you that 14 of your students come
from single-parent homes.
One student comes from a home with single-sex parents.
Ten students are considered “middle class,” and 19 are identified as either
“working class” or “poor.”
Just as you separated your shoes, these students have been categorized and labeled
for you based on their observed characteristics. Suppose you are a high school math
teacher. For which of these students are you able to predict grades? Go down the list,
bullet by bullet. How well would each of these students perform in your class? What if
you are an elementary physical education teacher? A music teacher? Remedial reading?
Advanced Placement physics? Go ahead and write down your initial assumptions about
these students. It is important that you be honest and forthcoming doing this. You won’t
be asked to share your ideas. How might these assumptions affect the expectations you
have for these students regarding their learning and performance in your classroom?
Keep in mind that your predictions were based on your assumptions, which
were, in turn, based on your prior knowledge and experiences regarding students’
unique characteristics.

Students’ Unique Perspectives and Characteristics

As you have seen, students differ from one another in a great many ways. Some individual
characteristics are readily apparent; others are more subtle. All these characteristics affect
how students approach learning—and therefore how you should teach them.
The goal of education in the United States is that all children learn, regardless of their
differences. A primary goal of your teacher preparation program is for you to become

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 skilled in planning and implementing ways to accommodate these differences as you mo-
tivate students to learn in your classroom. To be able to teach in ways that acknowledge
student diversity, you must first acknowledge your own experiences and beliefs that may
have given rise to assumptions, expectations, stereotypes, and even prejudices. We will stereotype A standard image or
explore several unique perspectives and ways in which your experiences and beliefs influ- idea that represents an uninformed
opinion or biased attitude toward a
ence student learning. Before we begin, we should note that many of the characteristics group.
used to classify students into subgroups of unique perspectives are social constructs, not
fixed attributes. Remember that in the previous chapter, we explored how students are
mostly alike, possessing common needs. For the most part, you can be assured that all of
the students you will teach in the future are of one species: human beings (although you
may wonder about a few at times). But, identifying classifications of unique perspectives
is helpful in identifying trends, preferences, and patterns that are influenced by the perspec-
tives and that should impact instructional decisions and practices (Lee and Buxton, 2010).
In his blog, Can a White Man Speak with Authority on Diversity?, Visconti (2011)
writes “[The] mindset for majority-culture people requires an epiphany or evolution in
thinking that brings one to understand the extent of the discrimination around all of us
that is perpetuated mostly by the majority culture. . . . In this country, the majority culture
is defined as white, male, heterosexual, Christian, and not having an ADA1-defined dis-
ability.” He writes that all of us, regardless of perceived differences, must come to the
realization that “I am not different from you; I am different like you.”
You can access the Diversity.com website through the direct link on the Education Course-
Mate website. This site has facts, figures, and discussions about many aspects of diversity.

Cultural Diversity
When we consider cultural diversity, many of us think of race. But a person’s culture in- race A group of people that
cludes much more than race. The dictionary defines culture as “the customary beliefs, possesses traits that are inherited and
sufficient to characterize the group as
social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or social group . . . the set of shared a distinct human type.
attitudes, values, goals, and practices” (Merriam-Webster, 2012). An individual’s culture culture The customary beliefs, social
is composed of several attributes, including race, ethnicity, social aspects, and religion. Let forms, and material traits of a racial,
us look at some aspects of the wide cultural diversity present in our world. religious, or social group.
ethnicity Affiliation with a group that
has general customs, language, and
Population Diversity social views and based on common
racial, national, tribal, religious,
linguistic, or cultural origin or
According to the Population Reference Bureau, in July 2010, the world’s population background.
reached almost 7 billion people, and it is expected to be between 9.15 and 9.51 billion by
2050 (Brenner et al., 2010). If we could take the data from the Population Reference
Bureau and shrink it to just 100 people while maintaining the ratios, we would have the
following information (The Miniature Earth Project, 2010):
Sixty-one of the 100 are Asian.
Thirteen are from Africa.
Eight are North Americans.
Five are from South America and the Caribbean.
Twelve are from Europe.
One is from Oceania.
Fifty are men and fifty are women.
Forty-seven live in urban areas.
Twelve are disabled.

1
Americans with Disabilities Act.

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 Thirty-three are Christian (Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox, Anglican, and other
Christian denominations).
Twenty-one are Muslims.
Thirteen are Hindus.
Six are Buddhists.
One is a Sikh.2
One is a Jew.
Eleven are nonreligious.
Eleven practice other religions.
Three are atheists.
Forty-three live without basic sanitation.
Eighteen live without an improved water source.
Fourteen are hungry or malnourished.
Twelve cannot read.
Twelve have a computer.
Eight have an Internet connection.
One adult (15 to 49 years old) has HIV/AIDS.
Twenty people hold 75 percent of the entire world’s income.
Where do you fall in this representation of the world’s population? How are the ma-
jority of global inhabitants like you? How are they different from you?
The population of the United States is growing rapidly and is becoming more and
more diverse. Figure 4.1 shows forecast trends in the racial and ethnic makeup of the U.S.
population from 2000 to 2050.

80
75.7
71.6
70

62
60
52.5

50
Percent

40

30
22.5

20
15.7 16.8
14.2
12.3 12.8
11.3
10.3 9
10 7.5
3 4.4
0.8 0.9 1 1.1
0
Figure 4.1
▲

White, not Hispanic Black Native American Asian and Hispanic Origin
U.S. population trends by race Pacific Islander
and ethnicity, 2000–2050.
(From data in Day, 2001.)
1990 2000 2025 2050
© Cengage Learning 2014

2
Sikhism is a 500-year-old religion with foundational beliefs in one god and in the equality of all human
beings (Brar, 2003).

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 80
Projected
70

60

50
Millions

40

White
30
Black Asian/Pacific Islander
20
Figure 4.2

▲
Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Native
10 Percentages of public school
students by race, 1994–2019.
0 (From National Center for Education
1994 1999 2004 2009 2014 2019 Statistics, 2010a.)
Year © Cengage Learning 2014

Similarly, the population of students in American schools is becoming increasingly

multicultural. In 2008-2009, the enrollment in U.S. public schools was 54.9 percent
white, 16.9 percent black, 21.5 percent Hispanic, and 7.7 percent other ethnicities (Na-
tional Center for Education Statistics, 2009a). Figure 4.2 shows the trend in racial
makeup of schools from 1994 to 2007 with known data, and then projected through
2019 (National Center for Education Statistics, 2010a). If this trend in the ethnic makeup
of public school students were to come to fruition, when would the so-called minorities
of today overtake the white students in school population?

Diversity and Educational Perspectives

Philosophies of education often are based on cultural heritage and vary greatly from one
cultural group to another. Some believe that education is a joint endeavor among school,
community, teacher, students, and family; others believe that education is the professional
purview of teachers and that families need to stay out of the way of teachers. The educa-
tional philosophy of some African Americans emphasizes that students must learn to be
responsible for themselves. Hispanic culture often holds the family as the most important
cultural factor. Native American educational philosophies often embrace a holistic view
of teaching and a profound respect for ancestors, elders, and nature; they do not neces-
sarily like to be singled out for attention or praise but rather value sharing and coopera-
tion over competition. Many Asian American families view teachers as authorities whose
job is to ensure that students learn. The predominant educational philosophy of European
Americans is that school is a joint venture between the parents and teachers.
What do these perspectives mean to the academic needs of these cultural groups?
How might an African American parent who subscribes to the philosophy of
self-responsibility perceive a highly structured, teacher-dependent classroom? Why
might some teachers feel “abandoned” when seeking collaboration or input from Asian
American parents who see teachers as authoritative? How might a Native American
learner feel about a review game involving competition played in a class preparing for
a test? These are broad, generalized questions, but it is important to realize that par-
ents and students from different cultural groups may value different aspects of school-
ing, teaching, and learning.

Teaching That Acknowledges Cultural Diversity

How important is it that you, as a teacher, address the unique cultural perspectives of
the learners in your classroom? Recent research has indicated that a disproportionate

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 number of minority students are referred for special education services (Moreno and
Wong-Lo, 2011). The data show that African American students are overrepresented
in the special education categories of emotional and behavioral disorders and mental
retardation, and that Asian Pacific Islanders, and Native American and Latino students
are disproportionately represented in the category of specific learning disabilities. Do
these populations truly need the support offered in special education programs be-
cause they have these disabilities? Or are the struggles of these students a result of the
classroom teacher not acknowledging their cultural and linguistic differences? That is
certainly not to say that teachers refuse to acknowledge the unique perspectives of
these learners, but perhaps they do not have experience with diverse populations or
know how to include strategies or create a classroom atmosphere that acknowledges
cultural diversity.
Before you can teach in a way that acknowledges cultural diversity, you must first
acknowledge that you may have some assumptions that will influence your expectations
for student performance, the environment of your classroom, your communications
with students, and the design of your instruction. You have begun to explore these as-
sumptions in previous Building Blocks. Now let’s take a closer—perhaps harder—look
at them and then recognize, acknowledge, and put names to them.

BUILDING BLOCK Identifying Assumptions and Expectations

4.3 Think about your favorite grocery store. What types of people frequent the store?
Can you recall your last trip there and the kind of people you saw? Are they the
types of people you would expect to find? How well do the people who go to your
grocery store represent your community? How well do they represent the kind of
person you are? Do you see children in the store? By looking around your grocery
store, could you tell which of the children you see there are probably good students
and which are probably troublemakers?
Think about a shopping mall you may patronize. What are your favorite
stores? What kinds of people would you expect to see in those stores? How are
they like you? How are they different from you? How are the people who pa-
tronize the higher-priced stores like you or different from you? What about the
people in the lower-priced stores? Do you think they went to college? Why or
why not?
Consider the discount department store most convenient to where you live.
Have you noticed the type of people that frequent that store? How are they like
you? How are they not like you? Have you made some assumptions about the
people you may have seen shopping there based on what they look like? Possibly,
assumptions were made about level of income, education, and intelligence. How
would you expect these people to perform in your classroom if you were their
teacher?
Are there some neighborhoods where you can only dream of living? What kinds
of people live there? What do you suppose their children are like? What kinds of
students would you expect these children to be? What do you think the children will
do when they grow up?
Are there some “bad” neighborhoods where you can’t imagine living? What are
the people like who live there? What do you suppose their children are like? What
kinds of students would you expect these children to be? What do you think these
children will do when they grow up?

Diversity in the Community

Another way to explore more about the cultural diversity of your students is to get out
and explore the community of the school. Perhaps the most effective way to discover

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 your beliefs is to talk face-to-face with people who are different from you. Although such
conversations may be uncomfortable at first, they can reveal both misunderstandings and
congruence. Education professor Sonia Nieto says, “The unfortunate thing is when people
walk on egg shells, afraid to talk about diversity . . . part of it is that they fear it will bring
up conflicts. And perhaps it will, so all of us . . . need to be more tolerant, to learn to talk
frankly with one another” (Kitagawa, 2000, p. 162).
It should be clear that culture and ethnicity of students and their families are
expressed in the community in which the students live. Just as important as the personal
characteristics that describe individual students is getting to know where students come
from. Many teachers do not live in the same community as the school in which they teach.
Yet, they expect to know their students well enough so as to be able to meet the needs of
those students. Visiting the community or communities in which your students live can
provide you with valuable insights into their backgrounds, experiences, values, and expec-
tations. Indeed, community and family influence on learners is receiving increasing atten-
tion in education.
Dr. Xae Alicia Reyes, Associate Professor of Curriculum and Instruction in Puerto
Rican and Latino Studies and Interim Director of the Puerto Rican and Latin American
Cultural Center at the University of Connecticut at Storrs states, “As future teachers,
you need to be committed to meeting the needs of all students; the process needs to
begin with deeper knowledge about the communities in which your students live and
socialize. . . . Recently, students’ cultural backgrounds and prior experiences [have been]
recognized as important factors when discussing pedagogy and curriculum design. What
seems to be missing in this equation is a clear understanding that context—outside of
the school—also matters as much if not more than all of these elements” (Kellough and
Carjuzaa, 2009, p. 42).
Dr. Reyes suggests that, in an effort to become more involved in the school and stu-
dents’ community, teachers should attend events such as fairs, festivals, exhibits, and town
meetings. In this way, teachers will be able to identify cultural, social, and political issues
that affect the community, the school, families, and learners.
We teachers make plenty of assumptions and hold many expectations. Some of
these assumptions and expectations may reflect prejudices and biases that we need to
address. Do you really believe that everyone can learn? Or is the notion lurking some-
where that there will always be one or two students who, for whatever reason, simply
will not succeed in school? You might, for example, believe that adolescent students
who are unkempt and show signs of drug or gang activity will not be able to achieve
because they have other activities on their minds. Or you might believe that young
children who come from broken homes, who have a parent in prison, or whose parents
seem disinterested in their education will have serious difficulties with academic
achievement because the cards are stacked against them. Do you believe all ethnic
groups and races are equally capable of learning? Or do you believe deep down inside
there are some groups that just won’t make it? Students of different cultural
backgrounds have had different life experiences and thus bring different perceptions,
understandings, and characteristics to the classroom. Although these perspectives are
different, teachers should not view them as a hindrance to learning and academic
achievement. To be sure, there is a well-documented achievement gap between minority
and majority students in schools. But we can’t assume that the reason for this discrep-
ancy is due to limitations of the individual students because of their cultures. Yet, we
may carry these assumptions into our classrooms so that they affect teaching.

Cultural Paradigms: Deprivation and Deficits

The assumptions we make that relate cultural diversity to teaching and learning may be
categorized as “multicultural paradigms.” According to Vang (2010), a multicultural
paradigm is a model for explaining cultural diversity. James A. Banks, professor and
director of the Center for Multicultural Education at the University of Washington at
Seattle, is one of the most respected experts in his field. He proposed a model called the

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 cultural deprivation model A cultural deprivation model (Banks, 2008). In this model, it is assumed that students
multicultural paradigm that assumes representing minority groups may fail to achieve academically due to being deprived of
that nonmainstream students may
fail to achieve because their culture the language skills and experiences afforded to students representing the dominant cul-
deprives them of resources and ture. In this way, their culture doesn’t give them the opportunity or exposure to experi-
experiences. ences that would support their success on the same level as students representing the
majority culture.
cultural deficit model A multicultural This notion is somewhat consistent with the cultural deficit model that originated in
paradigm that assumes that the 1960s. This model implies that a student’s culture imposes a deficit that must be over-
nonmainstream students may fail
to achieve due to deficits that are come in the classroom. The differences in language, social skills, values, customs, and
imposed on them by their culture. traditions create a hole from which minority students must struggle to climb out of to
achieve (Manning and Baruth, 2009).
The implication of a cultural deprivation or deficit model is that there is a desired
standard that culture prohibits some students from attaining. This standard is that of
the white, middle- or upper-class citizen. Indeed, we usually refer to groups other than
white, middle- or upper-class citizens as “minorities.” The term minority, and its oppo-
site, majority, usually references number. In society, however, minority status is deter-
mined not only by numbers, but rather primarily by perceived power. And power in
socioeconomic status A position society can be determined by socioeconomic status and level of education, which may
influenced by a combination of social be correlated to cultural diversity (Bohlin et al., 2008). For this reason, rather than use
and economic factors including
income, education, occupation, and the terms majority and minority, it may be more useful and more accurate to use the
place in the community. terms mainstream and nonmainstream, where mainstream students are representative of
the dominant culture. In school, the nonmainstream students may experience environ-
ments that are very different from their home environments in terms of language, think-
ing skills, social interactions, and expectations. The mainstream students have the
advantage in that the culture of school is consistent with the culture of home (Lee and
Buxton, 2010).
white privilege The idea that the Perhaps you have heard the term “white privilege.” Vang (2010) says that in every
white race is afforded unearned nation in which multiple cultures and languages are represented, people of one race
advantages and positive treatment
due to race. have more privileges than the others. Privilege is represented by unearned advantages
and positive treatment. The privileged race has more social prestige and institutional
privileges than other races (Lee and Buxton, 2010). In her classic article, “White Privi-
lege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack” (1989), Peggy McIntosh, a feminist and anti-
racism activist, provides many examples of white privilege as she perceives it. A few
examples include:

1. Being able to use cash, credit, or checks to make a purchase without the color of your
skin working against the appearance of your financial responsibility
2. Facing a person of your own race when you ask to speak to the “person in charge”
3. Buying “flesh-colored” bandages and expecting them to match the color of your skin

Vang (2010) offers a couple of ways you might consider to see for yourself the exis-
tence of white privilege. First, think of any friends or acquaintances that you have who are
Asian. What are their names? Often, students who are foreign adopt “Americanized” ver-
sions of their names or even American names. Instead of Shuin, a Chinese girl may choose
to go by “Sharon.” A boy from Pakistan named Syeedur may choose to go by “Lenny.”
Do you believe there is a Why would they do this? What are the perceived advantages? Even if you concede that the
culture of being white? Use your Americanized name might be easier for some to pronounce, why would this be important?
favorite search engine, and A second interesting occurrence that indicates the presence of white privilege exists in
check out the website, Stuff schools. Often, as a part of efforts in multicultural education, teachers invite students
White People Like. Also, search representing minority cultures to share their own customs, traditions, meals, and lifestyles.
for websites similar to Stuff Yet, no one asks mainstream students to share their white culture with minority students.
White People Like for other
Why do you suppose this is? What are the implications?
cultures. Is there one for a
culture with which you identify?
Cultural Paradigms: Differences and Mismatches
Do you find any of it familiar?
Do you find any of it offensive? When people subscribe to the paradigm that minority learners have a deficit to overcome,
they imply that the fault lies within the learners. Of course, this is not true. What may be

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 more applicable to education is the cultural difference model (Banks, 2008). This model cultural difference model A
attributes gaps in educational achievement between majority and minority groups to the multicultural paradigm that assumes
that nonmainstream students may
differences between the culture of the minority learner and the culture in the school. Similar fail to achieve due to differences
to this is the cultural mismatch model, which states that nonmainstream students may between their culture and the culture
struggle to achieve in schools that are dominated by mainstream culture. The cultures of the of the classroom.
students and the school do not match. Certainly, advantages rooted in white privilege are cultural mismatch model A
multicultural paradigm that assumes
not attributable to any individual white learner. Rather, these paradigms leave room to ac- that nonmainstream students may
knowledge the strengths that different cultures bring to the classroom, and emphasize that fail to achieve due to a mismatch
these strengths should be acknowledged and brought into the classroom as a part of the between the students’ culture and the
culture of the classroom.
environment, curriculum, and instruction. It is absolutely essential that teachers acquire
cultural sensitivity. To do this, you must first examine your own culture and your own be-
liefs about other cultures, similar to what you did when you were identifying qualities of Use your favorite search
effective teaching and your philosophy of education in the first two chapters of this book. engine to find self-awareness
You can accomplish this self-examination in several ways. One way is to take a self-test tests about biases available on
dealing with your feelings about diversity. Several such tests can be found on the Internet. the Internet.

Multicultural Education
In 1988, Banks proposed four approaches to multicultural education:

1. The contributions approach. Teachers using this approach include appropriate infor-
mation about other cultures and representative individuals on holidays and other
events. During black history month, for example, a teacher might create a special
bulletin board featuring prominent African American inventors and their inventions.
The teacher might read to the class about Mexican history on Cinco de Mayo and
share traditional songs, food, and dances.
2. The additive approach. In this approach, teachers integrate relevant information
from other cultures at appropriate places in the curriculum. For example, it might be
part of the curriculum for students to learn about the events that led to the first
Thanksgiving. Including a Native American perspective on Thanksgiving would be
an additive approach to multicultural education. The curriculum itself is not modi-
fied; rather, it is supplemented with multicultural information. The dominant culture
is still the focus of the learning.
3. The transformation approach. As
its name implies, this approach
transforms the curriculum. An in-
vestigation of multicultural per-
spectives is an objective of the
study as students consider multiple
points of view.
4. The social action approach. In this
extension of the transformation
approach, students not only explore
topics but also participate in
© The Star-Ledger/John Munson/The Image Works

activities that intend social change

as an outcome. Students might
investigate a social issue such as
poverty and then take action on the
issue, such as writing letters to
political figures or undertaking a
charity drive (Banks, 1988).

As you consider these approaches

to multicultural teaching, how does the
philosophy of multicultural education move toward the social reconstructionist You will see a wide range of cultures
philosophy (see Chapter 2)? Which of these approaches is most consistent with viewing represented in your students.

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 cultural differences as strengths rather than from a cultural deficit model? Also, when
reading about the additive approach, did it occur to you that when incorporating this
approach, a teacher should acknowledge when Caucasian individuals made certain con-
tributions? What does not doing so imply about the “dominant culture”?
culturally relevant pedagogy Ladson-Billings (1994) first proposed the term culturally relevant pedagogy to
Teaching that acknowledges students’ describe teaching that bridges students’ home life and school life, acknowledging their
culture in the design of lessons.
experiences and influences of community and culture in the design of lessons and
activities. In her studies of effective teachers of African American students, she found that
regardless of their students’ race, these teachers worked on developing a community of
learners that included the students and the teacher. They believed that their
students could learn and succeed, and they did not use language that conveyed a
TeachSour belief that the students’ culture was a hindrance to their ability to achieve. They
ce Video worked to understand what a typical day was like for students in school, at home,
and in the community, and they made an effort to understand the many facets of
View the TeachSource Video Case, the students’ cultures. She proposes four “pillars” for multicultural teaching
“Culturally Responsive Teaching: A (Ladson-Billings, 2009):
Multicultural Lesson for Elementary Students.”
We live in a multicultural society. Yet,
1. Teacher attitudes and expectations
classroom discussion of diverse societies
often get short shrift in this age of high-stakes 2. Cultural communication in the classroom
testing because many teachers worry about 3. Culturally diverse content in the curriculum
squeezing as much curriculum as possible
into a school day. In this video, you’ll see 4. Culturally congruent instructional strategies
how Developmental Psychologist Dr. Francis
Hurley weaves a lesson on multiculturalism Lee (2012) suggests five things teachers can do to create an antiracist class-
into a traditional lesson on the five-paragraph room—one in which expectations for all students are raised and in which differ-
essay. After watching this video, answer the ences are not simply tolerated but, rather, are valued:
following questions:
1. How does Dr. Hurley bring multicultural- 1. Don’t ignore race.
ism into the lesson for her students?
2. Seek out established community organizations.
2. How does Dr. Hurley think that thematic
teaching lends itself to multicultural
3. Remember that communities of color are not monolithic.
education? 4. Read!
3. Where do Dr. Hurley’s methods fit into 5. Self-awareness is the key.
Banks’s approaches to multicultural
education? You may have noticed that the characteristics of teachers and approaches we
4. What ideas do you have for themes have examined in this section are not recent. Indeed, this information has been “out
that you might work into multicultural there” for decades! So, you have read about it before or even experienced it as a
education in your future classroom?
student yourself, right? Probably not. Why do you suppose that is? Why is it that
these approaches, strategies, and teacher qualities may not be more evident in all
schools and classrooms? Why is it important that you, as a new teacher entering the
profession in the near future, be very familiar and comfortable with the information in this
section?
Something else you may have noticed is that the approaches for effective teaching and
the characteristics of effective teachers of culturally diverse populations of students apply
to all cultures of learners, including the perceived “mainstream” or “dominant” culture of
being white. Keep in mind that what you have already learned about acknowledging the
different cultures of students in your teaching is also applicable to the other unique
perspectives that you will examine in the rest of this chapter.

English Language Learners

With the increasingly multicultural complexion of America’s population, it makes sense
English language learner A person that the number of languages spoken in schools is also increasing. English language
learning to speak English whose
primary language is other than learners (ELLs) are students who are actively attempting to learn the English language
English. with support from school programs (National Council of Teachers of English, 2008). It

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 2,000,000

1,500,000
Figure 4.3

▲
1,000,000 Number of people obtaining
legal permanent resident status
500,000 in the United States, 1820–2010.
(From U.S. Department of Homeland
0 Security, 2011.)
1820 1840 1860 1880 1990 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 © Cengage Learning 2014

is estimated that in the United States, approximately 10.8 percent of students enrolled
in grades K–12 in the 2008–2009 school year were English language learners. The five
states with the highest percentages of ELLs were California, Texas, Florida, New York,
and Illinois (National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition, 2011). And
according to a report issued by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2009, one in every four
children under the age of five in the United States is raised in a home where a language
other than English is spoken (Lee, Lee, and Amaro-Jiménez, 2011). In the 2000–2001
academic year, more than 400 different languages were spoken by students; besides
English, the most common was Spanish (Padolsky, 2002). This proliferation of
languages, of course, is to be expected. Except for a decline in the early 20th century
and another decline in the late 20th century, the number of people seeking legal
permanent resident status in the United States has increased regularly (see Figure 4.3).
Between January 2000 and March 2010, 13.1 million immigrants, both legal and illegal,
came to the United States (Camarota, 2010).
Predominant languages vary greatly by region in the United States, but there may
be many different languages spoken in any one school. For example, John C. Diehl
Elementary School in Erie, Pennsylvania, serves a total of 450 students in kindergarten
through eighth grade. In this relatively small population, students speak Bosnian,
Vietnamese, Spanish, Arabic, Albanian, Russian, Ukrainian, Sudanese, Turkish,
Somalian, Swahili, Romanian, and Maay-Maay (John C. Diehl Elementary School,
2012). So it is evident that there is great diversity in the native languages spoken by
U.S. students.
Even the designations we use to label students who do not speak English as their native
language are numerous and varied. The following list contains some common acronyms
and terms that are used when referencing this population of learners (Beare, 2012):

English language learner (ELL) is used to refer to students who are actively learning English as a second language
English with support from school programs. (ESL) A support program of
instruction for ELLs.
English as a second language (ESL) is a support program of instruction for ELLs.
limited English proficiency (LEP)
Limited English proficiency (LEP) is used to refer to individuals who lack the mastery Refers to individuals who lack the
of English to be successful in a mainstream classroom. This term is not a preferred mastery of English to be successful
in a mainstream classroom. This term
term because it implies that these individuals are deficient. Instead, ELL is preferred is not a preferred term because it
because it acknowledges the individuals as learners. implies that these individuals are
deficient. Instead, ELL is preferred
English as a foreign language (EFL) is used to refer to individuals who are learning because it acknowledges the
English in a country where English is not the native language. individual as a learner.
1.5 generation students is used to refer to individuals who have graduated from a English as a foreign language (EFL)
Individuals who are learning English
high school in the United States and who have entered higher education while still in a country where English is not the
learning English. native language.
1.5 generation students Refers to
Teaching ELL students presents unique challenges. It is important to realize that just individuals who have graduated from
a high school in the United States and
because two different students may be classified as English language learners, they may who have entered higher education
not have the same needs in the classroom and therefore may not be served well by the while still learning English.

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 same strategies. Remember that they each will bring their own unique perspectives with
them. As Nieto (in Kitagawa, 2000) says, “All the language varieties that we speak are
really part and parcel of multiculturalism” (p. 162).
Not only must teachers help their students acquire the knowledge and skills
required in the curriculum, they also must help them do so in a language whose
familiarity ranges from none to some. However, because of language difficulties,
teachers cannot be sure whether any academic problems students have represent low
achievement or limited English proficiency. Given this predicament, it is tempting for
teachers to view English language learners as low achievers. It is correspondingly
tempting for teachers to “water down” the curriculum to accommodate these students.
This is “a simply indefensible solution” (Gersten et al., 1998, p. 70) because this
practice denies English language learners “access to quality instruction and, ultimately,
academic opportunity” (p. 70).
To help you imagine the challenges of learning in an English-speaking classroom if
you do not speak English, do the activity in Building Block 4.4.

BUILDING BLOCK A Second Language

4.4 Following are the instructions to play a simple game. A short quiz follows the in-
structions. Read the instructions, complete the game, and take the quiz.
Instruksjoner: Spillet er for 2 spillere: en som er X og en som er O. Objektet får
3 Xs eller 3 Os i et vertikalt, horisontal, eller diagonal ledning.
1. Tegn 2 vertikal parallell linjer.
2. Nå tegn 2 flere parallell linjer det krysset det for det første i den grad at de ligne
denne: #.
3. Det for det første spilleren merkene en X inne ettall av boksene dannet av det
linjer.
4. Så, sekundet spilleren merkene en O inne en annen bokse med.
5. Spillerne fortsette tar dreier til ettall spilleren har Xs eller Os inne en vertical,
horisontal, eller diagonalt line.

Prøve:
1. Hvem vant spillet?
2. Kunn De leker dette spillet alene?
3. Hva er det største antallet Xs mulig om O drar først?
4. Hva er det største antallet Xs om X drar først?
Did you enjoy the game? How did you do on the quiz questions? Did you figure out
what the game was? There are some familiar characters that may serve as clues if
you read through the instructions carefully.
Translation (The language is Norwegian.):
What is the greatest number of Xs if X goes first? 4.
What is the greatest number of Xs possible if O goes first? 3.
Could you play this game alone? 2.
Who won the game? 1.

Quiz:

Players continue taking turns until one player has 3 Xs or 3 Os in a vertical, horizontal, or diagonal line. 5.
Then, the second player marks an O in another box. 4.
The first player marks an X in one of the boxes formed by the lines. 3.
Now draw 2 more parallel lines that cross the first so that they look like this: #. 2.
Draw 2 vertical parallel lines. 1.

zontal, or diagonal line.

Directions: This game is for 2 players: one is X and the other is O. The object is to get 3 Xs or 3 Os in a vertical, hori-

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 Teaching That Acknowledges English Language Learners
At this point, it is important to recall the information you investigated in the previous sec- bilingual education Instruction
tions: The concepts of cultural diversity, your assumptions, the multicultural paradigms, provided in both a student’s native
language and in English.
white privilege, and mainstream versus nonmainstream students all apply here
because the task of learning English as a new language often accompanies the
characteristics of nonmainstream race and ethnicity.
TeachSour
In 1968, Congress passed the Bilingual Education Act, which created services ce Video
for students with limited English-speaking ability. More recently, the No Child
Left Behind (NCLB) Act has augmented the Bilingual Education Act to require View the TeachSource Video Case,
states to include ELLs in assessments taken by all students and to administer “Bilingual Education: An Elementary Two-Way
English language proficiency tests. Provisions allow the state assessments to be Immersion Program.” Many students learn
to become proficient in Spanish or English in
given in a student’s native language for the first three years after enrollment in a
school. What’s especially interesting about
school in the United States, but the test must still be aligned with the state stan- this video is that you’ll get to meet two
dards. Yet, students normally take five to seven years to acquire a language teachers and their students who are involved
(Dickenson, 2012). The NCLB Act also provides funds for language instruction, in a two-way bilingual program: All students
called Title III funds.3 In fact, Robinson (2010) has found that, on standardized learn to read, write, and communicate in both
English and Spanish in all subject areas.
tests of mathematics, providing ELL with students’ tests translated into their
After watching this video, answer the
primary language results in improvement of the test scores. following questions:
As we have indicated, ELL students are fully capable of achieving in the subject 1. What are your thoughts about the
areas; their primary difficulty is with language. Consequently, it is necessary to em- two-way immersion program?
ploy teaching strategies that help ELL students compensate for their deficiency in 2. What are the advantages?
English. If you are bilingual or have some familiarity with a foreign language, by all 3. What are the disadvantages?
means, use it with your future students. However, a person does not need to speak 4. Why would you choose to participate or
other languages to be an excellent teacher. As is the case with culturally diverse stu- not participate in a program such as this?
dents, attitude is the first and foremost consideration in providing effective education 5. What would you have to do to prepare
for students with emerging or limited proficiency in English. Teachers must develop if your principal informed you that you
the same positive attitude toward ELL students that they have for all students—the would be co-teaching in a two-way
immersion program beginning next fall?
attitude that all students can learn and can achieve their high expectations.
Lee, Lee, and Amaro-Jiménez (2011) suggest the following strategies for
teaching mathematics to young children who are English language learners; these strate-
gies could just as well be applied to teaching any subject to ELLs at any grade level.

Make use of children’s own stories.

Integrate conversational language and language that is familiar to students.
Promote children’s native language.
Allow children to think aloud to promote their understandings.
Integrate nonlinguistic materials to facilitate academic language.

Bilingual education is education that includes subject-matter instruction in both the

student’s native language and in English. Educators have approached bilingual education
in four basic ways:

1. Immersion. ELL students are immersed in English-speaking classes where teachers

attempt to use very basic language so students can learn the content and the language
© Bob Daemmrich/PhotoEdit Inc.

at the same time. Note that immersion does not really fit the definition of bilingual
education because no instruction is offered in the student’s native language.
2. English as a second language (ESL). ESL is similar to the immersion approach, except
students may receive some instruction in their native language. ESL classes typically
3
In Lau v. Nichols (1974), the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously decided that schools could not deny access to
a meaningful curriculum to English language learners: “There is no equality of treatment merely by providing
students with the same facilities, textbooks, teachers, and curriculum; for students who do not understand In this New Mexico school,
English are effectively foreclosed from any meaningful education.” In other words, for ELL students, the same teachers instruct students in both
treatment does not constitute equal treatment; schools bear an obligation to address both the language and English and a Native American
curricular needs of the students (Hakuta, 2011). language.

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 CONTROVERSIES in Education

Bilingual Education
B ilingual education is not without controversy. Some
people believe that non-English speakers in the United
bilingual programs. California voters approved Proposition 227
in 1998, which resulted in English language learners being
States should learn to speak English. They say that ELL stu- placed in immersion programs. Arizona passed a similar
dents should be immersed in English-speaking classrooms and measure in 2000, as did Massachusetts in 2002. Colorado
that no special and expensive bilingual education programs voters, however, did not approve similar propositions. At the
should be necessary. They maintain that the job of the school is national level, the Obama administration favors an approach
not to promote the native language and culture of the student, that transitions learners from their native language to English
but rather to help all students achieve academically through as quickly as possible. Research has shown that this approach,
the development of English language skills (Callaghan, 2010). called “transitional bilingual education,” has been effective.
Proponents of bilingual education note that, in our increasingly Students in bilingual education programs demonstrate greater
global society, being bilingual would be an asset to nonnative gains in achievement than those in English-immersion
English speakers. It would also benefit native English speakers programs. But once again, this effectiveness is strongly
to be bilingual (Olsen and Spiegel-Coleman, 2010). Others say dependent on the quality of the teacher (Fuller, 2008).
that providing instruction in the native language means stu-
dents may graduate without the necessary English skills (Fuller, WHAT DO YOU THINK?
2010). Another concern is that teachers need to be qualified to
teach ESL. In fact, it has been suggested that one reason Eng- 1. Should ELL students be immersed in English-speaking
lish learners fall behind in academic achievement may be be- classrooms to learn content? Why or why not?
cause they are not taught English effectively (Callaghan, 2010). 2. Should ELL students be provided with English lan-
Immigrants are divided on whether or not they believe their guage instruction as part of their regular school day?
children should be taught in English immersion or in bilingual Why or why not?
education programs. Sixty-three percent of those surveyed be- 3. What would be the advantages and disadvantages of
lieved that all classes should be taught in English, whereas pulling ELL students out of the regular classroom and
32 percent believed that students should receive some instruc- providing them with content instruction in their native
tion in their native languages (Public Agenda Online, 2003). language (not necessarily from a content-certified
Bilingual education is such a controversial issue that some teacher)?
states have adopted legislation that virtually eliminated

consist of students with many different primary languages. Students may attend
only one ESL class a day, which focuses on developing their English skills, or they
TeachSour
ce Video may attend up to a full day of classes that work on both English and content.
3. Transitional bilingual education. Students receive some instruction in their native
View the TeachSource Video from the language and also instruction in how to speak English in concentrated classes.
CBS/BBC Motion Gallery, “The Debate over The intent is for students to become proficient enough in English so they can
Bilingual Education.” Because Proposition
make the transition into English-speaking classes in a matter of a few years.
227 virtually outlawed bilingual education in
California, many English language learners 4. Developmental bilingual education. Students receive instruction in their own
in the state are now being taught in English- language as they learn English as a second language.
only schools. However, some schools have
worked to keep bilingual programs. After In some schools, students take certain subjects in English for half of the day
watching this video, answer the following and other subjects in their native language for the other half of the day. In a varia-
question:
If you were to begin teaching in
tion of this scheme, some schools switch language days each week.
Oceanside, California, this fall, would you The National Association for Bilingual Education (2009) reports that bilin-
be among those who fight to maintain the gual education programs that focus on developing students’ skills in their native
bilingual programs that Proposition 227 language lead to increased achievement in English. As with any educational pro-
outlawed? Why or why not? gram, however, bilingual education must be well designed and well implemented.
Also, the effectiveness of such programs is better when the teacher uses the lan-
guage in the context of learning (rather than just providing translations), and when the
goal of the program is really to develop bilingual skills (rather than just to get the
learner up to the mainstream standard). Adequate materials and resources are impor-
tant, as is the support from administrators, school boards, parents, and the community.

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 FROM THE FIELD
Teaching All Learners
Bonnie Robb
E

nie Robb
very year, there they are. Those eager first-grade I see my students’ bodies

Courtesy of Bon
faces. They are full of promise and ready for becoming still, mouths
learning. Every year, I take a moment to stop and reflect closing, hands not touching.
on the joys, challenges, and possibilities waiting for me Once students understand
and my students over the next nine months. I’ve spent how to look like a
most of my career teaching high-poverty, high-ELL mathematician, then they can begin to be a
populations, and my students have both loved and have mathematician.
had high achievement in math. I have found there are a Keep math relevant and in context. We all learn best
few important points to consider as teachers of these when we can relate to what we are learning on a personal
young mathematicians. level. All learning begins with the preoperational: How
Don’t let your past become their present! We all do I relate to this? When people put themselves in the
have stories about how we learned math that usually math picture, it becomes more relevant to them. Once we
include a failure or disappointment. I have sat in many have put ourselves in the picture, we can see others in
parent-teacher conferences and heard parents say, “I am the picture and then can move to concrete
so bad at math.” I have heard classroom teachers say the representations.
same thing, in front of students! “Don’t worry John,” they We often skip the preoperational in math and move
say, “math was hard for me too.” Teachers might think straight to the concrete. In the classroom, I often begin
they are making the student feel better, but really, we are math with a story. For example, “Mathematicians,
enabling him to fail. Young learners will rise to our yesterday I went to the store to buy some bananas for my
expectations, but we need to “sell it”! Students are banana bread recipe. Have any of you gone to the store
watching our attitudes and expressions—if we don’t like before? You have? Take your piece of paper and quickly
something, they won’t either. Don’t deny a child a future draw a picture of a time you went to the store and what
in mathematics because math was hard for you as a you needed to buy at the store. When you finish, find a
student. partner and tell them about your picture. I am going to
Keep your expectations high and your excuses finish my story now. I knew I needed seven bananas for
low. Mathematics is one of the gateways to my recipe. When I saw bunches of bananas, I found one
opportunities in life. Our children of poverty and color with five bananas. Mathematicians, I wonder, did I need
need more, not fewer, opportunities for their future. We more bananas, or less in order to have my seven
need to provide them more math instruction, on par to bananas.” This may seem lengthy, but it is so much more
the time we spend on literacy. New national standards in meaningful than a page of equations. Find a way to put a
mathematics are more rigorous than ever. For young person into the math, and your students are much more
learners, we need to teach math every day, and expect likely to remember the math.
them to achieve at a high level. Yet, we know some All students can achieve in math. When I was in
students struggle. In order to reach all students, I use college, there was no Internet and the best way to contact
several key strategies. someone quickly was with a pager. When my parents were
Put students “in the picture” of math. Many in college, they wrote papers on typewriters and used a
students from poverty have not seen mathematics in life. nickel in a payphone. The world is changing so fast; by
They do not play math games at home, use dice or cards, helping your students achieve in mathematics, you prepare
count everyday objects, help shop or cook. My job is to them for the possibilities of a future we cannot begin to
let them see themselves as mathematicians every day. If imagine. They deserve nothing less.
you cannot see yourself doing something, you will never
achieve it! Much of my work in the classroom has been
based around Viconic Language Strategies.™ From the 2008 Milken National Educator Award, Oregon
first day of school, I draw pictures of the students in the 2011 Kappa Delta Pi Teacher of Honor K–5
classroom space doing what is expected of them. I draw Math Achievement Coordinator, Portland Public Schools
them “thinking” about math, talking about math, using Portland, Oregon
math tools. When I draw these stick cartoons, in real time,
© Cengage Learning 2014

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 Religion
Just as there are differences in ethnicity and native language, there are differences in
religious beliefs among the students in our schools. Can you think of instances in which
religion has affected education? Some examples include the legal issue barring prayer
from schools and the controversy over studying the theories of evolution and creation-
ism in science classes. But how would a student’s individual religious beliefs affect his
or her learning or perspective on an ordinary educational task? Why is it important to
be aware of your students’ religious beliefs?
There are some 10,000 distinct religions in the world, of which approximately 150
have a million or more followers. Within Christianity, there are more than 33,000 differ-
ent denominations (Barrett et al., 2001). Major religions by percentage of members in the
United States and in the world are shown graphically in Figure 4.4.

Major Religions in the U.S., 2011

0.3%
1.6%
0.5%
0.6%
1.2%
6.6%

Christian
13.3%
Nonreligious
Judaism
Islam
Buddhism
Agnostic/Atheist
Hinduism
75.9% Other

Major Religions in the World, 2009

0.1%
0.2%
0.4% 11.2%

7.1% Christian
2.0% Islam
Hinduism
Figure 4.4 33.3%
▲

Nonreligious
Major Religions in the United 9.4% Atheist
States and the World Buddhism
Self-described religious Sikh
identifications according to the
Judaism
American Religious Identification
13.8% Baha’i
Survey, 2008, and the CIA World
FactBook, 2009. Other
(Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2011b.)
22.3%
(Source: CIA, 2009.)
© Cengage Learning 2014

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 © Michael Newman/PhotoEdit Inc.

Along with the diversity in your

classroom comes a diversity of
holidays your students do and
don't celebrate.

With this great diversity of religions, coupled with students’ great diversity of national
origins and ethnic backgrounds, it should come as no surprise that many different reli-
gions are represented in our schools. How do religious beliefs influence students’ attitudes
and expectations?

Religions BUILDING BLOCK

Talk to a person whose religion is different from the religion you know best to learn 4.5
about their basic beliefs, rituals, and observations. Focus on the following questions:
What are the religion’s primary beliefs?
Where and when does worship take place?
What are the required rituals? What do they represent?
What are the major feasts or celebrations? When do these occur? How do
adherents observe them? What do they represent?
What are the major fast days or periods? When do these occur? How do adher-
ents observe them? What do they represent?
Now ask yourself these questions:
What are your own beliefs? How do they compare with the beliefs of this person?
Can you assume a position of neutrality with respect to religious beliefs?

Teaching That Acknowledges Religions

As you might imagine, religious convictions and observations strongly influence stu-
dents’ expectations and performance at school. During the course of a school year,

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 events occur and topics are studied that may be inconsistent with the values of certain
religions. The study of evolutionary theory is a major example. Some religious groups
object strongly to this theory, saying that it directly contradicts the Bible’s account of
the creation of Earth and humanity. What does this mean to the science teacher plan-
ning a unit of study on evolution, as may be required in the state curriculum? What
if your own religious beliefs put you at odds with teaching evolutionary theory? (You
will investigate the controversy surrounding the teaching of evolution versus creation-
ism in Chapter 11.) As another example, in the United States, it is common to cele-
brate holidays such as Valentine’s Day, Halloween, Thanksgiving, and Christmas.
However, not all students celebrate the same holidays, nor do they celebrate religious
holidays at the same time. In fact, some students do not celebrate any holidays at
all—not even birthdays. Individual schools and school districts establish policies con-
cerning observance of religious holidays in school, and teachers are expected to ad-
here to these policies.
You must become sensitive to the fact that there will be several different religions
represented in your classroom, and you must recognize and honor them all. Referring
to the basic needs that Maslow outlined (see Chapter 3), you can see that doing so
helps foster the positive feelings of safety and security, belongingness, and self-esteem
that must be satisfied before students can focus on learning. Once again, go back and
review the qualities and characteristics of effective teachers that help them create an
environment of acceptance in their classrooms and design instruction that acknowl-
edges unique perspectives. Those characteristics also apply (and are required) as you
consider the values and experiences of students who are influenced by their religious
beliefs.
It is neither desirable nor possible to advance the beliefs of the religions you will en-
counter in your classroom. Unless you will be teaching in a religious school, the most
appropriate attitude to adopt concerning religion is one of neutrality.

Socioeconomic Status
We often consider that people who are financially very well off or who are financially
struggling belong to their own cultures. As a society, we even use terms such as upper
class, middle class, and lower class to denote financial categories of individuals and
families. Break the word socioeconomic into its parts. What do you think the word
means? What do you think the term socioeconomic status (SES) means? What character-
istics or qualities make up a person’s socioeconomic status?
The following demographic characteristics can be used as descriptors of socioeco-
nomic status in the United States (Woolfolk, 2010):

Household income
Parents’ occupation
Parents’ education
Parents’ attitude toward education
Parents’ aspirations for their children
Intellectual activities of the family (including trips to educationally stimulating loca-
tions such as museums, zoos, historical sites, and so on)

It should be noted that financial status is only one of the determinants of socioeco-
nomic status. Recall that you learned earlier that SES is an expression of perceived power.
How do the demographic characteristics listed above contribute to the power of an indi-
vidual, family, or group in society?

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 Socioeconomic Status and School BUILDING BLOCK
Suppose you were asked to describe the socioeconomic status of a family and its en- 4.6
vironment. Using the characteristics listed previously describe a high-SES family and
a low-SES family. How would the environments you described for high- and low-SES
families affect a child’s educational “readiness” to enter school with a set of experi-
ences that would form a foundation upon which to build? How would the environ-
ments you described affect a student’s attitude toward learning and education?

Money is the characteristic most often used to describe socioeconomic status. Among
the descriptors used is poverty level. Poverty level is defined in terms of annual income and poverty level The minimum amount
ranged in 2011 from $10,890 for a single person living alone to $37,630 for a family of of income that is determined to be
adequate.
eight; these levels are slightly higher for the states of Alaska and Hawaii (Federal Register,
2011). In 2010, 15.1 percent of the U.S. population was living below the poverty level (U.S.
Census Bureau, 2011c). This number is up from 12.5 percent in 2007, and from 11.3 percent
in 2000. Whites made up 13.0 percent of those identified, 27.4 percent were black, 12.1
percent were Asian and Pacific Islander, and 26.6 percent were Hispanic. Twenty-two percent
of children in the United States were living below the poverty level in 2010, up from 20.7
percent in 2009 (Walt, Proctor, and Smith, 2011). (See Figure 4.5.)
As you saw in Chapter 3, all students have common
human needs, and the most basic of these needs are the
survival and safety needs represented in the foundational
levels of Maslow’s hierarchy. You also saw that these com-
mon needs must be met before students can turn their at-
tention to learning and pursue self-actualization. For fami-
lies identified as having a low socioeconomic status,
priority often must go to fulfilling the deficiency needs of
survival and safety.
Studies have indicated that there is a correlation be-
© Michael Newman/PhotoEdit Inc.

tween low socioeconomic status and low achievement. As

with some of the populations with unique perspectives we
have already examined in this chapter, a lack in language
skills as compared to the mainstream population may play
a part in low-SES students’ struggles to succeed (Aikens
and Barbarin, 2008). You don’t have to be a person for
whom English is a “foreign” language; many Americans
have difficulty with English (as evidenced by the number Active, stimulating learning experiences
of Americans who cannot read). Research has shown that in preschool can promote future
academic achievement for students.

13.0%

26.6%
White
Figure 4.5
▲

Black
Asian People Living Below the Poverty
Hispanic Level in the United States
27.4% Percent of adults and children
living below the poverty level, 2010
12.1%
(Source: Walt, Proctor, and
Smith, 2011.)
© Cengage Learning 2014

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 students who live in low-SES homes are slower to develop basic skills needed for
academic success than those from higher-SES families (Morgan, Faras, Hillemeier, and
Maczuga, 2009). The environment of a low-SES household is associated with low
literacy levels and high stress levels, which can affect the development of academic skills
before preschool (American Psychological Association, 2011). Children who come from
lower-SES families have been found to have learning disabilities about twice as often as
students from higher-SES households (Morgan et al., 2009). Although we have acknowl-
edged that socioeconomic status is more complex than merely considering household
income, financial concerns may contribute greatly to stress levels in a low-SES house-
hold. Finances may prohibit low-SES families from affording some of the resources such
as computers, books, and the opportunity to participate in educational activities that
contribute to the development of academic skills (Orr, 2003; Aikens and Barbarin,
2008). Whereas children from middle- and high-SES families might have education-
related trips to places like museums and educational toys available to them, the parents
of lower-SES families are forced to place precedence on housing, food, and other neces-
sities. The result is that children from lower-SES households have less exposure to expe-
riences that prepare them for the educational environment. Being “ready” for school
contributes greatly to initial success. And, as you have observed, success is vital for
motivating students to achieve. The high school dropout rate was 16.7 percent among
low-SES students compared to 3.2 percent for high-income households in 2007 (Na-
tional Center for Education Statistics, 2008a).

Teaching That Acknowledges Socioeconomic Status

Students of different economic and social backgrounds have different expectations and
career goals, which are influenced by their parents and communities. You, the teacher, also
may have different expectations of students, depending on your beliefs about the SES
group they come from. Recall Building Block 4.3, where you thought about neighbor-
hoods in which you dream of living and neighborhoods in which you cannot imagine
living. Was there a difference in your expectations when you were thinking about the
students who live in these neighborhoods?
Would you agree that there is a culture associated with socioeconomic status? If that
is so, then you must realize that all of the information you have considered so far in this
chapter with regard to culture—the multicultural paradigms (cultural deficit model, cul-
tural mismatch model, and so on), the recommendations for acknowledging the unique
perspectives of your students, and the importance of involving the community in educa-
tion and yourself in the school’s community—are applicable here as well.
You have seen that students’ motivations often vary according to social classes, which
affect achievement. You also have seen that the extent to which young children are pre-
pared to enter school correlates with their achievement in school. Because of this, federal
and state programs have been initiated to help prepare young children to enter school.
Examples include Head Start, Early Head Start, the Perry Preschool project, and other
preschool intervention programs intended for students of low-SES groups. Research has
shown that Early Head Start programs have been effective for cognitive and language
development (Love et al., 2005). Key findings from the Head Start Impact Study (Admin-
istration for Children and Families, 2010) indicated that the Head Start program posi-
tively affected children’s cognitive and language development, but that this impact was
somewhat diminished by the end of first grade.
Ruby Payne’s work on children of poverty (1998) offers insight into working with
students of the low socioeconomic group, that, as a class, has been shown to have low
achievement levels. Payne suggests a number of principles and strategies to help low-SES
students increase their achievement levels, which include the following:

Helping students establish specific goals

Using graphic organizers such as charts and diagrams

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 Helping students associate content with their personal experiences
Helping students utilize what they already know in the learning process
Using “hands-on” approaches
Helping students evaluate their own performance
Teaching students how to ask questions dealing with the content
Helping students sort relevant information from irrelevant information

How do these strategies help students fulfill their common and academic needs? Re-
member, students of poverty are likely to need reinforcement in the most basic needs such
as physiological needs, safety, security, love, and belonging.
Payne’s work has made major contributions to the understanding of economic
classes and students from poverty. Swan (2004) found that the use of Payne’s instruc-
tional framework in a widely diverse school district was associated with an increase in
student achievement. However, many in the field of multicultural education believe her
work actually contributes to classism in schools instead of promoting class equity be-
cause of her emphasis on the difference between the lower and upper classes (Gorski,
2005). Kunjufu (2006), an African American educator, has written an entire book disput-
ing many of Payne’s hypotheses when it comes to African American children. And Bomer,
Dworin, May, and Semingson et al. (2008) write that Payne’s work may be contributing
to lower expectations of poor students, resulting in poor students being more likely to
be placed in lower ability groups where their education is likely to be dominated by
memorization exercises.
Additional studies have found that traditional, teacher-centered approaches seem to
be less effective with students from lower incomes. Approaches that work include making
the students responsible for their learning, setting clear and reasonable goals, using
student-centered strategies such as cooperative learning and hands-on activities, giving
students autonomy, and assessing learning regularly (Patrnogich-Arieli, 2009).

Teaching Students of Poverty BUILDING BLOCK

Review the strategies Payne suggested for teaching students of poverty. Go back and 4.7
review ideas you had and information you considered for effective teaching in previ-
ous sections of this chapter and in Chapter 3. How are these strategies consistent
among all populations of students? How do these strategies foster heightened rela-
tionships between students and teachers? How do they help students meet their
common and academic needs?

Gender
It has been said that males and females speak different languages. Maybe you have felt
this way when trying to communicate with someone of the opposite sex. Because the
behavioral differences between genders seem so pronounced, you might even consider
them to be separate cultures. Of course, genders are not separate cultures, but there cer-
tainly are generalizations associated with being male or female. What are some of these
generalizations? To what extent do you fit them? Are there any general impressions about
your gender that do not apply to you? What impact, if any, do you think gender has on
learning? Do you think boys are better than girls at some subjects? Do you think girls are
better than boys at some subjects?

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 BUILDING BLOCK Activities for Boys and Girls
4.8 The following activities are listed on various websites constructed by troops of the
Girl Scouts of America and the Boy Scouts of America. Can you guess which activities
came from which sites? Mark the activities you think came from the Girl Scout sites
with a G and those that you think came from the Boy Scout sites with a B. Be sure
to record your immediate, initial response. (This activity can also be found on the
CourseMate website so you can print it out or record your responses electronically.)
_____ Archery _____ Knot tying _____ Safety
_____ Axe throwing _____ Loom and grass _____ Sounds of music
_____ Tie-dying mats _____ Space exploration
_____ New ways to _____ Acting _____ Sports and games
wear a bandana _____ Surfing _____ Science wonders
_____ Woodcraft _____ Sailing _____ Snakes
_____ Bedding materials _____ Rock climbing _____ Stalking and
_____ Bicycle _____ Photography observation
maintenance _____ Map and _____ Storytelling
_____ Birdhouses compasses _____ Teepee building
_____ Oil changing _____ Measurement _____ Tomahawk
_____ Homemade and estimation throwing
compasses _____ Night tracking _____ Weather wisdom
_____ Cooking contests _____ Rope making _____ Art to wear
_____ Deduction in _____ Sign language _____ Math fun
tracking _____ Animals _____ Puppets, dolls,
_____ Fire building _____ Creative and plays
_____ Hiking composing
_____ Insect collecting _____ Food fun
Tomahawk throwing, Weather wisdom
ing, Rope making, Sign language, Snakes, Stalking and observation, Storytelling, Teepee building,
Knot tying, Loom and grass mats, Map and compasses, Measurement and estimation, Night track-
made compasses, Cooking contests, Deduction in tracking, Fire building, Hiking, Insect collecting,
Archery, Axe throwing, Woodcraft, Bedding materials, Bicycle maintenance, Birdhouses, Home- B:
Sports and games, Science wonders, Art to wear, Math fun, Puppets, dolls, and plays
Photography, Animals, Creative composing, Food fun, Safety, Sounds of music, Space exploration,
Tie-dying, New ways to wear a bandana, Oil changing, Acting, Surfing, Sailing, Rock climbing, G:

Look again at the activities. Which did you associate with girls? Which did you
associate with boys? Based on these associations, which gender do you suppose
would be better at math? At language? Science? Social sciences?

Many of the activities in Building Block 4.8 can be easily assigned to one gender or
the other based on our stereotypical notions of traditional gender roles. However, it might
surprise you to learn that some of the activities we traditionally associate with boys, such
as computers, tying knots, and archery, can be found on Girl Scout websites. Making an
upside-down cake in a can and participating in a songfest were activities suggested on Boy
Scout websites.
Why is it that we so readily associate certain activities and subjects with gender? Are
there really gender-specific differences in academic aptitudes? Are girls really better read-
ers and writers? Are boys really better at math?
Research shows that girls tend to be better in language skills—spelling, verbal
skills, reading, and writing, although these differences decrease as students progress
in school. Boys tend to be better in math and spatial skills such as mental rotation
(being able to think of how an object would look from different angles), although
girls tend to narrow the math gap in middle school (Robinson and Lubienski, 2010).

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 It is interesting to note that the dif-
ferences between genders in cogni-
tive and social skills have actually
decreased in the past couple of de-
cades. This seems to indicate that
socialization and experiences affect
gender development (Cook and
Cook, 2009).
The gender roles of boys and
girls begin to be differentiated very
early in life. Boys and girls learn at
an early age what their gender roles
are, and they learn that the genders
are treated differently. Teacher and
parent behaviors may influence per-

© Sean Justice/Getty Images

formance by boys and girls on vari-
ous tasks (Bohlin, Durwin, and
Reese-Weber, 2009). For example,
gender stereotyping by parents and
teachers may discourage girls from
pursuing activities, areas of study, or
even careers that are generally thought of as masculine, such as participating in cer- Children often exhibit
tain sports, studying the pure sciences or mathematics, or pursuing a career as an stereotypical, gender-specific
roles very early in their
engineer or astrophysicist.
development.
Within their families, boys and girls receive different treatment, and their parents
communicate different expectations for them, both verbally and nonverbally. Male
children are handled and played with more roughly than girls, even as infants, and
this differential treatment continues as children get older. Boys are given different toys
to play with than girls are and they are dressed differently to play with these toys
(Parke and Gauvain, 2008). Think about the toy section of a familiar department
store. Can you see that there is an aisle for boys’ toys and an aisle for girls’ toys?
Perhaps you can make this distinction based on such subtleties as the predominant
color of the toys displayed in the aisle. Chances are you can apply this same method
for identifying the section for boys’ clothes and girls’ clothes in the same store. And
which clothing would you say encourages children to go outside and get dirty versus
stay inside and keep clean (Huffman, 2011)? This differential treatment may help to
foster some personality traits that are stereotypical in boys and girls. Traits that are
thought of as masculine include being active, competitive, dominant, independent,
and aggressive. Feminine stereotypical traits include being considerate, selfless, emo-
tional, passive, and nurturing (Berk, 2000).
However, research suggests that genetic factors may predispose males to act in mas-
culine ways and females to act in feminine ways (Blum, 1999; Kreeger, 2002). It appears
masculine and feminine behaviors result from a combination of genetic inheritance and
socialization.
So, strong social influences may contribute to gender bias in the classroom. These
influences seem to encourage girls toward “softer” subjects, such as reading and social
studies, and boys toward mathematics and science. In classrooms and in society, girls are
discouraged in both subtle and overt ways from participating in activities and studies
traditionally associated with being male, and boys are discouraged from activities tradi-
tionally associated with being female.
Let us look at some representative data. The Program for International Student
Assessment (PISA) is a system of international assessments that measures capabilities
of 15-year-olds from 65 countries in reading, science, and mathematics every
three years. The result of the 2009 mathematics test showed that U.S. boys scored
slightly higher than U.S. girls in mathematics literacy. In reading literacy, U.S. girls

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 scored slightly higher than U.S. boys. And in science, U.S. boys outscored U.S. girls by
only a slight margin (Fleischman, Hopstock, Pelczar, and Shelley, 2010). The National
Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP), also known as The Nation’s Report Card,
administers subject-matter assessments annually to randomly selected schools in the
United States. The most recent results available show that boys outscored girls in
mathematics in both fourth grade and eighth grade (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2009a), and that girls outscored boys in reading in both fourth grade and
eighth grade (National Center for Education Statistics, 2009b). In science, boys out-
performed girls overall in fourth grade and in eighth grade (National Center for Edu-
cation Statistics, 2009b).

Teaching That Acknowledges Gender

Now that you have seen that gender influences the way students learn, it is clear that
teaching strategies must acknowledge gender differences. Boys’ early orientation to-
ward exploration gives them experience interacting with concepts associated with
science and mathematics. In science and mathematics classes, therefore, many boys
approach the content with more experience and confidence than some girls. Similarly,
girls’ early orientation toward caring and kindliness gives them experience and confi-
dence in the “softer” behaviors many girls bring into their school years.
One of the challenges teachers face is to foster the achievement of both boys and
girls in all areas. In the classroom, research shows that boys receive more active in-
struction than girls, and that names, experiences, and examples using males outnum-
ber those using females in curricular materials in all subject areas (Zittleman and
Sadker, 2009). Teachers call on girls less, and when they do, the questions girls are
asked tend to require a lower level of knowledge to answer. When girls do answer, the
feedback they receive from the teacher is less constructive than feedback given to boys
(Sadker, 2002).
Research has shown that when preschool teachers used gendered language
in the classroom, the children tended to express gender stereotypes and to
TeachSour choose children of their own gender to play with. In other words, if the teacher
ce Video made statements such as, “Girls play with dolls and boys play with trucks,” the
children tended to express the same stereotypical beliefs and behaviors
View the TeachSource Video Case, (Moskowitz, 2010). And, in elementary school, if a female teacher is anxious
“Gender Equity in the Classroom: Girls and
Science.” In this video segment, you’ll see
about math, it is thought that she can actually transfer this anxiety to her female
how Robert Cho, a middle school teacher, students who then don’t perform as well (Beilock, Gunderson, Ramirez, and
promotes science learning for all his stu- Levine, 2010), although these findings have been disputed (Plante, Protzko, and
dents: boys and girls. Rob describes how he Aronson, 2010).
keeps the girls in his classroom interested in Teachers can use a number of strategies to ensure that both boys and girls
science. He also reflects on the importance
of a role model or mentor. After watching
have the same opportunity to learn, whether the material is traditionally more
this video, answer the following questions: associated with girls (such as the language arts) or boys (such as science and
1. How effective were Mr. Cho’s strategies? mathematics). Teaching for gender equity is not about making either sex supe-
rior to the other; it is about removing gender restrictions from both boys and
2. How could you model the intent of
girls so that both genders can move forward (Zittleman and Sadker, 2009;
Mr. Cho’s methods in your content area?
King, Gurian, and Stevens, 2010). Following are some of these strategies:

Involve girls and boys equally as classroom assistants and helpers.

Recognize the academic achievements of girls and boys equally.
Recognize the extracurricular achievements of girls and boys equally.
Talk equally about prominent women and men.
Call on girls and boys with equal frequency.
Include both girls and boys in cooperative learning groups.

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 CONTROVERSIES in Education

Gender Equity: Single-Sex Classrooms and Schools

O ne approach to offering both boys and girls equal
opportunity to succeed in schools may be to separate
Giving girls the chance to explore interests in
“traditionally male” subjects such as math, science, and
them by sex. For example, girls and boys would take math in technology. (Gurian, Stevens, and Daniels, 2009)
separate classrooms and with separate teachers in an effort Offering single-sex science and math courses may serve
to reduce some of the social pressures that both sexes might girls, especially, in encouraging not only their participation in
feel with regard to expectations based on gender. Same-sex studying the discipline, but also in pursuing careers in science,
schools—mostly private schools—have been around for math, technology, and engineering. Many schools have taken
years. But in public schools, girls are separated from boys advantage of federal funding, and for the 2010–2011 school
primarily for physical education and health/sex education year, at least 506 public schools had single-sex courses
classes. Using federal Title IX funds made available in 2006, (National Association for Single Sex Public Education, 2011).
many schools have implemented the use of single-sex
instruction to take advantage of the opportunities these You can access the website of the National
funds may offer. Among these opportunities are: Association for Single Sex Public Education through
the direct link on the Education CourseMate
Using teaching strategies that have been shown to be
website. There you will be able to access the research,
particularly effective for either males or females and
nature of single-sex schools, and many other facets of
using resources with gender-specific examples.
single-sex education programs.
Eliminating distractions like flirting and gender-based
competition that may be present in co-ed classrooms.
WHAT DO YOU THINK?
Removing the fear of being ridiculed by the opposite
sex for comments or incorrect answers so that learners 1. Would you like to learn in a single-sex classroom or
can concentrate on performance rather than what school? (Perhaps you have had this experience.) Why?
others’ think. 2. Would you like to teach in a single-sex classroom or
Creating a classroom environment in which males and school? Why?
females concentrate on learning rather than on how 3. What advantages would there be for you as a
they look or performing to get the attention of others. teacher? For the students in your class? What chal-
lenges would there be?
Having a safe atmosphere for boys to tackle new
problems so that they don’t have to worry about looking
like failures or appearing too feminine in front of girls.

Understanding the nature and development of gender-based stereotypical roles and

the value placed by students and adults on these roles is a good first step toward reducing
gender-based expectations in school.
Before you start drawing conclusions about methods that make content accessible to
both genders, it might be useful to explore your own assumptions and expectations
regarding gender.

Your Gender Biases BUILDING BLOCK

Take the test for gender bias at the Implicit Association Test on the Internet. Use the 4.9
direct link to this battery of tests on this textbook’s Education CourseMate website.
Select the Gender-Science IAT.
Reflect on your results. What do the results tell you about stereotypical gender
biases you may have?

From Building Block 4.9, can you tell what you really believe about gender roles? Do
you really believe that males make better scientists than females? Do you really believe
that females make better writers? What would you do to ensure that gender inequalities
do not exist in your classroom?

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 Sexual Orientation
As you survey your classroom, many of the student perspectives and characteristics we
have discussed so far may be apparent, but you may not be able to discern a student’s
sexual orientation. Indeed, some students go to great lengths to hide this attribute. None-
theless, a student’s sexual orientation can have a profound impact on his or her motiva-
tion to participate in your classroom.
There are several sexual orientations, including heterosexual, homosexual (gay and
lesbian), bisexual (sexual orientation toward both sexes), and transgender (having the
characteristics of the opposite sex), and questioning (for those not ready to identify a
sexual orientation). Although most people are heterosexual, many, including students in
our schools, identify with alternative orientations. Of these, homosexuality predominates.
Homosexual people have been called the “invisible minority.” Not only is their orientation
not readily discernible, but they are also unlikely to disclose it, largely out of fear of others’
reactions.
Recall the basic needs of all students: love, security, belonging, and self-esteem. What
unique issues do gay students bring to getting these needs met by teachers and other
students?
Some individuals are less accepting of the homosexual orientation than others, so
students with nontraditional sexual orientations may have good reason to keep their ori-
entation secret. The 2009 National School Climate Survey (Kosciw, Greytak, Diaz, and
LGBTQ Lesbian, gay, bisexual, Bartkiewicz, 2010) reports the following about lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered, and
transgendered, and questioning. questioning (LGBTQ) students:

Almost nine out of ten LGBTQ students were harassed at school because of their sexual
orientation. Eighty-five percent reported this as verbal harassment and 40 percent as
physical harassment. Almost 64 percent of LGBTQ students were verbally harassed and
27 percent were physically harassed because of their gender expression.
Nearly 20 percent of LGBTQ students reported being physically assaulted because of
their sexual orientation and 12.5 percent because of their gender expression.
Seventy-two percent of LGBTQ students frequently hear derogatory comments to-
ward homosexuality in the halls and classrooms.
Sixty-one percent reported feeling unsafe due to their sexuality, and 40 percent felt
unsafe due to their gender expression.
One out of three LGBTQ students skipped a class at least one time, and 30 percent
skipped school during the month preceding the survey out of fear. (For comparison,
a national sample of high school students showed that 8 percent skipped a class and
6.7 percent skipped a day of school.)
Grade point averages of students who were harassed due to sexual orientation were
almost a half grade lower than those who reported they weren’t harassed as frequently.

These statistics describe a situation in schools that is unacceptable. No student

should feel unsafe in school. Some students have gone to extreme measures to escape
the harassment they have experienced due to their real or perceived sexual orientation.
In 2009, two 11-year-old boys hanged themselves within two weeks of each other—
one in Georgia and one in Massachusetts—as a result of experiencing gay bullying
(Simon, 2009 and GLSEN, 2009). There were five teen suicides across the country in a
period of three weeks in 2010, as a result of pressures related to their real or perceived
sexual orientation (Hubbard, 2010). In fact, suicide among sexual minority youth is a
major social issue (Robinson and Espelage, 2011). What you must realize, as a future
teacher, is exactly what we have been saying throughout this entire chapter: You have
an obligation to all students to do what you can in your classroom to help them feel
loved, accepted, and respected so that they can move on to the business of learning.

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 Direct links to the Parents, Families, and Friends of Lesbians and Gays (PFLAG) as-
sociation website and the Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network (GLSEN) are
available on the Education CourseMate website.

Teaching That Acknowledges Sexual Orientation

As with religion, people’s beliefs about sexual orientation are strongly influenced by
the environment in which they were raised. As with gender, society has exerted strong
influence on perceptions of alternative sexual orientations. And, as with culture, lan-
guage, religion, SES, and other individual differences, teachers have an obligation to
students with different sexual orientations to demonstrate positive regard in meeting
their needs as students and as human beings. Robinson and Espelage (2011) report
that LGBTQ students who experienced teasing, but who perceive school as being a
positive force in their lives, had lower depression, suicide, and alcohol and drug use
rates than those who are bullied and perceived their school climate to be negative.
The teacher can make a difference. Shah (2012a) reports that fewer than half of the
1,100 elementary teachers surveyed said they would feel comfortable responding to
their students’ questions about sexual orientation. Recall the characteristics of effec-
tive teachers you identified in Chapter 1. Chances are that you agreed with the re-
searchers and others that tolerance for all people is a desirable characteristic—one
that is normally found in effective teachers. Does your tolerance extend to people
with alternative sexual orientations? The way you teach people with alternative
sexual orientations should not differ from the way you teach the other students in
your class. Review the strategies you have identified that contribute to the creation
of an effective learning environment for all students. How do these strategies serve to
meet the needs of LGBTQ students or those students who are questioning their sexu-
ality? Of course, there is no specific list of strategies to teach gay students. The strat-
egies you have already identified help meet the needs of each and every student in
your classroom.
And, above all, you should not participate in intimidating or harassing students, how-
ever subtly, whose alternative sexual orientation you know.

Your Sexual Orientation Biases BUILDING BLOCK

Take the Sexuality Implicit Association Test (IAT) available on the Internet. The 4.10
Sexuality IAT assesses for sexual orientation bias. Access the test through the direct
link available on the Education CourseMate website for this textbook.
Reflect on what your results tell you. What do you think contributed to the
beliefs you hold that contributed to your score? If you have discovered that you hold
certain biases toward people with alternative lifestyles, what can you do to neutral-
ize those biases and be an effective teacher?

Putting It All Together

You have examined many aspects of diversity, including culture, language, religion,
socioeconomic status, gender, and sexual orientation. You have investigated each of
these issues and you have attempted to identify your own personal beliefs, predisposi-
tions, biases, and prejudices. You must realize as well that some students will bring

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 TECHNOLOGY Different Strokes for Different Folks
& EDUCATION
I n this chapter, you have found that, although students
have common needs, each student brings a different
you can draw. Don’t worry if you are not an artist. Software is
available to help you draw anything from a straight line to a
perspective to the classroom. It might seem daunting to complex diagram.
acknowledge all the different perspectives in any one class- Software for language learning is also available. ELL
room, but technology can assist teachers in meeting this chal- students can use such packages to help them learn English,
lenge effectively. and English-speaking students can use them to learn other
Using instructional technology can help teachers languages. Online language courses exist, some of which are
understand and acknowledge different cultures, religions, free. Translation software and websites let teachers translate
and languages. Teachers can use the Internet to research work they produce for students, as well as letters to and from
the cultures and religions represented in their classrooms parents. Again, some online translation sites are free; others
to gain a better understanding of students’ perspectives. charge a fee. What kind of online language courses or
Imagine the validation a student might feel knowing that translations sites can you find?
the teacher cared enough to learn about his or her culture Content-area software frequently offers different
or religion! When a teacher does this, what common needs language options. DVDs and CD-ROMs, for example, may
is the teacher helping to meet? Which of Brooks’s questions have Spanish language tracks. Many websites are also
does the teacher’s action help to answer (Chapter 3)? Keep available in two or more languages. If English-speaking
in mind that other students could also access the same students find content-area websites in a language other
information to learn more about their classmates and than English, an ELL student who speaks that language can
themselves. Take the time to educate yourself about other translate the site and share it with other students, thereby
unique perspectives you have learned about in this chapter, learning and practicing both language and technology
taking advantage of the Internet’s vast resources. skills.
Technology affords teachers many resources to help Teachers can use technology as a valuable tool to
teach English language learners (ELLs). We all know that a acknowledge the unique perspectives students bring to the
picture is worth a thousand words. Technology provides classroom. Tools and software are available to aid in
teachers with access to countless images, diagrams, and communication, understanding, and learning.
videos that can be projected or printed when giving
instructions or illustrating an idea. And what you cannot find,

new perspectives to your classroom that we haven’t addressed in this chapter. As a

teacher in today’s pluralistic society, it is essential that you maintain a diverse perspec-
tive in your classroom. This may mean thinking differently about what is acceptable
and what is not acceptable on the part of students and teacher alike and what cultural
and diversity characteristics are promoted in the classroom.
As a teacher, you have a responsibility to be sure you are not contributing to racism,
classism, sexism, homophobia, and other elements of diversity that may create a hierarchy
and define a norm. Rather, you must see that all your interactions with students foster
personal and educational equity.

BUILDING BLOCK Metaphors Revisited

4.11 Refer to the metaphor you selected to describe yourself as a teacher in Chapter 2. In
light of the investigations you have made in this chapter, ask yourself this question:
“Does my metaphor imply unconditional equity?”

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 SU MMA RY

CHAPTER RESOURCES
In this chapter, you investigated several differences that affect the ways students learn and,
ultimately, their achievement:
Diversity includes numerous ways in which people are different from one another.
Some of these ways are visible and immediately recognizable. Others are less visible
but just as important.
The student population of schools in the United States is becoming increasingly
diversified relative to both race and ethnicity. This diversity requires teachers to be
sensitive to culture-based differences in approaches to learning.
Multicultural paradigms are models that explain cultural diversity. The cultural
deprivation paradigm says that nonmainstream students fail to achieve academi-
cally because they have been deprived of knowledge and experiences they need to
succeed. The cultural deficit model proposes that nonmainstream students are ac-
tually at a deficit due to their cultural identification. Other paradigms include the
cultural difference and cultural mismatch models, which hold that nonmainstream
students struggle because the culture of the classroom is different or is a mismatch
from the minority culture of the learner.
The primary difficulty of English language learners is their lack of fluency with the
English language; however, teachers can assist ELL students with a few appropriate
instructional adjustments.
Many religious beliefs are represented in our schools, and teachers must recognize
this fact and assume an attitude of neutrality when it comes to religion.
Students’ socioeconomic backgrounds have a tremendous influence on the stu-
dents’ preparedness for school, their attitudes toward school, and their achieve-
ment; and different socioeconomic backgrounds present unique instructional chal-
lenges.
Gender roles tend to be perceived stereotypically in schools; skillful teachers teach
for gender equity.
Teachers must show tolerance and respect for students who identify with alterna-
tive sexual orientations.
Biases and prejudices often exist toward people with perspectives perceived as “dif-
ferent.” Teachers must identify their own viewpoints and work toward acceptance
of all students, regardless of their unique characteristics and perspectives, to pro-
vide a safe, respectful, and equitable classroom environment that allows students
to focus on learning.
The learning strategies identified are useful in meeting the needs of all students, not
only the needs of single groups.
It is not necessary to provide separate lists of specific ways of teaching to acknowl-
edge the unique learning needs presented by each different perspective or characteristic.
Although certain strategies can be identified for managing certain perspectives, all stu-
dents have similar needs. Teachers must show students that the material being taught
connects to their individual lives. This connection arises largely from the teaching and
learning relationships developed in the classroom.
Many factors bear on students’ ability to learn, and the factors discussed in this chap-
ter represent selected examples. By now you can see that no two people are the same and
no two people learn in precisely the same way. You will continue this exploration into the
next chapter, where you will consider cognitive differences.

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 CHAPTER RESOURCES Key Terms and Concepts
1.5 Generation Culturally relevant LGBTQ (lesbian, gay,
Students, 105 pedagogy, 104 bisexual, transgender, and
Bilingual education, 107 Diversity, 94 questioning), 120
Culture, 97 English as a foreign language Limited English proficiency
Cultural deficit model, 102 (EFL), 105 (LEP), 105
Cultural deprivation English as a second language Poverty level, 113
model, 102 (ESL), 105 Race, 97
Cultural difference English language learner Socioeconomic status
model, 103 (ELL), 104 (SES), 102
Cultural mismatch Ethnicity, 97 Stereotype, 97
model, 103 White privilege, 102

Construct and Apply

1. List five factors you consider to be “identifiers” about yourself. These can be physical charac-
teristics, information about your history or background, or a role you occupy as a citizen or
family member. Which factors indicate a difference between you and most other people?
2. Why do you suppose traditionally minority populations cite their minority characteristic as
defining?
3. For each unique student characteristic and perspective you investigated in this chapter, describe
how these students can be expected to provide for their basic need of love and belonging and
how you would expect them to motivate themselves to learn. Are your expectations reasonable
for the age you wish to teach?
4. What are your thoughts regarding the cultural paradigms presented in this chapter? How do
you feel about the presence of white privilege?
5. Make a list of teaching strategies effective for teaching everyone in all groups discussed in this
chapter.

Deconstructing the Standards

1. Recall the InTASC Standards associated with the objectives for this chapter:
Standard #1: Learner Development reads, “The teacher understands how learners
grow and develop, recognizing that patterns of learning and development vary individually
within and across the cognitive, linguistic, social, emotional, and physical areas, and de-
signs and implements developmentally appropriate and challenging learning experiences.”
Standard #2: Learner Differences reads, “The teacher works with others to create
environments that support individual and collaborative learning, and that encourage
positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation.”
a. Which part(s) of these standards does this chapter address?
b. How will the concepts in this chapter help you apply these standards as a teacher?
2. Use your favorite search engine to find your state’s standards for certification. When you find
it, bookmark the site. You will refer to it often as you progress through this course.
a. How are your conclusions about students’ unique perspectives represented in the state
standards?
b. How do the InTASC Standards compare to your state’s certification standards regarding
students’ unique perspectives?
c. Do you believe the degree of representation concerning students’ unique perspectives is
adequate in your state certification standards? Why or why not?

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 CHAPTER RESOURCES
Your Portfolio
Use your work in the activities suggested in this chapter to show your developing awareness of the
differences among students in our schools.
Reexamine the philosophy of education you wrote in Chapter 2. Make any revisions or addi-
tions that seem appropriate as a result of your work in this chapter, highlight these changes, and
replace your former philosophy with your new one in your portfolio.
To enhance your increasing awareness of diversity, try a few enrichment activities. Here are
some suggestions:
Some colleges offer language courses specifically designed for teachers. Check one out.
Immerse yourself in a cultural experience. Attend services at a synagogue or church. Volun-
teer to tutor underprivileged kids.
If there is an International House on your campus, visit it and pick up some literature to
include in your portfolio.
Refer to a newspaper or the Internet to examine the population demographics of the school
systems in your area. Include the material you find in your portfolio.
Find a student on campus or at your field placement school who identifies with a culture
different from yours. Talk with the student about his or her educational experience. Write
a brief reflection to include in your portfolio.
Find out if the software in your campus or in your field placement school (or both) is avail-
able in languages other than English.
Attend an event—fair, festival, or farmers market—in the community in which a school that
you would like to teach at is located. Observe the activities, materials, and people at the
event. How do they translate into the school environment? Write up your observations and
reflections and include them in your portfolio.

Education CourseMate Resources

Check out this text’s Education CourseMate website (at www.cengagebrain.com) for more informa-
tion about working with the diverse populations of our schools, as well as interactive study tools
and useful resources. You will find the TeachSource Videos, a guide for doing Field Experiences,
glossary flash cards, activities, tutorial quizzes, direct links to all the websites mentioned in the
chapter, and more.

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 ©Ellen B. Senisi/The Image Works
CHAPTER

5 The Student
and the Teacher:
Acknowledging
Unique Abilities
WE ALL KNOW every student has unique abilities. Some of these abilities are
expressed artistically; others may be expressed intellectually. Like the unique
perspectives students bring to class that are influenced by culture, race, ethnicity,
language, religion, socioeconomic status, and sexual orientation, these abilities also
contribute to diversity in the classroom. Step into any classroom and you will
encounter a broad spectrum of physical, sensory, cognitive, and behavioral
differences. As a teacher, you always strive to create a learning environment that will
allow all students to use their unique abilities to succeed.
This chapter asks you to familiarize yourself with some unique abilities and
learning styles and investigate the nature of these abilities. You will consider ways of
teaching to foster maximum achievement for students with diverse abilities. You will
explore some of the ways in which learning abilities can be classified, beginning with

126

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 the categories of exceptionality covered by the Individuals with Disability Education
Act. You will examine how students with unique abilities are served by special
education, with a special focus on students with learning disabilities, attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and autism. Although teachers and schools frequently
emphasize traditional measures of intellectual ability such as IQ, you will investigate
some alternative (but influential) views of intelligence. You will also explore learning
styles and other individual differences among learners that have been shown to have
pronounced influences on student achievement.

Chapter Objectives
As a result of your explorations in this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Investigate ways in which variations in ability are classified according to the
Individuals with Disabilities Act.
Standard #2: Learning Differences
2. Identify characteristics of learning disabilities and other disorders that may affect
learning, and describe some teaching strategies that are effective for these disabilities and disorders.
Standard #2: Learning Differences
3. Identify characteristics of cognitive abilities, learning preferences, and learning styles, and describe
some teaching strategies that are effective for these abilities and preferences.
Standard #2: Learning Differences
4. Describe the theory of multiple intelligences and show how this theory can be used
to help all students learn.
Standard #2: Learning Differences; Standard #8: Instructional Strategies
5. Identify the three primary learning modalities and explain how teachers can use each in the classroom.
Standard #2: Learning Differences; Standard #8: Instructional Strategies
6. Investigate best teaching practices to help all students learn by acknowledging their unique abilities
and using co-teaching and differentiation strategies.
Standard #8: Instructional Strategies
7. Identify relationships between constructivist teaching and learning and acknowledging
students’ unique abilities.
Standard #2: Learning Differences

Exceptional Children and the Individuals

with Disabilities Education Act
No two children are identical, but exceptional students are those who differ from soci- exceptional students Students who
etal norms to the extent that they require some form of modification to a standard edu- require some form of modification to
the standard educational program.
cational program. These differences can vary from physical impairments to emotional and
behavior disorders to intellectual giftedness. Special education refers to instruction spe- special education Instruction that
cially designed to meet the unique needs of students who are recognized as exceptional is specifically designed to meet the
unique needs of students who are
(Gargiulo, 2011). recognized as exceptional.
Students with exceptionalities have not always been well served by our nation’s
public schools. Before the mid-20th century, it was common practice to bar children
with disabilities from attending school. However, the rise of the civil rights movement
in the United States marked a turning point for securing the rights of citizens with dis-
abilities. In the past 50 years, the federal government, in a series of landmark pieces of
legislation, has helped to define the current special education policies and practices of
our schools.

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 In 1975, Congress passed Public Law 94-142, the Edu-
cation of All Handicapped Children Act, which required
each state to develop and implement policies that assure a
free and appropriate education for all students with dis-
abilities. In 1986, Congress passed amendments to include
children attending preschool. In 1990, the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) was passed into law to
amend the 1975 law; this act was amended in 1997 and
was reauthorized in 2004.

© Michael Newman/PhotoEdit Inc.

The IDEA requires states to provide services for all
children with disabilities so these children can receive a
“full and appropriate education.” The law extends to many
different types of disabilities, including cognitive disabilities
and physical disabilities. Among the categories covered
under the IDEA are the following:

According to federal law, children

with special needs must receive Learning disability
full and appropriate education Mental retardation
and be educated with their
typical peers in the least
Emotional disturbance
restrictive environment possible. Autism
Speech or language impairment
Visual impairment
Hearing impairment
Physical impairments, including orthopedic impairments, multiple disabilities, and
traumatic brain injury

IDEA Disability Categories

Nearly 6.5 million students aged 3 through 21 received services for various disabilities in
the 2008–2009 school year. The following list shows these disabilities and the percentage
of students receiving services for each (National Center for Education Statistics, 2011a):
Specific learning disabilities 38.2%
Speech or language impairments 22%
Intellectual disability 7%
Emotional disturbance 6.5%
Hearing impairments 1%
Visual impairments less than 1%
Orthopedic impairments 1%
Other health impairments 10%
Autism 5%
Traumatic brain injury less than 1%
Multiple disabilities 2%
Deaf–blindness less than 1%
Developmental delay 5.5%

The law requires that schools provide all students with disabilities with at least the following:

A full and appropriate education

Education in the least restrictive environment
individualized education program A An individualized education program (IEP)
plan for meeting the educational
needs of an individual student who Due process
may have disabilities. Nondiscriminatory assessment
Parental participation

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 LEAST RESTRICTIVE

General Education Classroom

With no special assistance

General Education Classroom

With some special assistance; no special materials
or procedures
General Education Classroom
With special assistance that
may utilize resource teachers
Part-Time Resource
Classroom and Part-Time
General Education Classroom
Full-Time
Resource
Classroom

Special
Schools

Homebound,
Hospital, or
Residential Figure 5.1

▲
Facility
Cascade system of special
education services. (Adapted
from Gargiulo, 2006.)
MOST RESTRICTIVE © Cengage Learning 2014

The least restrictive environment provision means that students with disabilities must
be educated to the greatest extent possible in general education classrooms. We can think
of the least restrictive environment concept as an inverted tree that depicts a cascade of
special education services, as shown in Figure 5.1.
As you can tell from the diagram, the degree of services provided for students with
disabilities varies from inclusion in traditional classroom programs with no special
assistance, to homebound with no school attendance at all. At some point in your own
educational experience, you may have heard the terms mainstreaming or inclusion. mainstreaming Placing a disabled
Mainstreaming is a now-outdated term that was used to describe the integration of student in regular school classes.
children with disabilities into general education classrooms. The word inclusion, a more inclusion The practice of assigning
students with below-normal or above-
current term, has replaced mainstreaming, and suggests that schools are getting closer normal IQs or disabling conditions
to total integration of children with disabilities. In practice, inclusion may occur in vary- to the same classrooms they would
ing degrees: attend if they were not disabled.

Regular classroom with no special assistance. This situation may be most appropriate
for students with very mild disabilities that do not prevent them from pursuing chal-
lenging work, although advocates of full inclusion believe that all children with dis- full inclusion The strategy of
abilities should be served in general education classrooms. including students who may have
exceptionalities in with the population
Regular classroom with some special teaching assistance but no special materials or of all students in all classes and
procedures. This situation may be appropriate for students with mild disabilities who activities.
require some special treatment, either in the form of accommodation of physical
handicaps (vision-impaired, hearing-impaired, and so on) or special teaching tech-
niques. Teachers of these students expand their repertoire of teaching techniques to
include all students in their classes.
Regular classroom with assistance from special education teachers or other special-
ized teachers. This situation may be appropriate for students who can attend tradi-
tional classes but who need special planning and special instruction to accommodate
their disabilities. The classroom teacher may rely on resource teachers to deliver
special instruction on the topics being studied. Special materials often are provided.

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 Regular classroom some of the time and special classroom (usually taught by spe-
cial education teachers) some of the time. This situation may be appropriate for
students who can succeed in traditional classrooms for some academic studies, but
who need special programs and special teaching for other areas. The traditional
classes the students attend are those in which the student is believed to be able to
succeed. The services provided in the traditional classroom can be any of those
described previously.
resource classroom A classroom Resource classroom full time, with no time spent in traditional classrooms. This situ-
staffed with a special education ation may be appropriate for students who are unable to attend and succeed in tra-
teacher or teachers, equipped
and managed to meet the needs ditional classes but who can attend school. A special education teacher normally
of students with exceptionalities teaches these classes.
according to their IEPs.
Special schools with no attendance in a traditional school or classroom. This situation
is reserved for students with handicaps that prevent them from functioning in a tra-
ditional school in spite of any accommodations that can be made.
Homebound, hospital, or residential facility. This situation is reserved for students
with severe cognitive and functioning limitations.

A second major provision of the IDEA is the requirement of an individualized

TeachSour education program (IEP) for each student with disabilities. The IEP is a detailed
ce Video plan for a student’s education that will meet the student’s unique educational
needs. The IEP normally is prepared jointly by the special education teacher, class-
View the TeachSource Video Case, room teachers who will be involved in the student’s education, the student’s parents
“Inclusion: Classroom Implications for the or guardians, and someone who can interpret the results of the assessment tests,
General and Special Educator.” In this video
such as the guidance counselor or school psychologist.
segment, you will see how veteran teacher
Chris Colbath-Hess collaborates with her A third major provision of the IDEA is the assurance of due process. This
colleagues to help every child succeed as means parents or guardians:
a reader and writer. Be sure to view the
six bonus videos for more detail. After 1. Have the right to examine all of their child’s school records;
watching these videos, answer the following 2. Must be given notice before any change in placement or classification is made;
questions:
and
1. What does a third-grade inclusion class-
room look like during a reading and lan- 3. Must give their consent before their child is evaluated or placed.
guage arts period?
2. How does a skillful teacher work with
The fourth major provision of the IDEA is the “nondiscriminatory assessment
specialists, such as an occupational and provision.” This means that students must be evaluated using several types of
physical therapist to optimize learning for assessments that have been shown to be free of bias.
each student? The fifth major provision, called the “parental participation provision,”
3. What are a speech therapist and an oc- requires that parents or guardians participate fully in the decision-making process.
cupational therapist relative to the third
grade? Why are these specialties needed?

Adapting instruction for students

with learning disabilities includes
clearly specifying learning
Courtesy of Bill Lisenby

objectives, presenting lessons in

a step-by-step format, and
providing frequent assessments
of student learning.

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 CONTROVERSIES in Education

Special Issues in Special Education

T  here is a great deal of controversy over the concept
of inclusion in education. Some believe that
three gifted students in your classroom and two learning-
disabled students, you would say that you have three
inclusion helps to minimize perceived differences between students who are gifted and two students who are
students who have disabilities and those who do not. learning disabled in your classroom. Do you see the
Others believe that inclusion can result in an inferior difference?
education for students with disabilities because they are
required to keep up with the rest of the class. There is also WHAT DO YOU THINK?
disagreement about how much time special education
students should spend in a general education classroom, 1. What do you think are the benefits of inclusion for
and there is a question of how effective inclusive students with special needs?
classrooms actually are for students with disabilities 2. What are the benefits of inclusion classrooms for
(McCleskey and Waldron, 2011). “regular” students?
Controversy also surrounds the labeling of students. 3. What drawbacks exist for both groups of students?
Some people believe that labeling helps educators prepare 4. What are the challenges for the classroom teacher?
the most appropriate educational programs. Others believe 5. Why is having to pay close attention to the way you
that labels can be stigmatizing or even penalizing and refer to your students important?
misrepresent the true nature of individuals. In Chapter 4, 6. How are referring to the person first and the
you saw that unique perspectives tend to be identified with exceptionality (or culture or other label) second
labels. In this chapter, you will find that students with consistent with meeting the common human needs of
different kinds of disabilities and abilities as well are labeled. all learners? What do you think about labeling in
The use of “person-first” language is stressed in general? Remember that the goal of education is to
education. “Person-first” language means that you first provide the best possible learning opportunities for
reference the learner, then whatever label is attributed to all students to maximize their achievement.
the learner. For example, instead of saying that you have

Learning Disabilities
Learning disabilities are the most commonly occurring handicapping condition. The term
learning disability (LD) refers to a disorder that can cause a person to have difficulty learning disability (LD) A disorder
learning and using the skills of language (reading, writing, listening, and speaking), rea- that interferes with the learning
process.
soning, and mathematics (MedicineNet.com, 2012). Students with learning disabilities
are included among those who qualify for special education services. As of 2009, almost
2.1 million school-age children attending public schools in the United States were classi-
fied as having a learning disability (National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2011).
Learning disabilities are hard to diagnose but are usually suspected when there is a gap
between a student’s ability and his or her performance. Some signs that a student may have
a learning disability include coordination problems, difficulty with concentration, and
consistent problems with handwriting, remembering newly learned information, staying
organized, or speaking so that he or she is understood. It is important to note that most
students with learning disabilities are of average or above-average intelligence (National
Center for Learning Disabilities, 2011); in fact, some are considered gifted and talented.
response to intervention (RTI)
A method used for the early
Response to Intervention identification of students who may
have special needs that employs
School personnel often use a method called “Response to Intervention” (RTI) to help deliberate strategies to impact
diagnose a learning disability. If they suspect that a student’s lack of achievement in the learning. If the student does not
respond to the intervention, it may
classroom may be the result of a learning disability, teachers, parents, and administrators be determined that the student has a
design an individual and increasingly concentrated intervention that involves supporting learning disability.

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 the student in various ways, including instructional methods. The intervention is imple-
mented early in the student’s academic career, and frequent measurements of progress are
made. After a predetermined amount of time, if the student does not respond to the inter-
vention, the conclusion may be drawn that a learning disability may be involved and the
student may be referred for special education services (Cortiella, 2011).

Dyslexia
dyslexia A learning disability in Learning disabilities are as individual as the students who have them. Dyslexia is one
which an individual has difficulty with example of a learning disability with which you may be familiar. Students with dyslexia
reading comprehension and writing.
have severe difficulties with reading comprehension, failing to understand the relationship
between sounds and letters. They often sequence letters incorrectly in words while they
are reading or writing, and they interchange words and numerals. To begin to understand
what a person with dyslexia sees while reading, try to read the passages in Figure 5.2.

Thew ord sare n otsp aced cor rect ly.

We spell wrds xatle az tha snd to us.

Sometimesallthelettersarepushedtogether

The translation of above passage is:

3. Sometimes all the letters are pushed together.

2. We spell words exactly as they sound to us.

Figure 5.2
▲

What a dyslexic student might see.

1. The words are not spaced correctly.

(Adapted from kidshealth.org.)

© Cengage Learning 2014

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

attention deficit/hyperactivity Although attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is not formally a learning
disorder (ADHD) A disorder disability, this disorder can affect academic performance and should be acknowledged
characterized by not being able
to maintain attention or to control in the classroom. Students with ADHD have an inability to maintain attention, to plan
impulses. Often includes incidence ahead, or to ignore impulses and distractions and stay still. As of 2007, 9.5 percent of
of increased distraction and energy children between the ages of 4 and 17 were diagnosed with ADHD (Pastor and Reuben,
resulting in not being able to stay
still. 2008). The rate of diagnosis of ADHD has increased an average of 3 percent every year
between 1997 and 2006, and 5.5 percent between 2003 and 2007 (Centers for Disease
Control, 2010). According to the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychia-
try, just about every teacher has at least one student with ADHD in class. In fact, teach-
ers may be the first ones to suspect that a child who is struggling may have ADHD. The
behaviors that may cause a teacher to wonder if a student should be evaluated for
ADHD include distractibility, inability to focus, disorganization, forgetfulness, procras-
tination, incomplete assignments, and frequent daydreaming. Most students demon-
attention deficit disorder (ADD) strate only the attention deficit component of the disorder (termed attention deficit
A disorder characterized by not being disorder, or ADD), although some show the hyperactivity component in the form of
able to maintain attention or control
impulses. Usually not accompanied fidgeting and an inability to sit still through a structured lesson, and blurting out an-
by the hyperactivity component of swers. The most severe cases involve students showing both the attention deficit and
ADHD. hyperactivity components (Dunne, 2005).
With the significant increase in the rate of diagnosis of ADHD, teachers must be
aware of some of the myths associated with the disorder. The following lists some com-
mon myths about ADHD as well as some suggestions for teaching techniques.

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 Myths about ADHD
ADHD is only a childhood disorder. In fact, children who have been diagnosed with
ADHD often carry the disorder into adolescence and adulthood. Also, adults may be
diagnosed with ADHD.
ADHD is overdiagnosed. Advocates note that an increase in general awareness of
the disorder and changes in special education legislation may have led to the mis-
conception that ADHD is overdiagnosed.
Children with ADHD are overmedicated. There has been an increase in the rate of
prescription of the leading drug for ADHD, Ritalin, consistent with the increase in
rate of diagnosis. And most children with ADHD are not medicated.
ADHD can be caused by poor parenting. Although poor parenting techniques can
cause ADHD symptoms to be aggravated, other factors have been found to be
more influential in causing ADHD. Studies have shown that genetics play a contribu-
tory role in ADHD.
Minority children are overdiagnosed with ADHD and are overmedicated. Re-
search has shown African American students appear to be underserved in diagnosis
and treatment of ADHD.
Boys have higher rates of ADHD than girls, and ADHD in boys is more severe. It
is thought that girls may be diagnosed less frequently with ADHD than boys because
ADHD in boys may manifest itself in behaviors that result in conduct referrals. How-
ever, several studies comparing girls and boys with ADHD have indicated that girls
suffer more severe internalized disorders involving mood, anxiety, distress, and de-
pression, which affect them socially and academically.
Source: Adapted from Adesman and Ellison, 2007.

Suggested techniques to help you teach students with ADHD follow.

Techniques for Teaching Students with ADHD

Incorporate advance organizers that review previous lessons.
Provide clear and simple instructions that include expectations for learning and be-
havior as well as time management. A PBS website called
State what materials will be needed for participation. Misunderstood Minds offers a
Use technology to provide audiovisual information. simulation of what it might be
Use prompts and cues to signal appropriate participation. like to have your attention
Monitor students throughout the lesson in an attempt to prevent or quickly address constantly thrown off track while
circumstances that have the potential to cause frustration or distractions. trying to learn. Go to the site,
Provide additional directions individually. click on the section for
Address information in smaller chunks and highlight the key points. ATTENTION, and choose to try
Provide additional time allowed to take tests. the visual activity, the auditory
Encourage participation in cooperative learning activities. activity, and the attention video.
Provide warnings that the time to conclude the lesson is approaching.
Check student work for completion and accuracy.
Provide a preview for the upcoming lesson.
Source: Adapted from U.S. Department of Education, 2004b.

Autism
Autism is a developmental disorder that affects how people communicate with others, autism A spectrum of disorders
how they relate to others, and how they perceive the world around them. Autism is char- in which communication, social
interactions, and the ability to
acterized by abnormal social interaction and communication, by moderate to severe participate in relationships is
behavior problems such as irritability and aggressiveness, and by restricted and repetitive impaired.

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 behavior. These characteristics are seen in early childhood. The incidence of autism is
rising, and teachers are increasingly likely to have one or more children with autism in
their classroom. As a matter of fact, in early 2012, the highest rate of autism in the U.S.
ever was reported. One in eighty-eight children were reported to have autism or a related
disorder (Begley, 2012). Suggested techniques for teaching children with autism follow.

Techniques for Teaching Children with Autism

1. Use visuals and reminders liberally for instruction.
2. Use hands-on activities in class instead of “lecturing.”
3. Use body language as opposed to verbal instructions.
4. Provide flexibility in assignments.
5. Structure lessons clearly.
6. Use concept maps and other visual cognitive strategies.
7. Announce impending transitions clearly.
8. Link material to the students’ interests.
9. Provide opportunities for the students with autism to memorize facts.
10. Use computers as much as possible.
11. Allow breaks.
12. Offer rewards as appropriate.
13. Model social skills.
14. Be aware of distracting background noise and clutter.
15. Make expectations and consequences clear.
16. Ignore the small stuff that can’t be changed, and focus on teaching and learning.
Source: From Jay and Jay, 2008.

Teaching That Acknowledges Disabilities

From your investigations into ways to accommodate students with other unique charac-
teristics and perspectives in the classroom, you can probably think of some effective
strategies to accommodate students with disabilities.

BUILDING BLOCK Teaching Students with Disabilities

5.1 Select a specific student disability, such as hearing impairment, learning disability,
ADHD, orthopedic impairment, or other disability you might encounter among the
students in a class you would teach:
What teaching strategies would foster these students’ motivation to learn?
How are the strategies similar to those you have suggested for students with
other unique characteristics and perspectives?
How do they foster heightened relationships between the students and the
teacher?
How do they help students meet their basic and academic needs?

assistive technology Technology People with disabilities have special learning requirements that teachers must provide.
that individuals with disabilities may
use to perform tasks that would Understanding the unique characteristics and perspectives of students with disabilities
otherwise be difficult or impossible. helps teachers tailor their classrooms to meet the needs of these students, as well as all the

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 TECHNOLOGY Assistive Technology
& EDUCATION
T he Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals
with Disabilities Act of 1988 offered the first legal
definition of assistive technology (AT). Although the
Assistive Technology Act of 1998 replaced this act, the
definition for AT remained the same: technology that
individuals with disabilities may use to perform tasks that
would otherwise be difficult or impossible (National Center
on Accessible Information Technology in Education, 2011). Students with physical

© Ellen Senisi /The Image Works

Certainly we are familiar with assistive technologies that help disabilities and other special
students perform daily living activities such as wheelchairs, needs can use technology to
hearing aids, and motorized lifts on school buses. What facilitate classroom learning. A
classroom and learning tasks might be difficult for students specially adapted keyboard is
with disabilities? Think about learners with vision impairments. an example of assistive
How about orthopedic impairments? How about learning technology.
disabilities involving higher-order thinking skills, reading
comprehension, and writing skills? What technology can you
think of that might assist these learners? technologies as part of the support needed to perform tasks
Examples of assistive technologies that you may see in in school (Family Center on Technology and Disability, 2010).
the classroom include voice recognition software, specially Portable technologies such as PDAs, MP3 players, cell
adapted keyboards and input devices, built-in magnifiers, phones, and tablets can also assist students with disabilities.
audiobooks, modeling software, simulations, and virtual (Keep in mind that these technologies assist all learners by
environments. A student’s IEP may identify assistive making information and data accessible.)

others. Here are some specific instructional strategies teachers use to adapt
instruction for students with special needs:
TeachSour
1. Identify the specific competencies students are to achieve. ce Video
2. Ensure that students have previously achieved the skills and understandings
they need for success in the lesson. View the video TeachSource Video
3. Modify reading levels to meet students’ capabilities. Case, “Assistive Technology in the Inclusive
Classroom: Best Practices.” In this video,
4. Prepare explicit and specific introductory and summary activities. you’ll meet five-year-old Jamie, a kindergar-
5. Deliver introductory and summary activities in small pieces. tener with cerebral palsy who uses assistive
technologies to help her learn the same cur-
6. Provide the information of the lesson in small pieces. riculum content as the other students in her
7. Identify and define any new vocabulary words that may come up. class. You’ll also hear her teacher and the
8. Assess student achievement frequently and be aware of students’ progress and inclusion facilitator share their insights about
how best to teach Jamie and how assistive
understanding. technologies can enhance her learning. Be
9. Develop alternative forms of assessment. sure to view the three bonus videos. After
10. Provide an assortment of methods students can use to demonstrate their un- watching these videos, answer the following
questions:
derstanding.
1. What assistive technologies have you seen
11. Adapt physical facilities (furniture, storage areas, and other facilities) for use in schools?
by all students. 2. What kinds of assistive technologies are
12. Ensure that everyone works on the lesson’s activities. free or inexpensive? What would they be
13. Modify equipment and materials as needed so all students can use them. used for?
3. How can assistive technologies enhance
14. Enlarge aisles and areas of movement to accommodate all students.
learning?
15. Provide assistive and adaptive forms of technology resources.

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 Inclusive environments encourage
interaction between students

© Paul Conklin/PhotoEdit Inc.

with special needs and their
peers. Full and appropriate
educational opportunities for
students with disabilities might
not be possible if not for
legislation like the IDEA.

Compare these strategies with those you listed in Building Block 5.1. Are there simi-
larities? Which of the strategies for students with ADHD would be beneficial for students
with other learning disabilities? Which of all the strategies in this section would be good
for all students in your classroom?

Cognitive Abilities
You have investigated learning disabilities. These disabilities affect how students learn,
but they are not necessarily indicative of intelligence, which is what we mean by cognitive
ability. Indeed, some learners who have been diagnosed with a learning disability are also
academically gifted. Let’s explore cognitive abilities further.
You have seen that characteristics such as race, ethnicity, language, gender, socioeco-
nomic status, and sexual orientation can affect how—or even whether—a learner ap-
proaches a learning task. Certainly these differences affect classroom climate and the way
we teach. However, if we were to ask, “What single student characteristic most accounts
for differences in student achievement?” your first inclination might be to reply “intelli-
gence.” Intelligence is “the ability to learn or understand or to deal with new or trying
situations” (Merriam-Webster, 2012). When teachers say “intelligence,” they normally are
referring to a student’s cognitive (or intellectual) ability. What exactly is intelligence, and
how is it measured?
Aptitude tests such as the Otis–Lennon School Ability Test (OLSAT), the Cogni-
tive Abilities Test (CogAT), and intelligence quotient (IQ) tests like the Stanford–Binet
cognitive ability The ability to learn, and Weschler IQ tests, are used to measure cognitive ability, aptitude, and potential
know, and understand. for success of students in school. These tests gauge linguistic, mathematical, and spa-
tial abilities by posing questions that require linguistic, mathematical, and spatial
thinking, together with memory skills. Educational decisions are made partly on the
basis of student IQ as measured by the tests. How valid are these tests?

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 Intelligence Tests BUILDING BLOCK
Use your favorite search engine to find “free IQ Tests.” Select one and take it. After 5.2
you are done, analyze your score and answer the following questions:
Look at the questions. What background knowledge do they presuppose you
have? Are there any ambiguous questions (questions that can have more than
one meaning)?
How did you score? Do you believe that this score accurately reflects your intel-
lectual ability? Why or why not?
How valid do you believe the IQ score is? Why do you think so?

Measuring Cognitive Ability

There are concerns about IQ tests and, therefore, about decisions made on the basis of
IQ scores. Primary among these concerns is the cultural bias that seems to be embedded
in many IQ tests, and which may result in inaccurate scores for individuals whose
experiential and cultural backgrounds differ from those that govern the tests’ develop-
ment. For example, a test question might ask when people are most likely to go swim-
ming. Students whose experiences with swimming primarily deal with the school swim
team might answer winter rather than the “correct” response of summer. Or what about
a question that asks what materials—wood, metal, grass, or stone—would be good to
build a house out of? Depending on your previous experiences and familiarity with
houses, which may be dependent on your culture, there could be several correct answers.
Did you find questions with experiential or cultural bias in the sample tests you took in
Building Block 5.2?
Some IQ tests do not allow for creative thinking and therefore may not represent the
full extent of a student’s ability to solve problems. In fact, some of the greatest thinkers
of our time, such as Thomas Edison and Albert Einstein, did not perform well on tradi-
tional measures of intelligence.
Nevertheless, educational decisions continue to be made using IQ scores. Among
those decisions is the categorization of students into intellectual ability groups. IQ scores
between 70 and 130 represent normal intelligence. You can expect most of the students
in your classroom to fall in this range. IQ scores below 70 indicate mental retardation,
and IQ scores above 130 represent exceptional intelligence.
Naturally, the further away from the normal range an IQ score is, the fewer people
have that IQ. The complete distribution of IQ scores can be represented by a graph in the
shape of a bell, called the bell-shaped curve or the normal curve. On the normal curve, bell-shaped curve The bell shaped
IQ is represented on the horizontal axis, and the percentage of people is represented on graph of a distribution that may and
may not be symmetrical.
the vertical axis. The normal curve for IQ is shown in Figure 5.3. Study this graph and
normal curve The symmetrical, bell-
familiarize yourself with the distribution of IQs. shaped curve of a normal distribution.

Figure 5.3
▲

34% 34% Normal curve showing relative

percentages of the general
Normal Range population in each major
0.13% 2.5% 13.5% 13.5% 2.5% 0.13%
0.13%
cognitive ability group.
IQ 55 70 85 100 115 130 145 © Cengage Learning 2014

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 People Who Are Gifted and Talented
gifted and talented student A Students who are gifted and talented have potentially outstanding abilities that allow
student who has potentially them to excel in one or more areas. As of 2006, 6.7 percent of students in public elemen-
outstanding abilities that allow him
or her to excel in one or more areas tary and secondary schools were categorized as gifted or talented (U.S. Department of
of intellectual endeavor, creativity, Education, Office of Civil Rights, 2008). The National Association for Gifted Children
leadership, and artistic pursuits. (2008) defines gifted individuals as “those who demonstrate outstanding levels of aptitude
or competence in one or more domains.” A “domain” is “any structured area of activity
with its own symbol system (e.g., mathematics, music, language) and/or set of sensorimo-
tor skills (e.g., painting, dance, and sports).”
Consistent with this are the abilities included in the definition of giftedness provided
in the Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Students Education Program. These abilities are
seen in students who demonstrate outstanding competency in activities that are intellec-
tual, artistic, creative, or academic in nature. The Javits Act also acknowledges giftedness
in leadership abilities and notes that the students who demonstrate these capabilities may
not be fully served in a general education classroom. The Javits Act provides federal fund-
ing for programs designed specifically for gifted and talented individuals, especially for
students who are economically disadvantaged, have limited English proficiency, or are
disabled.
The most common method of identifying students who are classified as gifted is the
use of tests. Because giftedness frequently is dependent on high intelligence, schools often
use IQ scores to label the intellectual ability of gifted and talented students. The ranges
are as follows:
130 to 144 Gifted
145 to 159 Highly gifted
160 and above Profoundly gifted
Note that the IQ score for students who are gifted and talented starts with 130, which
is the beginning of the upper 2.63 percent of the population (see Figure 5.3).
Although tests of intellectual ability are often used to identify intellectual giftedness,
general intellectual ability is just one dimension of giftedness and talent. As you have seen,
giftedness also manifests itself in other ways and thus depends on other factors. Conse-
quently, a greater variety of assessment tools is used to identify students who are gifted
and talented in one or more areas, thereby reducing the likelihood that minority students
who are gifted and talented are overlooked (as may be the case when identification de-
pends largely on traditional intelligence tests).
Often, students who are gifted stand out from other students as being really smart,
maybe even being labeled as “nerds.” Students and teachers alike may make certain as-
sumptions about students who are gifted based on their exceptional intellect, talent, or
both. The following shows some myths and truths about students who are gifted.

Common Myths about Students Who Are Gifted

Students who are gifted are a homogeneous group, all high achievers.
Students who are gifted do not need help. If they are really gifted, they can manage
on their own.
Students who are gifted have fewer problems than others because their intelligence
and abilities somehow exempt them from the hassles of daily life.
The future of a student who is gifted is assured: A world of opportunities lies before
the student.
Students who are gifted are self-directed; they know where they are heading.
The social and emotional development of a student who is gifted is at the same
level as his or her intellectual development.
Students who are gifted are nerds and social isolates.

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 The primary value of a student who is gifted lies in his or her brainpower.
The family of a student who is gifted always prizes his or her abilities.
Students who are gifted need to serve as an example to others, and they should
always assume extra responsibility.
Students who are gifted can accomplish anything they put their minds to. All they
have to do is apply themselves.
Students who are gifted are naturally creative and do not need encouragement.
Children who are gifted are easy to raise and are a welcome addition to any
classroom.

Truths about Students Who Are Gifted

Students who are gifted are often perfectionist and idealistic. They may equate
achievement and grades with self-esteem and self-worth, which sometimes leads to
fear of failure and interferes with achievement.
Students who are gifted may experience heightened sensitivity to their own expec-
tations and those of others, resulting in guilt over achievements or grades they per-
ceive to be low.
The chronological age and social, physical, emotional, and intellectual development
of a student who is gifted may be at different levels. For example, a five-year-old
may be able to read and comprehend a third-grade book but may not be able to
write legibly.
Students who are gifted may be so far ahead of their chronological age mates that
they know more than half the curriculum before the school year begins. Their bore-
dom can result in low achievement and grades.
People who are gifted make up as much as 20 percent of the prison population.
Students who are gifted are at high risk for dropping out of school; 20 percent of
high school dropouts have tested in the gifted range.
Children who are gifted are problem solvers. They benefit from working on open-
ended, interdisciplinary problems, such as how to solve a shortage of community re-
sources. Students who are gifted often refuse to work for grades alone.
Students who are gifted often think abstractly and with such complexity that they
may need help with concrete study and test-taking skills. They may not be able to
select one answer in a multiple-choice question because they see how all the an-
swers might be correct.
Students who are gifted and who do well in school may define success as getting an
A and failure as getting any grade less than an A. By early adolescence, these stu-
dents may be unwilling to try anything if they are not certain of guaranteed success.
Source: From Berger, 2006.

How do you suppose teachers could work to meet the basic needs of love and belong-
ing, respect, and self-esteem of gifted and talented students? How might giftedness influ-
ence students’ desire to learn? How might the label gifted affect the social aspects of
school for gifted students?

Teaching Students Who Are Gifted and Talented BUILDING BLOCK

Review the myths and truths about students who are gifted and talented. What 5.3
teaching strategies would provide motivation for these students to learn? How could
teachers foster student perception that the material being studied is meaningful and
relevant? How could they foster heightened relationships between student and
teacher? How could they help students meet their basic and academic needs?
Why do you suppose people who are gifted are overrepresented in the high
school dropout and prison populations?

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 Although detailed federal mandates exist to provide services for students with dis-
abilities, the federal legislation specific to students who are gifted and talented consists
primarily of grants and rules governing the distribution of this grant money. Each state
adopts its own definitions, laws, and policies concerning the nature and services provided
for students who are gifted and talented. At the federal level, the Jacob K. Javits Gifted
and Talented Students Education program awards grants to help students who are gifted
develop their abilities and reach high levels of achievement.
Depending on state and local policies, special programs may be offered to students
identified as gifted or talented. These programs may take the form of special learning
environments and experiences offered at special times on certain days, often in special
classrooms. Or they may take the form of the inclusion model in traditional, general edu-
cation classrooms, similar to the inclusion model used for integrating students with
exceptional needs.
You can access the U.S. Department of Education Jacob K. Javits program site
through a direct link on the Education CourseMate website. This site has full details of
the Javits program.

State Legislation for the Education of Students Who

Are Gifted and Talented
All 50 states have rules, regulations, policies, and /or legislation that address the
education of gifted learners (Passow and Rudniski, n.d.). Additionally, most states offer
special endorsements for gifted and talented teaching specialists who provide special
programs for qualifying students. However, traditional classroom teachers can expect to
have students who are gifted and talented in their classrooms for much of the school
day. Teaching students who are gifted and talented requires presenting them with
challenging work, building on their interests, allowing large blocks of time for them to
pursue their projects, and encouraging continued work in out-of-school arenas.

Multiple Intelligences
When you have an important test coming up, how do you choose to study? Does the
room have to be quiet and free from distractions? Do you find that you learn the infor-
mation best if you recopy your notes or if you try to explain it to someone else? Have
you ever thought that you could have done better on an oral exam over the information
rather than the paper-and-pencil test your teacher just gave you? In the classroom, is
there a particular way that the instructor provides information that seems to help you
understand and remember it? Maybe you do best with pictures or charts. Do you con-
sider yourself to be a “math person”? All of these are examples of multiple intelligence
preference.
Perhaps you have heard the assertion that instead of asking, “How smart are you?”
we should ask, “How are you smart?” Howard Gardner has argued that humans have
at least eight distinct intelligences, not only the two or three measured in traditional
IQ tests. The eight intelligences are spatial, bodily–kinesthetic, musical, linguistic,
logical–mathematical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. Gardner also is
investigating other possible areas of intelligence—existential, spiritual, and moral. So
far, only existential intelligence has been fairly well supported, though Gardner is hesi-
tant to include it with the others because it meets some but not all of his criteria for an
intelligence (Smith, 2008).

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 Your Primary Intelligences BUILDING BLOCK
What are your strongest intelligences? A direct link to a multiple intelligences inven- 5.4
tory is available on this textbook’s Education CourseMate website. Complete the
inventory; then plot the suggested bar chart.
Where is your highest peak? Does it surprise you?
Where is your lowest peak? Does it surprise you?
Perhaps you had high scores in more than one section. What were they? Do you
think this inventory adequately portrays your intelligences?
Review the names of each of the intelligences that Gardner identified. From
these names, infer what people with each predominant intelligence are probably
good at doing. For example, you might infer that people with a strong musical talent
might be good at playing musical instruments.

Spatial intelligence involves our ability to perceive accurately what we see, to inter-
pret this in our own mind, and to represent what we experience in visual formats. We
use bodily–kinesthetic intelligence when we perform physical actions. Musical intelli-
gence involves hearing music almost continuously and representing our
thoughts in musical terms. Linguistic intelligence has to do with
the use of language. Logical–mathematical intelligence EXISTEN
involves working with numbers and solving prob- TIC TIAL
IS INT
NGU EL
lems logically and scientifically. We use interper- L I LIG
EN
sonal intelligence when we interact with other CE
people, understanding and responding to
L
them accurately and appropriately. Intra-

O
G
personal intelligence involves knowing

IC
AL

AL
ourselves, knowing who we are, be-
ON

-M
RS

ing comfortable in our own skins,

AT
PE

HE
and acting on our knowledge of
RA

MA
ourselves. Naturalistic intelligence
INT

TIC
is used by people who exhibit

AL
true and internalized apprecia-
tion of and sensitivity to the
natural world. Finally, existen-
tial intelligence, not yet formally
included as one of the intelli-
AL

NATURL
gences in multiple intelligence
ERSON

theory, is demonstrated by the

ability to look at the “big pic-

IST
ERP

ture,” seeing connections be-

T

tween details and components

IN

across ideas or topics.

How do the inferences you made
in Building Block 5.4 compare with
these descriptions?
SP

Figure 5.4 shows the theory of mul- AL

AT
IA
IC
tiple intelligences in diagrammatic form. S L
MU
Figure 5.4
▲

The basic intelligences identified BODIL

Y-KINESTHETIC
by Howard Gardner.
© Cengage Learning 2014

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 Howard Gardner’s damage. My effort to synthesize these two lines of work
led me to develop and introduce the theory of multiple
Biography in His Own intelligences in my 1983 book Frames of Mind. Since the
Words I was born in Scranton, middle 1980s, I have been heavily involved in school re-
Pennsylvania, in 1943, the son of form efforts in the United States. In 1986, I began to
J. Gardner, copyright 2003

refugees from Nazi Germany. I was teach at the Harvard Graduate School of Education while
a studious child who gained much continuing my long-term involvement with Project Zero, a
pleasure from playing the piano; research group in human cognition that maintains a spe-
music has remained very important cial focus on the arts. With colleagues, I have begun a
throughout my life. All of my post- study of the nature of interdisciplinary work as it is car-
secondary education has been at ried out in precollegiate and collegiate settings, and in
Harvard University. I was trained as a developmental psy- research institutions, and a study of the role of trust and
chologist and later as a neuropsychologist. For many trustees in contemporary American society.
years, I conducted two streams of research on cognitive
Source: Courtesy Project Zero, Harvard University.
and symbol-using capacities—one with normal and gifted
children, the second with adults who suffered from brain

Note that the existential intelligence is included—in anticipation of a conclusive resolution

by Gardner.
Gardner defines intelligence as “the capacity to solve problems or to fashion prod-
ucts that are valued in one or more cultural setting” (Gardner and Hatch, 1989, p. 5).
His identification of different intelligences has brought about the theory of multiple
theory of multiple intelligences intelligences (MI). This theory suggests that all people have all intelligences; the strength
(MI) A proposition by Howard of each intelligence varies from person to person. For example, one person may be an
Gardner asserting that traditional
measures of intelligence are absolute whiz at mathematics (strong logical–mathematical intelligence) but unable to
limited and that individuals possess “carry a tune in a bucket” (weak musical intelligence). Another individual may be terrific
different types of intelligences. at understanding other people (strong interpersonal intelligence), understands herself
These intelligences include spatial,
bodily–kinesthetic, musical, linguistic, and who she is (strong intrapersonal intelligence), and inquires logically into scientific
logical–mathematical, interpersonal, problems (strong logical–mathematical intelligence), but has difficulty in writing reports
intrapersonal, and naturalistic and compositions (weak linguistic intelligence).
intelligences.
Although you might have one predominant intelligence, you probably use all of the
intelligences at one time or another to learn. You can strengthen any of the intelligences
by using it more and more. Furthermore, your predominant intelligence can change over
time.

Teaching That Encompasses Multiple Intelligences

Teachers should become sensitive to the idea that students can learn through different
intelligences and use this sensitivity in their interactions with students. MI theory asks
teachers to recognize the several intelligences students have and to develop a repertoire of
instructional approaches that capitalize on each. According to MI theory, students do not
learn just through the written word and mathematics. Learning can occur through any
of the other intelligences as well, and teachers must teach to their students’ strongest
intelligences.
The primary idea behind the theory of multiple intelligences is to respond to the needs
of every student by making alternative learning strategies available based on the different
intelligences. The goal is not to teach each concept using each of the intelligences or to
ensure every student develops every intelligence.
Table 5.1 summarizes characteristics, examples, and ways to acknowledge each of the
intelligences in education settings.

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 TABLE 5.1 Characteristics, Examples, and Teaching Strategies to Accommodate Multiple
Intelligences (Adapted from Martin, 2012.)

Intelligence Characteristics Frequently Found in . . . Teaching and Learning Strategies

Spatial Ability to perceive the Architects Draw maps

visual–spatial world Artists Study maps
accurately and represent Sculptors Make models
this in one’s own mind Cartographers Draw pictures
Anatomists Solve mazes
Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts Do activities in graphics arts
Examples:
Michelangelo
Frank Lloyd Wright
Salvador Dali
Georgia O’Keefe

Bodily– Ability to use one’s Athletes Dance

kinesthetic body or body parts, Dancers Pantomime
such as hands and Actors Play act
fingers, to solve Mimes Play with blocks
problems and express Examples: Work with construction materials
ideas Tom Hanks Play sports
Meryl Streep
Magic Johnson
Michael Jordan
Mia Hamm

Musical Ability to think in music, Musical performers Sing songs

hear music almost People who love to play Learn tunes
continuously, and musical instruments Write tunes
recognize musical People who love to sing Write rap songs
patterns, remember People who enjoy listening to Engage in rhythmic games and activities
them, and transform music Dance
them Examples: Play musical instruments
Ludwig van Beethoven Create rhymes
Michael Jackson Play classical music in the background
Elton John (the so-called Mozart effect)

Linguistic Ability to use language Writers Read

effectively, either in oral Poets Write
or written form, to Storytellers Send e-mail
express ideas to others Lawyers Play board or card games
Editors Listen to recordings
Journalists Participate in discussions and
Examples: conversations
Ernest Hemingway Use computers
Maya Angelou Search the Internet
Write poetry, news reports, fiction

(Continued )

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 TABLE 5.1 (Continued )

Intelligence Characteristics Frequently Found in . . . Teaching and Learning Strategies

Logical– Ability to use numbers Mathematicians Argue points successfully

mathematical and operations Accountants Classify and sequence
mathematically and to Statisticians Play number and logic games
reason logically Scientists Solve puzzles
Computer programmers Draw and interpret cognitive maps
Examples: Draw graphs
John Forbes Nash, Jr. Interpret graphs
John Glenn Express conclusions in mathematical
Marie Curie formats
Steve Wozniak Search the Internet
Sally Ride

Interpersonal Ability to understand Teachers Lead discussions

other people, to Clergy Participate in discussions
interpret their verbal Salespeople Participate in cooperative games
and nonverbal behavior Politicians Participate in group projects and
correctly, and to exhibit Examples: discussions
sensitivity to their Ronald Regan Participate in dramatic activities
moods and feelings Bishop Desmond Tutu Role-play
Mother Teresa Ask clarifying questions
Mahatma Gandhi Study with a partner
Eleanor Roosevelt

Intrapersonal Ability to understand People who exhibit self- Participate in independent projects
oneself, know who one discipline Read books
is, know one’s own People who exhibit personal Write in journals
strengths and authenticity Lead discussions
limitations, and act in Examples: Be a friend
accordance with this Dalai Lama Help resolve quarrels
self-knowledge Martin Luther King, Jr. Organize games
Deepak Chopra Direct play activities
Karen Horney Work in cooperative groups
Find quiet places for reflection

Naturalistic Ability to discriminate Botanists Explore nature

among living things and Zoologists Group according to natural surroundings
exhibit sensitivity to Ecologists or environment
one’s natural Explorers Find origins
surroundings Farmers Study objects found in nature
Hunters Collect objects from nature
Examples: Mount and label specimens from nature
Charles Darwin
Jack Hanna
Dian Fossey

Existential Ability to see the big Politicians Draw interdisciplinary connections

picture and make Philosophers Take content into the community
connections among Examples:
ideas Confucius
Albert Einstein
Jesus Christ
Nelson Mandela
© Cengage Learning 2014

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 Multiple Intelligences BUILDING BLOCK
Select an area of content you plan to teach, and describe an activity pertaining to 5.5
that lesson you might develop specifically for each intelligence.
How would designing classroom activities and lessons in a way that gives
students opportunities to use their primary intelligences help to motivate them by
meeting their needs?

Learning Styles
As you might suspect from your explorations of multiple intelligence theory, people
learn more and retain it longer when the material they are learning is taught in a man-
ner that is comfortable to them. To demonstrate this to yourself, do the activity in
Building Block 5.6.

Your Comfort Zones BUILDING BLOCK

Sit with your body relaxed and your hands folded in your lap or on your desk. Then, 5.6
unfold your hands and refold them the other way—so the other thumb is on top.
Which way was more comfortable?
Do the same thing with crossing your legs and folding your arms. Is one way
more comfortable to you than the other?
You can do the same for choosing which ear you bring the telephone to, which
shoe you put on first, and other habitual actions.

In Building Block 5.6, you demonstrated to yourself you have strong personal prefer-
ences for a number of things you do. These preferences often are so strong (such as fold-
ing your arms one way) that it is difficult—perhaps nearly impossible—to do these simple
tasks differently from the way you are used to doing them.
The same principle is true of learning: Learners have distinct preferences for the ways
they learn most comfortably.
It has been shown that people take in information in several fundamental ways to
process it. These ways are called learning styles or learning modalities, and generally one learning style An individual’s
modality is stronger than the others (Dunn, 1988). There are three main learning modali- preference about how information
is presented and taken in. Learning
ties: visual, auditory, and tactile–kinesthetic. People for whom the visual learning modality styles include visual, auditory, and
is strong are termed visual learners; people for whom the auditory learning modality is tactile.
strong are termed auditory learners; and people for whom the tactile–kinesthetic learning learning modality See learning
modality is strong are termed tactile learners (referring to touch) or kinesthetic learners style.
(referring to movement, although the term kinesthetic learners often is used to include both
the kinesthetic and tactile modalities).
Visual learners learn best by seeing—pictures, diagrams, graphs, charts, films, and
the like. Auditory learners learn best by hearing—the voice of the teacher or colleagues,
the oral discussion led by the teacher, the responses of other students, and the like. Tac-
tile–kinesthetic learners learn best by feeling things—touching, manipulating items, and
the like.
To understand how people use learning modalities, let us explore them in action in
Building Block 5.7.

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 BUILDING BLOCK Exploring Learning Modalities
5.7 The following activity will help you discover what it is like to have each of the three
primary learning modalities.
Find a friend, classmate, or family member. Looking into the eyes of your partner,
record the direction your partner’s eyes move—up, straight ahead, side, down and left,
or down and right—as you ask him or her the reflective questions that follow:
1. What is your favorite television program?
2. What is your favorite movie from the past year?
3. Who is your favorite relative?
4. What is your favorite song or piece of music?
5. What is your favorite sport to watch?
6. Who is your favorite actor?
7. Who is your favorite actress?
If your partner’s eyes moved upward or were focused straight ahead as he or she
reflected on the answers, the individual probably is a predominantly visual learner. If
your partner’s eyes moved to either side or down to his or her left, the individual prob-
ably is a predominantly auditory learner. If your partner’s eyes moved down toward his
or her right, the individual probably is a predominantly tactile–kinesthetic learner
(Laborde, 1984; Bandler and Grinder, 1979). See Figure 5.5. Ask your partner to de-
scribe what he or she thought of when deciding on the response to each question. What
memories were recalled? Because the way people recall information is congruent with
the way they perceive and process information (the way they learn), these descriptions
reveal the ways in which visual, auditory, and tactile–kinesthetic individuals learn.
How would you describe a visual learner? An auditory learner? A kinesthetic learner?

VISUAL

EYES EYES EYES

UP UP STRAIGHT AHEAD
RIGHT LEFT DEFOCUSED

AUDITORY

EYES EYES EYES

LEVEL LEVEL DOWN
RIGHT LEFT LEFT

KINESTHETIC

Figure 5.5
▲

Learning modality revealed by

eye movement. (Adapted from EYES
Laborde, 1984.) DOWN
© Cengage Learning 2014 RIGHT

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 People often process information in two or even all three modalities at the same time.
However, one of the three tends to be stronger—in many cases, much stronger than the others.
For example, a student may be listening intently to someone describe how the Grand Canyon
was formed (auditory learning) but also is reinforcing that information by looking at the
pictures and video clips of the Grand Canyon the teacher is providing (visual learning). The
teacher may also pass around samples of different rocks that came from the Grand Canyon
for people to feel (tactile learning) and look at (visual learning). However, this student is get-
ting most of the information through the spoken descriptions. Others may rely mostly on
pictures and video clips for their information and will daydream during verbal presentations.

Teaching That Includes the Primary Learning Styles

Achievement is fostered when teachers use strategies compatible with students’ primary
learning modalities (Felder, 2010). As you have seen, students learn and process information
in different modalities. However, because it is not always possible to tell which modality is
the strongest for each student in a given situation, teachers must teach in a manner that
accommodates all the modalities. Effective teachers combine all three modalities in their
lessons to the extent possible by ensuring that appropriate stimuli are present.
But how are multiple intelligences different from learning styles or modalities? You
might think of it this way: Learning modalities are ways that students prefer to take in
and process information. Multiple intelligences may be thought of as ways students are
skilled at expressing their understanding. So, as a student, you may prefer to learn infor-
mation by listening (as an auditory learner), and then express your understanding in a
spatial representation such as a poster or collage.

Learning Styles in the Classroom BUILDING BLOCK

Review the visual, auditory, and tactile–kinesthetic learning styles you investigated. 5.8
Select an area of content you plan to teach, and describe an activity you might de-
velop specifically for each modality.
How do these strategies foster heightened relationships between the student and the
teacher? How do they help students understand that the material being studied is mean-
ingful and relevant? How do they help students meet their basic and academic needs?

Just as each student has his or her own unique style of learning, teachers also have
their personal learning styles, and they tend to incorporate these comfort zones into
their teaching. Ebeling (2000) writes, “Our own learning style often becomes our most
comfortable teaching style” (p. 247). The implication is that teachers tend to want to
teach using their own dominant learning style, thus requiring the students to adopt the
teacher’s learning style in their class. It may be a bit uncomfortable for you to design a
lesson that incorporates learning styles that may not be your predominant style, but as
one who aspires to be an effective teacher, it is your job to consider and acknowledge
the unique abilities of all the students who will learn in your classroom. And, with
practice and experience, it will soon become second nature to incorporate methods that
appeal to and facilitate the learning of all of the students in your class.

Teaching That Acknowledges Unique Abilities

You have considered strategies that will promote engagement and achievement of learners
with disabilities, ADHD, special talents, and particular preferences for learning and demon-
strating their knowledge of information. Have you considered that it is most likely that all

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 of the students you have read about in this chapter will be in your classroom at the same
time? It is also likely that you will not be the only teacher in your classroom if you have
students with special needs included in your classroom. Together, you and another teacher
will plan and implement lessons to support all of the learners in your classroom. You must
therefore be familiar with the concepts of co-teaching and differentiated instruction.

Co-Teaching
As learners with special needs are increasingly included into the general education class-
co-teaching Two or more certified room, more and different kinds of support is required to meet those needs. In co-teaching
teachers (such as a general education (also known as collaborative teaching, cooperative teaching, or team teaching), a general
teacher and a special education
teacher) teaching a class together. education classroom teacher and another certified teacher work together to plan, imple-
ment, and evaluate lessons that acknowledge the unique abilities and perspectives of the
student population. You should review the information in Table 5.2 to gain an under-
standing of what co-teaching in an inclusion classroom involves.

TABLE 5.2 What Co-Teaching Is and Is Not

Co-Teaching is . . . Co-Teaching is not . . .

Two or more coequal (preferably credentialed) faculty working A teacher and an assistant, teacher’s aide, or
together. paraprofessional.

Conducted in the same classroom at the same time. When a few students are pulled out of the classroom on a
regular basis to work with the special educator. It is also not
job sharing, where teachers teach different days.

Conducted with heterogeneous groups. Pulling a group of students with disabilities to the back of
the general education class.

When both teachers plan for instruction together. The When the general education teacher (GET) plans all lessons
general education teacher (GET) is the content specialist and the special education teacher (SET) walks in to the room
while the special education teacher (SET) is the expert on and says, “What are we doing today and what would you like
individualizing and delivering to various learning modalities. me to do?”

When both teachers provide substantive instruction together; When the special education teacher walks around the room
having planned together, the SET can grade homework, all period as the general education teaches the content.
teach content, facilitate activities, and so on. Also, not when the SET sits in the class and takes notes.

When both teachers assess and evaluate student progress. When the GET grades “his” kids and the SET grades “her”
IEP goals are kept in mind, as are the curricular goals and kids, or when the GET grades all students and the SET
standards for that grade level. surreptitiously changes the grades and calls it “modifying
after the fact.”

When teachers maximize the benefits of having two teachers When teachers take turns being “in charge” of the class so
in the room by having both teachers actively engage with that the other teacher can get caught up in grading,
students. Examples of different co-teaching models include photocopying, making phone calls, creating IEPs, and so on,
team teaching, station teaching, parallel teaching, alternative or when students remain in the large group setting in lecture
teaching, and “one teach, one support.” format as teachers rotate who “talks at them.”

When teachers reflect on the progress and process, offering When teachers get frustrated with one another and tell the
one another feedback on teaching styles, content, activities, rest of the faculty in the teachers’ lounge or when one teacher
and other items pertinent to improving the teaching situation. simply tells the other teacher what to do and how to do it.

Source: From The High School Journal, vol. 86, April/May Issue. Copyright © 2003 by the University of North Carolina Press. Used by
permission of the publisher. www.uncpress.unc.edu.

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 FROM THE FIELD

Teaching All Students through Leadership

Stewart
Eloise Stewart
T 

Courtesy of Eloise
eaching is a profession that reinvents itself when we answers. I found that the level
get a new class each fall, change grades, or develop of anxiety and competition
a new curriculum. We model all day long how to teach, but between the students
perhaps the most important thing we can model is how to declined. There were no right or wrong
learn. I view a teacher leader as a listener, a model, a answers. Students soon realized that, in Dr. Stewart’s class,
facilitator of processes, and a builder of relationships and it was alright to think through a process. Sometimes more
mutual respect with her students. Creating a positive than one answer can solve a problem. 
classroom culture is the key to success. I believe that the way I structure my classroom has
Teachers are the ones who touch students and interact direct bearing on student behavior, learning, and most
with them. They have complete power over the process importantly, motivation. Students should be active learners
that takes place in the classroom. I teach study skills to and encouraged to use higher-level thinking skills. Lessons
students with special needs at Randolph High School, and should foster creativity and discovery learning, and should
also job training skills to students with special needs foster good problem-solving skills. I like creating situations
enrolled in the transitional program. When students first in the class where students have the opportunity to work in
enter my classroom, I believe it is important for them to group situations. By giving students a clear objective and a
understand that they are special and important. Asking clear set of directions, students are able to engage in
questions and getting to know their likes, dislikes, and meaningful learning. One person may be artistic, another
learning styles help me make a personal connection with may be an excellent communicator, and another may be
them. By creating an environment of trust within the able to put pen to paper effectively. Creating multiple
classroom, I am able to greatly affect student learning. assessment models can also be a motivator to students.
I provide leadership to my students by creating Not all students are great test takers. Some may require an
lessons that incorporate concepts such as respect, oral test versus a written test, whereas others may need to
tolerance, courage, trust, diversity, and responsibility. demonstrate their understanding of a concept through
Designing lessons that help students make connections to optional means of assessment. Students are motivated to
their daily lives can also help students make decisions that do well when they truly believe that their teacher
reflect their personal values. Often, the students I work understands their learning style and is willing to go that
with in study skills and the transitional program come to extra distance to help them excel in their academics. 
school with various degrees of background knowledge. My It is important to provide leadership and motivation to
responsibility is to provide multiple learning opportunities students. I believe motivation leads to greater achievement.
that are geared toward their learning styles. All students My goal as an educator is to not only be a leader and
can learn, and certain teacher behaviors motivate students’ motivator for my students, but also to leave a lasting
thinking. These behaviors are often found in the impression of a love for learning on each and every student
questioning technique used to gather information. I who enters my classroom.
structure questions to promote student thinking. For
example, “What do you think causes …?” “Based on what
you know, what can you predict about …?” These types of Eloise Stewart, Ed.D.
questions allow students to understand the material after Kappa Delta Pi Teacher of Honor
they had an opportunity to talk about it. As a teacher, I Randolph High School
began accepting solutions to problems as plausible, Randolph, New Jersey
understanding that students take risks in providing
© Cengage Learning 2014

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 Chances are you will have the opportunity to be a part of a co-teaching team. The
most important goal of effective co-teaching is to keep the needs of the students the
priority. Cooperation, collaboration, and professionalism are keys to success for a co-
teaching team.

Differentiated Instruction
As you know, students in a classroom have many differences. We could say that students
are differentiated based on their unique perspectives and their unique abilities. It follows
that the instruction teachers provide should be differentiated as well. Under the leadership
differentiated instruction Instruction of Carol Ann Tomlinson, the concept of differentiated instruction is becoming well
that is tailored to the different needs known. Differentiated instruction is an instructional strategy based on the teacher’s
of individual students.
awareness of the needs of individual students. It calls for teachers to have “clear learning
goals that are rooted in content standards but crafted to ensure student engagement and
understanding” (Tomlinson, 2008, p. 26).
How can you differentiate instruction? Perhaps multiple intelligences and learning
styles came to mind. That’s good! Including different learning styles and multiple intel-
ligences in a lesson is one good way to differentiate the instruction. For each character-
istic, we have suggested teaching strategies that acknowledge that characteristic. You
saw that there are some common denominators that span all or most of the character-
istics. In differentiated instruction, teachers plan and teach lessons that incorporate as
many of the strategies as possible to acknowledge the different characteristic of the
students in their class. Differentiated instruction includes tailoring content to meet the
capabilities, experiences, and interests of the students. Differentiated instruction makes
available alternative routes to achieving lesson objectives. Differentiated instruction
provides meaningful ways for students to demonstrate their understandings. Differenti-
ated instruction includes variations in the learning environment based on the needs of
individual students. Differentiated instruction does not call for teachers to create sepa-
rate lesson plans for each student. Rather, it asks teachers to look for patterns of need
and then group students with similar needs or interests so the teacher can work with
these individual groups.
Table 5.3 shows elements of differentiated instruction and their implications.

TABLE 5.3 Critical Elements in a Differentiated Classroom and Their Implications

Goal or Element Implications for Teachers Implications for Students

Students need to . . . The teacher . . . Students . . .

Work in small groups with Will ensure that all groups have Will focus on what their group should do rather
classmates. assignments that work for the group so than pay attention to what others are doing.
all students can learn what they need to Will ensure that they understand and follow the
learn. directions given to their group.
Will ensure that each group has clear Will contribute to the effectiveness of their
directions. group and ask for help when there is a problem
Will ensure that students know how to the group cannot solve.
work together effectively. Will monitor their conversations so noise doesn’t
Will provide directions for moving detract from learning.
furniture to allow for a variety of Will move furniture smoothly so groups have
groupings. appropriate spaces to work.

Work with the teacher Will know what each student requires to Will be able to start and stop individual and
individually or in small learn at a given time so the groups small group work efficiently to meet with the
groups. support learning. teacher when necessary.

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 TABLE 5.3 (Continued )

Goal or Element Implications for Teachers Implications for Students

Students need to . . . The teacher . . . Students . . .

Will ensure that student directions are Will not interrupt the teacher when he or she is
clear and that students have ways to working with individuals or groups.
get help when he or she is busy with a Will know how to get help when the teacher is
small group or individual. busy with groups or individuals.
Will keep track of student needs, work, Will keep track of their own learning goals and
and growth and help students do the work.
same for themselves.

Spend different amounts Will provide a place for students to turn Will follow directions about turning in work or
of time on a task in order in completed work and get it checked if getting it checked when it’s finished.
to learn well. necessary. Will work with anchor activities smoothly and
Will provide options for important effectively when an assignment is completed.
student work when a task is finished.

Work with different Will provide a variety of materials that Will help make sure materials are cared for and
materials in order to learn work for students’ different entry returned to the place they belong after an
well. points, including reading needs, activity is completed.
interests, and formats. Will help the teacher know which materials (or
Will help develop a way to make sure kinds of materials) work best for them as
students know which materials to use at individuals.
a particular time and where materials
will be stored.

Source: From Leading and Managing A Differentiated Classroom (p. 59), by Carol Ann Tomlinson & Marica B. Imbeau, Alexandria,
VA: ASDC. © 2010 by ASCD. Reprinted with permission. Learn more about ASCD at www.ascd.org.

A Final Word about Unique Perspectives and Abilities

In Chapter 4 and in this chapter, you investigated ways of teaching students with unique
perspectives and abilities. In the teaching strategies you considered throughout these chap-
ters, you sought to accomplish several objectives:

Motivate students.
Enable students to develop a relationship with the teacher, thereby fostering their re-
lationship with the academic material.
Enable students to reinforce and satisfy their basic and academic needs.
Foster learning and achievement.

You have investigated how the teaching strategies suggested for one group of
students are similar to those suggested for other groups. Now it is time to put this all
together.

Teaching All Students in the Classroom BUILDING BLOCK

Prepare a grid. Across the top, list the characteristics of students you investigated in 5.9
Chapter 4 and in this chapter. Down the left side, list various teaching strategies you
suggested. A few examples of teaching strategies are provided to help you get
started. The grid will look something like the example that follows.

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 Gifted and Talented Students
English Language Learners

Students with Disabilities

Socioeconomic Status

Multiple Intelligences
Sexual Orientation
Cultural Diversity

Learning Styles
Religion

Gender
Autism
ADHD
Teaching
Strategy

Ensure topics
relate to
students’ lives

Slow down the

pace of the
class

Provide
hands-on
activities

Use the
Internet

Prepare charts
and diagrams

Use check marks to show the characteristic or characteristics for which each
strategy is appropriate.
What teaching strategies seem to be appropriate for all students? Identify one
or two teaching principles you believe to be most appropriate for teaching all
students.

Constructivism and Teaching

Students with Unique Abilities
You have investigated many characteristics and perspectives that students bring to the
classroom. You have wrestled with ways of teaching to accommodate each of these
exceptionalities. You have seen that numerous strategies apply to all students, regard-
less of exceptionality, and that certain strategies seem appropriate for certain situations.
With so many differences in students and so many different ways to teach them, it may
seem that the teacher has an impossible and complex job.
In your investigations, you have sought ways to meet students’ basic needs and
academic needs and ways to help students relate content and material to their own
lives, thus making the material meaningful to them and increasing their chances of
learning.

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 This brings us to what we believe is the
bottom line in teaching.
David Ausubel wrote, “The single most
important factor influencing learning is what
the learner already knows” (Ausubel, Novak,
and Hanesian, 1978, p. iv). In other words,
effective teachers do in their classes exactly
what you have been doing in this course: help
students relate new material to what they al-
ready know.
As we indicated in Chapter 2, Piaget,
Dewey, Vygotsky, and numerous others have

©Elizabeth Crews/The Image Works

concluded that knowledge cannot be trans-
mitted from one person to another; people
must construct their own understandings
and their own knowledge. Learners con-
struct this knowledge as they wrestle with
new information and integrate it into their
existing knowledge framework. When stu-
dents are encouraged to relate new informa- In a constructivist classroom, all
tion to what they already know, the self is recognized, relevance is established, and students are actively engaged in
learning occurs. This is constructivism. You may recall from your inquiries in Chapter 1 learning.
that each activity suggested in this textbook, and indeed this textbook itself, is construc-
tivist in orientation. constructivism A learning theory
To see firsthand what constructivist teaching and learning are all about, look at how that proposes that students
construct their own knowledge by
you have been approaching this course. In all instances, you have brought your own combining information they already
knowledge, thoughts, and prior information to the surface before you looked at what have with new information, so that
others have said. You then combined your existing understanding with new information new knowledge takes on personal
meaning to the student.
to form refined, revised, and sometimes new conceptualizations.

Constructing Information BUILDING BLOCK

Review the work you have done so far in this course. In what ways were you asked 5.10
to bring your existing knowledge, ideas, and understanding to the surface of your
mind? In what ways was new information provided? In what ways were you asked
to combine the new information with information you already had to form new and
refined conceptualizations?
How is the work you have done so far constructivist in nature?

Constructivist educators, including the authors of this textbook, believe that all learn-
ers must construct meaning for themselves—that learning can take place only when it is
connected to each individual’s already existing knowledge, experience, or conceptualiza-
tions. What students learn in school is not a copy of what they observe and hear in class;
it is the result of their own thinking and processing.
In an address to the Holmes Group in 1987, Judith Lanier, then dean of the College
of Education at Michigan State University and president of the Holmes Group, made
these remarks:

Competent teachers jump into the heads of their students to see how they are
constructing information. … Competent teachers combine content knowledge
with a flexible and creative mind, constructing and reconstructing subject matter
in multiple ways as they teach the children. They get inside the children’s heads.
They listen to them. They remain alert to students’ interpretations and the ways
they are making sense. (Lanier, 1987)

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 This is the essence of constructivism. Teachers who want to ensure learning teach in
this way.

BUILDING BLOCK My Philosophy of Education Revisited

5.11 Part I of this textbook dealt with yourself as a future teacher. Part II has dealt with
students.
Revisit the philosophy of education you prepared at the end of Chapter 2. Do
you still have the same beliefs? Would you like to make some changes?
Rewrite your philosophy to reflect your thinking at this point in your
investigation of American education.

SU M M A RY
CHAPTER RESOURCES

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) outlines requirements that
must be met to provide a “full and appropriate education” for students with disabilities.
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a serious disorder that affects
many students. Teaching accommodations include strategies for gaining and main-
taining students’ attention.
The incidence of autism is increasing and teachers need to know how to teach stu-
dents with autism. Techniques include being very detailed, focusing on the students’
areas of interest, and providing appropriate avenues for their cognitive excursions.
Human intelligence ranges from low to high, and most students can be taught in
the regular classroom regardless of their basic intelligence, although a few adjust-
ments in teaching strategies may be appropriate.
According to Howard Gardner, people have several different kinds of intelligences,
the relative strengths of which strongly influence how they learn and demonstrate
their achievement.
People have different learning styles; they are visual, auditory, and tactile–kinesthetic.
These learning styles correspond to the ways students find are most comfortable in
approaching learning tasks. Basic needs and fundamental academic needs are the
same for everyone, regardless of any differences students may exhibit. Although a
few specific teaching techniques apply to specific student needs, the techniques of
teaching are essentially the same for everyone if teachers seek to foster relevance.
Constructivist teaching acknowledges individual abilities in that learning experi-
ences are tailored to meet the needs of each individual student.
We trust you will always bear in mind that the best teachers are those who can tailor
the instruction to meet the needs of all their students—no matter who those students are.

Key Terms and Concepts

Assistive technology, 135 Differentiated instruction, 150 Learning style, 145
Attention deficit disorder Dyslexia, 132 Mainstreaming, 129
(ADD), 132 Exceptional students, 127 Normal curve, 137
Attention deficit/hyperactivity Full inclusion, 129 Resource classroom, 130
disorder (ADHD), 132 Gifted and talented student, 138 Response to intervention
Autism, 133 Inclusion, 129 (RTI), 131
Bell-shaped curve, 137 Individualized education Special education, 127
Cognitive ability, 136 program (IEP), 128 Theory of multiple
Constructivism, 153 Learning disability, 131 intelligences, 142
Co-teaching, 148 Learning modality, 145

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 Construct and Apply

CHAPTER RESOURCES
1. Referring to your investigations of humanism in Chapter 2 and Chapter 3, would Rogers and
Maslow approve of the strategies you suggested in Building Block 5.9 for meeting the needs of
students with unique perspectives and abilities? Why or why not?
2. How might your own learning preferences affect your teaching style?
3. What common teaching strategies have you identified that would help all students achieve in
your classroom?
4. Consider this scene: A student in a traditional classroom approaches his teacher. He says, “The
gifted students are going on a field trip to the zoo. The special education kids are having a party
where they get to dress up like jungle animals. I get to come in here and take notes.” What is
the implication? To what degree are the methods used for gifted and special education students
appropriate in the traditional classroom?

Deconstructing the Standards

1. Recall the InTASC Standards associated with the objectives for this chapter:
Standard #2: Learning Differences reads, “The teacher uses understanding of indi-
vidual differences and diverse cultures and communities to ensure inclusive learning envi-
ronments that enable each learner to meet high standards.”
Standard #8: Instructional Strategies reads, “The teacher understands and uses a
variety of instructional strategies to encourage learners to develop deep understanding of
content areas and their connections, and to build skills to apply knowledge in meaningful
ways.”
a. What part(s) of these standards does this chapter address?
b. How will the concepts in this chapter help you apply these standards as a teacher?
2. Use your favorite search engine to find your state’s standards for certification. When you find
it, bookmark the site; you will refer to it often during this course.
a. How do your conclusions about teaching learners with different abilities compare to the
state standards?
b. How do the InTASC Standards compare to your state’s certification standards?
c. Do you believe the degree of representation concerning educational philosophy is adequate
in your state certification standards? Why or why not?

Your Portfolio
Use your work in the activities suggested in this chapter to show your developing awareness of best
practices in teaching.
Summarize one or more instances from your field experience where you or your cooperat-
ing teacher used certain teaching techniques to accommodate the needs of students with unique
abilities.
Volunteer to tutor a student with special needs and reflect on your experiences.

Education CourseMate Resources

Check out this text’s Education CourseMate website (at www.cengagebrain.com) for more informa-
tion about working with students with diverse abilities, interactive study tools, and useful resources.
You will find the TeachSource Videos, a guide for doing field experiences, glossary flash cards, ac-
tivities, tutorial quizzes, direct links to all of the websites mentioned in the chapter, and more, in-
cluding material about locus of control and field dependence/field independence, both which are
additional student differences.

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43013_ch05_ptg01.indd 156 31/08/12 8:25 PM
 Society

School

Student

Self

School
PA R T

III
IN PART I, you investigated your self, your experiences with teaching and
learning, and your thoughts about excellence in teaching and learning. Your
ideas and beliefs informed your initial philosophy of education. You saw that
there are several different ways of looking at education, depending on the
expected outcomes. Part II helped you see that all students have common
personal, cognitive, and social needs, and that teachers must consider the
unique characteristics, perspectives, and abilities each student brings to the
classroom to identify effective teaching strategies that facilitate equality and
achievement.
In Part III, you will broaden your sphere of inquiry to include the schools
themselves. You will investigate the purposes of schools, how schools are
structured to fulfill their purposes, how students work within these structures to
fulfill their needs, and how teachers work within these structures to meet the
needs of the students they serve.

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 © Syracuse Newspapers/Mike Greenlar/The Image Works

©Jim West/The Image Works

CHAPTER

6 Purposes of Schools
CHAPTER 6 INVITES you to explore different kinds of schools and their
purposes. Schools can have many different purposes, depending on several factors.
You will identify some of the factors that influence schools’ purposes, and you will
examine how these factors exert their influence on the purpose of the place we call
“school.”
Schools‘ purposes range from developing students so they will fit in with existing
society to providing students with the skills needed to change society, from
mastering basic skills and concepts to keeping up with the times, from preparing
students to enter the work force to preparing them to affect culture and society.
Some purposes seem to be common to all schools, even though individual schools
may go about accomplishing these goals in different ways.
On the surface, it might seem that schools all have the same underlying
purposes—that they all have the same basic goals. But do they? Just as students
have common academic needs, schools have common purposes. However, as each
student brings unique characteristics and perspectives to the classroom, each school
also has unique characteristics and perspectives. In this chapter, you will explore
these factors and the ways in which they determine the basic purposes of schools.

158

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 Chapter Objectives
As a result of your explorations in this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Identify factors common to most schools that influence their purposes, including
the federal government, grade-level span, and location.
Standard 3: Learning Environments
2. Show how a school’s mission statement reflects its basic philosophy and therefore its purpose.
Standard 3: Learning Environments
3. Describe several factors that influence the purpose a school sees for itself, including grade-level
span and location.
Standard 3: Learning Environments
4. Explore unique purposes of several kinds of nontraditional schools, including virtual schools, and cite
advantages and disadvantages of each.
Standard 3: Learning Environments

Common Purposes of Schools

To start off, look at your thoughts about the purposes of schools.

Questions about the Purposes of Schools BUILDING BLOCK

Consider the age group of students you wish to teach. 6.1
What are the primary purposes of sending these children to school? Bear in
mind that there are many ways to think about this issue. Try not to rely too
heavily on personal experiences and thoughts because there are many kinds of
schools that exist in addition to the kinds you attended, and there are many
personal experiences in addition to the ones you have had.
From your list of primary purposes, write a statement of what you believe are
the major purposes of schools.
Compare your responses with those of other students in your class. What are
the commonalities? What are the differences?

Schools serve communities, and the purpose of a school reflects the community it
serves. Most communities are made of businesses, industries, services, government, resi-
dents, families, and friends, in addition to the faculty, administration, and students in the
schools. In deciding on the purpose of its schools, a group comprising representatives
from all parts of the community, including educators, debate several important questions,
ultimately resolving these issues into a singularity of purpose. The result is a statement of
the purpose of the school, which is similar to statements developed by parallel groups
across the country but that differs in the way the purpose reflects the individual commu-
nity. Many government agencies, blue-ribbon panels, and educators have described what
they believe are the fundamental purposes of schools.

Purposes of Schools as Seen by Government Agencies

The federal government has officially been in the education business since 1953, when
President Dwight D. Eisenhower established the Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare and named Oveta Culp Hobby its first secretary. In 1979, President Jimmy Carter

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 formed the first cabinet-level Department of Education and appointed Shirley Mount
Hufstedler as its secretary.

A Nation At Risk
One of the first attempts of the federal government to identify the purposes of schools
came in the form of a report titled A Nation At Risk, published in 1983. This paper was
the result of two years of work by the National Commission on Excellence in Education
created by the secretary of education in the Ronald Reagan administration. The report
started with one short sentence, “Our nation is at risk,” meaning that the United States
was at risk for losing its place as the world’s leader in educational attainments. (This re-
port is discussed in more detail in Chapter 10.)

Goals 2000
In 1989, following the publication of A Nation At Risk, President George H. W. Bush and
the nation’s governors met, for the first time in the history of the United States, to discuss
national educational policy. Their discussion was summarized in the now-famous Goals
2000, which comprised six national goals for public education. Two additional goals—one
dealing with teacher education and professional development and the other with parental
participation—were added to the original six goals, resulting in an expanded Goals 2000:
Educate America Act that was passed into law in 1994 under the Clinton administration.
As listed in the act, the goals are as follows:

1. School readiness. By the year 2000, all children in America will start school ready to
learn.
2. School completion. By the year 2000, the high school graduation rate will increase to
at least 90 percent.
3. Student achievement and citizenship. By the year 2000, all students will leave grades 4,
8, and 12 having demonstrated competency over challenging subject matter, including
English, mathematics, science, foreign languages, civics and government, economics,
arts, history, and geography, and every school in the United States will ensure that all
students learn to use their minds well, so they may be prepared for responsible citizen-
ship, further learning, and productive employment in our nation’s modern economy.
4. Teacher education and professional development. By the year 2000, the nation’s
teaching force will have access to programs for the continued improvement of their
professional skills and the opportunity to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to
instruct and prepare all U.S. students for the next century.
5. Mathematics and science. By the year 2000, U.S. students will be first in the world in
mathematics and science achievement.
6. Adult literacy and lifelong learning. By the year 2000, every adult American will be
literate and will possess the knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a global
economy and exercise the rights and responsibilities of citizenship.
7. Safe, disciplined, and alcohol- and drug-free schools. By the year 2000, every school
in the United States will be free of drugs, violence, and the unauthorized presence of
firearms and alcohol and will offer a disciplined environment conducive to learning.
8. Parental participation. By the year 2000, every school will promote partnerships that
will increase parental involvement and participation in promoting social, emotional,
and academic growth of children.

You can access the full text of A Nation At Risk and Goals 2000, progress reports,
and supplemental material through direct links on the Education CourseMate website.
Goals 2000 provided purpose and direction for U.S. education. Although we have
passed the year 2000, Goals 2000 continues to be influential.
From these statements, what do you suppose were the federal government’s ideas
about the purposes of school? Which of the school purposes outlined in Goals 2000 are
the same as the school purposes you identified in Building Block 6.1?

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 No Child Left Behind
The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) was passed into law in 2001, under the
George W. Bush administration. This act constituted the reauthorization of the Elementary
and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) originally signed into law during the Lyndon Johnson
administration in 1965. (You were introduced to this law in Chapter 1.) Although NCLB
is due to be replaced, its provisions remain in force and its effects on education continue
to be strong.
One principle of NCLB is increased accountability for states, school districts, and
schools for students’ achievement. This provision calls for challenging state standards and
annual testing in reading and mathematics for all students in grades 3 through 8 (U.S.
Department of Education, 2002a), and testing all students in science at least once in the
elementary grades, middle grades, and high school grades. The pressure for students to
perform well on these standardized achievement tests (that have been implemented in
response to the accountability provision of NCLB) is tremendous. Indeed, the conse-
quences of children’s failure to perform on these tests are so serious that many teachers
and schools do not want to stray too far from emphasizing the basic skills the tests assess.
As a result, most elementary schools have the
common goal of emphasizing the so-called three
Rs: reading, writing, and arithmetic.
Concerns exist about this emphasis:

1. Other subjects, such as science, social stud-

ies, art, music, and physical education, take a
secondary position or are left out completely
because of the time devoted to the three Rs.
2. There is little consideration for adapting
teaching to individual needs; the pressure for
success on standardized achievement tests
© Bob Daemmrich/PhotoEdit Inc.

appears greater than the need to accommo-

date children’s individual needs.
3. There is little consideration for the develop-
ment of social skills.

Many people see the No Child Left Behind

Act as challenging schools’ independence, stifling
teachers’ creativity and teaching abilities, and placing tremendous pressure on schools and The purpose of schools,
teachers to demonstrate increasing standardized achievement test scores. Thus, the term according to the federal
high-stakes testing has risen to prominence in educational discussions. government, includes teaching
students the three Rs—reading,
Blueprint for Reform and NCLB Waivers writing, and arithmetic, as
NCLB was scheduled for reauthorization by Congress in 2007, but as of this writing, it demonstrated in legislation like
the No Child Left Behind Act and
has not occurred. However, President Barack Obama and Secretary of Education Arne
Goals 2000.
Duncan have new and different ideas about the way the federal government should sup-
port education.
These new and different ideas began with Race to the Top, funded by the American
Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, and awarded to states on a competitive basis.
This program emphasizes four areas:

Decisions about teaching children based on data

Talent(s)
Turning around chronically low-performing schools
Tailoring the teaching to the needs of the community

The plan for the actual reauthorization of ESEA is embodied in The Blueprint for
Reform (U.S. Department of Education, 2010a), presented by President Obama in

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 March 2010. The Blueprint “builds on significant reforms already made in response to
the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 [Race to the Top],” (ibid. p. 3) and
introduces major changes “with the goal of becoming the most educated country in the
world” (Richardson, 2009, p. 24).
The Blueprint for Reform emphasizes four areas:

1. Improving teacher and principal effectiveness to ensure that every person has a great
teacher and every school has a great leader
2. Providing information to families to help them evaluate and improve their schools,
and to educators to help them improve their students’ learning
3. Implementing college- and career-ready standards and developing assessments aligned
with those standards
4. Improving student learning and achievement in the lowest-performing U.S. schools by
providing intensive support and effective interventions

Of particular note is the desire of the administration to shift the focus of the stan-
dardized tests to measuring the growth of each student, regardless of the performance at
which he starts.
There are concerns with this new proposal. The National Education Association
(NEA) and the American Federation of Teachers feel that the Blueprint signals an increase
in federal control and that, although it provides teachers with more responsibility, it
provides no additional authority. In addition, the professional organizations see a contin-
ued reliance on standardized tests that, as we have seen, are intrinsically unreliable mea-
sures of achievement.
Because the No Child Left Behind Act has not yet been reauthorized, and because
schools need to know what the “rules” are for the current school year, the secretary of
education has established a policy of granting waivers for certain provisions of NCLB. To
be granted a waiver for exemption from NCLB, states must make a formal application
that is reviewed by a committee of peers; Secretary Duncan makes the final decision.
The topic of federal influence on education is hotly debated, and, to the extent
possible, you should keep yourself apprised of happenings with respect to the federal
laws.
You can access the No Child Left Behind Act home page and a website that has the
full text of the act, progress reports, and supplemental material through direct links on
the Education CourseMate website.

Purposes of Schools as Seen

in Mission Statements
mission statement A written public One place to get a glimpse into the purpose of schools is in their mission statements. It
statement crafted by the stakeholders makes sense that the teachers, administrators, parents, officials, and the interested public
in an organization (such as a school)
that identifies the organization’s might be involved in writing such statements. And, it is interesting to note how the state-
perceived purpose. ments differ from school to school, indicating variations in purpose.

BUILDING BLOCK School Mission Statements

6.2 Find the mission statements of two or three public and private elementary, middle,
or secondary schools in your area. Use the Internet to search for the school’s name,
and then look for its mission statement. Sometimes this document is called a mission
or a mission statement; sometimes it is called a statement of vision, a philosophy,

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 values, or a similar term. You may wish to examine the mission statement of a
school you attended so you can compare that mission statement with your actual
experiences at that school. (Of course, the time difference may be a factor if the
mission statement was written since you attended the school—but the school’s
essential mission probably has not changed significantly.)
In the mission statement, look for these factors:
1. The school’s predominant educational philosophy or approach
2. What the school expects of its students as a result of attendance
3. How the school provides for students’ basic, academic, and developmental
needs
4. Any special population mentioned
5. Any particular curriculum mentioned
6. Any particular instructional methods mentioned
7. Attention given to the needs of the community the school serves
From your investigations, determine the school’s primary purpose. How does
the mission statement of a school you attended compare with your experience at
that school?

Mission statements can inform us about the purposes that individual schools see for
themselves. A school’s mission statement is a short document that describes the school’s
purpose, focusing on what the school wants to be, what it wants to do, and what its
values and principles are. It reflects the shared vision and values of the learning com-
munity, including the faculty and administration. It becomes the criterion by which
everything that happens in the school is measured. A mission statement is a living
document that the learning community continually reviews, refines, and keeps up to
date to reflect current thinking about the school. (Recall that, in Chapter 2, you read
the mission statements of several schools to infer the philosophies that guided those
schools’ operations.)
Anyone reading a school’s mission statement can learn the school’s primary goals,
how these goals are implemented, and what the school expects its students and graduates
to know and be able to do. Although there may be some discrepancy between a school’s
mission statement and its actual practice, the mission statement specifies why the school
exists and establishes the scope of its activities (Dottin, 2001). It provides a description of
the present and a direction for the future.
Your explorations thus far have enabled you to identify some common goals or pur-
poses of schools and schooling. Did you find that some of your ideas were different from
those of your classmates and those cited in the preceding literature and quotations? What
influences your ideas? How strongly do your personal experiences and philosophy of
education influence your ideas about the purposes of school? You bring your own unique
perspectives to your ideas.

The Purposes of Schools BUILDING BLOCK

You have seen many different thoughts about the purposes of schools from several 6.3
different points of view. Look at the purposes you identified in Building Block 6.1
and make any changes you think are appropriate. Write a revised school purpose
statement.

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 FROM THE FIELD

Developing a Mission
Bev Abrams

Abrams
I was the sixth person hired to teach a class of first students meet in councils in

Courtesy of Bev
through third graders in a brand new, open the middle school program.
structured, constructivist public school, the Santa Barbara The first thing that visitors
Charter School. Teachers left as quickly as they were hired, notice about our school is that
and over 50 percent of the original families had abandoned “both children and adults are very kind.” Many families
the school. All had invested tremendous energy into opening have found that family dynamics shift as they use the
the doors for the start of school, but there was no coherent communication strategies that children and parents learn at
educational vision or definition of staff and parent roles. Santa Barbara Charter School. The school recently received
Within days of my hire, the small staff sat down to draw up a grant based on the work that we do in this area.
a document that defined the role of teachers in our school; We have had several opportunities to revisit our mission.
within months, we also wrote a mission statement. The school The first time was when we planned our expansion to middle
community readily adopted both statements because all parties school. All of the stakeholders were involved, and a committee
were having trouble living in the programmatic vacuum that member who was a professional writer drafted the final
existed. The school’s founding teacher provided our initial statement. Unfortunately, this statement faded into oblivion
inspiration with her passion for teaching academics through the because it was too long to remember or use when making
arts. The other teachers lent a deep commitment to progressive daily decisions or promoting the school. Additionally, we found
education and a love of wordsmithing to the process. Once we that having a separate mission statement distracted from
articulated the school’s mission, conflict dissipated. By the third creating a cohesive kindergarten through eighth-grade
year, families were choosing our school with some program. A few years later, we looked at the match between
understanding of what we offered. We found it easier to focus the mission and implementation during our authentic
our limited resources on the things that mattered. assessment process. At that time, we examined each area of
The mission statement revealed the school’s core values. the mission and evaluated how well the school was
The school was begun as a parent cooperative, hence the implementing its mission based on a parent survey, observation
statement that the school would build the interests and skills by an outside evaluator, teachers’ plan books, and student
of both students and their families. As progressive feedback. Happily, we found that there was a high degree of
educators, we believed that good education is an ongoing consistency between the mission and the education our
process, rather than a moment in time during which students students were receiving. Most recently, a financial crisis forced
demonstrate their mastery of a collection of facts, so we us to look again at our program, in light of both finances and
stated that we would “nurture lifelong learners.” Finally, we our mission during a process of long-term strategic planning
consciously chose to list “arts, academics, and relationships” (LTSP). Ultimately, the recommendations of the LTSP committee
in that order because we wanted “arts” and “relationships” reflected a commitment to the values stated in the mission,
to stand out. In light of the standardization of education in and these were considered when planning the budget.
the United States, our articulated commitment to arts, Our mission statement has served as the organizing
academics, and relationships has kept us from being swept principle at Santa Barbara Charter School. Other documents,
along with the radical narrowing of public school curriculum. such as our education plan, further articulate our vision.
Our mission statement provides coherence, both in Although our mission doesn’t really convey the intensity with
individual classrooms and to the school as a whole. Decision which we work to keep children at the center of all decisions,
making about the use of classroom time, hiring of specialists, it does help us plan the program and provision the school to
and purchase of supplies often refers to our mission. Though best meet students’ needs and enrich their lives.
some arts opportunities vary from year to year, all elementary
students participate in a fiber arts program and all students Santa Barbara Charter School Mission
are part of an annual class play. Visual arts and music are part Statement:
of the weekly curriculum, and dance and recorder are taught
in some grades. Arts are taught both for their own sake and Santa Barbara Charter School nurtures lifelong learners
to develop other academic understandings. At times, an by cultivating the interest and building the skills of both
entire class does an art activity; at other times, just a few students and their families in the arts, academics, and
students are engaged. Teachers, students, and parents relationships.
initiate art experiences in the classroom.
Time is devoted to cultivating relationships and building
community. Communication and conflict resolution skills are Bev Abrams
facilitated based on schoolwide policy and curriculum. Class Santa Barbara Charter School
meetings are held in the lower school program, and Santa Barbara, California
© Cengage Learning 2014

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 Factors Influencing the Purposes of Schools
Let us now explore the effects specific influences and unique perspectives have on schools’
purposes.

Unique Perspectives and Purposes of Schools BUILDING BLOCK

What influences the purposes of schools? Take a moment to brainstorm, listing as 6.4
many factors as you can think of that might influence a school’s stated purpose.
Write these down to compare to those considered in this chapter.

Influence of Grade Level on School Purpose

One factor that influences the purposes a school sees for itself is its span of grade levels.
When we think of grade levels, we often think in terms of elementary, middle, junior high,
and secondary schools. Elementary schools normally encompass the lower grades, typi-
cally preschool through fifth or sixth grade. Junior high schools usually include grades
six (if not included in elementary school), seven, and eight. Middle schools normally in-
clude grades 6, 7, and 8. And finally, secondary schools ordinarily include grades 9
through 12. Figure 6.1 depicts the general structure of education in the United States.
How do the purposes of schools reflect the grade levels they include?

Elementary Schools

Purposes and Goals of Elementary Schools BUILDING BLOCK

Recall some of the activities in which you participated while in elementary school. What 6.5
were the purposes of these activities? (You may wish to refer to Building Block 6.1.)
What do you think was the basic purpose of your elementary school?
What do you think are the basic purposes of a typical elementary school?
How does the elementary school meet the needs of the students who attend it?
What does the typical elementary school expect of its students as a result of
attending school?

Historically, elementary schools were established to teach children the three Rs: reading,
writing, and arithmetic. Children needed to know how to read so that they could read the
Bible. They needed to be able to write and do basic mathematics so that they could carry
out their future livelihoods of farming or managing a small business.
As the American colonies expanded, towns, cities, businesses, and transportation all
grew. The need for educated citizens also grew, and the country needed more and better
educated individuals to promote social progress. Therefore, secondary schools and col-
leges were established to provide education at higher levels. Accordingly, it became the
primary purpose of most elementary schools to prepare children for success in these
higher grades, teaching them how to think and readying them for a useful and produc-
tive life of citizenship in the society in which they would live. (See Chapter 10.)
These purposes of typical elementary schools seem to be the same today: namely, to
prepare children for success in higher grades, teach them how to think, and equip them
for a useful and productive life of citizenship in the society in which they will live. Among
the skills children master in the elementary school are reading, writing, and mathematics.
These skills are considered paramount today, and children’s success in these areas has
become the number-one priority in elementary schools. As you have seen, the No Child

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 Postdoctoral Study and Research

(College, University, Professional, Vocational,

Ph.D. or
Advanced 7
Professional Doctor’s Degree Study Professional
Degree Schools

Postsecondary Education
(Medicine, 6
Theology,

Technical)
Master’s Law, etc.)
Master’s Degree Study 5
Degree

4
Bachelor’s
Degree
3
4-Year
Associate’s Undergraduate
Degree or Vocational/ Programs
2-Year 2
Certificate Technical
Institutions
Institutions
1

(Academic, Vocational, Technical)

High 17 12
School Senior
Diploma

Secondary Education
16 High 11
4-Year Schools
High Schools Combined
15 Junior/ 10
Senior
14 High 9
Schools
13 Junior 8
High
12 Schools 7
Middle
Schools 6
11

10 5

9 4

(or Primary) Education

8 3
Typical Grade Configurations of

Elementary
Elementary (or Primary) Schools
7 2
Figure 6.1
▲

The structure of education 6 1

in the United States.
5 K
General structure Kindergartens
of education in the PK
4
United States. Nursery Schools
(Source: U.S. Dept. of
3
Education, National Center for
Education Statistics, 2010a.) Age Grade/Year
of College

Left Behind legislation of 2001 requires that all public school students achieve grade-
appropriate proficiency in reading and mathematics.

Middle Schools
Did you go to a junior high school or a middle school? Think about the name of each: junior
high school and middle school. If you know what a high school is like, what do suppose a
junior high school is like? And, if students go to a middle school after they go to elementary
school and before they go to high school, what do you suppose a middle school is like?

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 Adolescent Needs and the Purposes and Goals BUILDING BLOCK
of Middle Schools 6.6
Think about students in grades 6, 7, and 8:
What are their ages?
Name some characteristics that you associate with these young adolescents.
What activities—desirable and undesirable—interest young adolescents?
How do you think these characteristics and interests could affect academic
needs?
Recall Piaget’s cognitive and Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages. What
are some unique characteristics and needs of adolescents?
What implications do these adolescent developmental stages have for teaching
and learning?
What do you suppose would be the primary purpose of a school designed with
young adolescents in mind?

Many people do not differentiate between middle schools and junior high schools.
However, the two are fundamentally different and have fundamentally different purposes.
Junior high schools first appeared in the early 1900s, in response to overcrowding in high
schools. At that time, elementary schools consisted of grades 1 through 6, and secondary
schools consisted of grades 7 through 12. The first junior high schools took over grades 7
and 8 and functioned essentially as high schools did, but with
a younger population of students. The main purpose of junior
high school was to bridge the gap between elementary school
and high school.
The middle school, on the other hand, recognizes that
early adolescent learners have unique needs unlike those found
in either elementary school or high school. The middle school
was developed to align the educational environment with these
unique needs.
The 1989 Carnegie report, Turning Points: Preparing
American Youth for the 21st Century (Carnegie Council on
Adolescent Development, 1989), identified the unique charac-
teristics of young adolescents and described this population as
©Tom Stewart/CORBIS

one struggling with tremendous opportunities for social,

intellectual, and psychological development, and also with
vulnerability and uncertainty. The report concluded that exist-
ing junior high schools did not meet the needs of young
adolescents and that radical reform was needed, suggesting a
purpose and direction for this reform: Effective middle schools provide
adolescent students with rich
The middle grade school proposed here is profoundly different from many learning environments customized
according to students’ unique
schools today. It focuses squarely on the characteristics and needs of young ado-
physical, emotional, social, and
lescents. It creates a community of adults and young people embedded in net-
cognitive needs.
works of support and responsibility that enhance the commitment of students of
learning. (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989, p. 36)

The middle school became the preferred school concept for the education of young
adolescents, almost completely replacing the junior high school. The Association for
Middle Level Education (AMLE, formerly called the National Middle School Association;
2010) expanded the original concept of focusing on student needs by suggesting a set of

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 specific educational objectives to guide the development of middle schools’ purposes and
missions. AMLE recommends that the middle school provide learning experiences for
adolescents that achieve the following goals:

Address adolescents’ varied intellectual, physical, social, emotional, and moral devel-
opment
Help them make sense of themselves and the world around them
Be highly integrated and connected to life
Include adolescents’ questions, needs, developmental issues, and ideas
Involve them in rich and significant knowledge about the world
Open doors to new ideas that evoke curiosity, the desire to explore, and at times, awe
and wonder
Challenge students and encourage them to take maximum advantage of educational
opportunities
Develop caring, responsible, and ethical citizens who practice democratic principles

You can access the home page of the Association for Middle Level Education through
a direct link on the Education CourseMate website.
As you can see, much of what is advocated as the purpose of the middle school rec-
ognizes the unique needs and characteristics that accompany being an adolescent.

Secondary Schools
You may have wonderful memories of high school, but then again, maybe not. Certainly,
high school offered a variety of experiences for everyone who attended. But what do you
suppose is the purpose of high school?

BUILDING BLOCK Purposes and Goals of Secondary Schools

6.7 Recall some of the activities in which you participated while in high school:
What were the purposes of those activities?
How were these activities different from those in junior high school or middle
school?
What do you think are the basic purposes of a typical secondary school?
How does the secondary school meet the needs of the students who attend it?
What does the typical secondary school expect of its students as a result of hav-
ing attended school?

High schools as we know them—free, public, and open to all—have been around
since the 1800s. Recall what you know about American society at that time. What hap-
pened to industry and the economy in the 19th century? What would people need to
know and do to live and thrive during that time? How might this affect the purpose of
education beyond elementary school?
After the Civil War, a demand arose for workers who possessed the knowledge and
skills needed to work in a society marked by industrial growth. There was also an influx
of immigrants who needed education in the ideals of the United States, their new country,
in addition to the knowledge and skills needed for the marketplace. High schools re-
sponded to these needs with practical curricula whose purpose was to educate the masses
(Webb, Metha, and Jordan, 2000).
Today’s high schools serve a more comprehensive purpose, addressing a variety of
educational goals and representing all aspects of society. As a nation, we regularly

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 examine the purpose of our secondary schools and often engage in debates about
whether these schools should prepare students for college or careers. The secondary
school is the last level of schooling for students who do not continue to college or who
do not complete some other postsecondary education, such as a trade school. As such,
most secondary schools have two purposes: one for students who will go to college,
and one for those who will not go to college. Most high schools have curricula that
include a college preparatory program, a basic education program for those choosing
not to continue their education past high school, a vocational or industrial education
program, and programs that prepare support personnel for business (Webb Metha, and
Jordan, 2000).
However, in the past few years, there has been an emerging consensus that all students
should graduate from high school and then go on to some sort of higher education—
college or university, community college, two-year college, trade school, and the like
(Balfanz, 2009). It is probable that we will see changes in stated purposes of high schools
as this consensus builds. For example, New York State is reforming its high school gradu-
ation requirements based on a revised high school general purpose of “college and career
readiness” (George, 2011, p. 1).

Influence of School Location on Its Purpose

Another factor that influences a school’s purposes is school location. The location of a
school has a great influence on its purpose, as envisioned by its community, faculty, and
administration. For example, consider the school system in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Oak
Ridge is the home of the Oak Ridge National Laboratories, established in 1943 as a site
of the Manhattan Project and charged with producing the fuel for the first atomic bomb.
As you might imagine, many of the students in the local schools have at least one parent
with an advanced degree in science. How do you think this context affects the purposes
the Oak Ridge schools see for themselves?
The National Center for Education Statistics (2011a, p. B-3) has identified 12 general
locations of public schools:

City, large: A territory inside an urbanized area with a population of 250,000 or more
City, midsize: A territory inside an urbanized area with a population of less than
250,000
City, small: A territory inside an urbanized area with a population of less than
100,000
Suburb, large: A territory outside a principal city and inside an urbanized area with
a population of 250,000 or more
Suburb, midsize: A territory outside a principal city and inside an urbanized area with
population between 100,000 and 250,000
Suburb, small: A territory outside a principal city and inside an urbanized area with
a population less than 100,000
Town, fringe: A territory inside an urban cluster1 that is less than 10 miles from an
urbanized area
Town, distant: A territory inside an urban cluster that is 10 to 35 miles from an ur-
banized area
Town, remote: A territory inside an urban cluster that is more than 35 miles from an
urbanized area

1
An urban cluster is a geographic area consisting of a central core and adjacent to densely settled territo-
ries with a combined population of between 2,500 and 49,999 people and a population density of at least
1,000 people per square mile (U.S. Department of Transportation, 2003).

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 26%
33%
City
Suburb
Town
Figure 6.2

▲
Rural
Percent of U.S. Schools by
General Locale, 2009–2010 28%
14%
(Source: National Center for
Education Statistics, 2011a).
© Cengage Learning 2014

Rural, fringe: An area designated as “rural” by the U.S. Bureau of the Census that is
less than 5 miles from an urban cluster
Rural, distant: An area designated as “rural” by the U.S. Bureau of the Census that is
5 to 25 miles from an urban cluster
Rural, remote: An area designated as “rural” by the U.S. Bureau of the Census that is
more than 25 miles from an urban cluster

Statistics are aggregated into the four main categories of city, suburb, town, and rural.
In the 2009–2010 school year, there were 88,214 public schools in the United States
(Chen, 2011). The schools were distributed by location as follows:

City: 26 percent
Suburb: 28 percent
Town: 14 percent
School location can influence the
school’s purpose. In small rural Rural: 33 percent
areas, the schools often serve
fewer students. What might be This distribution is shown in graphic form in Figure 6.2.
the purpose of this rural school ? As you have seen, a school’s mission or purpose reflects the desires and needs of the
In larger urban area schools, community it serves. Consider a school in a small city or a large suburb. What population
more students are served and would this school serve? What needs would the population have? Urban schools tend to
the community may dictate the have larger enrollments and a higher concentration of students from low-income families
purpose. Would this urban school
than rural schools. Many of these students have difficulty speaking English and are
provide more academic
thought to have less supportive home environments and less positive school experiences
opportunities than its rural
counterpart? Why? than students from other schools. However, urban schools’ larger enrollments and greater
© Catherine Karnow/CORBIS

© GeoStock/Getty Images

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 student diversity enable these schools to offer a wide variety of programs and specialties,
helping to offset student disadvantages. What do you suppose are the primary purposes
of schools in urban communities?
Enrollments are smaller in rural schools than in urban schools. Many rural areas are
experiencing population loss, and schools in such areas find it difficult to provide students
with the opportunities for higher-education preparation that are available in urban schools.
What value do you think rural schools place on preparation for higher education? DeYoung
(1995) notes that although statistics may portray rural areas as disadvantaged, rural popu-
lations tend to place a higher value on keeping family members nearby than on them leaving
the area for high-paying jobs or careers. Indeed, Seal and Harmon (1995) noted that in
rural areas, the school may become a focal point for the town, suggesting that the commu-
nity may value extracurricular activities more than academic achievement. From this, what
can we conclude about the comparisons of basic purposes of urban and rural schools?

Nontraditional Schools
A third factor that influences a school’s purposes lies in the school’s basic function. In
addition to the traditional elementary, middle, and secondary school configurations, many
specialized schools have become prominent. These specialized schools are particularly at-
tractive to people who have specific goals or needs. Examples include the following:

Charter schools
Magnet schools
For-profit schools
Home schools
Alternative schools
Vocational schools
Private schools
Online and virtual schools charter school A school that has
been granted permission by state
educational agencies to operate with
Charter Schools freedom from one or more of the
regulations that apply to traditional
Charter schools are public schools that operate with freedom from one or more of public schools.
the regulations that apply to traditional public schools. Charter schools enjoy a
degree of autonomy not available to other schools; in return, they are accountable
TeachSour
for producing positive academic results. Charters, granted by state educational ce Video
agencies, typically last for three to five years and are renewable. The primary goals
of charter schools are as follows: View the TeachSource ABC News
Video, “Rethinking How Kids Learn: KIPP
To realize a specific educational vision, such as focusing on a particular subject or (Knowledge is Power Program) Schools Use
focusing on interdisciplinary curricula without regard to subject-matter boundaries Effective Schools Correlates.” KIPP schools
are teaching students in ways that guaran-
To gain autonomy so faculty and administrators can provide educational tee success. This small network of charter
services they believe best serve the needs of their school’s specific population schools is sending students to college at an
outstanding rate. After watching the video,
To serve a special population in curriculum, methodological approaches, or both answer the following questions:
1. What is the KIPP school’s policy about
In the 2009–2010 academic year, there were 4,952 charter schools in the United
homework?
States, equivalent to 5 percent of the total number of public schools (National Cen-
2. What characteristics are needed for suc-
ter for Education Statistics, 2011a). A hybrid model that combines the face-to-face cessful teachers in KIPP schools?
instruction of charter schools with online instruction is gaining momentum and will
3. What do the KIPP schools believe is the
likely replace the total brick-and-mortar charter schools of today (Quillen, 2012). chief motivator of their students?
States with provisions for charter schools are shown in Figure 6.3.

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 WA
VT ME
MT ND
OR MN NH
ID WI NY
SD MI MA
WY RI
IA PA CT
NV NE
IN OH
IL NJ
UT CO WV VA
CA KS MO DE
KY MD
NC
OK TN DC
AZ AR
NM SC
MS AL GA

TX LA
AK
FL

HI
Figure 6.3
▲

States with charter school

legislation.
(From National Charter School
Directory from the Center for States with Charter School Legislation
Education Reform, 2009)
States without Charter School Legislation
© Cengage Learning 2014

BUILDING BLOCK Charter Schools in Your State

6.8 What are the provisions for charter schools in your state? (Go to the website of your
state Department of Education or your local school system.)
What are the laws, rules, and regulations governing charter schools in your state?
If your state does not yet recognize the charter school concept, what steps, if
any, are being taken in this direction?

Magnet Schools
magnet school A school that focuses Magnet schools focus on specific curricular areas to attract students with special apti-
on specific curricular areas—such as tudes and interests that the school can foster (hence the term magnet school). Magnet
the arts, math, or science—to attract
students with special aptitudes and schools are school choice options that provide the parents or the students themselves the
interests in those areas. opportunity to choose the programs best suited to their interests and abilities. ). Because
magnet school programs reside in specific schools (and not every school) in a district, they
normally accept students from outside their traditional school boundaries; school trans-
portation sometimes is provided and sometimes is the responsibility of the parents. Fur-
ther, most magnet schools require applications for admission. The primary purpose of
magnet schools is to provide students with the opportunity to acquire the knowledge and
skills that will enable them to realize their full potential. In magnet schools, students ex-
plore their special talents and interests while concentrating on strong academics. In the
2009–2010 school year, there were 2,213 magnet schools in the United States, equivalent
to 2.2 percent of the total number of public schools, serving 3 percent of the total public
school population (National Center for Education Statistics, 2011).
Magnet schools exist at elementary, intermediate, and secondary levels. Although they
offer a complete curriculum, each magnet school has a particular theme, focus, or emphasis
that is integrated throughout the curriculum. Themes may include science, mathematics,
technology, music, visual arts, performing arts, computers, or any of a number of other areas

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 of concentration. For example, in 2011, the magnet school system in the state of
Minnesota offered the following magnet programs in elementary schools, middle TeachSour
schools, and high schools: ce Video
Environmental studies View the TeachSource ABC News Video,
“A Positive School Climate Reduces the
Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)
Achievement Gap.” A Boston magnet school
Career and technical education provides a positive school climate for 220
minority and low-income students. After
Fine arts
watching the video, answer the following
World cultures questions:
Montessori 1. How do people know that the approach
used in the Match School works?
International baccalaureate2
2. What has the Match School done to meet
Language immersion students’ basic needs?

You can access the International Baccalaureate Organization website through the
direct link on the Education CourseMate website.

Education Management Organizations

Education management organizations (EMOs) are corporations that assume responsibil- education management
ity for some or all facets of school management, including curriculum, instruction, build- organization A corporation that
assumes responsibility for some or
ing maintenance and operation, administration, and other aspects of running schools. all facets of school management,
EMOs can be either for-profit or nonprofit corporations. including curriculum, instruction,
As their name suggests, for-profit EMOs operate schools to make a profit; indeed, building maintenance and operation,
and administration.
some have publically traded stock. The primary goals of for-profit EMOs are to raise
student achievement and to make money. They operate on the principle of free enterprise
that emphasizes competition as a way of improving performance, and they accept the
challenge to improve student achievement performance. A school run by a for-profit EMO
can be thought of as a business where students and parents are the customers. Their op-
erating model is that of big business, and, accordingly, planning focuses on optimizing
profits as a result of student success in school.
In the 2009–2010 school year, 98 for-profit EMOs (up from 51 in 2004) were oper-
ating 728 public schools (up from 534 in 2004), serving over 363,000 students (up from
242,400 in 2004) (Molnar, Miron, and Urschel, 2010). Among the leaders is EdisonLearn-
ing, Inc., a for-profit EMO that has been in business since 1992. This corporation has
achieved a degree of success in turning the Philadelphia school system around and in of-
fering online virtual high schools (EdisonLearning, 2011a).
Imagine Schools, founded in 2004, is the largest for-profit EMO in terms of the num-
ber of schools it manages—75 different schools in 12 states and the District of Columbia
during the 2009–2010 school year. The mission statement of Imagine Schools is as follows:

As a national family of public charter school campuses, Imagine Schools partners

with parents and guardians in the education of their children by providing high-
quality schools that prepare students for lives of leadership, accomplishment, and
exemplary character.

Based on that statement, how would you describe the predominant philosophy of the
Imagine Schools?
Nonprofit EMOs operate like their for-profit counterparts except that their fee sched-
ule does not contain a profit element. Another difference is that nonprofit EMOs focus

2
The International Baccalaureate Diploma is a program headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. It assists
schools worldwide in developing and implementing challenging international education curricula to fa-
cilitate their graduates’ admission to colleges and universities. Students who complete this program are
awarded the International Baccalaureate diploma. Many of the courses carry college credit.

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 CONTROVERSIES in Education

Education Management Organizations

A s you have seen, the number of schools operated
by education management organizations (EMOs) is
mixed results relative to student achievement. Fleischman
and Heppen (2009) concur that there is a lack of definitive
increasing steadily. Combining the for-profit and the non- evidence about the effectiveness of EMOs. In fact, Shah
profit EMOs, we find that in the 2009–2010 school year, (2011) writes that a new national study on the effectiveness
235 separate EMOs were operating in 1,541 schools in the of EMOs found that achievement of EMO-operated schools
United States, serving 600,000 students in grades K–12. is not significantly better than achievement in regular public
EMOs contract with public school districts to use tax schools. However, Garcia, Barber, and Molnar (2009) found
money and, in the case of for-profit EMOs, venture capital that student achievement in reading vocabulary was slightly
funds as well, to operate schools. Most are charter schools greater in EMO-operated charter schools, but that achieve-
that operate with a degree of autonomy, but some for- ment in reading comprehension was lower. Opponents also
profit EMOs contract with school districts to operate all the say that the EMOs have it backward: that the goal of edu-
schools in that district, bringing rigor, new curriculum and cation is to educate, whereas the goal of EMOs is to make
instruction ideas, and technology to increase the achieve- money (and be profitable in the case of for-profit EMOs).
ment of the students. Opponents also point out that the “extras” such as extra-
Contracting with EMOs generally is more costly than curricular clubs, band and chorus, sports teams, and the
the ordinary school budget. The question is: Are EMOs like often are eliminated to keep costs down.
worth the money? Those who support the idea of EMOs ar- Educators and the public have been debating the EMO
gue that, with their higher fees, the EMOs can engage in issue for years.
research and development activities to form better and
more effective education systems. Supporters also note WHAT DO YOU THINK?
that because EMOs are in competition with each other,
each one tries to create an emphasis that enables it to 1. What do you think are some advantages of EMOs?
stand apart from the others, including such areas as innova- 2. What do you think are some disadvantages of EMOs?
tive curriculum and instructional practices, emphasis on di- 3. Suppose you were the superintendent of schools in a
versity, and the like. And because EMOs are actual busi- district that had just received approval to implement
nesses, they have intrinsic business-related incentives to several charter schools that are based on the
ensure that student achievement increases. principles of magnet schools. Would you consider
Those who are skeptical about using school district contracting the management of these schools to an
funds for EMOs cite the lack of long-term systematic stud- educational management organization? Why or why
ies, and note that the studies that have been done show not?

almost entirely on management of charter schools whereas for-profit EMOs also include
Use the Internet to find district schools and entire school districts among their clientele. A third difference is that
information about a school whereas the number of for-profit EMOs has leveled off in the past few years, the number
operated by an EMO—one in of schools operated by nonprofit EMOs has increased markedly. In the 2009–2010 school
your area, if possible. (Go to year, 137 nonprofit EMOs were operating 813 public schools with over 237,000 students
your state Department of in America’s schools (Miron and Urschel, 2011).
Education website.) See if you
EMO-operated schools tend to have longer school days and school years; they also
can answer the following
tend to be high-tech. For example, in schools operated by EdisonLearning, all students are
questions to gain a good
understanding of what EMOs do:
provided access to computers, and all students within a given Edison school are connected
What is the school’s to one another using the Edison Intranet so they can correspond with one another on
curriculum? academic matters (EdisonLearning, 2011b). However, because the bottom line of these
How much does it cost to schools is profit, they may find it necessary to reduce the number of teachers and support
attend? personnel to minimize costs.
How is it funded?
What is the length of the
school day? What is the Home Schools
school calendar?
Are there admissions criteria?
Home schooling is an educational alternative in which children learn under the general
What are they? What does the supervision of their parents at home rather than attend a conventional school. As of 2007,
application process require? approximately 1.5 million (or 2.4 percent) of America’s children were being home-schooled
in grades K–12 (National Center for Education Statistics, 2011a). Home schooling is legal

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 To provide religious or moral
instruction
Concern about school
environment
Dissatisfaction with academic
instruction
Other reasons
To provide a nontraditional
approach to child’s education
Figure 6.4

▲
Child has other special needs
Top reasons for homeschooling.
Child has a physical or mental (Source: National Center for
health problem
Education Statistics, 2011a)
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% © Cengage Learning 2014

in all states, and most states require regular reports of curriculum taught, days attended, home schooling An educational
alternative in which children learn
evaluations, standardized test results, and other data required from schools. under the supervision of their parents
People choose to home-school their children for many different reasons. Among these at home rather than at a conventional
reasons are religious beliefs, lack of safety in regular schools, a poor fit between regular school.
schools and their children, desire for increased family time, desire to supervise the content
of their children’s education, desire to provide education more suitable for their children’s
special needs or learning styles, and many others. Figure 6.4 shows the top reasons why
people elect to home-school their children.
Although students who attend school at home study a rigorous curriculum, there are
concerns about home schooling, including limited access to equipment and materials, the
teaching parents’ lack of required professional education background, limited access to
extracurricular activities, and questionable development of healthy social skills. To address
these concerns, home-schooling parents often work with other parents in large, well-
formed groups to provide their children with maximum advantages. In addition, numerous
publications, curriculum programs, and instructional ideas and aids are available in print
and on the Internet to help parents provide the best possible education for their children.
Regarding extracurricular activities, many states have equal-access laws that permit chil-
dren who are home-schooled to participate in the public schools’ interscholastic and extra-
curricular activities, including sports teams, music and drama programs, and social and
academic clubs. Each state may have different requirements for eligibility to participate,
such as dual or part-time enrollment in the school, permission of the local school district,
or approval of the home-school program (Home School Legal Defense Association, 2011).
You can access the American Homeschool Association website through the direct link
on the Education CourseMate website. This association maintains a great deal of infor-
mation about home schooling.

Home Schooling BUILDING BLOCK

Use the Internet to find information about home schooling in your state. (Go to your 6.9
state Department of Education website.)
What are the requirements for parents who wish to home school their children?
What reports does your state require?
How can students who have been home-schooled through high school satisfy
your college’s or university’s admission requirements?
What are the advantages of home schooling? What are its disadvantages?
Would you consider home-schooling your child?
Would you send your child to a neighbor or friend to participate in home
schooling? What factors would influence your decision?

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 Alternative Schools
alternative school A school with Alternative schools are schools whose purpose is to educate students who, for one reason
the primary purpose of educating or another, do not thrive in traditional schools. Alternative schools often see their mis-
students who, for various reasons, do
not thrive in traditional schools. sions as dropout prevention for at-risk students—students who are considered at high risk
for failing or dropping out of high school before graduation because of poor grades,
truancy, suspension, pregnancy, or any of a number of other reasons. In the 2007–2008
school year, 64 percent of public school districts had alternative schools, serving 645,500
(1.3 percent) of public school students. Of these, 63 percent were housed in a separate
building, and 37 percent were housed within a regular school. Seventeen percent used
distance learning as an instructional mode (Carver and Lewis, 2010).
Most alternative schools provide numerous services to students, including academic
counseling; coursework that will lead to a regular high school diploma; preparation for
the General Educational Development (GED) exam, a high school equivalency exam; and
vocational skills.
The following are some major benefits of alternative schools:

More responsive and flexible environment

More curricular options
Smaller class sizes
More informal teacher–student relationships
High standards for attendance, behavior, and performance
Flexible scheduling

Alternative schools operate within the school district of the students they serve and are
financed by the district like the other schools under district control (Carver and Lewis, 2010).

vocational school A public high Vocational Schools

school that provides various types
of vocational education programs in Vocational schools (also referred to as career and technical schools) are public high
addition to an academic curriculum; schools that provide various types of vocational education programs in addition to an
also called career and technical
schools. academic curriculum. In the 2008–2009 school year, 5 percent of public schools were
private school A school that restricts vocational schools (National Center for Education Statistics, 2011a).
its population of students to those The number of students in vocational education programs is declining, partly because
who meet certain criteria established the U.S. government is urging every student to complete high school and get technical or
by the school.
vocational training in postsecondary institutions, and because of the increased cost of voca-
tional education programs, declining public perception that vocational education is desirable,
and fewer rural schools offering vocational programs.

Private Schools
Private schools restrict their population of students to those
who meet certain, specific criteria established by the school.
These schools must meet the demands of two masters:

1. The government, with its emphasis on testing, the

© Craig Witkowski/Getty Images/Photolibrary

three Rs, and student achievement

2. The school foundations that give the schools their
reasons for existence and the finances they need

Educating students according to a

religious philosophy, according to
gender, or according to a college
preparatory curriculum are the
purposes of some private schools.

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 Numerous kinds of private schools exist; each has its own specific purposes, goals,
and objectives.

Types of Private Schools BUILDING BLOCK

Take a moment to list as many types of private schools you can think of. Perhaps 6.10
you or someone you know attended a private school. What are some possible rea-
sons for attending a private school?
What is the primary purpose for each school you listed?
What purposes are common to all the private schools?
How do these common purposes compare with the common purposes of
schools you listed earlier in this chapter?
What purposes are unique to specific kinds of private schools?

Students in classes like yours listed the following types of private schools:

Boarding schools
All-male schools
All-female schools
College preparatory schools
Schools with religious affiliations
Montessori schools
Military schools

In the 2009–2010 school year, over 4.7 million students (10 percent of all U.S.
students) attended private schools in the United States. Of these, over 1.7 million
(36 percent) attended Catholic schools (National Center for Education Statistics, 2012).
Advantages of private schools include the following:

Fostering academic excellence and high achievement

Educating the whole child within a values-based setting
Providing a safe and secure environment (Council for American Private Education, n.d.)

Online Learning and Virtual Schools

A virtual school is a school that teaches its curriculum mostly or entirely online using the virtual school A school that offers
Internet. Online learning is classroom learning that takes place over the Internet instead most or all of its curriculum online
using the Internet.
of in a classroom. Virtual schools are staffed by specially trained teachers, and can involve
online learning Learning that takes
100 percent of the teaching done online or can be a hybrid where some of the teaching is place online using the Internet.
done online and the rest is done face-to-face in a “brick-and-mortar” classroom setting.
Depending on the hardware people have, the teaching may be offered through webcams
or through the written word on dedicated websites and/or bulletin boards. Online learn-
ing is offered in colleges (you may have taken one or more courses online—maybe even
this one). More surprising is that online learning and virtual schools encompass all school
grades, from kindergarten through high school.
Virtual school experiences are very appropriate for students who are home-
schooled; who attend low-performing schools; who attend rural, inner city, alternative
schools, or other schools that may have limited course offerings; who want to earn their
high school diploma earlier than usual; and who are homebound because of illness or

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 other factors. The virtual school is particularly useful for students in rural areas where
online classes help fill in the gaps in courses offered in the upper grades and help pro-
vide sound education for elementary grade children who may not be able to make it to
school regularly, and for students who live in remote areas where school is not available
(such as Kodiak Island in Alaska where seven of the school district’s 14 schools are ac-
cessible only by air or boat [Gordon, 2011]). Most virtual schools are fully accredited
by the same organization that accredits brick-and-mortar schools, and most virtual high
schools offer high school diplomas.
Online learning is growing rapidly. The number of K–12 students using online education
was more than two million during the 2008–2009 academic year, and is expected to grow to
10.5 million students by 2014 (Nagel, 2009). In 2009, 5 percent of high school graduates
had taken courses for credit online (Buckley, 2011). Online learning has received positive
endorsements from the research. For example, the U.S. Department of Education conducted
a meta-analysis of research studies that investigated online learning between 1996 and 2008,
and found that, on average, students in online learning conditions performed better than
those receiving face-to-face instruction (U.S. Department of Education, 2010b).
Many states have one or more centralized virtual schools that are available without cost
to any student enrolled in the state’s system. And these schools are fully accredited. For
example, Florida has a virtual school that offers over 90 online courses to students in grades
6 through 12; these courses are taught by over 1,100 specially certified virtual school teach-
ers who also hold Florida teaching certificates in the subject(s) they teach (Florida Depart-
ment of Education, n.d.). Minnesota operates a Virtual Academy, also known as K12, that
offers online programs for students from kindergarten through the senior year of high
school. In fact, 46 of the 50 states plus Washington, DC, have state virtual schools or other
WebQuest A learning activity in online initiatives including individual virtual schools, or both. States are beginning to re-
which some or all of the information quire online learning experiences of their students. As of this writing, Michigan, Alabama,
with which students interact comes and Florida require a virtual learning credit for high school graduation (Devaney, 2011),
from the Internet, similar to a
scavenger hunt. and Idaho has made it a requirement for high school students to complete at least two one-
wiki A collaborative website on semester online courses as a condition for graduation (Cavanagh, 2011b).
which content can be edited by The use of the Internet for online learning and virtual schools is a rapidly growing
anyone who has access to it. trend and you should make it a point to keep up with it.

Your Hypothetical School

Now it is time to pull together the ideas you have thought about in this chapter. What do
you consider to be the most important purposes of schools?

BUILDING BLOCK Mission of a Hypothetical School

6.11 Suppose you had to write a hypothetical mission statement for a school of your
choosing. Consider your current thinking about yourself as the teacher, the students
with their common and diverse needs, and the purposes of schools.
Write an abbreviated mission statement for the school you conceive. Be sure to
blog A blend of the terms Web and include references to the school’s primary goals, how you envision the implementa-
log. Individuals can develop blogs tion of these goals, and what you expect for the students and graduates of your
online that contain text, audio, photo, school (that is, what you expect them to be able to do while they are students in
and video postings on a particular
subject. your school and after they leave it). Keep this statement for use in later chapters.
podcast (pod = play on demand) An Retrieve the philosophy statement you wrote in Chapter 2 and updated in
audio broadcast over the Internet that Chapter 5. Compare this philosophy statement with your mission statement. In
may be recorded for later access. what ways are the two statements alike? How are they different? If you wish, update
vodcast (vod = video on demand) A your philosophy statement again to show the progression of your thinking so far.
video broadcast over the Internet that
may be recorded for later access.

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 TECHNOLOGY Virtual Teaching and Learning
& EDUCATION
T echnology offers students (and teachers) many
opportunities to learn and build knowledge. Certain
suitable for transmission and for student-centered learning.
Teachers must also be familiar with the technology, not only to
factors—such as distance, location, and financing—might create the courses but also to troubleshoot and solve prob-
prevent a school from providing its students with specific lems. Students must also contribute to their learning and the
learning experiences, but technology can help fill the gap. learning environment. Some of the current technologies that
Consider a school that does not have a teacher certified to foster online learning include the following:
teach chemistry, or a group of students interested in advanced
WebQuest. A WebQuest is an activity designed by
placement (AP) courses who attends a school at which AP
teachers in which some or all of the information with
courses are not offered, or a remote area in which many
which students interact comes from the Internet. It is
students live too far away from the school to attend. Virtual
a semidirected outline of activities that students use in
field trips, distance education, and virtual schools are three
independent investigations. The format of a WebQuest
ways technology might help students in these situations (see
is as follows (Dodge, 1995):
the previous section titled “Online Learning and Virtual
Schools”). 1. An introduction that sets the stage for the inquiry
Virtual field trips are structured online experiences that help
2. A basic task
students increase their knowledge of a subject or concept. A
teacher who is teaching a lesson on the Grand Canyon, for ex- 3. A set of information sources including links to
ample, might assign a virtual field trip. To deter students from Internet sites, e-mail conferencing, searchable
searching aimlessly for websites about the Grand Canyon, the databases, computer programs, books, maga-
teacher structures this part of the lesson by providing students zines, and other available resources
with an explanation of the task (or “trip”); a list of websites or
4. A description of the process the students should
places to visit; an “itinerary”; things each student must do at the
go through in accomplishing the task, broken into
virtual destination; and list of artifacts or “souvenirs” for each
steps
student to collect at each website. Students on virtual field trips
freely explore to enhance their learning, and they do so without 5. Guidance on ways to organize the material
regard for distance or expense.
6. Conclusion that also includes ideas for further study
Distance learning may involve transfer audio over phone
lines and live or recorded video via cable TV. More commonly, 7. Evaluation through a rubric that is part of the
however, the Internet is used for distance learning: webcams, WebQuest
e-mail, websites, school-based chat rooms, and video and
Websites. Both teachers and students can develop
audio streaming all facilitate e-learning. Distance education
private websites that contain information pertinent to
can take many forms. A group of students might meet
the specific class being taught such as student
regularly at a remote location while a teacher in a distant
enrollment, homework, helps, notices of class
classroom explains a topic. In this case, the distance learning
activities, results of investigations, and the like.
is synchronous, meaning that the students are “tuned in” at
Wikis. A wiki is a collaborative website on which con-
the same time the instruction is taking place. In another form
tent can be edited by anyone who has access to it. A
of distance learning, students might use individual
familiar example is Wikipedia. Wikis are very useful
workstations (or a home computer) to access the teacher’s
because teachers and students alike can write their
discussion and accompanying information at their leisure.
observations or thoughts on the wiki, ask for responses
This is an example of asynchronous distance learning. Of
and critiques from others, respond to the entries of
course, many online courses are a mixture of both synchronous
other people, and edit what anyone (including them-
and asynchronous instruction. For example, students might
selves) has written. A wiki is sort of like an open online
access information the teacher has posted on the Internet
chalkboard where all people can write their own
and then be required to log in to a school-based chat room
thoughts.
on a certain date and time. Academic chat rooms provide
Blogs. The word blog is a blend of the terms Web
real-time interaction among students and between students
and log. It is a website that contains text, audio,
and the teacher. Schools that are completely online are called
photo, and video postings on a particular subject.
virtual schools and have course offerings for all grade levels.
Both students and teachers can develop their own
Often, home-schooled children attend virtual schools. And
blogs to share with one another and/or other
online coursework is being offered during summers to help
members of an online class. A blog most often is used
students make up missed work and to extend learning for
to express opinions, thoughts, and reflections. Stu-
advanced students (Rapp, 2011).
dents in virtual schools can use blogs to demonstrate
To use distance education effectively, teachers must be
their understanding of a concept and/or to ask ques-
able to organize information and design instruction to make it
tions and seek clarification.

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 Podcasts and vodcasts. A podcast (pod = “play on Internet telephone and video calling software (such
demand”) is an auditory broadcast over the Internet. as Skype), often available at no cost, enables anyone
It is one-way only, and the listener cannot communi- in the world to make free video and voice calls to
cate with the broadcaster. Many podcasts are recorded anyone else in the world who has installed the same
for later access. They are primarily used to explain or software. This type of software may be used for
describe some concept or point, and often are found video conferencing and for virtual face-to-face
on blogs. A vodcast (vod = “video on demand”) is a discussions between the online teacher and one or
video broadcast over the Internet. As with podcasts, more students.
vodcasts are one-way only, and many vodcasts are
These technologies are increasing at an extremely rapid
recorded for later access. They are primarily used to
pace. By the time this book is published, several new applica-
describe or explain some concept or point and are
tions will have been developed. This is a field you must be
often found on blogs. Both teachers and students can
sure to keep up with.
create podcasts and vodcasts for the benefit of the
classes.

SU M M A RY
CHAPTER RESOURCES

Schools have different purposes, some of which are common to all schools.
The federal government has passed and implemented laws and has funded
programs to foster its beliefs about the purposes of schools.
A school’s purpose is seen in its mission statement, which reflects the school’s basic
philosophy.
Factors influencing the purpose of a school, and therefore its operation, include
grade levels it serves, its location, its special interests, the special expertise it offers,
and numerous other factors.
Nontraditional schools fill special needs and interests of a community, and include
charter schools, magnet schools, schools operated by commercial education
management organizations, home schools, alternative schools, vocational schools,
private schools, and the rapidly increasing virtual schools.
In this chapter, you have investigated the nature of elementary, middle, and high
schools. You have looked at several kinds of nontraditional schools, and you have
explored their advantages and disadvantages. In doing so, you have come to your own
informed conclusions, and you have applied the acid test: Would you want to teach at this
school?
Although a school must have a stated mission as a foundation on which to build, it
must also have the resources, facilities, personnel, and organization to carry out that
mission. In Chapter 7, you will identify what schools and teachers need to carry out their
mission effectively. You will examine various school structures, and resources from
personnel to materials and equipment to schedules, and you will draw conclusions about
how a school’s organization relates to its effectiveness.

Key Terms and Concepts

Alternative school, 176 Magnet school, 172 Vocational school, 176
Blog, 179 Mission statement, 162 Vodcast, 180
Charter school, 171 Online learning, 177 WebQuest, 179
Education management Podcast, 180 Wiki, 179
organization, 173 Private school, 176
Home schooling, 174 Virtual school, 177

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 Construct and Apply

CHAPTER RESOURCES
1. The primary purpose of any school is to provide its students with the opportunity to learn.
What other factors might influence a particular school’s stated purpose?
2. Consider where you currently live. What do you suppose are the purposes of your neighbor-
hood schools? What influences these purposes? How do you suppose the purposes of your
neighborhood schools have changed in the past 50 years? What may have caused these
changes?
3. Some students in small, rural towns may aspire to careers they believe are beyond what the
local school is able to prepare them for (for example, robotics, computer programming, and
sonogram and CAT scan technician training). What responsibility does the school have to these
students? How can the school serve them? How could you, as a teacher, assist them?
4. Prepare a chart, listing the types of schools you have investigated across the top. Below each
type of school, list the primary purpose(s) of that kind of school. Look at your chart to find
purposes that are common to all schools.
5. What factors might influence you to choose a nontraditional school for your child? What
advantages might a nontraditional school have over a traditional one?

Deconstructing the Standards

1. Recall the InTASC Standard associated with the objectives for this chapter.
Standard #3 reads. “The teacher works with others to create environments that
support individual and collaborative learning, and that encourage positive social inter-
action, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation.”
a. Which part(s) of this standard does this chapter address?
b. How will the concepts in this chapter help you apply this standard as a teacher?
2. Use your favorite search engine to find your state’s standards for certification. When you find
it, bookmark the site; you will refer to it often during this course.
a. How are your conclusions about the purposes of school represented in your state standards?
b. How do the InTASC Standards compare to your state’s certification standards?

Your Portfolio
Add a copy of your field experience school’s mission statement to your portfolio. Compare the
school’s mission statement with your own philosophy statement. Describe how, if you were a
teacher at that school, you could contribute to the fulfillment of the mission.

Education CourseMate Resources

Check out this text’s Education CourseMate website (at www.cengagebrain.com) for more informa-
tion about school purposes, nontraditional schools, virtual schools and distance learning, and inter-
active study tools and useful resources. You will find the TeachSource Videos, a guide for doing field
experiences, glossary flash cards, activities, tutorial quizzes, direct links to the websites mentioned
in the chapter, and more.

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 Jon Feingersh/Getty Images
David Young-Wolff /PhotoEdit
CHAPTER

7 Structure of Schools
IN CHAPTER 6, you investigated the purposes of schools. As you recall, the
purpose of a school represents its fundamental reason for existence. You saw that
many factors influence a school’s purposes, such as the grade levels and community
being served, location, population, specialties offered, and the like. You also saw
that a few purposes seem to be common to all schools, such as helping students
learn to read and write, develop language literacy, develop mathematical skills,
prepare to live in today’s (and tomorrow’s) society, develop technological skills,
prepare for work, and prepare for college.
To accomplish their purposes, schools require certain facilities, materials,
equipment, and personnel. For example, a magnet school focusing on science needs
laboratory space and equipment. Schools also need to develop routines and
schedules that will meet the needs of their students and the community they serve.
In this chapter, you will examine factors that contribute to the inner workings of a
school. These factors include facilities (materials, equipment, technology resources,
other resources), personnel, and scheduling. You will examine these inner workings
from the point of view of what a school needs to fulfill its purpose.

182

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 Chapter Objectives
As a result of your explorations in this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Identify the necessities all schools must have to fulfill their purposes.
Standard #3: Learning Environments
2. Describe the various physical facilities needed by specific types of schools and explain why these
facilities are necessary for the school to carry out its mission.
Standard #3: Learning Environments
3. Discuss the roles and responsibilities of professional and nonprofessional personnel in schools and
describe how these people help the school carry out its mission.
Standard #3: Learning Environments
4. Describe the various kinds of scheduling of the school year and the school day and show how
scheduling helps a school carry out its primary purpose.
Standard #3: Learning Environments

Needs of Schools
As you have found, many different types of schools exist; these schools serve many differ-
ent groups of people and have many different purposes. Schools have very complex inner
workings, involving both physical facilities and people. As a student who has experienced
and is currently experiencing “school,” you might take these intricate workings for
granted, never thinking to ask how it all works.
Do you think about the parts of your car and how they all work together before you get
in, start it up, and drive off? Probably not. You just want it to start and take you where you
need to go. But if you stop and think about it (even with limited knowledge of car engines),
an automobile is a pretty amazing machine. Let us consider schools in the same way.
We have already established that the purposes of schools are as different as the popu-
lations they serve. A school’s structure and organization must be arranged so the school
can achieve its purpose. If different schools have different purposes, the structure and
organization of those schools must also differ. For example, schools designed to serve very
young children are not the same as schools designed for high school students, and rural
schools differ from urban schools.
Let us think about a school’s overall structure. What parts are needed to make it work?
If you were asked, you could probably name a few parts of a car engine. But if you thought
about it a little more, you might be able to get more detailed about the parts that you name,
citing some smaller, less visible, but nevertheless important parts that are vital to an engine’s
function. Building Block 7.1 asks you to think about a typical school in the same way.

Parts of a School BUILDING BLOCK

Think of a particular kind of school: 7.1
1. Brainstorm and list some of the necessities the school requires to fulfill its pur-
poses. List both large and small items—everything you can think of.
2. Compare your list with your classmates’ lists:
a. How do they compare?
b. What made them different?
3. To what extent did your list depend on the type of school you were thinking of?

Your list probably included such categories as the building, classrooms, materials and
equipment, teachers, administrators, paraprofessionals, specialists, and the like. You also

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 may have referred to technology requirements in view of its increasingly important role
in education. Let us consider three basic aspects of school structure: physical facilities,
human resources, and scheduling.

Physical Facilities
Physical facilities refer to the school building itself. Did your list from Building Block 7.1
contain classrooms? “Of course!” you say. But this question may not be as silly as it
appears. In the 1960s, some schools were built without classroom partitions to accom-
modate a need for flexibility in forming adjustable groups of students (Anderson, 1966).
These open classroom schools were popular for a while, but are no longer being built.
The great architect Louis Sullivan wrote, “Form should follow function” (in
Boudreaux, 1993, p. 1). In other words, a structure’s purpose should determine its design.
This principle is as appropriate for designing a school as it is for designing any other
architectural structure. As you investigate the elements of school structure (buildings,
materials and equipment, personnel, and scheduling), keep this dictum in mind: The pur-
pose and goals of a school determine its design.
Let us investigate this principle relative to the schools whose purposes you examined
in Chapter 6.

BUILDING BLOCK Identifying a School’s Structure from Its Purpose

7.2 In Chapter 6, you investigated the purposes of several different kinds of schools,
including traditional schools (such as elementary schools, middle schools, junior
high schools, and high schools) and nontraditional schools (such as charter, magnet,
schools operated by education management organizations, home schools, alterna-
tive schools, vocational schools, private schools, and virtual schools).
Select one kind of school:
What two or three characteristics distinguish this school from other kinds of
schools?
How might you design the building so the school could achieve its purposes?

The Middle School as an Example

A good example of applying the “form follows function”
principle can be seen in the middle school. As you recall,
the purpose of the middle school is to align the educa-
tional environment with the unique needs of early ado-
lescent learners. In elementary school, students spend
most of each day with the same teacher and the same
© Michael Newman/PhotoEdit, Inc.

peers. Each grade-level classroom is usually on the same

hall with others of the same grade. In high school, teach-
ers and students change with each class, and classrooms
are grouped by subject. How might a school organiza-
tion “in the middle” of these two look?
When the middle school concept was developed,
many junior high schools were converted to middle
The purpose of the school should schools. Converting a junior high school required not
determine its design. Based on only a change in curriculum and philosophy, but also a change in physical structure. As
the design, what kind of school new school buildings were built, designers paid attention to developing the structure
could this be? and organization that would best facilitate the middle school’s purpose. The result was

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 TECHNOLOGY Use of Technology in Schools
& EDUCATION
T   he federal government has worked to support the
implementation of educational technologies in our
4. Infrastructure: Access and Enable All students and
educators will have access to a comprehensive
schools. A major area of support has been the development infrastructure for learning when and where they need it.
of educational technology plans for the nation. The first Na-
5. Productivity: Redesign and Transform Our educa-
tional Educational Technology Plan was released in 1996,
tion system at all levels will redesign processes and
and was followed by two updates that reflected the tremen-
structures to take advantage of the power of technol-
dous rate of growth in technology and the change in think-
ogy to improve learning outcomes while making more
ing about educational technology from an expensive fad
efficient use of time, money, and staff.
with questionable results to an essential element of instruc-
tion. The fourth National Educational Technology Plan, Not everyone believes that technology can be used to
released in 2010, is titled Transforming American Education: help educate our children. Oppenheimer (2003), an
Learning Powered by Technology. This plan urges schools to award-winning journalist and outspoken critic of educational
use technology to (1) promote increased student learning; technology, shows many examples in which technology
(2) assess student achievement; (3) improve teaching; either has failed to improve student learning or has failed
(4) make knowledge available to everyone; and (5) improve to work. Consequently, he suggests that education would
efficiency in the use of resources (Office of Educational Tech- be better served by increasing attention to the real-life
nology, 2010). The following shows the basic principles of experiences of the students rather than virtual experiences.
this plan: However, Burns (2005/2006) urges that before we dismiss
A Model of Learning Powered by Technology computers as an expensive fad, educators should ensure
they are using computers to their maximum instructional
Basic Principles of the National Education Technology
potential in fostering student learning. And Friedman
Plan of 2010
(2005) takes the position that the most important force of
1. Learning: Engage and Empower All learners will change in the late 20th and early 21st centuries has been
have engaging and empowering learning experiences the explosion of technology. More recently, a report on the
both in and out of school that prepare them to be ac- use of technology in schools (International Center for
tive, creative, knowledgeable, and ethical participants Education Statistics, 2010) showed that, of the 97 percent
in our globally networked society. of U.S. teachers who had computers in their classrooms,
69 percent said they use computers in their instruction,
2. Assessment: Measure What Matters Our educa-
and, of those who attended professional development
tion system at all levels will leverage the power of
programs, 88 percent said that the use of technology
technology to measure what matters and use assess-
supported the goals and standards of their state, district,
ment data for continuous improvement.
and school.
3. Teaching: Prepare and Connect Professional educa-
You can access the National Clearinghouse for
tors will be supported individually and in teams by
Educational Facilities through the direct link on the
technology that connects them to data, content,
Education CourseMate website. This site has many
resources, expertise, and learning experiences that en-
references dealing with technology in U.S. schools.
able and inspire more effective teaching for all learners.

the now-familiar middle school building in which the rooms are arranged in “pod”
form, with classrooms for each of the main subjects taught in a particular grade clus-
tered in the same general area.
Middle school teachers work in interdisciplinary teams of four or five. A team nor-
mally comprises a social studies teacher, a mathematics teacher, a language arts teacher, a
science teacher, and sometimes a reading teacher. Ideally, these teachers work in adjacent
classrooms, and the team’s students move from one class to the next in the same general
area. Thus all students on a team have the same teachers.
Perhaps you are familiar with junior high schools rather than middle schools. The structure
of a middle school is more like an elementary school than a high school, whereas junior high
schools have a structure more similar to high schools. How do you suppose the structure of a
junior high school differs from the middle school about which you have just read?

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 Physical Requirements of Schools
Schools have major physical necessities. They require an extensive array of classrooms:
teaching space for special subjects; room for after-school programs; playgrounds and/or
athletic fields; technology equipment and materials; materials, equipment, and supplies to
support teaching and learning; and space for administration, teachers of special subjects,
and support personnel.
Did your list of requirements from Building Block 7.1 include trailers or portable
classroom space? Or did you assume that school buildings are large enough to accommo-
date students? No matter how forward-thinking school-facility designers try to be, the
population often grows faster than anticipated, causing overcrowded conditions. One
solution to this problem has been to use portable classrooms. More than a third of U.S.
schools use portable classrooms (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009). The Modu-
lar Building Institute estimated that public school systems used over 300,000 portable
classrooms in 2006 (National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities, 2011). The primary
reasons for using this temporary instructional space are overcrowding caused by a large
influx of people, and school districts attempting to comply with state laws limiting class size.
Did your brainstorming list include rooms or areas for special offerings such as art, band,
orchestra, chorus, physical education, vocational education, technology education, theater, and
other specialized subjects? Did your list contain facilities for after-school programs (ASPs),
extracurricular activities, and community programs? For many years, offering after-school and
weekend programs and extracurricular activities—to students, families, and the community at
large—has been a priority of educators and the federal government. Such activities are de-
signed to help students, their families, and members of the community learn new skills and
discover and develop new abilities. Services offered typically include tutorial services, academic
enrichment activities, youth development activities, counseling and character education, and
adult programs.
The federal government offers support in the form of grants; the 21st Century Com-
munity Learning Centers program is one example. This program supports the development
of community learning centers that provide opportunities for academic enrichment during
nonschool hours; it focuses especially on centers designed to attract students who attend
high-poverty and/or low-performing schools. Grant awards range from a few million
dollars to tens of millions of dollars (U.S. Department of Education, 2011b).
Did your list for Building Block 7.1 have provisions for
technology? From your experience as a student, you are prob-
ably aware that most schools have a variety of technologies
available for students and teachers. There are computer labs
and/or laptop carts that usually contain a class set of comput-
ers (one per student in a class). Teachers can reserve the labs
or carts for use with their classes. Also, the teacher usually has
a desktop computer that is connected to a projector and/or an
interactive whiteboard, and classrooms may contain at least
one or several computers for student use. Of course, the school
usually has wireless Internet access.
© Bill Aron/PhotoEdit, Inc.

Did you include adaptive and assistive technology

devices in your plan? (You investigated this technology in
Chapter 5.) You also saw in Chapter 5 that the Individu-
als with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires that
all children be educated in the least restrictive environ-
Federal legislation requires all
ment, regardless of special need. This act extends to tech-
school buildings be accessible to nology, and schools must provide students with access to technology such that all
students with disabilities. students can use it.
Accessibility ramps, elevators, Did your list contain facilities for students with special needs? What kinds of disabili-
and other building modifications ties did you consider? What provisions for these disabilities did you list? Such provisions
are examples. can range from wheelchair ramps, to space and equipment accommodations in regular
classrooms, to special rooms with special facilities for students with severe handicaps.

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 Perhaps you took the time to consider those smaller—though no less important—
requirements of a school, such as supplies for teachers, students, administrators, and
custodial staff. Did you remember that all the people in a school typically eat lunch there
each day? What resources are required for the formidable task of feeding everyone associ-
ated with a school? (Chapter 12 provides specific material about school lunches.) And did
you remember that most schools need gymnasiums and auditoriums?

Personnel
Next, let us consider human resources.
Recall our analogy of the car engine. What happens if one of the parts does not work
quite right? Perhaps it does not fit well, or is the wrong size or shape, or is old and worn.
What does this mean for the engine? Perhaps the part works well enough that the engine
starts but runs jaggedly or unevenly. Eventually the engine could stall, refuse to restart,
and bring everything to a complete halt.
For your car to run smoothly, the parts must be in good shape and must all work
together in a well-oiled machine. What is necessary for a school to run smoothly? Sure,
there are glitches in any school year and even in every school day. But for the most part,
schools succeed extremely well in carrying out their functions and achieving their pur-
poses. To do so requires that all parts of the school you have considered—those that
make up the structure and resources of the school, including personnel—be organized
effectively.
Review the list you made in Building Block 7.1. What human resources did you see
as necessary for the school to fulfill its purpose?
Schools require many different kinds of personnel. Of course, different kinds of
schools and schools with different purposes require different kinds of personnel. Regard-
less of a school’s nature and purpose, however, all schools require people with certain
qualifications.

Teachers
Probably the predominant person you listed as necessary to a school was teacher. How
many teachers should a school have? During your own experience of school, perhaps you
have been in some very small classes, and perhaps you have attended very large classes,
such as the lecture courses often found in colleges and universities. An important consid-
eration in the organization of a school is the student–teacher ratio, the number of stu- student–teacher ratio The average
dents assigned to one teacher in a class, on average. For example, a student–teacher ratio number of students assigned to one
teacher.
of 21:1 means that, on average, there are 21 students in each class assigned to a teacher.

Optimal Class Size BUILDING BLOCK

Based on your experience, what do you think is the optimal student–teacher ratio 7.3
for each of the following classes? Why?
Preschool class
High school trigonometry class
Chorus
Middle-grades physical education class
Third grade
High school study hall

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 High school science laboratory
Special education class for students with moderate disabilities
College-level introductory literature class
What do you think is the optimal class size in general? What factors are
important to consider when making decisions about student–teacher ratio?
What is the maximum class size for your school system or state? (Check your
state’s Department of Education website.)
Do local school systems provide information about the general student–teacher
ratios in their schools? What is the range of these ratios? Would knowing this ratio
be important to you in deciding whether to accept a teaching position? Why?

Student enrollment in public schools increased steadily in the 20th century, except for
a slight decline during the 1970s and 1980s. The number of teachers also has increased
steadily. However, the increase in teachers has occurred faster than the increase in student
population. This has resulted in a steadily decreasing nationwide average student–teacher
ratio from 32:1 in 1920 to 15.2:1 from 2008 and 2009 (World Almanac Books, 2011).
Note that all instructional staff are included in this ratio, even those who have few
students because of their specialties. The individual state ratios vary from a high of 22.9:1
in Utah to a low of 10.6:1 in Vermont (National Center for Education Statistics, 2011h).
The U. S. Department of Education estimates that the average class size in the 2008–2009
school year was close to 25 students (Sparks, 2010). However, these figures include special
education and other specialized teachers who normally have much smaller classes than
regular classroom teachers. Figure 7.1 shows the national average of student–teacher ra-
tios since 1955.
The student–teacher ratio in private schools tends to be smaller than the national
averages. For example, the student–teacher ratio for private schools in the 2008–2009
school year was 13.1:1, compared with the national average for public schools of 15.9:1
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2010a).
How do the national averages of student–teacher ratios compare with the classes you
attended in elementary school, middle school, and high school? What might account for
any discrepancies?
Many studies have shown that reducing class size improves student achievement.
Smaller class sizes enable teachers to spend the time and energy needed to help each child

27.4
30.0
26.4
25.1
22.4
Students per one teacher

25.0
20.3
18.6
20.0
17.6 17.0 17.1
15.9 15.4
15.3 15.2 15.0 14.8 14.7
15.0

10.0

Figure 7.1
▲

5.0
Student–teacher ratios: National
averages from 1955 to 2010. 0.0
(Source: National Center for
55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

00

05

06

07

08

09

10
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

Education Statistics, 2010a.)

© Cengage Learning 2014 Year (2009 & 2010 projected)

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 CONTROVERSIES in Education

Does Class Size Matter?

Y   ou have been investigating the inner workings of a
school, including class size. To parents and the
Additionally, it appears that very large class size reductions
(on the order of 7 to 10 fewer students per class) are
general public, class size seems to be the “litmus test” of needed for long-term effects on achievement, and that this
the quality of a school. Schools with small class sizes are effect is greatest when the smaller classes are introduced in
perceived as being better than schools with large class the early grades and for students from less-advantaged
sizes. Randi Weingarten, president of the American families.
Federation of Teachers, said surveys show that parents care Many states have legislated class size limits in the
more about class size than anything else except school belief that smaller classes foster greater student
safety (Dillon, 2011a). After all, if a teacher has only 15 or achievement. For example, Texas established a
so students in a class, it is far more possible for that student–teacher ratio of 22:1 (Marchiechay, 2010), and
teacher to provide individual attention to each student. Florida amended its state constitution to limit class size to
None will be left behind, and none will have to fare forth 18 for kindergarten through third grade, 22 for fourth
on their own. On the other hand, teachers of class sizes of grade through eighth grade, and 25 in high school classes
30 or so students simply cannot teach to each individual (Albright, 2005). However, in times of economic stress,
student. These teachers have huge numbers of papers to lawmakers have to consider budgetary constraints, and
grade, grades to calculate, makeup work for students who smaller classes mean more teachers. Consequently, the
are absent, parents to contact, and e-mails to answer. student–teacher ratio is beginning to increase in 2011.
Furthermore, discipline is much more difficult: For example, So, the question becomes: “Are the gains from reducing
students may be able to doze in class without the teacher class size worth the extra expense?” To give you an idea of
knowing it, and surely the teacher cannot correct every the extra expense involved, the Brookings Institute has
student who shows evidence of daydreaming. estimated that decreasing the student–teacher ratio in the
Yet, according to the experts, of the factors that make United States by one student would cost at least $12 billion
a school a good one, class size is a distant fourth after solid in teacher salaries alone (Whitehurst & Chingos, 2012). Many
teacher training, a clear and well-sequenced curriculum, states have loosened legal restrictions on class size. For
and a staff that is well supported and regularly evaluated example, The New York Times reports that, in the 9th grade
(Tyre, 2011). in Los Angeles schools, the average size of English and math
Is it true that smaller classes are better? Let us look at classes has increased from 20 to 34 students, and 11th- and
some evidence. You have already seen some of the figures, 12th-grade English and math classes now have an average of
and you have looked at Project STAR, considered the “gold 43 students in each (Dillon, 2011b).
standard” of class size research. Smaller class sizes enable Consequently, the bottom line of the debate about
teachers to spend the time and energy needed to help class size and student–teacher ratio is an issue of mixed
each child succeed, and enhance safety and discipline in research results versus expense. Class size does seem to
the classroom. This project and many other research matter, but teacher effectiveness matters more.
projects tell us that smaller classes are better, but only if
the teacher is very good (Rotherham, 2011). Education WHAT DO YOU THINK?
Week (2012) says the research in general tells us that
smaller classes are better, but primarily when (1) students 1. What qualities of an excellent teacher are most
attend smaller classes for three or more consecutive years; important when dealing with large classes?
(2) students are living in poverty; (3) students are minority 2. If class sizes change from large to small, what
students; and (4) class size is cut down to 16 or so students. changes in school facilities need to be considered?

succeed, and enhance safety and discipline in the classroom. Much of the research about
how class size affects achievement comes from Project STAR (Student–Teacher Achieve-
ment Ratio), an experiment that took place in Tennessee in the late 1970s (The CSU In-
stitute for Education Reform, 1996). In this project, kindergarten students were randomly
assigned either to small classes of 13 to 17 students or to large classes of 22 to 26 stu-
dents; students stayed in these classes for 4 years through the third grade. A follow-up
study of several thousand students found that those in the small classes made better aca-
demic gains, especially in reading, were more likely to graduate from high school, and
were more likely to attend college than those who had been in the large classes. However,
the effect was seen only in students who had attended the small classes for all 4 years;
1 or 2 years were not enough to make a difference. The researchers attributed the higher

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 Courtesy of David Ottenstein Photography
© Jeff Greenberg/PhotoEdit, Inc.

More individual attention for

students, more classroom space,
and increased student
achievement are benefits of success rate of students in the small classes to increased individual attention and the in-
smaller class sizes. In which of ability to avoid teacher attention (Sparks, 2005).
these classrooms would you How do the optimal student–teacher ratios you established in Building Block 7.3
prefer to teach? compare with the optimal class sizes just discussed?
We all have had experience with “regular” or “general” classroom teachers, but you
probably also identified other types of professional personnel who are present in schools
in Building Block 7.1. Some may be specialized teachers, some may have responsibilities
that extend throughout the school rather than in a particular classroom, and some may
have administrative responsibilities. In addition, you may have identified some nonprofes-
sional personnel.

Teachers with Specialties

There are many different teaching specialties. The higher a school’s grade levels, the more
specialized the teachers are relative to subject matter. Teachers in elementary schools gen-
erally are prepared to teach all subjects, whereas middle school and high school
teachers specialize in one or two subjects. However, special teachers are found in
TeachSour
ce Video most schools. Elementary schools generally have art, music, and physical education
specialists. These teachers are responsible for teaching their subjects to large num-
View the TeachSource Video Case titled, bers of students in a school—often all the students. Middle schools and high
schools employ specialty teachers to implement specialty programs, such as band,
“Collaborating with School Specialists: An
Elementary Literacy Lesson.” Gone are the chorus, orchestra, art, computers, business, agriculture, culinary arts, and others. In
days when a classroom teacher was sup- the upper levels, the presence of specialty teachers directly reflects the school’s
posed to be all things to all students. Now, purpose and mission statement.
schools generally have a range of school
specialists to help classroom teachers and
One example of teachers with specialties is the special education teacher. Spe-
their students. In this video, you will see one cial education teachers are found in most schools: elementary, middle, and high
specialist, a school-based Literacy Coordina- schools. Some teach students in their own self-contained classrooms; others work
tor, Caitlin McArdle, help classroom teacher in conjunction with regular classroom teachers in inclusion classrooms to accom-
Brian LoBue. After you watch the video, an- modate the needs of learners with exceptionalities who can be included in regular
swer the following questions:
classrooms (see Chapter 5). The United States is currently experiencing a critical
1. How would you describe the role of the
need for special education teachers due to increased enrollment of special educa-
literacy coordinator?
tion students, teacher retirement, and legislation that broadens the scope of special
2. What is the professional relationship
between the literacy coordinator and the
education and extends it to very young children. Also, as more students with spe-
teacher? cial needs are included in regular classrooms, schools need more special education
3. How does the literacy coordinator help the teachers to work with these students. Teachers who specialize in special education
classroom teacher improve his teaching? typically complete a focused program in which they learn to facilitate the teaching
and learning of students with special needs.

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 FROM THE FIELD
A Special Education Teacher
Katherine Spung

ine Spung
W 

Courtesy of Kather
hen pursuing my bachelor’s degree in elementary students may have a disability
education, I had the option to add a minor in special label but the label is only
education. The rumor among preservice teachers was that this words. Two students with the
endorsement would help ensure a job offer, but once placed same diagnosed disability are
in a special education position, teachers could not get out. not the same and are different learners. I have
Good special education teachers are in big demand, and the very high expectations for my students, yet they have
burnout rate is high. I had worked with students with continued to surprise me. My first year teaching in my current
significant learning disabilities and I greatly enjoyed it, yet I position, I was told that one of my students “would never
intentionally did not complete the last nine hours I needed to read.” I was disgusted at this teacher’s statement. Of course
complete this additional certification. A year later, I was she could read. She was missing some foundational skills on
offered a position in a small rural elementary school for a which to build upon, but by the end of the year, she was
start-up self-contained special education classroom. I proudly reading “easy readers” to the principal.
accepted and was hired on a waiver and condition that I I was asked once how I continue to come up with ways
would complete the hours needed to be certified that year. to guide my students with learning. I learn from other
Several years later, I have absolutely no regrets. teachers; I read continually; I borrow someone’s idea and
Although I have faced tremendous challenges, I know that I tweak it to meet the needs of my students; and most
have greatly improved the lives of my students. Despite the importantly, I never give up. I help learners construct
fact that this was a start-up program, no budget for meaning with every chance I get. While reading a book
supplies had been considered. I started with nothing and aloud to the class about the Statue of Liberty in a unit I
spent several hundred dollars of my first-year salary on developed on national symbols, one of the students asked
supplies. I faced resistance from some coworkers regarding why they chose to paint the statue that color. That statement
whether a program for my students should exist. The most led to a science experiment with pennies, salt, water, vinegar,
important thing I learned that year was that I was the voice and air. Students recorded their own observations and
and advocate for my students and I was obligated to fight concluded why the statue is the color it is. Students in my
for their needs. The next year I made sure I had a sufficient classroom partner to collaborate on assignments and we play
budget and voiced my students’ rights for an equal games to help the learning process. I developed separate
education to those who spoke out against them. centers for each continent that contain books, maps, coins,
I also learned that using traditional textbooks and stamps, and flags. Students work in small groups to discover
teacher-centered instruction was not what my students knowledge and respond about what they learned. This is just
needed. Hands-on experiential learning resulted in greater a short list of what my classroom looks like. Teachable
understanding time after time. This also meant that I needed moments are everywhere. The trick is to find those moments,
to develop a curriculum for my students that would generate let students come up with ideas for learning, let them inspire
knowledge. Frequently, I teach students for consecutive you, keep expectations high, and never give up on their
years, sometimes for most if not all of their years in my ability to show you how much they know.
building, so the curriculum must change from year to year.
The curriculum had to be fun, engaging, individualized,
meet state standards, and guide students to construct Katherine Spung
meaning. This was a tall order. I knew that I needed to learn Kappa Delta Pi Teacher of Honor, 2011
more in order to serve my students’ needs, and I have been Special education teacher/learning behavior specialist
enrolled in graduate classes almost every semester since. Chrisman Elementary School
Each of my students is a unique learner with unique needs Chrisman, Illinois
and backgrounds. I believe this is true in every classroom. My
© Cengage Learning 2014

Another example of teachers with specialties is the bilingual educator. Bilingual

educators not only work with students to help them learn English, but they also assist
students with the translation of books and other materials and with understanding infor-
mation presented by regular teachers, and they help teachers design instruction to make
information more accessible to all students. Bilingual education programs are known by
several names, including TESL (teaching English as a second language), TEFL (teaching

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 English as a foreign language), TESOL (teaching English to speakers of other languages),
Use the Internet to find ESL (English as a second language), EFL (English as a foreign language), and ESOL (Eng-
which endorsement programs in lish for speakers of other languages). To earn the bilingual education specialty, teachers
education your state recognizes.
study specialized programs.
Which do your college or
Many classroom teachers develop interests in other areas and can earn specialized
university offer? What are the
requirements for these
endorsements or add-ons to their teaching certificates. Examples include early childhood
endorsements? What special education specialists, technology specialists, reading specialists, mathematics spe-
endorsement programs do cialists, science specialists, and gifted education specialists. Most recently, states are begin-
neighboring institutions offer? ning to offer endorsements in online teaching (Quillen, 2012a). Others specialties are
available; these vary from state to state.

Administrators
Did your list include school administrators? When you think of the school principal, what
comes to mind? Many people think of discipline, because when we went to the principal’s
office, it usually meant we were in trouble.
Depending on its size, a school may have a principal and one or more assistant prin-
cipals, each of whom has a specific role and set of responsibilities. The principal is the
administrative head of the school—the person to whom teachers and other school person-
nel report and who is ultimately responsible for the operation of the school. Indeed, the
principal and the administrative staff have many responsibilities that help maintain the
school’s function and achieve its stated purpose. What do you think a principal’s respon-
sibilities are?

BUILDING BLOCK The Principal’s Jobs

7.4 Imagine it is early on a Monday morning and you are the school principal just ar-
riving at work. List the items you need to do for the day. Be sure to include time for
scheduled meetings or appointments. Suppose you find you have an hour of uncom-
mitted time in your day. What would you do with it?
Next, list items you have to do for the week.
Look at your lists and generate some categories for a principal’s responsibilities.

Many sources list school principals’ roles and responsibilities. The U.S. Department
of Labor uses the term “educational administrator” to describe someone who provides
instructional leadership and manages the day-to-day activities in schools. The department
lists the following duties and responsibilities for educational administrators:

Sets educational standards and goals

Establishes policies and procedures to achieve the standards and goals
Supervises personnel
Develops academic programs
Monitors students’ educational progress
Trains and motivates teachers and other staff
Manages career counseling and other student services
Administers record keeping
Prepares budgets
Handles relations with parents and the community (U.S. Department of Labor, 2011)

How does the list of principal’s duties you made in Building Block 7.4 compare with
this list of responsibilities?

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 School principals are responsible
for supporting student learning and
providing leadership to teachers
© Ellen B. Senisi/The Image Works and other school personnel. As a
new teacher or student teacher, the
principal together with an
experienced teacher can provide
you with career guidance and
advice based on their extensive
experience as educators.

The principal traditionally has been seen as the school’s leader, the person who super-
vises faculty and staff, interacts with students, makes discipline decisions, and oversees
everything from student achievement, faculty performance, and staff development to
building maintenance and the purchase of materials and supplies.
However, the principal’s role is changing. Whereas principals formerly were consid-
ered school managers, they are now being asked to function as educational leaders, as you
can tell from the job description.
Regardless of how you currently view the school principal’s role, as a teacher you will
want to avail yourself of your principal’s expertise. After all, he or she has been in educa-
tion for a long time and has solved many problems. Principals want to help; they espe-
cially want to help new teachers. The principal evaluates your performance, but it is also
the principal who provides much-needed assistance and advice.

Teachers versus Administrators BUILDING BLOCK

What is the difference between a teacher and an administrator? What do you feel 7.5
the difference should be between a teacher and an administrator?
Often the principal is considered the “boss” in the school. In your view, is this a
valid characterization? To what extent should the principal exercise his or her au-
thority? To what extent should teachers and administrators work collaboratively? Do
some situations require the principal to make independent decisions? What are they?

Professional Support Personnel

Schools employ many people besides teachers and administrators. These individuals pos- library media specialist
sess experience and special degrees or endorsements that allow them to fulfill their roles (LMS) Professional educator whose
within the school building. The library media specialist (LMS), for example, knows about specialty includes library science and
multimedia management.
library science and various media, including computer technologies. In the Information
lead teacher A teacher whose
Age, the job of library media specialist has changed significantly from that of librarian. responsibilities include assisting
The lead teacher and the learning support specialist (LSS) provide curricular and teachers in developing and
instructional help to teachers and special instruction to groups of students selected on implementing strategies to reach all
types of learners and whose focus is
the basis of some common need. Technology specialists provide much-needed support in on aiding teachers.
maintaining technological equipment and instructing teachers and students in the use of learning support specialist (LSS) A
technologies. Curriculum specialists help interpret the system-mandated curriculum in teacher whose responsibilities include
terms of its most appropriate application for the students in individual schools. assisting teachers in developing and
implementing strategies to reach all
Guidance counselors and school psychologists have various duties, which depend on the types of learners and whose focus is
needs of the school and its students. They are found in all levels of schools, from elementary on aiding individual students.

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 school through high school. As their titles imply, they are available to counsel students and
advise them on issues such as personal and academic problems and postsecondary or voca-
tional plans. These professionals also administer and interpret tests to help identify students
with special needs and assist in developing individualized education programs.
You can probably think of other professional support personnel whose areas of exper-
tise meet the needs of some special students. These personnel might include speech thera-
pists, nurses, social workers, truant officers, and police officers. As you know, it is the
school’s responsibility to meet the needs of all students. Sometimes, meeting those needs
requires the collaboration of a staff with qualifications as varied as the students they serve.

Nonprofessional Personnel
paraprofessional A trained teacher's Teacher’s aides (teacher assistants), also known as paraprofessionals, often provide
aide. assistance in the classroom. Paraprofessionals typically assist the classroom teacher with
a variety of instructional and noninstructional
tasks. Under the teacher’s guidance, paraprofes-
sionals may provide large-group, small-group,
or individual instruction, including assisting
students with special needs or English language
learners. They may supervise laboratory activi-
ties, computer lessons, and other activities,
including lunch and recess. In addition, a para-
professional might assist in record keeping.
Based on what you have already observed in
your field experience, you can probably see just
how valuable a paraprofessional might be in
© Michael Newman/PhotoEdit, Inc.
the busy life of a classroom teacher.
Parents or other community members
sometimes volunteer to work in the schools.
Classroom volunteers provide another set of
hands, ears, and eyes that can help teachers
give more students individual attention. With
another adult in the room, teachers can incor-
porate activities that require close adult super-
Parent and community volunteers
provide teachers with
vision, such as dissections, outdoor lessons, or activities that require the use of many
instructional support, and different materials.
provide students adult Other support personnel include the front office staff, the custodial staff, and cafeteria
supervision in class. What is this workers. You may also find volunteers in the front office answering phones and monitor-
volunteer doing to help in the ing the comings and goings of students. Some teachers will argue that the school’s staff is
classroom? what keeps the place up and running.
As you have observed, a school contains many different adults with many different
responsibilities. It may be surprising to learn just how many people can be at work in a
school. Remember that people like those described here contributed to your own school-
ing experience. And soon you will be one of those people, working in a collaborative and
cooperative environment to help your students and your school achieve.

Scheduling
Have you ever heard anyone say that a car engine’s timing is off? In an automobile, “bad
timing” might mean that the car stalls at a stop sign or races when it idles. Sometimes, a
car with bad timing lurches or lags. A car engine’s timing must be adjusted for the car to
run smoothly. Can you apply this analogy to organizing the schedule that governs the

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 students, personnel, and resources in a school? When people talk about school scheduling,
they may be referring to the times school is in session during the year or to the time peri-
ods of the school day.

Annual Schedule
Let us first consider ways of scheduling the school year. Schools typically operate on a sched-
ule that requires students to be in school for 180 days during the fall, winter, and spring, but
not during the summer. This scheme was developed in the 19th century so that school-aged
children could be at home and help on the farms during the busiest time of the year.
For students, the primary advantages of a nine-month school year include summers
off for rest and regrouping, the ability to attend summer camps, and the possibility of
gaining significant workplace experience. Primary advantages for teachers include sum-
mers off for rest and regrouping and the ability to take summer courses for professional
development, certification renewal, or the pursuit of an advanced degree. Primary disad-
vantages include discontinuity of education because of the long summer vacation (stu-
dents have three months to forget what they learned during the preceding year) and the
need of some teachers to find summer work.
Many states and school districts are moving toward new and creative scheduling
plans that include year-round education. There are many ways to implement year-round
education. One example is the trimester system, in which students go to school for three
months, have one month off, and repeat this cycle three times a year. Another method
involves devising several tracks in which sequencings of school time and vacation time
differ for different students and teachers, all within the same school. Primary advantages
of year-round systems include increased school capacity, relief from overcrowding, an
enhanced instructional pace, and flexible vacation options. Primary disadvantages include
increased need for faculty, staff, materials, and storage facilities; more “start-ups” and
“endings” to the academic year; and a nontraditional calendar.
Among those who oppose year-round school are the owners of resorts and summer
vacation attractions. These people fear that year-round school could cause them to lose
business and revenue. These business owners point out that they also pay taxes to support
education.
There are many variations on the annual schedule. Some school districts start the
school year in late July or early August and end it in May, with several breaks scattered
throughout the year. Some start in early August and end in late May, with several one-
week breaks scattered throughout the year. And the Park City, Utah, high school offers a
flexible schedule centered around the winter sports seasons so students can hone their
skills and enter competitions.

Yearly School Schedule BUILDING BLOCK

What annual school schedule do you think is best? Take the position of a teacher 7.6
and describe the kind of annual school schedule you feel would be best for a teacher
and tell why.
Do the same from the viewpoints of a parent, an elementary school student, and
a high school student.

Daily Schedule
Next, let us look at ways of scheduling during the day. Your outlook on this topic will
depend on the level of school at which you are planning to teach. Each level has its own
unique situation and its own unique ways of solving scheduling problems.
Schools typically meet five days a week, with the same classes meeting on the same
schedule every day for an academic year. In high school, a typical student attends seven

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 different classes in discrete periods of 50 to 55 minutes, attending these same classes
every day for a full academic year, although some courses meet for only one semester,
and half-day release time may be provided for certain work and apprenticeship pro-
grams. High school teachers typically teach five classes and deal with 125 or more
students each day.
In an effort to provide more flexibility in using the time students are in school, many
block scheduling A scheduling high schools have implemented innovations such as block scheduling. There are numer-
system in which a school’s daily ous variations to the concept of block scheduling. In one of the more common models, a
schedule is organized into large
blocks of time. school’s daily schedule is organized into large blocks of time—so that students schedule
four 90-minute classes a day for the first semester in the school year and four 90-minute
classes a day during the second semester. This allows students to take eight classes a year
instead of the traditional seven, and gives teachers the flexibility to pursue topics in
greater depth than is possible in the shorter class period. And there is the perennial con-
cern that students might be more alert in class if school were to start later. Kirby, Maggi,
and D’Anguilli (2011) have shown that there is a lack of synchronicity between school
start times and the circadian rhythm of adolescents—enough so that later start times can
be justified and implemented with minimal difficulty.
Middle schools are also moving to block scheduling, citing the same reasons for doing
so as high schools.
Elementary schools typically have all-day scheduling in which students stay in
their assigned classrooms for a full day all year long, except for those times when they
go to other rooms for music, art, physical education, and other special subjects. The
day’s scheduling within a particular classroom may be determined by the teacher. Some
cooperative teaching A method of flexibility is available to elementary school teachers in the form of cooperative teach-
distributing teaching responsibilities ing, looping, and multiage education. Cooperative teaching allows individual teachers
in elementary schools such that
teachers assume responsibility for to teach subjects that they prefer and in which they have expertise, while other teach-
their areas of expertise. ers take responsibility for subjects in their areas of expertise. This arrangement maxi-
looping A system of assigning mizes teachers’ strengths and provides flexibility in forming groups. Several coopera-
students in elementary schools to tive teaching models exist. In one, teachers of a particular grade or cluster of grades
the same teacher for two or more
consecutive years. form teams; different teachers in the teams teach those subjects in which they have
multiage education A system of particular interest or expertise. In another model, subject matter specialists are respon-
clustering students of different ages sible for teaching their subject to all children in a grade level or group of grades; this
in elementary schools in the same model is close to the subject specialists’ model used in the middle schools and high
class.
schools. In a third model, teachers plan together in an interdisciplinary and coopera-
tive manner, and each assumes the responsibility for a portion of the unit being taught
(see also Chapter 5).
In looping, the same teacher is assigned to the same group of students for two or three
years. Looping has been used with increasing frequency in elementary schools and in
some middle schools. This practice has the advantage that teachers get to know their
students deeply. It allows teachers to challenge the students in ways a teacher less familiar
with students’ capabilities may not, and it enables teachers to provide remedial work for
those who need it without having to wait for assessment results.
In multiage education, students of several ages are clustered together in one class.
Groups are formed on the basis of ability and professed interest, helping teachers provide
appropriate classes because all students have approximately the same ability.

BUILDING BLOCK School Schedules

7.7 If you were in charge, would you make changes to school scheduling? What would
these changes be? Why would you make them?
Which type of daily school schedule do you believe is best for elementary
schools? Which type do you believe is best for high schools? Describe the schedule
and tell why you believe it is the best schedule.

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 Putting It All Together
In this chapter, you have been investigating some of the complex factors that enable
schools to achieve their purposes (the topic of the previous chapter). Now it is time to put
these elements together.

Structure of Your Hypothetical School BUILDING BLOCK

In Building Block 6.11, you developed a hypothetical mission statement for a 7.8
hypothetical school. What would your hypothetical school need to function?
Answer the following questions:
1. What kind of school (urban or rural; elementary, middle, or high school) is your
hypothetical school?
2. What are its basic purposes?
3. What physical facilities will this school require? Think of materials and equip-
ment and the physical structure your school will need.
4. How will your school building be laid out?
5. What personnel will your school require? What are their duties? How many of
each type of professional and nonprofessional worker will your school need?
6. What requirements are specific to this school? How do they help the school
fulfill its basic purpose? How do the requirements for this school differ from the
requirements for other schools?

SU M MA RY

RESOURCES
CHAPTER
A school’s needs are based in large measure on its educational goals. School is a
very complex entity that requires both physical facilities and specialized personnel.
The physical facilities of a school include the building itself, classroom space, space
for special subjects, materials and equipment needed for teaching, and equipment
for technology.
Several types of personnel are needed in a school. The number of teachers depends
on the course offerings and the student–teacher class size ratio. Many teachers have
earned specialty endorsements. Administrators are viewed as the school’s educa-
tional leaders. Support personnel such as library media specialists, counselors, and
lead teachers support the educational programs of the school, as do nonprofessional
personnel such as paraprofessionals and lunchroom people. Secretaries and the
custodial staff are essential to make the school “go.”
Annual scheduling is steeped in the farming tradition where students go to school
during the fall, winter, and spring, and have summers free. Schools are moving to
variations in the annual schedule to save money and make more efficient use of the
time available. Many variables influence daily scheduling. In the elementary
grades, most schools have full-time self-contained classrooms for each grade, al-
though there is some flexibility within a group of grades. Middle-grades schedules
tend to have students moving from room to room for their classes. High schools
may have period-based or block scheduling.
This chapter asked you to think about the place called school. In previous chapters,
you have thought about teachers, teaching, and students. In the next chapters, you will
look at the relationships among all three elements: teachers, students, and the school. You

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 CHAPTER RESOURCES
will examine how the school serves the common and unique needs of its students, learn
what the school expects from its teachers, and discover what you can expect from the
school where you decide to teach.

Key Terms and Concepts

Block scheduling, 196 Learning support specialist Looping, 196
Cooperative teaching, 196 (LSS), 193 Multiage education, 196
Lead teacher, 193 Library media specialist Paraprofessional, 194
(LMS), 193 Student–teacher ratio, 187

Construct and Apply

1. How would you feel if your classroom were in a trailer? What are some of the advantages and
disadvantages of teaching in a trailer? Do you believe having a class in a trailer can affect learn-
ing? How? Why?
2. Many people with many different kinds of responsibilities interact in a school, and the number
of people in a given role varies with the type of school. How many people in each role would
you expect to see in different schools?
a. Look at the following chart of schools and personnel. Indicate on the chart the extent to
which the various personnel would be present in a school. Use a double check mark (✓✓) if
many are present, a check mark (✓) if some are present, and a dash (—) if none are present.
b. Look at each column. What accounts for the different numbers of personnel in different
types of schools?

Elementary Middle High Private Alternative Vocational Virtual

School School School School School School School

Teacher

Principal

Assistant principal

Lead teacher

Learning support
specialist

Library media
specialist

Counselor

Paraprofessional

Special education
teacher

Technology
specialist

Volunteer

Nurse

Custodial staff

Cafeteria staff

Other (write in)

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 3. Do you believe planners should continue to try to reduce the current teacher–student ratio?

CHAPTER RESOURCES
Why? What do you believe is the optimal student–teacher ratio?

Deconstructing the Standards

1. Standard #3 reads, “The teacher works with others to create environments that support
individual and collaborative learning, and that encourage positive social interaction, active
engagement in learning, and self-motivation.”
a. How does this chapter address this standard?
b. How will the concepts in this chapter help you apply this standard as a teacher?
2. Use your favorite search engine to find your state’s standards for certification. When you find
it, bookmark the site; you will refer to it often during this course.
a. How do your conclusions about the structure of schools compare to the state standards?
b. How do the InTASC Standards compare to your state’s certification standards?

Your Portfolio
1. Add a copy of the floor plan of the school where you are doing your field experience to your
portfolio. Provide a reflection of how the school’s physical structure enables it to carry out its
function.
2. What technology does your field experience school have available for students and teachers?
How does the school make this technology accessible for the users? Reflect on the availability
and accessibility of instructional technology, and comment on how you might manage the use
of the available technology with students.

Education CourseMate Resources

Check out this text’s Education CourseMate website (at www.cengagebrain.com) for more informa-
tion about the structure of schools, roles and responsibilities of personnel, interactive study tools,
and useful resources. You will also find the TeachSource videos, a guide for field experiences, glos-
sary flash cards, additional activities, tutorial quizzes, direct links to all of the websites mentioned
in this chapter, and more.

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 ©St Petersburg Times/Edward Linsmier/The Image Works
CHAPTER

8 The School and the

Student: Expectations
and Responsibilities
SO FAR, you have considered yourself, the student, and the purposes and structures
of schools. It is in this place we call school that the relationship between you (the
teacher) and your students must be established and nurtured. In this environment, all the
participants in the educational experience have certain expectations of one another. As
a student, you have expectations of your teacher and your school. As a teacher, you
have expectations of your students and the school in which you will work. Let us take
the opportunity to explore these expectations and how schools meet them.
Students spend about a third of their day in school. In fact, “aside from
their sleeping hours, most children spend more time in the presence of their
teachers than they spend in the presence of their parents” (Eisner, 2002, p. 648).
Students bring more than their bodies to school; they also bring their individual
thoughts, feelings, experiences, backgrounds, and beliefs.
You have investigated how students’ unique perspectives and abilities affect their
performance in the classroom. Consider as well that students must function effectively

200

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 and congenially in the school atmosphere. Recall Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: There
are many challenges to students’ feelings of safety, love and belonging, and self-es-
teem, both inside and outside the classroom and the school. And recall Erikson’s psy-
chosocial developmental stages: Students may experience issues with trust, auton-
omy, and initiative as they attempt to interact within the culture of the schools.
Students can hardly be expected to devote their attention to schoolwork if these
needs and issues have not been satisfied and resolved.
In this chapter, you will explore the responsibilities and relationships that exist
between the school and the students. You will investigate how students, teachers,
and others in the school work together to create an environment that is inviting,
safe, and maximally conducive to student learning. As in previous chapters, you will
integrate your personal experiences with the theories and thoughts of others to en-
able you to draw some important conclusions and construct your understandings of
how the school helps students learn.

Chapter Objectives
As a result of your work in this chapter, you will:
1. Describe life in school as the student experiences it in terms of physical, intellectual,
and emotional safety, and describe possible threats to student safety.
Standard #3: Learning Environments
2. Provide examples of school responses to ensure the physical, intellectual, and emotional
safety of each student.
Standard #3: Learning Environments
3. Describe the teacher’s role in meeting students’ needs through effective classroom management.
Standard #3: Learning Environments

Student Safety in the School

What is life in school like for students? We all have definite ideas about this question
based on our own experiences. How can we make students feel comfortable and safe in
school? What can we do so they will be able to focus their energies on learning?
We have said the primary purpose of schools is to help students learn. Before students
can be motivated to learn, their needs must be met. One of these needs is the need for
safety and security. This need includes not only physical safety but intellectual safety and
emotional safety as well. Schools are responsible for all aspects of safety and security for
their students.1

Physical Safety
It is obvious that students should be assured of their physical safety at school. Building
codes, inspections, and many other measures ensure that schools are safe. Fire, tornado,
and earthquake drills become part of students’ lives so they can react in an orderly way
if there is a threat of disaster or danger. Additional threats come from individuals who,
for whatever reason, wreak havoc in schools by theft, violence, terrorist acts, assault, or
other criminal actions.

1
The entire September 2011 issue of Educational Leadership (Volume 69, Number 1) is devoted to safety
in schools.

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 Sadly, shooting tragedies have occurred all across the country. You may
recall incidents at Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado (1999); Red
Lake High School in Red Lake, Minnesota (2005); and West Nickel Mines
Amish School in Nickel Mines, Pennsylvania (2006). Shooters in these
schools caused multiple homicides and extensive injuries to both students
and teachers. In the case of Columbine and Red Lake High Schools, the
shooters were students enrolled at the schools. The shooter at the Amish
school in Pennsylvania was an outsider. The National School Safety Center’s
Report on School Associated Violent Deaths (2010) indicates that between
the 1992–93 and 2009–10 school years, 348 students and teachers were
killed in school shootings.
Criminal acts can seem commonplace in our schools. Most are nonfatal.
Although there has been a decrease in the number of nonfatal crimes com-
mitted at school during the past decade, in 2008, more than 1.2 million

© Brian Snyder/Reuters/Landov
nonfatal crimes, including rapes, sexual assaults, robberies, aggravated as-
saults, simple assaults, and thefts, were committed against students ages 12
to 18, and these crimes were committed while the victims were in school
(Robers, Zhang, and Truman, 2010; see Figure 8.1). Additional threats and
potential threats to the physical safety of students were noted in a report
from the U.S. Department of Education and the U.S. Department of Justice.
In 2009, for students in grades 9 through 12:
School staff as well as city
and state personnel can help Eight percent reported that they were threatened or injured with a weapon (knife,
ensure student safety on
gun, or club).
school premises. Did the
schools you attended take Eight percent of males and 3 percent of females reported carrying a gun on school
extra precautions to ensure grounds.
your safety? Twenty-three percent reported that drugs had been made available.
Four percent reported drinking alcohol and 5 percent reported using marijuana.
Thirty-one percent reported that they had been in a physical fight (Robers, Zhang,
and Truman, 2010).

Nonetheless, the reality is that “America’s public schools are very safe, even those in high
crime neighborhoods” (Fowler, 2011, p. 16). Still, any act of violence in a school is a cause
for concern. How can schools work to be safer places?

BUILDING BLOCK Safe Schools

8.1 None of us is a stranger to media reports of school violence. Perhaps you have
thought about possible threats to your personal safety as you consider a career in
teaching. School officials are responsible for assuring the physical safety of their
students and personnel. This responsibility, of course, includes taking measures not
only to thwart heinous attacks such as those we hear about in the news, but also to
protect against natural hazards such as fire and severe weather, provide for the se-
curity of students’ and staff’s personal belongings, and ensure safety in the school
buses that transport students to and from school.
What are some of the ways school officials work to ensure the physical safety
of students and personnel?
How are these efforts different from those taken by your school when you were
a student?
Hold on to your ideas; you will examine how schools work to ensure student
physical safety later in this chapter.

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 Figure 8.1

▲
Total 47
Student-Reported Nonfatal
Crimes against Students
occurring at school (age 12-18),
Serious violent 4 per 1000 Students: 2008.
Note: “Violent crimes” include
simple assaults, whereas “serious
violent crimes” include rape,
Violent 24 sexual assault, robbery, and
aggravated assault. Serious
violent crimes are included in
Theft 24
violent crimes.
Source: Robers, Zhang, and Truman,
2010
Per 1,000 students © Cengage Learning 2014

The National School Safety Center is an excellent source of additional material on

school safety. You can access their website through the direct link on the Education
CourseMate website.

Intellectual Safety
A second type of safety that schools must provide is intellectual safety. Have you ever spoken
up in class with what you thought was a good answer, only to have it dismissed as wrong?
Although your answer made perfect sense to you, it was devalued because it was not the
response the teacher sought. After several such incidents, you are likely to start believing that
your thinking is not good. You find you must respond in a way that pleases the teacher,
rather than expressing your own thoughts. Your intellectual safety has been compromised.
You no longer feel safe to express your thoughts. Recalling Erikson’s stages of psychosocial
development, how likely are you to take the initiative in classroom discussions or activities?
As teachers, we must preserve not only the physical safety of our students, but also
their intellectual safety. This means we must seek, respect, and value our students’ think-
ing as much as our own. How do we do this?

Intellectual Safety BUILDING BLOCK

1. Look at Figure 8.2 and describe what you see. 8.2
2. Select one of the following words, and note the first concept that comes to
mind when you see it.
FAN FLAG PLANT
3. What are two of your favorite TV shows?
Compare your answers with others in your class. Are there differences? Why?

Figure 8.2
▲

What image do you see in this

drawing?

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 Because people’s thoughts depend on their prior experiences and different people
have different experiences, it is highly likely that students will interpret the same academic
situation in different ways. A student may solve a geometry problem in a way the teacher
did not expect. Some students may interpret Shakespearean plays differently from others.
Some small children may cringe at the thought of having to pet a furry classroom pet such
as a gerbil. Their responses are different from what we might expect. But are they wrong?
Or are the responses simply theirs?
At this point, you may be recalling what you’ve read about students’ unique perspec-
tives. What did you learn about how teachers can acknowledge those perspectives? It is a
fundamental principle of excellence in teaching that teachers listen to students. By listen-
ing to students’ responses and discussions, teachers seek to understand how their students
are learning and how they are constructing their conceptualizations. Teachers must create
a classroom in which students feel comfortable taking the risk of saying what they are
thinking. Before you dismiss a student’s answer as wrong, ask the student to explain his
or her thinking. You and the rest of the class may gain insight into that student’s perspec-
tive and you may even learn something new! Teachers who do this ensure students’ intel-
lectual safety.

Emotional Safety
A third type of safety is emotional safety. Emotional safety is what we feel when we know
that others understand and accept our emotions. When others, such as students, teachers,
or parents, fail to validate a student’s emotions, the student learns to distrust his or her
own feelings. Teasing, ignoring, judging, or diminishing another’s feelings may cause this
invalidation. The ensuing distrust may lead to anxiety, depression, and the repression of
individuality, confidence, and creativity.
Emotions are personal. When someone’s feelings are validated and understood by
other people, that person feels emotionally safe. As a result, he or she feels safe telling
others about feelings of enthusiasm, excitement, fear, elation, worry, anger, devastation, or
shame. But when a person fears criticism or ridicule of his or her feelings, that person feels
emotionally unsafe. He or she still has feelings but hides them. It is important that people’s
feelings be validated and that they not be criticized, corrected, or condemned by others
for their emotions. Note that we are not saying that teachers must agree with the emo-
tions students express, but rather just understand and accept them. For example, you
don’t have to swoon over the current teen idols that the students in your classroom are
crazy about, but you can certainly understand the fun they are having. There is no need
to tell them they are just being silly.

Ways in Which Emotions Can Be Invalidated

The following list shows different situations in which emotional safety is at risk (Hein, 2003):
We are told we shouldn’t feel the way we feel.
We are told we are too sensitive, too “dramatic.”
We are led to believe there is something wrong with us for feeling how we feel.
We are “ordered” to feel differently with phrases such as these:
“Lighten up.”
“Get over it.”
“Deal with it.”
“Give it a rest.”
“Stop whining!”
Our feelings and emotions are minimized with comments such as the following:
“It can’t be that bad.”
“Other people have it so much worse than you do.”
“Time heals all wounds.”
“Every cloud has a silver lining.”
“Everything happens for a reason.”
“You’re just going through a phase.”

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 Our feelings are judged by comments such as the following:
“You’re a crybaby.”
“You’re too sensitive or thin-skinned.”
“You’re overreacting.”
“You always make a big deal about little things.”

Researchers have found a close correlation between harbored negative feelings and vio-
lent acts at school. For example, a study jointly conducted by the National Threat Assess-
ment Center (a division of the U.S. Secret Service) and the U.S. Department of Education
reported that in many of the incidents of school shootings investigated between 1974 and
2000, the attackers felt “persecuted, bullied, threatened, attacked, or injured” (Vossekuil
et al., 2002, p. 20). When students develop negative feelings and negative emotions and
cannot express these feelings or obtain validation of them from peers and adults, they may
be inclined to express their feelings in inappropriate and sometimes dangerous ways.

Bullying
There are many threats to emotional safety, but among the more powerful and far-
reaching are bullying and harassment.

Bullies and Bullying BUILDING BLOCK

Do you remember any bullies at your school? Maybe you were picked on at one 8.3
time or another, or perhaps you witnessed some students ganging up on another
student. Maybe you were the bully . . .
How would you recognize bullying if you saw it in the hallway or on the
playground of a school in which you were teaching?
What makes a person a bully? What characteristics does a bully have?
What are some different types of bullying? When does teasing become bullying?
Can spreading rumors be bullying?

Dan Olweus (2011), an authority on bullying and the developer of the Olweus Bullying
Prevention Program, notes that bullying occurs when a person is exposed repeatedly to bullying One or more people
negative actions on the part of one or more other people, and has difficulty defending repeatedly exposing another person
to negative actions against which
himself or herself. the person has difficulty defending
The power that bullies use to intimidate others can come from social and/or financial himself or herself.
status, age, or physical strength. Some individuals get the power to be bullies by
association—just from hanging out with people who have one or more of these powers
(Quiroz, Arnette, and Stephens, 2006). The federal government recognizes four categories
of bullying; any single act of bullying may fit into more than one category. They are:
1. Verbal—teasing, name-calling
2. Social—social exclusion or isolation, spreading rumors
3. Physical—hitting, pushing
4. Cyber—using technologies such as the Internet and mobile devices to cause harm to
others (StopBullying.gov)
Boys tend to participate in direct physical bullying. Girls tend to use verbal and social
tactics such as exclusion, name-calling, and gossip (Quiroz, Arnette, and Stephens, 2006).
Both boys and girls engage in cyberbullying. Did your responses in Building Block 8.3
include these factors?

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 FROM THE FIELD
A Safe Learning Environment
Linda L. Eisinger

Eisinger
S  tudents have the ability to reach their full potential Charlie had fixed the remote.

Courtesy of Linda
in a safe and structured classroom environment. It They cheered again. I told
is important that families and communities expect and them I had discovered that
demand a safe classroom and safe school. Charlie had turned the
Most people equate a safe school and a safe classroom remote into a magical one. I had
with physical safety. Although I agree this is very important, Charlie’s attention! I then made the statement, “A habitat is
when I say safe school and safe classroom, I am thinking of the environment . . .” and I pointed the remote at the stu-
an environment where children know they can take dents and said, “Rewind and replay.” The class immediately
academic risks and they will not be embarrassed by peers caught on and repeated the statement. Charlie loved it,
or an insensitive teacher. Teachers must provide this safe and we often used “Charlie’s Magic Remote” to review for
learning environment, where students are prepared and can tests and lessons.
take risks that let them demonstrate their skills and Charlie stayed with me for the rest of the year. He
knowledge successfully. came to summer school that year, and I would often see
I began my career as a special education teacher in a him helping the slower children, repeating words or
middle school. Students would have to leave their phrases I had used with him.
classrooms for math remediation. I can still see them Charlie moved on after summer school and I truly
coming to my room very upset and with tears in their eyes missed him the following year. He had felt so comfortable
because their teachers had embarrassed them in front of in our school and I imagine he had to start all over again at
their classmates by telling them they were not smart. I a new school until he felt secure and safe with his learning.
immediately made up my mind that each and every child I wish the best for him and hope to see him again.
placed in my classroom would always have a Teachers must do all they can to make each child’s
successful experience. year in their rooms a safe and successful one. All students
Charlie came into my life on Valentine’s Day. His come that first day of school wanting to learn. I have
mother dropped him off at school with nothing. We were never seen a year start without that energy and potential.
having Valentine parties that day and he came with no Ineffective and insensitive teachers must be weeded out
valentines to share. I hurriedly scrambled and got some and removed. They cannot be allowed to affect students
construction paper and we cut and pasted valentines adversely.
throughout the day, with some student helpers helping him When a teacher creates that safe learning environment,
finish. the rewards for the students and the teacher are
After seeing how Charlie handled that day, I had a immeasurable. In the classroom, I have been thrilled to
special place for him in my heart. I knew he had been observe a student reading an entire sentence without one
disappointed many times in his young life and he really mistake for the first time. The joy expressed on this student’s
didn’t expect anything. How sad it must be to be eight face was indescribable. On one occasion, a student who had
years old and not let yourself get excited about things been struggling for weeks with multiplication finally looked
because you know they will never come true. up from his paper and said, “I get it!” The entire class broke
I was having difficulty getting Charlie to take risks in his into spontaneous applause. These are exciting moments in
learning. He seldom volunteered an answer, and if he did my profession, and I have contributed to them by creating
he would always preface it with the comment, “I know this that learning environment where students feel comfortable
is wrong. . . .” One day I was teaching a science lesson and about taking academic risks. I cannot envision a more
was preparing to show a video when the remote control important task than for a teacher to create an emotionally
wouldn’t work. I started to do something else when Charlie and intellectually safe classroom.
spoke up and told me he could fix it. He fiddled with it a
minute, and it was working! The class started to clap and
cheer and Charlie just beamed. I knew I could use this Linda L. Eisinger
experience to help with his self-esteem. Missouri Teacher of the Year, 2004–2005
The next day before science, I stood up in front of the West Elementary School
class and asked the children if they remembered how Jefferson City, Missouri
© Cengage Learning 2014

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 According to the report, Indicators of School
Crime and Safety: 2010 (Robers, Zhang, and Tru-
man, 2010), students aged 12 to 18 reported the
following for the 2007–2008 school year:

Ten percent reported hearing hate-related

words directed at them.
Thirty-five percent reported seeing hate-
related graffiti.

SW Productions/Getty Images/Stockbyte
Thirty-two percent reported being bullied
while at school. The types of bullying
included:
Verbal bullying—21 percent
Being the subject of rumors—18 percent
Physical bullying—11 percent
Threats of physical harm—6 percent
Being socially excluded/isolated—5 percent Bullying and harassment can
Being forced to do things they didn’t want to or having their property purposely detrimentally affect the victim’s
destroyed—4 percent social and emotional well-being.
What might a teacher do to deter
Five percent reported being afraid of attack or harm.
bullying like this against other
Three percent reported avoiding an activity, and six percent reported avoiding a par- students?
ticular place in school out of fear of attack or harm.

A recent study found that sexual minority students—those who identified as gay, lesbian,
or bisexual—were bullied two to three times more often than heterosexual students but
were less likely to do any bullying themselves (Nationwide Children’s Hospital, 2010). In
fact, sexual minority students are 1.7 times more likely than their peers to report being
threatened, injured, or assaulted, and almost three times as likely to miss school due to
fear (Friedman et al., 2011).
Brewster and Railsback (2001) reported that teachers seem to be mostly unaware of
the prevalence of bullying or, if they were aware, they took no serious action to stop it.
Bullying has led victims to depression, anxiety, delinquency, vandalism, fighting, truancy,
and even suicide. In an effort to help inform federal practice, raise awareness, and suggest
bullying prevention strategies, the federal government has begun holding a series of an-
nual Bullying Prevention Summits (U.S. Department of Education, 2011c).

Cyberbullying
Did you think of cyberbullying? Cyberbullying is defined as the act of bullying through cyberbullying Bullying that takes
email, text and picture messages, websites, posts on social networking sites and chat place using electronic technology
such as cell phones and computers.
rooms, and cell phones. The same negative action, repetition over time, and power imbal-
ance that is present with person-to-person bullying is present with cyberbullying (Kowal-
ski et al., 2008). The Internet has become a setting for this practice, also called virtual
bullying. Students have created websites devoted to humiliating classmates and have used
instant messaging and chat rooms to harass individuals. These activities may be unmoni-
tored by adults and represent a serious concern for school officials and parents.
Studies have found that, in 2010, about 20 percent of students aged 11 to 18 years had
been victims of cyberbullying; about the same percentage admitted to being cyberbullies
themselves; and 10 percent said they were both victims and perpetrators (Lenhart et al.,
2011; Hinduja & Patchin, 2010a). Victims of cyberbullying are less willing to go to school,
start getting poor grades, and suffer from lower self-esteem and health issues as a result of
bullying. The very public and tragic suicides of three teens, Megan Meier in October 2006,
Phoebe Prince in January 2010, and Jamey Rodemeyer, who was gay, in September 2011,
were all linked to cyberbullying. In fact, one research study involving 2,000 randomly

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 selected middle-grades students found that 20 percent
of those who reported being victims of cyberbullying
seriously considered suicide. An additional, even more
frightening statistic is that 19 percent of those partici-
pating in the study reported attempting suicide (Hin-
duja & Patchin, 2010b). In 2010, the National Educa-
tion Association warned teachers that cyberbullying
would be one of the top challenges that teachers will
face (Flannery, 2010).

LWA/Dann Tardif/Getty Images/Blend Images

Harassment
Harassment means “to annoy persistently” (Merriam-
Webster, 2012). Harassment can take many forms, but
sexual harassment may be the most disquieting. Other
forms of harassment usually are treated as aspects of
bullying.
Sexual harassment is illegal, whether it is student-to-
student or adult-to-student, and whether it involves mem-
What do you suppose these girls bers of opposite sexes or members of the same sex. The
are giggling about? U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights (2008) defines sexual harassment as
behavior that is sexual, unwelcome, and that affects a student’s participation in or benefit from
the educational opportunities a school offers. Examples include propositioning or pressuring
students for sexual favors, inappropriate touching of students, touching oneself or making
crude gestures or noises in front of others, telling dirty jokes, showing writings, pictures, draw-
ings, printed materials, or graffiti that is sexual in nature, spreading rumors about students
regarding sexual activity and/or performance, and distributing or showing emails or websites
that are sexual in nature.
Research has found that over a third of middle and high school students surveyed
reported being sexually harassed. Boys were harassed as frequently as girls, but sexual
minorities (gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and transgendered students) experienced harassment
more frequently (Gruber & Fineran, 2008). This same research has shown that even
though bullying is more prevalent, sexual harassment has more detrimental effects on
students’ emotional and physical health than does bullying. And again, sexual minority
students are harassed more frequently than their heterosexual peers.
Sexual harassment is always wrong, and students should be encouraged to tell an adult
if they are victims. Adults and other school officials can take the necessary actions to stop
such harassment. School districts are required to have clear policies and procedures that
address the sexual harassment of both students and employees, whether students or employ-
ees commit the harassment (Walsh, 1999). Schools activate these procedures as needed.

School Responses to Safety Issues

In your experience, how have schools responded to safety issues? You may have gone to a
school that took precautions to prevent the threats to safety that you have read about, and
you may have seen or read in the news about some policies or actions schools have taken. Let’s
examine several ways schools try to meet the expectations that students have to be kept safe.

Increased Security and Prevention

One way that schools have responded to threats to safety is to intensify security measures
using such procedures as the following:

Surveillance cameras and video cameras

Door and key controls

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 Locked doors
Metal detectors
On-campus police officers
ID cards
Communications devices
Warning codes
Duress alarms
Video cameras on school buses
Profiling and identifying students who may have a higher-than-normal risk of
committing violent acts and keeping track of their activities
Inspecting book bags or banning book bags altogether
School uniforms or strict dress codes
Drug and weapons sweeps by police and canines
Visitor check-in/check-out with IDs

Did the list you compiled in Building Block 8.3 contain these measures? Should it? Many
of these procedures are put in place to apprehend students who may bring weapons or
other contraband to school.
Figure 8.3 shows the increase in severity measures between 2000 and 2008.

100

95

90

85

80

75
Visitor check-in/check-out
70 Locked/Monitored doors
Closed campus during lunch
65
Strict dress code
60
Faculty/Staff IDs
55 Security cameras
Percent

50 Uniforms
Random sweeps for
45
contraband
40 Random metal detector
checks
35
Student IDs
30 Daily pass through metal
25 detectors

20

15

10
Figure 8.3
▲

5 Percent of schools using various

security measures, 2000–2008.
0
Source: Adapted from U.S. Census
2000 2004 2006 2008 Bureau, 2011b
Year © Cengage Learning 2014

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 Zero-Tolerance Policies
zero-tolerance policies Policies that Numerous schools have zero-tolerance policies in place that entail a strict and swift
entail a strict and swift disciplinary disciplinary response to students or school personnel who engage in violent activities
response to students or school
personnel who engage in violent such as fighting, who bring or use weapons such as firearms and other dangerous objects
activities, who bring to or use to school, or who bring or use controlled substances such as alcohol, tobacco, or other
weapons in school, or who bring or drugs. It is estimated that almost 75 percent of schools have adopted zero-tolerance
use controlled substances.
policies (Borum et al., 2010). These policies apply not only to students, but also to teach-
ers and other adults. For students, consequences of zero tolerance vary with the offense
but usually entail some degree of suspension from school, expulsion, or the involvement
of law enforcement agencies.

Should Tolerance Be “All or None”?

Zero-tolerance policies are not without their critics. Although it is hard to imagine a
legitimate reason for a student or adult to bring a firearm or a controlled substance
such as alcohol to school, some criticize the policy’s strict interpretation. For
example, in 2010, a North Carolina high school senior who excelled in academics
and playing soccer was suspended from school for having a knife in her lunchbox
(FoxNews, 2010). The paring knife was found during a search conducted by officials
who were going through students’ belongings looking for drugs. The student did
not realize that the knife was in her lunchbox; in fact, the lunchbox didn’t even
belong to the student. It was her father’s lunchbox and it contained not only the
knife but also a whole apple for which the knife was intended. The student and her
father had identical lunchboxes and the student mistakenly grabbed the wrong one.
Regardless, school officials cited their zero-tolerance policy for weapons on school
grounds, and the paring knife was considered to be a weapon. The student missed
the remaining portion of her senior year and was charged with a misdemeanor.
There are several similar cases from around the country that have resulted since the
implementation of zero-tolerance policies. One of the most tragic is the 2011 case
of Nick Stuban of Woodson High School in Fairfax County, Virginia (St. George,
2011). Nick was a 15-year-old dedicated football player who, perhaps due to the
stress of dealing with his mother’s advancing Lou Gehrig’s disease, made the
mistake of purchasing from another student at school a capsule of a substance that
produces a marijuana-like effect. Though the synthetic compound, called JWH-018,
is not illegal, it violated the school’s zero-tolerance policy. When Nick admitted to
making the purchase, he was suspended for several weeks, causing him to miss
school-related activities and other activities in which he was involved that were held
on school grounds. His relationships with friends suffered due to that absence and
due to rumors that were being spread. Though many other challenges contributed
to the situation and to Nick’s struggles, the consequences of the disciplinary action
taken by the school system have been linked to Nick’s decision to commit suicide in
January 2011.

Use your favorite search

engine to find whether your As you have seen, many schools have implemented zero-tolerance policies; but how
local school system has effective have they been? There is little research-based evidence that these policies have
implemented a zero-tolerance resulted in reducing school violence as intended. Research has shown, however, that racial
policy. Go to your state’s
minorities are overrepresented in the implementation of this policy, and that the
department of education
consequences of zero-tolerance policies are in opposition to principles of healthy child
website to learn whether your
state has statewide zero-
development (Borum et al., 2010).
tolerance laws. What are the Safe schools meet the needs, interests, and special requirements of all students. Schnei-
policies and laws? What are the der, Walker, and Sprague (2000) have found that schools with a high degree of long-
consequences of violating them? lasting safety are well led, have a positive climate and atmosphere, ensure that all students
are included, and are academically effective. The NEA (2003a) believes that schools must

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 address the root causes of violence among students
through developing and implementing strategies to
achieve the following goals:

Reduce and eliminate bullying and harassment

Expand access to counseling, anger management,
and peer mediation
Provide ways for students to communicate
with adults about rumors and threats
Develop instruction that teaches such
values as respect and responsibility

Anti-Bullying Programs

AP Images/Dan Loh/Pool
Recalling the statistics you have read about bul-
lying and cyberbullying, it is probably not sur-
prising to know that 47 states now have laws
against bullying (Bully Police USA, 2011). Many
schools have adopted anti-bullying policies, and some have implemented Are popular methods of reducing
anti-bullying programs. For the most part, the policies define bullying to school violence, like school police
include the concepts of cyberbullying and harassment, and identify the re- and metal detectors, enough to
sponsibilities of those involved in the policy such as students, teachers, prevent school violence against
students, teachers, and school
administrators, counselors, parents, and other stakeholders. They also out-
staff?
line the consequences and describe the procedures for reporting acts of
bullying.
Some systems have purchased programs developed by specialists to
implement in their schools. These programs stress the importance of teach-
ing students not only what bullying is, how to prevent it, and how to re-
spond to it, but also the importance of involving the whole school and
community (Quiroz, 2006). The Olweus Bullying Prevention Program
claims to be the “World’s Foremost Prevention Program.” It is research- TeachSour
based and authored by Dr. Dan Olweus (whom you saw above is a leading
ce Video
authority on bullying). The program consists of a collection of materials
for students, teachers, administrators, and other stakeholders to help them
View the TeachSource Video,
“Cyberbullying.” Cyberbullying is a growing
prevent and address bullying by teaching strategies to victims and wit- problem in schools as traditional bullying
nesses. In the biggest study of its kind (involving 56,137 students and more has migrated onto computers. Some social
than 2,400 teachers from 107 schools over a two-year period), researchers networking sites have set up safeguards
to prevent cyberbullying, and there are
evaluated the effectiveness of the Olweus Program and noted a reduction
services that can allow parents to monitor
in reports of bullying and more positive attitudes of students regarding their children’s use of social networking
bullying (Schroeder et al., 2011). sites. After you view the video, answer the
You can probably imagine that cyberbullying is more difficult to ad- following questions:
dress. Parents may not have the technology “know-how” to understand 1. Should schools have a say when bullying
how their children use their computers and other technologies to harass and happens beyond the school ground?
bully others. Also, cyberbullying is most often done in private and anony- 2. In what ways can schools and teachers
mously, preventing any witnesses to the event. Again, addressing this par- help to prevent cyberbullying?
ticular type of bullying requires the concerted effort of several people: 3. How might restricting access to
adults, other students, the community, and in this instance, social media computers or certain Internet sites in an
effort to prevent cyberbullying also affect
companies (Hinduja & Patchin, 2010a). instruction?
Chances are that you will do a field experience, student teach, and/or
4. Would the restrictions’ effect on
work in a school with an anti-bullying policy or program. It will be your re- instruction be worth preventing potential
sponsibility to not only be familiar with the policy or program, but also to episodes of cyberbullying?
enforce and employ it.

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 CONTROVERSIES in Education

GSA or No GSA
T  o provide a safe space for those who, according to
research, experience harassment and bullying most
often, some schools have included Gay-Straight Alliances
(GSAs) among their organized extracurricular clubs. These
organizations typically meet after school, on school grounds,
and are meant to bring together gay, lesbian,
transgendered, questioning, and straight students in an

© Custom Life Science Images/Alamy

atmosphere of support. As of 2008, over 4,000 GSAs were
registered with the Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education
Network (GLSEN, 2011). Not surprisingly, such clubs are
often associated with controversy. In some instances,
students want to start GSAs, but the school won’t approve
the organization. Such was the case in Flour Bluff, Texas, in
2011. According to a local news station (Curtis, 2011), a
student and an adult advocate proposed forming a GSA on
the campus of the high school. The school district decided
to suspend all extracurricular clubs until they could be that calling a GSA a “sexuality-based club” was a gross
reviewed for approval. Although it seems that this decision mischaracterization (GLSEN, 2006). Supporters threatened
was in response to the proposal for a GSA, the school to sue the board on the basis of the federal Equal Access
district issued a press release stating that the legal review of Act, which states that curriculum- and noncurriculum-based
all clubs was part of their regular policy and practice. The clubs must have equal access to school facilities. The North
school board’s action drew counter responses from students Carolina Family Policy Council, an organization that
and parents who support the GSA as well as the other “defends traditional family values” and provides information
extracurricular organizations, and the director of the Texas on public policy affecting families, noted that “Gay-Straight
Civil Rights Project threatened legal action. Alliance clubs have been a key weapon in the arsenal of the
On March 2, 2011, the American Civil Liberties Union homosexual movement for spreading its message to youth”
sent a letter to the school board demanding that they allow (Evans, 2006, p. 1). The Council contends that GSAs’
the proposed GSA to form and to hold meetings (ACLU, message is that “it’s okay to be gay,” and that this message
2011a). A free website devoted to starting, joining, and is in contrast to the moral and religious teachings of parents
supporting social change in which anyone can initiate a and church.
petition about any subject and viewers can “sign” with
those they agree, hosted an online petition that garnered
over 57,000 signatures to support the recognition of the
WHAT DO YOU THINK?
Flour Bluff High School GSA. On March 9, the You might have difficulty asking yourself whether you
ACLU reported that the school district had voted to would be active in or even support a GSA at a high
approve the GSA late the night before (ACLU, 2011b). school or school district you might work in one day.
In other instances, the schools approve the GSA, but Remember that your first consideration should always be
the community protests. A group of students petitioned to your students’ well-being, including physical and
form a GSA in a high school in North Carolina for the 2005– emotional safety. Does the inclusion of GSAs in schools
2006 school year. Over 700 community members, parents, help serve this purpose?
and students gathered to protest. As a result, the school
You can access the website where you can enter or
board adopted a policy to ban any school clubs based on
join a petition of just about any topic through a
“sexuality” (Evans, 2006). GLSEN responded to this, saying
direct link on the Education CourseMate website.

The Teacher’s Role

The efforts discussed so far to ensure student safety in schools have primarily been school-
level policies and procedures. As a teacher, you also have a big part to play in addition to
teaching and assessing. It has been said that the teacher is the most important person in
responding to bullying in the classroom (Quiroz, 2006). Certainly, teachers must implement

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 and enforce anti-bullying policies and programs, as mentioned previously. But the way
teachers manage the classroom and implement instruction can go a long way to preventing
bullying, which in turn can prevent its escalation into further violence and tragedy.
Of course, your responsibility as a teacher extends beyond addressing student safety.
You are also responsible for your students’ learning! Let us take a look at what students
can expect from teachers.

Helping Students Feel Safe BUILDING BLOCK

Think of the following needs for students at the age level you plan to teach: 8.4
Safety and security needs
Love and belonging needs
Cognitive needs
Psychosocial needs
For each, list two or three specific actions you could take with regard to
instruction and classroom climate that would strengthen your relationship with
students and help them to meet these needs. (Compare these actions with the
qualities of good teachers you identified in Chapter 1, and the instructional strategies
you suggested in Chapters 3 and 4.)
Reduce your list to the four or five most important actions teachers can take to
build positive and supportive relationships with students.
How might these actions help ensure the safety of students?

From Building Block 8.4, you can see that teachers can do a lot to help their students
meet their needs and feel safe and comfortable in school.

Classroom Management and Discipline

As a teacher candidate, one of your biggest concerns is probably how to manage your
students’ behavior. Implementing a fair and firm classroom management plan is among a
teacher’s most important activities. The first step in designing a classroom management
plan is to create a caring classroom environment. And the first step in creating this envi-
ronment is getting to know your students. You read about this early in this chapter. The
good news is that knowing your students and letting them know that you care about them
and their learning will go far in preventing a lot of misbehavior. However, students often
act out because they feel a lack of security that comes from not knowing what is expected
of them or where the boundaries are. As a teacher, you can help students by providing
structure and routine.
You will need to develop structures, procedures, and routines as a part of your classroom
management plan. These are meant to help the classroom run as a cooperative, collaborative
learning community and prevent the misbehavior that might result when students feel unsure
of what is expected of them. Well-defined classroom procedures and routines help satisfy
students’ need for safety, security, and belonging. For most students, the procedures and rou-
tines are enough to meet these needs; they know what to expect and what is expected of them.
Other students, however, might have greater needs. Some may feel they need an ex-
traordinary amount of attention, either from peers or from the teacher. They might go to
extraordinary—and disruptive—lengths to get this attention. Some, reacting to feeling
controlled, might act out against these authority figures in an attempt to gain power. The
behavior that results from attempts to satisfy such needs may be disruptive and unaccept-
able in the classroom environment. For this reason, teachers must also develop conse-
quences as well as rules as part of their classroom management plans.

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 Students sometimes refer to life in school as “prison-like.” Why do you think they feel
this way? Might it be because, as in a prison, they feel their behavior is being controlled?
Surely rules and regulations are necessary at school. We have them in our general society,
and we need them at school. This is partly because of legal considerations (see Chapter 13),
and it is partly because schools must keep order. Structure is necessary in the school en-
vironment to enable the classes to run smoothly. Having rules, policies, and procedures is
part of life in school and helps students know what is expected of them and where the
boundaries are.
The teacher’s method of maintaining order in the classroom is known as behavior
management. Behavior management has two fundamental goals:

1. To permit the teacher to teach

2. To provide each student with the maximum opportunity to learn

Unfortunately, there is no magical plan that will ensure golden behavior from all of
your students all of the time. However, you can examine some strategies and methods and
observe the behavior management system used in your field experience classroom to gain
insights on how to manage behavior effectively.

BUILDING BLOCK Discipline in the Classroom

8.5 Have you ever been in a class in which there seemed to be no discipline?
What was it like?
How did it make you feel as a student about the classroom environment?
What did you think about the teacher?
How did this lack of discipline affect your attitude toward the content you were
supposed to be learning?
Have you ever been in a class in which the discipline was so strict that nobody
dared to do anything the teacher might not like?
What was it like?
How did it make you feel as a student about the classroom environment?
What did you think about the teacher?
How did such strict discipline affect your attitude toward the content you were
supposed to be learning?

There are many ways to manage behavior in the classroom, and these depend on the
classroom climate the individual teacher wants to maintain. To gain an idea of the kind
of behavior you expect in the classroom, do the activity in Building Block 8.6.

BUILDING BLOCK Classroom Behavior Expectations

8.6 Different teachers have different ideas and expectations about order in the
classroom. To learn your own basic conception, take the inventory that follows.
Mark each statement in accordance with the following scale:
4 = True all or almost all the time.
3 = True much of the time.
2 = True less than half the time.
1 = Never or almost never true.

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 1. _____ Students should be assigned seats in the classroom—often in alphabetical
order.
2. _____ Seating assignments in the classroom should be negotiated between
students and the teacher.
3. _____ Students should be given opportunities to make choices.
4. _____ Students must follow teacher directions, whether they like it or not.
5. _____ Students should remain quiet in the classroom except when the teacher
calls on them to respond to a question.
6. _____ Students should be allowed to talk to one another, providing their discus-
sions deal with the topic under study.
7. _____ “Controlled chaos” is okay in the classroom.
8. _____ The best way to get an unruly class to quiet down is to yell at them.
9. _____ The teacher makes the classroom rules, and students should follow them.
10. _____ If a student falls asleep in class, the teacher could bang a book on the desk
to wake up that student.
11. _____ Teachers must not show any weaknesses lest their behavior management
systems collapse.
12. _____ During the first week or two of class, teachers should work at negotiating
rapport and mutual respect with the students.
13. _____ Teachers should nurture students’ own creativity and self-expression as
much as possible.
14. _____ It is okay for a teacher to laugh at himself or herself in front of the class.
15. _____ When a student violates rules, the teacher should punish that student ap-
propriately and immediately.
16. _____ When a student violates rules, the teacher should threaten the student
with punishment.
17. _____ When a student violates rules, the teacher should ignore this behavior
because there really isn’t anything the teacher can do about it anyhow.
18. _____ If a student doesn’t turn in homework on time, the teacher should record
a zero.
19. _____ The teacher should keep the invitation open for students to submit home-
work, even if it is late.
20. _____ The goal of effective discipline is obedience.
21. _____ The goal of effective discipline is for students to be responsible.
22. _____ Really bad students need to be put in their place.
23. _____ The teacher should ignore the really bad behavior of students, as not
much can be done about it anyway.
24. _____ Students need to have the freedom to let off steam and express themselves.
25. _____ Teachers must always treat students with dignity, regardless of students’
behavior.
26. _____ Students can usually be expected to ignore class rules.
27. _____ Students don’t have a right to get angry in school.
28. _____ There are always a few students whose behavior the teacher cannot control.
29. _____ The teacher should post crystal-clear limits and behavior expectations on
the classroom wall and enforce them.
30. _____ Teachers can expect that students will behave in class; after all, students
have been brought up to respect authority, respect peers, and behave
properly.
31. _____ Teachers need to keep a tight rein on the students in their classes; bending
the rules only encourages further infractions.
32. _____ When a whole class decides to be unruly, there is nothing the teacher can
do about the situation.
33. _____ It is okay for students to interrupt the teacher and one another if they
have legitimate comments.

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 34. _____ The teacher is always right.
35. _____ It is good to let students win arguments when they have valid points.
36. _____ Students should never argue with the teacher.
37. _____ The teacher should reprimand students for huffing and puffing, rolling
their eyes, and similarly disagreeable behaviors.
38. _____ It is fine to enforce classroom rules some days and ignore them on other
days; after all, teachers are human, too.
39. _____ Students should develop the class rules by themselves; after all, it is their
class.
Scoring: Put the number you placed by each question in the following
corresponding blank, and find the total for each group. The results will show you
what your current thinking is about behavior management in schools.

Group I Group II Group III

 1. _____  2. _____  8. _____
 4. _____  3. _____ 10. _____
 5. _____  6. _____ 13. _____
 9. _____  7. _____ 16. _____
11. _____ 12. _____ 17. _____
18. _____ 14. _____ 23. _____
20. _____ 15. _____ 26. _____
22. _____ 19. _____ 28. _____
27. _____ 21. _____ 30. _____
31. _____ 24. _____ 32. _____
34. _____ 25. _____ 33. _____
36. _____ 29. _____ 38. _____
37. _____ 35. _____ 39. _____
Totals: _____ _____ _____
Chart the totals on a bar graph using a template such as the one that follows:

Group I Group 2 Group 3

55
50
autocratic teacher A teacher who 45
controls every part of the classroom 40
and student behavior, demonstrating
no flexibility or receptiveness to 35
student input.
30
collaborative teacher A teacher
who solicits and uses student input in 25
the creation of classroom rules and
procedures, demonstrating respect 20
for all. 15
permissive teacher A teacher who
lets students get away with anything 10
in the way of classroom behaviors,  5
causing a stressful and chaotic
classroom environment.  0

Group I consists of statements that represent the autocratic teacher. How

would you describe an autocratic teacher’s management style?
Group II consists of statements that represent the collaborative teacher. How
would you describe a collaborative teacher’s management style?
Group III consists of statements that represent the permissive teacher. How
would you describe a permissive teacher’s management style?

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 In what group is your highest score?
In what group is your lowest score?
Is there any group in which you scored a total of 52 (the highest score possible)?
Is there any group in which you scored a total of 13 (the lowest score possible)?
This activity can also be found on the Education CourseMate website so you
can print it out or take the inventory electronically.
Source: Adapted from Wolfgang and Glickman, (1986).

A teacher’s expectations about classroom behavior management can be placed on

a continuum that ranges from autocratic on the left to permissive on the right (see Fig-
ure 8.4). The center of the continuum represents a collaboration between student and
teacher. Based on the inventory you took in Building Block 8.6, where do you put
yourself on the continuum?

Figure 8.4

▲
Autocratic Collaborative Permissive Continuum of classroom behavior
Teacher Teacher Teacher management styles.
© Cengage Learning 2014

The far left represents the classroom of an autocratic teacher. The teacher sets rules
and expects students to obey them. No debate, bending, or negotiation is allowed. Stu-
dents are expected to be quiet except when responding to teacher questions. Nobody
moves around unless the teacher grants permission. Students must be in their assigned
seats on time and must stay there until the teacher dismisses them.
The far right represents a teacher who is so permissive that students can do anything
they want. Students talk when the teacher is trying to teach, disturb other students, move
about the room at will, do things totally unrelated to the instruction. The teacher tries
tactics such as:

Discipline-related questions that have no answers, such as “Why are you touching her?,”
“How many times do I have to tell you . . . ?,” or “What am I going to do with you?”
Yelling: “Stop that right now!”
Cajoling: “Oh, c’mon—I know you can be better than this.”
Begging: “Puhleeze, won’t you try to be a little quieter when I’m talking?”
Bargaining: “If you do your work, you can have a half hour to do whatever you
want.”
Making threats that cannot be carried out: “Do that one more time and you’ll stay
after school every day for a year!”

None of the teacher’s actions produces any positive results. The students are running
the class.
Somewhere in the middle is the teacher who relies on teacher–student collaboration
to develop and maintain good order and discipline in the classroom. These teachers
respect their students—even the worst students—and treat them with respect (not
permissiveness). These teachers have a few rules of classroom behavior designed to
enable the teacher to teach and the students to learn. Often, these teachers solicit
student input for the design of classroom procedures, rules, and consequences. They
enforce the rules fairly and consistently; when a student violates a rule, the teacher
makes the appropriate correction right away. These teachers are never sarcastic,
never make idle threats, and do not cut students down. They are honest and authentic.

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 FROM THE FIELD

Becoming a Classroom Manager

Christie Daniels

e Daniels
F   rom the first day that I stepped into a public school in my class who had not

Courtesy of Christi
classroom, the concept of classroom management missed a single day of
has been drilled into my head as the single most important school. I walked into the
factor in determining a teacher’s success in the classroom. principal’s office and asked
After nine years of teaching the most challenging students whether his mom had called
available, I have learned that classroom management is not to let us know he was going to be absent. My principal
about discipline. It’s not about organization. It isn’t a told me that there had been an accident. I immediately
methodology. Effective classroom management is, purely panicked, but she assured me that Michael was
and simply, the process of creating an environment in which unharmed. She explained that Michael’s bus had had a
students want to learn. A teacher’s classroom management minor accident on the way to pick him up, and that by
skills are directly proportional to the extent to which they the time the bus reached his stop, he was not there. We
are willing to go to great lengths to capture and maintain both assumed that his mother had probably gone to
their students’ attention. work and that he had, most likely, simply decided to stay
While serving as a mentor to a first-year teacher, I was at home for the day.
asked the question, “Dr. Daniels, do you ever wonder if you At about 9:45 a.m., as my students were getting ready
are really making a difference with these kids?” I laughed to take a class picture, Michael walked in soaking wet and
as I remembered the many times that I drove home out of breath. I looked at him incredulously and asked him
thinking and asking out loud, “Why did I even get out of if it was raining outside. He looked at me and said, “No, I
bed today?” I no longer ask that question. When those walked.” Michael had walked approximately six miles from
nagging doubts arise, I simply close my eyes for a moment his home to our school. I asked him “Why?” and he smiled
and think about Michael. Michael is a former student who and said, “I just couldn’t miss one single day of your class.”
helped me realize that I had finally become an effective My principal and I cried together that day, our hearts
classroom manager. swelled with pride for the progress Michael had made and
I will always remember the date—Friday, October by his newfound commitment to learning. Yes, October 17,
17, 2003. I was a behavior modification teacher at the 2003, was an important day for me. It began a new era for
Picayune, Mississippi Center for Alternative Education. My me—one in which I no longer question my commitment to
students had all been referred to my class as a result of teaching.
having exhibited severe behavior problems in their regular
classrooms. Many of my students had experienced very
little, if any, success at their “home” schools. Christina Ross Daniels
On this particular day, Michael, one of my fifth-grade 2005 Mississippi Teacher of the Year
students, did not show up for school at the expected Picayune Center for Alternative Education
time. This was unusual because he was the only student Picayune, Mississippi

© Cengage Learning 2014

They know what they want, expect it, and get it. These teachers are collaborative
teachers.
Canter (1985) uses the term assertive to describe the teachers who are most successful
in managing classroom behavior. He says that assertive teachers take this stand about
classroom management:

1. I will not tolerate behavior problems in my class. There is no excuse good enough for
you to stop me from teaching. I will not tolerate you stopping me from teaching for
any reason. You can behave and you will behave in my classroom.
2. I will not tolerate you stopping someone else from learning. Every student in my class
has the opportunity to learn—free from disruptions.
3. No student will engage in behavior that is not for the good of themselves and one
another. You will not threaten, bully, or attack other students.

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 You must set your own discipline program to suit yourself and the students in your
class. However, your discipline plan must be congruent with the school’s discipline code.
Any discipline plan you set must include the overarching school-wide rules. For example,
suppose you don’t care whether students chew gum in class, but the school says that stu-
dents are not allowed to chew gum in school. Your personal plan must include a “no gum
chewing” clause.
No single classroom management formula works for everyone. However, the most
successful teachers are those who are collaborative, assertive, respectful, and consistent,
and who have high expectations for student achievement.
As you prepare to enter the classroom, be sure to study Canter’s propositions and
internalize their full implications. Work to eliminate any worries you might have that
children will not behave in your class. If you have any lurking reservations, work at get-
ting rid of them now.
You probably found from the inventory in Building Block 8.6 that your classroom
management beliefs reflect each of the positions on the continuum. However, you prob-
ably also found that your beliefs cluster around one of these positions. We do not like to
assert that only one approach to behavior management is right and the others are wrong.
There are times when you will want to invoke systems other than your preferred system.
For example, you might prefer to be collaborative in your overall approach, but some-
times you will have to be autocratic and at other times you will want to be more permis-
sive. Use the classroom management system that works best for you. The only criteria are
that you can teach and your students can learn—free of disruptions.
Finally, let us mention the practice of sending misbehaving students to the principal.
As you know, one of the school administration’s duties is to deal with students who ex-
hibit unacceptable behavior. But the teacher can and should handle the vast majority of
discipline problems in the classroom. Reserve requesting the principal’s intervention for
only the most serious cases—cases that are potentially harmful to the student, to other
students, or to you. You want to become known in your school as a teacher who can
handle his or her own discipline. Then, if you send a student to the office, the principal
will know that the student presents a serious problem.
© Sean Cayton/The Image Works

Involving the principal in

discipline problems should
be reserved for serious
behavioral issues, like those
in which the teacher or other
students are in danger.

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 TECHNOLOGY Electronic Gadgets and Students
& EDUCATION
A   s the saying goes, “If you can’t beat them, join
them.” Today’s students at virtually all grade levels
Content-oriented apps can act as resources and
references. For example, there are astromony appli-
have electronic gadgets of every description, and many cations that help students to learn the night sky while
students bring them to school, much to the consternation of observing actual and virtual scenes of the night sky at
their teachers who view these gadgets as distractions from various times of the year. Other content-oriented
the serious work at hand. According to The Washington apps are available to help students do things like
Times, the use of cell phone technology used to access the learn Spanish, practice algebra, view world maps,
Internet has jumped to 46 percent of African Americans and review vocabulary, and much more.
51 percent of Hispanics as compared with 30 percent of News apps are available from virtually every
whites (Washington, 2011). Even though many families do newspaper, as well as TV and radio stations. Yes, they
not have high-speed computers with Internet access at have sports and recipe sections, but they also have
home, almost all of their children have smartphones that can news of the day and commentaries from experts.
be used to access the Internet. Reference apps provide a quick and easy way for
We mentioned earlier that one of the challenges in students to access resources like dictionaries,
education is to effectively use the technology to which encyclopedias, world and U.S. population statistics,
students have become accustomed. This use not only maps, quotes, sign language, and much more.
provides comfort to the students because they are learning
These are just a few of the types of apps available for
with something that is already familiar to them, but it also
help in academic settings. You may notice that we haven’t
expands the repertoire of teaching resources available to
listed music, movie, TV show, or gaming apps; these are
teachers. However, as you can guess, the use of technology
primarily meant for entertainment and not academic inquiry.
in schools isn’t restricted to teaching and learning. You have
If your students need an app they can’t find on the Internet,
already read about cyberbullying. How does having
why not challenge them to write one themselves? They can
technology available in schools and classrooms affect the
use free software from the Internet.
incidence of cyberbullying? And what about the newest gad-
In addition to apps, more and more books, newspapers,
gets—smartphones, tablets, media players such as the
and magazines are accessible through smartphones, tablets,
iPod, e-readers, laptops, and other similar portable electronic
and e-readers. In fact, publishers are working to create
devices that students bring to school? It’s easy to see how
electronic versions of classroom texts so students can ac-
these devices can be used for less than honorable intentions.
cess the material on tablets or e-readers (see Brezicki,
How can they can be used to expand the repertoire available
2010/2011) without having to carry the books themselves.
to teachers?
And the federal government has unveiled a plan to get
Because students tend to bring their smartphones and,
schools to switch from print to digital textbooks by 2017
to a lesser extent, their tablets, e-readers, notebooks, and
(Tomassini, 2012).
laptops to school, let us concentrate on educational uses of
And don’t forget the social networking sites. Perhaps,
these devices. At this writing, over 200,000 apps are available
the first thought that comes to your mind might be that
for the Apple iPad, and over a half million apps are available
students may use these sites to bully and harass other
for iPhones. Let’s look at just a few types of apps, together
students. But can they be used to help teachers? Ways in
with ways they can enhance the repertoire of teachers:
which experienced teachers have used social media in their
Note-taking apps enable students to create and edit classes include course assignments and other curriculum
text notes. Students can use this app to take initial matters, end-of-unit reviews prior to unit-end tests, integrating
class notes and edit them later. real-work applications into teaching, collaborative learning,
Calculator apps range from simple to very distance learning, cross-cultural communication, language
sophisticated, and students can use these to ensure learning, professional development, networking with
mathematical accuracy and to solve difficult problems. colleagues anywhere in the world, parent communication,
Voice-to-text apps verbally enable students to dictate and community outreach (Stansbury, 2011).
information that will be displayed as text. The field of technological applications available to
Text-to-voice apps read written text aloud, which students is getting larger by the day. As a person interested
provides teachers an option to help poor readers and in becoming a teacher, you should keep up with these
assist learners with visual impairments. advances so you will be on par with your students when you
To-do lists help students get their tasks in order, and enter the classroom and so that you and they can be aware
the app reminds them what has to be done and of how to use them for learning, not ill will.
when.

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 S U M M A RY

CHAPTER RESOURCES
A school is a complex system designed to foster maximum student learning. To
learn, students must become an integral part of that system. They must have their
basic needs met by the school and have the freedom to express their individuality
within conventional boundaries; at the same time, students must conform to safety
and behavior standards set by the school and its teachers.
Safety considerations include physical safety, intellectual safety, and emotional safety.
The school, with the help of its students and outside agencies, can provide reason-
able assurance of students’ physical safety. Schools often increase security measures
in an effort to prevent threats to physical safety. Some of these measures include
installing security cameras and metal detectors, requiring students, personnel, and
visitors to carry visible identification, and random searches for contraband. Several
schools have also adopted zero-tolerance policies, but it is unclear whether these
policies are effective. Indeed, they are controversial due to their sometimes strict
interpretations that do not leave room for extenuating circumstances.
Intellectual and emotional safety arise from positive interpersonal interactions between
students and teachers. Emotional safety is fostered through positive teacher–student
interactions and through the reduction or elimination of bullying and harassment.
Bullying, including cyberbullying and harassment, has been linked to incidents of
school violence, including school shootings and student suicides. Most states have
anti-bullying laws, and schools have adopted anti-bullying programs and policies.
If these policies and programs are to be effective, they must involve not only the
students, teachers, and administrators, but also all school personnel, parents, and
the community. Some large-scale anti-bullying programs are available for purchase
by schools and school systems and have been shown to be effective.
Teachers have the responsibility to contribute to school safety and can do so by
implementing effective classroom management plans. The first step in creating an
effective classroom management plan is to establish a safe and caring classroom
environment where the teacher and students treat one another with dignity and
respect. The second step in creating a classroom management plan is to design a
discipline plan to help manage student behavior.
When the school personnel–student system provides for students’ safety and security,
cognitive, and psychosocial needs; insists on behavior that allows the teacher to teach and
students to learn; and undertakes academic challenges that engage all students, then stu-
dents can aspire to their highest levels of achievement.

Key Terms and Concepts

Autocratic teacher, 216 Collaborative teacher, 216 Permissive teacher, 216
Bullying, 205 Cyberbullying, 207 Zero-tolerance policies, 210

Construct and Apply

1. Address Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development as they relate to students’ needs for in-
dividuality and acceptance. How can the school not only accept but also protect students’ ex-
pressions of individuality? How can you, as the teacher, foster this healthy development?
2. Imagine you are assigned to a debate team focused on one of the issues discussed in this chap-
ter. Choose a pro or con position and write a paragraph supporting your choice. Suggestions
include the following:
a. Metal detectors, searches, campus police, and so on.
b. Zero-tolerance policies.
c. Having a Gay-Straight Alliance (GSA) at the school.

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 CHAPTER RESOURCES
3. Explain how too much discipline in the classroom can be as ineffective as too little in creating
an environment conducive to learning.
4. A common adage given to new teachers regarding classroom behavior management is, “Don’t
smile before Christmas!” Is this good advice? Why or why not?
5. You are currently a student in college. What is your favorite way to be taught? Think carefully.
Is the method you cited your favorite because you learn the material best that way? Or is it
because it helps you perform well on traditional tests? Or is it both? Explain.
6. What expectations and responsibilities does the school have to the student? What expectations
and responsibilities does the student have to the school?

Deconstructing the Standards

1. Recall the InTASC Standard associated with the objectives for this chapter:
Standard #3 reads: “The teacher works with others to create environments that
support individual and collaborative learning, and that encourage positive social inter-
action, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation.”
a. What part(s) of this standard does this chapter address?
b. How will the concepts in this chapter help you apply this standard as a teacher?
2. Use your favorite search engine to find your state’s standards for certification. When you find
it, bookmark the site. You will refer to it often during this course.
a. How are your conclusions about the expectations and responsibilities of schools and stu-
dents represented in your state standards?
b. How do the InTASC Standards compare to your state’s certification standards?
c. Do you believe the degree of representation concerning expectations and responsibilities of
schools and students is adequate in your state certification standards? Why or why not?

Your Portfolio
1. Include a copy of the information students and parents are given regarding school policies and
rules, and a copy of the classroom rules where you are doing your field experience. Write your
reflections on the necessity of these rules for the safety of the students and school personnel.
Relate your reflection to meeting students’ needs for safety and belonging.
2. Include resources from your community that help students build character, such as Boys Clubs,
Girls Clubs, YMCA or YWCA, Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, volunteer programs, and the like. In-
clude a list of these resources in your portfolio.
3. Begin to design your own classroom management plan, including room arrangement, routines
and procedures, and classroom rules. Include your plan in your portfolio to show that you are
aware of what an effectively managed learning environment might be.

Education CourseMate Resources

Check out this text’s Education CourseMate website (at www.cengagebrain.com) for more informa-
tion about student safety and the school’s responsibilities. You will find the TeachSource Videos, a
guide for doing field experiences, glossary flash cards, activities, tutorial quizzes, direct links to the
websites mentioned in the chapter, and more.

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 © Michael Newman/PhotoEdit

CHAPTER

9 The School and the

Teacher: Expectations
and Responsibilities
IN CHAPTER 8, you investigated the role of the student in the complex
relationship between school, teacher, and student. You saw that students can expect
to receive much from the school, including fulfillment of basic needs and the
opportunity to learn. You also saw that students are expected to give to the school in
such areas as helping to ensure safety, adhering to school rules and regulations, and
respecting the classroom management systems of individual teachers. The school has
responsibilities to the students, and the students have responsibilities to the school.
Similarly, the school has expectations of and responsibilities to the teacher, and
the teacher has expectations of and responsibilities to the school.
In this chapter, you will investigate the relationship between the school and the
teacher. You will find that the teacher’s primary responsibilities are instructional. You
have already investigated the teacher’s instructional responsibilities in this textbook,
but teachers also have other responsibilities, some of which you have previously
identified. You will focus on two basic questions:

223

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 1. What does the school expect of the teacher?
2. What does the teacher expect of the school?

Chapter Objectives
As a result of your explorations in this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Describe the school’s expectations of the teacher, including instructional and
noninstructional duties, certification, and professional development.
Standard #7: Planning for Instruction; Standard #9: Professional
Learning and Ethical Practice
2. Describe the teacher’s expectations of the school, including salary administration, job
security, working conditions, materials and resources available, and support.
Standard #7 Planning for Instruction; Standard #9: Professional Learning
and Ethical Practice

The School's Expectations of the Teacher

Let us first look at the professional life of a teacher. What tasks are teachers expected to
do? Certainly, they teach their classes. But what else do they do?

BUILDING BLOCK A Teacher’s Life in School

9.1 Think back to your earliest years in school—as far back as preschool or nursery
school if possible. What do you remember your teacher doing? Think of what a
teacher does during the school day and throughout the school year. Which of
these activities were routine? Which occurred periodically or only from time to
time? Which occurred only once or twice? Similarly, recall what your teachers
did in the lower elementary grades, upper elementary grades, middle school or
junior high school, and high school. Use the table that follows to list some
activities.

Nursery Junior High

School or Lower Upper or Middle
Preschool Elementary Elementary School High School
Routine
activities
Periodic
activities
Rare
activities

What trends did you notice in the general thrust of teachers’ activities as you progressed
through the grades? Does it seem that teachers of young children spend a lot of time deal-
ing with children’s personal needs, whereas teachers of older students focus more on the
subject matter?

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 Teachers’ Tasks BUILDING BLOCK
You have tried to recall the activities of the teachers you had in school, and you have 9.2
been observing the activities of your cooperating teacher in your field experience.
Now, try to get more specific about what is expected of teachers from day to day.
Make a list of the tasks and activities that a teacher in the grade level that you
are interested in teaching might do during a typical 24-hour day. Categorize each
task as either instructional or noninstructional in nature.
Then, estimate the approximate percentage of a teacher’s time in school that is instructional duties Teacher duties
spent on instructional duties and the approximate percentage spent on noninstructional directly associated with planning,
instruction, and evaluation.
duties. Does the amount of time teachers spend on noninstructional tasks seem
noninstructional duties Teacher
reasonable? duties not directly associated with
instruction of students.

In Building Block 9.2, you may have encountered some difficulties in separating instruc-
tional from noninstructional activities, because many of these activities are interdepen- The specific duties of
dent. For example, parent conferencing, often considered a noninstructional task, and teachers are established by
assessing student work, an instructional task, support each other. Being the advisor or states, school districts, and
schools. Use your favorite search
coach of a club, team, or some other extracurricular activity is a noninstructional task
engine to find the duties of
when compared to the daily teaching load, but it can be an instructional task when con-
teachers in your location. You
sidered as a part of overall student learning. may have to look for a statewide
teacher assessment instrument
and infer the duties from rubrics
Instructional Duties used to assess teacher
performance.
First and foremost, schools expect teachers to teach. Elsewhere in this textbook, you
Does your finding
have investigated some of the features of teaching—planning, preparing interesting accurately reflect what, in your
lessons that meet the needs of all students, implementing the teaching in ways that experience, teachers do?
involve students meaningfully, assessing student progress as you go along, and the like.
Depending on the grade level, teachers can be
responsible for teaching all the academic
subjects, or just one or two. They can teach an
average of up to 30 or more students in the
public elementary schools, or they can teach an
average of up to 130 or more students a day in
public secondary schools (National Center for
Education Statistics, 2010a).
The actual act of teaching takes up most of a
teacher’s day. But many tasks lead up to and fol-
low teaching. Perhaps you thought of some of
these tasks in the Building Blocks you completed
earlier. Teachers must organize and sequence
objectives and lessons for the day, the week, the
Courtesy of Bill Lisenby

grading period, and the school year. They must

design assessments appropriate for the instruction.
Few nonteachers realize the time that goes into
planning and evaluating.
Did your list of teacher instructional duties
Teaching not only involves
include work done at home? Teachers do a great deal of the planning, preparation, and
instruction time, but also
evaluation work needed for successful teaching during evenings, weekends, and holi- time spent planning
days. They take work home because the school day is so filled with tasks related to instruction and evaluating
students that there is not enough time to finish planning and grading as well. Elemen- student learning. These
tary school teachers are particularly challenged because they normally do not have co-teachers are planning
built-in planning time—they have the occasional period of free time when their stu- instruction for their
dents go to art, music, physical education, and other special classes, but even then they elementary class.

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 are responsible for walking their students
to the special classroom. Teachers in mid-
dle school and high school typically have
one or two class periods built into their
schedules for use in planning, grading, and
report writing. But, due to meetings, parent
conferences, paperwork, and other tasks

© Syracuse Newspapers/Jim Commentucci/The Image Works

that require their attention, they are often
not able to use their planning time for its
intended purpose: planning and grading.
The need to take work home is espe-
cially acute for new teachers while they are
developing and refining efficient routines.
As you gain experience, you will find effi-
cient ways to accomplish the teacher tasks
so you can provide rewarding educational
experiences for your students while pre-
serving your personal time. But you will
probably never be able to do everything
This teacher sponsors the during school hours. There will always be work to do when students are not around,
chess club at his school. and this will have to be done after school or at home.
What other options exist for
teachers to participate in
extracurricular activities? Noninstructional Duties
Besides teaching, schools expect teachers to perform noninstructional duties. Nonin-
structional duties are those duties not directly associated with the instruction and
supervision of students. You listed several examples previously. Noninstructional
responsibilities assigned to teachers differ markedly between states in which teacher
unions are strong and states with little or no union influence. Teacher unions work to
keep teachers’ noninstructional supervisory duties to a minimum. Union states insist
that teacher contracts define precisely which duties are assigned to teachers and
require school districts to provide extra pay for duties not stipulated in the general
contracts.
In some schools, the less desirable noninstructional duties may fall to new teachers. In
some jurisdictions, however, school boards, unions, and teacher associations have written
policies stipulating that the majority of these duties should not be assigned to new teachers
because these teachers need all the time they can get for planning, discussions with experi-
enced teachers, and professional development. Often, unions and teachers associations influ-
ence district school boards to develop policies dealing with noninstructional duties. For ex-
ample, the New Hanover County, North Carolina, Board of Education policy states in part:

Principals shall minimize the assignment of noninstructional duties for all

teachers to those duties essential to the operation of a safe and orderly school.
Special consideration, by limiting such assignment, shall be given to beginning
teachers and teachers with at least 27 years of experience. A compelling need
exists to provide beginning teachers with as much time as possible to develop
their instructional skills and to interact with experienced teachers for the
purpose of professional growth. (New Hanover County, North Carolina
Board of Education, 2011)

Some noninstructional duties typically assigned to teachers in the elementary and

secondary schools are shown in Table 9.1. What other noninstructional duties have you
seen teachers perform that you can add to this list?
Many people believe that noninstructional supervisory duties, although necessary to
ensure safety and order, could be performed by lower-paid, nonteaching personnel. Some

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 TABLE 9.1 Some Noninstructional Duties Typically Assigned to Teachers

Elementary Schools Middle Schools Secondary Schools

Outside of the Monitoring car riders during Monitoring car riders during Monitoring car riders during
classroom morning drop-off and morning drop-off and morning drop-off and afternoon
afternoon pick-up afternoon pick-up pick-up
Bus duty Bus duty Monitoring student parking lot
Lunchroom duty Lunchroom duty Bus duty
Club sponsor Club sponsor Lunchroom duty
Science fair judge Yearbook, school newspaper Club sponsor
In-school suspension duty sponsor Yearbook, school newspaper
Chaperone at school Science fair judge sponsor
functions In-school suspension duty Science fair judge
Volunteer at school fairs, Chaperone at school In-school suspension duty
concession booths, etc. functions Chaperone at school functions
Serving on committees Volunteer at school fairs, Volunteer at school fairs,
concession booths, etc. concession booths, etc.
Serving on committees Serving on committees
Emergency coverage for Emergency class coverage for
another teacher during another teacher during planning
planning periods periods
Detention duty Freshman, sophomore, junior, or
senior class sponsor
Detention duty

In the classroom Taking attendance Taking attendance Taking attendance

Managing paperwork, such Managing paperwork, such Managing paperwork, such as
as permission slips, student as permission slips, student permission slips, student records,
records, etc. records, etc. etc.
Accompanying students as Accompanying students as Parent conferences
they move from class to gym, they move from class to gym, Advising
other classes, special classes, other classes, special classes
lunch, etc. and lunch, etc.
Parent conferences Parent conferences
Advising
© Cengage Learning 2014

schools are moving in this direction by requiring paraprofessionals to take on many of

these tasks; using other nonprofessional personnel, such as bus drivers, in monitoring
capacities; and hiring personnel specifically for these tasks.
In addition to noninstructional supervisory duties, teachers normally are asked to
perform many other noninstructional functions. Parent conferences are among these
duties. How did you classify parent conferences—as an instructional or a
noninstructional activity? There are good reasons for either classification. Parent and
family conferences are common in elementary school and middle school and occur
frequently in high school. They are an occasion for the exchange of information be-
tween family and teacher about the student. The parent conference is viewed as a
necessary supplement to the report card. Preparing for and holding conferences with
all the parents of students in a class takes a great deal of time. But the value of these
conferences is so high that teachers willingly allow for the time and effort needed to
prepare and conduct them. Strictly speaking, of course, the parent conference is a
noninstructional duty. But the courts have consistently held that parent conferences
are part of normal school operations and it is reasonable to expect teachers to hold
them (Fox v. Board of Education, 1977).
If you plan to teach in a middle school or a high school, you can almost count
on being given detention duty. School administrators normally assign detention to
students as a punishment for some rule infraction. In some schools, detention is an

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 after-school affair of silence; in others, the time is
used to help students with their homework and to
provide extra tutoring assistance. In-school suspen-
sion is a form of detention that occurs in a desig-
nated room during school hours. Students assigned
to in-school suspension are removed from their
regular classes as a punishment, but they receive
assistance as required to complete their assigned
work during the time they are on in-school suspen-
sion.1 Some schools assign full-time teaching pro-
fessionals to this duty; others require that teachers
give up some of their planning time to staff the

Courtesy of Bill Lisenby

designated room.
Participating in professional development or con-
tinuing education, being a reflective practitioner, and
implementing the rules, policies, and regulations of
the school system and state department of education
Bus duty is a noninstructional may also be considered part of a teacher’s noninstructional duties.
teacher responsibility. Why is it
Reconsider the list of activities you generated in Building Block 9.2. Would you
important to have teachers and
other personnel present when
recategorize any of the activities as instructional (associated with planning, instruc-
buses arrive and depart? tion, and evaluation) or noninstructional (not directly associated with instruction of
students)?

BUILDING BLOCK Extracurricular Activities

9.3 Think back to your days as a student—in elementary school, middle or junior high
school, or high school. What extracurricular activities were available to you? Which
were available during school hours? Which were limited to after-school hours? In
which extracurricular activities did you participate?
Now consider how teachers might get involved in these extracurricular
activities. Do you think teachers should be required to participate in these activities?
Should they volunteer for such duties? Should they be paid for extracurricular
duties?

What opportunities for involvement in extracurricular activities did you suggest?

Teachers may coach sports teams or collect tickets at games, concerts, or plays. They may
sponsor clubs or chaperone field trips or school dances. Most extracurricular activities
occur before or after regular school hours and outside the regular instruction of students,
but some may occur during the school day. Teachers normally are paid a stipend for spon-
soring certain extracurricular activities such as team sport coaching. For other types of
activities, however, teachers may be expected to volunteer. As we have said, most school
district policies limit the number of extracurricular activities in which new teachers can
participate; however, in cases of compelling need such as lack of adequate personnel to

1
For example, administrators at Rockville High School in Vernon, Connecticut, a school with a mixed
population base, have shown that in-school suspensions (ISS) are more likely to be honored by students
than out-of-school suspensions (OSS), and that ISS helps students increase their educational time because
students are serving the suspension in the school building instead of out of school. The program is staffed
by a full-time facilitator and a part-time paraprofessional who coach the students on their class work and
their standards of behavior (Damon, 2011). The Baltimore City Schools showed that the graduation rate
of African American boys increased from less than 50 percent to over 67 percent in the six years of ISS
implementation (Sundius & Dove, 2011).

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 carry out the school’s commitments, the administration may require teachers, including
new teachers, to take on extracurricular responsibilities.
Which extracurricular activities would you like to be involved in at your future
school? To make a positive impression during an interview, let the principal or personnel
director know that you are willing to work with students and support them outside of the
classroom. In hiring, school administrators look for qualified people who can not only
teach well, but who also can bring other activities to the students.
Schools expect teachers to teach and to be accountable for their students’ learning.
They also expect teachers to carry out noninstructional duties and participate in extracur-
ricular activities. Teachers must be well-educated, highly qualified individuals to live up
to these expectations.

Certification
Schools expect their teachers to be certified. Students in our schools deserve to have
competent teachers as much as they deserve competent doctors and dentists. Teacher teacher certification A state’s official
certification is a state’s official recognition that a person has met the requirements to be recognition that a person has met
the requirements to be a professional
a professional teacher in that state. Each state sets its own requirements for teacher certi- teacher in that state.
fication, and these vary significantly from state to state. However, most states have the
following minimum requirements:

At least a bachelor’s degree; some states require a master’s degree

Completion of an approved and accredited teacher preparation program
A major or minor in education for elementary education majors
A major in the subject area or areas in which the teacher plans to teach for middle or
high school teachers
Passing scores on state licensure examinations

The Education CourseMate website has a direct link to an interactive website you can
use to find the specific certification requirements and methods of acquiring certification
for each state. The site is maintained by the University of Southern California.
Several routes to teacher certification exist, depending on your state’s regulations.
Many people choose the university preparation
route; some universities offer their programs en-
tirely or partially online. However, there are other
routes to certification: the postbaccalaureate
route, the master’s degree route, and several dif-
ferent alternative routes that are especially ap-
pealing to individuals seeking to change careers.
The key is that, whatever the route, candidates
must ultimately be endorsed by the teacher certi-
fication arm of the state’s education department
in order for them to be eligible for state teacher
certification.
Regardless of your route to certification, you
Exactostock/SuperStock

must build solid constructions and understand-

ing of the teaching profession. The material in
this textbook and the constructions you make
while investigating this material are vital for ev-
ery preservice teacher.
The university certification route
University Certification Route
includes professional education
The university route to teacher certification typically entails a four-year program of study courses prescribed by the
leading to a bachelor’s degree (see Chapter 1). The program includes core courses required college, department, or school
by the college or university and content and professional education courses prescribed by that offers the education major.

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 the college, school, or department that offers your major. Although these programs tradi-
tionally have been offered on college and university campuses, some institutions of higher
education are offering them online.2

BUILDING BLOCK My Teacher Preparation Program

9.4 If you have not yet done so, be sure to contact your advisor or the advisement cen-
ter at your college or department of education, and obtain an advisement sheet for
your major. What content (math, science, language arts, social studies) and profes-
sional courses (teacher education) are required? What field experiences are required?
How much time do they take? When do they occur in your program?
You can use this sheet as the basis for outlining your complete course of study.

Postbaccalaureate Certification Route

The postbaccalaureate route to teacher certification is designed to enable students who
already have a bachelor’s degree to earn teacher certification at the undergraduate level.
If you hold a bachelor’s degree in a specific content area such as mathematics, a science
(biology, chemistry, physics), English, or history, it is often only a matter of taking pro-
fessional education courses and participating in field experiences to receive certification
at the secondary level. More coursework may be required to obtain certification at the
elementary or middle grades level, and even more may be required if your bachelor’s
degree is in an unrelated content field such as accounting, nursing, communications,
psychology, or economics. Some postbaccalaureate programs lead to a second bache-
lor’s degree in addition to qualification for state certification. Some lead only to state
certification.

Master’s Degree Certification Route

Some states and institutions have developed graduate-level programs that lead to initial
certification at the master’s degree level. In these programs, an individual with a bachelor’s
degree who does not have teacher certification can earn it together with a master’s degree.
Students who pursue this path find they must spend a great deal of time in field experi-
ences during their programs, and may not be able to have an outside job (except in cases
where the field work can be combined with on-the-job experience). For this reason, the
professional education coursework and the field experience work may be compressed into
two semesters, sometimes with summer sessions added, resulting in relatively rushed class
work and intense field work when compared to the university route or the postbaccalau-
reate route. Because of this compression, students may not have sufficient time to con-
struct their own conceptualizations.

Alternative Certification Route

In response to teacher shortages, numerous alternative teacher preparation programs have
sprung up in the last decade or so. Although the postbaccalaureate and master’s degree
routes technically are forms of alternative teacher preparation, the term alternative certi-
fication more commonly refers to highly compressed teacher certification programs in
which students undergo brief, intensive teacher training, and then complete a supervised
teaching internship, often during their first year of professional teaching.
Such alternative routes provide opportunities for people from various educational
backgrounds and walks of life to become teachers, usually specializing in the subject or

2
When checking online teacher preparation programs, be sure they are fully accredited by a national accred-
iting agency as described in Chapter 1, and that the program leads to clear and renewable certification in
the state where you want to teach.

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 area of their prior education and experience. As of 2010, all states except Alaska, Oregon,
and the District of Columbia had alternate routes to teacher certification in place
(National Center for Alternative Certification, 2010). Each state has its own version of
these programs. Critics of alternative certification programs argue that teachers who com-
plete these programs may lack adequate pedagogical skills; supporters point to the supe-
rior subject matter knowledge and experience these teachers can bring to the classroom
(Otuya, 1992). In a recent national study of alternative teacher preparation programs,
Humphrey and Wechsler (2005) found that, to prepare teachers fully, alternative pro-
grams need to focus on strengthening the mentoring component, establishing systems to
help struggling participants, and linking coursework to the on-the-job training partici-
pants receive. There is little actual research on the success of students taught by teachers
who took alternative routes to certification because these routes are extremely varied. But
a study completed in 2005 by the American Educational Research Association showed
that there is little difference between alternatively and traditionally prepared teachers
(Feistritzer and Haar, 2008.).

Troops to Teachers
Troops to Teachers is a federal government initiative that helps eligible military
people become certified teachers. The program’s primary focus is to recruit teachers
for schools that serve low-income families, especially in high-need areas such as sci-
ence, mathematics, and special education. Troops to Teachers is not a teacher prepa-
ration program; rather, it provides participants with financial assistance, logistical
assistance, counseling, and job placement services. Participants earn their teacher
certification through one of the established teacher preparation programs in their
state.
You can access the Troops to Teachers website through a direct link available on the
Education CourseMate website.

Teach For America

Teach For America is a nonprofit, private organization that recruits recent college
graduates to teach for two years in urban and rural schools in the United States. New
corps members (as they are called) attend a rigorous pre-teaching training institute,
receive ongoing coaching and professional development throughout their two-year
commitment, and have access to online resources to help them become effective class-
room teachers. Corps members can earn certification in the state where they teach, and
the training program is considered to be an alternative path to certification. Because of
the compression of the pedagogical studies and preservice experiences, there is a high
rate of turnover in the Teach For America corps, with many corps members leaving the
field within the first three years (Hopkins, 2008). However, a study by Donaldson and
Johnson (2011) showed that a substantial number of corps members remain in the
teaching profession, and many remain in their low-income placement schools beyond
their two-year commitment.
You can access the home page of Teach for America through a direct link available
on the Education CourseMate website.

Temporary, Provisional, and Emergency Certification

Some states offer temporary, provisional, or emergency teaching certification that au-
thorizes people to hold professional teaching positions provided they pursue regular
certification through an accredited teacher preparation program. These certificates
normally are granted for teaching high-need subject areas such as mathematics,
science, or special education, and for teaching in high-need geographic areas such as
urban schools, schools that serve children of poverty, and remote rural schools. The
regulations governing temporary and emergency certificates vary from state to state
and the certificates are limited in the length of time for which they are valid. Depending
on the region, it can be difficult to complete an accredited teacher education program
while you are teaching full-time. If you are considering a provisional certificate, you

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 should ensure that there are reasonable options and opportunities for completing per-
manent certification requirements.

Teacher Certification Examinations

In addition to completing an approved teacher preparation program, candidates for
teaching credentials must pass the teacher certification examinations prescribed by the
state in which they are seeking certification. Many states require the appropriate Praxis
exams, although increasing numbers of states are developing their own exams. Exams
include a basic skills test of some sort depending on the area of certification sought, and
one or more subject-area competence tests. The Praxis tests are developed and assessed
by Educational Testing Service (ETS). ETS offers the Praxis I test, a preprofessional
basic skills test, and many subject-area tests. The ETS website publishes state require-
ments and Test at a Glance publications that give the objectives and topics covered in
the tests.
You can access the Educational Testing Service website through a direct link on the
Education CourseMate website. The ETS site describes ETS teacher certification exams
required by your state.

Reciprocity
Most states have reciprocal teacher certification agreements with other states. In these
reciprocity arrangements, a person who has earned a teaching certificate in one state can
qualify for a similar certificate in another state, providing he or she meets certain addi-
tional requirements. These requirements normally include passing the new state’s teacher
certification test and taking special courses. To find the reciprocity agreements and re-
quirements for each state, talk with the teacher certification officer at your institution or
access the National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification
website.
You can access the National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and
Certification reciprocity website through a direct link available on the Education Course-
Mate website.

Professional Development
Teachers are expected to keep up with the latest developments in education, just as physi-
cians must keep up with the latest developments in medicine. You would not want a doc-
tor to treat you based on the medical practices of the 1970s, and you would not want
your child to be taught using curriculum, methodologies, and assessment strategies of the
1970s.
Today’s schools differ from earlier schools in many respects. Curriculum has been
updated to reflect new knowledge. Methodology has been updated to foster student con-
struction and ownership of knowledge rather than memorization of information presented
by the teacher. Contemporary education places greater emphasis on students’ develop-
ment of thinking and problem-solving skills. Assessment includes student-constructed
responses and evaluation of student-focused activities, especially applied during the
instruction to see how the students are doing, rather than solely fact-based, objective tests
given at the end of a unit. Technology is used to assist in instruction and to help teachers
in their administrative tasks.
Because of frequent and rapid changes in education, states require a certain amount
of formal professional development work to maintain teaching certification. This work
can involve taking college courses, taking in-service programs offered by your school
certification add-ons Additional district, or completing other programs approved by the state. Some of these programs can
areas of certification typically added lead to certification add-ons, and some can lead to advanced degrees. But all help you to
onto an existing certification area keep up with the latest developments in education.
by an individual completing the
certification requirements for the Besides formal work, a teacher has numerous informal options for keeping up-to-
area. date. Schools, school districts, colleges, universities, private and governmental agencies,

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 FROM THE FIELD

The First Practicum

Steven Webb

Webb
I   can still hear his voice: “Be you, be creative, learn effective, real-world field

Courtesy of Steven
[about] your students, and they will come to learn the settings. Any future educator’s
standards.” The next day was to be the start of my first mastery of classroom
experience as a practicum student teacher. I was nervous, as leadership and teaching
any young man or woman would be, on the verge of being effectiveness can only increase
placed in a position in which I would be responsible for the with increased exposure to on-the-job training in such
academic well-being of a classroom full of delicate young minds settings. They are the lifeblood of successful programs.
for the first time. I was confident in my abilities due to the I call myself one of the lucky ones when speaking of my
wonderful training and guidance I had received from the experiences in my education program. By that, I mean that I
majority of my professors in preparing me for the task at hand. consider myself blessed to have completed my education in
And that word of advice from one of those positive professors a program whose focus is not to pump out robots trained to
was a summation of the type of guidance I had received which simply teach the standards and material a specific way
provided me with such confidence. These simple words would without flexibility or creativeness. My program and
indeed prove priceless in less than 24 hours from that moment professors have instilled in my classmates and me the fine
and in the weeks and months to come. art of using our creativity and personalities in such a way as
I had expected that the first few days of my first to teach each student the standards and content in a way
practicum experience would consist of observation and that reaches each student on a humanistic level and on a
note taking of the performance of my mentoring teacher. personable basis.
My expectations could not have been more misconceived. I So my education program has been flawless? No! Far
indeed sat and observed and took notes for the entirety of from it. There was the professor who insisted on delivering
one class period, at the conclusion of which my mentoring humdrum lectures day in and day out with not the slightest
teacher turned to me and said I was welcome to teach the call to creativity or offering up a single word of inspiration.
second class the lesson she had just concluded with the Then there was the highly unorganized, perfectionistic
first class. Ten minutes later, I experienced a rush of practicum advisor. I can still feel the fury that raged inside
adrenaline I had never before felt as I stood in front of a me as she walked away following her first observation of
class of 20 students who did not know me from Adam. I one of my lessons. I knew from that moment by her snide
froze for a brief second as I searched for my opening comments that neither I nor any other practicum student of
statement. A boy in the front row raised his hand and hers would ever live up to her expectations. I decided I
posed the question, “Do you like pie?” I was speechless; would not even try—I would rather strive to be effective
then I smiled. I answered with a simple, “Sure,” and quickly than to achieve her perfection. Unfortunately, in many
began to improvise and link the student’s question about education programs today, there are times when the words
pie to the lesson objective of the day, which dealt with illegitimi non carborundum come to mind and education
using pie charts to show probabilities. I was off and majors must focus on the good of the program to avoid
running. This was certainly not the way I had envisioned the being pulled down by those who are unwilling to embrace a
start of my first class, but the student had broken the ice pedagogy that works.
and I had in turn made my first connection with and step I call myself one of the lucky ones also because I have
toward learning how to reach my students through their been fortunate to let the negatives of my school’s education
thoughts. As I progressed through my practicum, I came to program roll off my back and allow the positives to shine
lean on this first experience as guidance whenever I through. Each time I step into a classroom, I use these
questioned my next move. During this field experience, my positives and the type of instruction I have gained from
mentoring teacher missed many classes due to a family them to connect with my students so that they form a sense
issue, and I was depended upon to teach the class without of responsibility to themselves to learn the material at
her full-time guidance and tutoring. This perceived hand—all by simply being me, being creative, and learning
inconvenience came to be a blessing to me as I had the full my students, and they do in turn succeed in learning the
responsibility of the class thrust upon me and it became a standards, the material, and then some.
matter of sink or swim.
I swam, and the experience I gained is and always will be
another priceless anecdote from my education training Steven Webb
program. It is this type of positive learning experience that Senior at Tennessee Tech University, Cookeville, Tennessee
strengthens my belief that the true mark of any education Majoring in education with a concentration in middle school
program is the effectiveness by which it places its students in grades 4 through 8

© Cengage Learning 2014

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 and professional organizations offer workshops that can last from an hour or two
TeachSour to a week or two. But, professional development does not have to involve work-
ce Video shops, institutes, and other similar programs. Nieto (2009) suggests that teachers
establish partnerships with other teachers and groups that have similar interests so
View the TeachSource Video Case, people can learn from one another. There are several vehicles for doing this, includ-
“Mentoring First-Year Teachers: Keys to Pro- ing social media, personal websites, and blogs and wikis.
fessional Success.” In this video, you will see Schools receive professional journals that are available for teachers. There are
new teacher, Dania Diaz, working with her
mentor teacher, Abdi Ali. Throughout, Abdi
professional societies for all areas of education, and they publish their own profes-
observes Dania as she interacts with her stu- sional journals and magazines. Teachers can keep up with the latest developments
dents and colleagues, and then reflects on and best practices in any field of education through perusing these journals.
her teaching practice. Be sure to watch the The literature shows that, by far, the most meaningful professional develop-
two bonus videos for more detail. ment for a new teacher is having a mentor. Mentors show the new teacher the
After you view the videos, answer the follow-
ing questions:
ropes, help with lesson preparation, help find materials, share successes, offer
critiques, provide suggestions and hints for behavior and time management,
1. What does a mentor teacher do?
and do all sorts of things the new teacher needs help in doing. Mentoring is
2. Why is mentoring important for the new
teacher?
critical. In their study of factors that influence teachers’ thoughts about their
own professional growth, Gabriel, Day, and Arlington (2011) found that three
3. What is a reflective journal and what is its
value to the new teacher? main factors lead to teachers feeling supported, trusted, and valued as profes-
sionals:
mentor A trusted and experienced 1. Participation in professional development programs—courses, workshops, seminars,
guide in the profession.
and the like
2. Mentor or collaborative peer support where teachers can share ideas and reflect out
loud
3. “Engaged autonomy” where administrators allow teachers freedom but don’t leave
them completely on their own

Keeping up with your profession is essential. You are making a good start in this
course, and you need to keep the momentum going throughout your teaching career. As
a school superintendent once said, “There are two kinds of teachers who have been in the
business for 20 years: Those with 20 years of experience, and those with one year of
experience 20 times.” Which do you want to be?

Examples of professional
© Spencer Grant/Photo Edit, Inc.

development include
attending school-sponsored
workshops and discussion
groups and earning college
credit toward an advanced
degree.

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 Professionalism BUILDING BLOCK
What kinds of professional behaviors are expected of teachers? Choose the best 9.5
available answer to each of the following questions. (More than one answer may be
“correct.”) We will start with a few items about expectations for professional
behavior in your field experience.
1. As long as I am only observing in my field placement classroom, I may
a. Dress as I would if I were going to one of my college classes.
b. Quietly study for a test.
c. Sit quietly and unobtrusively in the back of the room.
d. Eat a snack quietly if it is my normal lunchtime.
2. During my field experience, it would be appropriate for me to
a. Initiate involvement by asking my cooperating teacher how I can help.
b. Request the opportunity to teach a class by myself.
c. Correct my cooperating teacher in front of the students if I know he or she
has given them misinformation.
d. Correct my cooperating teacher in private if I know he or she has given
students misinformation.
3. If my cooperating teacher has a computer in the classroom, I may
a. Search the Internet for information relevant to the current lesson.
b. Enter grades for the students.
c. Check my cooperating teacher’s e-mail account to rid it of spam.
d. Not use it unless given permission by the cooperating teacher.
4. If I am dissatisfied with my field experience situation, the best option for me
is to
a. Go to the school principal.
b. Discuss my placement with others in my college class.
c. Talk with the instructor of my college class.
d. Move to another teacher in the school who has a better classroom.
5. If I suspect a student in my field placement classroom is being abused, the best
option for me is to
a. Report my suspicions to the school counselor.
b. Report my suspicions to the instructor of my college class.
c. Report my suspicions to my cooperating teacher.
d. Do nothing because I have no authority in the matter.
6. If I see my cooperating teacher behaving inappropriately toward a student, I
should
a. Report the incident to the principal.
b. Report the incident to the instructor of my college class.
c. Ask other students in my class what they would do.
d. Do nothing because I have no authority in the matter.
7. When arriving at my field placement school, I should park my car
a. In a spot reserved for the teaching staff.
b. In a spot reserved for visitors.
c. In any available spot.
d. In an open spot not likely to be used by others who come to the school.
8. If my cooperating teacher is not providing me with the opportunities I believe I
need to get the most out of my field experience, I should
a. Show a copy of my field experience evaluation form or the course syllabus
to my cooperating teacher and ask for advice as to how I can demonstrate
my achievements.
b. Discuss the matter with the instructor of my college class.
c. Ask for a new placement.
d. Find out what other students in my class would do in my situation.

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 9. Professional school dress for women includes
a. Shorts and a halter top.
b. A skirt and a long-sleeved blouse.
c. A skirt and a tight-fitting sweater.
d. Jeans and a T-shirt.
10. Professional school dress for men includes
a. A shirt, tie, and jacket.
b. Shorts and a T-shirt.
c. Jeans and a T-shirt.
d. Sports running wear.
11. When a student disagrees with me, I should
a. Tell him, “Shut up!”
b. Threaten him.
c. Ask him to elaborate.
d. Ignore him.
12. When a student is disruptive, I should
a. Talk with the student.
b. Report her to the principal.
c. Tell other teachers in the teachers’ lounge.
d. Tell my next-door neighbor.
13. When a student does something really funny but inappropriate in my class, I
should
a. Keep quiet about it.
b. Relate the incident to my friend in the grocery checkout line.
c. Laugh about it in the teachers’ lounge.
d. Share it with other students.
14. If I decide to go to a nightclub with my friends for an evening, I should choose
one that is
a. Close to school.
b. Close to home.
c. In town.
d. In a different school district.
15. If I decide to have a drink at a restaurant and the parents of one of my students
stops by to say “Hello,” I should
a. Push the drink away.
b. Hide the drink.
c. Act normally.
d. Say the waitress must have brought the wrong order.
16. If school starts at 8:05 a.m., I should be there at
a. 8:05 a.m.
b. 7:30 a.m.
c. 8:30 a.m., providing I call in late.
d. 6:00 a.m.
17. If I go to a late party Sunday evening and feel under the weather Monday
morning, I should
a. Go to school anyway.
b. Call in sick.
c. Show up late.
d. None of the above; I shouldn’t go to late-night parties on school evenings.
18. When I am exasperated with a student, I should
a. Complain about this student in the teachers’ lounge.
b. Complain to my best friend.
c. Ask another teacher confidentially for advice.
d. Keep quiet about the situation.

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 19. When a mother asks me in the grocery store how her child is doing in my class,
I should
a. Tell her.
b. Suggest she arrange for a parent conference.
c. Refer her to the principal.
d. Say, “I have no idea!”
20. When I disagree with a school policy, I should
a. Discuss my concern with the principal.
b. Complain about the policy in the teachers’ lounge.
c. Bring up my concern at a PTA meeting.
d. Bring up my concern at a school board meeting.
21. When a kindergartener comes up to a male teacher and gives him a big hug
around his knees, the teacher should
a. Return the hug.
b. Gently disengage from the hug.
c. Tell the child never to touch an adult!
d. Nothing—he should shake the child’s hand before the child has the chance
to hug him.
22. When a student in my first-grade class shows affection to me in a public place,
I should
a. Return the affection to the child.
b. Recognize the child in a businesslike manner.
c. Turn away.
d. Pretend I don’t know the child.
23. When I am responsible for collecting lunch money and I decide to go to the rest
room while my class is at art, what should I do with the money?
a. Put it in my pocket and carry it with me.
b. Put it in my purse and leave it in my room while I am gone.
c. Hide it in my desk drawer.
d. Deposit it in the office on my way to the rest room.
24. When a high school teacher is asked to tutor one of her students in the same
subject she teaches, she should charge
a. Nothing.
b. The going rate for tutoring.
c. Half the going rate for tutoring.
d. None of the above—she should not tutor one of her own students on a
private basis.
25. When a high school teacher is asked to tutor one of his students in a subject that
is different from the subject he teaches, he should charge
a. Nothing.
b. The going rate for tutoring.
c. Half the going rate for tutoring.
d. None of the above—he should not tutor one of his own students on a private
basis.
26. My email address is [email protected]. When I begin my field experiences,
I should
a. Keep that address for correspondence with my cooperating teacher because
I’ve had it for years.
b. Use my official student email, even if I don’t check it too often.
c. Use my official student email, check it often, and keep the old email address
for my crazy friends to use.
d. Use my official student email, check it often, and get rid of, or change the
old email address.

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 27. When one of my students says something really clever, I should
a. Respond appropriately in the classroom, but protect his privacy outside of
the classroom by not sharing the remark.
b. Be sure that I post it on social networking site with a picture of the student,
giving him credit for the remark.
c. Post the remark on a social networking site, but say only that “one of my
students” said it.
d. Post it on a social networking site, but be sure not to be “friends” on the site
with that student.
28. It’s OK for me to post pictures from my wild birthday party on a social net-
working site because
a. I’m over 21 and I can do what I want to.
b. None of the pictures actually show ME doing anything questionable.
c. I am not friends on the site with any of my students or their parents, so there
is no way they would see the pictures.
d. Maybe it’s not a good idea for me to post pictures from my wild birthday
party on a social networking site.
29. If I receive a text message while I am observing in a teacher’s classroom, I
should
a. Disregard it, not even taking my phone out to observe who it is from, until
I am out of the classroom and away from students.
b. Quickly check it to ascertain whether I should step out of the room to read
and answer it.
c. Inform the teacher ahead of time that I will silence my phone but that I will
most likely get a message that I will step out to check.
d. Go ahead and step out of the room to check out the message.
30. Which of the following could be classified as Internet plagiarism?
a. Using the Internet to get ideas about planning a lesson
b. Making a copy of an article found on the Internet and including it as your
own work in a paper you are writing
c. Copying a test from the Internet-based site of a textbook you are using
d. Copying a blog entry found on the Internet and attaching it to a report you
have to write.
Discuss these situations and your responses with others in your class. Suggested
“best” answers follow.
There may be disagreement among students regarding answers. Use these dis-
agreements as opportunities for discussion.
This activity can also be found on the Education CourseMate website so you
can print it out or answer the questions electronically.
17. d; 18. c; 19. b; 20. a; 21. b; 22. b; 23. d; 24. d; 25. d; 26. d; 27. a; 28. d; 29. a; 30. b.
1. c; 2. a & b; 3. d; 4. c; 5. c; 6. b; 7. d; 8. a & b; 9. b; 10. a; 11. c; 12. a; 13. a; 14. d; 15. c; 16. b;

© Cengage Learning 2014

professionalism The ethical behavior As you saw in Building Block 9.5, professionalism has many faces. As a professional,
exhibited by teachers. you are expected to model good behavior to your students and exhibit highly professional
behavior at all times. In Chapter 13, you will find that the U.S. Supreme Court and lower
courts have consistently held that, because of their influence on young people, teachers
can and should be held to higher standards of behavior than other adults.
You can start exhibiting high standards of professional behavior in your current field
experience. If you have any questions or uncertainties about professionalism in the field,
you should discuss these with your professor or university supervisor. Normally, it is not
appropriate to discuss issues of professionalism with your cooperating teacher, and it is

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 never appropriate to discuss them with other
teachers in the building. The following list con-
tains professional behaviors you need to be espe-
cially concerned with in your field experience,
taken from instruments used to evaluate preser-
vice and in-service teachers.
To demonstrate professional behavior, you
should:

Demonstrate leadership and initiative.

©Syracuse Newspapers/D Nett/The Image Works

Demonstrate flexibility.
Participate in positive interpersonal relation-
ships with students, peers, parents, and ad-
ministrators.
Dress appropriately.
Follow school rules, procedures, ethical and
legal regulations.
Respect the confidentiality of conversations
and records concerning students, teachers,
parents, and administrators. As a teacher, you can establish
Communicate effectively. and maintain a valuable
relationship with your students
Cooperate and collaborate with others willingly. without crossing the line of
Accept and respond positively to constructive criticism. professionalism.
Accept responsibility for action and inaction.
Be punctual and regular in attendance.
Meet deadlines.
Demonstrate willingness to become a lifelong learner.
Demonstrate respect for family, community, and cultural values.

Most professions have a code of ethics to guide professional behavior, and education
is no exception. The National Education Association (NEA) has issued a Code of Ethics
of the Education Profession that governs the ethics of teachers throughout the nation
(National Education Association, 1975). The code is divided into two parts:

1. Ethics involving the teacher’s commitment to the student

2. Ethics involving the teacher’s commitment to the profession

Each state also has a code of ethics for teachers. You should become familiar with
both the NEA code and your state’s code of ethics. The complete NEA Code of Ethics is
reproduced in Figure 9.1. It has not been revised since it was originally ratified in 1975.

Legal Requirements
Teachers are subject to certain legal requirements, with which you must become familiar. You
will investigate these in Chapter 13, but two of them are so important they are included here:

Suspected child abuse. You must report to school authorities any instance of sus-
pected child abuse. The suspicion can come from a student telling you about abuse,
from noticeable but unexplained bruises, from other students telling you, and the
like. This is not to say that you should look for evidence of child abuse in every
student you see. But if you have reason to suspect that a student has been the victim
of child abuse, you must report your suspicion. In most states, failure to do so is a

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 Figure 9.1

▲
NEA Code of Ethics
PREAMBLE
Source: Courtesy National Education The National Education Association believes that the education profession consists of one
Association (2012). education workforce serving the needs of all students and that the term educator includes
education support professionals.
The educator, believing in the worth and dignity of each human being, recognizes the
supreme importance of the pursuit of truth, devotion to excellence, and the nurture of the
democratic principles. Essential to these goals is the protection of freedom to learn and to
teach and the guarantee of equal educational opportunity for all. The educator accepts the
responsibility to adhere to the highest ethical standards.
The educator recognizes the magnitude of the responsibility inherent in the teaching
process. The desire for the respect and confidence of one’s colleagues, of students, of parents,
and of the members of the community provides the incentive to attain and maintain the
highest possible degree of ethical conduct. The Code of Ethics of the Education Profession
indicates the aspiration of all educators and provides standards by which to judge conduct.
The remedies specified by the NEA and/or its affiliates for the violation of any
provision of this Code shall be exclusive and no such provision shall be enforceable in any
form other than the one specifically designated by the NEA or its affiliates.

PRINCIPLE I
Commitment to the Student
The educator strives to help each student realize his or her potential as a worthy and
effective member of society. The educator therefore works to stimulate the spirit of
inquiry, the acquisition of knowledge and understanding, and the thoughtful
formulation of worthy goals.
In fulfillment of the obligation to the student, the educator—
1. Shall not unreasonably restrain the student from independent action in the pursuit of
learning.
2. Shall not unreasonably deny the student’s access to varying points of view.
3. Shall not deliberately suppress or distort subject matter relevant to the student’s
progress.
4. Shall make reasonable effort to protect the student from conditions harmful to
learning or to health and safety.
5. Shall not intentionally expose the student to embarrassment or disparagement.
6. Shall not on the basis of race, color, creed, sex, national origin, marital status, political
or religious beliefs, family, social or cultural background, or sexual orientation,
unfairly—
a. Exclude any student from participation in any program.
b. Deny benefits to any student.
c. Grant any advantage to any student.
7. Shall not use professional relationships with students for private advantage.
8. Shall not disclose information about students obtained in the course of professional
service unless disclosure serves a compelling professional purpose or is required by law.

PRINCIPLE II
Commitment to the Profession
The education profession is vested by the public with a trust and responsibility requiring
the highest ideals of professional service.
In the belief that the quality of the services of the education profession directly
influences the nation and its citizens, the educator shall exert every effort to raise
professional standards, to promote a climate that encourages the exercise of professional
judgment, to achieve conditions that attract persons worthy of the trust to careers in
education, and to assist in preventing the practice of the profession by unqualified persons.

(Continued)

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 In fulfillment of the obligation to the profession, the educator—
1. Shall not in an application for a professional position deliberately make a false
statement or fail to disclose a material fact related to competency and qualifications.
2. Shall not misrepresent his/her professional qualifications.
3. Shall not assist any entry into the profession of a person known to be unqualified in
respect to character, education, or other relevant attribute.
4. Shall not knowingly make a false statement concerning the qualifications of a candidate
for a professional position.
5. Shall not assist a noneducator in the unauthorized practice of teaching.
6. Shall not disclose information about colleagues obtained in the course of professional
service unless disclosure serves a compelling professional purpose or is required by law.
7. Shall not knowingly make false or malicious statements about a colleague.
8. Shall not accept any gratuity, gift, or favor that might impair or appear to influence
professional decisions or action.
Adopted by the NEA 1975 Representative Assembly.

criminal offense punishable according to the appropriate state statutes, and teach-
ers can and have been prosecuted for trying to protect students and respect their
confidences. You don’t have to look very hard to find examples of this.
Drugs, alcohol, and firearms. You must report to school authorities any stu-
dent who brings drugs, alcohol, or firearms to school. Teachers are required to
report students who bring these items to school, and you must uphold the law
regardless of your personal feelings.

Schools have procedures for reporting these and other infractions and require that
you submit these reports in writing. Be sure to keep a copy of any written form or cor-
respondence so you can demonstrate that you have acted in accordance with school
policy and the law, should the need arise.

The Teacher’s Expectations of the School

You have been investigating what schools expect of teachers. Now let us examine what
teachers expect of schools.

The Teacher’s Expectations BUILDING BLOCK

Why are you thinking about becoming a teacher? We suspect it is not for the money, 9.6
although educators can earn reasonable salaries, especially as they gain experience.
There are other advantages to being a teacher, and it is reasonable to expect that the
school in which you work will provide these.
What do you expect of the school? Brainstorm your responses to this question
and share them with others in your class.

Teacher Salaries
It is said that teachers are underpaid and overworked. How true! Yet we do expect to be
paid for our labors. How much can we expect to be paid? How does this compare with
other professions? How are raises administered? As with certification and program require-
ments, teacher pay and its administration are state functions and vary greatly among states.
Normally, teachers are paid on the basis of degree held and prior experience. Each
school district establishes an actual pay scale for that district; this pay scale is public and
should be available either on the Internet or from the district central office. The pay scale

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 is a table of actual salaries in steps for each year of service within columns showing level
of preparation. Within a state, district salaries vary greatly. The state pays a certain base
salary, and the district adds a supplement to that base. The amount of the supplement is
determined independently by the district and is funded by local property taxes and, in
some cases, sales taxes (see Chapter 11). Districts in less wealthy areas normally add
lower supplements than wealthier districts. Why do you think that is?

BUILDING BLOCK School Salary Scales

9.7 Select several school districts in which you might like to teach. Or, if you have no
preference at present, select the school district in which you are doing your field
experience. Obtain copies of the district’s salary schedules from either the district
offices or the Internet; teacher salary schedules are publically available information.
Make it a habit to update this information annually.
What is the salary for a beginning teacher with a bachelor’s degree and no ex-
perience?
What is the salary for a beginning teacher with a master’s degree and no experi-
ence?
What salary increase is awarded for each year of experience or service?
Is there a top salary? What is it? What are the requirements to earn this salary?
What salary do you think is reasonable for you to earn after you have gained
some experience?
How long would it take you to earn this salary in the school district you are
investigating?

The traditional method of teacher salary administration in the United States is to use
a salary scale such as the one you just investigated. A beginning teacher with no experi-
ence can expect to earn the salary associated with the degree he or she has at the salary
scale step of zero years of experience. For each year of experience, the salary increases by
a certain amount in a steplike fashion—usually the same dollar amount for each year. The
entire salary scale may or may not increase to keep up with inflation and provide salary
incentives. Often the pay increases teachers receive depend on the state’s economy. Thus,
although teachers can expect their salaries to increase to the next step in the salary scale
each year, they do not always get cost of living or other general increases, unless the state
or school board increases the scale.
An applicant’s experience is discussed when a teacher is first employed by a school
district; once agreed upon, this experience establishes the entry salary step. Thus, someone
with a bachelor’s degree who has taught successfully for three years at one school can
expect a salary at the fourth step at the bachelor’s degree level at a different school in the
same district. However, school districts often factor in other experiences when deciding
salary offers—such as military experience, classroom paraprofessional experience, experi-
ence in the business world, or other experience that would enhance that teacher’s perfor-
mance. In addition, signing bonuses may be offered to applicants for teaching in poor
districts or low-performing schools and for teaching high-need subjects such as mathe-
matics, science, and special education.
Teacher salaries are higher than they used to be. The average starting salary for newly
graduated education majors in 2011 was $37,830, with a range from $31,495 to $42,980;
this was an increase of 2.1 percent over the average starting teacher salary for
2010 (National Association of Colleges and Employers, 2012). The overall average
teacher’s salary in the United States for the 2009–2010 school year was $55,202, with a
range from $38,837 to $71,633; this was an increase of 1.6 percent (National Education

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 60,000

50,000

40,000

Salary
30,000 Average actual public school
Figure 9.2

▲
teachers’ salary
20,000 Estimated average salary of
Average public school teachers in public elementary and
10,000 teachers’ salary in constant
2008–2009 dollars secondary schools, 1959–2010 in
0 1959–60 current dollars and 2008–2009
1965–66
1970–71
1973–74
1976–77
1979–80
1982–83
1985–86
1988–89
1991–92
1994–95
1997–98
2000–01
2003–04
2006–07
2009–10
dollars.
Source: National Center for Education
Statistics, 2010b.
Year © Cengage Learning 2014

Association, 2011). However, although salaries have increased, so has inflation. The graph
in Figure 9.2 shows average teacher salaries between 1959–60 and 2009–10, and the
same average teacher salaries in 2008–09 dollars with an adjustment for inflation. The
line for current dollars shows the increase in the actual amount of money teachers were
paid. You can see that this amount increases steadily. However, we have to factor in infla-
tion, which means a dollar had less buying power in 2010 than it did in 1959. Taking
inflation into consideration produces the line labeled “2008–09 dollars.”
Just for fun, compare the salaries in Figure 9.2 with those offered by the District 1
Old Center School in Burlington, Vermont, in 1813. Teachers in this school were paid
$6 to $9 a week, and in 1910, almost a century later, they were paid $11 to $15 a week
(Miller, 1999). Compare these salaries also with the average monthly salaries of teachers
in several states in 1847, as shown in Table 9.2.
As you have seen, considerable differences can exist between the state base rates and
the district scales. As you look for your first teaching job, keep in mind that different
districts offer different pay scales. Many sources compare teacher salaries among all
states. To gain an idea of where your state stands in the nation, check one of the many
surveys published on the Internet.

TABLE 9.2 Average Monthly Salaries (Including Board) of Teachers in 1847

State Men Women

Connecticut $16.00 $6.50

Indiana $12.00 $6.00

Massachusetts $25.44 $11.38

Michigan $12.71 $5.36

New Hampshire $13.50 $5.65

New York $14.96 $6.69

Ohio $15.42 $8.73

Pennsylvania $17.02 $10.09

Vermont $12.00 $4.75

Source: Eakin, 2000.

Salary Increases
Salary scales are normally revised each year to reflect inflation and an increased base pay
rate for teachers. Most school districts have followed a policy of awarding annual salary

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 increases to individuals to bring them to the next step on the revised salary scale, the so-
called “steps and lanes” system. Thus, each year, teachers receive salary increases that take
them to the next step on the scale. This occurs without regard to quality of performance.
This traditional teacher salary administration procedure is completely objective in nature,
awarding salaries based on number of years having taught (steps), degrees earned, gradu-
ate coursework taken, and other professional experiences completed (lanes). In many
districts, incentives are offered for obtaining National Board for Professional Teaching
Standards certification, and many offer incentives to recruit and/or retain teachers in fields
with teacher shortages.
In the last decade, however, many school districts have been moving from the step
system to merit-based increases. In the merit pay system, teachers receive different salary
increases depending on how the building administrators assess the merit of their perfor-
mance. (See also Chapter 1.) This system parallels the merit pay system that has been
employed by business and industry for many years and is closely related to the account-
ability provision of No Child Left Behind.
Although details of merit-based salary administration vary among school districts,
the common aim is to encourage teachers to meet preestablished goals. For example, in
the early 2000s, the Denver, Colorado, public school district piloted a salary system that
rewarded teachers for producing student growth and provided bonuses to proven teachers
who took on the toughest teaching assignments (Gratz, 2005). In this system, the teachers
themselves established their own performance goals.
A great deal of controversy exists over merit pay systems for teachers. Those who
favor such systems feel that outstanding teachers should be rewarded for their efforts,
contributions, and successes. They feel that merit pay will increase teachers’ effective-
ness and eventually weed out those who are ineffective. Those opposed to merit-based
pay systems cite favoritism, unrealistic and immeasurable goals, and potentially bi-
ased appraisals of teachers’ performance. Opponents feel that all teachers do funda-
mentally the same job and should be paid on an objective, not a subjective, basis.

Tenure
Like other workers, teachers want job security. This security is provided through the
tenure A teacher’s status as a vehicle of tenure. Tenure represents a teacher’s status when that teacher is considered a
permanent member of the faculty in a permanent member of the faculty in a school district. Tenure is granted by state law, and
school district.
the type and amount of protection vary from state to state. Tenure is awarded to indi-
viduals by the school board upon the individual’s successful completion of a probation-
ary (nontenured) period, normally two or three years. The primary purpose of tenure is
to provide teachers with job protection by permitting them to request school board
hearings if their administrators do not renew their contracts. Tenured teachers can be
transferred within a school district; it is the district and not the individual school that
awards tenure. If a teacher transfers to a different school district, he or she must earn
tenure all over again, although it may take less time. Many people are under the impres-
sion that tenured teachers cannot be dismissed. This is incorrect. Districts that want to
dismiss tenured teachers for incompetence can do so, but typically they must undertake
a lengthy process of hearings and appeals, the results of which may be challenged in
court. District personnel are reluctant to go through this potentially expensive and
drawn-out procedure, and do so primarily when the evidence is clear and rapid decisions
can be expected. Thus, it often is assumed that once a teacher has been awarded tenure,
that teacher can keep his or her job in the school district for life, regardless of quality of
performance.
As a matter of fact, it has been so difficult to discharge incompetent tenured teachers
in New York City that special rooms dubbed “rubber rooms” have been set aside for
these teachers to spend normal school hours doing nothing at all while drawing full
salaries. They stay there while their case is being prepared or until they get tired of doing
nothing and resign. As of summer 2010, about 700 teachers and administrators in New
York City were assigned to these “reassignment centers,” costing the city $30 million a

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 CONTROVERSIES in Education

Merit Pay
E   ducation experts agree that one of the most
important factors in the education of our nation’s
systems hinge on students’ standardized tests
outcomes. But, as you know, there are a multitude of
youth is the quality of the teacher, and many experts problems with standardized testing.
believe that the best way to attract and retain high-quality 3. If teachers work for merit increases, they know they
teachers is to pay them more. These concepts have led to will be rewarded for high performance on the given
proposals to reward good teachers and penalize bad ones. criteria, and it is human nature to concentrate on the
The proposals are termed merit pay (sometimes called area(s) that count the most. This means that other
pay for performance). tasks associated with excellence in teaching won’t get
But there are difficulties with the merit pay system that done.
have led to one of the most contentious controversies in
4. Testing is only one measure of teaching effectiveness;
the teaching profession.
thus it is necessary to develop a measurement rubric
First, let us look at some of the pros and cons of merit
that includes other factors as well. But, such a rubric
pay. Arguments in support of merit pay for teachers include
will be extremely complicated as it tries to account for
the following:
and give different weights to these many factors
Americans reward hard work. (Gonzalez, 2012).
With merit pay, teachers will work harder and get 5. Merit pay systems can be demoralizing and can foster
better results. an unhealthy sense of competition among faculty
Merit pay programs will help recruit the brightest minds members, resulting in the erosion and ultimate
into the teaching field and help retain them. destruction of the sense of school-wide community that
Merit pay would inspire people to become teachers. is so important to quality.
Because education in the United States is in crisis, we You have seen that the Denver, Colorado school sys-
should be trying anything new in the hope of making tem implemented a pilot program of merit salary adminis-
positive changes in education. tration that was developed largely on the basis of input
from the district’s own teachers. The teachers were almost
Arguments in opposition of merit pay for teachers in-
unanimously in favor of the system, and they worked hard
clude the following:
to make it a success. But studies undertaken after the pilot
It would be a bureaucratic nightmare to design and was complete showed that strategies that work the best for
implement a merit pay system. measurement undercut good educational practice. So, al-
The good will among teachers would be compromised. though Denver’s was a good pilot plan, the results showed
Success is difficult—maybe impossible—to define and that pay-for-performance based on test data doesn’t work
measure. (Gratz, 2005). New York City implemented a pilot program
in the mid-2000s, in which the city offered performance bo-
A better solution to the low pay of teachers is to pay all nuses. But the program was discontinued after three years
teachers more. when it was shown that the performance bonuses had no
● A merit pay system would encourage dishonesty and effect on either test scores or student grades (Otterman,
corruption (from About.Com Elementary Education, 2012). 2011).
These and many other programs have shown that merit
For many years, merit pay systems have been the
pay salary administration systems do not work. Nonethe-
staple of other professionals: factory workers, salespeople,
less, federal education policy fosters the pay-for-perfor-
lawyers, professional athletes, and the like. Why is this
mance idea, and the Race to the Top and the NCLB waiver
concept so contentious in the teaching profession? Let us
programs require states making proposals to link evaluation
consider some of the problems involved:
and pay of teachers to student performance.
1. Teachers have no control over who is assigned to their
classes. Everyone knows that teachers are better
teachers when they have a “good” class than they are What Can Be Done?
when they have a “challenging” class. So, it follows that On behalf of the National Governors Association, Koebler
teachers who have good classes will be perceived as (2012) says that, for merit systems to work, the following
more outstanding than teachers who have challenging are necessary:
classes. 1. Create fair evaluation systems based on student
2. Objectivity is necessary for a merit salary administration assessments that measure growth in learning, and
system to work. This means measuring the same things create data systems that are capable of linking student
the same way for every teacher. But what should be outcomes to individual teachers.
measured? Most proposals for merit salary increase

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 2. Do not rely solely on tests (that is not fair). Someday someone will come up with a merit-based
3. Form strong partnerships that include teachers in every salary system that is fair to all teachers and that truly dis-
step of the development and implementation process. criminates the quality of teacher performances.
Most people agree that the current system, despite its
Milanowski (2012) writes there are three elements nec-
many flaws, is about as objective as a salary administration
essary in evaluation systems that are fair:
system can possibly get. Yet, there is no distinction made
1. Formal teacher evaluation observations between the outstanding teacher and the teacher who re-
2. Teacher work samples ally ought to find a different profession.
3. Classroom walkthroughs
Critics of the currently used step system argue that the WHAT DO YOU THINK?
system is unfair because it can lead to mediocrity by re- 1. Based on what you have read and experienced, do
warding outstanding and poor performance the same. How- you believe merit pay for teachers is a good idea or
ever, advocates of the current system point out that a teach- bad idea?
er’s performance depends on many factors that cannot be 2. If a merit pay system were implemented at a school in
isolated to determine who is truly outstanding and who is which you were employed, what might you do in an
not. effort to secure higher monetary rewards?
Critics of the merit system fear that it is not possible to 3. To what extent should student achievement scores be
develop a truly objective evaluation system and that it will factored into merit pay? How would you figure merit
lead to favoritism. Advocates argue that merit pay encour- pay for teachers of subjects such as music, art, and
ages both outstanding and poorly performing teachers to physical education that are not addressed by
become better, the result of which is that students benefit standardized testing?
through increased learning. 4. On what factors do you think teacher pay should be
based?

merit pay A teacher’s salary that is

based on the quality of the teacher’s year. The centers were done away with effective fall 2010, and the incompetent teachers
performance; see also pay for have been assigned to administrative work or other nonclassroom duties instead
performance. (Medina, 2010).
pay for performance See also merit Tenured teachers have the advantage of full due process of law if their contracts are
pay.
not recommended for renewal. This is not true for nontenured teachers. A school district
may choose not to offer a nontenured teacher a contract for the following year, without
citing any particular cause. Nontenured teachers do not have the right to school board
hearings and appeals (although they always can pursue their grievances through
legal channels).
As late as the mid-1990s, all states had some form of tenure in place. However,
TeachSour
ce Video this teacher security mechanism is being eroded. Neither Nebraska nor South Da-
kota has tenure. Idaho eliminated tenure entirely in 2011, and 17 additional states
View the TeachSource Video, “Teacher changed their tenure laws to make tenure more difficult to acquire or to base tenure
Incentive Pay: Pay For Performance.” Does on performance (Cavanagh, 2011a).3 Other states are considering eliminating or
teacher incentive pay result in better student revising their tenure laws. The primary reason cited is to reduce the difficulties in-
achievement? Sulphur Springs Elementary volved in terminating incompetent teachers. Because the statutes defining compe-
School in Tampa received an “F” rating
tence in teaching are vague, ambiguous, and subject to multiple interpretations, the
under Florida’s school grading system. The
school responded by bringing in a new prin- elimination of the tenure protection makes it easier for school districts to dismiss
cipal who replaced 29 out of 43 teachers and incompetent teachers, and, thus, raise the quality of the teachers they provide for
implemented merit pay. the education of the students in their district. Tenure is thoroughly explored from
After you view the video, answer the a legal standpoint in Chapter 13.
following questions:
You can access a chart showing teacher tenure and/or continuing contract laws
1. What are primary advantages of the for each state through the direct link available on the Education CourseMate web-
pay-for-performance approach to salary
administration?
site.

2. What are primary disadvantages of the

pay-for-performance approach to salary
3
States that revised their tenure laws in 2011 are Alabama, Connecticut, Florida, Idaho, Illinois,
administration? Indiana, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nevada, New Hampshire, North Carolina, Ohio,
Oklahoma, Tennessee, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.

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 Working Conditions
In Building Block 9.6, did you list factors that contribute to positive working conditions?
How would you define positive working conditions? What working conditions do you
feel your school should provide?

Let’s Get Specific: What Do You Need? BUILDING BLOCK

This textbook has focused a great deal of attention on how teachers and schools 9.8
meet student needs. But, as a teacher, what do you need? If schools and society ex-
pect you to be accountable for your students’ learning, what must you have to be
able to meet that expectation? Consider such factors as class size, students, other
teachers, support personnel, the administration, the building and physical plant,
equipment, materials and supplies, and working hours.
What items on your list are specific to grade level?
What items are specific to content area?

Materials and Resources

You probably indicated that you would need a well-ventilated building with good-sized
classrooms, navigable hallways, and adequate cafeterias, gymnasiums, art and music rooms,
playgrounds, athletic fields, and other physical attributes. You probably also said you would
need textbooks with teachers’ editions; student workbooks; general classroom materials;
computers and other technological materials and equipment; supplies such as paper, pencils,
folders, markers, and other office supplies. You investigated some of these material needs in
Chapter 7. You may have felt, however, that you need more materials than are ordinarily
supplied. After all, although it is possible to be an effective teacher with a paucity of materi-
als, it is far easier to teach if you have what you need. There is a lot of “stuff” associated with
being a teacher. As a matter of fact, some people feel one of the advantages of being a teacher
is that you get abundant “stuff” to work with—books, office supplies, posters, markers and
pens, mathematics and science gadgets, maps, charts, and globes—the list goes on.
The school will meet most of your needs for paper, copies, and other office supplies.
Often, however, teachers invest their own money in materials they feel they need for their
students or for themselves that the school does not provide. They buy materials for sea-
sonal activities, supplies for science and social studies activities, materials to use in making
mathematics manipulatives, software for computer-based activities, and materials for
many other activities. The National School Supply and Equipment Association reported
that, in 2009–2010, teachers spent an average of $356 of their own money on school
supplies and instructional materials (Nagel, 2010).
Teachers can minimize the amount of their own money they spend on materials for
school. In the spring, schools normally ask teachers for a list of the equipment, materials,
and supplies they will need for the following year, and they attempt to meet everyone’s
needs equitably and within budget. If there still is a need (and there probably will be,
especially for unanticipated events), teachers can ask the PTA for donations, ask students’
parents to donate materials (not money), create holiday “wish lists” to share with parents
in a class newsletter, take advantage of free educational materials available to teachers,
and write grant proposals. Many small grants are available for teachers to purchase
equipment and materials for use in class projects. Some grants also pay for teachers to
participate in professional development activities.
Suggestions for writing small winning grants for education are shown on the Educa-
tion CourseMate website.

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 TECHNOLOGY Technology for Teachers
& EDUCATION
A   s a teacher, we hope you have access to the good
stuff—computers, interactive whiteboards, projec-
reading from an electronic version or online. An Indi-
ana school district, having been unable to find text-
tors, laptops, tablets, and other cutting-edge technology. books that met all the needs of the district, turned to
You have repeatedly read in this textbook and elsewhere that digital formats that incorporated a “Curriculum Loft”
the use of technology by the teacher should always serve to where teachers posted successful lesson plans and
enhance instruction—never to replace it. Let us look at a few other materials to ensure the content is up-to-date.
technological innovations that you can use to enhance your Students found their courses to be more relevant and
instruction. We will mention only a few to whet your appetite; 21st-century in nature (Nelson, Arthur, Jensen, and
you are sure to know of others—maybe you have even used Van Horn, 2011). Using digitization of their education
some: materials, publishers can update the content regu-
larly, can prepare made-to-order materials, and can
“Clickers” (also known as classroom response
tie ancillaries to the basic materials.
systems - CRS) are the same as those gadgets you
Science labs are becoming more digitized. Using
see on TV shows where the entire audience is asked
simulations of experiments or dissections, stu-
to respond to a question. You can program the soft-
dents can execute investigations that would have
ware so it flashes questions and multiple-choice an-
been impossible a few years ago. They can ma-
swers on a screen. Students select what they think is
nipulate variables and conduct multiple repetitions
the best answer, and the summary is projected onto
of experiments to see what happens without wor-
the screen. This system has several purposes, includ-
rying about safety issues or running out of materi-
ing fairly instant feedback so teachers know right
als or resources.
away what the students did and did not understand.
You can even program the device so you will know These are but a few of the many new hardware and ap-
who provided what response, enabling you to pro- plication technologies available for use in schools. In addi-
vide individual help. The clicker system may be used tion, there are innumerable sources to ensure you are correct
in both large and small classes. and up-to-date with your information and to provide both
Interactive whiteboards are connected to a com- interest and relevance to students:
puter and have a touch-sensitive surface. Any image
Videos and animations are available online, most
that is on the computer is projected onto the white-
often for free. Some sites that are specifically for
board for classroom viewing. Using a “pen” that
teachers may include lesson plans, background infor-
comes with the board or even with a finger, you can
mation, suggestions for assessments, and other re-
write on the surface of the whiteboard with digital
sources.
ink. This digital ink can even be erased with the ac-
Three-dimensional technology such as 3D video
companying eraser. Tapping the surface of the board
games, 3D representations of animals, and 3D non-
is like clicking the computer’s mouse. It is possible to
verbal communications activities are being used to
click and drag objects with a finger, much like you
help autistic children learn to read and acquire com-
would if you were using a mouse on a computer. Les-
munication and social ability skills (Alelo, 2012).
son plans that use an interactive whiteboard are avail-
Science fairs that used to be held in elementary
able, as is software that allows teachers to create
school classrooms or high school gymnasiums are
their own lessons. Teachers can also write notes on
now being held online. Students anywhere in the
the interactive whiteboard and save a copy to the
world, ages 13 to 18, can participate in the annual
computer’s hard drive or even print a copy.
Google worldwide science fair (National Science
Tablet computers have numerous uses, especially via
Teachers Association, 2012).
various apps (see Chapter 8). Tablets are becoming
so popular that some schools issue them instead of As you have seen, there is a lot of instructional technol-
paper and pencils for in-class activities and some- ogy out there. What is there is always changing and there is
times even in place of textbooks. Teachers in the el- always more to come. You must become familiar with what is
ementary schools in a Connecticut school district use available, and, especially, how new technologies can help
iPads to record observations of individual students as teachers enhance their instruction so every student learns.
they move about the classroom. This provides imme- Keep a digital notebook in which you list what is available,
diate feedback and rich data that can be used to where to find it, how it is used, and other details, and use this
enhance individual instruction (Ash, 2012). as a running list.
Textbook publishers are producing digital versions of
their textbooks. Students can use their tablets, com- You can access sites referred to here through direct
puters, or smartphones to access the text and do the links on the Education CourseMate website.

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 Support
Did you include support in your list of needs? Many teachers will tell you that they will
make do with the materials they have as long as they have cooperation, collaboration, and
support from their colleagues and administration. Of course, some of this support pro-
vides supplies and needed resource personnel. However, teaching is a tough job and we
also need other kinds of support.
Recall that as a teacher, you are responsible for ensuring your students’ safety—
physical, intellectual, and emotional. As a teacher, you also have the right to expect
your physical, intellectual, and emotional safety to be ensured. Schools employ poli-
cies and strategies to address the physical safety of students; these policies apply to
teachers, as well. What do you think intellectual and emotional safety for teachers
entails?
Teaching is an intellectual activity. Teachers spend a great deal of time and intellec-
tual energy developing lessons designed to involve and excite students. You have ex-
plored many teaching methods in previous chapters. Some of these methods stray from
tradition and may earn the teacher who practices them some strange looks or critical
comments from other teachers or parents. No teacher should feel pressured or threatened
by the criticism of others, as long as he or she knows, and can show, that students are
learning. Teaching is an intellectual process, and its product should be protected. Schools
provide for the intellectual safety of their teachers through such vehicles as Teacher of
the Year (TOTY), inviting teachers to share new and successful strategies at faculty meet-
ings, and the like. In what other ways can a school provide for the intellectual safety of
its teachers?
Not only is teaching an intellectual process; it is also emotional. Just as teachers
expect their methodologies, curricular innovations, and assessment methods to be
respected by others in the school, they have the right to expect they will be respected
as professionals. Teachers expect and need support from colleagues who will respect
the feelings they take into and out of the classroom. As with students, the emotional
safety of teachers can be threatened when a teacher’s feelings are invalidated. Schools
provide for the emotional safety of their teachers through such vehicles as developing
a school culture of honoring new and successful ideas, promoting classroom re-
search, honoring confidences, and helping teachers to find ways of implementing
their new ideas. In what other ways can schools provide for the emotional safety of
their teachers?
Interactions with students can engender feelings of excitement, disappointment, hope,
and anger. A teacher’s biggest fear is that he or she will encounter an unmanageable class
of students, the kind where students hurl insults and behave so badly the teacher is driven
(sometimes literally) to tears. You can prevent this through effective classroom manage-
ment techniques, such as those you explored in Chapter 8. The administration and other
teachers will assist you. You expect this support from the school; it is necessary to ensure
your emotional security. Remember, you are seeking respect from your students, not popu-
larity. When this respect is earned, your emotional well-being relative to students is
assured.
It is often necessary for teachers to share their feelings safely. Sometimes a
teacher shares his or her emotions with the steering wheel on the drive home. Some-
times, a spouse or friend becomes a sounding board. Often, a teacher’s best resource
is another teacher—someone who really understands, or at least someone who has
chocolate!
Perhaps the most important support a teacher can have within the school building
comes from the administration. Teachers make hundreds of decisions every day. They
need to know they have the trust and backing of the administration in these decisions,
and they have the right to expect this backing.
Learning is a social activity and, therefore, so is teaching. Talk about teaching with
others; share your excitement and setbacks; learn from your experiences and those of
other professionals.

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 Joys of Teaching
Among the advantages of being a
teacher is the teacher’s ability to
fulfill the highest levels of personal
development. Recall Maslow’s hi-
erarchy from Chapter 3. You surely
have met your physiological needs
when you go to work. Your safety
and security needs, your love and
belonging needs, and your esteem
needs are met at school through
your interactions with students and
adults. You are satisfying your need

Courtesy of Bill Lisenby

to know and understand during
your teacher preparation program,
and you continue to meet this need
through your implementation of
best teaching practices in your
Teachers are responsible for school, continued professional de-
supporting and nurturing velopment, and personal and collaborative reflections of your practice. You have the
students in school. How can opportunity to satisfy your aesthetic needs in your own classroom, which you will
schools support and nurture decorate, arrange, and personalize. It is the self-actualization level in which teachers
teachers? How are teachers’ work. As you have found, the teacher’s responsibility is to facilitate student learn-
emotional needs met in ing. To do this successfully requires self-actualization. No one is going to teach for
school?
you. A day when you feel you have been in concert intellectually with your students
is an extremely satisfying day, and it occurs because of you, the teacher, and your
implementation of teaching practices that work.
The teacher is working toward resolution of Erickson’s generativity versus stagnation
stage of psychosocial development. If you stagnate, it is virtually impossible to be an ef-
fective teacher. Teaching is exciting, and it requires much originality, imagination, and
creativity to succeed. Teachers, therefore, are in the ideal position to nurture their genera-
tivity aspects.
Schools provide for teachers’ physical, intellectual, and emotional safety through
procedures, respect, and support. In addition, schools are the ideal venue for teachers to
work at the highest levels of personal development, thereby achieving the highest levels of
personal satisfaction.
Ryan (1986) identifies four stages of teaching:

1. Fantasy: the stage when new teachers believe that all they need to do to be successful
is relate and be a friend to their students
2. Survival: the stage when teachers do whatever is necessary to make it through the day
3. Mastery: the stage when teachers know how to achieve student success through em-
ploying effective practices
4. Impact: the stage when teachers know how to make an impact on their students
through employing best practices (p. 5)

During your first year or two of teaching, you will develop a repertoire of management
strategies, lessons, and instructional methods. As you gain experience and confidence, and
if the school meets your expectations for support, you will reach the later stages that Ryan
identifies; at the same time, you will meet the school’s expectations of you.

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 S U M M A RY

CHAPTER RESOURCES
Schools have expectations of teachers, and teachers have expectations of schools.
Schools’ expectations of teachers include instructional and noninstructional ac-
tivities, certification, professional development, expertise in educational technol-
ogy, and professional and ethical behavior.
Noninstructional duties vary from school to school and state to state; some are
compensated financially and some are not. In either case, noninstructional duties
are part of teaching.
Once a teacher is certified, he or she is expected to grow professionally through
professional development activities. These activities are offered by many sources
and are available to all teachers in nearby locations.
Expectations teachers have for schools include reasonable salaries; job security; good
working conditions; material support; and physical, intellectual, and emotional safety.
Teachers are busy, are held to high expectations, and are accountable for student
learning. They are, themselves, lifelong learners. Effective teachers achieve these lofty
goals, and you can, too. First, finish this book and the class in which you are using it.
Then, complete your teacher education program. Your assignments and field experiences
will help you gain knowledge and skills to bring to your classroom. Although teaching
may be one of the few professions in which you are expected to have all the knowledge
and skills on the first day, the more experience you acquire the more you can expect to
benefit from the noble profession of teaching.

Key Terms and Concepts

Certification add-on, 232 Merit pay, 245 Professionalism, 238
Instructional duties, 225 Noninstructional duties, 225 Teacher certification, 229
Mentor, 234 Pay for performance, 245 Tenure, 244

Construct and Apply

1. Reflect on the “gray line” that exists between instructional and noninstructional duties. What
tasks do teachers undertake that might be instructional but do not necessarily occur in the
presence of students? Compare the teacher’s instructional and noninstructional duties to the
rehearsal and the opening night of a play.
2. Compare and contrast the different routes to teacher certification. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of each?
3. Why is it important for teachers to stay current? Describe the classroom of a teacher who is
“still in the dark ages.”
4. Comment on teacher salaries. Consider that teachers are paid for 9 to 10 months of work.
What would a monthly paycheck be before taxes? What would the monthly starting salary be
for a teacher in your local school system if pay were distributed over 12 months? How does
the teacher’s annual salary compare to other professions?
5. What are advantages and disadvantages of tenure? Should tenure be retained in today’s
schools? Why or why not?
6. Recall the basic and academic needs of students that teachers and the school must meet. What
are teachers’ basic and academic needs? How does the school meet these needs?

Deconstructing the Standards

1. Recall the InTASC Standards associated with the objectives for this chapter:
Standard #7 reads, “The teacher plans instruction that supports every student in meet-
ing rigorous learning goals by drawing upon knowledge of content areas, curriculum, cross-
disciplinary skills, and pedagogy, as well as knowledge of learners and the community context.”
Standard #9 reads, “The teacher engages in ongoing professional learning and uses

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 CHAPTER RESOURCES
evidence to continually evaluate his/her practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and
actions on others (learners, families, other professionals, and the community), and adapts prac-
tice to meet the needs of each learner.”
a. How does this chapter address these standards?
b. How will the concepts in this chapter help you apply these standards as a teacher?
2. Use your favorite search engine to find your state’s standards for certification. When you find
it, bookmark the site; you will refer to it often during this course.
a. How are your conclusions about educational philosophy represented in your state certifica-
tion standards?
b. How do the InTASC Standards compare to your state’s certification standards regarding
educational philosophy?
c. Do you believe the degree of representation concerning educational philosophy is adequate
in your state certification standards? Why or why not?

Your Portfolio
1. Add copies of the NEA Code of Ethics of the Education Profession and your state’s code of
ethics for teachers to your portfolio for frequent reference.
2. Collect the information you have gathered throughout this chapter on professional develop-
ment opportunities and teacher resources. Include them as appropriate in your portfolio.
3. Utilize technology whenever and wherever appropriate to complete assignments and activities
and to make presentations to peers and professors. Include evidence of your technology-related
knowledge and skills in your portfolio and reflect on how you will use these as a teacher to
manage your work and instruct your students.
4. Make a special effort to collect evidence of your professional behavior as you progress through
your program.

Education CourseMate Resources

Check out this text’s Education CourseMate website (at www.cengagebrain.com) for more informa-
tion about the teaching profession. You will find the TeachSource videos, a guide for doing field
experiences, glossary flash cards, activities, tutorial quizzes, direct links to the websites mentioned
in the chapter, and more.

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 Society

School

Student

Self

Society
PA R T

IV
IN PART I, you investigated your self and your ideas and beliefs about
education. In Part II, you investigated students and their common and unique
needs and talents. In Part III, you investigated the nature of schools and the
complex relationships among the school, students, and teachers.
Part IV extends your investigations of education in the United States to the
larger sphere of social influences. You will investigate the historical foundations
of education in the United States, ways in which schools are managed and
financed, some social issues that affect teaching and schools, legal issues that
impact American education, and current reform activities relative to curriculum,
assessment, and teaching.

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 © Underwood Archives/ The Image Works
CHAPTER

10 Historical Perspectives
SCHOOLS ARE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS. They are profoundly affected
by historical developments, governments, legislation, sources of finance, diverse
goals set by diverse populations, religious beliefs, social mores, folkways,
expectations, and much more.
In previous chapters, you investigated the complex school system. You saw that
schools have definite and specific purposes and are structured to fulfill these
purposes. Today’s schools result from the continuous evolution of educational
thought. U.S. schools began in colonial times, and today’s schools resonate with the
purposes, goals, structures, and teacher–student interactions as they have changed
over time. These changes have been made in response to society’s needs and the
thinking of prominent educators.
The current concept of K–12 schools is one with which you are intimately
familiar. You probably could trade tales out of school with friends, classmates, and
new acquaintances, finding similarities in your stories and experiences. We all have
our own definite ideas of what school is, and you have begun to articulate your
beliefs about what schools should be. However, we cannot ignore what schools have
been in the past. Studying the history of education and schools helps us to
understand the past and offers insights into both the present and the future.
In this chapter, you will explore schools in various historical contexts to develop
your understanding of how we got where we are and why schools are the way they are.

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 Chapter Objectives
As a result of your explorations in this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Describe changes in school population, influences of society, changes in curriculum and
instruction, and significant historical events that affected U.S. education in colonial times.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
2. Describe changes in school population, influences of society, changes in curriculum and instruction,
and significant historical events that affected U.S. education during the young nation period.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
3. Describe changes in school population, influences of society, changes in curriculum and instruction,
and significant historical events that affected U.S. education during the progressive nation period.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
4. Describe changes in school population, influences of society, changes in curriculum and instruction,
and significant historical events that affected U.S. education during the postwar period.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
5. Describe changes in school population, influences of society, changes in curriculum and instruction,
and significant historical events that affected U.S. education during the modern period.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
6. Describe the trends and issues in the education of minorities in the United States.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice

Basic Educational History Considerations

There are many ways to divide the history of education into manageable pieces. In this
chapter, we focus on the following time periods:

Colonial period (1620–1750)

Young nation period (1750–1900)
Progressive nation period (1900–1950)
Postwar period (1950–1980)
Modern period (1980–present)

You will explore the history of U.S. education in the context of questions similar to those
you considered in developing your philosophy of education in Chapter 2. For each time
period, you will consider several questions:

What was happening in the United States?

Who went to school?
What was taught?
Who decided what should be taught?
Why was this material taught?
How were students taught?
What were the schools like?
Who were the influential educators and what were their contributions?

The answers to these questions have changed over time in response to the social needs
of our nation as it developed into a world power. These needs have resulted in changes in

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 legislation; changes in how schools are funded; changes in skills needed by graduates;
changes in the expectations of local, regional, and national communities; changes in reli-
gious beliefs; and changes in the ways prominent educators and others view education, its
curriculum, and its methodology.
To begin, read the account of the following educational dilemma.

Schooldays
A young boy goes off to school. He is called on for an oral recitation covering his written
assignment. Later, the class breaks for lunch. In the afternoon, his class practices written
exercises. At the close of the day, he returns home and is greeted by his father, who
inquires how he did in school. The boy proudly recites what he has learned and shows off
samples of his work. The father is pleased. Later that evening, the youth leaves a
reminder that he be awakened early in the morning. He is anxious about getting to
school on time.
The next day, so the account continues, the boy’s mother hands him two rolls for his
lunch and he hurries off to the schoolhouse. But, for reasons unexplained, he is
delayed en route and arrives late for his first class. The attendance monitor is waiting at
the door and orders the boy to report to the principal. Heart pounding in fear, the
youth complies. As it turns out, besides being tardy, he failed to complete his
homework. The irate principal administers a sound thrashing.
Thereafter, matters go from bad to worse. The rest of the day is given over mainly to
beatings for still other infractions: for slovenly appearance in violation of the school’s
dress code, for speaking out of turn, for standing at ease and leaving his assigned seat
without permission, for lapsing into the vernacular during a foreign language class, and
finally, for loitering about on school grounds after hours.
The boy now dreads school and begins neglecting his lessons. His teacher,
thoroughly disgusted, eventually abandons all pretense of trying to teach the youth
anything, and threatens his dismissal. The boy’s father is distraught; his son is on the
verge of becoming a school dropout. In a last, desperate effort to settle matters, he hits
upon the idea of inviting the principal home for a conference.
The schoolmaster is treated royally upon his arrival. He is led to the seat of honor
and wined and dined. Gifts are pressed upon him. On cue, the lad begins to recount all
he has learned in school. Then the father joins in, lavishing praise on the teacher for his
unsparing efforts on the boy’s behalf. This stratagem proves successful. By now greatly
mollified and in a mellowed mood, the principal launches into a long, windy speech,
thanking his host for his generosity and parental concern. In a paroxysm of enthusiasm,
he winds up with words of praise for the young student’s supposed academic
accomplishments. Everyone is greatly relieved and a crisis is averted.
From Lucas, C. J. (1980). The more things change. Phi Delta Kappan 61(6), 414–16.
Reprinted with permission.

When do you suppose this account was written? There are few clues in the text about
its origin. Actually, this is a loose translation of the “Schooldays” composition restored
from about 20 separate cuneiform tablets dating back some 4,300 years to the very dawn
of civilization. Can you tell from this account what was taught in early Sumerian schools?
What were the schools like?
Jumping ahead a couple of millennia, we find the writings of the ancient Greek phi-
losophers. Socrates felt the primary purpose of schooling was for people to become moral
beings (McCambridge, 1977). Plato and Aristotle believed the primary purpose of school-
ing lay in discovering what it means to be human, so that people could live a good life in
accordance with their human nature.

Plato Wrote:
By education, then, I mean goodness in the form in which it is first acquired by a
child. . . . But if you consider the one factor in it, the rightly disciplined state of

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 pleasures and pains whereby a man, from his first beginnings on, will abhor what
he should abhor and relish what he should relish—if you isolate this factor and
call it education, you will be giving it its true name.

Aristotle Wrote:
Pleasure induces us to behave badly, and pain to shrink from fine actions. Hence
the importance (as Plato says) of having been trained in some way from infancy
to feel joy and grief at the right things: true education is precisely this.

But education was destined to change.

Education in the Colonial Period

TIMELINE 1620–1750 Colonial Period

1635 First Latin Grammar School

1636 Founding of Harvard College

1642 Massachusetts Act of 1642

1647 Old Deluder Satan Act

1689 Friends Public School, Philadelphia Color Key:

General Historic Topics
1690 New England Primer
Durational Topics
1692 Salem Witch Trials Education Topics
© Cengage Learning 2014

Colonial Schools BUILDING BLOCK

Think about what U.S. schools must have been like in the colonial period (1620– 10.1
1750).
What was life like during colonial times? What did the colonists value?
What was happening in the colonies during this time?
What did people need to know and be able to do to function and thrive in their
society?
Did everyone need the same knowledge and skills?
What do you think students were required to learn in school?
How do you think students learned during this period?

You may recall from your studies of U.S. history that 17th-century colonies were settled
in three different regions. The New England colonies included Massachusetts, Rhode
Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. The Middle Atlantic colonies were centered in
Pennsylvania and also included New York, New Jersey, and Delaware. The southern

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 New
Hampshire

New Massachusetts
York

Rhode Island
Mississippi Connecticut
River Pennsylvania
New Jersey
Delaware
Maryland
Ohio
River Virginia

North Carolina

South Atlantic Ocean

Carolina

Georgia

New England Colonies

Middle Atlantic Colonies
Southern Colonies

Figure 10.1 Under

▲

Florida
Gulf of Mexico Spanish
The 13 original American
control
colonies.
© Cengage Learning 2014

colonies included Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia (see
Figure 10.1). Each region had its own unique characteristics, and schooling evolved dif-
ferently in each.
Colonists settled in America for several reasons, among which religious freedom was
of great importance. It is not surprising, then, to note that the primary purpose of educa-
tion in the American colonies of the 1600s and early 1700s was to perpetuate religion. In
the New England colonies, this meant maintaining Protestant religious beliefs; the Middle
Atlantic colonies embraced several religious practices, although the people were basically
all Protestants; and the prevailing religious practice in the southern colonies was pat-
terned after the Anglican Church.
Because the colonies comprised three separate regions, each with its own unique
thoughts about education, it is appropriate to look at each region separately.

New England Colonies

The overriding purpose of schooling in the colonial period was to ensure pupils’ reli-
gious salvation. The very strict Calvinist Protestant ideas embraced by the New
England Puritans viewed human nature as depraved. The Puritans believed that
schools should instill religious conformity and religious values. To this end, students
were required to learn to read and write English, Latin, and Greek so they could

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 pursue theological studies. Of course, the colonies were still under British rule, and vernacular schools Schools in the
New England colonies for lower-class
the educational institutions had been transplanted from class-conscious Europe and males that taught reading, writing,
England. Consequently, there were two educational tracks, each represented in a dif- arithmetic, and religion.
ferent kind of school. One was the vernacular school for lower-class males that taught
reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion; the other was the Latin grammar school for Latin grammar schools Schools in
upper-class males. These two tracks were separate; students did not move from one to the New England colonies for upper-
class males that taught the subjects
the other. necessary for admission to college.
The religious purpose of education was made plain in two early laws. The Massachu-
setts Act of 1642 required that parents and masters see that their children know the Massachusetts Act of 1647 The
principles of religion and the laws of the Commonwealth. The other law, the Massachusetts “Old Deluder Satan Act” that required
towns with at least 50 households to
Act of 1647, was known as the Old Deluder Satan Act, and is reproduced here in its hire a schoolmaster to teach children
original language. to read and write, and required towns
of 100 households or more to have a
school that would prepare children to
attend Harvard College.
Old Deluder Satan Act Old Deluder Satan Act Nickname
It being one chief project of that old deluder, Satan, to keep men from the for the Massachusetts Act of 1647
knowledge of the Scriptures, as in former times by keeping them in an unknown
tongue, so in these latter times by persuading from the use of tongues, that so that
at least the true sense and meaning of the original might be clouded and corrupted
with false glosses of saint-seeming deceivers; and to the end that learning may not
be buried in the grave of our forefathers, in church and commonwealth, the Lord
assisting our endeavors.
It is therefore ordered that every township in this jurisdiction, after the Lord hath
increased them to fifty households shall forthwith appoint one within their town to teach
all such children as shall resort to him to write and read, whose wages shall be paid
either by the parents or masters of such children, or by the inhabitants in general, by
way of supply, as the major part of those that order the prudentials of the town shall
appoint; provided those that send their children be not oppressed by paying much
more than they can have them taught for in other towns.
And it is further ordered, that when any town shall increase to the number of one
hundred families or householders, they shall set up a grammar school, the master
thereof being able to instruct youth so far as they may be fitted for the university,
provided that if any town neglect the performance hereof above one year that every
such town shall pay five pounds to the next school till they shall perform this order.
Source: From Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New
England (1853), II: 203.

What Do You Think?

What were the primary provisions of the Old Deluder Satan Act?
What were the heads of families in towns of 50 or more families required to do for
the education of their children?
What were the heads of families in towns of 100 or more families required to do
for the education of their children? How were these responsibilities accom-
plished?

To put the religious zeal of the New England colonists in perspective, one need only
to look at the Salem, Massachusetts, witch trials of 1692 that resulted in convictions and
executions of men and women for witchcraft. Consorting with the devil was considered
a felonious crime in the 17th century. The punishment for the crime was hanging. Alto-
hornbook A single-faced wooden
gether, 19 men were hanged, seven people died in prison, and one man was pressed to paddle used to teach reading in
death with rocks during torture (Salem Witch Museum, 2011). colonial times.
Look also at the hornbook and the New England Primer, the primary reading books New England Primer A small book
used in school. The hornbook was not a book but a small wooden paddle with a single used to teach reading in the New
England colonies.
sheet of paper glued to it, covered with a very thin, transparent layer of cow’s horn for

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 © Reproduced from the Collections of the Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.

Library of Congress
An early American hornbook, and
pages from the New England
Primer.
protection. The paper had the ABCs, some pairs of letters, and a religious verse, often the
Lord’s Prayer, printed on it and was used to teach reading and writing. Hornbooks were
used through the mid-1700s.
The New England Primer was first published in 1690, and combined the material
of the hornbook with religious catechism, using words, couplets, and text to teach
reading. It was shorter than 90 pages and approximately three by four inches in size
(see photos). The New England Primer was used continuously through the early 1800s.
Formal schooling was reserved for boys of European descent in the northern colonies,
although some girls attended the primary schools. The boys started school at age six or
seven and went for three or four years. Most girls who attended school went to women’s
dame schools Colonial schools for homes, where they learned housekeeping skills. These schools were called dame schools
girls. and served both day care and educational purposes.
After young boys had learned to read (by age nine or ten), there were essentially two
paths available to them:

1. Attendance at a Latin grammar school to prepare them for college

2. Apprenticeship or training in the father’s occupation at home

The first Latin grammar school was established in 1635, and its purpose was to
prepare upper-class boys for the entrance test to Harvard College, where they would
begin their theological studies. Founded in 1636, Harvard College was the only college
available. The following shows admission requirements for Harvard College in 1642
and 1700:

Harvard College Admission Requirements in 1642

When any Schollar is able to Read Tully or such like classicall Latine Author
ex tempore, and make and speake true Latin in verse and prose suo (ut aiunt)

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 Marte, and decline perfectly the paradigmes of Nounes and verbes in the
Greeke tongue, then may hee bee admitted into the College, nor shall any
claime admission before such qualifications.

Harvard College Admission Requirements in 1700

Everyone competent to read Cicero or any other classic author of that kind
extemporaneously, and also to speak and write Latin prose and verse with toler-
able skill and without assistance, and of declining the Greek nouns and verbs,
may expect to be admitted to the College: if deficient in any of these qualifica-
tions, he cannot under any circumstances be admitted.

Schools consisted of one room for 20 to 30 boys, where the primary motivators were
praise and punishment. Teachers were required to have academic, religious, moral, and
political qualifications; they were hired by boards of trustees from personal interviews
and others’ recommendations. Education was financed by royal donations, work and land
rent, direct taxation, and some tuition.
The second path, primarily available to young boys of lower social or economic
classes, was apprenticeship, which lasted approximately seven years. As an apprentice,
the boy learned all the tasks of a trade from a master and often was required to make
monthly payments to him. Because
of the cost, the length of time
required, and the inconvenience,
most boys did not take this route.
Instead, most lower-class boys
trained at home in their fathers’
occupations; such training was free,
convenient, and productive.

Middle Atlantic
Colonies
In the Middle Atlantic colonies, edu-
cation took on a more practical
nature than was prevalent in the
north, subscribing to the principle
that children should learn a useful
trade in addition to reading, writing,
arithmetic, and religion. Several
different churches and denomina-
tions coexisted in the Middle Atlan-
tic colonies. Consequently, instead of
having a uniform system of educa-
tion, as was prevalent in New
© Bettmann/CORBIS

England, the schools and the curric-

ulum were established to meet local
needs, including the needs of the
churches, and thus were different
from one area to another. Also, be-
A colonial one-room schoolhouse.
cause of the growth of business, a middle class was emerging. The curriculum included How does this sketch depict
both religious and practical subjects; various religious groups and the teacher jointly education in early America? Who
decided the actual program. is being educated, who is
Although public schools in the Middle Atlantic colonies were meant primarily teaching, and what motivators for
for boys, the education of girls was considered important. In fact, the Society of student learning are identifiable
Friends (popularly known as the Quakers) accepted both boys and girls into their in this sketch?

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 John Locke (1632–1704) was sensory experiences. In his Essay Concerning Human
an English philosopher and doctor. Understanding, published in 1690, Locke wrote, “Let us
His writings greatly influenced suppose the mind to be . . . without any ideas; how comes
education during the 1600s and it to be furnished? To this, I answer with one word: from
Hulton Archive/Getty Images

1700s, and continue to occupy an EXPERIENCE” (in Kreis, 2000, p. 1). Influenced by Locke’s
important place in educational writings, school programs began to move away from the
thought today. Unlike the early God-centered curriculum to one with secular, humanistic,
Greek philosophers, who felt people and practical approaches.
were born with all the knowledge Not only was Locke influential in education; his
they needed, Locke argued that writings on social order and government strongly
knowledge is not innate; rather, influenced Thomas Jefferson and the framing of the
knowledge is carried to people’s minds through their Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution.

private schools, having started the Friends Public School in Philadelphia in 1689, to
educate all children until they could be apprenticed to learn a trade. The school
offered many kinds of classes in keeping with people’s needs. The school charged
tuition to those who could pay; otherwise, school was free. Teachers were paid by
the parents.
By the early 1700s, many private-venture schools had arisen, and many schools
became ethnically and religiously segregated as a result of the national, cultural, religious,
and racial influences.

Southern Colonies
The southern colonies treated education as a private matter, separate from the state, and
offered education largely to wealthy children to prepare them for college. People in these
colonies believed that the most important training children could receive was in the home;
there, children could be inducted into the values of their society. The purpose of education
was to create a college-educated elite. There was no middle class in the antebellum
south—only plantation owners, poor whites, and slaves. Poor whites who worked on
farms had no access to education, and slaves were prohibited from learning to read or
write.
The first southern school was founded in Virginia in 1636. It was a private free school
made possible by the estate of one Benjamin Symms, who left 200 acres plus eight cows
to establish a free school. Other schools followed in 1655, 1667, 1675, and 1689; all were
private and paid for by individuals’ contributions. One reason for the slow growth in the
number of schools was that the population was dispersed; often an area held too few
children to justify a school. Teachers were tutors who traveled long distances between
towns to teach at town schools. The growth of schools continued at this slow pace until
the founding of the College of William and Mary, the nation’s second oldest college, in
Virginia in 1693.

BUILDING BLOCK Your Thoughts about Colonial Education

10.2 How do the inferences you made about colonial education in Building Block
10.1 compare with the descriptions you investigated in this section?
How did colonial education mirror what was going on in the country at the
time?
Which educational philosophy or philosophies prevailed during colonial
times?

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 Education in the Young Nation Period

TIMELINE 1750–1900 Young Nation Period

1749 The Academy

1750–1850 Industrial Revolution

1775–1783 Revolutionary War

1776 Declaration of Independence Adopted

1787 U.S. Constitution Adopted

1791 Bill of Rights Ratified

1810 Monitorial System of Teacher Preparation

1830 Common School

1839 Massachusetts State-Funded Teacher Preparation School

1852 Massachusetts Compulsory Attendance Law

1861–1865 Civil War Color Key:

General Historic Topics
1862 First Morrill Act (Land Grant Colleges)
Durational Topics
1890 Second Morrill Act Education Topics
© Cengage Learning 2014

Let us next consider U.S. education from the end of the colonial period to the end of the
19th century.

Schools in the Young Nation Period BUILDING BLOCK

Think about the time period from 1750 to 1900. 10.3
What was happening in the United States during this time? List some major
events.
What knowledge and skills did individuals need to be able to respond to these
events and to contribute to the society of a growing nation?
Did everyone need the same knowledge and skills?
How do you think schools and teaching changed from colonial times in re-
sponse to societal changes?
How do you think students learned during this period?

As you might expect, the American Revolution, the Declaration of Independence, the
Constitution, and the Bill of Rights all had enormous influence on the purpose and nature
of education during the late 1700s and early 1800s. The Civil War, immigration, reconstruc-
tion, and the Industrial Revolution had equally powerful influences on education during the
late 1800s. During these times, U.S. education expanded to include a sense of nationalism

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 as well as preparation for a trade, in addition to the traditional studies of reading, writing,
arithmetic, and the Bible. This expansion included shifts in educational goals toward oc-
cupational proficiency and the ability to participate in a democratic society. The emphasis
on religion declined, and the need for job-related training became increasingly important.

Changing Purpose of Education

in the Young Nation Period
To foster occupational proficiency, science—a subject new to schools—began to emerge.
In 1749, Benjamin Franklin founded The Academy in Philadelphia, which later became
the University of Pennsylvania, where both the classical subjects and the subjects needed
for occupations were taught. Franklin felt that neither religion nor tradition should deter-
mine the purpose and character of education. The Academy was intended to cultivate
trades as well as “more useful culture of young minds” (Tyack, 1967, p. 73). Franklin’s
Academy instituted a double track in the same school: one for vocational preparation and
one for preparation for college.
In the late 1700s, Thomas Jefferson believed that the country needed a supply of col-
lege-educated people who could take leadership roles and make good decisions for the
country, especially in the territories created by western expansion. Education was beginning
to reflect a sense of nationalism. Schooling began to stress the scientific and practical educa-
tion emphasized by Franklin and the political and civic education emphasized by Jefferson.

BUILDING BLOCK Educational Thought in the Middle Atlantic

10.4 and Southern Colonies
Benjamin Franklin came from the Middle Atlantic colonies and Thomas Jefferson
came from the South. How did the traditions established in each of those regions in
the 1600s influence thinking about education in the next century?

Expansion
The United States saw many changes in the 19th century. The country was expanding
westward. Industrialization brought such innovations as coal-gas lamps, electric lights,
the phonograph, the steam engine, the transcontinental railroad, dynamite, the telegraph,
the telephone, and the development of the Standard Oil Company. Increasing numbers of
immigrants settled in America. All of this activity resulted in the expansion of the nation’s
schools to accommodate more students and to prepare these students for life in the grow-
ing industrialized nation. Consequently, all schoolchildren were taught basic knowledge,
the virtues of patriotism and morality, and the skills they would need in life.
Because of growing immigration, schools began to emphasize civics, citizenship, his-
tory, geography, and moral development. Because of growing industrialization, subjects
dealing with science, mathematics, thinking abilities, and vocational education appeared
in the curriculum. Additionally, reading, writing, spelling, penmanship, arithmetic, and the
classics continued to be prominent areas of study. In the larger towns, schools added al-
gebra, American history, bookkeeping, geometry, and surveying to their programs; stu-
dents took these courses in addition to Latin, Greek, general history, rhetoric, and logic.
McGuffey Readers Primary reading
texts in the 19th century. For many students in the mid-19th century, McGuffey Readers were the primary texts for
reading instruction. Each book in the McGuffey series was graded according to reading
level. Not only did each book in the series provide an eclectic mix of poetry and prose,
but the books also stressed moral, ethical, and religious principles.
common school Elementary school The common school was an elementary or primary school that came into existence
in the 19th century that was free and in the period between 1830 and 1850, reflecting the common school movement that
public.

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 began in the early 19th century. This movement was based on the belief that free educa-
tion would strengthen the nation and that all children had the right to a free, public edu-
cation. The common school movement represented the beginning of compulsory educa-
tion for everyone, although “everyone” was interpreted to mean primarily white boys,
with a few girls and a few black children. Mary Lyon (1797–1849) worked hard to pro-
vide women with the same opportunities for education that were available to men, found-
ing Mount Holyoke College, which became a model for women’s colleges.
The first general law legislating the attendance of children at school was enacted in
Massachusetts in 1852. This law required that children between the ages of 8 and 14
attend school for at least 3 months out of each year. Three weeks of this 3-month period
had to be consecutive. Enforcement was loosely provided by individual cities. It took
another 20 years to form enforcement procedures and hire truant officers to check
absentees. By 1918, all states had passed compulsory attendance laws.
During the 1800s, public schools started to be funded through state and local taxes,
making schools free to all students. School system superintendents were introduced to
manage everything from curriculum and teaching methodology to hiring and firing per-
sonnel, maintaining the school buildings, and ensuring attendance.

The Loomis Chaffee School

An example of a 19th-century school that disregarded the
restrictive educational traditions of the time is the Loomis
Chaffee School. The Loomis Institute, as it was originally
called, was chartered in 1874 by five Loomis siblings, who
had lost all their children and were selflessly determined to
found a school as a gift to the children of others.
The roots of the school go back to 1639, when the
Loomis family (from which this textbook’s coauthor Kim
Courtesy of Kimberly Loomis

Loomis descended) settled in Windsor, Connecticut.

The Loomis Institute was built on the original Loomis
homestead. It offered both vocational and college
preparatory courses, had no religious or political admission
criteria, and admitted both boys and girls; each of these
practices represented a major departure from tradition. In
the early 20th century, the girls’ division was named the The original Loomis homestead on the campus of the
Chaffee School. In 1970, the boys’ and girls’ divisions Loomis Chaffee School.
reunited and the school acquired its present name.

Teacher Preparation in the Young Nation Period

Around 1810 to 1820, the monitorial system of providing training for teachers, which monitorial system Teacher
had been developed in England, was introduced in the United States. Monitors were older preparation program wherein future
teachers received training by older
and better students, who were taught by experienced teachers and who instructed younger and better students in the schools
pupils. This system provided low-cost education, helped train children for future jobs, and they, themselves, attended.
provided hands-on experience for the monitors, many of whom went on to become teach-
ers themselves.
The first state-funded teacher preparation school was established in Lexington, Mas-
sachusetts, in 1839. Before this time, teachers in the primary schools were selected largely
on the basis of their knowledge of the subjects they were to teach and their demonstrated
morality. Schools devoted to teacher preparation were known as normal schools. These normal schools Schools in the late
schools focused on teaching methodologies, especially the humanistic and individualistic 19th and early 20th century for the
preparation of elementary school
approaches developed by Johann Pestalozzi (discussed later in this section). These ap- teachers.
proaches represented a radical departure from the existing method of learning by rote

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 memorization. Normal schools were based on a belief that teaching was a “science” that
could be taught and could be learned, and they emphasized the psychology of child de-
velopment.
The course of teacher preparation in normal schools lasted from a few months to two
years but dealt only with teaching in the primary grades. Preparing teachers for the aca-
demically more rigorous secondary schools was left to liberal arts colleges.
During this time, teachers were expected to do literally everything connected with the
school, and students were expected to be obedient. Rules for teachers and rules for stu-
dents thought to have been in effect in 1872 are shown below.

1872 Rules for Teachers

1. Teachers will fill the lamps and clean the chimney every day.
2. Each teacher will bring a bucket of water and a scuttle of coal for the day’s session.
3. Make your pens carefully. You may whittle nibs to the individual tastes of the
pupils.
4. Men teachers may take one evening each week for courting purposes, or two
evenings a week if they go to church regularly.
5. After ten hours in school, the teachers may spend the remaining time reading the
Bible or other good books.
6. Women teachers who marry or engage in improper conduct will be dismissed.
7. Every teacher should lay aside from each day’s pay a goodly sum of his earnings.
He should use his savings during his retirement years so that he will not become a
burden on society.
8. Any teacher who smokes, uses liquor in any form, visits pool halls or public halls, or
gets shaved in a barber shop will give good reason for people to suspect his
worth, intentions, and honesty.
9. The teacher who performs his labor faithfully and without fault for five years will be
given an increase of 25 cents per week in his pay, providing the Board of Education
approves.
Source: From Kalman, 1947, Early Schools. Crabtree., p. 42–43. (p. 260)

1872 Rules for Students

1. Respect your schoolmaster. Obey him and accept his punishments.
2. Do not call your classmates names or fight with them. Love and help each other.
3. Never make noises or disturb your neighbors as they work.
4. Be silent during classes. Do not talk unless it is absolutely necessary.
5. Do not leave your seat without permission.
6. No more than one student at a time may go to the washroom.
7. At the end of the class, wash your hands and face. Wash your feet if they are bare.
8. Bring firewood into the classroom for the stove whenever the teacher tells you to.
9. Go quietly in and out of the classroom.
10. If the master calls your name after class, straighten the benches and tables. Sweep
the room, dust, and leave everything tidy.

Land Grant Colleges

Morrill Act of 1862 Land Grant The Morrill Act of 1862, also known as the Land Grant College Act, gave every state a
College Act that gave land to states grant of 30,000 acres of public land, to be used for colleges, for every senator and every
to develop colleges.
congressman in its congressional delegation. The states were to sell this land and use the
proceeds to establish colleges in engineering, agriculture, and military service. This act
resulted in the establishment of more than 70 colleges and universities. The second
Morrill Act, signed into law in 1890, expanded the land grant system to southern states
to include black institutions. Many liberal arts colleges and universities in the United
States still stressed the classical Greek and Latin language and literature curriculum. But
the Morrill acts made college education available to people in all social classes, improving

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 the lives of millions of citizens. Although conceived as technical and agricultural schools,
many of the original land grant institutions have grown into large public universities,
sponsored by increasing state funds.

Influential Educators in the Young Nation

Let us look at some individuals who were particularly influential in education during the
18th century. Several, both in the United States and abroad, made highly significant con-
tributions to educational thought and procedure.

Johann Pestalozzi During natural talents, believing that students’ natural intellectual
the 18th century, Johann Pestalozzi powers develop from within. He reacted against the
(1746–1827) first wrote about the memorization/recitation method of teaching by grouping
importance of children learning students into classes so that everyone in the group could
through their senses and through receive the same instruction. In his view, the curriculum
concrete situations, stressing that should include not only reading, writing, and arithmetic,
schools should show love and but also music, geography, and nature study to help
acceptance of children. A Swiss students develop their mental, moral, and physical talents.
© CORBIS

educational reformer, Pestalozzi He considered preparation for life the primary purpose of
continued to influence schools well education (Binder, 1974).
into the 19th century. He advocated Pestalozzi emphasized the use of concrete objects,
sympathetic understanding of students, rather than harsh which were to be analyzed according to their form, number,
punishment. He stressed creating learning environments and name. From their experiences with objects, students
conducive to the maximum development of every child’s were led to drawing and tracing, and then to writing.

Horace Mann (1796–1859) advocate of free public education, nonsectarian education,

has been called the father of teacher training schools, and the abolition of corporal
American public education. He was punishment. He strongly supported the normal school for
appointed secretary of the nation’s teacher preparation, and, with Henry Barnard, saw the
Hulton Archive/Getty Images

first state board of education, development of many such schools throughout the country.
created by the Massachusetts
legislature, and he toured the state
to collect best practices and diffuse
this information. Mann was a zealous

Johann Friedrich 3. Association of new material with ideas learned earlier

Herbart (1776–1841) was a 4. Use of examples
German philosopher who advocated 5. Assessment
a well-organized curriculum and a
Herbart’s ideas came to the United States and were used in
five-step teaching method as
the normal schools. His five-step teaching method was a
follows:
forerunner of today’s lesson planning.
1. Preparation for new lesson
wikipedia.org

2. Presentation of new lesson

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 BUILDING BLOCK Your Thoughts about Education in the Young
10.5 Nation Period
How did the inferences you made about 19th-century U.S. education in Building
Block 10.3 compare with the descriptions you investigated in this section?
How did education mirror what was going on in the country?
What do you think was the primary goal of education during this time?
Which educational philosophy seemed to predominate?

Education in the Progressive Nation Period

TIMELINE 1900–1950 Progressive Nation Period

1857 National Education Association (NEA) Founded

1873 First U.S. Kindergarten

1891 Committee of Ten

1893 Committee of Fifteen

1895 Committee on College Entrance Requirements

1900 College Board Formed

1901 Nobel Prizes Began

1903 Wright Brothers First Flight

1905 Einstein’s Theory of Relativity

1913 Beginning of Progressive Movement

1914–1918 World War I

1915 Seven Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education

1916 American Federation of Teachers (AFT) Founded

1929 Start of Great Depression

1931 Star Spangled Banner

1937 Yellow School Bus Color Key:

General Historic Topics
1938 First Child Labor Law
Durational Topics
1939–1945 World War II Education Topics
© Cengage Learning 2014

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 Schools in the Progressive Nation Period BUILDING BLOCK
Consider the events and issues associated with the progressive nation period (1900 –1950). 10.6
Think about developments in industry and technology that occurred as a result
of war. What knowledge and skills do you think people needed to function and
to contribute to society during this period?
Who was expected to go to school to gain this knowledge and these skills?
What do you think school was like?

A number of events affected U.S. education during the first half of the 20th century.
World War I, the economic boom of the Roaring Twenties, the Great Depression, and
World War II all influenced education. During this period, the Model T Ford replaced the
horse and carriage. The yellow school bus appeared for the first time in 1937. This now-
familiar mode of transportation helped to solve the problem of students who quit school
rather than having to travel long distances, and they allowed school systems to consoli-
date widely scattered schoolhouses into central locations. The first Nobel Prizes were
awarded in 1901. The Wright brothers made the first flight in 1903, the same year that
baseball’s first World Series was played. Einstein proposed his theory of relativity in 1905.
The League of Nations was established in 1919, and was replaced by the United Nations
in 1945. Babe Ruth hit 60 home runs in a single season in 1927, establishing a record that
stood for 34 years. The nation adopted The Star-Spangled Banner as its national anthem
in 1931. Throughout the period, the United States was establishing itself as an industrial
nation, propelled by science and technology and operated by factories.
The increasing number of factories required an increasing amount of manpower to oper-
ate them. This need affected both school attendance and curriculum. Many children dropped
out of school at an early age so that they could work and contribute to the family income. It
has been estimated that, in 1900, at least 18
percent of U.S. children ages 10 to 15 were
employed in industry; in the south, 25 per-
cent of cotton-mill employees were below
the age of 15, with half of these children be-
low the age of 12 (Yellowitz, n.d.)—education
was considered less important than money.
Child labor organizations and individuals
such as Mary Harris “Mother” Jones (1830–
1930) fought for children’s rights, saying that
children must be freed from the workshops
and sent to school. However, despite the fiery
efforts of Mother Jones, child labor laws
were slow to appear. The first federal law
restricting child labor was passed in 1938, as
part of the Fair Labor Standards Act, and
was amended in 1949. Meanwhile, the De-
pression brought a tremendous decrease in
available jobs, and children found them-
selves out of work. Consequently, they were
© CORBIS

put back in school, causing increased class

sizes and severely strained facilities.
In the early 1900s, over half the school Children at work in a cotton mill
population was rural. Conditions in early rural schoolhouses were primitive. The typical circa 1900. Before child labor and
schoolhouse may have been a log cabin, a wooden building, or a sod house with a crude and compulsory education laws were
leaky door. Windows often were small slits without glass and, in the winter, covered with established, children often worked
paper rubbed with lard to make it translucent. instead of attending school.

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 The one-room schools typically housed 30 to 40 students of all ages and levels, taught
by one teacher. As increasing numbers of children attended school, the one-room shacks
could no longer handle the demand. This led to the construction of new buildings with
numerous classrooms; some even had additional facilities such as lunchrooms and gymna-
siums. School officials tried to determine the best way to group the children according to
their ages, levels, and needs. The solution was to combine children of approximately the
same age in one classroom, a system still in operation today.
Most teachers were women. In 1870, 65 percent of all classroom teachers were
women. By 1900, the number of female teachers had grown to 75 percent, and the peak
occurred in 1920, when 86 percent of all teachers were women.

Standardization of Education
By the end of the 19th century, schools throughout the United States had widely varying cur-
ricula, widely varying student populations, and widely varying community needs. Little con-
sistency existed in the education of students across the country. Many students sought admis-
sion to universities, but admission officers had a very difficult time deciding who was eligible.
Two national movements emerged to address problems with education. One, the
National Education Association (NEA), focused its attention on curriculum and other
educational concerns. The other, the American Federation of Teachers (AFT), focused its
attention on labor.
The NEA had been founded in 1857 in Philadelphia as a forum in which educational
leaders would meet and discuss common concerns. By the early 20th century, the issues
of a standardized school curriculum and college entrance requirements were at the fore-
front of the NEA’s agenda. To address these issues, the NEA sponsored several major
committees, described in the sections that follow.

Committee of Ten
In 1891, the Committee of Ten was formed to establish a standard high school curricu-
lum. The committee was chaired by Charles Eliot, president of Harvard University, and
included the U.S. commissioner of education, university administrators, and public school
personnel. The committee determined that the purpose of high school was to prepare
intellectually capable students (usually assumed to be white boys) for higher education.
The committee recommended that education in the United States comprise eight years of
elementary school and four years of secondary school. (Does this sound familiar?) It rec-
ommended that high schools offer both classical and contemporary programs. The clas-
sical track included Latin and Greek classical studies; the contemporary program included
studies of modern languages and English, and was considered inferior to the college-
preparatory track. The subjects of art, music, physical education, and vocational educa-
tion were ignored. The committee decided that the goal of high school was to prepare all
students, regardless of track, to do well in life, contributing to their own well-being and
to society’s good, and to prepare some students for college. The curriculum tracks estab-
lished by the committee still exist in many of today’s schools and are viewed the same way
with regard to academic versus vocational programs.

Committee of Fifteen
The NEA’s next task was to look at elementary education. In 1893, the organization con-
vened the Committee of Fifteen, also chaired by Charles Eliot. The committee also proposed
reducing elementary school from ten grades to eight, and recommended that the curriculum
include grammar, literature, history, and geography, in addition to the “three Rs.” The
committee recommended that elementary schools teach hygiene, culture, vocal music, and
drawing once a week for an hour, and that they teach manual training, sewing and cooking,
algebra, and Latin in the seventh and eighth grades. The committee rejected the ideas of re-
formers who asserted that children’s needs and interests should be considered when develop-
ing curriculum, and they rejected the idea of including kindergarten in elementary school.

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 Committee on College Entrance Requirements
The Committee on College Entrance Requirements, chaired by Chicago’s superintendent
of high schools, was formed in 1895 to standardize college entrance requirements. Prior
to this time, the college president had interviewed college applicants to test the candidates’
knowledge of classical languages, specific readings, and moral character. The basic high
school course requirements the committee recommended consisted of a four-year course
of 16 units. A unit was defined as a full year’s work in a subject taught four or five periods
a week. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching accepted this same
idea, giving rise to the term Carnegie unit. The committee recommended the following Carnegie unit Unit of credit awarded
standard requirements for admission to college: to students for the completion of a
full year’s work in a subject taught
four or five times a week.
Four units of a foreign language
Four units of mathematics
Two units of English
One unit of history
One unit of science
Four units of electives

How do the college entrance requirements of 1895 compare with the college entrance
requirements of today?
College Entrance Examinations
The College Entrance Examination Board, now known as the College Board, was formed in
1900, to foster uniformity in college preparation by administering examinations in which can-
didates could demonstrate their understanding of specific subjects. Thus, both the high school
curriculum and the university entrance examinations became uniform across the country. The
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) was first administered in 1926 to test college applicants’ ability
to succeed in college. Based on the principles of Binet’s IQ test, the SAT assessed aptitude,
whereas earlier college entrance examinations had assessed subject-matter understanding.
Seven Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education
In 1915, the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education issued the seven
Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education to be used as the primary guide for education
throughout the United States. The seven Cardinal Principles are as follows:

1. Health
2. Command of fundamental principles (reading, writing, and mathematics)
3. Worthy home membership
4. Vocation (knowing oneself to be able to choose from a variety of potential careers)
5. Civic education
6. Worthy use of leisure
7. Ethical character

How do the seven cardinal principles resonate in today’s schools? How do they compare
with today’s goals of education?

Working Conditions of Teachers

Another major issue addressed in the early 20th century was the labor practices and working
conditions of teachers, an issue on which the American Federation of Teachers (AFT) fo-
cused. Founded in 1916, the AFT sought to improve teaching conditions, increase wages, and
provide benefits for teachers.
One of the founders of the AFT was John Dewey. Dewey, the philosopher and progres-
sive educator, stressed that workers and employers should serve one another; he was

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 concerned that teachers were left out of
the decision-making process. The AFT
was formed, in part, to remedy that situa-
tion, and it continues to uphold the right
of teachers to help form school policies.

Literacy
Of the men who were drafted into mili-
tary service during World War I, some
25 percent were illiterate. Alarmed
about the low literacy rate of the na-
tion’s young men, the NEA, in conjunc-
tion with the American Legion, decided
to act to raise public awareness of the
importance of education. One of their

© Minnesota Historical Society/CORBIS

first actions was the declaration of
American Education Week, first ob-
served in 1921. This led to steps to im-
prove how schools teach and handle the
curriculum and, ultimately, to increased
literacy. American Education Week is
celebrated annually to this day during
the first full week before Thanksgiving.
In the 1900s, future teachers
studied education at institutions
of higher education. Teacher Preparation
In 1900, there were fewer than 50 normal schools in the United States. However, institu-
tions of higher education, such as liberal arts colleges, teachers’ colleges, state universi-
ties, and private universities, began to offer teacher preparation courses and programs.
Teacher education went from being the subject of a single course to departments,
schools, and entire colleges within universities. Teaching had arrived as a profession.

Progressivism
In the early 20th century, the United States saw a progressive movement in political and
educational thought. During the presidency of Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909), the na-
tion was determined to industrialize and become a world economic leader. As a result of
the emphasis on industrialization, factories throughout the country needed better-edu-
cated workers. This led to a restructuring of education.
The early 1900s were a time of reform, when efforts were made to control the corpo-
rate trusts and monopolies and to prevent corrupt politicians from running schools. Pro-
gressives, mainly from the middle class, were political, social, and educational reformers.
John Dewey was a key player in the progressive movement, especially in education. Con-
sidered the father of progressivism in education, Dewey subscribed to the following ideas:

Education must foster the participation of all of society’s members on equal terms
and put students in a place of primary importance.
The purpose of education is to prepare students to be lifelong learners in an ever-
changing society.
The emphasis of education is on the role of the child in a social setting.
The teacher is the facilitator.
The student’s role is to learn and develop new understandings continually, through
his or her own discoveries.
Schools should encourage collaborative work and the use of new technologies.

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 Dewey thought that learning is a process that begins at birth, builds unconsciously,
and comes from the demands of society (for example, the need to learn a new language).
He said that education must begin with insights into the children’s capacities, interests,
and habits. He believed that students should be given opportunities to solve problems
using a scientific method of complete thinking. According to Dewey, the school should be
a form of community life and a representation of realistic life. (See Chapter 2 for details
about progressive educational philosophy.) How has Dewey’s progressivism movement
influenced today’s thinking about education?

Your Thoughts about Education in the Progressive BUILDING BLOCK

Nation Period 10.7
How do the inferences you made about education in the progressive nation
period in Building Block 10.6 compare with the descriptions you investigated in
this section?
How did education mirror what was going on in the country?
What do you think was the primary goal of education during this time?
Which educational philosophy seemed to predominate?

Education in the Postwar Period

TIMELINE 1950–1980 Postwar Period

1944 GI Bill

1945 End of World War II

1949 Beginning of Cold War

1950–1953 Korean War

1957 Sputnik

1958 NASA

1958 National Defense Education Act

1960 Zinjanthropus

1961 Supreme Court: Prayer in School Violates 1st Amendment

1965–1975 Vietnam War

1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act Color Key:

General Historic Topics
1969 Neil Armstrong on Moon
Durational Topics
1972 Title IX Education Topics
© Cengage Learning 2014

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 BUILDING BLOCK Schools in the Postwar Period
10.8 Think about U.S. society and schools during the postwar period (1950–1980).
What was happening in the nation during this time?
On what major concerns and goals was society focused?
What knowledge and skills do you think students needed to learn in school to
help address these concerns and meet these goals?
Who was expected to go to school to gain this knowledge and these skills?
What do you think school was like?

Many events during the postwar period shaped the nature of education in the United
States. World War II ended in 1945. The Soviet Union’s successful atomic test in 1949
ushered in the Cold War. The Korean War began in 1950, and lasted until 1953.The in-
volvement of U.S. troops in the Vietnam War lasted from 1965 to 1975. In 1957, Russia
successfully launched Sputnik, the first artificial satellite. NASA was founded in 1958. In
1962, John Glenn became the first American to orbit the earth, and in 1969, Neil
Armstrong became the first man to set foot on the moon. In 1960, Louis Leakey found
the skull of Zinjanthropus (called Nutcracker Man because of its giant molars), suggesting
that human evolution began in Africa, not in Asia as previously thought.
The kinds of schools we attend, the curriculum we study while we are there, and the
diversity of students’ faces we see in the classroom all reflect this period’s changes in social
and cultural life, politics, law, and technology.

Federal Involvement in Education

The emergence of federal involvement in education may have been one of the most im-
portant post–World War II developments in U.S. education.
Servicemen’s Readjustment Act
The first major federal aid package for higher education was the Servicemen’s Readjust-
GI Bill A federal act that provides ment Act of 1944, better known as the GI Bill. This act provided funds for returning World
funds to returning war veterans to
attend college. War II veterans to attend college. The current version of the bill is called the Montgomery
GI Bill and provides up to 36 months of education benefits for college, business, technical,
correspondence, or vocational courses; apprenticeship or job training; or flight school. It
provides assistance for members of all U.S. armed service personnel, including those on
active duty and those in the selected reserve.
National Defense Education Act
National Defense Education Act In 1958, President Dwight Eisenhower signed the National Defense Education Act
(NDEA) Enacted in 1958, the NDEA (NDEA) to provide federal aid for education in the United States at all levels, public and
provided federal aid for education
in the United States at all levels, for private. The launching of Sputnik the year before pointed to urgent needs for advances in
public and private schools. U.S. science and mathematics education. The bill was primarily intended to stimulate the
advancement of education in science, mathematics, and modern foreign languages, and it
specifically prohibited federal direction, supervision, or control over curricular matters,
administration, or personnel. Furthermore, the United States was in a Cold War arms race
that represented an atomic threat to the country. The education of the nation’s youth sup-
ported by the NDEA was considered vital to the national security.
Elementary and Secondary Education Act
Elementary and Secondary
Education Act (ESEA) Enacted in In 1964, President Lyndon Johnson declared a nationwide war on poverty and the
1965, the ESEA provided federal causes of poverty. In 1965, as part of this war on poverty, President Johnson signed into
guidance and funds to school districts law the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), which provided federal guid-
with large numbers of disadvantaged
students; reauthorized in 2001 as the ance and funds to school districts with large numbers of disadvantaged students. The
No Child Left Behind Act. ESEA helped to establish continuing expectations concerning the federal government’s

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 responsibility in supporting education. The act has been reauthorized every five to seven
years; the latest reauthorization was passed by Congress in 2001, and is known as the
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. In 2011, frustrated with the inaction of Congress to
reauthorize NCLB by the beginning of the school year, the Obama administration an-
nounced that states would have the opportunity to be relieved of some of the key provi-
sions of the law. To get this relief, states must demonstrate their willingness to accept Title VII A federal program that
educational reform and apply formally for the “waivers.” (See Chapter 6.) provides financial aid for the
education of students with limited
ESEA was amended in 1968 with Title VII, the Bilingual Education Act, which provided English ability (also known as the
federal aid to local school districts to help them address the needs of students with limited Bilingual Education Act).
English ability, stressing language development for students in both English and their native
languages. This has been replaced by the English Language Acquisition Act passed by Con- Higher Education Act A federal
gress in 2002 under the umbrella of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, and stresses that program that provides grants and
loans to students in college (often in
schools should focus on English only (Crawford, 2002). the form of Pell grants).

Higher Education Act

Pell grants A federally sponsored
Recognizing the challenges that educationally and economically disadvantaged students face grant system for post-secondary
in pursuing higher educational goals, the Higher Education Act was enacted by Congress in education.
1965 to provide funds for loans, work study, and institutional aid in postsecondary institu-
tions. Approximately 95 percent of the funds goes to student aid in the form of Pell grants Title IX A federal act providing for
for economically disadvantaged students. The act has undergone reauthorization approxi- equal opportunities regardless of
gender.
mately every five years, but Pell grant funding has not grown as rapidly as college costs, so
the grants pay far less of today’s college costs than originally intended (Baum, 2003).
You can access the federal government’s Pell grant website through the direct link on
the Education CourseMate website.

Title IX
Title IX of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act was
signed into law by President Richard Nixon in 1972. It pro-
tected people from discrimination based on sex in education
programs and activities that receive funding from federal
sources (U.S. Department of Education, 2011e). “No person
in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded
from participation in, denied benefits of, or be subjected to
discrimination under any education program or activity re-
ceiving Federal assistance” (U.S. Department of Labor, n.d.).
Commonly thought of in terms of including girls in sports,
the act actually applies to all federally funded education pro-
grams at all levels.

Curriculum
Education in the 1950s and 1960s was influenced by
© Syracuse Newspapers/Peter Chen/The Image Works

many theorists and psychologists, many of whom you

have investigated elsewhere in this textbook. Education
was especially affected by the emphasis on inquiry-
oriented, problem-based curriculum and on the develop-
ment of higher-order thinking skills. Lessons were de-
signed to foster reconciliation of new material with
students’ prior knowledge; multiple textbooks were used
instead of the traditional single textbook; and the use of
multimedia became standard in classrooms. Television,
which evolved into educational technology, made its way
into the nation’s classrooms; in the early 1960s, entire In the 1970s, the Federal
high schools would crowd into an auditorium with one small TV set on a stage to watch Education Act was amended to
important world events unfold before them. Inquiry-based curriculum was emphasized allow girls to compete in high
through such innovative programs as SCIS (Science Curriculum Improvement Study), school sports.

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 whole language writing, modern math, BSCS (Biological Science Curriculum
TeachSour Study), issue-centered social studies, and other hands-on, inquiry-based programs.
ce Video The curriculum reform movement, as it came to be known, gave students
subject-matter choices, flexible scheduling, individualized instruction, and non-
Watch the TeachSource Video Case, graded schools. However, college entrance test scores began to drop, school enroll-
“Foundations: Aligning Instruction with Fed- ments began to fall, and public confidence in teaching began eroding. By the 1970s,
eral Legislation.” In this five-part roundtable there was a general feeling that the education system had lost sight of its basic
discussion, elementary school principal Jo-
seph Petner moderates a discussion about
purpose. As a result, the nation’s focus returned to the pursuit of traditional aca-
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act demic studies in the liberal arts, mathematics, and sciences.
(IDEA) versus No Child Left Behind (NCLB)
legislation, the latter of which he describes
as more daunting. You’ll see teachers, spe-
Education and Religion
cialists, and an intern weigh in on how the The question of the influence of religion in education has a long history. The First
legislation directly impacts their teaching. Amendment of the U.S. Constitution states that “Congress shall make no law respect-
After watching this video, answer the follow-
ing questions:
ing an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof. . . .” This dec-
laration was in response to the religious persecution Americans felt in England from the
1. Why did the federal government get
involved in education? state-established church and says that the government will not proclaim a national re-
2. What are some advantages and disadvan-
ligion. It ensures religious freedom, protecting the church from governmental influence.
tages of federal involvement in educa- “Separation of church and state” is a phrase originated by Thomas Jefferson
tion? in his “Wall of Separation” letter to the Danbury Baptist Association of Connecti-
3. How can schools foster the perpetuation cut written January 1, 1802. Jefferson wrote:
of democracy?
Believing with you that religion is a matter which lies solely between man
and his God, that he owes account to none other for his faith or his worship,
that the legitimate powers of government reach actions only and not opin-
ions, I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American
people which declared that their legislature should make no law respecting
an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, thus
building a wall of separation between Church and State. Adhering to this
expression of the supreme will of the nation in behalf of the rights of con-
science, I shall see with sincere satisfaction the progress of those sentiments
which tend to restore to man all his natural rights, convinced he has no
natural right in opposition to his social duties. (From USConstitution.net.)
The interpretation of “separation of church and state” by the public and by the courts
has had a major impact on schools. In 1961, the Supreme Court ruled that prayer in
schools was a violation of the First Amendment. In a 1963 case, the Superior Court ruled
that it is unconstitutional to read the Bible and recite the Lord’s Prayer as part of the
regular program of exercises in public schools. As a result, public schools discontinued the
practice of classroom or school-wide prayer, and many replaced prayer with a moment of
silence at some point during the day, during which students may pray silently if they wish.
It may be hard to keep students from prayer, however. A popular bumper sticker reads,
“As long as there are tests, there will be prayer in schools.”
Another challenge came in 2002 when a California father, an atheist, filed a suit that
contended that reciting the Pledge of Allegiance with its phrase “Under God” in school
was unconstitutional. The case was dismissed on a technicality. The complex and emo-
tionally charged problem of the relationship between religion and education in the United
States is still debated today.

Education of Catholics
During the 19th-century industrialization boom, great numbers of people immigrated to
the United States. Many of these immigrants were Catholic. Catholics had different reli-
gious beliefs than the Protestant majority, and many feared that their children’s support
for the Roman Catholic Church would diminish if the children attended public schools.
This concern led to the establishment of Roman Catholic parochial schools. The Church
tried to obtain government money to support its schools but was unsuccessful because
such requests went against the principle of the separation of church and state.

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 There is much debate over the use of federal funds to support religious schools. Have you
been in a situation touched by these debates? What are your thoughts about this topic? Why?

Your Thoughts about Education in the Postwar Period BUILDING BLOCK

How do the inferences you made about postwar education in Building Block 10.9
10.8 compare with the descriptions you investigated in this section?
How did education mirror what was going on in the country?
What do you think was the primary goal of education during this time?
What educational philosophy seemed to predominate?
What factors during postwar times have influenced contemporary education?
Which do you feel have had positive influences? Which do you feel have had
negative influences?

Education in the Modern Period

TIMELINE 1980–2013 Modern Period

1975 Public Law 94–142

1983 A Nation At Risk

1986 A Nation Prepared

1988 Pan Am Lockerbie Explosion

1988 A Nation Still At Risk

1989 GOALS 2000

1990–1991 Persian Gulf War

1993 Siege of Waco

1995 Oklahoma City Bombing

1997 IDEA Reauthorization

2001–Present Invasion of Afghanistan/War on Terror

2003–2010 Iraq War

2004 IDEA Reauthorization

2006 Saddam Hussein Executed

2008 Barack Obama Takes Office Color Key:

General Historic Topics
2009 Stimulus Package Law
Durational Topics
2011 Osama bin Laden Killed Education Topics
© Cengage Learning 2014

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 BUILDING BLOCK Schools in the Modern Period
10.10 Consider the period from 1980 to modern times. Think about what has happened
in our country since 1980.
What were some significant events during this period?
On what concerns and goals has society focused?
What knowledge and skills were necessary for people to function, thrive, and
contribute to society in the 1980s? The 1990s? Beyond 2000? Beyond 2010?
To what extent do you think citizens of the United States believe that everyone
should have this knowledge and these skills?

Let us reflect on some of the events that have occurred since 1980. To an extent, vio-
lence has characterized this period. In 1988, a Pan Am Boeing 747 passenger jet exploded
from a terrorist bomb over Lockerbie, Scotland, killing all 259 people aboard. The Persian
Gulf War began in 1990, and lasted 31⁄2 months. The siege in Waco, Texas, ended in tragedy
in 1993. The Oklahoma City bombing occurred in 1995, and the World Trade Center un-
derground bombing occurred in 1993. On September 11, 2001, terrorist-flown planes
crashed into the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and a field in Pennsylvania, killing some
3,000 people, about 2,800 at the World Trade Center. Combat operations began in Af-
ghanistan shortly thereafter to rout the seat of al Qaeda, the terrorist group responsible for
the attacks of September 11. The United States invaded Iraq in 2003. Saddam Hussein,
president of Iraq, was captured by U.S. forces in 2003 and was executed 2006. In 2011, the
mastermind of the attacks on the World Trade Centers, Osama bin Laden, was killed in a
raid by U.S. special forces. The first African American president of the United States, Barack
Obama, was elected to office in 2008. World population reached seven billion in 2011.
How do you suppose these events have affected whom and what is taught in the na-
tion’s schools?
As you may have gathered, education in the United States has become increasingly
available to all children. Remnants of midcentury segregation linger, but black activist and
other groups are working to foster opportunities for African Americans that are equal to
those of whites. However, there has been nationwide sentiment against allowing children
of illegal aliens to attend our free public schools.
Elementary education has begun to include public preschools for children four years
old or even younger. Middle schools are replacing junior high schools, and secondary
schools are phasing out much of the former vocational track in favor of college-
preparatory programs (see Chapter 7).
Public Law 94-142 was enacted in 1975, to assure that all handicapped children receive
a free and appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment. This law was
replaced in 1990 by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), which was re-
newed in 1997 and in 2004. In 2006 and 2008, regulations in the part directed toward
students age 3 to 21 were modified. The reauthorization of the IDEA has focused national
attention and resources on ensuring that all children receive the best possible education. It
is not unusual to see two teachers in one classroom, one working with children with special
needs, to see a signer translating for a student with a hearing impairment, or to see portable
voice recorders in use as students with vision impairments record lectures (see Chapter 5).

Educational Reform during the Modern Period

In 1983, the National Commission on Excellence in Education issued its report, A Nation
at Risk (see Chapter 2). The commission was composed of 18 members, including univer-
sity presidents, college professors, teachers, school board members, school administrators,
business leaders, and even a Nobel Prize winner in chemistry.
The report essentially endorsed the traditional academic model of the college-preparatory
high school, and made five recommendations for attaining excellence in education:

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 1. “Five new basics” should be added to the curriculum of secondary schools:
Four years of English
Three years of mathematics
Three years of science
Three years of social studies
One-half year of computer science
2. More rigorous and measurable standards should be adopted.
3. The school year should be extended to make the time needed to learn the “new basics.”
4. The teaching should be improved through enhanced preparation and professionalism.
5. Accountability should be added to education.
As a result of this report, many states strengthened their high school graduation
requirements. Do the recommendations of A Nation at Risk sound familiar?
Despite intense nationwide reform efforts, another educational summit was held in
Washington, D.C., in 1988, to discuss continued concerns over the state of education in the
United States. Its findings were summarized in A Nation Still at Risk: An Education Manifesto.
The summit was attended by William Bennett, then secretary of education; prominent educators
from universities and public schools; and prominent business leaders. The manifesto asserted
that, whereas our nation did not currently face imminent dangers of economic decline or tech-
nological inferiority, the state of our children’s education still was far from where it should be.
President George H. W. Bush hosted a governors’ summit in 1989; this summit
launched a follow-up initiative to strengthen the curriculum of public school education
and to increase the accountability of schools. The nation’s governors identified six sweep-
ing national goals in GOALS 2000 (see Chapter 6).
Because GOALS 2000 was a federal law, the federal government awarded grants to
universities and professional organizations to develop standards in most curriculum areas
and developed an Office of Assessment to measure progress toward meeting the goals.
Thus, the development of national standards and educational accountability became a
major undertaking in the 1990s. Each discipline convened task forces to develop stan-
dards. Results included national standards in all subject areas and grade levels. The stan-
dards were intended as guides and were intentionally written to provide the flexibility
needed to accommodate the needs of individual students and the environments of indi-
vidual communities (see Chapter 14). Nonetheless, there was concern that national stan-
dards could be perceived as a national curriculum, and that such a curriculum would
work in opposition to programs designed to meet individual and local needs.
In November 2009, President Barack Obama introduced “Race to the Top” funds to
support innovative programs and strategies in education that were designed to increase
student achievement as well as school and school system productivity and effectiveness.
States competed for a share of the $4.35 billion Race to the Top grants by proposing
education reforms that would result in “making substantial gains in student achievement,
closing achievement gaps, improving high school graduation rates, and ensuring student
preparation for success in college and careers” (U.S. Department of Education, 2009b).
Winners of the funds were announced in phases. Initial winners were Delaware, Tennessee,
the District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York,
North Carolina, Ohio, and Rhode Island.

Improvement of Teaching
The improvement of teaching was another major educational focus of the late 1980s and
1990s. In 1986, the Carnegie Forum on Education and the Economy released the report
A Nation Prepared: Teachers for the Twenty-First Century. The report called for stronger
preparation of teachers in both subject matter and pedagogy and recommended the for-
mation of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) and national
board certification for exemplary teachers. The NBPTS was formed in 1987, with a pri-
mary goal of establishing standards for teaching and certifying exemplary teachers at the
national level. NBPTS standards are listed in Chapter 1.

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 TECHNOLOGY The Evolution of Instructional Technology
& EDUCATION
O  ne of the major advances in education in the
United States during the modern period is the use
became outdated and replacements were expensive. And
often, school personnel did not have the technological
of instructional technology. Over the years, many new knowledge to solve the problems that always arose.
technologies have been developed and introduced to In the 1990s, the Internet gave teachers access to a
society. These technologies made their impact on society multitude of resources for themselves and for their students.
and, as a result, there were high hopes that they could also Computers became more powerful, portable, and affordable.
contribute to education in various ways. Students of all ages now come to school with technology
Perhaps when you think of technology, you think of skills and access to computers, tablets, and a myriad of
computers, smartphones, and other handy devices. Consider portable devices with access to the Internet. Today, school
that at one point in time, silent films were brand new and personnel often includes technology specialists, and teachers
exciting technology! You may not remember, but chances are can be certified and earn degrees in instructional technology.
you have relatives who remember when teachers loaded a It won’t surprise you to know that, initially, new
16-mm film cartridge on a projector to show a movie that technologies are met with a lot of “hype.” New technologies
elaborated on some concept. It was great because teachers typically go through a period of early adoption hype before
then could add motion, pictures, and sound to their instruction. the excitement wears off a bit. Revision and modification of
However, films were expensive, and showing them required technology have led to the release of a second generation of
the use of expensive, noisy, and undependable projectors. the technology, and as best practices and methodologies are
Furthermore, teachers didn’t necessarily like darkening their developed, more and more individuals and institutions adopt
classrooms for an extended period of time either! the technology and begin to use it productively. Westera
The advent of television brought another new technology (2010) contends that the educational system tends to get in
into consideration for education. Instructional television on the hype too late and gets out too early. By nature, the
programming became popular, but teachers were restricted education system is conservative and is slow to accept new
not only to being able to show a program when it was technology that does not fit into existing definitions and
broadcast, but also to the small television screen that made ideas of effective pedagogy. If the integration of technology
showing it to the whole class difficult. Videocassette tapes doesn’t produce positive effects on student achievement, a
enabled recordings of shows so that they could be shown at factor for which teachers are held directly accountable,
the teacher’s discretion. However, although screens were teachers tend to step away from it.
getting bigger, they were still not large enough to accommodate The development of new technologies has increased at a
average-sized classroom populations. Even as videocassette rapid pace in the past three decades. Today’s students have
recordings were being shown in classrooms, the technologies integrated technology into many aspects of their lives, and
of CD-ROMs and digital videodiscs (DVDs) were emerging. they expect educators to acknowledge this in their teaching
In the 1980s, microcomputers were becoming more and in their classrooms. The good news is that the Internet has
available to the general population, and they found their way opened up a vast array of resources including video, audio,
into the classroom. When teachers use computers to help images, real-time data, simulations, and many others. And the
present information, it is called computer-enhanced instruction technologies that can access and use these resources are not
(CEI) or computer-assisted instruction (CAI). Students may only more readily available, but more and more people also
participate in CEI or CAI without the teacher as well, or they possess the basic knowledge and skills to use them (and to
may use computer-based instruction (CBI). There are also problem-solve and fix them when things go wrong).
computer-based labs (CBLs) and computer-based tests (CBTs). Your job as a teacher is to motivate your students so that
There were problems though: Software that was suited to they want to learn and stay engaged. Engaged students are
teachers’ needs was not readily available and was expensive. less likely to think of ways that they can get into trouble by
The machines themselves were expensive, which meant that picking on other students. One way to engage students in
teachers had to figure out how to manage instruction so that your instruction is to use instructional technology effectively.
every student had a chance to use one. The computers quickly

BUILDING BLOCK Your Thoughts about Education in the Modern Period

10.11 How do the inferences you made about modern education in Building Block
10.10 compare with the descriptions you investigated in this section?
How does education mirror what is going on in the country?
What do you think is the primary goal of education during this time?
Which educational philosophy seems to predominate?

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 Education of Minorities

TIMELINE 1740–2013 Education of Minorities

1743 School for Slaves in South Carolina

1794 African Free School in New York City

1824 Office of Indian Affairs

1829 First Antiliteracy Law (Georgia)

1857 Dred Scott Case

1861–1865 Civil War

1863 Emancipation Proclamation

1865 13th Amendment Abolishment of Slavery Ratified

1868 14th Amendment Citizenship to All Except Native Americans Ratified

1870 15th Amendment Elimination of Race for Suffrage

1879 Carlisle Indian Industrial School

1896 Plessy v. Ferguson

1917 Rosenwald Schools Started

1924 Citizenship for Native Americans

1954 Brown v. Board of Education

1965 Affirmative Action Law

1965 Native American Control of Their Schools

1973 Keyes v. Denver School District

1990 Initiative on Educational Excellence for Hispanics

2003 US Supreme Court Endorses Race as a Factor for College Admissions

2004 Minorities Comprise 42 Percent of PK–12 Enrollment

2010 Renewal of Initiative on Educational Excellence for Hispanics Color Key:

General Historic Topics
2011 White House Initiative on American Indian and Alaska Native Education
Durational Topics
2012 US Supreme Court Considers New Limits on Affirmative Action Programs Education Topics
© Cengage Learning 2014

The education of minorities has been slow to arrive in the United States. African Americans,
Native Americans, Alaska natives, Hispanic Americans, Chinese Americans, Japanese Amer-
icans, and other ethnic groups were not afforded educational opportunities equal to those of
the white population until the mid-20th century, and some still do not have equal educa-
tional opportunities. Recall from Chapter 4 that the term minority is really no longer

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 applicable to the populations that have traditionally been referred to as such. Nowadays,
these populations no longer number in the “minority,” and they may instead be referred to
as “nonmainstream” populations. The groups you will read about in this chapter did repre-
sent minority populations in the historical context of education in the United States, however.

Education of African Americans

The road to the education of African Americans has been long, arduous, bumpy, and often
violent.
From colonial times through the Civil War, African Americans were slaves, considered
property, not people. Although there were slaves in the northern and central colonies as
well as in the South, the view of African Americans as property was particularly strong in
the South, where black people were forced to do work that supported various industries,
especially cotton.
In general, slaves were not educated, largely out of fear that slaves who could read would
demand freedom. In the mid-1700s, however, religious groups in Virginia, believing that lit-
eracy was a prerequisite for baptism, began to teach slaves to read. A school for slaves was
opened in South Carolina in 1743, but the legislature, concerned with the consequences of
literacy movements, enacted a law prohibiting any person from teaching slaves to read or
write. In 1829, Georgia enacted a similar law, and this was followed rapidly by antiliteracy
laws in Louisiana, North Carolina, Virginia, and Alabama. In 1834, South Carolina enacted
a law prohibiting slaves from being taught to read or write, but Quakers (or the Society of
Friends) of North Carolina urged that this law be repealed, saying that “religion should be
taught to the colored population to lead to kindness of the masters and faithfulness of the
slaves, promote the morality of the white population, and furnish slaves with light and hope”
(Lewis, n.d., p. 386).
Financial support for the education of
African Americans fluctuated. In 1794, New
© Reproduced from the Collections of the Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.

York City opened the first school in the nation

for blacks, and it was free. Named the African
Free School, it was supported by the Manu-
mission Society, a philanthropic organization
devoted to the abolition of slavery. By 1843,
there were seven African Free Schools, and
they were eventually incorporated into the
public school system (African American Reg-
istry, n.d.). After the abolition of slavery in
1865, and as late as 1890, African Americans
enjoyed relative equality in educational fund-
ing. For example, in Alabama, African Ameri-
can children constituted 44 percent of the
school-aged population and received 44 per-
cent of the state’s appropriations for educa-
tion (Anderson, 2003). Nearly equal benefits
for black children and white children also oc-
curred in North Carolina, Mississippi, and
elsewhere in the south. By 1900, more than
50 percent of southern blacks were literate,
compared with 10 percent literacy in 1800,
just a century earlier. This rapid rise in literacy,
Prior to significant school
desegregation, African coupled with the fear that blacks might take jobs that whites felt belonged to them, precipi-
American children in the South tated the reversal of equality in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The black-to-white
attended segregated schools, ratio of per-pupil educational expenditures declined in every southern state between 1890
like these students attending and 1910. During the first half of the 20th century, the dominant white South used state
Annie Davis School in Tuskegee, power to repress the development of black public education. In Alabama in 1930, African
Alabama, circa 1902. American children, who constituted 40 percent of the state’s school-aged population,

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 received only 11 percent of the school funds (Anderson, 2003), a major reversal from just 40
years earlier. One after another, southern states enacted legislation to pay teachers on the
basis of the certification they held, enabling, for example, the state of Mississippi to pay $55
a month to white teachers but only $25 a month to African American teachers in the early
20th century, partly because black teachers taught only black students. In 1910, Mississippi
budgeted only 20 percent of its annual school budget for African Americans, who constituted
60 percent of the school-aged population.
Discriminatory state budgets did not deter southern blacks from educating their chil-
dren. In 1917, Julius Rosenwald, president of Sears, Roebuck, & Company and a friend
of Booker T. Washington, initiated a school-building program to help solve the problem
of educational opportunity for African American children. Over the next 15 years, Ros-
enwald contributed more than $4 million, and the black community raised a matching
amount, to build more than 5,000 elementary schools, called Rosenwald schools, across
the South. By the time the school-building program was discontinued in 1932, 90 percent
of elementary school–aged black children attended school, compared with 91 percent of
white children of the same age. This was an increase of 54 percent in a single generation—
in 1900, only 36 percent of black children and 55 percent of white children attended
school. However, unlike the schools for white children, which focused on academics, the
Rosenwald schools focused on vocational education.
Southern blacks were largely excluded from secondary education. Between 1904 and
1916, the number of secondary schools in Georgia, for instance, increased from 4 to 122, but
these were schools for whites. There were no four-year public secondary schools for blacks,
even though African Americans constituted 46 percent of the state’s secondary school–aged
population. The same situation was true in the other southern states, and held true even at the
beginning of World War II, when 77 percent of the high school–aged southern black popula-
tion was not enrolled in high school.
The challenges of African American education were not limited to the South. Blacks
were considered inferior to whites in the northern colonies, and this adversely affected
African Americans’ education.
The free and equal education of African Americans could not take place until the
African American population was, itself, freed from past bondage. Key 19th-century deci-
sions are shown in Table 10.1.
The Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka decision, which required desegregation of
schools across the United States, was issued in 1954. In this decision, the Supreme Court
ruled unanimously that separate schools for whites and blacks were inherently unequal and
thus violated the 14th Amendment. In the Court’s decision, Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote,
“In the field of public education, the doctrine of ‘separate but equal’ has no place. Separate
educational facilities are inherently unequal” (Brown v. Board of Education, 1954, p. 5).
Desegregation was difficult. In 1957, President Eisenhower sent the National Guard
to Little Rock, Arkansas, to force desegregation of public schools by escorting nine
African American children into a white high school. In 1961, President John F. Kennedy
sent federal troops to enforce integration at the University of Mississippi after riots
occurred. In 1965, affirmative action became law; in 1967, a federal court ordered that
governors and state boards of education integrate all schools that year. In 1971, the
Supreme Court upheld a measure to bus children to force integration in public schools.
Despite these constitutional advances, much opposition arose to awarding equal
rights to African Americans. Notable among the dissenters was the Ku Klux Klan, which
was first formed secretly in Tennessee in 1866 to terrorize blacks.
Among the many early civil rights leaders, two names stand out for their contribu-
tions to education: W. E. B. DuBois and Booker T. Washington. W. E. B. DuBois was the
first African American to receive a Ph.D. from Harvard. Founder of the National
Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), DuBois believed that
African Americans needed intellectual training to prepare for leadership positions, and
his many books written during the early 20th century helped make great strides in the
African American community. Booker T. Washington, born a slave in Virginia in 1856,
founded the Tuskegee Normal School for Colored Teachers, which later became the

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 TABLE 10.1 Key 19th-Century Decisions Affecting the Education
of African Americans

Date Decision

1857 In the Dred Scott decision, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a slave
was not a citizen.

1863 President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation,

freeing all slaves.

1865 The 13th Amendment, abolishing slavery, was ratified.

1868 The 14th Amendment, granting citizenship and civil rights to all
persons born or naturalized in the United States, including blacks but
not Native Americans, was ratified.

1870 The 15th Amendment, eliminating race as a bar to voting, was ratified.

1896 In Plessy v. Ferguson, the Supreme Court ruled that “separate but
equal facilities” were constitutional under the 14th Amendment. This
case dealt with Homer Plessy, who rode in a railroad car designated for
whites, breaking Florida law. He was arrested and found guilty by
Judge John Ferguson. Plessy argued that the separate car law violated
his civil rights, but the Supreme Court upheld Judge Ferguson’s
decision. The concept of “separate but equal” was to remain the law of
the land until 1954, when the Court reversed the decision.
© Cengage Learning 2014

Tuskegee Institute. Washington headed the Tuskegee Institute and taught the newly
freed African Americans to be teachers, craftsmen, and businessmen, preparing African
Americans for employment with practical skills. DuBois fostered solid academic prepa-
ration of African Americans, and Washington fostered their vocational education.

Education of Native Americans

Native Americans were used as slaves during the colonial period in the north. During the
19th century, Native Americans were taught farming, mechanical skills, and domestic
chores, and they were taught religion to ensure
their salvation and to “civilize” them. Native
Americans were not granted citizenship until
1924, almost 60 years after all other residents
(including African Americans, Hispanics, Asian
Americans, and other immigrants) had been
granted that privilege.
The education of Native Americans was
controlled from Washington, D.C., by the Office
of Indian Education, a branch of the Bureau of
Indian Affairs organized in the late 1800s. It
was established to “carry out the federal gov-
ernment’s commitment to Indian tribes” (Office
© Bettmann/CORBIS

of Indian Education Programs, n.d.). Under the

control of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Native
© CORBIS

American children were placed in boarding

schools taught by white teachers to acculturate
W. E. B. DuBois Booker T. Washington Indian youth into “American” ways of thinking

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 © Arizona Historical Foundation

© Arizona Historical Foundation

Apache children on arrival at the
Carlisle Indian School in
and living. For example, the Carlisle Indian Industrial School was opened in Pennsyl- Pennsylvania wearing traditional
vania in 1879 by Brigadier General Richard H. Pratt, who wanted to educate Native clothing (left), and Apache
Americans rather than subjugate them. The school’s most celebrated student was Jim children at the Carlisle School
Thorpe, an Olympic gold medalist. The school’s goal was the assimilation of Native four months later (right).
Americans into white culture; it taught the Native American students how to be Amer-
ican citizens and provided education in basic academic subjects and vocational train-
ing.
In 1965, Native Americans demanded control of the schools that taught their chil-
dren, and they created tribal schools where Native American cultures were taught to
preserve those cultures and their traditions. These schools were federally funded. To-
day, schools for Native Americans are locally controlled but are operated by the Office
of Indian Education. Besides core subjects, the curriculum often includes instruction in
native languages, English as a second language, and tribal history and culture.
In 2011, President Barak Obama created the White House Initiative on American
Indian and Alaska Native Education. The purpose of the initiative is to improve edu-
cational outcomes for American Indian and Alaska Native students, including oppor-
tunities to learn their native languages, cultures, and histories (The White House,
2011).

Education of Hispanic Americans

From the mid-18th century to the early 20th century, Hispanic Americans were discrimi-
nated against, along with African Americans, Native Americans, and people from other
ethnic groups. Hispanic students were taught religion, but neither the English language
nor American or Hispanic cultures. Although they often had freer access to schooling than
blacks or Native Americans, they were frequently segregated into the predominantly
black urban schools. In 1973, the Supreme Court decided, in the case of Keyes v. School
District No. 1, Denver, Colorado (Legal Information Institute, n.d.), that Hispanic stu-
dents have a right to attend desegregated educational facilities and a right to bilingual
education to help them become proficient in English.
In 2010, President Barack Obama signed an executive order to renew the Initiative
on Educational Excellence for Hispanics, which was originally established in 1990 by
President George H. W. Bush. The initiative was governed by a commission that focused
on efforts to eliminate inequities and increase opportunities in education for Hispanic
students. Over time, the initiative has focused on actively engaging Hispanic students and
their families along with organizations and the community toward working on improving
the educational experience for Hispanic learners.

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 FROM THE FIELD

Remembering Lawrence Cremin

Burt Saxon

Saxon
L  grandparents went past the

Courtesy of Burt
awrence Cremin came along just when I needed
him most—or perhaps I should say his ideas came sixth grade. Yet my father,
along just when I needed them most. born in America, became a
The year was 1975, and I had just finished my fifth year lawyer, and his brother
of teaching at Lee High School, a desegregated school in became a doctor. My mother’s family was even more
New Haven, Connecticut. I was completely exhausted, and remarkable. My grandmother bore 17 children, nine of
somewhat discouraged. Most of my Jewish students were whom died before their fifth birthday. My mother was the
generally doing great, but most of my African American second surviving child born in the United States. Like her
students were not doing nearly as well. I had tried as hard sisters, she almost finished college. Her two brothers did
as I could to help all my students acquire the academic finish college. One became an auditor, the other an
skills they needed, but it seemed that most of my African engineer. The engineer became president of his company a
American students lagged far behind. year before he retired. My brother, a surgeon, called me
I needed to regroup for a couple of years. I enrolled in one day to say that Uncle Bud’s company was on the
a doctoral program at Teachers College of Columbia Fortune 500 list. We had always thought it was a mom-and-
University and I took Lawrence Cremin’s History of pop operation.
American Education course. In other words, my own family history provided a stark
Lawrence Cremin is, without a doubt, one of the refutation to the radical thesis that social mobility through
greatest historians of American education. He was not only education was very unlikely in this country. Larry Cremin’s
one of the great professors at Teachers College, but he was restrained analysis of American educational history started
also the president. He had taken the presidency only on to make more sense to me intellectually.
the condition that he would be allowed to continue Professor Cremin’s ideas affected me on levels far
teaching his History of American Education course. more important than the intellectual. His ideas helped
I was not sure how I would react to Professor Cremin’s restore my faith in public education. Faith was what Larry
ideas. Somehow I believed he was a celebrationist, Cremin was really about. For many Americans, faith in the
extolling the virtues of public education in America without opportunities offered by public education has become a
seeing any flaws. But his lectures presented a different secular religion. I am one of those Americans. I know the
perspective. Cremin believed that, historically, over time, public schools in America are not perfect, but they provide
American public education had become more democratic, more hope than the schools we find in most other parts of
more tolerant, and more responsive to all minorities. He the world.
believed this was similar to the historical trend in America I returned to the New Haven schools in 1977, and I
in general, but he also observed that public schools caused have taught there ever since. My students are now almost
this trend as much as they reflected it. He certainly did not all African Americans. My hopes for them are still great, but
see the public schools as flawless, but he did see them as I realize that it will take a long time to rectify all the
one of the key institutions in our democracy. unfairness with which their ancestors were treated. We still
Once I asked him this question: “You once mentioned have more than just vestiges of institutional racism. Some
in passing that your own ancestors were poor eastern of the historical results of racism are societal, others
European Jewish peasants. Now you are president of psychological. But Lawrence Cremin was right: The long-
Teachers College. Is it possible your own personal term trend in America is positive. There is still hope, even
experiences have led you to overestimate the amount of though it is easy to become discouraged if you choose to
social mobility in America directly due to public spend your life in the urban classroom. To young teachers
education?” I would say, “Always choose hope over despair.” Hope is
Professor Cremin said he had never thought about this what keeps us teachers going every day.
issue. He noted that historians must be very aware of their
own biases and that he would think seriously about this
matter. Burt Saxon, Ed.D.
I needed to do some serious thinking about this matter Connecticut Teacher of the Year, 2004–2005
myself. My own ancestors, like Professor Cremin’s, were James Hillhouse Hig-h School
eastern European Jewish peasants. None of my four New Haven, Connecticut
© Cengage Learning 2014

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 Despite the federal support, Hispanics have a higher dropout rate than blacks or
whites and, of those dropouts, only one in ten goes on to earn a General Educational
Development (GED) credential, with is the equivalent of a high school diploma. Two in
ten blacks and three in ten whites who have dropped out of high school eventually earn
a GED (Fry, 2010). It is interesting to note, though, that there has been a recent increase
in the number of Hispanics enrolled in college. In 2010, there was a dramatic increase of
24 percent in Hispanic enrollment. This increase is thought to have been a result not only
of the growth of the Hispanic population in the United States (making it the biggest non-
mainstream group in the country) but also of their educational strides.

Education of Asian Pacific Americans

The Asian Pacific community is comprised of three general, broad, and distinctive ethnic
groups: (1) Pacific Islanders (Hawaiians, Samoans, and Guamanians); (2) Southeast
Asians (Vietnamese, Thais, Cambodians, Laotians, Burmese, and Filipinos); and (3) East
Asians (Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans) (Huang, 1994). Each group is characterized by
its own distinctive and decidedly different customs, philosophies, and cultural and reli-
gious backgrounds. The Asian American population makes up approximately 5.5 percent
of the 2010 population of the United States (Pang, Han, and Pang, 2011).
In the early 20th century, Asian Pacific Americans suffered discrimination in the United
States, both in society and in the schools. Great numbers of Chinese immigrated to the west
coast of the United States in the last half of the 18th century to work in the new gold mines
and on the transcontinental railroad. But, responding to prejudices and concerns that the
Chinese were taking jobs from white Americans, Congress enacted a series of laws in 1882,
and lasting until the mid-20th century, that prohibited further Chinese immigration (Tamura,
2003). Soon after, San Francisco built segregated “Oriental schools” that Chinese students
were required to attend (Chan, 1991). In the early 20th century, Japanese and Koreans re-
placed the Chinese as having the greatest immigration to the West Coast. Their children were
enrolled in regular schools, but were segregated from other students, often being required to
attend all-Asian classes in separate areas of the school buildings. In 1906, the San Francisco
school board required Japanese and Korean students to attend the segregated Chinese schools,
an order that was rescinded two years later as a result of diplomatic efforts (Tamura, 2003).
Institutionalized discrimination against Asian Pacific Americans continued until the
end of World War II, when the federal government granted naturalization rights to resi-
dent Asians and relaxed immigration restrictions.
Education is extremely important to Asian Pacific Americans, and parents go to great
lengths to ensure that their children attend the best schools (Wang, 2005). And it seems
that this minority group has been socioeconomically successful as a result. U.S. Census
Bureau data indicate that Asian Americans attain more college degrees, have more ad-
vanced educational degrees (professional or Ph.D.), have a higher median family income,
and work in more executive, professional, and upper management positions than other
populations, including whites (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010a). This success is due in part to
immigration policies that favor successful and well-educated Asians, who in turn motivate
their children to pursue advanced education and high-status professions. Such statistics
support the notion that Asian Americans are the “model minority,” working and studying
hard to attain the American dream of socioeconomic success. In fact, some believe that
the overrepresentation of Asian Americans on the campuses of the elite colleges and uni-
versities in the nation make it difficult for students of other races to gain acceptance.
These statistics can be misleading as well. It is important to remember that the term Asian
American is used to refer to a population that is actually made up of several distinct groups, as
you saw earlier. In fact, although there is a group that received college degrees at a rate higher
than the U.S. average, there are others categorized as Asian American who fall behind in aca-
demic achievement. For example, a significant number of Hmong and Pacific Islanders did not
earn college or even high school diplomas. Many Asian Americans do not do well in the chal-
lenging programs at which they are stereotypically supposed to excel, and end up having to

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 drop out (Holland, 2008). Thus, the stereotype is not applicable to all Asian Pacific American
students, and affirmative action efforts are being undertaken, largely within the Asian Pacific
American community, to provide the educational support needed by the lower-achieving
groups and to debunk the notion that the Asian Pacific community is a “model minority.”

SU M MA RY
CHAPTER RESOURCES

Today’s schools are the result of the continuous progression of educational thought from
earliest times.
Schools in the United States began in colonial times with a primary purpose of
teaching children religion and literacy. The independence and early development of
the nation resulted in the expansion of education to include occupational profi-
ciency and the ability to participate in a democratic society.
After the Civil War, the subsequent period of reconstruction and industrialization,
and World War I, education again shifted its emphasis to teach the skills and dis-
positions required for an increasingly industrialized country.
The early twentieth century saw the rise of progressivism, increased numbers of
children attending school because of the depression, and the beginnings of modern
education facilities, curriculum, and instructional practices.
World War II and the subsequent Cold War underscored the need for heightened
scientific and technological education; in response, the United States developed
supportive federally funded educational initiatives. After the launching of Sputnik,
education focused on science, mathematics, and technology even more than before.
Curriculum and instruction were constructed to make learning as meaningful as
possible, but heated discussions continued about the direction education should
take—issues that continue to be debated today.
Over time, the federal government has enacted several pieces of legislature to
ensure equal opportunities in education for all, to guide curriculum, and to pro-
mote achievement.
The education of minorities in the United States has been slow moving and some-
times misguided. As populations of minorities have increased, so has the atten-
tion to the removal of barriers and the increase of opportunities to education.

Key Terms and Concepts

Carnegie unit, 271 Latin grammar schools, 259 Normal schools, 265
Common school, 264 Massachusetts Act Old Deluder Satan Act, 259
Dame schools, 260 of 1647, 259 Pell grant, 275
Elementary and Secondary McGuffey Readers, 264 Title VII, 275
Education Act Monitorial system, 265 Title IX, 275
(ESEA), 274 Morrill Act of 1862, 266 Vernacular schools, 259
GI Bill, 274 National Defense Education
Higher Education Act, 275 Act (NDEA), 274
Hornbook, 259 New England Primer, 259

Construct and Apply

1. How was education in colonial times similar to education today?
2. How was education in the young nation period similar to education today?
3. How was education in the progressive nation period similar to education today?
4. How was education in the postwar period similar to education today?
5. Complete the following table:

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 CHAPTER RESOURCES
Young Progressive
Colonial Nation Nation Postwar Modern
Period Period Period Period Period
Major events

Who went to
school?

Curriculum

Reasons for this

curriculum

Methodology

Purposes of
schools

6. For each period considered in this chapter, answer the following questions:
a. What factors during that period have influenced contemporary education?
b. Which do you feel have had positive influences? Why?
c. Which do you feel have had negative influences? Why?

Deconstructing the Standards

1. Recall the InTASC standard associated with the objectives for this chapter:
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice reads,
“The teacher engages in ongoing professional learning and uses evidence to continually
evaluate his/her practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and actions on others
(learners, families, other professionals, and the community), and adapts practice to meet
the needs of each learner.”
a. What part(s) of this standard does this chapter address?
b. How will the concepts in this chapter help you apply this standard as a teacher?
2. Use your favorite search engine to find your state’s standards for certification. When you find
it, bookmark the site. You will refer to it often as you progress through this book.
a. How are your conclusions about educational philosophy represented in your state certifica-
tion standards?
b. How do the InTASC standards compare to your state’s certification standards regarding
educational philosophy?
c. Do you believe the degree of representation concerning educational philosophy is adequate
in your state certification standards? Why or why not?

Your Portfolio
1. For your portfolio, write a reflection about how your field experience school mirrors elements
of the history of education.
2. If possible, interview someone who attended a school when it was very different from how
school is now. Ask what it was like, how the teacher accommodated the different levels of the

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 CHAPTER RESOURCES
students, what nonacademic duties students and the teacher had to perform, and the like. Write
up the results of this interview to add to your portfolio.

Education CourseMate Resources

Check out this text’s Education CourseMate website (at www.cengagebrain.com) for more informa-
tion about the history of education in the United States. You will find the TeachSource Videos, a
guide for doing field experiences, glossary flash cards, activities, tutorial quizzes, direct links to the
websites mentioned in the chapter, and more.

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 © James Shaffer/Photo Edit, Inc.

CHAPTER

11 School Governance
and Finance
IN CHAPTER 10, you examined some questions about American education, and
you investigated how the answers to these questions changed through history. The
questions were similar to those you considered when you were formulating your
personal philosophy of education. Who should go to school? What should students
learn in school? How should they be taught? You now know that the answers to these
questions have changed with time.
Here are some more questions: At any point in time, who had the answers to the
questions you have been investigating? Who had the power to determine the
answers? Who made decisions about the curriculum? Who made instructional
decisions? On what were these decisions based? And who paid for all this?
In this chapter, you will explore how schools are governed, controlled, and
financed. How are these topics important to you as a teacher? Knowledge of
governance and finance is essential for you to understand how schools work. With
this understanding, you can become a participant in school affairs, rather than being
someone who focuses exclusively on the classroom and students while others control
what happens in the school. To get involved, you must know how the school
conducts its business, how it is managed (governed), and how it is financed.

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 Chapter Objectives
As a result of your explorations in this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Identify stakeholders in education and describe the influence of these stakeholders on
the processes and policies of education.
Standard #10: Leadership and Collaboration
2. Describe the structure of educational governance at the school, local, state, and federal levels.
Standard #10: Leadership and Collaboration
3. Explain how U.S. public schools are financed.
Standard #10: Leadership and Collaboration
4. Identify and discuss issues pertaining to the governance, control, and financing of education,
including issues of equity instructional technology, and school choice and voucher systems.
Standard #10: Leadership and Collaboration

The Stakeholders in U.S. Education

Let us start, as always, by exploring what you already know.

BUILDING BLOCK Who Is in Control?

11.1 Think about a school you attended and answer these questions:
A. The Classroom
Who was in control of the instruction in the classroom?
To what extent did this person make decisions about what was taught
(curriculum) in the classroom?
To what extent did this person make decisions about instructional methods
in the classroom?
Were these decisions left to the sole discretion of the person you identified?
If not, who else in the school had input into these decisions?
B. The School
Who was in control of the instruction in the school?
To what extent did this person make decisions about what was taught
(curriculum) in the school?
To what extent did this person make decisions about instructional methods
in the school?
Were these decisions left to the sole discretion of the person you identified?
If not, who else had input into these decisions?

Maybe you have been in some classrooms where it seemed that the students were in
control. In other classrooms, it may have seemed that the teacher had so much control
that the students saw the teacher as the “warden.” Still other classrooms may have seemed
to promote a democratic learning community, with teachers and students both contribut-
ing to curricular and instructional decisions.
When the bell rings, the teacher starts the class and teaches. But to whom is the
teacher accountable? Who else has an impact on what happens in the classroom? In
Building Block 11.1, could you identify a single person in the classroom who makes
curricular and instructional decisions? Could you identify a single person in the
school who makes these kinds of decisions? Maybe you initially thought of the

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 teacher as the classroom’s deci-
sion maker and the principal as
the school’s decision maker. But,
you know many individuals are
involved in running a school and
that these individuals function at
different levels within the school.
The principal might be the ulti-

©David Lassman / Syracuse Newspapers / The Image Works

mate person in charge, but there
are also assistant principals, lead
teachers, and department chairs,
all of whom have a stake in deci-
sions that are made at the building
(school) level.
You also may have identified
outside influences as decision mak-
ers in a school. Certainly the stan-
dards and mandates of state agen-
cies and organizations affect the
curriculum and instruction in a Teachers, principals, and school
school. Who else has a stake in the decisions that affect school operations? Ah! The support staff all strive to
students! But do the students really have an impact on decision making? positively influence and impact
The people and institutions with an interest in education are called stakeholders. education.
This word often refers to people or agencies outside the school with a particular inter-
stakeholder A person or institution
est in the school. However, no one can doubt that teachers and students have a real with an interest in education.
interest in the school. Consequently, stakeholder refers to interested parties both inside
and outside of the school.
When considering the stakeholders in education, it might be useful to divide them
into two groups based on the level at which each group functions:
Those who are in control of school decisions
Those who are not in control but who are affected by the decisions

Control and the Stakeholders BUILDING BLOCK

Which individuals or categories of individuals are interested in a single school? List 11.2
as many as you can, and categorize your list under the headings of “Individuals or
Categories of Individuals in Control” and “Individuals or Categories of Individuals
Who Are Affected.” (You may want to use a table like the one shown here to help
organize your thoughts.) Next, add to your list people or categories of people inter-
ested in the entire school system. Again, identify those in a position of control and
those who are affected by decisions. Finally, do the same for people or categories of
people interested in the statewide school system.

Individuals or Categories Individuals or Categories

of Individuals in Control of Individuals Who Are Affected

Building Level

System Level

State Level

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 Whom did you put in the table? Where did you list students, teachers, administrators,
parents, workers, bosses, business owners, service providers, professionals, citizens, and
politicians? How does the number of stakeholders who are affected by the schools com-
pare with the number of people in control of the schools? From this exercise, you prob-
ably have no trouble concluding that we must be both careful and informed about the
people to whom we give the power to govern our schools.

Governance
governance How an organization The governance of an organization refers to how the organization is controlled and who
is controlled, including who has the has the authority to exercise this control.
authority to exercise this control.
Discussions regarding organizational structures and management usually begin at the
top level and then move down. However, that system is opposite from the way this book
is organized. As you recall, we started our exploration of the huge topic of U.S. education
by thinking about you first. After all, who knows more about you than you? Since that
first chapter, we have expanded our field of consideration to include the student, then the
school, and now, society.
So, instead of taking a top-down approach to discuss organizational structures, we
will begin with what you know best. It probably is a safe bet that most of your experience
with the management of U.S. education has been in a classroom and in a school building.
(Perhaps some of us have had more experience than others with school management and
policy in that part of the school building known as the principal’s office.)

Building-Level Governance
Recall your previous thoughts about who is in control in any particular school building.
Who controls the school? Certainly the principal can be thought of as the school’s
manager. If you review the principal’s job responsibilities in Chapter 7, it is clear that the
principal’s job involves making decisions about governing the school so that the environ-
ment facilitates teaching and learning. In most schools, the principal is the head of the
school. He or she is charged with the management of the school affairs; is responsible for
compliance with national, state, and local school board policies; is responsible for the
budget; and is accountable for student achievement.
In some schools, the principal is seen as the “boss”—sometimes despotic, always
reserving the final word. In others, the principal is a leader who asks teachers for input
into many school decisions that affect teaching and learning. In either case, the principal
is responsible to both the staff and the other stakeholders. And as you found earlier, there
are many stakeholders outside the school itself.
Can the principal do this job alone? Should the principal do this job alone? Many
members of the educational community within the school building can contribute to its
governance. Principals may have one or more assistant administrators to help with
building-level tasks. Teachers may serve in administrative roles as team leaders and de-
partment chairs.
Teachers and principals collaborate in numerous ways. Many schools employ a
site-based management A system school-based management system called site-based management. As you saw in
of management in which plans and Chapter 7, the idea behind site-based management is that those who will be affected
decisions involve all employees in a
site. by a decision should be involved in making the decision. If teachers have input into
the decisions that affect their environment and their teaching, they are more likely to
support those decisions. Further, those closest to the students are most capable of
making important decisions that will lead to change and improvement. Of course, to
have input into decisions, teachers need to understand how schools are run. In almost
every state, there are school districts that practice site-based management to some

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 Language arts Assessment
Reading skills Authentic assessment
Writing skills Assessment procedures to accommodate
Language mechanics individual student needs
Math concepts and skills Parent/community involvement
Mathematical application and Parent/student/staff communication
problem solving Professional development
Science skills Discipline
Social studies skills Attendance
Creative problem solving Graduation rate
Curriculum development Character development, citizenship
Curriculum alignment with standards School climate/safe learning environment
Instruction Lifelong learning Figure 11.1

▲
Technology as a learning tool Money issues Some school improvement focus
Remediation areas.
© Cengage Learning 2014

degree, and in five states (Colorado, Florida, Kentucky, North Carolina, and Texas),
site-based management is mandated for every school (Education Commission of the
States, 2011).
Teachers and administrators also collaborate through jointly preparing and monitor-
ing the school improvement plan. A school improvement plan is a document that school improvement plan A plan
identifies a school’s priorities for the coming years, how these priorities will be imple- that identifies a school’s priorities
for the coming years, methods to
mented, and how the results will be assessed. It guides resource allocation, staff implement these priorities, and ways
development, instructional content and practice, and student assessment. The school im- to assess the results.
provement plan has a great effect on the school’s operation and the teachers’ expectations;
it requires the collaboration of the teaching staff in its development. School improvement
plans are required by state and federal regulations for schools that fail to make adequate
yearly progress according to the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) statutes, and are optional
for schools that are not in that academic status. However, most, if not all, schools develop
school improvement plans every year. Figure 11.1 shows a list of some common school
improvement focus areas from which individual schools and school districts have chosen
their school improvement priorities. Look this list over: Do any of these areas sound
familiar to you?
As you have seen, parents and other members of the community are affected by what
happens at a school. But how can they provide input into school decisions? What role
do parents and other members of the community play in school governance? Of course,
the parents or guardians of an individual student can influence some decisions made
about that particular student’s education at the school, but parents can have input into
the bigger issues related to school governance by becoming involved in organizations
such as the parent–teacher association (PTA) or the parent–teacher–student associa- Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) A
tion (PTSA). local school-based organization
comprised of parents, teachers, and
PTA and PTSA organizations meet regularly for updates on school activities and op- other school personnel who work for
erations and discussions regarding governance and finance. During these discussions, the improvement of the school.
parents provide school decision makers with valuable input and feedback. In addition,
Parent-Teacher-Student Association
parents, teachers, students, staff, and administrators can serve on school-based commit- (PTSA) A school-based organization
tees that work on fund-raising, planning, budgeting, support for school athletics, curricu- comprised of parents, teachers,
lum, and community services. students, and other school personnel
who work for the improvement of the
Some schools have school advisory councils. As the name implies, these groups advise school.
schools on issues such as school policy, school improvement, and budgets. An advisory

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 council typically includes parents, teachers, members of the
community such as business and industry leaders, and
students.
As you can see, many people participate in school gover-
nance at the building level, and there are many ways teachers
can (and probably should) get involved. But the administrative
head of an individual school has the ultimate decision-making
authority in that school; this head is the principal.

© Michael Newman/ PhotoEdit, Inc.

System-Level and Local Governance
You have seen that a school’s principal has the ultimate
responsibility for everything that goes on in the school,
ensuring implementation of the school district’s policies
and regulations. A school district normally includes several
schools (see Chapter 6). Typically they have several ele-
Parent–teacher associations
support parent involvement in
mentary schools that feed into neighboring middle schools or junior high schools, which
schools and encourage home– in turn feed into centrally located, larger high schools. School districts can be very large
school collaboration. Are there enterprises, employing thousands of professionals in many school buildings to educate
other ways parents can become hundreds of thousands of students. Or they can be small, with fewer than 1,000 students.
involved in and influence
education in their community,
states, and nation?

BUILDING BLOCK Your School District

11.3 Using reports issued by your local school district found on the Internet, answer the
following questions:
How many elementary schools does the district have? How many students are
enrolled in these elementary schools?
How many middle schools or junior high schools are there? How many students
are enrolled in them?
How many high schools are there? How many students are enrolled?
How many professionals are on the staff of this school district?
How does the number of schools compare with the number of large businesses
in the area?
How would you characterize the governance needs for this school district?

Who has decision-making authority for a school district? Who has influence over
these decisions? To whom are school principals accountable?
school board (Board of Local school districts are governed by a school board (also known as the Board of
Education) The official policy-making Education) and a superintendent of schools. The school board is the official policy-making
authority for the school district.
authority for the school district, with the legal authority to make decisions about the
operations of schools within the district and the responsibility to ensure that the schools
in the district comply with local, state, and national laws, policies, and regulations. School
board members act as officers of the state. Most districts select their school board members
in nonpartisan elections by popular vote; however, in some school districts, the mayor or
another elected official appoints citizens to the school board. The board has collective
authority, and no individual board member has the power to make or change educational
policy. All school board meetings (except those dealing with confidential and personal mat-
ters such as grievances and terminations) are open to the public. In this way, the people
represented by the board members know what is going on in their school district and have
the opportunity to express their thoughts.

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 The superintendent of schools is the head of the school district. (In some very large superintendent of schools The head
school districts such as New York City and Washington, DC, the superintendent is of the school district.
known as chancellor.) The vast majority of superintendents are appointed by the district
board of education; in a few cases, however, they are elected by the community. The
superintendent’s authority as head of the school district is delegated by the school board,
and he or she remains accountable to the board. The superintendent is responsible for
ensuring that board-approved policies and procedures are carried out in all schools in
the district, and for the district’s overall operational and financial management. The
superintendent of schools is responsible for all aspects of the school district, including
programs, buildings, finances, personnel, adherence to state and federal laws, and the
like. The superintendent works collaboratively with the school board, school personnel,
and the community. Superintendents of schools normally devote most of their time and
effort to school management and community matters, leaving issues of curriculum,
instruction, and assessment to subordinates. To this end, in larger school districts, super-
intendents of schools may be noneducators who come from the world of business,
politics, law, or the military.
In large school districts, the central office may include one or more assistant superin-
tendents responsible for various aspects of the school district, such as elementary schools,
high schools, special programs, personnel, finance, and the like. There may also be cur-
riculum coordinators responsible for the development and implementation of subject-area
curriculum, and other professional personnel.
Superintendents of schools are considered the educational leaders of the school
district. Many have worked successfully to turn around weak school systems. For example,
Michelle Rhee, chancellor, Washington, DC, public school system from 2007 to 2010, ac-
cepted the challenge of seeing that low-income urban students catch up with students in
the suburbs. During her fiery tenure of three years, student test scores rose, and decades of
enrollment decline stopped as she closed ineffective schools and fired inefficient personnel.
Several federal secretaries of education were once superintendents of schools. Arne
Duncan (2009–present) was CEO of the Chicago Public Schools, and Rod Paige
(2001–2005) was superintendent of the Houston Independent School District.
Remember that we are working our way up from the building-level of our organiza-
tional structure. Figure 11.2 shows a visual representation of how this structure looks so far.

State-Level Governance
To whom are superintendents and local school boards accountable? Recall that members
of the school board are agents of the state. The U.S. Constitution does not specifically

Local School Board

Superintendent

Assistant Superintendent Assistant Superintendent or Assistant Superintendent

or Coordinator Coordinator or Coordinator
(Personnel) (Curriculum and Instruction) (Special Services)

Principals
Figure 11.2
▲

Typical building- and local-level

Teachers and Staff
governance structure.
© Cengage Learning 2014

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 address education, but the Tenth Amendment gives the states any powers, including edu-
cation, not constitutionally delegated to the United States:

Amendment 10—The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitu-
tion, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or
to the people.

Thus, each state’s constitution governs how education is to be implemented in that

state. At the state level, several agencies and individuals have input regarding educational
policy. The educational organizational structure varies from state to state, but we can
identify some positions and responsibilities that are common to all states.

State Board of Education

Each state has a state board of education. State boards of education establish state school
policies at all grade levels, from pre–K through postsecondary years. Members of state
school boards can be appointed or elected; in most states, the members are appointed by
the governor and confirmed by the state senate. The state board of education is respon-
sible to the state legislature and the governor. The specific responsibilities of state school
boards vary among states, but common functions include:

Setting the standards for teacher certification.

Setting the standards for accreditation of teacher preparation programs.
Developing and establishing statewide curriculum and testing standards.
Collecting, organizing, analyzing, and reporting school data.
Making recommendations to the state legislature about the state’s educational needs.
Working with commissions appointed by the legislature on issues such as teacher
education, financing, and redistricting.
Formulating standards for school facilities.

State Department of Education

Department of Education Each state also has a Department of Education (DOE). Through the DOE, policies
(DOE) The state-level governing developed by the state board of education are put into practice. The DOE oversees all
body for education policies
developed by the state board of education in the state, distributes state funds appropriated for education, and monitors
education including use of state and the use of federal education funds. The DOE also operationalizes and enforces the
federal funds, teacher certification, standards for teacher certification, teacher preparation program accreditation, and cur-
curriculum, and testing.
riculum and testing developed by the state board of education. It is responsible for
public relations and staff development within the state. The state Department of Edu-
cation, with its subsidiary agencies, is responsible to the state board of education and
the legislature.
chief state school officer The state Department of Education is headed by a chief state school officer
(CSSO) The state superintendent of (CSSO) or state superintendent of schools, although this administrator’s specific title
schools.
varies among the states. Depending on the state, the CSSO may be elected or appointed
by the governor or the state board of education. The CSSO often is referred to as the
CEO of the state’s education enterprise, which, as you have seen, is very large. The
chief state school officer, the state department of education, and the state board of
education all work cooperatively with the state legislature, which votes on education
bills that may become laws. Gubernatorial candidates often include educational issues
in their political platforms. Many voters cast their vote based on the candidates’ edu-
cational positions. Because the public can vote for or against potential education lead-
ers, and because of the opportunity to become involved in special interest groups, it is
easy to see that the public not only has a stake in education—but also has some influ-
ence over educational decisions. Who is the chief state school officer in your state?
How is this person selected?

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 CONTROVERSIES in Education

Textbooks and Evolution

I  n March 2002, hundreds of parents in Cobb
County, Georgia, signed a petition protesting the
removal of the stickers (MacDonald, 2002a), and a group of
university professors, the Georgia Scientists for Academic
contents of the school system’s newly adopted science Freedom, which encouraged critical examination of
textbooks. They claimed that the books presented the evolutionary theory (MacDonald, 2002b).
scientific theory of evolution as fact and did not address In a related issue, the Georgia state school
other theories such as intelligent design. In response, the superintendent came under fire for removing instances of
Cobb County school board approved a policy that required the word evolution from the new state curriculum standards
stickers to be placed on the covers of the textbooks and replacing it with the term biological changes over time.
stating, “This textbook contains material on evolution. The superintendent said that her intent was not to
Evolution is a theory, not a fact, regarding the origin of “appease Georgians who have religious conflicts with [the]
living things. This material should be approached with an scientific theory [of evolution]” but to avoid a controversial
open mind, studied carefully, and critically considered.” term (MacDonald, 2004a). The tactic seems to have
Three years later, a U.S. District Court judge heard a backfired, however, as the superintendent drew criticism
lawsuit filed by a group of six parents of students in from science teachers, scientists, politicians, and the public
the Cobb County school system. The suit claimed that the in Georgia and many other states as the news story went
textbook stickers violated the establishment clause of the national. The terms evolution and big bang theory, which
First Amendment, which states, “Congress shall make no law had also been removed, were put back into the proposed
respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the state science standards, which were then approved by the
free exercise thereof.” The judge ruled that the stickers state board of education (MacDonald, 2004b).
violated the United States and Georgia constitutions, and
that placing the stickers on the textbooks gave the WHAT DO YOU THINK?
impression that the Cobb County school board agreed “with
the Christian fundamentalists” (Torres & Rankin, 2005). He 1. Do you think evolution should be taught in high
ordered that the stickers be removed. school?
The lawsuit brought by the parents was originally filed 2. Do you think intelligent design should be taught in
in May 2002. From the time the suit was filed until the high school?
court’s decision, several special interest groups spoke up in 3. Do you think school curriculum designers should
support of one side or the other. Among these were the accept at face value the majority opinion of the
National Academy of Sciences, which supported the community members concerning controversial issues?

Special Interest Groups

The public elects state legislators, but special interest groups lobby to influence the educational
policies put forth in bills by the legislature each year. These special interest groups influence
bills that cover such diverse topics as textbook adoption, curriculum, teacher tenure and sala-
ries, and school calendars. Groups with a stake in decisions regarding these topics include
teacher unions, religious and civil rights groups, parent groups, community groups, businesses,
business associations, taxpayer associations, and colleges and universities. When these special
interest groups bring pressure to lawmakers concerning their stands about particular topics,
the special interest group is said to be lobbying. Lobbyists may or may not be paid for their lobbying The process of influencing
work by the constituents they represent. Lobbying can represent large amounts of money; the local, state, or government policy.
costs involved in lobbying officials in the federal government reached a high of more than
$103 million in 2008, but have declined since (Center for Responsive Politics, 2011).
One area greatly influenced by special interest groups is textbook selection. In several
states, the state board of education is responsible for textbook adoption. This is a par-
ticularly contentious issue in California, Texas, and Florida, the three largest states in
which textbook adoption occurs at the state level. Originally implemented so state funds
could provide schools and students with free textbooks, the practice of state-level text-
book adoption has attracted highly polarized special interest groups—and each one wants
its own agenda incorporated into the adoption process. Among the more powerful of

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 The Public Special Interest Groups
(Teacher Unions, Religious and Civil Rights Groups,
Business Associations, Colleges and Universities, etc.)

The Governor The State Legislature

State Board of Education

Chief State School Officer

State Department of Education

Local School Board

Superintendent

Assistant Superintendent Assistant Superintendent or Assistant Superintendent or

or Coordinator Coordinator Coordinator
(Personnel) (Curriculum and Instruction) (Special Services)

Principals
Figure 11.3
▲

Building-, local-, and state-level

governance structure. Teachers and Staff
© Cengage Learning 2014

these groups are the textbook publishers, who lobby textbook adoption committees in
states with large student populations to try to convince them to adopt their textbooks; the
publishers are even willing to censor and tailor their textbooks to meet the guidelines of
these states to make the huge profits involved in textbook sales. Other special interest
groups also can have a great influence on textbook adoption.
The issue of evolution in textbooks is very much alive. In 2011, the Texas Board of
Education began hearings on whether alternatives to evolution should be included in the
textbooks the state adopts, particularly electronic books (e-books) that would be used
alongside the textbooks. But the board voted unanimously to adopt pro-evolution materi-
als in e-books and to reject the inclusion of materials that call Darwin’s theory of evolu-
tion into question (Clabough, 2011). Many other states continue to wrestle with this
sticky issue in education.
Another example of the power of lobbying involves the coverage of plastic bags in
high school chemistry textbooks in California. The revision of the textbooks includes a
new section titled “The Advantages of Plastic Shopping Bags,” to show a positive side of
the plastic shopping bags that kill marine animals, leach toxic chemicals, and take an
estimated 1,000 years to decompose in landfills (Rust, 2011).
What does our organizational structure look like now? We have extended our con-
sideration from building- to local- to state-level governance (see Figure 11.3).

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 The Role of the Federal Government in Education
As mentioned earlier, the U.S. Constitution makes no direct provision for education; the
Tenth Amendment delegates this responsibility to the states. However, there can be no
doubt that the nation has a huge stake in education. Although states assume responsibility
for education and local school districts operate the school systems, the federal government
is involved in education through research, reports, recommendations, legislation, and,
especially, funding. Many of these activities are carried out through the U.S. Department
of Education and its subsidiary educational agencies.
The U.S. Department of Education became a cabinet-level federal agency in 1979,
during the Carter administration. Previously, it had been called the U.S. Office of Educa-
tion and was part of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. The first Depart-
ment of Education was established in 1867 for the purpose of collecting information
about best practices in teaching and schooling to help the states establish and govern their
school systems. The Office of Education gave federal aid to the states for vocational edu-
cation programs in the early and mid-1900s.
The mission of the U.S. Department of Education is to promote student achievement
and preparation for global competition by fostering educational excellence and ensuring
equal access. The department engages in four major types of activities:

1. Establishing policies related to federal education funding, administering distribution

of funds, and monitoring their use.
2. Collecting data and overseeing research in U.S. schools.
3. Identifying major issues in education and focusing national attention on them.
4. Enforcing federal laws prohibiting discrimination in programs that receive federal
funds. (U.S. Department of Education, 2009)

Although the U.S. Department of Education does not make education policy, it offers
much assistance and some funding. The primary influence of the federal government in
educational affairs comes in the form of conditions attached to funding. States and school
districts must agree to federal conditions to qualify for federal funding. For example, to
secure Title I federal funding, schools must demonstrate that they have a significant level
of students of poverty. If a school chooses not to demonstrate this demographic, it will
not receive Title I federal funding, regardless of the poverty level of the community it
serves.
Some people believe that the Tenth Amendment should be followed to the letter. These
individuals, including politicians and other influential people, believe that the U.S. Depart-
ment of Education should be dissolved and that the states should have full control of
education and the schools. Others maintain that education is so important to the nation
that the federal government must be involved.
What do you think about this issue? Perhaps you are most familiar with the federal
government’s involvement in education through the No Child Left Behind Act. As you
know, this legislation has had a huge effect on education in virtually every state. Yet, ac-
cording to the U.S. Constitution, states are responsible for their own educational policies.
Much discussion and debate has centered on the No Child Left Behind legislation
and, especially, the standardized testing program it requires. Many critics claim that the
federal government offers insufficient funding to help states implement this federal law.
But wait a minute—isn’t it true that the federal government does not make educational
policy? Yes, that is correct. But the federal government does provide a great deal of money
to schools, districts, and states willing to abide by the federal statutes. If schools want to
receive federal money, they must follow federal policies. Any state that refuses to abide by
federal regulations loses the concomitant federal funding. It is possible for a state to de-
cide that the funding is not worth compliance with the conditions imposed and choose to
sacrifice federal funds in exchange for greater state control over education. That is exactly
what the state of Utah did. In 2005, Utah’s governor signed a measure defying the No
Child Left Behind Act, saying it intruded on state education priorities; the bill empowered

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 state education officials to ignore provisions of the federal law that conflict with the
state’s program. In doing so, the state faced the loss of $76 million in federal funding
(MSNBC News, 2005). But, as you will see, federal funding accounts for about 9.5 percent
of a typical school district’s total educational costs Johnson, Zhou, & Nakamoto, 2011).
And now, instead of having to defy the No Child Left Behind Act and run the risk of
losing federal money, states can request waivers from certain constraining provisions.
As of 2012, 19 states had been approved for NCLB waivers, and 36 more states plus the
District of Columbia had formally submitted waiver requests (U.S. Department of
Education, 2012a).
You have investigated school governance at the levels of the individual school, the
school system, the state government, and the federal government. Now it is time to sum-
marize your thoughts.

BUILDING BLOCK Control and the Stakeholders . . . Again

11.4 Look back at Building Block 11.2. Use your new understandings to revise the chart
you made, this time including the federal level. Use a table like the one shown here
to help you organize your thoughts.

Individuals or Categories Individuals or Categories

of Individuals in Control of Individuals Who Are Affected
Building
Level
System
Level
State
Level
Federal
level

How does this table compare with the table you prepared in Building Block 11.2?
How can you provide input for educational decisions at each of these levels?

Other Influences on Education and Schools

You have seen the influences stakeholders can exert on school policies and procedures. Let
us consider two other factors that greatly affect schools: standardized test scores and
teacher unions.

Standardized Tests
States use standardized tests to measure students’ achievement to comply with the No
Child Left Behind pillar of accountability (see Chapter 1), and standardized testing will
continue under the waiver plan of the Obama administration. Student performance on
standardized tests is of great concern not only to students and their parents, but also to
states and the nation (see Controversy in Education, “Test Scores and Measures of
Teacher Excellence,” in Chapter 1). Standardized tests have long been part of the educa-
tional fabric as a way to measure student progress toward achieving state curriculum
objectives. The No Child Left Behind legislation mandates the use of standardized tests to
determine student achievement, teacher caliber, and school excellence.
If you can recall how many times you have seen references to No Child Left Behind
in the news and have heard the term accountability referring to teachers and schools, you
can get an idea of how strong the influence of standardized tests has been on education.

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 Furthermore, because student performance on those stan-
dardized tests is used to measure adequate yearly progress
(AYP), and because schools and teachers are held account-
able for student performance, you can understand the
enormous influence that standardized tests have on teach-
ing practices.
How do teachers respond to the pressures of account-
ability? Does the pressure for students to perform on the
standardized tests affect what and how they teach? Cer-
tainly one skill teachers want their students to know is how

© age fotostock / SuperStock

to take a test. Some teachers prepare their students to take
standardized tests by providing instruction on how to take
tests. The testing atmosphere can be anxiety-ridden, and
these anxieties can affect performance on the tests. By
learning and applying test-taking strategies, students may
feel less anxious and perform better. Teachers also may
provide sample test questions for students to complete for practice. However, it is unclear Standardized tests are intended
whether preparation in test-taking strategies affects student performance. It is well docu- to assess student knowledge
acquired in the classroom. Student
mented that some teachers resort to cheating so their students will appear to have done
performance on various standard-
well on the tests; perhaps the most widely publicized is the Atlanta, Georgia, Public
ized tests influences school
School system where 178 teachers and principals in 44 schools tampered with the stan- curriculum and federal school
dardized test answer forms by erasing incorrect student answers and replacing them with financing.
correct answers (Severson, 2011).
There is much debate about standardized testing. Some people believe that the tests
do not test what the curriculum teaches. They feel that, rather than testing the higher-
order thinking skills emphasized in the curriculum, standardized tests require students to
access memorized facts and concepts. As Kohn (2001) writes, “The intellectual life is be-
Use your favorite search
ing squeezed out of our schools as they are transformed into what are essentially giant
engine to find which statewide
test-prep centers” (p. 350). On the other hand, some people contend that standardized tests your Department of
tests promote higher-order thinking skills in the context of the content being tested. Education requires and when
As you know, the Obama administration is granting waivers from the burdensome students take them.
mandates of No Child Left Behind in lieu of the reauthorization of the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act. Although standardized tests will still be required, they will not
have the supreme power they have under NCLB.

Standardized Testing BUILDING BLOCK

What are your thoughts about the standardized testing programs in effect in your 11.5
state?
Can these standardized tests provide a valid measure of student achievement? If
so, how?
Can they provide a valid measure of a teacher’s effectiveness? If so, how?
Can they distinguish “good” schools from “poor” schools? If so, how?
Can their scores enable the public to form valid opinions about the education
their children are getting? If so, how?
Can they accomplish the goal of accountability? If so, how?

From your inquiries, you can see that the people who work with and for schools have
a tremendous interest in the what, why, and how of education. We have identified teach-
ers, administrators, and other school personnel as stakeholders in education. It matters to
them what is happening not only in their school buildings, but also in their school dis-
tricts, their states, and the nation.

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 Teacher Unions
By definition, a union is “an organization of workers formed for the purpose of advancing
its members’ interests in respect to wages, benefits, and working conditions” (Merriam-
Webster, 2012). The largest unions in the country for teachers and other education per-
sonnel are the National Education Association (NEA) and the American Federation of
Teachers (AFT). You explored the backgrounds of these organizations in Chapter 10, and
you have seen the results of some of their work throughout this textbook.
The NEA, boasting 3.2 million members, includes teachers from preschool to the
college level, administrators, and other school personnel. It is the country’s largest
union for educators. It has chapters in every state and the District of Columbia, and in
more than 14,000 communities across the nation (National Education Association,
2011a). National members are influential in federal politics, and state and local lobby-
ists have been very influential in shaping state and national education policies and
practices and in supporting candidates for school board and state education positions
(Haar, 1999).
Although smaller than the NEA, the AFT asserts similar positions on educational
issues and also is influential in forming educational policy. The AFT has 1.5 million
members in more than 3,000 local affiliates nationwide (American Federation of
Teachers, n.d.). The AFT is affiliated with the American Federation of Labor–Congress
of Industrial Organizations (AFL–CIO), a federation of 56 job-specific unions (AFL-
CIO, n.d.).
The NEA is traditionally viewed as a professional organization that deals with
general issues of educational policy and procedure, and the AFT is traditionally
viewed as a labor union, but both are involved in collective bargaining activities as
well as dealing with general education issues. The unions negotiate with school dis-
tricts on behalf of teachers with respect to salaries, working conditions, transfers, staff
development, and most other aspects of teacher benefits and working conditions. In
many states, teachers are required to belong to a union; states in which union mem-
bership is required are often called “union states.” In most union states, the unions
can call for teacher strikes if they feel it is necessary to force the negotiation of teacher
contract provisions, working condi-
tions, and benefits.1
Individual states have their own
state education associations; many
of these are affiliated with national
organizations and have student
chapters in colleges and universities.
You might have a student education
association on your campus. Usually,
the dues for joining a student chap-
ter are minimal. There are certain
benefits to student membership, such
as liability insurance and free sub-
AP Images/Rockford Register Star, Scott Morgan

scriptions to the association’s educa-

tional journals. Not only will joining
a student education organization
provide you with access to impor-
tant and current information and
benefits, you will also have the
opportunity to interact with other
educators and individuals studying
education.
In many union states, teachers
are permitted to strike.
1
Thirteen states permit teachers to strike: Alaska, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Illinois, Louisiana,
Minnesota, Montana, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Vermont, and Wisconsin (Alleghany Institute for
Public Policy, 2011).

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 Teacher Unions BUILDING BLOCK
This Building Block asks you to find information about teacher unions pertinent to 11.6
your state:
Is your state a union or a nonunion state for teachers?
What is the general opinion regarding teacher unions in your state?
What would be the advantages and disadvantages of living in a state where
most teachers are members of a union?
What would be the advantages and disadvantages of living in a state where
teachers are not union members?
Is there a student chapter of an NEA or AFT affiliate at your college or
university?
What is it called?
What are its activities and goals?

Financing Education
You have identified a number of stakeholders in education and have examined how these
stakeholders can influence the governance and control of education. You have an idea of
the complexity and enormity of the governance of education in the United States. Can you
imagine how much money is needed to operate just one school, let alone all the programs
associated with it?

Adding It Up BUILDING BLOCK

Make a list of everything you can think of in a school that requires money. Include 11.7
personnel, facilities, equipment, material, and other costs associated with running a
school. You might want to consider the school you used in Building Block 11.2,
where you investigated who makes decisions.
Try to put a dollar figure on each person’s salary and the costs of each support
service item. Can you estimate a total annual cost for a school?

It is mind-boggling to try to think of everything that requires money in a single

school. You probably identified teacher salaries as an expenditure. What about the cost of
equipment, materials, and supplies? Electricity and water? Repairs? Landscaping? What
about support personnel—administrators, nurses, cafeteria workers, custodians, bus driv-
ers, and the like? And when you consider that in the 2009–2010 school year, the most
recent year for which data is available, more than 49 million students attended almost
99,000 public schools (Chen, 2011), the numbers can be staggering.
The total expenditure for public school elementary and secondary education in the
2008–2009 academic year was $519 billion. Of this, 61.3 percent went to instruction
(teacher salaries, textbooks, etc.), 34.6 percent went to support services (administration,
media center, school maintenance, nurses, etc.), and 4.1 percent went to noninstructional
expenses (food service, bookstores, etc.) (Johnson, Zhou, & Nakamoto, 2011). Figure 11.4
on the next page illustrates this breakdown.

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 Noninstructional Expenses,
4.1%
Support Services,
34.6%

Figure 11.4

▲
Instruction,
Expenditures for public 61.3%
elementary and secondary
schools by function, 2008–2009.
© Cengage Learning 2014

Where does all this money come from? Revenues for public schools for the 2009–2010
fiscal year equaled $593 billion, with $453 billion coming from state and local govern-
ments, and $56.7 billion coming from the federal government. State sources accounted for
46.7 percent of this revenue, local sources accounted for 43.7 percent, and federal sources
accounted for 9.6 percent (see Figure 11.5) (Johnson, Zhou, and Nakamoto, 2011).

Federal Sources,
9.6%
Local Sources,
43.7%

State Sources,
46.7%

Figure 11.5
▲

Sources of revenue for public

elementary and secondary
schools, 2008–2009.
© Cengage Learning 2014

Local Funding
More than 43 percent of school funding comes from local sources. But what are those
local sources? Communities pay property taxes to support schools. In addition, in some
areas, a portion of the sales taxes goes for school support.
Property taxes are taxes assessed on personal property, such as boats and cars, and real
estate, such as homes, land, and commercial buildings. In any one community, therefore, the
amount of money spent on schools depends on the value of the property in that community.

BUILDING BLOCK Property Taxes and Equity

11.8 Think about the neighborhood where you live and its surrounding areas. Do some
areas have huge, luxurious houses? Do other neighborhoods have less extravagant
dwellings where middle-class people live? How about lower socioeconomic neigh-
borhoods?
Now imagine that there is a school in the middle of each of those neighborhoods
and suppose that the school is supported solely by a neighborhood property tax.
What would the school in the luxurious neighborhood be like compared with the
school in the lower socioeconomic neighborhood? What might you suggest to make

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 the schools more equal? Would it be fair to tax the property owners in the less afflu-
ent neighborhood at a higher rate so its school could be better? Would it be fair to
send some of the tax money from the luxurious neighborhood to the needy school?
Draw some inferences regarding the amount of support schools receive and the
communities they are in. What are your conclusions regarding property values and
school quality?

As you can tell, there can be huge discrepancies in school funding from region to
region. Citizens can be taxed only so much. Schools are restricted in the education they
can provide by the funds they have. Property taxes are assessed on property values; some-
one with more valuable property pays more than someone whose property is less valu-
able. On the other hand, everyone pays the same rate for sales taxes regardless of income,
so those with lower incomes actually pay a higher percentage of their income in sales
taxes than those with higher incomes. Can you explain why? Consequently, the amount
of local funding available for schools is far greater in wealthy areas than it is in lower
socioeconomic areas, and school districts vary tremendously in the quality of school
buildings, amount of resources (including books), and level of teacher salaries, which in-
clude a supplement funded by local property and sales taxes in addition to the state-based
salary (see Chapter 9). This disparity in funding is a very serious problem.2

State Funding
States provide about half of the funding for their schools. All states have sources of rev-
enue used to finance education. In most states, this revenue comes from sales and income
taxes, licensing fees, inheritance taxes, and other state sources. However, not all states
have income taxes, and not all states have sales taxes.

Sources of Revenue in Your State BUILDING BLOCK

Does your state have an income tax? 11.9
Does your state have a sales tax? If so, what is its percentage?
What other sources of revenue does your state use to support schools?

States use several different methods to determine the educational financial aid each
district receives. The most common method is based on a district’s “average daily mem-
bership,” which is based largely on attendance. In this system, the amount of financial aid
a school district receives from the state depends on the number of students who are en-
rolled and actually attend school in the district. Thus, large school districts receive more
state aid than small districts, but they also have more students to serve. Why do you sup-
pose it is important for teachers to take attendance?
In the 2009–2010 academic year, states spent an average of $10,591 per student on
education. Of this amount, an average of $6,436 (61.3 percent) went to instruction,
$3,706 (34.6 percent) went to support, and $404 (4.1 percent) went to noninstructional
expenditures (Johnson, Zhou, and Nakamoto, 2011). Table 11.1 shows a state-by-state
listing of the average annual state-funded per-pupil expenditures for the 2008–2009
school year. As you can see, the per-pupil spending ranged from a low of $7,118 in Idaho
to a high of $19,698 in the District of Columbia, a difference of $12,580. How does the
average annual per-pupil expenditure for 2008–2009 in your state compare to other states
and the national average?

2
Jonathan Kozol’s classic book, Savage Inequalities (1991), discusses the forces of equity and the extremes
of wealth and poverty in the U.S. school system.

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 TABLE 11.1 State-by-State Full-Time Students and Per-Pupil Education Expenditures for 2009–2010.

Number of
Full-Time Support Enterprise
State Students Total Instruction Services Food Services Operations*

Total United States 49,003,001 $10,591 $6,456 $3,706 $404 $25

Alabama 739,198 $9,042 $5,273 $3,163 $607 0

Alaska 130,662 $15,353 $8,599 $6,277 $408 $69

Arizona 1,087,817 $7,929 $4,785 $2,738 $363 $43

Arkansas 478,965 $8,854 $5,140 $3,205 $500 $9

California 6,322,528 $9,503 $5,685 $3,441 $354 $23

Colorado 818,443 $8,872 $5,061 $3,375 $298 $48

Connecticut 567,198 $15,353 $9,594 $5,247 $379 $134

Delaware 125,430 $12,109 $7,378 $4,246 $484 0

District of Columbia 66,681 $19,698 $9,087 $9,985 $603 $24

Florida 2,631,020 $8,867 $5,361 $3,115 $391 0

Georgia 1,655,792 $9,649 $6,047 $3,093 $481 $28

Hawaii 179,478 $12,399 $7,714 $4,102 $584 0

Idaho 275,051 $7,118 $4,335 $2,429 $352 2

Illinois 2,026,925 $11,592 $6,815 $4,415 $361 0

Indiana 1,046,147 $9,254 $5,404 $3,460 $391 0

Iowa 470,537 $10,055 $6,159 $3,438 $449 $10

Kansas 471,060 $10,021 $6,162 $3,573 $465 0

Kentucky 651,370 $9,038 $5,353 $3,136 $528 $21

Louisiana 684,873 $10,625 $6,160 $3,891 $574 0

Maine 192,935 $12,183 $7,333 $4,415 $435 0

Maryland 843,861 $13,737 $8,470 $4,716 $361 $190

Massachusetts 958,910 $14,540 $9,461 $4,699 $380 0

Michigan 1,659,921 $10,373 $5,930 $4,103 $340 0

Minnesota 836,048 $11,088 $7,227 $3,387 $446 $28

Mississippi 491,962 $8,064 $4,731 $2,843 $489 $1

Missouri 892,436 $9,891 $5,943 $3,504 $443 0

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 Montana 140,936 $10,189 $6,122 $3,629 $420 $18

Nebraska 281,544 $10,846 $7,042 $3,066 $438 $300

Nevada 433,371 $8,321 $4,944 $3,105 $272 0

New Hampshire 197,934 $12,583 $8,084 $4,154 $345 0

New Jersey 1,381,420 $17,076 $10,084 $6,450 $380 $162

New Mexico 330,245 $9,648 $5,565 $3,680 $398 $5

New York 2,740,592 $17,746 $12,276 $5,097 $373 0

North Carolina 1,463,967 $8,518 $5,397 $2,660 $462 0

North Dakota 94,728 $9,802 $5,721 $3,260 $525 $296

Ohio 1,779,290 $10,902 $6,210 $4,328 $363 $1

Oklahoma 645,108 $7,878 $4,508 $2,835 $463 $72

Oregon 575,393 $9,611 $5,594 $3,684 $328 $4

Pennsylvania 1,775,029 $12,299 $7,437 $4,382 $427 $53

Rhode Island 145,342 $14,719 $8,812 $5,548 $358 $1

South Carolina 718,113 $9,928 $5,329 $3,400 $473 $26

South Dakota 126,429 $8,543 $4,958 $3,097 $449 $39

Tennessee 971,950 $7,992 $5,016 $2,580 $396 0

Texas 4,752,148 $8,562 $5,138 $2,979 $445 0

Utah 550,298 $6,612 $4,275 $1,959 $345 $33

Vermont 93,625 $15,096 $9,418 $5,258 $411 $8

Virginia 1,235,795 $10,928 $6,631 $3,895 $401 $1

Washington 1,026,023 $9,688 $5,830 $3,423 $316 $118

West Virginia 282,729 $10,821 $6,456 $3,769 $596 0

Wisconsin 867,035 $11,183 $6,846 $3,947 $390 0

Wyoming 86,709 $14,628 $8,602 $5,566 $452 $8

*Receipts from activities that are operated as a business such as school bookstores and certain after-school activities
Source: From the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

You can see there are large discrepancies among the amounts states spend on their
students. What do you think causes these discrepancies? Remember that the primary
sources of state funding for schools are sales taxes and income taxes. Therefore, the
money that any particular state can allocate for education depends on the income of its
residents and on the purchases made by residents, visitors, and tourists.

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 Some states supplement their educational funds with lotteries and other forms of
gambling. Usually these revenues are intended to enhance specific educational programs,
facilities, and operations. A typical example is the Florida lottery, which supports scholar-
ships, school improvement programs, and new construction.

BUILDING BLOCK Lotteries and Education

11.10 Does your state have a lottery? If not, what is the nearest state that does?
Are any of the state’s lottery proceeds used for education? How much?
How does education benefit from these lottery proceeds?
(You might be able to find some of this information on the state lottery’s website.)

Federal Funding
TeachSour The federal government contributes an average of 9.6 percent of school fund-
ce Video ing. There is great variance among the states, with the New England states
receiving the lowest percentage and the southeastern states receiving the high-
View the TeachSource Video, “Educa- est percentage (Owings & Kaplan, 2006). Funds are provided in three main
tion and Equity.” This story compares the ways: categorical grants, formula funding, and competitive grants. Federal
differences in the educational opportunities
available to two top female student athletes.
funding is overseen by the U.S. Department of Education. Remember that the
One student attends an urban public school federal government cannot control the education programs or policies of
on Chicago’s west side. The other attends states. But, it can (and does) develop needed programs that schools can imple-
a public school just outside the city. After ment if they choose. These programs are accompanied by funding. Only if the
watching the video, answer the following schools implement the federal programs will they receive the accompanying
questions:
federal funding.
1. What are some of the difficulties students
encounter at Raven High School on
Categorical Grants
Chicago’s west side?
2. How is the Raven High School different Categorical grants (sometimes called block grants) are provided by the federal
from the high school in New Trier, Illinois, government to help fund specific elementary and secondary programs approved
a suburb of Chicago? through federal legislation. Programs provide financial aid for eligible schools for
elementary, secondary, and college education; for the education of individuals
with disabilities and those who are illiterate, disadvantaged, or gifted; and for the educa-
categorical grants Funding from the
tion of immigrants, American Indians, and people with limited English proficiency. Spe-
federal government to provide for cific examples include the funding of arts education, bilingual education, Head Start
elementary and secondary programs programs, school breakfast and lunch programs, and the National Writing Project. Many
approved through federal legislation.
of these programs have been discussed elsewhere in this textbook.

Formula Funding
formula funding Funding that Formula funding refers to grants the federal government provides to schools that show
is provided on the basis of the need; this need often is based on the number of free and reduced-price lunches they pro-
application of a formula that uses
specific data to determine need. vide to their students. Examples include Title I funding, which is directed toward raising
student achievement, Title II Part A funds that go toward improving teacher quality, and
Title III funds that target language acquisition.

Competitive Grants
competitive grants grants awarded Competitive grants are provided by the federal government for specific projects and
through a competitive process programs. States, school districts, and individual schools may submit proposals that
involving an evaluative review of
proposals.

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 compete with other proposals for funding for specific federal programs. The most
prominent of these are the Race to the Top grants.
Another example of competitive grants, albeit less dramatic, is the National Science Foun-
dation, which funds programs designed to improve student achievement in mathematics and
science through innovative curriculum and teaching methodologies. Recipients must meet
certain stipulations to receive some federal funds, and the funds are subject to restrictions.

Private Funding
Schools often obtain supplemental funds through fund-raising efforts, private grants, and
commercial advertising. Fund-raising efforts raise money for specific needs, classes, or
projects in individual schools. They may be sponsored by the PTA, school-based clubs, or
students; examples include raising money for band uniforms, cheerleading camp, a new
science center, an outdoor classroom, or any number of special projects a school could not
otherwise afford. You have probably been involved in some school fund-raising efforts,
on either the buying or the selling side. We have all had children (maybe even your own
children) come to our doors selling magazine subscriptions, candy, or fruits to raise
money for a school trip, new uniforms, or some other school project. School ath-
letic clubs often solicit funds through booster clubs to help defray the expenses
incurred by athletics programs.
TeachSour
Money from individual benefactors, private corporations, and foundations ce Video
is available through the competitive grant application process. Grant awards
range from small to very large. States, school districts, schools, and classroom View the TeachSource Video titled, “High
teachers can apply for grants targeted toward specific programs. For example, Schools in Low-Income Communities Re-
grants from AOL/Time Warner fund programs that enhance teaching and learn- ceive a Failing Grade” (Part 1). Nationwide,
ing with technology, and grants from the Intel Corporation fund programs that many schools are cutting educational funds.
Schools face painful choices when their fund-
emphasize science, mathematics, and technology, especially those for women and
ing shrinks. They are increasing class sizes,
the underserved populations. Toyota Tapestry grants are available for K–12 sci- reducing curricular offerings, and cutting
ence teachers. Often, such grants are awarded preferentially to schools with teachers, all while under government pres-
populations that are underserved. sure to increase students’ performance. No
Many small and large grants are available from private foundations, commer- Child Left Behind (NCLB) has been chroni-
cally short of the money it needs. Schools in
cial organizations, and educational organizations, such as the PTAs, PTSAs, col-
Arlington, Massachusetts, had a $4 million
leges and universities, and professional associations. Teachers can (and should) budget cut and let go of 97 people includ-
apply for these grants to fund special projects in their classrooms. Large compa- ing teachers, school counselors, and reading
nies often provide support for education in other ways. For example, an office specialists. Private funding is being used to
supply store may post a local school’s supply list or a bookstore may stock books rescue local public schools. After watching
the video, answer the following questions:
that are on the local school district’s summer reading lists.
Some school systems have raised funds by allowing advertising on their prop- 1. What will not be taught as a result of let-
ting teachers go?
erty. You may have seen advertisements for local businesses on signs, scoreboards,
2. What will a reduced teaching force do for
and programs at athletic events. These ads can run from local business advertise-
the education of our children?
ments on school buses to ads that wrap around lockers and pyramid cards on
lunch tables. For example:

In Minnesota, wraparound ads on lockers earn $230,000 a year for each of the five
schools in one district.
In California, ads in the 15 high schools in one district are expected to bring in up to
$1 million a year.
In Colorado, ads on the sides of school buses in one district will generate $500,000
over four years. (Macedo, 2010)

Commercialism in the schools is a lucrative financial resource and allows schools

to keep programs they would otherwise have to cut. But some find the practice prob-
lematic, believing that education should not be “tainted” with advertising. Critics claim

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 that children are being forced to view adver-
tising in and around their schools without
parental consent and are concerned that some
advertisements may market unhealthy foods
or use children as subjects of market research.
Others believe that students are bombarded
by commercialism anyway, so viewing adver-
tising in school is not much different from the
norm. Especially contentious is the cell phone
industry that will pay schools handsomely for
installing cell towers on school property. For
example, in 2010, cell phone companies paid

© Mark Richards/ PhotoEdit, Inc.

Hillsborough County, Florida Public Schools
over $250,000 to lease school property for
cell phone towers and antennas (Center for
Safer Wireless, n.d.). However, parents are
very concerned about the potential effect the
electromagnetic radiation concentrated through
the towers may have on the health of their
Students and parents often initiate fund-raising efforts to children.
supplement government funding for education. Why do
schools need to pursue financing outside of municipal, state,
and federal funds?

BUILDING BLOCK Commercialism in the School

11.11 Look carefully at the school at which you are doing your field experience. Look at
the hallways, the locker areas, the gymnasium, the lunchroom, the outdoor grounds,
the buses, a few classrooms, and nonclassroom areas that are frequented by stu-
dents.
What commercial advertising or suggestions do you find? Be specific as in the
following chart:

Type of Product or Product or Product or

Advertising or Company Company Company
Location Suggestions Name Name Name

Hall __________

Hall __________

Locker area

Gym

Lunchroom

Outdoors

Buses

Classroom ______

Classroom ______

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 Other

Is the advertising you found appropriate for the age of children who attend that
school?
Is the funding gained worth exposing the students to the advertising?
Is school an inappropriate place for marketers to promote their products to students?
How do you feel about commercialism in schools?

© Mark Perlstein/The New York Times/ Redux Pictures

Some school systems have raised

funds by allowing advertising on
their property.

Issues in School Governance and Finance

As you have investigated school governance and finance, you have seen there are several
issues about which educators and others involved in education have differing opinions.
The degree to which the federal government should be involved in controlling and financ-
ing education, the degree to which state governments are involved, the activities of teacher
unions, and the financing of education by private organizations are all controversial issues
and frequent topics of debate. A few other issues warrant a closer examination.

Technology and the Digital Divide

You have seen the importance of technology in today’s society and the importance of using
technology in instruction. You have seen what the technology expectations are for teachers
and students, and you have looked at the standards that detail these expectations (see Chapter 9).

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 Given the funding disparities among school systems, it should be no surprise that disparities
exist with regard to instructional materials, including technology. The disparity in student ac-
digital divide Disparity in access to cess to technology, especially to computers and the Internet, is called the digital divide.
computers and the Internet among The most recent government study on computer and Internet use in the United States is
different groups of people.
tied to the 2000 census. The report, A Nation Online: How Americans are Expanding Their
Use of the Internet (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2002), shows that the use of the Internet
and other information technologies was growing rapidly across all geographic regions and
all demographic groups. The implied message of this report is that the digital divide was no
longer a major concern at that time (2002), and that would remain the case if the trends
were to continue for the next ten years to 2012, when the next study was published.
Providing computers with Internet access in our public schools has progressed well. In
the fall of 2008, 100 percent of public schools had instructional computers with Internet
access (Gray & Lewis, 2009). This applies to all schools, regardless of size, location, socio-
economic status, or percent of minority enrollment (National Center for Education Statistics,
2011a). The number of students per computer is a better indicator of how technology is
being used in schools. In 1998, the overall ratio of students per instructional computer with
Internet access was 12.1 students per computer; this decreased to an average of 6.6 students
per computer in 2000 and 3.1 students per computer in 2008 (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2011a). However, this ratio was higher in schools with the highest poverty concen-
trations than in schools with the lowest poverty concentrations; it was also higher in schools
with the greatest minority enrollment than in schools with the lowest minority enrollment.
The fact that some students have access to modern technology while others do not is
an equity issue. Many students do not have access at home to fast Internet technologies—
or the Internet at all—and teachers must guard against assuming that all students can do
technology-based projects easily. Knowing what you know about effective teaching, re-
member that the presence of technology alone does not ensure learning. Teachers must
know how to integrate technology effectively into their instruction.
All students should have access to teachers who know how to use technology to teach
effectively. This statement has direct implications for you as you progress through your
teacher education program. It is not sufficient that you simply know how to turn on the
computer, run some software, and surf the Internet. You must know how and when it is
appropriate to utilize technology to enhance your instruction.
Today, there seems to be a new kind of digital
divide—different from the one that defines digital divide
in terms of access to and use of technologies. The digital
divide today is really about digital literacy (Watkins,
2011). The digital divide today is generational, geo-
graphic, and ethnic in nature. For example:

Blacks and Hispanics are using cellular phones to gain

access to the Internet (in addition to many other uses),
thereby cutting back on their Internet options
© Richard G. Bingham II / Alamy

(Washington, 2011). One reason may be that smart-

phones cost less than computers and Wi-Fi (James, 2011).
Hispanics in California are on the downside of the digi-
tal divide—35 percent of adults do not use the Internet
at all, and only 50 percent of those who do use the In-
ternet have broadband access at home (James, 2011).
More and more students are Lower-income Americans and Americans in rural ar-
using smartphones to access eas have slower Internet connections than people in
information on the Internet. Using more affluent communities. Slower connections make
a cellular phone to access the it difficult to download web pages, photos, and vid-
Internet is less expensive than eos (Kang, 2011).
having a computer with a modem.
How does this factor affect the People on the downside of the divide may have the technology but do not know how
digital divide? to use it fluently. Current efforts are being directed toward helping people acquire digital
literacy. For example, Minneapolis, Minnesota, has implemented a program called

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 FROM THE FIELD

Online Education for K–12 Teachers

queline Cahill
Jacqueline Cahil

O 

Courtesy of Dr. Jac

nline K–12 teaching is rapidly growing, because it Students can be expected to
offers students educational options that they could follow (1) netiquette rules,
not otherwise attain due to (1) geographic location, (2) due dates with late
(2) health issues, (3) courses not being offered at the brick- penalties, (3) requirements for
and-mortar school, (4) courses being full at the brick-and- being online and checking communication tools, and
mortar school, (5) scheduling conflicts, or (6) desire to (4) requirements for proactiveness regarding concerns. Clear
attend a different school. Some students will be learning and concise written expectations can prevent students and
online for the first time, and others have been doing it for teachers from shutting down.
years: Teachers must have all of the information accessible Teaching communication and collaboration while
for both types of learners. Effective online education avoiding isolation are also important with online education.
requires savvy teachers. One pertinent online teaching This can be accomplished by including (1) regular, interactive
strategy is implementing a student orientation that includes assignments; (2) a chatting area; (3) a question and answer
information on (1) how to be a successful learner, section, and (4) community-building activities. Free online
(2) discipline and motivation, (3) community building, collaborative tools, such as applications within the suite of
(4) basic computer skills, (5) technology tools, (6) time tools Google Apps for Education Edition, are options to
management, (7) differences between online and brick-and- utilize. A chatting area is where students can socialize with
mortar courses, (8) expectations, (9) how to access one another as they would in the hallway with a teacher
technology assistance, (10) frequently asked questions, standing nearby. The question and answer section is where
(11) skills and discipline readiness for online learning, and anyone can post questions and answers; the teacher will
(12) lists of supplementary resources. Best practices include need to oversee this section to make sure that all questions
requiring an interactive student orientation and housing it as are answered correctly. Community-building activities need to
a resource for anyone to refer to throughout the year. occur frequently in the beginning of the school year and
Time management lessons need to be taught, so continue intermittently throughout, to create and maintain a
students know how to (1) budget time, (2) set goals, warm and inviting community. It is also pertinent that
(3) decipher priorities, (4) create weekly schedules, and instructors participate in the community-building activities,
(5) create daily schedules. An asynchronous interactive because this is one of the main ways students get to know
online tutorial that can be accessed and referred to and build a relationship with teachers. Crucial steps to
throughout the school year is ideal. This way, the basic effectively teaching an online course include implementing a
information is taught and students have templates to create comprehensive student orientation, providing interactive time
and manage their information. Instructors can also access it management templates, establishing and following consistent
to problem-solve time management issues. instructor and student expectations, and creating a course
A second important strategy is to have consistent that includes frequent communication and collaboration.
expectations. Teachers can be expected to provide (1) a
timeline for returning all forms of communication; (2) detailed,
prompt, individualized feedback on written assignments; (3) a Jacqueline L. Cahill, PhD
grading timeline; (4) assignments with clear instructions; (5) Kappa Delta Pi Teacher of Honor Award 2010
respect for diverse talents and ways of learning; (6) an Formerly K–12 Online Learning Specialist, Douglas County
effective syllabus; (7) teaching with active learning techniques; School District, Castle Rock, Colorado
(8) proactiveness regarding behavior concerns, lack of Currently teaching online curriculum at Colorado State Uni-
participation, or grades; and (9) due dates with late penalties. versity Global Campus
© Cengage Learning 2014

“Digital Divide Initiative” (DDI) whose mission is to put computers with appropriate
software in people’s homes and to provide technological skills and knowledge to these
people to help them succeed in an increasingly digitized world (Sherman, 2011).
Programs to help young people acquire digital literacy above what they can learn in school
include after-school programs, summer camps, and summer workshops (Watkins, 2011). A
major concern today is the number of people whose access to the Internet is slow—too slow to
make good use of its capabilities. Consequently entire, the Obama administration has an-
nounced that federal funds will be used to connect the entire nation to the Internet (Kang, 2011).

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 School Choice and Voucher Systems
If some schools are getting more money than others, attracting the best teachers, and
providing the best facilities and equipment, it would seem that a student from an
underfunded, underachieving school would do well to transfer to the wealthier school. Of
course, most students go to a school within their district. However, many parents choose
to send their children to different schools for various reasons. This freedom to choose a
School choice the freedom to choose school is called school choice.
which school children will attend. According to Cookson (1994), there are six types of school choice:

1. Intradistrict choice: Parents choose to send their children to another school within
their district.
2. Interdistrict choice: Parents choose to send their children to a school in another
school district.
3. Controlled choice: Parents may choose another school, but their choice is restricted
so as to maintain ethnic, gender, or socioeconomic status balance.
4. Magnet schools: Parents may choose to send their children to a magnet school to focus
their studies. Recall from Chapter 6 that magnet schools focus on certain areas of the
curriculum, such as mathematics, science, or the arts.
5. Charter schools: Although still responsible for documenting student achievement, char-
ter schools are free to implement innovations with reduced government control. Recall
from Chapter 6 that charter schools function more independently than other schools.
6. Voucher plans: Parents may choose to send their children to private schools (includ-
ing those with religious affiliations) with funds for tuition made available by federal
and state governments.

Of these six types, entire voucher plans have been the most controversial. Perhaps
the biggest controversy surrounds the issue of the separation of church and state. Some
contend that the federal government should not supply funds for students to attend
private schools with religious affiliations. Thirty-seven states have constitutions that
contain clauses or amendments that prohibit the government from providing aid to any
organization with a religious affiliation. Nonetheless, many states have passed legisla-
tion to create or expand school voucher programs funded through voucher program tax
credits and scholarships. As of the 2011–2012 school
year, 18 states and the District of Columbia have ap-
proved school choice options, including the option of
attending private schools funded by the state (Herbert,
2011). And a similar proposal is being put forward in
Michigan (Cavanagh, 2011a).
Some studies have shown that school choice results
in increased academic achievement, higher graduation
rates, greater parental satisfaction, and increased student
safety (Burke & Sheffield, 2011). Proponents of school
©Steve Warmowski / The Image Works

choice believe that the competition such choice creates

among schools will force schools to become more effec-
tive. If schools want to keep their students, and therefore
their federal funding, they must step up their efforts and
improve their performance. Opponents say that the
school choice program drains money from the public
schools and has questionable results. They maintain that
Schools with more financial draining funds from schools manifests itself in failure,
support may be able to provide and that allowing any school to fail hurts the educational system as a whole. If a school
better technology for their loses students and money, it cannot be expected to improve.
teachers and students. How might What are your thoughts about the advantages and disadvantages of the school choice
this affect school choice? and school voucher programs?

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 S U M M A RY

CHAPTER RESOURCES
In this chapter, you have investigated systems of school governance and finance. As you
have seen, governing and financing U.S. education are part of a very complex process.
The stakeholders in a school are all the people with an interest in the school. In
addition to the teachers and administrators, this includes parents, businesses, the
community, and, yes, even the students. Stakeholders exert powerful influences
over what goes on in a school.
Governance in schools includes the local PTA and advisory boards, the school ad-
ministration, the district superintendent and school board, the state chief education
officer and the state board of education, and the federal Department of Education.
According to the U.S. Constitution, education decisions are the purview of the states.
School finance comes from states (46.7 percent), local sources (43.7 percent), and
federal sources (9.6 percent). Additional funding is secured through grants, private
funding, commercialism, and other means.
The digital divide seems to be more a matter of technological literacy than equip-
ment ownership.
School choice is available to parents and often is funded by federal and state
governments — even religion-based schools.
School governance and finance will always be an important and controversial issue in
education. Remember that society is the ultimate stakeholder in education. Members of society
fund education and elect those who hold power over education. Because of this, it is under-
standable that issues of current concern to society will make their way into schools, even
though these issues might not relate directly to mathematics, science, the language arts, and
social sciences. Because schools serve and are supported by society, however, they must respond.

Key Terms and Concepts

Categorical grants, 310 Governance, 294 School choice, 316
Chief state school officer Lobbying, 299 School improvement
(CSSO), 298 Parent-Teacher Association plan, 295
Competitive grants, 310 (PTA), 295 Site-based management, 294
Department of Education Parent-Teacher-Student Stakeholder, 293
(DOE), 298 Association (PTSA), 295 Superintendent of schools,
Digital divide, 314 School board (Board of 297
Formula funding, 310 Education), 296

Construct and Apply

1. Draw a table showing the governance structure in (a) a single school with which you are fa-
miliar, and (b) a school district with which you are familiar. For each entity, list the internal and
external stakeholders who might influence decision making.
2. By law, standardized tests are here to stay. Do you believe standardized test scores can ade-
quately assess the effectiveness of teachers for purposes of accountability? If not, what other
information should be used? How should it be used?
3. Describe how education is funded by local, state, and federal funds.
4. Make a list of alternative sources of revenue for schools. Think outside the box and see how
creative you can be.

Deconstructing the Standards

1. Recall the InTASC standard associated with the objectives for this chapter.
Standard #10: Leadership and Collaboration reads, “The teacher seeks appropriate
leadership roles and opportunities to take responsibility for student learning, to collaborate

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 CHAPTER RESOURCES
with learners, families, colleagues, other school professionals, and community members to
ensure learner growth, and to advance the profession.”
a. What part(s) of this standard does this chapter address?
b. How will the concepts in this chapter help you apply this standard as a teacher?
2. Use your favorite search engine to find your state’s standards for certification. When you find
it, bookmark the site. You will refer to it often as you progress through this book.
a. How are your conclusions about educational philosophy represented in your state certifica-
tion standards?
b. How do the InTASC standards compare to your state’s certification standards regarding
educational philosophy?
c. Do you believe the degree of representation concerning educational philosophy is adequate
in your state certification standards? Why or why not?

Your Portfolio
1. Prepare a diagram or flow chart showing the system of governance in your field experience
school, district, and state. Include names for the positions you identify.
2. Obtain details, pictures, or other information about the unique ways your field experience
school or classes in the school raise money; be sure to describe what the money will support.
3. Add a copy of your field experience school’s school improvement plan to your portfolio.

Education CourseMate Resources

Check out this text’s Education CourseMate website (at www.cengagebrain.com) for more informa-
tion about the governing and financing of education in the United States. You will find the Teach-
Source Videos, a guide for doing field experiences, glossary flash cards, activities, tutorial quizzes,
direct links to the websites mentioned in the chapter, and more.

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 © Jeff Greenberg/The Image Works
CHAPTER

12 Social Issues and the

School’s Response
A PRIMARY PURPOSE of schools is to provide students with the knowledge
and skills they need not only to function in the world, but also to become
contributing members of society. In some cases, students may even be inspired to
promote social change. In your investigations into the history of U.S. education, you
explored what was happening in society during specific time periods. You extended
the influences of these events to determine who went to school, what they learned,
and how they were taught. As you have discovered, society has a strong and
profound influence on schools and education. How can events happening outside
the school building influence what goes on inside the school building? In this
chapter, you will explore some significant current social issues and how the school
responds to these issues. You will investigate the relationships among society, the
school, and the community, and you will explore society’s influence on you and your
classroom.

319

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 Chapter Objectives
As a result of your explorations in this chapter, you will be able to
1. Describe the nature of social issues.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practices
2. Identify current social issues that may affect the emotional health of students and consider
how schools may respond to these issues in an effort to prevent or address the consequences
that the social issues may cause.
Standard #1: Learner Development; Standard #2: Learning Differences; and Standard #9:
Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
3. Identify current social issues that may affect the physical health of students and consider how schools
may respond to these issues in an effort to prevent or address the consequences that the social issues
may cause.
Standard #1: Learner Development; Standard #2: Learning Differences; and Standard #9:
Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
4. Identify current social issues that affect the communities that students live in and consider ways that
schools may address these issues.
Standard #2: Learning Differences; Standard #3: Learning Environments; and Standard #9:
Professional Learning and Ethical Practice

Social Issues
You have heard the assertion that children are our future. As a society that recognizes this,
we strive to nurture and protect our children. And, as a function of society, schools re-
spond to issues that threaten students’ well-being—emotional and physical—as well as to
social issues that may affect the community in which the school is located.

BUILDING BLOCK Social Issues

12.1 What is meant by a social issue? What social issues are we, as a society, concerned
about right now? List them in order of their importance as you see it.
Which do you think schools ought to deal with?
Which do you think schools ought to leave alone?

As you were thinking about Building Block 12.1, you undoubtedly realized that issues
change as society changes. Issues that were very important two or three decades ago have
changed in importance or have been replaced by new issues. For example, technology has
introduced some issues to society such as online identity theft and cyberbullying, neither
of which existed even ten years ago. On the other hand, some issues seem to persist; for
example, drug use by students was a concern in the 1960s and remains a concern today.
Even so, when you begin teaching, you will encounter issues that do not exist today but
that will affect your school and your students.
You have explored many social issues already in this textbook. For example, you
investigated poverty in Chapter 4, and school violence, bullying, and sexual harass-
ment in Chapter 8. Because we face numerous other social issues today, it is difficult
to identify a few key issues on which to focus in this chapter. However, the chapter’s
purpose is for you to explore how social issues affect what goes on in schools.

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 Therefore, we will present some prevalent issues for you to grapple with. Your inves-
tigations into the relationships between these social issues and schools can equip you
to apply your understandings to new or different social issues that may arise when you
are in the classroom.
Look at the list of current social issues you generated in Building Block 12.1. Which
of these have the potential to affect the emotional well-being of students? Which have the
potential to affect their physical well-being? Which involve the entire community or
segments of the community? To what extent is it the school’s responsibility to address
these issues?

Social Issues That Affect Emotional Health

Social Issues and Emotions BUILDING BLOCK

Name as many social issues as you can that might be a threat to students’ emotional 12.2
health. (Emotional health involves feelings of security, safety, and the ability to cope
with stress and difficult situations. Emotionally healthy individuals are able to use
their abilities to help advance their lives and achieve their goals. Emotional health can
be tied to self-esteem, self-efficacy, and optimism.) Recall your exploration of the
student in Chapter 2 and consider what you learned about psychosocial development:
How would struggling with issues that affect them emotionally affect a student’s
life in school? How might these effects be positive or negative, depending on the
individual?
What effect might emotional upset have on their relationships with other stu-
dents and with teachers?
How would it affect a student’s motivation to learn?

Students struggle with a number of issues that can influence their emotional sense of well-
being, thereby affecting both their performance in school and their motivation to go to
school. Pressure from divorce and nontraditional family structures and feelings related
to poverty, bullying, violence, child abuse, and other difficulties can cause some students
to make a commitment to excel in school and others to drop out.

Changing Family Structure

Think of the people in your immediate family. Do you come from what mainstream cul-
ture considers a “nuclear” family—with both a mom and dad, and possibly other chil-
dren? Perhaps your family also includes a pet or two? Certainly the notion of a traditional
“family” is often represented as such. But it has to be acknowledged that family structures
can change for a variety of reasons. Given that one of our basic common needs is to ex-
perience love and belonging, we must consider that changing family structure can ulti-
mately impact a student’s perspectives and motivation regarding learning. How many
different types of families can you think of?

Divorce
According to data from the National Vital Statistics Reports (U.S. Center for National
Health Statistics, 2010), the divorce rate in the United was 3.4 divorces per 1,000 people,
down from 4.7 in 1990, and many of these divorces include children.

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 Students who come from divorced families tend to have trouble academically, so-
cially, and emotionally. Specifically, one study found that children of divorce seem to fall
behind in math skills and struggle with social skills such as making and maintaining
friendships. They also battle feelings of anxiety, low self-esteem, and sadness (Kim, 2011).
You can access a website that has suggestions for teachers supporting children from
divorced families on the Education CourseMate website.
In the school environment, teachers can provide students from divorced homes with
intellectual and emotional support, offering structure to help them address their scholastic
concerns, encouragement in their social endeavors, and kindness and understanding regard-
ing their emotions. They should be consistent in their expectations for participation as mem-
bers of the classroom environment. They should provide structure for classroom routines
and discipline to give students a feeling of security in knowing what is expected of
them and what they can expect from the teacher, a feeling that they may not get from
TeachSour the adults at home. Teachers should also provide students from divorced families
ce Video special opportunities to be successful in their academic work through focus on their
competencies, thus helping with their self-esteem and feelings of inadequacy (New-
View the TeachSource Video, “Divorce 2Teaching, 2011). To support students from divorced families, teachers should foster
and Children.” This story profiles one family a partnership approach with the student and each member of his or her family, fo-
and its shared arrangement, and a research
cusing on communication and mutual problem solving. To do this, teachers must
study about the long-term effects of split
families on children. These arrangements work on their own attitude toward acceptance of all types of family structures and
work well for the parents, but how do the on becoming aware of the parents’ attitudes toward the school environment.
children cope? Rules are different between Keep in mind that parents who have had positive school experiences will be
the two households, causing stress. The chil- more likely to become involved with the teacher and the school at the level
dren feel that they would rather put up with
needed to support the student through a difficult period of adjustment. With a
the stress than not see one of their parents.
After watching this video, answer the follow- partnership approach and an attitude of acceptance, teachers will find the door is
ing questions: open to create an atmosphere of support for students. Taking actions that include
1. How might the stress that the children communicating with family members frequently in both formal and informal
experience as a result of their parents’ ways, sharing classroom activities and materials with parents, and encouraging
divorce be expressed in school? all family members to participate in the student’s educational experience will help
2. What might you, as a teacher, do to help children of divorce make the difficult transition into a new family structure while
these children if they were students in continuing to perform successfully at school (Leon and Spengler, 2005).
your classroom?
Of course, students from divorced families can and often should be referred
3. What might you do to communicate and to guidance counselors and school psychologists for help in resolving issues as-
collaborate with the parents?
sociated with the divorce. Together, the teachers and specialists can help these
students come to grips with difficulties they may be experiencing.

Alternative Family Structures

Studies of the family and its impact on children are both broad and deep. And of course,
a family whose structure has been determined by divorce is not the only type of family

The traditional family structure

that once included a mother,
© LWA-Sharie Kennedy/CORBIS

father, and children has given

way to primary caregivers who
can be grandparents,
extended family members,
single parents, foster parents,
and adoptive parents.

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 structure in our society. There are many different family structures, and each functions
differently in different cultures, different ethnic groups, and with different ages of
children.
According to data from the U.S. Census Bureau, (2011a), in 2010, 69.4 percent of chil-
dren under the age of 18 lived with both parents. Nearly one-quarter of the children (22.4
percent) lived with only their mother, 3.4 percent lived with only their father, and 4.1 percent
lived with neither parent. The report classifies family structure into three categories—living
with two parents, living with a single parent, and living with neither parent. These three
categories are further subdivided, illustrating the varieties of family structures from which
your students may come. The subcategories listed in the report are as follows:

Living with two parents

Married parents
Unmarried parents
Biological mother and father
One biological parent and one adoptive parent (mother and father)
One biological parent and one stepparent (mother and father)
Two adoptive parents (mother and father)
Living with one parent
Mother only (biological or adoptive)
Father only (biological or adoptive)
Living with no parent
Grandparents only
Other relatives only
Nonrelatives only
Other

There are other family structures in addition to those listed here, such as those with
same-sex parent families. In 2010, there were almost 650,000 same-sex households in the
United States (U.S. Census, 2010b), with 17 percent of these households raising children
(Gates and Cooke, 2011). However, research shows that the gay or lesbian family
structure is least likely to be recognized as a family by preservice teachers, probably

Other family structures in

© Fancy/Alamy

addition to the "nuclear" family

include those with same-sex
parents.

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 because of existing biases (Larrabee and Kim, 2010). Can you identify additional nontra-
ditional family structures?
Studies have investigated effects of various family structures on student achievement
in school and on student behavior, but these studies show that family structure varies so
much that little direct correlation between types of family structures and student outcomes
can be inferred. For example, Dunifon and Kowaleski-Jones (2002) found that single par-
enthood was associated with reduced mathematics scores and with juvenile delinquency,
but only for white and nonminority children. These researchers did not find negative effects
of single parenthood on African American children. DeLaire and Kalil (2001) found that
teenagers living with unmarried adults were less likely to graduate from high school or
attend college, but cautioned that not all such families are alike; teenagers living with a
single mother or at least one grandparent have outcomes that are often better than those
of teenagers living in traditional married families.
Concerns regarding children raised by same-sex parents include those relative to abil-
ity to form social relationships and difficulties in gender identity and personal develop-
ment. In 2004, after reviewing relevant research, the American Psychological Association
officially adopted a policy that states, “there is no scientific evidence that parenting ef-
fectiveness is related to parental sexual orientation: lesbian and gay parents are as likely
as heterosexual parents to provide supportive and healthy environments for their chil-
dren” (American Psychological Association, 2004).

Working Parents and “Latchkey Kids”

You are probably aware that some children, although they live with one or both parents,
may have to spend a significant portion of their time at home alone. The U.S. Bureau of
Labor Statistics reports that, in 2010, both parents worked in 58.1 percent of married
couples with children. For single-parent families with children, 67 percent of mothers
were employed and 75.8 percent of fathers were employed (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statis-
tics, 2011a). Reviewing these statistics, it is clear that the children in these families prob-
ably spend some of their time at home, self-supervised depending on their ages, or under
the supervision of a babysitter or teachers at an after-school program or day care center.
Sometimes, unsupervised or self-supervised children in these situations are called
latchkey kid A child who spends “latchkey kids.” They are called this because they must carry a key to their homes to let
unsupervised or self-supervised time themselves in, as no one else will be there after school. It is estimated that, in 2005, almost
after school.
40 million children aged 5 to 14 years spent some portion of their week in “self-care”
situations (Laughlin, 2010). One study found that students aged 11 to 14 years who had
been left in self-care situations for more than three hours after school had a lower sense
of well-being than children who weren’t left home alone as long. The study reported that
such feelings could eventually lead these children to choose to participate in high-risk
behaviors (Mertens, Flowers, and Mulhall, 2003).
From your examination so far, you may have discerned that family background has
a significant impact on students’ attitudes toward and achievement in school. Thus it is
important that schools and teachers extend their attitude of acceptance to family
structure.

The Struggling Economy and Unemployment

Certainly the struggling economy and the resultant effects on the housing market and
unemployment have factored into placing some students and their families into emotional
distress. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2011b) reported that 14 million people were
unemployed in September 2011. Figure 12.1 shows the distribution of those unemployed.
Those who were unemployed for the long term (27 weeks or more) made up 44.6 percent
of the unemployed population.
Many families have lost their homes and/or have had to declare bankruptcy due to
unemployment. At the end of 2010, 4.6 percent of mortgage loans were in the foreclosure
process (Mortgage Bankers Association of America, 2011). Over 1.25 million petitions for

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 Asians

Characteristic of Population
Hispanics

Blacks

Whites

Teenagers

Adult women
Figure 12.1

▲
Percent unemployment by
Adult men characteristic of the unemployed,
September 2011.
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 Source: Data from the U.S. Bureau of
Percent Unemployed Labor Statistics, 2011b.

bankruptcy were filed in 2009 (Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts, 2011). Consider-
ing the stress that such actions cause a family, how do you think the social issues caused
by the economy affect students in schools? You can probably imagine that many students
who are of legal age—usually 16 years old—choose to or may even have to seek employ-
ment to help their families financially. Over 4 percent of the civilian labor force was made
up of 16- to 19-year-olds in 2010 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011c). How do you
think leaving high school at the end of the day and then heading to a job and/or holding
down a job on weekends might affect teenage students and their learning?

Consequences of Emotional Health Issues

and the School’s Response
Changes in family structure, the struggling economy, and other social issues put a lot of
stress on families and children. The American Psychological Association reports that 32
percent of U.S. parents say that they experience extreme stress levels and that the majority
of parents believe that the level of stress that they handle is unhealthy. Meanwhile, the
children of these stressed parents reported that they too feel stress and reported feelings
of being sad, worried, and frustrated (American Psychological Association, 2010). What
consequences do you suppose these feelings have on life in school?

School Dropouts
Life’s pressures, such as those from divorce, nontraditional family structures and having to
work to help support the family can lead some students to choose to drop out of school.
These students who might drop out of school when they can are termed at-risk students. at-risk student A student considered
Most people would agree that education is key to survival in today’s technological at high risk for failing to complete
high school.
society. Adults must be literate, know how to use mathematics in everyday situations, and
be well versed in technological skills to succeed. In many businesses, the minimum re-
quirement for employment is a high school diploma.
High school dropouts are more likely to be unemployed and are more likely to be in-
carcerated than high school graduates. And, if they are employed, high school dropouts earn
about $10,000 less annually than employees with a high school diploma (Whittaker, 2010).
Over 7,000 students drop out of high school every day. These students are primarily
in big, urban school districts and are members of nonmainstream populations. Only
56 percent of Hispanic Americans finish high school and just 54 percent of African
Americans and 51 percent of Native Americans earn their high school diploma. More
females graduate than males; fewer than 50 percent of nonmainstream males graduate

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 TABLE 12.1 2008–2009 Dropout Rate for High School
Students Aged 15–24

Percentage of Students Who Drop

Characteristic Out of School When They Can

Total 8.1

Sex
Male 3.6
Female 2.7

Ethnicity
Hispanic 17.6
African American 9.3
White 5.2
Asian/Pacific
Islander 3.4
American Indian/
Alaska Native 13.2

Family Income
Low income 8.7
Middle income 3.0
High income 2.0

Age
16 2.2
17 5.0
18 7.8
19 9.9
20–24 9.5

Source: From the U.S. Department of Education, National

Center for Education Statistics.

from high school (Swanson, 2010). Although the graduation rates have improved some
over the past ten years or so, still far too many students drop out, constituting a dropout
crisis (Phi Delta Kappan, 2011). See Table 12.1 for the percentage of high school students
who dropped out of school before graduation during the 2008–2009 school year for each
of several demographic characteristics (Swanson, 2010).
In their daily interactions with students, teachers can help those students who are
thinking about dropping out of school choose to finish high school. Strategies they can
employ include helping students see positive academic results, helping them overcome
academic hurdles, and providing warmth, support, and encouragement.

BUILDING BLOCK Reducing the School Dropout Rate

12.3 Consider what you have learned about stressors to students’ emotional health and
how the programs you have just read about address the needs that students may
have due to this stress:
What warning signs might elementary and middle school teachers see that sug-
gest a student may be a likely candidate to drop out of high school?
What actions can elementary and middle school teachers take to lessen the like-
lihood that at-risk students will drop out of school?

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 Consider what you learned about students’ common needs and unique perspec-
tives. What specific actions might you take as a teacher to encourage a student
at risk of dropping out to complete high school?

You have already identified that having an open mind and attitude of acceptance will
convey an atmosphere of safety and security and love and belonging, to meet students’
common needs. You also know that effective instruction and classroom management will
help provide students with opportunities for success and structure. Along with programs
such as the after-school program and mentoring at the school level, some schools have
implemented programs to encourage at-risk students to stay in school and to help stu-
dents who have dropped out get back into school.
More than 50 percent of students in schools in Los Angeles drop out. But one private
school has implemented a tough curriculum that focuses on building study and writing
skills needed for success in college, beginning in the sixth grade. The class sizes are smaller
than they are in the public schools, and teachers are available for tutoring after school. In
Philadelphia, schools focus on identifying warning signs in younger students to prevent
dropouts, and provide transitional programs for students who have dropped out, but
want to re-enter school. Philadelphia recently improved its graduation rate by 23 percent,
more than any other city (Whittaker, 2010).
The Obama administration recognized the dropout rate in the nation and announced
several significant federal funds in 2010 to prevent and address the problem. He acknowl-
edged that students often choose to drop out of school because they find school irrelevant
and not engaging. President Obama committed $3.5 billion to fund changes in persis-
tently low-performing schools, $900 million to support School Turnaround Grants, and
$100 million in a College Pathways program to promote college readiness in high schools,
allowing students to earn a high school diploma and college credit at the same time (Of-
fice of the Press Secretary, 2010).
Students who feel emotional stress and who feel that they are not safe, supported, or
successful in school or maybe even at home, may turn away from school-based opportu-
nities and engage in activities that threaten their physical well-being. These activities are
social issues in that they impact society either directly or indirectly, which means that we
feel their impact in the school and the curriculum.

After-School Programs
As you have seen, due to changing family structure and/or the need for all adults in a
family to work to provide financial stability, students may be subject to having to spend
some time alone. The age of the student must be considered when examining the effects
of this time alone. As you can imagine, younger learners may experience stress and worry
if left to self-care whereas adolescents may find ways to occupy this time that are not
necessarily beneficial to themselves or the community.
Many schools provide after-school programs (ASPs) as a response to the issue of students
having to spend time without parental supervision. When you think of ASPs, you may get
images of small children in nursery schools, but ASPs are available for all ages of students and
provide all kinds of support—academic, recreational, and extracurricular activities such as
sports and the arts. As many as 10 million children in the United States take advantage of
after-school programs (Yohalem, Pittman, and Edwards, 2010). There are several documented
benefits for students participating in after-school programs. Among them are improved aca-
demic performance (Naftzger et al., 2007), increased participation in healthy activities
(Mahoney, Lord, and Carryl, 2005), decreases in classroom misbehavior (Huang, Leon,
La Torre, and Mostafavi, 2008), and a decrease in drug use (Cunha and Heckman, 2006).
Having the option of participating in ASPs addresses several of the consequences of the
social issues you have examined so far in this chapter. The safety, security, structure, super-
vision, and guidance these programs provide reduce the emotional stress that students may
experience as a result of changing family structures or having to spend time alone.

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 Social Issues That Affect Physical Health
You have already explored ways that social issues can affect emotional health and well-
being of students. Now let’s examine how social issues can affect physical health. Good
health is essential to successful living. Today’s society tends to believe that teaching the
fundamental principles of good health enables students to lead successful, productive
adult lives, and that (with a few exceptions) the schools should undertake this education.
Schools have taught such topics as exercise, nutrition, sleeping habits, and cardiovascular
health to encourage healthy living for many years.

BUILDING BLOCK Health Concerns

12.4 What are some current health issues? Jot a few down.
Which of these issues have implications for students?
What role should the school play in teaching these health issues?
Do you think that schools should address some health issues and parents should
address others?
If you think that schools should teach some issues and parents should teach
others, which issues belong in the schools and which belong at home? How did
you make this determination?

The list you made in Building Block 12.4 is probably one that you could duplicate by
reading newspaper headlines or watching television news: childhood obesity, drugs, sex,
violence, and so on. Certainly, schools can address students’ need to become educated about
health issues. Let us take a look at some of these issues and how schools may respond.

Nutrition and Childhood Obesity

childhood obesity A condition of One health issue that affects schools is childhood obesity. Statistics show that childhood
children being overweight. obesity is on the rise in the United States. Several factors contribute to childhood obesity,
such as eating junk food and getting limited exercise. People are calling for action to re-
duce childhood obesity, and schools are responding to that call.
Generally, childhood overweight and obesity are measured using body mass index
(BMI). BMI is the relationship between height and weight, accounting for the age and sex
of a child, and acknowledging the differences in body composition due to these variables.
The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) defines an overweight child as one with a BMI at
or above the 85th percentile but lower than the 95th percentile for children of the same
age and sex. An obese child is one with a BMI at or above the 95th percentile for children
the same age and sex (Barlow et al, 2007).
The latest statistics from the National Center for Health Statistics, a division of the
CDC, indicate that an estimated 17 percent of children and adolescents aged 2 to 19 years
are obese and that the number of overweight and obese children and adolescents is increas-
ing. The data also indicate differences in rates of obesity between children from mainstream
and nonmainstream cultures. Hispanic boys had greater rates of obesity than non-Hispanic
white boys, and non-Hispanic black girls had greater rates of obesity than non-Hispanic
white girls. In addition, children from low-income families have higher rates of obesity due
to not having access to healthier food choices (Ogden and Carroll, 2010). Table 12.2 shows
the percentage of overweight children and adolescents for selected years from 1963 to 2008.
You can access a direct link to the CDC’s School Health Index for Physical Activity and
Healthy Eating through the Education CourseMate website.

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 TABLE 12.2 Prevalence of Overweight Children and Adolescents for Selected Years, 1963–2008
Age 1963–1970 1971–1974 1976–1980 1988–1994 2001–2002 2003–2004 2005–2006 2007–2008

6–11 4.2% 4.0% 6.5% 11.3% 16.3% 18.8% 15.1% 19.6%

12–19 4.6% 6.1% 5.0% 10.5% 16.7% 17.4% 17.8% 18.1%

Source: From the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

Recall that a significant percentage of today’s families have

reported being under extreme stress. It turns out that those
families under great stress find that they have neither the time
nor the willpower to manage stress by making healthy choices
with regard to nutrition and exercise. In fact, children who are
overweight and obese reported that they worry a lot and that
their appearance is often the focus of this worry. These same
children reported that their parents were under a great deal of

Baerbel Schmidt/Getty Images/Stone

stress “always” or “often” (American Psychological Associa-
tion, 2010). Obese children tend to have high blood pressure
and high cholesterol as well as type 2 diabetes. In addition, re-
search has shown that being obese as a child has a significant
impact on that child’s health as an adult; among other issues,
obese children tend to become obese adults and tend to have
heart problems (Polhamus et al., 2011).
Organizations such as the CDC are recommending that
According to the Centers for
schools and society focus on educating students about nutrition, encouraging youth to make Disease Control, more than
good choices about eating, and getting everyone to watch TV less and to move more! Schools 15 percent of children between
are reexamining their lunch and breakfast programs and their physical education programs. the ages of 6 and 19 are obese.
Several organizations have compiled resources and developed curricular materials and pro- Healthier school lunch options and
grams to help schools. For example, the CDC’s Division of Adolescent and School Health has school-based nutrition programs
published the School Health Index for Physical Activity and Healthy Eating: A Self-Assess- can address this issue, but what
ment and Planning Guide. This online resource allows schools to compare their own nutrition can individual teachers do to
programs with other exemplary programs. Recognizing that children from low-income fami- further manage childhood obesity?
lies may not get adequate nutrition, the National School Lunch Program provides
low-cost or free nutritional lunches and a snack for after-school programs to students
who qualify for this federally funded assistance. In 2010, 31 million students through TeachSour
the age of 18 benefitted from this program (Food and Nutrition Service, 2011). ce Video
First Lady Michelle Obama launched the “Let’s Move” campaign in 2008,
with the goal of raising a healthier generation of kids. Mrs. Obama’s campaign View the TeachSource video, “Childhood
Obesity and School Nutrition.” The number
seeks to empower families, provide healthy food choices in schools, provide access of overweight children in the United States is
to healthy affordable foods for all families, and encourage families, schools, and on the rise. For three years, a Massachusetts
communities to get physically active. As part of the focus on healthy eating, the school district has been eliminating junk
federal government has updated the nutrition standards for school lunch and food and providing healthier foods to
breakfast programs. The updated standards call for increased availability of fruits, students in alignment with national nutrition
guidelines. After watching this video, answer
vegetables, whole grains, low-fat and fat-free milk, and decreased levels of sodium the following questions:
and saturated and trans fats in school meals (Federal Register, 2012).
What are some of the advantages of pro-
You have seen that after-school programs provide students with many oppor- viding healthier food options for students
tunities to develop knowledge and skills in a variety of areas. ASPs are in a unique while they are at school? What might be
position to address nutrition and physical activity. Keep in mind that the students some disadvantages?
who take advantage of ASPs are oftentimes underprivileged and part of a popula- To what degree is it the school’s responsi-
tion that we have already established as having a higher rate of obesity. The bility to monitor student nutrition?
National School Lunch Program can provide funds for healthy snacks to offer What might be the implications for food
students in ASPs. ASPs can also include physical activities for students during a choices available during school events other
than mealtimes, such as items available for
time of day when they are often sedentary, and can encourage continuity between
sale at concessional stands at extracurricular
the nutritional and activity goals established at school and at home (Afterschool sporting events, and in vending machines?
Investments Project, 2006).

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 BUILDING BLOCK Childhood and Adolescent Obesity
12.5 Do you believe that childhood and adolescent obesity is a problem in today’s
society? To what extent?
Is there something specific schools should do about childhood and adolescent
obesity? If so, describe what you think might be a solution.
Nutritious food choices help students to maintain a healthy weight, and exercise
also plays a role. However, due to economic struggles, some schools are cutting back
their physical education programs. Why do you suppose they are doing so? How
can this be reconciled with the increasing rate of childhood and adolescent obesity?

Drugs and Alcohol

Drug and alcohol use by students has been a concern of parents, teachers, and society for
many years. The percentage of illicit drug use, including alcohol, for students aged 12 to
17 increased to 10 percent in between 2008 and 2009, after having declined for the previ-
ous six years. Whites had the highest percentage of underage alcohol use (30.4 percent),
and Asians had the lowest rate (16.1 percent) (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Ser-
vices Administration, 2011).
Figure 12.2 presents figures about drug use by U.S. students between 2000 and 2011.
The data represent illicit drug use (including alcohol) by grade level for eighth-, tenth-,
and twelfth-graders at any time during their lives.
Other interesting information includes the following statistics concerning cigarettes
and alcohol:

Forty percent of students have tried cigarettes by the time they are in the twelfth
grade. Eighteen percent (nearly one in five) have tried cigarettes by eighth grade.
However, these are the lowest percents since the Institute for Social Research started
the keeping data in 1975.
Alcohol is the most prevalent of the illicit drug use, and 70 percent of students have
consumed significant amounts of alcohol (more than a few sips) by twelfth grade.
Thirty-three percent have consumed similar amounts of alcohol by eighth grade. In
addition, half of twelfth-graders and 15 percent of eighth-graders have been drunk at
least once. Nonetheless, these figures are the lowest since record keeping started in
1975 (Johnston et al., 2012).

We can probably all agree that any illicit teen drug use is contrary to the growth that will
enable students to lead successful, productive lives. Schools can play a major role in educating
youth about drug abuse. Have you seen evidence of this social issue in the schools?
In what class do students learn about drugs and their harmful effects? At which grade
level? Do you believe schools should be involved in drug and alcohol abuse prevention
programs? How are they involved now? What else, if anything, should they do?
Figure 12.2
▲

Illicit drug use by 8th-, 10th-,

and 12th-graders, 2000–2011. 60
Percent of Students

Source: From Johnston, L. D., 50

O’Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & 40 8th-Graders
Schulenberg, J. E. (2012). Monitoring
30 10th-Graders
the Future national results on
adolescent drug use: Overview of key 20 12th-Graders
findings, 2011. Ann Arbor: Institute 10
for Social Research, The University of 0
Michigan. 2000 2003 2006 2009
Year

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 The Office of Safe and Drug-Free Schools, a division of the U.S. Department of Educa-
tion, oversees federal funds for drug prevention programs. Drug-Violence Prevention
grants are awarded to schools and other organizations to develop drug prevention activi-
ties for students. Several national organizations provide information and curricular materi-
als about drug and alcohol abuse. For example, the National Institute on Drug Abuse
(NIDA), the National Institutes of Health, and the U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services offer free, science-based materials for teens, teachers, and parents. These materials
help students understand the scientific basis for the harmful effects of drug abuse. NIDA
hosts NIDA for Teens, which provides facts, real stories, and answers to frequently asked
questions about drugs. Available for teachers are several curricular materials, including
posters, DVDs, online modules of activities, and magazines for grades K–12. Parents can
access information and activities to do at home. You can access the NIDA website titled
“NIDA for Teens” through the direct link on the Education CourseMate website.
You probably have seen Just Say No posters in the halls of your field experience school,
you may have observed National Red Ribbon Week, and you may have seen program ma-
terials from D.A.R.E. Former First Lady Nancy Reagan mounted the Just Say No campaign
in the early 1980s to help raise awareness about the harmful effects of drug use and abuse.
National Red Ribbon Week is held during the last week in October and is commemorated
by individuals wearing or displaying red ribbons to signify their commitment to leading
drug-free lives. The U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency sponsors National Red Ribbon Week,
and the National Family Partnership coordinates activities. The National Red Ribbon Week
campaign is the oldest and largest drug-prevention campaign in the country.
D.A.R.E. (Drug Abuse Resistance Education) is a drug abuse program designed to
equip students in elementary, middle, and high schools with knowledge about drug abuse
and its consequences, and skills for resisting peer pressure to experiment with drugs, al-
cohol, and tobacco. The program is taught in regular classrooms by uniformed police
officers who create a positive atmosphere for interaction between students and the police
officer. The D.A.R.E. program is used in 75 percent of the nation’s school systems and in
43 countries (D.A.R.E., 2012).

Drugs and Alcohol BUILDING BLOCK

You have noted that the overall use of drugs and alcohol by school-aged students 12.6
seems to be decreasing.
Do you believe that schools should be involved in drug and alcohol abuse pre-
vention programs? Why or why not?
How are schools involved in drug and alcohol abuse prevention efforts now?
Is there something specific schools should do about the issue of drug and alcohol
use and abuse by students? If so, describe what you think they might do.

Sex-Related Issues
The education of school-aged children in matters of sex and sexuality is a huge social issue,
one that schools can help address. However, unlike schools’ responses to childhood obesity
and the use of drugs and alcohol, their responses to sexual issues are fraught with controversy.
What are society’s concerns about sex? People are troubled by the potential for teens
to become pregnant or to become infected with a sexually transmitted disease (STD). sexually transmitted disease A
Some people also believe that premarital sex is morally wrong. disease transmitted largely through
sexual behavior.
Teenage Pregnancy
The Centers for Disease Control has surveyed youth in ninth through twelfth grade every two
years since 1990, as part of the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS). The sur-
vey’s purpose is to assess the prevalence of risky behaviors by young people in several catego- risky behavior Behavior that may
ries, including sexual behavior. According to the 2009 survey, the percentage of U.S. high result in adverse consequences.
school students engaging in risky sexual behaviors had not changed significantly since 2001

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 TECHNOLOGY Sexting
& EDUCATION
A   s noted earlier, many school-aged children have
smartphones that they carry with them at all times—
activity has parents, other adults, and law enforcement
personnel concerned. The fear is that sexting will heighten
including to school. Smartphones can be used for a sexual feelings and thoughts, and this will lead to undesirable
multitude of applications, including a host of apps, voice or risky sexual behavior. But the research shows that only
messaging, texting, taking videos and photos, sending and about one teen in 100 (one percent) has personally engaged
receiving e-mails, and, yes, even making phone calls. Many in sexting, and that the practice is not as common as parents
school activities can be carried out using the smartphones. and educators might fear. Only 10 percent of the children who
Teachers, of course, have to be careful to be sure the took sexually explicit pictures of themselves sent them to
students are doing schoolwork on their equipment and not someone else, and only 3 percent of those who received such
using their phones for something else. images forwarded them to another (eSchool News, 2011b).
One of the activities teenagers have used their Nevertheless, schools have written more stringent rules
smartphones for has been to engage in an activity called about cell phone use, and teachers are encouraged to provide
“sexting.” Sexting consists of sending or receiving sexually information about the dangers of sexting, including legal
explicit pictures or videos through the smartphone. This ramifications and the permanent digital record it creates.

(Centers for Disease Control, 2010). In fact, the latest statistics on teen birth rates show that,
for all races and ethnicities, teen birth rates decreased by about 37 percent between 1991 and
2009. Nonetheless, when compared with other industrialized countries, the United States has
the highest rate of teen pregnancy (National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 2012).
What does a teenage girl do when she finds out she is pregnant? What does she do
after she gives birth? Sometimes she continues regular school attendance until the baby is
born; sometimes her options are limited to attending an alternative school or even drop-
ping out of school altogether. A fact sheet provided by the National Campaign to Prevent
Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy (2010) provides the following information:

Parenthood is the leading cause of dropping out for teenage girls.

Only 1.5 percent of women who were teenage mothers have college degrees by the
time they are 30.
The children of teen parents do poorly in school and are 50 percent more likely to
fail and repeat a grade.

Schools around the country have responded to the social issue of teen pregnancy by host-
ing prevention and early intervention programs. There are many curriculum-based programs
available that can be integrated into the school day or implemented as after school programs.
Generally, these programs focus on helping teens understand that delaying sexual activity, not
having sex, and/or using contraception consistently and carefully are ways to prevent teen and
unplanned pregnancies. Many of these programs are tailored to specific populations based on
ethnicity and socioeconomic status. It should be noted as well that some programs focus ex-
clusively on females, some on males, and some on both (Suellentrop, 2011).
The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy has noted that, con-
trary to what you might believe about peer pressure, students believe that guidance counselors
and teachers are the second most reliable source of information about sex and sexuality—
second only to their parents and families (National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned
Pregnancy, 2004a). Teens say their parents influence their decisions about sex more than their
peers (37 percent versus 33 percent, respectively). However, parents tend to believe that their
teens’ friends have the greater influence (47 percent versus 28 percent, respectively) (National
Center to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy, 2004c). Thus, it would seem that parents
might safely take an increased role in the sex education of their children.
Do you believe that teenage pregnancy is a problem schools should address? What
stance should the schools take on this issue? What, if anything, do you think schools
should do about this problem?

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 CONTROVERSIES in Education

Teen Pregnancy
O  ne extremely controversial action taken by some
schools in an effort to reduce teenage pregnancies,
state standards. The standards suggest topics to be
discussed for each grade level, kindergarten through
AIDS, and other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) is the grade 12. They were developed by a consortium of
distribution of condoms in schools. The thinking behind this health education organizations (Shah, 2012a).
tactic is that having condoms available to students who However, many schools are shifting away from
decide to engage in sexual behaviors after having been comprehensive sex education and HIV-prevention
educated about sex, pregnancy, and STDs will encourage programs because of the increased federal funding for
them to make safe choices. On the other hand, opponents abstinence-only programs (AIDS Alert, 2005).
of this practice insist that students may feel free to engage
in sexual behaviors simply because they can get condoms WHAT DO YOU THINK?
easily. However, in 2005, the American Academy of
Pediatrics reaffirmed a policy statement regarding condom 1. What do you think? Should schools provide
use by adolescents in which they noted that research has contraceptives to students?
not shown that increased sexual activity results from 2. If schools were to provide contraceptives to students,
condom availability (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2005). at what grade level should it begin?
Most experts feel that comprehensive sex education 3. Do you believe that schools should teach sex
and AIDS-prevention programs should be continued in education? Or should it be left up to parents? The
schools; these programs include content information and church? Other community organizations?
education about such factors as the perception of peer 4. At what grade level should students take sex
norms, teen beliefs and personal values about sex and con- education classes if they are offered in school?
dom contraception, and the ability to say “No” to having
sex. Education Week reports that national standards about You can access the new National Sexuality Education
sex education were released in early 2012; they follow a Standards: Core Content and Skills (K–12) through a
format similar to that followed in the new common core direct link on the Education CourseMate website.

Sex Education BUILDING BLOCK

You have investigated school-based sex education programs. Should the schools do 12.7
more? Providing sex education courses in school is very controversial, mostly because
of differing social mores and religious beliefs. Many parents want their children to have
sex education in school, but it seems that everyone has his or her own idea of just what
a sex education class should entail. Sometimes parental permission is required (even for
learning facts about AIDS in science classes), but not all parents give their consent.
Do you believe schools should be involved in sex education programs? If so, on
what topics should the programs focus?
How are schools involved in sex education now?
Is there something specific schools should do about sex-based issues? If so, de-
scribe what you think they should do.

Social Issues That Affect the Community

How do the consequences of the social issues you have investigated have the potential to
extend into the community? Hundreds of social issues affect local communities, such as crime,
gangs, illiteracy, vandalism, and you can probably think of many more. These issues can be
the results of or compounded by students who are experiencing emotional distress and/or
who are participating in the behaviors risky to their physical well-being, such as those you
have examined. Certainly, there is an economic burden posed by health care for overweight

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 Figure 12.3

▲
Law enforcement reports
of gang activity, 2009. 17.0%
Source: From data in Egley, Jr., Arlen, Larger cities
and Howell, James C. (2011). 32.9% 86.3%
Suburban counties
Highlights of the 2009 national youth
gang survey. U.S. Department of Smaller cities
51.8%
Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Rural counties
Office of Juvenile Justice and
Delinquency Prevention.

and obese children, unplanned and unwanted teen pregnancies and births, and those who
drop out of school and are unemployed. To help meet the need for safety and belonging, and
searching for routes to drug and alcohol use, some juveniles might turn to gangs.

Gang Activity
It has been found that juveniles who join gangs may do so because they are experiencing
problems and/or feel vulnerable in school, have experienced multiple transitions in care-
givers, seek respect or money, feel unsafe in their community, or already know someone
in a gang and are already engaging in unsafe behaviors (Howell, 2010). According to the
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (Egley, Jr. and Howell, 2011), in
2009, there were 28,100 gangs and 731,000 gang members nationwide. Ninety-six percent
of gang-related homicides occurred in large cities or suburbs (see Figure 12.3).
Who are the students who join gangs? Research has shown that these students are
likely to have poor grades, are punished more frequently than others, and feel discon-
nected and uninvolved in school academics and activities. The schools these students at-
tend typically are poorly performing schools that report greater levels of school violence
and student and teacher victimization (Howell, 2010).
Gangs are posing an increasing threat to communities. In its 2011 National Gang Threat
Assessment, the National Gang Intelligence Center reported that gang membership is greatest
in the West and Great Lakes regions but that it has increased at the greatest rate in the North-
east and Southeast. The greatest level of gang-related violence occurs in major cities and
suburbs, and is often associated with drug use and drug trafficking. Note that, in many com-
munities, there has been an increase in of ethnic-based gangs (Eurasian, African, Caribbean,
and Asian), and that the latest advances in technology have actually facilitated and assisted
gang communication, coordination, and activity (National Gang Intelligence Center, 2011).
How can communities and schools address and prevent gang formation and member-
ship? The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Programs (OJJDP) provides the
following recommendations in its Juvenile Justice bulletin:

Address risk factors for joining a gang.

Strengthen families.
Reduce conflicts that youth may experience and provide them with strategies that
promote conflict resolution.
Improve supervision of youth after school and at the community level by increasing
the presence of adults and by providing recreation centers.
Provide management training for teachers, resource officers, and parents that address
management of disruptive and delinquent students.
Review and soften school “zero-tolerance” policies to reduce the number of suspen-
sions and expulsions.
Punish delinquent gang behaviors, not gang apparel, signs, and symbols.
Provide support for students who are struggling in school.
Provide gang awareness training for school personnel, parents, and students. (Howell, 2010)

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 Service Learning
You have seen that sometimes juveniles choose to join a gang because
they feel no connection with their school or community, and they be-
lieve that the school and the community do not care about them.
Service learning activities are one way that the connection between
student, school, and community may be established and strengthened
through positive actions that benefit all involved.
Service learning engages students in meaningful service to their
community through the integration of community issues with the
school’s curriculum. Service learning projects involve collaboration
among teachers, students, and the community to identify, study, and
propose solutions to community problems, often implementing the so-

© Michael Sofronski/The Image Works

lutions and evaluating their results. The problems consist of social
concerns that may affect small or large segments of the community.
The goals of service learning projects encompass improving aca-
demic performance that includes higher-order thinking; building social
skills; providing character education; strengthening the connection be-
tween students, schools, and community; and promoting civic engage-
ment. Service learning projects may include a variety of activities in the
community and collaboration with community organizations, and may
Students who join gangs are
involve various numbers of participants from the school and the community. The follow-
those who are likely to have poor
ing are examples of service learning projects that students of all ages have participated in grades, who are punished more
(National Service Learning Clearinghouse, 2011): frequently, and who feel discon-
nected from school activities.
Elementary school students in a small town in Tennessee worked with community How can you, as a teacher, help
representatives to identify and publicize places of interest in their community in an prevent students who are at risk?
effort to increase tourism in light of the struggling economy.
Students in Boise, Idaho, worked with senior citizens to develop a historical represen-
tation of their community from with they created and sold note cards. Proceeds from
the sales of the note cards went to an organization that helps seniors and disabled
people in the community with the costs of pet adoption and veterinary care for their
pets.
In New York City, students learned about the energy-related advantages of using
compact fluorescent light bulbs and then went out into their communities to educate
and encourage community members to make the change from incandescent bulbs.
In Fairbanks, Alaska, students worked with the Tribal Council and Elders of the
Athabascan people to understand the historical and current importance of the area’s
watershed.

School-based service learning

projects can encourage prevention
of social issues like vandalism,
pollution, arson, and crime. These
© Jeff Greenberg/PhotoEdit, Inc.

students are involved in a service

learning project that seeks to
reduce vandalism in their
community. How might a teacher
integrate this service learning
project into the curriculum?

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 FROM THE FIELD

Service Learning
Deb Perryman

Peryman
I  

Courtesy of Deb
f we were to research the mission statements of Please tell me how placing
schools across the nation, we would find some collection boxes in a central
mention of “creating citizens.” But when do our schools location helps students meet
actually provide students with the opportunity to act as learning standards. Think for a
citizens? The No Child Left Behind legislation calls for moment how this community service project can be
students to meet or exceed state standards—a worthy transformed into a service learning project. First, have you
goal, as citizens must be educated and motivated to ever looked at what is collected? Are the items collected
participate in today’s society. Why not use the time we really needed in food banks? Why not have the students
have in schools to actually show our young people how work with the food bank and research the items most
learning will apply to their lives? Why not allow our needed? Students can create graphics clearly depicting
students to solve community problems and act as citizens? their research, and develop and implement a public
I have found a teaching strategy that allows me to fold outreach campaign to help the community better
learning standards into community action. This strategy is understand the issue of hunger. The bottom line of service
called service learning. To me, service learning is the learning is that it is cross-curricular and makes a great
ultimate teaching tool in the constructivist’s toolbox. impact on our youth.
Service learning allows students to explore issues, Planning a service learning project is as easy as
formulate possible solutions, and implement and then planning a party. You have to think about who, what, where,
evaluate those solutions. In the service learning model, the when, and how. Whom do you want to be involved? What
project students undertake is the shared responsibility of issue do you want your students to work on? Where and
both the teacher and the student. when will this project fit into your lesson plans? Where and
In service learning, students explore one or more aspects when will it fit into the community? How will this fit into
of a community issue. The teacher works to tie the your curriculum, and how will the project be evaluated?
exploration into a project that addresses the curriculum. For Please remember two additional tidbits: First, involve
example, picking up litter near a creek on a monthly basis students at every stage of the project, including planning
can be related to the Clean Water Act and therefore fits the and evaluation. Second, make sure that the students are
environmental curriculum. The students are exploring a talking about a legitimate community need. Projects that
community issue (litter and its effect on creeks) while meeting are token projects are doomed to fail. Kids know when you
state learning standards. My goal is for the students to find are faking, so don’t! As you might imagine, the first project
the source of that litter and outline a permanent solution to is the most difficult. Once you get through one, I dare you
the litter problem. As their facilitator, I encourage them to to not find additional projects.
implement their solutions and evaluate the outcomes.
Service learning is not community service. Although
community service projects are wonderful and do provide Deb Perryman
positive student outcomes, they are not tied directly to Illinois Teacher of the Year, 2004–2005
curriculum. Take, as an example, one of America’s most Elgin High School
popular community service projects: the canned food drive. Elgin, Illinois
© Cengage Learning 2014

Academically challenged third- and fourth-grade students in Fayetteville, West

Virginia, spent part of their summer helping their park system continue its beautification
projects. They cleaned up trash, weeded, painted, created rock gardens, and replaced
light bulbs for the annual Christmas display.

Other projects, such as Habitat for Humanity and Trick or Treat for UNICEF are
nationally and even internationally implemented. All of these projects promote civic en-
gagement among students.
During the 2007–2008 school year, approximately 4.2 million students, including
those with disabilities, participated in service learning activities (Spring, Grimm, and
Dietz, 2009). Research has shown that the benefits to students include the following:

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 Improved character and responsible behaviors
Improved academic performance
Increased feeling of connectedness to the community and school
Better social and emotional skills
Increased civic engagement (National Clearinghouse on Service Learning, 2011)

From this brief excursion into some of the many social issues that affect people today,
you have seen that many such issues affect the children who attend our schools. Of
course, there is no way that this textbook can identify and address every social issue that
may impact life for teachers and students. As a teacher, however, it is your responsibility
to be aware of the issues that your students may bring into the classroom. You can access
websites dealing with these issues through the direct links available on the Education
CourseMate website. The following briefly cites three situations that you will probably
encounter among the children in your classroom:

1. Immigration. In the United States in 2004, there were some 1.7 million undocu-
mented migrants under the age of 18, most of who attended public schools (Passel,
2005). Six states have passed harsh immigration control laws that will require un-
documented immigrants to leave (Immigration Policy Center, 2012).
2. Father’s incarceration. In midyear 2007, 1,599,200 school children had a father in
prison. These children do not perform well in school, exhibit multiple behavior prob-
lems, are more likely to drop out of school, have a higher risk of suicide and substance
abuse, display aggression, depression, loneliness, and disobedience, and are more
likely to become incarcerated themselves (Collins, n.d.).
3. Homelessness. The federal government’s definition of homelessness is used by all schools
and includes “children and youth who lack a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime resi-
dence” (National Association for the Education of Homeless Children and Youth, n.d.).
Homelessness includes students living in shelters, transitional housing, cars, campgrounds,
motels, and sharing the housing of others temporarily. Over 950,000 homeless students
were enrolled in public schools during the 2008–2009 school year, a 20 percent increase
from the previous year, and a 41 percent increase from the year before that. As you can
imagine, homeless children face tremendous barriers to their education, even though
school is a place where they can feel safe and welcome. Fewer than 25 percent of homeless
children in the United States graduate from high school (Murphy and Tobin, 2011).

Recall that all students have common needs. It should be clear as you made your in-
quiries in this chapter that the issues you have explored both affect and threaten ways in
which these needs are met. Remember that you as a teacher are in a uniquely powerful
position to help students address these needs.

Society and the Schools BUILDING BLOCK

In Building Blocks 12.1, 12.2, and 12.4, you listed some social issues that exist in 12.8
today’s society.
Which of the issues on your list have prompted action by schools?
Which issues have not prompted action by schools? Why do you suppose this
is? Which of these issues do you believe schools should do something about?
What should they do?
Which issues have prompted controversy about school action? What kinds of
controversy? Is there a commonality among the controversies?

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 CHAPTER RESOURCES SU M M A RY
Social issues such as changing and alternative family structures and the struggling
economy and its impact on employment can affect the emotional health of stu-
dents.
Some students may spend time alone, self-supervised due to parents having to
work.
Stress on students and their families can sometimes lead students to decide to drop
out of school so that they can get a job and contribute to the family’s finances or
simply because they don’t see the purpose or relevance of education.
To address the issues of self-supervision and dropouts, schools have implemented
after-school programs, mentoring programs, and programs to identify and prevent
at-risk students from dropping out. Some schools have developed programs to help
students who have dropped out to reenter schools.
Stresses on emotional health can translate into threats to physical health and well-
being. There continue to be concerns in society with childhood obesity and unsafe
behaviors that include risky sexual behavior and drug use.
Schools have responded to these risky behaviors by implementing programs to
guide nutrition and physical activity. To varying degrees, schools have also pro-
vided sex education to their students, with some schools taking the even more
controversial step of providing condoms to students.
The risky behaviors that students engage in carry out into the community, some-
times even to the extent of gang-related activities. Statistics regarding gang mem-
bership and violence are frightening.
Schools can address gang activity in a variety of ways that involve prevention, in-
tervention, and suppression.
To help students form a meaningful connection not only with their school but
also with their communities, teachers can employ various service learning activi-
ties that engage students’ thinking, social, and emotional skills, and collabora-
tion with members of the community, in order to identify and meet community
goals.

Key Terms and Concepts

At-risk student, 325 Risky behavior, 331
Childhood obesity, 328 Sexually transmitted disease
Latchkey kid, 324 (STD), 331

Construct and Apply

1. How do issues such as divorce, family structure, and other issues that affect a student’s emo-
tional health influence that student’s work in school?
2. Suppose you are the principal of an elementary school and you decide that health should be
emphasized in all grades, but you can include only a single topic from these issues: childhood
obesity, drug and alcohol abuse, and sex education. Which topic would you choose? Why?
What would the topic be if your school were a middle school? A high school? Why?
3. If schools are to play a role in teaching students about sex, safety, and health issues, to what
extent should teachers be held accountable for their own behavior in these areas?
4. To what extent is gang activity a concern in your community and/or in the community of your
field placement? Does your school have any policies or rules regarding gang colors, symbols,
or signs? Why do you think one of the recommendations for preventing gang activity is to
punish the delinquent behavior rather than the display of gang colors, symbols, or signs? Do
you agree with this proposition? Why or why not?
5. What are some ideas for service learning in which you might involve your future students?
How would these activities benefit the students? The school? The community?

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 CHAPTER RESOURCES
Deconstructing the Standards
1. Recall the InTASC standards associated with the objectives for this chapter:
Standard #1: Learner Development reads, “The teacher understands how learners grow
and develop, recognizing that patterns of learning and development vary individually within
and across the cognitive, linguistic, social, emotional, and physical areas, and designs and im-
plements developmentally appropriate and challenging learning experiences.”
Standard #2: Learning Differences reads, “The teacher uses understanding of individual
differences and diverse cultures and communities to ensure inclusive learning environments
that enable each learner to meet high standards.”
Standard #3: Learning Environments reads, “The teacher works with others to create
environments that support individual and collaborative learning, and that encourage positive
social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self motivation.”
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice reads, “The teacher engages in
ongoing professional learning and uses evidence to continually evaluate his/her practice, par-
ticularly the effects of his/her choices and actions on others (learners, families, other profession-
als, and the community), and adapts practice to meet the needs of each learner.”
a. What part(s) of these standards does this chapter address?
b. How will the concepts in this chapter help you apply these standards as a teacher?
2. Use your favorite search engine to find your state’s standards for certification. When you find
it, bookmark the site; you will refer to it often during this course.
a. How are your conclusions about how schools should respond to social issues represented
in your state certification standards?
b. How do the InTASC standards compare to your state’s certification standards regarding the
schools’ response to social issues?
c. Do you believe the degree of representation concerning social issues in schools is adequate
in your state certification standards? Why or why not?

Your Portfolio
1. Pay attention to the social issues and the school’s response in your community. How do the
schools in the area where you wish to be employed respond to these issues? Read the newspa-
per daily and become educated about the factors and people involved. Summarize the facts you
find and write a reflection to include in your portfolio.
2. Review the philosophy of education statement you wrote in Chapter 2. Based on your exami-
nation of the effect of social issues on schools and the influence you may have as a teacher,
consider revising this statement.

Education CourseMate Resources

Check out this text’s Education CourseMate website (at www.cengagebrain.com) for more informa-
tion about social issues and how schools respond to them. You will find the TeachSource Videos, a
guide for doing field experiences, glossary flash cards, activities, tutorial quizzes, direct links to the
websites mentioned in the chapter, and more.

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 © David R. Frazier Photolibrary, Inc./Alamy
CHAPTER

13 Teachers, Students,
and the Law1
IN THIS TEXTBOOK, you have looked at a number of laws that affect
teachers, students, and schools. Think back to previous chapters. Do you remember
the requirements for the lengths of a school year and a school day? Do you recall
the requirements of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)?
You probably have heard about recent school legal issues from the media. If you
have children or siblings currently in school, you have probably become familiar with
still other legal issues, and you no doubt can recall legal issues from your own time
in school. Think about the issues about which you have read or seen reports recently.
What do you think is the purpose of each such law? What is its impact on schools?
Schools in the United States operate within a framework of laws and regulations
that seek to ensure that all children within society can obtain an education that
prepares them for a successful adult life. At the same time, schools operate in a
litigious society, and lawsuits are common, involving all aspects of education. The
decisions made in lawsuits and other court decisions help shape the educational
environment and specify the exact meaning of laws.

Dr. Linda Webb was primary author of this chapter in the first edition.
1

340

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 Chapter Objectives
As a result of your explorations in this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Identify the system of laws governing education in the United States.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
2. Explain teachers’ legal rights and responsibilities.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
3. Explain students’ legal rights and responsibilities.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice

Sources of Laws and Regulations

Impacting Schools
Let us start by exploring some of the laws that affect students, teachers, and schools.
Think again about the laws and regulations you have encountered in this course. Think
also about the laws and regulations you remember from your days in schools or that you
know about from siblings, children, or the media. What are some of the laws affecting
schools?

It’s the Law! BUILDING BLOCK

Take a few minutes to jot down some laws that affect schools. How do these laws 13.1
affect teachers, students, or both? Make a chart with three columns:
The law
Its impact: How does the law affect the operation of a school?
The consequences of violating it: What happens if someone breaks the law?
You may wish to use a table such as the one shown here to help you organize your
thinking; we give an example to help you get started.

Consequences of
Law Impact on School Violation
Teachers should not A teacher under the influence The teacher’s employment
use illegal substances would not be able to fulfill duties, could be terminated if this
while at school. responsibilities, and obligations behavior continues.
associated with the job.

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 Compare your responses with those of others. Did you think of different laws?
Did you think of the same laws but cite different impacts on teachers or students?
Did you think of different consequences for the same laws?
Keep your lists; you will refer to them throughout this chapter.

If you were to group the laws you cited in Building Block 13.1 into categories, you
would find that the laws fall into several categories, such as the rights and responsibilities
of teachers, rights and responsibilities of students, child abuse and neglect, and the rights
of students with special needs. What categories would organize your list?
You probably generated a lengthy list of laws governing school life. Let us examine
whether all the items you listed are laws. Some of them might be regulations. Others
might be court decisions.
Laws and regulations come from federal, state, and local sources, and from the courts
that, through numerous cases, have interpreted the laws. Let us see how this works. Some
constitutional law A law based laws are based on the federal or a state constitution and are known as constitutional laws.
on the U.S. Constitution or a state
constitution. Some are passed by the legislature at the federal or state level and are known as statutes.
statute A law passed by the federal, Some result from decisions made by the courts and are known as case law. Rules enacted
state, or local legislature. by school boards and other state agencies to ensure compliance with the laws are called
case law A law that is the result of regulations.
decisions made by the courts.
regulation A rule that is enacted
by a state or local agency to ensure
compliance with the law. Federal Sources of Laws and Regulations
The U.S. Constitution is the supreme law of the land. The Constitution gives Congress the
power to provide for the general welfare in the United States. Although the word educa-
tion is not found in the Constitution, Congress has used the “general welfare” rationale
to enact legislation providing for research and support of educational programs, provid-
ing financial assistance for education programs such as the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA), and mandating safety regulations such as the Asbestos School
Hazard Detection and Control Act of 1980. Think about the laws you listed in Building
Block 13.1. Many of them probably concern federally controlled rights, such as employ-
ment discrimination and teacher rights. Federal legislation is a basis for many aspects of
school life.
Most federal laws that directly affect education policies offer federal funds to the
states but with conditions attached: If a school district wants the money that comes
with a federal program, it has to implement that program according to federal regula-
Title I funds Federal funds tions. For example, Title I funds must be distributed according to a formula whereby
distributed to school districts to the school district gives the most money to the schools with the greatest need based on
be distributed to schools with the
greatest need, determined by the size of the free and reduced lunch population. If the district gives more Title I money
free and reduced lunch program to a school with less need, all Title I money is withheld from the entire district. A state
participation. or a school that accepts federal money is bound by the conditions attached to those
funds.

State Sources of Laws and Regulations

In the United States, public schools are a function of state government. The state’s right
to determine laws, rules, and regulations for public schools within its boundaries is de-
rived from the Tenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution which, as you have seen, states,
“The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it
to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.” Because the U.S.
Constitution does not specifically list education as a federal function and does not pro-
hibit the states from regulating education, educational control is reserved for the states.

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 Each state enacts its own laws and regulations to establish the way education functions
within its boundaries.
All state constitutions specifically address public schools and provide for a uniform,
efficient system of public education. Unlike the federal government, the states have the
power to make laws governing education to supplement their constitutional provisions;
these laws are called statutes. For example, all 50 states have statutes requiring students
within specified age ranges to attend school.
From these laws come regulations that ensure implementation of the laws. Regulations
differ from laws in that they are not enacted by legislatures and are not part of a state’s
legal code. But regulations often carry the force of law. You are probably familiar with
regulations in your state regarding certification and curriculum. Regulations governing
facilities are less well known. For example, did you know that many state boards of educa-
tion in the southern United States have mandated that all schools be air-conditioned?

Local Sources of Laws and Regulations

Although U.S. schools are controlled by the states, local boards of education administer
the state laws, rules, and regulations. These boards often add their own local regulations,
such as deciding that all teachers must attend specific staff-development activities. Local
boards also formulate regulations covering such issues as the district student discipline
policy, teacher attendance policy, and school year calendar.
Each state has layers of rules and regulations. But state law takes precedence. Figure
13.1 shows the layers of school control within the state.

The Courts
You have seen that there are two sources of law governing schools: state laws and federal
laws. These laws are debated and passed by representative legislatures and do not rely on
precedents. Remember the law enacted by some southern states that all school buildings
must be air-conditioned? This law did not rely on any previous law or precedent. There
were no previous examples to be considered.
A third type of law is case law. Case law results when judges rule on a legal dispute.
IDEA, for example, has been the basis of numerous lawsuits wherein parents felt their
children were not receiving the education to which they were entitled by law. When
judges ruled on issues regarding IDEA, schools were required to provide specific services
and act in specific ways. Thus, the determination of a court case had the impact of law.
Courts tend to use previous case law to guide them in their decisions. Case law estab-
lishes precedents that guide arguments regardless of when or where the previous decision
was handed down. Case law comes from state courts, federal courts, and the U.S.
Supreme Court. In the latter half of the 20th century, there was an ever-increasing vol-
ume of lawsuits, and the resulting court decisions have affected virtually every aspect of
school life.
Since the landmark Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka desegregation decision
in 1954, the courts have assumed a significant role in education. Although court

State Legislature

State Board of Education

and State Agencies
Figure 13.1
▲

Local Boards of Education Levels of school control in states.

© Cengage Learning 2014

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 decisions had affected schools before Brown, the latter half of the 20th century saw an
unprecedented volume of lawsuits and resulting court opinions, affecting virtually every
aspect of school life. As the impact of federal education legislation is felt across the na-
tion, courts are certain to become involved in the areas of accountability, school choice,
and local control. Court decisions on these issues will affect the daily life of all within
schools.

Teachers and the Law

Teachers are affected by state and federal laws, the U.S. Constitution, state constitu-
tions, and agreements negotiated between schools and teacher unions. Court rulings
that interpret the laws have brought changes in what is required of teachers and have
redefined teacher rights. Laws and their interpretations will affect almost every aspect
of your professional life, starting before you are employed and continuing throughout
your career.
Refer to the list of laws you developed in Building Block 13.1. Look specifically
at the laws about teachers. Do you see categories? For example, do some of the laws
you listed deal with employment? Do some deal with teacher rights? Teacher respon-
sibilities?

Teacher Certification
Every state has laws and regulations that detail requirements for the certification and
employment of teachers. Certification is the basic requirement for teacher employment
and is based on professional preparation and other requirements determined by the
state. The requirements for teacher certification have been tested in the courts and have
consistently been allowed to stand. Consider some examples from the past: In United
States v. South Carolina (1977), the court upheld the use of the National Teacher Ex-
aminations, even though the test had been shown to disproportionately disqualify
minority applicants. In Keyishian v. Board of Regents (1967), the court ruled that
teachers may be required to sign an oath pledging support for the federal and state
constitutions and promising to faithfully perform their duties. In Bay v. State Board of
Education (n.d.), the court ruled that finding a burglary conviction in an applicant’s
past was sufficient reason for the state to refuse a teaching certificate. Generally speak-
ing, courts will not intervene in certification requirements unless a person’s rights have
been violated.
As you saw in Chapter 9, teaching certificates are issued for specific time periods to
teach specific subjects and ages. Although the certification satisfies state requirements, lo-
cal school districts may require additional training. To maintain a teaching certificate, a
teacher must meet the state’s requirements and, normally, acquire additional refresher
education. Failure to meet continuing education requirements results in ineligibility for
certificate renewal, which, in turn, can result in loss of employment. It’s important to note
that states may impose new conditions for certification renewal that supersede those that
were in effect when the teacher was awarded the certificate. For example, the Supreme
Court of Texas ruled that teachers holding life certificates could be required to pass a
teacher examination as a condition of continued employment, even though the certificates
were “permanent” (State v. Project Principle, 1987).
code of ethics A guide to acceptable Every state has a code of ethics (a list of standards for ethical conduct) for teachers
professional behavior. (see Chapter 9) and a description of reasons for suspension or revocation of the
teaching certificate. A teaching certificate may be revoked for offenses such as moral
turpitude (the blatant violation of standards of moral conduct), unfitness, and felony
criminal convictions.

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 Revocation of Teaching Certificates BUILDING BLOCK
Several interesting legal cases illustrate reasons why teaching certificates can be re- 13.2
voked:
A music teacher had her state certification revoked after she was convicted of
stealing $3,000 from the booster club. It was also discovered that she intended
to use the booster club’s credit card on a cruise she was planning to take
(Gibson, 2011).
A 59-year-old Michigan teacher lost his state certification and was also con-
victed for exposing himself to a 12-year-old male student who was doing yard
work for him (Carter, 2010).
A music teacher in New York State lost his teaching license after he was charged
with endangering the welfare of a child by engaging in inappropriate sexual
conduct while in the presence of a student (Public Employment Law Press,
2010).
What basic cause of certificate revocation (moral turpitude, unfitness, or felony
criminal conviction) underlies each of the preceding decisions?

Employment
Teachers are hired by the local board of education of that district, and not the indi-
vidual school. The board hires and the board fires. Teachers work for the board. The
board sets the employment requirements for teachers within the school district. The
authority for employment and termination of teachers is exclusively vested in the lo-
cal school board and cannot be delegated to any other body or official. For the most
part, contracts of employment are offered only after the board has voted to employ
the applicant.
However, state laws govern teacher contracts. Most teacher contracts contain sal- contract An agreement with specific
ary and employment date information, stating only that the applicant is to be employed terms between two or more people
or entities in which there is a promise
by that district for a specific number of days (usually 180 to 185) at a specific salary. to do something in return for a
Grade, specific school, and subject to be taught are not included, because the contract valuable benefit.
is a legal document for employment in the school district and not at a specific school
within that district. When might a teacher want to break a contract? You can think of
many reasons, such as being dissatisfied with your school placement, or wishing you
were closer to home, or wanting to move to another state with your spouse. Or, you
may suddenly realize you don’t want to go into teaching after all, and you want out. A
teacher may legally and ethically break a contract only by following approved proce-
dures for contract release. In most states, this involves sending a written request for
release. The local board then acts on the request. Failure to obtain proper release from
a contract may result in monetary damages awarded to the school district (for the cost
of locating and employing a replacement), loss of teaching certificate, and loss of em-
ployability in other school districts. In most states, teacher applications ask whether the
applicant has also signed a current contract with another district. If so, the district to
which she is applying will not consider the applicant for employment. If the applicant
answers “no” but has in fact signed another contract, the applicant may be terminated
by the district where she has the contract, and may even be prosecuted for lying on the
new application.
After a teacher is employed by a school district, that teacher can legally be assigned
to any school in the district, and the principal can legally assign the teacher to any grade
level in the school, as long as the assignment is within the teacher’s area or areas of
certification. But, teachers normally interview with the principal of the school in the
district that wants to consider the applicant for a position in that school, and, if hired,

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 will in all probability be assigned to the school where the applicant was interviewed.
Teachers sometimes want to specify the school, grade, and/or subject they will teach,
especially after they have taken a year or two off. Schools often can accommodate indi-
vidual requests, but not always.

BUILDING BLOCK Contracting for a Job

13.3 Teacher shortages in some areas have made it possible for qualified teachers to shop
around for positions best suited to them. Consider the following scenario:
Mrs. Wilson, a mathematics teacher, has signed a contract to teach in the
Lincoln County School District. Her husband has been reassigned to a job site
30 miles from their current residence, and they have decided to relocate to the new
area, which is served by the Washington County School District. Not only is Wash-
ington County advertising for qualified mathematics teachers, but this district is also
paying $2,500 more per year than Lincoln County for someone with Mrs. Wilson’s
level of experience. Washington County also offers a one-time signing bonus of
$2,500 for science, mathematics, and special education teachers.
What are Mrs. Wilson’s legal options?
What is her most ethical course of action?

Teachers may be transferred to different schools, but only when the decision is based
on objective, nondiscriminatory reasoning, such as moving an English teacher from a
school with a dwindling student population to one whose student population is growing.
It would be illegal for a teacher to be transferred to another school just because he or she
disagreed with and openly criticized school policies, but still obeyed them. This example
above would constitute a transfer based on discriminatory reasoning, which was invali-
dated by the courts in the past (Adcock v. Board of Education of San Diego Unified School
District, 1973). If a teacher did not obey the school policies that he or she was openly
critical of, that may be a case of insubordination, which is covered later in this chapter.

Noninstructional Duties
Instructional duties include the act of teaching and those
actions connected to teaching, such as lesson planning.
You investigated teachers’ instructional and noninstruc-
tional duties in Chapter 9. You saw that the courts tend to
hold that noninstructional duties, such as lunch and bus
duty, are part of normal school operations and that teach-
ers must undertake such duties because those duties con-
stitute a significant part of the school program. However,
a court ruled long ago that teachers cannot be required to
undertake duties that are not related either to their work
or to school to keep their jobs. In its rulings on implied
AP Images/John Bazemore

obligations of teachers, a New York court stated that any

teacher may be required to supervise study hall and con-
duct conferences; English teachers may be assigned to
direct school plays, physical education teachers to coach
intramural and interschool athletic teams, and band direc-
Teachers may be legally required tors to accompany bands on trips. A mathematics teacher,
to undertake certain on the other hand, cannot be required to coach an athletic team, and no teacher may be
noninstructional duties, such as required to perform services such as traffic duty, school bus driving, or janitorial services
supervising the lunchroom. (Parrish v. Moss, 1951).

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 What Are My Assignment Options? BUILDING BLOCK
A principal has assigned a social studies teacher to coach the academic bowl team. 13.4
The team meets twice weekly after school for two hours. Last year, the team won
the state bowl and was invited to compete in the national bowl, but the national
competition is held in another state. The social studies teacher declined the assign-
ment on the grounds that child care issues prevented her from getting home late or
traveling out of state.
What are the teacher’s legal options?
What are the principal’s legal options?

Tenure
Tenure is a state provision that grants teachers the right to continued, permanent employ-
ment status. Many but not all states award tenure to teachers. Teachers receive the right
to tenure by state law, and tenure is awarded by local boards of education after two to
five years of satisfactory teaching within a school district. Only those employed in regular,
full-time teaching positions can receive tenure. Most commonly, tenure is awarded upon
the successful completion of three years of teaching and the offer and acceptance of a
fourth-year contract within the district. This system has been upheld by the courts. , Ten-
ure has two primary advantages:

The teacher has a reasonable assurance of continued employment.

The teacher cannot be dismissed without cause, advance notice, and legal hearings.

However, many states are making it harder for teachers to get tenure and some states
are doing away with tenure all together. The reason for this is that teachers are increas-
ingly being held accountable for their performance, especially in response to the Obama
administration’s Race to the Top grants. As you can imagine, the teacher unions have
responded very negatively to states’ actions regarding tenure (Associated Press, 2012).

Dismissal
Before achieving tenure, teachers may be dismissed without cause at the end of a teaching
year. Without cause means a teacher does not have to be given a reason for the decision
not to reemploy him or her. Additionally, a nontenured teacher who is dismissed does not
have the right to due process. The employment of nontenured teachers can be terminated
simply through nonrenewal. Nontenured teachers have a one-year contract with a begin-
ning date and an ending date, and the school system has no obligation to reemploy the
teachers at the end of the contract term. The school system’s only obligation is to provide
teachers with a notice of intention not to reemploy by a specified date, which is mid-April
in most states.
Teachers who have been awarded tenure cannot be dismissed without due process. due process A person’s legal right
Due process refers to a person’s right to be adequately notified of charges or proceedings to be adequately notified of charges
or proceedings involving him or her
involving him or her and the opportunity to be heard at these proceedings. Due process and to be given the opportunity to
includes the following: be heard.

1. Notice of charges or reasons for dismissal

2. Prior notice of a hearing
3. The right to legal counsel
4. A hearing before an impartial party
5. The right to compel supportive witnesses to attend

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 6. The right to confront and cross-examine opposing witnesses, and to view evidence
prior to the hearing
7. The right to testify in one’s own behalf
8. The right to have a transcript of proceedings to use on appeal

Once a teacher has earned tenure, the school board is required to show good cause
for dismissal and must provide the teacher with all the rights and procedures of due pro-
cess. Boards cannot dismiss tenured teachers without just cause. The four most common
reasons for dismissing a tenured teacher are incompetence, insubordination, immorality,
and criminal activity.
Other actions are not so clear-cut and can be argued to have no effect on the teaching
and learning process. When courts examine appeals by teachers who have been dismissed
for cause, they generally examine whether the offense resulting in dismissal negatively
affected the teacher’s performance.
You may recall that tenure has been eliminated in some states and that other states
are considering its elimination. In states that have abolished tenure, teachers gain due
process rights after a certain number of years of employment. In states with strong teacher
unions, a specific dismissal process is usually part of the union agreement.
Let us examine some of the most common reasons for teacher dismissal.

Incompetence
Have you ever had a teacher you considered to be incompetent? What did that teacher do
(or not do) that showed incompetence?

BUILDING BLOCK Is This Incompetence?

13.5 Mr. McDougal has been teaching mathematics at Broadview Middle School for ten
years and was voted Teacher of the Year three years ago. During the seven months
of the current academic year, Mr. McDougal has been habitually tardy and has sub-
mitted incomplete lesson plans. Numerous parent complaints suggest that his les-
sons are disorganized and that students have difficulties as a result. Observations of
his teaching confirm this.
Based on this scenario, do you believe Mr. McDougal is exhibiting incompe-
tence? What is your reason?
What are Mr. McDougal’s legal options?
What are the principal’s legal options?

Incompetence has been broadly interpreted by the courts. It can include lack of subject-matter
knowledge, inability to maintain discipline, the use of unreasonable discipline, unprofessional
conduct, and willful neglect of duty. It can include attitudinal deficiencies; failure to get along
with colleagues, parents, and administrators; neglect of duty; and even showing too many
videos. Here are three situations that resulted in dismissals that were upheld by the courts:

A teacher administered excessive punishment on three occasions (Kinsella v. Board of

Education, 1978).
A teacher had problems communicating material effectively to her students (Johnson v.
Francis Howell R-3 Board of Education, 1994).
A teacher had a messy classroom and produced unplanned lessons that were poorly
communicated to students (Blunt v. Marion County School Board, 1975).

In each of these instances, the teacher was observed, evaluated, and offered opportu-
nities to improve prior to his or her dismissal.

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 Most states have a clearly defined process to observe
and evaluate teachers and then to provide tenured teachers
with ample opportunity for remediation in the areas in
which they have exhibited incompetence before they can be
dismissed. The Obama administration’s Race to the Top
initiative has focused attention on teachers being “highly
qualified” and competent. Teachers are increasingly being
held accountable for their effective (or ineffective) class-
room strategies. For example, in Washington State, 165

© MIchael Newman/PhotoEdit, Inc.

teachers were dismissed in 2010 for poor performance. This
rate of dismal was the highest in the nation and was
expected to be even more widespread in the state in 2011
(Dillon, 2011b).
Although dismissal for incompetence usually happens
only after numerous instances of unsuccessful remediation
efforts, teachers can be dismissed as the result of one action
Teaching performance is
showing incompetence if that action is extremely serious. Such was the case of the teacher
observed and evaluated by
who wrote the word stupid across the forehead of one of his math students (DeVine,
administrators. Teachers who
2012). demonstrate incompetence are
often given opportunities for
Insubordination remediation and to correct their
Insubordination is defined by Black’s Law Dictionary as “an act of disobedience to proper teaching practices.
authority” (Garner, 2009). As with incompetence, dismissal for insubordination most of-
ten occurs after a series of actions. However, a single, sufficiently serious incident may be insubordination an act of
disobedience to proper authority
good cause. Here are instances of dismissal for insubordination that the courts upheld. (Garner, 2009).
Do you know of other examples?

A teacher was fired for insubordination when he refused to offer an explanation for
not allowing an injured student to go to the school clinic. He had the student wait in
the hallway while other students in his class completed a quiz. A school staff member
found the student and got help for her (Geary, 2010).
A high school physics teacher was fired for insubordination when he refused to alter
the failing grade he had given to a student who was sleeping in his class. After receiv-
ing the directions for the assignment, instead of beginning work, the student put his
head down on his desk and went to sleep. When he turned the assignment in the next
day, it was worthy of a good grade, but the teacher cut the grade in half due to the
student’s behavior in class the previous day. When the student and his parents com-
plained, the school administration asked the physics teacher to reconsider and raise
the grade. But the teacher refused, resulting in the charge of insubordination (Levs,
2005).
A teacher in a religious school had taken an extended leave of absence for medical
reasons, but was ready to return to her job. However, during her absence, the school
had hired another teacher to fill her position. The teacher threatened to sue the school
to get her job back but was subsequently fired for insubordination because the
school officials said that her behavior during this dispute was disruptive and incon-
sistent with their belief that such matters should be handled by the church rather than
in the court system. Because the teacher had received tenure after having taught there
for three years, she couldn’t be fired without cause. This case went to the U.S. Su-
preme Court, which ruled that religious organizations can hire and fire whomever
they chose for criteria that they define (Graham, 2012).

As you can tell from the preceding cases, courts have looked at willfulness as the
determinant of insubordination. Additionally, the courts look to see whether harm re-
sulted, whether the punishment is appropriate to the insubordinate act, and whether the
rule or order broken was reasonable and within the authority of the person making it.

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 Immorality
Historically, teachers have been viewed as being an example to their students. The rules
of conduct and codes of ethics governing teachers are written guides to acceptable behav-
ior, keeping teachers’ exemplary role in mind. Courts have typically held the behavior of
teachers to a higher standard than other people because of their interaction with impres-
sionable children and youth. One court decision confirming the exemplary role of teach-
ers says, “We note that statutes from colonial days forward recognize the unique position
of teachers as examples to our youth . . .” (Kilpatrick v. Wright, 1977).
Changing lifestyles and disagreements about what constitutes moral behavior make it
difficult to define proper teacher behavior. Generally, any act or behavior that substantially
interferes with students’ learning and impairs the teacher’s fitness to teach serves as a basis
for charges of immorality. Here are examples of court cases dealing with immorality:

A teacher was dismissed on charges of immoral conduct when it was discovered that
he had placed an ad soliciting sex on the Internet, complete with inappropriate pic-
tures of himself (San Diego Unified School District v. Commission on Professional
Competence, 2011).
Charges of immorality were filed against a teacher after she admitted having sexual
relations with another school official on school grounds (Cloonan, 2011).
Two Catholic schools in Ohio fired an unmarried teacher when she became pregnant
by artificial insemination. The teacher served as a technology coordinator for both
schools. Although the reasons initially cited for the termination were that the teacher
was single and pregnant, the schools became aware that firing the teacher for these
reasons might violate state and federal laws, so officials cited the fact that artificial
insemination was in conflict with the religious beliefs the schools (Perry, 2011).

Teacher immorality can be exhibited in unprofessional conduct, criminal activity, and

certain types of sexual activities. Let us look at these three situations.

BUILDING BLOCK Is This Immorality?

13.6 A tenured teacher tampered with the test results of the students in her class to raise
the scores so they exceeded state goals. When this was discovered, she was dismissed
(Hanes v. Board of Education of City of Bridgeport, 2001).
On what grounds was she fired?
What are this teacher’s legal options?
What are the principal’s legal options?

Unprofessional Conduct
Unprofessional conduct is normally considered a breach of morality. Examples of unpro-
fessional conduct include suggesting answers to standardized test questions, plagiarism,
swearing at students in class, dressing inappropriately, and writing inappropriate e-mail.
For example, the court upheld dismissal for immorality of a teacher who, after having
been denied permission to attend a conference, did so anyway, and claimed upon her re-
turn that she had been absent due to illness (Bethel Park School District v. Drall, 1982).

Criminal Activity
felony A serious crime, usually
involving violence, that is punishable The courts view commission of a felony (a serious crime such as armed robbery or
by imprisonment. possession of drugs for resale) or even an arrest and being charged with a felony or a
misdemeanor (a lesser crime such as public intoxication or shoplifting) as just cause for
misdemeanor A less serious crime
than a felony, punishable by a fine dismissal on grounds of immorality. Teacher dismissal cases can be based on charges of
and a possible jail term. criminal activity and even circumstances in which the teacher is not formally charged; a

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 school district does not have to wait for a conviction to initiate proceedings. For example,
the court upheld a dismissal based on allegations that a teacher stole a teapot used as a
prop in a school play, took 20 dollars from a basketball game’s receipts, and stole a set of
the school’s books (Kimble v. Wroth County R-III Board of Education, 1984).

Sexual Activity
Although court decisions have been inconsistent, there has been a trend toward providing
teachers more freedom in their private lives than has been the case historically. Commu-
nity mores regarding morality vary, however; for example, activities that are acceptable
in a metropolitan area may be viewed as immoral in a smaller, more rural area. Immoral-
ity decisions from the courts rely on individual case circumstances.
When examining reasons for dismissal involving sexual activity not related to students,
courts try to determine whether the behavior has impaired the teacher’s fitness to teach and
whether the action was public or private. For example, the court ruled in favor of a teacher
who had been dismissed for allowing male nonrelatives to stay overnight in her apartment
(Sullivan v. Meade Independent School Dist. No. 101, 1976). A different ruling was handed
down when a teacher’s lifetime certificate was revoked after a plea bargain led to her conviction
on charges of “outraging public decency” (committing an act so bad that the public’s sense of
decency is outraged); an undercover police officer had arrested the teacher at a private night-
club after watching her commit three separate sexual acts, a violation of the state’s penal code.
The court ruled that her behavior “certainly reflected a total lack of concern for privacy, deco-
rum, or preservation of her dignity and reputation” (Pettit v. State Board of Education, 1973).
Decisions regarding dismissal for homosexual activity have increasingly centered on
whether the acts in question were public or private. As gay rights have become more recog-
nized, court rulings over teacher dismissal cases based on homosexual behavior have be-
come less restrictive. The courts have ruled that homosexual people “are entitled to at least
the same protection as any other identifiable group which is subject to disparate treatment
by the state” (Glover v. Williamsburg Local School District Board of Education, 1998).

Sexual Activity Involving Students

The courts have been consistent in insisting that teachers be above reproach in their dealings
with students. Not only do the courts generally uphold dismissals for sexual activities in-
volving students, they also uphold publication of the dismissals and place no time con-
straints on when the impropriety occurred. The following rulings against teachers dismissed
for sexual misconduct involving students illustrate the courts’ strong position in this area:

A female gym teacher in Ohio was convicted of having sex with at least five male
students, some of them football players. Her plea of insanity did not hold up in court,
and she was sentenced to four years in prison (USA Today, 2011).
In 1998, a female elementary school teacher was convicted and sentenced to seven
years in prison for the rape of one of her male students, with whom she began a re-
lationship when he was in the sixth grade. Her initial sentence was suspended and she
was placed on probation. She violated the probation, however, when she had contact
with the student, and she went to jail to serve out her sentence. The teacher gave birth
to the student’s child while in prison for violation of the probation. She and her for-
mer student later married and had two children. She became a grandmother when her
son from a previous marriage became a father. Her son is only one year younger than
her husband, her former student (Jabali-Nash, 2011).
In February 2012, a 61-year-old Los Angeles County elementary school teacher pled
“not guilty” to charges that he took around 600 photographs of 23 young students
in poses involving sexual situations and bondage (Duke, 2012).
A male teacher at a Seventh-Day Adventist school in California was arrested and ac-
cused of the sexual molestation of a 15-year-old female student in June 2011. The
teacher allegedly picked the student up at her house and then drove her to a nearby
parking lot where the violations took place (Todorov, 2011).

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 You have seen that many actions fall under the category of immorality and that the
major tests are whether the act will compromise the teacher’s ability to complete his or
her duties in an exemplary fashion and whether the act occurred privately or publically.
Let us look at one more case.

BUILDING BLOCK Is This Another Case of Immorality?

13.7 Mrs. Jackson, the cheerleader advisor, and Mr. Hughes, the football coach, were
spotted one Saturday morning coming out of a motel room together in a town
35 miles from where they teach. The principal, who saw them on his way to visit a
relative, confronted them. They admitted they had been having an affair for several
months. The principal asked the board to dismiss Mrs. Jackson and Mr. Hughes, and
to request revocation of their teaching certificates.
On what basis do you believe the principal is seeking the teachers’ dismissals?
Why do you think so?
Do you think a court would uphold the dismissal? Why or why not?
Should the state revoke their teaching certificates? Why or why not?

Teacher Rights
We have been discussing reasons for the dismissal of teachers, especially tenured teachers.
You need to know these factors so you won’t fall unknowingly into a trap that might jeop-
ardize your career. However, there is good news as well: Teachers have rights. Teachers enjoy
the same constitutional rights that are afforded all citizens, such as the basic rights guaran-
teeing freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom to assemble, and due process.
Teachers who have felt that their constitutional rights were violated can and have sued their
board of education. Resulting court decisions have established a substantial body of com-
common law Case law or precedent mon law, clarifying teachers’ rights and responsibilities. You can access the National School
developed through decisions of Boards Association website, a great source of school law, through the direct link on the
courts.
Education CourseMate website. Let us look at some of these rights in more detail.

Freedom of Speech and Expression

The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution provides that the exercise of free speech
freedom of expression The cannot be restrained. The seminal case establishing teacher rights to freedom of expression
liberty to speak and otherwise involved a teacher’s dismissal for having written a letter to a newspaper criticizing school
express oneself and one’s opinions,
guaranteed by the First Amendment officials’ fund-raising practices. In this case, the Supreme Court ruled that, even though the
to the U.S. Constitution. letter contained inaccuracies, there was no evidence that the teacher inserted these inac-
curacies knowingly or recklessly, so he could not be dismissed for exercising his right to
speak on important public issues (Pickering v. Board of Education, 1968). Speech that is
not protected and that can legally result in dismissal includes racial slurs made about or to
students, vulgar remarks made to a school principal, and abusive language that consistently
denounces school officials to teachers and other school employees.

Freedom of Religion

BUILDING BLOCK Celebrating the Teacher’s Religion

13.8 Each day, Elaine wears a necklace with a cross on it. Her principal has asked her to
stop wearing the cross to school. She has refused, saying that she has a right to wear
the cross that her late father gave her.
Do you think Elaine has a legal right to wear the cross?
What legal arguments could she use?
What are the principal’s options?

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 Freedom of religion is a First Amendment right and includes all aspects of religious freedom of religion The right to
observance and practice. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 requires employers to make rea- choose a religion (or no religion)
without interference by the
sonable accommodations for an employee’s religious practices and observances. For government, guaranteed by the First
example, teachers must be allowed to use personal leave for religious purposes, such as Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
observing a religious holiday. After teachers have used all available personal leave (nor-
mally two to three days a year), they must also be allowed to take additional days
without pay for religious observances. However, the religious observance must be part
of the teacher’s religion, and the teacher may not claim simply any day as his or her
Sabbath.
The issue of religious dress has attracted a great deal of litigation in recent decades.
Decisions have varied in the different courts, but in the past there was a trend toward
prohibiting teachers from wearing religious attire in the classroom. For example, the court
ruled against a Sikh who sought to have her teaching certificate reinstated. It was revoked
after she continually wore white clothes and a white turban to teach her sixth- and eighth-
grade classes (Cooper v. Eugene School District No. 41, 1987). Another court ruled
against a Muslim woman who sought to dress in traditional attire that covered her entire
body except for her hands and face (United States v. Board of Education for the School
District of Philadelphia, 1990). However, in 2010, legislation was passed in Oregon that
repealed a 1923 law that prohibited teachers from wearing religious garb in the public
schools (Democrat Herald, 2010). And the Pennsylvania legislature began action in 2011
to repeal a similar 1895 law that prohibited teachers from wearing any kind of religious
insignia on jewelry or clothing (Andren, 2011).
Another aspect of religious freedom deals with participation in activities. For exam-
ple, teachers may refuse to participate in the Pledge of Allegiance, even when reciting the
pledge is a routine part of the school day, but they may not refuse to comply with cur-
riculum requirements on the basis that such requirements violate personal religious be-
liefs. Teachers cannot use the classroom to disseminate their religious beliefs.
The courts have been careful to protect teachers’ religious rights. At the same time,
they have recognized a compelling state interest in educating children in an atmosphere
that does not promote religion. The limitation of teacher religious freedom was clearly
stated in Palmer, in which the justices wrote that education “. . . cannot be left to indi-
vidual teachers to teach the way they please” and that teachers have “. . . no constitutional
right to require others to submit to their views and to forego a portion of their education search and seizure Examination of a
they would otherwise be entitled to enjoy” (Palmer v. Board of Education of the City of person’s premises by law enforcement
officers looking for evidence of the
Chicago, 1980). commission of a crime, and taking
articles of evidence (seizure and
Right to Privacy removal).
As you saw earlier, the courts have upheld the idea that teachers are exemplars. At the plagiarism Representing the writings,
literary concepts (a plot, characters,
same time, however, teachers enjoy the right to privacy in their personal lives. Yet those words), or other original work of
rights end when a teacher’s behavior adversely affects the teaching and learning process. another as one‘s own product.
If a teacher’s private acts do not negatively affect his teaching, courts have ruled that they copyright The exclusive right of
are not subject to employer scrutiny (Erb v. Iowa State Board of Public Instruction, the author or creator of a literary
or artistic property (such as a book,
1974). When the courts view issues of teacher privacy, they seek to determine whether the movie, or musical composition) to
conduct directly impairs the teacher’s performance in the school and whether the conduct print, copy, sell, license, distribute,
is the subject of such notoriety that it significantly limits the teacher’s ability to meet his transform to another medium,
translate, record, perform, or
or her responsibilities. otherwise use (or not use) their work,
A modern concern involving the right to privacy is e-mail. Nearly all teachers have and to give it to another by will.
e-mail available at their school. E-mail facilitates communication with parents and with Fair use provision of the copyright
others in the school system. Although many school systems do not prohibit teachers from act The use of copyrighted materials
determined to be fair and not an
using school e-mail for private communication, teachers should be aware that a school infringement of the copyright act
e-mail account is not private. Indeed, most school systems monitor e-mail, and inappro- based on four factors: (1) whether
priate communication by teachers may result in disciplinary action. the use is commercial in nature or
for nonprofit educational purposes;
(2) the nature of the copyrighted
Search and Seizure work; (3) the portion used in relation
The Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees freedom from unreasonable to the copyrighted work as a whole;
and (4) the effect of the use on
search and seizure. As drug use has become more common in our society, some teachers the potential market value of the
have been faced with random testing for drugs and alcohol. Such tests are a form of copyrighted work.

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 TECHNOLOGY I Found It on the Internet!
& EDUCATION
A   s a student, you know it is illegal to plagiarize
others’ work. Plagiarism involves taking the ideas of
Copyright Office, 2009), but all other uses violate copyright
laws. If you are not sure whether you are using copyrighted
others and representing them as your own, without giving material fairly, the Fair Use Provision of the Copyright Act
the proper credit. You have probably written a few papers in advises you to consider the following:
which you had to compile resources, synthesize ideas, and
The purpose and character of the use, including
cite references. Giving authors credit for their ideas and
whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for
writing is expected; not to do so is plagiarism. Schools have
nonprofit educational purposes
policies that contain stiff consequences for students caught
The nature of the copyrighted work
plagiarizing.
The amount and substantiality of the portion used in
Plagiarism used to consist of copying directly from
relation to the copyrighted work as a whole
books, encyclopedias, and other people’s work, but now it
The effect of the use upon the potential market for
includes copying directly from the Internet. Not only does
or value of the copyrighted work
the Internet contain a wealth of material, but many
websites, called essay mills (or paper mills), offer essays, When in doubt, always provide a citation and obtain
research papers, and the like for purchase. These essays permission. Penalties for copyright infractions can be up to
have been previously written and are alleged to have $150,000, even if you did not know you were violating the
received good grades. Some essay mills are careful to say copyright.
that the materials they provide are for research only, but Cheating in general is also on the rise. In a survey of
that does not mean that students will use the materials in 40,000 high school students conducted by the Josephson
this way. Institute of Ethics (2011), 59 percent admitted to cheating
According to research conducted by the Center for on an exam at some point during the preceding year and
Academic Integrity between 2006 and 2010, 40 percent of 34 percent cheated more than twice. And according to a
students surveyed admitted to plagiarizing at least a couple 2011 ABC Nightline piece, nearly 70 percent of college
of sentences for their assignments (Gabriel, 2010). However, students have admitted to cheating (ABC Nightline, 2010).
77 percent of the students surveyed did not think that This increase in cheating has been aided by the ever-
plagiarism from Internet sources was a serious concern. USA growing capabilities of the Internet, especially custom paper
Today (Terbush, 2012) reports that in a survey of 43,000 writing. All you have to do is fill out an Internet form telling
high school students conducted in 2011, more than half of the company exactly what you want written and when, and
the students admitted to cheating on a test during the they will write the paper for you. Oh, and you need
preceding year, one-third admitted to cheating more than money—lots of money. These papers cost between $14.00
twice, and 33 percent admitted to using the Internet for and $60.00 per page (250 words) depending on the level of
plagiarizing assignments. sophistication and urgency. Because they are custom-
Instructors can use online services to help them find written, it is more difficult for a professor to detect the
instances of plagiarism. These services compare student cheating, but it is not impossible. No matter what directions
work with millions of the most frequently cited resources you provide, the writing style will not be your own.
and can search the Internet rapidly for additional sources. Besides, remember that teachers are held to higher
The results of the comparison indicate the likelihood of standards because of their influence on children. Do you
plagiarism. think custom-written papers represent high standards?
A great deal of material on the Internet is protected by Here is a paragraph taken from the Chronicle of Higher
copyright. Copyright means that the originator of the Education, written by one of the ghostwriters who writes
material—words, pictures, music, and so on—maintains the papers for pay:
right to decide who can copy and distribute the material. I, who have no name, no opinions, and no style, have
Not only does using copyrighted material without proper written so many papers at this point, including legal
attribution constitute plagiarism, it is also a copyright briefs, military-strategy assessments, poems, lab
violation. A lot of Internet material is available to teachers reports, and, yes, even papers on academic integrity,
without copyright protection; indeed, many copyright that it’s hard to determine which course of study is
holders specifically waive protection to make their material most infested with cheating. But, I’d say education is
freely available to teachers. But teachers must be careful the worst. I’ve written papers for students in
about using Internet materials. Can you tell why? elementary-education programs, special-education
Students and teachers alike must comply with the Fair majors, and ESL-training courses. I’ve written lesson
Use Provision of the Copyright Act of the United States. plans for aspiring high school teachers, and I’ve
According to the provision, copyrighted material used for synthesized reports from notes that customers have
“purposes of criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching taken during classroom observations. I’ve written essays
(including multiple copies for classroom use), scholarship, or for those studying to become school administrators,
research is not an infringement of copyright” (U.S. and I’ve completed theses for those on course to

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 become principals. In the enormous conspiracy that is to require the same of your students. Be sure your students
student cheating, the frontline intelligence community understand what plagiarism is and that information on the
is infiltrated by double agents. (Future Educators of Internet is intellectual property belonging to other people.
America, I know who you are.) Students should also know that you are familiar with essay
Remember that teachers are held to the highest mill websites, plagiarism detection sites, ghostwriting sites,
standards. As you adhere to these high standards, be sure and other methods of cheating.

search and have been called suspicionless because there was no reason to suspect the af-
fected teachers were guilty of drug use. To a certain extent, random drug testing of teach-
ers is legal. The reasoning behind decisions that allow random drug tests was expressed
by Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals: “ . . . the suspicionless testing regime is justified by the
unique role they play in the lives of school children and in loco parentis [meaning in the in loco parentis “In place of
place of a parent] role imposed upon them” (Knox County Education Association v. Knox parents.”
County Board of Education, 1998). The courts also have ruled that school systems may
use drug-detecting dogs and that a teacher’s refusal to take a drug test after suspicion has
been established by a dog sniffing a teacher’s car is a legal cause for termination (Hearn v.
Board of Education, 1999).

Legal Liability
In today’s litigious society, teachers live with the constant concern that they may be sued
and held liable for substantial damages. In legal terms, teachers are liable for tortuous acts. liable (legal liability) A legal
Simply put, a tort is a wrongful act, other than a breach of contract, for which relief may responsibility, duty, or obligation; the
state of one who is legally bound to
be obtained in the form of damages. Torts include a variety of actionable or civil wrongs do something that may be enforced
committed by one person against another, and can be committed either by overt actions or by legal action.
by failure to act. Thus a tort can be intentional or the result of negligence. When a tort tort A wrongful act, other than a
action occurs, one person (the plaintiff) brings a suit against another (the defendant) to breach of contract, for which relief
may be obtained in the form of
obtain damages. The plaintiff usually requests damages in the form of money. damages.
The most common intentional tort is assault and battery. Assault is a threat to use plaintiff The person, people, or
force, which causes fear. Battery takes place when physical contact occurs. Assault and entity who files the lawsuit.
battery lawsuits against teachers are most common in states that still allow corporal defendant The person, people, or
punishment; such cases generally result from a teacher’s use of excessive punishment. entity against whom a lawsuit is filed.
Numerous court cases involving teachers who used excessive punishment have resulted in
substantial awards to plaintiffs, but a decline in such cases has accompanied the decline
in the use of corporal punishment. Whether or not a state allows corporal punishment,
teachers should use force only to defend themselves from physical harm, and then only to
the degree necessary. Other intentional torts include such acts as libel, slander, defama-
tion, false arrest, malicious prosecution, and invasion of privacy.
By far the most common tort actions against teachers are for negligence. Within the
negligence category, most actions stem from inadequate supervision. Lawsuits commonly
maintain that harm occurred to students because a teacher failed to give adequate super-
vision. In many instances, such lawsuits are based on the idea that an accident would not
have happened if the teacher had practiced proper supervision. Teachers have been found
liable for student injury based on inadequate supervision in a wide variety of cases.
Negligence is not always cut and dried. Definite elements and conditions determine
whether a teacher is negligent. Generally, the teacher must exercise a standard of care that
a “reasonable and prudent” person would exercise under similar circumstances. In all
circumstances, the teacher is responsible. Students must be supervised at all times, includ-
ing during the school day while they are outside the classroom, before school, and after
school while they are on school property.
Examples where the courts found negligence include the following cases:

A lawsuit was filed against a gym teacher who supervised an activity in which a stu-
dent broke several vertebrae in her back. Earlier that day, another student was injured

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 during the same activity, which the same gym teacher was supervising. A witness said
the gym teacher did nothing to modify the activity after the first injury occurred
(O’Brien, 2011).
In Chicago, a mother filed suit against the public school system as well as the teacher
who left her seventh-grade students alone in the classroom for an extended period of
time. While unattended, a fight broke out in which the mother’s son was pushed forc-
ibly to the ground, resulting in a broken femur. The mother contends that the teacher
was negligent and disregarded student safety when she left the students alone for so
long (Donovan, 2010).
The parents of an eighth-grader at a Christian school sued the school and the teacher
who admitted that he told their son in front of the rest of the class that he would
become a “bigger and fatter moron” than he already was. According to the parents,
their son went on a diet that caused him to lose 15 pounds in one month and that
compromised his health. They claimed that the boy also suffered emotional effects
due to being humiliated (Anasari, 2010).

Although there are defenses against liability lawsuits and the defendant can some-
times negotiate a reduction in the degree of negligence, you should be aware that, as a
teacher, you may be subject to lawsuits and held liable for large amounts of money. If you
should be found liable, the award to the plaintiff could take all your assets. Even if you
should be found not liable, the cost of legal representation is substantial, often running
into tens of thousands of dollars. Professional teacher organizations and teacher unions
provide legal representation and liability insurance as membership benefits. The cost of
membership is a small price to pay compared to the cost of defending against a tort suit.

Students and the Law

Thus far, you have been investigating school law as it applies to teachers. But the law
applies to students as well as teachers, and much of the law is intended to protect stu-
dents. U.S. public schools operate under the concept of in loco parentis (“in the place of
a parent”); teachers and school officials exercise responsibility for the students under their
supervision. Furthermore, throughout much of U.S. history, schools publicized rules and
disciplined students with the view that education was a privilege and students’ rights
could be routinely restricted. However, in 1969 the U.S. Supreme Court held, in the land-
mark Tinker case, that students do not shed their rights at the schoolhouse door (Tinker v.
Des Moines Independent Community School District, 1969). The Tinker case made clear
that educators must respect students’ rights and can restrict those rights only if there are
legitimate reasons.

Due Process
As citizens, students are entitled to substantive and procedural due process rights. Over the
past five decades, thousands of court cases have dealt with issues of due process. The basic
due process requirements for dealing with students have been derived from decisions of the
U.S. Supreme Court. In particular, two cases laid the groundwork for students’ due process
safeguards. The Gault case overturned the six-year reform school sentence of a juvenile
convicted of making obscene telephone calls (In re Gault, 1967) because the student had
not been given due process rights. The court noted that no appeal had been provided, no
written charges had been presented, and protection against self-incrimination had been
denied. This view of students’ due process rights was strengthened a few years later when
a court considered the case of a student suspended for ten days after a disturbance in the

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 school cafeteria. In that case, the court ruled that the right to attend school is a legitimate
right and a suspended student, even when the suspension was ten days or less, must be given
notice of charges, an explanation of the evidence, and a hearing providing an opportunity
to tell his or her side of the story (Goss v. Lopez, 1975). The court outlined informal pro-
cedures for cases of short suspensions but noted that expulsions or suspensions of more
than ten days could require the formal due process procedure.
It might seem that the legal requirements make it impossible for teachers to exercise
discipline. However, most school systems today provide students and parents with written
discipline policies; such policies usually include an outline of student rights and a list of
infractions and their consequences. By disseminating a sound discipline policy, schools
protect themselves and ensure student rights.

Pregnancy and Marriage

In Chapter 12, you saw that pregnant students may have limited opportunities to attend
school or continue their education. However, the courts have unanimously ruled to in-
validate school rules that prohibit married or pregnant students from attending school or
that cause them to be treated differently from other students.
Following are general guidelines for educators concerning pregnant or married stu-
dents and students with children:

1. The courts have invalidated rules prohibiting married or pregnant students from at-
tending school.
2. Married or pregnant students have the same rights as other students.
3. Only when compelling evidence of disruption, interference with school activities, or
negative influence on other students is present can the school restrict married or preg-
nant students’ attendance or participation in activities.
4. Only the student’s physician can determine when the student should withdraw from
and return to school.
5. Homebound instruction must be offered to students who withdraw from school be-
cause of pregnancy.

Freedom of Speech and Expression

Is This Libel? BUILDING BLOCK

In early 2002, the Olympic Torch Relay passed down the street in Juneau, Alaska, 13.9
on which the high school was located. The principal had permitted the students and
staff to observe the relay from both sides of the street; teachers had responsibility
for student supervision during this school-sanctioned “outing.” As the torchbearers
passed in front of the school, a group of students unfurled a large banner that said
“BONG HITS 4 JESUS.” The principal immediately directed the students to take
down the banner, but the student who brought it to school refused to do so. The
principal confiscated the banner and suspended the student for ten days.
The student appealed his suspension to the district administration, but it was
upheld. He then filed suit, claiming that the principal and the Board of Education
had violated his First Amendment rights. The Ninth Circuit Court agreed, and the
case went to the Supreme Court.
What ruling do you think the Supreme Court handed down?
The U. S. Supreme Court reversed the decision of the Ninth Circuit Court, say-
ing that the First Amendment does not require schools to tolerate student expression
that contributes to [the dangers of illegal drug use] at school events (Morse v.
Frederick, 2007).

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 As you have seen, the First Amendment provides for freedom of speech. But constitu-
tional rights do not mean that students can behave in any manner they choose. The
school’s compelling interest is to maintain a proper atmosphere for learning. Thus, stu-
dents can be prohibited from expressing themselves in ways that disrupt or harm the
learning atmosphere. At the same time, a student may not be deprived of speech and ex-
pression that is not disruptive or harmful.
Tinker, cited earlier in this chapter, made clear that students have the right to express
themselves, but that this expression must be done in an orderly way. However, court rulings
that were handed down years ago established that students who cause a disturbance with
their words or actions on the part of supporting a cause could be suspended by the school
(Blackwell v. Issaquena Bd of Educ 1966; Bethel School Dist No. 403 v. Fraser, 1986). The
courts held that schools may legitimately establish standards of civil and mature conduct,
and a school that tolerated “lewd, indecent, and offensive” speech would find it difficult to
convey those standards. Likewise, schools may prohibit students’ use of fighting words and
threats that have a direct tendency to cause acts of violence, such as hurling racial epithets.
Student newspapers, plays, and literature fall within the realm of free expression. At the
same time, schools do have some control. The key to determining the legality of prohibiting
a particular expression can be found in the Tinker ruling: “To justify a prohibition of a
particular expression of opinion, school officials must be able to show that their action was
caused by something more than a mere desire to avoid the discomfort and unpleasantness
that always accompany an unpopular viewpoint. There must be facts that might reason-
ably lead school authorities to forecast substantial disruption of or material interference
with school activities” (Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School Dist 1969).
The following guidelines are useful in determining whether students’ right to free
speech and expression apply:

When deciding to prohibit expression or punish expression, determine whether there

is evidence of significant disruption or potential disruption, indecent speech, or disre-
gard for authority. When punishment is involved, provide due process.
Materials may be banned if they are vulgar, mock others’ race, origin, sex, or religion,
or if they are counter to the mission of the school.
The time and place of distribution of all materials may be regulated.
Legally defensible guidelines should be formulated regarding a school newspaper.
Determine whether a newspaper is to be an open forum or a curriculum-based pub-
lication. Students have greater freedom of expression in an open forum.
Develop a specific procedure whereby newspaper submissions must be reviewed be-
fore publication. Provide an appeals process.

Dress and Appearance

Dress is generally viewed as a form of self-expression. As such, it is a First Amendment
right, and schools must show a compelling reason such as health and safety issues why
restrictions on dress are necessary. The courts generally strike down vague or arbitrary
dress codes. The courts uphold dress codes that aim to protect safety or prevent disruption
or distraction that interferes with learning.
Schools may regulate dress and appearance where health and safety issues are concerned.
For example, schools may prohibit long hair and jewelry and mandate safety glasses in shop
classes or laboratories. Schools may also ban clothing, jewelry, or hairstyles that indicate
gang affiliation. Immodest or suggestive clothing may be banned, as may T-shirts containing
sexually vulgar messages. Some public schools have instituted the requirement that students
wear uniforms. Generally, the argument for uniforms centers on educational and disciplinary
issues. The constitutionality of uniforms was upheld in a case in which the court wrote that
a uniform policy is constitutional if it furthers an important government interest, if it is not
intended to suppress student expression, and if it is no more restrictive than is necessary to
facilitate the school’s educational interest (Canady v. Bossier Parish School Board, 2002).

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 © Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works

Students in public schools may

be required to wear uniforms
provided there are compelling
reasons. What reasons might be
considered compelling?

However, the Supreme Court concluded that random searches of people and belong-
ings by school officials are unconstitutional and violate the students’ Fourth Amendment
rights because random searches invade their expectations of privacy (Doe v. Little Rock
School District, 2004).
Numerous court cases have also dealt with male hair and beards, but no conclusions
can be drawn; courts have both upheld and ruled against school regulations based on a
variety of arguments from both plaintiffs and defendants.

Search and Seizure

The Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution prohibits unreasonable searches and sei-
zures. Although students enjoy rights under that amendment, school officials are less limited
than police in search and seizure practices. School officials need neither a warrant nor prob-
able cause to initiate a search. Reasonable suspicion is a valid reason for school officials to
initiate a search.
As the need to eliminate weapons, drugs, and other banned items has intensified and
methods of detection have become more varied, issues of search and seizure in the schools
have become more complicated. The Supreme Court established a standard of reasonable-
ness for searches in schools in a 1985 case in which a teacher caught two students smok-
ing in the bathroom. She took both to the principal’s office. One admitted smoking, and
the other denied she had smoked. The principal sought evidence by examining the second
student’s purse, finding marijuana and evidence of drug dealing. The student’s parents
sued, contending that the search was illegal because the principal did not have a search
warrant (New Jersey v. T.L.O., 1985). This court case is important because it concluded
that reasonableness of search has two elements:

Whether circumstances justified the action at its inception

Whether the scope of the search was reasonable in relation to the situation

A search can be justified if a school employee has reasonable grounds to believe that
the search will provide evidence that a student has violated the law or school rules. The
scope of the search should be reasonable in terms of the situation and the age and gender
of the students. School officials may search students’ purses, book bags, lockers, packages,
and automobiles parked on school property if there is reasonable cause to believe that
evidence of some violation may be found.

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 Students themselves may be searched, although there is a higher standard for reason-
able suspicion as the search process becomes more invasive. Courts have occasionally
upheld strip searches of students. Personal searches and, especially, strip searches should
be undertaken only when there is urgency based on a reasonable suspicion that the stu-
dent possesses a dangerous object or substance. In 2009, the Supreme Court found that a
strip search of a 13-year-old girl suspected of bringing prescription-strength ibuprofen to
school violated the child’s rights (Safford Unified School District v. April Redding; re-
ported by Liptak, in the New York Times, 2009).
A modern kind of search is drug testing. The courts upheld the right of one school to
require urinalysis drug testing for athletes (Veronia School District 47J v. Action, 1995),
and of another school to require the drug testing of all students who participate in any
extracurricular activity (Board of Education v. Earls, 2002). However, the Supreme Court
has said that random searches of people and belongings by school officials are unconsti-
tutional and violate the students’ Fourth Amendment rights because random searches
invade their expectations of privacy (Doe v. Little Rock School District, 2004).
The courts have disagreed on the use of canines in searches. The issue focuses on
whether specially trained dogs can establish reasonable suspicion for a search. Broadly
speaking, courts have upheld the use of canines to establish a basis for a search when there
was a reasonable belief that some illegal substance or object was present. They have similarly
upheld the use of dogs to sniff lockers routinely when parents had been advised of the prob-
ability of routine locker searches. The courts have even upheld the use of dogs to sniff stu-
dents when a reasonable belief existed that a particular student had drugs. The courts have
not upheld mass searches by canines or searches for which there was no reasonable basis.
The following guidelines are useful for educators:

All searches must be based on a reasonable suspicion that a student has violated the
law or school policy. A student who looks guilty is not sufficient reason for a search.
Schools may undertake routine searches of lockers and desks, especially when parents
have been notified that this is normal procedure.
The more invasive the search, the closer it comes to a need for probable cause.
Personal searches should be done in private and only by school officials of the same
gender as the student being searched. If clothing is removed, the student should re-
move it and should be provided with alternative garments while clothing is searched.
If you are searching only pockets, have the student turn his or her pockets inside out.

Privacy of Records
Family Educational Rights The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974 (FERPA) applies to all schools
and Privacy Act of 1974 receiving federal money. Commonly referred to as the Buckley Amendment, this act guar-
(FERPA) Guarantees parents
and students confidentiality and antees parents and students confidentiality and fundamental fairness concerning the
fundamental fairness concerning maintenance and use of student records. It prohibits the release of information about
the maintenance and use of student students under 18 years of age without parental consent. At the same time, it provides
records.
certain rights to parents and guardians of minor children.
With regard to school records, parents or guardians may legally:

inspect their child’s school records.

challenge accuracy of information.
have corrections made.
request a hearing to contest information they perceive as inaccurate.
place a statement of disagreement in student records.
determine what confidential information is released and to whom.
receive prior notice of records subpoenaed by the courts.

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 file a complaint with the U.S. Department of Education concerning alleged violations.
seek relief in civil court.

Students 18 years of age or older control their own records.

FERPA applies only to identifying information about individuals. It does not apply to
test data, special population data, or other general data gathered by schools. The key to
the legal release of data is whether individual students can be identified. Individual stu-
dents have a right to privacy.
Records of individual students can be released to the following in addition to parents
and guardians:

Other school officials or teachers in the system who have a legitimate interest
Authorized representatives of government, including state education department per-
sonnel
State and local officials collecting information required by state statutes
Accrediting organizations

Students’ right to privacy of records means that teachers must exercise care in reveal-
ing information. Teachers should discuss individual student grades, discipline issues, and
other matters only with those who have a legitimate reason to know. Schools should have
a clear procedure for releasing information, including the requirement for a written re-
quest for release of information and specific procedures ensuring timely compliance with
parent requests. Schools and teachers should not post grades in any way that makes it
possible to identify individuals.

Corporal Punishment
As of 2008, 30 states have banned corporal punishment (infoplease.com, 2007). Many corporal punishment The infliction
individual school districts in other states have banned corporal punishment. Figure 13.2 of physical pain on someone as
punishment for committing an
offense.

WA
MT ND VT ME
MN
OR NH
ID WI NY
SD MA
WY MI RI
IA PA CT
NV NE
OH MD NJ
IL IN
UT WV
CA CO VA DE
KS MO KY
NC
TN
AZ OK AR
NM SC
MS AL GA
LA
TX

FL
AK

Figure 13.2
▲

HI
Status of state laws regarding
corporal punishment as of 2008
States that allow corporal punishment
Source: Infoplease.com, 2007
States that have banned corporal punishment
© Cengage Learning 2014

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 shows the current status of state laws and regulations regarding corporal punishment.
Although the Supreme Court ruled a long time ago that corporal punishment of students
is not constitutionally prohibited (Ingraham v. Wright, 1977), the trend in recent years has
been to ban corporal punishment.
Where corporal punishment is not banned, school officials must be certain that due
process is followed, that the punishment is not of excessive force, and that it is adminis-
tered only by authorized individuals (usually the principal or other administrator). Most
school boards require that a second adult be present as a witness during the administra-
tion of corporal punishment.
It is interesting to note that the United States and Australia are the only industrialized
countries that still permit corporal punishment in schools. One hundred and sixteen coun-
tries, ranging from Afghanistan to Yemen and Zambia, prohibit corporal punishment in
their schools, and 31 countries prohibit corporal punishment in the home (Center for
Effective Discipline, 2010; Cleaver, 2011).

BUILDING BLOCK What Are the Students’ Rights?

13.10 The new principal at Mountain View High School has banned clothing with any
kind of emblem or writing, including designer labels and corporate symbols. Parents
have protested bitterly, and students have threatened a walkout.
What are the students’ legal rights?
What are the principal’s legal rights and obligations?
Should the rule be reversed? On what basis?
If the principal did not reverse the rule, do you think a court would uphold it?
Why or why not?

Throughout your exploration of teachers and the law, you have seen that teachers are
considered exemplars. The courts have repeatedly cited the legality of requiring teachers
to model exemplary behaviors for students. Similarly, you have seen that courts seek a
connection between teacher behavior and effect on the teaching and learning process.
Although the teacher enjoys the rights of a private citizen, the teacher’s responsibility
as an exemplar who is effective in the classroom places demands and restraints on behav-
ior that are not borne by those in other professions.

BUILDING BLOCK Putting it Together

13.11 Think back to the list you compiled in Building Block 13.1:
How did your examples compare with the areas discussed in this chapter?
How do the impact and consequences you listed compare with the chapter’s
discussions? Which legal areas were new to you?
What single word would you think describes what you, the teacher, must do to
stay within the law?
How have the constructions you made in this chapter affected your view of
teaching and schools?

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 SU MMA RY

CHAPTER RESOURCES
Laws and regulations that are relevant to education include those that affect the govern-
ing of schools, and the rights and responsibilities of teachers, other school personnel, and
students.
There are three basic types of laws in the United States: constitutional law based
on the federal or state constitutions, statutes passed by legislatures, and case law
resulting from decisions made by the courts. Rules and regulations promote adher-
ence to the laws.
Teachers need to know basic laws pertaining to schools so they can follow them.
The laws teachers are primarily concerned with relative to themselves deal with
certification, employment, tenure, and dismissal. Teachers have the same rights as
any other citizen. But the exercise of these rights is tempered so as not to interfere
with the education of children.
Students are protected by laws such as due process, educational rights for
mothers and pregnant women, freedom of speech and expression, and privacy of
records. Laws pertaining to dress and appearance, search and seizure, and the use
of corporal punishment are enforced to minimize disruptions in the teaching/
learning process.

Key Terms and Concepts

Case law, 342 Fair Use Provision of the Liable, 355
Code of ethics, 344 Copyright Act, 354 Misdemeanor, 350
Common law, 352 Family Educational Rights Plagiarism, 354
Constitutional law, 342 and Privacy Act of 1974 Plaintiff, 355
Contract, 345 (FERPA), 360 Regulation, 342
Copyright, 354 Felony, 350 Search and seizure, 353
Corporal punishment, Freedom of expression, 352 Statute, 342
361 Freedom of religion, 353 Title I, 342
Defendant, 355 In loco parentis, 355 Tort, 355
Due process, 347 Insubordination, 349

Construct and Apply

1. In view of everything you have explored in this chapter, who do you believe really controls
schools in the United States? Do parents, through their elected board of education, deter-
mine what is taught and how? Does the local board of education? Does the state board of
education? The state legislature? The federal government? What influence does the court
system have on local schools? Think about the schools in your neighborhood and try to
decide who determines what is taught and how. What examples can you think of to support
your point?
2. From your inquiries in this chapter, it should be clear that teachers cannot be too circumspect
in their behavior where students are concerned. The newspapers have provided ample coverage
of situations in which teachers were accused of improper behavior with students. When a
teacher was found to be innocent, what had been a front-page story became a fifth- or eighth-
page paragraph. What basic principles or rules will you observe to ensure that you will not be
accused of improper behavior with students?
3. Based on your explorations in this chapter, do you believe you will have to make any con-
cessions to teach? Even if you don’t perceive that you will have to make concessions, how
will the role of teacher affect you in terms of such things as attire, personal lifestyle, and
so on? What specific things can you think of that you will do to ensure that you serve as
an exemplar?

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 CHAPTER RESOURCES Deconstructing the Standards
1. Recall the InTASC Standard associated with the objectives for this chapter.
Standard #9 reads, “The teacher engages in ongoing professional learning and uses
evidence to continually evaluate his/her practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and
actions on others (learners, families, other professionals, and the community), and adapts
practice to meet the needs of each learner.”
a. Which part(s) of this standard does this chapter address?
b. How will the concepts in this chapter help you apply this standard as a teacher?
2. Use your favorite search engine to find your state’s standards for certification. When you find
it, bookmark the site; you will refer to it often during this course.
a. How are your conclusions about legal and ethical issues represented in your state certifica-
tion standards?
b. How do the InTASC standards compare to your state’s certification standards regarding
legal and ethical issues?
c. Do you believe the degree of representation concerning legal and ethical issues is adequate
in your state certification standards? Why or why not?

Your Portfolio
Develop a personal code of ethics to guide your behavior as a teacher. Include this in your portfolio.

Education CourseMate Resources

Check out this text’s Education CourseMate website (at www.cengagebrain.com) for more informa-
tion about the governing and financing of education in the United States. You will find the Teach-
Source Videos, a guide for doing field experiences, glossary flash cards, activities, tutorial quizzes,
direct links to the websites mentioned in the chapter, and more.

Note on Reading Legal Citations

This chapter cites many legal cases. A legal citation follows a standard format that lets you find
cases, statutes, regulations, and law review articles. We cite two parts of each case in this chapter:
the name of the case and the year in which the case was decided. In the case name, the plaintiff’s
name (name of the person bringing the case to course) appears first, and the defendant’s name (the
person or entity defending the plaintiff’s charges) appears last. The year is the year in which the case
was decided.

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CHAPTER

14 Education Reform:
Standards and
Accountability
IN THIS TEXT, you have investigated many topics related to education, schools,
and teaching. You began each inquiry with an exploration of your thoughts, feelings,
and what you already knew about the topic. After some further investigation, you
formulated your ideas about the best way to handle that topic today.
In Part I, you identified characteristics of outstanding teachers and investigated
the meanings and implications of major educational philosophies. In Part II, you
listed teaching characteristics that support students’ needs and teaching strategies
that seem appropriate for students with a variety of perspectives and abilities.
In Part III, you wrote a hypothetical mission statement that described your
hypothetical school. You explored the best ways to achieve successful and
meaningful student–school interactions and you investigated the responsibilities
teachers and schools have to one another.
In Part IV, you saw the impact of curricular and educational practices from a
historical perspective and thought about the best ways to run a school. You also

365

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 looked at the influence of society, social problems, and the law on school policies,
procedures, and teaching.
In all these inquiries, you investigated the way things were, the way things are,
and the way you believe things ought to be.
Changing education to make schooling what it ought to be is known as
education reform. Education reform involves changing and refining the education
system to meet the needs of the students and the society to which they belong. You
are a member of society. What do you think is wrong with education today? What
do you think should be changed? How do your views compare with those of others
in society? These questions represent the topic of this chapter. You will investigate
the general topic of education reform, the views of society as a whole, and areas in
which steps are being taken to align education with current needs and views.

Chapter Objectives
As a result of your explorations in this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Describe the nature of education reform.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
2. Summarize standards and curriculum reform movements in the core content areas of social
studies, science, mathematics, and language arts, and apply conclusions to other areas such
as foreign language, art, music, and physical education.
Standard #4: Content Knowledge
3. Consider the implications of curriculum and standard reform on instruction and assessment.
Standards #5: Application of Content; and #6: Assessment
4. Identify reform directions in teacher education.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice

What Is Education Reform?

You already have investigated numerous topics in this textbook that deal with education
reform. To get an idea of what is involved in reform, look at Building Block 14.1.

BUILDING BLOCK Education Reform Topics

14.1 Think about some of the investigations you have made and the conclusions you
have reached using this textbook. Look at the following questions in light of what
you have investigated so far:
education reform Changing and What curriculum do students study today that is appropriate and necessary for
refining the education system to meet success in today’s society?
the needs of the students and the
society to which they belong. What instructional activities do teachers use to help students learn the content
and skills they will need as outlined in the curriculum?
What assessment opportunities do teachers provide that enable students to
demonstrate this knowledge and these skills?
To what degree should teachers be accountable for their students’ classroom
achievement and performance on assessments?
What teacher induction elements prepare teachers to enter the workforce and
provide their students with the most effective opportunities?

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 In Building Block 14.1, you previewed the
main topics of education reform. In its broadest
sense, education reform consists of examining all
aspects of education—curriculum, instruction, and
assessment; teacher preparation; school buildings;
scheduling the school day and year; and methods
of governance and finance—and modifying all
these to keep up with changing times. For some
people, however, change is frightening, and they
tend to want to hold onto their old ideas. Their
schooling worked fine for them, so why should
today’s students need something different? Besides,
educational change often reflects a change in edu-

Courtesy of Bill Lisenby

cational goals and philosophies, and as you saw
earlier, people tend to hold firmly to their philoso-
phies and goals for schools.
People have been talking about education re-
form since the first American schools opened. Re-
call from Chapter 10 that Benjamin Franklin’s Academy added vocational education to Education reforms, including
curriculum, instruction, and
classical and religious studies because of the growing needs of the country. Later, addi-
assessment innovation aim to
tional subjects were made available to reflect changing national priorities. In the late 19th improve all aspects of teaching to
and early 20th centuries, the National Education Association sponsored several commit- best promote student learning.
tees to standardize the curriculum. Those committees made several decisions that still How did education reform
guide education today, such as: measures affect your education?

High school graduation requirements

Elementary education curriculum
The Carnegie unit of credit
Daily and yearly schedules of K–12 schools
The separation of schools into elementary, junior high, and secondary schools

In the past 30 or so years, attention to education has intensified. In 1983, A Nation at

Risk pointed to a decline in U.S. education excellence (see Chapters 2 and 10). Test scores
were falling, and colleges and employers complained that high school graduates were in-
adequate in reading, writing, and calculating (see Chapter 2). The GOALS 2000 conference
of 1989 and the resulting federal legislation passed in 1994 addressed these concerns by
enumerating goals that all U.S. schools should strive to meet (see Chapters 6 and 10).
There are so many items on the school reform agenda that it is difficult to categorize them.
However, in this chapter, we will look at the basic areas you saw in Building Block 14.1:

Curriculum and instruction

Assessment
Teacher accountability
Teacher preparation

Examination of these areas should provide a good overview of current reform efforts.

Curriculum and Instruction Reform

In school, students expect to obtain knowledge and skills that are meaningful and inter-
esting. What they learn should help them achieve and succeed—not only as they progress
in their education, but also in their chosen career and in life. They expect to be taught in

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 ways that are effective and engaging so that they may achieve learning objectives. And
they expect to be given the opportunity to demonstrate their learning in authentic ways.
The curriculum is the material taught in a school. Often it consists of a prescribed set
of courses, with a scope and sequence for each. The scope of a course is the breadth and
depth of the concepts covered, and the sequence is the order in which these concepts are
introduced. The curriculum is usually prescribed by the state; individual school districts
and schools normally interpret state-prescribed curricula.

BUILDING BLOCK Meaningful Curriculum

14.2 John Dewey said, “Since there is no single set of abilities running throughout human
nature, there is no single curriculum which all should undergo. Rather, the schools
should teach everything that anyone is interested in learning.”
What does Dewey’s statement imply about deciding what students should learn?
How do you think curricular decisions are made?
What do you remember learning in school? At the time, were you interested in
learning these concepts and skills, as Dewey proposes?

You probably felt that some of the curriculum of the schools you attended was
interesting, meaningful, and relevant, but some seemed meaningless, irrelevant to your
life, and maybe even boring. It might have seemed that schools do not even care
whether the curriculum suits their students. But this is not true. After all, a school es-
tablishes goals, purposes, and a mission to ensure it provides its students with the best
possible education within its set of educational beliefs.
A great deal of work and input goes into developing curriculum. However, is the cur-
riculum sufficiently flexible to respond to the needs of individual students? As you have
seen, each student has a unique set of experiences and needs. The best teachers are those
who meet students’ needs by engaging them in meaningful and stimulating studies.
This means that you have to focus on instructional ways to make the prescribed cur-
riculum interesting, meaningful, and relevant. Is this possible? Is it possible even to teach
a topic described by the curriculum that students may not like in a way that makes it
interesting and excites students about studying it?

BUILDING BLOCK Hands-On Teaching

14.3 A middle-grades science teacher taught a lesson on weathering and erosion. The
objective was for students to discover the effect of rainwater and rivers on moun-
tains. She divided the class into groups of four or five students, gave each group a
set of materials, and asked them to build a mountain in the plastic bin she provided
using sand, sticks to represent trees, and pebbles to represent rocks. Using small
sprinkling cans with holes of various sizes, the students poured water on the sand
mountain to see what would happen. They did this activity several times, using a
different approach each time. She then asked students for their observations and
conclusions.
What was the teacher’s role in this lesson?
What was the students’ role?
How was this lesson made interesting to the students? Meaningful? Relevant?
What about this lesson engaged the students?

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 The activity you envisioned in Building Block 14.3 can be called a hands-on activity.
The teacher selected the topic to be studied and encouraged students to branch out on
their own to explore the topic in ways that were meaningful and relevant to them. De-
pending on students’ age and degree of independence, they may receive different levels of
guidance and support from the teacher. For example, students who can be thought of as
independent learners (and who are in a well-managed classroom) may receive directions
on how to set up the equipment and be told only to explore and observe. Other students
who need more support may receive step-by-step instructions, with the teacher pausing
and asking questions at appropriate times. The point is that the teacher considers stu-
dents’ individual needs and designs instruction to meet those needs. Instruction that is
tailored to the different needs of individual students is often called differentiated instruc-
tion, a type of instruction you investigated earlier in this textbook. Lessons such as this
are not only “hands-on,” but are also “minds-on.” This is one of the keystones of educa-
tion reform—to have students inquire and think for themselves—a far cry from the
memorization systems of generations past.
We have asked countless college students in teacher preparation programs which
lessons in their precollege school years were the most memorable. And we always hear
the same answer: The lessons students remember are those in which they did something.
They dissected a frog, wrote a song, acted in a play, went on a field trip, collected leaves,
looked at the stars through a telescope, painted a mural, made a video, built a website,
and so on. Student involvement is key to long-lasting memories. It is difficult to separate
curriculum (what is taught) from instruction (how it is taught). In earlier chapters, you
investigated both curriculum and teaching methodology. This section combines these
areas so you can investigate the current thinking about both. As you will see, curriculum
and instruction are intertwined: We focus on the four major subjects of social studies,
science, mathematics, and language arts, although standards have also been developed
for all the other subjects (such as foreign language, art, music, physical education, and
computer technology). Use the thinking you develop in this section to examine the other
subject areas.
A major curriculum reform movement involves standards. In response to the
concerns cited in A Nation at Risk and GOALS 2000, the federal government helped
finance the development of nationwide standards for each subject taught in school.
The standards are subject-specific and detail what students should know and be able
to do as a result of studying that subject. Standards also suggest the most effective
methods of teaching students to achieve those ends. They are guides to curriculum
and instruction, and they present concepts and skills against which to measure
achievement.
Individual states use these standards to develop their own statewide curriculum,
which then becomes the official curriculum of the state. To provide consistency, standard-
ized tests, based on the standards, assess student achievement in each state. The results of
these tests provide data for judgments about achievement and program effectiveness. This
thrust in education reform has become known as the standards movement. standards movement An educational
reform movement in which exemplary
performances in specific areas of
Common Core State Standards education are identified, especially in
curriculum, instruction, and teacher
In early 2009, the National Governors Association (comprised of the governors of each preparation.
state) and the Council of Chief State School Officers (comprised of the state superinten-
dents of education of each state) formed committees to work on standards in grades K–12
for English language arts; mathematics; and literacy in history, social studies, science, and
technical subjects. The goal was to write a set of standards that each state would embrace.
There were two different types of committees: a working group that developed the stan-
dards and their rationales, and a feedback group that solicited feedback from teachers and
other educators and revised the standards based on this feedback. Committee members
came from all areas of education: educational consultants, researchers, testing services,
program developers, university faculty, and more. Public school teachers were heavily
involved in the feedback phase.

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 After development, feedback, and revision, the final product—called the Com-
TeachSour mon Core State Standards—was released in June 2010.
ce Video The Common Core State Standards intend to:

View the TeachSource video, “Common Provide a consistent, clear understanding of what students are expected to
Core Standards: A New Lesson Plan for learn, so teachers and parents know what they need to do to help them. The
America.” A new approach would put standards are designed to be robust and relevant to the real world, reflecting
kindergarten through twelfth-graders on
the same track in math and reading across
knowledge and skills that our young people need for success in college and
the country. National standards would careers. With American students fully prepared for the future, our communities
increase consistency and accountability, will be best positioned to compete successfully in the global economy. (Com-
and textbooks and testing would be more mon Core State Standards Initiative, 2011)
standardized.
After you view the video, answer the
following questions:
The intent is for states to adopt the standards and merge them with state stan-
dards to produce a set of standards that are relevant to each state and that also
1. What are some advantages of the
Common Core State Standards? includes a core of standards of excellence that are uniform for all states throughout
2. What is the difference between the goals
the country. As of 2012, 45 states and the District of Columbia adopted these stan-
of the Common Core State Standards dards as the core of their curriculum (not surprising because the governors and
as presented by the National Governors state superintendents of education themselves oversaw their development and
Association and the goals of these showed their commitment to them). States that have not yet adopted the common
standards as told in the video? core standards as of this writing are Alaska, Minnesota (which adopted the English
3. Do you agree with the “Nation’s Lesson language arts standards only), Nebraska, Texas, and Virginia (see Figure 14.1).
Plan” as described in the video? Why or
The standards are based on research and evidence and reflect the high quality
why not?
of education that young people in the United States need to compete in today’s
global economy. The standards address the question of what it will take for every
Common Core State Standards The
U.S. child to be successful, and the standards answer that fewer, clearer, and higher stan-
standards are designed to be robust dards will help us get there. In a sense, the Common Core State Standards represent the
and relevant to the real world, most recent effort in the current standards-based education movement, an effort that at-
reflecting knowledge and skills that
our young people need for success in
tempts to provide standards that are applicable to all states.
college and careers” (Common Core You have doubtless recognized that this chapter focuses on three sets of standards. Let
State Standards Initiative, 2010). us clarify. There is only one set of standards that direct the education in any given state,

WA
MT ND VT ME
MN
OR NH
ID WI NY
SD MA
WY MI RI
IA PA CT
NV NE
OH MD NJ
IL IN
UT WV
CA CO VA DE
KS MO KY
NC
TN
AZ OK AR
NM SC
MS AL GA
LA
TX

AK FL
Figure 14.1
▲

Common Core State

Standards adopted by state.
Source: From Association for HI
Supervision and Curriculum
Development, http://www.ascd.org/
Have adopted the Common Core State Standards
common-core/common-core-
Adopted only the Common Core State Standards for English language arts
standards.aspx.

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 CONTROVERSIES in Education

The Common Core State Standards

T   here is some concern that the Common Core State
Standards may come to be perceived as a “national
Standards can be applied in ways that shut down rather
than foster learning, where the goal is to master the
curriculum,” and that a national curriculum could work in standard instead of broadening one’s learning to the
opposition to individualized programs designed to meet the greatest possible extent.
needs of students, their schools, and their communities. Many Standards may foster teachers’ expectations to align
people believe that students throughout the nation should their teaching with the standards rather than practice
study the same curriculum so that everyone has a common what fosters the greatest learning for each individual
knowledge base and parents can relocate to another state or student (Rose, 2009/2010).
school district without their children having to adapt to a new
Some people suggest that standards are more
curriculum. However, many others believe that, to be
applicable to some students than to others.
meaningful, the curriculum must be tailored to reflect
individual, school, and community needs and characteristics. Additionally, there is increasing concern that the
For instance, the curriculum in Scranton, Pennsylvania, would standards will not have any significant effect on student
differ from the curriculum in Santa Fe, New Mexico, because achievement (Tienken, 2011a). Adoption of the standards
the students in each of these two communities have different and merging them with state standards will represent a
needs and interests. (Recall your exploration of how the great deal of change and will require a great deal of work
location of a school influences its curriculum in Chapter 6.) (Porter, McMaken, Hwang, and Yang, 2011). But as Rose
Currently, every state has its own set of academic (2009/2010) says, “When standards are employed fairly,
standards; this means that students in each state potentially they can facilitate learning and show students that their
are taught different concepts at different levels. However, teachers believe they can meet academic expectations”
proponents of common standards observe that all students (p. 26).
must be prepared to compete not only with people from
other countries around the world, but also with peers in WHAT DO YOU THINK?
other states. The Common Core State Standards will help
1. What are some of the primary advantages of having
prepare students with the knowledge and skills they need
a common core of standards?
to succeed in such competition. Accordingly, the Common
2. What are some of the primary disadvantages of
Core State Standards do not represent a national
having a common core of standards?
curriculum, but rather a uniform foundation on which the
3. What is the difference between the goal of the
individual curricula of each state can be built.
common core standards as presented by the National
Proponents say that the standards can foster
Governors Association and the goal of these
competence and also provide the basis for measuring it;
standards as told in the video?
standards can facilitate learning and show students that
4. Do you agree with the “Nation’s Lesson Plan” as
their teachers believe they can meet expectations.
described in the video? Why or why not?
There are concerns with a common core curriculum:
The assessment of the achievement of standards is You can access the Common Core State Standards so
often reduced to objective measures on tests such as you can read them or download them through a direct
multiple-choice questions. link on the Education CourseMate website.

and that is the set of standards developed by the state for pupils going to school in that
state. The Common Core State Standards provide guidance relative to topics to be covered
and methods of instruction. When states adopt a common core curriculum, they are es-
sentially agreeing to include these standards as the “backbone” of their state curriculum;
such action makes it possible for all pupils in the United States to study essentially the same
basic concepts in English language arts, mathematics, and literacy in history, social studies,
science, and technology. The subject-specific standards also provide guidance to states as
they develop their curriculum, but this guidance comes from experts in the subject-matter
field. Once again, the state’s curriculum is the one that is used to teach in that state.

Social Studies Curriculum

Social studies, which was introduced into U.S. schools to promote citizenship and civic
competence, traditionally has focused on history, civics, geography, and economics.

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 BUILDING BLOCK Learning Social Studies
14.4 Think back to the social studies courses you have taken:
List some of the topics you studied.
What topics do you wish you had learned more about?
Did you learn skills associated with social studies?
What teaching methods helped you learn these social studies topics (and skills)?
What method(s) of teaching social studies do you think was not helpful?
Was your knowledge of these topics (and skills) useful to you later in life? Why
or why not?
Do you believe that the same topics (and skills) should be taught to students in
today’s social studies classrooms? Why or why not?

Chances are that you recall having had to learn names, dates, places, events, and other
facts related to history, cultures, governments, civics, economics, geography, and social
issues. Your study of these topics may have seemed isolated from other subjects and from
your life, although topics taught in elementary school were probably less isolated from
your life than those required in middle school and high school.
The aim of contemporary social studies education is “the promotion of civic
competence—the knowledge, intellectual processes, and democratic dispositions required
of students to be active and engaged participants in public life” (National Council for the
Social Studies, n.d., p. 1). The discipline of social studies is viewed as more than a collec-
tion of facts to memorize. Today’s social studies curriculum fosters under-
standing of how events came about and how people relate to one another,
encouraging students to develop respect for different viewpoints and cultural
beliefs. Today’s social studies curriculum encompasses many disciplines and
seeks reasons and connections rather than names, dates, and places.
In 2010, the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) released up-
dated standards for social studies education in grades kindergarten through
high school. The standards are not envisioned as a national curriculum, but
rather as the core of state-developed curriculum where the content comes from
the state requirements and the focus comes from the national social studies
standards. The updated NCSS standards focus on the same ten integrated
themes as the 1994 version of the standards but provide in-depth suggestions
on the purpose of each, questions for exploration, what the students need to
know and understand, what the student will be capable of doing, and how the
students can demonstrate their understanding. The themes (called strands) are:

1. Culture
2. Time, continuity, and change
3. People, places, and environments
© Kayte Deioma/PhotoEdit, Inc.

4. Individual development and identity

5. Individuals, groups, and institutions
6. Power, authority, and governance
7. Production, distribution, and consumption
8. Science, technology, and society
Teachers often post standards in their 9. Global connections
classrooms so that students know the objectives 10. Civic ideas and practices
they are expected to achieve. The updated standards continue to urge teachers to employ teaching and
learning strategies that require students to become active participants in the

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 learning process, such as acquiring information and manipulating data; developing and
presenting policies, debates, and stories; constructing new knowledge; and participating
in groups. In Chapter 10, we have tried to present the history of education in a way
similar to that suggested by the NCSS, complete with original writings for your interpre-
tation. You can access the National Council of the Social Studies website through the
direct link on the Education CourseMate website.
The National Council for the Social Studies outlined its vision for social studies teach-
ing and learning in an influential position statement (NCSS, 2008) that says students must
be able to use their prior knowledge and apply new learning as they think critically and
solve problems creatively. To this end, social studies teaching and learning must be mean-
ingful, integrated, value-based, challenging, and active. How is the teaching and learning
different from memorizing names of important people and dates of important events?
There are concerns with the current social studies curriculum guidelines. The focus of
the current curriculum is on solving problems rather than memorizing facts. How, critics
wonder, will students learn factual information that everyone ought to know if they are
not required to memorize these facts? In one study, the American Council of Trustees and
Alumni surveyed seniors at top U.S. colleges and universities, as identified by the U.S.
New and World Reports annual ranking of colleges, to assess the seniors’ knowledge of
high school–level U.S. history. The survey found the following:

Only half of the students surveyed could identify George Washington as a U.S. general
at the Battle of Yorktown.
Only 42 percent could identify George Washington as “First in war, first in peace, first
in the hearts of his countrymen.”
Less than one-quarter correctly identified James Madison as the “father of the Con-
stitution.”
Only 28 percent could identify the phrase “Government of the people, by the people,
for the people” as a line from the Gettysburg Address.
Less than two-thirds could identify the U.S. Constitution as establishing the division
of power in U.S. government.
Little more than half (52 percent) knew that George Washington’s farewell address
warned against permanent alliances with foreign governments.

However, 99 percent of these students could identify Beavis and Butt-Head, and 98 percent
were familiar with rap singer Snoop Dogg (Neal, Martin, and Moses, 2000, p. 2). You can
access the American Council of Trustees and Alumni history survey report through the
direct link available on this textbook’s Education CourseMate website. The actual test
referenced is shown at the end of the report, and correct responses and the percentage of
students who chose each response are given.
The most contemporary assessment of students’ knowledge of the social studies is the
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), often referred to as the Nation’s Report
Card. Under the auspices of the federal Department of Education, students in grades 4, 8, and
12 are tested every four years on U.S. history and geography. The most recent test was given
in 2010 to 7,000 fourth graders, 11,700 eighth graders, and 12,400 twelfth-graders nation-
wide. Twenty percent of fourth-graders, 17 percent of eighth-graders, and 12 percent of high
school seniors demonstrated proficiency on the U.S. history test (National Center for Educa-
tion Statistics, 2011a). On the geography test, 21 percent of fourth-graders, 27 percent of
eighth-graders, and 20 percent of high school seniors demonstrated proficiency (National
Center for Education Statistics, 2011b). Of particular interest was that only 2 percent of high
school seniors correctly answered a question about Brown v. Board of Education (Dillon,
2011c).
Another concern about the contemporary social studies curriculum relates to text-
books. As you saw in Chapter 11, textbook publishers comply with the rules laid down
by state boards of education and large school districts. Critics argue that social studies
textbooks may leave out important information (such as omitting certain primitive

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 aspects of Meso-American societies), distort historical data (such as portraying the con-
troversial activities of the Chinese communist party and its leader, Mao Zedong, as a
liberation movement), or interpret events in only one way, thereby denying students the
opportunity to understand situations from multiple points of view (such as presenting
only one perspective on Islam) (Thomas B. Fordham Institute, 2004). It is the responsibil-
ity of individual school districts to grapple with these contentious issues.

BUILDING BLOCK Modern Social Studies Curriculum

14.5 Talk to an older (at least 10 years older) relative or friend about what he or she
remembers about taking social studies in school:
What courses did they take? How did they use technology, if at all? What strat-
egies did the teacher use?
Compare their answers with your own experience. What is different and what
is the same? Is there anything that might be related to the standards reform you
just read about?
What else has recently impacted K–12 social studies education?

Courtesy San Lorenxo Middle School

Students at San Lorenzo Middle
School reenact the Civil War
Battle of Bull Run. How does this
learning activity reflect the
standards of the National Council
for the Social Studies?

Science Curriculum
Science was introduced into U.S. schools as “natural history,” whose purpose was to instill
in students an appreciation for and an understanding of the natural world.

BUILDING BLOCK Learning Science

14.6 Think back to the science courses you have taken:
List some of the topics you studied.
What topics do you wish you had learned more about?
Did you learn skills associated with science?
What teaching methods helped you learn these science topics (and skills)?
What method(s) of teaching science do you think was not helpful?
Was your knowledge of these topics (and skills) useful to you later in life? Why
or why not?
Do you believe that the same topics (and skills) should be taught to students in
today’s science classrooms? Why or why not?

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 After the launch of Sputnik, the appropriateness of the science curriculum began to
be questioned. As you saw in Chapter 2, the scientific community urged that students
should learn science in the same way scientists do science. This meant that science pro-
grams should focus on inquiry, exploration, problem solving, and higher-order thinking
skills, rather than the memorization of facts.
In 1990, the American Association for the Advancement of Science responded to
continuing concerns about the state of science education in the United States with Project
2061, named for the year when Halley’s Comet will make its next pass near the earth.
One product of Project 2061 was the publication of Science for All Americans (Rutherford
and Ahlgren, 1990), which makes the following suggestions for teachers:
Treat science topics using an interdisciplinary approach.
Focus on systems and interrelationships among the disciplines, rather than isolated
facts and concepts.
Proceed from the concrete to the abstract.
Start lessons with questions rather than answers.
Help students access information they have previously acquired.
Engage students in collecting evidence and answering questions.
The National Science Education Standards were published in 1996. These standards
describe what students should know, understand, and be able to do as a result of their
learning experiences in science. The standards call for inquiry-based science education
programs, in which teachers facilitate learning rather than impart information, use mul-
tiple and authentic methods of assessment, provide learning environments conducive to
inquiry learning, maintain high standards of intellectual rigor, and actively participate in
the development and planning of their science programs.
The National Science Education Standards (NSES) outline eight categories of content
for grades K to 4, 5 to 8, and 9 to 12 (National Research Council, 1996) as follows:
1. Unifying concepts and processes in science
2. Science as inquiry
3. Physical science
4. Life science
5. Earth and space science
6. Science and technology
7. Science in personal and social perspectives
8. History nature of science
These standards, together with Project 2061, were the driving force behind science
education, yet we must recognize that a lot has changed since the NSES were developed.
(Pluto is no longer a planet, cell phones and their relative technologies were not prevalent
in 1996, and the field of biotechnology was nearly nonexistent.) The NSES were updated
to focus on fewer content ideas and greater depth to provide students with the strong
education needed to compete in college, the workplace, and the global economy (Achieve,
Inc., 2012). The resulting Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), as they are called,
are meant for grades K–12, and are focused on both science content and processes. The
states took a collaborative role in the development of the NGSS, basing them on the
Framework for K-12 Science Education, which the National Research Council developed
in 2011. This council is made up of scientists, science education researchers, cognitive
scientists, and standards and policy experts, and the Framework identifies the science that
all K–12 students should know. The revised standards were available at the end of 2012.
You can access the National Science Education Standards and the Next Generation Sci-
ence Standards through direct links available on the Education CourseMate website.
How well do current science education programs work? Remember GOALS 2000?
Goal 5 states that, by the year 2000, U.S. students will be first in the world in math and
science achievement. Standardized tests of mathematics and science achievement, named

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 Courtesy of Becky Stovall
Courtesy of Becky Stovall

Elementary students tend a class

garden as part of their science
the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), have been administered
curriculum. This activity promotes to students in grades 4, 8, and 12 in many countries since the mid-1990s. The test has
inquiry learning instead of rote been administered four times: in 1995, 1999, 2003, and 2007; a fifth administration was
memorization of facts. scheduled for 2011, but results were not available when this book was written.
Results of the science sections of the tests show that U.S. students in fourth grade consis-
tently perform near the top, eighth-grade students consistently perform near the middle, and
high school seniors perform near the bottom of international results. Some people have pointed
out that interpreting these tests can present problems, citing the difficulties inherent in interpret-
ing standardized tests for a worldwide population. Nonetheless, according to these results, the
United States has fallen short of its goal that U.S. students be first in the world in math and
science achievement. Table 14.1 shows the number of countries scoring above, near, and below
the United States in both mathematics and science on the three international TIMSS tests.

TABLE 14.1 Number of countries scoring above, at, and below the United States on the TIMSS tests of science.
Number of Countries with Number of Countries with Number of Countries
Science Scores Significantly Science Scores Not with Science Scores
Year (Number of Higher than the United Significantly Different Significantly Lower
Countries) States from the United States than the United States

Fourth-Grade 1995 (26 countries) 1 6 19

Science 1999 (not tested)
2003 (25 countries) 3 6 16
2007 (36 countries) 4 7 25

Eighth-Grade Science 1995 (41 countries) 9 17 15

1999 (38 countries) 14 6 18
2003 (45 countries) 7 6 32
2007 (48 countries) 9 4 35

High School Seniors: 1995 (21 countries) 11 8 2

General Science

High School 1995 (16 countries) 14 2 0

Advanced
Mathematics and
Science Students
Taking Physics

Note: The term significance refers to statistical significance—the likelihood that the scores are true representations of students’ knowledge
and understandings.
Source: From the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

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 Modern Science Curriculum BUILDING BLOCK
Talk to an older (at least 10 years older) relative or friend about what he or she 14.7
remembers about taking science in school:
What courses did they take? How did they use technology, if at all? What strat-
egies did the teacher use?
Compare their answers with your own experience. What is different and what
is the same? Is there anything that might be related to the standards reform you
just read about?
What else has recently impacted K–12 science education?

Mathematics Curriculum
As you recall from Chapter 10, mathematics (in the form of arithmetic) has been part of
the curriculum of U.S. schools since colonial times. The goal of arithmetic was for stu-
dents to be able to perform basic computations, a skill they needed to succeed.

Learning Mathematics BUILDING BLOCK

Think back to the mathematics courses you have taken: 14.8
List some of the topics you studied.
What topics do you wish you had learned more about?
Did you learn skills associated with mathematics?
What teaching methods helped you learn these math topics (and skills)?
What method(s) of teaching mathematics do you think was not helpful?
Was your knowledge of these topics (and skills) useful to you later in life? Why
or why not?
Do you believe that the same topics (and skills) should be taught to students in
today’s math classrooms? Why or why not?

Mathematics has always been considered one of the so-called “three Rs”. People need
quantitative skills to function as consumers, citizens, and employees in many professions.
At the practical level, these skills allow us to balance a checkbook, estimate the cost of
groceries, prepare a family budget, choose insurance, and the like. Similarly, people need
to know how to use data and reason quantitatively to analyze problem situations, such
as calculating the cost of gas for a trip, finding the amount of carpeting needed for a
house, or doubling or halving a recipe. The extension of basic mathematical knowledge
to rational numbers (fractions, decimals, and percentages) is also part of our daily life:
think of baseball statistics, the lottery, election results, and public opinion polls.
The traditional method of mathematics instruction involved memorizing math facts
using flash cards; drilling on computations by working countless pages of sums, differ-
ences, products, and quotients; going to the chalkboard to work out the answer to a prob-
lem; memorizing rules and procedures (for example, “When dividing fractions, invert the
second fraction and multiply”); and working two-column proofs. Mathematics was taught
in a very traditional way from the 1600s to the mid-20th century, when Sputnik spurred New Math A mathematics program
the call for drastic steps to improve both mathematics education and science education. As in which students were taught the
theoretical basis of mathematics
a result, the American Mathematical Society set up the School Mathematics Study Groups through the use of actual
(SMSG), which was the most influential group in the development of the New Math mathematical language and notations.

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 curriculum. For much of the 1960s, this mathematics curriculum was used in classrooms
at all levels. One impact of New Math was inclusion of calculus in high school. Common
criticisms included that teachers weren’t given professional development in teaching this
new curriculum and that it included an overemphasis on formal mathematical language
and algebraic notations before students were ready for this level of abstraction.
In keeping with the standards movement of the 1980s and 1990s, K–12 mathematics
standards were developed. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM)
led the standards movement with the publication of mathematics standards called Cur-
riculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (National Council for Teach-
ers of Mathematics, 1989). The most recent version is Principles and Standards for School
Mathematics (NCTM, 2000), which describes “a future in which all students have access
to rigorous, high-quality mathematics instruction” (NCTM, 2000). The ten standards
include five content standards and five process standards. The content standards are
1. Number and operations
2. Algebra
3. Geometry
4. Measurement
5. Data analysis and probability

The five process standards are:

1. Problem solving
2. Reasoning and proof
3. Communication
4. Connections
5. Representation
You can access the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics math standards through
a direct link on the Education CourseMate website.
This mathematics curriculum is interdisciplinary and seeks to help students understand
how mathematics can help to explain scientific, social, and other natural phenomena. Con-
trary to the rejection of physical objects that characterized earlier math courses, today’s
mathematics urges the use of manipulatives so students can construct their own personal
understandings. Examples of such manipulatives include geoboards, pattern blocks, count-
ing blocks, and tangrams for lower grades, and relation shape forms, relational geometrical
solids, Pythagorean theory manipulatives, and angle blocks for upper grades.
Of course, the most recent reform in mathematics standards is represented in the
Common Core State Standards curriculum that you read about earlier. Is your state one
that has adopted this new math curriculum? Find out and be sure to become familiar with
your state’s math standards.

BUILDING BLOCK Modern Mathematics Curriculum

14.9 Talk to an older (at least 10 years older) relative or friend about what he or she
remembers about taking mathematics in school:
What courses did they take? How did they use technology, if at all? What strat-
egies did the teacher use?
Compare their answers with your own experience. What is different and what
is the same? Is there anything that might be related to the standards reform you
just read about?
What else has recently impacted K–12 mathematics education?

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 FROM THE FIELD

Teaching the Standards

Billie Travis

Travis
Courtesy of Billie
I   n education, they say just stick around and you will
see lots of changes—and everything will keep
these activities, and they can
use the concepts and skills
coming back around again and again. The biggest change immediately outside the
for math occurred when NCTM adopted new standards in classroom. The students love it because they know why
the early 1990s. This change was well received by many they are learning that particular concept or skill.
educators, and the standards and accompanying assessment Then the ultimate happens: Students feel empowered
tools have been widely accepted. because they know why. When the math standards and
I teach middle school math. Math is a subject that lends curriculum were aligned in the early 1990s, the math
itself to real-life application. It is easy to teach middle school teacher’s job was made easier. We know what to teach
students new math concepts by relating the new concept to according the NCTM standards, so we have aligned our
their world. For example, one of my favorite units to teach is state and district curricula with the national standards and
on using percentages. What better way to show students how teach our concepts accordingly. That was the goal of
to use percents than to have them practice using percents? I NCTM. I do believe that these standards are powerful. And
bring in menus, and we order our meal and add the tax and I enjoy teaching math because I can relate math to the
gratuity. This is such a simple idea but a great way for students students’ worlds. Their worlds are then validated.
to see the real application. They want to do more because
they can see the application. When students want to do more,
it is because they are excited or empowered by what they are Billie Travis
learning. I encourage them to think of more ways to use the 2005 Kentucky Teacher of the Year
math they have just learned. Other examples of activities I use Georgetown Middle School
include sports, games, and shopping. Students can relate to all Georgetown, Kentucky

© Cengage Learning 2014

How do our students fare in mathematics when compared with students in other
countries? (Remember that GOALS 2000 calls for U.S. students to be the best in the world
in both science and mathematics.) As you can tell from Table 14.2, fourth graders per-
formed near the middle in mathematics, and eighth graders also performed near the
middle (although there was substantial improvement in the 2003 and 2007 tests). Clearly,
the United States has a way to go to be first in the world in mathematics achievement.

TABLE 14.2 Number of countries scoring above, at, and below the United States on the TIMSS tests of mathematics.

Number of Countries Number of Countries with Number of Countries

with Mathematics Scores Mathematics Scores Not with Mathematics Scores
Year (Number of Significantly Higher than Significantly Different Significantly Lower than
Countries) the United States from the United States the United states

Fourth-Grade 1995 (16 countries) 4 6 16

Mathematics 1999 (not tested)
2003 (25 countries) 11 1 (USA) 13
2007 (36 countries) 8 5 23
Eighth-Grade 1995 (20 countries) 2 5 13
Mathematics 1999 (37 countries) 13 7 17
2003 (35 countries) 9 11 25
2007 (48 countries) 5 6 37

Note: The term significance refers to statistical significance—the likelihood that the scores are true representations of students’ knowledge
and understandings.
Source: Data from Office of Educational Research and Improvement, 1999 and 2001, and Gonzales et al., 2004 and 2008.

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 English Language Arts Curriculum
The language arts consist of the commonly used forms of communication, including read-
ing, writing, listening, and speaking. Traditionally, language arts instruction in the early
grades (pre-K, kindergarten, and early elementary grades) has focused on teaching chil-
dren how to read, write, and convey meaning. In the later elementary grades, middle
school, and high school, the focus was on developing meaningful and accurate communi-
cation, writing to learn, and reading to learn.

BUILDING BLOCK Learning English Language Arts

14.10 Think back to the English language arts courses you have taken:
List some of the topics you studied.
What topics do you wish you had learned more about?
Did you learn skills associated with English language arts?
What teaching methods helped you learn these English language arts topics (and
skills)?
What method(s) of teaching English language arts do you think were not helpful?
Was your knowledge of these topics (and skills) useful to you later in life? Why
or why not?
Do you believe that the same topics (and skills) should be taught to students in
today’s English language arts classrooms? Why or why not?

Reading and writing are indispensable skills. As long as schools have existed, stu-
dents have been taught to read and write. In the early 1800s, students were taught using
phonics A method for teaching the phonics method, by which they learned the sounds of letters and letter groups. In the
reading and spelling that is based on mid-1800s, this system was replaced with a methodology in which students memorized
interpreting the sounds of the letters.
entire words. When basal readers such as the McGuffey Readers and the Dick and Jane
series were introduced, students learned to read using sight cards, ditto sheets, and
workbooks keyed to the stories in the reader. The 1980s brought the introduction of
whole language A constructivist whole language, a constructivist approach to teach reading and writing in which stu-
approach to teaching reading and dents learned by interpreting text and by freely expressing their ideas in writing, as in
writing in which students learn from
firsthand experiences. journals. Students read a wide variety of culturally diverse literature and acquired vo-
cabulary through reading rather than memorizing weekly lists of vocabulary words.
They read often, they read independently, they read aloud, and they read in groups.
These literacy skills were integrated with the other content areas, and teaching skills that
were not connected to meaning development (such as grammar and spelling) in isolation
were de-emphasized.
The whole-language approach was very popular and used materials relevant to stu-
dents, who were given choices about what to read and what to write about. Teachers used
interdisciplinary thematic units to aid in teaching reading and writing meaningfully; the
unit’s topic served as the subject. By 1990, however, leaders of business and industry
questioned students’ reading and writing skills, complaining that they had to teach new
hires how to read and write effectively. The public became upset that students did not
master reading and writing skills in the earliest stages of learning, and was concerned
about the decline of test scores on reading comprehension.
In 1996, the International Reading Association and the National Council of Teachers
of English published Standards for the English Language Arts. The purpose of these stan-
dards is to “provide guidance in ensuring that all students are proficient language users so
they may succeed in school, participate in society, find rewarding work, appreciate and
contribute to our culture, and pursue their own goals and interests throughout their lives”

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 Effective reading and literacy
instruction involves a balance of
Courtesy of Becky Stovall

phonics and whole-language

approaches. Were you taught to
read and write using phonics,
whole language, or a
combination of both?

(International Reading Association, 1996, p. 1). The reading and language arts stan-
dards include the following 12 interrelated content areas shown in abbreviated form: TeachSour
ce Video
1. Students read a wide variety of print and nonprint texts.
2. Students read a wide range of literature.
View the TeachSource video, “School
Reform: One High School Literacy Initiative.”
3. Students apply a wide range of strategies to comprehend, interpret, and ap- In response to an extremely high failing
preciate texts. rate on the English and math sections of
the Massachusetts high school exit exam,
4. Students adjust their use of spoken, written, and visual language to communi- teachers at Brockton High School were
cate effectively. called upon to engineer a back-to-basics
5. Students employ a wide range of strategies in writing. curriculum they call the literacy initiative.
Reading, speaking, reasoning, and writing
6. Students apply knowledge of language structure, language configurations, me- were integrated throughout the curriculum.
dia techniques, figurative language, and genre to create, critique, and discuss The failure rates in both English and math
print and nonprint texts. dropped significantly. The approach is now
being studied by Harvard University and
7. Students conduct research and communicate their discoveries effectively.
supported by the teachers union.
8. Students use a variety of technological and information resources to gather and After you view the video, answer the
synthesize information and to create and communicate knowledge. following questions:
9. Students develop an understanding of and respect for diversity in language. 1. What did Brockton High School do in
developing their literacy reform program?
10. Students whose first language is not English use their first language to develop
2. What was a major aspect of their literacy
competency in English and develop understanding of content.
reform movement?
11. Students participate in a variety of literacy communities.
12. Students use spoken, written, and visual language to accomplish their own purposes.

Of course, the most recent reform in English language arts curriculum is the develop-
ment of the Common Core State Standards. Not only do these standards address English
language arts, but they also include expectations for literacy in the content areas. In the
middle and high school grades, these standards emphasize learning to read in the content
areas and making reading and writing connections, to produce meaning. For example, cur-
rent thinking in literacy proposes that a science teacher’s job involves more than just provid-
ing the content-area reading assignment for the students to complete, assuming that the
student will “get it” just because the student knows how to read it. Rather, reading science
content and making meaning from what is read requires certain strategies that the science
teacher must know how to help the student acquire. To be able to construct meaning from
content-area information that is read requires the use of higher-order thinking skills. The
same is true for reading and literacy in all the content areas. You can access the English lan-
guage arts standards through the direct link available on the Education CourseMate website.

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 TABLE 14.3 Number of countries scoring above, at, and below the United States on the PIRLS tests of reading
literacy for fourth-grade students.

Number of Countries with Number of Countries with Number of Countries with

Reading Literacy Scores Reading Literacy Scores Reading Literacy Scores
Year (Number of Significantly Higher than Not Significantly Different Significantly Lower than
Countries) the United States from the United States the United states

Fourth-Grade 2001 (35 countries) 3 9 23

Reading Literacy 2006 (45 countries) 10 13 22

Note: The term significance refers to statistical significance—the likelihood that the scores are true representations of students’ knowledge
and understandings.
Source: From the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics 2004, 2007

As with science and mathematics, international assessments have been conducted in

reading. The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) was first con-
ducted in 2001, and was repeated in 2006. These tests assess reading literacy of fourth
graders in many countries, using both multiple-choice and written response formats. In
the 2001 administration, U.S. fourth graders performed close to the top, with children
from only three countries (England, Bulgaria, and Sweden) recording higher performances
(Ogle et al., 2003). In the 2006 test, U.S. fourth graders performed at about the middle,
with ten countries recording higher performances (Baer et al., 2007). See Table 14.3.

BUILDING BLOCK Modern Language Arts Curriculum

14.11 Talk to an older (at least 10 years older) relative or friend about what he or she
remembers about taking English language arts in school:
What courses did they take? How did they use technology, if at all? What strat-
egies did the teacher use?
Compare their answers with your own experience. What is different and what
is the same? Is there anything that might be related to the standards reform you
just read about?
What else has recently impacted K–12 English language arts education?

The Impact of Reform on Instruction

and Assessment
It should come as no surprise that if what students are to learn (curriculum) changes, then
how they should learn it would also be affected (instruction). The methods by which
students should demonstrate their learning (assessment) also will be impacted.

Instruction
One aspect about the reform efforts regarding standards that you may have noticed is that
they emphasize problem-solving, decision-making, and higher-order thinking skills. Tra-
ditional teaching methods of direct instruction, such as lecture and note taking and then
completing worksheets, or reading out of the chapter and defining bold print terms and
answering questions at the end of the chapter, simply do not allow teachers to teach and
learners to learn how to think.

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 Think about what you have learned about constructivism and constructivist-based
teaching. In a constructivist-oriented lesson, students actively work to discover concepts.
They observe, infer, hypothesize, and conclude—all elements of problem solving and deci-
sion making. In the end, they learn the content, and it belongs to them because they have
worked to discover it. And, in the process of learning the content, they have also learned
and practice the higher-order thinking skills associated with the standards.

What Would You Do with Curriculum? BUILDING BLOCK

Brooks and Brooks (1999) offer 12 characteristics of constructivist teaching. Some 14.12
deal with curriculum, some deal with instruction, and some deal with assessment.
They are listed in abbreviated form in the following chart.
Give an example of how each characteristic can be applied in each of the major
subject areas. You may wish to use a chart similar to the one shown here.

How It Is How It Is
Applied in How It Is How It Is Applied in
Characteristic of Social Applied in Applied in Language
Constructivist Teaching Studies Science Mathematics Arts

1. Encourage and accept

student autonomy and
initiative.

2. Use raw data and

primary sources, along
with manipulative,
interactive, and physical
material.

3. Use cognitive
terminology such as
classify, analyze,
predict, and create.

4. Allow student
responses to drive
lessons, shift
instructional strategy,
and alter content.

5. Inquire about students’

understandings of
concepts.

6. Encourage students to
engage in dialogue,
both with the teacher
and with one another.

7. Encourage student
inquiry.

8. Seek elaboration of
students’ initial
responses.

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 How It Is How It Is
Applied in How It Is How It Is Applied in
Characteristic of Social Applied in Applied in Language
Constructivist Teaching Studies Science Mathematics Arts

9. Engage students in
experiences that
might contradict their
initial hypotheses, and
then encourage
discussion.

10. Allow wait time after

posing questions.

11. Provide time for

students to construct
relationships and
create metaphors.

12. Nurture students’

natural curiosity.

Differentiated Instruction
We in the United States believe that everyone deserves an education. The current stan-
dards in all of the subject areas emphasize higher-order thinking skills as well as
content. And effective teaching of these standards means that active, student-centered
activities must be employed in the classroom. But as you recall from your inquiries
about unique perspectives and abilities, teachers cannot teach all students the same
way. A major thrust of current education reform is an emphasis on differentia-
tion of instruction. You investigated differentiated instruction in detail in
TeachSour Chapter 5. As you will recall, differentiated instruction is an instructional
ce Video strategy based on the teacher’s awareness of the needs of individual students.
It calls for teachers to have “clear learning goals that are rooted in content
View the TeachSource video, “Reading standards but crafted to ensure student engagement and understanding” (Tom-
in the Content Areas: An Interdisciplinary
linson, 2008, p. 26). Lesson plans that include differentiated instruction are
Unit on the 1920s.” How can teaching
an interdisciplinary unit enrich students’ adapted to the readiness, interest, and strongest mode of learning for each in-
understanding of both literature and history? dividual student. Differentiated instruction is guided by five basic principles:
In this video, you’ll see how high school
teachers join forces to create a unit focused 1. It is respectful of each student.
on the Roaring 20s. Be sure to view the four 2. The material students are asked to learn is rooted in the critical ideas of a
bonus videos for more detail.
After you view the videos, answer the
topic.
following questions: 3. Teachers use flexible grouping.
1. How does the study of The Great Gatsby 4. Teachers use ongoing assessment to inform their instruction.
in the history class help students in their
5. The learning environment supports students in taking the risk of learning.
study of literature?
(Sousa and Tomlinson, 2011)
2. How does the study of The Great Gatsby
in history class help students understand
history?
Differentiated instruction is an extremely important concept in current edu-
cation reform. It would be worth your while to review what you have already
3. What qualifications do teachers need to
have to teach two subjects at the same learned about it and to pay close attention to what you learn in your future
time? courses in teacher education. It is definitely a term you will hear again, and plan-
ning for differentiated instruction will be a skill that you will be expected to pos-
sess as a new teacher.

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 FROM THE FIELD

An Odyssey into 21st-Century Learning

Freedman
B  eing known as the teacher who takes risks, breaks out from start to finish. As a group,

Courtesy of Rayne
of the box, or does not fit the mold is something I students share their dramatic
pride myself on. So in 2003, when I approached my version of the story along with
administration with our music teacher and art teacher, they its musical soundtrack. Then
were not surprised to hear what we wanted to do. they individually share their
Collaborating with two colleagues who had the same vision slideshows and read their poems. This leaves the audience
as I ended up in the creation of a most worthwhile project, hooked on the story and amazed at the work that went into
and we began an odyssey into 21st-century learning. this majestic project, which was completed along with all
The seed was planted when I read Chris Van Allsburg’s other curriculum expectations for the year.
The Stranger. The fantastical story leaves the reader This project can be done with any fiction or nonfiction
wondering, “Who is the stranger”? Using context clues, book that inspires students to think. It also reaches more
students form their own opinions. They are exposed to the state standards than any individual unit we teach. You could
tale numerous times. They draw an illustration representing do a slideshow on an event in the American Revolution,
who they think the stranger could be. If they think he is design a soundtrack for your event, and write a poem
autumn, you might see a picture of a leaf or shades of about it. A student could create a similar presentation on
orange. If students envision the stranger as Jack Frost, they the lifecycle of the frog. Later, we attempted Two Bad Ants,
might draw the farmhouse window etched in frost or a also by Van Allsburg. Students were asked to take on the
snowman. Using their illustration as a guide, students write point of view of an ant, writing a story as if they were ants
a free-verse poem, telling who they think the stranger is lost in our classroom. Imagine that a fan becomes a wind
and why. They begin by writing a story, and through a tunnel or the pencil sharpener becomes a fun house. With
writer’s workshop in poetry, they are left with a free flow of this project we also weaved in science by studying insects
words that share their experience of who the stranger is. as well as math. Students designed sets for their play and
Students create a slide show, initially created in a had to make things to scale.
storyboard template, which they share with a larger It is now eight years since our first project, and every
audience. The first slide is a title card. Students are given year former students return to see what project we are
the challenge to come up with a clever title. The next card doing. I am reminded that they took this odyssey with me
is their hand-drawn illustration. The third card is an and carry it with them in all they do. It inspired them to
interpretation of the illustration drawn on the computer. imagine, collaborate, think critically, problem-solve
The final card includes a background with a text box creatively, learn, grow, perform, and dream big. They saw
containing the free-verse poem. their teachers face roadblocks along the way and hurdle
Students are simultaneously meeting with the music over them or around them in order to see them succeed.
teacher, working in small collaborative learning groups. By weaving together various disciplines, students began
Each group is assigned a scene and spends some time their own odyssey into 21st-century learning. I am proud to
determining the mood of their scene. Their job is to create have paved that road for them.
a soundtrack using instruments, voices, or other creative
methods to portray the mood. Each group also chooses
students to read their scene out loud. While one scene is Rayna Freedman
being presented, the rest of the class is learning how to act Jordan/Jackson Elementary
out the scene using dramatic movements. Mansfield, Massachusetts
We then combine the slideshows, musical soundtrack, Chamber of Commerce Teacher of the Year, 2011
and dramatic piece into an hour-long presentation that Kappa Delta Pi Teacher of Honor, 2010
includes a video that shows the audience the entire process

© Cengage Learning 2014

Keep this in mind: So far, you have investigated current reform trends in curriculum
and instruction in the four disciplines of social studies, science, mathematics, and the
English language arts. Visit the websites for the professional organizations associated with
foreign language education, art education, music education, and physical education (PE)
to learn about current standards in these areas and how they might integrate with the core
content areas.

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 Interdisciplinary Instruction
The prevailing approach to curriculum at all levels involves the separation of the subject-
area disciplines into discrete subjects, each with its own time slot, its own textbook, and
its own program of study. However, what we now know is that showing students how
subjects are integrated can appeal to their prior knowledge and interests. You will recall
that one of the objectives in modern curriculum development is subject integration. An
example of integrating content is the use of graphs (a mathematics topic) to interpret
experimental data obtained in a science experiment. Another example is writing a story
about a person living on the moon, combining science and language arts. The more sub-
jects that are drawn into the study of a topic, the more sophisticated the approach be-
comes and the more interrelated the disciplines become. Johnson (2011) says that science
is the application of math, and urges teachers to integrate science and mathematics to
foster relevance, meaning, and usefulness. After all, scientific data cannot be analyzed
without the use of math. You saw other examples of curriculum integration in the section
on service learning in Chapter 12 and in the material on social reconstructionism in
Chapter 2.

Assessment Reform
You have explored the concept of assessment in several parts of this textbook, and you
have seen that the purpose of assessment is to obtain information about student achieve-
ment. Through assessment, students demonstrate their understanding. There are many
ways to assess, and education reform efforts seek to strengthen assessment so it measures
what students actually know and can do.

BUILDING BLOCK Assessing Your Achievement

14.13 What kinds of assessments do you remember having had as a student? Write them
down.
Did these assessments give you the opportunity to show all that you knew about
the topics?
Considering current curriculum reform and emphases (content and skills), do
you think the way that you were tested would allow students in today’s class-
rooms to demonstrate the knowledge and skills in the standards?
What do you believe teachers should do to find out what a student really knows
and is able to do?

The primary goals of assessment in education are (1) to obtain and interpret informa-
tion about what students know and can do, and (2) to use this information to guide in-
structional and educational decisions. Traditionally, the primary assessment method
found in classrooms is the paper-and-pencil test, in which students select among multiple-
choice or “true or false” test items, fill in blanks, or write an essay on a given topic. With
the possible exception of open-ended essays, this form of assessment requires students to
select which of several possible answers is the correct one. Multiple-choice assessments
measure a student’s ability to select a response; they do not necessarily show what the
student knows and can do. In a multiple-choice test, students cannot generate their own
responses and do not have the opportunity to explain their reasons for choosing a re-
sponse. Would this type of assessment be the best way for students to demonstrate some

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 of the knowledge and skills that are specified in the content-area standards you have
considered?

Authentic Assessment
Learning theory holds that different people construct their understanding of material in
different ways. Assessing student performance on tasks relevant to real-world activities is
called authentic assessment. The subject-area national standards encourage the use of authentic assessment Education
authentic assessment methods. These authentic assessments methods include portfolios, tasks that resemble the real-world
applications of the skills and
journals, interviews, observations, performance assessment, and human judgment. Fur- knowledge being assessed.
ther, teachers often weave assessment directly into the instruction with projects and pre-
sentations, instead of testing only with end-of-unit tests, midterms, and finals given after
the instruction.
Portfolios are folders of evidence of students’ accomplishments. You may be keeping portfolio An authentic assessment
a portfolio in this course to show evidence of your achievement of the basic course goals method consisting of a container
or folio of evidence that shows a
established by your professor or institution. Journals are records of a variety of informa- student’s progress toward achieving
tion, such as reflections, descriptions of projects and laboratory inquiries, questions, an- the knowledge and skills of a subject.
swers, reports, stories, drawings, charts, tables, and many other things. Journals often are journal Students’ writings, including
used in conjunction with other assessment methods to show what students have learned. what they did, what they learned,
and their reflections, often used as an
When conducting interviews, teachers ask questions during a lesson to check for student element of authentic assessment.
understanding and to uncover alternative ways of thinking. Based on student responses interview An assessment method
to the questions, teachers can affirm student understanding or take appropriate steps to that consists of a structured or open
help students clarify their thinking. conversation between student and
teacher in which the teacher asks
Performance assessments are based on students’ ability to demonstrate a skill such questions relating to the objectives of
as playing a piece of music, labeling the parts of an actual dissected frog, doing a basic a lesson.
routine on uneven parallel bars, or writing a persuasive essay. Assessments based on hu- performance assessment An
man judgment might include having a classroom debate or having students critique a assessment that requires the
learner to actually demonstrate—or
procedure or a campaign strategy. Notice that these authentic assessments include op- perform—the skill.
portunities for students to demonstrate those higher-order thinking skills that content-
area standards call for.
Many schools have replaced traditional methods of assessment with authentic assess-
ment, because authentic assessment provides the information they really want—what
students know and what they can do.

Summative and Formative Assessment

A major trend in assessment is the movement toward formative assessment. Typically, formative assessment An
assessment occurs at the end of a unit of instruction. (Keep in mind that in this instance, assessment that is implemented
during the course of instruction so
a “unit of instruction” can mean a lesson, chapter, or sequence of related chapters.) As- that teachers and students may be
sessment at the end of a unit is called summative assessment, and it measures student informed of the students’ progress in
achievement after the unit is complete—after the instruction and student inquiries have achieving objectives.
taken place. Its purpose is to determine if the required learning has been retained. What summative assessment An
assessment that is implemented at
do teachers do if the assessment shows that the learning either did not occur or was not the end of an instructional unit to
retained? measure student achievement of
Formative assessment, on the other hand, is assessment that occurs during the objectives.
course of the unit or lesson. Its purpose is to help both the teacher and students evalu-
ate student achievement while they are still studying the unit so corrections can be made
while there is still time. Formative assessment tells how the students are constructing
(forming) their conceptualizations; summative assessment tests a summarization of the
learning. Formative assessment gives us tools we can use to guide the design and imple-
mentation of our learning activities. Methods include observation, formal and informal
interviews, asking questions, using “clicker” technology, and many other ways. Many
experts say that formative assessment is the only way teachers can really know what the
students are learning and how they are thinking. Current reforms in assessment focus
on formative assessment.

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 Courtesy of David Ottenstein Photography
One way teachers can assess
student achievement authentically
is to record observations.

Robert Stake (in Dirksen, 2011) said it best: “When the cook tastes the soup, that’s
formative. When the guests taste the soup, that’s summative” (p. 26).

BUILDING BLOCK Using Assessment Data

14.14 Use your current understandings of authentic assessment and standardized testing
and experiences you may have had with these forms of assessment to answer the
following questions:
What kinds of authentic assessments have you experienced?
How are authentic assessments different from pencil-and-paper tests?
How are authentic assessments different from standardized tests?
How could standardized tests be made to be authentic?
How can educators use data from both authentic assessment and standardized
tests to inform educational decisions?

Teacher Education Reform

Teacher preparation is a major element of education reform. Of course, reforms in cur-
riculum, instruction, and assessment impact the way that future teachers are prepared to
enter the profession. Much of what you investigated about teacher preparation and certi-
fication in Chapter 9 represents the current state of reform efforts. The No Child Left
Behind legislation requires schools to place a highly qualified teacher in every classroom.
The Ready to Teach Act of 2003 provides federal funding to improve teacher preparation
so this goal can be accomplished (Boehner, 2003).
Teacher education reform efforts target five basic areas:

Subject-matter knowledge
Pedagogical knowledge and skills
Methods of teacher preparation
Incentives and accountability
Teacher induction

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 Subject-Matter Knowledge
Educators agree that subject-matter knowledge is critical to effective teaching. When you
investigated your teacher preparation program in Chapter 9, you probably found an em-
phasis on subject matter, regardless of the program you plan to pursue. In fact, some states
are eliminating the undergraduate degree in education as a teacher certification require-
ment; instead, they require that future teachers major in a content area and some require
an undergraduate degree in subject matter and a master’s degree in education. However,
most educators believe that the subject-matter understanding needed by teachers is differ-
ent from the understanding needed by traditional majors; teachers need to know their
subject in ways that make it teachable to others. Thus, teachers need to know and under-
stand the pedagogy associated with teaching the content areas.

Pedagogical Knowledge and Skills

Pedagogical knowledge and skills comprise the “how to teach” component of teacher pedagogical knowledge and
education. You probably know someone who is a whiz in his or her subject area but can- skills The knowledge and skills of
how to teach content information to
not teach it. There is controversy over the relative importance of subject-matter and learners.
pedagogical expertise to teaching effectiveness. The dominant view is that teachers need
rigorous training in educational theory and pedagogical skills. For example, Wenglinsky
(2000) found a high correlation between the performance of eighth-grade students in sci-
ence and mathematics and teachers who emphasized hands-on learning, higher-order
thinking skills, and individualized instruction in their teaching. He concludes, “what re-
ally matters [in teaching quality] is not where teachers come from but what they do in the
classroom” (p. 32). He reported that strong subject-matter knowledge is particularly
essential for science and mathematics teachers in high schools and middle schools in ad-
dition to pedagogical skills. The opposing view holds that teachers need only minimal
exposure to education theory and pedagogy and that teachers best acquire their skills
through on-the-job experience. (This is the view championed by the Thomas B. Fordham
Foundation.)
Darling-Hammond (2000) reviewed research and evidence to ascertain relationships
between teacher qualifications and student achievement. She found that teachers’ sub-
ject-matter knowledge is critical, but that its relationship to student performance varies
depending on grade level (the lower the level the greater the concentration on pedagogy
that is needed) and level of student sophistication. She also found that, regardless of
grade level or subject taught, student achievement relates strongly to teachers having full
certification and a major in their field. Darling-Hammond concluded that preparing
future teachers how to teach specific subjects has the greatest impact of all on student
achievement.

Methods of Teacher Preparation

As you found in Chapter 1, teacher education programs must be accredited. This means
that external reviewing agencies assess programs for compliance with the reviewing
agency’s standards. The two primary national teacher accreditation agencies are the
National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) and the Teacher
Education Accreditation Council (TEAC). Both accredit teacher preparation programs
on the basis of standards developed by the agency, subject matter and other education
specialty organizations, and teacher preparation faculty; the standards are grounded in
the education reform movements dealing with curriculum, instruction, assessment, and
teacher preparation. For accreditation, teacher preparation programs must demonstrate
that preservice teachers (teacher education students) are proficient in subject-matter
knowledge, applying learning theories and teaching skills to planning and instruction,
that impacts the achievement of all learners, and demonstrating professional disposi-
tions. The emphasis in teacher education reform is on producing highly qualified

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 teachers who are able to impact student learning. The thrust behind this emphasis is the
current movement in education reform to hold teachers accountable for their students’
performance.
Whereas national accreditation organizations evaluate the effectiveness of teacher
preparation programs according to national standards, individual states are responsible
for ensuring that the programs comply with state standards and requirements; this re-
sponsibility normally belongs to the state department of education.

Incentives and Accountability

Incentives tend to foster a desire to do things differently, and accountability measures the
extent to which goals are met. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 turned the focus of
education on accountability: Schools and teachers are held accountable for the perfor-
mance of their students largely as measured by standardized tests.

Teacher Accountability
According to No Child Left Behind, teachers should be “highly qualified.” It is left up to
the states to figure out how they would define “highly qualified” and how they would
measure teacher effectiveness for accountability. As a result, there are as many different
systems to determine teacher accountability as there are states (Stecher, Vernez, and
Steinberg, 2010).
There is little dispute that teachers should be held accountable for student achieve-
ment. Conflicts regarding reform movements in teacher accountability are primarily
centered on how accountability is measured. To many, the way to judge a teacher’s per-
formance is by linking it directly to students’ scores on achievement tests. But, from your
investigations so far, you know that standardized test scores are unreliable for a variety
of reasons.
So, how do we measure teacher accountability? Obviously, the assessment used must
relate to the teacher’s performance in the classroom.
In Chapter 9, you investigated teacher evaluation. And, as you know, different states
have different methods of assessing teacher performance. One method that is drawing a
value-added analysis A statistical lot of attention and controversy is called value-added analysis. It is a complicated statis-
method that uses standardized test tical method that uses standardized test scores and other data. In the end, it can provide
scores and other data to inform the
evaluation of teacher performance. an indication of how well an individual student performed from year to year and from
teacher to teacher. The idea is that if a teacher’s students perform well according to a
variety of indicators, that teacher must be effective. In 2010, the Los Angeles Times did a
value-added analysis of student test scores of some 6,000 teachers in local elementary
schools and published its findings (Los Angeles Times, 2010). The statistics indicated that
there was a great deal of variance in student performance from year to year and from
teacher to teacher. Students showed significant gains with certain teachers, and with other
teachers, students did not perform as well. But, there are extraneous variables and anom-
alies that impact value-added analysis, and the statistical methods are complex. For these
reasons, some believe that value-added analysis should not be the only evidence on which
teacher effectiveness is judged. Rather, it is thought that value-added data might contrib-
ute to teacher evaluations as a percentage of the outcome along with evidence generated
by other sources, such as observations by administrators and peers’ documentation pro-
duced by the teacher.

Teacher Induction
Teacher induction involves support, guidance, and orientation programs for beginning
teachers. Of these, personal guidance (called mentoring) provided by experienced teachers
for the new teachers is by far the most important. New teachers are especially vulnerable
to the seemingly indecipherable complexities of the school setting. Mentoring is critical.
Mentors show the new teacher the ropes, help with lesson preparation, help find materials

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 (sometimes even giving materials to the new teacher), share successful strategies,
offer critiques, provide suggestions and hints for classroom management, and all TeachSour
sorts of other things that help the new teacher (Hanusain, 2010). ce Video
One way to help teachers learn the pedagogical applications of subject mat-
ter is through collaboration between colleges of education and the public View the TeachSource Video,
schools they serve. In the last decade or two, schools and colleges have collabo- “Mentoring First-Year Teachers: Keys to
rated in teacher induction programs, acknowledging that new teachers need Professional Success.” In this video, you will
see new teacher, Dania Diaz, working with
mentoring so they can apply their newly acquired content knowledge and teach- her mentor teacher, Abdi Ali. Throughout,
ing skills in the classroom. When you interview for a teaching position, you Abdi observes Dania as she interacts with
should feel free to ask whether the district (or school) has a new teacher mentor- her students and colleagues and then
ing program and, if so, what the program entails. Mentors are essential to the reflects on her teaching practice. Be sure to
success of new teachers. watch the two bonus videos for more detail.
After you view the videos, answer the
The most successful teacher mentoring programs have several features in following questions:
common:
1. What does a mentor teacher do?
2. Why is mentoring important for new
They use experienced, well-trained teachers as mentors. teachers?
They are based on well-articulated standards and goals.
They are adequately funded.
They include special and appropriate evaluation processes for new teachers.
They extend beyond the new teacher’s first year to include the second and
sometimes the third years.
They include a reduced teaching load for the new teacher.
They provide appropriate class placements.
They include opportunities to observe other teachers.
They allow new teachers to participate in professional development opportunities.
© Catherine Ledner/Getty Images/The Image Bank

Education reform often results in

innovative and improved learning
space for students. Computers
and Internet access are standard
additions to school libraries and
media centers across the nation.

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 TECHNOLOGY Technology in the Subject Areas
& EDUCATION
A  s you saw in Chapter 9, one of the most sweeping
changes occurring in education is computer-based
programs for use at all levels that construct graphs from the
data students input.
technology. You have investigated some of the technological In English and language arts, teachers have available
advances that are in our schools today. Now let us get a bit thousands of computer-based technology applications that
more specific about what technologies are being incorporated can help them enrich their teaching. There is a huge array of
in the subject areas. tutorial programs used to augment English language
Social studies classes are making use of simulations. In instruction for students for whom English is a second
these programs, students input data to solve realistic language. Some of the ways in which English/language arts
problems, and the program responds with graphic teachers use technological advances to enhance their
representations of the actions. For example, SimCity, a teaching include creating visual aids to help with the teaching,
simulation that has been around since 1989, invites students providing access to online literature libraries, integrating
to inquire into urban environments. A city plan is presented, video clips into teaching, developing web-based alternative
and students are asked to respond to hypothetical changes ways for students to demonstrate their learning, using online
in the community, such as sudden population changes, tutorials to augment grammar instruction, and many more.
natural disasters, and rush-hour traffic fluctuations, by Students can use technology to prepare online school literacy
suggesting redesigns of the city. The results of their newly magazines and a class web page.
input suggestions are displayed so the students can see the Interdisciplinary work utilizes all of the technological
results of their planning. Social studies classes are also advances mentioned previously plus other advances that are
making use of computer games that may or may not be not subject-specific. For instance, students as young as
competitive in nature. Tutorial games are available that ask kindergarteners can use digital cameras to develop brochures
students to answer questions after which pertinent information about their class and the work they have accomplished.
is provided. Many of these games are available online and Applications are available that enable students to use
can be found using an Internet search engine. photographs they have taken by integrating them into slides
In science, teachers make use of microcomputer-based and movies to develop stories. And computer applications
laboratories (MBLs), which are computerized ways of companies are working with textbook publishers to develop
collecting and analyzing data from experimental procedures. e-textbook strategies for all grades, K–12 (Tomassini, 2012a).
The equipment for a lab typically includes a probe or sensor There are so many technological applications available
that gathers the data and a computer that analyzes the data today for teachers to use as they augment their instruction
and displays results either in graphic form or in numeric form. and make it more meaningful to students. The number of
A few of these devices include temperature probes, light applications is growing rapidly, and you need to keep up with
sensors, motion detectors, pH sensors, magnetic field what is going on so you will know what is available to you
sensors, salinity sensors, sound-level meters, and many more. when you are a teacher. But always remember that technology
Students (and others) can also participate in “citizen science” is used to augment and enhance instruction, not to replace it.
by accessing the Internet sites of research centers and Please do yourself a favor. If you have not already done this,
submitting data they have collected on bird sightings, begin a notebook or electronic journal that is wholly dedicated
weather patterns, wildlife health (dead, sick, or injured wildlife to technology you can use in the classroom for instruction or
sightings), butterfly populations, the weathering of historical management. You can do this online in a blog or wiki, or you
gravestones, and much more. might find it more convenient to use a spreadsheet or
Mathematics uses calculators, spreadsheets, computer database program on your own computer. For each item,
problem-solving equipment, interactive geometry software, write its name, its URL (address) if it is a website, and a brief
and more. Technology is used to help in rudimentary description of what it does. After you use it, write a very brief
computation and algorithms to leave the students free to critique of it, including how you used it. Keep this for use
develop problem-solving and higher-order thinking skills, during your teacher preparation program and during your
although teachers have to be careful not to replace numerical first year or two of teaching.
knowledge with technological assistance. There are graphing

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 SU MMA RY

CHAPTER RESOURCES
The reform of U.S. education is being undertaken in response to concerns voiced by
business, government, and society at large. Education reform extends to all aspects of
education, including curriculum, instruction, assessment, teacher preparation, and ac-
countability.
Many organizations are spearheading or assisting in reform efforts. The federal
government collects data, provides funding, and acts in an advisory capacity. State
governments establish policies for their state education programs. Nonprofit orga-
nizations offer various types of assistance in education reform efforts.
The National Governors Association has developed Common Core State Stan-
dards in mathematics, English language arts, and literacy in history, social studies,
science, and technology.
Subject-specific professional education organizations have developed standards
that have shaped curricular and instructional reform. States have adopted and
implemented these standards to varying degrees. National and international tests
reveal trends about student achievement and its relationship to curriculum.
Reforms in standards and curriculum necessarily affect instruction and assessment.
Effective instructional strategies include those that allow students to participate in
hands-on and minds-on activities and strategies that allow instruction to be dif-
ferentiated based on individual student need. Some schools and teachers are also
reforming instruction by making it interdisciplinary.
Efforts to reform assessment focus on gaining accurate information about students’
achievement of knowledge and skills. Assessments must be designed so teachers
know what the students really understand. This means using authentic assessment
strategies such as portfolios, journal, interviews, and performance assessments.
Teacher education reform aims to ensure that all teachers are experts in both
pedagogy and subject matter, and that they possess professional dispositions neces-
sary for success in the field.
Reform efforts focus heavily on teacher accountability and ways to establish and
evaluate the effectiveness of teachers and their impact on student learning. Much
controversy exists regarding how teachers should be evaluated and to what extent
students’ test grades should factor into this measure.

Key Terms and Concepts

Authentic assessment, 387 Journal, 387 Portfolio, 387
Common Core State New Math, 377 Standards movement, 369
Standards, 370 Pedagogical knowledge and Summative assessment, 387
Education reform, 366 skills, 389 Value-added analysis, 390
Formative assessment, 387 Performance assessment, 387 Whole language, 380
Interview, 387 Phonics, 380

Construct and Apply

1. Name at least four areas of U.S. education being looked at from an education reform point of
view. For each, summarize the reform efforts being undertaken.
2. List at least four thrusts that are common to the current curriculum standards that represent
current directions in education.
3. Why is reforming assessment a high priority? What initiatives are today’s schools undertaking
to accomplish this reform?
4. What are some of the controversies regarding teacher accountability?
5. How is teacher education responding to reform movements?

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 CHAPTER RESOURCES Deconstructing the Standards
1. Recall the InTASC Standards associated with the objectives for this chapter:
Standard #4 reads, “The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry,
and structures of the discipline(s) he or she teaches and creates learning experiences that
make these aspects of the discipline accessible and meaningful for learners to assure mas-
tery of the content.”
Standard #5 reads, “The teacher understands how to connect concepts and use
differing perspectives to engage learners in critical thinking, creativity, and collaborative
problem solving related to authentic local and global issues.”
#6 reads, “The teacher understands and uses multiple methods of assessment to
engage learners in their own growth, to monitor learner progress, and to guide the teach-
er’s and learner’s decision making.”
Standard #9 reads, “The teacher engages in ongoing professional learning and uses
evidence to continually evaluate his/her practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and
actions on others (learners, families, other professionals, and the community), and adapts
practice to meet the needs of each learner.”
a. What part(s) of these standards does this chapter address?
b. How will the concepts in this chapter help you apply these standards as a teacher?
2. Use your favorite search engine to find your state’s standards for certification. When you find
it, bookmark the site; you will refer to it often during this course.
a. How are your conclusions about the topics of education reform that you read about in this
chapter represented in your state standards?
b. How do the InTASC Standards compare to your state’s certification standards?
c. Do you believe the degree of representation concerning education reform is adequate in
your state certification standards? Why or why not?

Your Portfolio
1. Obtain a copy of your state’s standards for the subject(s) and level(s) you plan to teach. In your
portfolio, reflect on how your cooperating teacher teaches the topics and skills in the curricu-
lum. Comment on how this is like or is not like your experience learning the topics in school.
2. Find out how your state evaluates teacher effectiveness by visiting the Department of Educa-
tion website. Include the relevant information and documents in your portfolio.

Education CourseMate Resources

Check out this text’s Education CourseMate website (at www.cengagebrain.com) for more informa-
tion about school reform, standards, and the evolving curriculum in our schools. You will find the
TeachSource videos, a guide for doing field experiences, glossary flash cards, activities, tutorial quiz-
zes, direct links to the websites mentioned in the chapter, and more.

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 Society

School

Student

Self

Building
PA R T

V
a Teacher
NOW WE COME back to the Self. You have explored characteristics of
excellent teachers, your philosophical ideas about education, and
characteristics of students including their common needs and their unique
perspectives and abilities. You have investigated characteristics of schools
including their purposes, structures, and the interactions among students,
teachers, and schools. You have explored the influences of society on
education and schools, both past and present.
So, it is time to come back to you. Do you still want to become a teacher?
Why? Or, why not?

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 © Bill Aron/Photo Edit, Inc.
CHAPTER

15 Your Motives
for Teaching
“Why do you want to be an elementary school teacher?”

“Because I love kids!”

“Why do you want to be a high school teacher?”

“Because I love my subject!”

“Why do you want to be a middle school teacher?”

“I’m not sure . . .”

The conversation that begins this chapter represents the typical answers future
teachers give when, on the first day of their introduction to education course, they
are asked why they want to become teachers.

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 Everyone who wants to be a teacher has had powerful experiences in school,
both positive and negative, that have informed their decision to pursue a career
in education. As you now know, however, there is much to consider when
thinking about teaching—a lot more than just the experiences you had in school.
Most introductory education textbooks include a chapter on motives for teaching
at the very beginning of the book. We suspect that it will not surprise you that
this textbook, written in a constructivist voice, puts this chapter at the end.
Certainly, your motives for teaching deserve exploration, especially in your first
education class. Anyone considering teaching as a profession should carefully
examine his or her motives before entering a teacher education program. But
how well informed would your reasons have been in the beginning of this
course—before your classes, before your investigations, and before your field
experiences? Flip back to this textbook’s table of contents and look at all you
have explored. You knew a great deal about teaching, schools, and learning at
the beginning of this course, but surely you know a lot more now than you did
when you started. In this chapter, you will draw on the knowledge and
experiences you have gained in this course to explore the question, “Why do you
or don’t you want to teach?”

Chapter Objectives
As a result of your explorations in this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Describe your motives for wanting—or not wanting—to teach, in terms of self, students,
school, and society.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practices
2. Discuss how you can promote the profession of teaching and how you can continue your
professional development.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practices

Identifying Your Reasons for Teaching

Review the organization of this book. You started out by exploring what you already
know and believe about effective teachers and teaching. Then, you moved to an examina-
tion of students—how they are alike and how they are different—and what that means
for teaching. Next, you investigated schools, where learning, the act of teaching, and the
teacher–student relationship takes place. Finally, you saw that a school has general and
specific purposes and structures that serve the community in which it is located. Such
communities are a function of society and its beliefs.
Self, students, schools, and society. Where do your motives for teaching lie? Let us
investigate all four areas.

Self
What is it you know about your self that makes you believe you would be a good teacher?
If you review the qualities of effective teachers and teaching you investigated in Chapter 1,
you probably identify with some of them.

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 BUILDING BLOCK Your Self as a Teacher
15.1 List the personal qualities and skills you have that you believe will help you to be
an effective teacher. If you have decided not to teach, to what other professions
might these qualities and skills be suited?
How does this list compare with the characteristics of excellent teachers and
effective teaching you listed in Chapter 1?
How can you acquire these qualities and skills? Which ones are innate and
which can you learn?

There is an age-old debate about whether teaching is an art or a science. If you be-
lieve it is an art, your motives for teaching might include your belief that you have an
innate talent for it. You might think that some individuals are naturally talented teachers.
Have you had a teacher who seemed naturally talented in this way? Such teachers seem
to have a knack for getting people to learn. Perhaps someone has told you that you are
a “natural” teacher.
Yet, as you have seen, there are certain teaching methods and strategies that research
has shown to impact student achievement. These are skills that can be learned, sort of like
science.
Whether teaching is more an art or a science is a classic debate. Psychologist
B. F. Skinner (see Chapter 2) believed that teachers could be trained to use educational
strategies and materials effectively. To Skinner, teaching is truly a science, with a meth-
odology to be practiced and followed. On the other hand, Elliot Eisner, Stanford Univer-
sity professor emeritus of art and education, argues that teaching is more of an art. He
notes that teachers must deal creatively with the unexpected in their students’ learning
and behavior. Rigid models, methods, and templates for instruction or management do
not apply to every classroom situation.
Teachers must possess the intuition of
how, when, and where to use their skills
effectively (Eisner, 1983). Gage (1978)
combines the two views to assert that
teaching is an art that is informed by
science. He writes, “in medicine and
engineering, where the scientific basis is
unquestionable, the artistic elements
also abound” and “in teaching, where
the artistic elements are unquestion-
able, a scientific base can also be devel-
oped” (p. 18).
Some believe that certain people
have a predisposition toward teaching,
somewhat akin to the talents children
inherit from their parents. A parent
who possesses a talent for drawing,
Courtesy of Bill Lisenby

singing, or playing a musical instru-

ment, for example, often has a child
with similar artistic talent. Many
teachers and future teachers will tell
Teaching is both an art and a you that they come from a family of
science. Effective teachers know educators. As with doctors, police officers, and other professionals, several genera-
how to best assist students. To tions of a family may be involved in education. Perhaps you belong to such a family
what extent are those skills based and count your family’s teaching experience as one of your motives for teaching. Does
on knowledge and/or talent? this mean that you could have inherited a talent for teaching? Or does it mean that

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 teachers pattern themselves after other teachers in their families? We leave this for you
to ponder.
Your attitude toward the content you teach, your colleagues, your students, your
students’ parents, and the community in which your school is located can be thought
of as your disposition. Understanding, patience, acceptance, and kindness toward oth- disposition The qualities of one’s
ers can be learned from important and influential people in your life who demonstrate character.
these qualities. These are certainly dispositions that will help you become an effective
teacher. Your disposition also includes aspects of professional behavior such as accept-
ing responsibility, being accountable, taking initiative, and even performing such seem-
ingly simple behaviors as being where you are supposed to be, when you are supposed
to be there. There too are qualities that you can learn by observing others, but you can
develop these skills as you progress through your teacher education coursework and
experience.
When considering your motives for teaching, did you think of emotions associated
with a passion for teaching? One characteristic common among successful teachers is
passion. These successful teachers are passionate about teaching their content and their
students. These teachers may believe that teaching is a “calling.”
Look around your education class. You might see students who are coming to teach-
ing as a second career. What motives do you think would influence someone to leave an
existing career and study to become a teacher? If you are choosing teaching as a second
career, what influenced your decision? Have you heard someone in your class say, “I’ve
always wanted to teach”? Maybe you have said these words yourself. What does this
statement imply about the speaker’s motives for teaching?
What do you know about your self that makes you think you would (or would not)
be a good teacher? At the beginning of this course, you knew that you were interested in
teaching. Now you know that effective educators need to have certain dispositions and
skills. If you have chosen to continue in your teacher education program, you believe you
have some innate talent for teaching or can learn the necessary skills. Your learning in this
course and your field experiences may have helped you identify your passion for teaching,
or you may have discovered that you are not passionate about education. Either way, we
hope you have clarified your motives for teaching—or not teaching—in the context of
your self.

The Student
The hypothetical conversation at the beginning of this chapter seems to indicate that a
person’s passion for teaching depends on his or her major. It seems to suggest that if you
are studying to be an elementary teacher, you are passionate about children. If you are
going to be a secondary teacher, you are passionate about content. And if you are pursu-
ing a middle-grades certification, you are passionate about both.
Of course, this “conversation” was meant only to introduce the chapter and to pro-
vide a bit of a laugh. All successful teachers, regardless of major, are passionate about
their students. In fact, when someone asks you what you want to teach, we hope that
your first answer will be “students.” If you are not fond of young people in the age
group you want to teach, it will not matter how much you love your content. You have
seen that teachers have a relationship with each and every student, whether or not they
want one. Many teachers cite this relationship as the initial source of their motivation
to teach.
In Chapter 1, you recalled your favorite teacher. Did this teacher seem to like the
students in his or her class? Did this teacher seem passionate about the well-being and
achievement of each and every student? Did this teacher inspire you to go into education?
Many teachers saw how a certain teacher affected their lives and the lives of others—and
were inspired to do the same.
We have heard teacher education students proclaim, “If I can help just one student
learn, it will be reward enough.” Actually, if you chose to pursue a career in education,
you will help far more students than you realize. You will see evidence of this learning

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 on tests and through other measures of
achievement, but every once in a while, a
former student will contact you. You may
be surprised that the student discusses not
only the content from your class, but also
the quality of your relationship with that
student and how it affected his or her life.
If you haven’t already done so, find out
how to contact your favorite teachers and
let them know how they affected you and
influenced what you are doing with your
life. Do it now, before you forget. It will
make their day!

Comstock images/ Getty Images

Some individuals had a negative rela-
tionship with a teacher. Inspiration can
come from bad experiences as well as
good. Imagine a teacher telling a student:
“You don’t belong in this class. Don’t
count on getting into college.” What
choices does that student have? He could
What are some of the ways change his schedule and get out of that class. Or he could be inspired to prove the
passionate teachers inspire teacher wrong. He might even be inspired to become a teacher himself and make sure
and motivate students?
that other students do not have the same experience. Does this motivation apply to
anyone you know?
The opportunity to work with students is a strong motive for many who desire to
become a teacher. You may have thought that you want to teach because you love kids.
Now you know that students are as different as they are alike. Recall from Chapters 3,
4, and 5 that the common needs, unique perspectives, and unique abilities students bring
to your classroom have significant implications for teaching. In your field experience,
you may have discovered that you do not love all of your students all of the time. You
may have even been relieved when you saw that a particularly challenging student was
not in class one day. However, you now know that you must have what classroom man-
agement expert Harry Wong calls “unconditional positive regard” for every student
(Wong and Wong, 2009). What do you think unconditional positive regard for every
student means?
The opportunity to work with students is a powerful motivation to teach. However,
perhaps in your field experiences, you had quite enough of being with children or adoles-
cents each day and you have decided you do not want to work with students full-time.
Or perhaps your investigations and field experiences have caused you to change your
mind about the age group you would like to teach. Regardless, you are now aware of the
challenges and the rewards of working with students.

The School
Some of us enjoyed the whole experience of school. We earned good grades and
thrived in the social and academic atmosphere. Some people choose to go into educa-
tion because they had very positive experiences in school. (Some even stay in school
so long that they become professors of education, teaching others how to teach.) One
might think that anyone who wants to be a teacher must have liked school. This is
not always the case. Some students had less-than-enjoyable experiences in school but
are choosing education as a career to make others’ school experiences more positive
and enjoyable.
Those who really enjoyed school and who seemed to work well in a structured aca-
demic environment may be motivated to teach by the atmosphere of learning. They count
among their skills the ability to organize and plan well. They enjoy the daily schedule,
whether it is from class to class in a middle or high school or from day to day in an

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 elementary classroom. They enjoy the intellectual stimulation that comes with being in a
school environment.
Some individuals like the control that comes with teaching, not in the sense of con-
trolling behavior, but in the sense of designing and conducting lessons. Some teachers like
the attention they get from being at the front of the class. Indeed, it has been said that
teachers must be good actors. But even though attention and effort in a school is focused
on students most of the time, many people in a school must work together to make it all
happen. You may be attracted by the apparent autonomy that you can have in your class-
room, but you must collaborate and cooperate with myriad other individuals in the build-
ing to promote the purpose of the school.
All of these other people in the school—the students, the other teachers, the adminis-
trators, and other personnel—have expectations. Now you know that teaching is more
than managing your classroom, implementing the curriculum, and instructing and assess-
ing students. Among other duties, you are responsible for student safety. You are expected
to participate in noninstructional and extracurricular activities. You are expected to be
certified and highly qualified. You have to be current in educational research and theories,
practices, and technologies through participation in professional development activities.
Would it surprise you to learn that some individuals are interested in teaching because
they want weekends and summers off? This response may come from seeing teaching from
a pupil’s point of view. Now, however, you know that teaching requires a lot of time and
effort, especially for new teachers. Maybe you are even shaking your head at the time it
takes to prepare, teach, and evaluate a lesson. However, you know that with time, teachers
gain experience and become more fluent in their practice, able to meet school and profes-
sional expectations while having the occasional weekend and a few weeks in the summer
to rest and recuperate or participate in professional development opportunities. Besides,
some school districts are changing the school year from the traditional, agriculture-based
nine months with summers off to schedules with shorter summer vacations, and even the
trimester system with three one-month vacations after each three months of school.
The opportunities for lifelong learning and for working with others to promote a
school’s purpose may be a strong motivation for you to teach. Or you may have decided
that it’s just too much. Regardless, you have learned more about the place called school,
and you understand more about the teacher’s place in it.

The Place Called School BUILDING BLOCK

Teachers work in the place called school. List some characteristics of the school that 15.2
you find attractive as a teacher, and list some characteristics that you find unattract-
ive. How does the possibility of working in a school factor into your motivation for
becoming a teacher?

Society
Earlier we mentioned that some refer to teaching as a “calling.” Is this true for you? A
calling is that inner urge which, in part, reflects your desire to make a contribution to
society.

The Big Picture BUILDING BLOCK

What do you hope to contribute to society by teaching? Do you believe that your 15.3
day-to-day efforts in the classroom can produce a ripple outside the school? If so,
how? Describe a chain of impact that your teaching could have on society.

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 In your study of the history of education in the United States, you
learned that Americans in each generation have sought to educate the
next generation to become conscientious citizens and to contribute
positively to society. Teachers can contribute to society by guiding the
development of future conscientious citizens. The draw to the classroom
is the power to affect society through teaching. You now know, however,
that the teacher alone does not hold this power. The many stakeholders
in education also have a strong influence. You know that, beyond the
people in the school building, members of society have a stake in educa-
tion, with a huge investment in and influence on not only what is taught
and how it is taught, but also on educational policy, procedures, ethics,
and law. As a classroom teacher, you must respond to current social is-
sues and the reforms they instigate. And don’t forget that teachers are
held accountable for their teaching.
The opportunity to work with and for these stakeholders may moti-
vate you to continue your study of education. On the other hand, you
may have decided that too many people are telling you what to do and
you do not wish to be held accountable for factors beyond your control.
Either way, you have learned a great deal about the place that teaching
and schools occupy in society.
You now know that 21st-century teachers must be aware that the
populations of society—and therefore of our classrooms—are diverse.
Students represent many different ideas about what constitutes a posi-
© image100 /Alamy

tive contribution to society. As a teacher, your contribution is not to

teach what you believe, but to guide students in acquiring the skills to
make their own decisions about what they believe.
Are your reasons for becoming a teacher based on an adequate
How, what, when, and where perception of what teaching is really like? We hope that the investigations
teachers teach can be influenced you made using this textbook and through your class and field experiences
by external factors, such as have allowed you to construct a realistic understanding of students, teach-
parents, the community, the
ing, and schools.
government, and the law.

What Do Teachers Say?

TeachSour How do your reasons for wanting to teach compare with the reasons given by
ce Video practicing teachers? Every five years, the National Education Association (NEA)
conducts a survey of teachers, entitled The Status of the American Public School
View the TeachSource Video, “Becom-
Teacher. The most recent survey was given in 2006 for the 2005–2006 school
ing a Teacher: Choices and Advice from the
Field.” In this video, you’ll hear from new year; results were published in 2010. The 2006 survey asked teachers why they
and experienced teachers as they reflect on originally chose teaching as a career and why they chose to stay in teaching. The
the reasons they chose to enter the teaching desire to work with young people topped both lists. Table 15.1 summarizes the
profession.
reasons cited in the survey (National Education Association, 2010).
After watching this video, answer the
following questions: The NEA survey also looked at why teachers stay in the profession. It showed
1. Why did Tony Byers, Danielle Coucette,
that 66 percent of teachers would choose to teach again, and that 43 percent of
and Nathalie DeFusco want to become teachers said they plan to stay in the classroom until they voluntarily retire.
teachers? Was it related to self? Stu- Twenty-six percent said they would stay until they are required to retire.
dents? School? Society? Four percent said that they definitely plan to leave teaching as soon as possible,
2. What do you need to do before you and 10 percent said they would probably stay until something better comes along
make the final decision to become a (National Education Association, 2010).
teacher? What can you do?
Nieto (2003) surveyed several teachers in the Boston area, each highly re-
3. What traits do you need to be successful spected and in the teaching profession for more than 25 years, to assess why these
as a teacher?
people stayed in teaching. The teachers gave the following basic reasons for stay-
ing in the profession:

Autobiography: The teachers are deeply involved in their teaching. Teaching has
become their defining characteristic.

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 TABLE 15.1 Why Teachers Chose Teaching as a Career

Percent of
Reason Cited for Becoming a Teacher Respondents

Desire to work with young people 71%

Value or significance of education in society 42%

Interest in subject-matter field 39%

Influence of teacher in elementary or secondary school 31%

Never really considered anything else 14%

Influence of family 19%

Long summer vacation 19%

Job security 17%

Opportunity for a lifetime of self-growth 8%

Note: Respondents were asked to select the three main reasons they chose to teach.
Source: National Education Association, 2010. Courtesy National Education
Association.

Love: The teachers love their students and the subjects they teach.
Hope and possibility: The teachers have hope and faith in their students, their abilities
as teachers, and the profession of teaching.
Intellectual work: The teachers constantly update their knowledge and teaching skills.
Democratic practice: The teachers are committed to social justice and the ideals of
democracy, fair play, and equality.
Ability to shape the future: The teachers feel their work and actions are of greater
consequence than those of almost any other profession.

How do the reasons for staying in teaching that the teachers in the NEA survey give
and Nieto’s sample compare with your own reasons for becoming a teacher?
As you consider your motives for teaching, you must also consider why teachers leave
the profession. Some teachers believe that they made the wrong career choice. Those who
took the 2006 NEA survey were asked to indicate whether they would choose teaching
as a career again. Although 66 percent of respondents indicated that they would choose
to be teachers again, 16 percent said that they might or might not choose teaching again,
and 19 percent said that teaching would not be their choice (National Education Asso-
ciation, 2010). Table 15.2 shows the reasons teachers gave in the NEA survey for wanting
to leave the profession before retirement.
The rate of attrition (the gradual decrease of staff due to resignation, retirement, and attrition The gradual decrease of
so on) of new teachers is of great concern. The National Commission on Teaching and staff due to resignation, retirement,
America’s Future (2005) found that nearly one out of every two teachers, or close to and so on.
50 percent, leave the classroom within five years, and this was reiterated by Diane Ravitch
in 2012 (Ravitch, 2012). Furthermore, according to the 28th annual MetLife Survey of
the American Teacher, teachers’ satisfaction with their jobs has declined precipitously in
recent years (Heitin, 2012). Table 15.3 shows the percent of teachers expressing job sat-
isfaction on the survey between 1984 and 2011.
Responding to these alarming statistics, the commission (and many other scholars
and teacher support groups) recommends strengthening teacher induction programs to

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 TABLE 15.2 Why Teachers Want to Leave Teaching
before Retirement

Reason for Leaving Teaching Percent of Respondents

Low salary 26%

Teaching/working conditions 13%

Too many nonteaching duties 8%

Lack of independence 5%

Family-related 8%

Health-related 5%

Student-related 5%

Administration-related 6%

Note: The percentages do not total 100 percent because only

factors selected by 5 percent or more of the respondents are
included.
Source: From National Education Association Survey, 2010. Cour-
tesy National Education Association.

TABLE 15.3 Percent of Teachers Expressing Job

Satisfaction, 1984–2011

Percent of Teachers
Year Expressing Job Satisfaction

1984 40%

1985 44%

1986 33%

1987 40%

1988 50%

1989 44%

1995 54%

2001 52%

2003 57%

2006 56%

2008 62%

2009 59%

2011 44%
© Cengage Learning 2014

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 help new teachers make a smooth and rewarding transition from the teacher preparation
program to actual classroom situations (see also Chapters 9 and 14). The National Center
for Education Statistics has instituted a survey to gain statistics on teacher attrition. They
found that, of teachers who began in 2007 and were not assigned a mentor, 16 percent
left after one year and 23 percent left after two years. However, of teachers who began in
2007 and were assigned a mentor, only 8 percent left the field after one year and
10 percent left after two years (Kaiser, 2011). These statistics certainly validate the
essential nature of teacher induction and mentoring programs.
Is your passion for getting into education strong enough to sustain your motivation
throughout your career, given what you now know about the challenges and complexities
of being a teacher? Peske et al. (2001) suggest that, contrary to earlier times when people
thought in terms of a single career and lifetime loyalty to a single organization, people today
think in terms of several careers with several different organizations. In a large survey, these
researchers found that “While there were respondents who planned to make teaching a
lifetime career, they were surprisingly few in number” (p. 305). This finding suggests that
some people may perceive teaching as one of several careers they will pursue. In fact, you
may be one of those considering teaching as a new or different career path.

I’m Outta Here! BUILDING BLOCK

Look at the reasons teachers cited for wanting to leave the profession in Table 15.2. 15.4
Which are related to the skills and dispositions required for teaching? Which have
to do with students? Which have to do with the context of the school? Which have
to do with society?

We hope you have become better informed regarding the issues cited in Table 15.2 as
you have explored the topics in this textbook, participated in class discussions, and com-
pleted your field experiences. If you have decided to continue in the teacher preparation
program, you can do so better informed. For some, however, these issues may be signifi-
cant enough for them to decide against teaching as a career. Regardless of your final deci-
sion, you now understand the teacher’s role in society and the challenges that affect that
role. How can you, as a member of your community, help teachers—and therefore the
students who are the future citizens of your community—be successful?
© Blend Images/Alamy

Positively affecting the lives of

young people is a reward of
teaching that far outweighs minor
challenges.

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 FROM THE FIELD

A Member of the Community

Elizabeth Day

th Day
Courtesy of Elizabe
T  wenty-eight years ago, the phone rang at my house
at eight in the evening. It was the superintendent of
members. Whatever I’m
doing, I work diligently with
the school district in which I now teach, informing me that the members of my community
the Board of Education had decided to hire new teachers. in positive interpersonal relationships. My students and the
If I accepted the sixth-grade position for which I applied, I community see me as a teacher-leader, a resource, an
would be teaching in the district that I had attended as a active community member, and a friend. I feel
student. I was indeed excited to know that, when the new responsibilities to my students and to my community;
school year rolled around, not only would I have my first perhaps through me, my students see that they have
teaching job, but I would be able to return to my own responsibilities to me and to their community, as well.
community to be with the people I had been brought up Being a positive role model comes with great responsibility
with and had learned so much from. Along with the and is of utmost importance to me.
decision to teach in my community, I made the choice to Teaching in my community and making a difference in
live there, as well. I was returning to Mechanicville, the lives of the people with whom I work and live has held
New York, “The Friendly City,” to see just what I might great reward for me. Reflecting back on my teaching
accomplish as a teacher and what I might be able to give experience, I realize that almost everyone under 40 in my
back to my community. Because my two greatest role town is someone who has sat in my classroom. I also know
models, my mom and dad, gave so unselfishly to our city that I have influenced many people both inside and outside
for so many years, I believed that this could be my chance of my classroom. Teaching is my chance to make a positive
to do the same. difference in the lives of many. As my students make their
As a teacher, I led by example. Nevell Bovee, an journeys, I hold close to the idea that they, too, will
American author and lawyer, had stated, “Example has continue to make a difference in the hearts and minds of
more followers than reason.” Because I live in the same those they encounter. If what they do can in any way be
community in which I teach, the example I set—as my traced back to something I did, an example I set, or a role
students see me both in and out of the classroom—gives that I played, then my desire to reach out to others has
them an opportunity to follow. I am a role model when I am come full circle, and I know that I have done my job well.
a spectator at their sports events outside of school, an
active participant in community bands and local theater,
and a parent actively engaged in my own child’s education. Elizabeth F. Day
Through church activities, I joyously sing at former students’ 2005 New York Teacher of the Year
weddings, and I compassionately share the grief that Mechanicville Middle School
accompanies the death of students or their family Mechanicville, New York

© Cengage Learning 2014

BUILDING BLOCK So You Want (Or Don’t Want) To Be a Teacher?

15.5 Using the understandings you have constructed about teaching as a career, write a
statement listing the reasons why you want to become a teacher. If you have decided
not to continue in the field of education, or if you are undecided, write a statement
listing your reasons for your current thinking.

Teaching as a Profession
You have reviewed the strong relationships among teaching, schools, and society. It is
clear that teaching is a noble profession, but you probably have received mixed mes-
sages about how society regards teachers. Television shows, public service announce-
ments, and awards (such as state or national teacher of the year awards) honor

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 Teaching requires significant
© Ellen B. Senisi / The Image Works

preparation and training, self-

governance, a code of ethics, and
reliance on specific intellectual
techniques and methods. In what
other ways can teaching be
considered a profession and not
a trade or a job?

teachers and their contributions. Yet some portrayals of teachers are less than flatter-
ing. Perhaps friends and relatives wonder about your motives for wanting to teach.
Consider the nontraditional students in your class. Many of them have chosen educa-
tion as a second career. Why do you think nontraditional students did not go into
teaching in the first place?

Professional Organizations
The education profession has a great number of professional organizations. You saw ref-
erences to quite a few of these professional organizations earlier in this textbook. The
most prominent are shown in Table 15.4. Remember that there are also regional and state
organizations. One of the responsibilities of teachers is to keep up with the times regard-
ing both subject matter and pedagogy. As you proceed through your teacher education
program, keep these and other professional organizations in mind as reliable sources of
current trends in the fields they represent. Some of what they have to offer is free on the
Internet.
You have investigated teacher unions in this text; the two largest are the American
Federation of Teachers (AFT) and the National Education Association (NEA). It is clear
that there is no shortage of organizations for educators! However, these organizations
do not govern the actual act of teaching. As you have seen, for most of the school day,
teachers and students interact within the classroom walls, where most decisions are
made by the authority in the room: the teacher. However, you have also learned that
many individuals, committees, and professional organizations outside of the classroom
and the school building exert great influence on teachers. The local school board is an
example. Although doctors, lawyers, and even real estate agents are governed by boards
of their colleagues and peers (other doctors, lawyers, and agents), school boards are
usually not made up of teachers. What are the advantages and disadvantages of this
arrangement?

Your Chosen Profession

So far in this chapter, you have considered your motives for teaching in the context of
your self, the students, the school, and society. You have seen that it is not completely clear
whether teaching can be called a profession. Most individuals who choose or consider
teaching as a career probably believe that teaching is a profession. But others in society
may not be so sure. What can you do to raise the prestige of teachers and teaching?

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 TABLE 15.4 Prominent Professional Organizations for Educators

Discipline Organization

Art education National Art Education Association

Early childhood education Association for Early Childhood Education International (ACEI)
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)

English, language arts, and reading education International Reading Association (IRA)
National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE)

Foreign language education and teaching English to American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages
speakers of other languages Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL)

Mathematics education National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM)

School Science and Mathematics Association

Music education National Association for Music Education

Physical Education National Association for Sport and Physical Education

Science Education National Science Teachers Association

National Association of Biology Teachers
Chemistry Education Association
American Association of Physics Teachers
School Science and Mathematics Association

Social studies education National Council for the Social Studies

Special needs and gifted education Council for Exceptional Children (CEC)
National Association for Gifted Children

Technology education International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE)

Other organizations for teachers American Counseling Association

American Educational Research Association (AERA)
American Federation of Teachers
National Education Association
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD)
Association for Middle Level Education
National School Boards Association

You can access these organizations through the direct links available on the Education CourseMate website.

One obvious answer is that if you want to be perceived as a professional, you must
act like one. You looked at some elements of professionalism in Chapter 9. Your teacher
education program has professionalism components on which you will be evaluated.
What are these components?
Factors such as tardiness, poor communication or collaboration with the cooperating
teacher or college supervisor, inappropriate attire, inappropriate interactions with stu-
dents, lack of preparation, and breaches of confidentiality are behaviors that warrant re-
mediation. From the moment you complete your introductory education course and move
on to other education courses, your professionalism is being scrutinized. Is this appropri-
ate and fair? How does knowing about this scrutiny influence your thoughts about
whether or not teaching is a profession?
After you have obtained your first teaching position, you will of course continue to
model professionalism. Not only will your behavior and professional dispositions be ob-

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 served by your colleagues and administrators, but you will also be watched by
your students, their parents, and the entire community. Being under the commu- TeachSour
nity’s watchful eye also has implications for your behavior outside of school. As ce Video
you have seen, teachers are held to higher standards than others in the community.
If you want to bolster others’ perception of you as a professional, what can you View the TeachSource Video, “The
do in your school? Your first two or three years of teaching will be spent polishing First Year of Teaching: One Colleague’s
your skills, increasing your repertoire, and settling into the culture. Once you become Story.” In this video, fourth-grade teacher
Will Starner speaks candidly about his first
fluent and established, you can consider taking on some leadership roles in your year teaching––what he has learned about
school and your community. As a teacher, you will have the opportunity to be involved himself, the best way to approach difficult
in school committees that focus on issues such as textbook adoption, school policy situations, and the value he places on
and accreditation reviews, technology plans, and the like. You may also work with camaraderie with his fellow teachers.
students who are involved with athletic teams, the yearbook, school newspaper, extra- After you view the videos, answer the
following questions:
curricular clubs, or social functions. Choose to participate in these activities. Doing so
1. What are some of the challenges
not only demonstrates your commitment to your profession and to your students, it
Mr. Starner encountered in his first year
adds another level of reward to your professional life. (You may already sincerely like of teaching?
your students while they are in your class, but wait until you get to know them before 2. How did he respond to these challenges?
and after school! You might discover facets of their personalities that are more inter-
3. What advice does Mr. Starner give to new
esting, creative, and humorous than the classroom allows.) What extracurricular ac- teachers?
tivities might you be interested in sponsoring as a faculty member? Seek opportunities
to volunteer in these activities as you progress in your teacher education program.
You may choose to take on some administrative responsibilities. After you have
gained some experience, you may pursue the opportunity to become department chair or
team leader. Or you may wish to become a learning support specialist or lead teacher,
whose responsibilities extend beyond a department or grade level to the entire school. If
you focus your required professional development activities on receiving additional en-
dorsements and certifications in areas such as reading, English for speakers of other lan-
guages, gifted and talented education, and special education, not only will you broaden
your professional knowledge and skills, you may also get a pay increase. National Board
Certification and graduate degrees also carry benefits and prestige.
Beyond your school building, you can promote excellence in education by being a
member of some professional organizations such as those listed in Table 15.4. Select your
professional organizations carefully and focus on one or two. Attending the state, re-
gional, or national conference of an organization is a wonderful way to interact with
colleagues, exchange ideas, and reinvigorate your motivation. As you gain experience, you
may decide to present papers at these conferences, reaching out to a larger audience of
educators by sharing your knowledge and experience. You can become more active in
your professional organization by volunteering or taking on a leadership role. You can
help out at a conference and serve on (or eventually chair) the organization’s governing
body or service committee. Again, by getting involved, not only do you serve your profes-
sional development, you also help to bolster the prestige of the profession itself.
Finally, modeling professionalism in your classroom—by exhibiting professional behav-
ior, taking on leadership roles in your school and professional organization, and participat-
ing in lifelong learning—lets you motivate your students to become teachers. They will see
through you what a challenging, exciting, and rewarding career teaching can be. You will
be the teacher they mention when they are asked about their motives for becoming teachers.

Your Philosophy of Education … Again BUILDING BLOCK

Revise your philosophy of education statement to reflect your motives for teaching 15.6
and the understanding about teaching and education that you have gained in this
course.
Look again at the metaphor you chose for teaching. Do you still agree with it?
Should you change it? Write down the metaphor you now believe describes you as
a teacher, and refer to it throughout your teacher preparation program.

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 FROM THE FIELD

Getting Better Every Day

Bill Blythe

Blythe
I  

Courtesy of Bill
am not where I should be, nowhere near where I then began to analyze where
want to be, but hopefully I am much better today they are in terms of
than I was yesterday. I had this paraphrased quote development. It is destructive
laminated on one of my science cabinets near the to any development to ever think you don’t have an area of
classroom door and I thought I was the only one who ever improvement—whether a student, a teacher, or an
looked at it. Occasionally, someone would ask me what this administrator. One of the best examples that I can set for
meant, and I would explain that it was important to me my students and peers is to admit where my deficiencies
because I have committed myself to getting better every are and know that I can only get better when I truthfully
day and I consider it a wasted day if I am not, but I never know where I can start my construction.
really took it much deeper and explored exactly how I go I am far from the content expert in my school, and
about doing that and how that would look to my students moving from the middle grades to high school this year is
and colleagues. cause for a little anxiousness but I know I will work hard to
On the last day of the past school year, one of my increase my content knowledge every day. I will never be a
students asked if she could have the laminated quote complete content expert, in my eyes, because the content
because she really believed in the thought. I was pleased to area that I teach deepens exponentially by the minute. I do
let her have it and more than happy to see that she had know that if perfection becomes my focus, then I am doing
displayed it as her profile picture on Facebook. With this my students a disservice. I am a teacher of lifelong learners
young lady asking for this quote, I began to think about my and not of a specific content area. The best example that I
philosophy of education, which seems to closely resemble a can set for my students is for them to see me developing—
deeper philosophy of life signified by constantly striving to making mistakes and getting better every day. Believe me,
become better at whatever your passion may be. I would love for my students to become science content
I believe we build ourselves every day and that this can experts, but I really think I prefer they become excited
be of either a positive or a negative nature, but even the enough about science that they would pursue it further
things that may be wrong or seemingly counterproductive, and, more importantly, become excited about learning
can be the best teachers. I am a constructivist at heart but I itself. I must remember not to get caught up in all the
understand that neither my students, colleagues, nor I can other stuff, and remember my mission for my students and
become better at anything if we don’t make some mistakes peers—to strive to find a way to be better tomorrow than
along the way and, more importantly, admit when we don’t we were today.
know something. I have been a department chair at my
school for the past few years, and it is absolutely amazing
to me how teachers will insist that they do not have areas Bill Blythe
that are in need of improvement. Things began to change Pope High School
the moment that I admitted to the things that I don’t know Formerly McCleskey Middle School Teacher of the Year
or where I have a weakness; fortunately, my colleagues Marietta, Georgia

© Cengage Learning 2014

Let us close with some “words to the wise” that are sure to keep you happy and fulfilled
as a teacher. Teaching is one of the hardest and one of the best professions you can choose,
but only if it is where your heart lies. You have to have a passion for it; the actual act of
teaching has to feed this passion, because, as you have learned, there are a great many
factors that may tax you. If you know that you will love helping all children learn (and if
you love learning yourself) and if you know that you will step up to the challenge of
working with others—parents, colleagues, administrators, politicians—to help your learn-
ers become the best people that they can be, then teaching is for you. The rewards will be
more than you can measure.

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 SU MMA RY

CHAPTER RESOURCES
In this chapter, you recalled the motives for teaching you had when you began this course.
You considered those motives in the context of the information you have read in this
textbook, and you examined whether teaching is a profession—and what you can do to
promote it as such.
Your motives for teaching come from many places—your self, the students, the
school itself, and society. Self-based motivations include your innate desire to
engage in the art and science of teaching, your predispositions, and your emotional
feelings for teaching. Student-based motivational factors are represented by your
desire to help students. School-based factors include a comfort zone in this place
called school, your love of your subject matter, and a schedule that is favorable for
teachers with school-aged children. Societal reasons include your contributions to
the community and society as a whole. Of these, the desire to work with young
people heads the list of reasons why existing teachers first entered the profession.
Attrition among teachers is high, with half leaving the profession during the first
five years. It has been shown that mentors are effective in reducing this rate of
attrition.
Teaching is a profession that is accompanied with many opportunities for profes-
sional development. Active participation in one or more international education
organizations helps teachers keep up with the times. As a professional, teachers are
expected to exhibit appropriate professional behaviors.
We mentioned early in this chapter that most introductory education textbooks place
the chapter on students’ motives for teaching at the very beginning of the book. Consider-
ing that this textbook is constructivist-oriented, why do you think this chapter comes at
the very end?
What have you concluded about your motives for teaching or not teaching? Can you
state one prevailing reason? Should you be able to? Remember the educational philoso-
phy of eclecticism (see Chapter 2). Does it apply to your motives for teaching?
You might think it unusual for the concluding paragraphs of a textbook’s last chapter
to be so full of questions. Realize that this book, and the class for which you have read
it, is actually the very beginning of a complex learning experience: your teacher education
program. Knowing what you now know about how a constructivist-oriented lesson be-
gins, does it surprise you that we are asking you more questions?

Key Terms and Concepts

Attrition, 403
Disposition, 399

Construct and Apply

1. Young children often say they want to be teachers when they grow up. Why do you suppose
this is? What might their motives be for saying this? In what ways could these motives change
as they get older? How might they stay the same?
2. People admire and trust teachers and yet are quick to point the finger of blame at teachers first
when test scores drop. How do you explain this seeming contradiction in the public perception
of teachers?
3. What is meant by “professionalism” with regard to teachers and teaching?

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 CHAPTER RESOURCES Deconstructing the Standards
1. Recall the InTASC standard associated with the objectives for this chapter:
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice reads, “The teacher en-
gages in ongoing professional learning and uses evidence to continually evaluate his/her
practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and actions on others (learners, families,
other professionals, and the community), and adapts practice to meet the needs of each
learner.”
a. What part(s) of this standard does this chapter address?
b. How will the concepts in this chapter help you apply theis standard as a teacher?
2. Use your favorite search engine to find your state’s standards for certification. When you find
it, bookmark the site. You will refer to it often as you progress through this book.
a. How are your conclusions about motives for teaching represented in your state certification
standards?
b. How do the InTASC standards compare to your state’s certification standards regarding
motives for teaching?
c. Do you believe the degree of representation concerning motives for teaching is adequate in
your state certification standards? Why or why not?

Your Portfolio
Include your final philosophy of education and describe additional thoughts you might have as a
result of completing this textbook, your course, and your field experience. Discuss how these ac-
tivities have influenced your thinking, thereby demonstrating your ability to reflect.

Education CourseMate Resources

Check out this text’s Education CourseMate website (at www.cengagebrain.com) for more informa-
tion about the teaching profession. You will find the TeachSource Videos, a guide for doing field
experiences, glossary flash cards, activities, tutorial quizzes, direct links to the websites mentioned
in the chapter, and more.

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 Glossary

1.5 Generation students Refers to individuals who have behaviorism The psychological approach that explains
graduated from a high school in the United States and behavior by examining external experiences.
who have entered higher education while still learning bell-shaped curve The bell-shaped graph of a distribution
English. that may and may not be symmetrical.
accreditation The formal, official approval signifying that bilingual education Instruction provided in both a stu-
the requirements of excellence described in professional dent’s native language and in English.
standards developed by professionals in a particular dis- block scheduling A scheduling system in which a school’s
cipline have been met. daily schedule is organized into large blocks of time.
aesthetic Creatively, beautifully, or artistically pleasing. blog A blend of the terms Web and log. Individuals can
alternative school A school with the primary purpose of develop blogs online that contain text, audio, photo, and
educating students who, for various reasons, do not video postings on a particular subject.
thrive in traditional schools.
Board of Education The official policy-making authority
anchor activities An ongoing assignment that is related to for the school district.
the curriculum on which students may work indepen-
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka U.S. Supreme
dently.
Court decision in 1954 that required schools in the
apps Abbreviation for “application”; a downloadable pro- United States to desegregate.
gram that can be run on a computer or portable device.
bullying The act of one or more people repeatedly expos-
assistive technology Technology that individuals with
ing another person to negative actions to which the per-
disabilities may use to perform tasks that would other-
son has difficulty defending himself or herself.
wise be difficult or impossible.
at-risk student A student considered at high risk of failing Carnegie unit Unit of credit awarded to students for the
to complete school. completion of a full year’s work in a subject taught four
or five times a week.
attention deficit disorder A disorder characterized by
not being able to maintain attention or control impulses. case law A law that is the result of decisions made by the
Usually not accompanied by the hyperactivity compo- courts.
nent of ADHD. categorical grants Funding from the federal government
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder A disorder to provide for elementary and secondary programs ap-
characterized by not being able to maintain attention or proved through federal legislation.
to control impulses. Often includes incidence of increased certification add-on An additional area of certification
distraction and energy resulting in not being able to stay typically added onto an existing certification area by an
still. individual completing the certification requirements for
attrition The gradual decrease of staff due to resignation, the area.
retirement, and so on. charter school A school that has been granted permission
authentic assessment Education tasks that resemble the by state educational agencies to operate with freedom
real-world applications of the skills and knowledge being from one or more of the regulations that apply to tradi-
assessed. tional public schools.
autism A spectrum of disorders in which communication, chief state school officer The state superintendent of
social interactions, and the ability to participate in rela- schools.
tionships is impaired.
clickers See classroom response system.
autocratic teacher A teacher who controls every part of
childhood obesity A condition of children being over-
the classroom and student behavior, demonstrating no
weight.
flexibility or receptiveness to student input.
axiology The branch of philosophy concerned with values. classical conditioning A form of learning in which an
organism learns to associate a stimulus with a nonrelated
basic needs Those needs that must be met for people to
response.
live satisfied lives.

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 classroom response system (CRS) An electronic interac- corporal punishment The infliction of physical pain on
tive assessment system in which students in a classroom someone as punishment for committing an offense.
use a handheld response system, similar in appearance to cosmology The branch of metaphysics in philosophy con-
a remote control, on which they may press buttons to cerned with the origin and structure of the universe.
indicate their answers to multiple-choice questions. The
input of the class is collected by a receiver, analyzed, and cooperative teaching A method of distributing teaching
displayed almost immediately. responsibilities in elementary schools such that teachers
assume responsibility for their areas of expertise.
code of ethics A guide to acceptable professional behavior.
co-teaching Two or more certified teachers (such as a gen-
cognitive ability The ability to learn, know, and understand. eral education teacher and a special education teacher)
cognitive development The intellectual development of teaching a class together.
the mind. cultural deficit model A multicultural paradigm that as-
cognitive needs Those needs associated with learning, sumes that nonmainstream students may fail to achieve
knowing, and understanding. due to deficits that are imposed on them by their culture.
cognitive psychology The psychological approach that cultural deprivation model A multicultural paradigm
explains behavior by examining mental processes. that assumes that nonmainstream students may fail to
collaborative teacher A teacher who solicits and uses achieve because their culture deprives them of resources
student input in the creation of classroom rules and pro- and experiences.
cedures, demonstrating respect for all. cultural difference model A multicultural paradigm that
Common Core State Standards Standards designed to be assumes that nonmainstream students may fail to achieve
“robust and relevant to the real world, reflecting knowl- due to differences between their culture and the culture
edge and skills that our young people need for success in of the classroom.
college and careers” (Common Core State Standards cultural mismatch model A multicultural paradigm that
Initiative, 2010). assumes that nonmainstream students may fail to achieve
common law Case law or precedent developed through due to a mismatch between the students’ culture and the
decisions of courts. culture of the classroom.
common school Elementary school in the 19th century culturally relevant pedagogy Teaching that acknowl-
that was free and public. edges students’ culture in the design of lessons.
competitive grants Grants awarded through a competi- culture The customary beliefs, social forms, and material
tive process involving an evaluative review of proposals. traits of a racial, religious, or social group.
conservation With regard to cognitive development, the cyberbullying The act of bullying through email, text and
ability to recognize that the amount of material does not picture messages, websites, posts on social networking
change when volume or shape changes. sites and chat rooms, and cell phones.
constitutional law A law based on the U.S. Constitution dame schools Colonial school for girls.
or a state constitution. deductive reasoning The type of reasoning that proceeds
constructivism A learning theory that proposes that stu- from the most general to the most specific.
dents construct their own knowledge by combining infor- defendant The person, people, or entity against whom a
mation they already have with new information, so that lawsuit is filed.
new knowledge takes on personal meaning to the student. deficiency needs In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, those
contract An agreement with specific terms between two or needs that are critical to a person’s well-being and that
more people or entities in which there is a promise to do must be satisfied first and foremost. These include physi-
something in return for a valuable benefit. ological needs, safety and security, love and belonging,
cooperative teaching A method of distributing teaching and self-worth and self-esteem.
responsibilities in elementary schools such that teachers Department of Education (DOE) The state-level govern-
assume responsibility for their areas of expertise. ing body for education policies developed by the state
copyright The exclusive right of the author or creator of a board of education, including use of state and federal
literary or artistic property (such as a book, movie, or funds, teacher certification, curriculum, and testing.
musical composition) to print, copy, sell, license, distrib- differentiated instruction Instruction that is tailored to
ute, transform to another medium, translate, record, the different needs of individual students.
perform, or otherwise use (or not use) their work, and to digital divide Disparity in access to computers and the
give it to another by will. Internet among different groups of people.

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 disposition The qualities of one’s character. felony A serious crime, usually involving violence, that is
diversity The condition of being different from one an- punishable by imprisonment.
other. formative assessment An assessment that is implemented
due process A person’s legal right to be adequately noti- during the course of instruction so that teachers and stu-
fied of charges or proceedings involving him or her and dents may be informed of the students’ progress in
to be given the opportunity to be heard. achieving objectives.
dyslexia A learning disability in which an individual has dif- formula funding Funding that is provided on the basis of
ficulty with reading comprehension and writing. the application of a formula that uses specified data to
determine need.
eclectic Selecting from a variety of sources.
freedom of expression The liberty to speak and other-
education management organization A corporation that
wise express oneself and one’s opinions, guaranteed by
assumes responsibility for some or all facets of school
the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
management, including curriculum, instruction, building
maintenance and operation, and administration. freedom of religion The right to choose a religion (or no
religion) without interference by the government, guar-
education reform Changing and refining the education
anteed by the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
system to meet the needs of the students and the society
to which they belong. full inclusion The strategy of including students who may
have exceptionalities in with the population of all stu-
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) En-
dents in all classes and activities.
acted in 1965, the ESEA provided federal guidance and
funds to school districts with large numbers of disadvan- GI Bill A federal act that provides funds to returning war
tages students; reauthorized in 2001 as the No Child Left veterans to attend college.
Behind Act. gifted and talented student A student who has poten-
empathetic Having understanding of or participating in tially outstanding abilities that allow him or her to excel
someone else’s feelings or ideas. in one or more areas of intellectual endeavor, creativity,
leadership, and artistic pursuits.
English as a foreign language (EFL) Individuals who are
learning English in a country where English is not the governance How an organization is controlled, including
native language. who has the authority to exercise this control.
growth needs In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the upper
English as a second language (ESL) A support program
three levels of needs, which humans will try to satisfy
of instruction for ELLs.
after their deficiency needs have been met. These levels
English language learner (ELL) A person learning to include the need to know and understand, aesthetic
speak English whose primary language is other than Eng- needs, and the need for self-actualization.
lish. hidden curriculum What children learn in school that is
epistemology The study of knowledge. not content related, but rather a part of being in a school.
ethnicity Affiliation with a group that has general customs, The hidden curriculum includes the procedures and rou-
language, and social views and based on common racial, tines of school functions.
national, tribal, religious, linguistic, or cultural origin or hierarchy An order of rank.
background. Higher Education Act A federal program that provides
exceptional students Students who require some form of grants and loans to students in college (often in the form
modification to the standard educational program. of Pell grants).
fair use provision of the copyright act The use of copy- home schooling An educational alternative in which chil-
righted materials determined to be fair and not an in- dren learn under the supervision of their parents at home
fringement of the copyright act based on four factors: (1) rather than at a conventional school.
whether the use is commercial in nature or for nonprofit Hornbook A single-faced wooden paddle used to teach
educational purposes; (2) the nature of the copyrighted reading in colonial times.
work; (3) the portion used in relation to the copyrighted humanism The psychological approach that stresses peo-
work as a whole; and (4) the effect of the use on the po- ple’s capacity and desire for personal growth.
tential market value of the copyrighted work. in loco parentis “In place of parents.”
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974 inclusion The practice of assigning students with below-
(FERPA) Guarantees parents and students confidentiality normal or above-normal IQs or disabling conditions to
and fundamental fairness concerning the maintenance the same classrooms they would attend if they were not
and use of student records. disabled.

GLOSSARY 415

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 individualized education program A plan for meeting because it implies that these individuals are deficient. In-
the educational needs of an individual student who may stead, ELL is preferred because it acknowledges the indi-
have disabilities. vidual as a learner.
inductive reasoning The type of reasoning that proceeds lobbying The process of influencing local, state, or govern-
from the most specific to the most general. ment policy.
information processing theory A cognitive psychology liable (legal liability) A legal responsibility, duty, or obliga-
that explains learning by manipulation of sensory register, tion; the state of one who is legally bound to do some-
short-term memory, and long-term memory. thing that may be enforced by legal action.
instructional duties Teacher duties directly associated locus of control A characteristic that describes whether an
with planning, instruction, and evaluation. individual attributes responsibility for failure or success to
insubordination An act of disobedience to proper author- internal or external factors.
ity (Garner, 2009). logic The branch of philosophy concerned with reasoning.
interactive whiteboard A large touch-sensitive display looping A system of assigning students in elementary
surface that is connected to a computer. Whatever is on schools to the same teacher for two or more consecutive
the computer is displayed on the surface and responds to years.
touch much like a computer responds to the input from magnet school A school that focuses on specific curricular
a mouse. areas—such as the arts, math, or science—to attract stu-
interview An assessment method that consists of a struc- dents with special aptitudes and interests in those areas.
tured or open conversation between student and teacher mainstreaming Placing a disabled student in regular school
in which the teacher asks questions relating to the objec- classes.
tives of a lesson. Massachusetts Act of 1647 The “Old Deluder Satan Act”
journal Students’ writings, including what they did, what that required towns with at least 50 households to hire a
they learned, and their reflections, often used as an ele- schoolmaster to teach children to read and write, and
ment of authentic assessment. required towns of 100 households or more to have a
latchkey kid A child who spends unsupervised or self-su- school that would prepare children to attend Harvard
pervised time after school. College.
Latin grammar schools Schools in the New England colo- McGuffey Readers Primary reading texts in the 19th cen-
nies for upper-class males that taught the subjects neces- tury.
sary for admission to college. mentor A trusted and experienced guide in the profession.
lead teacher A teacher whose responsibilities include as- merit pay A teacher’s salary that is based on the quality of
sisting teachers in developing and implementing strate- the teacher’s performance; see also pay for performance.
gies to reach all types of learners and whose focus is on metaphor A figure of speech in which two seemingly un-
aiding teachers. like objects or ideas are compared based on something
learning disability A disorder that interferes with the they have in common.
learning process. metaphysics The branch of philosophy concerned with
learning modality An individual’s preference about how questions of reality.
information is presented and taken in. Learning modali- misdemeanor A less serious crime than a felony, punish-
ties include visual, auditory, and tactile/kinesthetic. able by a fine and a possible jail term.
learning style An individual’s preference about how infor- mission statement A written public statement crafted by
mation is presented and taken in. Learning styles include the stakeholders in an organization (such as a school)
visual, auditory, and tactile/kinesthetic. that identifies the organization’s perceived purpose.
LGBTQ Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered, and ques- monitorial system Teacher preparation program wherein
tioning. future teachers received training in the schools they,
learning support specialist (LSS) A teacher whose re- themselves, attended.
sponsibilities include assisting teachers in developing and Morrill Act of 1862 Land Grant College Act that gave
implementing strategies to reach all types of learners and land to states to develop colleges.
whose focus is on aiding individual students.
multiage education A system of clustering students of dif-
library media specialist (LMS) Professional educator ferent ages in elementary schools in the same class.
whose specialty includes library science and multimedia
multiple intelligence theory A proposition by Howard
management.
Gardner asserting that traditional measures of intelligence
limited English proficiency (LEP) Refers to individuals are limited and that individuals possess different types of
who lack the mastery of English to be successful in a intelligences. These intelligences include spatial, bodily–
mainstream classroom. This term is not a preferred term

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 kinesthetic, musical, linguistic, logical–mathematical, in- permissive teacher A teacher who lets students get away
terpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligences. with anything in the way of classroom behaviors, causing
National Defense Education Act (NDEA) Enacted in a stressful and chaotic classroom environment.
1958, the NDEA provided federal aid for education in phonics A method for teaching reading and spelling that is
the United States at all levels, for public and private based on interpreting the sounds of the letters.
schools. plagiarism Representing the writings, literary concepts (a
New England Primer A small book used to teach reading plot, characters, words), or other original work of an-
in the New England colonies. other as one’s own product.
New Math A mathematics program in which students plaintiff The person, people, or entity who files the lawsuit.
were taught the theoretical basis of mathematics through podcast (pod 5 play on demand) An audio broadcast over
the use of actual mathematical language and notations. the Internet that may be recorded for later access.
noninstructional duties Teacher duties not directly associ- portfolio An authentic assessment method consisting of a
ated with instruction of students. container or folio of evidence that shows a student’s prog-
normal curve The symmetrical, bell-shaped curve of a nor- ress toward achieving the knowledge and skills of a subject.
mal distribution. poverty level The minimum amount of income that is
normal schools Schools in the late 19th and early 20th determined to be adequate.
century for the preparation of elementary school teachers. private school A school that restricts its population of
Old Deluder Satan Act Nickname for the Massachusetts students to those who meet certain criteria established by
Act of 1647. the school.
online learning Learning that takes place online using the professionalism The ethical behavior exhibited by teachers.
Internet. programmed instruction A teaching strategy in which
ontology The branch of metaphysics concerned with the students work their way through small chunks of infor-
nature of being and reality. mation. At the end of each part, students are tested over
operant conditioning An approach to learning in which the material. Correct answers earn praise as a reward and
the consequences of a behavior produce changes in the the student progresses on to additional information. In-
likelihood that the behavior will occur again. correct answers result in remediation.
paraprofessional Teacher aide. Project Head Start A federal program that funds pre-
Parent–Teacher Association (PTA) A local school-based schools for children from families of poverty.
organization comprised of parents, teachers, and other psychosocial development Development of psychologi-
school personnel who work for the improvement of the cal and social factors within an individual.
school. psychosocial needs Those needs associated with getting
Parent–Teacher–Student Association (PTSA) A school- along with one’s self and others.
based organization comprised of parents, teachers, stu- psychosocial theory Theory addressing the psychological
dents, and other school personnel who work for the im- and social aspects of identity development.
provement of the school. race A group of people that possesses traits that are inher-
pay for performance A reacher’s salary that is based on ited and sufficient to characterize the group as a distinct
the quality of the teacher’s perfprmance; see also merit human type.
pay. regulation A rule that is enacted by a state or local agency to
pedagogical content knowledge The knowledge of how ensure compliance with the law.
to teach the content to others and the ability to develop resource classroom A classroom staffed with a special
higher-order thinking skills in learners. education teacher or teachers, equipped and managed to
pedagogical knowledge and skills The knowledge and meet the needs of students with exceptionalities accord-
skills of how to teach content information to learners. ing to their IEPs.
pedagogy The art and science of teaching. response to intervention A method used for the early
Pell grant A federally sponsored grant system for postsec- identification of students who may have special needs
ondary education. that employs deliberate strategies to impact learning. If
perception A mental image of what one experiences. the student does not respond to the intervention, it
may be determined that the student has a learning dis-
performance assessment An assessment that requires the
ability.
learner to actually demonstrate—or perform—the skill.
risky behavior Behavior that may result in adverse conse-
quences.
schemata (sing. schema) Cognitive structures.

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 school board (Board of Education) The official policy- theology The branch of metaphysics in philosophy con-
making authority for the school district. cerned with God and the relations among God, mankind,
school choice The freedom to choose which school chil- and the universe.
dren will attend. theory of multiple intelligences A proposition by How-
school improvement plan A plan that identifies a school’s ard Gardner asserting that traditional measures of intel-
priorities for the coming years, methods to implement ligence are limited and that individuals possess different
these priorities, and ways to assess the results. types of intelligences. These intelligences include spatial,
search and seizure Examination of a person’s premises by bodily–kinesthetic, musical, linguistic, logical–mathemat-
law enforcement officers looking for evidence of the com- ical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, existential, and natural-
mission of a crime, and taking articles of evidence (sei- istic intelligences.
zure and removal). Title I A federal program that provides funds to meet the
self-actualization The state of having become everything a needs of students in high-poverty schools.
person is capable of becoming, realizing one’s full poten- Title VII A federal program that provides financial aid for
tial, capacities, and talents. the education of students with limited English ability
service learning A teaching strategy that engages students (also known as the Bilingual Education Act).
in meaningful service to their communities through inte- Title IX A federal act providing for equal athletic opportu-
gration of community issues and the school curriculum. nities regardless of gender.
sexually transmitted disease A disease transmitted tort A wrongful act, other than a breach of contract, for
largely through sexual behavior. which relief may be obtained in the form of damages.
site-based management A system of management in value-added analysis A statistical method that uses stan-
which plans and decisions involve all employees in a site. dardized test scores and other data to inform the evalua-
socioeconomic Involving both social and economic factors. tion of teacher performance.
socioeconomic status A position influenced by a combi- vernacular schools Schools in the New England colonies
nation of social and economic factors including income, for lower-class males that taught reading, writing, arith-
education, occupation, and place in the community. metic, and religion.
special education Instruction that is specifically designed virtual school A school that offers most of or its entire cur-
to meet the unique needs of students who are recognized riculum online using the Internet.
as exceptional. vision A foresight into the possible future of a school.
stakeholder A person or institution with an interest in vocational school A public high school that provides vari-
education. ous types of vocational education programs in addition
standards movement An educational reform movement to an academic curriculum; also called career and techni-
in which exemplary performances in specific areas of cal schools.
education are identified, especially in curriculum, instruc- vodcast (vod 5 video on demand) A video broadcast over
tion, and teacher preparation. the Internet that may be recorded for later access.
statute A law passed by the federal, state, or local legislature. WebQuest A learning activity in which some or all of the
stereotype A standard image or idea that represents an information with which students interact comes from the
uninformed opinion or biased attitude toward a group. Internet, similar to a scavenger hunt.
student–teacher ratio The average number of students white privilege The idea that the white race is afforded
assigned to one teacher. unearned advantages and positive treatment due to race.
summative assessment An assessment that is imple- whole language A constructivist approach to teaching
mented at the end of an instructional unit to measure reading and writing in which students learn from first-
student achievement of objectives. hand experiences.
superintendent of schools The head of the school district. wiki A collaborative website on which content can be ed-
ited by anyone who has access to it.
tablet computer A small computer, contained in a single
tablet-like panel that contains a touch screen for input. zero-tolerance policies Policies that entail a strict and
swift disciplinary response to students or school person-
teacher certification A state’s official recognition that a
nel who engage in violent activities, who bring to or use
person has met the requirements to be a professional
weapons in school, or who bring or use controlled sub-
teacher in that state.
stances.
tenure A teacher’s status as a permanent member of the
faculty in a school district.

418 GLOSSARY

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 Index

1.5 generation students, 105 AMLE (Association for Middle Level Edu- Bennett, William, 279
cation), 167–68 Bethel Park School District v. Drall, 350
A Annual schedules, 195 Bethel School Dist. No. 403 v. Fraser, 358
AACTE (American Association of Col- AOL/Time Warner fund programs, 311 Bilingual education, 107–8
leges for Teacher Education), 6–7, 27 Apps, 220 Bilingual Education Act, 107, 274–75
Abrams, Bev, 164 Aptitude tests, 136–37 developmental, 108
Abuse, child, 239–42 See also IQ tests English as a second language (ESL),
Academic motivation, 75, 79, 83 Aristotle, 256, 257 107–8
Academic needs, 85–86 Armstrong, Neil, 274 immersion approach, 107
See also Needs Asian Pacific Americans, 100, 287 teachers, 191–92
Academy, The, 264, 367 ASPs. See After-school programs transitional, 108
Accountability, 302–3, 390 Assertive teacher, 218 Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, 19
Accreditation, 26–28, 389–90 Assessment, 10, 117–18, 279, 373 Bin Laden, Osama, 278
Adcock v. Bd. of Educ. of San Diego Unified authentic, 387, 388 Bisexual, 120–21
School District, 346 federal office of, 279 Blackwell v. Issaquena Bd. of Educ., 358
Additive approach to multicultural educa- nondiscriminatory, 130 Block grants, 310
tion, 103 performance, 387 Block scheduling, 196
Adequate yearly progress, 295, 303 reform, 386–88 Blog, 178, 179
Adler, Mortimer, 45 summative and formative, 387–88 Blueprint for Reform, 25–26, 161–62
Great Books of the Western World See also Testing Blunt v. Marion County School Board,
(with Hutchins), 44–45 Assets, internal and external, 75 348
Paideia Proposal, The, 44 Assistive technology (AT), 134, 135 Blythe, Bill, 410
Administrators, 192–93 Association for Middle Level Education Board of Education, 296
vs. teachers, 193 (AMLE), 167–68 Board of Education v. Earls, 360
Adolescents, 84, 166–68 Assumptions, 100 Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, 141, 143
Advertising in schools, 311–13 At-risk students, 325 Body mass index (BMI), 328
Aesthetic/aesthetic needs, 73 Attendance, funding and, 307, 308–9 “Bong Hits 4 Jesus”, 357
Afghanistan, 278 Attention deficit disorder (ADD), 132 Boston Public (TV show), 15
African Americans Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder Boy Scouts, 116
cell phone use, 220, 314 (ADHD), 132–33 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka,
education of, 281–84 Attrition (of teachers), 403, 404 283–84, 343, 373
Internet access and, 314 Auditory learners, 145, 146 Bruner, Jerome, 46
president (Obama), 278 Ausubel, David, 153 Buckley Amendment, 360–61
special education categories and, 100 Authentic assessment, 387, 388 Building Blocks, 2
African Free School, 282 Autism, 133–34 Building-level governance, 294–96, 300
AFT. See American Federation of Teachers Autocratic teacher, 216, 217 Bullying, 71, 205–8
After-school programs (ASPs), 327, 329 Autonomy, 81 anti-bullying programs, 205, 211
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syn- Axiology, 36, 37, 38 cyberbullying, 207–8
drome), 333 suicides and, 207–8
Alcohol, 242, 330–31 B teacher importance, 212–13
Alderfer’s hierarchy of needs, 74 “Back to basics”, 46 types of, 207
Alternative family structures, 322–24 See also Essentialism Bureau of Indian Affairs, 284
Alternative schools, 176 Banks, James A., 101–2 Bus duty, 228
American Association for the Advancement Basic needs, 70–75 Bush, George H. W., 160, 279, 285
of Science, 375 See also Needs Bush, George W., 25
American Association of Colleges for Bay v. State Bd. of Educ., 344
Teacher Education (AACTE), 6–7, 27 Behavior C
American Education Week, 271–72 expectations, in school, 214–17 CAEP (Council for the Accreditation of
American Federation of Teachers (AFT), professional, 235–39 Educator Preparation), 26, 28
26, 162, 270, 271, 304, 407 Behavior management, 214–19 Cahil, Jacqueline, 315
American Legion, 271 Behaviorism, 56, 58 Cameras, surveillance, 208
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act Beliefs, 8–10, 23–24 Canady v. Bossier Parish School Board,
(2009), 161, 162 Bell-shaped curve (normal curve), 137 358

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 Cardinal Principles, Seven, 271 tests/measurement, 136–37 Cooperative teaching, 196
Caring, 10, 11, 20–21 Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT), 136 Copyright, 353, 354
Carnegie Foundation for the Advance- Cognitive development, 75–77 Core Knowledge Series (Hirsch), 47
ment of Teaching, 270 stages of, 77–79 Corporal punishment, 361–62
Carnegie unit, 270–71 Cognitive needs, 70, 75–79 Correlational reasoning, 79
Carter, Jimmy, 159–60 See also Needs Cosmology, 36, 37
Cascade system of special education Cognitive psychology, 58–60 Council for the Accreditation of Educator
services, 129 Cognitive readiness, 76 Preparation (CAEP), 26, 28
Case law, 342, 343 Cold War, 274 “Courage to Teach” program, 18
See also Court cases Collaborative teacher, 216, 217–19 Court cases
Categorical grants, 310 College Entrance Examination Board, 271 Adcock v. Bd. of Educ. of San Diego
Catholics, 276 College of William and Mary, 262 Unified School District, 346
CD-ROMs, 280 College Pathways program, 327 Bay v. State Bd. of Educ., 344
Cell phones, 220 Colonial period, 257–62 Bethel Park School District v. Drall,
Certification, 229–32, 344–45 See also Historical perspectives 350
add-ons, 232 Combinational reasoning, 79 Bethel School Dist. No. 403 v. Fraser,
alternative, 230–31 Combs, Arthur, 23–24, 57 358
examinations, 232 Comfort zone, 145 Blackwell v. Issaquena Bd. of Educ.,
master’s degrees, 230 Commercialism in schools, 311–13 358
postbaccalaureate, 230 Commission on the Reorganization of Blunt v. Marion County School Board,
reciprocity, 232 Secondary Education, 271 348
revocation of, 344–45 Committee of Fifteen, 270 Board of Education v. Earls, 360
state, 29 Committee of Ten, 270 Brown v. Board of Education of To-
Teach For America, 231 Committee on College Entrance Require- peka, 283–84, 343, 373
temporary, provisional, and emergency, ments, 270–71 Canady v. Bossier Parish School Board,
231–32 Common Core State Standards, 369–71 358
Troops to Teachers, 231 Common law, 352 Cooper v. Eugene School District No.
university route, 229–30 Common schools, 264–65 41, 353
Chambers, Gurney, 18 Community issues, 333–37 Doe v. Little Rock School District, 359,
Charter schools, 164, 171–72, 316 gang activity, 334, 335 360
Cheating, 354 service learning, 335–37 Dred Scott decision, 283
Chief state school officer Community members, 194, 406 Erb v. Iowa State Board of Public In-
(CSSO), 298 Compassion, 10 struction, 353
Child abuse, 239–42 Competitive grants, 310–11, 327 Fox v. Board of Education, 227
Child labor, 269 Computers Gault, In re, 356
Childhood obesity, 328–30 in classrooms, 185, 314–15 Glover v. Williamsburg Local School
Choice, school, 316 computer-based instruction, 248, 280, District Board of Education, 351
Civil Rights Act (1964), 353 392 Goss v. Lopez, 357
Clark, Terrence, 12 Internet access and, 314–15 Hanes v. Board of Education of City of
Class size, 187–90 students per instructional computer, 314 Bridgeport, 350
Classical conditioning, 58 Concrete operational stage, 77, 78 Ingraham v. Wright, 362
Classroom Conditioning, 58 Johnson v. Francis Howell R-3 Board
antiracist, 104 Condoms, 333 of Education, 348
differentiated, 150–51 Confucius, 17 Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver,
inclusion categories, 129–30 Conservation, 77 Colorado, 285
management and discipline, 213–19 Constitutional law, 342 Keyishian v. Board of Regents, 344
open, 184 Constructing Early Childhood Science Kinsella v. Board of Education, 348
portable, 186 (Martin), 3 Knox County Education Association v.
psychosocial-sensitive, 83 Constructivism, 1–2, 56, 60–61, 152–54 Knox County Board of Education,
resource, 130 12 characteristics of constructivist 355
single-sex, 119 teaching chart, 383–84 New Jersey v. T.L.O., 359
Classroom response systems (“clickers”), defined, 60, 153 Palmer v. Board of Education of the
248 Continuing education, 228, 232–39 City of Chicago, 353
Clinton, Bill, 160 Contract, 345–46 Pettit v. State Board of Education, 351
Co-teaching, 148–50 Contributions approach, to multicultural Pickering v. Board of Education, 352
Code of ethics, 344 education, 103 Plessy v. Ferguson, 283
Code of Ethics of the Education Profession Control, locus of, 20 Safford Unified School District v. April
(NEA), 239, 241–42 Control of education, 292–94 Redding, 360
CogAT (Cognitive Abilities Test), 136 Cooper v. Eugene School District No. 41, State v. Project Principle, 344
Cognitive abilities, 136–40 353

438 INDEX

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 Sullivan v. Meade Independent School Dewey, John, 47–48, 49, 271, 272–73, students’ perspectives and characteris-
Dist. No. 101, 351 368 tics, 96–97
Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Differentiated instruction, 150–51, 384 teaching that acknowledges, 99–103,
Community School Dist., 356, 358 Digital divide, 313–16 107–8, 111–12, 114–15, 118–19,
United States v. Board of Education for Digital Divide Initiative (DDI), 315 121
the School District of Philadelphia, Digital literacy, 314–15 Divorce, 321–22
353 Disabilities Doe v. Little Rock School District, 359,
United States v. South Carolina, 344 assistive technology, 134, 135 360
Verona School District 47 v. Action, IDEA disability categories, 128 Dred Scott decision, 283
360 Individuals with Disabilities Education Dress and appearance
Cremin, Lawrence, 286 Act (IDEA), 127–30, 186, 278, 341 religious, 353
Crime in schools, 202–3 learning, 131–36 students’ rights, 358–59
Criminal activity (of teachers), 350–51 teaching that acknowledges, 134–36 Dreyfuss, Richard, 16
Cultural deficit model, 102 See also Special education; Students Dropouts, 325–27
Cultural deprivation model, 102 with unique abilities Drug-Violence Prevention grants, 331
Cultural difference model, 103 Discipline, in schools, 213–19 Drugs, 242, 330–31
Cultural diversity, 97–104 Dismissal, of teachers, 347–52 random testing for, 353–55
See also Diversity Disposition, 399 DuBois, W. E. B., 284
Cultural Literacy: What Every American Diversity, 93–125 Due process, 347–48, 356–57
Needs to Know (Hirsch), 47 blog on, 97 Duncan, Arne, 25, 161, 162, 297
Cultural mismatch model, 103 cultural, 97–104 DVDs, 280
Culturally relevant pedagogy, 104 assumptions and expectations, 100, Dyslexia, 132
Culture, 97 101
Curriculum, 367–82 in the community, 100–101 E
hidden, 18 deprivation and deficits, 101–2 E-mail, privacy and, 353
meaningful, 368 differences and mismatches, 102–3 E-portfolio, 33
postwar period, 275–76 educational perspectives and, 99 Early Head Start, 114
Curriculum reform, 275–79, 367–82 multicultural education, 103–4 Eclectic approach, 52–54
English language arts, 380–82 multicultural paradigms, 101–2 Economy, unemployment and, 324–25
mathematics, 377–79 population diversity, 97–99 Educate America Act, 160
science, 374–77 teaching that acknowledges, See also Goals 2000
social studies, 371–74 99–103 Education
Cyberbullying, 207–8 Diversity.com website, 97 organizational structure, 300
English language learners (ELLs), reform, 366–67
D 104–8 See also Reform
Daily schedules, 195–96 bilingual education, 107–8 religion and, 276
Dame schools, 260 teaching that acknowledges, 107–8 stakeholders in, 292–94
Dangerous Minds (film), 14 technology for, 122 structure in United States, 166
Daniels, Christie, 218 gender, 115–19 Education management organizations
D.A.R.E. (Drug Abuse Resistance Educa- activities for boys and girls, 116 (EMOs), 173–74
tion), 331 bias, 119 Education of All Handicapped Children
Darling-Hammond, Linda, 12, 22, 389 gender equity, 119 Act (Public Law 94-142), 128, 278
Day, Elizabeth, 406 roles, 117 Educational Leadership (2010/2011),
Dead Poets Society (film), 16 teaching that acknowledges, 12
Deductive reasoning, 38 118–19 Educational philosophy, 39–61
Defendant, 355 instructional technology and, 122 See also Philosophy
Deficiency needs, 71, 72 nature of, 94–97 Educational psychologists, 21–24
Deficits, 101–2 religion, 110–12 Educational research, 18–21
Department of Education (DOE) teaching that acknowledges, Educational Testing Service (ETS), 232
federal, 160, 301 111–12 Effective teaching. See Effectiveness;
state, 298 sexual orientation, 120–21 Teaching excellence
Department of Health, Education and bias test, 121 Effectiveness, 6–33
Welfare, 159 statistics, 120 beliefs, 8–10
Depression, Great, 269 teaching that acknowledges, 121 characteristics of, 8–11, 12–30
Deprivation, 101–2 shoe analogy, 84–85 characteristics of great teachers, 8–11,
Desegregation, 284 socioeconomic status (SES), 20, 112–15 18
Detention duty, 227–28 poverty level, 113 components of (Venn diagram), 11–12
Developmental assets, 74–75 teaching that acknowledges, experts on, 17–18
Developmental bilingual education, 108 114–15 federal government and, 25–26
stereotypes and, 97, 118 instructional skills, 10, 11

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 media (film/TV/news) and, 14–16 See also Psychosocial needs attendance and, 307, 308–9
outsider’s viewpoint, 10–11 Escalante, Jaime, 14 expenditures for public schools, 305–9
personality characteristics, 8–9, 11 ESEA. See Elementary and Secondary Ed- federal funding, 310–11
professional standards, 26–30 ucation Act grants, 310–11
psychologists on, 21–24 ESL (English as a Second Language), 105, local funding, 306–7
research on, 18–21 107–8, 192 private funding, 311–13
technology and, 31 ESOL (English for Speakers of Other Lan- sources of revenue, 306
views from teachers, 12–13 guages), 192 state funding, 307–10
See also Teaching excellence Essay Concerning Human Understanding Firearms, 202, 242
EFL (English as a Foreign Language), 105, (Locke), 262 First Amendment, 276, 299, 352
192 Essentialism, 41, 45–47 First day of school, 85–86, 90
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 159, 274, 284 Ethics, 37, 38, 238, 344 First practicum, 233
Eisinger, Linda L., 206 code of, 238, 344 Formal operational stage, 77, 78–79
Electronic gadgets, 220 NEA Code of, 240–41 Formative assessment, 387–88
Electronic portfolio, 33 Ethnicity, 20, 97 Formula funding, 310
Elementary and Secondary Education Act Evolution, textbooks and, 299, 300 Fourteenth Amendment, 283
(ESEA), 25, 161, 274–75 Excellence in teaching. See Teaching excel- Fourth Amendment, 359
reauthorization of, 25, 26, 303 lence Fox v. Board of Education, 227
Elementary schools, 165–66 Exceptional students, 127 Franklin, Benjamin, 264, 367
all-day scheduling, 196 See also Students with unique abilities Free and appropriate education (FAPE), 128
noninstructional duties, 227 Existence, relatedness, and growth (ERG) Freedom of expression, 276, 352, 357–58
Elementary Science Methods: A Construc- theory, 74 Freedom of religion, 352–53
tivist Approach (Martin), 3 Existential intelligence, 141, 144 Freedom of speech and expression (First
Eliot, Charles, 270 Existentialism, 49–50 Amendment), 276, 352, 357–58
ELLs (English language learners), 104–8 Expansion, in the young nation period, Freire, Paulo, 52
Emancipation Proclamation, 283 264–65 Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 52
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 17 Expectations, 100, 200–222 Friday Night Lights (TV show), 15
EMOs (education management organiza- student behavior, 214–17 Full inclusion, 129
tions), 173–74 teachers, 224–42 Funding. See Financing education
Emotional health, 321–27 External assets, 75
economy and unemployment, 324–25 Extracurricular activities, 228–29 G
family structure, 321–24 Eye movement, learning modalities and, Galileo, 17
school responses, 325–27 146 Gang activity, 334, 335
Emotional safety in schools, 71, 204–8 Gardner, David P., 18
bullying, 71, 205–8 F Gardner, Howard, 140–45
harassment, 208 Factories, in progressive period, 269 Gault, In re, 356
invalidation of emotions, 204–5 Fair Labor Standards Act, 269 Gay and lesbian individuals, 120–21, 212
Empathetic, 11 Fair Use Provision of the Copyright Act, same-sex households, 323–24
Emperor’s Club, The (film), 15 353, 354 Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Net-
Employment contracts, 345–46 Family Educational Rights and Privacy work (GLSEN), 51, 121, 212
English as a Foreign Language (EFL), 105, Act of 1974 (FERPA), 360–61 Gay-straight alliances (GSAs), 212
192 Family structure, 321–24 GED (General Education Development),
English as a Second Language (ESL), 105, alternative, 322–24 176, 285
107–8, 192 Fast Times at Ridgemont High (film), 15 Gender, 115–19, 269
English for Speakers of Other Languages Federal funding, 301–2 See also Diversity
(ESOL), 192 categorical grants, 310 General academic needs. See Academic
English language arts competitive grants, 310–11, 327 needs
curriculum, 380–82 loss of, 301–2 General Education Development (GED),
technology for, 392 Federal government, 301–2 176, 285
English language learners (ELLs), 104–8 effective teaching and, 25–26 GI Bill (Servicemen’s Readjustment Act),
teaching that acknowledges, 107–8 legislation for purposes of schools, 274
technology for, 122 159–62 Giamatti, A. Bartlett, 18
Epistemology, 36, 37–38 legislation on education, 25–26 Gifted and talented students, 138–40
Erb v. Iowa State Board of Public Instruc- role of in education, 301–2 IQ ranges, 138
tion, 353 Federal sources of law, 342 Javits awards for, 138, 140
ERG theory (existence, relatedness, and Felony, 344, 350 myths and truths about, 138–39
growth theory), 74 Ferris Bueller’s Day Off (film), 15 state legislation for, 140
Erikson, Erik, 81, 83 Fifteenth Amendment, 283 Girl Scouts, 116
stages of psychosocial development, Film, teachers in, 14–15, 16 Glasser, William, 21–23, 57
81–82, 250 Financing education, 305–13 basic needs, 74

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 Glee (TV show), 15 education of, 285 Homelessness, 337
Glenn, John, 274 Internet access and, 314 Homework, 42
Glover v. Williamburg Local School Dis- Historical perspectives, 254–90 Homosexual, 120–21
trict Board of Education, 351 basic considerations, 255–57 Hornbook, 259–60
GOALS 2000, 160, 279, 367, 375 colonial period, 257–62 Hospital facility, 130
Good Morning, Miss Toliver (film), 15 Middle Atlantic colonies, 261–62 Hufstedler, Shirley Mount, 160
Goss v. Lopez, 357 New England colonies, 258–61 Human resources. See Personnel
Governance, 294–305 Southern colonies, 262 Humanism, 56, 57
building-level, 294–96, 300 thirteen original colonies (map), Humility, 12
federal government, 301–2 258 Hutchins, Robert Maynard, 44
issues in, 313–16 education of minorities, 281–87
state-level, 297–300 African Americans, 281–84 I
Boards of Education, 298 Asian Pacific Americans, 287 IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities
Departments of Education, 298 Hispanic Americans, 285, 287 Education Act), 127–30, 186, 278,
special interest groups, 299–300 Native Americans, 284–85 342
system-level and local, 296–97, 300 modern period, 277–80 Identity vs. role confusion, 82, 84
Grants, 249, 275, 310–11, 327 educational reform during, 278–79 IEP (individualized education program),
Great Books of the Western World (Adler improvement of teaching, 279 128, 130, 135
and Hutchins), 44–45 technology, 280 Imagine Schools, 173
Great teachers, characteristics of, 8–11, 18 postwar period, 273–77 Imig, David, 6–7
Grode, Deirdra, 12 Catholic education, 276 Immersion bilingual education, 107
Growth needs, 70, 71, 73 curriculum, 275–76 Immigration, 264, 287, 337
GSAs (gay-straight alliances), 212 education and religion, 276 See also Diversity; English language
Guidance counselor, 193 Elementary and Secondary Educa- learners
Guns in schools, 202, 242 tion Act, 274–75 Immorality, 350, 352
Higher Education Act, 275 Implementation, 10
H National Defense Education Act, In loco parentis, 355
Hall, Pete, 12 274 In re Gault, 356
Hands-on teaching, 368–69 Servicemen’s Readjustment Act (GI Incarceration, parent’s, 337
Hanes v. Board of Education of City of Bill), 274 Inclusion, 129
Bridgeport, 350 Title IX, 275 Incompetence, 348–49
Harassment, 208 progressive nation period, 268–73 Individualized Education Program (IEP),
Harvard College, 260–61 College Entrance Examination 128, 130, 135
Head Start, 114 Board, 271 Individuals with Disabilities Education
Health issues, 328–33 Committee of Fifteen, 270 Act (IDEA), 127–30, 186, 278, 342
drugs and alcohol, 330–31 Committee of Ten, 270 Inductive reasoning, 38
nutrition and obesity, 328–30 Committee on College Entrance Industrialization, 264
sex education, 333 Requirements, 270–71 Industry vs. inferiority, 82, 84
sex-related issues, 331–33 literacy, 272 Information processing, 56, 58–60
teenage pregnancy, 331–33 progressivism, 272–73 Ingraham v. Wright, 362
Heavers, Kathy, 53 Seven Cardinal Principles of Sec- Initiative on Education Excellence for His-
Herbart, Johann Friedrich, 267 ondary Education, 271 panics, 285
Hidden curriculum, 18 standardization of education, Initiative vs. guilt, 82, 83–84
Hierarchy 270–71 Instruction, 225–26
Alderfer’s hierarchy of needs, 74 teacher preparation, 272 differentiated, 150–51, 384
defined, 70 working conditions of teachers, interdisciplinary, 386
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 70–73 271 reform, 367–86
See also Basic needs; Needs young nation period, 263–68 Instructional duties, 225–26
High schools, 168–69 1872 rules for teachers and stu- Instructional skills, 10, 11
Higher Education Act, 275 dents, 266 Insubordination, 349
Highet, Gilbert, 17 expansion during, 264–65 InTASC (Interstate New Teacher Assess-
Hirsch, E.D. Jr., 47 influential educators during, 267 ment and Support Consortium), 26,
Core Knowledge Series, 47 land grant colleges, 266–67 28
Cultural Literacy: What Every Loomis Chaffee School, 265 Intel Corporation, 311
American Needs to Know, 47 teacher preparation in, 265–66 Intellectual safety in schools, 203–4
New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy: Hobby, Ovela Culp, 159 Intelligence quotient. See IQ tests/scores
What Every American Needs to Holidays, religion and, 112 Intelligences, multiple, 140–45
Know, 47 Holmes Group, 153 Interactive whiteboards, 248
Hispanic Americans, 100 Home schooling, 174–75 Interdisciplinary instruction, 386, 392
cell phone use, 220, 314 Homebound, 130 Internal assets, 75

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 Internet common law, 352 public schools, 265
access issues, 314–15 courts, 343–44 school attendance for children, 265
plagiarism, 354 sources of, 341–44 See also Individuals with Disabilities
telephone, 180 federal sources, 342 Education Act; specific laws
Interpersonal intelligence, 141, 144 local sources, 343 LEP (Limited English proficiency), 105
Interstate New Teacher Assessment and state sources, 342–43 Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered, and
Support Consortium (InTASC), 26, students and, 356–63 questioning (LGBTQ) students,
28 corporal punishment, 361–62 120–21
Interviews, 387 dress and appearance, 358–59 See also Diversity
Intrapersonal intelligence, 141, 144 due process, 356–57 “Let’s Move” campaign, 329
IQ (intelligence quotient) tests/scores, freedom of speech and expression, LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgen-
136–37, 138 357–58 dered, and questioning) students,
Isolation and control of variables, 79 pregnancy and marriage, 357 120–21
privacy of records, 360–61 Liable (legal liability), 355–56
J search and seizure, 359–60 Libel, 357
Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Stu- teachers and, 344–56 Library media specialist (LMS), 193
dents Education program, 138, 140 certification, 344–45 Limited English proficiency (LEP), 105
Jefferson, Thomas, 264, 276 criminal activity, 350–51 Lincoln, Abraham, 283
“Wall of Separation”, 276 dismissal, 347–52 Linguistic intelligence, 141, 143
Johnson, Lou Ann, 14 due process, 347–48 Literacy, 382
Johnson, Lyndon, 25, 274 employment contracts, 345–46 digital, 314–15
Johnson v. Francis Howell R-3 Board of freedom of religion, 352–53 in the progressive period, 271–72
Education, 348 freedom of speech and expression, Little Rock, Arkansas, 284
Jones, Mary Harris (“Mother”), 269 352 Lobbying, 299–300
Journals, 387 immorality, 350, 352 Local funding, 306–7
Junior high schools, 166–68 incompetence, 348–49 Local governance, 296–97, 300
Just Say No, 331 insubordination, 349 Location of schools, 169–71
legal liability, 355–56 Locke, John, 262
K noninstructional duties, 346–47 Essay Concerning Human Understand-
Keller, Helen, 17 right to privacy, 353 ing, 262
Kennedy, John F., 284 search and seizure, 353–55 Locus of control, 20
Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver, sexual activity, 351 Logic, 36, 37, 38–39
Colorado, 285 sexual activity involving students, See also Reasoning
Keyishian v. Board of Regents, 344 351 Logical-mathematical intelligence, 141, 144
Kindergarten Cop (film), 15 teacher rights, 352–55 Loomis Chaffee School, 265
Kinesthetic learners, 145, 146 tenure, 245–48, 347 Loomis, Kimberly S., 265
Kinsella v. Board of Education, 348 unprofessional conduct, 348, 350 biography of author, 3
Knowledge See also Court cases Looping, 196
construction of, 60–61, 153 LDs. See Learning disabilities Lotteries, 310
study of, 36, 37–38 Lead teacher, 193 Love and belongingness needs, 72
Knox County Education Association v. Leadership, 149 LRE. See Least restrictive environment
Knox County Board of Education, League of Nations, 269 Lucas, C.J., 256
355 Leakey, Louis, 274 Lyon, Mary, 265
Korean War, 274 Lean on Me (film), 15
Ku Klux Klan, 284 Learning M
constructivism and, 2 Magnet schools, 172–73, 316
L Mainstreaming, 102, 129
standards and, 27
Laden, Osama bin, 278 technology and, 185 Majority, 102
Land Gant College Act (Morrill Act of Learning disabilities (LDs), 131–36 Mann, Horace, 267
1862), 266–67 Learning modalities, 145–47 Manumission Society, 282
Land grant colleges, 266–67 revealed by eye movement, 146 Marshall, Sybil, 17
Language, 104–8 Learning styles, 145–47 Martin, David Jerner
curriculum, 380–82 Learning support specialist (LSS), 193 biography of author, 3
languages in United States, 105 Least restrictive environment (LRE), 129, Constructing Early Childhood
whole-language approach, 380 186 Science, 3
Lanier, Judith, 153 Legal liability of teachers, 355–56 Elementary Science Methods: A Con-
Latchkey kid, 324 Legal requirements for teachers, 239–42 structivist Approach, 3
Latin Grammar School, 259, 260–61 Legislation Maslow, Abraham, 38, 57
Law, 340–64 federal government, 25–26 biography, 73
case law, 342, 343 in postwar period, 274–75 See also Basic needs; Needs

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 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 57, 70–73 characteristics, examples, and teaching National School Lunch Program, 329
See also Needs strategies, 142–45 National School Safety Center, 203
Massachusetts Act (1642), 259 theory of, 142 National Science Education Standards,
Massachusetts Act (Old Deluder Satan Musical intelligence, 141, 143 375
Act, 1647), 259 Mustacchi, Johanna, 12 Nation’s Report Card, 118, 373
Material needs, 74 Native Americans, 100, 284–85
Materials and resources, 247–48 N Naturalistic intelligence, 141, 144
Mathematics NAACP (National Association for the Ad- NBPTS (National Board for Professional
curriculum, 377–79 vancement of Colored People), 284 Teaching Standards), 26, 28–29, 279
New Math, 377–78 NAEP (National Assessment of Educa- NCATE (National Council for Accredita-
technology for, 392 tional Progress), 118, 373 tion in Teacher Education), 26–27,
McGuffey Readers, 264 NASA, 274 389
Measures of Effective Teaching (MET) Nation at Risk, A (President’s National NDEA (National Defense Education Act),
Project, 19 Commission on Excellence in Educa- 274
Media tion), 46, 160, 367 Need to know and understand, 72, 75
teachers in film, 14–15, 16 Nation Online, A: How Americans are Needs, 68–92
teachers on TV and in the news, 15–16 Expanding Their Use of the Internet, academic motivation and, 75, 79, 83
Memory, 59–60 314 academic needs, 85–86
Mentor/mentoring, 234, 390–91, 405 Nation Prepared, A: Teachers for the Twenty- Jones and Jones list of, 86
Merit pay, 245–46 First Century (Carnegie Forum on Edu- basic needs, 70–75
MET. See Measures of Effective Teaching cation and the Economy), 279 cognitive needs, 75–79
(MET) Project Nation Still at Risk, A: An Education deficiency needs, 71, 72
Metal detectors, 71, 209 Manifesto, 46, 279, 369 first day of school, 85–86
Metaphors, 63, 122 National Assessment of Education Prog- growth needs, 70, 71, 73
Metaphysics, 36–37 ress (NAEP), 118, 373 hierarchies of, 70–74
Middle Atlantic colonies, 261–62 National Association for the Advancement instruction that addresses student
Middle schools, 166–68, 278 of Colored People (NAACP), 284 needs, 88–89
noninstructional duties, 227 National Association for Bilingual Educa- Maslow’s basic needs, 70–73
structure of, 184–85 tion, 108 1. physiological, 70–71
Minorities, education of, 281–87 National Association for Gifted Children, 2. safety and security, 71
Minority, 102 138 3. love and belongingness, 72
“model minority”, 287 National Association of State Directors of 4. self-worth and self-esteem, 72
Misdemeanor, 350 Teacher Education and Certification, 5. need to know and understand,
Mission statements, 55, 162–64 232 72, 75
hypothetical school, 178 National Board for Professional Teaching 6. aesthetic, 73
Modern period, 277–80 Standards (NBPTS), 26, 28–29, 279 7. self-actualization, 73
See also Historical perspectives standards and core propositions, 29 deficiency needs, 71, 72
Monitorial system, 265 National Campaign to Prevent Teen Preg- growth needs, 70, 71, 73
Montessori, Maria, 17 nancy, 332 pyramid of, 71
Montgomery GI Bill, 274 National Council for Accreditation in teachers and, 250
Moral turpitude, 344 Teacher Education (NCATE), 26–27, other basic needs theories, 73–75
Morrill Act of 1862 (Land Grant College 389 Alderfer’s hierarchy of needs, 74
Act), 266–67 standards for effective teachers, 27 Piaget’s stages of cognitive develop-
Motivation, 69–70, 75 National Council for the Social Studies ment, 77–79
Motives for teaching, 396–412 (NCSS) standards, 372–73 1. sensorimotor, 77–78
school, 400–401 National Council of Teachers of Mathe- 2. preoperational, 77, 78
self, 397–99 matics, 378 3. concrete operational, 77, 78
society, 401–2 National Defense Education Act (NDEA), 4. formal operational, 77, 78–79
staying in and leaving the profession, 274 psychosocial needs, 70, 80–86
402–6 National Education Association (NEA), Erikson’s, 81–82
student, 399–400 26, 162, 239, 270, 304, 407 psychosocial-sensitive classroom, 83
teachers on, 402–6 Code of Ethics, 239, 241–42 Negligence, 355–56
teaching as a profession, 406–10 standardizing curriculum, 367 New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy:
Mount Holyoke College, 265 teacher survey, 402 What Every American Needs to
Mr. Holland’s Opus (film), 16 National Educational Technology Plans, Know (Hirsch), 47
Multiage education, 196 185 New England colonies, 258–61
Multicultural education, 103–4 National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), New England Primer, 259, 260
See also Diversity 331 New Jersey v. T.L.O., 359
Multicultural paradigms, 101–2 National Public Radio, 16 New Math, 377–78
Multiple intelligences, 140–45 National Red Ribbon Week, 331 News, teachers in, 15–16

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 Next Generation Science Standards, 375 Parent social reconstructionism, 41, 50–52
NIDA (National Institute on Drug Abuse), as school volunteer, 194 theories of, 56–61
331 working, 324 your personal, 61–63
Nieto, Sonia, 12, 402, 403 Parent conferences, 227 Phonics, 380
Nixon, Richard, 275 Parent Teacher Association (PTA), 295, Physical facilities, of schools, 184–87
No Child Left Behind Act (2001), 25–26, 311 Physical safety in schools, 201–3
46, 107, 161, 165–66, 274, 301, 388, Parent Teacher Student Association Physiological needs, 70–71
390 (PTSA), 295, 311 Piaget, Jean, 60, 77
accountability and, 302–3 Parental participation provision, 130–31 biography of, 79
adequate yearly progress, 295, 303 Parochial schools, 276 criticism of, 80
federal funding and, 301–2 Pavlov, Ivan, 58 stages of cognitive development,
reauthorization of, 25, 26 Pay for performance, 247 77–79
waivers, 161–62, 302, 303 Payne, Ruby, 114–15 See also Needs
Non-Eurocentric cultures, philosophy, 55– Pedagogical content knowledge, Pickering v. Board of Education, 352
56 12, 27 PIRLS (Progress in International Reading
Noninstructional duties, 225, 226–29, Pedagogical knowledge and skills, 389 Literacy Study), 382
346–47 Pedagogy, 5, 38 Plagiarism, 353, 354
Nonmainstream, 102 culturally relevant, 104 Plaintiff, 355
Nonprofessional personnel, 194 Pedagogy of the Oppressed (Freire), 52 Planning, 10
Nontraditional schools, 171–78 Peer relationships, 84 Plastic bags, lobbying and, 300
alternative, 176 Pell Grants, 275 Plato, 256–57
charter, 171–72 Perceptions, 19–21 Pledge of Allegiance, 276, 353
home schools, 174–75 Perceptual psychology (Combs), 23–24 Plessy v. Ferguson, 283t
magnet, 172–73 Perennialism, 41, 43–45 Podcast, 178, 180
online and virtual, 177–78, 179–80 Performance Population diversity, 97–99
private, 176–77 assessment, 387 Portfolios, 33, 387
vocational, 176 student performance, 376, 379, 382 Postbaccalaureate certification, 230
Normal curve (bell-shaped curve), 137 Permissive teacher, 216, 217 Postwar period, 273–77
Normal schools, 265–66 Perry Preschool project, 114 See also Historical perspectives
Nutrition, 328–30 Perryman, Deb, 336 Poverty, 113, 115
“Person-first” language, 131 Pratt, Richard H., 284
O Personality characteristics of excellent Praxis I test, 232
Obama, Barack, 25–26, 161, 274, 278, teachers, 8–9, 11 Pregnancy
279, 285, 303, 315, 327, 349 Personnel, 187–92 student, 357
Obama, Michelle, 329 See also Schools; Teachers teenage, 331–33
Obesity, 328–30 Pestalozzi, Johann, 265, 267 Preoperational stage, 77, 78
October Sky (film), 15 Pettit v. State Board of Education, 351 Principals, school, 192–93
Old Deluder Satan Act (1647), 259 Pfeiffer, Michelle, 14 sending students to, 219
Olweus, Dan, 205, 211 Philosophy, 34–66 Privacy
Olweus Bullying Prevention Program, axiology, 36, 37, 38 right to, 353
205, 211 behaviorism, 56, 58 students’ records and, 360–61
One-room schoolhouses, 261, 269 branches of, 36–39 Private funding, 311–13
Online learning, 177–78, 179–80, 315 constructivism, 56, 60–61 Private schools, 176–77
Ontology, 36, 37 continuum of, 54–55 Probabilistic reasoning, 79
Open classrooms, 184 defined, 36 Professional development, 228, 232–39,
Operant conditioning, 58 eclectic approach, 52–54 234f
Organizational structure, 300 educational, 39–41, 256–57 Professional dispositions, 27
Osama bin Laden, 278 epistemology, 36, 37–38 Professional organizations, 407, 408
Otis-Lennon School Ability Test (OSLAT), essentialism, 41, 45–47 Professional support personnel, 193–94
136 existentialism, 49–50 Professionalism, 235–39, 406–10
humanism, 56, 57 Program for International Student Assess-
P information processing, 56, 58–60 ment (PISA), 117–18
Paideia program, 44 logic, 36, 37, 38–39 Programmed instruction, 58, 59
Paideia Proposal, The, 44 metaphysics, 36–37 Progress in International Reading Literacy
Paige, Rod, 297 mission statements, 55, 162 Study (PIRLS), 382
Palmer, Parker, 18 nature of, 35–39 Progressive nation period, 268–73
Palmer v. Board of Education of the City non-Eurocentric cultures, 55–56 See also Historical perspectives
of Chicago, 353 perennialism, 41, 43–45 Progressivism, 41, 47–49, 272–73
Paraprofessional, 194 progressivism, 41, 47–49 Project 2061, 375

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 Project STAR (Student Teacher Achieve- Reagan, Ronald, 160 Rosenwald schools, 283
ment Ratio), 189–90 Reasonable suspicion, 359 “Rubber rooms”, 245
Property taxes, 306–7 Reasoning, 38, 79 Rural schools, 169–71
Proportional reasoning, 79 combinatorial, 79 Ruth, Babe, 269
Proust, Marcel, 18 correlational, 79
Psychologist, school, 193 deductive/inductive, 38 S
Psychologists, 21–24 probabilistic, 79 Safety and security needs, 71
Combs, Arthur, 23–24 proportional, 79 Safety in school, 71, 201–8
Glasser, William, 21–23 See also Logic bullying, 71, 205–8
Psychosocial development, 80–82, 250 “Reassignment centers”, 245–47 emotional safety, 204–8
See also Erikson, Erik Reciprocity, 232 harassment, 208
Psychosocial needs, 70, 80–86 Reflection, 10, 12 intellectual safety, 203–4
influence on academic motivation, 83 Reform, 365–94 physical safety, 201–3
See also Needs assessment, 386–88 school responses, 208–11
Psychosocial-sensitive classroom, 83 Blueprint for Reform, 25–26 teacher’s role, 212–19
Psychosocial theory, 81 curriculum and instruction, 275–76, zero tolerance policies, 210
PTA (Parent Teacher Association), 295, 311 367–82 Safford Unified School District v. April
PTSA (Parent Teacher Student Associa- Common Core State Standards, Redding, 360
tion), 295, 311 369–71 Salaries, 241–45
Public Law 94-142 (Education of All constructivist chart, 383–84 increases, 243–44
Handicapped Children Act), 128, English language arts, 380–82 merit pay, 245–46
278 mathematics, 377–79 pay for performance, 245–46
Public schools, 265 science, 374–77 scales, 242
Puritans, 258–59 social studies, 371–74 Salem witch trials, 259
Purposes of schools, 158–81 student performance, 376, 379, 382 Same-sex households, 323–24
common purposes, 159–62 education reform, 366–67 Sartre, Jean Paul, 50
elementary schools, 165–66 impact on assessment and instruction, SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test), 271
factors influencing, 165–71 382–86 Saved by the Bell (TV show), 15
grade level, 165–69 teacher education, 388–92 Saxon, Burt, 286
location, 169–71 incentives and accountability, 390 Scheduling, 194–97
federal government and, 159–62 pedagogical knowledge and skills, annual, 195
government agencies and, 159–62 389 block, 196
middle schools, 166–68 preparation methods, 389–90 daily, 195–96
in mission statements, 162–64 subject-matter knowledge, 389 Schemata, 60
nontraditional, 171–78 teacher induction, 390–91 Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), 271
alternative schools, 176 Regulations, 342–43 School advisory councils, 295–96
charter schools, 171–72 Religion School boards, 296
education management organiza- diversity in, 110–12 School choice, 316
tions (EMOs), 173–74 dress and, 353 School districts, 296–97
home schools, 174–75 education and, 276 School dropouts, 325–27
magnet schools, 172–73 freedom of, 352–53 School Health Index for Physical
online learning and virtual schools, teaching that acknowledges, 111–12 Activity and Healthy Eating: A
177–78, 179–80 Research, educational, 18–21 Self-Assessment and Planning Guide
private schools, 176–77 Research, on effective teaching, 18–21 (CDC), 328, 329
vocational schools, 176 Residential facility, 130 School improvement plan, 295
school location and, 169–71 Resource classroom, 130 School location, 169–71
secondary schools, 168–69 Response to intervention (RTI), 131–32 School lunches, 329
Reyes, Xae Alicia, 101 School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG),
Q Rhee, Michelle, 297 377–78
Quakers (Society of Friends), 261–62, 282 Rights School of Rock, The (film), 15
Quality School approach (Glasser), 21–23 to privacy, 353 School Turnaround Grants, 327
of students, 356–63 School uniforms, 358
R of teachers, 352–55 “Schooldays” composition, 256
Race, 97–99 Risky behavior, 331 Schools
See also Diversity Robb, Bonnie, 109 assessment, 117–18
Race to the Top, 25, 161–62, 279, 311, Rogers, Carl, 57 commercialism/advertising and, 311–13
349 Room 222 (TV show), 15 extracurricular activities, 228–29
Ready to Teach Act (2003), 388 Roosevelt, Theodore, 272 governance and financing, 291–318
Reagan, Nancy, 331 Rosenwald, Julius, 282–83 legal requirements, 239–42

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 management and discipline, 213–19 Segregation, 262, 278, 282 Social reconstructionism, 41, 50–52
behavior expectations, 214–17 desegregation, 284 Social studies
materials and resources, 248–49 Self, teaching profession and, 5, 397–99 curriculum, 371–74
as motivation for teacher, 400–401 Self-actualization needs, 73 technology for, 392
needs of, 183–84 Self-worth and self-esteem needs, 72 Society, teaching profession and, 401–2
personnel, 187–92 Semadeni, Joseph, 12 Society of Friends (Quakers), 261–62, 282
administrators, 192–93 Sensorimotor stage, 77–78 Socioeconomic groups, 20
nonprofessional, 194 Sensory register, 59–60 Socioeconomic status (SES), 112–15
optimal class size, 187–90 Separation of church and state, 276 school and, 113–14
professional support, 193–94 September 11 terrorist attacks, 278 teaching that acknowledges, 114–15
student-teacher ratio, 187–90 Service learning, 51, 335–37 See also Diversity
teachers, 187–90 Servicemen’s Readjustment Act (GI Bill), Socrates, 256
philosophy of, 55 274 Socratic method, 44–45
physical facilities, 184–87 SES (socioeconomic status), 112–15 Southern colonies, 262
purposes of, 158–81 See also Diversity Spatial intelligence, 141, 143
safety in, 201–8 Seven Cardinal Principles, 271 Special education
bullying, 71, 205–8 Sex education, 333 controversies about, 131
emotional, 71, 204–8 Sexting, 332 defined, 127
harassment, 208 Sexual activity special issues in, 131
intellectual, 203–4 involving teachers, 351 teacher, 191
physical, 201–3 of teachers, involving students, 351 See also Students with unique abilities
school responses, 208–11 Sexual harassment, 208 Special interest groups, 299–300
security and prevention, 208–9 Sexual orientation, 120–21 Special needs. See Students with unique
teacher’s role, 212–19 bullying and, 207 abilities
zero tolerance policies, 210 harassment and, 208 Special schools, 130
scheduling, 194–97 See also Diversity Spiritual needs, 74
annual, 195 Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), 331, Spung, Katherine, 191
daily, 195–96 333 Sputnik, 46, 274, 375
segregation of, 262, 278, 282 Single-sex education, 119 Stakeholders, 292–94
single-sex, 119 Sister Evangelist, 17 Stand and Deliver (film), 14
structure of, 182–99 Site-based management, 294–95 Standardization, 270–71, 367–71
teacher expectations of, 224–50 Skinner, B. F., 58, 59, 398 NBPTS standards, 29
teacher salaries, 242–45 Skype, 180 Standardized tests, 22, 302–3, 375–76
teachers’ tasks Slaves, 281–82 Standards
instructional duties, 225–26 Smartphones, 220 common core (state), 369–71
noninstructional duties, 226–29 Social action approach to multicultural movement, 369
tenure, 245–48 education, 103 national, 279
types of, 166 Social issues, 319–39 professional/teaching, 26–30
violence in, deterrents to, 71 community issues, 333–37 teaching, 379
working conditions, 248 gang activity, 334 See also Curriculum; Standardization
See also Purposes of schools; Structure service learning, 335–37 Stanford-Binet IQ test, 136
of schools; Students; Teachers divorce, 321–22 Star-Spangled Banner, 269
Science emotional health, 321–27 State
curriculum, 374–77 economy and unemployment, Board of Education, 298
fairs, 248 324–25 certification requirements, 29, 229
standards, 375–76 family structure, 321–24 curriculum, 369
technology for, 392 school responses, 325–27 Department of Education, 298
Science Curriculum Improvement Study father’s incarceration, 337 funding, 307–10
(SCIS), 275 homelessness, 337 legislated class size, 189
Science for All Americans (Project 2061), immigration, 337 -level governance, 297–300
375 physical health, 328–33 sources of laws and regulations, 342
SCIS (Science Curriculum Improvement drugs and alcohol, 330–31 standards, common core, 369–71
Study), 275 nutrition and obesity, 328–30 states’ rights, 298, 342
Search and seizure, 353–55, 359–60 sex education, 333 superintendent of schools, 298
Search Institute, 74–75 sex-related issues, 331–33 State-by-state per-pupil expenditures,
Sears, Roebuck & Company, 282 teenage pregnancy, 331–33 308–9
Secondary education, Seven Cardinal Prin- resources for, 337 State v. Project Principle, 344
ciples of, 271 school dropouts, 325–27 Status of the American Public School
Secondary schools, 168–69, 278 Social needs, 74 Teacher, The (NEA), 402
noninstructional duties, 227 Social networking sites, 220 Statutes, 342

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 Stereotypes, 97, 118, 287 Support, for teachers, 249–50 Perryman, Deb, 336
Stewart, Eloise, 149 Support personnel, 193–94 professional development, 228, 232–39
Stranger, The (Van Allsburg), 385 Symms, Benjamin, 262 professionalism, 235–39
Structure of schools, 182–99 System-level governance, 296–97 rights of, 352–55
hypothetical school, 197 Robb, Bonnie, 109
personnel, 187–92 T role in student safety, 212–19
physical facilities, 184–87 Tablet computers, 248 salaries, 241–44
scheduling, 194–97 Take Back the Night (TBN), 51 increases in, 243–44
Student achievement, research involving, TEAC (Teacher Education Accrediting scales, 242
21 Council), 28, 389 Saxon, Burt, 286
Student-teacher ratios, 187–90 Teach For America, 231 schools expectations of, 224–42
Students, 200–222 Teacher certification examinations, 232 with specialties, 190–92
1872 rules for, 266 Teacher Education Accrediting Council Spung, Katherine, 191
behavior expectations, 214–17 (TEAC), 28, 389 Stewart, Eloise, 149
bullying, 71, 205–8 Teacher education reform, 388–92 student-teacher ratios, 187–90
classroom management and discipline, incentives and accountability, 390 support, 249–50
213–19 methods of teacher preparation, Teacher of the Year award, 12, 249
common needs, 68–92 389–90 teacher’s life in school, 224
emotional safety, 71, 204–8 pedagogical knowledge and skills, 389 Teachey, Angela, 62–63
expectations and responsibilities, subject-matter knowledge, 389 technology for, 248
200–222 teacher induction, 390–91 tenure, 244–46
harassment, 208 Teacher-student relationships, 21 Travis, Bille, 379
intellectual safety, 203–4 Teacher unions, 226, 304–5, 407 vs. administrators, 193
introduction for, 1–4 Teachers, 187–90, 223–52, 396–412 Webb, Steven, 233
law and, 356–63 1872 rules for, 266 Winburn, Linda, 13
as motivation for teacher, 399–400 Abrams, Bev, 164 work done at home, 225–26
motivations, 69–70 assertive, 218 working conditions, 247, 271
physical safety, 201–3 autocratic, 216, 217 Zabel, Brenda, 88
pregnancy and marriage, 357 Blythe, Bill, 410 See also Law; Schools
rights, 356–63 bullying, response to, 212–13 Teachey, Angela, 62–63
safety in school, 201–8 Cahil, Jacqueline, 315 Teaching as a profession, 406–10
zero tolerance policies, 210 certification, 229–32, 344–45 code of ethics, 344
See also Law; Schools revocation of, 344–45 stages of teaching, 250
Students with unique abilities, 125–55 code of ethics, 239, 241–42, 344 video case, 12
access to technology, 186 collaborative, 216, 217–19 See also Teaching excellence
assistive technology, 134, 135 contracts, 226 Teaching English as a Foreign Language
cascade system of special education Cremin, Lawrence, 286 (TEFL), 191–92
services, 129 Daniels, Christie, 218 Teaching English as a Second Language
classroom inclusion categories, 129–30 Day, Elizabeth, 406 (TESL), 191
cognitive abilities, 136–40 dismissal of, 347–52 Teaching English to Speakers of Other
constructivism and, 152–54 Eisinger, Linda L., 206 Languages (TESOL), 192
differentiated instruction, 150–51 excellent, 6–33 Teaching excellence, 6–33, 278
facilities for, 186–87 See also Teaching excellence beliefs and, 8–10
gifted and talented, 138–40 expectations and responsibilities, characteristics of, 8–11, 12–30
Individualized Education Program 223–52 components of (Venn diagram), 11–12
(IEP), 128, 130, 135 favorite, 8 experts on, 17–18
Individuals with Disabilities Education in film/media, 14–16 federal government and, 25–26
Act (IDEA), 127–30, 186 Heavers, Kathy, 53 media (film/TV/news) and, 14–16
learning disabilities, 131–36 importance of, 6–7 outsider perspectives, 10–11
learning styles, 145–47 instructional duties, 225–26 perceptions of, 19–21
least restrictive environment, 129, 186 joys of, 250 psychologists on, 21–24
multiple intelligences, 140–45 law and, 344–56 research on, 18–21
response to intervention (RTI), 131–32 lead, 193 standards, professional, 26–30
special education, 127 legal requirements, 239–42 teacher views, 12–13
teaching that acknowledges, 147–52 Maslow’s needs and, 250 test scores and measures of, 22
Suicides, bullying and, 207–8 materials and resources, 247 Teaching specialties, 190–92
Sullivan v. Meade Independent School motivations for, 396–412 Technology, 185, 220, 280
Dist. No. 101, 351 noninstructional duties, 226–29, access issues, 314–15
Summative assessment, 387–88 346–47 assistive, 134, 135
Superintendent of schools, 297 permissive, 216, 217 computer-based instruction, 280

INDEX 447

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 digital divide and, 313–16 Transgender, 120–21 Violence
diversity and, 122 Transitional bilingual education, 108 in modern period, 278
electronic gadgets, 220 Travis, Bille, 379 school shootings, 202
first day of school, 90 Troops to Teachers, 231 in schools, deterrents to, 71
interactive, 8 Turning Points: Preparing American Virtual school, 177–78, 179–80
Internet plagiarism, 354 Youth for the 21st Century (Carnegie Vision, 162
National Educational Technology Council on Adolescent Develop- Visual learners, 145, 146
Plans, 185 ment), 167 Vocational school, 176, 278
sexting, 332 Tuskegeee Institute, 284 Vodcast, 178, 180
for subject areas, 392 TV, teachers on, 15–16 Vouchers, 316
for teachers, 248 21st Century Community Learning Cen- Vygotsky, Lev, 60
teaching effectiveness and, 31 ters, 186
use in schools, 185, 220, 248 W
virtual teaching and learning, 179–80 U Waiting for “Superman” (film), 15
Teenage pregnancy, 331–33 Unemployment, 324–25 “Wall of Separation” (Jefferson), 276
TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Lan- Unfitness, 344 Warren, Earl, 283–84
guage), 191–92 Unions, 226, 304–5, 407 Washington, Booker T., 283, 284
Television, 280 Unique abilities, 125–55 Washington, George, 373
Tenth Amendment, 298, 301 assistive technology, 134, 135 Weapons in schools, 202–3
Tenure, 245–48, 347 cognitive abilities, 136–40 Webb, Steven, 233
Terrorism, 278 constructivism and, 152–54 WebQuest, 178, 179
TESL (Teaching English as a Second Lan- differentiated instruction, 150–51 Welcome Back, Kotter (TV show), 15
guage), 191 gifted and talented, 138–40 Weschler IQ test, 136
TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Individuals with Disabilities Education White House Initiative on American In-
Other Languages), 192 Act (IDEA), 127–30, 186 dian and Alaska Native Education,
Testing learning disabilities, 131–36 285
high-stakes, 161 learning styles, 145–47 White privilege, 102
No Child Left Behind Act, 161, 302 multiple intelligences, 140–45 White Shadow, The (TV show), 15
standardized tests, 22, 302–3, 375–76 teaching that acknowledges, 147–52 Whole language, 380
teacher certification, 232 teaching that acknowledges disabilities, Wiki, 178, 179
teacher excellence and, 22 134–36 William and Mary, College of, 262
See also Assessment See also Students with unique abilities Winburn, Linda, 13
Textbooks Unique perspectives. See Diversity Without cause dismissal, 347
evolution and, 299, 300 United Nations, 269 Wong, Harry, 400
selection, 299–300 United States v. Board of Education for Working conditions, 247, 271
Theology, 36, 37 the School District of Philadelphia, Working memory, 59–60
Theory of multiple intelligences (MI), 142 353 Working parents, 324
Third International Mathematics and United States v. South Carolina, 344 World Trade Center, 278
Science Study (TIMSS), 376, 379 University certification route, 229–30 World War II, 274
Thirteenth Amendment, 283 Unprofessional conduct, 348, 350 Wright brothers, 269
Three R’s, 270 Urban schools, 169–70
TIMSS (Third International Mathematics Utah, 301–2 Y
and Science Study), 376, 379 Year-round education, 195
Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Com-
V Young nation period, 263–68
munity School Dist., 356, 358 Value-added analysis, 390 See also Historical perspectives
Title I funds, 342 Values, 162
Van Allsburg, Chris, 385 Z
Title III funds, 107
Title VII, 275 Venn diagram, of teaching excellence, Zabel, Brenda, 88
Title IX, 275 11–12 Zebra, “Who Owns the Zebra?” puzzle,
To Sir, with Love (film), 15 Vernacular schools, 259 39
Tomlinson, Carol Ann, 150 Verona School District 47 v. Action, 360 Zero tolerance policies, 210
Tort, 355 Video calling software, 180 Zinjanthropus, 274
Toyota Tapestry grants, 311 Video games, 59 Zone of proximal development, 60
Transformation approach, to multicul- Videos, teaching, 248
tural education, 103 Vietnam War, 274

448 INDEX

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 Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium
(InTASC) Standards: A Correlation Chart
The Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC) is dedicated to the improvement of education by raising the quality
of teaching. InTASC has established 10 standards describing the knowledge, skills, and dispositions that teachers should possess. The
following chart indicates which chapters and activities in this text address each of the standards.

INTASC STANDARD CHAPTERS RELATED FEATURES, ACTIVITIES, AND TEACHSOURCE VIDEOS

THE LEARNER AND LEARNING

Standard 1: Learner Development—The Chapter 3 “The Student: Common Chapter 3

teacher understands how learners grow and Needs” Building Blocks 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, and 3.10
develop, recognizing that patterns of Chapter 4 “The Student and the TeachSource Video, “Social and Emotional Development: The Influence of Peer Groups”
learning and development vary individually Teacher: Acknowledging Unique Controversies in Education, “Criticism of Piaget’s Theory”
within and across the cognitive, linguistic, Perspectives” Technology and Education, “Getting Technical on the First Day of School”
social, emotional, and physical areas, and Chapter 4
designs and implements developmentally Chapter 12 “Social Issues and the
Building Blocks 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.8, 4.9, 4.10, and 4.11
appropriate and challenging learning School’s Response”
TeachSource Video, “Culturally Responsive Teaching: A Multicultural Lesson for
experiences. Elementary Students”
Chapter 12
Building Blocks 12.2, 12.4, and 12.6 Controversies in Education, “Teen Pregnancy”
Standard 2: Learning Differences—The Chapter 2 “Your Philosophy of Chapter 2
teacher uses understanding of individual Education” Building Blocks 2.9 and 2.10
differences and diverse cultures and Chapter 4 “The Student and the TeachSource Video, “Using Information Processing Strategies: A Middle School Science Lesson”
communities to ensure inclusive learning Teacher: Acknowledging Unique TeachSource Video, “Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development: Increasing Cognition in
environments that enable each learner to Perspectives” an Elementary Literacy Lesson”
meet high standards. Technology and Education. “Programmed Instruction and Video Games”
Chapter 5 “The Student and the
Chapter 4
Teacher: Acknowledging Unique
Building Blocks 4.1, 4.2, and 4.7
Abilities”
TeachSource Video, “The Debate over Bilingual Education”
Chapter 12 “Social Issues and the TeachSource Video, “Gender Equity in the Classroom: Girls and Science”
School’s Response” Controversies in Education, “Bilingual Education”
Technology and Education, “Different Strokes for Different Folks”
Chapter 5
Building Blocks 5.1, 5.3, 5.8, and 5.9
Controversies in Education, “Issues in Special Education”
Technology and Education, “Assistive Technology”
TeachSource Video, “Inclusion: Classroom Implications for the General and Special
Educator”
Chapter 12
Building Blocks 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, and 12.6
Standard 3: Learning Environments—The Chapter 3 “The Student: Common Chapter 3
teacher works with others to create Needs” Building Blocks 3.8, 3.9, and 3.11
environments that support individual and Chapter 6 “Purposes of School” Technology and Education, “Getting Technical on the First Day of School”
collaborative learning, and that encourage Chapter 6
positive social interaction, active Chapter 7 “Structure of Schools”
Building Blocks 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, and 6.11
engagement in learning, and self Chapter 8 “The School and the TeachSource Video, “Rethinking How Kids Learn: KIPP”
motivation. Student: Expectations and TeachSource Video, “A Positive School Climate Reduces the Achievement Gap”
Responsibilities” Controversies in Education, “Education Management Organizations”
Chapter 11 “School Governance and Technology and Education, “Virtual Teaching and Learning”
Finance” Chapter 7
Chapter 12 “Social Issues and the Building Block 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.7, and 7.8
School’s Response” TeachSource Video, “Collaborating with School Specialists: An Elementary Literacy
Lesson”
Controversies in Education, “Does Class Size Matter?”
Chapter 8
Building Blocks 8.1, 8.3, and 8.4
TeachSource Video, “Cyberbullying”
Controversies in Education, “GSA or No GSA?”
Chapter 11
Building Block 11.1
Chapter 12
Building Block 12.1
Technology and Education, “Sexting”

CONTENT KNOWLEDGE

Standard 4: Content Knowledge—The Chapter 14 “Education Reform: Chapter 14

teacher understands the central concepts, Standards and Accountability” TeachSource Video, “Common Core Standards: A New Lesson Plan for America”
tools of inquiry, and structures of the Controversies in Education, “The Common Core State Standards”
discipline(s) he or she “teaches and creates
learning experiences that make the discipline
accessible and meaningful for learners to
assure mastery of the content.
Standard 5: Application of Content—The Chapter 12 “Social Issues and the Chapter 12
teacher understands how to connect concepts School’s Response” Building Block 12.3, 12.5, 12.7, and 12.8
and use differing perspectives to engage Chapter 14 “Education Reform: TeachSource Video, “Divorce and Children”
learners in critical thinking, creativity, and Standards and Accountability” Chapter 14
collaborative problem solving related to TeachSource Video, “School Reform: One High School Literacy Initiative”
authentic local and global issues. TeachSource Video, “Reading in the Content Areas: An Interdisciplinary Unit on the 1920s”

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 INTASC STANDARD CHAPTERS RELATED FEATURES, ACTIVITIES, AND TEACHSOURCE VIDEOS
INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICE

Standard 6: Assessment—The teacher Chapter 14 “Education Reform: Chapter 14

understands and uses multiple methods of Standards and Accountability” Building Blocks 14.13 and 14.14
assessment to engage learners in their own
growth, to monitor learner progress, and to
guide the teacher’s and learner’s decision
making.
Standard 7: Planning for Instruction— Chapter 8 “The School and the Chapter 8
The teacher plans instruction that Student: Expectations and Building Blocks 8.2, 8.5, and 8.6
supports every student in meeting Responsibilities” Technology and Education, “Electronic Gadgets and Students”
rigorous learning goals by drawing upon Chapter 9 “The School and the Chapter 9
knowledge of content areas, curriculum, Teacher: Expectations and Building Blocks 9.1, 9.2, and 9.7
cross-disciplinary skills, and pedagogy, as Responsibilities” Technology and Education, “Technology for Teachers”
well as knowledge of learners and the
community context.
Standard 8: Instructional Strategies—The Chapter 1 “Teaching Excellence Chapter 1
teacher understands and uses a variety of and You” Building Blocks 1.1, 1.4, 1.5, and 1.7
instructional strategies to encourage Chapter 4 “The Student and the TeachSource Video, “Teaching as a Profession: What Defines Effective Teaching?”
learners to develop deep understanding of Teacher: Acknowledging Unique TeachSource Video, “Freedom Writers: Teachers Can Inspire Students to Learn and
content areas and their connections and to Perspectives” Achieve”
build skills to apply knowledge in Technology and Education, “Does Technology Make a Teacher Effective?”
meaningful ways. Chapter 5 “The Student and the
Chapter 4
Teacher: Acknowledging Unique
Building Block 4.7
Abilities”
TeachSource Video, “Bilingual Education: An Elementary Two-Way Immersion Program”
Chapter 5
Building Blocks 5.1, 5.3, 5.5, 5.8, and 5.9
TeachSource Video, “Assistive Technology in the Inclusive Classroom: Best Practices”

PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITY

Standard 9: Professional Learning and Chapter 1 “Teaching Excellence Chapter 1

Ethical Practice—The teacher engages in and You” Building Blocks 1.2, 1.3, and 1.6
ongoing professional learning and uses Chapter 2 “Your Philosophy of Controversies in Education, “Test Scores and Measures of Teacher Excellence”
evidence to continually evaluate his/her Education” Chapter 2
practice, particularly the effects of his/her Building Blocks 2.1, 2.2, 2.8, and 2.11
choices and actions on others (learners, Chapter 9 “The School and the
TeachSource Video, “Philosophical Foundations of American Education: Four
families, other professionals, and the Teacher: Expectations and
Philosophies in Action”
community), and adapts practice to meet Responsibilities”
Controversies in Education, “The Power of Beliefs in Education: Homework”
the needs of each learner. Chapter 10 “Historical Perspectives” Chapter 9
Chapter 13 “Teachers, Students, and Building Blocks 9.3, and 9.5
the Law” TeachSource Video, “Mentoring First-Year Teachers: Keys to Professional Success”
Chapter 14 “Education Reform: TeachSource Video, “Teacher Incentive Pay: Pay for Performance”
Standards and Accountability” Controversies in Education, “Merit Pay”
Chapter 10
Chapter 15 “Your Motives for
Building Blocks 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5, 10.6, 10.7, 10.8, 10.9, 10.10, and 10.11
Teaching”
TeachSource Video, “Foundations: Aligning Instruction with Federal Legislation”
Technology and Education, “The Evolution of Instructional Technology”
Chapter 13
Building Block 13.2, 13.3, 13.5, 13.6, and 13.7
Technology and Education, “I Found It on the Internet!”
Chapter 14
Building Block 14.3, 14.4, 14.5, 14.6, 14.7, 14,.8, 14.9, 14.10, 14.11, 14.12, and 14.13
Technology and Education, “Technology in the Subject Areas”
Chapter 15
Building Block 15.3 and 15.5
TeachSource Video, “Becoming a Teacher: Choices and Advice from the Field”
TeachSource Video, “The First Year of Teaching: One Colleague’s Story”
Standard 10: Leadership and Chapter 11 “School Governance and Chapter 11
Collaboration—The teacher seeks Finance” Building Blocks 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, 11.6, 11.8, and 11.11
appropriate leadership roles and opportunities TeachSource Video, “Education and Equity”
to take responsibility for student learning, to TeachSource Video, “High Schools in Low-Income Communities Receive a Failing
collaborate with learners, families, colleagues, Grade”
other school professionals, and community Controversies in Education, “Textbooks and Evolution”
members to ensure learner growth, and to
advance the profession.

SOURCE: Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium: http://www.ccsso.org

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