Section 3

LOADS

Part A
TYPE OF LOADS
3.1 NOTATIONS
a = length of short span of slab (Article 3.24.6)
B = buoyancy (Article 3.22)
b = width of pier or diameter of pile (Article 3.18.22.4)
b = length of long span of slab (Article 3.24.6)
C = stiffness parameter = K (W/L) (Article 3.23.4.3)
C = centrifugal force in percent of live load (Article 3.10.1)
CF = centrifugal force (Article 3.22)
CM = steel bending stress coefficient (Article 3.25.1.5)
CR = steel shear stress coefficient (Article 3.25.1.5)
D = parameter used in determination of load fraction of wheel load
(Article 3.23.4.3)
D = degree of curve (Article 3.10.1)
D = dead load (Article 3.22)
D.F. = fraction of wheel load applied to beam (Article 3.28.1)
E = width of slab over which a wheel load is distributed
(Article
3.24.3)
E = earth pressure (Article 3.22)
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete (Article 3.26.3)
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel (Article 3.26.3)
EW = modulus of elasticity of wood (Article 3.26.3)
Fb = allowable bending stress (Article 3.25.1.3)
F, = allowable shear stress (Article 3.25.1.33)
I = impact fraction (Article 3.8.2)
I = gross flexural moment of inertia of the precast .member
(Article 3.23.4.3)
J = gross Saint - Venant torsional constant of the precast member
(Article 3.23.4.3)
K = stream flow force constant (Article 3.18.1)
K = stiffness constant (Article 3.23.4)

3-1
K = wheel load distribution constant for timber flooring (Article = effective deck span (Article 3.25.1.3)
3.25.1.3) SF = stream flow (Article 3.22)
k = live load distribution constant for spread box girders (Article T = temperature (Article 3.22)
3.28.1) t = deck thickness (Article 3.25.1.3)
L = loaded length of span (Article 3.8.2) V = variable spacing of truck axles (Figure 3.7.3A)
L = loaded length of sidewalk (Article 3.14.1.1) V = velocity of water (Article 3.18.1)
L = live load (Article 3.22) W = combined weight on the first two axles of a standard MS Truck
L = span length (Article 3.23.4) (Figure 3.7.3A)
LF = longitudinal force from live load (Article 3.22) W = width of sideWalk (Article 3.14.1.1)
MD = moment capacity of dowel (Article 3.25.1.4) W = wind load on structure (Article 3.22)
M = primary bending moment (Article 3.25.1.3) We = width of exterior girder (Article 3.23.2.3.2)
My = total transferred secondary moment (Article 3.25.1.4) W = overall width of bridge (Article 3.23.4.3)
W = roadway width between curbs (Article 3.28.1)
Na = number of beams (Article 3.28.1) WL = wind load on live load (Article 3.22)
Ng = number of longitudinal beams X = distance from load to point of support (Article 3.24.5.1)
NL, = number of traffic lanes (Articles 3.23.4) x = subscript denoting direction perpendicular to longitudinal
n = number of dowels (Article 3.25.1.4) stringers (Article 3.25.1.3)
P = live load on sidewalk (Article 3.14.1.1) 13 = (with appropriate script) coefficient applied to actual loads
P = stream flo' pressure (Ariicle 3.18.1) for service and load factor designs (Article 3.22)
P = load on one rear wheel of truck (Article 3.24.3) y = load factor (Article 3.22)
P = wheel load (Article 3.24.5) apt, = proportional limit stress perpendicular to grain (Article
P = design wheel load (Article 3.25.1 3) 3.25.1.4)
P I3 5 = 54 kN (Article 3.24.3)
13B = load combination coefficient for buoyancy (Article 3.22.1)
= 72 kN (Article 3.24.3) 13c = load combination coefficient for centrifugal force (Article
p — proportion of load carried by short span (Article 3.24.6.1) 3.22.1)
R = radius of curve (Article 3,10.1) 130 = load combination coefficient for dead load (Article 3.22.1)
R = rib shortening (Article 3.22)
RD = shear capacity of dowel (Article 3.25.1.4)
13E = load combination coefficient for earth pressure (Article 3.22.1)
R„ = primary shear (Article 125.1.3) 13EQ = load combination coefficient for earthquake (Article 3.22.1)
Ry = total secondary shear transferred (Article 3.25.1.4) = load combination coefficient for live load (Article 3.22.1)
S = design speed (Article 3.10.1) PR = load combination coefficient for rib shortening, shrinkage and
S = shrinkage (Article 3.22) temperature (Article 3.22.1)
S = average stringer spacing (rticle 3.23.2.3.1) 135 = load combination coefficient for stream flow (Article 3.22.1)
S = spacing of beams (Article 3.23.3) 13w = load combination coefficient for wind (Article 3.22.1)
S = width of precast member (Article 3.23.4.3) I3WL load combination coefficient for wind on live load (Article
S = effective span length (Article 3.24.1) 3.22.1)
S = span length (Article 3.24.8.2) = Poisson's ratio (Article 3.23.4.3)
= beam spacing (Article 3,28.1)

3-2 3-3
3.2 GENERAL 33 DEAD LOAD
3.2.1 Structures shall be designed to carry the following loads and 3.3.1 The dead load shall consist of the weight of the entire structure,
forces: including the roadway, sidewalks, car tracks, pipes, conduits, cables,
and other public utility services.
Dead load.
Live load. 3.3.2 If a separate wearing surface is to be placed when the bridge is
Impact or dynamic effect of the live load. constructed, or is expected 4o be placed in the future, adequate
Wind loads. allowance shall be made for its weight in the design dead load.
Other forces, when they exist, as follows: Otherwise, provision for a future wearing surface is not required.
Longitudinal forces, centrifugal force, thermal forces, earth
pressure, buoyancy, shrinkage stresses, rib shortening, erection 3.3.3 Where the abrasion of concrete is not expected, the traffic may
stresses, current pressure, and earthquake stresses. bear directly on the concrete slab. If considered desirable, 6.0 mm or
more may be added to the slab for a wearing surface.
Provision shall be made for the transfer of forces between the
superstructure and substructure to reflect the effect of friction at 3.3.4 The following_ weights are to be used in computing the dead
expansion bearings or shear resistance at elastomeric bearings. load:
kN/m3
3.2.2 Members shall be proportioned using the allowable stresses Steel or cast steel .......................................... 77 0
permitted by the design procedure and the limitations imposed by the Cast iron ........................................................ 70.7
material. Aluminum alloys .......................................... 27.5
Timber (treated or untreated) ............................ 7.9
Concrete, plain or reinforced ........................ 23.5
3.2.3 When stress sheets are required, a diagram or notation of the Compacted sand, earth, gravel, or ballast ... 18.9
assumed loads shall be shown and the stresses due to the various loads Loose sand, earth, and gravel ....................... 15.7
shall be shown separately. Macadam or gravel, rolled ............................ 22.0
3.2.4 Where required by design conditions, the concrete placing Cinder filling .................................................... 9.4
sequence shall be indicated on the plans or in the special provisions. Pavement, other than wood block ............... 23.5

3.2.5 The loading combinations shall be in accordance with Article Railway rails, guard rails, and fastenings
(per linear meter of track) ................................. 31.4
3.22.
Stone masonry ................................................. 26.7
Asphalt plank, 25 mm thick ..................... 0 .43 kPa
3.2.6 When a bridge is skewed, the loads and forces carried by the
bridge through the deck system to pin connections and hangers should
be resolved into vertical, lateral, and longitudinal force components to
be considered in the design.

3 -4 3-5
3.4 LIVE LOAD 3.7 HIGHWAY LOADS

The live load shall consist of the weight of the applied moving 3.7.1 Standard Truck and Lade Loads
load of vehicles, cars, and pedestrian.
3.7.1.1 The highway live loadings on the roadways of bridges or
3.5 OVERLOAD PROVISIONS incidental structures shall consist of standard trucks or lane loads that
are equivalent to truck trains. Two systems of loading are provided,
3.5.1 For all loadings less than M18 provision shall be made for an the M loadings and the MS loadings----the MS loadings being heavier
infrequent heavy load by applying Loading Combination IA (see than the corresponding M loadings.
Article 3.22), with the load assumed to be M or MS truck and to
occupy a single lane without concurrent loading in any other lane. 3.7.1.2 Each lane load shall consist of a uniform load per linear
The overload shall apply to all parts of the structure affected, except meter of traffic lane combined with a single concentrated load (or two
the roadway deck, or roadway deck plates and stiffening ribs in the case of concentrated loads in the case of continuous spans --see Article
orthotropic bridge superstructures. 3.11.3), so placed on the span as to produce maximum stress. The
concentrated load and uniform load shall be considered as uniformly
3.5.2 Structures may be analyzed for an overload that is selected by the distributed over a 3.0 m width on a line normal to the centerline of the
operating agency in accordance with Loading Combination Group IB in lane.
Article 3.22.
3.7.1.3 For the computation of moments and shears, different
3.6 TRAFFIC LANES concentrated loads shall be used as indicated in Figure 3.7.6B. The
lighter concentrated loads shall be used when the stresses are primarily
3.6.1 The lane loading or standard truck shall be assumed to occupy a bending stresses, and the heavier concentrated loads shall be used
width of 3.0 m. when the stresses are primarily shearing stresses.

3.6.2 These loads shall be placed in 3.7 meter wide design traffic 3.7.2 Classes of Loading
lanes, spaced across the entire bridge roadway width measured between
curbs. There are four standard classes of highway loading M 18, M 13.5,
MS 18 and MS 13.5. Loading M 13.5 is 75 percent of loading -
3.6.3 Fractional parts of design lanes shall not be used, but roadway M18. Loading MS 13.5 is 75 percent of Loading MS 18. If loadings
widths from 6.0 to 7.4 m shall have two design lanes each to one-half other than those designated are desired, they shall be obtained
the roadway width. by proportionately changing the weights shown for both the standard
truck and the corresponding lane loads.
3.6.4 The traffic lanes shall be placed in such numbers and positions on
the roadway, and the loads shall be placed in such positions within their 3.7.3 Designation of Loadings
individual traffic lanes, so as to produce the maximum stress in the
member under consideration. The policy of affixing tile year to loadings to identify them was
instituted in the following manner:
H 15 Loading, AASHTO Edition shall be designated ........... M 13.5 3.8 IMPACT
20 Loading, AASHTO 1994 Edition shall be designated ... ..M 18
H 15-S 12 Loading, AASHTO 1944 Edition shall be designated 3.8.1 Application
MS 13.5
H 20-S 16 Loading, AASHTO 1944 Edition shall be designated Highway Live Loads shall be increased for those structural
MS 18
elements in Group A, below, to allow for dynamic, vibratory and
3.7.4 Minimum Loading impact effects. Impact allowances shall not be applied to items in
Group B. It is intended that impact be included as part of the loads
Bridges supporting highways which carry, or which may carry, transferred from superstructure to substructure, but shall not be
heavy truck traffic, shall be designated for MS 18 Loading or an included in loads transferred to footings nor to those parts of piles or
Alternate Military Loading of two axles 1.20 m apart with each axle columns that are below ground.
weighing 108 kN, whichever produces the greatest stress.
3.8.1.1 Group A -Impact shall be included.
3.7.5 M Loading
(1) Superstructure, including legs of rigid frames.
The M loading consist of a two-axle • truck or the corresponding (2) Piers, (with or without bearings regardless of type) excluding
lane loading as illustrated in Figures 3.7.5A and 3.7.5B. The M footing and those portions below the groundline.
loadings are designated M followed by a number indicating a tenth of
(3) The portions above the groundline of concrete or steel piles that
gross weight in kilonewtons of the standard truck.
support the superstructure.
3.7.6 MS Loading
3.8.1.2 GroupB -Impact shall not be included.
The MS loadings consist of a tractor truck with semitrailer or the (I) Abutments, retaining walls, piles except as specified in
corresponding lane load as illustrated in Figures 3.7.6A and 3.7.5B. 3.8.1.1(3)
The MS loadings are designated by the letters MS followed by a (2) Foundation pressures and footings.
number indicating a tenth of the gross weight in kilonewtons of the
(3) Timber structures.
tractor truck. The variable axle spacing has been introduced in order
(4) Sidewalk loads.
that the spacing of axles may approximate more closely the tractor
(5) Culverts and structures having 0.90 m or more cover.
trailers now in use. The variable spacing also provides a more
satisfactory loading for continuous spans, in that heavy axle loads may
3.8.2 Impact Formula
be so placed on adjoining spans as to produce maximum negative
moments.
3.8.2.1 The amount of the impact allowance or increment is
expressed as a fraction of the live load stress, and shall be determined
by the formula:

I 15.24
(3-1).
L + 38
in which

I = impact fraction (maximum 30 percent);

L = length in meter of the portion of the span that is loaded to
L 111p11.1.11111.1i
produce the maximum stress in the member.
fiND, ____________
3.8.2.2 For uniformity of application, in this formula, the loaded
length, L, shall be as follows:
0
•
41 11 lS kN 144 kNa
t3.1 rfkN 101 kN

(a) For roadway floors: the design span length.

(b) For transverse members, such as floor beams: the span length of
N; W = TOTAL WEIGHT OF
member center to center of supports. TRUCK AND LOAD 16
(c) For computing truck load moments: the span length, or for W
cantilever arms the length from the moment center to the
farthermost axle.
(d) For shear due to truck loads: the length of the loaded portion of
span from the point under consideration to the far reaction; except,
for cantilever arms, use a 30 percent impact factor. 40.1 --

(e) For continuous spans: the length of span under consideration for
positive moment, and the average of two adjacent loaded spans for CLEARANCE AND
LOAD LANE WIDTH
negative moment.

3.8.2.3 For culverts with over

0 to 0.30m inc I = 30%

0.31 m to 0.60 m inc. I = 20%
0.625 m to 0.90 m inc. I = 10%

3.9 LONGITUDINAL FORCES

Provision shall be made for the effect of a longitudinal force 0.60m 1.80m 0.60m
of 5 percent of the live load in all lanes carrying traffic headed in the
same direction. All lanes shall be loaded for bridges likely to become Figure 3.7.5A Standard M trucks
one directional in the future. The load used, without impact, shall be
In the design of timber floor and orthotropic steel decks (excluding transverse beams) for M 18
the lane load plus the concentrated load for moment specified in loading, one axle load of 108 kN or two axle loads 72 kN each spaced 1.20 m apart may be used
Article 3.7, with reduction for multiple-loaded lanes as specified in whichever produces the gloater stress, instead of the 144 kN axle shown.

Article 3.12. The center of gravity of the longitudinal force shall be ** For slab &sign, the center line of wheels snail be assumed to be 0.3 m from fmce of curb. (See
assumed to be located 1.80 m above the floor slab and to be transmitted Ankle 3.24.2).

to the substructure through the superstructure.

4.27 m

3-10 3-11
 80 IN. FOR MOMENT * where
,:-.CONCENTRATED LOAD - 116 kN. FOR SHEAR
C = the centrifugal force in percent of the live load, without
~IJNIFORM LOAD kN .PER METER OF LOAD LANE impact; S = the design speed in kph;
D = the degree of curve;
R = the radius of the curve in meters.

M18 LOADING 3.10.2 The effects of superelevation shall be taken into account.
MS 18 LOADING
3.10.3 The centrifugal force shall be applied 1.80 m. above the roadway
60 kN FOR MOMENT* surface, measured along the centerline of the roadway. The design speed
/CONCENTRATED LOAD -- 87 kN FOR SHEAR shall be determined with regard to the amount of superelevation provided in
the roadway. The traffic lanes shall be loaded in accordance with the
UNIFORM LOAD 7.1 kls4zzzz?zzz7=Mizz2=zzzzz=z2=NIEAR METER OF LOAD LANE
provisions of Article 3.7 with one standard truck on each design traffic lane
placed in position for maximum loading.

3.10.4 Lane loads shall not be used in the computation of centrifugal forces.
M13.5 LOADING
MS13.5 LOADING 3.10.5 When a reinforced concrete floor slab or a steel grid deck is
keyed to or attached to its supporting members, it, may be assumed that
the deck resists, within its plane, the shear resulting from the centrifugal
Figure 3.7.5B Lane Loading forces acting on the live load.

*For the loading of continuous spans involving lane loading refer to Article 3.11.3 3.11 APPLICATION OF LIVE LOAD
which provides for an additional concentrated load.
3.11.1 Traffic Lane Units

3.10 CENTRIFUGAL FORCES

3.10.1 Structures on curves shall be designed for a horizontal radial In computing stresses, each 3.0 m lane load or single standard truck
force equal to the following percentage of the live load, without impact, shall be considered as a unit, and fractions of load lane widths or trucks
in all traffic lanes: shall not be used.

3.11.2 Number and Position of Traffic Lane Units

0.7952
C = _____________________________________(3-2)
• The number and position of the lane load or truck loads shall be as
specified in Article 3.7-and, whether lane or truck loads, shall be such as
to produce maximum stress, subject to the reduction specified in Article
3.12.

3-12 3-13
 3.11.3 Lane Loads on Continuous Spans

For the determination of maximum negative moment in the design

of continuous spans, the lane load shown in Figure 3.7.5B shall be
modified by the addition of a second, equal weight concentrated load
placed in one other span in the series in such position to produce the
maximum effect. For maximum positive moment, only one concentrated
MS 18 36 kN
•
144kN
144 kN•
108 kN
load shall be used per lane, combined with as many spans loaded
MS 13.5 27 kN 108 IN uniformly as are required to produce maximum moment.

3.11.4 Loading for Maximum Stress

3.11.4.1 On both simple and continuous spans, the type of loading,

whether lane load or truck load, to be used shall be the loading which
produces the maximum stress. The moment and shear tables given in
Appendix A show which type of loading controls for simple spans.
COMBINED WEIGHT ON THE FIRST TWO AXLES WHICH IS THE SAME AS
FOR THE CORRESPONDING H TRUCK 3.11.4.2 For continuous spans, the lane loading shall be continuous
V = VARIABLE SPACING - 4.20 m TO 9.0 m INCLUSIVE. SPACING TO BE USED or discontinuous; only one standard M or MS truck per lane shall be
IS THAT WHICH PRODUCES MAXIMUM STRESSES. considered on the structure.
CLEARANCE AND
L O A D LANE WIDTH
3.0m 3.12 REDUCTION IN LOAD INTENSITY
CURB ,
3.12.1 Where maximum stresses are produced in any member by
1
0-60 m 1.80 m 0.60 m
J loading a number of traffic lanes simultaneously, the following
percentages of the live loads shall be used in view of the improbability of
Figure 3.7.6A Standard-MS Trucks coincident maximum loading:
Percent
 In the design of timber floors and orthotropic steel decks (excluding transverse
beams) for MS 18 loading, one axle load of 108 kN of two axle loads of 72 kN each, spaced One or two lanes .......................................... 100
1.20 m apart may be used, whichever produces the greater stress, instead of the 144 kN axle Three lanes .................................................. 90
shown.
Four lanes or more ....................................... 75
 * For slab design, the center line of wheels shall be assumed to be 0.30 m from face of
curb. (See Article 3.24.2) 3.12.2 The reduction in intensity of loads' on transverse members
such as floor beams shall be determined as in the case of main trusses
or girders, using the number of traffic lanes across the width of
roadway that must be loaded to produce maximum stresses m the floor
beam.

3-14 3-15
3.13 ELECTRIC RAILWAYS LOADS 3.14.2.1 Curbs shall be designed to resist a lateral force of not less
than 7.3 kN per linear meter of curb, applied at the top of the curb, or at
If highway bridges carry electric railway traffic, the railway loads an elevation 250 mm above the floor if the curb is higher than 250 mm.
shall be determined from the class of traffic which the bridge may be
expected to carry. The possibility that the bridge may be required to 3.14.2.2 Where sidewalk, curb, and traffic rail form an integral
carry railroad freight cars shall be given consideration. system, the traffic railing loaning shall be applied and stresses in curbs
computed accordingly.
3.14 SIDEWALK, CURB, AND RAILING LOADING
3.14.3 Railing Loading
3.14.1 Sidewalk Loading
For Railing Loads, see Article 2.7.
3.14.1.1 Sidewalk floors, stringers- and their immediate supports
shall be designed for a live load of 4070 newton per square meter of 3.15 WIND LOADS
sidewalk area. Girders, trusses, arches, and other members shall be
designed for the following sidewalk live loads: The wind load shall consist of moving uniformly distributed loads
Span 0 to 7.80 m in length .......................... 4070 Pa applied to the exposed area of the structure. The exposed area shall be
Span 7.81 to 30.5 m in length ....................... 2870 Pa the sum of the area of all members, including floor system and railing,
Span over 30.5 m in length according to the formula as seen in elevation at 90 degrees to the longitudinal axis of the
structure. The forces and loads given herein are for a base wind
velocity of 160 km per hour. For Group II and Group V loadings, but
P = (1,435 + 43,800) (16,7 - \V)
(3 - 3) not for Group III and Group VI loadings, they may be reduced or
L 15.2 ) increased in the ratio of the square of the design wind velocity to the
in which square of the base wind velocity provided that the maximum probable
wind velocity can be ascertained with reasonable accuracy, or provided
P = live load in Pa, max. 2870 Pa. that there are permanent features of the terrain which make such changes
L = loaded length of sidewalk in meters. safe and advisable. If a change in the design wind velocity is made, the
W = width of sidewalk in meters. design wind velocity shall be shown on the plans.

3.14.1.2 In calculating stresses in structures that support 3.15.1 Superstructure Design

cantilevered sidewalks, the sidewalk shall be fully loaded on only one
side of the structure if this condition produces maximum stress. 3.15.1.1 Group 11 and Group V Loadings

3.14.1.3 Bridges for pedestrian and/or bicycle traffic shall be 3.15.1.1.1 A wind load of the following intensity shall be applied
designed for a live load of 4070 Pa. horizontally at right angles to the longitudinal axis of_the structure:

314.1.4 Where bicycle or pedestrian bridges are expected to be For trusses and arches .......................................... 3590 Pa
used by maintenance vehicles, special design consideration should be
made for these loads. 3.14.2 CURB LOADING
For girders and beams 2390 Pa

3-16 3-17
 3.15.1.1.2 The total force shall not be less than 4380 N/rn in the The loads listed above shall be used in Group II and Group V
plane of the windward chord and 2190 N/m in the plane of the leeward loadings as given in Article 3.22.
chord on truss spans, and not less than 4380 Nim on girder spans.
3.15.2.1.2 For Group III and Group VI loadings, these loads may
3.15.1.2 Group III and Group VI Loadings be reduced by 70 percent and a load per linear meter added as a wind
load on a moving live load, as given in the following table:
Group HI and Group VI loadings shall comprise the loads used for Skew Angle
Group II and Group V loadings reduced by 70 percent and a load of of Wind Lateral Load Longitudinal Load
1460 N/m applied at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the structure Degrees Nim Nim
and 1.80 m above the deck as a wind load on a moving live load. When 0 1460 0
reinforced concrete floor slab or a steel grid deck is keyed to or attached 15 1285 175
to its supporting members, it may be assumed that the deck resists, 30 1200 350
within its plane, the shear resulting from the wind load on the moving 45 960 467
live load. 60 500 555

3.15.2 Substructure Design This load shall be applied at a point 1.80 m above the deck.

Forces transmitted to the substructure by the superstructure and 3.15.2.1.3 For the usual girder and slab bridges having maximum
forces applied directly to the substructure by wind loads shall be as span lengths of 38 m the following wind loading may be used in lieu of
follows: the more precise loading specified above:

3.15.2.1 Forces from Superstructure W (wind load on structure)

2390 Pa, transverse;
3.15.2.1.1 The transverse and longitudinal forces transmitted by the 575 Pa, longitudinal;
superstructure to the substructure for various angles of wind direction Both forces shall be applied simultaneously.
shall be as set forth in the following table. The skew angle is measured
from the perpendicular to the longitudinal axis and the assumed wind
direction shall be that which produces the maximum stress in the
substructure. The transverse and longitudinal forces shall be applied
simultaneously at the elevation of the center of gravity of the exposed
area of the superstructure.
Trusses Girders
Skewed Angle Lateral Longitudinal Lateral Longitudinal
Wind Load Load Load Load
DelYees Pa Pa Pa Pa
0 3590 0 2390 0
15 3350 575 2110 290
30 3110 1340 1960 575
45 2250 1960 1580 766
60 1150 2390 810 910
WL (wind load on live load) 3.17 UPLIFT
1.5 kN/m, transverse;
0.60 kN/m, longitudinal; 3.17.1 Provision shall be made for adequate attachment of the
Both forces shall be applied simultaneously. superstructure to the substructure by ensuring that the calculated uplift
at any support is resisted by tension members engaging a mass of
3.15.2.2 Forces Applied Directly to the Substructure masonry equal to the largest force obtained under one of the following
conditions:
The transverse and longitudinal forces to be applied directly to the
substructure for a 160 km/hr. wind shall be calculated from an assumed (a) 100 percent of the calculated uplift caused by any loading or
wind force of 20 kPa. For wind directions assumed skewed to the combination of loadings in which the live plus impact loading is
substructure this force shall be resolved into components perpendicular increased by 100 percent.
to the end and front elevations of the substructure. The component (b) 150 percent of the calculated uplift at working load level.
perpendicular to the end elevation shall act on the exposed substructure
area as seen in end elevation and the component perpendicular to the 3.17.2 Anchor bolts subject to tension or other elements of the
front elevation shall act on the exposed areas and hall be applied structure stressed under the above conditions shall be designed at 150
simultaneously with the wind loads from the superstructure. The above percent of the allowable basic stress.
loads are for Group II and Group V loadings and may be reduced by
70 percent for Group III and Group VI loadings, as indicated in Article
3.18 FORCE FROM STREAM CURRENT
3.22.
All piers and other portions of structures that are subject to the
3.15.3 Overturning Forces force of flowing water or drift shall be designed to resist the maximum
stresses, induced thereby.
The effect of forces tending to overturn structures shall be
calculated under Groups H, III, V, and VI of Article 3.22 assuming that 3.18.1 Force of Stream Current on Piers
the wind direction is at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the
structure. In addition, an upward force shall be applied at the windward The effect of flowing water on piers shall be calculated by the
quarter point of the transverse superstructure width. This force shall be formula:
1.0 kiloPascals of deck and sidewalk plan area for Group II and Group
V combinations and 0.3 kiloPascals for Group III and Group VI P =KV2 (3-4)
combinations.

3.16 THERMAL FORCES where:

Provision shall be made for stresses or movements resulting from P = pressure in Pascals (Pa)
variations in temperature. The rise and fall in temperature shall be V = velocity of water in m/s;
fixed for the locality in which the structure is to be constructed and K = a constant, being 708 for square ends, 258 for angle ends
shall be computed from an assumed temperature at the time of erection. where the angle is 30 degrees or less. and 343 for circular
Due consideration shall be given to the lag between air temperature and piers.
the interior temperature of massive concrete nit-tubers or structures.

3-20 3-21
3.19 BUOYANCY Part B
COMBINATIONS OF LOADS
Buoyancy shall be considered where it affects the design of either
substructure including piling, or the superstructure. 3.22 COMBINATIONS OF LOADS

3.20 EARTH PRESSURE 3.22.1 The following Groups represent various combinations of loads
and forces to which a structure may be subjected. Each component of
3.20.1 Structures which retain fills shall be proportioned to withstand the structure, or the foundation on which it rests, shall be proportioned
pressure as given by Rankine's formula; provided, however, that no to withstand safely all group combinations of these forces that are
structure shall be designed for less than an equivalent fluid weight applicable to the particular site or type. Group loading combinations
(mass) of 4.7 IN/m3 for Service Load Design and Load Factor Design are given by:

Group (t‘.i) APD D + I3L (L + I) + Pc CF + PE E +

3.20.2 For rigid frames a maximum of one-half of the moment caused
by earth pressure (lateral) may be used to reduce the positive moment in pB B +Os SF + pw W + WL
the beams, in the top slab, or in the top and bottom slab, as the case + PLLF + P, (R + S + T) + PEQ EQ] (3-4)
may be. where
N = group number,
3.20.3 When highway traffic can come within a horizontal distance load factor, see Table 3.22.1.A;
7
from the top of the structure equal to one-half its height, the pressure = coefficient, see Table 3.22.1A;
shall have added to it a live load surcharge pressure equal to not less D = dead load;
than 0.60 m of earth. L = live load;
I = live load impact;
3.20.4 Where an adequately designed reinforced concrete approach E = earth pressure;
slab supported at one end by the bridge is provided, no live load = buoyancy;
B
surcharge need be considered.
W. = wind load on structure;
WL = wind load on live load ---1.46 kN/m;
3.20.5 All designs shall provide for the thorough drainage of the back- = longitudinal force from live load;
LF
filling material by means of weep holes and crushed rock, pipe drains or CF = centrifugal force;
gavel drains, or by perforated drains. = rib shortening;
R
S
= shrinkage;
3.21 EARTHQUAKES = temperature; =
T earthquake; = stream
In regions where earthquakes may be anticipated, structures EQ flow pressure;
shall be designed to resist earthquake motions by considering the SF
relationship of the site to active faults, the seismic response of the
soils at the site, and the dynamic response characteristics of the total
structure in accordance with the criteria as prescribed in Section 21.
3.22.2 For service load design, the percentage of the basic unit stress
for the various groups is given in Table 3.22.1A. y a

The loads and forces in each group shall be taken as appropriate

[ Go t

I
1
from Articles 3.3 to 3.21. The maximum section required shall be used.

[ 001
EE1
3

051
ott
czt

[
/
Table 3.22.1A Table of Coefficients y and [3

czt
**
czt

ot
int
0
E t ZI

1
3.22.3 For load factor design, the gamma and beta factors given in
Table 3.22.1A are only intended for designing structural members by
0 0 0 0 0 00 0 ,.. 0 0 0
the load factor concept. The actual loads should not be increased by the
factors given in the table when designing foundations (soil pressure, 000 lei , 0 . .

I
pile loads, etc.). The load factors are also not intended to be used when

0
0
checking the foundation stability (safety factors against overturning,

I
sliding, etc.), of a structure. 0 0

01
0 00 0 • 0
3.223 Structures may be analyzed for an overload that is selected by
the operating agency. Size and configuration of the overload, loading
3.22.4 When long span distribution
structures are
willbeing designedwithby load factor
ii ..
combinations, and load be consistent procedures .

I0 . . ..■ . . .

6
0

1 3
design, the gamma and beta factors specified for Load Factor
defined in permit policy of that agency. The lead shall be applied in Design
represent
Group 113 general conditions and should
For allbeloadings
increased if, in
M the

[
as defined in Table 3.22.1A. less than 18,

E0
0 0 01 0( . 0
Engineer's judgment, expected loads, service conditions, or materials of
._,

8
Group lA loading combination shall be used (see Article 3.5).

13FACTORS
construction are different from those anticipated by the specifications. .

11 _Ell=

1 3
9
1.

111
• -
r•-■ .-I
•I

5
0 ," 0 • ... 0 .. 0

17

[
0
VE
0 0 • -. 0 0 00 0 a 0 0

I
p e

ri 0 C. • --. c,

E
--+--+ G

111 "-

re
z o
v-I

Z
•••■■

[ ()I
1 01
1"
1
0'1

O'I

0'1 rn
0'1
0 -I

01
.
t HI

"
FON *f0p,

I IA

IxI
and,

IIA
A
.

41V01 3D1A113S

3-24 3-25
 (L + 1)n - Live load plus impact for M and MS loading
(L + 1)p - Live load plus impact consistent with the overload criteria of
IEIZI the operation agency.
. ... * 1.25 may be used for designed of outside roadway beam when combination of
sidewalk live load as well as traffic live load plus impact governs the design, but the
S
avismiddy low capacity of the section should not be less than required for highway traffic live load only
-
• r ,- using a beta factor of 1.67. 1.00 may be used for design of deck slab with combination of
R

0 0 0 0 0 00 0 r=1. CI, loads as described in Article 3.24.2.2.

,
0
, CF E B SF W WL LF EQ %

r Percentage = Maximum Unit Stress (Operating Rating) x 100

O

0 0 0 r•• r•r 000 Allowable Basic Unit Stress

1

0 C'
• -1 0
T

. ► e
For Service Load Design
01

0 0 (Z) 0 .. 0 0 .. 000
C

0
% (Column 13) Percentage of Basic Unit Stress
Table 3.22.1A Table of Coefficients y and 13

0000-.00.-
A

No increase in allowable unit stresses shall be permitted for members or connections

6

.0000
carrying wind loads only.
I E'0

I E°
F

000.-. 0,-. 00,-.0 RE = 0.7 for vertical loads on Reinforced Concrete Boxes.
8

= 1.00 for lateral loads on Reinforced Concrete Boxes.

p

.-.0 ----- .-,0

11E — 1.00 for vertical and lateral loads on all other structures.
L

- i For culvert loading specifications, see Article 6.2

.....0 ------- .-.0
9

PE = 1.0 and 5.0 for lateral loads on rigid frames (check both loadings to see which
one govern), See Article 3.20_
,3

3
3c1

3
3j

E1
ad

ad

3El

0
E1
S

For Load Factor Design

1
D (L+1)„ (L+1)
I cri
L0 i

RE = 1.3 for lateral earth pressure for retaining walls and rigid frames excluding
0.-.-.0.-.0.-
VVE£

CI. .00 rigid culverts.

T
PE = 0.5 for lateral earth pressure when checking positive moments in rigid
0 0 "1 0 0 0 00 0 0 Ca 0
frames. This complies with Article 3.20.
13E = 1.0 for vertical earth pressure.
[ L91
L9 1
OZ-Z

0 0•
1
-
• — 0— 0 .. 0 13D = 0.75 when checking member for minimum axial load and
■
maximum moment or maximum eccentricity .............. For
I

RU = 1.0 when checking member for maximum axial .......... Column

CI

ad
di
d
a
i
ad
d
a

d
a
Z1

d I El

d I El
fl

.-.1 load and minimum monient .................................... Design

I°E.'

PD 1.0 for flexural and tension members

cz-1

oz.'
cz. t
El

£1
E'1
El

CI

PF = 1.0 for Rigid Culverts

13E = 1.5 for Flexible culverts
9=4 >5 7
anowo

X
ICol. Na.

.-∎

NI9IS3(111013V.4 ITVOI
I

3-26 3-27
For Group X loading (culverts) the rib factor shall be applied to vertical 3.23.2.2 Interior Stringers and Beams
and horizontal loads. The live load bending moment for each interior stringer shall be
determined by applying to the stringer the fraction of a wheel load (both
front and rear) determined in Table 3.23.1.
Part C
DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS
3.23.2.3 Outside Roadway Stringers and Beams
3.23 DISTRIBUTION' OF LOAD TO STRINGERS
3.23.2.3.1 Steel-Timber-Concrete T-Beams
LONGITUDINAL BEAMS, AND FLOOR BEAMS*
3.23.2.3.1.1 The dead load supported by the outside roadway
3.23.1 Position of Loads for Shear stringer or beam shall be that portion of the floor slab carried by the
stringer or beam. Curbs, railings, and wearing surface, if placed after
3.23.1.1 In calculating end shears and end reactions in transverse
the slab has cured, may be distributed equally to all roadway stringers
floor • beams and longitudinal beams and stringers, no longitudinal
or beams.
distribution of the wheel load shall be assumed for the wheel or axle
load adjacent to the end at which the stress is being determined. 3.23.2.3.1.2 The live load bending moment for outside roadway
stringers or beams shall be determined by applying to the stringer or
3.23.1.2 Lateral distribution of the wheel load shall be that beam the reaction of the wheel load obtained by assuming the flooring
produced by assuming the flooring to act as a simple span between to act as a simple span between stringers or beams.
stringers or beams. For loads in other positions on the span, the
distribution for shear shall be determined by the method prescribed for 3.23.2.3.1.3 When the outside roadway beam or stringer supports
moment, except that the calculations of horizontal shear in rectangular the sidewalk live load as well as traffic live load and impact and the
timber beams shall be in accordance with Article 13.3. structure is to be designed by the service load method, the allowable
stress in the beam or stringer may be increased by 25 percent for the
3.23.2 Bending Moments in Stringers and Longitudinal Beams** combination of dead load, sidewalk live load, traffic live load, and
impact, providing the beam is of no less carrying capacity than would
3.23.2.1 General be required if there were no sidewalks. When the combination of
sidewalk live load and traffic live load plus impact governs the design
and the structure is to be designed by the load factor method, 1.25 may
In calculating bending moments in longitudinal beams or stringers, be used as the beta factor in place of 1.67.
no longitudinal distribution of the wheel loads shall be assumed. The
lateral distribution shall be determined as follows. 3.23.2.3.1.4 In no case shall an exterior stringer have less carrying
capacity than an interior stringer.
* Provision in this Article shall not apply to orthotropic deck bridges. 3.232.3.1.5 In the case of a span with concrete floor supported by
**In view of the complexity of the theoretical analysis involved in the distribution of 4 or more steel stringers. the fraction of the wheel load shall not be less
wheel loads to stringers, the empirical method herein described is authorized for the than:
design of normal highway Bridges.
S
1.68

3-28 3-29
 where S = 1.80 meters or less and is the distance in meter between TABLE 3.23.1 Distribution of Wheel Loads in Longitudinal Beams
outside and adjacent interior stringers, and (continuation)
Bridge Designed for
S Bridge Designed for Two or More
Kind of Floor One Traffic Lane Traffic Lanes
1.22+ 0.25S
where S is more than 1.80 m and less than 4.20 m. When S is 4.20 On Concrete
T- Beams S/1.98 5/1.83
m or more, use footnote f, Table 3.23.1. If S exceed 1.80 m If S exceed 3.0 m
use footnote f use footnote f
TABLE 3.23.1 Distribution of Wheel Loads in Longitudinal Beams On Timber
Stringers 5/1.83 5/1.52
Bridge Designed for If S exceed 1.80 m If S exceed 3.0 m
Two or More use footnote f use footnote f
Bridge Designed for
Kind of floor One Traffic Lane Traffic Lanes Concrete Box
Crirdersh S/2.44 S/2.13
If S exceed 3.60 m If S exceed 4.90 m
Timber' 5/1.22 S11.14 use footnote f use footnote f
Plank
Nail laminated' On Steel Box Girders See Article 10.39.2
100mm thick or multiple On Prestressed Concrete
layers floors over 125 mm Spiead Box Beams See Article 3.28
thick 5/1.37 511.22
Nail laminated' Steel Grid:
150 mm or more thick 511.50 5/1.30 (Less than 100 mm thick ) 5/1.37 S/1.22
if S exceed 1.52m If S exceeds 2.0m ( 100 mm or more ) S/1.83 S/1.52
If S exceed 1.80m If S exceed 3.2 m
use footnote f. use footnote I. use footnote f use footnote f
Glued Laminated' Steel Bridge
Panels on Glued Corrugated Plank'
Laminated Stringers ( 50 mm mM .depth ) S/1.68' S/1_37
100 mm thick S/1 37 5/1.22 S = average smitger ipse:g in meters.
150 mm or more thick S/1.80 5/1.50 ▪ Timber dimemsions shown are for nominal thickness.
If S exceeds 1.80 m If S exceeds 2.30 m
` Plank Boors consist apiece' oflumber laid edge to edge with the wide faces bearing as the supports. Nail
use footnote f use footnote f laminated Boors coexist of pieces of himber laid face to face with the narrow edges bearing on the Nippon;
On Steel Stringers each piece Wag sailed to the preceding piece.
100 mm thick S11.37 S11.22 d Multiple layer Boors moist of two layers of planks, each layer being laid at an angle to the other.

150 mm thick S/1.60 S11.37 Glued Imitated prod Boors consist of vertically glued laminated members with the narrow edges of the
If S exceed 1.70 m If S exceed 2.10 m laminations bearing on the arpports.
use footnote f use footnote f In this ease the load oa each stringer shall be the reaction of the wheel loads, assuring the Booring between the
Concrete : stringers to as as a simple beam.
On Steel I- Beam ▪ 'Design of I-Beam Bridges " by N. M. Newnisrk - Proceedings, ASCE, March 1948.
▪ The sidewalk live load shall be omitted for interior and exterior box gickra designed in accordance with the
Stringersg and
Prestressed Concrete wheal load thrtribation indicated herein.
Girders 512-13 S/1 68 Distriehiom factors for Steel Bridge Corrupted Plank set forth above are based substantially et. the following
If S exceed 3.0 m If S exceed 4.30 m CarereliCC:
karma of Washisgton Academy of Sciecees, Vol. 67. No. 2, 1977 "Wheel Load Distribution of Steel Bridge
use footnote f use footnote f Plank," by Conrad P. Heim Professor of Civil Eagineerig. University of Maryland.
These distribution Beton were developed based ao studies wig 150 ram x 50 nun steel corrugated plink. The
factors should yield safe results for other corrugation configurstious provided primary bending stiffness is the same as or
greater than the 150 man x 50 mm corrupted plank used in the studies.

3 30
- 3 31
-
 Fraction of Wheel Load
3.23.2.3.2 Concrete Box Girders Kind of Floor to Each Floor Beam
3.23.2.3.2.1 The dead load supported by the exterior girder shall pianka,b S / 1.22
be determined in the same manner as for steel, timber, or concrete T-
beams, as given in Article 3.23.13.1. Nail laminate& or glued laminated', S / 1.37
100 mm in thickness, or multiple layers
3.23.2.3.2.2 The factor for the wheel load distribution to the floors more than 125 mm thick
exterior girder shall be We/2.13, where We is the width of exterior
girder which shall be taken as the top slab width, measured from the Nail laminate& or glued laminated`, S / 1.5251
midpoint between girders to the outside edge of the slab. The
150 mm or more in thickness
cantilever dimension of any slab extending beyond the exterior girder
shall preferably not exceed half the girder spacing.
Concrete S / 1.831
3.23.2.3.3 Total Capacity of Stringers and Beams Steel grid (less than 100 mm thick) 5 / 1.37
The combined design load capacity of all the beams and Steel grid (100 mm or more) 511.831
stringers in a span shall not be less than required to support the total
live and dead load in the span. Steel bridge corrugated plank
(50 mm minimum depth) S / 1:68
3.23.3 Bending Moments in Floor Beams (Transverse)
Note:
3.23.3.1 In calculating bending moments in floor beams, no S a spacing of floor beams meters.
transverse distribution of the wheel loads shall be assumed. For footnotes a through e, see Table 123. I .

3.23.3.2 If longitudinal stringers are omitted and the floor is f

lf S exceeds denominator, the load on the beam shall be the reaction of the wheel loads assigning
the flooring between beams to act as a simple beam.
supported directly on floor beams, the beams shall be designed for
loads determined in accordance with Table 3.23.3.1.
3.23.4.2 In calculating bending moments in multi-beam precast
concrete bridges, conventional or prestressed, no longitudinal
3.23.4 Precast Concrete Beams Used in MultiBeam Decks distribution of wheel load shall be assumed.
3.23.4.1 A multi-beam bridge is constructed _ with precast 3.23.43 The live load bending moment for each section shall be
reinforced or prestressed concrete beams that are placed side by side on determined by applying to the beam the fraction of a wheel load (both
the supports. The interaction between the beams is developed by front and rear) determined by the following equation:
continuous longitudinal shear keys and lateral bolts that may, or mays
not, be prestressed.
TABLE 3.23.3.1 Distribution of Wheel Loads in Transverse Beams

3-32 3-33
 S 3.24 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS AND DESIGN OF
Load Fraction = x 3.28 (3-5)
D CONCRETE SLABS*
where:
3.24.1 Span Lengths (See Nrticle 8.8)
S = width of precast member
D = (5.75 -0.5NL) + 0.7NL(1 - 0.2C)2 3.24.1.1 For simple spans the span length shall be the distance
when C 5 center to center of supports but need not exceed clear span plus
(3-6)
thickness of slab.
D = (5.75 - 0.5NL) when C > 5 (3-7)
3.24.1.2 The following effective span lengths shall be used in
NL = number of traffic lanes from Article 3.6;
calculating the distribution of loads and bending moments for slabs
C = K ( WI L) (3-8) continuous over more than two supports:

(a) Slabs monolithic with beams or slabs monolithic with walls

without haunches and rigid top flange prestressed beams with
= overall width of bridge measured perpendicular to the top flange width to minimum thickness ratio less than 4.0, "5"
longitudinal girders in meters; shall be the clear span.
L = span length measured parallel to longitudinal girders (b) Slabs supported on steel stringers, or slabs supported on thin
in meters; for girders with cast-in-place diaphragms top flange prestressed beams with top flange width to
use the length between diaphragms; minimum thickness ratio equal to or greater than 4.0, "5"
K = {(1 +11 ) I/J) 1/2 shall be the distance between edges of top flange plus one-half
of stringer top flange width.
where (c) Slabs supported on timber stringers, 5 shall be the clear span
I • moment of inertia; plus one-half thickness of stringer.
J
• Saint-Venant torsion constant; The slab distribution set forth herein is based substantially on the ' Westersaard" theory. The
• Poisson's ratio for girders. following referaices are furnished concerning the subject of slab design.
For preliminary design, the following values of K may be used:
Public Roads, March 1930, " Compilation of Stresses in Bridge Slabs Due to Wheel Loads,
'by H. M. Westergaard.
Bridge type Beam Type K
Multi-beam Non-voided rectangular beams 0.7 University of Illinois Bulletin No. 103, "Solutions for Certain Rectangular Slabs Continuous
0.8 over Fieinble Supports,' by Vernon P. Jensen; Bulletin 304, "A Distribution Procedure for the
Rectangular beams with circular voids Analysis of Slabs Continuous over Flexible Beams, " by Nathan M. Newmark; Bulletin 315," Moments in
Box section beams 1.0 Simple Span Bridge Slabs with Stiffened Edges," by Vernon P Jensen; and Bulletin 346, "Highway
Channel beams 2.2 Slab Bridges with Curbs; Laboratory Tests and -Proposed Design Method."
3.24.2 Edge Distance of Wheel Loads
The live load moment for simple spans shall be determined by the
following formulas (impact not included):
3.24.2.1 In designing slabs, the centerline of the wheel load shall P1 g = Moment in kN-m/m width of slab (3-9)
be 0.3 m from the face of the curb. If curbs or sidewalks are not used,
the wheel load shall be 0.3 m from the face of the rail.
3.28S + 2 MS 13.5 Loading:
3.24.2.2 In designing sidewalks, slabs and supporting members, a 32
3.28S + 2
wheel load located on the Sidewalk shall be 0.3 m from the face of the P13.5 = Moment in kN-m!m width of slab (3-10)
rail. In service load design, the combined dead, live and impact
stresses for this loading shall be not greater than 150 percent of the
allowable stresses. In load factor design, 1.0 may be used as the beta In slab continuous over three or more supports, a continuity factor
factor in place of 1.67 for the design of deck slabs. Wheel loads shall 32 of 0.8 shall be applied to the above formulas for
not be applied on sidewalks protected by a traffic barrier. both positive and negative moment.

3.24.3 Bending Moment 3.24.3.2 Case B --------- Main Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic

The bending moment per meter width of slab shall be calculated For wheel loads. the distribution width. E. shall be (1.219 + 0.06S)
according to methods given under Cases A and B, unless more exact but shall not exceed 2.10 m. Lane loads are distributed over a width of
methods are used considering tire contact area. The tire contact area 2E. Longitudinally reinforced slabs shall be designed for the
needed for exact methods is given in Article 3.30. appropriate MS loading.

In Cases A and B. For simple spans, the maximum live load moment per meter width
of slab, without impact, is closely approximated by the following
S = effective span length, in meter, as defined under "Span formulas:
Lengths" Articles 3.24.1 and 8.8;
E = width of slab in meter over which a wheel load is MS 18 Loading:
distributed;
P = load on one rear wheel of truck (P13.5 or P18); Spans up to including 15 In: LLM = 13.148 kN-mlm
P13 5 = 54 kN for M 13.5 loading;
.

P 18 = 72 kN for M 18 loading; Spans 15 m to 30 m: LLM = 14.6 (1.3S-6.1) kN-mlm

3.24.3.1 Case A ------- Main Reinforcement Perpendicular to MS 13.5 Loading:

Traffic (Spans 0.61 m to 7.32 m. Inclusive)
Use 3/4 of the values obtained from the formulas for MS 18
loading

3-37

3-36
MS 18: Loading:
Moments in continuous spans shall be determined by suitable analysis Railing loads shall be applied in accordance with Article 2.7. The
using the truck or appropriate lane loading. effective length of slab resisting post loadings shall be equal to E
0.8X + 1.14 m where no parapet is used and equal to E = 0.8X + 1.52
3.24.4 Shear and Bond m where a parapet is used, where X is the distance in meter from the
center of the post to the point under investigation. Railing and wheel
Slabs designed for bending moment in accordance with Article loads shall not be applied simultaneously.
3.24.3 shall be considered satisfactory in bond and shear.
3.24.6 Slabs Supported on Four Sides
3.24.5 Cantilever Slabs
3.24.6.1 For slabs supported along four edges and reinforced
3.24.5.1 Truck Loads in both directions, the proportion of the load carried by the short span
of the slab shall be given by the following equations:
Under the following formulas for distribution of loads on cantilever
slabs, the slab is designed to support the load independently of the b4
For uniformly distributed load, p`
effects of any edge support along the end of the cantilever. The a4 + b4
distribution given includes the effect of wheels on parallel elements.
b3
3.24.5.1.1 Case A —Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic
For concentrated load at center, p = ___
a + b'
Each wheel on the element perpendicular to traffic shall be
where (3-14)
distributed over a width according to the following formula:

E = 0.8X + 1.143 (3-11) 3.24.5.2 Railing Loads

r.

The moment per meter of slab shall be (PIE) X IN-m, in which X p = proportion of load carried by short span;
is the distance in meter from load to point of support. a = length of short span of slab;
b = length of long span of slab.
3.24.5.1.2 Case B --Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic
• 3.24.6.2 Where the length of the slab exceeds 1 1/2 times its
Width; the entire load shall be carried by the transverse reinforcement.
The distribution width for each wheel load on the element parallel
to traffic shall be as follows:
"1:• 3.24.6.3 The distribution width, E, for the load taken by either
span shall be determined as provided for other- slabs. The moments
E = 0.35X + 0.98, but shall not exceed 2.10 m (3-12)
Obtained shall be used in designing the center half of the short and long
The moment per meter of slab shall be (PIE) X kN-m. slabs. The reinforcement steel in the outer quarters of both short and
long spans may be reduced by 50 percent. In the design of
supporting beams, consideration shall be given to the fact that the loads
delivered to the supporting beams are not uniformly distibuted along
(3-13) the beams.

3-38 3-39
3.24.7 Median Slabs 3.24.10 Distribution Reinforcement

Raised median slabs shall be designed in accordance with the 3.24.10.1 To provide for the lateral distribution of the
provisions of this article with truck loadings so placed as to produce concentrated live loads, reinforcement shall be placed transverse to the
maximum stresses. Combined dead, live, and impact stresses shall not main steel reinforcement in the bottoms of all slabs except culvert or
be greater than 150 percent of the allowable stresses. Flush median bridges slabs where the depth of fill over the slab exceeds 0.60 m.
slabs shall be designed without overstresses. 3.24.10.2 The amount of distribution reinforcement shall be the
percentage of the main reinforcement steel required for positive
3.24.8 Longitudinal Edge Beams moment as given by the following formulas:

3.24.8.1 Edge beams shall be provided for all slabs having For main reinforcement parallel to traffic,
main reinforcement parallel to traffic. The beam may consist of a slab
section additionally reinforced, a beam integral with and deeper than
Percentage = —55 Maximum 50% (3-15)
the slab, or an integral reinforced section of slab and curb.

3.24.8.2 The edge beam of a simple span shall be designed to

For main reinforcement perpendicular to traffic,
resist a live load moment of 0.10 PS, where

P = wheel load in kN P 13.5 or P 18. S Percentage = 120 Maximum 67% (3-16)

= span length in meter.

3.24.8.3 For continuous spans, the moment may be reduced by 20 where S = the effective span length in meter.
percent unless a greater reduction results from a more exact analysis.
3.24.10.3 For main reinforcement perpendicular to traffic, the
3.24.9 Unsupported Transverse Edges specified amount of distribution reinforcement shall be used in the
middle half of the slab span, and not less than 50 percent of the
The design assumptions of this article do not provide for the effect specified amount shall be used in the outer quarters of the slab span.
of loads near unsupported edges. Therefore, at the ends of the bridge
and at intermediate points where the continuity of the slab is broken, the 3.25 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON TIMBER
edges shall be supported by diaphragms or other suitable means. The FLOORING
diaphragms shall be designed to resist the full moment and shear
produced by the wheel loads which can come on them. For the calculation of bending moments in timber flooring each
wheel load shall be distributed as follows.

3.25.1 Transverse Flooring

3.25.1.1 In direction of span.), the wheel load shall be distributed

over the width of tire as given in Article 3.30.
Normal to direction of span, the wheel load shall be distributed
over the width of the tire.

3-40 3-41
 Plank floor: the width of plank Thus t 116Mx (3-19)
Non-interconnected* nail laminated panel floor: 375 mm, but not
to exceed panel width Fb
or
Non-interconnected glued laminated panel floor: 375 mm plus 111 103
thickness of floor, but not to exceed panel width. Continuous nail t = whichever is greater (3-20)
2F,
laminated floor and interconnected nail laminated panel floor, with
adequate shear transfer between panels**: 375 mm plus thickness of where
floor, but not to exceed panel width.
Mx = primary bending moment in N-m/m;
Interconnected* glued laminated panel floor, with adequate shear
11.„ = primary shear N/m;
transfer between panels**, not less than 150 mm thick: 375 mm plus
x = denotes direction perpendicular to longitudinal stringers:
twice thickness of floor, but not to exceed panel width.
P = design wheel load in Newtons;
s = effective deck span in meters;
3.25.1.2 For transverse flooring the span shall be taken as the = deck thickness, in mm, based on moment or shear, whichever
clear distance between stringers plus one-half the width of one stringer, controls;
but shall not exceed the clear span plus the floor thickness. K = design constant depending on design load as follows:
3.25.1.3 One design method for interconnected glued laminated M 13.5 K = 0.47
panel floors is as follows: For glued laminated panel decks using
M 18 K = 0.51
vertically laminated lumber with the panel placed in a transverse
direction to the stringers and with panels interconnected using steel = allowable bending stress, in MPa, based on load applied
dowels, the determination of the deck thickness shall be based on the ,parallel to the wide face of the laminations (see Tables
following equations for maximum unit primary moment and shear.*** 13.2.2A and B);
The maximum shear is for a wheel position assumed to be 375 mm or
F, = allowable shear stress, in MPa, based on load applied parallel
less from the centerline of the support. The maximum moment is for a
to the wide face of the laminations (see Tables 13.2.2A and
wheel position assumed to be centered between the supports.
B).
Mx = P1.51 logi9(3936S) — K1 (3-17) ,3.25.1.4 The determination of the minimum size and spacing
required of the steel dowels required to transfer the load between panels
R, = L338P (3-18) shall be based on the following equation:

* The terms interconnected and non-interconnected refer to joints between the individual nail n ' __ x Y— +
laminated or glued laminated panels (3-21)
6 895
** This shear transfer may be accompiishes using mechanical fasteners, splines, or dowels along — [ R M
the panel joint or other suitable means. aPE, R
D

*** The equations are developed for deck panel spans equal to or greater than the width of where
the tire (as specified in Article 3.30), but not greater than 5.0 m

n = number of steel dowels required for the given spans;

apt, = proportional limit stress perpendicular to grain, Pa;

3-42 3-43
Ry = total secondary shear transferred, in Newtons, determined by the 3.25.1.5 In addition, the dowels shall be checked to ensure that the
allowable stress of the steel is not exceeded using the following
relationship equations:

Ry = 0236 Ps for s 51.3m (3-22) a =1/n (C RTy + Cm 1

%7 y) (3-26)
or
Ry = TPs(s - 050) for s > 1.3m. (3-23) where

a = minimum yield point of steel pins in

My = total secondary moment transferred, in N-m, determined by Pascals (see Table 10.32.1A)
the relationship n, R y My = as previously defined;
My = 71-0Ps (s - 025) for s > 1.3 m. (3-24)
CR, Cm .=-• steel stress coefficients as given in
preceding table
Ps - 0.75) (3-25)
M y = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ for for s >1.3m. 3.25.2 Plank and Nail Laminated Longitudinal Flooring
20 ts 025)

RD and MD = shear moment capacities, respectively, as given in the 3.25.2.1 In the direction of the span, the wheel load shall be
following table: considered a point loading.
Total
3.25.2.2 Normal to the direction of the span the wheel load shall
Shear Moment Steel Stress Dowel be distributed as follows:
Diameter capacity Capacity Coeffcients Length
of Dowel RD MD CR CM Required
Plank floor: width of plank
2 3 Non-interconnected nail laminated floor: width of tire plus
mm N N-m 1/m 1/m mm
thickness of floor, but not to exceed panel width. Continuous nail
12 2670 96 .0238 .0013 220 laminated floor and interconnected nail laminated floor, with adequate
16 3560 151 .0144 .0007 250 shear transfer between panels*, not less than 150 mm thick: width of
20 4540 221 .0096 .0004 290 tire plus twice thickness of floor.
22 5600 307 .0068 .0002 330
25 6760 410 .0050 .0002 370 3.25.2.3 For longitudinal flooring the span shall be taken as the
28 7960 528 .0038 .00012 390 clear distance between floor beams plus one-half the width of one beam
32 9340 672 .0030 .00009 430 but shall not exceed the clear span plus the floor thickness.
36 10760 832 .0024 .00006 460
38 12320 1016 .0020 .00005 500
* This shear transfer may be accomplished using mechanical fasteners, splines, or dowels along the
panel joint or spreader beams located at intavals along the panels or other suitable means.
3.25.3 Longitudinal Glued Laminated Timber Decks Wheel Load Fraction per Panel = 12but not less than 1.0

3.25.3.1 Bending Moment

For wheel loads in other positions on the span, the lateral
In calculating bending moments in glued laminated timber distribution for shear shall be determined by the method prescribed for
longitudinal decks, no longitudinal distribution of wheel loads shall be moment.
assumed. The lateral distribution shall be determined as follows.
3.2533 Deflections

The live load bending moment for each panel shall be determined The maximum deflection may be calculated by applying to the
by applying. to the fraction of a wheel load determined from the panel the wheel load fraction determined by the method prescribed for
following equations: moment.
TWO OR MORE TRAFFIC LANES 3.25.3.4 Stiffener Arrangement
Load Fraction = ____________ W,,
The transverse stiffeners shall be adequately attached to each
or =, whichever is greater
panel, at points near the panel edges, with either steel plates, thru-
L 1 bolts, C-clips or aluminum brackets. The stiffener spacing required
L14 + _______ .525
8.54 will depend upon the spacing needed in order to prevent differential
panel movement; however, a stiffener shall be placed at midspan
ONE TRAFFIC LANE
with additional stiffeners placed at intervals not to exceed 3.0m.
The stiffness factor El of the stiffener shall not be less than 230 IN-m2.
Load Fraction – W w
‘, P L or-1 6P8 , whichever is greater

1.3v + 3.25.4 Continuous Flooring

854
If the flooring is continuous over more than two spans, the
where Wp = Width of Panel: in meters (1.1m 5 Wp 1.4m) maximum bending moment shall be assumed as being 80 percent of that
obtained for a simple span.
L = Length of span for simple span bridges and the length of the
shortest span for continuous bridges in meters. 3.26. DISTRIBUTION . OF WHEEL LOADS AND DESIGN OF
COMPOSITE WOOD-CONCRETE MEMBERS
3.25.3.2 Shear
3.26.1 Distribution of Concentrated loads for Bending Moment
When calculating the end shears and end reactions for each panel, and Shear
no longitudinal distribution of the wheel loads shall be assumed. The
lateral distribution of the wheel load at the supports shall be that 3.26.1.1 For freely supported or continuous slab spans of
determined by the equation. composite wood-concrete construction, the wheel loads shall be
distributed over a transverse width of 1.5m for bending moment and a
width of 1.2m for shear.

3-46 3-47
 3.26.11 For composite T-beams of wood and concrete, the in which
effective flange width shall not exceed that given in Article 10.38.3.-
Shear connectors shall be capable of resisting both vertical and E, = modulus of elasticity of concrete;
horizontal movement. Ew = modulus of elasticity of wood;
Es = modulus of elasticity'of steel.
3.26.2 Distribution of Bending Moments in Continuous Spans
3.27 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON STEEL GRID
3.26.2.1 Both positive and negative moments shall be distributed FLOORS*
in accordance
with the following 3.27.1 General
table: Maximum Bending Moments ---Percent of Simple
Span Moment 3.27.1.1 The grid floor shall be designed as continuous, but simple
Maximum Uniform span moments may be used and reduced as provided in Article 3.24.
Maximum Live Load
Moments Dead Load Moments
Wood Composite Concentrated Uniform 3.27.1.2 The following rules for distribution of loads assume that
Subdeck Slab Load Load the grid floor is composed of main elements that span between girders,
Span Pos. Neg. Pos. Neg. Pos. Neg. Pos. Neg. stringers, or cross beams, and secondary elements that are capable of
transferring load between the main elements.
Interior 50 50 55 45 75 25 75 55
3.27.1.3 Reinforcement for secondary elements shall consist of
End 2- 70 60 70 60 85 30 85 65
bars or shapes welded to the main steel.
Spann 65 70 60 75 85 30 80 75
'Continuous beam of 2 equal spans.
3.27.2 Floors Filled with Concrete
3.26.2.2 Impact should be considered in computing stresses for
3.27.2.1 The distribution and bending moment shall be as
concrete and steel, but neglected for wood.
specified for concrete slabs, Article 3.24. The following items
specified in that article shall also apply to concrete filled steel grid
3.26.3 Design
floors:
The analysis and design of composite wood-concrete members
Longitudinal edge beams
shall be based on assumptions that account for the different mechanical
Unsupported transvers edges
properties of the components. A suitable procedure may be based on
Spans lengths
the elastic properties of the materials as follows:

Exi__ 1 for slab in which the net concrete thickness is less than half
E. — the overall depth of the composite section * Provisions in this article shall not apply to °allotropic bridge superstructures

E, 2 for slab in which the net concrete thickness is at least half the
E.„„ overall depth of the composite section
ES = 11.6 for Yacal
E,

3-48 3-49
 3.27.2.2 The strength of the composite steel and concrete, slab NL
shall be determined by means of the "transformed area" method. The Ng

allowable stresses shall be as set forth in Articles 8.15.2, 8.16.1 and = number of design traffic lanes (Article 3.6);
10.32. = number of beams (4 < Na < 10);
= beam spacing in meters (2.0 < S < 3.40m);
3.27.3 Open Floor = span length in meters;
=0.23 W - (0.10NL - 0.26) - 020NB - 0.12; (3-34)
S
3.27.3.1 A wheel load shall be distributed, normal to the main
elements, over a width equal to 30 mm per ton of axle load plus twice L k W = numeric value of the roadway width between curbs
the distance center to center of main elements. The portion of the load expressed
assigned to each main element shall be applied uniformly over a length in meter (10.7 < W < 20.1).
equal to the rear tire width (500 mm for M18, 375 mm for M13.5).
3.28.2 Exterior Beams
3.27.3..2 The strength of the section shall be determined by the
moment of inertia method. The allowable stresses shall be as set forth The live load bending moment in the exterior beams shall be
in Article 10.32. determined by applying to the beams the reaction of the wheel loads
obtained by assuming the flooring to act as a simple span (of length S)
between beams, but shall not be less than 2/%1L,
3.27.3.3 Edges of open grid steel floors shall be supported by
suitable means as required. These supports may be longitudinal or
transverse, or both, as may be required to support all edges properly. 3.29 MOMENTS, SHEARS, AND REACTIONS

Maximum moments, shear, and reactions are given in tables.

3.27.3.4 When investigating for fatigue, the minimum cycles of
Appendix A, for M 13.5, M 18, MS 13.5, and MS 18 loadings. They
maximum stress shall be used.
are calculated for the standard truck or the lane loading applied to a
single lane on freely supported spans. It is indicated in the table
3.28 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS FOR BENDING MOMENT IN whether the standard truck or the lane loadings produces the maximum
SPREAD BOX GIRDERS.*
stress.
3.28.1 Interior Beams
330 TIRE CONTACT AREA
The live load bending moment for each interior beam in a spread
box beam superstructure shall be determined by applying to the beam The tire contact are shall be assumed as a rectangle with an area in
the fraction (D.F.) of the wheel load (both front and near) determined square millimeters of 1450P, and Length in Direction of traffic/Width of
by the following equation: Tire ratio of 1/2.5, in which P = wheel load in kisT.

2N, S
D . F . =
+k — (3-33)
NB L

* The provisions of Article 3.12 Reduction in Load Intensity, were not applied in the
development of the provisions presented in 3.28.1 and 3.24.
Where

3-50 3-51
 SECTION 4

FOUNDATIONS

4.1 GENERAL

Foundations shall be designed to support all live load and dead

loads, and earth and water pressure loadings in accordance with the
general principles specified in this section. The design shall be made
either with reference to service loads and allowable stresses as provided
in SERVICE LOAD DESIGN or, alternatively, with reference to load
factors, and factored strength as provided in STRENGTH DESIGN.

4.2 FOUNDATION TYPE AND CAPACITY

4.2.1 Selection of Foundation Type

Selection of foundation type shall be based on an assessment of the

magnitude and direction of loading, depth to suitable bearing materials.
evidence of previous flooding, potential for liquefaction, undermining
or scour, swelling potential, ease and cost of construction.

4.2.2 Foundation Capacity

Foundations shall be designed to provide adequate structural

capacity, adequate foundation bearing capacity with acceptable
settlements, and acceptable overall stability of slopes adjacent to the
foundations. The tolerable level of structural deformations is controlled
by the type and span of the superstructure.

4.2.2.1 Bearing Capacity

The bearing capacity of foundations may be estimated using

procedures described in Article 4.4, 4.5, 4.6 or other generally accepted
theories. Such theories are based on soil and rock parameters measured
in-situ and/or laboratory tests. The bearing capacity may also be
determined using load tests.
 4.2.2.2 Settlement o Soil strata
Depth, thickness and variability
The settlement of foundations may be estimated using procedures Identification and classification
described in Articles 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, For service load and Articles 4.11. Relevant engineering properties (i.e., shear stzength,
4.12 or 4.13 for strength design or other generally accepted compressibility, stiffness, permeability, and expansion or
methodologies. Such methods are based on soil and rock parameters collapse potential)
measured directly or inferred from the results of in -situ and/or o Rock strata
laboratory test. Depth to rock
Identification and classification
4.2.2.3 Overall Stability Quality (i.e., soundness, hardness, jointing and presence of
joint filling, resistance to weathering, if exposed, and
The overall stability of slopes in the vicinity of foundations shall solutioning)
be considered as part of the design of foundations. Compressive strength (e.g., uniaxial compression, point load
index)
4.2.3 Soil, Rock and Other Problem Conditions Expansion potential

Geologic and environmental conditions can influence the o Ground water elevation
performance of foundations and may require consideration during o Ground surface elevation
design. To the extent possible, the presence and influence of such o Local conditions requiring special consideration
conditions shall be evaluated as part of the subsurface exploration
program. A representative, but not exclusive, listing of problem Table 4.2.3A Problem Conditions Requiring Special Considerations
conditions requiring special consideration is presented in Table 4.2.3A
for general guidance. Problem
Type Description Comments
4.3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND TESTING
PROGRAMS Organic Soil, Low strength and high compressibility
Highly Plastic Clay
Sensitive Clay Potentially large strength loss upon large straining
The elements of the subsurface exploration and testing programs Micaceous Soil Potentially high compressibility (often saprolitic)
shall be the responsibility of the designer based on the specific
requirements of the project and his or her experience with local it Expansive Clay/Silt; Potentially large expansion upon wetting
geologic conditions. Expansive Slag Complete strength loss and high deformations
Liquefiable Soil due to earthquake loading
4.3.1 General Requirements Collapsible Soil
Potentially large deformations upon wetting
(Caliche; Loess)
As a minimum, the subsurface exploration and testing programs Pyritic Soil Potentially large expansion upon
Laminated Rock Low strength when loaded parallel to bedding
shall define the following, where applicable: Expansive Shale Potentially large expansion upon wetting degrades
readily upon exposure to air/water
Pyritic Shale Expands upon exposure to air/water

4-2 4-3
Problem Where substructure units will be supported on deep foundations,
Type Description Comments the depth of the subsurface exploration shall extend a minimum of 6.0
meters below the anticipated pile or shaft tip elevation. Where pile or
Rock Soluble Rock Soluble in flowing and standing water
(Limestone, Limerock, Gympsum) shaft groups will be used, the subsurface exploration shall extend at
Cretaceous Shale Indicator of potentially corrosive ground water least two times the maximum pile group dimension below the
Weak Claystone Low Strength and readily degradable upon anticipated tip elevation, unless the foundation will be end bearing on
(Red Beds) exposure to air/water
or in rock. For piles bearing on rock, a minimum of 3.0 meters of rock
Gneissic and Schistose Highly distorted with irregular weathering
Rock profiles and steep discontinuities
core shall be obtained at each exploration location to insure the
Subsidence Typical in areas of underground mining or high exploration has not been terminated on a boulder. For shafts supported
ground water extraction on or extending into rock, a minimum of 3.0 meters of rock core, or
Sinkholes/Solutioning Karst topography; typical of areas underlain by length of rock core equal to at least three times the shaft diameter for
carbonate rock strata
isolated shafts or two times the maximum shaft group dimension for a
Condition Negative Skin Friction/ Additional compressive/uplift load on deep
shaft group, whichever is greater, shall be obtained to insure the
Expansion Loading foundations due to settIement/uplift of soil exploration has not been terminated in a boulder and to determine the
Corrosive Environments Acid mine drainage; degradation of certain soil/ physical characteristics of rock within the zone of foundation influence
rock types for design.
Pem►afrost/Frost Typical in northern climates
Capillayy Water Rise of water level in silts and fine sands leading
to strength loss 4.3.3 Minimum Coverage

Exploration log shall include soil and rock strata descriptions, A minimum coverage of one soil boring shall be made for each
penetration resistance for soils (e.g., SPT or qc), and sample recovery substructure unit (see Article 7.1.1 for definition of substructure unit).
and RQD for rock strata. The drilling equipment and method, use of for substructure units over 30.0 meters in width, a minimum of two
drilling mud, type of SPT hammer (i.e safety, donut, hydraulic) or cone borings shall be required.
penetrometer (i.e. mechanical or electrical), and any unusual subsurface
conditions such as artesian pressures, boulders, or other obstructions, or 4.3.4 Laboratory Testing
voids shall also be noted on the exploration logs.
Laboratory testing shall be performed as necessary to determine
4.3.2 Minimum Depth engineering properties including unit weight, shear strength,
compressive strength and compressibility. In the absence of laboratory
Where substructure units will be supported on spread footings, the testing, engineering properties may be estimated based on published
minimum depth of the subsurface exploration shall extend below the test results or local experience.
anticipated beating level a minimum of two footing widths for isolated,
individual footings where L 2B and four footing widths for footings 4.3.5 Scour
where L > 5B. For intermediate footing lengths, the minimum depth
of exploration may be estimated by linear interpolation as a function of The probable depth shall be determined by surface exploration and
L between depths of 2B and 5B below the bearing level. Greater hydraulic studies. Refer to Article 1.3.2 FHWA (1988) for general
depths may be required where warranted by local conditions. guidance regarding hydraulic studies and design.
 Part B Footings shall be designed to keep the maximum soil and rock
pressure within safe bearing value. To prevent unequal settlement,
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD footings shall be designed to keep the bearing pressure as nearly
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN uniform as practical. Footings supported on piles or chilled shafts shall
be designed to ensure nearly equal loads on deep foundation elements
4.4 SPREAD FOOTINGS as may be practical.

4.4.1 General When footings support more than one column, pier or wall,
distribution of soil pressure shall be consistent with the properties of the
foundation materials and the structure, and with the principles of
4.4.1.1 Applicability geotechnical engineering.
Provisions of this Article shall apply for design of isolated
footings, and to combines footings and mats (footings supporting more 4.4.2 Notations
than one column, pier or wall).
The following notations shall apply for the design spread footings
4.4.1.2 Footings Supporting Non-Rectangular Columns or on soil and rock:
Piers
= Contact area of footing (m2)
Footings supporting circular or regular polygon-shaped concrete Effective footing area for computation of bearing capacity of a footing
columns or piers may be designed assuming that the columns or piers A subjected to eccentric load (m 2 ); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1)
act as square members with the same area for location of critical A' bc.b.,.,13,= Base inclination factors (dim); See Article 4.4.7.1.1.8)
sections for moment, shear, and development of reinforcement. B = With of footing (m) (Minimum plan dimensions of footing
unless otherwise noted)
4.4.1.3 Footings in Fill Effective width for load eccentric in direction of short side, L
unchanged (m)
Footings located in fill are subject to the same bearing capacity, c = Soil cohesion (kPa)
settlement and dynamic ground stability considerations as footings in c' = Effective stress soil cohesion (kPa)
natural soil in accordance with Article 4.4.7.1 through 4.4.7.3. The c = Reduced effective stress soil cohesion for purchasing shear
behavior of both the fill and underlying natural soil, shall be considered. (kPa); (See Article 4.4.7.1)
ca = Adhesion between footing and foundation soil or rock (kPa):,
4.4.1.4 Footings in Sloped Portions of Embankments (See Article 5.5.1)
= Coefficient of consolidation (m2/yr); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3) c1
The earth pressure against the back of footings and columns within = Shear strength of Upper cohesive soil layer below footing
the sloped portion of ari embankment shall be equal to the at-rest (kPa); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
pressure in accordance with Article 5.5.1. The resistance due to the e2 = Shear strength of lower cohesive soil layer below footing
passive earth pressure of the embankment_ in front of the footing shall (kPa); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
be neglected to a depth equal to a minimum depth of 1.0 meter, the
depth of the anticipated scour and/or trench excavation in front of the
footing, whichever is greater.
4-7

4-6
4.4.1.5 Distribution of Bearing Pressure
Cc — Compression index (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3) = Slope angle from horizontal of ground surface below footing
Ccr = Recompression ratio (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3) (deg)
= Compression ratio (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3) ic, i1, ig= Load inclination factors (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.3)
Uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock (KPa) 1p = Influence coefficient to account for rigidity and dimensions
= Recompression ratio (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3) of
C. = Coefficient of secondary compression defined as change in footing (dim); (See Article 4.4.8.2.2)
height per log cycle of time (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.4) = Center-to-center spacing between adjacent footings (m)
D = Influence depth for water below footing (m); (See Article L = Length of footing (m)
4.4.7.1.1.4) U = Effective footing length for load eccentric in direction of long
Dr = Depth to base of footing (m) side, B unchanged (m).
dr = Diameter of pile or drilled shaft at footing base (m) L, = Length (or width) of footing having positive contact pressure
e = Void ratio (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3) (compression) for footing loaded eccentrically about one axis
of = Void ratio at final vertical effective stress (dim); (See Article (m)
4.4.7.2.3) n = Exponential factor relating 13/L or LIB ratios for inclined
eQ = Void ratio at initial vertical effective stress (dim); (See Article loading (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.3)
4.4.7.2.3) N = Standard penetration resistance (blows/m)
eP = Void ratio at maximum past vertical effective stress (dim); N1 = Standard penetration resistance corrected for effects of
(See Article 4.4.7.2.3) overburden pressure (blows/m); (See Article 4.4.7.2.2.)
ea = Eccentricity of load in the B direction measured from centroid Nc,N,,Nq = Bearing capacity factors based on the value of internal
of footing (m); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.1) friction of me foundation soil (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1)
eL = Eccentricity of load in the L direction measured from centroid Ns, = Modified bearing capacity factor to account for layered
of footing (m); (See Article 4.7.1.1.1) cohesive soils below footing (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
E. = Modulus of intact rock (kPa) NT,„ = Coefficient factor to estimate quit for rock (dim); (See article
E., = Rock mass modulus (kPa); (See Article 4.8.2.2) 4.4.8.1.2)
Es = Soil modulus (kPa) Ns = Stability number (dim); ( See article 4.4.7.1.1.4)
F = Total force on footing subjected to an inclined load (IN); (See N„, N7q = Modified bearing capacity factors for effects of footing on
Article 4.4.7.1.1.1) or adjacent sloping ground (dim); (See article 4.4.7.1.1.4)
= Unconfined compressive strength of concrete (kPa) P = Tangential component of force between footing base
FS = Factor of safety against bearing capacity, overturning or and
sliding shear failure (dim) foundation soil or rock for sliding failure (kN)
H = Depth from footing base to top of second cohesive soil layer Amax = Maximum resisting force between footing base and foundation
for two-layer cohesive soil profile below footing (m); (See soil or rock for sliding failure (kN).
Article 4.4.7.1.1.7) = Effective overburden pressure at base of footing (kPa)
H = Height of compressible soil layer (m) Q = Normal component of force of footing (kN)
Grit = Critical thickness of the upper layer of two-layer system = Allowable uniform bearing pressure or contact stress
beyond.which the underlying layer will have little effect on the (kPa) = Cone penetration resistance (kPa)
bearing in the upper layer (m); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7) Amax = Maximum footing contact pressure (kPa)
Hd = Height of longest drainage path in compressible soil layer (m) Q.,, = Maximum normal component of load supported by foundation
H, = Height of slope (m); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.4) soil or rock at ultimate bearing capacity (kN)
= Minimum magnitude of footing contact pressure (kPa)

4-8 4-9
qo Vertical stress at base of loaded area (kPa); (See Article 5 = Angle of friction between footing and foundation soil or rock
4.4.7.2.1) (deg); (See Article 5.5.1)
n = 8' = Differential settlement between adjacent footings (m); (See
q1 = Article 4.4.7.2.5)
-111 It Ultimate bearing capacity of footing supported in the upper E, = Vertical strain (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
layer of a two-layer system assuming the upper layer is
Ultimate bearing capacity for uniform bearing pressure (kPa) Ey( = Vertical strain at final vertical effective stress (dim); (See
infinitely thick (kPa); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7) Article 4.4.7.2.3)
Eve = Initial vertical strain (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
Ultimate bearing capacity of a fictitious footing of the same E
NV = Vertical strain at maximum past vertical effective stress (dim);
C12 size and shape as the actual footing, but supported on the (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
surface of the second (lower) layer of a two-layer system = angle of load eccentricity (deg)
(kPa); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7) k = Shear strength ratio (c2/c/) for two layered cohesive soil
R Resultant of pressure on base of footing-(kN) system below footing (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
Radius of circular footing or B/2 for square footing (m); (See
r = = Reduction factor to account for three dimensional effects in
Article 4.4.8.2.2) settlement analysis (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
Rock Quality Designation (dim)
RQD = u = Poison's ratio (dim)
Footing shape factors (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.2) cr't = Final vertical effective stress in soil at depth interval below
= Undrained shear strength of soil (kPa) footing (kPa); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
Consolidation settlement (m); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
S c Q'0 = Initial vertical effective stress in soil at depth interval below
Elastic or immediate settlement (m); (See Article 4.4.7.2.2)
S , footing (kPa); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
Secondary settlement (m); (See Article 4.4.7.2.4)
S, = p = Maximum past vertical effective stress in soil at depth interval
Total settlement (m); (See Article 4.4.7.2)
St = below footing (kPa); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
t = Time to reach specified average degree of consolidation (yr);
(See Article 4.4.7.2.3) 4 = Angle of internal friction (deg)
Arbitrary time intervals for determination of S, (yr); (See = Effective stress angle of internal friction (deg)
ti, t2
Article 4.4.7.2.4) 4* = Reduced effective stress soil friction for punching shear (kPa);
T = Time factor (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3) (See Article 4.4.7.1)
zw = Depth from footing base down to the highest anticipated
ground water level (m); (See Article 4.4.7.1.16) The notations for dimension units include the following dim =
a = Angle of inclination of the footing base from the horizontal Dimensionless; deg = degree; m = meter; kN = Kilo Newton; and kPa
(radian) kilo ,Pascal. The dimensional units provided with each notation are
= Reduction factor (dim); (See Article 4.4.8.2.2) presented for illustration only to demonstrate a dimensionally correct
ccE
= Length factor (dim) combination of units for the footing capacity procedures presented
= Punching index = BL/[2(B + L)F1] (dim); (See Article herein, If other units are -used, the dimensional correctness of the
13m eqUations shall be confirmed.
4.4.7.1.1.7)
= Factor to account for footing shape and rigidity (dim); (See
13z 4.4.3 Design Terminology
Article 4.4.7.2.2)
= Total unit weight of soil or rock (kN/m3)
Refer to Figure 4.4.3A for terminology used in the design of spread
= Buoyant unit weight of soil or rock (kNirn3 )
Y' = Moist unit weight of soil (kN/m3) footing foundations.
yin

4-11.
 4.4.4 Soil and Rock Property Selection

Soil and rock properties defining the strength and compressibility

characteristics of the foundation materials are required for footing
design. Foundation stability and settlement analyses for design shall be
conducted using soil and rock properties based on the result of field
and/or laboratory testing.

4.4.5 Depth

4.4.5.1 Minimum Embedment and Bench Width

Footings shall be embedded a sufficient depth to provide adequate

bearing, scour and heave protection; or 0.90 meters to the bottom of the
footing, whichever is greatest. For footings constructed on slopes, a
minimum horizontal distance of 1.20 meters. measured at the top of
footing, shall be provided between the near face of the footings and the
face of the finished slope.

4.4.5.2 Scour Protection

Footings supported on soil or degradable rock strata shall be

embeded below the maximum computed scour depth or protected with a
scour countermeasure. Footings supported on massive, competent rock
formations which are highly resistant to scour shall be placed directly
on the cleaned rock surface. Where required, additional lateral
resistance should be provided by drilling and grouting steel dowels into
the rock surface rather than blasting to embed the footing below the
rock-surface.

Footings on piles may be located above the lowest anticipated

scow level provided the piles are designed for this condition. Assume
that only 1/2 of the maximum anticipated scour has occured when
designing for earthquake loading. Where footings on piles are subject
to damage by boulders or debris during flood scour, adequate
Figure 4.4.3A Design Terminology for Spread Footing pmtection shall be provided. Footings shall be constructed so as to
Foundations neither pose an obstacle to water traffic nor be exposed to view during
low flow.
 4.4.5.3 Footing Excavations The location of the resultant of pressure (R) on the base of the
footings shall be maintained within B/6 of the center of the footing.
Footing excavations below the ground water table, particularly in
granular soils having relatively high permeability, shall be such that the 4.4.7.1 Bearing Capacity
hydraulic gradient in the excavation bottom is not increased to a
magnitude that would cause the foundation soils to loosen or soften due The ultimate; bearing capacity (for general shear failure) may be
to the upward flow of water. Further, footing excavations shall be made e stimated using the following relationship for continuous footings (i.e.,
such that hydraulic gradients and material removal do not adversely 1_,.>513):
affect adjacent structures. Seepage forces and gradients may be
evaluated by flow net procedures or other appropriate methods. cut = c/%1, + 0_5yBN7 + qNq (4-1)
Dewatering or cut off methods to control seepage shall be used where
necessary.
The allowable bearing capacity shall be determined as:

Footing excavations in nonresistant, easily weathered moisture = quit/FS (4-2)

sensitive rocks shall be protected from weathering immediately after
excavations with lean mix concrete or other approved materials. Refer to Table 4.4.7.1A for values of Nc,

4.4.5.4 Piping
If local or punching failure is possible, the value of quit may be
Piping failures of fine materials through rip-rap or through estimated using reduced shear strength parameter c* and 0* in 4-1 as
drainage backfills behind abutment shall be prevented by properly follows:
designed, graded soil filters or geotextile drainage systems. c* = 0.67c (4-3)
4.4.6 Anchorage 0* =tan "1 (0:67 tan 0) (4-4)

Footings founded on inclined, smooth rock surfaces and which are Effective stress methods of analysis and drained shear strength
not restrained by an overburden of resistant material shall be effectively parameters shall be used to determine bearing capacity factors for
anchored by means of rock anchors, rock bolts, dowels, keys, benching drained loading conditions in all soils. Additionally, the bearing
or other suitable means. Shallow keying or benching of large footing capacity of cohesive soils shall be checked for undrained loading
areas shall be avoided where blasting is required for rock removal. conditions using bearing capacity factors based on undrained shear
strength parameters.
4.4.7 Geotechnical Design of Rock
4.4.7.1.1 Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity
Spread footings on soil shall be designed to support the design
loads with adequate bearing and structural capacity, and with tolerable A modified form of the general bearing capacity equation may be
settlements in conformance with Articles 4.4.7 and 4.4.11 In addition, used to account for the effects of footing, shape, ground surface slope,
the capacity of footings subjected to seismic and dynamic loads, shall base inclination, and inclined loading as follows:
be evaluated in conformance with Articles 4.4.7.3 and 4.4.10.
= cNcscbci + 0.5yBN + qNqsqbgiq (4-5)

4-14 4-15
TABLE 4.4.7.1A Bearing Capacity Factors capacity factors and modifiers (i.e., slope, footing shape and load
Isic Nq N, 0 N, Nq NT inclination factors), and to calculate the ultimate load capacity of the
footing. The reduced footing dimensions shall be determined as
follows:
0 5.14 1.00 0.00 26 22.25 11.85 12.54
1 5.38 1.09 0.07 27 23.94 13.20 14.47 B' = B - 2eB = L-2eL
2 5.63 1.20 0.15 28 25.80 14.72 16.72
3 5.90 1.31 0.24 29 27.86 16.44 19.34
4 6.19 1.43 0.34 30 30.14 18.40 22.40
The effective footing area shall be determined as follows:
5 6.49 1.57 0.45 31 32.67 20.63 25.99
6 6.81 1.72 0.57 32 35.49 23.18 30.22
A' = B'L' (4-8)
7 7.16 1.88 0.71 33 38.64 26.09 35.19
8 7.53 2.06 0.86 34 42.16 29.44 41.06 Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1A for loading definitions and footing
9 7.92 2.25 1.03 35 46.12 33.30 48.03
dimensions.
10 8.35 2.47 1.22 36 50.59 37.75 56.31
11 8.80 2.71 1.44 37 55.63 42.92 66.19
The value of qui, obtained using the reduced footing dimensions
12 9.28 2.97 1.69 38 61.35 48.93 78.03
represents an equivalent uniform bearing pressure and not the actual
13 9.81 3.26 1.97 39 67.87 55.96 92.25
contact pressure distribution beneath the footing. This equivalent
14 10.37 3.59 2.29 40 75.31 64.20 109.41
pressure may be multiplied by the reduced area to determine the
15 10.98 3.94 2.65 41 83.86 73.90 130.22 ultimate load capacity of the footing from the standpoint of bearing
16 11.63 4.34 3.06 42 93.71 85.35 155.55 capacity. The actual contact pressure distribution (i.e., trapezoidal for
17 12.34 4.77 3.53 43 105.11 99.02 186.54 the conventional assumption of a rigid footing and a positive pressure
18 13.10 5.26 4.07 44 118.37 115.31 224.64 along' each footing edge) shall be used for the structural design of the
19 13.93 5.80 4.68 45 133.88 134.88 271.76 footing.
20 14.83 6.40 5.39 46 152.10 158.51 330.35
•
21 15.82 7.07 6.20 47 173.64 187.21 403.67 The actual distribution of contact pressure for a rigid footing with
22 16.88 7.82 7.13 48 199.26 222.31 496.01 eccentric loading about one axis is shown in Figure 4.4.7.1.I.1B. For
23 18.05 8.66 8.20 49 229.93 265.51 613.16 an eccentricity (eL) in the L direction, the actual maximum and
24 19.32 9.60 9.44 50 266.89 319.07 762.89 minimum contract pressures may be determined as follows:
25 20.72 10.66 10.88

foreL < L/6:

Reduced footing dimensions shall be used to account of the effects
of eccentric loading. q x = Q [ 1 + (6eL/L)]IBL (4-9)

4.4.7.1.1.1 Eccentric qmin = Q [ 1 - (6eilL)]/BL (4-10)

(4-6)
Loading
(4-7)
For loads eccentric relative to the centroid of the footing, reduced far L/6 < eL <
footing dimensions (B' and L') shall be used to determine bearing

4-16 4-17
 q r „,„ = 2Q/(3B [ (1)2) - ] iy = [1-P/(Q + BLc cot4 )1(w") (4-20)
q ;n = n = [2 + L/B) / (1+1113) cos 2 0+
L 1 =3 [ ( I A) - ] [(2 + BIL)I(1 + B/L)] sin2O (4-21)

For an eccentricity (e B) in the B direction, the maximum and Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1A for loading definitions and footing
minimum contact pressures may be determined using Equations 4-9 dimensions. For cases in which the loading is eccentric, the terms L
through 4-13 by replacing terms labeled L by B, and terms labeled 13 and B shall be replaced by L' and B', respectively, in the above
by L. equations.

Failure by sliding shall be considered by comparing the tangential

Footings on soil shall be designed so that the eccentricity of
component of force on the footing (P) to the maximum resisting force
loading is less than 1/6 of the footing dimension in any direction.
(Pinix) by the following:
4.4.7.1.1.2 Footing Shape
P = Qtan8 + Blc, (4-22)
For footing shapes other than continuous footings (i.e., L < 5B), the
following shapes factors shall be applied to Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1: FS = P. /P 1.5 (4-23)
sc= 1 + (3/1-) (IiNc) (4-14)
In determining P.., the effect of passive resistance provided by
footing embedment shall be ignored, and BL shall represent the actual
sq = 1 + (13/L) tan 4 (4-15)
footing area in compression as shown in Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1B of Figure
sr = 1 - 0.40 (B/L) (4-16)
4.4.7.1.1.4 Ground Surface slope
For circular footings, B equals L. - For cases in which the loading is
eccentric, the terms L and B shall be replaced by L' and B', For footing located on slopes or within 3B of a slope crest, quit may
respectively, in the above equations. be deiermined using the following revised version of Equation
4.4.7.1.1-1:
4.4.7.1.1.3 Inclined Footings
= ctslcoeb,i, + 0.5 (4-24)
For inclined loads, the following inclination factors shall be
applied in Equation 4.4.7.1.1.-1:
Refer to Figure 4.4.7,1.1.4A for values of Ncq and Nyq for footings
on slopes and Figures 4.4.7.1.1.4B for values of N cq and for
is = iq - [(1-iq)/Nctan 0] (for 0 > 0) (4-17)
footings at the top of slopes. For footings in or above cohesive soil
slopes, the stability number in the figures N, is defined as follows:
is = 1 - (nP/BLcNc) (for 4 = 0) (4-18)
N, = yFls/c (4-25)
iq = [1 - P/(Q + BLc cot0 (4-19)

4-18 4-19
 ;,

Overall stability shall be evaluated for footings on or adjacent

sloping ground surfaces as described in Article 4.4.9

4.4.7.1.1.5 Embedment Depth

The shear strength of soil above the base of footings is neglected in

determining the qui, using Equation 4-5. If other procedures are used.
the affect of embedment shall be consistent with the requirements of the
procedures followed.

4.4.7.1.1.6 Ground Water

Ultimate bearing capacity shall be determined using the highest

anticipated ground water level at the footing location. The effect of
'ground water level on the ultimate bearing capacity shall be considered
by using a weighted average soil unit weight in Equations 4-5. If 4
37°, the following equations may be used to determined the weighted
average unit weight.

forz.,„ B: use y = yn, (no effect) (4-26)

for z„ < B: use y = y' + (z„/B)(yn.,--r) (4-27)

for 0: use y = y' (4-28)

Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.16A for definition of terms used in these

equations. If 37 °, the following equations may be used to determine
the weighted average unit weight:

7 = (2D - zw)(zwYm/D2) (7VD2)(D (4-29)

D = 0.50 Btan(45° +4)/2) (4-30)

4.4.7.1.1.7 Layered Soils

Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1A Definition Sketch for Loading and Dimensions
If soil profile is layered, the general bearing capacity equation shall for Footings Subjected to Eccentric of Inclined Loads
be modified to account for differences in failure mode between the Modified after EPRI (1983)
layered case and the homogenous soil case assumed in Equation 4-5.

0, 4-20 4-21
1!, .

TRANSVERSE ECCENrniCI TY ,/ worn or Fo011t4G ei jPl

NN. ' .(-- 1., •S
I I,

1 ., ' ' •, ' \

-A •• . \ •,, . \ ', • i
, 1\
,. \I .•. - • ,. 1
'...J ‘. I,. --='----'
-\,!7 \1,

•• •
\ • " , - • 'I •,

•*1..6
- t. \ .-.. \ \ r. , • i
\! \ , % ; \ \ \ ! ' \ ' •,:: 1
\ \ \ . ,
S.
-0 DI 02 03 04 0;1;
sun( ft111 LONGITUDINAL ECCENTRIC1TRY / LENGTH OF FOOTING = e,./L
SOLID CURVES GIVE VALUES OF K.
101 FOR s, I 13) FOR eL .4. MAXIMUM PRESSURE q„„„ = K x -R/BL

CASE I CASE DOI= L(1+ 2r+ .3ru

cl...... •.„ 1 4(1+r+r2)
I -:---. n(1 +r+r-2 + r'• )
-. 4(ii-r-)
L 8
— 6R
u-s' (l+r+e- )
CASE Ir
:.„..
4G , CASE a
q-- q,...1 ui
4- ,
KR / EIL „ i I
---'
)_,. 1
11
, 5 X?
•,' x AND y FROM CHART
Hrd
c
q ' -
'
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1B Contact Pressure for Footing Loaded 1---
L ,,
-i

Eccentrically About One Axis

Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1C Contact Pressure for Footing Loaded
Eccentrically About Two Axes Modified After AREA
(1980)

4-22 4-23
 600
Foundation hiSklboollto eva4alooa awl/Apioaa
-
Dila z 0 fir0

Doi 1 - tv uhfirikviones for

iv wrath dap/48

iffechar
6 AV* al iatimairl
IP
•

ehrePutip celiac-s►► factor

Ns 50 (FOR B .r Hs)
Ns !*FOR B a Hs)

ice ar yr *r ur
inclinotton d *Pe 1 Inclination of Ape 1

(a ) GEOMETRY 04 COHESIVE SOIL (c) COHESIONLESS SOIL

I:trimaran of au.da ion aaallawelta aoKlefron OatelA•dat

slope 0 - -
/101
ii'4000/0faa
PI fa Weroneellalo dams
Ef/edive I I
x AM* of ailaraai
r1Om t ka 04 Oki la* 4'
*0100
Of
g5

= 0 ( FO R B Hs) a 50
WHI
N= (FOR13aHi)

0 1 4 0 4
Dosroncr of foundaliaa Irmo *dips of skim Diatoms of faundloolaa kora adoa of Lippe bta
broom ►tiiatut wriftw %.01

(a) GEOMETRY (b) COHESIVE SOIL COHESIONLESS SOIL

 Stiff lever c e , 0,

ti)

W.T.

4.••••••■•

• •1

Figure 4.4.7.1.1.6A Definition Sketch for Influence of Ground

Water Table on Bearing Capacity Figure 4.4.7.1.1.7A Typical Two-Layer Soil Profiles

4-26 4-27
 Undrained Loading

For undrained loading of a footing supported on the upper layer

of a two-layer cohesive soil system, qui, may be determined by the
following:

100 co qui t . = CIN , + q (4-31)

90E
soh Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.7A for the definition of c l . For
0•
7
undrained loading, ci equals the undrained soil shear strength s„, and
■
60- • +1= 0.
50
If the bearing stratum is a cohesive soil which overlies a stiffer
cohesive soil, refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.7B to determine N.. If the
Modified bearing capacity factor,

bearing stratum overlies a softer layer, punching shear should be

30 assumed and N. may be calculated by the following:

= ( 1 /Pm + KS,NO S sciqc (4-32)

-L/ B 1' 5 t i t r I P )
Drained Loading

For drained loading of a footing supported on a strong layer

overlying a weak layer in a two-layer system, qui, may be determined
using the following:

= [q2 + (1 /1Qc, 'cot(1)11 exp {2[1 + (B/L)]

Ktan+AH/B)) (1/1C)ci'cou4i' (4 33)

-

The. 'subscripts I and 2 refer to the upper and lower layers,

Undrainad Strength ratio, CZ/ ci
respectively. K = (1 sin241')/(1 + sin244') and q2 equals quit of a
-

fictitious footing of the same size and shape as the actual footing but
supported on, the second (or lower) layer. Reduced shear strength
values shall be used to determine q2 in accordance with Article 4.4.7.1.

Figure 4.4.7.1.1.7B Modified Bearing Capacity Factor for If the upper layer is a cohesionless soil and equals 25 ° to 50°,
Two-Layer Cohesive Soil with Softer Soil Overlying Stiffer Soil Equation 4:4.7.1.1.7-3 reduces to:
(EPRI 1983)
quit = q2exp { 0.67 [ 1 + (13/L)]H/13) (4-34)

4-28 4-29
 The critical depth of the upper layer beyond which the bearing Elastic settlement shall be determined using the unfactored dead
capacity will generally be unaffected by the presence of the lower load, plus the unfactored component of live and impact loads assumed
layer is given by the following: to extend to the footing level. Consolidation and secondary settlement
may be determined using the full unfactored dead load only.
= [3131n(q, /q2)]/(2 (1 + B/L)] (4-35)
Other factors which can affect settlement (e:g., embankment
In the equation, q, equals the bearing capacity of the upper layer loading, lateral and/or eccentric loading, and for footing on granular
assuming the upper layer is of infinite extent. soils, vibration loading from dynamic live loads or earthquakes loads)
should also be considered, where appropriate. Refer to Gifford, et. al.
4.4.7.1.1.8 Inclined base (1987), for general guidance regarding static loading conditions and
Lam and Martin (1986) for guidance regarding dynamic/seismic
Footings with inclined bases are generally not recommended. loading conditions.
Where footings with inclined bases are necessary, the following factors
shall be applied in. Equation 4-5:
13, = by = (1-atan4)2 (4-36)
GROUND SURFACE
13, = br - (1-b7)/(Netan4) ) (for 0>0) (4-3 7)

13, = 1 - [2a1(rt + 2)] (for 4 =0) (4-38)

Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.8A for definition sketch.

DT
Where footings must be placed on sloping surfaces, refer to Article
4.4.6 for anchorage requirements.

4.4.7.1.2 Factors of Safety

Spread footings on soil shall be designed for Group 1 loadings

using a minimum factor of safety (FS) of 3.0 against a bearing capacity
failure.
9/2
4.4.7.2 Settlement B/2
The total settlement includes elastic, consolidation, and secondary
components and•may be determined using the following:
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.8A Definition Sketch for Footing Base Inclination
S1 = Se + Sc + Ss (4-39)

4-30 4-31
 4.4.7.2.1 Stress Distribution

Figure 4.4.7.2.1A may be used to estimate the distribution of

a
sa 25 3■ vertical stress increase below circular (or square) and long rectangular
31 71
ilnl.91MEME footing (i.e., where L. > 5B). For other footing geometries, refer to

1111119LA INPAMISM
P i i i t A I M M I l i a Ski4MWSMINEEE
IFKOZAI
Poulos and Davis (1974).

,11 MUMMER
A. 1113'
Some method used for estimating settlement of footings on sand
WERMUM include an integral method to account for the effects of vertical stress
'uommrEEMUMM increase variations. Refer to -Gifford, et. al. (1987) for guidance
wanimis. MEE=
M ENEM
34
regarding application of these procedures.
AMEEMWEEEME IIMEEMEEM
EIMEMEMENE 4.4.7.2.2 Elastic Settlement
Jli EMEEEEMEM SQEMENEME MMEMMEMEE
EMEMMEMME ME MEMORMEN The elastic settlement on cohesionless soils and stiff cohesive soils
WEEEME1111
a
may be estimated using the following:
E EREEMEEMME
U MM E NE N M
E M E M E N E N mCWyEMUMEMN Sc = [qo (1-v2) 4A)/E,13, (4-40)
EMEENEEMME
ImumluiI ENEEMEEEEME ell

nommumm m. NEEMEMMENEM Refer to Table 4.4.7.2.2A for approximate values of E, and v for
MEMEMEEMEME EMEENEEEMEM various soil types, and table 4.4.7.2.2B for values of 13, for various
MEEMENEENEE EMZUMEEMEEE shapes of flexible and rigid footings. Unless E, varies significantly with
EMEEESIEEME NEEMEMEMMEM MEMEEMEMMEE
FOS depth, E, should be determined at a depth of about 1/2 to 2/3 of 13

M M Embar
=MEE below the footing. If the soil modulus varies significantly with depth, a
■EMEEEMMEMEN E M U EMEEENEEEME
EMEMMEMEEME
IFn weighted average value of E$ may be used.

4 34 ZS IF 28 34 Refer to Gifford, et. al., (1987) for general guidance regarding the
Equate Foieelzt , - ,
hthritfily Left Foundatme
(61
estimation of elastic settlement of footings on sand.
(a)

4.4.7.2.3 Consolidation Settlement

The consolidation settlement of footings on saturated or nearly

saturated cohesive soils may be estimated using the following when
laboratory test results are expressed in terms of void ratio (e):

Figure 4.4.7/.1A Boussinesg Vertical Stress Contours for o For initially overconsolidated soils (i.e. u p' > u,,'):
Continuous and Square Footings Modified after Sowers
(1979) = / (1 + [ (Cu log (cr p'/ a 0')
+ Cc log {cre /cyp' })] (4-41)

4-32 4-33
 o For initially normally consolidated soils ( i.e 01,1= ac,'): The time (t) to achieve a given percentage of the total estimated 1-
D consolidation settlement may be estimated using the following:
Sc = [ 1-1,./(1 + e„,1 [ C, log (al / ap')] (4-42)
t=THd2IC (4-46)
If laboratory test results are expressed in terms of vertical strain
(e.,), consolidation settlement may be estimated using the following: Refer to Figure 4.4.7.2.3D for values of T for constant and linearly
varying excess pressure distributions. See Winterkorn and Fang (1975)
o for initially overconsolidated soils (i.e. a p ' > a ' ): for values of T for other excess pressure distributions. Values of c,. may
be estimated from the results of laboratory consolidation testing of
Sc = [C,„ log (ap' icrol undisturbed soil samples or form in-situ measurements using devices
Cce log (af' lap')] (4-43) such as piezoprobe or piezocone.

o for initially normally consolidated soils (i.e ap' = a0'): TABLE 4.4.7.2.2A Elastic Constants of Various Soils Modified
after U.S. Department of the Navy (1982) and Bowless (1982)
= He Cr, log (a? / ap') (4-44)
Typical Range of Values Estimating E, from N")
Poisson's
Refer to figures 4.4.7.2.3A and 4.4.7.2.38 for the definition of Young's Modulus, Es Ratio, u Es
(x 103 kPa) (dim) (kPa)
terms in the equations. Soil Type Soil Type

Clay:
To account for the decreasing stress with increased depth below a Soft sensitive 2.4 - 14.4 0.4-0.5 Silts, sandy silts, slightly ll5N1(2)
footing, and variations in soil compressibility with depth, the Medium stiff 14.4 - 47.9 (undrained) cohesive mixtures
to stiff Clean fine to medium sands 205N1
compressible layer should be divided into vertical increments (i.e., Very stiff 47.9 - 95.7 and slightly silty sands
typically 1.50 to 3.0 meters for most nonnal width footings for highway Coarse sands and sands with 290 N1
little gravel
applications), and the consolidation settlement of each increment Loess 14.4 - 57.4 0.1-0.3 Sandy gravel and gravels 350N1
•
analyzed separately. The total value of Sc is the summation of S, for Silt 1.9 - 19.1 0.3-0.35
each increment. Fine Sand: Estimating Es From 5■(3)
Loose. 7.7 - 11.5
Medium dense 11.5 - 19.1 0.25 Soft sensitive clay 400%i-1,000s.
Dense 19.1 - 28.7 Medium stiff to stiff clay 1,500se2,400s,.
If the footing width is small relative to the thickness of the Sand: Very stiff clay 3,000su-4,000su
compressible soil, the effect of three-dimensional (3-D) loading may be Loose 9.6 - 28.7 0.2-0.35
Estimating E, from 4, (4)
considered using the following: Medium dense 28.7 - 47.9
Dense _ 47.9 - 76.6 0.3-0.4
Gravel: Sandy soils
s
c(3--D)= $c{1-D} (4-45) Look - 28.7 - 76.6 0.2-0.35
Medium dense 76.6 - 95.7
Dense 95.7 -191,4 0.3-0.4
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.2.3c for values of p,
(1)
N = Standard Penetration Test (SPT) resistance (blows per meter)
)
Ni= SPT corrected for depth
43
)s, = Undrained shear strength (kPa)
(4)
q, = Cone penetration resistance (kPa)

4-34 4-35
 TABLE 4.4.7.12B Elastic Shape and Rigidity Factor
EPRI (1983)
17 --"" ICS er

Flexible°
(averageY

V.,Mei Skala. Cy
LIB Rigid
Cce
Circular 1.04 1.13 f
1 1.06 1.08
2 1.09 1.10
3 1.13 1.15
5 1.22 1.24
10 1.41 1.41

Varrrcal of feVive stress c (Jog scale) Figure 4.4.7.2.3B Typical Consolidation Compression Curve for
Overconsolidated Soil - Vertical Strain Versus Vertical
Effective Stress
❑ a —...•••••1 1 1

op Overconsohdation ratio, air crol

Figure 4.4.7.2.30 Reduction Factor to Account for Effects of
Three-Dimensional Consolidation Settlement EPRI (1983)
0 5 10 15
0
of

U
'4- • 0.5-
C
0
U

▪
e a,
Figur
e 4.4.7.2.3A Typical Consolidation Compression Curve for Q
Overconsolidated Soil - Void Ratio Versus Vertical
Effective Stress EPRI (1983)
Vertical effective stress, sr' (log scale)

4-36 4-37
 Time factor. T
lyses should be conducted to determine the relationship between
ana
0.00i 0.01 0_1 estimated settlement and footing bearing pressure to optimize footing
0 r--
size with respect to supported loads.
241-
dO Tolerable movement criteria for foundation settlement shall be
r developed considering the angular distortion (81//) between adjacent
Initial au footings. 5'/1 shall be limited to 0.005 for simple span bridges and
0.004 for continuos span bridges (Moulton, et. al, 1985). These 5'/1
limits are not applicable to rigid frame structures. Rigid frames shall be
designed for anticipated differential settlements based on the results of
special analysis.

Tolerable movement criteria for horizontal foundations

Figure 4.4.7.2.3D Percentage of Consolidation as a Function of displacement shall be developed considering the potential effects of
Time Factor, T EPRI (1983) combined vertical and horizontal movement. Where combined
horizontal and vertical displacements are possible, horizontal
4.4.7.2.4 Secondary Settlement movements should be limited to 25 millimeters or less. Where vertical
displacements are small, horizontal displacements should be limited to
Secondary settlement of footings on cohesive soil may be estimated 40 millimeters or less (Moulton. -et. al., 1985). If estimated or actual
movements exceed these levels, special analysis and/or measures to
using the following:
limit movements should be considered.
Ss = CacHcLog(t2 / ti) (4-47)
4.4.7.3 Dynamic Ground Stability
ti is the time when secondary settlement begins (typically at a time Refer to Section 21 for guidance regarding development of ground
equivalent to 90 percent average degree of consolidation), and t1 is an and 'seismic parameters and methods used for evaluation of dynamic
arbitrary time which could represent the service life of the structure. ground stability.
Values of C„ may be estimated from the results of consolidation testing
of undisturbed soil samples in the laboratory. 4.4.8 Geotechnical Design on Rock

4.4.7.2.5 Tolerable Movement Spread footings supported on rock shall be designed to support the
design 'loads with adequate bearing and structural capacity and with
Tolerable movement criteria (vertical and horizontal) for footings tolerable settlements in conformance with Article 4.4.8 and 4.4.11. In
shall be developed consistent with function and type of structure, addition, the response of fo-otings subjected to seismic and dynamic
anticipated service life, and consequences of unacceptable movements loadings shall be evaluated in conformance with Article 4.4.10. For
on structure performance. Foundation displacement analyses shall be footings on rock, the location of the resultant of pressure (R) on the
based on the results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to characterize base of footings shall be maintained within B/4 of the center of the
the load-deformation behavior of the foundation soils displacement footing.

4-38 4-39
 The bearing capacity and settlement of footings on rock is Refer to Table 4.4.8.1.2A for values of N. Values of Co should
influenced by the presence, orientation and condition of discontinuities, preferably be determined from the results of laboratory testing of rock
weathering profiles and other similar features. The methods used for core obtained within 2B of the base of the footing. Where rock strata
design of footings on rock should consider these factors as they within this interval are variable in strength, the rock with the lowest
apply at a particular site, and the degree to which they should be capacity should be used to determine q uh. Alternatively, Table
incorporated in the design. 4.4.8.1.2B may be used as a guide to estimate Co. For rocks defined by
very poor quality, the value of quit should be determined as the value of
For footings on competent rock, reliance on simple and direct quit for an equivalent soil mass.
analyses based on uniaxial compressive rock strengths and RQD may
be applicable. Competent rock is defined as a rock mass with
discontinuities that are tight or open not wider than 4 mm. For
footings on less competent rock, more detailed investigations and
analyses should be used to account for the effects of weathering, the
presence and condition of discontinuities, and other geologic factors.

4.4.8.1 Bearing Capacity

286D0
4.4.8.1.1 Footings on Competent Rock
19200
2
The allowable contact stress for footings supported on level •
cr 9600
surfaces in competent rock may be determined using Figure 4.4.8.1.1A Upper tunit curve
(Peck, et. al. 1974). In no instance shall the maximum allowable
4800
contact stress exceed the allowable bearing stress in the concrete. The
RQD used in Figure 4.4.8.1.1A shall be the average RQD for the rock 2680 I fROD - IS fairly uniform,
within depth of B below the base of the footing, where the RQD values use 0.411095 ROO within d 6
1.1920 If ROD within d.8/4 is laws;
are relatively uniform within that interval. If rock within a depth of use lawar ROD
0.5B below the base of the footing is of poorer quality, the RQD of the
poorer rock shall be used to determine the qa. 20 4a 60 eo 100

4.4.8.1.2 Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock

The design of footings on broken or jointed rock must account for

the condition and spacing of joints and other discontinuities. The
ultimate bearing capacity of footings on broken or jointed rock may be
estimated using the following relationship:

quit = NuisCo (4-48) Figure 4.4.8.1.1A Allowable Contact Stress for Footings
on Rock with Tight Discontinuities Peck, et al (1974)

4-40 4-41
 4.4.8.1.3 Factors of Safety Ultimate Bearing capacity of footings on Broken or Jointed
Rock (Modified after Hoek, 1983)
Spread footings on rock shall be designed for Group. I loadings
using a minimum factor of safety (FS) of 3.0 against a bearing capacity
failure. Rating
Rock Mass
Quality RMR") NG1c2/ RQLP)
4.4.8.2 Settlement Rating (%)
A B C D E
Excellent Intact rock with
4.4.8.2.1 Footings on Competent Rock joints spaced
> 3 meters apart. 95-100 3.8 4.3 5.0 5.2 6.1
100 500
Very Good Tightly interlocking,
For footings on competent rock, elastic settlements will undisturbed rock with
rough tin weathered
generally be less than 12 millimeters when footings are designed in joints spaced I to 3 85 100 90-95 1.4 1.6 1.9 2-0 2.3
accordance with Article 4.4.8.1.1. When elastic settlements of this meters apart.
magnitude are unacceptable or when the rock is not competent, an
Good Fresh to slightly
analysis of settlement based on rock mass characteristics must be made. weathered rock,
For rock masses which have time-dependent settlement slightly disturbed
with joints spaced
characteristics, the procedure in Article 4.4.7.2.3 may be followed to 1 to 3 meters apart
65 10 75-90 028 0.32 0.38 0.40 0.46
determine the time-dependent component of settlement.
Fair Rock with several
sets of moderately
4.4.8.2.2 Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock weathered joints
spaced 0.3 to 44 1 50-75 0.049 0,056 0,066 0.069 081
1 meter apart
Where the criteria for competent rack are not met, the influence of
rock type, condition of discontinuities and degree of weathering shall be Rock with samierow
weathered joints
considered in the settlement analysis. spaced 25 to 500 mm.
apart with some gouge 0.1 25-50 0.015 0.016 0.019 0.021 .024
The elastic settlement of footings on broken or jointed rock may be %roily poor Rock with numerous
determined using the following: highly weathered
joints spaced
<50 mm apart
o For circular (or square) footings;

p = q0(1 - v2)rIp/Em, with Ip = (47)/13z (4-49) 3 0.01 <25 Use quk for an equivalent soil mass

o For rectangular footings;

p q0(1 - v2)BII/ET,„ with Ip = (L/8)1/2/1 3z (4-50) Table Ge-1 otechanics Rock Mass Rating (RMQ) System - Bieniawski, 1988

4.4.8.1.2A Values of Coefficient N, for estimation of the

 Norwegian Geotectuical institute (NGI) Rock Mass Classification System Barton, et. al., 1974.
c/)Range of RQD values provided for general guidance only; actual determination of rock mass
quality -:horrid be based on RMR or NOT rating systems.
(4)
Value of as a function of rock type:,- refer to Table 4.4.8.1.2E for typical range of values of Co for
different rock type in each category.
 TABLE 4.4.8.1.2B Typical Range of Uniaxial Compressive TABLE 4.4.8.2.2A Summary of Poisson's Ratio for Intact Rock
Strength (Co) as a Function of Rock Category and Rock Type Modified after Kulhawy (1978)

No. of
No. of Rock Poisson's Ratio,
u Standard
Rock _________________________ CP) _______ Values Types Maximum Minimum
Rock Type Mean Deviation
Category General Description Rock Type (ksf) (kPa) (ksf) (kPa)
Granite 22 22 0.39 0.09 0.20 0.08
A Carbonate rocks with well- Dolostone 700 10 ,400 6500 96 ,500 Gabbro 3 3 0.20 0.16 0.18 0.02
developed crystal cleavage Limestone 5 0 0 7 , 4 0 0 6 ;0 0 0 8 9 , 1 0 0 Diabase 6 6 0.38 0.20 0.29 0.06
Carbonatite 800 11,900 1,500 22,300 Basalt 11 11 0.32 0.16 0.23 0.05
Marble 800 11,900 5,000 74,300 Quartzite 6 6 0.22 0.08 0.14 0.05
Tactite-Skarn 2,700 40,100 7,000 104,000 Marble 5 5 0.40 0.17 0.28 0.08
Gneiss 11 11 0.40 0.09 0.22 0.09
Lithified argillaceous rock Schist 12 11 0.31 0.02 0.12 0.08
Argillite 6 0 0 8 , 9 0 0 3 , 0 0 0 4 4 , 6 00
Claystone 30 400 170 2,500 Sandstone 12 9 0.46 0.08 0.20 0.11
Marlstone 1,000 14,900 4,000 59,400 Siltstone 3 3 0.23 0.09 0.18 0.06
Phyllite 5 0 0 7 , 4 0 0 5 , 0 0 0 7 4 , 3 00 Shale 3 3 0.18 0.03 0.09 0.06
Siltstone 2 0 0 3 , 0 0 0 2 , 5 0 0 3 7 , 1 00 Limestone 19 19 0.33 0.12 0.23 0.06
Shale (2) 150 2,200 740 11,000 Dolostone 5 5 0.35 0.14 0,29 0.08
Slate 3,000 44,600 4,400 65,300

C Aranaceous rocks with strong Conglomerate 700 10,400 4,600 68,300

crystals and poor cleavage Sandstone 1,400 20,800 3,600 53,500
Quartzite 1,300 19,300 8,000 118,800

D Fine-grained igneous Andesite 2,100 31,200 3,800 56,400

crystalline rock Diabase 450 6,700 12,000 178,200

26 14.5 0.93 7.64 3.55

Granite 26
E Coarse-grained igneous and Amphibolite 2,500 37,100 5,800 86,100
metamorphic crystalline rock Gabbro 2,600 38,600 6,500 96,500 Diorite Gabbro 3 3 16.2 2.48 7.45 6.19
Gneiss 5 0 0 7 , 4 0 0 6 , 5 0 0 9 6 , 5 00 Diabase . 3 3 12.2 9.80 11.0 0.97
Granite 300 4,500 7,000 104,000 Basalt`- 7 7 15.1 10.0 12.8 1.78
Quartzdiorite 200 3,000 2,100 31,200 Quart:rite - 12 12 12.2 4.20 8.14 2.60
Schist 2 0 0 3 , 0 0 0 3 , 0 0 0 4 4 , 6 00 Marble 7 7 12.8 5.29 9.59 2.32
Syenite 3,800 56,400 9,000 133,700 14- 13 10.7 0.58 6.18 2.49
(1)
Range of Uniaxial Compressive Strength values reported by various investigations. criOss 13 13 11.9 4.13 8.86 2.31
(z)
Not including oil shale. Slate 11 2 3.79 0.35 1.39 0.96
13 12 10.0 0.86 4.97 3.18
phyilite r. 3 2.51 1.25 1.71 0.57
Si/id-0312e f 27 • 19 5.68 0.09 2.13 1.19
Siltstone 5 5 4.76 0.38 2.39 1.65
:.Shale ; : 30 14 5.60 0.001 1.42 1.45
Limestone 30 30 13.0 0.65 5.70 3 73
Dolostone 17 16 11.4 0.83 4.22 3.44
(r)
1.0 x406 psi 1.44 x 10 5 ksf

4-44 4 45
-
 Values of Ip may be computed using the 0, values presented in 4.4.10 Dynamic/Seismic Design
Table 4.4.7.2.28 from Article 4.4.7.2.2 for rigid footings. Values of
Poisson's ratio (u) for typical rock types are presented in Table Refer to Section 21 for guidance regarding the design of footings
4.4.8.2.2A. Determination of the rock mass modulus (Ern) should be subjected to dynamic and seismic loads.
based on the results of in-situ and laboratory tests. Alternatively, values
of E,,, may be estimated by multiplying the intact rock modulus (E„) 4.4.11. Structural Design
obtained from uniaxial compression tests by a reduction factor (aE) 4.4.11.1 Loads and Reactions
which accounts for frequency of discontinuities by the rock quality
designation (RQD), using the following relationship (Garrdber, 1987): 4.4.11.1.1 Action of Loads and Reactions

Footings shall be considered as under the action of downward

En, = aEEO (4-51) forces, due to the superimposed loads, resisted by an upward pressure
exerted by the foundation materials and distributed over the area of the
aE = 0.0231(RQD) - 1.32 Z 0.15 (4-52) footings are determined by the eccentricity of the resultant of the
downward forces. Where piles are used under the footings, the upward
For preliminary design or when site-specific test data cannot be reaction of the foundation shall be considered as a series of
obtained , guidelines for estimating values of E9 (such as presented in
concentrated loads applied at the pile centers, each pile being
Table 4.4.8.2.2B or Figure 4.4.8.2.2A) may be used For preliminary
assumed to carry the computed portion of the total footing load.
analyses or for final design vvhen in-situ test results are not available, a
value of aE = 0.15 should be used to estimate E. 4.4.11.1.2 Isolated and Multiple Footing Reactions

4.4.8.23 Tolerable Movement When a single isolated footing support a column, pier or wall, the
footing shall be assumed to act as a cantilever. When footings support
Refer to Article 4.4.7.2.3 more than one column, pier or wall, the footing slab be designed for the
actual conditions of continuity and restraint.

4.4.9 Overall Stability 4.4:11.2 Moments

The overall stability of footings, slopes and foundation soil or rock 4.4.11.2.1 Critical Section
shall be evaluated for footings located on or near a slope by limiting
equilibrium methods of analysis which employ the Modified Bishop, External moment on any section of a footing shall be determined
simplified Janbu, Spenser or other generally accepted methods of slope by passing a vertical plane through the footing, and computing the
stability analysis. Where soil and rock parameters and ground water moment of the forces acting Over the entire area of the footing on one
levels are based on in-situ and/or laboratory tests, the minimum side of that vertical plane. The critical section for bending shall be
factor of safety shall be 1.3 (or 1.5 where abutments are supported taken at the face of the column, pier or wall. In the case of columns that
above a slope). Otherwise, the minimum factor of safety shall be 1.5 are not square or rectangular, the section shall be taken at the side of the
(or 1.8 where abutments are supported above a retaining wall). concentric square of equivalent area. For footings under masonry walls,
the critical sections shall be taken halfway between the middle and edge

4-46 4-47
of the wall. For footings under metallic column bases, the critical 4-53 shall be distributed uniformly over a band width (centered on
section shall be taken halfway between the column face and the edge of centerline of column or pier) equal to the length of the short side of the
the metallic base. footing. The remainder of reinforcement required in the short direction
shall be distributed uniformly outside the center band width of footing.
4.4.11.2.2 Distribution of reinforcement

Reinforcement of one-way and •two-way square footings shall be

distributed uniformly across the entire width of the footing.
Reinforcement of two-way rectangular footings shall be distributed
uniformly across the entire width of footing in the long direction. In the
short direction, the portion of the total reinforcement given by Equation
Re inf orcement in band Width 2
700 CLAIIMPICAnOm memo
(4-53)
IAOCK
Totatreinf orcement in short direction (I3 + 1)
STIElmon4
where 13 is the ratio of the footing length to width.
loetREI HIGH
[MT LO W
Mgr Ham STEEL
OFFER AND
1MIoOL1cHALK
LOW
70 comets) 4.4.11.3 Shear
OMNI DEERE
ELASTIC MODULUS E0 . MPa x 103

Damn
oF CHALK DOLOMITE 4.4.11.3.1 Critical Section
IwAISO ET. AL)
BASALT MO OTHER
7.0 I FLOW Room

I LOW1
Computation of shear in footing, and location of critical section
. CHALK
III IWO'S shall be in accordance with Articles 8.15.5.6 or 8.16.6.6. Location of
TAPAS (1401131 critical section shall be measured from the face of column, pier or wall
0.7 IV
V KELKIER
for footings supporting a column, pier or wall. For footings supporting
a column or pier with metallic base plates, the critical section shall be
0.07 sLAcIt SHALE)
measured from the location defined in Miele 4.4.11.2.
GREY Ga sHALE Hammon Er. AL.

4.4.11.3.2 Footings on Piles or Drilled Shafts

0.007 MEDIUM

CLAY
VERY STIFF Shear on the critical section shall be in accordance with the
..--11/11110
—

following:
0.07 0.7 7.0 70
Entire reaction from any pile or drilled shaft whose center is
UNIMIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH C o - MPa located dp/2 or more outside the critical section shall be considered
as producing shear on that section.
Figure 4.4.8.2.2A Relationship Between Elastic Modulus and
Unaxial Compressive Strength for Intact Rock Modified after o Reaction from any pile or drilled shaft whose center is located dptz
Deere (1968) or more inside the critical section shall be considered as producing
no shear on that section.

4-48 4-49
o For the intermediate position of pile or drilled shaft centers, the 4.4.11.5.3 Bearing
portion of the pile or shaft reaction to be considered as producing
shear on the critical section shall be based on linear interpolation Bearing on concrete at contact surface between supporting and
between full value at dp12 outside the section and zero at dp/2 inside supported member shall not exceed concrete bearing strength for either
the section. surface as given in Article 8.15.2 or 6.16.7.

4.4.11.4 Development of Reinforcement 4.4.11.5.4 Reinforcement

4.4.11.4.1 Development Length Reinforcement shall be provided across interface bet ween
supporting and supported member either by . extending main
Computation of development of reinforcement in footings shall be longitudinal reinforcements into footings or by dowels. Reinforcement
in accordance with Articles 8.24 through 8.32. across interface shall be sufficient to satisfy all of the following:
4.4.11.4.2 Critical Section
o Reinforcement shall be provided to transfer all force that exceed
Critical sections for development of reinforcement shall be concrete bearing strength in supporting or supported member.
assumed at the same location as defined in Article 4.4.11.2 and at all
other vertical planes where changes in section or reinforcement occur. o If required loading conditions include uplift, total tensile force
See also Article 8.24.1.5. • shall be resisted by reinforcement.

4.4.11.5 Transfer of Force of Column o Area of reinforcement shall not be less than 0.005 times gross area
of supported member, with a minimum of4bars.
4.4.11.5.1 Transfer of Force

All forces and moments applied at the base of column or pier shall 4.4.11.5.5 Dowel Size
be transferred to top of footing by bearing on concrete and by
reinforcement. Diameter of dowels, if used, shall not exceed diameter of
longitudinal reinforcement by more than 4mm.
4.4.11.5.2 Lateral Forces
4.4.11.5.6 Development Length
Lateral forces shall be transferred to supporting footing in
accordance with shear-transfer provisions of Articles 8.15.5.4 or For transfer of force by reinforcement, development of
8.16.6.4. reinforcement in supporting and supported member shall be in
accordance with Articles 8.24 through 8.32.

4.4.11.5.7 Splicing

At footings, 45 and 55mm diameter main longitudinal

reinforcement, in compression only, may be lap spliced with footing
dowels to provide the required area, but not less than that required by
Article 4.4.11.5.4. Dowels shall not be larger than 36mm and shall

4-50 4-51
extend into column a distance of not less than the development length Piles may be structural steel sections, steel pipe, precast concrete,
of the 45 or 55mm bars nor the splice length of the dowels, whichever cast-in-place concrete, prestressed concrete, timber, or a combination of
is greater, and into the footing a distance of not less than the materials. In every case, materials shall be supplied in accordance with
development of the dowels. the provision of this article.

4.4.11.6 Unreinforced Concrete Footings 4.5.1.3 Penetration

4.4.11.6.1 Design Stress Pile penetration shall be determined based on vertical and lateral
load capacities of both the pile and subsurface materials. In general, the
design penetration for any pile shall not be less than 3.0 meters into
Design stresses in plain concrete footings or pedestals shall be
hard cohesive or loose granular material. Where the depth to dense
computed assuming a linear stress distribution. For footings and
material or rock is less than 3.0 meters, spread footings should be
pedestals cast against soil, effective thickness used in computing
considered. Piles for tensile or pile bents shall meet the above
stresses shall be taken as the overall thickness minus 75mm. Extreme
requirements and, additionally, unless refusal is encountered, shall
fiber stress in tension shall not exceed that specified in Article
penetrate not less than 1/3 the unsupported length of the pile.
8.15.2.1.1. Bending need not be considered unless projection of
footing from face of the supporting member exceeds footing thickness.
4.5.1.4 Lateral Tip Restraint
4.4.11.6.2 Pedestals
No piling shall be used to penetrate a soft or loose upper stratum
The ratio of unsupported height to average least lateral dimension overlying a hard or firm stratum unless the piles penetrate the hard or
of plain concrete pedestals shall nor exceed 3. firm stratum by a sufficient distance to fix the ends against lateral
movement of the pile tip. Driving points or shoes may be necessary to
4.5 DRIVEN PILES accomplish this penetration.

4.5.1 General 4.5.1.5 Estimated Lengths

Estimated pile lengths for each substructure shall be shown on the

The provision of the article shall apply to the design of axially and plans and shall be based upon careful evaluation of available subsurface
laterally loaded driven piles in soil or extending through soil or rock. information, static and lateral capacity calculations, and/or past
4.5.1.1 Application experience:

Piling may be considered when footings cannot be founded on 4.5.1.6 Estimated and Minimum Tip Elevation
rock, or on granular or stiff cohesive coils within a reasonable depth.
At locations where soil conditions would normally permit the use of Estimated and minimum pile tip elevations for each substructure
spread footings but the potential for scour exists, piles may be used as shouldi,be shown on the contract plans. Estimated pile tip elevations
protection against scour. Piles may also be used where an unacceptable shall' reflect the elevation where the required ultimate pile capacity can
amount of settlement of spread footings may occur. be obtained. Minimum pile tip elevations shall reflect the penetration

4-53

4-52
4.5.1.2 Materials
required to support lateral pile loads (including scour considerations 4.5.2.2 End Bearing Piles
where appropriate) and/or penetration of overlying, unsuitable soil
strata. A pile shall be considered to be an end bearing pile if the major
portion of support capacity is derived from the resistance of the
4.5.1.7 Pile Through Embankment Fill foundation material on which the pile tip rests.

Piles to be driven through embankments shall penetrate a minimum 4.5.23 Combination Friction and End Bearing Piles
of 3.0 meters through original ground unless perusal on bedrock or
competent bearing strata occurs at a lesser penetration. Fill used for Under certain soil conditions and for certain pile materials, the
embankment construction shall be a select material which shall not b ea ring capacity of a pile may be considered as the sum of the
obstruct pile penetration to the required depth. The maximum size of resistance mobilized on the embedded shaft and that developed at the
any rock particles in the fill shall not exceed 150mm. Pre-drilling or pile tip, even though these forces that are mobilized simultaneously are
spudding pile locations may be required, particularly for displacement not necessary maximum values.
piles.
4.5.2.4 Batter Piles
4.5.1.8 Test Piles
When the lateral resistance of the soil surrounding the pile is
inadequate to counteract the horizontal forces transmitted to the
Test piles shall be considered for each substructure unit (See
foundation, or when increased rigidity of the entire structure is required.
Article 7.1.1 for definition of substructure unit) to determine pile
batter piles should be used in the foundation. Where negative skin
installation characteristics, evaluate pile capacity with depth and to
friction loads are expected, batter piles should be avoided, and an
establish contractor pile lengths. Piles may be used by static loading,
alternate method of providing lateral restraint should be used.
dynamic testing, conducting driveability studies, or a combination
thereof, based upon the knowledge of subsurface conditions. The
number of test piles required may be increased in non -uniform 4.5.3 Notations
subsurface conditions. Test piles may not be required where previous The following notations shall apply for the design of driven pile
experience exists with the same pile type and ultimate pile capacity in foundation:
similar subsurface conditions.
As = Area of pile circumference (m2)
4.5.2 Pile Types AE = Area of pile tip (m2)
B = Pile diameter or width (m)
Piles shall be classified as "friction" or "end bearing" or a fc = Concrete compression strength (MPa)
combination of both according to the manner in which load transfer is fp, = Concrete compression stress due to prestessing after losses
developed.
(MPa)
FS = Factor of Safety (dim)
4.5.2.1 Friction Piles
Fy = Yield strength of steel (MPa)
A pile shall be considered to be a friction pile if the major portion L = Pile length (m)
of support capacity is derived from the soil resistance mobilized along = Design capacity (kN)
the side of the embedded pile.

4-54 4-55
Qs = Ultimate shaft resistance (kN) 4.5.6.1 Ultimate Geotechnical Capacity
QT = Ultimate tip resistance (kN)
The ultimate axial capacity of a driven pile shall be determined
Quit = Ultimate pile capacity (kN) Is from: Quit = Q S Q T (4-54)
Unit side resistance (MPa)
R = Side resistance (kN)
The allowable of design axial capacity shall be determined from:
r, = Unit tip resistance (MPa)
= Tip resistance (kN)
= Percentage of steel reinforcement (dim) QaH = Quit/FS (4-55)
= Allowable stress (MPa)
4.5.6.1.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity
The notations for dimension units include the following: dim =
Dimensionless; mm = millimeter; m = meter; m2 = square meter; kN =
Kilonewton; MPa = MegaPascal. The dimensional units provided with In determining the design axial capacity, consideration shall be
each notation are presented for illustration only to demonstrate a given to:
dimensionally correct combination of units for the footing capacity
o The difference between the supporting capacity of a single pile
procedures presented herein. If other units are used, the dimensional
correctness of the equation shall be confirmed. and that of the group of piles;
o The capacity of an underlying strata to support the load of the
pile group;
4.5.4 Design Terminology o The effects of driving piles on adjacent structures or slopes;
o The possibility of scour and its effects on axial and lateral
Refer to Figure 4.5.4A for terminology used in the design of driven capacity;
pile foundations. o The effects of negative skin friction or downdrag loads from
consolidating soil and the effects of uplift loads from
4.5.5 Selection of Soil and Rock Properties expansive or swelling soils;
o The influence of construction techniques such as augering or
Soil and rock properties defining the strength and compressibility jetting on capacity; and
characteristics of the foundation materials, are required for driven pile o The influence of fluctuations in the elevation of the ground water
design. Refer to Article 4.3 for guidelines for subsurface exploration to table on capacity.
obtain soil and rock properties.

4.5.6 Selection of Design Pile Capacity

The design pile capacity is the maximum load a pile shall support
with tolerable movement. In determining the design pile capacity, the
following items shall be considered.

o Ultimate geotechnical capacity; and

o Structural capacity of the pile section

4-56 4-57
 4.5.6.1.2 Axial Capacity in cohesive soils

The ultimate axial capacity of piles in cohesive soils may be

using a total stress method (e.g.; Tomlinson, 1957) for
worgried loading conditions, or an effective stress method (e.g.,
teiiblof,, 1976) for drained loading conditions. The axial capacity
may'also be calculated from in-situ testing methods such as the cone
,etraflon test (e.g., Schrnertmann, 1978) or pressuremeter tests (e.g.,
bagan, 1978).

4,5.6.1.3 Axial Capacity in Cohesionless Soils

Rs-= SHAFT RESISTANCE
Rt = TIP RESISTANCE
The ultimate axial capacity of piles in cohesionless soils may be
L = PILE LENGTH 'ort-ulited using an empirical effective stress method (e.g., Nordlund,
= EMBEDMENT DEPTH
1:43)-or from in-situ testing methods and analysis such as the cone
B = PILE DIAMETER imisietration or pressuremeter (e.g. Baguelin, 1978).
As = CIRCUMFERENTIAL AREA
At = TIP CROSS SECTIONAL AR EA
4.5.6.1.4 Axial Capacity on Rock

> R, E A, rs piles driven to competent rock, the structural capacity in

AO-de-46.7 will generally govern the design axial capacity. For piles
circa to weak rocks such as shale and mudstone or poor quality
W-eathered rocks, a static load test is recommended. Pile relaxation
ShOuld be considered in certain kinds of rock when performing load
tests.
.r.
4.5.6.2 Factor of Safety Selection
rt—All
,.-,.... .
The selection of the factor of safety to be applied to the ultimate

1 i.
R At rt
axial capacity shall consider the reliability of the ultimate soil
capacity determination and pile installation control. Recommended
ititiuits''. for the factor of safety depending upon the degree of
lcOnstiuction conirol specified on the plans are presented in Table
4516,2A. All factors of safety are based on full-time observation of
Figure 4.5.4A Design Terminology for Driven Pile Foundations pile :installation. The design pile capacity shall be adjusted if the
specified construction control is altered.

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 4.5.6.3 Settlement 4.5.6.5 Lateral Loads on Piles

The settlement of axially loaded piles and pile groups at the The design of laterally loaded piles is usually governed by lateral
allowable loads shall be estimated. Elastic analysis, load transfer movement criteria. The desigi of laterally loaded piles shall account
and/or finite element techniques (e.g., Vesic, 1977 or Poulos and Davis, for the effects of soil/rock-structure interaction between the pile and
1980) may be used. The settlement of the pile pr pile group shall not ground (e.g., Reese. 1984). Methods of analysis evaluating the ultimate
exceed the tolerable movement limits of the structure. capacity or deflection of laterally loaded piles (e.g., Bromss 1964a and
1964b; Singh, et. al., 1971) may be used for preliminary design only as
a means to evaluate appropriate pile actions.
4.5.6.4 Group Pile Loading

Group pile capacity should be determined as the product of the 4.5.6.6 Uplift Loads on Piles
group efficiency, number of piles in the group, and the capacity of a
single pile. In general, a group efficiency value of 1.0 should be used The uplift design capacity of single piles and pile groups shall be
except for friction piles in cohesive soils. The efficiency factor for the determined in accordance with Articles 4.5.6.6.1 and 4.5.6.6.2,
friction piles in cohesive soils with a center-to-center pile spacing less respectively. Proper provision shall be made for anchorage of the pile
than 3.0B or widths should be 0.7. Center-to-center pile spacings less into pile cap.
than 2.5 B are not recommended.
4.5.6.6.1 Single Pile

TABLE 4.5.6.2A Recommended Factor of Safety on Ultimate The uplift design capacity for a single pile shall not exceed 1/3 of
Geotechnical Capacity Based on Specified Construction Control the ultimate frictional capacity determined by a static analysis method.
Alternatively, the uplift capacity of a single pile can be determined by
uplift load tests in conformance with ASTM D-3689 (ASTM, 1988). If
Increasing Construction Control
determined by load tests, the allowable uplift design capacity shall not
exceed 50 percent of the failure uplift load.
Subsurface Exploration x(1 )

Static Calculation x
Dynamic Formula x 4.5.6.6.2 Pile Group
Wave Equation
Dynamic Measurement The uplift design capacity for a pile group shall be the lesser of: (1)
and Analysis X x The single pile uplift design capacity multiplied by the number of piles
Static Load Test X x in the group or (2) 2/3 of the effective weight of the pile group and soils
Factor of Safety 3.50 2.75 2.25 2.00 (2) 1.90 contained within the block defined by the perimeter of the group and
For any combination of construction control that includes an approved static load test,
(2) the embedded length of the piles, or (3) 1/2 the effective weight of the
a factor of safety of 2.0 may be used. pile group and the soil contained within a block def ined by the
x = Construction Control Specified on Contact Plans perimeter of the group and the embedded pile length plus 1/2 the total
soil shear on the peripheral surface of the group.

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 4.5.6.7 Vertical Ground Movement 4.5.6.8 Dynamic/Seismic Design

The potential for external loading on a pile by vertical ground Refer to Section 21 regarding the design of driven piles subjected
movements shall be considered as part of the design. Vertical ground to dynamic and seismic loads.
movements may result in negative skin friction or downdrag loads due
to settlement of compressible soils or may result in uplift loads due to 4.5.7 Structural Capacity of Pile Section
heave of expansive soils. For design purposes, the full magnitude of
maximum vertical ground movement shall be assured. 4.5.7.1 Load Capacity Requirements

4.5.6.7.1 Negative Skin Friction

Piles shall be designed as structural members capable of safely
The potential for external loading on a pile by negative skin supporting all loads imposed on them by the structure or surrounding
friction/downdrag due to settlement of compressible soil shall be soil.
considered as a part of the design. Evaluation of negative skin friction
shall include a load transfer method of analysis to determine the neutral 43.7.2 Piles Extending Above Ground Surface
point (i.e., point of zero relative displacement) and load distribution For the portions of piles in air or water, or soil not capable of
along shaft (e.g., Fellenius, 1984, Reese and O'Neill, 1988). Due to the providing adequate lateral support throughout the pile length to prevent
possible time dependence associated with vertical ground movement, bucking, the structural design provisions for compression members of
the analysis shall consider the effect of time on load transfer between Section 8, 9, 10 and 13 shall apply except; timber piles shall be
the ground and shaft and the analysis shall be performed for the time designed in accordance with Article 13.3 using the allowable unit
period relating to the maximum axial load transfer to the pile. If stresses given in Article 13.2 for lumber and in Table 4.5.7.3A.
necessary, negative skin friction loads that cause excessive settlement
may be reduced by application of bitumen or other viscous coating to 4.5.7.3 Allowable Stresses in Piles
the pile surface before installation.
The maximum allowable stress on a pile shall not exceed the
4.5.6.7.2 Expansive Soil following limits in severe surface conditions. Where pile damage or
deterioration is possible, it may be prudent to use a lower stress level
Piles driven in swelling soils may be subjected to uplift forces in than the maximum allowable stress.
the zone of seasonal moisture change. Piles shall extend a sufficient
distance to provide adequate resistance to 'swelling uplift forces. In For steel H-piles, the maximum allowable stress shall not exceed
addition, sufficient clearance shall be provided between the ground 0.25Fy over the cross-sectional area of the pile, not including the
surface and the underside of pile caps or grade beams to preclude the area of any tip reinforcement. The maximum allowable stress may
application of uplift loads at the pile cap. Uplift loads may be
be increased to 0.35 Fy in conditions where, pile dam a is
reduced by application of bitumen- or other viscous coatings to the
pile surface in the swelling zone. unlikely. Static and/or dynamic load test and evaluation
confirming satisfactory results should be performed when using
0.35 Fy.

* For unfilled steel pipe piles, the maximum allowable stress shall
not exceed 0.25 Fy over the minimum cross-sectional area of the

4-62 4-63
 pile. The maximum allowable stress may be increased to 0.33 Fy 4.5.8 Protection Against Corrosion and Abrasion
in conditions where pile damage is unlikely. Static and/or dynamic
load test and evaluation confirming satisfactory results should be Where conditions of exposure warrant, concrete encasement or
performed when using 0.33 Fy other corrosion protection shall be used on steel piles and steel shells.
• For concrete filled steel pipe piles, the maximum allowable stress Exposed steel piles or steel shells shall not be used in salt or brackish
water, and only with caution in fresh water. Where the piling is
shall not exceed 0.25 Fy + 0.40. fc, exposed to the abrasive action of the bed load of materials, the section
shall be increased in thickness or positive protection shall be provided.

• For prestressed concrete piles fully embedded in soils providing TABLE 4.5.7.3A
Allowable Working Stress for Round Timber
lateral support, the maximum allowable stress shall not exceed
Piles
0.27fp, on the cross-sectional area of the concrete.
Allowable Unit Working Stress
• For round timber piles, the maximum allowable stress shall not Compression Parallel to Grain
for Normal Duration of Loading
exceed the values in Table 4.5.7.3A for the pile tip area. For sawn SPECIES (MPa)
timber piles, the values applicable to "wet condition" for allowable Almon 7.6
compression parallel to grain shall be used in accordance with Amamanit 8.3
Article 13.2. Amugis 11.0
Apitong 7.6
Aranga 12.4
4.5.7.4 Cross-Section Adjustment for Corrosion Bansalagia 11.7
Banuyo 7.6
For concrete-filled pipe pile where corrosion may be expected, 1.5 Batete 7.6
mm. shall be deducted from the shell thickness to allow for reduction in Dungon 9.0
Guijo 11.0
section due to corrosion. Area of shell shall be included in determining Ipil 13.8
percentage of reinforcement, .p. KAlamansanai 11.0
Lamog 8.3
4.5.7.5 Scour Lumbayao 7.6
Malugai 7.6
Mangagachapui 13.1
The probable depth of scour shall be determined by subsurface Mayapis 5.5
exploration and hydraulic studies as described in Article 4.3.5. If heavy Moine 13.8
scour is expected, consideration shall be given to designing the Narig 13.8
Narra 9.0
portion of the pile that would be exposed as a column. In all cases, Pagatpat 9.7
the pile length shall be determined such that the design structural load Palosapis 6.9
may be safety supported entirely below the probable scour depth. Pine (Benguet) 6.9
The pile shall have adequate cross-section to-withstand the driving Red Lauaan 6.9
necessary to penetrate through the anticipated scour depth to the design Supa 9.0
Tangile 6.9
embedment. Tindalo 12.3
White Lauan 6.9
Yacal 13.1
4.5.9 Wave Equation Analysis Driving stresses may be estimated by performing wave equation
nalyses or by dynamic monitoring of force and acceleration at the pile
a
The constructability of the pile foundation design should be
head during pile driving.
evaluated using a wave equation computer program. The wave
equation should be used to confirm that the design pile section can be
installed to the, desired depth, ultimate capacity, and within the 4.5.12 Tolerable Movement
allowable driving stress levels specified in Article 4.5.11 using an
approximately sized driving system. Tolerable axial and lateral displacement criteria for driven pile
foundations shall be developed by the structural engineer consistent
with the function and type of structure, fixity of bearings, anticipated
4.5.10 Dynamic Monitoring
service life, and consequences of unacceptable displacements on the
structural performance. Driven pile displacement analyses shall be
Driving monitoring may be specified for piles installed in difficult based on the results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to characterize
subsurface conditions such as soils with obstructions and boulders, or a the load deformation behavior of the foundation materials. Refer to
steeply loping bedrock surface to evaluate compliance with structural Article 4.4.7.2.5 for criteria.
pile capacity. Dynamic monitoring may also be considered for
geotechnical capacity verification where the size of the project or other
limitations deter static load testing. 4.5.13 Buoyancy

4.5.11 Maximum Allowable Driving Stresses The effect of hydrolastic pressure shall be considered in the design
as provided in Article 3.19.
Maximum allowable driving stresses in pile material for top driven
piles shall not exceed the following units: 43.14 Protection against Detoriation

• Steel Piles 0.90Fy 4.5.14.1 Steel Piles

(Compression)
0.90Fy (Tension)
A steel pile foundation design shall consider that steel piles may be
• Concrete Piles 0.85f,' (Compression) subject to corrosion, particularly in fill soils, low ph soils (acidic) and
0.70F, of Steel Reinforcement marine environments. A field electric resistivity survey, or resistivity
(Tension) testing and ph testing of soil and ground water samples should be used
• Prestressed Concrete Piles 0.851' - fp. (Compression) to evaluate the corrosion potential. Methods of protecting steel piling
Normal environments in corrosive environments include use of protective coatings, cathodic
protection, and increased pile steel area.
4 + fp, (Tension)
4.5.14.2 Concrete Piles
(fc' and fp, must be in Mpa,
A concrete pile foundation design shall consider deterioration
The resulting max stress is also concrete piles that can occur due to sulfates in soil, ground water or sea
in MPa) water; chlorides in soils and chemical wastes; acidic ground water and
Severe Corossive environment fp, (Tension) organic acids. Laboratory testing of soil and ground water samples for
• Timber Piles 3a„ (Compression)
3crn (Tension)

4-66
4-67
sulfates and ph is usually sufficient to asses pile deterioration 4.5.16 Precast Concrete Piles
potential. A full chemical analysis of soil and ground water
samples is recommended when chemical wastes are suspected. 4.5.16.1 Size and Shape
Methods of protecting concrete piling can include dense permeable
concrete. sulfate resisting portland cement, minimum cover requirements
for reinforcing steel, and use of epoxies, resins or other protective Precast concrete piles shall be of approved size and shape but may
coatings. be either of uniform section or tapered. In general, tapered piling shall
not be used for trestle construction except for the portion of the pile
which lies below the ground line; nor shall tapered piles be used in any
4.5.14.3 Timber Piles
location where the piles are to act as columns.
A timber pile foundation design shall consider that deterioration of 4.5.16.2 Minimum Area
timber piles that can occur due to decay from wetting and dying cycles
or from insects or marine borers. Methods of protecting timber piling In general, concrete piles shall have a cross-sectional area,
include pressure treating with creosote or other wood preserves. measured above the taper, of not less than 0.063 square meter. In
saltwater a minimum cross-sectional area of 0.090 square meter shall
4.5.15 Spacing, Clearances, and Embedment be used. If a square section is employed, the corners shall be
chamfered at least 25 millimeters.
4.5.15.1 Pile Footings
43.16.3 Minimum Diameter of Tapered Piles
4.5.15.1.1 Pile Spacing The diameter of tapered piles measured at the point shall be not
Pile footings, shall be proportioned such that the minimum center- less than 200 mm. In all cases the diameter shall be considered as the
to-center pile spacing shall exceed the greater of 0.75 meters or 2.5 pile least dimension through the center.
diameters/widths. The distance from the side of any pile to the nearest
edge of the pile footing shall not be less than 0.23 meters, 4.5.16.4 Driving Points

43.15.1.2 Minimum Projection into Cap Piles shall preferably be cast with driving point, and for hard
driving,, shall preferably be shod with a metal shoe of approved pattern.
The tops of piles shall not be less than 0.30 meters into concrete
after all damaged pile material has been removed, but in special cases it 4.5:16.5 Vertical Reinforcement
may be reduced to 0.15 meters.
Nertical reinforcement shall consist of not less than four bars
4.5.15.2 Bent Caps spated:AMifomily around the perimeter of the pile, except that if more
iham,10uvbars -are .used, the number may be reduced to four in the
Where a reinforced concrete beam is cast-in-place and used as bent ttOtonia:20:,meters of the pile. The amount of reinforcement shall be at
cap supported by piles the concrete cover at the sides of the piles shall least:AA/2 percent of the total section measured above the taper.
be a minimum of 0,15 meters. The piles shall project at least 0.15
meters and preferably 0.23 meters into the cap, although concrete piles
may project a lesser distance into the cap if the projection of the pile
reinforcement is sufficient to provide adequate bond.

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4-68
 4.5.16.6 Spiral Reinforcement 4.5.17.2 Shape

The full length of vertical steel reinforcement shall be enclosed Cast-in-place concrete piles may have a uniform cross-section or
with spiral reinforcement or equivalent hoops. The spiral may be tapered over any portion.
reinforcement at the ends of the pile shall have a pitch of 75 mm and
size of not less than 10mm. In addition, the top 150 mm of the pile 4.5.17.3 Minimum Area
shall have five turns of spiral winding at 25mm pitch. For the
remainder of the pile, the lateral reinforcement shall be a 10mm spiral The minimum area at the butt of the pile shall be 0.065 square
with not more than a 150 mm pitch or round hoops spaced not more meter and the minimum diameter at the tip of the pile shall be 200mm.
than 150mm on centers. Above the butt or taper, the minimum size shall be as specified for
precast piles.
4.5:16.7 Reinforcement Cover
4.5.17.4 General Reinforcement Requirements
The reinforcement shall be placed at a clear distance from the face
of the pile of not less than 50mm, and when piles are used in salt water Cast-in ,place piles, carrying axial loads only where the possibility
or alkali soils, this clear distance shall not less than 75mm. of lateral forces being applied to the piles is insignificant. need not he
reinforced where the soil provides -adequate lateral support. Those
4.5.16.8 Splices portions of cast-in-place reinforced concrete piles that are not supported
laterally shall be designed as reinforced concrete column in accordance
Piles may be spliced provided that the splice develops the full with Article 8.15.4 and 8.16.4. and the reinforcing steel shall extend 3.0
strength of the pile. Splices should be detailed on the contract plans. meters below the plane where the soil provides adequate lateral
Any alternative method of splicing that provides equal results may be restraint. Where the shell is a smooth pipe and has more than 3mm
considered for approval. thickness, it may be considered as load carrying in the absence of
corrosion. Where the shell is corrugated and is at least 2 mm in
4.5.16.9 Handling Stresses thickness, it may be considered as providing confinement in the absence
of corrosion.
In computing stresses due to handling, the static loads shall be
increased by 50 percent as an allowable for impact and shock.
4.5.17.5 Reinforcement into Superstructure
4.5.17 Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles Sufficient reinforcement shall be provided at the junction of the
4.5.17.1 Materials pile with the superstructure to make a suitable connection. The
embedment of the reinforcement into the cap shall be as specified for
Cast-in-place concrete piles shall be, in general, cast, cast in metal precast piles.
shells that shall remain permanently in place. However, other types of
cast-in-place piles, plain or reinforced. cased or uncased may be used if 4.5.17.6 Shell Requirements
the soil conditions permit their use and if their design and method of
placing are satisfactory. The shell shall be of sufficient thickness and strength so that it will
hold its 'original form and show no harmful distortion after it and
adjacent shells have been driven and the driving core, if any. has been

4-70 4-71
withdrawn. The plans shall stipulate that alternative designs of the shell 4.5.18.4 Lugs, Scabs and Core-Stoppers
must be approved by the Engineer before any driving is done.
These devices may be used to increase the bearing capacity of the
4.5.17.7 Splices pile where necessary. They may consist of structural shapes, welded.
riveted or bolted, of plates welded between the flanges, or of timber or
Piles may be spliced provided the splice develops the full strength concrete blocks securely fastened.
of the pile. Splices should be detailed on the contract plans. Any 4.5.18.5 Point Attachments
alternative method of splicing providing equal results may be
considered for approval. If pile penetration through cobbles, boulders, debris fill
obstructions is anticipated, pile tips shall be reinforced with structural
4.5.17.8 Reinforcement Cover shapes or with prefabricated cast steel points. Cast steel points shall
meet the requirements of ASTM A27.
The reinforcement shall be placed a clear distance of not less than
5Orrun from the case or uncased sides. When piles are in corrosive or 4.5.19 Unfilled Tubular Steel Piles
marine environments, or when concrete is placed by the water or slurry
displacement methods, the clear distance shall not be less than 75mm 4.5.19.1 Metal Thickness
for uncased piles and piles with shells not sufficiently corrosion
Piles shall have a minimum thickness not less than indicated in the
resistant.
following table:

4.5.18 Steel H-Piles Outside Diameter Less than 350mm

350mm and over
4.5.18.1 Metal Thickness
Wall Thickness 6.0mm 10.0mm
Steel piles shall have a minimum web thickness of lOmm. Splice
plates shall not be less than lOmm.

4.5.18.2 Splices
4.5.19.2 Splices
Piles shall be spliced to develop the net section of pile. The
flanges and web shall either be spliced by butt welding or with plates Piles shall be spliced to develop the full section of the pile. The
that are welded, riveted, or bolted. Splices shall be detailed on the pile shall be spliced either by butt welding or by the use of welded
contract plans. Prefabricated splices may be used if the splice can sleeves. Splices shall be detailed on the contract plans.
develop the net section of the pile in compression, tension, shear and
bending. 4.5.19.3 Driving

4.5.18.3 Caps Tubular steel piles may be driven either closed or open ended.
Closure plates should not extend beyond the perimeter of the pile.
In general, caps are not required for steel piles embedded in
concrete.

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 4.5.19.4 Column Action enclosed with spiral reinforcement with not more than 150mm pitch.
For piles having diameters greater than .60 meters, spiral wire shall be
Where piles are to be used as part of a bent structure or where 12mm. Spiral reinforcement at the ends of these piles shall have a pitch
heavy scour is anticipated that would expose a portion of the pile. the of 50mm for approximately 16 turns. In addition, the top 150mm shall
pile will be investigated for column action. The provisions of Article have four turns of spiral winding at 40mm. For the remainder of the
4.5.8 shall apply to unfilled steel piles. pile, the vertical steel shall be enclosed with spiral reinforcement of not
more than 100mm pitch. The reinforcement shall be placed at a clear
4.5.20 Prestressed Concrete Piles distance of not less than 50mm from the face of the prestressed pile.

4.5.20.1 Size and Shape 4.5.20.4 Hollow Cylinder Piles

Large diameter hollow cylinder piles shall be of approved size and

Prestressed concrete. piles that are generally octagonal, square or shape. The wall thickness for cylinder piles shall not be less than
circular shall be of approved size and shape. Air entrained concrete 125mm. The grouting of post-tensioning tendons shall be in
shall be used in piles that are subject to wetting and drying. Concrete in accordance with Article 4.33.9-Division 11.
prestressed piles shall have a minimum compressive strength of 34 MPa
at 28 days. Prestressed concrete piles may be solid or hollow. For 43.20.5 Splices
hollow- piles, precautionary measures should be taken to prevent
breakage due to internal water pressure during driving and gas pressure When prestressed concrete piles are spliced, the splice shall be
due to decomposition of material used to form the void. capable of developing the full. section capacity of the pile. Splices shall
4.5.20.2 Main Reinforcement be detailed on the contract plans.

Main reinforcement shall be spaced and stressed so as to provide a 4.5.21 Timber Piles
compressive stress on the pile after losses, generally not less than
5.0MPa to prevent cracking during handling and installation. Piles 4.5.21.1 Materials
shall be designed to resist stresses developed during handling as well as
under service load conditions. Bending stresses shall be investigated
for all conditions of handling, taking into account the weight of the Timber.. piles shall conform to the requirements of the
piles plus 50% allowance for impact, with tensile stress limited to Specifications for Wood Products, AASHTO M168. Timber piles shall
be. treated or untreated as indicated on the contract plans. Preservative
treatment shall conform to the requirements of Section 16,
"Preservative Treatments for Lumber".
4.5.20.3 Vertical Reinforcement
4.5.21.2 Limitations on Untreated timber Pile Use
The full length of vertical reinforcement shall be enclosed within (Revised Article 4.3.2.1)
spiral reinforcement. For piles up to 0.60 meters diameter, spiral wire
shall be 10mm diameter. Spiral reinforcement at the ends of the piles . Untreated timber piles may be used for temporary construction,
shall have a pitch of 75mm inches for approximately 16 turns. In revetments, fenders and similar work, and in permanent construction
addition, the top 150mm of pile shall have 5 turns of spiral winding at under the following conditions:
25mm pitch. For the remainder of the pile, the vertical steel shall be

4-74 4-75
 For foundation piling when the cutoff is below permanent 4.6.1.3 Construction
ground water level.
For trestle construction when it is economical to do so, Drilled shafts may be constructed using the dry, casing or wet
although treated piles are preferable. methods. In every case, hole excavation, concrete placement and all
They shall not be used where they will or may be exposed to other aspects of shaft construction shall be performed in conformance
marine borers. with the provisions of this Standard.
They shall not be used where seismic design considerations are
critical. 4.6.1.4 Embedment

4.5.21.3 Limitations on Treated Timber Pile Use Shaft embedment shall be determined based on vertical and lateral
load capacities of both the shaft and subsurface materials.
Treated timber piles shall not be used where seismic design
considerations are critical. 4.6.1.5 Shaft Diameter

For rock-socketed shafts which require casing through the

4.6 DRILLED SHAFTS overburden soils, the socket diameter should be at least 150mm less
than the inside diameter of the casing to facilitate drill tool insertion and
4.6.1 General removal through the casing. For rock-socketed shafts not requiring
casing through the overburden soils, the socket diameter can be equal to
the shaft diameter through the soil.
The provisions of the article shall apply to the design of axially and
laterally loaded drilled shafts in soil or extending through soil to or into 4.6.1.6 Batter Shafts
rock.
The use of battered shafts to increase the lateral capacity of
4.6.1.1 Application
foundations is not recommended both due to their difficulty of
Drilled shafts may be considered when spread footings cannot be construction and high cost. Instead, consideration should first be
founded on suitable soil or rock strata within a reasonable depth and given it increasing the shaft diameter to obtain the required capacity.
when piles are not economically viable due to high loads or
obstructions to driving. Drilled shafts may be used in lieu of spread 4.6.1.7 Shafts Through Embankment Fill
footings as protection against scour. Drilled shafts may also be
considered to resist high lateral or uplift loads when deformation Shafts extending through embankment shall extend a minimum of 3
tolerances are small. meters into original ground unless bedrock or competent bearing strata
occurs at a lesser penetration. Fill used for embankment construction
4.6.1.2 Materials shall be random fill material having adequate capacity which shall not
obstruct shaft construction to the required depth. Negative skin friction
Shafts shall be cast-in-place concrete and may include deformed loads due to settlement and consolidation of embankment or underlying
bar steel reinforcement, structural steel sections and/or permanent steel soils shall be evaluated for shafts in embankments (See Article 4.6.2.5).
casing as required by design. In every case, materials shall be supplied
in accordance with the provisions of this Standard.

4-76 4-77
4.6.2 Notations = Number of depth intervals into which shaft is divided for
N,
determination of side resistance (dim); (See Article 4.6.: ,.1.1
The following notations shall apply for the design of drilled shaft and 4.6.5.1.2)
foundations in soil and rock. P ▪ Lateral load on shaft (kN)
Q
a = Tip bearing factor to account for large diameter shaft tip = Total axial compression load applied to shaft butt (kN)
qe
(dim); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3) = Ultimate unit tip capacity for an equivalent shaft for a group of
A = Area of shaft (m2) shafts supported in strong layer overlying weaker layer (1, Pa);
qLo (See Article 4.6.5.2.4.3)
At = Area of shaft tip (m 2)
= Ultimate unit tip capacity of an equivalent shaft bearing
b = Tip bearing factor to account for large diameter shaft tip Q.
weaker underlying soil layer (kPa); (See Article 4.6.5.2.4.3)
(dim); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3) qup = Total axial uplift load applied to shaft butt (kN)
B = Shaft diameter (m); (See Article 4.6.3)
= Ultimate unit tip capacity of an equivalent shaft bearing in
Bb =Diameter of enlarged base (m); (See Article 4.6.3) QS stronger upper soil layer (kPa); (See Article 4.6.5.2.4.3)
Bi = Least width of shaft group (m) (See Article 4.6.5.2.4.3)
qsR = Ultimate side resistance in soil (kN); (See Article 4.6.5.1.1 and
B, = Diameter of rock socket (m) (See Article4.6.3)
4.6.5.1.2)
B, = Tip diameter (m); (See Article 4.6.3)
QSR = Ultimate unit shear resistance along shaft/rock interface (kPa);
C„, = Unaxial compressive strength of rock mass (kPa); (See Article
(See Article 4.6.5.3.1)
4.6.5.3.1)
= Ultimate side resistance of rock socket (IN) (See Article
Co = Unaxial compressive strength of intact rock (kPa) qT
4.6.5.3.1)
D = Shaft length (m); (See Article 4.6.3)
qTR = Ultimate unit tip resistance for shafts (kPa); (See Article
Dr = Length of rock socket (m); (See Article 4.6.3) 4.6.5.3.1)
E, = Elastic modulus of concrete shaft or reinforced shaft (kPa) QT = Ultimate unit tip resistance for shafts reduced for size effects
▪ Elastic modulus of intact rock (kPa) (kPa); (See Equation 4.6.6.1,2.1-3)
QTR
= Ultimate tip resistance in soil (kN); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3 and
E„, =-- Elastic modulus of rock mass (kPa) 4.6.5.1.4)
Quit
FS = Factor of safety (dim) = Ultimate tip resistance of rock socket (kN); (See Article
RQD
= Ultimate load transfer along shaft (kPa); (See. Article 4.6.5.1.1 4.6.5.3.2)
and 4.6.5.1.2) su, = Ultimate axial load capacity (kN); (See Article
= Distance from shaft tip to top of weak soil layer (m); (See 4.6.5.1) = Rock Quality Designation (dim)
Article 4.6.5.2.4.3) sut ▪ Undrained shear strength as a function over ith depth interval
i = Depth interval (dim); (See Article• 4.6.5.1.1 and 4.6.5.1.2)
I = Displacement influence actor for rock-socketed shafts loaded a1
(kPa); (See Article 4.6.5.1.1)
in compression (dim); (See Article 4.6.5.5.2) a = Undrained shear strength within 213 below shaft tip (KPa);
= Displacement influence factor for rock- .ocketed shafts loaded (See article 4.6.5.1.3)
in uplift (dim); (See Article 4.6.5.5.2) = Weight of Shaft (kN)
N = Standard penetration resistance (blows/m) = Depth to midpoint of ith interval (m); (See Article 4.6.5.1.2)
N' = Standard penetration test blow count corrected for effects of = Adhesion factor (dim)
overburden (blows/m) = Adhesion factor as a function over ith depth interval (dim):
N, = Bearing capacity factor (dim); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3) (See Article a4.6.5.1.1)

4-78 4-79
cc, = Reduction factor to estimate rock mass modulus and unaxial 4.6.4.1 Presumptive Values
strength of intact rock (dim); (See Article 4.6.5.3.1)
13, = Load transfer factor in the ith interval (dim); (See Article Presumptive values for allowable bearing pressure on soil and rock
may be used only for guidance, preliminary design of temporary
4.6.5.1.2)
structures. Refer to Table C4.4.4.1A (see Commentary) for typical
= Effective soil unit weight in the ith interval (kN/m3); (See
values. The use of presumptive values shall be based on the results of
Article 4.6.5.1.2)
subsurface exploration to identify soil and rock conditions. Ail values
Az; = ith increment of shaft length (m) for design shall be confirmed by field and/or laboratory testing.
= Factor to account for reduced individual capacity of closely-
spaced shafts in group (dim); (See Article 4.6.5.2.4.1) 4.6.4.2 Measured Values
Po =Elastichorteningofshaft(m);(SeArticle4.6.5.5.1.1and
4.6.5.5.1.2) Foundation stability and settlement analyses for final design shall
Ps = Total settlement displacement at butt for shaft with rock socket be performed using soil and rock properties based on the result of field
(m); (See Article 4.6.5.5.2) and/or laboratory testing.
Pu = Total uplift displacement at butt for shaft with rock socket (m);
(See Article 4.6.5.5.2) 4.6.5 Geotechnical Design
It = 3.1415 (dim)
= Poison's ratio (dim) Drilled shafts shall be designed to support the design loads with
ac = Unconfined compressive strength of rock mass or concrete, adequate bearing and structural capacity, and with tolerable settlements
whichever is weaker (MPa): (See Article 4.6.5.3.1) in conformance with Articles 4.6.5 and 4.6.4. In addition, the response
= Effective vertical stress at midpoint of ith depth interval (Kpa); of drilled shafts subjected to seismic and dynamic loads, materials and
(See Article 4.6:5.1.2) shaft shall be evaluated in conformance with Article 4.4.7.3 (dynamic
ground stability) and 4.6.5.7, respectively.
The notations for dimension units include the following: dim =
Dimensionless; deg = degree; m = meter; kN = KiloNewton; kPa = Shaft design shall be based on working stress principles using
KiloPascal and MPa = MegaPascal. The dimensional units provided maximum unfactored loads derived from calculations of dead and live
with each notation are presented for illustration only to demonstrate a loads from superstructures, substructures, earth (i.e., sloping ground),
dimensionally correct combination of units for the shaft capacity and wind and traffic. Allowable axial and lateral loads may be determined
settlement procedures presented below. If other units are used, the by separate methods of analysis.
dimensional correctness of the equations should be confirmed.
The design methods presented h, rein for determining axial load
4.6.3 Design Terminology capacity assume drilled shafts of uniform cross section, with verticals
alignment, concentric axial loading, and a relatively horizontal ground
Refer to Figure 4.6.3A for terminology used in design of drilled shafts. surface. The effects of an enlarged base, group action and sloping
gjound are treated separately.
4.6.4 Selection of Soil and Rock Properties

Soil and rock properties defining the strength and compressibility

characteristics of the foundation materials are required for drilled shaft
design.

4-80 4-81
 4.6.5.1 Axial Capacity in Soil

The ultimate axial capacity Q uit of drilled shafts shall be

determined in accordance with the following for compression and uplift
loading, respectively:

Quit =Qs + QT W (4-56)

Qui, <0.7 Qs+W (4-57)

,,,ATE AXIAL LOAD

COPACallY O,AI The allowable or working axial load shall be determined as:
FIUT

a.AIERAI.LOOMIP)
Q u it =Quit IFS (4-58)
DIABETER (By
- non
TYPICAL Shafts in cohesive soils may be designed by total and effective
AorscaRobc
stress methods of analysis, for undrained and drained loading
STEELIIFAC-ourtED
conditions, respectively. Shafts in cohesionless soils shall be designed
by effective stress methods of analysis for drained loading conditions.
SIDE RESSTAIC.E

BELL USED AS AC-CESSAR

SITE VARIES - NO LARGER
TWA 38
4.6.5.1.1 Side Resistance in Cohesive Soil
BBL CMIETER IOW

TIP
For shafts in cohesive soil loaded under undrained loading
conditions, the ultimate side resistance may be estimated using the
so, HIESISTNCE following:
a. SHAFT Si SOIL b SHAFT IA SOK. WITH ROCK SOCKET N

Q, = itBEctiSuiAzi (4-59)
i=1

The ultimate unit load transfer in side resistance at any depth f$i is
equal to the product of a i and s,d. Refer to Table 4.6.5.1.IA for
guidance regarding selection of ai and limiting values of f5, for shafts
excavated dry in open or cased holes. Environmental, long-term
loading or construction factors may dictate that a depth greater than 1.5
meters should be ignored in estimating Qs. Refer to Figure 4.6.5.1.1A
for identification of portions of drilled shaft not considered in
Figure 4.6.3A Design Terminology for Drilled Shaft Foundations contributing to the computed value of Qs. For shafts in cohesive soil
under drained loading conditions, Qs, may be determined using the
procedure in Article 4.6.5.1.2.

4-82 4-83
 Where time-dependent changes in soil shear strength may occur TABLE 4.6.5.1.1A Recommended Values of a and f sifor
(e.g., swelling of expansive clay or downdrag from a consolidating Estimation of Drilled Shaft Side Resistance in Cohesive Soil
clay), effective stress methods (Article 4.6.5.1.2) should be used to Reese and O'Neill (1988)
compute Qs in the zone where such changes may occur. Limiting
Value of Load
4.6.5.1.2 Side Resistance in Cohesionless Soil Value Transfer, l.'s;
For shafts in cohesionless soil or for effective stress analysis of lion Along Drilled Shall of a (kPa)
shafts in cohesive soils under drained loading conditions, the ultimate
the following: From ground surface to depth 0
along drilled shaft of 1.50 m
side resistance of axially loaded drilled shafts may be estimated using
Qs = BE y i'zi zi (4-60) i3Ottorn 1 diameter of the drilled 0
shaft or 1 stem diameter above
the top of the bell (if skin friction
is being used)

Top 1.50 meters All other points along the sides 0.55 265
Noncontributing
of the drilled shaft.
$ The depth of l 5 m may need adjustment if the drilled shaft is installed in expansive
clay, or if there is substantial groundline deflection from lateral loading.

The value of 13i may be determined from following:

Bottom One Diameter*

of Stern
= 1.5 - 0.245 - Niz i ; 1.2 > > 0.25 (4-61)
Noncontributing
The value of 7i' should be determined from measurements from
Penonory of Bei! undisturbed samples along the length of the shaft or from empirical
Bottom One Olameter Noncontributing
Noncontributing correlations with SPT or other in-situ test methods. The ultimate unit
load transfer in side resistance at any depth, is equal to the product
Si•alnt Shaft BO W S ha h
of /A and am'. The limiting value of L for shafts in cohesionless soil is
192 kPa.

* Two Diameters in Stitt Fissured Cloy.

4.6.5.1.3 Tip Resistance in Cohesive Soil

For axially loaded shafts in cohesive soil subjected to undrained

Figure 4.6.5.1.1A Identification of Portions of Drilled Shafts loading conditions, the ultimate tip resistance of drilled shafts may be
Neglected for Estimation of Drilled Shaft Side Resistance in estimated using the following:
Cohesive Soil Reese and O'Neill (1988)
QT = qTAi = NcsutAl (4.-62)

4-85
 Values of the bearing capacity factor N, may be determined If 13,->1.25 meters and shaft settlements will not be evaluated, the
using • .! following: value of q-r should be reduced to Clut as follows:

N, = 6.0[1 + 0.2(13/13,)1 ; N, 5 9 (4-63) qm = (1.27/BT)qT (4-68)

The limiting value of unit end bearing (141 = Ncsui )is 3,800 kPa. 4.6.5.2 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity in Soil

The value of su, should be determined from the results of in-situ 4.6.5.2.1 Soil Layering and Variable Soil Strength with Depth
and/or laboratory testing of undisturbed samples obtained within a
depth of 2B below the tip of the shaft. If the soil within 213 of the tip is The design of shafts in layered soil deposits or soil deposits having
of soft consistency, the value of N, should be reduced by one-third. variable strength with depth requires evaluation of soil parameters
If B, > 1.90 meters and shaft settlements will not be evaluated, the characteristic of the respective layers or depths. Qs in such soil
value of qT should be reduced to qTR as follows: deposits may be estimated by dividing the shaft into layers according to
soil type and properties, determining Qs for each layer, and summing
qTit = FAT = (2.54a8,13.66 + 2.5b1) qT (4-64) values for each layer to obtain the total Qs. If the soil below the shaft
tip is of variable consistency, QT may be estimated using the
predominant soil strata within 213 below the shaft tip.
a = 0.0071 + 0.002 (D/131); a 5 0.015 (4-65)

b = 0.065 (S„,)a.5;4.5 < b < 1.5 (4-66) For shafts extending through soft compressible layers to tip
bearing on firm soil or rock, consideration shall be given to the
The limiting value of qTR is 3,800 kPa. effects of negative skin friction (Article 4.6.5.2.5) due to the
consolidation settlement of soils surrounding the shaft. Where the
For shafts in cohesive soil under drained loading conditions, QT shaft tip would bear on a thin firm soil layer underlain by a softer soil
may be estimated using the procedure described in Article 4.6.5.1.4. unit, the shaft shall be extended through the softer soil unit to
eliminate the potential for a punching shear failure into the softer
deposit.
4.6.5.1.4 Tip Resistance in Cohesionless Soil
TABLE 4.6.5.1.4A Recommended Values of qT* for Estimation of
For axially loaded drilled shafts in cohesionless soils or effective Drilled Shaft Tip Resistance in Cohesionless. Soil after
stress analysis loaded drilled shafts in cohesive soil, the ultimate tip Reese and O'Neil (1988)
resistance may be estimated using the following:

= cITA, (4-67) Standard Penetration Resistance

N Value of qT
The value of qT may be determined from the results of standard (Blows/meter) (uncorrected) (kPa)
penetration testing using uncorrected blow count reading within a depth
of 213 below the tip of the shaft. Refer to Table 4.6.5.1.4A for 0 to 80 17.5 N
recommended values of qr. Above 80 4,300
*
Ultiniate value or value at settlement of 5 percent of base diameter.

4-86 4-87
 4.6.5.2.2 Ground Water to-center (CTC) spacing of 3B and t, = 1.0 for a CTC spacing of 6B.
For intermediate spacings, the value of C may be determined by linear
The highest anticipated water level shall be used for design. interpolation_ The group capacity may then be computed as the lesser
(1) the sum of the modified individual capacities of each shaft in the
4.6.5.2.3 Enlarged Bases group, or (2) the capacity of an equivalent pier as described above.

An enlarged base (bell or underream) may be used ai the shaft tip 4.63.2.4.2 Cohesionless Soil
in stiff cohesive soil to increase the tip bearing area and reduce the unit
end bearing pressure, or to provide additional resistance to uplift loads. Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesionless soil shall
consider the spacing between adjacent shafts. Regardless of cap
The tip capacity of an enlarged base shall be determined assuming contact with the ground, the individual capacity of each shaft should be
that the entire base area is effective in transferring load. Allowance of reduced C times QT for an isolated shaft, where C = 0.67 for a center-to-
full effectiveness of the enlarged base shall be permitted only when center (CTC) spacing of 3B and C = 1.0 for a CTC spacing of 8B. For
cleaning of the bottom of the drilled hole is specified and can be intermediate spacings, the value of C may be determined by linear
acceptably completed before concrete placement. interpolation. The group' capacity may then be computed as the lesser
of (I) the sum of the modified individual capacities of each shaft in the
4.6.5.2.4 Group Action group, or (2) the capacity of an equivalent pier circumscribing the
group, including resistance over the entire perimeter and base area.
Evaluation of group capacity assumes the effects of negative skin
friction (if any) are negligible. 4.6.5.2.4.3 Group in Strong Soil Overlying Weaker Soil
4.6.5.2.4.1 Cohesive soil .

If a group of shifts is embedded in a strong soil deposit overlies a

weaker deposit (cohesionless and cohesive soil), consideration shall be
Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesive soil shall
given to the potential for a punching failure of the tip into the weaker
consider the presence and contact of a cap with the ground surface and
soil strata. For this case, the unit tip capacity of the equivalent pier (q E)
the spacing between adjacent shafts.
may be determined using the following:
For a shaft group with a cap in firm contact with the ground, Quit
qE =qLO + (WI 0B1) (qup - qua) c qup (4-69)
may be computed as the lesser of (1) the sum of the individual
capacities of each shaft in the group or (2) the capacity of an equivalent
If the underlying soil unit is a weaker cohesive soil strata, careful
pier defined in the perirniter area of the group. For the equivalent pier.
consideration shall be given to the potential for the large settlements in
the shear strength of soil shall not be reduced by any factor (e.g.,al) to
the weaker layer.
determine the Qs component of Quk, and the additional capacity of the
cap shall be ignored.
4.6.5.2.5 Vertical Ground Movement
If the cap is not in firm contact with the ground, or if the soil at the
The potential for external loading on a shaft by vertical ground
surface is loose or soft. the individual capacity of each shaft should be
movement (i.e., negative skin friction/downdrag due to settlement of
reduced to L, times QT for an isolated shaft, where C = 0.67 for a center-
compressible soil or uplift due to heave of expansive soil) shall be
considered as a part of design. For design purposes, it shall be assumed

4-88 4-89
that the full magnitude of maximum potential vertical ground movement 4.6.5.3 Axial Capacity in Rock
occurs.
Drilled shafts are socketed into rock to limit axial displacements,
Evaluation of negative skin friction shall include a load-transfer increase load capacity and/or provide fixity for resistance to lateral
method of analysis to determine the neutral point (i.e., point of zero loading. In determining the axial capacity of drilled shafts with rock
relative displacement) and load distribution along the shaft (e.g., Reese sockets, the side resistance from overlying soil deposits may be ignored.
and O'Neill, 1988). due to the posSible time dependence associated
with vertical ground movement, the analysis shall consider the effect of Typically, side resistance is carried solely by the axial compression
time on load transfer between the ground and shaft and the analysis load on a shaft socketed into rock until a total shaft settlement (p,) on
shall be performed for the time period relating to the maximum axial the order of 1 Onun occurs. At this displacement, the ultimate side
load transfer to the shaft. resistance. QSR, is mobilized and slip occurs between the concrete and
rock. As a result of this slip, any additional load is transferred to the
Shafts designed for and constructed in expansive soil shall extend tip.
to a sufficient depth into moisture-stable soils to provide adequate
anchorage to resist uplift movement. In addition, sufficient clearance The design procedures assume that the socket is constructed in
shall be provided between the ground surface and underside of caps or reasonably sound rock that is little affected by construction (i.e., does
beams connecting shafts to preclude the application of uplift loads at not rapidly degrade upon excavation and/or exposure to air or water)
the shaft/cap connection from swelling ground conditions. Uplift and which is cleaned prior 'o concrete placement (i.e., free of soil and
capacity shall rely only on side resistance conformance with Article other debris). If ro _s degradable, consideration of special
4.6.5.1. If the shaft has an enlarged base, Qs shall be determined in construction procedures, larger socket dimensions, or reduced socket
conformance with Article 4.6.5.2.3. capacities should be considered.

4.6.5.2.6 Method of Construction 4.6.5.3.1 Side Resistance

The load capacity and deformation behavior of drilled shafts can be The ultimate side resistance (QsR) for shafts socketed into rock may
greatly affected by the quality and method(s) of construction. The be determined using the following:
effects of construction methods are incorporated in design by
application of a factor of safety consistent with the expected Qsa = 7r4,13,q5R (4-70)
construction method(s) and level of field quality control measures
(Article 4.6.5.4). Refer to Figure 4.6.5.3.1A for values of qsR . For uplift loading
Quh of a rock socket shall be limited to 0.7 QSR.
Where the spacing between shafts in a group is restricted,
consideration shall be given to the sequence of construction to The design of rock sockets shall be based on the unconfirmed
minimize the effect of adjacent shaft construction operations on compressive strength of the rock mass (C,n) or concrete, whichever is
recently constructed shafts. weaker (ac). C. may be estimated using the following relationship:

C. = etEC0 (4.-71)
 Refer to Article 4.4.8.2.2 for the procedure to determine aE as a Preferably, values of Co should be determined from the results of
function of RQD. laboratory testing of rock core obtained within 2B of the base of the
footing. Where rock strata within this interval are variable in strength.
4.63.3.2 Tip Resistance the rock with the lowest capacity should be used to determine QTR.
Evaluation of ultimate tip resistance (QTR) for rock socketed drilled Alternatively, Table 4.4.8.1.28 may be used as a guide to estimate Co.
shafts shall consider the influence of rock discontinuities. QTR for rock- For rocks defined by very poor quality, the value of QTR cannot be less
socketed drilled shafts may be determined using the following: than the value of QT for an equivalent soil mass.

4.63.3.3 Factors Affecting-Axial Capacity in Rock

QTR = IsirmsCoA, (4-72)
4.6.5.3.3.1 Rock Stratification

Rock stratification shall be considered in the design of rock sockets

as follows:
111111111111111411•1111111111111P■ o Sockets embedded in alternating layers of weak and strong rock

0 10
111111111111111111W shall be designed using the strength of the weaker rock.

o The side resistance provided by soft or weathered rock should be

035 21MITEMportii neglected in determining the required socket length where a

socket extends into more competent underlying rock. Rock is
defined as soft when the modal compressive strength of the

11111021■2111111111111111MINNIMEM
weaker rock is less than 20 percent of that of the stronger rock,
and weathered when the RQD is less than 20 percent.

o Where the tip of a shaft would bear on thin rigid rock strata
underlain by a weaker unit, the shaft shall be extended into or
through the weaker unit (depending on load capacity or
1 40
3.5D 14.0 35.0 70.0 140.0
deformation requirements) to eliminate the potential for failure
due to flexural tension or punching failure of the thin rigid
UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF ROCK OR. CONCRETE. WHI101-1EVER IS WEAKER [Mr'. stratum.

o Shaft designed to bear on a rock strata in which the rock surface

is inclined should extend to a sufficient depth to ensure that the
shaft, tip is fully bearing on the rock.
Figure 4.6.5.3.1A Procedure for Estimating Average Unit
Sheat for Smooth Wall Rock-Socketed Shafts Horvath,et al. (1983) o Shafts designed to bear on a rock strata in which bedding planes
are not perpendicular to the shaft axis shall extend a minimum
depth of 2B into the dipping strata to minimize the potential for

4-92 4-93
 shear failure along natural bedding planes and other slippage 4.6.5.5.1 Shafts in Soil
surfaces associated with stratification.
Settlement should be estimated for the design or working load.
4.6.5.33.2 Rock Mass Discontinuities
4.6.5.5.1.1 Cohesive Soil
The strength and compressibility of rock will be affected by the
presence of discontinuities (joins and fractures). The influence of The short-term settlement of shafts in cohesive soil may be
discontinuities on shaft behavior will be dependent on their attitude, estimated using Figures 4.6.5.5.1.1A and 4.6.5.5.1.1B. The curves
frequency and condition, and shall be evaluated on a case-to-case basis presented indicate the proportions of the ultimate side resistance (Qs)
as necessary. and ultimate tip resistance (QT) mobilized at various magnitudes of
settlement. The total axial load on the shaft (Q) is equal to the sum of
4.6.5.3.3.3 Method of Construction the mobilized side resistance (Q,) and the mobilized tip resistance (Qt).
The effect of the method of construction on the engineering The settlement in Figure 4.6.5.5.1.1A incorporates the effects of
properties of the rock and the contact between the rock and shaft shall elastic shortening of the shaft provided the shaft is of typical length
be considered as a part of the design process. (i.e. D< 30 meters). For longer shafts, the effects of elastic shortening
may be estimated using the following:
4.6.5.4 Factors of Safety
pc = PD/AE, (4-73)
Drilled shafts in soil or socketed in rock shall be designed for a
minimum factor of safety of 2.0 against bearing capacity failure (end For shaft with an enlarged base in cohesive soil, the diameter of the
bearing, side resistance or combined) when the design is based on the shaft at the base (Bb) should be used in Figure 4.6.5.5.1.1B to estimate
results of a load test conducted at the site. Otherwise, shafts shall be shaft settlement at the tip.
designed for a minimum factor of safety of 2.5. The minimum
recommended factors of safety are based on an assumed normal level of Refer to Article 4.4.7.2.3 for procedures to estimate the
field quality control during shaft construction. If a normal level of field consolidation settlement component for shafts extensive into cohesive
quality control cannot be assured, higher minimum factors of safety soil deposits.
shall be used.
4.6.5.5.1.2 Cohesionless soil
4.6.5.5 Deformation of Axially Shafts The short term settlement of shafts in cohesionless soil may be
-

The settlement of axially loaded shafts at working or allowable estimated using figures 4.6.5.5.1.2A and 4.6.5.5.1.2B. The curves
loads shall be estimated using elastic or load transfer analysis methods. presented indicate the proportions of ultimate side resistance (Qs) and
For most cases, elastic analysis will be applicable for design provided ultimate tip resistance (Q-C) mobilized at various magnitudes of
the stress levels in the shaft are moderate relative to Quit. Where stress settlement. The total axial load on the shaft (Q) is equal to the sum of
levels are high, consideration should be given to methods of load the mobilized side resistance (Q,) and the mobilized tip resistance (Qt).
transfer analysis. Elastic shortening of the shaft may be estimated using the following.
 1.0

0.8
Load Transler

0.6
0.5 -

iJl

0.4 Range of Results

•••••■ •■ • • . 1 Trend Line Range of Results
0.3
•""•-- Trend Una

0.2 1

0.1

0.0
0.0 0.2 04 0.8 0.8 1.0 2 ,4 2.0 0.0
Settlement Settlement of Base %
Diameter of Shaft Diameter of Base

Figure 4.6.5.5.1.1A Load Transfer in Side Resistance Versus Figure 4.6.5.5.1.1B Load Transfer in Tip Bearing Versus
Settlement Drilled Shafts in Cohesive Soil Settlement Drilled Shafts in Cohesive Soil
After Reese and O'Neill (1988) After Reese and O'Neill (1988)
0 2 3 . 5 6 7 8
 1
Ps = PD/AE, (4-74)
1' Table 4.4.8.2.2B of Figure 4.4.8.2.2A may be used. For preliminary
analyses or for final design when in-situ results are not available, a

4.6.5.5.1.3 Mixed Soil Profile value of aF = 0.15 should be used to estimate Em.

The short-term settlement of shafts in a mixed soil profile may be 4.6.5.5.3 Tolerable Movement
estimated by summing the proportional settlement components from
layers of cohesive and cohesionless soil compromising the subsurface Tolerable axial displacement criteria for drilled shaft foundations
soil profile. shall be developed by the structural designer consistent with the
function and type of structure, fixity of bearings, anticipated service
4.6.5.5.2 Shafts Socketed into Rock life, and consequences of unacceptable displacement on the structure
performance. Drilled shaft displacement analyses shall be based on the
In estimating the displacement of rock-socketed drilled shafts, the results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to characterize the load-
resistance to deformation provided by overlying soil deposits may be deformation behavior of the foundation materials. Refer to Article
ignored. Otherwise, the load transfer to soil as a function of 4.4.7.2 5 for additional guidance regarding tolerable vertical and
displacement may be estimated in accordance with Article 4.6.5.5.1. horizontal movement criteria.

The butt settlement (Ps) of drilled shafts fully socketed into rock 4.6.5.6 Lateral Loading
may be determined using, the following which is modified to include
elastic shortening of the shaft: The design of laterally loaded drilled shafts shall account for the
effects of soil/rock-structure interaction between the shaft and the
Ps = QE(IpsiBrEsn) (D/AEJJ (4-75) ground (e.g., Reese, 1984; Borden and Gabr, 1987). Methods of
analysis evaluating the ultimate capacity or deflection of laterally
Refer to Figure 4.6.5.5.2A to determine Ins. loaded shafts (e.g., Broms, 1964a, b; Singh, et all, 1971) may be used
for preliminary design only as a means to determine approximate shaft
The uplift displacement (pi,) at the butt of drilled shafts fully dimensions.
socketed into rock may be determined using the following which is
modified to include elastic shortening of the shaft: 4.6.5.6.1 Factors Affecting Laterally Loaded Shafts

Psi= Qu[(IpJBrEm) (INAEdi (4-76) 4.6.5.6.1.1 Soil Layering

Refer to Figure 4.6.5.5.2B to determine Ipu.

The design of laterally loaded drilled shafts in layered soils shall be
based on evaluation of the soil parameters characteristic ei the
The rock mass modulus (Em) should be determined based on the
respective layers.
results of in-situ testing (e.g., pressuremeter) or estimated from the
results of laboratory tests in which E. is the modulus of intact rock 4.6.5.1.2 Ground Water
specimens, and (Eo) is estimated in accordance with Article 4.4.8.2.2.
The highest anticipated water level shall be used for design.
For preliminary design or when in-situ specific test data cannot be
obtained, guidelines for estimating values of Eo, such as presented in

4-98 4-99
 2.0

.=•■••••
1.0 1.6 •

1.4

Ultimata End Bearing

-
0.5
Soda Load Transfer

CI 1.2
0
0.6 S
1.0
'0 F
C
2 Range of Resuita tar Deflocilon - UI
0.8
0.4 Softening Flosoon sr
Range of Resuiti
Rings Of USIA 1 lor 0.6 0-
Deflot VW -Hard •rung As soon vs
Trend Line
0.2
••• . .s r• ••■ Trend tans 0.4

0.0 4.2 1-
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.6 10 1.2 1.4 1.5 2.0
Settlement
0.0
Diameter of Shaft 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 78 9 10 fi 12
Settlement of Base
Diameter of Bass

Figure 4.6.5.5.1.2A Load Transfer in Side Resistance Versus Figure 4.6.5.5.1.2B Load Transfer in Tip Bearing Versus
Settlement Drilled Shafts in Cohesionless Soil Settlement Drilled Shafts in Cohesionless Soil
After Reese and O'Neill (1988) After Reese and O'Neill (1988)

4-100 4-101
 0.5
o. a- 1-
v•7 ;--
o•e
•0
0.5

0-4
urn = 0.25
03
20
 2
a 0.2

1 fT
0  1

0 0-09
 7
o•oa
0.07
 6 ❑ • 0
I
P * o 5
a 0 4 5
Dr /Br
 4

0.3 Figure 4.6.5.5.2B Influence Coefficient for Elastic Uplift

Displacement of Rock-Socketed Drilled Shafts
Modified after Pells and Turner (1979)
 2

4.5.6.1.3 Scour

The potential for loss of lateral capacity due to scour shall be

considered in the design. Refer to Article 1.3.2 and FHWA (1988) for
general guidance regarding hydraulic studies and design. If heavy
scour is expected, consideration shall be given to designing the portion
Figure 4.6.5.5.2A Influence Coefficient for Elastic Settlement of of the shaft that would be exposed as a column. In all cases, the shaft
Rock-Socketed Drilled Shafts Modified After Pells and Turner length shall be determined such that the design structural load can be
(1979) safely supported entirely below the probable scour depth.
 4.6.5.6.1.4 Group Action 43.6.1.7 Sloping Ground

There is no reliable rational method for evaluating the group action For drilled shafts which extend through or below sloping ground,
for closely-spaced, laterally loaded shafts. Therefore, as a general the potential for additional lateral loading shall be considered in the
guide. drilled shafts in a group may be considered to act individually design. The general method of analysis developed by Borden and Gabr
when the CTC spacing is greater than 2.5B in the direction normal to (1987) may be used for analysis of shafts in stable slopes. For shafts in
loading, and CTC > 8B in the direction parallel to loading. For shaft marginally-stable slopes, additional consideration should be given for
layouts not conforming to these criteria, the effects of shaft interaction low factors of safety against slope failure or showing ground creep, or
shall be considered in the design. As a general guide, the effects of when shafts extend through fills overlying soft foundation soils and bear
group action for in-line CTC < 88 may be considered using the into more competent underlying soil or rock formations. For unstable
following ratios (CGS, 1985): ground, detailed exploration, testing and analysis are required to
evaluate potential additional lateral loads due to slope movements.
Ratio of Lateral
CTC Shaft Spacing Resistance of Shaft in 4.6.5.6.2 Tolerable Lateral Movements
for In-line Loading Group to Single Shaft
Tolerable lateral displacement criteria for drilled shaft foundations
8B 1.00 shall be developed by the structural designer consistent with the
6B 0.70 function and type of structure,'fixity of bearings, anticipated service
4B 0.40 life, and consequences of unacceptable displacements on the structure
3B 0.25 performance. Drilled shaft lateral displacements analysis shall be based
on the results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to characterize the
load-deformation behavior of the foundation materials.
4.6.5.6.1.5 Cyclic Loading
4.6.5.7 Dynamic/Seismic Design
The effects of traffic, wind and other nonseismic cyclic loading on Refer to Section 21 for guidance regarding the design of drilled
the load-deformation behavior of laterally loaded shafts shall be shafts subjected to dynamic and seismic loads.
considered during design. Analysis of drilled shafts subjected to cyclic
loading may be considered in the COM624 analysis (Reese, 1984).
4.6.6 Structural Design and General Shaft Dimensions
4.6.5.6.1.6 Combined Axial and Lateral Loading 4.6.6.1 General

The effects of lateral loading in combination with axial loading Drilled shafts be designed to insure that the shaft will not collapse
shall be considered in the design. Analysis of drilled shafts subjected to or suffer load of serviceability due to excessive stress and/or
combined loading may be considered in the COM624 analysis (Reese, deformation. Shafts shall be designed to resist failure following
1984). applicable procedures presented in Section 8.
 All shafts should be sized in 150mm increments with a minimum
diameter of 450mm. The diameter of shafts with rock sockets should 4.6.6.2.3 Transverse Reinforcement
be sized a minimum of 150mm larger than the diameter of the socket.
The diameter of columns supported by shafts shall be less than B. Transverse reinforcement shall be designed to resist stresses caused
by fresh concrete flowing from inside the cage to the side of the
excavated hole. Transverse reinforcement may be constructed a hoops
4.6.6.2 Reinforcements
or spiral steel.
Where the potential for lateral loading is insignificant, drilled
shafts need to be reinforced for axial loads only. Those portions of 4.6.6.2.4 Handling Stresses
drilled shafts that are not supported laterally shall be designed as
reinforced concrete columns in accordance with Article 8.15.4 and Reinforcement cage shall be designed to resist handling and
8.16.4, and the reinforcing steel-shall extend a minimum of 3.0 meters placement stresses.
below the plane where the soil provides adequate lateral restraint.
4.6.6.2.5 Reinforcement Cover
Where permanent steel casing is used and the shell is a smooth pipe
and more than 3mm in thickness, it may be considered as load Reinforcement shall be placed a clear distance of not less than
carrying in the absence of corrosion. 50mm from the permanently cased or 75 mm from the uncased sides.
When shafts are constructed in corrosive or marine environments, or
The design of longitudinal and spiral reinforcement shall be in when concrete is placed by water or slurry displacement methods, the
conformance with the. requirements of Articles 8.18.1 and 8.18.12, clear distance shall not be less than 100 mm for uncased shafts and with
respectively. Development of deformed reinforcement shall be in permanent casings not sufficiently corrosion resistant.
accordance with the requirements of Article 8.24, 8.26 and 8.27.
The reinforcement cage shall be centered in the hole using
4.6.6.2.1 Longitudinal Bar Spacing centering devices. All steel centering devices shall be epoxy coated.

The minimum clear distance between the longitudinal 4.6.6.2.6 Reinforcement into Superstructure
reinforcement shall not be less than 3 times the bar diameter nor 3 times
the maximum aggregate size. if bars are bundled in forming the Sufficient reinforcement shall be provided at the junction of the
reinforcing cage, the minimum clear distance between longitudinal shaft with the superstructure to make a suitable connection. The
reinforcement shall not be less than 3 times the diameter of the bundled embedment of the reinforcement into the cap shall be in conformance
bars. Where heavy reinforcement is required, consideration may be with Articles 8.24 and 8.25.
given to an inner and outer reinforcing cage.
4.6.6.3 Enlarged Bases
4.6.6.2.2 Splices
Enlarged bases shall be designed to insure that plain concrete is not
Splices shall develop the full capacity of the bar in tension and overstressed. The enlarged base shall slope at a side angle not less than
compression. The location of splices shall be staggered around the 30 degrees from the vertical and have a bottom diameter not greater
perimeter of the reinforcing cage so as not to occur at the same
horizontal plane. Splices may be develop by lapping, welding and

4-107

4-106 special approved connectors.

Splices shall be in conformance with
the requirements of Article 8.32.
 o ASTM D3966, Standard Method for Testing Piles Under Lateral
than 3 times the diameter of the shaft. The thickness of the bottom edge Loads.
of the enlarged base shall not be less than 150mm.
A , simplified procedure for testing drilled shafts permitting
4.6.6.4 Center-to-Center Shaft Spacing
determination of the relative contribution of side resistance and tip
The center-to-center spacing of drilled shafts should be 3B or resistance to overall shaft capacity is also available (Osterberg, 1984).
greater to avoid interference between adjacent shafts during
As a minimum, the written test procedures should include the
construction. If closer spacing is required, the sequence of construction
following:
shall be specified and the interaction effects between shafts shall be
evaluated by the designer.
o Apparatus for applying loads including reaction system and
loading system:
4.6.7 Load Testing o Apparatus for measuring movements.
o Apparatus for measuring loads.
4.6.7.1 General o Procedures for loading including rates of load application, load
cycling and maximum load.
o Procedures for -measuring movements.
Where necessary, a full scale load test (or tests) should be o Safety requirements.
conducted on a drilled shaft foundation(s) to confirm response to load.
o Data presentation requirements and methods of data analysis.
Load tests shall be conducted using a test shaft(s) constructed in a
o Drawing showing the procedures and materials to be used to
manner and of dimensions and materials identical to those planned for
construct the load test apparatus.
the production shafts into the materials planned for support. Load
testing should be conducted whenever special site conditions or As a minimum, the results of the load test(s) shall provide the load-
combinations of load are encountered, or when structures of special deformation response at the 'butt of the shall. When appropriate,
design or sensitivity (e.g., large bridges) are to be supported on drilled information concerning ultimate load capacity, load transfer, lateral
shaft foundations. load-displacement with depth, the effects of shaft group interaction, the
4.6.7.2 Load Testing Procedures degree of fixity provided by caps and footings, and other data pertinent
to the anticipated loading conditions on the production shafts shall be
Load tests shall be conducted following prescribed written obtained.
procedure which have been developed from accepted standards (e.g.,
ASTM, 1989; Crowther, 1988) and modified, as appropriate, for the 4.6.7.3 Load Test Method Selection
conditions at the site. Standard pile load testing procedures developed
by the American Society for Testing and Materials which may be Selection of an appropriate load test method shall be based on an
modified for testing drilled shafts include: evaluation of the anticipated types and duration of loads during service,
and shall include consideration of the following:
o ASTM D 1143, Standard Method of Testing Piles Under Static
Axial Compressive Load; o The immediate goals of the load test (i.e., to proof load the
o ASTM D3689, Standard Method of Testing Individual Piles foundation and verify design capacity).
Under Static Axial Tensile Load; and

4-108 A-109
 o The loads expected to act on the production foundation design, design strength is computed as the product of the nominal
(compressive and/or uplift, dead and/or live), and the soil resistance and the appropriate performance factor.
conditions predominant in the region of concern. Drilled Shaft - A deep foundation unit, wholly or partly embedded in
the ground, constructed by placing fresh concrete in a drilled hole
o The local practice or traditional method used in similar soil/rock with or without steel reinforcement. Drilled shafts derive their
deposits. capacities from the surrounding soil and/or from the soil or rock
strata below their tips. Drilled shafts are also commonly referred to
o Time and budget constraints. as caissons, drilled caissons, bored piles or drilled piers.
End-Bearing Pile - A pile whose support capacity is derived principally
Part C from the resistance of the foundation material on which the pile tip
rests.
STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD Factored Load - Load, multiplied by appropriate load factors, used to
proportion a foundation in load factor design.
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN Friction Pile - A pile whose support capacity is derived principally from
soil resistance mobilized along the side of the embedded pile.
Note to User: Article Number 4.7 has been omitted intentionally. Limit State - A limiting condition in which the foundation and/or the
structure it supports are deemed to be unsafe (i.e., strength limit
4.8 SCOPE state), or to be no longer fully useful for their intended function
(i.e., serviceability limit state).
Provisions of this section shall apply for the design of spread Load Effect - The force in a foundation system (e.g., axial force, sliding
footings, driven piles, and drilled shaft foundations. force, bending moment, etc.) due to the applied loads.
Load Factor - A factor used to modify a nominal load effect, which
4.9 DEFINITIONS accounts for the uncertainties associated with the determination and
variability of the load effect.
Batter Pile - A pile driven at an angle inclined to the vertical to Load Factor Design - A design method in which safety provisions are
provide higher resistance to lateral loads. incorporated by separately accounting for uncertainties relative to
Combination End-Bearing and Fricition Pile - Pile that derives its load and resistance.
capacities from the contributions of both end bearing developed at Nominal Load - A typical value or a code-specified value for a load.
the pile tip and resistance mobilized along the embedded shaft. Nominal Resistance - The analytically estimated load-carrying capacity
Deep Foundation - A foundation which derives its support by of a foundation calculated using nominal dimensions and material
transferring loads to soil or rock at some depth below the structure properties, and established soil mechanics principles.
by end bearing, by adhesion or friction or both.
Performance Factor - A factor used to modify a nominal resistance,
Design Load All applicable loads and forces or their related internal which accounts for the uncertainties associated with the
moments and forces used to proportion a foundation. In load factor determination of the nominal resistance and the variability of the
design, design load refers to nominal loads multiplied by actual capacity.
appropriate load factors. Pile - A relatively slender deep foundation unit, wholly or partly
Design Strength - The maximum load-carrying capacity of the embedded in the ground, installed by driving, drilling, augering,
foundation, as defined by a particular limit state. In load factor jetting or otherwise, and which derives its capacity from the
surrounding soil and/or from the soil or rock strata below its tip.

4-110 4-111
Piping - Progressive erosion of soil by seeping water, producing an open - loss of overall stability, and
pipe through the soil, through which water flows in an uncontrolled - structural capacity.
and dangerous manner.
Shallow Foundation - A foundation which derives its support by Foundations shall be proportioned such that the factored resistance
transferring load directly to the soil or rock at shallow depth. If a is not less than the effects of factored loads specified in Section 3.
single slab covers the supporting stratum beneath the entire area of
the superstructure, the foundation is known as a combined footing. 4.10.4 Strength Requirement
if various parts of the structure are supported individually, the
individual supports are known as spread footings, and the Foundations shall be proportioned by the methods specified in
foundation in called a foOting foundation. Articles 4.11 through 4.13 so that their design strengths are at least
equal to the required strengths.

4.10 LIMIT STATES, LOAD FACTORS AND RESISTANCE The required strength is the combined effect of the factored loads
FACTORS for each applicable load combination stipulated in Article 3.22. The
design strength is calculated for each applicable limit state as the
40.10.1 General nominal resistance, 11„, multiplied by an appropriate performance (or
resistance) factor, 0. Methods for calculating nominal resistance are
All relevant limit states shall be considered in the design to ensure provided in Articles 4.11 through 4.13, and values of performance
an adequate degree of safety and serviceability. factors are given in Article 4.10.6.

40.10.2 Serviceability Limit States 4.10.5 Load Combinations and Load Factors

Service limit states for foundation design shall include: Foundations shall be proportioned to withstand safely all load
− settlements, and combinations stipulated in Article 3.22 which are applicable to the
− lateral displacements. particular site or foundation type. With the exception of the portions of
concrete or steel piles that are above the ground line and are rigidly
The limit state for settlement shall be based upon rideability and connected to the superstructure as in rigid frame or continuous
economy. The cost of limiting foundation movements shall be structures, impact forces shall not be considered in foundation design
compared to the cost of designing the superstructure so that it can (see Article 3.8.1).
tolerate larger movements, or of correcting the consequences of
movements through maintenance, to determine minimum lifetime cost Values of y and 3 coefficients for load factor design, as given in
More stringent criteria may be established by the owner. Table 3.22.1A, shall apply to strength limit state considerations; while
those for service load design (also given in Table 3.22.1A) shall apply
40.10.3 Strength Limit States to serviceability considerations.

Strength limit states for foundation design shall

include: - bearing resistance failure,
- excessive loss of contact,
- sliding at the base of footing,

4-112 4-113
4.10.6 Performance Factors 4.11.1.3 Scour Protection
(Revised Article 4.4.5.2)
Values of performance factors for different types of foundation
systems at strength limit states shall be as specified in Tables 4.10.6-1. Footings supported on soil or degradable rock strata shall be
4.10.6-2, and 4.10.6-3, unless regionally specific values are available. embedded below the maximum computed scour depth or protected with
a scour counter-measure. Footings supported on massive, competent
If methods other than those given in Tables 4.10.6-1, 4.10.6-2, and
rock formations which are highly resistant to scour shall be placed
4.10.6-3 are used to estimate the soil capacity, the performance factors directly on the cleaned rock surface. Where required, additional lateral
chosen shall provide the same reliability as those given in these tables. resistance shall be provided by drilling and grouting steel dowels into
the rock surface rather than blasting to embed the footing below the rock
4.11 SPREAD FOOTINGS surface.

4.11.1 Genera! Considerations 4.11.1.4 Anchorage (same as Article 4.4.6)

4.11.1.1 General Footings which are founded on inclined smooth solid rock surfaces
and which are not restrained by an overburden of resistant material shall
Provisions of this Article shall apply to design. of isolated footings be effectively anchored by means of rock anchors, rock bolts, dowels.
and, where applicable, to combined footings. Special attention shall be keys or other suitable means. Shallow keying of large footing areas
given to footings on fill.
shall be avoided where blasting is required for rock removal.
4.11.1.5 Groundwater
Footings shall be designed to keep the soil pressure as nearly
uniformed as practicable. The distribution of soil pressure shall be The influence of groundwater table on bearing capacity of soils or
consistent with properties of the soil and the structure, and with rocks, and settlements of the structure shall be considered. In cases
established principles of soil mechanics. where seepage forces are present, they should also be included in the
analyses.
4.11.1.2 Depth (Revised Article 4.4.5.1)
4.11.1.6 Uplift
The depth of footings shall be determined with respect to the
character of the foundation materials and the possibility of Where foundations may be subjected to uplift forces, they shall be
undermining. Footings at stream crossings shall be founded at depth investigated both for resistance to pullout and for their structural
below the maximum anticipated depth of scour as specified in Article strength.
4.11.1.3.

Footings not exposed to the action of stream current shall be

founded on a firm foundation and below frost level.

4-115

4-114
Footings shall be designed for the highest anticipated position of the
groundwater table.
TABLE 4.10.6-1 Performance Factors for Strength Limit States for TABLE 4.10.6-2 Performance Factors for Geotechnical Strength
Shallow Foundations Limit States in Axially Loaded Piles
Performance Performance
Type of Limit State Factor (40 Method/Soil/Condition Factor

1. Bearing Capacity Ultimate Bearing Skin Friction a - method 0.70

a. Sand Capacity of -method 0.50
-- Semi-empirical Procedure using SPT data 0.45 Single Piles - method 0.55
-- Semi-empirical Procedure using CPT data 0.55 End Bearing Clay (Skempton,195 1) 0.70
-- Rational Method -- Sand (Kulhawy, 1983)
using itif estimated from SPT data 0.35 (iir from CPT 0.45
using ctif estimated from CPT data 0.45 from SPT 0.35
b. Clay Rock (Canadian 0.50
-- Semi-empirical Procedure n ing CPT data 0.50 Geotech. Society, 1985)
-- Rational Method Skin Friction and
using shear strength measured in lab tests 0.60 End Bearing SPT- method 0.45
using shear strength measured in field vane tests 0.60 CPT - method 0.55
using shear strength estimated from CPT data 0.50
Load Test 0.80
c. Rock Pile Driving Analyzer 0.70
-- Semi-empirical Procedure (Carter and Kulhawy) 0.60 Block Failure Clay 0.65
2. Sliding
Sliding on clay is controlled by the strength of the clay Uplift Capacity a - method 0.60
of Single Piles method A
-
0.40
shear strength is less than 0.5 times the normal stress, and
- method 0.45
is controlled by the normal-stress when the clay shear
SPT - method 0.35
strength is greater than 0.5 times the normal stress.
CPT- method 0.45
a. Precast concrete placed on sand
0.90 Load Test 0.80
using ity estimated from SPT data
using Of estimated from CPT data 0.90 Group Uplift Capacity Sand 0.55
b. Concrete case in place on sand Clay 0.55
using itf estimated from SPT data 0.80
using Of estimated from CPT data 0.80
c. Clay (where shear strength is less than 0.5 times
normal pressure)
using shear strength measured in lab tests 0.85
using shear strength measured in field tests 0.85
using shear strength estimated from CPT data 0.80
d. Clay (where the strength is greater than 0.5 times
normal pressure) 0.85
where of = frictional angle of sand,
SPT = Standard Penetration Test,
CPT = Cone Penetration Test.

4-116 4-117
TABLE 4.10.6-3 Performance Factors for Geotechnical Strength 4.11.1.7 Deterioration
Limit States in Axially Loaded Drilled Shafts
Performance Deterioration of the concrete in a foundation by sulfate chloride and
Method/Soil/Condition Factor acid attack should be investigated. Laboratory testing of soil and
Ultimate Bearing Side Resistance in Clay a - method 0.65 groundwater samples for sulfates, chloride and pH should be sufficient
Capacity of (Reese & to asses deterioration potential. When chemical wastes are suspected, a
S i n g l e D r i l l e d S h a f t s more thorough chemical analysis of soil and groundwater samples
Base Resistance in Clay Total Stress 0.55
(Reese &
should be considered.
See
Side Resistance in Sand 1)Touma & Reese Discuss-
2)Meyer ho f ion in 4.11.1.8 Nearby Structures
3)Quiros & Reese Article
4)Reese & Wright
5)R e e s e & 4.13.3.3.3 In cases where foundations are placed adjacent existing structures,
1)Touma & Reese See the influence of the existing structures on the behavior of the foundation,
Base Resistance in Sand
2)Meyer ho f Discuss- and the effect of the foundation on the existing structures, shall be
3)Quiros & Reese ion in investigated.
4)Reese & Wright Article
5)Reese & O'Neill 4.13.3.3.3 4.11.2 Notations
Carter & Kulhawy 0.55
Side Resistance in Rock
Horvath & Kenney 0.65 Symbols
Canadian Geotech- 0.50
Base Resistance in Rock
nical Society
Pressuremeter Method 0.50
(Canadian Geotech-
B = footing width (in length units)
n i c al Soc i e ty ) B' = reduced effective footing width (see Article
0.80 4.11.4.1.5) (in length units)
Side Resistance and Load Test
End Bearing 0.65 = soil cohesion (in units of force/length2)
Block Failure Clay 0.55 Get cwt = correction factors for groundwater effect
Uplift Capacity Clay a - method (Reese & (dimensionless)
0.50
of Single Drilled (O'Neill) Df = depth to footing base (in length units)
Shafts Belled Shafts (Reese
& O'Neill)
See D„ = depth to groundwater table (in length units)
Discuss- Em = elastic modulus of rock masse_s (in units of
Sand 1) Touma & Reese ion in
2) Meyerhof Article force/length2)
3) Quiros & Reese 4.13_3.3.3 = type of load
4) Reese & Wright L,' = reduced effective length (see Article 4.11.4.1.5) (in
5) R e e s e & 0.45
Carter & Kulhawy
0.55 length units',
Rock Li = load type
Horwath & Kenney 0.80
Load Test 0.55 N = average value of standard penetration test blow
0.55 count (dimensionless)
Group Uplift Sand
Capacity Clay modified bearing capacity factors used in analytic
theory (dimensionless)
= cone resistance (in units of force/length2)

4-118 4-119
 quit = ultimate bearing capacity (in units of force/length2) Settlements and horizontal movements caused by embankment
loadings behind bridge abutments should be investigated.
= *eduction factor due to the effect of load
inclination (dimensionless) In -seismically active areas, consideration shall be given to the
= nominal resistance
Ru potential settlements of footings on sand resulting from ground motions
= rock quality designation
RQD = span length (in length units) induced by earthquake loadings. For guidance in design, refer to
Section 21, of these Specifications.
= undrained sheir strength of soil (in units of
su forceilength2) 4.11.3.3 Movement Criteria
Greek (Revised Article 4.4.7.2.5)
I3i = load factor coefficient for load type I (see Article
Vertical and horizontal movement criteria for footings shall be
C 4.10.4) developed. consistent with the function and type of structure, anticipated
= load factor (see Article 04.10.4) service life, and consequences of unacceptable movements on structure
= total (moist) unit weight of soil (see Article performance. The tolerable movement criteria shall be established by
C4.11.4.1.1) empirical procedures or structural analyses.
5 = differential settlement between adjacent footings
= performance factor The maximum angular distortion (81s) between adjacent
4f = friction angle of soil foundations shall be limited to 0.008 for simple span bridges and 0.004
for continuous span bridges. These 8/s limits shall not be applicable to
4.11.3 Movement Under Serviceability Limit States rigid frame structures. Rigid frames shall be designed for anticipated
differential settlements based on the results of special analyses.
4.11.3.1 General
4.11.3.4 Settlement Analyses
Movement of foundations in both vertical settlement and lateral
displacement directions shall be investigated at service limit states. Foundation settlements shall be estimated using deformation
analyses based on the results of laboratory or in situ testing. The soil
Lateral displacement of a structure shall be evaluated when: parameters used in the analyses shall be chosen to reflect the loading the
loading history of the ground, the construction sequence and the effect
horizontal or inclined loads are present, of soil layering.
the foundation is placed on embankment slope,
possibility of loss of foundation support through erosion or
Both total and differential settlements including time effect, shall be
scour exists, or considered.
bearing strata are significantly inclined.
4.11.3.4.1 Settlement of Footings on Cohesionless Soils
4.11.3.2 Loads
Estimates of settlement of cohesionless soils shall make allowance
Immediate settlement shall be determined using the service load for the-fact that settlements in these soils can be highly erratic.
combinations given in Table 3.22.1A. Time-dependent settlement shall
be determined using only the permanent loads.

4-120 4-121
 No method should be considered capable of predicting settlements 4.11.4.1.2 Semi-emphirical Procedures
of footings on sand with precision.
The bearing capacity of foundation soils may be estimated from the
Settlements of footings on cohesionless soils may be estimated results of in situ tests or by observing foundations on similar soils. The
using empirical procedures or elastic theory. use of a particular in situ test and the interpretation of the results shall
take local experience into consideration. The following in situ tests may
4.11.3.4.2 Settlement of Footings on Cohesive Soils be used:

For foundations on cohesive soils, both immediate and - Standard penetration test (SPT)
consolidation settlements shall be investigated. If the footing width is - Cone penetration test (CPT), and
small relative to the thickness of a compressible soil, the effect of three- Pressuremeter test.
dimensional loading shall be considered. In highly plastic and organic
clay, secondary settlements are significant and shall be included in the 4.11.4.1.3 Plate Loading Test
analysis.
Bearing capacity may be determined by load tests providing that
4.11.3.4.3 Settlements of Footings on Rock adequate subsurface explorations have been made to determine the soil
profile below the foundation.
The magnitude of consolidation and secondary settlements in rock
masses containing soft seams shall be estimated by applying procedures The bearing capacity determined from a load test may be
discussed in Article 4.11.3.4.2. extrapolated to adjacent footings where the subsurface profile is similar.

4.11.4 Safety Against Soil Failure Plate load test shall be performed in accordance with the procedures
specified in ASTM Standard D 1194-87 or AASHTO Standard T 235-
4.11.4.1 Bearing Capacity of Foundation Soils 74.

Several methods may be used to calculate ultimate bearing capacity 4.11.4.1.4 Presumptive Values
of foundation soils. The calculated value of ultimate bearing capacity (Revised Article 4.4.4.1)
shall be multiplied by an appropriate performance factor, as given in
Article 4.10.6, to determine the factored bearing capacity. Presumptive values for allowable bearing pressures on soil and
rock, given in Table 4.11.4.1.4-1. shall be used only for guidance,
Footings are considered to be adequate against soil failure if the preliminary design or design of temporary structures. The use of
factored bearing capacity exceeds the effect of design loads. presumptive values shall be based on the results of subsurfa ce
exploration to identify soil and rock conditions. All values used for
4.11.4.1.1 Theoretical Estimation design shall be confirmed by field and/or laboratory testing.

The bearing capacity should be estimated using accepted soil The values given in Table 4.11.4.1.4-1 are applicable directly for
mechanics theories based on measured oil parameters. The soil working stress procedures. When these values are used for preliminary
parameter used in the analysis shall be representative of the soil shear design, all load factors shall be taken as unity.
strength under the considered loading and subsurface conditions.

4-122 4-123
 .-.!tlf 41141:
.1. r

TABLE 4.11.4.1.4-1 Presumptive Allowable Bearing Pressures for Spread Footing Foundations
(Modified after U.S. Department of the Navy, 1982)
Allowable Bearing Pressure(kPa)
Recommended
_
type of Bearing Material Consistency in Place Ordinary Range Value for Use

Massive crystalline igneous and metamorphic Very hard, sound rock 5700 to 9600 7650

rock: graphite, diorite basalt, gneiss, thoroughly

cemented congloinerate (sound condition
allows minor cracks)
Hard sound rock
2900 to 3800 3300
Foliated metamorphic rock: slate schist
(sound condition allows minor cracks) Hard sound rock
Sedimentary rock: hard cemented shales, 1400 to 2400 1900

siltstone,•sandstone, limestone without cavities Medium hard rock

Weathered or broken bedrock of any kind 765 to 1150 950
Medium hard rock
except highly argillacous rock (shale)
Compaction shale or other highly 765 to 1150 950
Very dense
argiliacous rock in sound condition
Well-graded mixture of fine- and coarse-gained soil; 765 to 1150 950
glacial till, hardpan, boulder clay Very dense
(OW-GC, GC, SC) Medium dense to dense
Gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, 570 to 950 670
boulder-gravel mixtures 380 to 670 480

TABLE 4.11.4.1.4-1 Presumptive Allowable Bearing Pressures for Spread Footing Foundations
(Modified after U.S. Department of the Navy, 1982) cont.
Allowable Bearing Presiure(kPa)_
Recommended
Type of Bearing Material Consistency in Place Ordinary Range Value for Use
(GW, GP, SW, SP) Loose 190 to 570 290
Coarse to medium sand, sand Very dense 570 to 950 670
with little gravel (SW, SF) Medium dense to dense 190 to 380 290
Loose 95 to 290 140
.... Fine to medium sand, silty or , Very dense 290 to 480 290
1,-)
I.){
clayey medium to coarse sand Medium dense to dense 190 to 380 240
(SW, SM, SC) Loose 95 to 190 140
Fine sand, silty or clayey medium Very dense 290 to 480 290
to fine sand (SP, SM, SC) Medium dense to dense 190 to 380 240
Loose 95 to 190 140
Homogenous inorganic clay, Very stiff to hard 290 to 570 380
sandy or silty clay (CL, CH) Medium stiff to stiff 95 to 290 190
Soft 48 to 95 48
Inorganic silt, sandy or clayey silt, Very stiff to stiff 190 to 380 290
varved silt-clay-fine sand Medium stiff to stiff 95 to 290 140
(ML, MI-I) Soft 48 to 95 48
 4.11.4.1.5 Effects of Load Eccentricity analyses shall be performed to account for the effects of weathering, and
(Revised Article 4.4.7.1.1.1) the presence and condition of discontinuities.

For loads eccentric to the centroid of the footing, a reduced Footings on rocks are considered to be adequate against bearing
effective footing area (B' x L') shall be used in design. The reduced ca p a city
failure if the product of the ultimate bearing capacity
effective area is always concentrically loaded, so that the design bearing determined' using procedures described in Articles 4.11.4.2.1 through
pressure on the reduced effective area is always uniform. 4.11.4.2.3 and an appropriate performance factor exceeds the effect of
design loads.
Footings under eccentric loads shall be designed to ensure that: (1)
the product of the bearing capacity and an appropriate performance 4.11.4.2.1 Semi-empirical Procedures
factor exceeds the effect of vertical design loads, and (2) eccentricity of
loading, evaluated based on factored loads, is less than 1/4 of the Bearing capacity of foundations on rock may be determined using
footing dimension in any direction for footings on soils. empirical correlation with RQD, or other systems for evaluating rock
mass quality, such as the Geomechanic Rock Mass Rating (RMR)
For structural design of an eccentrically loaded foundation, a system, or Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI) Rock Mass
triangular 'or trapezoidal contact pressure distribution based on factored Classification System. The use of these semi-empirical procedures
loads shall be used. shall take local experience into consideration.

4.11.4.1.6 Effect of Groundwater Table 4.11.4.2.2 Analytic Method

Ultimate bearing capacity shall be determined based on the highest The ultimate bearing capacity of foundations on rock shall be
anticipalEd- position of groundwater level at the footing location. In determined using established rock • mechanics principles based on the
cases where the groundwater table is at a depth less than 1.5 times the rock mass strength parameters. The influence of discontinuities on the
footing width below the bottom of the footing, reduction of bearing failure mode shall also be considered.
capacity, as a result of submergence effect, shall be considered.
4.11.4.2.3 Load Test
4.11.4.2 Bearing Capacity of Foundations on Rock
Where appropriate, load tests may be performed to determine the
The bearing capacity of footings on rock shall consider the bearing capacity of foundations on rock.
presence, orientation and condition of discontinuities, weathering
profiles and other similar profiles as they apply at a particular site, and 4.11.4.2.4 Presumptive Bearing Values
the degree to which they shall be incorporated in the design.
For simple -structures on good quality rock masses, values of
For footings on competent rock, reliance on simple and direct presumptive bearing pressure given in Table, 4.11.4.2.4-1 may be used
analyses based on uniaxial compressive rock strengths and RQD may be for preliminary design. The use of presumptive values shall be based on
applicable. Competent rock shall be defined as a rock mass with the results of subsurface exploration to identify rock conditions. All
discontinuities that are tight or open not wider than 3 mm For values used in design shall *be confirmed by field and/or laboratory
footings on less competent rock, more detailed investigation s and testing. The values given in Table 4.11.4.2.4-1 are directly applicable to
working stress procedure, i.e., all load factors shall be taken as unity.

4-126 4-127
 4.11.4.2.5 Effect of Load Eccentricity 4.11.6 Construction Considerations for Shallow Foundations

If the eccentricity of loading on a footing is less than 1/6 of the 4.11.6.1 General
footing width, a trapezoidal bearing pressure shall be used in evaluating
the bearing capacity. If the eccentricity is between 1/6 and 1/4 of the
footing width, a triangular bearing pressure shall be used. The The ground conditions should be monitored closely during
maximum bearing pressure shall not exceed the product of the ultimate :onstruction to determine whether or not the ground conditions are as
bearing capacity multiplied by a suitable performance factor. The foreseen and to enable prompt intervention, if necessary. The control
eccentricity of loading evaluated using factored loads shall not exceed investigation should be performed and interpreted by experienced and
3/8 (37.5%) of the footing dimensions in any direction. qualified engineers. Records of the control investigations should be
kept as part of the final project data, among other things, to permit a
4.11.4.3 Failure by Sliding latei- assessment of the foundation in connection with rehabilitation,
change of neighboring structures, etc.
Failure by sliding shall be investigated for footings that support 4.11.6.2 Excavation Monitoring
inclined loads and/or are founded on slopes.
Prior to concreting footings or placing backfill, an excavation shall
For foundations on clay soils, possible presence of a shrinkage gap be free of debris and excessive water.
between the soil and the foundation shall be considered. If passive
resistance is included as part of the shear resistance required for Monitoring by an experienced and trained person should always
resisting sliding, consideration shall also be given to possible future include a thorough examination of the sides and bottom of the
removal of the soil in front of the foundation. excavation, with the possible addition of pits or borings to evaluate the
geological conditions.
4.11.4.4 Loss of Overall Stability
(Revised Artidle 4.4.9) The assumptions made during the design of the foundations
regarding strength, density, and groundwater conditions should be
The overall stability of footings, slopes and foundation soil or rock, verified during construction, by visual inspection.
shall be evaluated for footings located on or near a slope using
applicable factored load combinations in Article 3.22 and a 4.11.6.3 Compaction Monitoring
performance factor of 0.75.
Compaction shall be carried out in a manner so that the fill material
4.11.5 Structural Capacity within the section under inspection is as close as practicable to uniform.
The layering and compaction of the fill material should be systematic
The structural design of footings shall comply to the provisions everywhere, with the same thickness of layer and number of passes with
given in Article 4.4.11 and Article 8.16. the compaction equipment used as for the inspected fill. The control
measurements should be undertaken in the form of random samples.
4.12 DRIVEN PILES N = average uncorrected SPT blow count along pile shaft
Neorr = average SPT-N value corrected for effect of overburden
4.12.1 General Npile number of piles in a pile group
OCR = overconsolidation ratio
PD unfactored dead load
The provisions of the specifications in Articles 4.5.1 through 4.5.21
with the exception of Article 4.5.6, shall apply to strength design (load Ps = factored total axial load acting on a pile group
Px,y = factored total axial load acting on a pile in a pile group;
factor design) of driven piles. Article 4.5.6 covers the allowable stress
design of piles and shall be replaced by the articles in this section for the pile has coordinates (X,Y) with respect to the
load factor design of driven piles. unless otherwise stated. centroidal origin in the pile group
PI = plasticity index
4.12.2 Notation q = net foundation pressure
= static cone resistance
as -= pile perimeter qi = limiting tip resistance
AP =area of pile tip qo = limiting tip resistance in lower stratum
A3 = surface area of shaft of pile qp = ultimate unit tip resistance
CPT = cone penetration test qs = ultimate unit side resistance
d =dimensionlesdepthfactorforestimatingtipcapacityof lqu = average uniaxial compressive strength of rock cores
piles in rock quit = ultimate bearing capacity
D = pile width or diameter Qp = ultimate load carried by tip of pile
D' = effective depth of pile group Qs = ultimate load carried by shaft of pile
Db = depth of embedment of pile into a bearing stratum Qug = ultimate uplift resistance of a pile group or a group of
D, = diameter of socket drilled shafts
ex = eccentricity of load in the x-direction Quit = ultimate bearing capacity
ey = eccentricity of load in the y-direction R = characteristic length of soil-pile system in cohesive soils
EP .= Young's modulus of pile or drilled shaft Sd = spacing of discontinuities
Es = soil modulus S = average spacing of piles
f, = sleeve friction measured from a CPT at point considered = undrained shear strength
H = distance between pile tip and a weaker underlying soil SPT = Standard Penetration Test
layer Su = average undrained shear strength along pile shaft
H, = depth of embedment of pile socketed into rock td = width of discontinuities
I = influence factor for the effeCtive group embedment T = characteristic length of soil-pile system in cohesionless
Ip = moment of inertia of a pile soils
K = coefficient of lateral earth pressure Wg = weight of block of soil, piles and pile cap
Kc = correction factor for sleeve friction in clay x = distance of the centroid of the pile from the centroid of
K, = correction factor for sleeve friction in sand the pile cap in the x-direction
Ksp = dimensionless bearing capacity coefficient X = width of smallest dimension of pile group
L-i = depth to point considered when measuring sleeve friction distance of the centroid of the pile from the centroid of
= rate of increase of soil modulus with depth the pile cap in the y-direction
N = Standard Penetration Test (SPT) blow count Y = length of pile group or group of drilled shafts

4-130 4-131
 z = total embedded pile length 4.12.3.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity
= adhesion factor applied to St,
13 = coefficient relating the vertical effective stress and the See Article 4.5.6.1.1. The following sub-articles shall supplement
unit skin friction of a pile or drilled shaft Article .
= effective unit weight of soil
8 angle of shearing resistance between soil and pile 4.12.3.1.1 Pile Penetration
= empirical coefficient 'relating the passive lateral earth
pressure and the unit skin friction of a pile Piling used to penetrate a soft or loose upper stratum overlying a
1
1
= pile group efficiency factor hard or firm stratum, shall penetrate the hard or firm stratum by a
p = settlement sufficient distance to limit lateral and vertical movement of the piles, as
Pwi = tolerable settlement well as to attain sufficient vertical bearing capacity.
r
ah = horizontal effective stress
cry' = vertical effective stress 4.12.3.1.2 Groundwater Table and Buoyancy
'Oav = average shear stress along side of pile
= performance factor Ultimate bearing capacity shall be determined using the
0, = performance factor for the bearing capacity of a pile groundwater level consistent with that used to calculate load effects.
group failing as a unit consisting of the piles and the For drained loading, ' the effect of hydrostatic pressure shall be
block of soil contained within the piles considered in the design.
0q = performance factor for the total ultimate bearing capacity
of a pile 4.12.3.1.3 Effect of Settling Ground and Downdrag Forces
0 qs = performanCe factor for the ultimate shaft capacity of a
pile Possible development of downdrag loads on piles shall be
0, = performance factor for the uplift capacity of a single pile considered where sites are underlain by compressible clays, silts or
peats, especially where fill has recently been placed on the earlier
0,, perforniance factor for the uplift capacity of pile groups surface, or where the groundwater is substantially lowered. Downdrag
loads shall be considered as a load when the bearing capacity and
4.12.3 Selection of Design Pile Capacity settlement of pile foundations are investigated. Downdrag loads shall
not be combined with transient loads.
Piles shall be designed to have adequate bearing and structural
capacity, under tolerable settlements and tolerable lateral displacements.
The downdrag loads may be calculated, as specified in Article
The supporting capacity of pile shall be determined by static 4.12.3.3.2 with the direction of the skin friction forces reversed. The
analysis methods based on soil-structure interaction. Capacity may be factored downdrag loads shall be added to the factored vertical dead
verified with pile load test results, use of wave equation analysis, use of load applied to the deep foundation on the assessment of bearing
the dynamic pile analyzer or, less preferably, use of dynamic formulas. capacity. The effect of reduced overburden pressure caused by the
downdrag shall be considered in calculating the bearing capacity of the
foundation.
 The downdrag loads shall be added to the vertical dead load applied Tolerable horizontal displacement criteria shall be developed
to the deep foundation in the assessment of settlement at service limit considering the potential effects of combined vertical and horizontal
states. movement. Where combined horizontal and vertical displacements are
possible, horizontal movement shall be limited to 25 min or less.
4.12.3.1.4 Uplift Where vertical displacements are small, horizontal displacements shall
be limited to 50 nun or less (Moulton et. al., 1985). If estimated or
Pile foundations designed to resist uplift forces should be checked
actual movements exceed these levels, special analysis and/or measures
both for resistance to pullout and for structural capacity to carry tensile
shall be considered.
stresses. Uplift forces can be caused by lateral loads, buoyancy effected
and expansive soils.
4.123.2.3 Settlement
4.12.3.2 Movement Under Serviceability Limit State The settlement of a pile foundation shall not exceed the tolerable
4.12.3.2.1 General settlement, as selected according to Article 4.12.3.2.2.
4.123.2.32 Cohesive Soil
For purposes of calculating the settlements of pile groups, loads
Procedures used for shallow foundations shall be used to estimate
shall be assumed to act on an equivalent footing located on two thirds of
the settlement of a pile group, using the equivalent footing location
the depth of embedment of the piles into the layer which provide support
shown in Figure 4.12.3.2.1-1.
as shown in Figure 4.12.3.2.1-1.

Service loads for evaluating foundations settlement shall include 4.12.3.2.3b Cohesionless Soil
both the unfactored dead and live loads for piles in cohesionless soils
and only the unfactored dead load for piles in cohesive soils. The settlement of pile groups in cohesionless soils can be estimated
using results of in situ tests, and the equivalent footing location shown in
Service loads for evaluating laterdl displacement of foundations Figure 4.12.3.2.1-1.
shall include all lateral loads in each of the load combinations as given
in Article 3.22. 4.12.3.2.4 Lateral Displacement

4.12.3.2.2 Tolerably Movement The lateral displacement of a pile foundation shall not exceed the
tolerable lateral displacement, as selected according to Article
Tolerable axial and lateral movements for driven pile foundations 4.12.3.2.2.
shall be developed consistent with the function and type of structure.
fixity of bearings, anticipated service life and consequences of The lateral displacement of pile groups shall be estimated using
unacceptable displacements on performance of the structure. procedures that consider soil structure interaction.

Tolerable settlement criteria for foundations shall be developed 4.12.3.3 Resistance at Strength Limit States
considering the maximum angular distortion according to Article
4.11.3.3. The strength limit states that shall be considered include:
 - bearing capacity of piles, The load test method specific in ASTM D 1143-81 may be used to
- uplift capacity of piles, verify the pile capacity. Tensile load testing of piles shall be done in
- punching of piles in strong soil into a weaker layer and accordance with ASTM D 3689-83 Lateral load testing of piles shall be
- structural capacity of the piles. done in accordance with ASTM D 3966-81. The performance factor for
the axial compressive capacity, axial uplift capacity and lateral capacity
4.123.3.1 Axial Loading of Piles obtained from pile load tests shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-2.

Preference shall be given to a design process based upon static 4.12.33.6 Presumptive End Bearing Capacities
analyses in combination with either field monitoring during driving or
load tests. Load test results may be extrapolated to adjacent Presumptive values for allowable bearing pressures given in Table
substructures with similar subsurface conditions. The ultimate bearing 4.11.4.1.4-1 on soil and rock shall be used only for guidance,
capacity of piles may be estimated using analytic methods or in situ test preliminary design or design of temporary structures. The use of
methods. presumptive values shall be. based on the results of subsurface
exploration to identify soil and rock conditions. All values used for
4.12.3.3.2 Analytic Estimates of Pile Capacity design shall be confirmed by field and/or laboratory testing.

Analytic methods may be used to estimate the ultimate bearing 4.12.3.3.7 Uplift
capacity of piles in cohesive and cohesionless soils. Both total and
effective stress methods may be used provided the appropriate soil Uplift shall he considered when the force effects calculated based
strength parameters are evaluated. The performance factors for skin on the appropriate strength limit state load combinations are tensile.
friction and tip resistance, estimated using three analytic methods, shall
be as provided in Table 4.10.6-2. If another analytic method is used, When piles are subjected to uplift, they should be investigated for
application or performance factors presented in Table 4.10.6-2 may not both resistance to pullout and structural ability to resist tension.
be appropriate.
4.12.33.7a Single Pile Uplift Capacity
4.12.3.3.3 Pile Capacity Estimates Based on In Situ Tests
The ultimate uplift capacity of a single pile shall be estimated in a
In situ test methods may be used to estimate the ultimate axial manner similar to that for estimating the skin friction resistance of piles
capacity cf piles. The performance factors for the ultimate skin friction in compression on Article 4.12.3.3.2 for piles in cohesive soils and
and ultimate tip resistance, estimated using in situ methods, shall be as 4.12.3.3.3 for piles in cohesionless soils. Performance factors for the
provided in Table 4.10.6-2. uplift capacity of single piles shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-2.

4.12.3.3.4 Piles Bearing on Rock 4.12.3.3.7b Pile Group Uplift Capacity

For piles driven to weak rocks such as shales and mudstones or The ultimate uplift capacity of a pile group shall be estimated as the
poor quality weathered rocks, the ultimate tip capacity shall be lesser of the sum of the individual pile uplift capacities, or the uplift
estimated using semi-empirical methods. The performance factor for capacity of the pile group consider-td as a block. The block mechanism
the ultimate tip resistance of piles bearing on rock shall be as provided
in Table 4.10.6-2.
4.12.3.3.5 Pile Load Test

4-136 4-137
for cohesionless soil shall be taken as provided in Figure If the cap is in firm contact with the ground, then no reduction in
C4.12.3.3.7b-1 and for cohesive soils as given in Figure C4.12.3.3.7b-2. efficiency shall be required.
Buoyant unit weights shall be used for soil below the groundwater level.
The group capacity shall be the lesser of
The performance factor for the group uplift capacity calculated as
the sum of the individual pile capacities shall be the same as those for -- the sum of the modified individual capacities of each pile in the
the uplift capacity of single piles .as given in Table 4.10.6-2. The group or
performance factor for the uplift capacity of the pile group considered
as a block shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-2 for pile groups in -- the capacity of an equivalent pier consisting of the piles and a
clay and in sand. block of soil within the area bounded by the piles.

4.12.3.3.8 Lateral Load For the equivalent pier, the full shear strength of soil shall be used
to determine the skin friction resistance, the total base area of the
For piles subjected to lateral loads, the pile heads shall be fixed into equivalent pier shall be used to determine the end bearing resistance,
the pile cap. Any disturbed soil or voids created from the driving of the and the additional capacity of the cap shall be ignored.
piles shall be replaced with compacted granular material.
The performance factor for the capacity of an equivalent pier or
The effects of soil-structure or rock-structure interaction between block failure shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-2. The performance
the piles and ground. including the number and spacing or the piles in factors for the group capacity calculated using the sum of the individual
the group, shall be accounted for in the design of laterally loaded piles. pile capacities, arc the same as those for the single pile capacity as
given in Table 4.10.6-2.
4.12.3.3.9 Batter Pile
4.12.3.3.10b Cobesionless Soil
The bearing capacity of a pile group containing batter piles may be The ultimate bearing capacity of pile groups in cohesionless soil
estimated by treating the batter piles as vertical piles. shall be the .s um of the capacities of all the piles in the group. The
efficiency factor, shall be 1.0 where the pile cap is, or is not in
4.12.3.3.10 Group Capacity contact with the ground. The performance factor is the same as those
for single pile capacities as given in Table 4.10.6-2.
4.12.3.3.10a Cohesive Soil
4.12.3.3.10c Pile Group in strong Soil Overlying a Weak or
If the cap is not in firm contact with the ground, and if the soil at the Compressible Soil
surface is soft, the individual capacity of each pile shall be multiplied by
an efficiency factor rl, where ri = 0.7 for center-to-center spacing of six If a pile group is embedded in a strong soil deposit overlying a
diameters. For intermediate spacings, the value of rl may be determined weaker deposit, consideration shall be given to the potential for a
by linear interpolation. punching failure of the pile tips into the weaker soil stratum. If the
underlying soil stratum consists of a weaker compressible soil,
If the cap is not in firm contact with the ground and if the soil is consideration shall be given to the potential for large settlements in that
stiff, then no reduction in efficiency shall be required. weaker layer.

4-138 4-139
 4.12.3.3.11 Dynamic/ Seismic Design The provisions of Articles 4.13 shall apply to the design of drilled
hafts, but not drilled piles installed with continuous flight augers that
s

Refer to Section 21 of these specifications for guidance regarding are concreted as the auger is being extracted.
the design of driven piles subjected to dynamic and seismic loads.
4.13.2 Notations
4.12.4 Structural Design
a parameter used for calculating Fr
A
The structural design of driven piles shall be in accordance with the P area of base of drilled shaft
provisions of Articles 4.5.7, which was developed for allowable stress As = surface area of a drilled pier
design procedures. To use load factor design procedures for the Asoc = cross-sectional area of socket
structural design of driven piles, the load factor design procedures for Au annular space between bell and shaft
reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete and steel in Sections 8, 9 and b= perimeter used for calculating Fr
10, respectively, shall be used in place of the allowable stress design CPT = cone penetration test
procedures. d dimensionless depth factor for estimating tip capacity of
drilled shafts in rock
D= diameter of drilled shaft
4.12.4.1 Buckling of Piles
Db embedment of drilled shaft in layer that provides support
Stability of piles shall be considered when the piles extend through Dp diameter of base of-a drilled shaft
water or air for a portion of their lengths. Ds diameter of a drilled shaft socket in rock
= Young's modulus of concrete
= intact rock modulus
4.123 Construction Considerations EP Young's modulus of drilled shaft
Foundation design shall not be uncoupled from construction Er modulus of the in situ rock mass
considerations. Factors _such as pile driving, pile splicing and pile Es soil modulus
inspection shall be done in accordance with the provisions of this Fr reduction factor for tip resistance of large diameter drilled
specification. shaft
= depth of embedment of drilled shaft socketed into rock
Ip moment of inertia of a drilled shaft
4.13 DRILLED SHAFTS
Ip influence coefficient (see Figure C4.13.3.3.4-1)
4.13.1 General Iu = influence coefficient for settlement of drilled shafts
socketed in rock
k= factor that reduces the tip capacity for shafts with a base
The provisions of the specifications in Articles 4.6.1 through 4.6.7 diameter larger than 500 mm so as to limit the shaft
with the exception of Article 4.6.5, shall apply to the strength design settlement to 25 mm
(load factor design) of drilled shafts. Article 4.6.5 covers the allowable K= coefficient of lateral earth.pressure or load transfer factor
stress design of drilled shafts, and shalt be replaced by the articles in this Kb = dimensionless bearing capacity coefficient for drilled
section for load factor design of drilled shafts unless otherwise stated. shafts socketed in rock using pressuremeter results
Kr = modulus modification ratio

4-140 4-141
 = dimensionless bearing capacity coefficient (see Figure Greek
C4.13.3.4-4)
LL = liquid limit of soil a = adhesion factor applied to S u
N = uncorrected Standard Penetration Test (SPT) blow count = coefficient relating the vertical effective stress and the unit
= bearing capacity factor. skin friction of a drilled shaft
Nom- = corrected SPT-N value 7' = • effective unit weight of soil
Nu = uplift bearing capacity factor 8 angle of shearing resistance between soil and pile
p1 = limit pressure determined from presuremeter tests within = pile group efficiency factor
2D above and below base of shaft P ase settlement of the base of the drilled shah
Pa — at rest horizontal stress measured at the base of drilled
shaft Pc elastic shortening of drilled shaft
Pm! tolerable movement
PD = unfactored dead load a,' vertical effective stress
PL = plastic limit of soil
ry, = total vertical stress
CIP = ultimate unit tip resistance EPi = working load at top of socket
qpr = reduced ultimate unit of tip resistance of drilled shafts
cis = ultimate unit side resistance = performance factor
4,' orr = angle of internal friction of soil
(Isbell= unit uplift capacity of a belled drilled shaft
4,1 = performance factor for the total ultimate bearing capacity
qu = uniaxial compressive strength of rock core
of a drilled shaft
= ultimate bearing capacity
Qp = ultimate load carried by tip of drilled shaft 4q, = performance factor for the ultimate shaft capacir)
Qs = ultimate load carried by side of drilled shaft drilled shaft
iqp .= performance factor for the ultimate tip capacity of a drilled
QSR = ultimate side resistance of drilled shafts socketed in rock
Quit = total ultimate bearing capacity shaft
R = characteristic length of soil-drilled shaft system in
cohesive soils 4.13.3 Geotechnical Design
RQD = Rock Quality Designation
sd = spacing of discontinuities Drilled shafts shall be designed to have adequate bearing and
SPT = Standard Penetration Test structural capacities under tolerable settlements and tolerable lateral
Su = undrained shear strength movements.
td = width of discontinuities
T = characteristic length of soil-drilled shaft system in The supporting capacity of drilled shafts shall be estimated by static
cohesionless soils and analysis methods (analytical methods based on soil-structure
= depth below ground surface interaction). Capacity may be verified with load test results.
= total embedded length of drilled shaft
The method of construction may effect the drilled shaft capacity
and shall be considered as part of the design process. Drilled shafts may
be constructed using the dry, casing or wet method of construction, or a
combination of methods. In every case, hole excavation, concrete
placement and all other aspects shall be performed in conformance with must be added to the permanent loads when estimating settlement of
the provisions of this specification.
shafts in granular soil.

4.133.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity The provisions of Article 4.12.3.2.2 shall apply as applicable.
See Article 4.6.5.2 for drilled shafts in soil and Article 4.6.5.3.3 for 4.13.3.2.3 Settlement
drilled shafts in rock. The following sub-articles shall supplement
Articles 4.6.5.2 and 4.6.5.3.3. The settlement of a drilled shaft foundation involving either single
drilled shafts or groups of drilled shafts shall not exceed the tolerable
4.13.3.1.1 Downdrag Loads settlement as selected according to Article 4.13.3.2.2

Downdrag loads shall be evaluated, where appropriate, as indicated 4.13.3.2.3a Settlement of Single Drilled Shafts
in Article 4.12.3.1.3.
The settlement of single drilled shafts shall be estimated
considering short-term settlement, consolidation settlement (if
4.13.3.1.2 Uplift
constructed in cohesive soils), and axial compression of the drilled
shaft.
The provisions of Article 4.12.3.1.4 shall apply as applicable.
4.13.3.2.3b Group Settlement
Shafts designed for and constructed in expansive soil shall extend
for a sufficient depth into moisture-stable soils to provide adequate The settlement of groups of drilled shafts shall be estimated using
anchorage to resist uplift. Sufficient clearance shall be provided the same procedures as described for pile groups, Article 4.12.3.2.3.
between the ground surface and underside of caps or beams connecting
shafts to preclude the application of uplift loads at the shaft/cap - Cohesive Soil, See Article 4.12.3.2.3a
connection due to swelling' ground conditions. Uplift capacity of - Cohesionless Soil, See Article 4.12.3.2.36
straight sided drilled shafts shall rely only on side resistance in
4.13.3.2.4 Lateral Displacement
conformance with Article 4.13.3.3.2 for drilled shafts in cohesive soils,
and Article 4.13.3.3.3 for drilled shafts in cohesionless soils. If the shaft
has an enlarged base, Q, shall be determined in conformance with The provisions of Article 4.12.3.2.4 shall apply as applicable.
Article 4.13.3.3.6. 4.13.3.3 Resistance at Strength Limit States

4.13.3.2 Movement Under Serviceability Limit State The strength limit states that must be considered include: 1)
bearing capacity of drilled shafts, 2) Uplift capacity of drilled shafts.
4.13.3.2.1 General and 3) punching of drilled shafts bearing in strong soil into a weaker
layer below.

The provisions of Article 4.12.3.2.1 shall apply as applicable,

In estimating settlements of drilled shafts in clay, only unfactored

permanent loads shall be considered. However, unfactored live loads
4.13.3.2.2 Tolerable Movement

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 4.13.3.3.1 Axial Loading of Drilled Shafts a manner and of dimensions and materials identical to those planned
for the production shafts.
The provisions of Article 4.12.3.3.1 shall apply as applicable.
Load tests shall be conducted following prescribed written
4.13.3.3.2 Analytic Estimates of Drilled Shaft Capacity in procedures which have been developed from accepted standards and
Cohesive Soils modified, as appropriate, for the conditions at the site. Standard pile
load testing procedures developed by the American Society for Testing
Analytic (rational) methods may be used to estimate the ultimate and materials as specified in Article 4.12.3.3.5 may be modified for
bearing capacity of drilled shafts in cohesive soils. The performance testing drilled shafts.
factors for side resistance and tip resistance for three analytic methods
shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-3. If another analytic method is The performance factor for axial compressive capacity, axial uplift
used, application of the performance factors in Table 4.10.6-3 may not capacity and lateral capacity obtained from load tests shall be as
be appropriate. provided in Table 4.10.6-3.

4.13.3.3.3 Estimation of Drilled Shaft Capacity in Cohesionless 4.13.3.3.6 Uplift Capacity

Soils
Uplift shall be considered when (i) upward loads act on the drilled
The ultimate bearing capacity of drilled shafts in cohesionless soils shafts and (ii) swelling or expansive soils act on the drilled shafts.
shall be estimated using applicable methods, and the factored capacity Drilled shafts subjected to uplift forces shall be investigated, both for
selected using judgment, and any available experience with similar resistance to pullout and for their structural strength.
conditions.
4.13.3.6a Uplift Capacity of a Single Drilled Shaft
4.13.3.3.4 Axial Capacity in Rock
The uplift capacity of a single straight sided drilled shaft shall be
In determining the axial capacity of drilled shafts with rock estimated in a manner similar to that for estimating the ultimate side
sockets, the side resistance from overlying soil deposits shall be resistance for drilled shafts in compression (Article 4.13.3.3.2.
ignored. 4113.3.3.3 and 14.13.3.3.4).

If the rock is degradable, consideration of special construction The uplift capacity of a belled shaft shall be estimated neglectine
procedures, larger socket dimensions, or r.-duced socket capacities shall the side resistance above the bell, and assuming that the bell behaves as
be considered. an anchor.
The performance factors for drilled shafts socketed in rock shall be The performance factor for the uplift capacity of drilled shafts shall
as provided in Table 4.10.6-3. be conducted using shafts constructed in betas =providedin Table 4.10.6-3.
4.13.3.3.5 Load Test

Where necessary, a full scale load test or tests sl all be conducted

on a drilled shaft or shafts to confirm response to loac' Load tests shall

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 4.13.3.3.6b Group Uplift Capacity See Article 4.13.3.3.3 for a discussion on the selection of
performance factors for drilled shaft capacities in cohesionless soils.
See Article 4.12.3.3.7b. The performance factors for uplift
capacity of groups of drilled shafts shall be the same as those for pile 4 .13.3 .3.8 c Gro up in Stro ng So il Ov erly ing Weak er
groups as given in Table 4.10.6-3. Compressible Soil

4.13.3.3.7 Lateral Load The provisions of Article 4.12.3.3.10c shall apply as applicable.

The design of laterally loaded drilled shafts is usually governed by 4.13.3.3.9 Dynamic/Seismic Design
lateral movement criteria (Article 4.13.3.2) or structural failure of the
drilled shaft. The design of laterally loaded drilled shafts shall account
for the effects of interaction between the shaft and ground, including the Refer to Section 21 for guidance regarding the design of drilled
number, of piers in the group. shafts subjected to dynamic and seismic loads.

4.13.4 Structural Design

4.13.3.3.8 Group Capacity
The structural design of drilled shafts shall be in accordance with
Possible reduction in capacity from group effects shall be the provisions of Article 4.6.6, which was developed for allowable
considered. stress design procedures. In order to use load factor design procedures
for the structural design of drilled shafts, the load factor design
4.13.3.3.8 a Cohesive Soil procedures in Section 8 for reinforced concrete shall be used in place of
the allowable stress design procedures.
The provisions of Article 4.12.3.3.10a shall apply. The t•

performance factor for the group capacity of an equivalent pier or block 4.13.4.1 Buckling of Drilled Shafts
failure shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-2 for both cases of the cap
being in contact, and nor in contact with the goad. The performance Stability of drilled shafts shall be considered when the shafts
factors for the group capacity calculated using the. sum of the individual extended through water or air for a portion of their length.
drilled shaft capacities are the same as those for the single drilled shaft
capacities.

4.13.33.8b Cohesionless Soil

Evaluation of group capacity of shaft in cohesionless soil shall

consider the spacing between adja....ent shaft. Regardless of cap contact
with the ground, the individual capacity of each shaft be reduced by a
factor 11 for an isolated shaft, where it = 0.67 for a center-to-center
(CTC) spacing of three diameters and it = 1.0 for a center-to-center
spacing of eight diameters. For intermediate spacings, the value of ri
may be determined by linear interpolation.

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