Chapter 11, POPOV

Stress and Strain Transformation

Example 11·1 The state of stress for an element of unit thickness be as shown
in Fig. 11-3( a). An alternative representation of the state of stress at the same
point may be given on an infinitesimal wedge with an angle of 𝛼𝛼 = 22.50 , as
in Fig. 11-3(b ). Find the stresses that must act on plane AB of the wedge to
keep the element in equilibrium.
SOLUTION
Wedge ABC is part of the element in Fig. 11-3(a): therefore, the stresses on
faces AC and BC are known. The unknown normal and shear stresses acting on
face AB are designated in the figure by 𝜎𝜎𝛼𝛼 and 𝜏𝜏𝛼𝛼 respectively. Their sense is
assumed arbitrarily.
To determine a 𝜎𝜎𝛼𝛼 and 𝜏𝜏𝛼𝛼 for convenience only, let the area of the face defined
by line AB be unity such as 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 . Then the area corresponding to line
AC is equal to 1x cos 𝛼𝛼 = 0.924 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 and
that to BC is equal to 1x sin 𝛼𝛼 = 0.383 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 .
Forces F1, F2, F.1, and F4, Fig. ll-3(c), can be obtained by multiplying the
stresses by their respective areas. The unknown equilibrant forces N and S act,
respectively, normal and tangential to plane AB. Then applying the equations of
static equilibrium to the forces acting on the wedge given forces N and S.
𝐹𝐹1 = 3𝑥𝑥 cos ∝ = 3𝑥𝑥𝑥.924 = 2.78 𝑁𝑁 𝐹𝐹2 = 2𝑥𝑥 cos ∝ = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥.924 = 1.85 𝑁𝑁

𝐹𝐹3 = 2𝑥𝑥 sin ∝ = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥.383 = 0.766 𝑁𝑁 𝐹𝐹4 = 1𝑥𝑥 sin ∝ = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥.383 = 0.383 𝑁𝑁
� 𝐹𝐹𝑁𝑁 = 0, 𝑁𝑁 = 𝐹𝐹1 cos ∝ −𝐹𝐹2 sin ∝ −𝐹𝐹3 cos ∝ +𝐹𝐹4 sin ∝

= 2.78𝑥𝑥𝑥.924 − 1.85𝑥𝑥𝑥.383 − 0.766𝑥𝑥𝑥.924 + 0.383𝑥𝑥𝑥.383

= 1.29 𝑁𝑁

� 𝐹𝐹𝑆𝑆 = 0, 𝑆𝑆 = 𝐹𝐹1 sin ∝ +𝐹𝐹2 cos ∝ −𝐹𝐹3 sin ∝ −𝐹𝐹4 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∝

= 2.78𝑥𝑥𝑥.383 + 1.85𝑥𝑥𝑥.924 − 0.766𝑥𝑥𝑥.383 − 0.383𝑥𝑥𝑥.924

= 2.12 𝑁𝑁

𝜎𝜎𝛼𝛼 = 1.29 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 and 𝜏𝜏𝛼𝛼 = 2.12 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

11-3. Transformation of Stresses in Two-Dimensional Problems

𝝈𝝈𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝜽𝜽

Algebraic equations are developed using an element of unit thickness in Fig. 11-
4(a) in a state of two-dimensional stress initially referred to the positive, and are
negative if compressive. Positive shear stress is defined as acting upward in the
positive direction of the y axis on the right (positive) face DE of the element. Here
the stress transformation is sought from the xy coordinate axes to the x'y‘ axes. The
angle θ, which locates the x' axis, is positive when measured from the x axis
toward they axis in a counterclockwise direction.
The outward normal to the section forms an angle θ with the x axis. If an area of the
wedge isolated by this section is dA, the areas associated with the faces AC and AB are
dA.cosθ and dA.sin θ, respectively. By multiplying the stresses by their respective areas,
a diagram with the forces acting on the wedge is constructed. Fig. 11-4(c). Then, by
applying the equations of static equilibrium to the forces acting on the wedge, stresses
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 ′ and 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝑦𝑦 ′ are obtained:
Replacing θ in Eq. 11-1 by θ + 90° gives the normal stress in the direction of
the y' axis. This stress can be designated as 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦′ ; see Fig. 1-3(b). Hence, on
noting that cos(2θ+180°) = -cos2θ and sin(2θ+180°) = -sin2θ, one has:
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 +𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 −𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦
𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦′ = − cos 2𝜃𝜃 − 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 sin 2𝜃𝜃 (11-3)
2 2

By adding Eqs. 11-1 and 11-3;

𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥′ + 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦′ = 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 (11-4)

meaning that the sum of the normal stresses on any two mutually planes
remains the same (i.e., invariant), regardless of the angle θ.
 11-4. Principal Stresses in Two-Dimensional Problems
To find the plane for a maximum or a minimum normal stress. Eq. 11-1 is
differentiated with respect to 6 and the derivative set equal to zero; that is:

Equation 11-6 has two roots, since the value of the tangent of an angle in
the diametrically opposite quadrant is the same, as may be seen from Fig.
11-5. These roots are 180° apart, and, as Eq. 11-6 is for a double angle, the
roots of θ are 90° apart. One of these roots locates a plane on which the
maximum normal stress acts; the other locates the corresponding plane for
the minimum normal stress. To distinguish between these two roots, a
prime and double prime notation is used.
On planes on which maximum or minimum nor mal stresses occur, there are no
shear stresses. These planes are called the principal planes of stress, and the
stresses acting on these planes-the maximum and minimum normal stresses-are
called the principal stresses.
The magnitudes of the principal stresses can be obtained by substituting the
values of the sine and cosine functions corresponding to the double angle given
by Eq. 11-6 into Eq. 11-1. Then the results are simplified, and the expression
for the maximum normal stress (denoted by 𝜎𝜎1 ) and the minimum normal stress
(denoted by 𝜎𝜎 ) becomes
where the positive sign in front of the square root must be used to obtain 𝜎𝜎1
and the negative sign to obtain 𝜎𝜎2 . The planes on which these stresses act can
be determined by using Eq. 11-6. A particular root of Eq. 11-6 substituted into
Eq. 11-1 will check the result found from Eq. 11-4 and at the same time will
locate the plane on which this principal stress acts.
11.5 Maximum Shear Stresses in Two-Dimensional Problems
If 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 , 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 and 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 are known for an element, the shear stress on any plane
defined by an angle θ is given by Eq. 11-2, and a study similar to the one made
before for the normal stresses may be made for the shear stress. Thus,
similarly, to locate the planes on which the maximum or the minimum shear
stresses act, Eq. 11-2 must be differentiated with respect to θ and the derivative
set equal to zero. When this is carried out and the results are simplified,
where the subscript 2 is attached to θ to designate the plane on which the shear
stress is a maximum or a minimum. Like Eq. 11-6, Eq. 11-8 has two roots,
which again may be distinguished by attaching to θ2 a prime or a double prime
notation. The two planes defined by this equation are mutually perpendicular.
Moreover, the value of tan2θ2 given by Eq. 11-8 is a negative reciprocal of the
value of tan2θ1 in Eq.11-6.

Hence, the roots for the double angles of Eq. 11-8 are 90° away from the
corresponding roots of Eq. 11-6. This means that the angles that locate the
planes of maximum or minimum shear stress form angles of 45° with the planes
of the principal stresses. A substitution into Eq. 11-2 of the sine and cosine
functions corresponding to the double angle given by Eq.11-8 and determined
in a manner analogous to that in Fig. 11-5 gives the maximum and the
minimum values of the shear stresses. These, after simplifications, are:
Thus, the maximum shear stress differs from the minimum shear stress only
in sign. Moreover, since the two roots given by Eq. 11-9 locate planes 90°
apart, this result also means that the numerical values of the shear stresses on
the mutually perpendicular planes are the same. From the physical point of
view, these signs have no meaning, and for this reason, the largest shear
stress regardless of sign will often be called the maximum shear stress.

The definite sense of the shear stress can always be determined by direct
substitution of the particular root of θ2 into Eq. 11-2. A positive shear stress
indicates that it acts in the direction assumed in Fig. 11-4(b ), and vice versa.
Unlike the principal stresses for which no shear stresses occur on the
principal planes, the maximum shear stresses act on planes that are usually
not free of normal stresses. Substitution of θ2 from Eq. 11-8 into Eq. 11-1
shows that the normal stresses that act on the planes of the maximum shear
stresses are:
Therefore, a normal stress acts simultaneously with the maximum shear
stress unless 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 +𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 vanishes. If 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 and 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 in Eq. 11-9 are the principal
stress, 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 is zero and Eq. 11-9 simplifies to

Equation 11-7 clearly shows that in the absence of normal stresses, the
principal stresses are numerically equal to the shear stress. The sense of the
normal stresses follows from Eq. 11-6. The shear stresses act toward the
diagonal DF in the direction of the principal tensile stresses; see Fig.11-6.

Fig.11-6 Equivalent representations for pure shear stress.

 11-6. Mohr's Circle of Stress for Two-Dimensional Problems
A careful study of Eqs. 11-1 and 11-2 shows that they represent a circle written
in parametric form. That they do represent a circle is made clearer by first
rewriting them as
11-7. Construction of Mohr's Circles for Stress Transformation
The transformation of two-dimensional states of stress from one set of
coordinates to another can always be made by direct application of statics as in
Example 11-1, or, using the derived equations in Sections 11-3, 11-4, and 11-5.
𝜃𝜃 + 𝛼𝛼 = 2𝜃𝜃1 < 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 + 2𝛼𝛼 = 2𝜃𝜃1
𝛼𝛼 = 2𝜃𝜃1 − 𝜃𝜃 < 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 2𝜃𝜃1 − 2𝛼𝛼
< 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 2𝜃𝜃1 − 2 2𝜃𝜃1 − 𝜃𝜃
< 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 2𝜃𝜃 − 2𝜃𝜃1
 TO DO LIST FROM POPOV

Solve problem numbers given below from

POPOV in addition to other text books.
Problems from Chapter 11 (2nd ed): 2-6, 17-20,
22-36.
Annex-A, Maximum shear stress angles
𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
sin 2𝜃𝜃1 ′ =
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 2
+ 𝜏𝜏 2 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
2

2𝜃𝜃1 ′ + 900 = 2𝜃𝜃2 ′

2𝜃𝜃1 ′ = 2𝜃𝜃2 ′ − 900
′ 0
𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
sin 2𝜃𝜃2 − 90 =
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 2
+ 𝜏𝜏 2 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
2
𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
sin 2𝜃𝜃2 ′ cos 900 − cos 2𝜃𝜃2 ′ sin 900 =
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 2
+ 𝜏𝜏 2 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
2

′ −𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
cos 2𝜃𝜃2 =
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 2 2
+ 𝜏𝜏
2 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦
sin 2𝜃𝜃2 ′ = 2
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 2
+ 𝜏𝜏 2 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
2