Unit 1 Thermodynamics

- Thermodynamics is the study of of energy conversion between heat and other forms of energy.
- The term is derived from the Greek words therme, meaning heat, and dynamis, meaning power.
- Thermodynamics enables us to understand the interaction between energy and matter on a multitude of spatial scales:
from the interaction between individual atoms, to stars, galaxies and even the universe as a whole.
- As the laws of thermodynamics do not depend on the specific details of the systems being studied, they are extremely
powerful tools to predict the behaviour of systems. They also help to provide us with answers to deep questions like:-
• Why does the “arrow of time” only ever point in one direction?
• How will the universe end?
• What will happen to an object if you keep cooling it down?
1.1 Thermal equilibrium and definition of temperature
- In order to understand temperature and heat at the particle level we need to use the terms mole and molar mass.
- The mole (mol) is a measure of number of discrete particles in a substance. It is SI-unit of the fundamental quantity,
amount of substance.
1mol = 6.02 × 1023 particles
∗ 6.02 × 1023 is called Avogadro’s number (NA ).
- The relationship between the number of moles(n), the number of particles(N) and Avogadro’s number (NA ) is:-

N = nNA .......................(∗)

Example:- How many hydrogen and oxygen atoms are there in 1 mol of water?
Solution:- 1 mol of water contains 6.02 × 1023 molecules of water (H2 O).
Therefore there are 2 × 6.02 × 1023 = 1.20 × 1024 hydrogen atoms and 6.02 × 1023 oxygen atoms.
- Molar mass (M) is the mass of 1 mol of a substance. To calculate the mass (m) of a given substance we can use the
relation:-
m = nM.....................(∗∗)
- Combining equations (∗) and (∗∗) gives:- n = NNA = M m
. From this the mass of each particle (mp ) can be calculated
using:
mp = NMA and mp = N m

Example If you have a 3.6 grams of a substance with a molar mass of 40 g/mol. Calculate:
a) number of moles of the substance
b) number of particles in the substance
c) the mass of each particle of the substance.
solution
m 3.6g
a. n = M = 40g/mol = 0.09mol
b. N = nNA = (0.09mol)(6.02 × 1023 /mol) = 5.4 × 1022
40g/mol −23 gram
c. mp = NMA = 6.02×10 23 /mol = 6.6 × 10
- According to the particle model of matter vibrating or moving particles have kinetic energy and collide with their neigh-
bors so that energy is distributed throughout the substance.
- Heat is defined as the transfer of energy across the boundary of a system due to a temperature difference between the
system and its surroundings. A body does not contain heat.
- Internal energy is the sum of the random distribution of kinetic and potential energies associated with the molecules
within a body.
- But for ideal gas, internal energy is the sum of random kinetic energies of the particles only since there is no molecular
interaction b/n particles.
- The internal energy of the steam at 100 o C is greater than that of the same mass of water at 100 o C.
- Thermal energy is internal energy present in a system in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium by virtue of its tempera-
ture. It can’t be converted to work easily.
- But Temperature is a measure of the average random kinetic energy of particles in a body.
- Heat flows from the hotter body to the colder body until the temperatures are equal.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics
It states that: “ Two bodies that are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third body must be in thermal equilibrium
with each other.”

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i.e If A is in thermal equilibrium with B and C, then B is also in thermal
equilibrium with C.
- Thermal equilibrium is the condition in which two bodies are at the same
temperature and there is no net transfer of energy (heat) between them.

fig-1
- Thermal equilibrium is steady state, but all steady states may not be at thermal equilibrium. B/c in steady states there
may be a steady non-zero net flow of energy between them.
- Zeroth law provides us with a way of defining temperature and enables to accurate calibration of thermometers.
- The thermodynamic (ideal gas) (Kelvin) temperature scale is referred to as ’absolute’ as it is independent of any other
property of a substance.
- Temperature can be measured also in Celsius scale and Fahrenheit scale.
- The relations b/n Kelvin scale (TK), Celsius scale (TC) and Fahrenheit scale (TF) derived from ratio of interval between
boiling point and ice point is equal to ratio of the difference between the unknown point and ice point will be;
T C = T K − 273.15 ⇒ T K = T C + 273.15
T F = 95 T C + 32o F ⇒ T C = 95 (T F − 32)
∆T K = ∆T C = 59 ∆T F
- Some important temperatures in units of kelvin and degrees Celsius.
. Absolute zero, the temperature at which all the random motion of particles in a substance ceases = 0.00K =
−273.15o C
. The triple point of water is the temperature at which all three phases (ice, water and water vapour) coexist in thermal
equilibrium = 273.16K = 0.01o C
. Room temperature = 293K = 20o C
. Ice point = 273.15K = 0.00o C
. Steam point = 373.15K = 100.00o C
Example Surface temperature of the sun is 5778 K how much is it in o C and in o F ?
Solution T C = T K − 273.15 = 5778 − 273.15 = 5504.85o C
T F = 95 T C + 32o F = 59 (5504.85) + 32 = 9908.73 + 32 = 9940.73o F
Phases of matter
- A phase of matter is a point at which all the physical properties within a material are uniform. At a given phase of
matter a material will have the same density and refractive index.
- But States of matter are classifications of the distinct phases of
matter based on their large-scale properties. For example, a solid
phase is the state in which the substance maintains a fixed volume
and a fixed shape.
- Changing the pressure or temperature of a substance will affect
its phase.
- Plotting a graph of pressure against temperature is often called
a phase diagram.
- Triple point is the specific temperature and pressure where all
three states of matter are able to exist in thermal equilibrium.
- The critical point occurs where the critical temperature and crit-
ical pressure of a substance meet. Above this point clear phase fig-2
boundaries cease to exist and the substance forms a super critical
fluid.
- Above the critical temperature it is not possible to form a liquid, regardless of any increase in pressure.
- The critical point is different to the boiling point of a substance. The actual boiling point of a substance depends on the
surrounding pressure.
- From the phase diagram the substance has a number of boiling points following the vaporization curve. The lower the
pressure, the lower the boiling point.
- But the critical point only occurs at one specific temperature and pressure.
- Sometimes heating a system may not increase temperature. During the phase change the added heat is used to break
intermolecular attraction b/n individual particles at constant temperature (Latent heat).

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 1.2 Work, heat and the first law of thermodynamics
- Sadi Carnot and many other scientists in the early 19th century believed that heat was like an invisible, mass-less fluid
called ‘caloric’. This idea was disproved by James Prescott Joule after showing the process of ’mechanical equivalent of
heat’.
- But Carnot’s principle is still used today to determine the maximum efficiencies of boilers and turbines in power sta-
tions.
Carnot’s principle
Carnot’s principle is a principle that sets a limit on the maximum efficiency any possible engine can obtain.
1. No engine can be more efficient than a reversible engine (a Carnot heat engine) operating between the same high
temperature and low temperature reservoirs.
2. The efficiencies of all reversible engines (Carnot heat engines) operating between the same constant temperature reser-
voirs are the same, regardless of the working substance employed or the operation details.
First law of thermodynamics
It states that:- “ The increase in internal energy of a system is equal to the sum of the energy entering the system through
heating, and the work done on the system.”
i.e ∆U = ∆Q + ∆W
where, ∆U is increase in internal energy, ∆Q is heat added to the system and ∆W is work done on the system.
- 1st law is the statement of the law of conservation of energy.
- Isolated systems do not interact with their surroundings so their internal energy remains constant. The only isolated
system is the universe.
Thermodynamic processes
1. Adiabatic process:- is a process in which there is no heat transfer into or out of the system (Insulated system).
Therefore ∆Q = 0, then 1st law for such process will be:-
∆U = ∆W , The work done may be electrical or mechanical.
- For electrical work ∆W = P ∆t, but P = IV
⇒ ∆W = IV ∆t
Where P is power, I is current, V is voltage and ∆t is time.
⇒ ∆U = IV ∆t
- For mechanical work ∆W = F ∆x, but F = pA
⇒ ∆W = pA∆x again A∆x = ∆V
⇒ ∆W = −p∆V
Where F is force, ∆x is distance, p is pressure, A is area and ∆V is volume change of the system. Negative sign is put to
make work done on the system positive (+∆W ) as the volume decreases and work done by the system negative (−∆W )
as the volume increases.
⇒ ∆U = −p∆V
- Compressing the air using any pump by pushing the plunger very rapidly is adiabatic process.
Example:- 650 mg ammonia gas is expanding rapidly within a cylinder by applying constant pressure of 130 kPa on
friction-less piston with area 3 × 10−3 m2 to move a distance of 5 cm. How much changes temperature of the gas?
(Specific heat capacity of ammonia at constant pressure = 2.2 kJ/kgK)
Solution:- The process occurs rapidly it is nearly adiabatic, ∆Q = 0, therefore:-
⇒ ∆U = −p∆V = mc∆T
⇒ −pA∆x = mc∆T
⇒ −(130000 P a)(3 × 10−3 m2 )(0.05 m) = (6.5 × 10−4 kg)(2200J/kgK)∆T
⇒ −19.5J = 1.43J/K∆T ⇒ ∆T = −13.6 K
2. Isobaric process:- is a process in which the pressure of a system remains constant.
- The only way such a process can remain at constant pressure is
if heat (Q) is transferred into the system and the volume increases
then work is done by the system. Therefore 1st law will be:-

∆U = ∆Q − p∆V

- The work done by the system of isobaric process is equal to the

area under p-V graph as shown below.
fig-3
3. Isochoric (isovolumetric) process:- is a process in which the volume of the system remains constant.
- For such process mechanical work done on/by the system is zero. Therefore the first law equations would be written

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as:-
∆U = ∆Q, but ∆Q = mc∆T
⇒ ∆U = mc∆T
where m is the mass, c is the specific heat capacity and ∆T is the increase in the temperature the system.
- For isolated system the law of heat exchange states that, ΣQlost + ΣQgain = 0, therefore P ∆theater = ∆Q = mc∆T
where P is power and ∆t working time of the heater.
4. Isothermal process:- is a process which occurs at constant temperature.
- In such processes there must be heat flow in to or out of the system quasistatically (very slowly) by tiny (negligible)
temperature gradient. Then there is no change in the internal energy of the system if there is no phase change so, 1st law
become:-
0 = ∆Q + ∆W
⇒ ∆Q = −∆W
- Compressing the air using any pump by pushing the plunger very slowly is isothermal process.
Example:- Short piece of rubber band is placed against your lower lip, write down about ∆T and whether the values of
∆U , ∆Q and ∆W are negative, zero or positive for the following steps.
1. Stretching it quickly. 2. Keeping it stretched for 10 seconds.
3. Quickly allowing it to return to its original length, but still holding. 4. Keeping there for 10 seconds.
Solution:
Step 1 Temperature increases, ∆U is positive, ∆Q is zero, and ∆W is positive.
Step 2 Temperature decreases, ∆U is negative, ∆Q is negative, and ∆W is zero.
Step 3 Temperature decreases, ∆U is negative, ∆Q is zero, and ∆W is negative.
Step 4 Temperature increases, ∆U is positive, ∆Q is positive, and ∆W is zero.
- If the system is a gas then the four processes that change the state of the gas can be represented using a p-V graph shown
on Figure-4 (a) adiabatic, (b) isothermal, (c) isobaric and (d) isochoric processes.

fig-4
- In each case the work done is equal to area under the graph. The arrow to the right indicate work done by the gas.
General expressions for a heated gas
- When a gas is heated, we can use the molar heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp ) and at constant volume (CV ) to
calculate the increase in temperature of the gas.
- Molar heat capacity (C) is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of one mole of a substance by 1 K. Its unit
is J/molK.
∆Q
i.e ⇒ C = n∆T , ⇒ ∆Q = Cn∆T
Therefore ∆Qp = Cp n∆T and ∆QV = CV n∆T ......................(∗)
where ∆Qp and ∆QV are the energy transferred to the gas at constant pressure and constant volume respectively.
- But specific heat capacity (c) is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a given substance by 1 K.
∆Q
i.e c = m∆T , its SI unit is J/kgK.
- From the first law of thermodynamics:- ∆U = ∆Q − p∆V ⇒ ∆Q = ∆U + p∆V
Therefore at constant pressure: ∆Qp = ∆U + p∆V and at constant volume (no work is done): ∆QV = ∆U combining
these two equations gives:- ∆Qp = ∆QV + p∆V and again substituting equation (∗) here gives:-
Cp n∆T = CV n∆T +p∆V........(∗∗) and from ideal gas equation pV = nRT , for constant pressure p∆V = nR∆T........(∗∗
∗), where R is molar gas constant for ideal gas = 8.3 J/molK
- When we substitute equation (∗ ∗ ∗) in to equation (∗∗) we get Cp n∆T = CV n∆T + nR∆T .
⇒ Cp − CV = R ........ this is known as Mayer’s equation.
- Generally for any gas, Cp > CV , which means for the same increase in temperature of a gas, a greater amount of heat
energy required at constant pressure than at constant volume.

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 Gas Cp CV Cp − CV
- Table 1:- Molar heat capacities of some real gases in J/molK. Nitrogen 29.0 20.7 8.3
- Molar heat capacity of a liquid or a solid is single b/c heating
Hydrogen 28.1 19.9 8.2
them does not bring enough change in the volume or pressure to
Carbon dioxide 36.6 28.2 8.4
affect the heat energy required to raise the temperature by 1 K
Chlorine 34.2 28.2 9.1
Ammonia 37.2 27.8 9.4
C
- For an ideal gas CV = 23 R and Cp = 52 R. Then the ratio, CVp = γ = 53
For a reversible, adiabatic process, it is also true that:
T V γ−1 is constant, means T1 V1γ−1 = T2 V2γ−1 and
pV γ is constant, means p1 V1γ = p2 V2γ
1
Example:- An ideal gas in a cylinder is compressed to 15 of its initial volume. If the initial pressure is 1.01 × 105 pa and
the initial temperature is 300 K, find the final pressure and the temperature after reversible adiabatic compression.
Solution:- I. From p1 V1γ = p2 V2γ
⇒ p2 = p1 ( VV12 )γ = (1.01 × 105 pa)(15)1.6 = (101000 pa)(76.2) = 7696200 pa
II. From T1 V1γ−1 = T2 V2γ−1
⇒ T2 = T1 ( VV12 )γ−1 = (300 K)(15)1.6−1 = (300 K)((15)0.6 ) = (300 K)(5.07) = 1521 K

1.3 Kinetic theory of gases

The Gas laws and ideal gas equation
- Large number of real gases satisfy ideal gas assumptions as long as the pressure is not too high and the temperature is
not too low.
- Equation of state for an ideal gas can be derived from the three empirical gas laws.
- The three gas laws are summarized as follows:-

1. Boyle’s law: When the gas is kept at a constant temperature,

its pressure is inversely proportional to its volume.
i.e pα V1 . Therefore pV = constant
⇒ p1 V1 = p2 V2 = p3 V3 = ....
Boyle’s law

2. Charles’ law: When the pressure of the gas is kept constant,

its volume is directly proportional to its temperature.
i.e V αT . Therefore VT = constant
⇒ TV11 = VT22 = TV33 = ....
Charle’s law

3. Pressure law: At constant volume, the pressure of a gas is

directly proportional to temperature.
i.e pαT . Therefore Tp = constant
⇒ Tp11 = Tp22 = Tp33 = ....
Pressure law
- Combining the three gas laws gives: pV T = constant.
⇒ pT1 V1 1 = pT2 V2 2 = pT3 V3 3 = ....
- Experiments also show that for a given pressure and temperature, doubling the amount of gas (n) doubles the volume.
Therefore the constant can be nR.
⇒ pV T = nR, where R = 8.3 J/molK is molar gas constant.
⇒ pV = nRT is known as ideal gas equation (equation of state).
- The equation of state of an ideal gas also explains two laws that were formulated in the early 19th century.
1. Avogadro’s law:- states that “equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same num-
ber of molecules”.
2. Dalton’s law of partial pressures:- states that “the total pressure of a mixture of gases, which do not interact chem-
ically, is equal to the sum of the partial pressures, i.e. to the sum of the pressure that each gas would exert if it alone
occupied the volume contacting the mixture.”

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 i.e p = p1 + p2 + p3 + ...
- For the two gases mixture with moles n1 and n2 and partial pressures p1 and p2 in thermal equilibrium at temperature
T, equation of state can be written as p1 V = n1 RT and p2 V = n2 RT , and dividing these equations gives:- pp21 = nn12 .
p1 = pn2 n2 1 and p2 = pn1 n1 2 . Substituting these in Dalton’s law gives:-
⇒ p = pn2 n2 1 + p2 = p2 n1n+p 1
2 n2

⇒ p1 = p( n1 +n2 ) and p2 = p( n1n+n

n1 2
2
)
Example:- If air is taken to consist of 80% nitrogen and 20% oxygen, what are the partial pressures of these two gases at
an atmospheric pressure of 101 kPa?
Solution:- If n1 and p1 are amount of oxygen and partial pressure of oxygen respectively and also n2 and p2 are amount
of nitrogen and partial pressure of nitrogen respectively then n1n+n 1
2
= 20% and n1n+n2
2
= 80%.
n1 20
⇒ p1 = p( n1 +n2 ) = (101000 pa)( 100 ) = 20200 pa.
⇒ p2 = p( n1n+n 2
2
) = (101000 pa)( 100 80
) = 80800 pa.
Assumptions of kinetic theory of gases
- The kinetic theory of gases applies only to ideal gases that have the following properties:-
1. The internal energy of the gas is made up of random kinetic energies of particles only.
2. Collisions between particles and with a wall are perfectly elastic (there is no loss of kinetic energy during any colli-
sion).
3. The volume occupied by the particle is negligible compared to the volume of the gas as a whole. They behave as point
particles
4. The distribution of velocities of particles is random. That is, the average distribution of velocities over time is the same
in all directions.
5. Newton’s laws can be applied to all collisions.
6. The gas under consideration is a pure substance; that is, all molecules are identical.
Example:- Helium at 4 K, air at 280 K and a gas burning in air at 600 K do not satisfy kinetic theory assumptions of
gases. Why?
Answer:- B/c helium at 4 K (-268.15 o C) is nearly liquid, there is potential energy b/n particles, air is mixture particles
are not identical, burning gas in the air is interacting with oxygen.
Derivation of the kinetic theory formula

- Consider N Particles of ideal gas in a container of Volume V, a particle is moving

in the x-direction and collides with the shaded face. The change in momentum of the
particle is: ∆P~x = −2m~vx .
- The time taken between two successive collisions with the shaded wall is: t = ~2x
vx .

~
- From Newton’s second law, F = ∆P
∆t , ⇒ ∆P~ = F ∆t, where ∆P~ is impulse.
- The impulse on the shaded wall is represented by the area under a force–time
graph. It is the same whether we consider a series of instantaneous forces or a small
but continuous force.
~
- The average force on the particle by the wall is therefore F~x = ∆tPx = −2m~
2x
vx
~
vx
−m~vx2
⇒ F~x = x .

m~vx2
- From Newton’s third law, the average x component of the force on the wall is: F~x = x .
2 2 2 2
m~vN
m~v1x m~v2x m~v3x
- The net average force exerted on the wall by all the particles is: F~x net = x + x + x + ... + x
x

⇒ F~x net = m 2
x (~
v1x 2 +~
+ ~v2x 2 + ... + ~
v3x vN2 ).
x
2 +~
~v1x 2 +~
v2x 2 +...+~
v3x vN2 )
-From the definition of mean square speed < ~vx2 >= N
x
.

⇒ N < ~vx2 >= ~v1x

2 +~ 2 +~
v2x 2 + ... + ~
v3x vN2 .
x

⇒ F~x net = m
x (N < ~vx2 >).

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 N m<~
vx2>
~ 2 2
- The average pressure on the shaded wall is: p = FAx = x
yz = N m<~ vx >
xyz = N m<~
V
vx >
, where V is volume of the
box.
- As this expression is independent of the direction, it is better to refer particle speeds rather than velocities.
- The average value of v 2 for all the particles in the box is: < v 2 >=< vx2 > + < vy2 > + < vz2 >

1
- For completely random speeds, < vx2 >=< vy2 >=< vz2 >. Therefore < v 2 >= 3 < vx2 >, ⇒< vx2 >= 3 < v 2 >.

N m<v 2 > 2N 1
⇒p= 3V = 3 V 2m < v 2 >.

⇒ pV = 23 N 21 m < v 2 >, by comparing this with ideal gas equation, P V = N kT = nRT .

2 1
3N 2m < v 2 >= N kT = nRT , where k is Boltzmann constant k = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K.

⇒ 21 m < v 2 >= KEav = 23 kT .

- For a single particle, the average translational kinetic energy is 32 kT .
- From the fig, distribution of molecular speeds within a gas changes and the average
speed of molecules increases as the temperature of the gas increases.

- This shows a microscopic quantity of a gas, the average kinetic energy of its particles, can be calculated from a single
macroscopic quantity, the Kelvin temperature.
- The total translational kinetic energy of N particles will be N (KEav ).
⇒ KEt = N 21 m < v 2 >= 23 N kT = 32 nRT .
Example:- What is the average translational kinetic energy of an ideal-gas molecule at 27o C and what about the total
random translational kinetic energy of the molecules in 1 mole of this gas?
Solution: KEav = 23 kT = 23 (1.38 × 10−23 J/K)(300 K) = 6.21 × 10−21 J.
KEtotal = 23 nRT = 32 (1 mol)(8.3 J/mol.K)(300 K) = 3740 J.
Mean square speed (< v 2 >) and root mean square speed (vrms ) of gas particles
- Using kinetic theory model we can’t know the velocities of individual particles or even the range of velocities. We can
only work out < v 2 > and vrms of the particles.
- Mean square speed (< v 2 >):- is the average value of the squares of the speeds of particles in a gas.
- But root-mean-square speed (vrms ):- is the square root of the mean of all the squares of the speeds of the particles in a
gas.
- We can easily calculate a microscopic property of a gas like the root-mean-square speed of its particles just by knowing
two macroscopic quantities of the gas (pressure and density).
- From kinetic theory formula derivation, pressure (p) on the wall of the container with volume V due to N number of
2>
gas particles is: p = N m<v
3V , where m is mass of single particle, therefore N m is total mass of the gas. But NVm = ρ
(density of the gas).
⇒ p = 13 ρ < v 2 > ⇒< v 2 >= 3p ρ .
√ q q
3p
- And the root-mean-square speed is: vrms = < v 2 > = 3kT m = ρ .

Example: Calculate the value of < v >, < v 2 > and vrms for the following group of velocities: 400 m/s, 450 m/s,
750 m/s, 300 m/s, 500 m/s, 600 m/s. vrms is always greater than < v > why?

400+450+750+300+500+600 3000
Solution: < v >= 6 = 6 = 500 m/s.

4002 +4502 +7502 +3002 +5002 +6002 160000+202500+562500+90000+250000+360000

< v 2 >= 6 = 6

1625000
⇒< v 2 >= 6 = 270833 m2 /s2 .
√ p
vrms = < v 2 > = 270833 m2 /s2 = 520 m/s.
vrms is always greater than < v > b/c when averaging the squares of the speeds the larger values will effectively receive
a greater weighting within the average.

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 Brownian motion and diffusion
- Brownian motion:- is the apparently random movement of particles (eg. pollen grains) in a fluid, caused by the impacts
of molecules of the fluid. It was first observed by the Scottish botanist Robert Brown.
- J. Desaulx explained that Brownian motion is a result of thermal molecular motion in the liquid environment (of the
particles). Experiments also show that it is a result of the atomic/particle nature of fluids and the statistical nature of the
second law of thermodynamics.
- Mean free path (λ):- is the average distance covered by a particle between successive impacts in Brownian motion.
- In a gas, the lower the pressure of the gas, or the lower the temperature, the greater the mean free path.
- Einstein was able to show that this motion can be predicted directly from the kinetic model of thermal equilibrium. He
also produced a statistical analysis of diffusion.
- Diffusion the process where particles in a fluid spread from a region of high concentration to a lower one.
- Einstein’s ideas on Brownian motion and diffusion lead to the kinetic theory models.
Graham’s law of diffusion
It states that “ the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its density.”
- The rate of diffusion of a gas depends on the r.m.s. speed of molecules but not on the velocity of the bulk motion of the
gas.
- For two different gases with equal volumes at the same temperature and pressure, from pV = nRT they contain equal
numbers of molecules so the density of each gas is just directly proportional to the molecular mass of its constituent
particles.
ρ1
i.e m
m 2 = ρ2
1

- From kinetic theory, the molecules in each gas possess the same average kinetic energy, so: 12 m1 < v12 >= 12 m2 < v22 >
<v12 > m2 <v12 > ρ2
⇒ 2
<v2 >
= m1
therefore: <v22 >
= ρ1 .
√ 2
√<v12 > = ρρ2 .
q
⇒ 1
<v > 2 q
vrms ρ2
⇒ vrms
1
2
= ρ1 .
- This shows that the rate of diffusion in a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the density of the gas.
- Sound propagates through a gas by disturbing the motion of the molecules of the gas. This disturbance is passed from
molecule to molecule through molecular collisions. But speed of sound is always less than the rms value of molecules of
the gas. Speed of sound in a gas having higher root mean square velocity will be higher.

1.4 Second law of thermodynamics, efficiency and entropy

- Thermodynamic processes that occur in nature are all irreversible processes. Irreversible process is a process that cannot
be reversed, either because entropy has increased or because there has been a finite change in the system. For instance
bouncing ball, heat flow, diffusion of a fluid, gas expansion and so on.
- But a reversible process is one that can be reversed by means of an infinitesimally small change in a property of the
system without a transfer of energy. It is an ideal process. If a real process occurs so slowly that the system is virtually
always in equilibrium with constant entropy, then the process can be considered as reversible.
Entropy and the second law of thermodynamics
- Entropy (S) is a quantitative measure of the amount of disorder in a system. It is a function of the state of a system. Its
SI- unit J/K.
- Let w is the number of possible microscopic states for a given macroscopic state of a system, then the absolute entropy
(S) of a macroscopic state can be given by S = klnw, where k is the Boltzmann constant.
- Consider five bromine molecules are confined in half volume of the cylinder shown
on the fig. Once the cover slip is removed the system becomes more disordered and
the entropy increases. Spreading out of particles represented an increase of entropy.

- There are two possible states for each molecule to be in one of the two half volumes. Therefore the number of possible
microscopic states (w) of the system is 2N = 25 = 32.
- But in a thermodynamic process change in entropy between the initial and final states is more important than absolute
entropy (S).
∆S = S2 − S1 = klnw2 − klnw1 = kln w 2
w1
Example: Calculate the change in entropy of the bromine gas system after the cover slip is removed.
Solution: ∆S = kln w 2
w1 , w2 = 25 w1
5
∆S = (1.38 × 10−23 J/K)ln 2ww1 1

8
 ∆S = (1.38 × 10−23 J/K)ln25 = (1.38 × 10−23 J/K)(5)ln2
∆S = (1.38 × 10−23 J/K)(5)(0.693) = 4.5 × 10−23 J/K
- All irreversible processes involve an increase in entropy. Unlike energy, entropy is not a conserved quantity for an
isolated system.
- But the entropy change in any reversible process depends on the amount of heat flow and the absolute temperature T.
∆S = ∆Q T but the total ∆S of the whole process is zero, therefore entropy is constant.
Example: What is the change of entropy of 1 kg of ice that is melted reversibly at 0o C and converted to water? (Lf
water is 3.34 × 105 J/kg)
3.34×105 J
Solution: ∆S = ∆Q T = 273 K = 1.22 × 103 J/K
- The second law of thermodynamics states that: “ No process is possible in which there is an overall decrease in the
entropy of the universe.” The entropy of the universe is always increasing with time. This defines the direction of time.
Heat and the second law of thermodynamics
- When all quanta of energy in a system are held by a small number of atoms, the number of possible arrangements are
small. However, when they are distributed amongst a larger number of atoms through heating, the number of possible
arrangements (and therefore the entropy) increases.
- The spreading out of random kinetic energy through heating also represents an overall increase in entropy.
- The second law of thermodynamics can also be written as “ the spontaneous transfer of energy from a cooler body to a
hotter body is not possible.”
- The temperature differences that exist between astronomical objects in the universe causes dispersing energy through
heating by increasing entropy of the universe until the system has reached maximum equilibrium, every thing decays the
universe expands more rapidly, it will be full of single disconnected particles, heat death, end of the universe.
Efficiency and the second law of thermodynamics
- A heat engine is any device that is designed to do useful mechanical work by taking
energy from a hot body, often called the heat source.
- The heat sink is also necessary in order to draw the energy from the hot source.
This places very strict limits on the efficiency of heat engines.
- Efficiency is determined on the relative temperatures of the heat source and the
heat sink.

- The second law of thermodynamics can also be written in the form: “ the complete conversion of energy from a hot
source into work is not possible.” Means no heat engine can be perfectly efficient.
- Real engines can do a large amount of useful work over a large number of repeated cycles. Cycle is an interval of time
over which a system is taken through a series of different states before returning to its original state.
- In a cyclical heat engine, the whole process needs to be nearly reversible.

1.5 Heat engines and refrigerators

- Heat engine includes petrol, diesel, jet engines and power plants. All heat engines require temperature gradient b/n heat
source and heat sink to function.
- Through more complex thermodynamic processes, shown on a p-V diagram, the
heat engine extracts some of the thermal energy flowing from a hotter region to a
colder one and coverts this into mechanical work.
- The operation of heat engines is bound within the first and second law of thermo-
dynamics. The first law involves the application of conservation of energy to the
system. The second law therefore sets limits on the maximum theoretical efficiency
of any heat engine.

- Two or more of these processes are combined to form a simple cycle. A very simple cycle may involve just four stages
as shown on fig.

9
- Stage one: 1 to 2, the volume of the gas inside the engine is reduced at constant
pressure (isobaric). This may achieved through a slow compression, allowing heat to
flow out of the system or more commonly by rapidly cooling the system.
⇒ From 1st law ∆U = ∆Q + pa (V1 − V2 ), if there is no change in temperature then
∆Q = −pa (V1 − V2 ) = −Win .
- Stage two: 2 to 3, heat is then allowed into the system (QH ). This is often achieved
by igniting a fuel air mix. This may cause a rapid increase in pressure,

whilst the volume remains constant (isochoric). Again from 1st law ∆U = ∆Q = Qin = QH
- Stage three: 3 to 4, the gas expands at constant pressure and so it does work on its surroundings. The work done by
the gas as it expands is equal to the area under the line 3-4.
- Stage four: 4 to 1, heat energy is then extracted from the system at constant volume. This leads to a drop in pressure
and the system returns to its starting point. This process then repeats or ‘cycles’. In each cycle, the work extracted is
given by the area enclosed by the cycle. The larger the area the greater the amount of work extracted per cycle.
Real heat engines
- Real heat engines combine the different thermodynamic processes in much more complex ways.
- Nikolaus August Otto was the designer of the first internal combustion engine, which efficiently burnt fuel directly
inside a piston.
1. Petrol engine: fuel is burnt inside a piston which moves up and down and extracts some of the thermal energy as
mechanical work to turn a drive shaft and subsequently turn the wheels on a vehicle.
- The cycle responsible for the extraction of work from a petrol engine is referred as the Otto cycle.

- Most petrol engines employ a four stroke process. The strokes are induction, compression, power and exhaust.
- Induction (intake) stroke: The piston is pulled down from V2 to V1 due to the rotation of the shaft and a fuel air mix
is drawn in through the open inlet valve at constant pressure.
- Compression stroke (1-2): The valve is closed and the piston moves up, by compressing the gas to V2 adiabaticaly,
temperature and pressure increases due to work done on the system.
- Heat input (2-3): The fuel air mix is ignited by a spark. Combustion occurs isochoricaly, This heat (QH ) increases the
temperature and so the pressure of the gas inside the piston.
- Power stroke (3-4): Work is done by the gas as it forces the piston down adiabaticaly. The volume of the gas increases
to V1 and the pressure drops.
- Heat output (4-1): Heat flows out of the system (Qc ) and the temperature of the gas drops causing a drop in pressure
back to the original pressure.
- Exhaust stroke: The piston moving up, but this time the exhaust valve is open and so the pressure remains constant as
the waste gases are expelled.
- The difference between the work done by the gas and the work done on the gas is the area enclosed by the cycle. The
power of the engine is then found as the product of this difference and the number of cycles per second.
2. Diesel engine: operates by moving the piston like petrol engine. However, there are two key differences, no spark
plug and the piston is longer in a diesel engine.

10
- Induction (intake) stroke: The piston is pulled down due to the rotation of the shaft, air is drawn in through an open
inlet valve at constant pressure but no fuel is present at this stage.
- Compression stroke (1-2): The valve is closed and the piston moves up longer distance, by compressing the gas to V2
adiabaticaly, temperature and pressure increases more due to larger work done on the system.
- Heat input (2-3): diesel is squirted into the hot air from the injector. Due to collision b/n particles combustion occurs
isobarically, QH inters in the system, the piston moves back to V3 .
- The rest of the processes are the same as the petrol engine.
3. Jet engine: It is another internal combustion process engine with the following
main steps.
- Air Intake: The air intake is essentially a tube in front of the engine.
- Compressor: It is a series of ’fans’, each with smaller and smaller blades. As air
passes through each compressor stage, it gets more compressed.

- Combustion: The high pressure air is combined with fuel, is ignited and burns through the engine toward the turbine
blades to increase the speed of burnt gas.
- Exhaust: The high speed burnt gas exits the engine through an exhaust nozzle by producing thrust, and pushes the
airplane.
- There are also external combustion process heat engines like Carnot, Stirling and Ericsson engines, the fuel is burnt in
external chamber and heat is transferred to the working substance like steam.
The following table summarizes the main processes in various engine cycles.

Cycle Compression of gas Heat input Expansion of gas Heat output Combustion
Otto (petrol engines) adiabatic isochoric adiabatic isochoric internal
Diesel adiabatic isobaric adiabatic isochoric internal
Brayton (jet engines) adiabatic isobaric adiabatic isobaric internal
Carnot adiabatic isothermal adiabatic isothermal external
Stirling isothermal isochoric isothermal isochoric external
Ericsson isothermal isochoric isothermal isobaric external
Rankine adiabatic isochoric adiabatic isobaric external
Efficiency of a heat engine
- Efficiency (η) of heat engine is a ratio of useful work output (Wout ) to total work input (Win ).
- The total work input is energy into the engine, QH and the useful work is W .
Therefore η = QWH × 100%
- But from the law of conservation of energy QH = W + Qc ⇒ W = QH − Qc

QH −Qc Qc
Therefore ⇒ η = QH × 100% ⇒ η = (1 − QH ) × 100%

- According to second law of thermodynamics the efficiency (η) can never be 100% this means Qc can never be zero.
- However the maximum theoretical efficiency of a heat engine will be larger with greater absolute temperature difference
between the hot source and cold sink. i.e ηmax = (1 − TTHc ) × 100%
But in practice, increasing TH causes another problem related to material expansion. More over due to friction and addi-
tional heat leak to the surrounding η of diesel and petrol engines are around 30%.
Example: If QH = 1200kJ, TH = 600K, Qc = 800kJ and Tc = 200K then calculate the efficiency and the maximum

11
theoretical efficiency of the heat engine.
Solution: η = (1 − QQHc ) × 100% = (1 − 1200000J
800000J
) × 100% = (1 − 23 ) × 100% = 33%
ηmax = (1 − 200K 1
600K ) × 100% = (1 − 3 ) × 100% = 67%
Refrigerators and heat pumps
- Refrigerator is a heat pump used to cool things inside it. It can be thought of as a heat engine running in reverse.
- In an actual refrigerator vapours of dichloro difluoro methane act as the working substance. Things kept inside the
refrigerator act as a sink at a lower temperature. A certain amount of work W is performed by the compressor on the
working substance. Therefore, it absorbs heat energy (Qc ) from the sink and rejects a heat energy (QH ) to the atmosphere
at a higher temperature. i.e QH = Qc + W

(Stage 1-2) The compressor takes in the gas, compresses it adiabatically (Win ) and delivers it to the condenser coil out
side the fridge.
(Stage 2-3) The fluid pressure and then the temperature become higher than that of the air in the room, so it gives off
heat (QH ) isothermally and the fluid partially condenses to liquid.
(Stage 3-4) The liquid passes through an expansion valve it expands into the evaporator coil adiabatically and its state
changes into gas.
(Stage 4-1) Its pressure drops and colder than the things inside the fridge. It absorbs heat (Qc ) isothermally and cooling
them and partially vaporizing. Then another cycle begins.
Example: What would happen to the temperature of a room if a refrigerator was left running with the door open?
Answer: The room will become hot, because the refrigerator exhaust more heat into the room than earlier. Smaller is the
difference in temperature between atmosphere and the things to be cooled, higher is the coefficient of performance.
Third law of thermodynamics
- It concerns the limiting behavior of systems as the temperature approaches to absolute zero.
- It states that “ no object can reach a temperature of absolute zero in a finite number of steps.”
- At absolute zero entropy of the system stops. But it is not reachable (infinite steps) unless theoretically violates 2nd law
of thermodynamics.

12
 Unit 2 Oscillations and waves
- Many things in the world around us oscillate (vibrate). For instance Atoms within molecules vibrate and the size of
these vibrations is proportional to temperature. Oscillations of charges produce electromagnetic waves: e.g. radio waves.
Vibrations of our vocal chords, strings and air inside tubes in musical instruments produce sound waves. Even large
bodies like buildings, bridges and parts of machines oscillate.
- Most oscillations are periodic with low or high frequencies. The predictable time period of pendulums, mass-spring
system or quartz crystals is used to count time in clocks and watches.
- Galileo discovered the key property that makes pendulums useful timekeepers: isochronism, which means the period
of a pendulum is nearly the same for different sized swings.
- The pendulum clock was invented in 1656 by Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens. But it must be stationary to operate
accurately.
2.1 Periodic motion (basic concepts)
- Any motion that repeats itself after regular intervals of time is known as a periodic motion. A body that undergoes such
motion always has a stable equilibrium position. Whenever an object is displaced from its equilibrium position there is a
restoring force that acts towards its original position.
- Best examples of such periodic motion are uniform circular motion, pendulum and mass-spring system.
- A simple pendulum is an idealized model consisting of a point mass suspended by a massless, unstretchable string. As
shown on figure below the bob will experience different restoring forces at different position.

- At position 1: The bob is at maximum displacement in the negative direction (-A), velocity (~v ) is zero, restoring force
(F~r ) and acceleration (~a) are towards equilibrium position opposite to displacement.
- At 2: the bob is at the equilibrium position: displacement (~x) is zero, F~net and ~a are zero but ~v is maximum due to
inertia of the bob and it passes this position with ~x positive however F~r and ~a are negative, to the equilibrium position.
- The pendulum bob keeps moving, slowing down all the time, until it is at the same height as it started. At position 3 it
will be the same with position 1 but in opposite direction.
- At 4: The pendulum bob passes through the equilibrium position again, the same with position 2 but in opposite
direction.
- At 5: The bob arrives back at where it started. It has completed one cycle, and will now do the same again, and again.
- In the case of mass-spring system we can see the details of how it works using the figure below:-

- At 1: The mass is pulled down (displacement is negative, -A), the tension (T~ ) is greater than the weight, therefore is F~r
and ~a are upwards when released.
- At 2: the mass is at the equilibrium position: displacement (~x) is zero, F~net and ~a are zero but ~v is maximum due to
inertia of the mass and it passes this position with ~x positive however F~r and ~a are negative, to the equilibrium position.
- The mass keeps moving, slowing down all the time, until it is as far above the equilibrium point as it started below.
At position 3 the weight of the mass is greater than the tension, the resultant force is now downwards and the mass
accelerates downwards.
- At 4: The mass passes through the equilibrium position again, the same with position 2 but in opposite direction.
- At 5: The mass arrives back at where it started. It has completed one cycle, and will now do the same again, and again.

13
 Simple harmonic motion (SHM)
- SHM is the periodic oscillation of an object about an equilibrium position,
such that its acceleration is always directly proportional in size but opposite
in direction to its displacement. The acceleration is always towards the
equilibrium position.
- SHM is a special form of periodic motion and more complicated motion can
be shown as the sum of simple harmonic motions at different frequencies.

- The displacement (x) of an object performing simple harmonic motion varies with time sinusoidally, means that can be
described mathematically using sine or cosine functions.
- Amplitude (A) is the maximum displacement of oscillating body from the equilibrium position.
- The time taken to perform one complete cycle of the oscillation is called the time period (T ).
- The frequency (f ) of an oscillation is the number of cycles it completes per second. The unit is the hertz, symbol Hz.
Frequency is related to time period by: f = T1
- For perfect SHM, the frequency or time period does not vary with amplitude.
Example: If the frequency of a mass–spring system is 50 Hz how many times in 1 second will the mass pass through its
equilibrium position?
Answer: In one complete cycle the mass passes the equilibrium position twice, therefore 2 × 50/sec = 100 times passes
in 1 second.
Derivation SHM equations using uniform circular motion
- If a point P moves around in circle of radius A starting from point C (equilibrium position), then the height of point P,
after it has turned through angle θ is given by: x = Asinθ

- But changing θ can be expressed using angular speed (ω) which is the rate of change of angle turned θ with time, as
ω = θt ⇒ θ = ωt where θ must be given in radians.
- The height equation becomes x = Asin(ωt), If P is rotating with a frequency of f cycles per second, the total angle
turned per second is 2πf radians, ω = 2πf = 2π T .
- Therefore for the oscillator starts from equilibrium position at x = 0, then displacement is:
⇒ x = Asin(ωt) x = Asin(2πf ) x = Asin(2π Tt )
where A is the amplitude of the oscillation, t is time and T is the period.
Example 1: A pendulum has a frequency of 4 Hz and amplitude of 5 cm. calculate the displacement after:
a) 1.2 s b) 3.4 s.
Solution: a) x = Asin(2πf ) = 5cm(sin(2π(4/s)(1.2s))) = 5cm(sin(2π(4.8)))
⇒ x = 5cm(sin(9.6π) = 5cm(−0.95) = −4.75cm
b) x = 5cm(sin(2π(4/s)(3.4s))) = 5cm(sin(27.2π) = 5cm(−0.59) = −2.95cm, the negative sign indicates the bob
is to the left side of the equilibrium position.
Example 2: A particle performing SHM with period T. Find the time taken in terms of period to have a displacement of
one half of the amplitude.
Solution: x = Asin(2π Tt ) ⇒ A2 = Asin(2π Tt ) ⇒ 21 = sin(2π Tt )

⇒ 2π Tt = sin−1 12 = π
6 ⇒ t
T = 1
12 ⇒t= T
12

- If the oscillator starts from the limit of oscillation at x = A, then displacement is better described using a cosine.
⇒ x = Acos(ωt) x = Acos(2πf ) x = Acos(2π Tt )

14
 t in seconds Displacement using sin Displacement using cos
0 x = Asin(2π T0 ) = Asin(0) = 0 x = Acos(2π T0 ) = Acos(0) = A
T
4
x = Asin(2π TT/4 ) = Asin( π2 ) = A x = Acos(2π TT/4 ) = Acos( π2 ) = 0
T
2
x = Asin(2π TT/2 ) = Asin(π) = 0 x = Acos(2π TT/2 ) = Acos(π) = −A
3T
4
x = Asin(2π 3TT/T ) = Asin( 3π 2 ) = −A x = Acos(2π 3TT/T ) = Acos( 3π 2 )=0
T T
T x = Asin(2π T ) = Asin(2π) = 0 x = Acos(2π T ) = Acos(2π) = A
Example: A piston moving backwards and forwards in a cylinder due to a rotation
of the wheel. Under what conditions does the motion of the piston will be SHM?
Answer: The motion of the piston will be SHM if the wheel rotates in u.c.m (with
constant speed)(with constant angular speed).

Displacement, velocity and acceleration in SHM

- The velocity (v) of the oscillating body is the rate of change of displacement (x).
- Instantaneous velocity (vt ) of SHM at any time is the gradient of the displacement time graph at that time.
- The velocity equation of SHM can be found using differential calculus by taking first derivative of displacement equa-
d d
tion. i.e vt = dt (xt ) = dt (Asin(ωt) using derivative rule of the composite function f og(t) is defined by
(f og)0 (t) = f 0 (g(t))g 0 (t). Here f (t) is sin and g(t) is ωt.
d d
⇒ vt = dt (Asin(ωt)) = Acos(ωt) dt (ωt) = ωAcos(ωt)
⇒ vt = ωAcos(ωt), where ωA is the maximum velocity (vo ) at equilibrium position (x = 0).
- Velocity of SHM depends on displacement as can be seen above. To get a general expression we need to use a trigono-
metric identity: sin2 θ + cosθ = 1
- Taking the square of equations, x = Asin(ωt) and v = ωAcos(ωt) gives:-
x2 = A2 sin2 (ωt) and v 2 = ω 2 A2 cos2 (ωt) multiplying the first equation by ω 2 and adding the resulting two equations:
ω 2 x2 = ω 2 A2 sin2 (ωt)
v 2 = ω 2 A2 cos2 (ωt)
ω 2 x2 + v 2 = ω 2 A2 sin2 (ωt) + ω 2 A2 cos2 (ωt)
⇒ ω 2 x2 + v 2 = ω 2 A2 (sin2 (ωt) + cos2 (ωt)) but sin2 (ωt) + cos2 (ωt) = 1 therefore:
⇒ ω 2 x2 + v 2 = ω 2 Ap 2 ⇒ v 2 = ω 2 A2 − ω 2 x 2 p ⇒ v 2 = ω 2 (A2 − x2 )
⇒ v = ω 2 (A2 − x2 ) ⇒ vt = ±ω (A2 − x2t )

- The acceleration (a) of the oscillating body is the rate of

change of velocity (v).
- Instantaneous acceleration (at ) of SHM at any time is the
gradient of the velocity time graph at that time.
- The acceleration equation of SHM can be found using
second derivative of displacement equation or first deriva-
tive of velocity equation.
d2 d d d
i.e at = dt 2 (xt ) = dt ( dt (xt )) = dt (vt )
d d
⇒ at = dt (ωAcos(ωt)) = −ωAsin(ωt) dt (ωt)
2 2
⇒ at = −ω Asin(ωt), where ω A is maximum
acceleration at limits of oscillation (x = A).
⇒ at = −ω 2 Asin(ωt) = −ω 2 xt
a = −ω 2 x is equation of SHM in which the
acceleration is directly proportional to and opposite
in sign to the displacement.

- We can use either the sine or cosine function to describe x, v and a of SHM depending on starting position as shown in
the table below.
oscillation starts from x = 0 oscillation starts from x = A
Displacement x = Asin(ωt) x = Acos(ωt)
Velocity v = ωAcos(ωt) v = −ωAsin(ωt)
Acceleration a = −ω 2 Asin(ωt) = −ω 2 x a = −ω 2 Acos(ωt) = −ω 2 x

15
 Time period of a mass–spring system
- The spring is already stretched (xo ) when it is in the equilibrium position.
The tension (S) in the spring is equal and opposite to the weight (W ) of the mass. i.e
S = W , where S = kxo and W = mg ⇒ kxo = mg, where k is spring constant.
Therefore the resultant force downwards on the mass is zero.
But when the mass is displaced with additional stretch x downwards, the tension
in the spring increases, S = k(xo + x), and hence the resultant force F is:
F = mg − S = mg − k(xo + x) = mg − kxo − kx but kxo = mg
⇒ F = mg − mg − kx ⇒ F = −kx

k
From Newtons 2nd law F = ma inserting this gives: ⇒ ma = −kx ⇒ a = −m x
2 2 k 2 k
By comparing this with SHM equation a = −ω x we get: −ω x = − m x ⇒ω = m
q q
k 2π 2π k T
pm
⇒ ω = m , but ω = T ⇒ T = m ⇒ =
p m 2π k
Therefore the time period of mass-spring system is: ⇒ T = 2π k
- The time period of a mass spring system is independent of the gravitational field strength.
Time period of simple pendulum
- Assumptions of a simple pendulum are: i. The bob is assumed as a point mass, in real
pendulum if the length of the string is much larger than the dimension of the bob then we
can consider the bob as a point mass. ii. The string is mass-less and unstretchable.
- From the free body diagram, the resultant tangential restoring force is the component of
the bob’s weight perpendicular to the string. i.e F = −mgsinθ
From Newton’s 2nd law F = ma, substituting this, we get ⇒ ma = −mgsinθ
⇒ a = −gsinθ, for small angle θ less than 0.17 rad, sinθ = θ
therefore ⇒ a = −gθ ...................(*)
- By considering the motion of the bob is in a circle of radius l about the pivot, the
tangential displacement of the bob (arc length, s) can be expressed as s = lθ , where θ
central angle given in radian. But for very small angle θ, arc length s is nearly equal to
displacement (x). Therefore x = lθ ⇒ θ = xl , substituting this in equation (*) we
get:
⇒ a = −g xl , comparing this with equation of SHM a = −ω 2 x gives: −ω 2 x = −g xl

q q q
g g 2π g
⇒ ω2 = l ω= l but ω = T ⇒ 2π = ⇒ T
= l
qT l 2π g

Therefore the time period of simple pendulum is: ⇒ T = 2π gl , where l is length of the string.
Example: The acceleration due to gravity of the moon (gm ) is 1.7m/s2 . What is the time period of a simple pendulum
on the moon if its period on the earth is 3.5 sec? s
q
2π g l l q q
Tm gE 9.8 Tm
Solution: By taking the ratio of time periods, TE = q l = gm
m
l = gm = 1.7 TE = 2.4
2π gE gE

⇒ Tm = 2.4TE = 2.4(3.5 sec) = 8.4 sec

Time period of compound/physical pendulum
If the assumptions of simple pendulum are not valid, then we have a compound pen-
dulum. The perpendicular force to the radial line is F = −mgsinθ. The turning
effect of this force (torque) is responsible for the oscillation: τ = LF = −mgLsinθ
For small angle θ in radian, sinθ = θ, therefore ⇒ τ = −mgLθ
From rotational counter part of Newtons second law, τ = Iα, where I is moment of
inertia and α is angular acceleration. Inserting this we get: Iα = −mgLθ
⇒ α = − mgL I θ, again from the concept of angular SHM where x → θ, a → α,
d2 2 2 mgL
therefore α = dt 2 θ = −ω θ, substituting this we get: −ω θ = − I θ
q q
mgL mgL
⇒ω = I2 ⇒ω= I , but ω = T
2π
⇒ T = mgL
2π
I
q
T I
⇒ 2π = mgL Therefore the time period of compound
q
I
pendulum is: ⇒ T = 2π mgL

16
where L is length between center of mass and the pivot.
Example: A uniform rod with length L = 1m pivoted at one end. What is the period of its motion as a pendulum?
Solution:The moment of inertia of a uniform rod about an axis through one end is I = 13 mL2 and the center of mass is
q 2
q q √
at mid point. Therefore T = 2π 1/3mL mgL/2 = 2π 2L
3g = 2π 2m
3(9.8m/s2 )
= 2π 0.068 sec = 1.6 sec
Forced oscillations and resonance
- Free oscillation is an oscillation in which a body vibrates with its own natural frequency . Such oscillations are free from
external driving forces and damping forces. The natural frequency of the oscillator is often referred to as the resonant
frequency.
- Forced or driven oscillation is vibration that are driven by an external periodic force.
- It oscillates at the driving frequency (f ) rather than at its natural frequency (fo ).
- If f is larger or smaller than fo then the amplitude of resulting oscillation is
small. But if f = fo then amplitude A will be large.
- Resonance is the tendency of a system to oscillate with larger amplitudes
when the frequency of the periodic driving force is the same as the natural
frequency of the oscillator.
- Resonance may cause damages on bridges, buildings or parts of machines.
For instance Tacoma Narrows Bridge in the USA destroyed due to a more
complicated resonance known as aeroelastic flutter.

- “ Aeroelastic flutter is a self-feeding and potentially destructive vibration where aerodynamic forces on an object couple
with a structure’s natural mode of vibration to produce rapid periodic motion.”
- Damped oscillation is vibration under the influence resistive, energy dissipating forces like friction and drag forces.
Such damping forces oppose motion by always being in the opposite direction to the velocity.
FD = −bv, where b is the damping coefficient and is dependent on the medium and v is the velocity of the oscillator.
- Most of the oscillations in air or in any medium are damped oscillations.
- Damping reduces the effects of resonance. As the periodic driving force transfers energy into the oscillator the damping
mechanism dissipates the energy.
Types of Damping
1. Under damping:- in it oscillations are observed, but the
amplitude of oscillation is reduced gradually with time. It may
be light or heavier damping.
2. Critical Damping:- The system returns to its equilibrium
position in the shortest possible time without any oscillation.
- Critical Damping is important in devices such as balances and
electrical meters the pointer moves quickly to the correct position
without oscillating and the shock absorbers on a car suspension
of the vehicle and so resist the setting up of vibration which
could make control difficult or cause damage.
3. Over Damping The system returns to the equilibrium position
very slowly, without any oscillation. Over damping occurs when
the resistive forces are larger than those of critical damping.
Example: Identify the type of damping in the following cases
and justify your answer. a) Pendulum in air. b) Pendulum in
water. c) Pendulum in thick treacle.
Answer: a) light damping. b) heavier damping. These two are
under damping since there is oscillation in each case. c) critical
damping.

Energy in SHM
- Any oscillator performing SHM has energy, in the absence of nonconservative forces that do work, so the total mechan-
ical energy of SHM is conserved.
- The total mechanical energy E is also directly related to the amplitude A of the motion.
- Total mechanical energy (ET ) is equal to the sum of kinetic energy (Ek ) and potential energy (P E).
- At equilibrium position when x = 0, F = 0, v is maximum therefore P E = 0 and Ek is maximum.

17
- At the limit of oscillation, when x = A, F is maximum, v = 0 therefore Ek = 0
and P E is maximum.
- Kinetic energy at equilibrium position is: Ek = 21 mvo2 = 12 mω 2 A2 = ET

- Kinetic energy at any time is: Ek = 12 mvt2 = 21 mω 2 A2 cos2 (ωt)

- But the potential energy (P E) at displacement x is equal to work done (W ) against
the restoring force to move it to that displacement.
- But the small work done (dW ) for infinitesimal displacement change (dx) is:
dW = −F dx, here the restoring force, F = −kx

R R R
⇒ dW = kxdx, therefore P E = W = dW = kxdx = k xdx
- The work done against the restoring force is the area under the graph of force
against displacement. R
n+1 1+1
Using integration rule xn dx = xn+1 , ⇒ P E = k xdx = k x1+1
R

⇒ P E = 12 kx2 at limit of oscillation, P E = 21 kA2 = ET

Therefore total energy at any time is: ET = Ek + P E = 12 mvt2 + 12 kx2t

Example: A particle performing SHM with an amplitude 4 cm. At what displacement from the mean position its energy
is half kinetic and half potential?
1 2 1 2
Solution: ET = 2P E 2 kA = 2( 2 kx ) ⇒ A2 = 2x2

2 A2
q
A2
q
(4cm)2
q
16cm2
√
⇒x = 2 ⇒x= 2 = 2 = 2 = 2 2 cm

2.2 Wave motion

- Wave motion is a mode of transmission of energy through a medium/vacuum in the form of a disturbance/change in
field strength.
- Wave motion might be in three dimension like sound and electromagnetic waves, or in two dimension like continuous
water wave or one dimensional wave like string wave.
- A traveling wave uses to transfer energy, and sometimes information. The power or rate of energy transfer of a wave is
proportional to amplitude squared.
- Waves can be categorized in different groups based on some criteria. Depending on the nature of production, waves are
classified into two groups:-
1. Mechanical wave: is a wave produced by the oscillations of particles of a physical medium. Such waves need a
material medium to travel. eg sound wave, water wave, string wave...
2. Electromagnetic wave: is a wave created by the oscillations of mutually perpendicular fields, electric field and mag-
netic field. These fields can be produced by moving charges. Examples visible light, radio wave and micro wave, infrared
wave, x-rays and gamma rays. Such waves propagate both in a material medium and in a vacuum. All electromagnetic
waves travels through a vacuum at the same speed, c = 3 × 108 m/s.
- Depending on the nature of propagation traveling waves classified into two as:
1. Transverse wave:- is one in which the oscillation, the tempo-
rary displacement of mass or field strength, is at right angles to
the direction of propagation/net energy transfer. Examples all
electromagnetic waves and string wave are transverse waves.
2. Longitudinal wave:- is one in which the oscillation, the
temporary displacement of of particles is along the direction of
wave propagation. Good example of longitudinal wave is sound
wave.

Wave speed
- For travelling wave frequency is the number of energy pass along oscillators per second. Or it is the number of wave-
lengths (λ) that pass any given point per second.
- Therefore wave speed is the product of frequency (f ) and wavelengths (λ), i.e ⇒ v = f λ
- The speed of any travelling wave depends on the media. For a string wave its speed depends on the tension (T ) of the

18
 q
T
string and the mass per unit length/linear density (µ). Therefore v = µ , this shows that the ‘tighter’ the string the
faster the waves will travel down its length and the ‘lighter’ the string, (the smaller its mass/length ratio), the faster the
waves will travel down its length.
- The phase speed of a wave is the rate at which the phase of the wave travels through space. Phase is a measurement of
the position of a point on a wave after a particular time. For example a phase crest or trough will appear to travel at the
phase speed. The phase speed is given in terms of the wavelength (λ) and period (T ) as: vphase = Tλ .
Derivation of travelling wave equation
An oscillation at the source causes a travelling wave. The wave is carried by a chain of oscillators. The temporary dis-
placement y of an oscillator depends on both its distance x along the path of the wave and time t, means it is a function
of x and t, and it is written as y(x,t) .
At the origin of the wave, where x = 0, y(x=0,t) = Acos(ωt), the particle oscillates in SHM. Then the wave disturbance
travels from x = 0 to some point x to the right of the origin in an amount of time given by xv where v is the wave speed.
So the motion of point x at time t is the same as the motion of point x = 0 at the earlier time t − xv for periodic wave.
Therefore ⇒ y(x,t) = Acos(ω(t − xv )) ⇒ y(x,t) = Acos(ωt − 2π x
T v ), but v = f λ,
2π x
⇒ y(x,t) = Acos(ωt − T f λ )
- For any two particles of the medium, the motion of the particle on the right, lags behind the motion of the particle on
the left by an amount proportional to the distance between the particles. Hence the cyclic motions of various points on
the medium are out of step with each other by various fractions of a cycle. This is known as phase difference.
⇒ y(x,t) = Acos(ωt − 2π λx ), where 2π λ = k, wave number, then:
⇒ y(x,t) = Acos(ωt − kx) since cos(−θ) = cos(θ)
⇒ y(x,t) = Acos(kx − ωt)
- Just like SHM it does not really matter whether a sine or cosine function is used to describe the travelling wave.
Therefore ⇒ y(x,t) = Asin(kx − ωt)
And also the phase difference between two oscillations is an angular measurement of the difference in their timing to
reach at a point.
- If the wave travels to the left direction, the equation becomes:
y(x,t) = Acos(kx + ωt) or y(x,t) = Asin(kx + ωt)
Superposition principle
- This principle states that “ when two or more waves overlap at a point, the resultant displacement of the point is equal
to the algebraic sum of the displacements of the individual wave. After passing the point each wave travels unaffected.
For two waves y1(x,t) and y2(x,t) , the resultant y(x,t) = y1(x,t) + y2(x,t) ”
- Interference is a phenomenon that occurs when two or more waves meet/overlap while traveling along the same medium.
- Constructive interference is the production of large oscillations by the superposition of two waves that are in phase with
each other. In phase waves pass through the equilibrium point at the same times.
- Destructive interference is the canceling out of oscillations caused by the superposition of two waves that are in an-
tiphase. A complete cancellation occurs if the phase difference b/n the waves is 180o or π radians. The phase difference
of waves is an angular measurement of the difference in their timing to reach a point.
- For example the irregular pattern of ocean waves getting stronger and weaker are caused by the interference of many
component waves with different periods, directions of propagation and phases.
Reflections of waves
- When a traveling wave reaches a sudden change in a medium it will be reflected partially or completely, eg echo,
reflection of sound wave. A wave in a string, its end is connected to a second string of different mass per unit length,
reflects partially. But if the string end is fastened to a rigid support, it is a fixed end that cannot move, then the incident
and reflected waves are π radians out of phase, therefore no net oscillation at fixed end. The same thing occurs to sound
waves in narrow tubes closed at one end.
- However if the end of the string is completely free to move, we still get 100% reflection, but with no phase shift, there-
fore there is a large net oscillation at free end. The same is true for sound waves in an open end narrow pipe.
Standing waves on strings
- Standing waves on strings is a stationary wave formed by the superposition of two waves of equal amplitudes and
wavelength traveling in opposite directions.
- Equation of standing wave can be derived from superposition of two opposite waves, indecent wave y1 = Asin(kx−ωt)
moving to the right on the string and the reflected one, y2 = Asin(kx + ωt) moving to the left.
i.e y = y1 + y2 = Asin(kx − ωt) + Asin(kx + ωt) = A(sin(kx − ωt) + sin(kx + ωt))
Using trigonometric identity sin(θ ± α) = sinθcosα ± cosθsinα
⇒ y = A[sin(kx)cos(ωt) − cos(kx)sin(ωt) + sin(kx)cos(ωt) + cos(kx)sin(ωt)]

19
 ⇒ y = A[sin(kx)cos(ωt) + sin(kx)cos(ωt)]
⇒ y = 2Acos(ωt)sin(kx) = 2Acos(ωt)sin( 2π λ x)
- This equation shows not only that the wave oscillates in time, but has also these oscillations vary in the x direction.
Example: At which instants the incident and reflected waves exactly cancel, so the string displacement is zero?
Solution: From equation of standing wave, y = 2Acos(ωt)sin( 2π λ x) we can see that at t = 0 or x = 0,
T λ
at t = 2 or x = 2 and at t = T or x = λ the string displacement is zero.

λ
- The function is zero and so the amplitude is always zero at x = 0, 2, λ, 3λ
2 , these are the nodes.
- Several maxima occur at x = λ4 , 3λ 5λ
4 , 4 , these are the antinodes.

- Nodes are points where two superimposed waves are in antiphase

and there is no net oscillation. They occur when the distance along the
string, x = n λ2 , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4...
- Antinodes are points where two superimposed waves are in phase and
the net oscillations are largest. They occur when the distance along the
string, x = (n + 12 ) λ2 , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4...
- The distance between two successive nodes and antinodes is half a
wavelength.
- The oscillators in adjacent half wave length sections are in antiphase
with each other.
- Standing wave can be formed if the length of the string is a whole
number of half wavelengths. i.e L = n λ2 ,
where n = 1, 2, 3, 4,....
⇒ λ = 2L v
n , but from wave speed equation, λ = f , substituting this
gives: fv = 2L
n
v
⇒ f = n 2L , where n = 1, 2, 3, 4,....
- When n = 1, L = λ2 , ⇒ f1 = 2l v
, where f1 fundamental frequency.

- All the other possible oscillation frequencies are integer multiples of this fundamental frequency and are known as har-
monics. The first harmonic is the fundamental frequency. The harmonic number is the same as the number of antinodes,
eg. the fifth harmonics has five antinodes.
- The fundamental frequency of a standing wave on a string depends
q on length of the string, velocity of the wave, tension
T
(T ) of the string and linear density (µ) of the string. i.e v = µ
q
1 T
Hence, the fundamental frequency of a string is given by: ⇒ f1 = 2L µ , from this we can produce higher note first
harmonic if the string is shorter, lighter and its tension is higher.
- A string has multiple resonant frequencies: its fundamental and harmonic frequencies. It can oscillate at several differ-
ent harmonic frequencies at the same time. The relative amplitude of these harmonics determines the tone of the note on
musical instruments.
- If a sound wave hits the string at one of its resonant frequencies, it will start to vibrate at that frequency. This is called
sympathetic vibration.
Example: On a guitar the sound of the 1st string at f1 = 440 Hz causes the 5th string at f1 = 330 Hz to resonate. Find
the frequency of this sympathetic vibration.
Solution: Harmonics of the strings are nf1 , where n = 1, 2, 3, 4,....
for the first string 440 Hz, 880 Hz, 1320 Hz, 1760 Hz......
for the fifth string 330 Hz, 660 Hz, 990 Hz, 1320 Hz, 1650 Hz....
they share 1320 Hz therefore the fifth string vibrate at this frequency.

20
 Standing waves in organ pipes
- Wind instruments can generate standing waves in the column of air inside them. The vibration can be varied and com-
plex with shape of a pipe. But organ pipes which are straight and narrow have the following mode of vibration.

(i) One end closed organ pipe: If the air is blown lightly at the
open end of the closed organ pipe, then the air column vibrates
and the sound wave is reflected with a phase shift of π radians
there is a node at the closed end and an antinode at the open end.
This creates two differences from standing waves on a string. The
fundamental occurs when the length of the pipe is just a quarter of
a wavelength, and only odd harmonics occur. The diagram shows
amplitude standing wave but not direction of oscillation.
f1 occurs when L = λ4
⇒ λ = 4L, but λ = fv , by substituting this we get: f1 = 4Lv
v
For other odd harmonics fn = n 4L , where n = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 ...
Even harmonics, 2nd , 4th , 6th ... can not be formed.

(ii) Open organ pipe: If both ends of a pipe are open, then we
get antinodes at both ends. The fundamental occurs when L = λ2
⇒ λ = 2L, but λ = fv , by substituting this we get: f1 = 2L v
,
v
other harmonics, fn = n 2L , where n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ...
- Standing waves can also be created using sound in open air.
By two loudspeakers facing each other in some distance, playing
the same single tone with the same amplitude then a standing
wave is created at mid point between them. At any other point a
local minimum amplitude will be produced.
By a single speaker directing a sound towards a wall and it is
reflected. Their superposition produces a standing wave near the
wall.

Beats (Beat frequency)

- Beat frequency is a phenomenon which occur by the interference of two waves with the same amplitude but with slightly
different frequencies.
- From this beats (beat frequency) is the rate of amplitude increases and decreases in a resultant wave.
- It is also the rate of wobbles occur in the resultant wave.
- If we know the frequencies of each wave f1 and f2 then beat frequency (fB ) will be: fB = |f2 − f1 | = T1B
- Two waves at a point expressed as SHM y1 = sin(2πf1 t) and y2 = sin(2πf2 t), interfere each other. The resultant
wave oscillates at average frequency (f ), where f = f1 +f 2 , therefore f1 = f − ∆f , f2 = f + ∆f and ∆f is half of the
2

difference b/n the two frequencies, ∆f = f2 −f 1

2 .
⇒ y = y1 + y2 = sin(2πf1 t) + sin(2πf2 t)
⇒ y = sin(2π(f − ∆f )t) + sin(2π(f + ∆f )t) = sin(2πf t − 2π∆f t) + sin(2πf t + 2π∆f t)
Using trigonometric identity sin(θ ± α) = sinθcosα ± cosθsinα
⇒ y = sin(2πf t)cos(2π∆f t) − cos(2πf t)sin(2π∆f t) + sin(2πf t)cos(2π∆f t) + cos(2πf t)sin(2π∆f t)
⇒ y = sin(2πf t)cos(2π∆f t) + sin(2πf t)cos(2π∆f t)
⇒ y = 2cos(2π∆f t)sin(2πf t), where sin(2πf t) is sine wave and 2cos(2π∆f t) is its slowly varying amplitude.

- The time b/n two successive nulls (the time taken to one wobble) (TB ) is half of the period of cos(π∆f t).
Example: Two sound waves having the same amplitude but with frequencies f1 = 440 Hz and f2 = 444 Hz interfere
each other. Find the frequency of the resultant wave (f ), fB , ∆f and TB .
Solution: f = f1 +f
2
2
= 440 Hz+444
2
Hz
= 442 Hz and fB = |f2 − f1 | = |444 Hz − 444 Hz| = 4 Hz

21
 f2 −f1 444 Hz−440 Hz 1 1
∆f = 2 = 2 = 2 Hz and TB = fB = 4 Hz = 0.25 sec

2.3 Sound, loudness and the human ear

- Loudness is the audible strength of a sound. It depends on the amplitude of the sound , its intensity and sensitivity of
the receiver (ear). In general, the louder the sound, the greater its intensity.
- Intensity (I) of a sound at a point is the amount of energy (E) received by each square meter of a surface per second.
E
I = A.t , where A is unit area in m2 and t is unit time in sec.
- Here energy, E of the particles of a medium at a point is equal to total energy
of SHM at that point, which is potential energy at maximum displacement or
kinetic energy at equilibrium position, E = 12 mvo2 = 12 mω 2 A2
where mass m of the to and fro oscillators in the medium at the point is the
product of density (ρ) of the medium and the volume (V ) disturbed,
i.e m = ρV , ⇒ E = 12 ρV ω 2 A2 but V = Area × vt substituting this gives:
⇒ E = 12 ρArea × vtω 2 A2
1
ρArea×vtω 2 A2
Therefore ⇒ I = 2 Area.t ⇒ I = 21 ρvω 2 A2
- From this we can see that the intensity of sound depends on amplitude (IαA2 ), density of the medium (Iαρ), frequency
of the wave (Iαf 2 ) and velocity v.
- Intensity of sound can also be defined as the sound power per unit area at location of a listener.
i.e I = PA , where P is power of the source in Watt.

- As the sound spreads out equally in all directions, the area covered is equal to the
surface area of a sphere.
P
⇒ I = 4πr 2 , where r is the distance from the source in meter.
- This is another inverse square relation. As the distance from the source S is double,
the energy spread over four times the area, therefore the sound intensity falls to one-
fourth and so on.
Example: A source of sound radiates energy uniformly in all directions at a rate of
2 watt. Find the intensity at a point 20 m from the source.

Solution: I = P
A = P
4πr2
= 2W
4π(20 m)2
= 2W
4(3.14)(400 m2 )
= 4 × 10−4 W/m2

Hearing and the decibel (dB)

- Human ear is sensitive to sound. The lowest intensity of sound that can be heard by the human ear is called threshold of
hearing, Io . The standard threshold of hearing is taken for a sound of frequency 1000 Hz, which is Io = 10−12 W/m2 .
- Many sound intensity measurements are made relative to Io . One common way to measure the loudness (intensity) of
sound is to use the decibel scale. The decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit, it is not linear scale means for a 20 dB sound
twice loud of this sound is not 40 dB. Decibels measure the ratio of a given intensity I to the threshold of hearing intensity
Io . This means so that Io has the value 0 decibels (0 dB).
- The intensity of a sound in dB is given by: I = 10log( IIo ) = 10(logI − logIo )
- Threshold of hearing varies with frequency as shown on the
hearing curve. In reality the actual threshold of the average hu-
man is closer to 2.5 × 10–12 W/m2 = 4 dB. Human ear is most
sensitive to sounds between 2000 and 5000 Hz.
- The exact shape of the curve depends on a number of factors
including age, exposure to loud sounds and the physical charac-
teristics of the ear.
- The upper limit of human hearing at which pain begins to be
felt by the listener is called threshold of pain. It is subjective. In
general, for younger people, this limit is 130 dB.
- The range of human hearing can be expressed from the standard threshold of hearing up to the threshold of pain.
Example: The intensity of sound at 20 m from the source is 4 × 10−4 W/m2 . How much is this in dB?
−4
Solution: I = 10log( IIo ) = 10log( 4×10 10−12
) = 10log(4 × 108 ) = 10(log4 + log108 ) = 10(0.6 + 8) = 86 dB
The speed of sound
- The speed of sound depends on the medium the sound is traveling through. In general speed of sound, in solid > in
liquid > in gas.

22
- If the sound is traveling through a solid, its speed is affected by density (ρ) and stiffness, Young’s modulus (Y ) of the
solid. q
i.e v = Yρ , speed of sound increases with the ‘stiffness’ of the material and decreases with the density.
- If the sound is traveling through
q a fluid (liquid or gas) its speed depends on compressibility, bulk modulus (B) and
density (ρ) of the fluid. i.e v = Bρ , speed of sound increases in less compressible fluid.
o
qsound through air is also affected by temperature. It is given by the equation: v = 331m/s+(0.6m/s C)T
- The speed of
T
or v = 331( 1 + 273.15 m/s, where T is temperature in Celsius.
The Doppler effect
- Doppler effect is a change in the observed frequency of a wave occurring when the source and observer are in motion
relative to each other. It is named after Austrian physicist Christian Doppler who first explained it in 1842.
- The Sound waves from an approaching source are compressed and therefore shorter, giving a higher frequency sound.
But the Sound wave from a receding source are stretched and therefore longer, giving a lower frequency sound.
- There are three situations to consider:
(i) Moving listener towards stationary source: When a listener L moving with velocity vL toward a stationary source
S, the source emits a sound wave with frequency fs and wavelength λ = fvs
- The wave front approaching the moving listener have a speed of propagation relative to the listener of v + vL . So the
frequency fL with which the wave fronts arrive at the listener’s position is:
fL = v+v λ
L
= v+v v+vL vL
v/fs = ( v )fs = (1 + v )fs
L

But if the listener is moving away from stationary source then:

fL = ( v−v vL
v )fs = (1 − v )fs
L

(ii) Moving source towards a stationary listener: Wave fronts emitted by a moving source are crowded together. There-
fore λ0 = v−v v v 1
fs so the listener frequency fL = (v−vs )/fs = ( v−vs )fs = ( 1− vs )fs
s
v
v
- But if the source is moving away from the stationary listener then fL = ( v+v s
)fs = ( 1+1vs )fs
v
(iii) Both source and the listener are moving towards each other : The speed of the wave relative to the listener v + vL
v+vL v+vL
and wavelength infront of the moving source is λ0 = v−vfs . Then fL = (v−vs )/fs = ( v−vs )fs
s

- The listener frequency increases when the source and listener are approaching each other and decreases when they move
apart.
Example: Two cars drive along the same road towards each other, one at 15 m/s and the other at 12 m/s. Each car horn
sounds at 256 Hz. Calculate the frequency that the driver of each car hears coming from the other car. (The speed of
sound in air = 340 m/s.)
340m/s+15m/s
Solution: fL = ( v+v v−vs )fs = ( 340m/s−12m/s )256Hz = 277.1Hz for the listener in the car with speed 15 m/s and
L

fL = ( 340m/s+12m/s
340m/s−15m/s )256Hz = 277.3Hz for the listener in the car with speed 12 m/s.
Applications of Doppler effect
The Doppler effect has a number of applications including:
Astronomy: Observations of the spectral lines in the visible spectrum of light from distant galaxies show a red-shift.
This has been used to demonstrate the universe is expanding. The Doppler effect is used to measure the speed at which
stars and galaxies are approaching or receding from us.
Other flow measurements: Instruments like the laser Doppler velocimeter are used to measure velocities in a fluid flow.
In this case a laser light is fired at a moving fluid. A Doppler shift is observed from reflections off of particles moving
with the fluid.
RADAR (Radio Detection And Ranging): A radar beam is fired at a moving target and reflects from the surface back to
the detector. Any change in wavelength is then recorded and the object’s velocity can be accurately determined. Doppler
radar is used in a range of applications, including the speed of motorist, tennis serves, even the speed of a football struck
towards a goal, an automobile and speed of an aeroplane.
SONAR (Sound Navigation And Ranging): Sound waves generated from a ship fitted with SONAR are transmitted in
water towards an approaching submarine. The frequency of the reflected waves is measured and hence the speed of the
submarine is calculated.
Tracking a satellite: The frequency of radio waves emitted by a satellite decreases as the satellite passes away from the
Earth. The frequency received by the Earth station, combined with a constant frequency generated in the station gives
the beat frequency. Using this, a satellite is tracked.

23
 Unit 3 Wave optics
- Optics is the branch Physics which studies about production, transmission and other properties of light.
- The theories on the nature of light are wide ranging. They include the ancient Greek model of light particles swarming
from sources, to Leonardo da Vinci’s ideas comparing light and sound right up to the modern day ideas of wave–particle
duality. Newton proposed that light was made up of tiny particles called corpuscles. The main alternative theory was
proposed by the Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens. He developed what he called the wave nature of light in his Treatise
on Light.
3.1 Wave fronts and Huygens’s principle
- A wave front is an imaginary line joining points of a travelling wave that are in phase. In phase means points in space
that are reached at the same instant by a wave.
- A wave front can also be defined as a line along one particular peak or compression of plane wave. Therefore the
distance between wave fronts is equal to the wavelength of the wave.
Wave fronts and ray diagrams
- Waves can be represented by using:
- Ray diagrams: A single line directing towards wave propagation.
- Wave front diagram: is a sort of ‘top down’ view representation of plane waves travelling from a source.

- ‘Side on’ view representation of wave to demonstrate amplitude, time period

and wavelength.

- Combination of ray diagram and wave front diagram is the

best way of representing plane waves. In this method there are
a number of rays at 90o to the wave fronts travelling out from a
source to indicate direction of wave propagation.

- When we demonstrate wave fronts using ripple tanks, bright lines are peaks (crests) and dark lines are troughs.
- The Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens developed a theory of how wave fronts are formed. He proposed a wave theory
of light and developed principles to support his wave theory.
Huygens’s principle states that:
1. Every point on a wave front acts as a source of spherical secondary wavelets.
2. These secondary wavelets spread out in all directions and have the same frequency and speed as the original wave (and
so the same wavelength).
3. A new wave front is formed as these wavelets combine together.
- Wavelets combine to form a new wave front parallel to the original one. If the
original wave front was spherical then the new wave front will also be spherical,
there is no change in shape.
- Huygens’s principle was slightly modified by Jean Fresnel to explain why no back
wave was formed.

3.2 Reflection and refraction of plane wave fronts

Reflection in terms of wave fronts
- Reflection is the bouncing back of a wave from a boundary.
- The law of reflection states that:
1. “The incident, reflected, and the normal to the surface all lie in the same plane”.
2. “Angle of reflection (θr ) is equal to angle of incidence (θi ) for all wavelengths and for any pair of materials”.
- All waves obey the law of reflection.

24
- Incident angle θi is b/n incident wave front and the surface. - Incident angle θi is b/n incident ray and the normal.
- Reflected angle θr is b/n reflected wave front and the surface. - Reflected angle θr is b/n reflected ray and the normal.

- From the following diagram we can see that reflection of circular waves off a plane reflector is circular wave with only
direction change. But reflection of plane waves off a circular reflector is circular wave. In both cases there is no change
in wavelength.

Refraction in terms of wave fronts

- Refraction is the bending of light wave from its straight line path when it travels from one medium to another.
- The law of refraction states that:
1. “The incident, refracted, and the normal to the surface all lie in the same plane”.

sinθi
2. “ sinθ r
= vv21 = λλ21 = nn21 , this is also known as Snell’s law”, where v1 and v2 are speed of light in medium 1
and medium 2, λ1 and λ2 are wavelength of light in medium 1 and medium 2 and also n1 and n2 are refractive index of
medium 1 and medium 2 respectively.

A light entering in optically denser medium is slowing down, decrease in wavelength and so bends towards the normal
(the reverse is also true in optically less dense medium).
- A refraction index of a material (n) is the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to its speed in the material. i.e n = vc
Example: During refraction wavelength of a light is changing. But there is no colour change. Why?
Answer: B/c colour is a direct result of frequency, which is not changing during refraction of light. But in a single
medium speed of light is not changing, if there is a change in wavelength, according to v = f λ, there must be a change
of frequency and so there is change in colour.

3.3 Proof of the laws of reflection and refraction using Huygens’s principle
Reflection
- Spherical secondary wavelets originate from upper part of wave
front AA0 create another incident wave front OB 0 .
- But secondary wavelets originate from the bottom part of AA0
reach on the surface of reflector, reflect back with direction
change and so create reflected wave front OB.
- θi is incident angle b/n incident wave front AA0 and the reflector.
- And θr is reflected angle b/n reflected wave front OB and the reflector.

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- ∆AP O ≡ ∆OQA by SSA congruence theorem, b/c AO is common, AP = OQ = vt and < P =< Q = 90o
⇒ corresponding angles are equal. i.e θi = θr
Refraction
- Spherical secondary wavelets originate from the bottom part of
AA0 moves with speed v1 in the first medium. They reach on
the boundary and transmitted. They move with speed v2 in the
second medium and so create refracted wave front OB.
- θi is incident angle b/n incident wave front AA0 and the
boundary. And θr is refracted angle b/n refracted wave front OB
and the boundary.
v1 t v2 t
- From trigonometry sinθi = AO and sinθr = AO

sinθi v1 t AO v1 f λ1 λ1
- Taking the ratio of these, sinθr = AO × v2 t = v2 = f λ2 = λ2

Newton’s corpuscular theory of light

- Isaac Newton suggested that light was made up of a stream of tiny particles that he called corpuscles (meaning small
particles). His theory took precedence over Huygens’s theory b/c of:-
1. Newton’s powerful and fearsome reputation.
2. There was no theory to explain how light travel in a vacuum and no other wave motion was known to travel through a
vacuum.
3. Light casts a sharp shadow behind opaque objects with no obvious diffraction.
- This theory explained that reflection and refraction of light depend on the phase of corpuscles.
Reflection
- He explained this interms of repulsive force.
- When the corpuscle of light enters the repulsive region, it is
repelled elastically.
- The force acts perpendicularly. Therefore there is no change on
the horizontal velocity. ⇒ θi = θr

Refraction
- He explained this interms of downward force.
- When the corpuscle of light gets near the boundary between
two materials, it experience accelerating force perpendicular to
the surface.
- The vertical velocity increases leading to a direction change.
- According to this theory light would travel faster in optically
denser material.

The death of corpuscular theory

- Particle theory (Newton’s corpuscular theory) was challenged and then disproved after 100 years acceptance by:-
1. Thomas Young experiment on diffraction and interference.
2. Augustine Fresnel’s mathematical explanations why light casts sharp shadows.
3. Jean Foucaults’ evidence that shows light travelled slower in optically denser material.

3.4 Interference
Interference of light and interference patterns
- The superposition principle can also be applied to light waves.
- Destructive interference of light waves give rise to a drop in intensity, or dark patches (called minima).
- But constructive interference results in an increase in intensity, or brighter regions (called maxima).
- In order to create a sustained (stable) interference pattern two coherent sources of light must be used.
- Two waves must satisfy the following to be coherent:-
1. Be the same type of wave.
2. Have the same frequency therefore they have the same speed and wavelength in the same medium. If frequencies are

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different, beats occur.
3. Maintain a constant phase relationship, there must not relative motion.
- The degree of coherence is measured by the interference visibility.
Thin film interference
- Thin film interference is a phenomenon of colourful patterns caused by constructive interference of reflected light waves
from the front and back surfaces of a thin film with different path lengths, occurs in different places for different wave-
lengths.
- If the reflecting surface has higher refractive index then there is a 180o phase shift
(path difference of 12 λ ) in the reflected waves.
- Therefore light travelling through air will undergo a 180o phase shift when it
reflects off almost any surface (water, oil, glass, etc).
- But if the reflecting surface has lower refractive index there is no phase change in
the reflected waves.

- The maximum path difference b/n the two reflected waves is due to the double trip movement of the light in the thin
film (twice of thickness) and the phase shift due to reflections from lower and higher refractive index surfaces.
i.e path differencemax = 2t + φ, where t is thickness of the thin film and φ is the net phase change between the two
reflected rays expressed as a path difference.
- If both reflections occur at boundaries with a material of lower refractive indices then neither wave is inverted and their
net phase difference is zero.
- If both reflections occur at boundaries with a material with higher refractive indices then both waves are inverted and
their net phase difference is zero.
- However, if one reflection occurs at a boundary with a higher refractive index and the other at a lower refractive index
(or vice-versa) then there is a net phase difference between the reflections of 180o and this equates to 12 λ path difference.
- For constructive interference the maximum path difference= mλ, where m = 1, 2, 3....
- For destructive interference the maximum path difference= (m + 12 )λ, where m = 0, 1, 2, 3...
Example: On the oil thin film above the water shown on the figure if some of the
region is green (540 nm), the other is blue (460 nm) and the rest is red (700 nm).
What is the minimum thickness of the thin film at green, blue and red regions respec-
tively?
Solution: The shown colour at each region is due to constructive interference of re-
flected waves. The net phase shift b/n reflected waves is 180o = π rad, equivalent to
1
2 λ path difference. Therefore from mλ = 2t + φ, for minimum thickness m=1.
⇒ λ = 2t + 12 λ ⇒ 2t = 21 λ ⇒ t = 41 λ. ⇒ tgreen = 135nm,
tblue = 115nm and tred = 175nm.
The interferometer
- An interferometer is a simple optical device that makes uses of the interference of light to determine the wavelength of
the light. There are several different designs of interferometer but a common one is the Michelson interferometer.
- The Michelson interferometer was invented by Albert Abraham
Michelson. The horizontal and the vertical beams travel different
distances (have path difference) and so produces constructive
or destructive interference in the output beam. By carefully
varying this path difference the wavelength of the light may be
determined.

Diffraction of light
- Diffraction is another property of wave which is the spreading out of wave when it passes through a gap or around an
obstacle. The amount of diffraction depends on the wavelength of the wave relative to the size of the gap, the closer the
size of the gap is to the wavelength the better or more pronounced the diffraction. In order to observe diffraction of light
a much smaller gap is needed.

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- Huygens’s principle may be used to explain the phenomena of wave diffraction.
- The wavelets travel out through a gap form a new wave front with the highest
intensity at the center, but falling towards the edge, where another circular wavelet
is created; this leads to the edges of the wave front bending around and so the wave
itself spreads out.

3.5 Young’s double slit experiment and expression for fringe width
- The interference effects of light were first demonstrated by Thomas Young in the early 19th century.
- He used two narrow slits to produce an interference pattern from a light source.
- He tried to make the light coherent by passing it through:-
1. Single monochromatic filter:- to ensure the light is monochromatic (one wavelength).
2. Single slit:- the single slit in front of the source ensures that the light reaches both slits in phase. Unless different
atoms of the source emit light at slightly different times and with different phases, therefore incoherence happens.
- But a modern day version of Young’s experiment involves the use of a laser. The light from the laser is coherent.

- As the light passes through slit A it diffracts and so spreads out.

The same effect occurs at slit B. We have effectively produced
two sources of light. They act as two sources of light and
overlapped to produce interference pattern on the screen.
- The pattern is a series of bright and dark fringes of equal width.
- The brightest fringe is located in the middle and is called the
central maximum (zero-order maximum). Then first-order

minima either sides followed by first-order maxima, etc... see the figure below.

- At the central maximum, the light from slit A and B have

travelled the same distance, they are in phase and so constructive
interference occurs. However, at the first-order minima the
light from each slit has to travel a different distance (have path
difference of 21 λ) and arrive in anti phase (with phase difference
of π) and so destructive interference occurs.

- At first order maxima the path difference is exactly one wavelength, this means the light from each slit is back in phase
(with phase difference of 2π).
- In general:-
For constructive interference path difference = nλ, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ....
For destructive interference path difference = (n + 12 )λ, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ....
- The path difference (δ) b/n light rays causes phase difference (φ), which are related by the equation: φ = 2πδ
λ

- Light waves leave slits A and B arrive at P in phase. Since

AP = BP , so constructive interference occurs here and a bright
area is seen.
- The distance AR is exactly one wavelength more than the dis-
tance BR, so the waves also arrive at R in phase, leading to a
bright area here also.
- The distance AQ is exactly half a wavelength more than the
distance BQ, so the waves arrive at Q antiphase, resulting in

a dark area.
- To drive the relationship b/n the distance from the slits to the screen (D), the fringe width (W), the slits separation (S)
and wavelength of the light (λ) we can use trigonometry.

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- From the above figure AO = OB and AR − BR = AC = λ

AC λ
sinθ = AB = S ..................eq-1

PR
Again sinθ = OR but for small angle θ OR ≈ OP

PR W
⇒ sinθ = OP = D ..................eq-2

⇒ By comparing the two equations we can get: W D = S

λ

Example: A laser produces an interference pattern on a screen 10 m from a pair of slits. The slit space is equal to 0.25
mm and the fringe width is measured to be 26 mm. Determine the wavelength and frequency of the light from the laser.
(2.6×10−2 m)(2.5×10−4 m)
Solution: From W
D = λ
S ⇒λ= WS
D = 10m = 6.5 × 10−7 m = 650nm

c
And from v = f λ, where v is speed of light which is c = 3 × 108 m/s ⇒f = λ

3×108 m/s
⇒f = 6.5×10−7 m
= 461.5 × 1012 Hz = 461.5 T Hz

3.6 Diffraction due to a single slit and a diffraction grating

- A different interference pattern is observed when light passes through a single slit.
- The interference pattern is created as the light diffracted from the extremes of the slit has had to travel different dis-
tances (path difference), which leads to a phase difference, which produces either constructive or destructive interference.

- The central maximum is twice as wide as the first order maxima. i.e α = 2β
- A plane wave front with the same width as the slit will travel away from the slit in the same direction as the original
wave was travelling.
- But wave front which makes an angle θ with the original direction travels in such a way that there is a path difference
of one wavelength between the wave front from A and that from B.
- The wave front from point C is therefore exactly antiphase with the wave front from point A.
- In general the light coming from the top half of the slit (AC) cancels out all the light coming from the bottom half of
the slit (BC) at angle θ and so a dark band appears on the screen.
- From the diagram above left BP − AP = λ ⇒ sinθ = λa

⇒ asinθ = λ ⇒ a2 sinθ = λ
2

- Thus the condition for a dark fringe is: sinθ = nλ a , where n = ±1, ±2, ±3.....
- For small angle θ in radian sinθ ≈ θ = nλ a
- At points b/n these angles not all the light is cancelled and so light bands appear.
- The intensity of these bands decrease as θ increases, due to the possibility of pairing of more out of phase wave fronts.
- The distance from the slit to the screen x and the distance on the screen b/n the center of the pattern (O) and the nth
y
order minima (P) which is y can be related as: sinθ = CP
- But for small angle θ in radian, sinθ ≈ θ and CP = x ⇒ θ = xy
Example: A green light (λ = 550nm) is diffracted through a single slit of width 3 × 10−4 m and the pattern is seen on
the screen 1m away from the slit. Calculate:
i. the angle b/n the center of the pattern and 2nd order minima and
ii. the screen distance (y).

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 (2)(550nm)
Solution: i. θ = nλ
a = 3×10−4 m
= 3.7 × 10−3 rad

ii. From θ = xy y = θx = (3.7 × 10−3 rad)(1m) = 3.7mm

Fraunhofer diffraction
- In double slit experiment if the width of each slit is lass than wavelength, the diffraction pattern by each slit was very
wide. i.e sinθ = nλ λ λ
a for the first order minima sinθ = a , if a < λ then a > 1
st
⇒ sinθ > 1 which is not true, indicates that there is no 1 order mimima and so the central maximum covers all angles.
⇒ Each slit produced an even light intensity over wide angle.
⇒ The pattern of double slit is due to the interference between them.
- But if a > λ, λa < 1 then sinθ < 1, each slit produces its own pattern known as Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.
- The over all double slit pattern will be the interference of Fraunhofer diffraction patterns of each slit.
- The intensity of the light at each angle is the product of intensity due to interference (Is ) and intensity due to diffraction
(Id ). i.e I = Is × Id
Diffraction through circular aperture
- When light passes through circular aperture it diffracts and
the interference pattern consists of central bright spot called the
Airy disc surrounded by concentric bright and dark rings due to
constructive and destructive interference respectively.
-This diffraction creates unwanted effects such as blurring or
unclear images. If the Airy disc created by one of the two light
sources lies inside the first order maxima of the other, then it is
very hard to see the two distinct image of the sources.

The diffraction grating

- A diffraction grating is an optical tool consists of a set of many evenly spaced slits with a very small separation. It uses
to diffract light in to different directions.
- As the number of slits increases the principal maxima decrease
in width, the intensity and sharpness of the principal maxima
increase while the intensity of the subsidiary maxima decreases.
- The number of maxima produced by a diffraction grating
depends on the wavelength of the light and the distance between
the slits of the grating.

- The path difference between each adjacent pair of slits is λ, i.e AG = λ and the
slit spacing = AB = d. Light from slit A thus interferes constructively with light
from slit B (path difference = λ), A with C (path difference = 2λ), A with D (path
difference= 3λ), and so on.
- The relationship between the angle (θ) at which the maxima occur, the slit
separation (d) and the wavelength of light (λ) can be obtained as: sinθ = λd .
- In general, the nth maximum will occur at an angle θn from the zero order
maximum, where θn is given by: sinθn = nλ d
The spacing of the slits in a grating is sometimes expressed in terms of the num-
ber of slits per meter. For a grating with N slits per meter, the slit spacing is d = N1 m.

- To find out the highest order of the principal maxima, we can use nλ
d ≤ 1 b/c maximum value of sinθ = 1 so: n ≤ λ .
d

Since n must be a whole number, to calculate the highest order spectrum the value must be round off to the nearest small
whole number.
Example: What is the highest order of the principal maxima and at what angle it occurs when a red light (700 nm)
diffracts through a plane grating with 400 slits per millimeter?

d 1 1 2.5µm
Solution: i. From n ≤ λ where d = 400/mm = 400000/m = 2.5µm, ⇒ n ≤ 700 nm , ⇒ n ≤ 3.57 ⇒ n = 3
(3)(700nm)
ii. sinθ3 = 3λ
d = 2.5µm = 0.84 ⇒ sin−1 0.84 = 57o

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 Unit 4 Electrostatics
- Electrostatics is the branch of physics that deals with the phenomena arising from stationary or static electric charges.
The study of static electricity is called electrostatics.
- Electrostatic phenomena arise from the forces that electric charges exert on each other. These forces are governed by
Coulomb’s law.
- Charging bodies using by rubbing (friction), by conduction and by induction methods are electrostatic phenomena.

4.1 Electric charge and Coulomb’s law

- An electric field is the region around a charged object where another charged object will experience a force.

4.2 Electric potential

4.3 Capacitors and dielectrics

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 Unit 5 Steady electric current and circuit properties
5.1 Basic principles
5.2 Kirchoff’s rules
5.3 Measuring instruments
5.4 The Wheatstone bridge and the potentiometer

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 Unit 6 Magnetism
6.1 Concepts of a magnetic field
6.2 The Earth and magnetic fields
6.3 Motion of charged particles in a magnetic field
6.4 Magnetic force on current-carrying conductors (long, straight, circular loop)
6.5 Ampere’s law and its application
6.6 Earth’s magnetism

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 Unit 7 Electromagnetic induction and a.c. circuits
7.1 Phenomena of electromagnetic induction
7.2 Alternating current (a.c.) generator and transformers
7.3 Alternating current (a.c.)
7.4 Power in a.c. circuits

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 Unit 8 Atomic physics
8.1 Dual nature of matter and radiation
8.2 Atoms and nuclei

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