Classicism and Romanticism

There are two distinctive tendencies in the history of literature—Classic and Romantic. At some
period in the history of Literature one tendency dominates, and then it is followed by the
predominance of the other tendency, and in this manner they appear alternately, one following
the other.

Classicism and Romanticism are artistic movements that have influenced the literature, visual
art, music, and architecture of the Western world over many centuries.

With its origins in the ancient Greek and Roman societies, Classicism defines beauty as that
which demonstrates balance and order. Romanticism developed in the 18th century — partially
as a reaction against the ideals of Classicism — and expresses beauty through imagination and
powerful emotions. Although the characteristics of these movements are frequently at odds, both
schools of thought continued to influence Western art into the 21st century.

The name "Classical" was given to the Greeks and Romans retroactively by Renaissance writers.
Artists and thinkers of the Renaissance, which literally means "rebirth," saw themselves as the
heirs of that world following the Middle Ages. Its ideals continued to exert strong influence into
the Age of Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries.

In literature, Classicism values traditional forms and structures. According to legend, the Roman
poet Virgil left orders for his masterpiece The Aeneid to be burned at his death, because a few of
its lines were still metrically imperfect. This rather extreme example demonstrates the
importance placed on excellence in formal execution. Such attention to detail can also be seen in
the work of the Italian poet Dante Alighieri, whose Divine Comedy contains over 14,000 lines
written in a strict rhyming pattern known as terza rima. Other characteristics of the movement
include balance, order, and emotional restraint.

Romanticism may be a somewhat confusing term, since modern English speakers tend to
associate the word "romance" with a particular variety of love. As an artistic movement,
however, it celebrates all strong emotions, not just feelings of love. In addition to emotion,
Romantic artists valued the search for beauty and meaning in all aspects of life. They saw
imagination, rather than reason, as the route to truth.

The treatment of emotion is one of the primary ways in which Classicism and Romanticism
differ. The Romantics placed a higher value on the expression of strong emotion than on
technical perfection. Classicists did not shy away from describing emotionally charged scenes,
but typically did so in a more distant manner. Romantics, however, were more likely to indulge
in effusive emotional statements, as John Keats did in "Ode on a Grecian Urn": "More love!
More happy, happy love!"

Furthermore, these movements have different attitudes toward the grotesque. William
Shakespeare, writing before the onset of Romanticism, occasionally used deformed characters in
his plays, such as Caliban in The Tempest; they are used primarily for comedic effect or as a foil
to the physical perfections of another character. Romantics, however, celebrated the grotesque
and the outcast through the form of a Byronic hero, named after the English poet Lord Byron.
One well-known example of this character type is Edward Rochester, the love interest in
Charlotte Brontë's novel Jane Eyre, who reaches spiritual perfection only after undergoing
physical deformation.

In the history of English literature, the Elizabethan period may be called the first Romantic
period, dominated by Marlowe, Shakespeare, Spenser and others. It was followed by the
Classical period in the eighteenth century whose important literary figures were Dryden, Pope,
Addison, Swift and Dr. Johnson.
The later part of the eighteenth century and the early part of the nineteenth century, whose
prominent poets were Wordsworth, Coleridge, Scott, Byron, Shelley, Keats, was dominated by
the romantic tendency, and hence it is called the Romantic period.

During the Victorian period in English the romantic tendency continued to dominate literature,
but the twentieth century literature shows signs of the Classical tendency.

DIFFERENCES:

Classicism stressed on reason. Romanticism on imagination.

Classicism follows the three unities of time, place and action. Romanticism only follows the
unity of action, but does not follow the unities of time, place.

Classicism uses strict, rigid and logical diction and theme. Romanticism uses simple diction of
common men from their everyday life.

Classicists thought of the world as having a rigid and stern structure, the romanticists thought of
the world as a place to express their ideas and believes.

Classicism was based on the idea that nature and human nature could be understood by reason
and thought. Classicist believed that nature was a self-contained machine, like a watch, whose
laws of operation could be rationally understood. Romanticists viewed nature as mysterious and
ever changing. Romantic writes believed that nature is an ever changing living organism, whose
laws we will never fully understand.

Classicists thought that it was literature's function to show the everyday values of humanity and
the laws of human existence. Their idea was that classicism upheld tradition, often to the point of
resisting change, because tradition seemed a reliable testing ground for those laws. As for the
Romantics, they wrote about how man has no boundaries and endless possibilities. The
Romantics stressed the human potential for social progress and spiritual growth.

HERE ARE SOME DISTINCTIVE SYMPTOMS:

The distinctive symptoms of Classicism are:

belief in reason; emphasis on the civilized, modern and sophisticated modes of life; interest in
urban society; preoccupation with human nature; love for mundane actuality; satirical tendency;
expression of accepted moral truth; realistic recognition of things as they are; belief in good and
evil; acceptance of established religious and philosophic creeds; attachment to normal, generic
abstraction; impersonal objectivity; interest in public themes; emphasis on formal correctness,
and the ideal of order; popularity of poetry of prose statement; use of formal poetic diction; self
—conscious traditionalism; and rational sobriety of Latin literature.

On the other hand, the symptoms of Romanticism are:

belief in feelings, imagination and intuition; emphasis on the primitive, medieval and natural
modes of life; interest in rural solitude; pre-occupation with the aesthetic and spiritual values of
external nature; love for visions of the mysterious, the ideal and the infinite; tendency of myth-
making; discovery of the beauty that is truth; faith in progress; belief in man and goodness and
individual speculation and revelation; attachment to concrete particulars; subjectivism; interest in
private themes; emphasis on individual expressiveness, and the ideal of intensity, popularity of
image and symbol: use of common language; self-conscious originality and romantic Hellenism.
Definition of Neoclassicism

First of all, it is mandatory to know about the etymology of the word Neoclassicism. The term
Neoclassicism is a combination of two words: Neo and Classic. The word neo has been derived
from a Greek word neos, which means young or new, while the word classic, according to the
Webster Dictionary, refers to the style and works of the ancient authors of Greece and Rome. To
combine these words, we get the meaning of Neoclassicism as the rebirth and restoration of
Classicism. Hence, Neoclassicism is the movement in the history of English literature, which laid
immense emphasis on revival of the classical spirit during the period between 1680 and 1750 in
the age of Pope and Dryden. It is a prototype of Classicism. Writers of this period immensely
endeavoured to follow the footpaths of the writers of the period of Augustus, emperor of Rome,
which produced unparalleled writers as Horace, Virgil and Ovid. That is the reason; the age of
Pope and Dryden is also called Augustan Age.

Neoclassical Poetry is a type of poetry, which follows the pattern of poetry authored by the poets
of ancient time i.e., Greek and Rome. Pope and Dryden were the leading writers, who deviated
from the traditional schools of poetry and sought guidance in the works of ancient Greek and
Roman writers. They tried to follow the writers of the antiquity in letter and spirit in the
Augustan Age.

According to Britannica Encyclopaedia:

"Classicism and Neoclassicism, in the arts, historical tradition or aesthetic attitudes based
on the art of Greece and Rome in antiquity. In the context of the tradition, Classicism
refers either to the art produced in antiquity or to later art inspired by that of antiquity;
Neoclassicism always refers to the art produced later but inspired by antiquity. Thus the
terms Classicism and Neoclassicism are often used interchangeably."

Stages of Neoclassicism

The Restoration Period:

It is called the Restoration Period, as King Charles was restored in this era. The Restoration
Period lasted from 1660-1700. Writers of this age, Dryden and Milton, endeavoured to use
sublime, grand and impressive style, scholarly allusions, and mythology and curb the intense use
of imagination.

The Augustan Age:

The Augustan Age is also called the Age of Pope. Pope was the leading poet in this age. The
Augustan Age lasted from 1700 to 1750.

The Age of Johnson:

The Age of Johnson lasted up to 1798, when the Romantic Movement was underway with the
publication of Lyrical Ballads by Wordsworth and Samuel Coleridge.

Characteristics of Neoclassical Poetry

Rationalism

Rationalism is the most essential feature of neoclassical poetry. Neoclassical poets viewed
reason as the mainspring of learning, knowledge and inspiration for their poetry. Neoclassical
poetry is a reaction against the renaissance style of poetry. It is a unique outcome of intellect, not
fancy and imagination. Unlike romantic poetry, which is entirely the result of sentiments of the
poet, neoclassical poetry is a simulated, fabricated and stereotypical type of poetry. In romantic
poetry, sentiments play a vital role in writing of poetry, while in neoclassical poetry; reason and
intellect are dominant elements. You might have heard about Coleridge and Wordsworth, who
wrote poetry thoroughly at the impulse of their imagination. They didn’t lay emphasis on reason
to compose poetry. The neoclassical poets made an effort to disregard imagination, emotion and
feelings, while composing their poetry. That is the reason; their poetry may be branded as
artificial and synthetic.

Scholarly Allusions

The neoclassical poets always loved to make use of scholarly allusions in their poetry. As they
were all highly educated and well-versed in various fields of studies, they knew a lot about
religious, biblical and classical literature. Allusions helped them to convey their message to their
readers effectively and easily. That is why; their poetry is brimming with plentiful allusions to
classical writers i.e., Virgil, Horace and Homer. They desired to write in the manner of their
classical masters. Look at the following examples taken from Rape of the Lock by Alexander
Pope:

Safe past the Gnome thro' this fantastic band,

A branch of healing Spleenwort in his hand.

(Rape of the Lock, Canto IV)

In the above-mentioned lines, Spleenwort is a branch of a tree. Pope is referring to Virgil’s

Aeneid, wherein the Aeneas visits the gangland safely just because of having magical branch of a
tree.

The Goddess with a discontented air

Seems to reject him, tho' she grants his pray'r.

A wond'rous Bag with both her hands she binds,

Like that where once Ulysses held the winds.

(Rape of the Lock, Canto IV)

In the above-mentioned lines, the poet has made allusions to Homer’s Odyssey.

Didacticism

Neoclassical poets rebelled against the romantic nature of poetry of the Renaissance Period.
Romantic poets loved to compose poetry just for the sake of poetry like John Keats. They tried
hard to sidestep morality and didacticism in their poetry. Their foremost purpose was to give
vent to their feelings. On the other hand, the neoclassical poets laid stress significantly on the
didactic purpose of poetry. They endeavoured hard to fix the teething troubles of humanity
through the magical power of poetry. The neoclassical poets were chiefly concerned with the
didactic aspects of their poetry. That is the reason; most of the neoclassical poetry is replete with
didacticism to a great deal. Consider the following lines taken from Alexander Pope’s poem An
Essay on Man, which is absolutely an excellent example in this regard:

Vice is a monster of so frightful mien,

 As to be hated needs but to be seen;

Yet seen too oft, familiar with her face,

We first endure, then pity, then embrace.

(An Essay on Man by Alexander Pope)

Realism

Realism is the hallmark of neoclassical poetry. The neoclassical poets, unlike romantic poets,
were not living in their own world of imagination. They were hard realists and they presented the
true picture of their society. They didn’t turn their eyes from the harsh realities of life. They were
keen observers and dwelled upon what they experienced with their open eyes in their poetry.
These poets were not escapists like romantic poets, who turned their back to the harsh realities of
life and tried to escape from them with the help of plight of imagination. Neoclassical poets were
men of action and practically lived in the midst of people. That is why; they had a very keen
observation of their society. They avoided abstract ideas, imaginative thoughts and idealism in
their poetry. Dryden’s and Pope’s poetry are replete with excellent examples of realism. Look at
the following example:

When I consider Life, 'tis all a cheat;

Yet, fooled with hope, men favour the deceit;

Trust on, and think to-morrow will repay:

To-morrow's falser than the former day;

Lies worse; and while it says, we shall be blest

With some new joys, cuts off what we possesst.

(Aurang Zeb by John Dryden)

Adherence to Classical Rules

The neoclassical poets were undoubtedly great adherents of classical rules. They went all-out to
revive the Classicism in their poetry by following each and every rule of Classicism. Their
highest concern was to adhere to the classical rules and employ them in their poetry as much as
possible. That is the reason; neoclassical poetry is also labeled as Pseudo Classical Poetry. They
respected the classical rules a great deal. Look at the following example from Pope’s poetry:

Those RULES of old discovered, not devised,

Are Nature still, but Nature Methodized;

Nature, like Liberty, is but restrained

By the same Laws which first herself ordained.

(Essay on Criticism by Alexander Pope)

Heroic Couplet
Heroic couplet is another hallmark of neoclassical poetry. The neoclassical poets were primarily
responsible for reputation of heroic couplets in the history of English literature. They were the
champions of heroic couplet. No poet, in the history of English literature, can compete with the
mastery of neoclassical poets in handling heroic couplet. They excelled each and every poet in
this regard. Chaucer was the first poet, who employed heroic couplet in his poetry. Though many
renowned poets of the world tried their hands on heroic couplet, yet Dryden and Pope are the
only poets, who outdid everyone in this regard. They are considered as the real masters of heroic
couplet. What is most important about these two poets is that they polished the heroic couplet,
corrected it, made it regular, more flexible and a polished medium of poetic expression. It is said
that Dryden wrote almost thirty thousand heroic couplets. His poems like Absalam and
Achitopel, Mac Flecnoe and The Medal are all in heroic couplets. Look at the following
examples:

Music resembles poetry: in each

Are nameless graces which no methods teach,

And which a master hand alone can reach.

(An Essay on Criticism by Alexander Pope)

Good nature and good sense must ever join;

To err is human, to forgive, divine.

(An Essay on Criticism by Alexander Pope)

No Passionate Lyricism

Romantic poetry is popular for its lyrical quality, while neoclassical poetry is lacking in lyrical
features due to apathy of the neoclassical poets for passion, feelings and emotions. They looked
at the passion with distrust and suspicion. That is the reason; very few lyrics were written in the
age of Pope and Dryden. They didn’t give free play to their imagination; rather they dwelt upon
the intellectual aspects of poetry. Look at the following example:

I am His Highness' dog at Kew;

Pray tell me, sir, whose dog are you?

(Engraved on the Collar of a Dog Which I Gave to His Royal Highness by Alexander Pope)

Objectivity

Objectivity is another important feature of neoclassical poetry. As these poets were completely
against subjectivity in poetry, they endeavoured hard to write objective poetry. They avoided
giving vent to their feelings; rather they dwelt upon the miseries, hardships and problems of the
people around them. That is why; we find very little information about the lives of neoclassical
poets in their poetry.

Poetic Diction

Poetic diction of neoclassical poetry is completely different from that of romantic poetry. In
romantic poetry, the diction is flexible and easy to use, while in the neoclassical poetry, it is
restrained, concrete and rigid. The neoclassical poets were fond of using a different language for
poetry. They thought that there should be a dividing line between the language of prose and
poetry. That is why; they laid emphasis on specific style for poetry. They were of the view that
decorum, specific style and mannerism are the vital elements of poetry. Alexander Pope was
very conscious about the language of his poetry. He says in Essay on Criticism:

Expression is the dress of thought, and still

Appears more decent as more suitable.

A vile Conceit in pompous words express'd

Is like a clown in regal purple dress'd

For diff'rent styles with diff'rent subjects sort,

As sev'ral garbs with country, town, and court.

(Essay on Criticism by Alexander Pope)

Romanticism

Modernism
Twentieth century poetry is a curious mixture of the traditional and the experimental. It is a
curious mixture of the old and the new. It is complex and many-sided. Complexity, abundance of
output, revolt against tradition, love of nature, pity for the poor and the suffering,
disillusionment, loss of faith in religion, the metaphysical note, the romantic strain, the influence
of music and other fine arts and new techniques are main trends of modern poetry.

1st Phase

The first phase of the movement, the school of imagism, the style of French symbolist poetry
influence of Dome and the dominance of war poetry, these were all different manifestations of
modernism in English poetry (1909-16)A.D.

2nd Phase

During the flowering of Modernist poetry between 1917 and 1929, the 2nd phase of the
movement, all these initial manifestations of modernism combined to find a full nature
expression in the poetry of T.S. Eliot, Edith Sitwell and later Yeats most notable of which is,
Eliot’s The Waste Land, Sitwell’s Gold Coast Customs and Yeats’s Michael Robartes and the
Dances

3rd Phase

The 3rd and the final phase of Modernist is largely the decade of the 30s which is marked by the
Marxed (Non-Marxist) poets such as Auden, Louis McNiece, C. Day-Lewis and Stephen
Spender.

Characteristics

Diverse Variety of Themes

Poetry today can be written on almost any subject. The modern poets find inspirations from
railway trains, tramcars, telephones and things of commonplace interest. Modern poets have not
accepted the theory of great subjects for poetic composition.

The whole universe is the modern poet’s composition. He writes on themes of real-life e.g. The
Songs Train by John Davidson, Goods Train of Night by Ashley, Machine Guns by Richard
Aldington, Listeners by Walter

Realism

The poetry of the 20th century is marked with a note of realism. Realism in modern poetry was
the product of a reaction against the pseudo-romanticism of the last century over and above the
influence of science.

The modern poet sees life and paints it as it is with all its wait and ugliness. He tears the veil
which the romanticists had hug between life and art. Robert Frost, Edmund Blunden, and Gibson
are the poets of realism in modern poetry.

Love

Love forms the subject of many modern lyrics Robert Bridges has produced fine sonnets of love
in The Growth of Love. E.g. I Will Not Let Thee Go. W.B. Yeats’ When You are Old etc.

Pessimism

There is a note of pessimism and disillusionment in modern poetry. The modern poet has
realized the pettiness of human life and the tragedy and suffering of the poor have made him
gloomy and sad.

Poetry as the expression of the feeling has become autumnal in tone T. Hardy, Huxley and T.S.
Eliot are the poets of Pessimism and disillusionment in modern poetry.

Nature

Nature attracts the modern poet no less than the poets of the earlier ages. But for the modern
poet, nature is not a mystic. He does not find any spiritual meaning in nature. He feels jolly at the
sight of nature’s loveliness.

He gives a clear picture of birds, clouds landscapes, sea and countryside in his poetry. Masefield,
Robert Bridges, Edmund Blunden etc are the great poets of nature in modern poetry.

Humanitarian and Democratic Note

Modern poetry is marked with a note of humanitarianism and democratic feeling. The modern
poet, more than Wordsworth (read A Slumber Did My Spirit Seal), is interested in the life of
labourers, workers etc.

He sees, in the daily struggles of these people the same potentialities that the older poets found in
those of high rank. Masefield, Gibson, Goldsworthy are mainly interested in the common man
and his sufferings.

Religion and Mysticism

The modern age is the age of science, but even in this scientific age, we have poems written on
the subject of religion and mysticism. W.B. Yeats, Francis Thompson, Robert Graves etc are the
great poets who have kept alive the flame of religion and mysticism in their poetry.
Diction and Style

Modern poets have a preference for simple and direct expression. Modern poets have chosen to
be free in the use of the meter. They have followed freedom from the trammels of verse. Verse
rhythm is replaced by sense rhythm. There is free movement in 20th-century English poetry.

The Modern poetry is poetry of revolt. It results largely from the impact of science. The poet
turns away from the older romantic tradition. The revolt is best exemplified in the poetry of T.S.
Eliot. The poet sees life in its naked realism. Even the most prosaic and commonplace subjects
are considered suitable. The heavy thud of bus, creaking of tramcars, the rattling noise of railway
trains, the drone of an aero-plane, all these find their echo in modern poetry. The squalor and
dinginess of an industrial civilization are reflected everywhere in the works of T.S. Eliot. After
the Great War, poems appear in an ever increasing number on the destructive means of warfare.
The imagery and vocabulary of the modern poet reflects the influence of science and scientific
inventions. Realism in subject matter has led the modern poet to reject the highly, ornate and
artificial poetic style of the romantics in favour of a language which resembles closely the
language of everyday life.

The new poetry is realistic. The poet's consciousness of the grim realities of life has shattered all
illusions and romantic dreams. The tragedy of everyday life has induced in the poet a mood of
disillusionment. So the poetry today is bitter and pessimistic. The pessimism of the modern poet
is very poignant and heart-rending. It is even sharper than the pessimism of Hardy. Because it
arises out of the contemplation of the stark realities of life. There is nothing sentimental about it.
The Great War was a nerve- shattering experience. Man lost faith in accepted values. As a
consequence, this note of bitterness is even more pronounced after the war. The Waste Land of
Eliot reflects the tragic gloom and despair of the post- war world.

As a result of science and the spirit of rationalism, the poet is skeptical about God. Hardy laughs
ironically at Him. Housman does not hesitate to call Him a brute or a black- guard. But this does
not mean that religion is no longer a source of inspiration in poetry. In T.S. Eliot and Francis
Thompson, we find a revival of Christian mysticism. "The Everlasting Mercy" of Masefield has
a religious theme. There are many fine devotional lyrics scattered all over his work. Even today
there are mystical poets in the tradition of Blake and Wordsworth. Besides, the influence of
science, religion and mysticism many other influences are at work on the modern poet. There has
been a revival of interest in the poetry of Donne and the other metaphysical poets of the 17th
century. Grierson's edition of Donne's poems was published in 1912. Ever since English poetry
has reflected more and more the intellectual qualities of Donne's poetry. Eliot has done much to
bring about this metaphysical revival. Thus we find in his poetry the same use of startling,
farfetched imagery, the same bringing together of opposites, the desire to startle and surprise. In
this way, he is able to capture attention.

Despite its stark realism in theme and treatment, there also runs a vein of romanticism in modern
poetry. Much of Georgian and Edwardian poetry is in the romantic strain. We find this strain of
romance in the poetry of Walter De La Mare, John Masefield and Yeats. In spite of all their
earthliness, they have the romantic longing for a more perfect world. They would like to escape
into a fairyland. Love is the dominant theme of the romantics. It has not altogether died out in
their poetry. Robert Bridges has left behind him some fine love lyrics. W.B. Yeats has been
called the greatest love-poet of the 20th century.

Modern poetry has been influenced by the techniques of music, sculpture, painting and other
arts. The modern poet freely uses the vocabulary and techniques of the other arts. However, it is
music which has exercised the profoundest influence. The variations and repetitions in T.S.
Eliot's "The Waste Land" are like the movements of a symphony. As a result, LA. Richards calls
his poetry the music of ideas. Like a musician's phrases, his ideas are arranged. The technique of
the cinematograph is also exploited by the poet of "The Waste Land".
The modern poet is constantly experimenting with new verse-forms and poetic techniques. The
use of slang and colloquialism has become common. The language and rhythm of poetry
approximate more and more to those of common speech. The bonds of metre have been
loosened. Rules of rhyme or metre are not followed. Stresses vary according to emotion. Verse-
rhythm is replaced by sense-rhythm. The influence of modern psychologists, Freud, Jung and
Bergson has become a commonplace. Emphasis has shifted from the externals to the rendering of
the soul or Psyche.

However, impressionism, imagism and surrealism are some other innovations in the 20th
century. The impressionists seek to convey the vague and fleeting sensations passing through
their minds by the use of a novel imagery and metaphor. The imagists are headed by Ezra Pound.
They aim at clarity of expression through the use of hard, accurate and definite images to convey
their ideas and emotions. The sur-realists try to express whatever passes in the subconscious,
without any control or selection by the conscious. These innovations increase the complexity of
modern poetry, and the bafflement of the reader. T.S. Eliot becomes an idol and the chief
exponent of modernism in his poetry.

Postmodern Literature
Postmodern literature is a literary movement that eschews absolute meaning and instead
emphasizes play, fragmentation, metafiction, and intertextuality. The literary movement rose to
prominence in the late 1950s and early 1960s as a reaction to modernist literature’s quest for
meaning in light of the significant human rights violations of World War II.

Postmodern literature builds on the following core ideas:

Embrace of randomness. Postmodern works reject the idea of absolute meaning and instead
embrace randomness and disorder. Postmodern novels often employ unreliable narrators to
further muddy the waters with extreme subjectivity.

Playfulness. While modernist writers mourned the loss of order, postmodern writers revel in it,
often using tools like black humor, wordplay, irony, and other techniques of playfulness to dizzy
readers and muddle the story.

Fragmentation. Postmodernist literature took modernism’s fragmentation and expanded on it,

moving literary works more toward collage-style forms, temporal distortion, and significant
jumps in character and place.

Metafiction. Postmodern literature emphasized meaninglessness and play. Postmodern writers

began to experiment with more meta elements in their novels and short stories, drawing attention
to their work’s artifice.

Intertextuality. Many postmodern authors wrote their work overtly in dialogue with other texts.
The techniques they employed included pastiche and the combination of high and low culture.

Some notable authors who contributed to the postmodern movement include John Barth, Samuel
Beckett, Italo Calvino, Don DeLillo, John Fowles and Thomas Pynchon.

Swift’s Satire
Swift in his preface to ‘The Battle of the Books’ points out that “Satire is a sort of glass
wherein beholders do generally discover everybody's face but their own; which is the chief
reason…very few are offended with it.”
Swift employs both comic and corrosive satire in his satirical masterpieces. The other literary
devices used in his satire are irony, humour, invective exaggeration, mockery, parody, allegory
etc. Every satirist is at heart a reformist. Swift also wanted to reform the society by pinpointing
the vices and shortcoming in it. Let us take the example of Gulliver’s Travels. The first voyage is
a satirical romp in which Swift takes some memorable shots at English political parties and their
antics. In the second voyage of Gulliver, there is the satire of more general kind. In the third part
of Gulliver’s travels, there is a comic satire on human intellect, misuse of his sagacity in science,
philosophy and mathematics. In the Fourth voyage, there is a sharp pointed satire on human
moral shortcomings. This voyage contains the most corrosive and offensive satire on mankind.

But, Swift concludes his travels on a philanthropic note. "I write for the noblest end, to inform
and instruct mankind…I write without any view to profit or praise."

Shakespearean Comedy
Shakespearean Comedy is essentially a Romantic Comedy. Shakespeare broke all rules of comic
plays and wrote what suited his style and fancy. Shakespeare mingled happy and sad theme,
mixed comic elements with tragic elements. This made his plays appear more convincing
because no human life is completely tragic or completely comic. It is a combination of both. He
does not aim to correct human follies. Though follies and extravagances are exposed in his plays,
it is done in a light-hearted manner. Shakespeare comic plays are full of creativity and
imagination and his concern was just to make his audience laugh and feel good. Light-hearted
mood of his audience was his prime target. Shakespeare comic plays can be classified into four
different groups.

i. Early comedies
ii. Joyous Comedies
iii. Dark Comedies
iv. Dramatic romances

The main features of Shakespearean comedy include: Stories of love and marriage, mistaken
identity, idyllic setting, Disguise and gender, presence of fools, and the happy endings.
 Metaphysical Poetry (Various Strains in Metaphysical Poetry)
The term “metaphysical poetry” refers to a specific period of time and a specific set of
poets. In 17th-century England, there was a group of poets who formed a formal group, has been
considered the metaphysical poets. There are, in most lists, nine poets that belong to the school
of Metaphysical poets, and they are as follows: John Donne, George Herbert, Henry Vaughan,
Edward Herbert, Thomas Carew, Richard Crashaw, Andrew Marvel, Richard Lovelace and Sir
John Suckling. The term metaphysical can be interpreted as; beyond=Meta, physical
nature=physical. The word metaphysical has been defined by various writers. R.S. Hillyer writes,
“Literally it has to do with the conception of existence
With the living universe and man’s place therein.”

It was Doctor Samuel Johnson, who for the first time used the term ‘Metaphysical poetry’.
Generally, it is defined as follows:

“Metaphysical Poetry is a kind of poetry in which a poet pictures his emotions through the
means of far-fetched conceits, intellectual analysis and dramatic action (in some cases).”

Metaphysical Poetry is distinguished by some traits of its own including the following:

i. Fusion of Emotion and Intellect

ii. Use of Conceits
iii. Argumentative
iv. Use of Unusual Imagery
v. Dramatic elements
vi. Originality
Metaphysical and Divine Poetry

The religious strain is much evident in the metaphysical poets. Specially, it is Donne's
metaphysical poetry that tries to connect the human soul with its creator metaphysically. “The
Progress of Soul” is the first metaphysical work of Donne in which he presents the idea of the
migration of the soul from a bird to a fish. The idea was new to the public of that time.
Therefore, Donne's metaphysical caricaturing entitled him to be as complex a poet as Robert
Browning. Both the poets had a love for metaphysical taste and enriched their poems with
rhythmic music.

Most of Donne’s religious poems focus at his repentance of the sins that he might have
committed in the past or will commit in future. The first prominent theme of his religious poems
is the frailty and decay of the universe. The second prominent theme of Donne's religious poetry
is the insignificance of Man in the hands of God. Fear of death is yet another notable theme that
is present in the poetry of Donne. Through religious poetry John Donne inspects his relationship
and association with the God Whom he thinks is the right light. Grierson comments on the
religious poetry of Donne as thus,

“To be didactic is never the first intention of Donne’s religious poems, but rather, to
express himself, to analyze and lay bare his own moods of agitation, of aspiration and of
humiliation, in the quest of God, and the surrender of his soul to Him.”

Besides Donne, Richard Crashaw entirely wrote religious poems. His famous work is “The
Flaming Heart.” George Herbert is the second most read metaphysical poet after John Donne.
His religious poetry is simple and didactic. Robert Herrik and Henry Vaughan also contributed in
the religious metaphysical poetry in their own distinctive ways.

Secular Strain in Metaphysical Poetry

 By secular strain in metaphysical poetry, we mean the metaphysical poetry that deals with
the subject matter other than the religion and spirituality. The amorous (of love) poetry in various
moods has been written by John Donne. Robert Herrik and John Donne are the two prominent
figures in metaphysical poetry regarding the amorous strain.

Amorous Poetry is the type of poetry that deals with the concept of love and how love
influences our lives. Donne, through his own version of Love Poetry, presented a realistic picture
of love, lover and his beloved. In Donne's realm of love, no lover or the beloved is flawless.
Therefore, his love poetry is his revolt against the Elizabethan traditions of painting an idealistic
picture of love. Therefore, his version of Love is not Petrarchan, rather Platonic.

He believed that sensuous as well as spiritual compatibility is essential for a satisfactory

relationship between the lover and his beloved. There are various modes present in the poetry of
John Donne.

Cynical Strain

At first, the love poetry of John Donne appears to broadcast his cynical views on the
unfaithfulness of women whom he loved (passionately). For instance, in his poem, The Flea,
Donne is asking to his beloved for her sensual favour which is eventually rejected by his lady, he
eventually grows bitter at it.
Cruel and sudden, hast thou since
Purpled thy nail, in blood of innocence?
Wherein could this flea guilty be,
Except in that drop which it sucked from thee?
Conjugal Strain
In this phase of love poetry, Donne grows affection for his wife and his cynicism is rather put
on control. He seems to find peace in love. A Valediction: Forbidden Mourning and The Sunne
Rising are the prime examples of the very strain.

Platonic Strain
Platonic love favours spiritual connection between the soul of the lovers. This kind of love is
typically shown before and after the marriage. For example, in Canonization, Donne perceives
love as a holy passion.

Reflective Strain
Another mode of Donne's love poetry is his reflective strain. It is reflective in the sense of a
show of Donne's innermost emotions that are governed by the experiences of the poet himself. It
is worth noting that John Donne had relationships with various girls during his adulthood. So, his
experience of love should have been vast enough to convey it through the poems he wrote.

In short, Metaphysical poetry was kept alive by the metaphysical poets carrying their own
distinctive approach to the emotions of love and spirituality. We see the spirit of a Puritan in
their religious poetry. While we witness an amorous flow of love just like Elizabethans. Some
metaphysical poets sought comfort in love while others sought a permanent refuge into the
spiritual realm of their own. While Donne exercised his passion and emotions of both physical
love and divine love in his metaphysical poetry, giving it a different meaning to metaphysics that
we know today.
 Puritan Age
The seventeenth century up-to 1660 was dominated by Puritanism and it may be called
puritan Age or the Age of Milton, who was the noblest representative of the puritan spirit. The
puritan movement stood for liberty of the people from the shackles of the despotic ruler as well
as the introduction of morality and high ideals in politics .Thus it had two objects personal
righteousness, civil and religious liberty .In other words it aimed of making men honest and free.
The influence of Puritanism upon English life and literature was profound. The spirit which it
introduced was fine and noble but it was hard and stern. The Puritan’s integrity and uprightness
is unquestionable but his fanaticism, his moroseness and the narrowness of his outlook and
sympathies were deplorable. In his over-enthusiasm to react against prevailing abuses, he
denounced the good things of life, condemned science and art, ignored the appreciation of
beauty, which invigorates secular life. Puritanism destroyed human culture and sought to confine
human culture within the circumscribed field of its own particular interests. It was fatal to both
art and literature.
The literature of this period lacks in concreteness and vitality.