CENTAURS: SCAVENGER HUNT: COSMIC STRUCTURE:

Comets in the Making A Winter-Sky Challenge The Threads Between Galaxies

PAGE 14 PAGE 20 PAGE 34

THE ESSENTIAL GUIDE TO ASTRONOMY

JANUARY 2022

Sharpen Your
Nightscapes
A Guide to Buying Lenses
Page 28

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Catch Four Which Deep-Sky

Planets at Dusk Atlas Came First?
Page 46 Page 58
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CONTENTS

THE ESSENTIAL GUIDE TO ASTRONOMY

January 2022 VOL. 143, NO. 1

FEATURES

14 The Comet Highway

A region between Jupiter and
Neptune serves as the on-ramp
for icy bodies entering the inner
solar system.
By Kat Volk

20 A Winter Scavenger Hunt

Transform your observing sessions 34
by adding a new sense of adventure.
By Ted Forte OBSERVING S&T TEST REPORT
41 January’s Sky at a Glance 66 Star-Hop Maker v1.1.0
Cover Story: By Diana Hannikainen By Rod Mollise
28 Choosing the Best Lenses
42 Lunar Almanac & Sky Chart COLUMNS / DEPARTMENTS
for Nightscapes
When nightscape photos fall short 43 Binocular Highlight 4 Spectrum
of expectations, chances are the By Mathew Wedel By Peter Tyson
problem is the lens.
44 Planetary Almanac 6 From Our Readers
By Alan Dyer
45 Evenings with the Stars 7 75, 50 & 25 Years Ago
34 Untangling the Cosmic Web By Fred Schaaf By Roger W. Sinnott
Astronomers are slowly mapping
46 Sun, Moon & Planets 8 News Notes
the long-hidden filaments that
connect galaxies. By Gary Seronik
12 Cosmic Relief
By Govert Schilling By David Grinspoon
48 Celestial Calendar
By Bob King
58 The First Deep-Sky Atlas 70 New Product Showcase
Can a classic star atlas still work for 52 Exploring the Solar System
72 Astronomer’s Workbench
modern observers? By Thomas A. Dobbins
By Jerry Oltion
Ray Harris
54 Surburban Stargazer
74 Gallery
By Ken Hewitt-White

JOH A N HIDDING
83 Event Calendar
57 Pro-Am Conjunction
By Diana Hannikainen 84 Focal Point
By Jane Green

ON THE COVER ONLINE

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Enjoy reader stories of adventures in Become an amateur affiliate Find out what the sky looks like for
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2 MAANRUCAHR 2
J Y021082•2 S•KSYK &Y T&ETLEELSECSOCPOEP E
SPECTRUM by Peter Tyson

Are You Sirius? The Essential Guide to Astronomy

Founded in 1941 by Charles A. Federer, Jr.

WHIMSY HAS LONG HELD an honored place in astronomy. We can and Helen Spence Federer
thank ancient civilizations for setting the stage, placing all those
EDITORIAL
fantastical creatures and heroes in the sky as they did. Many of Publisher Kevin B. Marvel
them remain up there to this day, from Hydra to Hercules to the Editor in Chief Peter Tyson
Senior Editors J. Kelly Beatty, Alan M. MacRobert
ultimate in whimsical, the Unicorn (though Monoceros was a Science Editor Camille M. Carlisle
17th-century addition). News Editor Monica Young
Even for active stargazers who use it all the time, the constellation menagerie Associate Editor Sean Walker
Observing Editor Diana Hannikainen
is extravagant (and if you can see a Charioteer in the five-sided Auriga, more Consulting Editor Gary Seronik
power to you). But imagine for a moment you knew nothing about astronomi- Editorial Assistant Sabrina Garvin
cal history and were shown the chart of Orion and Taurus on page 59 and were Senior Contributing Editors
told you could see that pair in the night sky right now. You could be forgiven for Dennis di Cicco, Richard Tresch Fienberg,
Roger W. Sinnott
thinking, A beefy guy with a club attacking a steer? It’s a bunch of stars, friend!
Of course, these figures — as for Ptolemy and other early astronomers who Contributing Editors
placed them there — serve a purpose for us: They help create order out of chaos. Howard Banich, Jim Bell, Trudy Bell, Monica Bobra,
Ronald Brecher, Greg Bryant, Thomas A. Dobbins, Alan
And as S&T readers well know, once you see certain of these figures overhead, Dyer, Tony Flanders, Ted Forte, Steve Gottlieb, David
you can’t unsee them, such as the Teapot asterism in Sagittarius. Grinspoon, Shannon Hall, Ken Hewitt-White, Johnny
Horne, Bob King, Emily Lakdawalla, Rod Mollise,
Sky & Telescope has long embraced our field’s fanciful side, and this issue James Mullaney, Donald W. Olson, Jerry Oltion, Joe
showcases that aspect. You can find it in titles, like “Bowling for Borrelly” (page Rao, Fred Schaaf, Govert Schilling, William Sheehan,
48) or “The Taming of the Slew” (page 72). You can recognize it in the writ- Mathew Wedel, Alan Whitman, Charles A. Wood,
Richard S. Wright, Jr.
ing, as when Ken Hewitt-White talks in
his column about leaping minnows and Contributing Photographers
P. K. Chen, Akira Fujii, Robert Gendler,
“fraudulent fish” (page 54). We even pull Babak Tafreshi
out the stops on the frolicsome front and
A R T, D E S I G N & D I G I T A L
offer a scavenger hunt (page 20). Art Director Terri Dubé
Yet the whimsy is just a veneer. Illustration Director Gregg Dinderman
Illustrator Leah Tiscione
Beneath the lighthearted surface of
Web Developer & Digital Content Producer
each of these pieces you’ll find the usual Scilla Bennett
p Edward Lear illustrations of “The Owl authority, the richness of scientific and ADVERTISING
and the Pussycat” and a scarlet macaw historical detail, the best filters or lenses Advertising Sales Director Tim Allen
to use, the latest findings astronomers or AMERICAN ASTRONOMICAL
the authors themselves have made. Our writers take their passion very seriously, SOCIETY
Executive Officer / CEO, AAS Sky Publishing, LLC
even as they don’t take themselves too seriously. It’s a perfect balance: If it were Kevin B. Marvel
all whimsy, it would be fluff; if it were all sober, it would be dry. President Paula Szkody, University of Washington
I’m reminded of the work of the 19th-century English artist and writer President Elect Kelsey Johnson, University of Virginia
Senior Vice-President Geoffrey C. Clayton, Louisiana
Edward Lear, whose work exemplifies this mix of the playful and the deeply State University
serious. Lear is celebrated equally for his nonsense verse and drawings, and Second Vice-President Stephen C. Unwin, Jet Propul-
his exquisitely rendered illustrations of birds and other animals (see images sion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology
Third Vice-President Adam Burgasser, UC San Diego
above). Around the holiday season, and especially in these Treasurer Doris Daou, NASA Planetary Science Division
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unsettled times, we can benefit from a healthy dose of Secretary Alice K. B. Monet, U.S. Naval Observatory (ret.)
At-Large Trustees Hannah Jang-Condell, University of
both approaches. Wyoming; Edmund Bertschinger, MIT; Jane Rigby, NASA
Goddard Space Flight Center; Louis-Gregory Strolger,
Editor in Chief Space Telescope Science Institute

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4 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

FROM OUR READERS

180° 120°W 60°W 0° 60°E 120°E 180° A Prehistoric Cold Case

Shannon Hall’s article was much
60°N appreciated. If you pick up a globe of
Earth, the Chicxulub impact site and the
Deccan Traps are not quite antipodal
30°N
but seemingly would have been more so
65 million years ago before the Indian
0° continent drifted so far north. This has
always seemed like an unlikely coinci-
dence to me. The extreme violence of
30°S
the impact would have been seismically
concentrated at the antipode. So Paul
60°S Renne and Courtney Sprain’s conjecture
about the impact having “kicked the
ongoing volcanism into high gear” seems
to be the more likely scenario. Given the
difficulty of dating past events accu-
Mass Extinction Events rately, perhaps the impact was even more
I’m an amateur astronomer and an amateur volcanologist. Over the years, I’ve causal in producing the Deccan Traps’
come to the conclusion that the discussion over the trigger of mass extinctions enormous basalt flows.
like the one in Shannon Hall’s article “The Case of the Dead Dinosaurs” (S&T: Marcus Honnecke
Oct. 2021, p. 18) is not about what individual process caused them. Rather, North Park, Colorado
the question is what combination of insults to the biosphere caused a mass
extinction. We have to be careful about pointing fingers as the number of Shannon Hall presented a zesty debate
known mass extinctions is relatively small, only showing up with multicellular on the mass extinction of the dino-
life and fossils present in, say, the last half billion years. saurs. Was it caused by an impact or a
There is an outfit that calls itself the Large Igneous Provinces Commission volcano? Both, I think. Representations
(largeigneousprovinces.org). It maintains a database of massive volcanic of the shock wave propagating from the
eruptions, known as large igneous provinces (LIPs), stretching back nearly impact site often show an expanding
3.5 billion years. ring of destruction that diminishes in
One logical conclusion would be that life on this planet evolved in the strength as it widens. Halfway around
presence of LIP formations and is reasonably tolerant of them. The creation of the world, the ring begins to contract
every LIP formation does not coincide with a mass extinction, but every mass and intensifies in energy as it races to
extinction seems to have a major volcanic eruption somewhere near in time. a focus point on the opposite side of
What if a combination of massive environmental “insults” is what pushes Earth from the Chicxulub impact. How-
the biosphere into a mass extinction event? For example, we know that the ever, it isn’t a sharp focus because shock
most recent mass extinction, roughly 65 million years ago, took place close to waves pass through each of the many
two events: a huge asteroid impact on the coast of what is now the Yucatán geographic formations on Earth differ-
Peninsula, closely preceded by the enormous Deccan Traps eruptions in what is ently due to their varying densities.
now central India. The Deccan Traps had been pouring
Another approach would be to look at two known major insults that hap- out lava for hundreds of thousands of

PAL AEO GEO GR APHY, PAL AEOCLIMATOLO GY, PAL AEOECOLO GY 2017
LIP CO M MISSION M A P, UPDATED FRO M R. E. ER NST A ND N. YOUBI /
pened around the same time and try to figure out why a mass extinction event years before the asteroid hit, but the
did not happen. A good example would be the end of the Eocene Epoch, when propagated impact energy would have
there was only a minor extinction event. At the time, three LIPs were in play: blown the volcanic vent wide open.
one in the Afar region of Ethiopia, and two poorly dated events in western and This accounts for the fossil evidence,
central Europe and in northern and central Africa. There were also multiple which shows earlier extinction events of
impact events around the same time — Popigai, Chesapeake Bay, and Toms varying severity around the globe and
Canyon. While there was a minor extinction event, it was not a major one, a massive spike in extinctions near the
even though the planet cooled overall. time of the impact.
Perspective is everything. We may very well find that these events are not David L. Koren
an either-or game. The investigation into them will be fascinating. Sarver, Pennsylvania
Alex Gimarc • Anchorage, Alaska
Sabrina Garvin replies: You both
p The results of dozens of ample magma flows, known as large igneous provinces, cover the
Earth. This map contains those from the past billion years, some of which scientists have linked
to mass extinction events.
“ make good points. The theory that
the massive lava flows at the Deccan Traps

6 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

were the result of an antipodal reaction to image superimposing these events was to design a graphic timeline combining
an impactor was popular when astronomers would have been a nice inclusion.) the Chicxulub and Deccan timeframes and
first proposed the asteroid theory in the Douglas Warshow lines of evidence. But I discovered that
1980s, but it fell out of favor after they Ann Arbor, Michigan there is so much debate over the times and
discovered the Chicxulub crater in 1991. uncertainty ranges that it would have been
The paper by Mark Richards, Renne, Sprain, Camille M. Carlisle replies: a disaster of contradictions. Alas, I had to
and colleagues (https://is.gd/Chicxulub_
Deccan) details why, but the primary
“ The recent paper “The Chicxulub
impactor: comet or asteroid?” (https://
give up the idea.

reason, they argue, is that 65 million years is.gd/Chicxulub_Impactor) gathers FOR THE RECORD
ago, the Chicxulub impact site’s antipode together useful research on the evidence in • The Chicxulub impactor was 10 km
was too far east of the Deccan Traps to favor of a carbonaceous chondrite asteroid wide, not 200 km as stated in the graphic
cause that kind of reaction. Instead, they being the impactor. According to that paper, on page 20 of the October issue.
suggest that the asteroid shook the planet scientists estimate that the total mass of • In the info box on page 31 of the October
enough to ramp up the ongoing volcanism. iridium in the geologic clay layer is 2.0–2.8 issue, SagDIG is a member of the Local
× 1011 g, and a 10-km-wide carbonaceous Group but isn’t a satellite of the Milky Way.
I enjoyed reading Shannon Hall’s article chondrite–like asteroid would deliver about • On page 23 of the August 2021 is-
“The Case of the Dead Dinosaurs” but 2.3 × 1011 g — a very nice agreement. In sue, all instances of NGC 7133 should
found myself wishing she had provided contrast, a 7-km-wide comet (which would read IC 5132/33.
some more information. Among my make the same size hole in Earth’s crust • In “Mars Bumbles Through the Bee-
questions were: What are the relative since it would hit it at a faster velocity) would hive” (S&T: June 2021, p. 50), the Beehive
abundances of iridium and mercury in deliver less than a tenth as much iridium. To Cluster is almost 16 million times more
both Earth’s mantle and different aster- your second question: My original intention remote than Mars.
oid types, and what are the error bars in
dating both the Chicxulub impact and SUBMISSIONS: Write to Sky & Telescope, One Alewife Center, Suite 300B, Cambridge, MA 02140, USA or email:
the Deccan Traps events? (A graphic [email protected]. Please limit your comments to 250 words; letters may be edited for brevity and clarity.

75, 50 & 25 YEARS AGO by Roger W. Sinnott A, so its spectrum is exceedingly the first six years of this decade,
difficult to photograph without and most of the new finds were
1947 º January 1947 serious contamination from the captured by CCDs. . . .
Far UV “[At] White Sands Proving brilliant primary. . . . “Closer to home are countless
Ground on October 10th, . . . the “During the past decade, the asteroids waiting to be discovered.
ultraviolet spectrum of the sun at angular separation between the two With rare exceptions, the sky has
wave lengths shorter than 3400 components has been nearly the been swept clean of minor planets
angstroms was obtained from maximum possible, [letting astrono- brighter than 16th magnitude (and
a V-2 rocket at a height of 88 mers] obtain the first ‘clean’ spectra thus within easy reach of conven-
kilometers. The limit of the spec- of Sirius B at the coudé focus of the tional amateur astrophotography).
trograph was 1100 angstroms, [a 200-inch telescope. . . . But a CCD on even an 8-inch
1972 region] normally absorbed by the “J. L. Greenstein, J. B. Oke, and telescope can easily reach 18th
ozone in the upper atmosphere. H. L. Shipman [report] that Sirius magnitude in a few minutes. That
The new spectra clearly show the B has an effective temperature opens a remarkably wide door
elimination of this absorption and of 32,000° Kelvin, radius 5,400 to discovery. The experience of
the appearance of the spectrum kilometers [, and is] a white dwarf veteran observer Paul Comba in
in the ultraviolet as the rocket consisting primarily of helium.” Arizona is a case in point. In the
ascended above the ozone layer.” six months after connecting a CCD
Captured German V-2 rockets º January 1997 camera to his 18-inch reflector he
continued to open new frontiers. CCD Charm “Unless you are very discovered 39 asteroids between
new to astronomy, you know about 18th and 20th magnitude.”
1997
º January 1972 the astroimaging revolution. Ama- As Dennis di Cicco anticipated,
Dwarf Unveiled “Sirius B is teurs are converting wholesale a new “golden age” of amateur
among the most important of the from conventional emulsion-based asteroid discovery began. Today,
several thousand white dwarfs photography to digital imaging . . . however, large professional sur-
now known, since it forms a visual “During the 1980s backyard veys are gobbling up asteroids
binary with Sirius A, the brightest observers chalked up about 20 at an astounding rate, and the
star in the [night] sky. . . . But it is extragalactic supernovae. That sky has now been “swept clean”
10 magnitudes fainter than Sirius number has more than doubled in almost to magnitude 21.

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 7
NEWS NOTES

BLACK HOLES

Shredded Star Reveals Elusive, Middle-Mass Black Hole

ASTRONOMERS HAVE USED the p Illustration of a star shredded by a black is the value of the spin. A black
death of a star to uncover details hole’s tidal pull. The trailing part of the stream- hole’s spin can tell us how it grew,
about a black hole that weighs in that-was-a-star escapes the system, while the but the team has no good explana-
leading part swings back around.
between stellar-mass black holes tion for the observed value.
and the leviathans that lurk in As this tutu of hot gas swirled The spin is slightly too high to
massive galaxies’ centers. around and fell into the black hole, it match what’s expected if the black
Observers have found a few heated up, emitting X-rays. The team hole was made by merging smaller
dozen candidate intermediate-mass used observations spanning 12 years ones, far too high for the black
black holes, with masses equivalent from the XMM-Newton and Chan- hole to have grown by munch-
to tens to hundreds of thousands dra X-ray space telescopes to watch ing intermittent gas snacks, yet
of Suns. But we know next to the cataclysm unfold. too low to have grown by eating a
nothing about them. Using an approach originally steady stream of gas.
Sixiang Wen (University of designed for stellar-mass black holes, Wen personally favors either
Arizona) and colleagues have now the team calculated this heftier a runaway collision of stars or
taken a closer look at one of those black hole’s approximate mass and direct collapse, in which a large,
candidates. The middling black spin: 20,000 Suns and 80% of the pristine gas cloud crumples in on
hole appears to sit in a star cluster maximum, respectively. The results itself. The black hole has the right
near a galaxy about 740 million appear in the September 10th Astro- mass to fit in the direct-collapse
light-years away in the constella- physical Journal. scenario, which vies with a couple
N ASA’S GODDA RD SPACE FLIG H T CEN TER /

tion Aquarius. Normally the black Astronomers have used star- of others as a favored origin for
hole is invisible, but astronomers shredding calamities, called tidal-dis- black hole seeds in the early uni-
spotted it when it tore up and ruption events, to measure supermas- verse (S&T: Jan. 2017, p. 24).
CHRIS SMITH (USR A / G ESTA R)

swallowed a star, skirting itself sive black holes’ spins before — but Future eROSITA X-ray observa-
in the glowing debris and light- they’ve never done it for an interme- tions will help the team find more
ing up in an event dubbed 3XMM diate-mass black hole. What’s truly events like this one.
J215022.4−055108. curious about this result, though, ¢ CAMILLE M. CARLISLE

8 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 MARS
The Red Planet Hosted
Ancient Supervolcanoes
ORBITAL IMAGES SUGGEST explosive
volcanoes once tore apart the surface of
Mars, spewing tons of ash and noxious
gases into the atmosphere billions of
years ago.
Scientists already knew that Mars
was volcanically active early on, but
evidence for explosive volcanoes was
missing, leading some to think the
planet only produced oozing, shield-
type volcanoes.
Now, researchers examining the rug-
ged terrain of Arabia Terra have found
massive deposits of buried volcanic ash p These craters in Arabia Terra on Mars are filled with layered rock, exposed in rounded mounds.
associated with giant craters in the area.
Patrick Whelley (University of Mary- exploding and pushing out a bunch of says Petr Brož (Institute of Geophysics
land, College Park) and colleagues used material,” Whelley explains. “So it’s not of the Czech Academy of Sciences), who
NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter just one explosion, but it’s a series of wasn’t involved in the present study.
to study cliff faces, which revealed sustained eruptions for many days up to “Erosion and younger resurfacing events
layers of minerals with the composi- months, perhaps.” could have destroyed or modified the
tion of chemically altered volcanic ash. The researchers estimate that evidence about such activity.”
Dispersion models confirmed that the between 1,000 and 2,000 individual Nevertheless, Brož adds, “this work
distribution of the deposits matches super-eruptions occurred over a period is bringing us a bit closer to such an
that expected from explosive eruptions. of 500 million years. answer. It is showing us that a powerful
The team describe their findings in the Other researchers aren’t fully con- and repetitive process has to be respon-
August Geophysical Research Letters. vinced. “We still don’t know for sure sible for the formation of these enig-
“They probably lasted for weeks whether powerful volcanic eruptions matic deposits.”
to months at a time, where they’re took place in this region on early Mars,” ¢ JAVIER BARBUZANO

MARS basalts from ancient lava flows. The

Perseverance Snags presence of salts indicates that water
percolated through this rock long ago.
First Samples Once the sample caches are returned
NASA’S PERSEVERANCE ROVER has to Earth, scientists will look for liquid
collected two chalk-size cores from bubbles trapped in the salts called inclu-
Jezero Crater, the first samples to be sions; they could provide a glimpse of
cached on Mars. The cores came from Jezero Crater when it was wet and pos-
a large rock dubbed “Rochette,” part sibly capable of supporting life.
of the long Artuby Ridge. The team The Perseverance rover carries 43
announced the second successful col- containers, with the aim of collecting
A R A BIA TERR A: N ASA / JPL- CA LTECH / UNIV ERSIT Y

lection on September 10th. at least 30 samples for future return to

OF A RIZON A; SA MPLES: N ASA / JPL- CA LTECH

The process was suspenseful because Earth. About 14 of these will come from
Perseverance ran into problems on its ancient rocks inside the crater. Then the
first sampling attempt in August. Team rover will begin exploring the fan-shape
members think the rock crumbled to delta, deposited by the ancient river that
pieces, which is why the tube came back spilled into Jezero.
empty. (It did, however, collect Martian ¢ DAVID DICKINSON
atmosphere, so all was not lost.)  Perseverance drilled two holes in the rock
Based on images of the cores, scien- dubbed “Rochette” (left of the rover) to collect a
tists think the rocks are igneous, likely pair of igneous cores.

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 9
NEWS NOTES

STARS
Supernovae Hollowed Out “Giant Cavity” Sun Taurus
z
MILLIONS OF YEARS AGO, supernova Astronomers have long suspected an
blasts cleared a giant hollow in space, association between the Perseus and
triggering the next generation of stars Taurus clouds. Using tools that visualize Perseus
in their wake. the 3D dust distribution, Bialy’s team
Shmuel Bialy (Center for Astrophys- showed that the clouds are actually on Perseus- y
Taurus shell
ics, Harvard & Smithsonian), Reimar opposite sides of a giant, empty cav- x
Leike (Max Planck Institute for Astro- ity — a supernova-blown superbubble
physics, Germany), and colleagues 500 light-years across. Other data,
pieced together this remarkable story including the emission of X-rays and an
based on dust. abundance of the aluminum-26 isotope,
p The Perseus and Taurus star-forming clouds
Last year, Leike created an unprec- both coming from hot gas inside the
lie on opposite sides of a large cavity.
edentedly sharp map of cosmic dust shell, support the supernova scenario.
in the solar neighborhood using the “I think that the [researchers] make the first humans evolved, a series of

S. BIA LY E T A L. / ASTR OPHYSICAL JOUR NAL LE T TERS 2021

distances to stars measured by the Euro- a very convincing case for a cavity pow- supernovae lit up this area of the sky,
pean Space Agency’s Gaia satellite. By ered by a few supernova explosions,” and now we can see the long-term con-
comparing stars’ measured brightness says Evangelia Ntormousi (Normal sequences of those blasts. As supernova-
with how bright they ought to be, given School of Pisa, Italy), who was not powered shock waves swept through the
their spectral class, Leike could estimate involved in the study. region, they compressed dust and gas
the amount of dust dimming the light. The superbubble would have taken into what are now star-forming clouds
Now, Bialy and colleagues have used at least 6 million years to grow so large. lining the cavity’s edge. These new data
the dust map to disentangle two nearby However, if it were older than 22 mil- provide the first 3D view of the long-
star factories, the Perseus and Taurus lion years, then the bubble would have held idea that the deaths of stars can
molecular clouds. They publish the dissipated into the interstellar medium. trigger new generations.
results in the September 20th Astro- In other words, at some point after the ¢ MONICA YOUNG
physical Journal Letters. existence of early apes but well before Interactive map at https://is.gd/PerTau

SOLAR SYSTEM
Amateurs Spot Impact Flash at Jupiter IN BRIEF

AMATEUR ASTRONOMER José Luis probability that he’d caught a collision. Probe Passes Mercury
Pereira of Brazil discovered a probable He immediately sent a message to Marc On October 1st, BepiColombo finally
impact at Jupiter on September 13th at Delcroix, who helped create the soft- reached Mercury — and shot right past
it. The joint mission of the European
around 22:39:30 UT (18:39:30 EDT). ware, for confirmation. Several other
Space Agency (ESA) and Japan Aero-
Weather conditions were poor at the observers independently saw or recorded space Exploration Agency (JAXA) will
time, but Pereira decided to search the flash. ultimately whizz by the innermost planet
for possible flashes anyway using the This is the 10th recorded impact at five more times before finally entering
DeTeCt software (see page 52). The pro- Jupiter, starting with the first one in orbit in December 2025. During this first
gram alerted him that there was a high July 1994, when fragments of sundered encounter, BepiColombo approached the
Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 slammed into planet’s nightside and viewed a gibbous
Mercury on the outbound path. At its
the planet and left a trail of prominent,
closest, the spacecraft’s trajectory brought
dark impact scars. it within 200 kilometers (120 miles) of
Initial rough estimates put the new the surface. BepiColombo is a stack of
impactor’s size at 100 meters (328 feet), three spacecraft: ESA’s Mercury Planetary
but there were no reports of dark impact Orbiter, JAXA’s Mercury Magnetospheric
scars following the flash. Orbiter (named “Mio”), and ESA’s Mercury
¢ BOB KING Transfer Module that propels them. Many
Impact of the MPO’s instruments were facing Mio
See more reports and images at
to protect against damage during the long
https://is.gd/Jupiterimpact2021. cruise, so they can’t see space at all right
 This frame shows the moment of impact that now. But all of Mio’s fields-and-particles
German amateur astronomer Harald Paleske instruments were operating during the
captured via recorded video. flyby and studying the planet’s magneto-

10 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 SOLAR SYSTEM
“Mushballs” Might Fall on
the Giant Planets
HAIL-LIKE, AMMONIA-RICH “mush-
balls” were first inferred to exist on
Jupiter, plunging deep below the cloud
bank in the giant planet’s atmosphere.
Now, new research suggests mushballs
might also fall on Uranus and Neptune.
Key evidence for mushballs’ exis-
tence on Jupiter came from NASA’s Juno
spacecraft. First it found an odd circula-
p This enhanced-color image from Juno shows the swirling cloud deck of Jupiter’s southern
tion pattern, with little ammonia any-
hemisphere.
where in the atmosphere except along
the equator (S&T: Dec. 2017, p. 14). drops of two parts water to one part September, Guillot showed that mush-
Then came Juno’s dramatic close-ups of ammonia could remain slushy enough balls could explain this phenomenon,
violent thunderstorms, which showed to allow lightning. This mixture would too. In fact, mushball formation could
N ASA / JPL- CA LTECH / SWRI / MSSS / K E VIN M. GILL

lightning flashing in the upper atmo- form hail-like mushballs as it fell, draw- be even more efficient on the ice giants
sphere. Lightning requires the presence ing ammonia underneath the cloud than on Jupiter.
of a liquid, so astronomers were baffled deck. This also explains why ammonia However, David Stevenson (Caltech)
to find it in a region where temperatures is more abundant in Jupiter’s equatorial is cautious. He coined the term “mush-
are colder than −88°C (−126°F). region, where there are fewer storms. balls” and worked with Guillot on the
But what if water mixed with anti- Recently, infrared observations have Jupiter research but not on the other
freeze? Ammonia is “the best antifreeze confirmed that ammonia is also rare planets. “In the case of Uranus and
you can get,” explains Tristan Guillot on Uranus and Neptune, at least as far Neptune,” he says, “the data admit
(Côte d’Azur University, France). Last down as we can see from afar. At the alternatives.”
year, he and colleagues proposed that Europlanet Science Congress 2021 in ¢ JEFF HECHT

sphere. The transfer module’s three cameras, scape. The rover will follow several other lunar sample, Spina’s team estimates that about a
generally used for monitoring the solar panels, landers planned to launch in this time frame, quarter of Sun-like stars eat from their own
also glimpsed Mercury during the flyby. including two NASA-funded landers and one planetary buffet, speaking to the chaos —
¢ EMILY LAKDAWALLA each from Japan, Russia, and India. and carnage — of planet formation.
¢ DAVID DICKINSON ¢ MONICA YOUNG
Moon Landing Site Selected
for VIPER Mission Sun-like Stars Eat Their Own White Dwarfs Still Burn
NASA has announced that its VIPER rover, Some Sun-like stars that were born in the When stars near the end of their lives, they
set for launch in 2023 (S&T: Jan. 2021, p. same gas cloud as their companions show stop burning. Most stars shed their outer lay-
34), will land just outside the western rim of unexpected differences — perhaps be- ers before collapsing into white dwarfs. With
Nobile Crater near the lunar south pole. The cause some stars eat their own planets. To no source of energy, these objects should
targeted study area covers 93 square kilo- understand the chemical differences between slowly cool and dim. But ultraviolet Hubble
meters (36 square miles); VIPER is expected such stars, Lorenzo Spina (INAF Astronomical Space Telescope observations of two globular
to traverse 16 to 24 km during its primary, Observatory of Padua, Italy) led a team in ex- clusters (M3 and M13) show that some white
100-day journey. NASA based the final site amining the composition of pairs of Sun-like dwarfs still burn. While both clusters are both
selection on four criteria: Earth visibility, which stars. On August 30th in Nature Astronomy, about 13 billion years old, Jianxing Chen
is necessary for direct line-of-sight com- the researchers report that in 33 of 107 pairs, (University of Bologna, Italy) and colleagues
munication; access to sunlight to charge the one of the stars has more iron than expected. find that M13 has extra bright white dwarfs.
solar-powered rover; terrain that’s suitable to (The other stellar pairs are all chemically That abundance, they show, originates in the
traverse; and evidence for the likely presence identical.) Iron is a refractory element that can cluster’s larger fraction of weensy stars, with
of water ice. VIPER will search on and below survive engulfment by a star, and it’s readily less than about half the Sun’s mass. Even
the surface in at least six permanently shad- available in rocky planet cores. Furthermore, after they collapse, these stars retain a hydro-
owed regions, drilling and sampling in at least the stars with higher iron abundances also gen envelope for later burning. About 70% of
three of these locations. The rover carries tended to have more lithium. Stars destroy the white dwarfs in M13 are of the slow-burn
three instruments to analyze volatiles (such as lithium in fusion reactions, but it’s plentiful variety. The finding upsets the notion of white
water ice) and mineral composition, as well in planets, so this finding also supports the dwarfs as forever-cooling embers.
as multiple cameras to capture the twilit land- planet-engulfment scenario. Based on the ¢ MONICA YOUNG

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 11
COSMIC RELIEF by David Grinspoon

Many Happy Returns

Venus’s eight-year cycle has the author dreaming of 2029.

AS I WRITE THIS IN SEPTEMBER, in late April 2021 about 20° north of The Maya and Aztecs had different
Venus is wrapping up another magnifi- due West. It rose higher each night names and glyphs for each of the five
cent appearance as the Evening Star. All for a few weeks before turning south appearances, which figured prominently
summer and fall it has beamed through in early June. In October it will reach in their origin stories and calendar
the dusk as the sky has darkened before greatest elongation, lingering for awhile cycles. Today, with our libraries full of
following the Sun to exit, stage West. into the darkness at the extremity of planetary data and detailed imagery
It’s a stirring and comforting sight, and its orbit as seen from Earth. December from spacecraft missions, we’re dis-
I always look forward to another visit will see it reverse course, heading north tracted from these splendid patterns.
from this stunning old friend. and plunging downwards into the solar
Venus repeatedly passes us on an glare, to finally disappear in January.
inside lane, swinging between dawn The whole thing makes a sort of lop- When I see my brilliant
and dusk in its never-ending 19-month sided, tilted infinity sign, with the larger companion, I know that, eight
cycle. It approaches Earth in the eve- lobe disappearing over the horizon.
ning, pulls out in front of us in the This month, Venus again becomes years hence, it will be right
morning, then races around to come up the Morning Star, and it will stay that back in the same spot again.
behind us again. way until its next evening apparition
Our sister planet laps us almost starting in November. But the pattern
exactly five times every eight years. (A then will be markedly different from But bright Venus, undiminished even in
Venusian would say the passing repeats what you see below, as a result of the light-polluted skies, remains there for
every 13 Venus years.) This 8:13 mean- ecliptic’s north-south seasonal tilt. The any of us to observe.
motion resonance is not perfect — it following three evening appearances Having trained myself to be aware of
slips by two days every eight years — and will also be distinct, tracing new shapes these patterns, I often use Venus cycles
its origin is not understood. But for over time. to mark eight-year anniversaries. When
millennia humans have observed and Then something wonderful happens. I see my brilliant companion, I know
recorded this repeating cycle. The sixth appearance, beginning exactly that, eight years hence, it will be right
In any given year, Venus slowly traces eight years after the first, will repeat back in the same spot again.
out a peculiar shape against the sky. the first. And each successive return This year I’m aware of something
The exact pattern will depend on your will imitate the one five cycles earlier. new and to me tremendously exciting.
latitude. Where I live at a mid-northern Thus, Venus outlines five distinct shapes My colleagues and I have worked for
latitude (see diagram), Venus in its in the sky, each of which repeats every more than 3 Venus cycles (since the late
most recent apparition first appeared eight years. 1990s) to send new missions to Venus.
And now I’m finally on a team selected
to do so. We’ll build and fly a spacecraft
Venus 2021 Evening Apparition
30 minutes after sunset called DAVINCI, which will be the first
Latitude 35° North entry probe NASA has sent there since
10° 1978 (S&T: Sept. 2021, p. 10).
The launch is tentatively planned for
Greatest brightness (–4.7) summer 2029 — one Venus cycle from
Dec 1 now. This evening I’ll look at the planet
and know that, with luck and persever-
Sep 1 Aug 1 ance, the next time I see it at this same
July 1
Oct 29 Oct 1
June spot in the sky, our little machine will
Jan 1, 2022 2021 be on its way there.
Greatest elongation
(47°E)
¢ DAVID GRINSPOON is author of Venus
Revealed: A New Look Below the Clouds
SW WSW W WNW
of Our Mysterious Twin Planet.

12 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

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OUTER SOLAR SYSTEM by Kat Volk

hen talking about comets, we often refer to short-period comets puzzled astronomers. Referred to as

W them as visitors from the outer solar system (or

beyond). But not all comets hail from the same
place. Some originate from the solar system’s most distant
Jupiter-family comets (JFCs) due to Jupiter’s dominant role in
controlling their orbital evolution, these visitors have distinct
properties. They generally take less than 20 years to complete
region, the spherical cloud of debris loosely bound to the Sun a trip around the Sun, spending much of their time within
called the Oort Cloud. Such objects include the memorable the region encircled by Jupiter’s orbit. A key trait, however, is
recent visitor Comet NEOWISE (C/2020 F3; S&T: Nov. 2020, the orientation of their orbits. While long-period comets zip
p. 14), which will not return for another 7,000 years. Many
other comets, though, originate in the relatively closer Kuiper

The Co
Belt, a population of small, icy bodies beyond Neptune’s
orbit. These comets become more frequent repeat visitors to
the inner solar system, with orbital periods ranging from a
few to about 200 years.
Before we knew about the Kuiper Belt, a group of these

14 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

through the inner solar system from essentially all direc- bodies from the Kuiper Belt slowly feed into a transition
tions, JFCs overwhelmingly orbit the Sun on paths tilted less region between Jupiter and Neptune. Then, over astronomi-
than about 30° from the planetary plane, and they travel cally short periods of time, some objects make their way
in the same direction as the major planets, too. What could inward to become JFCs. The objects making this transition
channel comets into the inner solar system like this? And give us an exciting glimpse of icy worlds as they transform
where did these objects come from originally? from distant, primordial frozen bodies into spectacular
We now know the answers to these questions. Pristine active comets.

met HIGHWAY A region between Jupiter and Neptune serves as the

on-ramp for icy bodies entering the inner solar system.

LE A H TISCIO N E / S&T

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 15
Outer Solar System

The Cometary Cell Phone Lot of the giant-planet region, and their surface compositions
In the early 1970s, astronomers were still actively debating if don’t match those in the asteroid belt. So where did they
Jupiter-family comets had been captured from the Oort Cloud come from?
or whether another, then-unobserved source region was In the 1980s and early 1990s, researchers had returned
needed. (At that time, the only member of the Kuiper Belt to the idea of a comet belt beyond Neptune’s orbit, using
we’d found was Pluto.) In 1977, Charles Kowal expanded computational capabilities and
discovered a harbinger of new outer-solar- improved numerical tools to show how such
system populations: 2060 Chiron. This little Dictionary: a population could supply Jupiter-family
world is roughly 200 km (120 miles) across Centaur comets. In 1992 — the same year that other
and follows an orbit with a perihelion near A Centaur is a small observers found Pholus — David Jewitt and
Saturn and an aphelion near Uranus. Early object that spends some Jane Luu discovered the first Kuiper Belt object
calculations showed that gravitational influ- or all of its time in the (KBO) residing entirely exterior to Neptune’s
region between Jupiter
ences from the giant planets should relatively orbit. This discovery, along with more than a
and Neptune. (Exact
quickly alter its orbit and send it elsewhere. dozen other KBO discoveries in the next three
definitions depend on
Further studies confirmed that most small- whom you ask.) years, finally provided direct evidence of the
body orbits in the giant-planet region are only hypothesized comet reservoir.
stable for about a million years, much shorter Follow-up observations of the newly
than the age of the solar system. discovered Centaurs and KBOs found more examples of
Some 15 years after Chiron’s discovery, observers found distinctive red surfaces in both populations. This spectral
5145 Pholus, which has an orbit that spans from Saturn to information provided important compositional links between
Neptune. Discoveries of several more objects followed soon KBOs and Centaurs to back up the orbital modeling. It was
after. These so-called Centaurs are small bodies that, like becoming clearer that Chiron and Pholus represented a new
Chiron, all reside within the giant-planet region on unstable population of objects closely related to the Kuiper Belt.
orbits. Early observations of Pholus showed that its surface With these early KBO and Centaur discoveries, researchers
is extremely red compared with objects in the main asteroid were finally able to demonstrate the path objects take from
belt, and subsequent measurements of its reflectance spectrum the observed Kuiper Belt, through the giant planet region’s
(a more detailed measurement of the brightness as a function Centaur population, and into the JFCs. Our understanding of
of wavelength) also proved it to be uniquely red and missing the detailed orbital distribution and formation of the Kuiper
features commonly seen in asteroid spectra. Other Centaurs Belt has expanded dramatically in the last 30 years, but this
also looked un-asteroid-like. basic dynamical connection with the JFCs remains.
It was apparent that Centaurs are only temporary denizens Although some KBOs have always lived beyond Neptune,

?
A RROKOTH: N ASA / JHU A PL / SWRI; 67P: ESA / ROSE T TA / MPS FOR
OSIRIS TE A M MPS / UPD / L A M / IA A / SSO / IN TA / UPM / DASP / IDA

THE MAKING OF A COMET Years of observations and calculations led astronomers to deduce that primordial Kuiper Belt objects
like Arrokoth (left) become Jupiter-family comets like 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko (right). The question is, what do the objects in
transition look like?

16 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 Only about a third of Centaurs will Below plane of solar system

make it through the entire giant planet

Uranus
region and past Jupiter to become Saturn
Neptune

JFCs in the inner solar system.

Above pla
ne of solar system 486958 Arrokoth
many of the objects in today’s Kuiper Belt were placed onto
their orbits when the giant planets formed and then migrated
to their current positions (S&T: Mar. 2021, p. 22). A variety of
2060 Chiron
gravitational effects can change KBOs’ orbits. On long time-
scales, the chaotic combination of orbital alignments with Neptune
Neptune and the gravitational pull from all the giant planets
can dramatically tilt or elongate a KBO’s orbit, allowing it
to make closer and closer approaches to Neptune. Smaller
gravitational tugs from the most massive objects embedded
within the Kuiper Belt might even contribute to changes in Neptune
neighboring objects’ orbits, too. All of these factors slowly
Comet NEOWISE (C/2020 F3)
feed KBOs onto Neptune-crossing orbits over many millions
or even billions of years.
Close encounters with Neptune will then scatter these
objects, sending some of them to more distant parts of the
outer solar system and others onto smaller orbits in the Cen-
taur region. Many Centaurs will interact with just our outer
ice giants, Neptune and Uranus, before being tossed back into  ENTRY Many Kuiper Belt objects such as Arrokoth (top) follow paths
the Kuiper Belt. But about half will continue their journey minimally tilted with respect to the planets’ orbits, as do Centaurs like
inward and become Saturn-crossing Centaurs. Chiron (center). But Oort Cloud comets such as C/2020 F3 (bottom)
often zoom through on highly elongated orbits at steep angles.
Every time a Centaur encounters a giant planet, its orbit
either gets smaller or larger. The exact outcome depends
on how closely the Centaur approaches the planet and the vations of more distant Centaurs and KBOs that we were bet-
direction of that approach. Only about a third of Centaurs ter able to recognize the Centaurs as a distinct population.
will make it through the entire giant-planet region and past The Centaurs provide a critical link between the nearly
Jupiter to become JFCs in the inner solar system. The time primordial icy bodies in the Kuiper Belt and the active, highly
it takes an object to either traverse the giant-planet region evolved comets in the inner solar system. Like their name-
or be kicked back out into the Kuiper Belt is typically a few sakes, Centaurs are hybrid creatures: part active comet, part
million years. frozen planetesimal. They offer us an opportunity to watch
as objects experience their first significant thawing since they
Charting the Territory were tossed into outer-solar-system cold storage.
Given that Centaurs represent a middle state in the contin- The partly cometary nature of Centaurs became apparent
uum between the outer solar system’s Kuiper Belt populations within a decade of Chiron’s discovery. Large variations in its
and the inner solar system’s JFC population, it is perhaps brightness over time suggested it was venting icy material
unsurprising that there isn’t one single agreed-upon defini- from its surface; follow-up observations confirmed the pres-
tion for what a Centaur is. The commonly used definitions ence of a coma. We now have many more examples of activity
place Centaurs as spending some or all of their time in the amongst Centaurs, ranging from relatively quiescent outgas-
giant-planet region, with their closest approach to the Sun sing to extremely bright outburst events throwing off large
lying exterior to Jupiter’s orbit but interior to Neptune’s orbit. amounts of dust and gas. Approximately 10% of the observed
Most definitions also require that their average distance from Centaurs have confirmed cometary behavior — and this is
the Sun be in the giant-planet region; the strictest require likely a lower limit, because not all Centaurs are amenable to
that the object’s orbit lies entirely inside that of Neptune. a search for activity!
Depending on which definition you use, the current The sublimation of water ice largely drives activity on com-
G REGG DINDER M A N / S&T

census of observed Centaurs ranges from about 250 to 350 ets in the inner solar system, but for objects beyond Jupiter,
objects. On this list are objects discovered before Chiron, the Sun is too far away to heat up the water ice they contain.
including 29P/Schwassmann-Wachmann 1, which was dis- Other ices that sublimate at lower temperatures, such as car-
covered in 1927 and classified as a comet due to its bursts of bon dioxide and carbon monoxide, instead must contribute to
activity (S&T: Sept. 2021, p. 57). It wasn’t until we had obser- Centaur activity — although some of the observed activity is

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 17
Outer Solar System

Discovering outer-solar-system objects requires more than a single night of

observations. Objects must be tracked over months or years.
not well explained by just these ices. Astronomers are actively spaced dips in starlight on either side of the central body’s
trying to understand the drivers of cometary activity in Cen- shadow created by its ring system, the first to be detected
taurs, using both ground-based and space-based observations around a solar system object that isn’t a giant planet!
as well as modeling and laboratory work. There is some evidence that Chiron also possesses a ring
Another startling discovery is the presence of rings around system. Researchers are still debating how such rings could
at least one Centaur. In 2014 Felipe Braga-Ribas (now at Paris form, and how old they are. Is formation more likely early
Observatory) and others announced the detection of a ring in the solar system’s history, meaning that rings can survive
system around 10199 Chariklo. Astronomers usually estimate the trip into the Centaur region from the Kuiper Belt? (We’ve
the size and shape of an object based on how much sunlight observed a ring around another KBO dwarf planet called
it reflects. Yet these estimates are uncertain because they Haumea, for example.) Or did the rings form after the objects
rely on assumptions about the albedo, or reflectivity, of the became Centaurs, perhaps due to their activity?
surface, which varies due to composition and other factors.
Braga-Ribas’s team, on the other hand, waited for Chariklo to Road Trip?
pass between a background star and us, briefly blocking out There are undoubtedly many more discoveries waiting to be
the light from that star in what’s known as a stellar occulta- made about Centaurs. Even at a very basic population level,
tion. If we know the orbital position and speed of the small there are a lot of things we simply don’t know. Centaurs’ wide
body, we can measure its physical size by timing how long it range of heliocentric distances (from 5 to 30 astronomical
blocks out the star. If we measure this “shadow” from multi- units) has made them a challenging group of targets. Many
ple positions, we can even measure its shape (as was done for of them are too distant and therefore faint for existing all-sky
the KBO Arrokoth prior to its visit from the New Horizons surveys to spot. Even the brighter Centaurs move too slowly
spacecraft). For Chariklo, the occultation showed equally against the background stars to be easily picked up by surveys
optimized for faster-moving near-Earth objects — though
archival searches through these surveys have yielded some
Ingress Egress distant detections.
At the opposite end, KBO surveys don’t detect Centaurs
easily either because they’re designed to catch the slower-
Ring 2 Ring 2 moving Kuiper Belt populations. Discovering outer-solar-sys-
tem objects requires more than a single night of observations.
Brightness

Objects must be tracked over months or years so that their

orbital path (and thus the population to which they belong)
becomes apparent. But Kuiper Belt surveys often cover small
sky areas, meaning faster-moving Centaurs can move out of
Ring 1
the search fields before observers can determine their orbits if
Ring 1 special efforts are not made to track them.
It is thus quite difficult to tell if our current Centaur
–10 –5 0 5 10 15 census accurately represents the whole population, especially
Time (seconds) in terms of how many objects there are of different sizes.

CH A RT: F. BR AG A-RIBAS E T A L. / NATUR E 2014; CH A RIK LO WITH ITS

(We have to know what we can and can’t detect in order to
make accurate estimates!) Measuring the size distribution
of Centaurs would help us bridge the gap between observed
JFCs — which have typical diameters less than 10 km — and RINGS: M. KOR NMESSER A ND L. CA LÇA DA / ESO

observed KBOs, which are typically at least 50–100 km in

diameter. This, combined with a better understanding of
activity in Centaurs, will provide critical insights into the
physical evolution of cometary nuclei from their primordial
start to their end states.
 RINGS Top: When the Centaur Chariklo passed in front of a In the coming years, the Vera Rubin Observatory’s Legacy
12.4-magnitude star, observers in South America watched the star Survey of Space and Time (LSST) should dramatically improve
wink out (central dip). But they also saw a pair of much smaller fades
both before and after Chariklo’s, indicating that the small object has
our observational census of Centaurs. Over a 10-year period,
two rings. Above: A 3D model of what Chariklo and its rings might LSST will cover a large percentage of the sky down to limit-
look like. Chariklo is roughly 300 km wide. ing magnitudes much deeper than previous all-sky surveys. It

18 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 0.8
100% 50% 10% 5%
0.7
Orbital eccentricity (0 is a perfect circle)

0.6

Jupiter

Saturn
0.5

0.4
Chiron

0.3

0.2

P/2019 LD2
0.1 Gateway
29P/Schwassmann-Wachmann 1
0.0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Average distance from the Sun (astronomical units)

 THE ROAD TRAVELED Over time, Centaurs can migrate through the outer solar system to near Jupiter, experiencing more intense sunlight (shown
here as lighter shading) as they travel sunward. Their orbits also circularize (y-axis). The arrow shows the likely path that ATLAS (P/2019 LD2) has tak-
en in the last few thousand years, and the white dots mark current orbits of the Centaurs Chiron and S-W 1, the latter of which orbits in the so-called
Gateway (purple triangle) and is en route to becoming a Jupiter-family comet. The white contour curves indicate how the amount of solar heating in a
particular orbit compares to that received by a Jupiter-family comet.

should detect Centaurs at sizes that overlap with the observed exploration of the Kuiper Belt at Pluto and Arrokoth, and
JFC sizes in a systematic way that allows us to better estimate Lucy’s upcoming tour of the Jupiter Trojans, the Centaurs
the intrinsic population. The long time scale of the survey remain a key unexplored outer-solar-system population. In
should also help identify brightness variations that indicate 2019, researchers proposed two missions to Centaurs for
activity, yielding a new set of active Centaurs the latest round of NASA Discovery missions.
that astronomers can then study in more detail They were not selected (this time!), but perhaps
with other observatories. Centaurs will fare better in the future, espe-
LSST’s increased sensitivity compared to cur- cially if they are featured in the next decadal
rent surveys should turn up more examples of recommendations from the planetary science
Centaurs on the cusp of transitioning to JFCs. community, expected in 2023.
Recent dynamical studies of the Centaur-to-JFC Whether through spacecraft or additional
transition identified a region just exterior to ground- and space-based observations, explora-
MIG R ATION G R A PH: G REGG DINDER M A N / S&T; SOURCE: J. K . STECK LOFF
E T A L. / ASTR OPHYSICAL JOUR NAL LE T TERS 2020; 29 P/SCHWASSM A NN-

Jupiter’s orbit, dubbed the JFC Gateway, that the tion of the Centaurs will continue to provide
vast majority of inbound JFCs traverse. Gateway 29P/Schwassmann-
critical insights into how primordial icy bodies
WACHM A NN 1 IN OU TBURST: PEPE M A N TECA / CC BY-NC -ND 2.0

objects have temporary, nearly circular orbits in Wachmann 1 formed and are transformed as they journey
between Jupiter and Saturn that allow Jupiter July 2016 outburst into the inner solar system as comets.
to scatter them inward. This orbital region,
expected to contain several hundred objects larger than ¢ KAT VOLK is a planetary scientist at the University of Arizo-
1 km, coincides with the solar distance at which we expect na’s Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. She studies the dynamics
significant cometary activity to begin in earnest. The recently and evolution of small solar-system bodies.
discovered active Centaur ATLAS (P/2019 LD2), which should
enter the JFC population mere decades from now, is likely just JOIN THE CAMPAIGN: Astronomers have begun a pro-am
the first of many transitional objects we can look forward to campaign to catch as many outbursts from the Centaur 29P/
discovering. These will help us better understand the early Schwassmann-Wachmann 1 as they can. Read page 57 of our
stages of cometary activity. September 2021 issue or go to https://is.gd/observing29p
Future spacecraft missions could also help reveal the for more information. You’ll need access to at least a 6-inch
secrets of Centaurs. After the New Horizons mission’s initial scope; imaging capabilities are a plus.

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 19
TREASURES IN THE SKY by Ted Forte

A Winter Scavenger Hunt

Transform your observing sessions by adding a new sense of adventure.

I
f you have ever been on a scavenger hunt, you know that the challenge is to collect a
number of common objects from a list of cryptic clues. In this journey through January’s
night sky, we’ll add a touch of whimsy by concealing our targets in a scavenger hunt.

First, let’s consider our list of clues. Your task is to find:

1. A Concealed Planetary: It hides in 8. A Rose within a Hare: Seeing red

plain sight on a shoulder. where you wouldn’t expect to.
2. A Sidekick Cluster: It’s a bright 9. An Enumerated Cluster: It’s more
showpiece’s little companion. than just a number of stars.
3. Headgear for a Norse God: You’ll 10. A Frozen Toe: Look for it opposite
have to filter your expectations. an armpit.
4. The Unicorn’s Other Fan: It’s 11. A Triple Wonder: Sir William was
smaller than its variable cousin. impressed.
5. A Holiday Icon: It’s a popular adorn- 12. An Orbuculum: It’s a bull’s bauble.
ment for the winter season. 13. A Capricious Demon: Nothing
6. A Bodybuilder: This cluster is buff. eclipses its fame.
7. A Row in a River: It’s quite a lineup.

Before reading on, take a moment to contemplate the list and see if you can guess all
the stops on our journey.
 YAO X I AO, ILLUSTR ATO R

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 21
Treasures in the Sky

1 A Concealed Planetary. Hidden in the glare of 4th- a globular cluster in both the Revised New General Catalog of
magnitude Mu (μ) Orionis is the faint planetary nebula Nonstellar Astronomical Objects (RNGC) and the Lund catalog
Abell 12, discovered by George Abell on photographic plates of open clusters. However, Brent Archinal and Steven Hynes
in 1966. In the line of stars representing the Hunter’s raised in their book Star Clusters point out that NGC 2158 has none
arm, Mu is the next bright one up from Betelgeuse. The of the properties of a globular. To find the smaller cluster, aim
adjacent planetary, at a distance of about 6,900 light-years, a bit less than ½° southwest of the bright Messier object at
is much farther away than the star, which is only at around the foot of Gemini and look for a dense puffball of stars.
150 light-years.
Abell 12 is just 50″ northwest of Mu, which makes it quite 3 Headgear for a Norse God. Imagine a line connect-
difficult to observe — but an O III filter will dim the star ing the two brightest stars in Canis Major, Alpha (α) and
enough to allow the planetary to materialize. In my 18-inch Beta (β), more familiar to us as Sirius and Mirzam. Then
Dob with filter employed, Abell 12 is quite apparent. Under a extend that line eastward about 1½ times its length and point
dark sky, I’ve even detected Abell 12 in my 8-inch SCT using your scope a little north of that spot. At low power with a
an Ultra High Contrast (UHC) filter. It appears as a ghostly UHC or O III filter, you’ll be treated to a remarkable nebula.
disk of mostly even brightness about 30″ in diameter with a NGC 2359 is known as Thor’s Helmet due to the two horn-
slightly brighter rim. like extensions that protrude out of a dome-shaped nebula.
In optimal observing conditions, if you place Mu Orio- In photographs (such as the one on page 24), it truly does
nis just outside your field of view, you might even glimpse resemble the iconic horned Viking headdress of mythology. In
Abell 12 without a filter. the eyepiece, I see it more as a snail or a rabbit, as one of the
“horns” is rather faint.
2 A Sidekick Cluster. From comic books to the “B” West- NGC 2359 is a vast emission nebula powered by a Wolf-
erns of the 1940s and ’50s, the sidekick has been an endear- Rayet star, an extremely hot giant thought to be in a pre-
ing character: a faithful companion to a more important supernova stage. It lies about 12,000 light-years from us and
personage. The secondary position that the open cluster NGC is approximately 30 light-years across. Unfiltered, NGC 2359
2158 takes to the brighter, more famous M35 always puts is a faint, barely detectable haze. The view through a nar-
me in mind of such a partnership. The two clusters aren’t rowband filter, though, is spectacular, and gets more so with
actually associated at all: NGC 2158 is at least 4½ times more increasing aperture.
distant than its flashier neighbor. If they were at the same
distance, the situation would be reversed, since NGC 2158 4 The Unicorn’s Other Fan. Fan-shaped nebulae are
has more than twice the number of stars than does M35. As sometimes called cometary nebulae due to their resemblance
it is, though, M35 appears 25 times brighter than its little to stubby-tailed comets. Today, the modern term is generally
sidekick. NGC 2158 is 5′ in diameter and shines at magni- applied to objects illuminated by T Tauri stars (young variable
tude 8.6. It appears rather concentrated and is even listed as stars akin to the prototype, T Tauri). Monoceros is home to
perhaps the most famous cometary nebula, Hubble’s Variable
Nebula (NGC 2261), but it also houses another often-over-
looked fan. NGC 2316 is a small emission/reflection nebula
about 1° northwest of the open cluster M50.
According to S&T Contributing Editor Steve Gottlieb’s
“Adventures in Deep Space” website (see link on page 27),
William Herschel discovered NGC 2316 in March of 1785.
Irish engineer and astronomer Bindon Stoney observed the
nebula in February 1851 and reported a second nucleus that
John Louis Emil Dreyer subsequently recorded as NGC 2317
in his New General Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars
(published in 1888). The RNGC lists NGC 2317 as nonex-
istent, and several modern references assume that 2316 and
2317 refer to the same object.
To find the nebula, look for a small, cone-shaped glow
spreading toward an arc of three stars. You’ll need at least a
10-inch scope, and a light-pollution filter, such as the Lumi-
con Deep Sky, will enhance the view. Use moderate magnifi-
cation to separate the nebula from the stars.
DEREK SA N TIAGO

 HIDDEN PLANETARY Kick off your quest for celestial treasures in 5 A Holiday Icon. The open cluster NGC 2264 is also
Orion, the Hunter, by playing peekaboo with Abell 12. known as the Christmas Tree Cluster and is associated with

22 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 9h 8h 7h 6h 5h 4h 3h 2h ε 1h
+60°
α CASSIOPEIA
CAMELOPARDALIS M103 δ
SKY SCAVENGER Stock 2
HUNT When you 869
embark on your β Double
winter observing 884 Cluster
spree, you’ll pop η
M76
into many familiar +50°
γ τ φ
constellations. δ

α θ
λ
ι
δ AND
μ
LYNX α
Capella κ
M34 γ +40°
β PERSEUS
0 ε Algol
ν β
Star magnitudes

1
ε ρ
2 β
3 AURIGA γ
4 θ TRIANGULUM
5 α Castor θ
M38
+30°
M36 ι ο
β Pollux
τ M37
1514
υ α
β
κ ε M45 ARIES
δ M35 +20°
μ 2158
Pleiades
η M1
GEMINI TAURUS
ν ζ ε
λ
Aldebaran
γ α γ
ξ ν
ξ 2169 λ +10°
ORION μ
β 2264 λ
α Abell 12 λ
Procyon
μ
α
CANIS γ ν α γ
Betelgeuse
MINOR CETUS δ
M77 0°

δ
M78 ε δ
MONOCEROS ζ ν
μ ρ
γ M43
2316 β M42
M50 ι β η –10°
ε
β δ
κ Rigel
2359 θ π
IC 418 ERIDANUS
γ α η λ κ γ
Sirius θ ζ
CANIS ι
μ –20°
MAJOR α
β LEPUS
M41
δ γ
δ β ε

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 23
Treasures in the Sky

VIKING VISIONS
NGC 2359 floats like the
helmet of a Norseman of
yore in the northeastern
reaches of Canis Major.

the Cone Nebula, an H II emission nebula similar in struc- base of the tree. While S Monocerotis is a variable star, it
ture to the Pillars of Creation in M16, the Eagle Nebula. fluctuates in magnitude only marginally, and the nebula it
The cluster is visible to the naked eye as a 4th-magnitude illuminates isn’t recognized as variable. As Lord Rosse won-
haze. A wide-field eyepiece will show the 40 or so cluster stars dered in the 1860s: “Has there been a change here?”
arranged in the distinctive shape reminiscent of a Christmas
tree cookie spanning about 40′. The bright star S Monocero- 6 A Bodybuilder. The beautiful Perseus Double Cluster
tis (15 Monocerotis) forms the trunk of the cookie’s tree (as is the starting point for finding Stock 2, the Muscleman
in the image on page 25). At the top of the tree is the Cone Cluster. From the western member of the pair (labeled
Nebula, which in larger scopes (20-inch or greater) is some- h-Persei or NGC 869 on star maps), follow the string of
what visible as a dark void in the subtle glow of the bright about 10 stars ranging in magnitude from 6 to 10 arcing
nebula that permeates the area. north in a gentle curve about 2° long, and you’ll land at the
William Herschel discovered the cluster and the associ- base of the cluster. Once you’re there, check the view in your
ated nebulosity in January 1784. On his website, Gottlieb finderscope to see the Muscleman, a stick figure reminiscent
notes that prior to 1861 William Parsons, the Third Earl of a bodybuilder with raised arms in the classic flexed-bicep
of Rosse, and other observers at Birr Castle examined the pose. Admittedly, it takes a bit of imagination to see him.
G ER A LD RHEM A NN / CCDGUIDE.CO M

region around S Monocerotis a number of times without You’ll need a wide field to take in the whole cluster, which
detecting the nebulosity that Herschel had recorded. Ger- spans a degree.
man astronomer Heinrich d’Arrest also failed in his attempt This family of stars is about 990 light-years from Earth
in 1862. Only a year later, however, Birr Castle announced and has been extensively studied. Earlier sources list around
a positive detection, followed by several other successful 166 cluster stars, but recently the Gaia satellite has identi-
observations by others thereafter. Many modern observers, fied more than 1,300 members, making it a rather massive
myself included, have noted a subtle nebulosity around the open cluster.

24 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 FESTIVE SIGHT The Christmas
Tree Cluster and the Cone Nebula
nestle together in Monoceros. The
cluster stars are arranged in an
upside-down tree shape, and the
bright star S Monocerotis — repre-
senting the trunk — is therefore at
the top of the asterism.

7 A Row in a River. Spanning about 46′ and marking the this pretty planetary to many observers in my 18-inch, and
northernmost bend in Eridanus, three stars, all designated by I always ask them to describe the color. They usually invoke
the Greek letter rho (ρ), line up to form an interesting fuzzy- blue-green until you suggest that there may be a tinge of
object asterism that’s visible to the naked eye. But the three red in the object. Then, like a revelation, the color becomes
stars are unrelated. The westernmost star, Rho1 (8 Eridani), is apparent to them. The power of suggestion is at play, per-
a 5.7-magnitude K0 giant about 300 light-years distant. In the haps. The remarkable Hubble image of the object inspired the
middle of the arc is Rho2 (9 Eridani), another K0 giant, that moniker Spirograph Nebula, but its other nicknames are the
shines at magnitude 5.4. Rho2 is actually a binary star with Raspberry Nebula and the Red Planetary. Those of us seeing
an 8.9-magnitude companion around 1.4″ away. The pair is red are obviously not alone.
about 260 light-years from Earth. Rho3 (10 Eridani), the clos-
est to Earth of the trio at 140 light-years, is magnitude 5.3. 9 An Enumerated Cluster. The small open clus-
ter NGC 2169 is a favorite object at outreach events. The
8 A Rose within a Hare. Sometimes while observing, arrangement of the 15 or so brightest stars in the group
one has to bear in mind that deep-sky objects might be uncannily resemble the number 37 in a 4-inch or larger
tinged with faint colors so as to actually perceive them. I’d scope. The pattern is quite obvious once it’s pointed out
never noticed the reddish-pink hue of the planetary nebula and makes for added interest in an otherwise unremarkable
IC 418 in Lepus until I read an observing report by the late cluster of some 30 stars. Look for it in Orion’s raised arm: It
veteran observer Barbara Wilson. At a Texas Star Party, forms the apex of a triangle pointing southwest, the base of
Wilson detected a red tint in the planetary’s disk. Bear- which is defined by Xi (ξ) and Nu (ν) Orionis. The 37 Cluster,
JIM THO M MES

ing this in mind, I examined IC 418 carefully on my next lying at a distance of some 3,000 light-years, is young — prob-
visit to the planetary. I did indeed see a pink envelope, and ably about 10 million years old or less, which makes it an
averted vision brought the color out even more. I’ve shown important laboratory for the study of stellar evolution.

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 25
Treasures in the Sky

SEEING NUMBERS To many observers

the first sight of NGC 2169 in the eye-
piece often elicits a chuckle or two.

10 A Frozen Toe. For many of us, the sky lore we’re most sight. Beta Monocerotis represents a hoof of the Unicorn and
familiar with largely consists of stars with Arabic names that is the brightest object between Sirius and Betelgeuse.
reside in the characters of Greek mythology. It’s fun, however,
to explore the vision of the sky expressed in other cultures. In 12 An Orbuculum. This obscure word is another name
Norse legend, the star Rigel (Beta Orionis) represents the big for a crystal ball, which is the nickname given to NGC 1514
toe of Orwandil (Orion), who got frostbite while crossing a in Taurus. The planetary nebula, with its bright central
river. Thor, Orwandil’s traveling companion, snapped off the star surrounded by a translucent spherical shell, is indeed
frozen digit and hurled it into the sky. In some versions of the reminiscent of a crystal ball. And somewhat like the sphere
myth, the severed toe became the star Alcor (Mizar’s fainter fortunetellers employ, it also has a way of foretelling the
companion in the Big Dipper), while Rigel represents the future — specifically, it might divine the future quality of
remaining big toe. Rigel is a blue supergiant around 60,000 your observing night by how well this mercurial orb shows
times more luminous than the Sun (with some estimates up without a filter. If you can detect the planetary’s faint disk
leaning toward even greater figures). Hiding in the glow of without a filter, you can grade the night’s transparency as
this brilliant, magnitude-0.3 star at a separation of a bit more excellent. On less-than-perfect nights, you’ll need a narrow-
than 9″ is a tiny, 6.8-magnitude companion — the view in band filter to observe the disk.
a 10-inch scope makes for a spectacular contrast with the
bright, white primary. The secondary is itself a binary com- 13 A Capricious Demon. Rounding out this baker’s dozen
prising two main sequence stars that are too close to split. of celestial gems is the most famous variable star in the sky.
The pair orbits Rigel at a distance of about 2,000 a.u. Spectro- Algol (Beta Persei) is an eclipsing variable and the first of its
scopic observations suggest that a fourth star might belong to kind ever discovered. The hero, Perseus, is depicted as carry-
the Rigel system as well. ing the severed head of the Medusa, a mythical snake-haired
monster. Algol represents that head and so earned its nick-
11 A Triple Wonder. William Herschel described Beta name the Demon Star. It’s a triple-star system, with the inner
Monocerotis as “one of the most beautiful sights in the close binary responsible for the object’s periodic dimming.
heavens.” Today, many call it Herschel’s Wonder Star. This Fainter Algol B eclipses brighter Algol A every 2.87 days, drop-
lovely system consists of three nearly equal-magnitude white ping the magnitude from 2.1 to a minimum of 3.4, where it
TENHO T UO MI

stars. The primary is magnitude 4.6 and is separated by about stays for about two hours before brightening again. The dif-
7″ from a very close pair of nearly identical beauties of mag- ference between the maxima and the minima are plainly vis-
nitudes 5.0 and 5.3. Use at least a 4-inch scope to enjoy this ible to the naked eye. The star is usually equal in brightness to

26 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 u ETHEREAL BALL Located around 7′ almost due north of 8th-magni-
tude HD 26125, the planetary nebula NGC 1514 in Taurus can serve as a N
barometer of the night’s observing conditions.

Gamma (γ) Andromedae, which lies about 4° to the west. But

during the minima, it fades to become dimmer than Epsilon
(ε) Persei, which you’ll find 9.5° degrees to the east. A simple
glance at those stars can alert you as to whether the system is
in or out of eclipse. Turn to page 50 for a chart showing Algol
and the comparison stars; during the months when Perseus is
above the horizon, the magazine also lists Algol’s minima in
both the Sky at a Glance and Celestial Calendar columns. Or
you can go to skyandtelescope.org/algol and enter the date
to find the times of the next eight minima.

The winter sky is well-known territory for most Sky & Telescope
readers. It contains the largest collection of bright stars and
familiar constellations in the northern sky. Maybe it has even
become a little too familiar to engender any real excitement
among more seasoned observers. Finding novel ways to explore
it might just re-energize your observing group. Why not design
a scavenger hunt for your next star party or outreach event?

¢ Contributing Editor TED FORTE resides in southeastern

Arizona, where he enjoys the sky at outreach events along with
fellow members of the Huachuca Astronomy Club.

USEFUL LINK Steve Gottlieb’s website is at astronomy-mall.

com/Adventures.In.Deep.Space.

Treasures in the Sky

Scavenger Hunt Hint Name Type Mag(v) Size/Sep RA Dec.
A concealed planetary Abell 12 Planetary nebula 12.0 37″ 06h 02.3m +09° 39′
A sidekick cluster NGC 2158 Open cluster 8.6 5′ 06h 07.4m +24° 06′
Headgear for a Norse god NGC 2359 Bright nebula — 9′ x 6′ 07h 18.6m –13° 12′
The Unicorn’s other fan NGC 2316 Bright nebula — 4′ x 3′ 06h 59.7m –07° 46′
A holiday icon NGC 2264 Open cluster 4.1 40′ 06h 41.0m +09° 54′
A bodybuilder Stock 2 Open cluster 4.4 60′ 02h 14.7m +59° 29′
A row in a river Rho1, 2, 3 Eridani Asterism 5.7, 5.4, 5.3 — 03h 02.7m –07° 41′
A rose within a hare IC 418 Planetary nebula 9.3 12″ 05h 27.5m –12° 42′
An enumerated cluster NGC 2169 Open cluster 5.9 6′ 06h 08.4m +13° 58′
A frozen toe Rigel Multiple star +0.3, 6.8 9.4″ 05h 14.5m –08° 12′
A triple wonder Beta Monocerotis Multiple star — — 06h 28.8m –07° 02′
AB 4.6, 5.0 7.1″ — —
MICH A EL DEG ER / CCDGUIDE.CO M

BC 5.0, 5.3 2.9″ — —

An orbuculum NGC 1514 Planetary nebula 10.9 132″ 04h 09.3m +30° 47′
A capricious demon Algol Variable star 2.1–3.4 — 03h 08.2m +40° 57′
Angular sizes and separations are from recent catalogs. Visually, an object’s size is often smaller than the cataloged value and varies according to the aperture and
magnification of the viewing instrument. Right ascension and declination are for equinox 2000.0.

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 27
GEAR GUIDE by Alan Dyer

When nightscape photos fall short of expec- which is its focal length divided by the maximum diameter of
tations, chances are the problem is the lens. the internal iris of the lens (not to be confused with the size
of its front element).
Twilight scenes, conjunctions, eclipses, noctilucent clouds,
fter a solid tripod, a good-quality, fast lens is the star trails, and even bright, moonlit nightscapes are captured

A best investment an aspiring astrophotographer can

make. It need not be an expensive purchase. But it
does require research, as the lens market has become rather
well with f/4 to f/5.6 lenses. However, the subjects astropho-
tographers most want to capture — the Milky Way, meteor
showers, and aurorae — demand a lens with a maximum
complex in the past few years, to say the least. aperture of f/2.8 or faster.
With a focus on choosing wide-angle lenses for night- They are called “fast” lenses because they let in more
scapes, here’s my guide to buying the best lens, whether it be light during a given exposure than lenses with larger f-ratios,
for your old faithful digital single lens reflex (DSLR) or for one allowing shorter, faster shutter speeds. Those are important
of the newer digital single lens mirrorless (DSLM) cameras.
 COMET AT THE ICEFIELDS A 24-mm lens is one of the most useful
for nightscapes, worth investing in for the highest quality. To capture
Aperture Is Key
Comet NEOWISE at the Columbia Icefields in Alberta, the author used a
While daylight photography is bright and forgiving, at night 24-mm Sigma Art lens made for a Nikon F-mount, attached to a Canon
we need speed. The photographically faster the better. This EOS Ra DSLM via a Metabones lens adapter, all on an iOptron Sky-
“speed” refers to the focal ratio, or “f-ratio” of the lens, Guider Pro tracker, as shown.

Choosing the Best Lenses

for Nightscapes

24-mm lens

28 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 for preventing star trails, freezing the motion of an active
Without lens correction With lens correction
aurora display, or recording a fleeting meteor. (Photograph-
ing meteors is particularly at the mercy of your lens speed.)
Attempting those subjects using typical kit zooms with f/5.6
focal ratios usually yields dark, disappointing results or
excessively trailed and noisy images. And no meteors!

Aberrant Behavior
Of course, there are downsides to photographic speed. The
first is cost. Fast lenses are more expensive, though selecting
a no-frills, manual-focus lens somewhat eases the price pain.
The second downside is aberrations. Stars, which offer the
most demanding test of a lens, can look bloated and distorted
in a fast lens used “wide open” at its maximum aperture.
Spherical aberration enlarges star images across the frame,
 VIGNETTING CORRECTION Left: The Laowa
turning them into soft blobs. Coma turns stars at the corners
Venus Optics 15-mm lens at f/2 displays strong
into comets; tangential astigmatism turns stars into radial vignetting. Right: Corrections applied automatically
streaks, while sagittal astigmatism distorts stars into con- in Adobe Camera Raw eliminate the vignetting. For
centric arcs. Longitudinal chromatic aberration adds blue or lenses not in the program’s database, users have to
magenta glows around stars everywhere in the field, while dial in such corrections using the Vignette slider.
lateral chromatic aberration spreads stars into tiny rainbows at
the corners. As a general rule, the faster — and cheaper — the The most affordable lenses, often cost-
lens the worse the aberrations, with most lenses showing a ing less than $600, will be fully manual
mix of imperfections. models. You have to focus and set the aper-
An ill effect even the best lenses can exhibit is vignetting. ture by hand. That’s just fine. While the newest cameras are
The corners look dark, sometimes by as much as two to three capable of autofocusing on stars and dimly lit landscapes, at
f-stops dimmer compared to the center. Like chromatic aber- night the best method is to manually focus on a star at high
rations (but not spherical, coma, or astigmatism), vignetting magnification using the Live View feature in your camera to
can be corrected in raw-image processing. zoom in on a star.
However, if the corners of an image are too dark out of The lowest-cost manual lenses offer no electrical com-
camera, then boosting their brightness in post-production munication with the camera. The camera doesn’t know what
often reveals ugly noise, magenta tints, and banding artifacts. lens is attached nor its aperture. That’s a slight inconve-
Vignetting is generally worse the faster and wider the lens. nience when documenting what gear and settings you used.

Manual vs. Auto Focus

For nightscapes, lenses with
14-mm, 20-mm, or 24-mm
focal lengths are the most
useful, certainly on full-frame
cameras. When shopping for
one you’ll encounter a bewil-
dering selection of lenses
within that range of focal
lengths. For example, you can
find 14-mm f/2.8 lenses, a
favored size, selling for as little
as $250 to as much as $2,000.
A LL IM AG ES COURTESY OF THE AU THOR

 EDGE ABERRATIONS This image

series compares the extreme upper
left corner of a premium Sigma 14-
mm Art lens at its maximum aperture
of f/1.8 and stopped down to f/2.8
and f/4. Astigmatism and vignett-
ing improve markedly at f/2.8, less
Sigma 14-mm Art Sigma 14-mm Art Sigma 14-mm Art
so at f/4. Most fast lenses improve at f/1.8 at f/2.8 at f/4
similarly when stopped down.

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 29
Gear Guide

 AFFORDABLE ULTRA-WIDE The most

 ULTRA-WIDE ENSEMBLE Lenses in the 14-mm to 15-mm range are great for nightscapes. popular nightscape lens has long been
Seen from left to right are the Sigma 14-mm f/1.8 Art, the Rokinon 14-mm f/2.4 SP, the Laowa the no-frills Samyang or Rokinon 14-mm
Venus Optics 15-mm f/2, and the Irix 15-mm f/2.4 Firefly, which has a handy click stop at infinity. f/2.8 ED, available for many lens mounts,
All but the Sigma are manual lenses. including mirrorless. It costs about $300.

More advanced manual lenses (sometimes called “chipped” set the aperture. If you expect to use the lens for normal
models) have electronics to communicate with the camera, daytime photos, then autofocus and autoexposure become
so it automatically records the information in the image important features.
file metadata. This information about the lens model and While all autofocus lenses also include the ability to
aperture setting makes it much easier to correct distortions manually focus, it’s now often performed via what’s called
and vignetting during post-processing. Programs including “focus by wire.” Turning the focus ring doesn’t directly move
Adobe Lightroom can automatically read this information and the lens elements but instead sends a signal to the lens’s
apply corrections to a large series of images — particularly internal motors, which perform the adjustments. Many such
handy when processing hundreds of frames to assemble into lenses lack a focus scale, which we’ve relied upon in the past
a time-lapse video. to preset focus to infinity. Precise focusing is possible but has
Fully automatic lenses will autofocus when switched to be done for each shoot, which is the best practice anyway.
to AF mode and also permit the camera to automatically While low-cost manual lenses can be great values, I advise
purchasing from a dealer who allows for easy returns for
 CHOOSE YOUR FIELD Left to right: A 14-mm lens on a full- exchanges or refunds. Lenses can suffer from de-centered ele-
frame camera is great for imaging wide swaths of the Milky Way.
ments, creating asymmetric and exaggerated aberrations that
Many photographers favor a 20-mm lens for its balance of wide field
and low distortion. A 35-mm lens frames the photogenic Milky Way
often cannot be identified until you shoot the night sky. And
core. An 85-mm is suitable for tracked “deepscapes” that isolate it can be days or even weeks before the weather cooperates to
choice deep-sky fields above a foreground. test out the lens.

14-mm lens 20-mm lens

30 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 Cropped vs. Full Frame Lens Field of View (FOV)*
Once you narrow your choice of lens, the next step is to
check if it will work with your camera. It has to fit your Full-Frame Lens for Similar FOV
brand of camera, but it also has to fit your type of camera (35-mm) with Cropped-Frame
within that brand. Focal Length Camera Camera
For example, Canon has four different types of lenses: EF 8-mm Circular Fisheye 180° 4-mm to 6.5-mm
(for all its DSLRs), EF-S (for just its cropped-sensor DSLRs), 11-mm to 12-mm 117° × 95° 7.5-mm to 9-mm
EF-M (for its M series of mirrorless, cropped-sensor cameras), Rectilinear Fisheye
and RF (for its R-series of mirrorless, full-frame cameras). 14-mm 104° × 81° 8-mm to 10-mm
Got that?
20-mm 84° × 62° 12-mm
Nikon has its decades-old F-mount from the film SLR
days and carried over to its DSLRs, as well as the new 24-mm 74° × 53° 14-mm
Z-mount lenses for its mirrorless cameras. Sony offers 35-mm 54° × 38° 20-mm to 21-mm
E-mount lenses, Leica and Panasonic require L-mount 50-mm 40° × 27° 30-mm to 35-mm
lenses, Fujifilm uses its X-mount and medium-format
85-mm 24° × 16° 50-mm to 55-mm
G-mount, while the Pentax standard is called the K-mount.
*Approximate dimensions
Yes, we have standards. Lots of them!
The other spec to check is if the lens will work with your
camera sensor. That appealing fast lens might be only for that work only on your cropped-frame camera, they’ll be
cropped-frame cameras. Sometimes you have to dig into the obsolete if you later upgrade to a full-frame camera. Industry
specs to see if that’s the case. It might say it’s for DX or APS- pundits expect Canon and Nikon will introduce few, if any,
C, terms camera manufacturers use for their cropped-frame new DSLRs in coming years. As with Sony, which discontinued
sensors. Even if it can physically connect to your brand of its DSLRs in 2021, all new cameras will be mirrorless, with
lens mount, such a lens won’t project an image circle large most of those being full-frame. Only Pentax bravely remains as
enough to fill a full-frame sensor. The vignetting will be the manufacturer of just DSLRs, both cropped and full-frame.
extreme, and no amount of post-processing will fix it!
If yours is a cropped-frame camera, then a cropped- DSLR vs. DSLM
frame lens will be just fine. Nevertheless, be mindful of two DSLRs have vast catalogs of lenses available for them. The
considerations. First, the smaller sensors of cropped-frame lens selection for the new generation of DSLMs is limited but
cameras provide a narrower field of view with any given lens growing, both from the original manufacturers and from
or focal length. It takes a 12-mm lens to provide the same third parties. Established lens manufacturers such as Sigma,
actual field of view as a 20-mm lens does on a full-frame Tamron, and Tokina now must compete with names such as
camera. For example, Samyang (aka Rokinon in North Samyang/Rokinon and Laowa, and most recently by previ-
America) has a fast 12-mm f/2 in several versions, but it’s ously unknown brands such as Irix, Meike, 7artisans, TTArti-
only for cropped-sensor cameras. san, Viltrox, and Yongnuo, to name a few.
Second, keep in mind that if you invest in a lot of lenses Many of these startups specialize in lenses just for mirror-

35-mm lens 85-mm lens

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 31
Gear Guide

 FISHEYE FRAMING Very short-focal-length

lenses encompass a full 180 degrees diagonally,
but with a curved horizon. These fisheye lenses (a
TTArtisan 11-mm f/2.8 was used at left) are spe-
cialized lenses ideal for wide sweeps of the Milky
Way, aurorae, or, in this case, both at once.

11-mm full-frame fish-eye lens

 RECTILINEAR DISTORTION Most lenses

14-mm and longer are rectilinear designs, which
present straight horizons but introduce a leaning-
in distortion on vertical structures. The effect is
more pronounced on wider lenses. This image
was taken with a Rokinon 14-mm SP at f/2.4.

14-mm rectilinear lens

 ADAPTED ABERRATIONS At far left is a

blowup of the frame corner from a 14-mm Sigma
Art lens at f/1.8 mounted directly to a Nikon
D750. At center is the same lens on a Sony a7III
using a Commlite adapter and at near left with
a Metabones adapter. The slightly incorrect lens
spacing introduced by some third-party adapters
increases off-axis aberrations.

Sigma 14-mm “Native” Sigma 14-mm on Sony α7III Sigma 14-mm on Sony α7III
on Nikon D750 via Commlite adapter via Metabones adapter

32 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

less cameras, with Leica/Panasonic’s L and Sony’s E-mounts premium prices. The improvement is sufficient to overturn
the most widely supported. Canon and Nikon have so far the old wisdom that zooms have inferior optical quality to
been reluctant to open up their R and Z systems to third- fixed-focal-length, prime lenses.
party lens manufacturers. For a traditional DSLR zoom, Sigma has its 14-24-mm
For example, as of late 2021, Samyang’s new 24-mm f/1.8 f/2.8 DG Art, Tokina its 16-28-mm f/2.8 Opera, while Tam-
AF, with a unique infinity-focus light and marketed to astro- ron’s SP 15-30-mm f/2.8 has long been a favorite of night-
photographers, is available only for Sony’s E-mount. The same scapers. For use on cropped-frame cameras, Tokina’s 11-20-
is true of Tokina’s 20-mm f/2 from its FiRIN series. mm f/2.8 CF is another popular choice.
Lenses for DSLMs will fit only on those mirrorless cam- So why buy a prime? The advantage over an f/2.8 zoom is
eras. However, lenses made for DSLRs can be adapted to work that the faster f/2 to f/1.4 apertures of most primes brighten
with DSLMs. Some lens adapters, such as those Canon and the live view image by two to four times, making it much
Nikon sell, offer full electrical connectivity, which permit easier to focus and frame a scene. The faster the lens — we’re
older autofocus lenses to fully operate on the respective com- even seeing some f/0.95 lenses now — the lower the ISO can
pany’s new mirrorless cameras. be, reducing noise, which for older, noisier cameras might be
Third-party adapters from brands such as Metabones a fair tradeoff against any added aberrations. For time-lapse
expand the flexibility to allow DSLR lenses of one brand to fit photography, the shorter shutter speeds made possible by a
on a mirrorless camera from another brand, though usually fast lens let you capture more frames during a shoot, for a
with some loss of functionality. slower, more graceful movie in the final render.
The lowest-cost lens adapters are mechanical only. They With video-centric DSLM cameras, fast apertures also
are best used only with fully manual lenses that have an aper- make real-time movies at night possible. The Sigma 20-mm
ture ring, because with no data communication between lens f/1.4 Art and the Venus Optics Laowa 15-mm f/2 have been
and camera, the camera cannot control the lens aperture. my “prime” choices for 4K movies of aurorae.
As with zooms, older DSLR prime lenses, such as the well-
Zoom vs. Prime respected Sigma Art series, are being outclassed by smaller
Another important question to consider when shopping for and lighter mirrorless primes, like Nikon’s 20-mm f/1.8 S
nightscape lenses is why buy several lenses when a single qual- and 24-mm f/1.8 S, and Sony’s 14-mm f/1.8 and 24-mm
ity zoom can cover the range? Zooms simplify your lens kit for f/1.4 G-Masters.
travel and, once onsite, make it easy to compose the scene. The camera world is in rapid transition, as are lenses, mak-
Canon, Nikon, and Sony all have f/2.8 wide-angle zooms ing selecting the best lens a challenge. However, the latest
covering the 12-to-24-mm or 16-to-35-mm range. The lenses offer much better performance, a trait we can appreci-
15-35-mm Canon RF (reviewed in the April 2020 issue), ate when shooting under the stars.
Nikon’s Z 14-24-mm S, and Sony’s FE 12-24-mm G-Master
are enjoying rave reviews from nightscape photographers, ¢ ALAN DYER is coauthor with Terence Dickinson of the new
with those new mirrorless lenses offering significantly bet- fourth edition of The Backyard Astronomer’s Guide, described
ter image quality over the older DSLR versions, though at at BackyardAstronomy.com.

 PRIMES MEET THEIR MATCH This

compares the extreme corners of a current
top-of-the-line zoom, the Canon 15-35-mm
RF (inset), wide open at f/2.8, with 14-mm
and 35-mm prime lenses, also at f/2.8. The
Canon zoom is marginally softer than the
Rokinon SP prime but slightly better than the
older Canon 35-mm L-series prime.

Zoom lens Prime lens Zoom lens Prime lens

Canon 15-35-mm RF Rokinon 14-mm SP Canon 15-35-mm RF Canon 35-mm EF L
at 15-mm and f/2.8 at f/2.8 at 35-mm and f/2.8 at f/2.8

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 33
COSMIC STRUCTURE by Govert Schilling

Unt a ngling
the Cosmic Web

THE WEB Based on survey data

and simulations, this reconstructed
image shows the structure of the
Perseus-Pisces supercluster of gal-
axies (central strand). Colors indicate
distance from the Milky Way: Red is
closer (about 130 million light-years),
blue farther (230 million light-years).
Black stripes are filaments, while
colored polygons are walls.

34 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

Astronomers are slowly mapping the long-
hidden filaments that connect galaxies.

e live in a hierarchical cosmos. Earth is one of

W eight planets orbiting a middle-of-the-road star

in a spiral arm of the Milky Way, which, in turn,
is in the outskirts of a cluster of similar galaxies. Galaxies
are often seen as the “building blocks” of the universe. But
the truth is that galaxies and their groups and clusters are
interconnected by hard-to-observe tendrils, just like towns
and cities are interconnected by roads and highways. And
although mysterious dark stuff is the main component of
this cosmic web, the structure also contains at least 30% of
all “normal” (so-called baryonic) matter in the universe.
The web-like, large-scale structure of the universe was
first predicted by renowned Soviet theorist Yakov Zeldovich,
back in 1970. That same decade, astronomers made the first
crude 3D maps of our cosmic surroundings, confirming that
galaxies are indeed distributed unevenly throughout space.
As has been revealed over and over again by ever-larger survey
programs, galaxies are concentrated in thin walls and more
prominent filaments, interspersed by large voids that may
well be a few hundred million light-years across (S&T: Oct.
2018, p. 12). Massive clusters mark the nodes where three or
more filaments meet.
But initially, no one knew whether or not the space
between the galaxies in the filaments was truly empty.
That changed in the 1980s, with the first computer
simulations of the growth of cosmic structure over time.
Dominated by the gravity of mysterious dark matter, which
comprises some 85% of all gravitating stuff, such simula-
tions predicted that the nearly homogeneous post-Big Bang
universe of 13.8 billion years ago should indeed have evolved
into an expanding cobweb- or soapsuds-like pattern. So yes,
if cosmic matter condenses into galaxies, you would expect
those to be arranged in filamentary configurations, as shown
by observations. But according to the simulations, large
amounts of matter — both dark and baryonic — should still
be present in the underlying cosmic web.
Today, state-of-the-art simulations like IllustrisTNG (The
Next Generation) and Evolution and Assembly of Galax-
ies and Their Environments (EAGLE), run by international
collaborations on some of the most powerful supercomput-
ers in the world, reveal the process in detail, taking into
account not only the gravitational pull of dark matter but

Filaments
The cosmic web comprises voids, filaments, walls,
and nodes. Filaments make up only about 5% of
JOH A N HIDDING

the cosmic volume, but they may contain half of all

baryonic mass (estimates vary).

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 35
Cosmic Structure

also the “push” of dark energy — the mysterious force behind sars. Neutral hydrogen atoms preferentially absorb ultraviolet
the observed acceleration of cosmic expansion (S&T: May photons with a wavelength of 121.6 nanometers, which pro-
2018, p. 14). According to Joop Schaye (Leiden University, vide the right amount of energy to help the atom’s single elec-
The Netherlands), the principal investigator of the EAGLE tron jump from its ground state to the next quantum level
simulation, no one questions the existence of up. The resulting absorption line in the quasar’s
intergalactic material in the cosmic web. “But spectrum will be observed at a longer wavelength
of course, observers always want to really see it here on Earth, depending on the distance to the
first,” he says. 10% absorber and the corresponding redshift due to
Fraction cosmic expansion. Usually, quasar spectra contain
Background Beacons of the a “forest” of these Lyman-alpha lines, produced by
While the web-like pattern is clearly visible in universe’s a large number of absorbers at various distances
large 3D galaxy surveys, observing its interga- baryons in along the line of sight.
galaxies
lactic content is a real challenge. Remember that The problem is figuring out the true nature
most of it is dark matter, which is invisible by of the absorbers. Most of the detectable ones are
definition. In the early universe, the baryonic gas probably individual galaxies or galactic halos
in the filaments has a very low density (in a terrestrial labora- (indistinguishable because of their remoteness), which pro-
tory, we would call it a perfect vacuum), and temperatures are duce a relatively strong absorption signal. Because only neu-
on the order of 10,000 kelvin. Over time, the structures grow tral (that is, cool) hydrogen produces the Lyman-alpha line,
larger and more massive, and shocks further heat the gas. But the approach only works as a way to detect the cosmic web
even at temperatures of millions of degrees, this plasma is at very large distances, corresponding to early times when
generally much too tenuous to be easily seen. the web’s temperature was still really low. Closer to home, in
Only at the endpoints of the tendrils, close to galaxy more recent cosmic epochs, the tendrils of the cosmic web are
clusters and individual galaxies (where it’s more commonly expected to be much hotter — astronomers sometimes call
known as the circumgalactic medium), the cosmic web has it the warm-hot intergalactic medium, or WHIM — and thus
a significantly higher density, up to hundreds of times the there’s little neutral hydrogen. Here, at distances of a few bil-
average density in the universe. Here, primordial gas flows lion light-years, other detection techniques are needed.
into galactic halos and disks, ultimately feeding the birth of That’s where X-ray astronomy comes in. As mentioned
new stars. Through stellar winds and supernova explosions, above, the evolved cosmic web contains a smattering of heavy
galaxies also blow processed gas back into space. Some of this elements, including oxygen atoms — the most abundant
material ends up in the cosmic web again, enriching the fila- metal in the universe. Because of the gas’s high temperature,
ments with heavy elements (metals in astronomical parlance) the oxygen atoms are highly ionized: Many of them have only
that are produced by stellar nucleosynthesis. “The details of one or two of their original eight electrons left. Ionized oxy-
this feedback mechanism are still not well understood,” says gen absorbs X-ray photons at a handful of particular energies,
Schaye. “We don’t know how far these metals can end up leaving characteristic dips in the brightness of background
from their parent galaxy.” X-ray sources.
One way to detect relatively cold, tenuous gas in inter- Because this technique focuses on the relatively nearby
galactic space is by looking at the absorption fingerprint it universe, it’s easier to check whether intervening galaxies
leaves in the light of background beacons, such as bright qua- cause the absorption features. If not, the features may be due
to tenuous patches of the cosmic web. Using NASA’s Chan-

E AGLE PROJECT
 GROWING WEB Over time (left to right), matter in the universe has
collected in a web-like structure. Redder colors indicate hotter gas
dra X-ray Observatory, launched in 1999, astronomers made
temperatures, while more intense color indicates higher gas density. The the first tentative WHIM detections more than 20 years ago.
strip spans about 300 million light-years vertically. “But it’s incredibly hard,” notes cosmic-web expert Rien van

36 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 Absorption of Light by Hydrogen Emission of Light by Hydrogen  LYMAN ALPHA Left: To move to a
higher energy level in the atom, an electron
must absorb a photon; to move to a lower
level, it must emit a photon. The transi-
tion between the first and second energy
levels involves an ultraviolet photon of
wavelength 121.6 nm, known as Lyman
alpha. Below: Quasars emit strongly at vis-
ible and ultraviolet wavelengths (including
Lyman alpha), and that light is absorbed
by hydrogen clouds between the quasar
and us. But because all the clouds and the
quasar lie very far away, the Lyman-alpha
lines are redshifted to longer wavelengths.
The more distant the absorber or emitter,
the redder the wavelength. The numerous
clouds between us and a quasar create a
comb-like pattern in the quasar’s spectrum
called the Lyman-alpha forest.
Brightness

Brightness

Brightness
G REGG DINDER M A N / S&T, SOURCES: EDWA R D WRIG HT A ND N ASA / ESA / LE A H HUSTA K (STSCI)

121.6 121.6 Wavelength

Wavelength (nanometers) Wavelength (nanometers)

de Weijgaert (University of Groningen, The Netherlands). tiny distortions in the shapes of tens of thousands of remote
The universe makes far more low-energy photons than background galaxies reveal the existence of a 60-million-
high-energy ones, and X-ray photons are rare. “You need an light-year-long filament between the clusters, weighing in
extremely energetic or very nearby quasar as a background at some 80 trillion solar masses. The find has been hailed as
source, and even then, X-ray astronomy is really about count- “the first robust detection of a dark matter filament.”
ing individual photons.” Later that year, Mathilde Jauzac (now at Durham Uni-
versity, UK) and her colleagues published a similar result in
Alternative Approaches Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Through
Little wonder, then, that people have tried other means to weak lensing, they were able to make a crude 3D reconstruc-
detect the elusive intergalactic filaments. For instance, Jörg tion of what appears to be a huge filament, funneling matter
Dietrich (now at University Observatory Munich) and his into the massive cluster MACS J0717.5+3745, which is so far
colleagues found evidence for an invisible but massive bridge away that its light took more than 5 billion years to reach us.
between galaxy clusters Abell 222 and 223 (some 2½ billion And weak lensing isn’t the only alternative game in town
light-years away), using a technique known as weak gravita- to track down cosmic-web filaments. In a 2013 paper in
tional lensing. In their 2012 Nature paper, they described how Astronomy & Astrophysics, the Planck Collaboration described

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 37
Cosmic Structure

how the cosmology probe found evidence for a bridge between ics, Italy) still make incidental “pencil-beam” detections by
the merging cluster pair Abell 399 and 401. Photons in the studying absorption features in quasar spectra — which can
cosmic microwave background receive an energy kick from provide useful information on gas temperatures — others
interactions with free electrons in the cosmic web, slightly have begun to create real maps of the cosmic web, albeit over
distorting the observed spectrum — a process known as the relatively small regions of the sky. As an example, the Ger-
(thermal) Sunyaev-Zeldovich (SZ) effect, after the two scien- man eROSITA telescope, mounted on the Russian Spectrum-
tists who first described it. Roentgen-Gamma spacecraft, may have detected the very
Astronomers have also applied both cosmic-web detection weak X-ray emission of hot gas in between the galaxy clusters
techniques — weak lensing and the SZ effect — to observa- Abell 3391 and 3395. In the March 2021 Astronomy & Astro-
tions of many tens of thousands of galaxy pairs. After scaling physics, Thomas Reiprich (University of Bonn, Germany) and
and rotating the observations to the correct degree, they can his colleagues cautiously describe the result as “tantalizing
be stacked and analyzed as an ensemble. Thus, over the past hints” of hot gas in a cosmic-web filament.
five years, several teams of researchers found statistically sig-
nificant evidence for the existence of large-scale inter-galaxy The First Real Image
filaments that contain a huge fraction of all the baryonic Lyman-alpha detections are also very much back in vogue. For
matter in the universe. many years now, Khee-Gan Lee (now at the Kavli Institute
Which is not to say that the interest in more direct detec- for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe, Japan) has
tions or real images has declined. While X-ray astronomers been constructing huge maps of the distribution of neutral
such as Fabrizio Nicastro (National Institute of Astrophys- gas in the cosmic web by using sky positions and distances

Galaxy cluster
MACS J0717.5+3745

t
en
m
la
Fi

N ASA / ESA / H A R A LD EBELING (UNIV ERSIT Y OF H AWAI’I, M A NOA) / JE A N-PAUL K NEIB (L A M)

We see the galaxy cluster and filament at an angle, foreshortening its apparent size.

 DARK FILAMENT By carefully measuring how the dark matter in and around the galaxy cluster MACS J0717.5+3745 warped the apparent shapes
of background galaxies, astronomers were able to map the invisible matter’s location (blue). Additional observations revealed the filament’s 3D struc-
ture and that the part farther from the cluster extends away from us (bottom).

38 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 of hundreds of Lyman-alpha absorbers in the COSMOS Light from
field — an area in the constellation Sextans that many major background
galaxies
telescopes have studied in detail in order to explore galaxy
evolution. Thanks to their instrument’s sensitivity, Lee and
his colleagues do not restrict themselves to bright quasars
as background beacons. Instead, they also use fainter star-
forming galaxies, which are much more numerous. “This
[provides] an unprecedented view of the cosmic web, which
has never been mapped at such vast distances,” Lee said in a
2014 press statement. Cosmic web
Because of the huge distances and corresponding large red- gas in foreground

shifts of the absorbing systems, the Lyman-alpha absorption

lines are conveniently shifted from the ultraviolet into the To Earth
visible part of the spectrum, where astronomers can measure
them with the Low Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (LRIS)
on the 10-meter Keck I telescope at Mauna Kea, Hawai‘i.  3D MAPPING The CLAMATO project uses distant background galax-
Using special-purpose computer algorithms, the data are then ies to look for intervening hydrogen clouds that absorb some of the gal-
converted into 3D maps. Eventually, Lee’s CLAMATO survey axies’ light. The imprint enables astronomers to reconstruct the cosmic
web that the light traversed.
(for COSMOS Lyman-Alpha Mapping And Tomography
Observations) is expected to cover a remote region of the uni-
verse some 230 million light-years wide and almost a billion )
years 2
( b illion 4
light-years in depth. rs e
of unive 6
Most recently, in another March 2021 study, scientists Age 10
8

revealed what they described as the first real image of inter- 12

14
galactic matter in the cosmic web. Not that anyone doubted
its existence anymore, “but really seeing an image is of course
much more convincing,” says study leader Roland Bacon 0.8
1.0
1.2
(University of Lyon, France). 1.4
Bacon and his colleagues used the sensitive Multi-Unit 1.6
1.8
Spectroscopic Explorer (MUSE) spectrograph of the European 2.0
2.2
Southern Observatory’s Very Large Telescope in Chile to map
the incredibly faint Lyman-alpha emission of remote swirls
of intergalactic hydrogen gas in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field.
“This is the most well-known part of the universe,” says
Bacon, “so there’s a lot of interesting science you can do here
with long observing times.”
Between August 2018 and January 2019, MUSE was
trained on this small area (in the southern constellation
 COSMIC SLICE Astronomers picked up the signal of Lyman-alpha
Fornax, the Furnace) for a total of no less than 140 hours.
emission from hydrogen at different times in the first 2 billion years of
According to Bacon, getting awarded so much observing time
SLICE OF COSMIC M A P: K HEE- G A N LEE (MPIA) A ND CASE Y STA RK (UNIV. OF

cosmic history (red, top). They found 22 notably dense regions (gray rect-
CA LIFOR NIA , BERK ELE Y ); COSMIC SLICE: ROL A ND BACON / DAVID M A RY

was the biggest challenge. “Of all the instruments on the VLT, angles, center), five of which contained especially prominent filaments
MUSE is the one most in demand,” he says. (blue rectangles and bottom row).
The faint glow of the cosmic web’s hydrogen gas is a form
of fluorescence. As mentioned before, neutral hydrogen atoms Lyman-alpha emission from intergalactic gas. It had already
get excited when they absorb ultraviolet photons with a wave- been observed in 2014, in the proximity of a luminous quasar
length of 121.6 nm. But eventually, the electrons fall back to that acted as a flashlight. Not much later, the Cosmic Web
their lowest energy level, emitting photons of the same wave- Imager — a dedicated instrument pioneered by Christopher
length in the process. Since these are emitted in all possible Martin (Caltech) — started to reveal ever-stronger hints of
directions, the Lyman-alpha emission signal is much fainter filamentary structures. And in 2019, a team led by Hideki
than the absorption signal. However, while studying absorp- Umehata (University of Tokyo) used the MUSE spectrograph
tion lines in the spectrum of a single background source only to detect structures between individual galaxies in a remote
gives you information on one tiny part of the cosmic web, protocluster. But the new observations are the first to reveal
the emission signal can provide you with an image (albeit cosmic-web filaments in the early universe, 1 to 2 billion
extremely faint) of the whole structure. years after the Big Bang. The structures have lengths of up to
Bacon and his colleagues were not the first to detect 15 million light-years.

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 39
Cosmic Structure

A Bright Future
The most surprising part of Bacon’s work is that the photons
exciting the hydrogen gas appear to come from large num-
bers of extremely small, star-forming galaxies hidden in the
filaments. According to Bacon, the dwarf galaxies weigh in at
just a million solar masses or so. “If our interpretation is cor-
rect,” he says, “the number of galaxies in the early universe
that are forming stars is huge.” Billions of these tiny galaxies
may have been responsible for re-ionizing the universe at the
end of the so-called Dark Ages, a few hundred million years
after the Big Bang.
The new results provide additional observational con-
straints to cosmologists like van de Weijgaert, who try to
model the evolution of the large-scale structure of the uni-
verse. “But don’t forget that dark matter is the main compo-
nent of the cosmic web,” he says. “The big question is to what
 XRISM TELESCOPE Scheduled to launch in 2022, this X-ray tele-
extent the gas distribution is representative for the web as a scope may help astronomers explore cosmic structure.
whole.” Building on work by Francisco-Shu Kitaura (now at
the Institute for Astrophysics in the Canary Islands, Spain), observed distribution of real galaxies. Eventually, his eye-
van de Weijgaert’s PhD student Johan Hidding has recon- catching reconstructions (see page 34) may provide much
structed the dark matter distribution in the local universe out more detailed information on the evolution and the cur-
to some 300 million light-years by meticulously “tweaking” rent locations of cosmic-web filaments and on the density of
supercomputer simulations until they exactly reproduce the intergalactic gas in the local universe, Hidding says.
Massive galaxy surveys will also yield a wealth of detailed
 FILAMENT One of the hydrogen filaments (blue) discovered using the information about the cosmic web, enabling cosmologists to
MUSE instrument in the Hubble Ultra-Deep Field (background image). explore the precise way in which dark matter and dark energy
The structure stretches across 15 million light-years. have shaped the large-scale structure of the universe. Prime
examples are the recently completed Dark Energy Survey
(DES), the ongoing Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument
(DESI) survey, the upcoming Legacy Survey of Space and Time
(LSST), and the future space-based galaxy surveys of ESA’s
Euclid and NASA’s Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope.
Next-generation ground-based telescopes like the European
Southern Observatory’s 39-meter Extremely Large Telescope,
outfitted with sensitive integral-field spectrographs, will
vastly surpass the recent achievements of the VLT’s MUSE
instrument. And future X-ray observatories — in particular
the Japanese-American X-Ray Imaging and Spectroscopy

FIL A MEN T: ROL A ND BACON / DAVID M A RY / ESO / N ASA; X RISM TELESCOPE: N ASA
Mission (XRISM) and the European Advanced Telescope for
High-Energy Astrophysics (Athena) — have high enough sen-
sitivity and spectral resolution to detect hundreds of tenuous
intergalactic filaments.
As theories and simulations become more sophisticated
over time, and observations ever more detailed, the study of
the elusive cosmic web will likely remain a fecund interaction
between the two approaches for quite some time to come. In
the past, theoretical insights have usually guided cosmolo-
gists’ interpretation of their sparse observational data. But in
the end, the real universe has the last word. Before long, we
could be witnessing how theories follow observations, instead
of the other way around.

¢ Contributing editor GOVERT SCHILLING’s new book on the

search for dark matter, The Elephant in the Universe, will be
published this spring by Harvard University Press.

40 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 OBSERVING
January 2022

1 DUSK: Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury, 4 EARTH passes through perihelion, 19 EVENING: Algol shines at
and Venus are arranged in a line above its closest point to the Sun for 2022 minimum brightness for roughly two
the southwestern horizon. If you want (just 3% nearer than at aphelion in hours centered at 11:56 p.m. EST (8:56
to see all four planets, you’ll have to be July). p.m. PST).
quick to catch the sight before Venus
and Mercury set. 4 DUSK: The Moon, still in the 20 DAWN: The waning gibbous Moon
southwest, is now higher in the sky is above the western horizon in Leo; 4°°
2 EVENING: Algol shines at with Saturn around 5°° upper right. separates it from Regulus.
minimum brightness for roughly two
hours centered at 7:01 p.m. EST (see 5 DUSK: The waxing crescent 22 EVENING: Algol shines at
page 50). Moon and Jupiter are some 5°° apart in minimum brightness for roughly two
Aquarius. hours centered at 8:46 p.m. EST.
3 DUSK: Look very low in the
southwest to espy the thinnest sliver 12 DUSK: Mercury and Saturn grace 24 DAWN: It’s Virgo’s turn for a lunar
of a Moon hanging some 4°° below the southwestern horizon; a smidgen visit, where the Moon (one day shy of
Mercury. Turn to page 46 for more more than 3°° separates the pair before last quarter) is 5°° upper right of Spica.
details on this and other events listed they set. Higher up in Taurus, the
here. waxing gibbous Moon is closing in on 29 DAWN: The pretty trio of the
the Pleiades and will be less than 4°° waning crescent Moon, Mars, and
3–4 ALL NIGHT: The short-lived away by mid-evening. Venus rises in the south-southeast. The
Quadrantid meteor shower peaks for Sun follows soon thereafter, but you’ll
North America at 3:40 p.m. EST on 13 EVENING: Still in Taurus, the Moon have about an hour to enjoy this sight.
January 3rd (go to page 49). The Moon is now some 6°° from Aldebaran. — DIANA HANNIKAINEN
is one day past new and won’t interfere
for more favorably placed viewers in 17 MORNING: Before the Sun rises, p The winter Moon rises above Lastoi del
Formin in the Dolomites in northern Italy.
Asia and Eastern Europe. the full Moon gleams in the west in
GIORGIA HOFER
Gemini, a bit more than 4°° from Pollux.

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 41
JANUARY 2022 OBSERVING North
Lunar Almanac
Northern Hemisphere Sky Chart h
Do Al
D Ga
ζ co
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January 7 et acrl beub rer
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NE
β
M MINOR
A β α
JO U URSA
Yellow dots indicate R +80°
SA R

β
which part of the
Moon’s limb is tipped M81
the most toward Earth M82
by libration.

M O
IN
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N ASA / LRO Polaris

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22

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SUN MON TUE WED THU FRI S AT AL
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γ
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Pollux
17

GEMINI

Capella
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P
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γ
α

ER
α

β
M67

α
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
L
9
h

SE
AURIGA
I P
Facing East

α
θ

U
T
HYDRA

δ
M38
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 I C

S
M36
M37

β
l
CANIS
MINORα

ε
β

ρ
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 β

M35
µ

ζ
η
30 31 ζ Moo

γ
Jan n
13 Ple
iad
Procyon

es
Hya
Be
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NEW MOON FIRST QUARTER Ald
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January 2 January 9 TA λ
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18:33 UT 18:11 UT
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FULL MOON LAST QUARTER

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January 17 January 25
κ
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23:48 UT 13:41 UT ο2
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DISTANCES -1 α
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January 1, 23h UT
M

Perigee 0 NUS
41

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358,033 km Diameter 33′ 23″ 1 γ –20°

JO

LE
2 PU
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Apogee January 14, 09h UT S

3
405,805 km Diameter 29′ 27″
Fa

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ng α
ci

6h
Perigee January 30, 07h UT SE CO
α
Planet location LU
362,252 km Diameter 32′ 59″ shown for mid-month M CA
BA EL
FAVORABLE LIBRATIONS UM
USING THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE MAP
–40°
• Vashakidze Crater January 7 Go out within an hour of a time listed to the right.
Turn the map around so the yellow label for the
• Wilson Crater January 16 direction you’re facing is at the bottom. That’s 3
• Pilâtre Crater January 18 the horizon. The center of the map is overhead.
Ignore the parts of the map above horizons
• Baade Crater January 22 you’re not facing. Exact for latitude 40°N. Facing

42 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

Facing

1
r view
cula
i no
° b

5
ι
β

h
ν

18
η
Cr 69
γ
DRACO
λ
α
Ve
ga N
W μ
ζ g

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γ ε

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ORION φ2

a
A
φ1

F
R
LY
Dipper
Little
Betelgeuse α

rn
h s
δ

β
s
e
o

reo
γ

N Cr
δ

r t

i
Alb
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S χ
α U
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29

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α
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39

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61

NUS
ε
Binocular Highlight by Mathew Wedel
TA

δ
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PHI
AS
C

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The Head of the Hunter

ε γ
δ

DEL
β
γ

+60°
ter α

B
Clus efitting the constellation’s name, Orion, the
ble h
21
Dou
Hunter always seems to sneak up on me.
EQUULEUS
M15

Somehow it creeps over the horizon unannounced,

η

Facing West
1

ANDROMEDA

PEGASUS

and then I see it soaring in the eastern sky and I

M3

β
Al

µ
γ
34
g

know that winter is upon us.

M

ε
β

Zenith One winter jewel worth checking on at any mag-

α
UM

Square
Great

nification is Lambda (λ) Orionis, also known as

UL

3
β

M3
NG

Meissa. Together with Phi1 (φ1) and Phi2 (φ2) Orionis

IA
α

M2
TR

and the open cluster Collinder 69, Lambda forms the

θ
ζ

S
IE α head of the imaginary hunter. Lambda itself is a dou-
AR
α

β
ble star, but with a separation of only 4.5″ it’s too tight
γ

+20° γ
S

et

Mars
E

to be split with binoculars. It sits near the visual center

cl
C

γ
η

IS

of Collinder 69, a loose open cluster of approximately

ir
C
P

100 stars, of which perhaps 10 or 20 are resolvable in

Moon Jupiter binoculars. The rest contribute to a general brighten-
Jan 9
ing or fuzziness that seems to envelop Orion’s head.
γ Moon
α

T O R In fact, it’s that apparent fuzziness that makes

E Q U A Jan 6
ι
Lambda and its neighbors so interesting, especially at
a
Mir θ different magnifications. Stars in close proximity can
US

η
ζ fool you into thinking that nebulosity is present when
RI

S
TU none exists. To the naked eye, the light of Lambda
UA

CE
Orionis, Phi1 and Phi2 Orionis, and the brighter cluster
AQ

τ
β members combine to make Orion’s head almost as
misty as his sword. Binoculars resolve quite a few
stars and dispel much of the unfocused glow in this
area, but take a close look: You might spot some rem-
SW

FORNAX α nant brightening — the star-forming nebula Sharpless

h
g

0 n 264 occupies the same region of space. Although

R
a ci
TO F WHEN TO
the nebula is generally regarded as too faint for small
LP amateur optics, veteran observer Stephen James
U USE THE MAP
SC O’Meara thinks that it might just be possible to catch
Late Nov 11 p.m.
in averted vision under extremely dark conditions.
θ Early Dec 10 p.m.
Comparing the view with naked eyes, binoculars, and
Late Dec 9 p.m.
3h a telescope might prove enlightening.
Early Jan 8 p.m.
Late Jan 7 p.m. ¢ MATT WEDEL finds that exploring the heavens with
g South These are standard times. binoculars helps clear the fuzziness from his head.

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 43
JANUARY 2022 OBSERVING
Planetary Almanac

PLANET VISIBILITY (40°N, naked-eye, approximate) Mercury visible at dusk until the 15th •
Venus visible at dusk until the 5th and then at dawn starting on the 10th • Mars visible at dawn all
month • Jupiter visible at dusk all month • Saturn visible at dusk until the 19th.

Mercury
January Sun & Planets
Date Right Ascension Declination Elongation Magnitude Diameter Illumination Distance

Jan 1 11 21 31 Sun 1 18h 44.5m –23° 03′ — –26.8 32′ 32″ — 0.983

31 20h 52.9m –17° 32′ — –26.8 32′ 28″ — 0.985

Venus
Mercury 1 20h 01.5m –22° 22′ 18° Ev –0.7 5.9″ 78% 1.142

11 20h 45.6m –18° 06′ 19° Ev –0.3 7.5″ 43% 0.891

21 20h 30.9m –16° 01′ 6° Ev +4.0 9.9″ 3% 0.681

31 19h 46.3m –17° 50′ 16° Mo +1.5 9.6″ 16% 0.703

Venus 1 19h 37.3m –18° 38′ 13° Ev –4.3 60.9″ 2% 0.274

11 19h 11.9m –17° 07′ 6° Mo — 62.5″ 1% 0.267

21 18h 50.6m –16° 18′ 19° Mo –4.5 57.8″ 6% 0.289

31 1 31 18h 44.8m –16° 15′ 31° Mo –4.8 50.0″ 14% 0.334
16
Mars Mars 1 16h 45.4m –22° 28′ 27° Mo +1.5 4.0″ 98% 2.341

16 17h 31.8m –23° 35′ 32° Mo +1.5 4.1″ 97% 2.259

1 16 31
31 18h 19.2m –23° 50′ 36° Mo +1.4 4.3″ 96% 2.172
Jupiter
Jupiter 1 22h 10.7m –12° 19′ 50° Ev –2.1 35.4″ 99% 5.567

31 22h 35.1m –9° 58′ 26° Ev –2.0 33.7″ 100% 5.854

Saturn 1 20h 57.2m –18° 06′ 31° Ev +0.7 15.5″ 100% 10.746

31 21h 11.2m –17° 07′ 4° Ev +0.7 15.3″ 100% 10.896

16 Uranus 16 2h 32.9m +14° 36′ 105° Ev +5.7 3.6″ 100% 19.443

Saturn Neptune 16 23h 27.5m –4° 44′ 55° Ev +7.9 2.2″ 100% 30.471

The table above gives each object’s right ascension and declination (equinox 2000.0) at 0h Universal Time on selected dates,
and its elongation from the Sun in the morning (Mo) or evening (Ev) sky. Next are the visual magnitude and equatorial diameter.
16 (Saturn’s ring extent is 2.27 times its equatorial diameter.) Last are the percentage of a planet’s disk illuminated by the Sun and
the distance from Earth in astronomical units. (Based on the mean Earth–Sun distance, 1 a.u. equals 149,597,871 kilometers, or
Uranus 92,955,807 international miles.) For other timely information about the planets, visit skyandtelescope.org.

Neptune
December
solstice
10"
Earth
Uranus
Venus
 PLANET DISKS are presented Mercury
north up and with celestial west to the
right. Blue ticks indicate the pole cur- March Sept.
Jupiter equinox equinox
rently tilted toward Earth.
Neptune Sun
 ORBITS OF THE PLANETS Saturn
The curved arrows show each planet’s
movement during January. The outer
planets don’t change position enough Mars June
in a month to notice at this scale. solstice

44 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 Evenings with the Stars by Fred Schaaf Pleiades

The Noble κ

Hyades
The nearest open cluster is
a naked-eye delight. Hyades δ1
δ2
Aldebaran
ast month I called the Pleiades
L the loveliest of all naked-eye star
clusters. But a friend of mine asked,
σ
θ

“What about the Hyades?” I thought

about my lifelong love of that collec-
tion of stars and quickly came to this
personal judgement: The Pleiades are
the loveliest naked-eye star cluster, but
the Hyades are the noblest.
The most prominent members of the
Hyades outline the face of Taurus, the
celestial Bull. Depending on the time
p TAURUS TWOSOME Riding high on January evenings is the constellation Taurus, the Bull,
of night (and your latitude) these stars
which features two superb open clusters: the Pleiades and the Hyades. Of the two, the Hyades is
appear as a glittering V or arrowhead. arguably the more “noble” naked-eye sight.
The southeastern arm of the V would
be shorter without the presence of members are brighter than magnitude (18′) and shine at magnitude 3.8 and
magnitude +0.9 Aldebaran, but the star 5.0. That’s 16 stars that you should be 4.8, respectively. About 1° southeast of
isn’t actually a member of the Hyades. able to see without optical aid even Aldebaran you’ll find Sigma (σ) Tauri,
In fact, at a distance of 65 light-years, from a small city or a moderately light- comprised of blue-white stars of mag-
Aldebaran is considerably closer than polluted suburb. A total of 26 Hyades nitudes 4.7 and 5.1, separated by a little
the cluster, which is roughly 150 light- stars are brighter than magnitude 6.5, more than 7′. How many of these pairs
years away. Nonetheless, the Hyades is the traditional naked-eye limit for can you split without optics?
the nearest true star cluster and three really dark skies. More than 130 Hyads When I view the cluster, my eye
times closer than the Pleiades. are brighter than 9th magnitude and is drawn to an extra line of Hyads
The Hyades also appears bigger and hence within reach of binoculars under extending south-southwest of the V,
brighter than the Pleiades. This can clear, dark skies. transforming it into a Z or N. I was
be considered as both a good and a Not all the stars of the Hyades gratified to see Stephen James O’Meara
bad thing. Why bad? The stars of the are crowded inside the V pattern. The also mentioned this configuration in his
Pleiades are close enough to Earth to brightest Hyad farthest from the main book The Caldwell Objects (the Hyades
appear reasonably bright, yet far enough flock is Kappa1 (κ1) Tauri, a 4.2-mag- cluster is listed as Caldwell 41).
away to crowd together in a marvelously nitude star lying north of the ecliptic The middle-aged Hyades are much
compact grouping. The key stars of and the V. A scant 5.6′ from Kappa1 is older than the young, blue Pleiades
the Pleiades can fit into the low-power 5.3-magnitude Kappa2, also known — indeed, many Hyads have already
field of a small, wide-field telescope. By as 67 Tauri. The Kappa pair are one of evolved into red (and orange) giants.
contrast, you need binoculars capable several naked-eye doubles in the cluster. In about 50 million years the receding
of showing a 5½° field to contain the The brightest duo includes the yellow, Hyades will be a ½°-wide telescopic
expansive Hyades. 3.8-magnitude star Theta1 (θ1) Tauri, cluster positioned a few degrees east of
But when it comes to naked-eye which shines 5.6′ from the orange, where Betelgeuse is now.
observing, the number of stars easily 3.4-magnitude Theta2. This pair is the
visible in the Hyades is much greater next stop down from Aldebaran in ¢ FRED SCHAAF was delighted that
than in the Pleiades. The five bright- the southeastern arm of the V. In the asteroid 7065 Fredschaaf was passing
A K IR A FUJII

est Hyads shine between magnitudes other branch of the V, the Delta1 (δ1) through the Hyades just a few months
3.4 and 3.8, and another 11 cluster and Delta2 pair are much farther apart after it was named for him.

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 45
JANUARY 2022 OBSERVING
Sun, Moon & Planets by Gary Seronik
To find out what’s
visible in the sky from
your location, go to
skyandtelescope.org.

Mercury, Venus, and Saturn Slip Away

A quartet of bright planets crowd the southwestern horizon at dusk.

SATURDAY, JANUARY 1 now Mars is gliding away from Antares can’t spot the thin lunar crescent this
As the month gets underway, early risers at a rate of about ½° per day. This rapid evening, try again tomorrow when it’ll
can watch Mars continue its journey eastward motion is one reason why the be fatter and much higher — the trio
past Antares, in Scorpius. Antares is planet remains stubbornly mired in still form a triangle, just a different one.
a notable conjunction mate for two the haze near the dawn horizon. On Mercury currently shines at magni-
reasons. First, it’s the third brightest January 1st, Mars rises about two hours tude –0.7, and Venus gleams at magni-
star near the ecliptic (only Aldebaran ahead of the Sun, and by the 31st that tude –4.2. However, the two planets are
and Spica are marginally brighter), and figure grows by only a couple of min- moving in opposite directions — Mer-
second, its color is a close match for the utes. Talk about slow progress! cury is climbing higher, while Venus
Red Planet. On this particular morning, is losing altitude as it heads toward its
however, Antares outshines its “rival” by MONDAY, JANUARY 3 January 8th conjunction with the Sun.
roughly half a magnitude. Can you see Fresh from its dawn meetup with Mars Don’t worry — Venus won’t be gone for
the difference? And if you have a par- and Antares, the Moon returns to the long. You should be able to spot it at
ticularly unobstructed view towards the dusk sky where it forms a triangle very dawn starting on the morning of the
southeast, try to catch the razor-thin low in the west-southwest with the two 10th, when it begins an apparition that
(2%-illumined), crescent Moon lower innermost planets, Venus and Mercury. will continue on through the end of
left of Mars and Antares. The warm- Of the three, the Moon may prove to be next summer. As interesting as triangles
hued planet-star duo were actually the toughest to spot, sitting about 12° are, more eye-catching is the luminous
closest as December drew to a close, and left of the brilliant Evening Star. If you line spanning 40° that includes Saturn

 These scenes are drawn for near the middle of North America (latitude 40° north, longitude 90° west). European observers should move each
Moon symbol a quarter of the way toward the one for the previous date; in the Far East, move the Moon halfway. The blue 10° scale bar is about the
width of your fist at arm’s length. For clarity, the Moon is shown three times its actual apparent size.

Dusk, Jan 3 – 5 Dusk, Jan 7 Dusk, Jan 12

30 minutes after sunset 1 hour after sunset 45 minutes after sunset
Jupiter
AQUARIUS
Jupiter
Moon Jupiter
10°
Jan 5
AQUARIUS
CAPRICORNUS
Saturn

Moon
Jan 4 CAPRICORNUS
Saturn
Mercury
Saturn

Mercury Mercury
Moon
Jan 3

Looking Southwest Looking Southwest Looking West-Southwest

46 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 +40° 18h 16h 14h 12h 10h 8h 6h 4h 2h 0h 22h +40°
Vega RIGHT ASCE NSIO N GEMINI CYGNUS
Castor
+30° BOÖTES Jan Pollux +30°

DECL INATIO N
17 – 18 13 Pleiades ARIES
HERCULES Arcturus LEO
+20° PEGASUS +20°
Uranus
+10° 22 Regulus TAURUS
PISCES +10°
AQUILA Betelgeuse
OPHIUCHUS VIRGO CANCER Procyon 9 0°
0°
C ORION EQUATOR AQUARIUS
25 TI Neptune Jupiter
LIBRA
–10° LIP Rigel
Venus EC Sirius Mercury
Spica CORVUS CETUS
ERIDANUS Jan 6
Mars 28 HYDRA
CANIS
Saturn
Antares
SAGITTARIUS MAJOR CAPRICORNUS
–30° Fomalhaut –30°
SCORPIUS LOCAL TIME OF TRANSIT
–40° 10 am 8 am 6 am 4 am 2 am Midnight 10 pm 8 pm 6 pm 4 pm 2 pm –40°

 The Sun and planets are positioned for mid-January; the colored arrows show the motion of each during the month. The Moon is plotted for eve-
ning dates in the Americas when it’s waxing (right side illuminated) or full, and for morning dates when it’s waning (left side illuminated). “Local time
of transit” tells when (in Local Mean Time) objects cross the meridian — that is, when they appear due south and at their highest — at mid-month.
Transits occur an hour later on the 1st, and an hour earlier at month’s end.

and Jupiter as well as Venus and Mer- is higher above the horizon a few days bous Moon, riding high in the south.
cury. Think of it: in a single view you before or after that date. In this case, About 4° above the bright lunar disk is
can see four of the five bright naked-eye the difference is small. For observers at the clutch of stars known as the Pleia-
planets. Impressive! Saturn glows at mid-northern latitudes, Mercury is very des, or M45. (The cluster is also known
magnitude +0.7 from its perch near the slightly higher at dusk on the 9th than as the Seven Sisters, as readers of Fred
middle of Capricornus, while Jupiter is this evening. Schaaf’s December column will recall.)
roughly 20° away and, at magnitude Glare from the 80%-illuminated Moon
–2.1, utterly dominates Aquarius. WEDNESDAY, JANUARY 12 will make the cluster stars a bit harder
If you’ve been watching Mercury regu- to notice, so don’t be afraid to pull out
FRIDAY, JANUARY 7 larly, you’ll have noticed that it’s been your binoculars again.
Today Mercury reaches its greatest getting closer and closer to Saturn.
elongation from the Sun, when it sits Mercury has been climbing higher while SATURDAY, JANUARY 29
19° east of our home star. This marks Saturn has been sinking lower, and at Let’s wrap up the month the way we
the climax of an apparition that began dusk today the two worlds are at their started — in the dawn sky with the
in December and is the first of four closest with a little less than 3½° sepa- Moon and Mars, which are now joined
evening showings in 2022. Catch rating them. (They’ll be nearly as close by a post-solar-conjunction Venus. Of
Mercury while you can because you’ll tomorrow evening, too.) The two are all the January solar-system gather-
have to wait until April for another similarly bright, with Mercury shining ings, this is probably the most striking.
shot at it at dusk. (That apparition will at magnitude 0.0 and Saturn at magni- Certainly, it’s the easiest one to see,
be the planet’s finest for the year.) And tude +0.7. Given the pair’s low altitude apart from the bit about having to get
though the date of greatest elongation (45 minutes after sunset it’s just 6°), up early in the morning. Any time you
tends to be the one that gets the most you’ll probably find that binoculars have the Moon and Venus together,
attention, more often than not Mercury make spotting them much easier. After it’s going to attract attention — even if
this meet-and- they’re quite far apart, as they are on
Dawn, Jan 28 – 30 greet, Mercury this occasion when they’re separated
Moon will pull away as by about 13°. The scene is enhanced by
30 minutes before sunrise
Jan 28
it plunges sun- the Morning Star’s extreme brightness
ward for its solar (magnitude –4.8) and the subtle beauty
conjunction on of earthshine lighting up the “dark”
Venus
the 23rd. Saturn is portion of the lunar disk. And let’s not
Mars Moon
Jan 29 moving at a more forget Mars, shining gamely at magni-
leisurely pace and tude 1.4, upper left of the Moon. When
SAGITTARIUS won’t have its date we last looked in on the Red Planet it
with the Sun until was visiting Antares, but since then it
Mercury Moon February 4th. has motored eastward more than 20°.
Jan 30
Later this
evening turn your ¢ Consulting Editor GARY SERONIK is
attention toward more than happy to greet the new year
Looking Southeast
the waxing gib- with his solar system friends.

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 47
JANUARY 2022 OBSERVING M74 57 Algenib
η γ +15°
Celestial Calendar by Bob King 15
13 660
58
11
π 34
30¡
9 PISCES
524 +10°
ο S138
7 ζ20¡ ε δ 41 35

5
μ
Bowling 676

ν Feb 1
3 95

520
488
80

OΣ 18
10¡
+5°

for Borrelly α
Alrescha
Σ 186
ξ R 31 89
474
29
428
IC 1613

January has a bite to it, 27

Pa
60 0°
42

th
25

of
but you can bite back by 20

Co
23 5 Cet
checking out a periodic

m
39 13

et
21

19
comet. 25

P/
19 –5°

Bo
779
596

rre
f you’ve ever gone bowling, you have a
I 584 17

lly
pretty good idea of what the nucleus 615 θ 337
of Comet 19P/Borrelly looks like. Up 15 157
Baten
37 ι
close, it’s shaped like a bowling pin Kaitos 13 –10°
S
except that it’s composed of ice and η φ2 φ1 11
ζ χ φ4
dust and stands 8 kilometers (5 miles) φ3
Star magnitudes

3 246 9
tall. We last got a good look at this peri-
4
odic comet in our telescopes when it 210 7
5 720 46
came to perihelion in May 2015. It does CETUS
6 50 5 –15°
so again on February 1st. 7 6
τ 3
Borrelly passed closest to Earth 8
β AC
last December but will reach its peak Jan 1, 2022
UV
brightness of around 9th magnitude 2h 00m 1h 30m 1h 00m Deneb Kaitos 0h 30m
7
in early January, dimming slightly by
month’s end. Southern skywatchers p Throughout January, Comet 19P/Borrelly will be an early evening target as it traverses Cetus on
its way into Pisces. (The comet’s positions are plotted for 0h UT.)
got their first good look at this dusty
visitor last autumn, and now the rest which coincidentally is the warmest Borrelly became the second comet
of us can share in the icy bounty as part of January nights. Based on past (after 1P/Halley) to be imaged up close,
the comet ascends from western Cetus apparitions, the comet should exhibit a when NASA’s Deep Space 1 spacecraft
into Pisces in the evening sky. Your best moderately compact coma and a short, flew just 2,170 kilometers from its
views will come at the end of twilight, eastward-pointing tail. A 6-inch scope nucleus in September 2001. Laurence
will fish it out, but an 8- or 10-inch Soderblom, who headed the Deep Space
 Comet Borrelly displays a small coma and
instrument will better show Borrelly’s 1’s camera team, noted at the time
short tail in this photo taken during its most re-
cent apparition, on August 12, 2015. According classic cometary form. that the photographs recorded “rugged
to comet expert Alan Hale, Borrelly’s current French astronomer Alphonse Bor- terrain, smooth, rolling plains, deep
return is the “best one it will have had in over relly discovered the object on December fractures, and very, very dark material.”
two decades.” 28, 1904, when it was also in Cetus and The comet remains visible well into
moving northward. Borrelly worked at spring, though it gradually fades as it
Marseilles Observatory and discovered proceeds northeastward through Pisces,
18 asteroids and several more comets in Aries, Taurus, and Auriga. On the eve-
his lifetime. Comet 19P/Borrelly orbits ning of January 10th, Borrelly sweeps
the Sun every 6.9 years and is a mem- 2.3° northwest of the 10.9-magnitude
ber of the Jupiter-family of comets — a planetary nebula NGC 246, also known
A LFONS DIEPV ENS

passel of frozen leftovers with orbital as the Skull Nebula. The Moon stays
periods of fewer than 20 years and largely out of the picture from Decem-
molded by gravitational interactions ber 21st to January 6th, and again from
with the giant planet. January 19th to February 3rd.

48 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 7h 50m 81 7h 40m 7h 30m 7h 20m
3

Star magnitudes
+18° 4
74 5
6
7
8
9
GEMINI
λ
+16° Path of 7 Iris
68
Jan 3 5 27 29 31 Feb
1 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 2

+14°
2395 2355
Medusa
Nebula PK 205+14.1

Eye on Iris β
Pollux
υ
ι

GEMINI ε
Moonless
BINOCULARS ARE OFTEN underap-
preciated. Many skywatchers leap from
κ
δ
μ η Quads
+20° ζ
naked-eye observing to a telescope and NORMALLY, MOONLESS CONDI-
ν
bypass the humble handheld instru- TIONS for any meteor shower would
ment. I’ve learned to utilize binoculars λ γ be cause to celebrate, but the annual
more and more over the years and can’t Path of Quadrantids are fussy. While up to
think of a better way to put them to 7 Iris ξ 120 meteors per hour could be visible
good use this month than by tracking under ideal conditions, the shower’s
+10° γ
down the asteroid 7 Iris. It comes to MONOCEROS peak lasts only about 4 hours. If
opposition on January 13th in southern CANIS β you miss that brief window, the rate
MINOR
Gemini, where it glows at magnitude α 7 30m
h 7h 00m 6h 30m plummets to about 25 per hour —
Procyon
7.7. That’s a little brighter than Nep- though that’s still a bit better than a
tune, which means Iris is well within reflective surface is pocked by craters, typical Lyrid or Orionid display.
reach of 50-mm binoculars from a eight of which are between 20 and This year the Quads are expected
moderately dark site. 40 kilometers across and bear Greek to peak around 20:40 UT (3:40 p.m.
Around opposition, Iris advances names for the colors of a rainbow, such Eastern Time) on January 3rd, which
westward about ¼° each night and ends as Chloros (green) and Cyanos (blue). favors observers in Asia and at
the month ¾° south-southeast of the These features were discovered with the eastern European longitudes. North
3.6-magnitude star Lambda (λ) Gemi- Very Large Telescope’s SPHERE instru- American skywatchers will still see
norum. If you watch closely, you can ment. a shower, but one with the volume
perceive its night-to-night motion even Iris orbits the Sun every 3.7 years and turned down. Because of the timing
in binoculars by carefully noting its rotates once every 7.1 hours. Remote of the peak, it’s likely the mornings
changing position against the back- examination of its surface reveals of the 3rd and 4th will both offer
ground stars. similarities to LL-chondrite (low-iron) good viewing. Watch between 3 a.m.
English astronomer John Russell meteorites. Familiar examples include and dawn when the radiant stands
Hind discovered Iris from London, Eng- the Chelyabinsk meteorite fall of Febru- highest in the northeastern sky.
land, in August 1847 during a system- ary 2013 as well as the asteroid Itokawa,
atic search following the discovery of which the Japanese probe Hayabusa p Astrophotographer Petr Horálek captured
this composite photo of the 2020 Quadran-
Neptune the previous year. Named for visited in 2005, returning samples of
tid meteor shower above a snowy Slovakian
the Greek rainbow goddess, Iris is the the asteroid to Earth in June 2010. landscape. The peak of this year’s display
fourth-brightest minor planet and has And now you can grab your own favors observers (and photographers) in
a mean diameter of 214 kilometers. Its retinal “sample” of Iris photons. Eastern Europe and Asia.

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 49
JANUARY 2022 OBSERVING
Celestial Calendar

Action at Jupiter
JANUARY IS THE FINAL COMPLETE
month of the current Jupiter appari-
Polaris
tion and offers your last chance for
Quadrantid Meteor Shower decent telescopic views of the planet
Mizar 1 am, Jan 4 before its conjunction with the Sun in
URSA URSA early March. On the 1st, Jupiter has an
MINOR Little MAJOR altitude of roughly 35° at sunset, but by
Dipper 10° month’s end that figure is down to 21°.
As January begins, the gas giant shines
Quadrantid at magnitude –2.1 and spans just 35″.
radiant
Any telescope reveals the four big
DRACO
BOÖTES Galilean moons, and binoculars usu-
ally show at least two or three. Use the
diagram on the facing page to identify
them by their relative positions on any
HERC ULES Arcturus given date and time. All the observable
interactions between Jupiter and its sat-
ellites and their shadows are tabulated
Looking Northeast on the facing page.
Features on Jupiter appear closer to
Quadrantid meteors derive from named for an instrument once used the central meridian than to the limb
fragments shed by the small, near-Earth to measure the altitudes of celestial for 50 minutes before and after transit-
asteroid 2004 EH1. It’s thought the objects. French astronomer Jérôme ing. Here are the times, in Universal
asteroid is actually an extinct comet that Lalande created the figure from a smat- Time, when the Great Red Spot should
still exhibits occasional activity. Quads tering of “unused” stars between Draco cross Jupiter’s central meridian. The
travel at 41 kilometers per second, and and Boötes. It never gained wide accep- dates, also in UT, are in bold. (Eastern
the display isn’t stingy with fireballs. tance and soon entered the domain of Standard Time is UT minus 5 hours.)
The annual cosmic sprinkle gets its defunct constellations. But once a year, December 1: 1:44, 11:40, 21:35;
name from the former constellation like Santa Claus, Quadrans Muralis 2: 7:31, 17:27; 3: 3:23, 13:19, 23:14;
Quadrans Muralis (Mural Quadrant), returns to gift us a meteor shower. 4: 9:10, 19:06; 5: 5:02, 14:58; 6: 0:54,
10:50, 20:45; 7: 6:41, 16:37; 8: 2:33,
12:29, 22:24; 9: 8:20, 18:16; 10: 4:12,
Minima of Algol 14:08; 11: 0:04, 09:59, 19:55; 12: 5:51,
Dec. UT Jan. UT 29
15:47; 13: 1:43, 11:39, 21:34; 14: 7:30,
2 11:00 3 0:01 17:26; 15: 3:22, 13:18, 23:13; 16: 9:10,
18
5 7:49 5 20:50 30
19:05; 17: 5:01, 14:57; 18: 0:53, 10:49,
PERSEUS 20:44; 19: 6:40, 16:36; 20: 2:32, 12:28,
8 4:38 8 17:39
38 22:24; 21: 8:20, 18:15; 22: 4:11, 14:07;
11 1:27 11 14:28
21 23: 0:03, 09:59, 19:54; 24: 5:51, 15:46;
13 22:16 14 11:18 Algol
25: 1:42, 11:38, 21:34; 26: 7:30, 17:25;
16 19:05 17 8:07 27: 3:21, 13:17, 23:13; 28: 9:09, 19:05;
19 15:54 20 4:56 29: 5:01, 14:56; 30: 0:52, 10:48, 20:44;
22 12:44 23 1:46
TRIANGULUM
31: 6:40, 16:36
25 9:33 25 22:35 34 January 1: 2:30, 12:26, 22:21; 2: 8:17,
28 6:22 28 19:24 18:13; 3: 4:09, 14:05; 4: 0:01, 9:57, 19:52;
31 3:11 31 16:14 5: 5:48, 15:44; 6: 1:40, 11:36, 21:31; 7:
These geocentric predictions are from the recent p Perseus is positioned at the zenith dur- 7:28, 17:23; 8: 3:19, 13:15, 23:11; 9: 9:07,
heliocentric elements Min. = JD 2457360.307 + ing evening hours throughout January. Ev- 19:02; 10: 4:59, 14:54; 11: 0:50, 10:46,
2.867351E, where E is any integer. They were ery 2.7 days, Algol (Beta Persei) dips from 20:42; 12: 6:38, 16:33; 13: 2:30, 12:25,
derived by Roger W. Sinnott from 15 photoelectric its usual magnitude 2.1 to 3.4 and back.
series in the AAVSO database acquired during 22:21; 14: 8:17, 18:13; 15: 4:09, 14:04;
Use the chart above to estimate Algol’s
2015–2020 by Wolfgang Vollmann, Gerard Samo-
brightness in respect to comparison stars
16: 0:01, 09:56, 19:52; 17: 5:48, 15:44;
lyk, and Ivan Sergey. For a comparison-star chart
and more info, see skyandtelescope.org/algol. of magnitude 2.1 (Gamma Andromedae) 18: 1:40, 11:36, 21:31; 19: 7:27, 17:23;
and 3.4 (Alpha Trianguli). 20: 3:19, 13:15, 23:10; 21: 9:07, 19:02;

50 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 Jupiter’s Moons
22: 4:58, 14:54; 23: 0:50, 10:46, 20:41; will be centered at System II longitude
24: 6:38, 16:33; 25: 2:29, 12:25, 22:21; 9° on January 1st. If the Red Spot has
26: 8:17, 18:12; 27: 4:09, 14:04, 23:59; moved elsewhere, it will transit 12/3
Jan 1
28: 0:00, 9:56, 19:52; 29: 5:48, 15:43; minutes earlier for each degree less
30: 1:40, 11:35, 21:31; 31: 7:27, 17:23 than 9° and 12/3 minutes later for each 2
These times assume that the spot degree more than 9°.
3 EAST WEST

4
Phenomena of Jupiter’s Moons, January 2022
5
Jan. 1 4:01 II.Tr.I 15:27 I.Tr.I Jan. 16 14:00 III.Oc.D 14:00 I.Tr.I
6:06 II.Sh.I 16:22 I.Sh.I 14:37 I.Oc.D 14:41 I.Sh.I
6 Ganymede
6:52 II.Tr.E 17:44 I.Tr.E 17:43 I.Ec.R 16:17 I.Tr.E
8:53 II.Sh.E 18:38 I.Sh.E 20:47 III.Ec.R 16:57 I.Sh.E
7
13:26 I.Tr.I Jan. 9 9:32 III.Oc.D Jan. 17 4:50 II.Oc.D Jan. 25 11:09 I.Oc.D
14:26 I.Sh.I 12:35 I.Oc.D 9:13 II.Ec.R 14:07 I.Ec.R 8
15:43 I.Tr.E 13:08 III.Oc.R 11:58 I.Tr.I Jan. 26 1:57 II.Tr.I
16:42 I.Sh.E 13:16 III.Ec.D 12:46 I.Sh.I 3:19 II.Sh.I 9
Jan. 2 5:07 III.Oc.D 15:47 I.Ec.R 14:15 I.Tr.E 4:48 II.Tr.E
8:44 III.Oc.R 16:45 III.Ec.R 15:02 I.Sh.E 6:06 II.Sh.E 10 Io
9:14 III.Ec.D Jan. 10 2:01 II.Oc.D Jan. 18 9:07 I.Oc.D 8:30 I.Tr.I
10:34 I.Oc.D 6:37 II.Ec.R 12:12 I.Ec.R 9:10 I.Sh.I 11
12:44 III.Ec.R 9:57 I.Tr.I 23:06 II.Tr.I 10:47 I.Tr.E
13:52 I.Ec.R 10:51 I.Sh.I Jan. 19 0:41 II.Sh.I 11:26 I.Sh.E 12 Europa
23:13 II.Oc.D 12:14 I.Tr.E 1:56 II.Tr.E Jan. 27 5:40 I.Oc.D
Jan. 3 4:01 II.Ec.R 13:07 I.Sh.E 3:28 II.Sh.E 8:36 I.Ec.R
13
7:56 I.Tr.I Jan. 11 7:05 I.Oc.D 6:29 I.Tr.I 8:47 III.Tr.I
8:55 I.Sh.I 14
10:16 I.Ec.R 7:15 I.Sh.I 11:27 III.Sh.I
10:13 I.Tr.E 20:15 II.Tr.I 8:45 I.Tr.E 12:21 III.Tr.E
11:11 I.Sh.E
15
22:03 II.Sh.I 9:31 I.Sh.E 14:53 III.Sh.E
Jan. 4 5:04 I.Oc.D 23:06 II.Tr.E Jan. 20 3:38 I.Oc.D 21:04 II.Oc.D
16
8:21 I.Ec.R Jan. 12 0:50 II.Sh.E 4:18 III.Tr.I Jan. 28 1:07 II.Ec.R
13:08 IV.Oc.D 4:27 I.Tr.I 6:41 I.Ec.R 3:01 I.Tr.I 17 Callisto
17:26 II.Tr.I 5:19 I.Sh.I 7:25 III.Sh.I 3:38 I.Sh.I
17:38 IV.Oc.R 6:44 I.Tr.E 7:52 III.Tr.E 5:18 I.Tr.E 18
19:25 II.Sh.I 7:35 I.Sh.E 10:52 III.Sh.E 5:54 I.Sh.E
20:16 II.Tr.E 22:18 IV.Tr.I 18:14 II.Oc.D Jan. 29 0:10 I.Oc.D 19
22:12 II.Sh.E 23:50 III.Tr.I 22:31 II.Ec.R 3:05 I.Ec.R
22:33 IV.Ec.D Jan. 13 1:36 I.Oc.D Jan. 21 0:59 I.Tr.I 15:23 II.Tr.I 20
Jan. 5 2:26 I.Tr.I 2:45 IV.Tr.E 1:43 I.Sh.I 16:38 II.Sh.I
2:29 IV.Ec.R 3:23 III.Sh.I 3:16 I.Tr.E 18:13 II.Tr.E 21
3:24 I.Sh.I 3:26 III.Tr.E 3:59 I.Sh.E 19:06 IV.Tr.I
4:43 I.Tr.E 4:45 I.Ec.R 9:40 IV.Oc.D 19:25 II.Sh.E 22
5:40 I.Sh.E 6:50 IV.Sh.I 14:03 IV.Oc.R 21:31 I.Tr.I
19:25 III.Tr.I 6:51 III.Sh.E 16:49 IV.Ec.D 22:07 I.Sh.I 23
23:00 III.Tr.E 10:42 IV.Sh.E 20:39 IV.Ec.R 23:26 IV.Tr.E
23:22 III.Sh.I 15:25 II.Oc.D 22:08 I.Oc.D 23:48 I.Tr.E
24
23:34 I.Oc.D 19:55 II.Ec.R Jan. 22 1:09 I.Ec.R Jan. 30 0:23 I.Sh.E
25
Jan. 6 2:49 I.Ec.R 22:58 I.Tr.I 12:31 II.Tr.I 1:10 IV.Sh.I
2:50 III.Sh.E 23:48 I.Sh.I 14:00 II.Sh.I 4:54 IV.Sh.E 26
12:37 II.Oc.D Jan. 14 1:14 I.Tr.E 15:22 II.Tr.E 18:41 I.Oc.D
17:19 II.Ec.R 2:04 I.Sh.E 16:47 II.Sh.E 21:34 I.Ec.R 27
20:57 I.Tr.I 20:06 I.Oc.D 19:29 I.Tr.I 22:58 III.Oc.D
21:53 I.Sh.I 23:14 I.Ec.R 20:12 I.Sh.I Jan. 31 4:50 III.Ec.R 28
23:13 I.Tr.E Jan. 15 9:40 II.Tr.I 21:46 I.Tr.E 10:29 II.Oc.D
Jan. 7 0:09 I.Sh.E 11:22 II.Sh.I 22:28 I.Sh.E 14:24 II.Ec.R 29
18:05 I.Oc.D 12:31 II.Tr.E Jan. 23 16:39 I.Oc.D 16:02 I.Tr.I
21:18 I.Ec.R 14:09 II.Sh.E 18:28 III.Oc.D 16:36 I.Sh.I 30
Jan. 8 6:50 II.Tr.I 17:28 I.Tr.I 19:38 I.Ec.R 18:18 I.Tr.E
8:44 II.Sh.I 18:17 I.Sh.I Jan. 24 0:49 III.Ec.R 18:52 I.Sh.E 31
9:41 II.Tr.E 19:45 I.Tr.E 7:39 II.Oc.D
11:31 II.Sh.E 20:33 I.Sh.E 11:49 II.Ec.R

Every day, interesting events happen between Jupiter’s satellites and the planet’s disk or shadow. The first columns give
the date and mid-time of the event, in Universal Time (which is 4 hours ahead of Eastern Daylight Time). Next is the satellite
The wavy lines represent Jupiter’s four big satellites. The
involved: I for Io, II Europa, III Ganymede, or IV Callisto. Next is the type of event: Oc for an occultation of the satellite behind
central vertical band is Jupiter itself. Each gray or black
Jupiter’s limb, Ec for an eclipse by Jupiter’s shadow, Tr for a transit across the planet’s face, or Sh for the satellite casting its
own shadow onto Jupiter. An occultation or eclipse begins when the satellite disappears (D) and ends when it reappears (R ).
horizontal band is one day, from 0 h (upper edge of band)
A transit or shadow passage begins at ingress (I) and ends at egress (E ). Each event is gradual, taking up to several minutes. to 24h UT (GMT). UT dates are at left. Slide a paper’s edge
Predictions courtesy IMCCE / Paris Observatory. down to your date and time, and read across to see the
satellites’ positions east or west of Jupiter.

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 51
JANUARY 2022 OBSERVING
Exploring the Solar System by Thomas A. Dobbins

Monitor
Jupiter
for Planet
Strikes
Amateurs keep catching
objects hitting Jupiter, and
you can, too.

or eight days in July of 1994 the

F fragments of Comet Shoemaker-
Levy 9 smashed into Jupiter, producing
The Hubble Space Telescope recorded
this image of the dark debris field pro-
duced by fragments G and D of Comet
huge clouds of sooty particulates that Shoemaker-Levy 9 on July 18, 1994.
encircled the planet and lingered for
months. Arguably the most impressive
spectacle ever witnessed by astrono- Anthony Wesley captured images of a September 2012. Four more have been
mers, these events drove home the grave fresh impact “bruise” as it rotated into recorded in recent years. All seven of
danger to Earth posed by comet and view over Jupiter’s morning limb. (The these events were confirmed in videos
asteroid impacts (S&T: June 2018, p. 12) impact itself was unobserved because acquired by at least two geographically
and added a new urgency to determin- it occurred on Jupiter’s averted night separated observers, all amateurs.
ing the frequency of cosmic collisions. hemisphere.) Less than two days later, In the past, small impacts producing
In recent years a series of serendipitous NASA’s Infrared Telescope Facility flashes lasting for a second or two were
discoveries by amateur astronomers has obtained the first images of this feature widely regarded as undetectable with all
provided vital clues. through an 890-nanometer methane but the largest ground-based telescopes.
Despite its lack of a solid surface, band filter in the near-infrared region But the modest instruments that
Jupiter is the ideal place to look for of the spectrum. Methane filters effec- today’s amateurs wield have proven to
asteroid and comet impacts. With a tively block the sunlight reflected off be remarkably powerful tools. In recent
diameter over 11 times greater than clouds deeper in the Jovian atmosphere, years, the sensitivity, frame rates, and
Earth’s, Jupiter is a big target. And at so the presence of material high above signal-to-noise ratio of high-speed video
two and a half times the mass of all the the main cloud deck stands out. A cameras employed by amateurs have
other planets combined, it is the solar dark appearance in visible light com- improved dramatically. Higher sensitiv-
H. H A MMEL / MIT / N ASA , PRO CES SING: JUDY SCHMIDT
system’s major attractor for impact- bined with a bright appearance in the ity makes it possible to detect impact
ing bodies. Jupiter’s powerful gravita- near infrared is the hallmark spectral flashes using smaller telescopes, while
tional pull also accelerates objects to signature of impact scars. The methane faster frame rates (>30 frames per sec-
high speeds. Ignoring orbital velocities, pictures showed the spot to be much ond) provide better temporal resolution
objects strike Jupiter with roughly five brighter than its surroundings. of the light curves of the events, permit-
times the velocity of those that strike In June of the following year, Wesley ting astronomers to infer the nature of
Earth, resulting in impact energies that and others recorded the flash of a bright the impacting object (stony, metallic,
are 25 times higher. bolide above Jupiter’s clouds that left icy compact, or icy porous) through its
On July 19, 2009 — almost 15 no detectable mark on the face of the fragmentation behavior.
years to the day after the Shoemaker- planet. A similar event followed only With these impacts in mind, French
Levy 9 events — Australian amateur 10 weeks later, and a third occurred in amateur Marc Delcroix, Spanish physi-

52 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 Impact plume

p Brazilian amateur José Luis Pereira captured

the most recent impact event at 22:39 UT on
September 13, 2021, using his 10.8-inch Newto-
nian reflector and a QHY5III462C video camera
(see page 10).

 The debris field of an impacting object in

Impact area 2009 appears bright when seen through a
890-nanometer methane filter.

cist Ricardo Hueso, and Jon Juaristi been observed only a few times. observable with amateur instruments
Campillo of the Center for Astronomy Analysis of the light curves of the that persist for weeks. According to Sán-
at Heidelberg University in Germany five flashes recorded between 2010 and chez-Lavega, these events probably occur
wrote software that searches for impact 2017 indicates they were produced once every 3 to 16 years and should be
flashes in video recordings. Employ- by impactors measuring less than 20 observed about once every 7 years.
ing a fast and efficient algorithm based meters in diameter (assuming a modest Jupiter has long been known as “the
on differential photometry, DeTeCt density typical of cometary material). amateur’s planet” due to its rich legacy
(https://is.gd/DeTeCt) is an open- The energy released by these events is of discoveries by backyard astronomers
source application that planet imagers comparable to the February 13, 2013 (S&T: Nov. 2021, p. 52). Professional
can use on their own computers to “superbolide” airburst over the Russian astronomers find it easier to collaborate
identify impacting events. The program city of Chelyabinsk, which was 30 times with this worldwide amateur network
eliminates the need to perform a very more powerful than the atomic bomb than to persuade the committees
tedious and time-consuming frame-by- dropped on Hiroshima. that allocate telescope time to allow
frame hunt for bright spots of fleeting A recent estimate by Spanish astron- a round-the-clock, long-term vigil for
duration by searching for localized omer Agustin Sánchez-Lavega of the sporadic events.
brightness anomalies and automatically impact rate of objects in this size span A growing band of dedicated ama-
generating a detection image and report. striking Jupiter ranges from 10 to 65 teurs continues to provide monitoring of
Using DeTeCt is one of the core per year. He notes that only a fraction Jupiter during each apparition. Thanks
activities of the Europlanet Planetary of these can be observed from Earth for to DeTeCt software, imagers can analyze
20 0 9 IMPACT: N ASA / IRTF / JPL- CA LTECH / UNIV ERSIT Y OF OX FORD

Space Weather Services. The project’s several reasons: video recordings of the planet long after
website (https://is.gd/europlanet) pro- Impact sites are evenly distributed the end of the annual Jupiter observing
vides a tutorial for using the program, a over Jupiter’s visible day and averted season. So make time to scan your
download link, and an up-to-date list of night hemispheres. unprocessed planetary videos — you
results. The group has also analyzed There’s only an eight-month observ- may have an unnoticed impact event in
data acquired during almost two ing window each year when Jupiter is your possession awaiting discovery. The
decades of Jupiter observations contain- readily visible. opportunity to collect valuable data and
ing more than five months of continu- Most observations tend to cluster make real contributions to planetary sci-
ous video recordings. Scrutinizing this around the date of opposition. ence has never been greater.
long span of data allows more accurate The visibility of impacts at high lati-
estimates of the frequency of impacts, tudes on Jupiter’s oblate globe is poor. ¢ Contributing Editor TOM DOBBINS
though considerable uncertainties Impactors larger than about 300 has yet to witness an object hit Jupiter
remain because it’s difficult to make a meters, like the one that produced Wes- himself, but he enjoys vicarious views
statistical analysis of events that have ley’s 2009 scar, yield dark debris fields provided through the internet.

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 53
JANUARY 2022 OBSERVING
Suburban Stargazer by Ken Hewitt-White

room to spare. I love aiming the scope

at the Minnow’s tail, marked by 5th-
magnitude 14 Aurigae, a lovely double
star also known as Struve (Σ) 653.
Upping to 72× snares a 7.3-magnitude
blue-white companion 14″ southwest of
the 5.0-magnitude yellow primary. Last
winter, I turned to my 8-inch reflec-
tor and discovered that Σ653 is a triple
treasure — 100× picked up a 10.9-mag-
nitude tertiary star a scant 10″ north of
the gleaming primary.
The brightest star in the Minnow,
4.5-magnitude 16 Aurigae, is a kind
of guidepost. Slightly more than 11′
northeast of this orangey beacon is a
double named Espin 59, whose 8.5- and
9.6-magnitude components are sepa-
rated by 14″. Less than 14′ west-south-
west of 16 Aurigae is a much tougher
tandem. Σ666 features 7.9-magnitude
twins 3.2″ apart. In the 4¼-inch at
93×, the sibling suns appear as two dots
almost in contact, while in the 8-inch

A Milky Way Chariot Ride at essentially the same power they’re a

nicely spaced set of headlights.
Finally, I always cast my gaze 40′ east
Have a cool time touring the Leaping Minnow region of of orangey 16 Aurigae to locate Espin
332. Consisting of 8.9- and 9.6-mag-
southern Auriga. nitude components nearly 15″ apart,
Espin 332 is just another garden-variety
inter can be tough on astrono-  WINTER’S CHARIOTEER The pentagon- double — indeed, a virtual copy of Espin
W mers. Across much of the
northern United States and Canada, the
shaped constellation of Auriga, the Charioteer,
sits astride the winter Milky Way. Dominated
59. But I consider the easterly Espin
helpful because it’s the easy-to-spot
by zero-magnitude Capella, Auriga is easy to
“Orion months” tend to be pretty darn locate high in the east on January evenings.
doublet centering a bent row of three
cold. My situation in southwestern Brit- 9th-magnitude stars that lead right into
ish Columbia, a few snowdrifts north of magnitude Capella. On the moonless our next target.
the 49th parallel, is typical — the night evenings of early January, 2022, the big,
sky above my frosted suburban home bold Charioteer is well placed halfway Subtle Pleasures
is compromised by light pollution and up the eastern sky. Let’s get in there. The target in question is NGC 1893, an
chimney smoke. Our tour begins at the pentagon’s ill-defined cluster half-submerged in
Fortunately, even modest tele- southern end, where an optical find- the Milky Way. The scattered members
scopes can pull in a variety of celestial erscope or binoculars will reveal a of this 10′-wide group are faint — I can
treasures throughout the winter. I’m 1.6°-long asterism of 5th- and 6th- detect only the central half of NGC
especially attracted to the cluster-filled magnitude stars dubbed the Leaping 1893 from my suburban observing site.
portion of the Milky Way that spills Minnow. The slender Minnow swims in Conveniently, a triangle of 9th-mag-
through Auriga, the Charioteer. Join me a northeasterly direction — a parallelo- nitude stars, roughly 13′ wide, neatly
as I take my 4¼- and 8-inch Newtonian gram of four stars at the top forms the frames the visible loot.
reflectors for a short journey into the Minnow’s head, while two loners — one In my 4¼-inch at 20×, NGC 1893
Auriga Milky Way. at the center, another at the bottom are is a teasingly granular haze surround-
its body and tail. The sextet dominates a ing a 9.8-magnitude lucida. The 72×
Fishing for Minnows large, coarse clump of three-dozen suns view suggests a loose crowd of very
The constellation’s pentagon-shaped called Melotte 31, or Mel 31, for short. weak stars inside the triangle. My larger
A L A N DYER

pattern is outlined by a half-dozen 2nd- My 4¼-inch reflector operating at scope produces 20 participants, some
and 3rd-magnitude stars, plus zero- 20× captures Mel the Minnow with in teeny pairs. Revved up to 135×, the

54 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

  MEET THE MINNOWS In the constel-
M38 lation Auriga, a large, loose “cluster” (its
categorization is uncertain) called Melotte 31 is
dominated by an asterism of a half-dozen 5th-

Star magnitudes
5
6 and 6th-magnitude stars dubbed the Leaping
1907
7 Minnow by S&T Senior Editor Alan MacRobert.
+35° 8 The region is also home to several notable
9 open clusters, including M36, 37, and 38. All
Σ698
10 three can be viewed with binoculars.
False
Σ707 φ Minnow η
Stock 8
ζ
+40°
M36 ν
+34° Leaping AURIGA
Σ687
19 Minnow θ
Espin 59
M38
Σ666
16 +35°
1893
AURIGA Espin M36
+33° 332 ι
M37
Σ653 14

+30°
β
5h 35m χ 5h 30m 5h 25m 5h 20m 5h 15m 5h 40m 5h 20m 5h 00m

8-inch snares a dim duo identified in

the Washington Double Star Catalog
as FYM 376. The 10.3- and 11.3-mag-
nitude stars, 14″ apart, lie northwest
of the lucida. There’s also an unlisted
tighter set southeast of the lucida.
North-northwest of NGC 1893,
three 9th- and 10th-magnitude stars
form a tiny isosceles triangle. A line
extended from 18 through 19 Aurigae
in the Leaping Minnow grazes the trio.
Measuring 17″ by 48″, the wee wedge
is listed as Σ687, a triple system. In the
4¼-inch at 20×, STF 687 is a blur easily
missed. However, 72× creates an eye-
catching geometric figure — the vertex
of which points directly at NGC 1893.
The Leaping Minnow leaps toward
the False Minnow, 2° northeastward.
Our fraudulent fish is established by a
handful of stars, led by 5.1-magnitude
Phi (φ) Aurigae. Like 16 Aurigae in
the Leaping Minnow, orangey Phi is a
handy guidepost. For example, a 40′ hop
northwest of Phi lands on the colorful
double Σ698, which boasts a yellowy
6.7-magnitude primary and a blue-
white 8.3-magnitude secondary about
31″ apart. Simply put, Σ698 is a beauty.
 MINNOW TERRITORY The Auriga Milky Way is resplendent with glittering star clusters and
RON BR ECHER

A few arcminutes east of Phi is an delicate emission nebulae. (Use the chart above to identify the targets displayed in this photo.)
oblong open cluster called Stock 8. Surrounding the coarse open cluster NGC 1893 is a faint but enticing cloud of hydrogen called IC
Although officially 15′ in extent, in my 410. Although wonderfully photogenic, the nebula isn’t visible in the author’s backyard telescopes.

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 55
JANUARY 2022 OBSERVING
Suburban Stargazer

8-inch the cluster is a mere sprinkle My favorite cluster in the area,

of stars, 6′ long. Ah, but the leader is a though, is M37. Lying just outside the
triple star! At 94× the 9.4-magnitude Auriga pentagon, it packs a population
primary and 10.8-magnitude secondary of approximately 1,800 stars, all but
of Σ707 are 18″ apart and obvious. The one dimmer than magnitude 10. In the
11.5-magnitude tertiary (part of a pair 4¼-inch at 20×, I get a powdery mass,
designated BU 889, which shares the 15′ wide, enveloping a reddish, 9.2-mag-
9.4-magnitude star) emerges at 135×, nitude lucida. M37 magnifies well —
turning Σ707 into a delicate triangle. 72× resolves the powder into pinpoints,
provided I cup my hands around the
Beyond the Minnows eyepiece to protect my dark-adapted
Three Messier clusters add glitter to the eye from stray light. When I take the
Auriga Milky Way. Starting at Phi in the same precaution with the 8-inch at 94×,
False Minnow, a 1.5° arc of 7th-mag- I perceive M37 as an intricate starry
nitude stars trends northward toward maze cut by narrow lanes. Sublime!
M38. In my smaller Newtonian at 20×,  TWO FOR THE PRICE OF ONE Open
M38 is an easy if unspectacular catch. ¢ Contributing Editor KEN HEWITT- cluster M38, in Auriga, greatly outshines its
celestial neighbor, NGC 1907. In truth, the
The 15′-wide agglomeration contains WHITE loves everything about winter
clusters only seem like neighbors. M38 is
160 members, but they’re mostly below except the clouds, wind, snow, and sub- 3,750 light-years from Earth, while NGC 1907
10th magnitude. That said, a moderate zero temperatures. is 4,336 light-years away.
increase in power morphs M38 into a
ragged letter X. My 8-inch working at
94× brings out many additional suns Charioteer Treasures
without diminishing the “X-factor.” An
8.4-magnitude star hugs the cluster’s Object Type Mag(v) Size/Sep RA Dec.
northeastern edge. Xcellent stuff — and Mel 31 Open cluster — — 5h 19.6m +33° 36′
there are still two Messiers to go! Σ653AC Double star 5.0, 7.3 14.3″ 5h 15.4m +32° 41′
Hold on. A tiny cluster sits ½° south
Σ653AB Double star 5.0, 10.9 9.8″ 5h 15.4m +32° 41′
of M38. Barely 5′ in diameter, NGC
Espin 59 Double star 8.5, 9.6 13.8″ 5h 18.7m +33° 31′
1907 hides more than 100 faint stars
— none brighter than mag 11. In the Σ666 Double star 7.9, 7.9 3.2″ 5h 17.1m +33° 20′
4¼-inch at 20×, M38’s shy neighbor Espin 332 Double star 8.9, 9.6 14.7″ 5h 21.4m +33° 23′
is a compact, grainy glow somewhat NGC 1893 Open cluster 7.5 10.0′ 5h 22.7m +33° 25′
overpowered by two 9.8-magnitude
FYM 376 Double star 10.3, 11.3 13.9″ 5h 22.7m +33° 26′
field stars (separated by 52″) that guard
the cluster on its southern periphery. Σ687AB Double star 8.7, 9.8 17.3″ 5h 22.3m +33° 48′
Higher magnification intensifies the Σ687A,CD Double star 8.7, 10.2 48.2″ 5h 22.3m +33° 48′
glow and supplies partial resolution of Σ698 Double star 6.7, 8.3 31.4″ 5h 25.2m +34° 51′
the “grain.” In my 8-inch at 94×, NGC Stock 8 Open cluster — 15′ 5h 28.1m +34° 26′
1907 becomes a tiny hive of stars.
Σ707AC Double star 9.4, 10.8 18.3″ 5h 25.2m +34° 51′
Let’s shift a couple of degrees south-
east to M36. About 10′ across, M36 BU 889AF Double star 9.4, 11.5 27.8″ 5h 28.1m +34° 25′
lays claim to 60 stars, none better than M38 Open cluster 6.4 15.0′ 5h 28.7m +35° 51′
magnitude 9. Even so, this little guy NGC 1907 Open cluster 8.2 5.0′ 5h 28.1m +35° 20′
makes a brighter splash than M38. In M36 Open cluster 6.0 10.0′ 5h 36.3m +34° 08′
my smaller reflector, the cluster is thin
Σ737AB Double star 9.1, 9.4 11.0″ 5h 36.4m +34° 08′
and relatively unconcentrated. Hap-
pily, though, M36 offers an embedded M37 Open cluster 5.6 15.0′ 5h 52.3m +32° 33′
RON BR ECHER

binary. Σ737 sports 9.1- and 9.4-magni- Angular sizes and separations are from recent catalogs. Visually, an object’s size is often smaller than
the cataloged value and varies according to the aperture and magnification of the viewing instrument.
tude stars 11″ apart. The petite pairing Right ascension and declination are for equinox 2000.0.
is fuzzy at 20× but unmistakable at 72×.

56 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 Pro-Am Conjunction by Diana Hannikainen

target’s orbit and thus a prediction of

its future path.

Nosing Around NEOs Gear up. Psyche and Didymos aren’t

the only objects in Target NEOs!’s
crosshairs; several more await. And
Your asteroid observations may provide space many are bright enough for backyard
scopes, but you’ll still need at least an
missions with valuable data.
8-inch (the bigger the better). Imag-
ing requires an astronomical camera,
ear-Earth asteroids might conjure Why amateurs? Observing time on ideally one with a monochrome sensor
N images of our annihilation. But
they’re so much more than menacing
large telescopes (think Keck) is limited,
which makes it especially challenging
equipped with photometric or color fil-
ters. A DSLR camera works, too, for the
bits of rubble — they’re brimming with to secure sky time for projects that rely brighter targets (magnitude 14–16).
information on the early solar system. on regular, frequent sightings of large You should also arm yourself with a
Spacecraft have rendezvoused, orbited, numbers of targets. Most professional broadband filter, but if you’re using a
and touched down on them, and even astronomers only get a few nights — or DSLR, its “green channel” is akin to
brought samples back to Earth for hours — per year. And that’s just not the V-band, so you won’t need a filter.
scientists to poke and prod. Interest enough for in-depth NEO research. Data reduction software is a must for
in these rugged, rocky relics remains “For some studies, long-baseline obser- both photometry and astrometry (sev-
high, and several science missions are vations are vital,” says Hill. Amateur eral free packages are available online).
either under way or in the making. But astronomers can fill in the gaps, since To register for the project, send an
mission designers need your help. they can observe anytime, anywhere. email to the coordinators: meteorite@
Target NEOs! Near-Earth Objects Two other NASA missions are cox.net or [email protected]
(NEOs) include asteroids such as expected to benefit from amateurs’ (this step verifies serious inquiries and
101955 Bennu, the quarry of the input: Psyche, scheduled to arrive at identifies observers’ locations). You’ll
OSIRIS-REX mission that launched the giant metal asteroid 16 Psyche in receive a “welcome to the program”
in 2016 (S&T: May 2020, p. 14). The 2026, and the Double Asteroid Redi- email that includes the list of targets,
spacecraft “tagged” the asteroid in rection Test (DART), which will slam and you’ll be added to the project’s
October 2020, snatching some regolith into the “moonlet” of 65803 Didymos. mailing list.
to bring back to Earth in September Data from ground-based observations Once you’ve acquired your data,
2023. In support of the mission, Dolo- — via photometry and astrometry — will submit your images and a Minor
res Hill and Carl Hergenrother (both better characterize these two targets. Planet Center–type report to the
University of Arizona) tapped into the And both techniques are doable with coordinators (https://is.gd/TargetNEO
amateur community for observations small scopes. Photometry provides has instructions). You don’t need to be
of possible parent asteroids to Bennu estimates of an asteroid’s rotation rate, affiliated with the AL to participate.
— 142 Polana and 495 Eulalia. Hill and shape, and color, while astrometry And although the coordinators don’t
Hergenrother wanted to expand on enables the crucial calculation of the require an MPC code for observers,
these initial successes and teamed up they highly encourage it.
with the Astronomical League (AL). Hill, Hergenrother, and other NEO
And thus, Target NEOs! took off. enthusiasts eagerly await your observa-
tions. “More data are always better,
 HELP TAG AN ASTEROID The OSIRIS- of course,” Hill says. “It turns out that
REX spacecraft descends towards Bennu’s
surface in this artist’s rendering. some of our most prolific observers
have been those with smaller tele-
scopes who just get out there and give
it a try.”
N ASA / GO D DA R D / U N I V E R S IT Y O F A R IZO N A

¢ Observing Editor DIANA HANNIKAINEN

would love to hitch a ride to an asteroid.

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 57
 CELESTIAL CARTOGRAPHY by Ray Harris

The First
Deep-Sky
Atlas
Can a classic star atlas still work for
modern observers?

From earliest times astronomers were aware that among the

fixed stars there were a few, equally fixed but un-star-like
objects which appeared to them as ‘misty patches’ or ‘little
clouds’. These were the nebulae and their unique appearance and
comparative rarity exercised the imagination of all who enquired
into the nature of the universe.

Kenneth Glyn Jones, The Search for the Nebulae (1975)

e 21st-century amateur astronomers are fortunate

W to have wonderfully detailed and accurate printed

and computer-generated star charts to aid us in
our explorations of the heavens. When I started observing
in 1984, I was thrilled with Wil Tirion’s Sky Atlas 2000.0,
published in 1981. Although I didn’t know it at the time,
Tirion’s atlas was modeled on Antonín Bečvář’s Atlas of the
Heavens: Atlas Coeli 1950.0 (the 1958 edition). Before this,
Norton’s Star Atlas, first published in 1910, was a favorite of
many amateurs.
Most beginners start by hunting for the Messier objects
and then graduate to more challenging deep-sky wonders.
Accurate and detailed charts make star-hopping much easier,
and there’s even the option of computerized Go To telescopes
complete with extensive self-contained databases. Experi-
enced observers can log thousands of deep-sky targets in the
course of a lifetime. But it wasn’t always this way.
Starting with the invention of the telescope in the early
17th century, astronomers scanned the night sky with little
guidance, slowly discovering “nebulae” (misty objects of all
kinds) and logging each new find. These discoveries were
shared as lists of objects that usually included coordinates
DE TLE V VA N R AV ENSWA AY / SCIENCE SOURCE

and descriptions for each one. Charting these nebulae in star

atlases progressed rather slowly over several centuries.
So, imagine yourself a novice amateur astronomer trans-
ported back in time, seeking a star atlas to aid you in your

u CLASSIC COMBINATION Johann Elert Bode’s Uranographia from

1801 beautifully combined artistry and astronomy. The work includes
more than 2,000 deep-sky objects, several of which are easy to spot
on this chart covering Orion and Taurus. Today’s amateur astronomers
could easily use this atlas to star-hop to deep-sky wonders.

58 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 59
Celestial Cartography

search for deep-sky treasures. When did a suitable set of  THE BEAST OF
charts first appear? We can’t know to what extent astronomers SLOUGH British as-
tronomer William Her-
of the 17th to 19th centuries relied on star atlases in their
schel discovered more
quest to explore the heavens, but we can certainly determine if than 2,000 deep-sky
any of those available would be helpful to today’s amateurs. objects using several
telescopes, the larg-
Bode and Uranographia est of which was this
monster with a 48-inch
One obvious candidate is the wonderful Uranographia, which
(122-cm) aperture and
was produced by the German astronomer Johann Elert Bode. “forty-foot” focal length
Published in 1801, Uranographia represents the high point erected in Slough,
of celestial cartography’s marriage of art and science, which England. It ceased
soon thereafter parted ways. Later works that featured artistic operation in 1815.
depictions of the constellations never matched the astro-
nomical accuracy of Bode’s masterpiece — those atlases that Bode’s charts were the first to incorporate these designa-
focused on the science of the heavens generally abandoned tions, and they persisted in modern works, including many
fanciful constellation figures altogether. editions of Norton’s Star Atlas.
Uranographia contained very large charts (31 by 23 inches, Modern-day amateurs clearly could use Uranographia, even
or 79 by 58 cm) and used special symbols and Roman numer- though the giant atlas might be somewhat unwieldy, to locate
als to plot deep-sky objects and indicate their appearance. double stars and deep-sky objects. But was it the first such
Bode included more than 2,000 nebulae and hundreds of work? Bode himself created a smaller version in 1782, and
double stars based on the observations of British astronomer other celestial cartographers produced earlier efforts. Could
William Herschel, who surveyed the heavens in the late 18th one of these take the prize instead? To answer this, it’s helpful
century from England with reflector telescopes of 6, 12, 18.7, to decide what a deep-sky atlas should be.
and (ultimately) 48 inches in aperture. Here are the features that I consider most important: First,
Herschel categorized deep-sky objects as follows: the charts should be reasonably detailed — every observer
I Bright nebulae knows the frustration of trying to find targets when there
II Faint nebulae aren’t enough stars presented, or the chart scale is too small.
III Very faint nebulae Second, the atlas should include dozens of deep-sky objects,
IV Planetary nebulae represented with symbols that make them easy to distinguish
V Very large nebulae from stars. Third, the atlas should be as error-free as possible,
VI Very compressed and rich clusters of stars with a minimum number of “false nebulae” to mislead users.
VII Compressed clusters of faint and bright stars Fourth, each chart should cover a small enough area of sky
VIII Coarsely scattered clusters of stars to avoid severe projection distortion at the edges. And finally,
the charts should use an equatorial coordinate system and
not some other, less useful scheme.

JAY A ND N AO MI PASACHOFF, COURTESY WAY NE H A M M OND / WILLIA MS COLLEG E’S CH A PIN LIBR A RY
TELESCOPE: J. PASS / WIK IMEDIA CO M M ONS / PUBLIC DO M AIN; SCORPIUS: COLLECTION OF
Discovering the Deep Sky
Of course, for an atlas to feature deep-sky objects, those
objects first have to be discovered and cataloged. Lists of neb-
ulae were usually compiled by adding new discoveries to pre-
viously known ones. Progress was slow. Only 19 such objects
were widely known prior to 1700, and by 1750 that total had
increased to just 35. In 1755, French astronomer Nicolas-
Louis de Lacaille tabulated 42 objects that included 24 new
finds. Working from the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa,
Lacaille made discoveries that were out of reach for European
observers. In 1771, French comet hunter Charles Messier pre-
sented the first installment of his now-famous catalog, which
included 45 entries — many of which he discovered.
Bode himself produced a list of 75 objects in 1777, but he
only discovered 5 of these and, according to Kenneth Glyn
Jones in his book The Search for the Nebulae (1975), Bode’s
 EARLY NEBULAE Johannes Hevelius’s 1687 atlas was the first to
show the open cluster M7 (indicated) in the correct location. The cluster
selection “contains far too many errors and misprints and
was misplotted by Gallucci in 1588, and it appears that Bayer (1603) and one of the worst features is that the list is greatly inflated by
Schiller (1627) may have simply perpetuated Gallucci’s error. numerous asterisms and ‘non-objects.’”

60 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 Fortunately, Messier was busy updat-  BIG BEAR Giovanni Paolo Gallucci’s atlas of
ing his catalog, and in 1780 he extended 1588 was based on Ptolemy’s 2nd-century Al-
magest. Gallucci included all seven of Ptolemy’s
his original list from 45 objects to 68.
“nebulae,” including one below the tail of Ursa
Four years later, he published his final Major. The object is now charted as Coma Ber-
tally of 103 entries in the 1784 edition enices — a constellation in its own right.
of the French almanac Connaissance des
Temps. Since Messier himself verified (as described in the Almagest, which hails
every object on his list, he mostly avoided back to the 2nd century), but it doesn’t
including false nebulae. display any deep-sky objects, it only shows
stars to 4th magnitude, and it lacks a
Early Star Atlases coordinate system. De le stelle fisse portrays the sky from a
How did star atlases of the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries “normal” perspective, that is, as seen from Earth’s surface.
generally deal with deep-sky objects? Mostly in ways that Theatrum Mundi by Giovanni Paolo Gallucci (1588). Con-
wouldn’t meet the needs of today’s deep-sky observers. Here’s sisting of 48 small woodcut charts (6.5 by 5 inches) showing
a brief survey of pre-telescopic atlases: Ptolemy’s constellations, this atlas uses a coordinate grid
De le stelle fisse by Alessandro Piccolomini (1540). This was system based on the ecliptic (defined by Earth’s orbital plane),
the first star atlas ever printed and contains 47 small woodcut rather than the more familiar equatorial coordinate system
charts (6.5 by 5.5 inches) depicting Ptolemy’s constellations used on modern charts. Gallucci plotted Ptolemy’s seven

 DEEP-SKY BEGINNINGS Julius Schiller’s celestial atlas, published in 1627, was the first to appear after the invention of the telescope. It depicts
the Pleiades with 10 stars on the chart-left shoulder of Saint Andrew the Apostle (who replaced Taurus in this atlas) but included only a few other
deep-sky objects. Note the chart’s “mirror-reversed” perspective — as if the constellatons were viewed from outside the celestial sphere.
COLLECTION OF R AY H A RRIS (2)

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 61
Celestial Cartography

Uranometria (1603) Firmamentum Sobiescianum (1687)

De le stelle fisse (1540)

u PRAESEPE COMPARED These closeups

of the constellation Cancer show how the Bee-
hive Cluster (Praesepe, M44) was represented
in various star atlases over time. Note that the
cluster is absent in 1540, and that the 1627 and
1687 charts are mirror-reversed. Coelum Stellatum Christianum (1627) Atlas Coelestis (1729)

naked-eye “nebulae,” of which only three were true deep-sky objects, including M7, M31, M44, the Double Cluster, M45
objects: M7, M44, and the Double Cluster. Gallucci’s charts (the Pleiades, this time shown with 10 stars!), the Magellanic
use an external perspective to mimic looking at a celestial Clouds, as well as a number of false nebulae. These charts
globe from the outside. Such a representation gives a “mirror- use an external view.
reversed” view, which might appeal to observers using tele- Firmamentum Sobiescianum by Johannes Hevelius (1687).
scopes that match this orientation. For the first time, detailed maps of the southern sky appear.
Uranometria by Johann Bayer (1603). This star atlas These are based on Edmund Halley’s 1676–77 observations
introduced copperplate charts, which show finer detail and from the island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic. Their
don’t degrade as rapidly in the printing process compared addition brought the total number of constellation charts (14
with woodcut blocks. Bayer utilized Tycho Brahe’s meticulous by 11 inches) to 54. To M7, M31, M44, the Double Cluster,
observations to position the stars more accurately than any the Pleiades, the Magellanic Clouds, and a few false nebulae,
previous atlas and introduced the use of Greek letter designa- Hevelius added two new southern deep-sky gems discovered
tions for the brightest stars. Uranometria’s 48 constellation by Halley: Omega Centauri and NGC 6231 in the tail of
charts (15 by 11 inches) have a very sparse coordinate system Scorpius. Hevelius didn’t trust telescopes for star positions

JAY A ND N AO MI PASACHOFF; BODE’S CH A RT: COLLECTION OF R AY H A RRIS

COLLECTION OF R AY H A RRIS E XCEPT FOR 16 03 CH A RT: COLLECTION OF
based on the ecliptic. In addition to M7, M44, M45 (the Ple- and relied on his own naked-eye observations for those stars
iades, shown as six stars), the Double Cluster, and a few false observable from his home in Poland. He introduced 10 new
nebulae, Bayer’s atlas was also the first to include the Magel- constellations of his own design, seven of which have sur-
lanic Clouds on a chart depicting the south polar regions, vived to modern times: Canes Venatici, Lacerta, Leo Minor,
based on observations by Dutch navigators Pieter Dirkszoon Lynx, Scutum, Sextans, and Vulpecula. Firmamentum Sobies-
Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. Uranometria employs a cianum used an external view and a sparse coordinate system
normal (Earth-based) view of the night sky. based on the ecliptic.
Several more atlases appeared in the 17th and 18th centu- Atlas Coelestis by John Flamsteed (1729), the first
ries, following the invention of the telescope: Astronomer Royal. Flamsteed’s opus represents a huge
Coelum Stellatum Christianum by Julius Schiller (1627). As
described by Michael Mendillo in the January 2021 issue of u TRY THIS AT HOME See if you can use this chart from Bode’s Vor-
stellung Der Gestirne to locate the deep-sky objects depicted. Note that
Sky & Telescope (page 64), Schiller replaced the pagan constel-
M45 is shown as a cluster of stars on the main chart and also at a larger
lations with Christian figures. The atlas’s 48 constellation scale in the upper right corner. Bode’s charts are plotted for epoch 1780.
charts (12 by 9.5 inches) have a sparse coordinate system, Due to precession, equatorial coordinates have changed a fair bit since
again based on the ecliptic. Schiller displayed a few deep-sky then. (Object labels added by the author.)

62 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 M45
M38

M1
M37
M36

M42
M35

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 63
64
M45 Hyades

M42
Celestial Cartography

M44

Sword of Orion
M31

JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

M32 M51 M13

M33 M34

M82
Asterism in
Ursa Major
M53 M92
M81

M37 M36 M38 M29

M17
M71

M18
M10 M11
False
M27 Nebula
M12 M5

M28 M22

M24
M2
M21
M8

M15 M1 M67 M20 M30 M50

 advance in atlases. The charts are very large  CHART MASTER Johann Elert Bode (1747–1826)
(25 by 20 inches) and have an excellent was not only a talented celestial cartographer but
equatorial coordinate system overlaid with also a skilled observer credited with the discoveries of
M53, M64, M81, M82, and M92. He also determined
the ecliptic system. Atlas Coelestis has 25 star the orbit of the planet discovered by Herschel in 1781
maps, each covering several constellations and suggested Uranus as its name.
and overlapping with each other. Flamsteed’s
focus was on aiding navigation, and so he them. For example, his descriptions of the
included many more stars (2,919) than nebulae in Figures 9 and 10 on chart XXX
previous works. However, since nebulae are are very similar. For Figure 9 Bode writes,
superfluous to navigation, the only deep-sky “According to Messier, a nebulous star cluster
objects he plots are M31, M44, and M45, in Auriga with a diameter of 9 minutes and
which are depicted as stars. A further limita- very small stars. The position of the neigh-
tion is that Flamsteed only mapped what he boring stars and their distance is recorded
could observe from Greenwich, England. His here per my observation.” For Figure 10 he
atlas uses a normal view. notes, “A star cluster in Auriga; according to Messier, it is also
Atlas Celeste de Flamsteed by J. Fortin (1776). As suggested 9 minutes in diameter. One can hardly distinguish its stars
by the title, Fortin copied Flamsteed’s Atlas Coelestis closely through a small telescope. The stars around it are depicted
but with the addition of 15 deep-sky objects: M7, M9, M10, according to Koehler’s observation.”
M11, M12, M13, M15, M22, M27, M28, M31, M32, M42, I was able to confirm the identity of each object on chart
M55, and NGC 6242, with M44 and M45 shown as groups of XXX only by comparing Bode’s descriptions with those of
stars. Fortin provided a key with different symbols for nebulae Johann Gottfried Koehler (mentioned in the quote above)
based on their appearance. Unfortunately, he also included a and Charles Messier. Messier’s descriptions clarify that Bode’s
fair number of false nebulae. The 26 charts of this atlas are Figures 9 and 10 were in fact M37 and M36, respectively.
much smaller (9 by 7 inches) than Flamsteed’s original. Only a few of the double stars on chart XXXI are labeled,
and deciphering the descriptive text is even more problematic
Bode’s Atlas of 1782 than it was for the nebulae. For example, for Figure 44 Bode
As most readers will have already gleaned, none of the atlases wrote: “A small double star near the eighth and ninth bright-
mentioned in the previous section would prove very useful to est ones in Aquarius.” I’m not a double-star buff, but I expect
those hoping to find more than a handful of deep-sky objects. it wouldn’t be easy for most observers to track down this pair.
However, Bode’s 1782 atlas, Vorstellung Der Gestirne, marks a
significant departure. And the Winner Is . . .
While the charts in Vorstellung Der Gestirne are very close Following Bode’s 1782 atlas, an updated edition of Fortin’s
copies of those in Fortin’s atlas (but in German instead of atlas was published in 1795, and Neuester Himmels-Atlas by
French), Bode included 1,520 additional stars and 75 deep-sky Christian Goldbach appeared in 1799, featuring white stars
objects, with only a handful of false nebulae. As in Fortin’s set against a black sky. Both works included many Messier
atlas, Bode’s work includes a key showing different symbols objects; however, Bode was clearly the first to do so and cer-
for the different types of nebulae. tainly benefited from the timely release of Messier’s second list
In producing this atlas, it appears that Bode relied heav- of nebulae in 1780. Notwithstanding the difficulties decipher-
ily on Messier’s 1780 catalog and incorporated all 68 objects ing Vorstellung Der Gestirne’s two bonus charts, Bode’s empha-
except for M40 (a pair of faint stars) and M43, which hardly sis on the deep sky makes his work stand out from the rest.
requires a separate symbol due to its proximity to M42. The We can’t know if astronomers of the late 18th century
number of deep-sky objects plotted would seem to make Vor- used this atlas to aid their own searches for nebulae, but
stellung Der Gestirne the first usable deep-sky atlas — but Bode today’s amateurs could easily star-hop to most Messier objects
went further by adding two special charts depicting nebulae with Bode’s charts. Vorstellung Der Gestirne can justifiably be
and double stars in greater detail. considered the first usable deep-sky atlas.
Chart XXX portrays deep-sky objects in 37 figures, and As good as Bode’s star maps are, even a modestly equipped
BODE: WIK IMEDIA COMM ONS / PUBLIC DO M AIN

chart XXXI consists of 50 figures, mostly of double stars. Both modern observer will quickly exhaust the atlas’s supply of
CH A RT X X X: COLLECTION OF R AY H A RRIS;

extra charts are unique to Bode’s atlas and are clearly designed deep-sky targets. While we might lament the ever-worsening
to emphasize deep-sky observing. Bode also added pages of intrusion of light pollution in our 21st-century night skies,
notes describing the objects depicted, but unfortunately he we can be thankful for the accuracy and detail of today’s star
didn’t provide coordinates, making it difficult to identify atlases. Just imagine our hobby without them!

 UP CLOSE Bode included 37 figures showing magnified views of

deep-sky objects on chart XXX of his 1782 atlas. No coordinates were
¢ RAY HARRIS has been collecting and studying antique ce-
provided to identify these, but the author has labeled them based on lestial charts and atlases since 1987, and has lectured widely
Bode’s written descriptions. on the art and science of early star atlases.

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 65
S&T Test Report by Rod Mollise

Star-Hop Maker
This program lets you generate custom star-hopping charts for use at the telescope.

Star-Hop Maker v1.1.0

Price: €21 (about US$25)
starhopmaker.com

What We Like
Unique program with many
helpful features
Attractive and legible display

What We Don’t Like

Program elements leave room
for improvement
Cannot print maps
App only displays lists (not
star-hop maps)

IF YOU WERE AN AMATEUR astrono- p Star-Hop Maker is a planetarium software gram’s controls. A toolbar with several
mer before the advent of computerized program for PC computers that allows users to icons is also located along the right of
generate their own custom star-hop observing
telescopes that point at celestial targets the display, and more commands are
tours. Plan lists created in the program can be
with the push of a few buttons, you’ve exported to an Android smart device for use at found along the left. In addition, there’s
doubtlessly heard of star-hopping. If the telescope. a bar showing information about the
you haven’t, it’s a method of finding observing site and sky just below the
your way around the sky using stars as Getting Started dropdown menu, and three small win-
guideposts along a path to faint galaxies, When opening the program for the first dows titled Star-Hop Gallery, Deep-Sky
nebulae, and star clusters. For example, time, a busy screen appears contain- Object Filter, and Star-Hop Objects,
“The cluster is halfway along a line ing a planetarium-style star chart and respectively, along the bottom. That’s a
between these two 5th-magnitude stars.” lots of controls along its periphery. A lot to take in for a new user.
Star-hopping isn’t just about finding dropdown menu found along the top of After admiring the program’s attrac-
objects. It also allows you to compose the screen contains most of the pro- tive, though complex, display, a good
your own sky tours with efficient and
easy-to-follow paths from object to  Creating a prepared star-hop involves searching the database for objects (below) and add-
object. That sort of star-hopping is as ing them to your star-hop in the Prepared Star-Hop Creator window (far right). Each object you
add appears circled in the main star chart at right.
useful with a computerized telescope as
it is with a manual one.
In days of yore, I spent long hours
charting paths across the stars with
a pencil and a printed star atlas. That
isn’t necessary anymore thanks to a
program that creates star-hops for me —
Paul Evangelopoulos’ Star-Hop Maker for
Windows PCs. The software is available
as a download from the author’s website
and is offered in a 30-day trial version.
A PDF document of instructions is also
provided and is invaluable for learning
the program, though it has plenty of
room for improvement.

66 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 place to start is the Preferences menu to understand a Prepared Star-Hop is factor. In addition to the list, objects are
found in the menu at the left of the one created by searching the program’s displayed as either icons or images (if
screen. Clicking it opens a new win- database and selecting objects, while there is an Internet connection) at the
dow allowing you to customize some you create a Blind Star-Hop by choosing bottom of the window.
settings. First, scroll to the bottom and targets directly from the star chart. With the list on-screen, select Star-
activate Tool Tips — the program’s win- I began by making a Prepared Star- Hop > Create Prepared Star-Hop in
dows include numerous icons, many of Hop. You access the Star-Hop Maker’s the main window’s toolbar. This opens
which are difficult to identify without search engine by clicking Explore Data- the Prepared Star-Hop window, where
activating this important feature pro- base on the left command bar in the I dragged my two globular clusters
viding additional information when you Events / Components tab. The Database from the search list into the Prepared
hover your cursor over a button or other Search window opens with the program’s Star-Hop window. The two objects then
icon. It’s curious that this feature isn’t star and deep-sky catalogs. Users can add appear circled on the star chart. Since
set to be on by default. anything from the NGC and IC catalogs this is creating a star-hop tour, I need to
As with other planetarium-type soft- as well as the Messier and Herschel lists. assign a bright star as the starting point.
ware, it’s important to set the geographic In addition, it includes extensive double This is done by highlighting an object
coordinates of your observing site. That’s star and variable star listings. You can in the prepared list, so I went back to
done by selecting User > Location in the even make a tour of specific types of the Database Search page and clicked
dropdown menu and specifying your stars by spectral class, or double stars the Single Stars button and searched the
observing site by either entering latitude within a specified separation range. constellation for bright stars. I dragged
and longitude or zooming in and center- The Search Criteria section in the my choice into the Prepared Star-Hop
ing the map on your location. While left tab of the Database Search window Creator window. The last step is to high-
this is explained in the instructions, it sets the object catalog, object type, light the star listing and click the Set As
doesn’t appear until the last page. While constellation(s), and magnitude range First Step button. Finally, click Save. The
you’re in the User section, you can also to search. Clicking Find Stars & DSOs sky map immediately circles the starting
add your equipment you’ll be observing at the bottom of the tab returns a list point and destinations, and adds a bold
A LL IM AG ES COURTESY OF THE AU THOR

with to better customize your maps. of objects. As a test, I had the program line connecting each stop in the same
search for Messier globular star clus- order I chose them.
Planning a Hopping Tour ters in Scorpius. On my computer, the A Blind Star-Hop dispenses with the
Once you’ve input your information, it’s search took about 15 seconds to find database search engine. After choosing
time to compose a star-hop. Star-Hop two clusters. Searches that produced a Create Blind Star-Hop from the com-
Maker offers two types: “Prepared Star- larger number of objects took about the mand bar at left, select a star for the
Hops” and “Blind Star-Hops.” I found same time, suggesting that my comput- starting point from the list that appears
the terminology confusing but came er’s processing speed was the limiting in the window. To add objects, use
the Neighbors function in the Update
section of the window, and be sure to
increase the vertical slider value to its
right, which lists objects within 15° of
the chosen starting point. You can add
anything that appears in the listing at
the right side of the window to the hop.

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 67
S&T Test Report

 You can display objects in your star-hop

as icons, or, with an internet connection,
download Digitized Sky Survey images of the
chosen targets.

Even easier is to select objects on the

main screen by pressing the ALT key
and dragging a box around a target with
your mouse. A small window then opens
where you click Select All, and then you
hold the Ctrl key and your left mouse
button to drag the contents of the small
selection into the Creator window.
When it’s observing time, choose
Star-Hop > Run Star-Hop in the drop-
down menu to retrieve your tour. The
Star-Hop Runner window opens where
you search for your custom hops by
season and constellation. The main
screen then displays each of your tour’s
stops in a numbered circle with a bold things aren’t discussed in the docu- Star-Hops only prints out the targets as
line leading from object to object. Click- mentation. For example, minimizing a list, rather than the sky map tour you
ing a photo in the window centers that the Runner window to get it out of the spent so much time creating. And while
target on the chart (and sends a paired way of the star chart doesn’t use typi- it includes a night mode, I’d still like to
Go To telescope to it). You can also add cal Windows controls. It took a while be able to print star-hops for use in the
more destinations to the star-hop from before I noticed two small down arrows field without a computer.
the main screen the same way you add in the window that did the job. Despite these quibbles, Star-Hop
targets in a blind star-hop. All that’s left There are a few program improve- Maker is quite impressive. Plotting
to do is to activate night mode in the ments and additions I’d like to see. star-hops is something that no other
Preferences menu and use the chart to Some type of visual feedback after a astronomy software has done before that
hop from deep-sky wonder to deep-sky button is pressed would be helpful. I’m aware of. If this sounds interesting,
wonder out at the telescope. Upload your When choosing Apply in a window, I begin planning an itinerary of your own
tour lists to your Android smartphone wasn’t always sure my selection had with Star-Hop Maker and spend an eve-
running the free app Star-Hop Maker registered. And some of the names of ning touring the deep and starry sky.
Companion via Google Drive to access commands and the windows they open
additional information and photos of are titled inconsistently. Finally, the ¢ Contributing Editor ROD MOLLISE still
your targets on your smart device. program doesn’t provide a method of enjoys star-hopping from target to target
printing the actual chart — File > Print in his backyard in Mobile, Alabama.
Additional Features
This is just a sampling of the many
features Star-Hop Maker offers. It can
apprise you of nightly events like when
major objects rise and set and also
includes a section to record your obser-
vations. Another interesting feature in
the program is the Event Visualization
tool found at Astronomy Tools > Event
Visualization. This tool lets you visual-
ize when your star-hop targets are best
positioned for observing in the evening
and is especially helpful when creating
extensive tours.
In the course of learning to operate
the software, I had to do a considerable
amount of figuring out. In addition to p Each stop on your star-hop appears circled and numbered on the main star chart, with a bold
telescope control, some other important line connecting each step labeled with the precise distance between each field.

68 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 Omne Trium Perfectum

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NEW PRODUCT SHOWCASE

 SMARTPHONE ADAPTER
Celestron now offers a versatile, affordable smartphone adapter to record images through
the eyepiece of your telescope, spotting scope, or binoculars. The NexGO Universal
Smartphone Adapter ($39.95) allows you to use most any smartphone camera to capture
the brighter solar system objects and even some deep-sky targets. Its spring-loaded
clamp and innovative dual-axis adjustments permit you to place your device’s camera
perfectly against most eyepieces on your optic quickly and precisely. Simply place your
phone on the platform and center it over the eyepiece with the X and Y knobs until you
have the entire field of view in your shot. The company also offers a bundled package
that includes a Bluetooth remote shutter release for $44.95 that pairs to any smartphone,
ensuring you don’t shake the camera when firing off your exposures.
Celestron
2835 Columbia St., Torrance, CA 90503
310-328-9560; celestron.com

 ECLIPSE COMPENDIUM
Astrophysicist and Sky & Telescope contributor Fred Espenak releases Eclipse Almanac,
a five-volume series that details every solar and lunar eclipse for the next 50 years ($11.99
per volume for the black-and-white edition, $16.99 per volume for color, and a Kindle edi-
tion is available for $7.99 per volume). Each volume is a concise reference for all eclipses
over a 10-year period between 2021 and 2070, with detailed maps identifying the geo-
graphic regions of visibility. The volumes are arranged in three sections: The first concen-
trates on partial, total, and annular solar eclipses; section two details lunar eclipses; and
the third section lists the dates and times of the Moon’s phases throughout that volume’s
decade. Eclipse Almanac uses the new elliptical model for Earth’s shadow, producing the
most accurate predictions to date. 8½-by-11 inches, paperback.
AstroPixels Publishing
P.O. Box 16197, Portal, AZ 85632
astropixels.com

 OBSERVING STATION 2.0

Unistellar Optics unveils an updated version of its popular observing station, the eVscope
2 ($4,199). The system combines a 4½-inch f/4 reflector with a permanently mounted,
7.7-megapixel Sony IMX347 color CMOS detector, an enhanced-vision OLED screen “eye-
piece,” with Nikon optics, and a powerful alt-az Go To mount controlled by a smartphone.
The system’s patented Autonomous Field Detection feature automatically recognizes star
fields, self-aligns, and is ready to observe within 10 seconds of powering up. Its track-and-
accumulate imaging with automated intelligent image-processing produces colorful “live”
images of more than 5,000 deep-sky targets from its internal database within minutes of
pointing at a subject. Images are recorded to 64 gigabytes of internal storage and sent
directly to your smartphone. The eVscope 2 weighs 19.8 lbs assembled and comes with a
collapsible tripod, an internal rechargeable battery that powers the unit for up to 10 hours, a
free control app requiring iOS 12 or Android 6 systems, and a hiking backpack.
Unistellar
unistellaroptics.com

New Product Showcase is a reader service featuring innovative equipment and software of interest to amateur astronomers. The descriptions are based largely on
information supplied by the manufacturers or distributors. Sky & Telescope assumes no responsibility for the accuracy of vendors’ statements. For further information
contact the manufacturer or distributor. Announcements should be sent to [email protected]. Not all announcements can be listed.

70 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 71
ASTRONOMER’S WORKBENCH by Jerry Oltion

The Taming of the Slew

Big scopes offer many options for improvement.

A COUPLE OF YEARS AGO, Arkansas swinging around in  There’s room inside the
amateur Morgan Amos graduated from transit, he drilled a hole rocker box for magazine and
chart storage.
a 4-inch starter scope to a 12-inch Dob- through both base plates
sonian. As he put it, “I fully expected and drops a wooden modate a Telrad and its
a beautiful mail-order bride to arrive. dowel pin into the hole custom 2-inch riser, two
Instead, I received a monstrous, difficult- to lock them together finder charts for Messier
to-handle mistress in a casket-sized box. when necessary. objects, a right-angle
I was nevertheless certain she was the Then he added what finder, four leveler foot
one for me . . . with a little grooming.” he calls the “furniture.” pads, a 35-mm exten-
Morgan has certainly done some A Dobsonian rocker sion tube, a Howie Glat-
excellent grooming. Let’s have a look at box has all that empty ter Parallizer, a laser
what he’s accomplished. real estate on the sides; collimator, an AstroSys-
The first order of business was it seems a shame not tems LitePipe collima-
transport — the scope was simply too to develop it. Many of tor, a Tele Vue in-travel
large and bulky to move in one piece, us put an eyepiece rack adapter, AA batteries for
and even the mount alone was a hefty on the focuser side, but that’s usually the Telrad, and several hex wrenches.
load. So Morgan decided to put it on about the extent of it. Morgan took that Another box has a sliding dovetail recep-
a dolly. He could easily have bought a concept a bit further. He built storage tacle to store the red-dot finder when
dolly, but he made his own from scratch compartments for all his accessories replaced with the Telrad.
using cherry wood and cedar milled except for his eyepieces, which he keeps The inside of the rocker box has
from a tree in his yard, and he put hard in a case on a portable folding table. enough space at the bottom for two
urethane wheels underneath to roll As with the dolly, you can buy ready- slim book racks that hold a Pocket Sky
smoothly on hard surfaces and not be made storage boxes and attach them to Atlas, a Moon map, a planisphere, and
too mushy. He set the wheels six inches the scope, or you can build them your- an astronomical almanac.
in from the corners to avoid kicking self. Morgan again made his own, using Morgan recommends attaching the
them when standing close while observ- more cherry and cedar plus padauk with boxes to a back plate and then mounting
ing and to accommodate leveling screws a few walnut, cocobolo, and myrtle the unit to the rocker box, rather than
at the corners. To prevent the scope from burl accents. His storage boxes accom- trying to fasten each box individually.

A LL IM AG ES COURTESY OF M ORG A N A M OS

 Left: Morgan Amos’s fully tricked-out 12-inch Dobsonian telescope. Right: Accessory compartments attached to the rocker box keep needed
equipment close at hand.

72 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 Something you won’t find on Mor-
gan’s scope are counterweights. Rather
than have to fiddle with weights each Sky & Telescope’s
time he changes eyepieces or finders,
he made a sliding dovetail control arm
2022 Observing Calendar
with a locking knob. The arm connects
to the front of the rocker box where the
handle used to be (no longer needed
now that the scope rolls on a dolly), and
it attaches to the top of the telescope
tube with four rare-earth magnets.
The magnets securely hold the head of
the arm to the metal OTA and keep it
snug against the front rim yet permit
easy removal when necessary. Morgan
adjusted the length of the arm’s sliding
parts to allow for motion all the way
from the zenith down to about 11°
above the horizon. When he moves the
scope in altitude, he simply loosens the
locking knob, makes his adjustment, The 2022 Sky & Telescope Observing Calendar combines gorgeous astropho-
and locks it down again. One addi- tography and special monthly sky scenes that illustrate the positions of the Moon
tional benefit to this arrangement over and bright planets. It also highlights important sky events each month, including
eclipses, meteor showers, conjunctions, and occultations. Makes a great gift!
counterweights is that the control arm
dampens vibration almost instantly.
Morgan made one last major shopatsky.com
improvement: He put a big handle
underneath the OTA’s upper rim. He
says, “I am fond of Rockler’s 4½-inch jig
handle that comfortably fills my whole
hand rather than just a few fingers. It’s From 1 January 2022
the one thing I constantly hang onto
throughout the night and use to slew
the OTA with my left hand while oper-
AAS Journals Will Be
ating the control arm locking knob with
my right.” Fully Open Access
What’s left to add? An azimuth
setting circle between the base plates.
Other than that, the only thing missing
Publish your open access work
is the kitchen sink. with AAS Publishing.
For more information, contact Mor- Find out more: journals.aas.org/oa
gan at [email protected].

¢ Contributing Editor JERRY OLTION

says you don’t truly own a scope until
you’ve drilled holes in it.

SHARE YOUR INNOVATION

º Do you have a telescope
or ATM observing accessory
that S&T readers would enjoy
knowing about? Email your
projects to Jerry Oltion at
[email protected].

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 73
GALLERY

NEBULOUS SWAN
Jeffrey Horne
Large swaths of bright nebulosity in Cygnus overshadow the usually prominent star Deneb
(left). The bluish patch below Deneb is the North America Nebula, NGC 7000, with the
fainter Pelican Nebula (IC 5070 and IC 5067) to its right. The Crescent Nebula (NGC 6888)
stands out at the right, while the Cygnus Loop sits apart from the rest at lower right.
DETAILS: ZWO ASI2600MC Pro camera with Canon EF 50-mm USM lens. Total exposure: 40¼
hours through Optolong L-eXtreme, L-Pro, and L-eNhance filters.

74 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

t DUMBBELL NEBUL A
Mathieu Guinot
Messier 27 in Vulpecula was the first plan-
etary nebula discovered, but in this deep nar-
rowband image it resembles neither a planet
nor a dumbbell, its nickname. Faint waves of
ionized gas form moth-like “wings” around
its main shell.
DETAILS: Lacerta FN25010c-flat reflector with
ZWO ASI2600MM camera. Total exposure: 22
hours through Antlia Hα, O III, and RGB filters.

q COCOONED IN STARS
Andy Nowlen
Dark streams of dust give IC 5146, the Cocoon
Nebula, the appearance that it’s burrowing
through the star field. Hot, young stars inside
the Cocoon excite the surrounding hydrogen
gas, causing the nebula to glow a vibrant red.
DETAILS: Sharpstar 76-mm ED Triplet APO
refractor and Takahashi FSQ-106EDX4 Quadru-
plet refractor with ZWO ASI533 MC Pro cam-
era. Mosaic of 9 panels totaling 14 hours through
Optolong L-eNhance and L-eXtreme filters.

sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 75
GALLERY

 CASTILLO DE LUNA
Sergio Conceiçao
A rare Blue Moon, the third full Moon in
a season with four, glides behind the the-
matically appropriate Castillo de Luna in
Alburquerque, Spain, on August 22, 2021.
DETAILS: Canon EOS R6 camera with 400-
mm lens. Total exposure: 1/50 second at f/5.6.

q VIBR ANT NEBULOSIT Y

Emil Andronic
Ultraviolet radiation from hot stars within
open cluster Berkeley 90 excites the gases
of Sharpless 2-115 in Cygnus. Astronomers
once thought smaller Abell 71 at the top
left was a planetary nebula, later realizing
that it’s simply a round H II region.
DETAILS: Astro-Tech AT106 ED Trip-
let refractor with ZWO ASI294MM Pro
camera. Total exposure: 24¾ hours through
narrowband filters.

76 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

 What’s in Your 2022?
Join a Fabulous Sky & Telescope Astro Tour

Hawai‘i!
Mauna Kea and Haleakala,
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gazing, waterfalls and reefs.
April 18–26, 2022:
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May 1–10, 2022:
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June 26–July 2, 2022:
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For full itinerary and costs

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skyandtelescope.org/tours
GALLERY

THE SPACE BUT TERFLY

Fernando Oliveira de Menezes
Messier 6, the Butterfly Cluster, is a bright open cluster in Scorpius full of hot, young, blue
stars. The brightest star in the cluster is BM Scorpii (center left), an orange giant and a
semiregular variable. The cluster’s name stems from its outline resembling the outstretched
wings of a butterfly.
DETAILS: Sky-Watcher Esprit 150ED Triplet APO refractor with ZWO ASI6200MC Pro camera.
Total exposure: 2.63 hours.

Gallery showcases the finest astronomical images that our readers submit to us. Send your best shots to [email protected].
See skyandtelescope.org/aboutsky/guidelines. Visit skyandtelescope.org/gallery for more of our readers’ astrophotos.

78 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

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p e .•o r gJ A• N
J AUNAUR
ARY Y 2200 2
1 27 81
81
 Advertisers in This Issue Ad Index
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Product Locator
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or email him at [email protected]

82 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

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sk yandtelescope.org • JANUARY 2 02 2 83
FOCAL POINT by Jane Green

Savoring Space and Time

Despite its ravages, the pandemic gave many of us a pair of precious gifts.

LIKE MANY IN THE UNITED KINGDOM, the workplace social media site. Here I a thought for how small and transient
I was furloughed for six months as a read such comments as: “I’m bored out their space and time are compared to
result of COVID-19. As a judge in the of my tiny mind” — “I’ve got loads of the size and age of the cosmos itself!
horseracing industry, I determine race time and nothing to do with it” — “I Families soon confessed to staying out
winners in a high-octane environment just can’t walk the darn dog anymore.” late to watch the Moon rise or to seek
in which errors with split-second deci- Reading them, I grew more saddened out the planets. They posted their own
sions can cost millions. Governed by by the day. At last you have the space and images in a bid to share their awe and
deadlines, schedules, and endless think- time you’ve long lamented not having, I joy. The site became a much-followed
ing ahead, I frequently disappear up my inwardly screamed. Look up! hub for everyone to showcase their new-
own tailpipe! But lockdown changed all So, taking action, I began posting found time and space.
that, and two priceless gifts emerged: photos of the planets. I received instant I’m now back at work and bemoan
space and time. feedback and questions: Where are the loss of these two treasured gifts.
Instantly, “empty” days and nights they? Can I spot them now? How did Once again, schedules, deadlines, and
stretched ahead. Freed from work, I had they get there? Soon I was overwhelmed. constant low-level stress are the order of
space and time to think about . . . space My equine-absorbed colleagues, many the day. But a glance at the night sky is
and time. Untethered from early morn- immersed in homeschooling, fired ques- a reminder for all of us that we should
ing starts and relentless pressure to be tions from their kids, some of whom make the space and time.
at the top of my game, my foot eased off were working on science projects but
the proverbial pedal. I stayed out late had no idea about astronomy. ¢ JANE GREEN is a Racing Judge for
observing, occasionally all night, for I moved from the Moon, planets, and the British Horseracing Authority in Eng-
when would such freedom arise again? constellations to how the stars came to land but also finds time to write, lecture,
Night after glorious night I gazed be, suggesting that my colleagues spare and broadcast on astronomy.
into contrail-free, relatively unpolluted
skies with tack-sharp stars. The Milky
Way seemed more luminous and volu-
minous, its rarely visible dust lanes now
clearly threaded through its star-span-
gled length. When the Moon emerged,
she was brighter, her mare and craters
wondrously defined. I delighted in the
phase transitions, and in earthshine
that was stunningly incandescent. I
even pulled out my “trusty but dusty”
TAL-1 telescope, cleaned it, and aimed it
skyward to track the travelling planets,
which, as with all else, stood out so
much sharper than pre-pandemic.
There I stood in magnificent isola-
tion in the field near our house, present
in a way never permitted before, enjoy-
ing all the space and time in the world,
in the universe even, following my own
mantra, which is to “look up, live it,
and love it.” It was magical.
But I couldn’t totally disconnect
JESSIE LIN

from the company’s “cyber hive,” and

I monitored horseracing matters on

84 JANUARY 2 02 2 • SK Y & TELESCOPE

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