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Nationwide classification of forest types of India using remote sensing and

GIS

Article  in  Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · November 2015

DOI: 10.1007/s10661-015-4990-8

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 Environmental Monitoring and Assessment DOI 10.1007/s10661-015-4990-8
Nationwide classification of forest types of India using remote sensing and GIS
C. Sudhakar Reddy*, C.S. Jha, P.G. Diwakar & V.K. Dadhwal
National Remote Sensing Centre, Indian Space Research Organisation, Balanagar,
Hyderabad- 500 037, India
*Corresponding author, email address: [email protected]
Abstract

India, a mega-diverse country, possesses a wide range of climate and vegetation types along with a varied
topography. The present study has classified forest types of India based on multi-season IRS Resourcesat-2
Advanced Wide Field Sensor (AWiFS) data. The study has characterized 29 land use/land cover classes
including 14 forest types and seven scrub types. Hybrid classification approach has been used for the
classification of forest types. The classification of vegetation has been carried out based on the ecological rule
bases followed by Champion and Seth (1968) scheme of forest types in India. The present classification scheme
has been compared with the available global and national level land cover products. The natural vegetation
cover was estimated to be 29.36% of total geographical area of India. The predominant forest types of India are
tropical dry deciduous and tropical moist deciduous. Of the total forest cover, tropical dry deciduous forests
occupy an area of 2,17,713 km2 (34.80%) followed by 2,07,649 km2 (33.19%) under tropical moist deciduous
forests, 48,295 km2 (7.72%) under tropical semi evergreen forests and 47,192 km2 (7.54%) under tropical wet
evergreen forests. The study has brought out a comprehensive vegetation cover and forest type maps based on
inputs critical in defining the various categories of vegetation and forest types. This spatially explicit database
will be highly useful for the studies related to changes in various forest types, carbon stocks, climate-vegetation
modeling and biogeochemical cycles.

Key words: Vegetation; Land cover; Forest type; Mapping; Classification; Remote sensing; India

1. Introduction

Vegetation classification is prerequisite for The first global classification system of ecological
understanding carbon stocks, biodiversity, types predictable from climate was the system of
sustainable use of natural resources and global life zones (Holdridge, 1947). Mueller-Dombois
change. The vegetation types reflect all the and Ellenberg (1974) developed the conceptual
structural and functional attributes of vegetation in basis for classification that simplifies the
relation to the regional and local climate, and thus complexity of vegetation. They proposed
necessitates incorporation of large number of inputs physiognomy as the key decisive characteristic for
that too spatially explicit. Although the biological recognition of a vegetation type, i.e., the
systems are organized hierarchically from the dominance of certain growth forms such as trees,
molecular to the ecosystem level (Margules and shrubs and grasses. Subsequently, Westhoff and
Pressey, 2000), yet the heterogeneity in distribution van der Maarel (1978) suggested for the integration
of species, communities and ecosystems make the of floristic composition with physiognomy and
classification of vegetation more complex. environmental characteristics in the classification

1
of vegetation types. In fact, the vegetation is a distinction between the origin of tree crops
sensible concept only at a certain scale of (whether natural or planted) or tree species and
observation, i.e. the scale at which it is possible to encompasses all types of land irrespective of
judge the relative uniformity and distinctness. predominant land use, thereby including all tree
Accordingly, this spatial scale will vary with the species (native and alien) and all areas meeting the
2
structure of the vegetation from some m to several above defined criteria, irrespective of whether it is
thousand m2 (van der Maarel, 2005). forest, public park or institutional land (FSI, 2011).
Ravindranath et al. (2014) reported that India could
World-over, there are varying definitions of forest
be potentially over-estimating the forest cover by
from country to country in accordance with the
including many plantation categories such as
national laws, environmental stakes, economic
rubber, Casuarina, Eucalyptus, poplar, coffee, tea,
interests and local situations. A study found that
Acacia, coconut, areca-nut, cashew-nut, palm trees
there are more than 800 different definitions for
and orchards of mango, orange, apple etc.
forests in the world (Lund 2012). FAO (2010)
Therefore, the use of natural forest definition in
defines forest as ‘land spanning more than 0.5
forest cover estimation becomes crucial for the
hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a
conservation of native biodiversity and UNFCCC
canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able
REDD+ negotiations (Romijn et al. 2013;
to reach these thresholds in situ’. The preceding
Ravindranath et al. 2014). Thus the present study
definition excludes the land area with trees that is
defines forest as land spanning more than 1 ha,
predominantly under agricultural or urban land use.
dominated with composition of native tree species
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
having a minimum stand height of 5m with an
Change (2001) defines thresholds of 0.05–1.0 ha
overstorey canopy cover greater than 10 percent.
forest land, 10–30 percent tree canopy cover and 2–
5 m of tree height at maturity. Young natural stands India, being a mega-biodiversity country, lies at the
and all plantations which have reached a canopy junction of the three major biogeographic realms,
cover of 10–30 percent or tree height of 2–5 meters namely: the Indo-Malayan, the Eurasian and the
are also fall under the definition of forest. In the Afro-tropical. The country has the second largest
study by Hansen et al. (2013) the term “forest” human population in the world and accounts for
refers to tree cover on the basis of which global tree 17.5% of global population. In terms of area, it is
cover extent, loss and gain from 2000 to 2012 was the 7th largest country in the world and the 2nd
mapped. In many countries, forest is typically largest in Asia. With a geographical area of
defined as an area with substantially higher levels 32,87,263 km2, India possesses a diverse vegetation
of canopy closure, for example >20 percent in comprising of 17,500 species of flowering plants.
Australia and China, >30 percent in Russia and >60 Its vegetation wealth and high biodiversity is
percent in South Africa (Reddy et al. 2013a). attributed to the variety of the climatic and
topographic regimes. However, the rich
The Forest Survey of India (FSI) defines forest
biodiversity in the country is currently experiencing
cover as ‘all lands more than one hectare in area,
severe anthropogenic pressures. Reddy et al.
with a tree canopy density of > 10 percent,
(2013b) has assessed nationwide spatial patterns of
irrespective of ownership and legal status’. Thus
forest fragmentation and influence of deforestation
forest cover as defined by FSI does not make any
during 1975–2005. Studies have indicated

2
considerable loss of biodiversity at the ecosystem there is a need for vegetation classification suitable
level based on spatial data of forest cover change, for systematic spatio-temporal monitoring purposes
forest canopy cover change, forest fragmentation, and ecological research in India.
forest fires and areas of biological invasion (Reddy
et al. 2014). The population of India was only With the advent of satellite remote sensing,
238.4 million in 1901, and has now increased by mapping of actual vegetation and other land cover
more than 4 times to reach 1210 million in 2011 types has been initiated. The rationale for
(http://censusindia.gov.in/). incorporating topographic variables in single-date
forest mapping is based on their correlation with
On the basis of temperature, 4 types of climatic
species or life forms (Guisan and Zimmerman,
zones have been recognised in India (Champion
2000). Multi-temporal remote sensing plays a
and Seth, 1968). The mean annual temperature
critical role in mapping of different vegetation
zone of >240C represents tropical zone followed by
types. The application of satellite remote sensing
subtropical zone (17 to 240C), temperate zone (7 to
has increased greatly for various forest purposes at
170C) and alpine zone (under 70C). The mean
local to global levels (Fearnside and Barbosa,
annual temperature map of India prepared based on
2004). Geographic Information System (GIS) is
www.worldclim.com is given in Fig. 1.
being used to delineate specific mapping zones,
Precipitation in India ranges from very low rainfall
such as geographical areas and biomes
areas to highest rainfall areas in the world. The
(ecoregions), and helps to maximize spectral
altitude varies from the sea level to the highest
information and separation of vegetation units
mountain ranges of the world. The vegetation types
(Franklin and Wulder, 2002).
vary from the Himalayas in north to the Western
Ghats in south, from thorn vegetation of north-west The satellite remote sensing has helped in
to the wet evergreen forest of north-east India. generating global vegetation type maps depicting
coarser level information. Global level vegetation
About half a century ago, Champion and Seth cover maps were prepared using AVHRR
(1968) recognized 16 major forest types comprising Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
221 minor types in India. They used various criteria composites covering 1992-1993 (Loveland et al.
for classification of forest types in India, which 2000). The IGBP DISCover global land cover
include: physiognomy, structure, phenology, product includes 17 general land cover classes in
function, plant association, flora, climate, order to meet the needs of IGBP core science
topography, soil and biotic factors. Since then, the projects. Although the IGBP-DISCover class
scheme has been widely used by the researchers ‘woody savanna’ states that it has 30–60% trees, it
and foresters in India. Gadgil and Meher-Homji neither defines which leaf type and phenology is
(1986) distinguished 42 forest types in India based present nor what other land cover class is
on association of species and bioclimate. These subdominant (Jung et al. 2006). Global land cover
previous efforts to classify forest types of India (GLC, 2000) maps were prepared using SPOT 4
have precisely used ground data to interpret the vegetation data by the Joint Research Institute, Italy
patterns of vegetation types but do not provide (Bartholome and Belward 2005). The classification
spatially explicit boundaries (Champion and Seth, scheme had to follow the Land Cover
1968; Gadgil and Meher-Homji, 1986). Hence, Classification System (LCCS) developed by the

3
FAO (Bartholome and Belward 2005). LCCS of consists of 10 land cover types i.e. cultivated land,
GLC2000 is the most flexible classification system forest, shrubland, grassland, wetlands, water
with a standardized definition of the 23 classes. bodies, tundra, artificial surfaces, bare land,
USGS classification has 24 classes and is organized permanent snow and ice
hierarchically to support conservation and resource (http://www.globallandcover.com).
applications across multiple scales (Anderson et al.
1976). Jung et al. (2006) have proposed a National Remote Sensing Agency (1985) initiated
simplified legend with 9 major classes that forest cover mapping of India on 1:1 M scale using
accommodate all land cover categories on an Landsat MSS data. First biome level vegetation
aggregated level according to the occurrence of map of India was prepared by Indian Institute of
major life forms (SIMPLE legend), i.e., trees, Remote Sensing using IRS-1C WiFS data on 1:1 M
shrubs, grasses, crops, crops/natural vegetation scale have identified 22 vegetation cover types
mosaic, wetlands, barren, snow and urban. MODIS (IIRS, 2004; Roy et al. 2006; Joshi et al. 2006).
plant functional type (PFT) scheme consists of 12 Nation-wide landscape level characterization of
classes including water, evergreen needle leaf trees, biodiversity was carried out by Indian Space
evergreen broad leaf trees, deciduous needle leaf Research Orgainsation as part of joint initiative by
trees, deciduous broad leaf trees, shrub, grass, Department of Space and Department of
cereal crop, broadleaf crop, urban and built-up, Biotechnology (Roy et al. 2012). In this study,
snow and ice and barren or sparse vegetation (Sun classification scheme was prepared focusing on
et al. 2008). The European Space Agency has biodiversity prioritization, ecological uniqueness
compiled vegetation data of GlobCover under the and naturalness. The vegetation type mapping
GlobCover2005 project. This was prepared under depicting four different categories i.e., mixed types,
an international consortium with JRC, EEA, FAO, gregarious formations, locale specific types and
UNEP, GOFC-GOLD and IGBP. The global level degradation stages was carried out using IRS LISS
land cover map was prepared at 300m resolution III data. A total of 100 vegetation classes have been
using the ENVISAT MERIS (Bontemps et al., mapped (Roy et al. 2012; Roy et al. 2015a). Forest
2011). GlobCover product incorporates 22 land Survey of India carried out forest type mapping in
cover classes defined by the FAO land cover grid dimensions of 2 ½’ and 2 ½’ based on IRS 1D
classification system (LCCS). But none of the LISS III data of 2002 and forest type maps at 1:1 M
legends of all global land cover products are easily scale of 1982 (FSI, 2009). High resolution data of
translated into the land cover classes of vegetation IRS LISS III and Landsat TM/ETM+ satellites has
models without introducing uncertainty due to poor been used to generate information on forest types in
definition of mixed classes or a lack of information various case studies carried out in India (Reddy et
about leaf type and phenology. Many global al. 2008; Reddy et al. 2011; Roy et al. 2012).
initiatives provides estimation of forest cover with Natural vegetation growth pattern and Leaf Area
coarse resolution data which may not suit to the Index (MODIS LAI) composites based on forest
requirement of planners and ecologists (Hansen et types of India was prepared by Chhabra and
al., 2000). In order to support global change Panigrahy (2011).
research, National Geomatics Center of China has
launched 30m global land cover dataset for 2010. It

4
In the present study, the IRS Resourcesat-2 AWiFS of integrated classification scheme to suit with
data in conjunction with spatial information on existing global and national vegetation legends,
climate, elevation, phenology and large floristic natural forest definition and utilization of 56m
database are used to delineate forest types of India. spatial resolution multi-season satellite data.
Uniqueness of the present study lies in preparation

Fig. 1. Annual mean temperature map of India

5
2. Materials and Methods 2.3. Methodology
2.1. Remote sensing (RS) data The different steps followed for vegetation type
mapping for the present study are selection of
IRS Resoursesat-2 Advanced Wide Field Sensor
multi-season Resourcesat-2 AWiFS data,
(AWiFS) with four bands acquires the data of the
radiometric correction, geometric rectification,
Earth’s surface in the short wave-IR region besides
registration of temporal data, digital enhancement,
visible and near-IR regions of the electromagnetic
reconnaissance survey, image interpretation, image
spectrum. The band-width for spectral bands: Band
smoothing, accuracy assessment and area
2: green, 0.52-0.59µm, Band 3: red, 0.62-0.68µm,
assessment. Satellite data was acquired and
Band 4: near IR, 0.77-0.86µm, Band 5: SWIR,
preprocessed, followed by image extraction, noise
1.55-1.70µm. It has spatial resolution of 56m.
removal and geometric correction. Using
Radiometric resolution is 12 bits (10 bits for RS-1
orthorectified Landsat ETM+ data, the common
AWiFS). The swath is 740 km with repetitivity of 5
ground control points were selected on the
days. Multi-season Resourcesat-2 AWiFS (2013-
preprocessed AWiFS satellite data with proper
2014) data were procured from National Remote
spatial distribution covering the entire study area.
Sensing Centre, ISRO, Hyderabad.
This process of geometric correction of raw
2.2. Ancillary data
satellite data was achieved using first order
This study combined use of very high resolution polynomial transformation fit. A nearest-neighbor
images from open access high resolution remote algorithm was used to perform the resampling
sensing data freely available on web procedure and the image-to-image registrations,
(http://earth.google.com/; http://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in/ which yielded a root-mean-square error of <1
) and field surveys to aid in interpretation of pixels for all data. The study area was extracted
vegetation cover and forest types. The land from the multiple satellite data scenes. Conversion
use/land cover map of 1:250,000 scale (2013) of digital number to Top-of-Atmosphere
generated by NRSC, vegetation type and land use reflectance as suggested by Chavez (1996) was
map of 1:50,000 scale by ISRO, forest cover map applied in order to reduce the error due to various
of 1:50,000 scale (2005) of FSI, Landsat ETM+ atmospheric conditions at different dates of image
data (http://glcf.umd.edu/research/portal/geocover/) acquisition. The images were georeferenced to the
and MODIS 16-day composites NDVI product of Lambert Conformal Conic coordinate system and
2013-2014 (http://reverb.echo.nasa.gov/reverb/) WGS84 datum.
were used as reference. The climatic data was
In addition to digital classification methods,
collected from the site www.worldclim.com.
conjunctive use of visual interpretation technique
WorldClim is a set of global climate layers (climate
was used in view of field information to be
grids) with a spatial resolution of a 1 km2. Rainfall
incorporated in terms of context, association and
zone map of India is given in Fig. 2. NASA SRTM
texture to delineate different vegetation type
Digital Elevation Model was used to understand
classes. Initially major vegetation types were put to
relation of elevation gradient with reference to
intensive study of its tone, texture, pattern and its
forest types (Rabu et al. 2003). Elevation zone map
associated features from the enhanced False Colour
of India based on SRTM Digital Elevation Model is
Composites. Visual image interpretation technique
given in Fig. 3.
was found to be essential in the present study due

6
to two reasons. Firstly, the digital procedures of basis of field information and very high resolution
forest type separation may provide more repeatable open access images available in Bhuvan and
results but nevertheless need human confirmation Google. All the digital data pertains to climate and
of the results for acceptance. Secondly, vegetation elevation was resampled to 56m, to match with the
heterogeneity is high in a given spatial context may spatial resolution of AWiFS.
causes class overlaps to a greater extent and
2.4. Accuracy assessment
involves understanding of spectral response pattern
and integration of visual key elements for Generally, no land cover classification would be
interpretation of forest types (Reddy et al. 2015). complete without an accuracy assessment. A
variety of factors influence the classification
Ground truth information has been collected from
accuracy. The classification accuracy mainly
each of the vegetation type covering the plains to
depends on sampling theory, but practical
hill tops using handheld GPS. Biogeographic
considerations regarding accessibility and resources
classification of India recognizes 10 biogeographic
constrain the desirable (Cihlar, 2000). The error
zones, including Himalayas (Rodgers and Panwar,
matrix (confusion matrix) and kappa coefficient
1988). However, in the present study, Himalayas
have become a standard means for assessment of
are considered as two biogeographic zones i.e.
classification accuracy. Error matrices compare, on
Western Himalayas and Eastern Himalayas. The
a class-by-class basis, the relationship between
biogeographic zones were used as broad first level
known reference data (ground truth) and the
stratum in view of floristic uniqueness, geophysical
corresponding results of the classification
conditions, distinct geological origins and swath of
procedure. Individual class accuracy was calculated
AWiFS scene. Each zone was processed separately
by dividing the number of correctly classified
by extracting the False Colour Composite image
points for each class by either the total number of
using hybrid per pixel approach consisting of
points in the corresponding column (producer’
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
accuracy) or row (user’ accuracy). Overall accuracy
and supervised maximum likelihood classification
was computed by dividing the total number of
for forest classes on the basis of phenological
correctly classified points (i.e., the sum of the
variations (i.e. peak growth and leaf fall) and
elements along the major diagonal) by the total
signature separability. Maximum likelihood
number of reference points. In the present study,
classifier was used for classifying non-forest
total of 8504 samples collected randomly by
classes. In the spectral discrimination analysis,
National Remote Sensing Centre and collaborators
signatures of scrub, grasslands and savanna had
on different vegetation types and land use / land
overlaps due to low spectral separability. Hence,
cover of India were used to obtain overall
grasslands and savanna were mapped using hybrid
classification accuracy. Kappa analysis is a discrete
classification technique. We have incorporated the
multivariate technique used in accuracy
spatial data of agricultural land, orchards,
assessment. Kappa statistics measures the
settlements and water bodies generated by National
difference between the actual agreement between
Remote Sensing Centre using Resourcesat-2
reference data and classified data and the chance
AWiFS (NRSC, 2013). Thematic raster output was
agreement between reference data and classified
smoothened using 3x3 majority filter. Post
data (Lillesand and Kiefer, 1999).
classification refinement was done visually on the

7
 2.5. Classification scheme forest, subtropical broad leaved hill forest,
subtropical dry evergreen forest, Montane wet
The study has delineated 29 vegetation and land
temperate forest, Tropical semi evergreen forest,
use/land cover classes in India. The primary
tropical moist deciduous forest, tropical dry
classification is intended to separate natural
deciduous forest, Tropical thorn forest, subtropical
vegetation cover from cultivated and managed
pine forest, Himalayan moist temperate forest,
systems (croplands and plantations/orchards),
Himalayan dry temperate forest, subalpine forest
barren land, water bodies, snow and settlements.
and Littoral and swamp forest. All the 14 forest
The natural vegetation cover was classified into
type classes reported by Champion and Seth (1968)
forests, scrub, savanna and grasslands. In the
are described with the corresponding class name.
classification of natural forest vegetation, four
The remaining two forest types i.e. Moist alpine
criteria have been used: (1) life form
scrub and dry alpine scrub as recorded by
(predominance of tree cover), (2) forest cover
Champion and Seth (1968) are actually scrub and
(>10% canopy cover), (3) leaf type (broad leaved
have been included in scrub category (Table 1).
or needle leaved) and (4) leaf longevity/phenology
The present study has direct correspondence with
(evergreen or deciduous). The forest class is
the Champion and Seth classification scheme.
subdivided into climatically driven forest
Similarly the vegetation and land use/land cover
ecosystems following Champion and Seth’s
classes identified in the study will facilitate linking
classification (1968) scheme. The further levels of
with different global and national classification
classification under forest class is based on
systems (Table 1). On the basis of field studies,
phenology and then biogeography, elevation and
map showing indicative locations of various
field data which includes 14 forest types, i.e.
vegetation types of India has been presented in Fig.
tropical wet evergreen forest, tropical dry evergreen
4.

Table 1. Correspondence/ translation between the LCCS (GLC 2000) legend and the
available classification schemes over India
S. LCCS-FAO USGS PFT
legend (GLCC and IGBP legend
No. (GLC2000) MODIS) DISCover (MODIS) IIRS-BLC DOS-DBT Present study

Evergreen
broad leaf
forest

Evergreen,
Overlap Andaman
with Evergreen, Giant
Tree cover, woody Evergreen,
broad Evergreen savannas Broad leaf Tropical Southern Hilltop,
leaved, broad leaved and evergreen evergreen Secondary Tropical wet
1 evergreen forest savannas tree forest Evergreen evergreen forest

Tropical dry
- - evergreen forest

Subtropical Subtropical
Subtropical broadleaved hill broad leaved hill
forest forests forest

8
 Subtropical dry Subtropical dry
- evergreen forest evergreen forest

Temperate
broad
leaved Montane wet Montane wet
forest temperate forest temperate forest

Montane wet
Shola
temperate forest

Gregarious species:
Pine, Fir, Spruce, Overlap with
Oak, Deodar, evergreen,
Rhododendron, subtropical and
Dipterocarpus temperate forests

Tropical
Semi
Mixed evergreen Semi evergreen Tropical semi
Mixed forest forest - forest forest evergreen forest

Tree cover, Tropical

broad Deciduous Deciduous Broad leaf moist
leaved, broad leaved broad leaf deciduous deciduous Moist deciduous Tropical moist
2 deciduous forest forest tree forest forest deciduous forest

Overlap
with
woody
savannas Tropical dry
and deciduous Dry deciduous Tropical dry
savannas forest forest deciduous forest

Tropical thorn
Thorn forest forest

Gregarious species:
Sal, Teak, Bamboo,
Mesua, Overlap with
Lagerstoemia, moist deciduous,
Anogeissus, Acacia, dry deciduous
Padauk) and thorn forests

Tree cover, Needle

needle Evergreen Evergreen leaf
leaved, Needle Needle evergreen Conifer Himalayan moist Himalayan moist
3 evergreen leaved forest leaf forest tree forest temperate Temperate

Overlap
with
woody
savannas Temperate
and conifer Temperate
savannas forest Coniferous Subtropical pine

Temperate Himalayan moist

mixed forest Pine mixed Temperate

Himalayan dry
- - temperate

Sub alpine
forest Sub alpine Sub alpine

9
 Mangrove,
Avicennia,
Rhizophora,
Bruguiera,
Excoecaria,
Tree cover, Heritiera,
regularly Broad leaf Lumnitzera, Palm
flooded, Wooded Permanent evergreen Mangrove Swamp, Littoral Littoral and
4 mangroves wetland wetland tree forest Forest/Beach Forest swamp forests

Overlap with
Shrub tropical moist
cover, scrub, dry scrub,
closed- Mixed subtropical scrub
open, shrubland/gra Closed Scrub/shrub and temperate
5 evergreen ssland Shrubland Shrub s Dense scrub scrub

Tropical moist
Plantations Dry evergreen scrub scrub

Open Moist alpine

Shrubland Moist alpine scrub scrub

Dry Alpine scrub Dry Alpine scrub

Tropical dry
Salvadora scrub

Hippophae Dry Alpine scrub

Tropical dry
Prosopis scrub scrub

Mangrove scrub Mangrove scrub

- Subtropical scrub

- Temperate scrub

Tropical moist
- scrub

Overlap with
Shrub tropical moist
cover, scrub, dry scrub,
closed- Mixed subtropical scrub
open, shrubland/gra Closed and temperate
6 deciduous ssland Shrubland Dense scrub scrub

Overlap with
tropical moist
scrub, dry scrub,
subtropical scrub
Open and temperate
Shrubland - - Open Scrub scrub

Dry deciduous Tropical dry

Thorn forest scrub scrub

Tropical dry
Desert dune scrub scrub

Tropical dry
Ziziphus scrub

10
 Tropical dry
Euphorbia Scrub scrub

Overlap with
forest, scrub,
Savannas - - - savanna

Wet Grassland,
Riverine Grassland,
Dry Alpine pasture,
Moist Alpine
pasture, Saline
Herbaceous Grassland, Dry
cover, Grassland/shr Grassland Grassland, Swampy
7 closed-open ubland s Grass Grasslands Grassland Grasslands

Overlap with
Herbaceous savanna, tropical
cover, Woodland, Tree moist scrub, dry
closed-open Savanna, Shrub scrub, subtropical
with sparse Savannah/Wo Degraded Savanna, Degraded scrub and
8 trees odland forest forest temperate scrub

Cultivated Mixed dry

and land/irrigated
managed cropland and Cereal
9 areas pasture Cropland crop Agriculture Agriculture Agriculture

Cropland/wo
odland Broad leaf Forest Plantations / Plantations /
mosaic crop Orchards Orchards Orchards

Overlap with
agriculture,
Cropland/gra Current barren, scrub,
ssland mosaic Jhum Current Jhum grasslands

Barren,
Barren or Barren or sand,
sparsely sparsely mudflat, Long Fallow /
10 Bare areas vegetated Barren vegetated pans Barren land Barren land

Water
bodies
(natural and Water Water Water bodies,
11 artificial) Water bodies bodies Water bodies Wetlands Water bodies

Snow and Snow and

12 Snow or ice Snow and ice ice ice Snow Snow Snow

Artificial
surfaces
and
associated Urban and Urban and Urban and
13 areas Built up land Built up Built up Settlements Settlements Settlements

11
Fig. 2. Annual mean rainfall map of India

12
Fig. 3. Elevation zone map of India

13
Fig. 4. Indicative locations of major vegetation types of India based on predominance and
ecological uniqueness

14
3. Results and Discussion of India. Representative tree species of forest types
across biogeographic zones are mentioned in Table
IRS Resourcesat-2 AWiFS False Colour Composite
4. Biogeographic zone wise area statistics of forest
image of India is presented in Fig. 5. Forest cover
types are given in Table 5.
of India is estimated to be 6,25,565 km2,
accounting for about 19.03% of total geographical 3.1. Analysis of different forest types and land
area. Of the five climatic forest types, tropical use/land cover
moist forests represent highest forest cover
Tropical wet evergreen forest: The forest canopy
(49.09%) followed by tropical dry forests (36.17%)
shows by green foliage throughout the year. It is
and subtropical forests (7.01%) (Fig.6). The
characterized by evergreen trees more than 30 m
dominant forest type of India at level 2 is tropical
tall. Trees often have a buttressed trunk or root on
deciduous, followed by tropical evergreen (Table
three sides like a tripod that helps to keep a tree
2). The present study has estimated that tropical dry
upright during a storm. Bark of the trees is thin and
deciduous forests occupy 2,17,713 km2, followed
smooth. The trees in this forest form a multi-
by 2,07,649 km2 under tropical moist deciduous
layered pattern: shrubs cover the layer closer to the
forests, 48295 km2 under tropical semi evergreen
ground (under storey), followed by the short trees
forests and 47,192 km2 under tropical wet
(middle storey) and then the tall tress (top storey).
evergreen forests. Distribution of forest types in
Ferns and different species of orchids grow on the
India are presented in Table 2.
trunks of the trees. Mosses and aroids are quite
The natural vegetation cover (forest, scrub, common. Wet evergreen forests are mainly found
grassland and savanna) was estimated to be in the high rainfall areas of the Western Ghats,
2
9,65,128 km . It constitutes 29.36% of total Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Eastern Himalayas
geographical area of India. Agriculture is the and north-eastern region. The Andaman and
predominant land use of India and accounts for Nicobar Islands, Arunachal Pradesh, Silent valley
53.21% of the total area. Plantations / orchards have well preserved wet evergreen forests. FCC
occupy 2.91% of geographical area. Water bodies image shows these areas in dark or bright red tone
and snow cover (permanent) represents 2.58% and with rough texture in all seasons. Associated
1.90% of the geographical area, respectively. features include interior terrain, riverine areas of
Detailed area statistics of vegetation cover, forest moist tracts, characterized by interspersion of
types and land use/land cover are presented in shadows. Trans-seasonal feature is the persistence
Table 3. Vegetation type and land use/land cover of foliage. No significant change was observed in
map of India is shown in Fig. 7. Vegetation type NDVI values except month of February which
and land use/land cover map of Andaman and shows maximum NDVI in a year.
Nicobar Islands is shown in Fig. 8. Among the
Tropical dry evergreen forest: Forest canopy is
biogeographic zones of India, Deccan represents
always with green foliage. More than 75% of trees
highest forest cover followed by North East and
remain green throughout the year. Dry evergreen
Eastern Himalayas. Littoral and swamp forests are
forests are found in parts of Deccan and coastal
unique to coasts and Islands. Among the 14 forest
plains mainly in Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh
types, moist deciduous forests are widely
and Tamil Nadu. Trees are with short boles and
distributed and found in nine biogeographic zones
spreading crowns. It has mainly hard-leaved

15
evergreen trees with fragrant flowers, along with a forests are found in patches in the more sheltered
few deciduous trees. Grasses are present, but sites on rolling grasslands in Western Ghats,
inconspicuous. RS FCC images show these areas in popularly known as ‘shola’. The conifers are
dark brown tone with smooth texture, as they retain absent. Trees have large girth and branching
leaves in all seasons and show high NDVI value in crowns. The height of trees reaches mostly up to 15
October and November months. m only. Leaves are coriaceous and red during
tender stage. The branches are densely clothed with
Subtropical broad leaved hill forest: The flora is a
mosses, ferns and epiphytes. Woody climbers are
mixture of wet evergreen forest and temperate
also common. FCC image shows these areas in
forest. These forests are luxuriant with evergreen
dark brown tone with medium to rough texture.
species and limited to lower slopes of the
The high NDVI was found in December.
Himalayas, North East, Aravallis and Western
Ghats. The species of Lauraceae are predominant Tropical semi evergreen forest: Forested areas that
in Western Ghats. In the lower ranges of Eastern have a predominance of evergreen broadleaved
Himalayas, the forests have been severely affected trees. More than 75% of trees remain green all over
by the shifting cultivation and forest fires. These the year. Canopy is never without green foliage.
forests are rich in orchids, bamboos and creepers. The forest is mostly dense comprising of a large
RS FCC image shows these areas as red or dark number of tree species of both wet evergreen and
brown tone with medium to rough texture and moist deciduous types. Climbers and epiphytes are
relatively low NDVI value was found in April and abundant. FCC image shows these forests with
May months, thus indicating leaf fall of few tree bright red tone or pinkish red with medium to
species. rough texture in all seasons. These forests are
situated in the proximity of Tropical Wet
Subtropical dry evergreen forest: It has small-
Evergreen forests and/or Tropical Moist Deciduous
leaved evergreen trees and shrubs including thorny
Forests, and the association feature includes
species. More than 75% of trees remain green
riverine areas of moist tracts. The low NDVI was
throughout the year. Canopy is never without green
found in April and May while high NDVI in
foliage. Forests normally have a prolonged hot and
November and December.
dry season. It generally has trees with shining
leaves that have a varnished look. Shrubby growth Tropical moist deciduous forest: Forested areas that
predominates. Annual herbs and grasses are have a predominance of deciduous broadleaf trees.
commonly seen during monsoon. These forests are The type consists of seasonal tree communities and
found in the Shivalik hills and foothills of the few evergreens with an annual cycle of leaf-on and
Himalayas up to a height of 1500 m. FCC image leaf-off periods. In tropical moist deciduous forests,
shows these areas in red tone with medium texture. the onset of leaf flushing starts in late May or early
The low NDVI was found in May. June. The trees typically form irregular top storey
and often have branching trunks and roots to hold
Montane wet temperate forest: It is a closed
them firmly to the ground. Most of the taller trees
evergreen forest. These forests occur in the higher
shed their leaves in the dry season. Lower storey is
hills of Eastern Himalayas, North East and Western
predominantly occupied by evergreen trees and
Ghats (Nilgiris, Palnis, Anamalais and Tirunelveli
shrubs. Bark of the trees tends to be thicker and
hills) and are found about 1500 m upwards. Such

16
rougher as compared to wet evergreen and semi season. The high NDVI was found in mid of
evergreen forests. Bamboos, canes, and epiphytes October to November.
are restricted to certain patches. Climbers are
Tropical thorn forest: An open low forest in which
abundant. The species composition, rainfall and
thorny, hard-wood species predominate. The trees
topography of such forests in Andaman Islands are
do not grow beyond 10 meters. Species of Acacia
quite unique as compared to mainland India. Moist
are common in these forests. Climbers are few.
deciduous forests occur in all parts of India except
Sun-loving weedy species predominate. This type
Rajasthan and Trans- Himalayas. FCC image
is found in Indian desert, Gangetic plains, Deccan
features appear in bright red to brown tinged red
and Semi-arid region. On FCC image, it gives a
tone with rough or medium texture in green season
rough texture with light to dark red tone in wet
image and mottled dark tone with medium or
season but in dry season the areas take up greenish
smooth texture in dry season. Formation is
shade with no evidence of foliage. The high NDVI
generally the outer fringes of core semi-evergreen
was found in September and October.
patches and extends till the end of forest limits at
places. Wherever it is in proximity of dry Subtropical Pine forest: Forested areas that have a
deciduous forest, moist deciduous forests form the predominance of evergreen conifers. It is
core of the vegetation system. The low NDVI was practically a predominant association of pines,
found in March and April. considerably influenced by periodical fires. Shrubs
are few, but climbers and bamboos are absent.
Tropical dry deciduous forest: The canopy is Annual herbs and bulbous herbs are common. Pine
represented by deciduous species. These forests forests are found in the steep dry slopes of the
become entirely leafless and soil is mostly exposed Western Himalayas, Eastern Himalayas and North
for one to four months during February to May. East. FCC image shows these forests with brownish
The canopy of the trees does not normally exceed red tone or maroon with medium or rough texture
20 meters. Bark of the tree species is thicker and in all seasons. The least NDVI was found during
rough. The number of species is less as compared May in this forest type.
to evergreen, semi-evergreen and moist deciduous
Himalayan moist temperate forest: Conifers
forests. Canes and palms are absent. Epiphytes and
predominate, 20–40 m high, with varying
ferns are very rare. Climbers are comparatively
evergreen species. Deciduous shrubs form the
few. Herbaceous vegetation is quite common. Dry
undergrowth. Mosses and ferns are abundant on
deciduous forests are found in drier parts of India.
branches of trees. Luxuriant herbaceous vegetation
In green season FCC satellite image, dry deciduous
grows in summer due to snow cover during the
forest looks dark red in tone with rough texture, but
winter and rainy season. These forests extend along
in dry season the areas take up greenish shade with
the whole length of Himalayas. In the Eastern
no evidence of foliage. Background reflectance of
Himalayas, the rainfall is much heavier and
dry/often burnt undergrowth marks this system.
therefore the vegetation in moist temperate forest is
Contiguity of these forests over large areas is
luxuriant and dense. FCC image shows these
common and can be generally found interspersed
forests with dark red tone with smooth to medium
with contrasting linear riverine forests in dry
texture in all seasons. The low NDVI was noticed
in May and high value in December.

17
Himalayan dry temperate forest: Conifers The less NDVI in May and high value in early
predominate, mostly forms pure and open forest, January to early February was observed through
with varying xerophytic shrub species. Epiphytes multi-temporal data.
and climbers are rarely found. This type is found in Tropical Moist scrub: The shrub foliage is
the inner ranges of Ladakh, Lahul, Sikkim and predominantly broad-leaved evergreen. Tree
other parts of the Himalayas. FCC image shows canopy cover is <10%.
these forests with bright red tone with medium to Tropical Dry scrub: The shrub foliage is
rough texture in all seasons. The low NDVI value predominantly broad-leaved deciduous. Tree
was found in May and high value in December and canopy cover is <10%.
January. Subtropical scrub: The shrub foliage is evergreen
needle leaved or broad leaved or deciduous broad
Sub Alpine forest: Conifers predominate and the
leaved. Tree canopy cover is <10%.
trees and shrubs are small and stunted. Vegetation
shows dense growth. Epiphytic moss, lichen and Temperate scrub: The shrub foliage is evergreen
ferns are abundant. Climbers are very rare. Species needle leaved or broad leaved. Tree canopy cover is
of Rhododendron cover the major parts of sub <10%.
alpine forest. These forests occur at the upper limit
Moist Alpine scrub: A low scrubby evergreen
of timberline and occur as strips along snow-slides
system, consisting mainly of species of
in the Himalayas and extend from Kashmir to
Rhododendron, Berberis, Betula utilis, Quercus
Arunachal Pradesh. Due to heavy rainfall and high
semicarpifolia. Mosses and ferns cover the ground
humidity, the timberline in Eastern Himalayas is
with alpine shrubs and flowering herbs. A thick
higher than that in the Western Himalayas. FCC
layer of black humus is present. This region
image shows these forests with pink or bright red
receives heavy snowfall. Moist alpines are found
tone with smooth to rough texture. The high NDVI
all along the Himalayas and on the higher hills near
was observed in early September to early October.
the Myanmar border.
Littoral and swamp forests: Littoral and swamp
Dry Alpine scrub: It is a xerophytic formation in
forests or Mangroves are found in coastal belt of
which dwarf shrubs predominate. The predominant
India. These are halophytic evergreen and have
species are Juniperus communis, Juniperus recurva
pneumatophores / stilt roots and viviparous
and Hippophae rhamnoides. Higher up to the Dry
germination i.e., the seeds germinate while still on
Alpine scrub is replaced by rocky outcrops where
the ‘mother’ trees. Species are relatively few, but
herbaceous species such as Primula minutissima,
occur gregariously. Generally fruits/seeds of the
Potentilla fruticosa, Sedum crassipes are common.
species are large but lighter than water. Mangroves
Dry alpines are found from about 3000 m to about
are mainly distributed along the east coast in
5200 m elevation in the Himalayas. Precipitation is
Sunderbans, Brahmani-Baitarani, Mahanadi,
under 800 mm. Snowfall is higher than
Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery delta and west coast of
precipitation.
Gujarat, Maharashtra and Goa and also in the
coastal strip of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Grassland: It is a community in which grasses
Vivid contrasts become apparent by various band predominate, along with forbs as co-dominants, and
combinations possibly due to moisture gradients. the trees are either altogether absent or present in

18
relatively small number. Smooth pink tone and based on the sharp boundary exhibited by them in
lesser expanse associated to hill tops and plains the image.
mark the grassland cover in FCC. Occasional to
Barren land: Barren lands generally result from
frequent in the proximity of scrub or savanna
inherent/imposed disabilities such as by location,
vegetation and may mix with barren or other land
environment, chemical and physical properties of
use, if single season data is used.
the soil or financial or management constraints.
Savanna: Lands dominated by naturally occurring These are the areas with exposed soil, sand, rocks
grasses and forbs with scattered trees or shrubs. and never more than 10% vegetation cover during
The vegetation height exceeds 1 meter. any season. Rann of Kachchh of Gujarat represents
unique combination of saline desert and highly
Agriculture: These are the lands used for
dynamic seasonal wetlands also included under
cultivation for production of food, fibre and other
barren lands. In addition, long fallow lands are
commercial crops. These are the lands covered with
included in this category.
temporary crops or multiple cropping systems or
current fallow. Water bodies: This category comprises areas with
surface water, either impounded in the form of
Plantations/Orchards: It includes areas occupied
ponds, lakes, tanks and reservoirs or flowing as
by plantations for the purpose of afforestation or
streams, rivers and canals.
reforestation or commercial purposes. The species
mainly constitute teak, sal, pine, rubber, Eucalyptus Snow: Lands with a snow cover. It includes
and Casuarina. The term orchard is mainly applied perennial snowfields and glaciers of the Himalayas.
to a plantation of fruit or nut bearing trees like Settlements: It is an area of human habitation.
mango, coconut, orange, apple or cashew and other Included in this category are cities, towns, villages,
horticultural plants. Most of these can be identified major transportation facilities and areas occupied
by industries.

Table 2. Distribution of forest types in India (area in km2)

S.no. Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Forest % of Forest

Area Area

I Tropical moist forest Evergreen Wet Evergreen 47192 7.54

Semi Evergreen 48295 7.72

Littoral and Swamp 3940 0.63

Deciduous Moist Deciduous 207649 33.19

II Tropical dry forest Evergreen Dry Evergreen 378 0.06

Deciduous Dry Deciduous 217713 34.80

Thorn 8166 1.31

III Subtropical forest Evergreen Broad leaved hill 20623 3.30

Dry Evergreen 354 0.06

Pine 22880 3.66

19
IV Temperate forest Evergreen Montane Wet Temperate 7457 1.19

Himalayan Moist Temperate 27510 4.40

Himalayan Dry Temperate 7634 1.22

V Sub Alpine forest Evergreen Sub Alpine 5774 0.92

Grand total 625565 100.00

Table 3. Vegetation cover, forest types and land use/land cover (area in km2)

S.no. Class Area % of Area

1 Tropical wet evergreen forest 47192 1.44

2 Tropical dry evergreen forest 378 0.01

3 Subtropical broad leaved hill forest 20623 0.63

4 Subtropical dry evergreen forest 354 0.01

5 Montane Wet Temperate forest 7457 0.23

6 Tropical Semi evergreen forest 48295 1.47

7 Tropical moist deciduous forest 207649 6.32

8 Tropical dry deciduous forest 217713 6.62

9 Tropical thorn forest 8166 0.25

10 Subtropical Pine forest 22880 0.70

11 Himalayan Moist Temperate forest 27510 0.84

12 Himalayan Dry Temperate forest 7634 0.23

13 Sub Alpine forest 5774 0.18

14 Littoral and swamp forests 3940 0.12

15 Tropical moist scrub 19614 0.60

16 Subtropical scrub 4415 0.13

17 Temperate scrub 553 0.02

18 Moist Alpine scrub 4278 0.13

19 Dry Alpine scrub 10400 0.32

20 Mangrove scrub 853 0.03

21 Tropical dry scrub 212364 6.46

22 Grasslands 81494 2.48

23 Savanna 5592 0.17

24 Agriculture 1749076 53.21

25 Plantations/Orchards 95586 2.91

20
26 Barren land 267837 8.15

27 Water bodies 84801 2.58

28 Snow 62314 1.90

29 Settlements 62521 1.90

Grand total 3287263 100.00

21
Fig. 5. IRS Resourcesat-2 AWiFS False Colour Composite image of India (February 2014)

22
Fig. 6. Distribution of level 1 forest types across biogeographic zones of India

23
Fig. 7. Vegetation type and land use/land cover map of India

24
Fig. 8. Vegetation type and land use/land cover map of Andaman and Nicobar Islands

25
Table 4. Representative tree species of forest types across biogeographic zones
Forest type / Tree species
Biogeographic zone

Tropical Wet
evergreen forest

Eastern Himalayas Michelia montana, Mesua ferrea, Dysoxylum binectariferum, Ailanthus integrifolia, Baccaurea
ramiflora

Gangetic Plains Dipterocarpus retusus, Canarium strictum, Shorea assamica, Antidesma montanum, Magnolia
hodgsonii

North East Dipterocarpus turbinatus, Dipterocarpus retusus, Litsea monopetala, Artocarpus chaplasha,
Garcinia pedunculata

Deccan Litsea glabrata, Persea macrantha, Macaranga peltata, Mesua ferrea, Actinodaphne malabarica

Coasts Dysoxylum malabaricum, Macaranga peltata, Olea dioica, Holigarna arnottiana, Calophyllum
polyanthum

Western Ghats Hopea parviflora, Holigarna arnottiana, Cullenia exarillata, Vateria indica, Palaquium ellipticum

Islands Dipterocarpus alatus, Dipterocarpus grandiflorus, Aglaia oligophylla, Myristica andamanica,

Myristica glaucescens

Tropical Semi
evergreen forest

Western Himalayas Shorea robusta, Haldina cordifolia, Anogeissus latifolia, Careya arborea, Ficus semicordata

Eastern Himalayas Terminalia myriocarpa, Tetrameles nudiflora, Mesua ferrea, Dillenia indica, Duabanga
sonneratioides

Gangetic Plains Terminalia bellirica, Syzygium cumini, Litsea monopetala, Casearia graveolens, Stereospermum
personatum

Western Ghats Macaranga peltata, Terminalia paniculata, Knema attenuata, Mesua ferrea, Artocarpus hirsutus

Deccan Michelia champaca, Macaranga peltata, Protium serratum, Litsea glutinosa, Syzygium nervosum

Islands Pterocarpus dalbergioides, Dipterocarpus gracilis, Celtis wightii, Pterocymbium tinctorium,

Artocarpus chaplasha

Tropical Moist
deciduous forest

Western Himalayas Shorea robusta, Anogeissus latifolia, Buchanania lanzan, Mallotus philippensis, Garuga pinnata

Eastern Himalayas Shorea robusta, Terminalia alata, Terminalia bellirica, Oroxylum indicum, Dillenia pentagyna

Gangetic Plains Shorea robusta, Madhuca latifolia, Schleichera oleosa, Terminalia alata, Lagerstroemia parviflora

Semi Arid Terminalia alata, Cleistanthus collinus, Dalbergia latifolia, Pterocarpus marsupium,
Lagerstroemia parviflora

North East Terminalia myriocarpa, Shorea robusta, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Sterculia villosa, Callicarpa
arborea

26
Deccan Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis, Pterocarpus marsupium, Miliusa tomentosa, Terminlia alata

Coasts Terminalia paniculata, Cipadessa baccifera, Careya arborea, Cassia fistula, Bridelia retusa

Western Ghats Terminalia paniculata, Terminalia alata, Xylia xylocarpa, Lagerstroemia lanceolata, Grewia
tiliifolia

Islands Pterocarpus dalbergioides, Diospyros oocarpa, Celtis wightii, Terminalia bialata, Lagerstroemia
hypoleuca

Tropical Dry
deciduous forest

Western Himalayas Anogeissus latifolia, Buchanania lanzan, Lannea coromandelica, Terminalia alata, Ehretia laevis

Gangetic Plains Anogeissus latifolia, Haldina cordifolia, Mitragyna parvifolia, Lagerstroemia parviflora,
Holoptelia integrifolia

Semi Arid Anogeissus latifolia, Anogeissus pendula, Terminalia alata, Lannea coromandelica, Boswellia
serrata

North East Anthocephalus chinensis, Gmelina arborea, Albizia chinensis, Albizia procera, Sterculia villosa

Deccan Tectona grandis, Shorea robusta, Terminalia alata, Anogeissus latifolia, Diospyros melanoxylon,
Hardwickia binata

Coasts Anogeissus latifolia, Buchanania lanzan, Terminalia alata, Careya arborea, Holarrhena pubescens

Western Ghats Anogeissus latifolia, Terminalia alata, Chloroxylon swietenia, Albizia odoratissima, Terminalia
chebula

Littoral and swamp

forest

Coasts Rhizophora mucronata, Excoecaria agallocha, Avicennia marina, Avicennia alba, Bruguiera
gymnorrhiza

Islands Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora mucronata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Avicennia marina,

Avicennia alba

Tropical Dry
evergreen forest

Deccan Atalantia monophylla, Albizia amara, Manilkara hexandra, Memecylon edule, Mundulea sericea

Coasts Atalantia monophylla, Albizia amara, Phyllanthus chorisandra, Canthium dicoccum, Prosopis
juliflora

Tropical Thorn
forest

Gangetic Plains Acacia leucophloea, Butea monosperma, Acacia catechu, Prosopis juliflora, Prosopis cineraria

Semi Arid Acacia leucophloea, Acacia senegal, Acacia nilotica, Butea monosperma, Prosopis cineraria

Desert Acacia senegal, Prosopis cineraria, Salvadora oleoides, Capparis decidua, Calligonum
polygonoides

Deccan Acacia chundra, Bauhinia racemosa, Mimosa hamata, Balanites aegyptiaca, Butea monosperma

Subtropical
Broadleaved hill

27
forest

Western Himalayas Rhododendron arboreum, Myrica esculenta, Symplocos paniculata, Quercus leucotricophora,
Lyonia ovalifolia

Eastern Himalayas Quercus lanata, Engelhardtia spicata, Prunus nepalensis, Schima wallichii, Juglans regia

Semi Arid Syzygium cumini, Mangifera indica, Kydia calycina, Trema orientalis, Flacourtia indica

North East Schima wallichii, Rhus javanica, Castanopsis kurzii, Quercus griffithii, Symplocos glomerata

Deccan Litsea deccanensis, Litsea glutinosa, Persea macrantha, Neolitsea zeylanica, Glochidion velutinum

Western Ghats Litsea glabrata, Turpinia malabarica, Myristica dactyloides, Vaccinium leschenaultii, Ilex
denticulata

Subtropical Pine
forest

Western Himalayas Pinus roxburghii, Cedrus deodara, Quercus leucotrichophora, Quercus serrata, Alnus nepalensis

Eastern Himalayas Abies densa, Larix griffithiana, Picea spinulosa, Quercus serrata, Rhododendron arboreum

North East Pinus kesiya, Acer oblongum, Magnolia campbelli, Schima wallichii, Quercus serrata

Subtropical Dry
evergreen forest

Western Himalayas Acacia modesta, Olea cuspidata, Canthium dicoccum, Diospyros ebenum, Holoptelea integrifolia

Montane Wet
Temperate forest

Eastern Himalayas Acer campbelli, Magnolia campbelli, Rhododendron arboreum, Acer campbelli, Quercus
pachyphylla

North East Michelia doltsopa, Michelia champaca, Betula alnoides, Actinodaphne macroptera, Gordonia
obtusa

Western Ghats Michelia nilagirica, Eurya nitida, Rhododendron nilagiricum, Ilex wightiana, Ternstroemia
japonica

Himalayan Moist
Temperate forest

Western Himalayas Abies pindrow, Quercus incana, Quercus dilatata, Rhododendron arboreum, Betula utilis

Eastern Himalayas Abies densa, Quercus lamellosa, Quercus lineata, Lithocarpus pachyphylla, Castanopsis
tribuloides

North East Lithocarpus fenestratus, Castanopsis kurzii, Myrica esculenta, Rhododendron arboreum,
Engelhardtia spicata

Himalayan Dry
Temperate forest

Western Himalayas Cedrus deodara, Pinus gerardiana, Pinus wallichiana, Picea smithiana, Rhododendron
campanulatum

Eastern Himalayas Pinus wallichiana, Juniperus macropoda, Larix griffithiana, Tsuga domosa, Rhododendron
arboreum

28
 Sub Alpine forest

Trans Himalayas Betula utilis, Pinus wallichiana, Quercus semecarpifolia, Rhododendron campanulatum

Western Himalayas Betula utilis, Rhododendron arboreum, Juniperus wallichiana, Pinus wallichiana

Eastern Himalayas Betula utilis, Abies densa, Pinus wallichiana, Rhododendron arboreum, Rhododendron barbatum

Table 5. Distribution of forest types across biogeographic zones of India (area in km2)
Forest type Trans Western Eastern Gangetic Semi Desert North Deccan Coasts Western Islands Total
Himalayas Himalayas Himalayas Plains Arid East Ghats

Tropical 0 0 9519 353 0 0 14714 704 16 18821 3065 47192

Wet
evergreen
forest

Tropical 0 151 5738 738 1 0 13921 4220 308 21678 1541 48295
Semi
evergreen
forest

Tropical 0 5609 2831 11080 4136 0 51149 116375 102 15235 1133 207649
Moist
deciduous
forest

Tropical 0 299 0 3359 38262 0 176 170610 5 5002 0 217713

Dry
deciduous
forest

Littoral and 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3262 0 677 3940

swamp
forest

Tropical 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 297 81 0 0 378

Dry
evergreen
forest

Tropical 0 0 0 248 3491 1121 0 3306 0 0 0 8166

Thorn forest

Subtropical 0 991 14502 0 86 0 4896 8 0 139 0 20623

Broadleaved
hill forest

Subtropical 0 20710 1530 0 0 0 640 0 0 0 0 22880

Pine forest

Subtropical 0 354 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 354

Dry
evergreen
forest

Montane 0 0 5341 0 0 0 1480 0 0 636 0 7457

Wet
Temperate
forest

29
Himalayan 17 9270 18205 0 0 0 18 0 0 0 0 27510
Moist
Temperate
forest

Himalayan 1480 3821 2333 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7634

Dry
Temperate
forest

Sub Alpine 198 2870 2706 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5774

forest

Grand total 1695 44075 62706 15777 45976 1121 86994 295521 3774 61511 6416 625565

3.2. Distribution of forest types across the rainfall zones

Distribution of forest types analysed across the mean annual rainfall zones (<500 mm, 500-1000 mm, 1000-
2000 mm, 2000-3000 mm, 3000-4000 mm and >4000 mm) based on data of worldclim (Table 6). Littoral and
swamp forests are distributed in all six rainfall zones. Wet evergreen forests and semi evergreen forests are
predominantly found in rainfall zone of 3000-4000 mm followed by rainfall zone of 2000-3000 mm. Moist
deciduous forests (69.64%) and dry deciduous forests (65.20%) are distributed mostly in rainfall zone of 1000-
2000 mm. However dry deciduous forests represent 33.89% of area in rainfall zone of 500-1000, while moist
deciduous forests have 3.38% of occupancy only.

Table 6. Percentage distribution of forest types across rainfall zones of India

Forest type / Rainfall zone (mm) <500 500- 1000- 2000- 3000- >4000
1000 2000 3000 4000

Tropical Wet evergreen forest 0.00 0.36 6.30 30.31 40.89 22.13

Tropical Semi evergreen forest 0.00 0.41 15.34 35.03 39.96 9.26

Tropical Moist deciduous forest 0.00 3.38 69.64 21.07 4.91 1.00

Tropical Dry deciduous forest 0.00 33.89 65.20 0.91 0.00 0.00

Littoral and swamp forest 6.72 1.43 53.61 3.70 18.48 16.07

Tropical Dry evergreen forest 0.00 12.58 87.42 0.00 0.00 0.00

Tropical Thorn forest 25.28 69.80 4.92 0.00 0.00 0.00

Subtropical Broadleaved hill forest 0.00 2.06 19.78 41.81 27.86 8.49

Subtropical Pine forest 0.00 15.40 71.48 10.36 1.24 1.52

Subtropical Dry evergreen forest 0.00 68.27 31.72 0.00 0.00 0.00

Montane Wet Temperate forest 0.00 3.22 43.38 45.64 7.66 0.10

Himalayan Moist Temperate forest 0.00 7.93 60.26 25.83 5.93 0.05

Himalayan Dry Temperate forest 27.92 52.67 18.47 0.92 0.02 0.00

Sub Alpine forest 15.21 36.29 41.88 6.39 0.24 0.00

30
3.3. Distribution of forest types across the elevation zones

Elevation zones were integrated to understand the relation between occurrence of forest types. Seven elevation
zones i.e. <100 m, 100-500 m, 500-1000 m, 1000-1500 m, 1500-2000 m, 2000-3000 m and 3000-4200 m have
been identified for carrying out the analysis (Table 7). Tropical wet evergreen forests are distributed in
elevation zone of <100 m in Andaman and Nicobar Islands to elevation zone of 2000-3000 m in Western Ghats
and Eastern Himalayas. Analysis reveals that tropical forests have wider ecological amplitude as compared to
temperate forests. In the case of temperate forests and subalpine forests high elevation is an important
contributor for its distribution. Geospatial analysis clearly brought out influence of rainfall and elevation on
spatial distribution and occupancy of various forest types.

Table 7. Percentage distribution of forest types across elevation zones of India

Forest type / Elevation zone (m) <100 100-500 500-1000 1000- 1500- 2000- 3000-
1500 2000 3000 4200

Tropical Wet evergreen forest 3.05 19.37 63.92 10.36 3.06 0.25 0.00

Tropical Semi evergreen forest 8.10 63.97 23.06 3.60 1.27 0.00 0.00

Tropical Moist deciduous forest 5.58 52.05 34.30 6.55 1.53 0.00 0.00

Tropical Dry deciduous forest 1.73 63.02 33.81 1.44 0.00 0.00 0.00

Littoral and swamp forest 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Tropical Dry evergreen forest 22.61 77.39 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Tropical Thorn forest 3.82 60.61 35.56 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00

Subtropical Broadleaved hill forest 0.00 0.09 0.08 70.58 29.26 0.00 0.00

Subtropical Pine forest 0.00 0.00 0.01 19.35 27.37 50.12 3.16

Subtropical Dry evergreen forest 0.00 2.88 39.09 58.02 0.00 0.00 0.00

Montane Wet Temperate forest 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 11.47 79.41 9.13

Himalayan Moist Temperate forest 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 26.53 58.83 14.63

Himalayan Dry Temperate forest 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.12 10.56 56.03 31.28

Sub Alpine forest 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.66 92.34

3.4. Vegetation types and land use/land cover of India as per LCCS-FAO legend

As per LCCS-FAO (GLC2000) legend, the present study has estimated broad leaved deciduous tree cover in
India to be 433528 km2 followed by broad leaved evergreen tree cover (124,299 km 2) and needle leaved
evergreen tree cover (63798 km2). Area statistics of vegetation types and land use/land cover as per LCCS (GLC
2000) legend is given in Table 8. Vegetation type and land use/land cover map of India translated as per Global
Land Cover 2000 (LCCS- FAO) legend is presented in Fig. 9.

31
Fig. 9. Vegetation type and land use/land cover map of India translated as per Global Land
Cover 2000 (FAO LCCS) legend

32
Table 8. Area statistics of vegetation types and land use/land cover of India translated as per LCCS-FAO legend
(GLC 2000)

LCCS-FAO legend (GLC2000) Area (km2) % of Area

Tree cover, broad leaved, evergreen 124299 3.78

Tree cover, broad leaved, deciduous 433528 13.19

Tree cover, needle leaved, evergreen 63798 1.94

Tree cover, regularly flooded, mangroves 3940 0.12

Shrub cover, closed-open, evergreen 29713 0.90

Shrub cover, closed-open, deciduous 222764 6.78

Herbaceous cover, closed-open 81494 2.48

Herbaceous cover, closed-open with sparse 5592 0.17

trees

Cultivated and managed areas 1844662 56.12

Bare areas 267837 8.15

Water bodies (natural and artificial) 84801 2.58

Snow or ice 62314 1.90

Artificial surfaces and associated areas 62521 1.90

Grand total 3287263 100

3.5. Comparison with global and national level studies

With reference to definition of natural forest, the present study has estimated forest area of 62.56 Mha
comparable with the Resoursesat-1 AWiFS-2010 based work of Tian et al. (2014). As per state forest reports of
FSI, the total forest cover of India was 64.08 Mha in 1987 which has increased to 69.78 Mha by 2013 (FSI,
2013). According to FAO (2012), forest cover was 64.81 Mha in 1996 and 68.58 Mha in 2011 assessment
periods. As per biome level characterization study by IIRS (2004), the forest cover of India is 57.76 Mha in
1998. Landscape level biodiversity characterization study has estimated forest cover in India as 56.37 Mha (Roy
et al. 2012). The study on biome level vegetation map of India has reported classification accuracy of 81%
(Joshi et al. 2006). The vegetation type map of India prepared as part of landscape level biodiversity
characterization study has estimated classification accuracy of 90% (Roy et al. 2012; Roy et al. 2015a). Land
use and land cover map of India developed for 2005 reported forest area of 72.93 Mha (Roy et al. 2015b). This
study has adopted International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) classification scheme. The total area
under forest as per Roy et al. (2015b) is more than that reported by FSI. Area statistics varies from the forest
cover estimated by the FAO, IIRS and FSI due to definition, resolution of mapping and methodology.

The vegetation type map was prepared based on three different time windows to cover entire India during 1998
to 2008 (Roy et al. 2012). MODIS-IGBP, MODIS-UMD and Globcover have estimated significantly lower

33
forest area (24-40 Mha) in 2005 attributed to the coarse resolution and difference in the definition of forest
(Banger et al., 2013). MODIS-IGBP and MODIS-UMD which consider area with >60% canopy cover as forest
showed approximately 30 million ha lower forest area than present study and Tian et al. (2014) in which forest
area is covered by >10% canopy cover. The classified map produced in the present study is spatially consistent
and covers India in a contiguous phenological cycle of 2013-2014.

3.6. Accuracy assessment

The overall classification accuracy of the forest type map was 91.16%. Kappa value was 0.88. Resourcesat-2
AWiFS image of India along with 8504 field samples used for accuracy assessment were shown in Fig. 10.
Confusion matrix for accuracy assessment of vegetation and land use/land cover is given in Table 9 and 10.
Among the vegetation classes, user’s accuracy is very high for littoral and swamp forests, tropical dry evergreen
forests, tropical semi evergreen forests and tropical moist deciduous forests. The user’s accuracy was relatively
low in savanna and subalpine forest due to intermixing of grasslands and scrub.

Table 9. Confusion matrix for accuracy assessment of vegetation and land use/land cover

Class
Class 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
code

Tropical wet
26
evergreen 1 0 2 0 0 16 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7
forest

Tropical dry
evergreen 2 0 21 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
forest

Subtropical
broad leaved 3 0 0 52 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
hill forest

Subtropical
dry evergreen 4 0 0 0 18 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
forest

Montane Wet
5 0 0 0 0 45 0 0 0 0 0 7 2 0 0
Temperate

Tropical Semi
evergreen 6 22 0 1 0 0 574 14 6 0 0 0 0 0 0
forest

Tropical
moist 165
7 2 0 0 1 4 39 64 0 1 0 0 0 0
deciduous 1
forest

Tropical dry
307
deciduous 8 0 0 1 0 0 31 186 21 0 0 0 0 0
9
forest

Tropical thorn
9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 198 0 0 0 0 0
forest

34
Subtropical
10 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 270 23 19 0 0
Pine

Himalayan
Moist 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 143 11 0 0
Temperate

Himalayan
Dry 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 7 98 0 0
Temperate

Sub Alpine 13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 3 26 0

Littoral and
14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 114
swamp forests

Tropical
15 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
moist scrub

Subtropical
16 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
scrub

Temperate
17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 0
scrub

Moist Alpine
18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0
scrub

Dry Alpine
19 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
scrub

Mangrove
20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9
scrub

Tropical dry
21 0 1 0 0 0 0 14 42 0 0 0 0 0 0
scrub

Grasslands 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0

Savanna 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0

Croplands 24 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0

Plantations/
25 2 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
Orchards

Barren land 26 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Water bodies 27 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Snow 28 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Settlements 29 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

29 187 320
Column total 23 56 20 56 662 224 280 185 136 31 123
3 6 8

91 91
Producer's 92. 90. 80. 86. 88. 95. 88. 96. 77. 72. 83.
.1 .3 92.68
accuracy 86 00 36 71 01 98 39 43 30 06 87
3 0

35
 Table 10. Confusion matrix for accuracy assessment of vegetation and land use/land cover
User'
Class Row
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 accura
code total
cy

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 290 92.07

2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 22 95.45

3 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 61 85.25

4 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 23 78.26

5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 54 83.33

6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 619 92.73

7 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 1767 93.44

8 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3324 92.63

9 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 4 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 217 91.24

10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 313 86.26

11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 156 91.67

12 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 111 88.29

13 0 0 1 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 40 65.00

14 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 118 96.61

15 36 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 41 87.80

16 0 21 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 26 80.77

17 0 2 19 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 27 70.37

18 0 0 1 16 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 21 76.19

19 0 0 1 3 18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 23 78.26

20 0 0 0 0 0 45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 54 83.33

21 4 0 0 0 0 0 265 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 328 80.79

22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 53 5 1 0 0 0 0 1 63 84.13

23 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 2 24 0 0 0 0 0 0 37 64.86

24 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 4 159 6 0 0 0 0 174 91.38

25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 139 0 0 0 0 150 92.67

26 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 2 8 0 1 77 2 3 0 98 78.57

27 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 188 1 0 191 98.43

28 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 30 0 31 96.77

29 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 123 125 98.4

43 26 25 23 23 49 286 67 41 168 152 78 190 34 126 8504

83. 80. 76. 69. 78. 91. 92. 79. 58. 94. 91. 98. 98. 88. 97.
72 77 00 57 26 84 66 10 54 64 45 72 95 24 62

36
Fig. 10. IRS Resourcesat-2 AWiFS image of India showing field samples used for accuracy
assessment

37
4. Conclusions

The present study has attempted to map different land use / land cover classes with specific focus on forest types
of India using remote sensing data. It has provided robust, comprehensive and mutually exclusive (rather than
several mixed classes) classification scheme to match with national level forest type classification by Champion
and Seth (1968) and currently available global classification schemes. This spatial database is of high value and
useful to understand spatio-temporal changes in various vegetation cover and forest types of India. The present
classification of forest types will play a major role in natural resource management and for the studies related to
carbon stocks, climate-vegetation modeling, vegetation type responses to climatic variability and
biogeochemical cycles.

Acknowledgment

The present work has been carried out as part of ISRO's National Carbon Project. We gratefully acknowledge
ISRO-DOS Geosphere Biosphere Programme for supporting this research. We thank Prof. G.H. Dar, Dr. Anzar
Khuroo, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, Prof. K.C. Sharma, Central University of Rajasthan, Ajmer, Dr. S.L.
Meena, Botanical Survey of India, Jodhpur and Dr. P.S. Nagar, University of Baroda, Vadodara for valuable
comments. We are thankful to all collaborators for providing field data. We are thankful to state forest
departments of India for the necessary field support and facilities. We also thank the editor and anonymous
reviewers for their comments and suggestions, which helped us to improve the manuscript.

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