5 Design and Safety factors

5.1 Introduction

Factors of safety are used in space projects to account for uncertainties with
regards to the prediction of loads, structural analysis, the fabrication process and
material properties.
In this chapter the terminology for different loads, allowable stress, design
approaches and factors of safety and the relation between both will be given.

5.2 Terminology

In the design process of spacecraft and launch vehicles the following terminology
is frequently used (see also Fig. 5.1).

5.2.1 Flight Limit Load

The flight limit load for a given design condition is the maximum occurring load
with, for example, a probability of 97.7% ( 2σ ). This usually holds for spacecraft.
The stress that is calculated with applied flight limit loads is called the limit stress.

5.2.2 Design Limit Load

The design limit load is the limit load multiplied by the design factor to avoid risks
during the design and the test phase. Design limit load is also known as qualifica-
tion load.

19
20 5 Design and Safety factors

5.2.3 Ultimate Load

In general, the ultimate load is the design load multiplied by a factor of safety
(FOS). The ultimate loads are the most critical loads for the design.
The structure must be able to support this load without failing. The calculated
stresses when the ultimate loads were applied are known as ultimate stress.

5.2.4 Buckling Load

The buckling load is the design load multiplied by the buckling safety factor. The
most unfavourable combination of buckling loads must not lead to buckling or failure
of the structure. Imperfections should also be accounted for (knock down factors).

5.2.5 Yield Load

The yield load is the design load multiplied by a yield safety factor. The structure
must be able to support this load without permanent deformation.

5.2.6 Proof Load

The proof load is the limit load multiplied by the proof factor. The proof load is
used to test parts of the structure before the entire spacecraft or launch vehicle is
tested. An example of a proof load is the testing of fuel tanks at a certain internal
pressure.

5.2.7 Allowable stress

The allowable stress is the maximum stress that can be applied without breakage,
failure or any other detrimental deformation occurring.

5.2.8 Material Strength

The material strength is the level of stress that a certain material can support in a
part of a structure under the expected loads.
5.2 Terminology 21

5.2.9 A-value (A basis)

The A-value is referred to as the value above which at least 99% of the population
is expected with a reliability of 95%. This means that there is 95% certainty that at
least 99% of the individual measured characteristic is higher than the A-value.

5.2.10 B-value (B basis)

The B-value is referred to as the value above which at least 90% of the population
is expected with a reliability of 95%. This means that there is 95% certainty that at
least 90% of the individual measured characteristic is higher than the “B” value.
To determine the A and the B value of a strength property of a certain material,
a sample of size n with results xi, i = 1,2,…,n, is carried out. It is assumed that xi is
normally distributed, however, the mean μ and the standard deviation σ are
unknown. Subsequently, a mean x

∑x ,
1
x = --- i (5.1)
n
i=1

and standard deviation s

∑ (x – x)
2
i
i=1
s = ---------------------------- , (5.2)
n–1
are calculated from the sample. The A-value and the B-value are dependent on
the number of samples n, the mean of the sample x , the standard deviation of the
sample s, the one-sided confidence interval 1 – α = 0.95 and the percentage
1 – γ = 0.99, 0.90 (one-sided) of the population that is greater than or equal to
the A-value and the B-value respectively. The A-value and the B-value are deter-
mined with the help of the following expressions respectively:
• A-value: x A = x – k A s
• B-value: x B = x – k B s

In general, one looks for n ≥ 10 .

22 5 Design and Safety factors

The weight factors k A and k B can be found in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Weight factors A and B values

1 – α = 0.95 1 – γ = 0.90 1 – γ = 0.99
n kB kA
5 3.407 5.741
6 3.006 5.062
7 2.755 4.642
8 2.582 4.354
9 2.454 4.143
10 2.355 3.981
15 2.068 3.520
20 1.926 3.295
30 1.777 3.064
∞ 1.282 2.326

The factors k A and k B can be approximated with the following formula [Stange
1970 and A5-SG-1-X-10-ASAI-2003]:

2
2(n – 1) u1 – α 2(n – 1) 2 u1 – α
k = -------------------------------------
- u1 – y + -----------------------
- -------------------- + u 1 – γ – ------------ . (5.3)
2 ( n – 1 ) – u1 – α
2
2(n – 1) n n

The fractiles u P for the standard normal distribution are given in the following
Table 5.2.

Table 5.2 Fractions, Fractiles

1–α , 1–γ P=0.90 P=0.95 P=0.99
uP 1.2816 1.6449 2.3263

5.2.11 S-Value (S-basis)

Minimum mechanical property values specified by various agencies [Peery 1982].

5.2 Terminology 23

5.2.12 Qualification Loads

The loads that are applied during the qualification tests are called the qualification
loads.

5.2.13 Flight Acceptance Loads

The flight model (FM) of the spacecraft will be tested against flight acceptance
loads before it will be launched.

5.2.14 Margin of Safety

The margin of safety (MS or MoS) is defined as the ratio between the allowable
strength or stresses (A, B or other) and the actual stresses multiplied by a safety fac-
tor minus one. This means that the value of the margin of safety must be greater
than or equal to zero.
sr
MS = --------------------- – 1≥ 0, (5.4)
FoS x s a

where s r is the permissible strength (stress), s a is the actual stress due to the
design limit loads and FoS is the factor of safety (yield, ultimate, buckling, etc.)

5.2.15 Fail-Safe

A structure is designed to be fail-safe when the total structure does not fail after the
failure of one structural element.

5.2.16 Safe-life

A structure has been designed to be safe-life if the largest possible undetectable

crack in a structural element does not augment under oscillating and main loads.
24 5 Design and Safety factors

5.3 Factors of Safety for Spacecraft

The relation of the loads and the factors of safety is illustrated in Fig. 5.1. This dia-
gram is taken from [ECSS-E-30 Part 2A].

Flight Limit jD Design Limit jY Yield Loads

Loads Loads

jQ jU Ultimate
Qualification
Loads Loads

jA Flight
Acceptance
Loads

Fig. 5.1 Loads and factors of safety relationship

The factors of safety j D , j Q and j A represent a probability level (reliability)

with respect to the flight limit loads. The factor of safety j Y ensures an acceptable
risk of yielding and the factor of safety j U ensures an acceptable risk of ultimate
failure during test at design flight loads.
The following factors are commonly used within the frame of ESA projects:
• j D 1.4 to 1.5
• j Q 1.25 for ARIANE family
• j A 1.1 for ARIANE family
• j Y 1.1 to 1.25
• j U 1.25 to 1.5
The structural design and test factors of safety for NASA space flight hardware
are presented and discussed in [NASA-STD-5001].
5.4 Literature 25

5.4 Literature

A5-SG-1-X-10-ASAI, 2003, Specification de Conception de Dimensionement et d’Essais des

Structures, Edition 5, Revision 12, April 8th, 2003.
ECSS-E-30 Part 2A, April 25, 2000, Space Engineering, Mechanical-Part 2: Structural.
Stange, K., 1970, Angewandte Statistik, Eindimensionale Probleme, Erster Teil, Springer-Verlag,
ISBN 3-540-05256-9.
NASA-STD-5001, June 21, 1996, Structural Design and test Factors of Safety for Space flight
Hardware.
Peery, D.J., Azar, J.J., 1982, Aircraft Structures, ISBN 0-07-049196, McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany.

5.5 Exercises

5.5.1 Survey of Applied Factors of Safety

Perform a literature survey about the factors of safety used by ESA in European
projects and present them in the following table format (Table 5.3).

Table 5.3 List of applied factors of safety

Factors of safety exployed in S/Cb projects as related to
a
Qualification Type L/V flight limit loads

Structure of S/C
project jD jY jU jQ , jA
c
SM
FMd

a. Launch Vehicle
b. Spacecraft
c. Structural model
d. Flight Model