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Change detection techniques

a b c
D. Lu Corresponding author , P. Mausel , E. Brondízio & E.
a c
Moran
a
Center for the Study of Institutions, Population, and
Environmental Change (CIPEC), Indiana University, 408 North
Indiana Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47408, USA
b
Department of Geography, Geology, and Anthropology, Indiana
State University, 159 Science Building, Terre Haute, Indiana
47809, USA
c
Anthropological Center for Training and Research on Global
Environmental Change (ACT), Indiana University, Student
Building 331, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, USA
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Change detection techniques , International Journal of Remote Sensing, 25:12, 2365-2401

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 INT. J. REMOTE SENSING, 20 JUNE, 2004,
VOL. 25, NO. 12, 2365–2407

Change detection techniques

D. LU*{, P. MAUSEL{, E. BRONDÍZIO§ and E. MORAN{§

{Center for the Study of Institutions, Population, and Environmental Change
(CIPEC), Indiana University, 408 North Indiana Avenue, Bloomington,
Indiana 47408, USA
{Department of Geography, Geology, and Anthropology, Indiana State
University, 159 Science Building, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809, USA
§Anthropological Center for Training and Research on Global Environmental
Change (ACT), Indiana University, Student Building 331, Bloomington,
Indiana 47405, USA
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(Received 22 April 2002; in final form 8 April 2003 )

Abstract. Timely and accurate change detection of Earth’s surface features is

extremely important for understanding relationships and interactions between
human and natural phenomena in order to promote better decision making.
Remote sensing data are primary sources extensively used for change detection
in recent decades. Many change detection techniques have been developed. This
paper summarizes and reviews these techniques. Previous literature has shown
that image differencing, principal component analysis and post-classification
comparison are the most common methods used for change detection. In recent
years, spectral mixture analysis, artificial neural networks and integration of
geographical information system and remote sensing data have become
important techniques for change detection applications. Different change
detection algorithms have their own merits and no single approach is optimal
and applicable to all cases. In practice, different algorithms are often compared
to find the best change detection results for a specific application. Research of
change detection techniques is still an active topic and new techniques are
needed to effectively use the increasingly diverse and complex remotely sensed
data available or projected to be soon available from satellite and airborne
sensors. This paper is a comprehensive exploration of all the major change
detection approaches implemented as found in the literature.

Abbreviations used in this paper

6S second simulation of the satellite signal in the solar spectrum
ANN artificial neural networks
ASTER Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer
AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer
AVIRIS Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer
CVA change vector analysis
EM expectation–maximization algorithm
ERS-1 Earth Resource Satellite-1
ETMz Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus, Landsat 7 satellite image
GIS Geographical Information System

*Corresponding author; e-mail: [email protected]

International Journal of Remote Sensing

ISSN 0143-1161 print/ISSN 1366-5901 online # 2004 Taylor & Francis Ltd
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/0143116031000139863
 2366 D. Lu et al.
GS Gramm–Schmidt transformation
J-M distance Jeffries–Matusita distance
KT Kauth–Thomas transformation or tasselled cap transformation
LSMA linear spectral mixture analysis
LULC land use and land cover
MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
MSAVI Modified Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index
MSS Landsat Multi-Spectral Scanner image
NDMI Normalized Difference Moisture Index
NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
PCA principal component analysis
RGB red, green and blue colour composite
RTB ratio of tree biomass to total aboveground biomass
SAR synthetic aperture radar
SAVI Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index
SPOT HRV Satellite Probatoire d’Observation de la Terre (SPOT) high
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resolution visible image

TM Thematic Mapper
VI Vegetation Index

1. Introduction
Change detection is the process of identifying differences in the state of an
object or phenomenon by observing it at different times (Singh 1989). Timely and
accurate change detection of Earth’s surface features provides the foundation for
better understanding relationships and interactions between human and natural
phenomena to better manage and use resources. In general, change detection
involves the application of multi-temporal datasets to quantitatively analyse the
temporal effects of the phenomenon. Because of the advantages of repetitive data
acquisition, its synoptic view, and digital format suitable for computer processing,
remotely sensed data, such as Thematic Mapper (TM), Satellite Probatoire
d’Observation de la Terre (SPOT), radar and Advanced Very High Resolution
Radiometer (AVHRR), have become the major data sources for different change
detection applications during the past decades. Ten aspects of change detection
applications using remote sensing technologies are summarized:
(1) land-use and land-cover (LULC) change (Gautam and Chennaiah 1985,
Gupta and Munshi 1985a, Milne and O’Neill 1990, Csaplovics 1992, Fung
1992, Ram and Kolarkar 1993, Rignot and Vanzyl 1993, Green et al. 1994,
Adams et al. 1995, Hall et al. 1995, Salem et al. 1995, Dimyati et al. 1996,
Bruzzone and Serpico 1997a, b, Rees and Williams 1997, Kwarteng and
Chavez 1998, Prakash and Gupta 1998, Ridd and Liu 1998, Roberts et al.
1998, Sommer et al. 1998, Yuan and Elvidge 1998, Abuelgasim et al. 1999,
Bryant and Gilvear 1999, Dai and Khorram 1999, Morisette et al. 1999,
Sohl 1999, Borak et al. 2000, Morisette and Khorram 2000, Perakis et al.
2000, Tappan et al. 2000, Zhan et al. 2000, Kaufmann and Seto 2001,
Zomer et al. 2001, Lunetta et al. 2002, Read and Lam 2002, Weng 2002);
(2) forest or vegetation change (Gupta and Munshi 1985b, Allum and
Dreisinger 1987, Graetz et al. 1988, Vogelmann 1988, Franklin and Wilson
1991, Cihlar et al. 1992, Sader and Winne 1992, Alwashe and Bokhari
1993, Chavez and Mackinnon 1994, Mishra et al. 1994, Coppin and Bauer
1995, Olsson 1995, Townshend and Justice 1995, Mouat and Lancaster
 Change detection techniques 2367

1996, Batista et al. 1997, Islam et al. 1997, Yool et al. 1997, Chen et al.
1998, Hame et al. 1998, Jano et al. 1998, Grover et al. 1999, Salami 1999,
Salami et al. 1999, Sader et al. 2001, Woodcock et al. 2001, Lu et al. 2002);
(3) forest mortality, defoliation and damage assessment (Nelson 1983, Leckie
1987, Vogelmann and Rock 1988, Vogelmann 1989, Price et al. 1992,
Collins and Woodcock 1994, 1996, Macomber and Woodcock 1994,
Muchoney and Haack 1994, Gopal and Woodcock 1996, 1999, Royle and
Lathrop 1997, Radeloff et al. 1999, Rigina et al. 1999);
(4) deforestation, regeneration and selective logging (Richards 1984, Nelson
et al. 1987, Lucas et al. 1993, 2000, 2002, Durrieu and Deshayes 1994,
Franklin et al. 1994, Moran et al. 1994, Conway et al. 1996, Prins
and Kikula 1996, Varjo and Folving 1997, Ricotta et al. 1998, Stone and
Lefebvre 1998, Alves et al. 1999, Hudak and Wessman 2000, Souza and
Barreto 2000, Tucker and Townshend 2000, Hayes and Sader 2001, Alves
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2002, Asner et al. 2002, Wilson and Sader 2002);

(5) wetland change (Christensen et al. 1988, Jensen et al. 1993, Ramsey and
Laine 1997, Elvidge et al. 1998a, Ramsey 1998, Houhoulis and Michener
2000, Kushwaha et al. 2000, Munyati 2000);
(6) forest fire (Elvidge et al. 1998b, Fuller 2000, Cuomo et al. 2001) and fire-
affected area detection (Jakubauskas et al. 1990, Shimabukuro et al. 1991,
Siljestrom and Moreno-Lopez 1995, Garcia-Haro et al. 2001, Rogan and
Yool 2001, Bourgeau-Chavez et al. 2002);
(7) landscape change (Zheng et al. 1997, Cushman and Wallin 2000, Franklin
et al. 2000, Kepner et al. 2000, Peralta and Mather 2000, Taylor et al.
2000);
(8) urban change (Quarmby and Cushnie 1989, Li and Yeh 1998, Ridd and
Liu 1998, Ward et al. 2000, Chan et al. 2001, Yeh and Li 2001, Liu and
Lathrop 2002, Prol-Ledesma et al. 2002, Yang and Lo 2002, Zhang et al.
2002);
(9) environmental change (Howarth and Wickware 1981, Jacobberger-Jellison
1994, Armour et al. 1998, Schmidt and Glaesser 1998), drought monitoring
(Peters et al. 2002), flood monitoring (Zhou et al. 2000, Dhakal et al. 2002,
Liu et al. 2002), monitoring coastal marine environments (Michalek et al.
1993), desertification (Singh et al. 1990) and detection of landslide areas
(Kimura and Yamaguchi 2000); and
(10) other applications such as crop monitoring (Manavalan et al. 1995),
shifting cultivation monitoring (Dwivedi and Sankar 1991), road segments
(Agouris et al. 2001) and change in glacier mass balance and facies
(Engeset et al. 2002).
A variety of change detection techniques have been developed, and many have
been summarized and reviewed (Singh 1989, Mouat et al. 1993, Deer 1995, Coppin
and Bauer 1996, Jensen 1996, Jensen et al. 1997, Yuan et al. 1998, Serpico and
Bruzzone 1999). Due to the importance of monitoring change of Earth’s surface
features, research of change detection techniques is an active topic, and new
techniques are constantly developed. For example, spectral mixture analysis
(Adams et al. 1995, Roberts et al. 1998, Ustin et al. 1998), the Li–Strahler canopy
model (Macomber and Woodcock 1994), Chi-square transformation (Ridd and Liu
1998), fuzzy sets (Metternicht 1999, 2001), artificial neural networks (ANN) (Gopal
and Woodcock 1996, 1999, Abuelgasim et al. 1999, Dai and Khorram 1999) and
 2368 D. Lu et al.

integration of multi-source data (Petit and Lambin 2001) have been used for change
detection applications.
Good change detection research should provide the following information: (1)
area change and change rate; (2) spatial distribution of changed types; (3) change
trajectories of land-cover types; and (4) accuracy assessment of change detection
results. When implementing a change detection project, three major steps are
involved: (1) image preprocessing including geometrical rectification and image
registration, radiometric and atmospheric correction, and topographic correction if
the study area is in mountainous regions; (2) selection of suitable techniques to
implement change detection analyses; and (3) accuracy assessment. The accuracies
of change detection results depend on many factors, including:
(1) precise geometric registration between multi-temporal images,
(2) calibration or normalization between multi-temporal images,
(3) availability of quality ground truth data,
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(4) the complexity of landscape and environments of the study area,

(5) change detection methods or algorithms used,
(6) classification and change detection schemes,
(7) analyst’s skills and experience,
(8) knowledge and familiarity of the study area, and
(9) time and cost restrictions.
Because of the impacts of complex factors, different authors often arrived at
different and sometimes controversial conclusions about which change detection
techniques are most effective. In practice, it is not easy to select a suitable algorithm
for a specific change detection project. Hence, a review of change detection
techniques used in previous research and applications is useful to understand how
these techniques can be best used to help address specific problems. When study
areas and image data are selected for research, identifying a suitable change
detection technique becomes of great significance in producing good quality change
detection results.
This paper summarizes change detection techniques, reviews their applications,
and provides recommendations for selection of suitable change detection methods.
This paper is organized into eight sections as follows: §1 gives a brief introduction
to applications of change detection techniques; §2 discusses considerations before
implementing change detection analyses; §3 summarizes and reviews seven
categories of change detection techniques; §4 provides a review of comparative
analyses among the different techniques; §5 briefly reviews global change analyses
using coarse resolution satellite data; §6 discusses selection of thresholds; §7
discusses accuracy assessment; and §8 provides a summary and recommendations.

2. Considerations before implementing change detection

MacLeod and Congalton (1998) described four important aspects of change
detection for monitoring natural resources: detecting if a change has occurred,
identifying the nature of the change, measuring the areal extent of the change, and
assessing the spatial pattern of the change. Lambin and Strahler (1994b) listed five
categories of causes that influenced land-cover change: long-term natural changes in
climate conditions; geomorphological and ecological processes such as soil erosion
and vegetation succession; human-induced alterations of vegetation cover and
landscapes such as deforestation and land degradation; inter-annual climate
variability; and the greenhouse effect caused by human activities. Successfully
 Change detection techniques 2369

implementing a change detection analysis using remotely sensed data requires

careful considerations of the remote sensor system, environmental characteristics
and image processing methods. The temporal, spatial, spectral and radiometric
resolutions of remotely sensed data have a significant impact on the success of a
remote sensing change detection project. The important environmental factors
include atmospheric conditions, soil moisture conditions and phenological
characteristics (Jensen 1996, Weber 2001).
Of the various requirements of preprocessing for change detection, multi-
temporal image registration and radiometric and atmospheric corrections are the
most important. The importance of accurate spatial registration of multi-temporal
imagery is obvious because largely spurious results of change detection will be
produced if there is misregistration (Townshend et al. 1992, Dai and Khorram
1998, Stow 1999, Verbyla and Boles 2000, Carvalho et al. 2001, Stow and Chen
2002). Conversion of digital numbers to radiance or surface reflectance is a
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requirement for quantitative analyses of multi-temporal images. A variety of

methods, such as relative calibration, dark object subtraction, and second
simulation of the satellite signal in the solar spectrum (6S), have been developed
for radiometric and atmospheric normalization or correction (Markham and
Barker 1987, Gilabert et al. 1994, Chavez 1996, Stefan and Itten 1997, Vermote
et al. 1997, Tokola et al. 1999, Heo and FitzHugh 2000, Yang and Lo 2000, Song
et al. 2001, Du et al. 2002, McGovern et al. 2002). If the study area is rugged or
mountainous, topographic correction may be necessary. More detailed information
about topographic correction can be found in Teillet et al. (1982), Civco (1989),
Colby (1991) and Meyer et al. (1993).
Before implementing change detection analysis, the following conditions must
be satisfied: (1) precise registration of multi-temporal images; (2) precise
radiometric and atmospheric calibration or normalization between multi-temporal
images; (3) similar phenological states between multi-temporal images; and (4)
selection of the same spatial and spectral resolution images if possible. Many kinds
of remote sensing data are available for change detection applications. Historically,
Landsat Multi-Spectral Scanner (MSS), TM, SPOT, AVHRR, radar and aerial
photographs are the most common data sources, but new sensors such as Moderate
Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and Advanced Spaceborne
Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) are becoming important.
When selecting remote sensing data for change detection applications, it is
important to use the same sensor, same radiometric and spatial resolution data with
anniversary or very near anniversary acquisition dates in order to eliminate the
effects of external sources such as Sun angle, seasonal and phenological differences.
A more detailed description about these considerations before implementing change
detection can be found in Coppin and Bauer (1996), Jensen (1996) and Biging et al.
(1999).
Determination of change direction is also important in selecting appropriate
change detection techniques. Some techniques such as image differencing can only
provide change/non-change information, while some techniques such as post-
classification comparison can provide a complete matrix of change directions. For a
given research purpose, when the remotely sensed data and study areas are
identified, selection of an appropriate change detection method has considerable
significance in producing a high-quality change detection product.
 2370 D. Lu et al.

3. A review of change detection techniques

The objective of change detection is to compare spatial representation of two
points in time by controlling all variances caused by differences in variables that are
not of interest and to measure changes caused by differences in the variables of
interest (Green et al. 1994). The basic premise in using remotely sensed data for
change detection is that changes in the objects of interest will result in changes in
reflectance values or local textures that are separable from changes caused by other
factors such as differences in atmospheric conditions, illumination and viewing
angles, and soil moistures (Deer 1995). Because digital change detection is affected
by spatial, spectral, thematic and temporal constraints, and because many change
detection techniques are possible to use, the selection of a suitable method or
algorithm for a given research project is important, but not easy.
For the sake of convenience, the change detection methods are grouped into
seven categories: (1) algebra, (2) transformation, (3) classification, (4) advanced
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models, (5) Geographical Information System (GIS) approaches, (6) visual analysis,
and (7) other approaches. For the first six categories, the main characteristics,
advantages and disadvantages, key factors affecting change detection results, and
some application examples are provided in table 1. The level of complexity for each
change detection technique is ranked. The seventh category includes those change
detection techniques that are not suitable to group into any one of the six categories
and are not yet extensively used in practice. Hence, this category is not discussed in
detail. The majority of these techniques are used for change detection with
relatively fine spatial resolution such as Landsat MSS, TM, SPOT, or radar.

3.1. Algebra
The algebra category includes image differencing, image regression, image
ratioing, vegetation index differencing, change vector analysis (CVA) and
background subtraction. These algorithms have a common characteristic, i.e.
selecting thresholds to determine the changed areas. These methods (excluding
CVA) are relatively simple, straightforward, easy to implement and interpret, but
these cannot provide complete matrices of change information. CVA is a
conceptual extension of image differencing. This approach can detect all changes
greater than the identified thresholds and can provide detailed change information.
One disadvantage of the algebra category is the difficulty in selecting suitable
thresholds to identify the changed areas. In this category, two aspects are critical
for the change detection results: selecting suitable image bands or vegetation indices
and selecting suitable thresholds to identify the changed areas.
Angelici et al. (1977) used the difference of band ratio data and a threshold
technique to identify changed areas. Jensen and Toll (1982) found the usefulness of
visible red band data in change detection analysis in both vegetated and urban
environments. Chavez and Mackinnon (1994) also indicated that red band image
differencing provided better vegetation change detection results than using
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) in arid and semi-arid environ-
ments of the south-western United States. Pilon et al. (1988) concluded that visible
red band data provided the most accurate identification of spectral change for their
semi-arid study area of north-western Nigeria in sub-Sahelian Africa. Ridd and Liu
(1998) compared image differencing, regression method, Kauth–Thomas transfor-
mation or tasselled cap transformation (KT), and Chi-square transformation for
urban land-use change detection in the Salt Lake Valley area using Landsat TM
 Table 1. Summary of change detection techniques. (The five levels indicate the complexity of the change detection techniques, from simplest 1 to the most
complex 5.)

Techniques Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages Examples Level Key factors

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Category I. Algebra
1. Image Subtracts the first- Simple and Cannot provide Forest defoliation 1 Identifies suitable
differencing date image from a straightforward, a detailed (Muchoney and image bands and
second-date image, easy to interpret change matrix, Haack 1994), thresholds
pixel by pixel the results requires selection land-cover
of thresholds change (Sohl
1999) and
irrigated crops

Change detection techniques

monitoring
(Manavalan
et al. 1995)
2. Image Establishes Reduces impacts Requires to Tropical forest 1 Develops the
regression relationships of the develop accurate change (Singh regression
between bi- atmospheric, regression 1986) and forest function; identifies
temporal images, sensor and functions for conversion (Jha suitable bands
then estimates environmental the selected and Unni 1994. and thresholds
pixel values of the differences bands before
second-date image between two-date implementing
by use of a images change detection
regression function,
subtracts the
regressed image
from the first-date
image
3. Image Calculates the ratio Reduces impacts Non-normal Land-use 1 Identifies the
ratioing of registered images of Sun angle, distribution of mapping and image bands and
of two dates, band shadow and the result is change detection thresholds
by band topography often criticized (Prakash and
Gupta 1998)

2371
 2372
Table 1. (Continued)
Techniques Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages Examples Level Key factors
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4. Vegetation Produces vegetation Emphasizes Enhances Vegetation change 1 Identifies suitable

index index separately, differences in the random noise (Townshend and vegetation index
differencing then subtracts the spectral response or coherence Justice 1995, and thresholds
second-date of different noise Guerra et al.
vegetation index features and 1998, Lyon et al.
from the first-date reduces impacts 1998) and forest
vegetation index of topographic canopy change
effects and (Nelson 1983)
illumination
5. Change Generates two Ability to process Difficult to Change detection 3 Defines thresholds

D. Lu et al.
vector analysis outputs: (1) the any number of identify land of landscape and identifies
(CVA) spectral change spectral bands cover change variables (Lambin change trajectories
vector describes the desired and to trajectories 1996), land-cover
direction and produce detailed changes (Johnson
magnitude of change change detection and Kasischke
from the first to the information 1998), disaster
second date; and (2) assessment
the total change (Johnson 1994,
magnitude per pixel Schoppmann and
is computed by Tyler 1996), and
determining the conifer forest
Euclidean distance change (Cohen
between end and Fiorella 1998,
points through Allen and Kupfer
n-dimensional 2000)
change space
 Table 1. (Continued)
Techniques Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages Examples Level Key factors

6. Background Non-change areas Easy to Low accuracy Tropical forest 1 Develops the
subtraction have slowly varying implement change (Singh background
background grey 1989). image
levels. A low-pass
filtered variant of
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the original image

is used to
approximate the
variations to the
background image.
A new image is
produced through

Change detection techniques

subtracting the
background image
from the original image
Category II. Transformation
7. Principal Assumes that multi- Reduces data PCA is scene Land-cover 2 Analyst’s skill in
component temporal data are highly redundancy dependent, thus change (Byrne identifying which
analysis (PCA) correlated and change between bands the change et al. 1980, component best
information can be and emphasizes detection results Ingebritsen and represents the
highlighted in the new different between Lyon 1985, change and
components. Two ways information in different dates Parra et al. selecting
to apply PCA for the derived are often 1996, Kwarteng thresholds
change detection are: (1) components difficult to and Chavez 1998),
put two or more interpret and urban expansion
dates of images label. It cannot (Li and Yeh
into a single file, then provide a 1998), tropical
perform PCA and complete matrix forest conversion
analyse the minor of change class (Jha and Unni
component images for information and 1994), forest
change information; and requires mortality (Collins
(2) perform PCA determining and Woodcock
separately, then subtract thresholds to 1996) and forest
the second-date PC identify the defoliation

2373
image from the changed areas (Muchoney and
corresponding Haack 1994)
 Table 1. (Continued)

2374
Techniques Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages Examples Level Key factors

PC image of the first

date
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8. Tasselled cap The principle of this Reduces data redundancy Difficult to Monitoring forest 2 Analyst’s skill is
(KT) method is similar to between bands interpret and mortality (Collins needed in
PCA. The only and emphasizes different label change and Woodcock identifying which
difference from PCA information in information, 1996), monitoring component best
is that PCA depends the derived components. cannot provide green biomass represents the
on the image scene, and KT is scene independent. a complete change (Coppin change and
KT transformation is change matrix; et al. 2001) and selecting
independent of the requires land-use change thresholds
scene. The change determining (Seto et al. 2002)
detection is implemented thresholds to
based on the three identify the

D. Lu et al.
components: brightness, changed areas.
greenness and wetness Accurate
atmospheric
calibration for
each date of
image is required
9. Gramm– The GS method The association It is difficult Monitoring forest 3 Initial
Schmidt (GS) orthogonalizes of transformed to extract more mortality (Collins identification of
spectral vectors components with than one single and Woodcock the stable
taken directly from scene characteristics component related to a 1994, 1996) subspace of the
bi-temporal images, allows the given type of multi-date data is
as does the original extraction of change. The GS required
KT method, produces information that process relies on
three stable components would not be selection of
corresponding to multi- accessible using spectral vectors
temporal analogues of other change from multi-date
KT brightness, greenness detection techniques image typical of
and wetness, and a the type of
change component change being examined
 Table 1. (Continued)
Techniques Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages Examples Level Key factors

10. Chi-square Y~(X2M)T S21 Multiple bands The assumption Urban 3 Y is distributed
6(X2M) are that a value of environmental as a Chi-square
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Y: digital value of simultaneously Y~0 represents change (Ridd random variable

change image, considered to a pixel of no and Liu 1998) with p degrees
X: vector of the produce a change is not of freedom ( p is
difference of the single change true when a the number of
six digital values image. large portion of bands)
between the two the image is
dates, M: vector changed. Also
of the mean the change

Change detection techniques

residuals of each related to specific
band, T: transverse spectral direction
of the matrix, is not readily
S21: inverse identified
covariance matrix
of the six bands
Category III. Classification
11. Post- Separately classifies Minimizes Requires a great LULC change 2 Selects sufficient
classification multi-temporal impacts of amount of time (Brondı́zio et al. training sample
comparison images into atmospheric, and expertise to 1994, Dimyati data for
thematic maps, then sensor and create et al. 1996, Mas classification
implements environmental classification 1997, Castelli
comparison of the differences products. The et al. 1998,
classified images, between multi- final accuracy Miller et al.
pixel by pixel temporal images; depends on the 1998, Mas 1999,
provides a quality of the Foody 2001),
complete matrix classified image wetland change
of change of each date (Jensen et al.
information 1987, 1995,
Munyati 2000)
and urban
expansion (Ward

2375
et al. 2000)
 2376
Table 1. (Continued)
Techniques Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages Examples Level Key factors

12. Spectral– Puts multi-temporal Simple and time- Difficult to Changes in 3 Labels the
temporal data into a single file, saving in classification identify and coastal zone change classes
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combined then classifies the label the change environments

analysis combined dataset and classes; cannot (Weismiller
identifies and labels provide a et al. 1977)
the changes complete matrix and forest
of change change (Soares
information and Hoffer 1994)
13. EM The EM detection is a This method was Requires Land-cover change 3 Estimates the
detection classification-based reported to estimating the (Bruzzone and a priori joint
method using an provide higher a priori joint Serpico 1997b, class probability
expectation– change detection class probability. Serpico and
maximization (EM) accuracy than Bruzzone

D. Lu et al.
algorithm to estimate other change 1999)
the a priori joint class detection methods
probabilities at two
times. These
probabilities are
estimated directly
from the images
under analysis
14. Unsupervised Selects spectrally This method Difficulty in Forest change 3 Identifies the
change similar groups of makes use of the identifying and (Hame et al. spectrally similar
detection pixels and clusters unsupervised labelling change 1998) or relatively
date 1 image into nature and trajectories homogeneous
primary clusters, automation of the units
then labels spectrally change analysis process
similar groups in
date 2 image into
primary clusters in
date 2 image, and
finally detects and
 Table 1. (Continued)
Techniques Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages Examples Level Key factors

identifies changes
and outputs results
15. Hybrid Uses an overlay This method Requires selection LULC change 3 Selects suitable
change enhancement from a excludes of thresholds to (Pilon et al. thresholds to
detection selected image to unchanged implement 1988, Luque identify the
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isolate changed pixels from classification; 2000), vegetation change and

pixels, then uses classification to somewhat change (Petit non-change
supervised reduce complicated to et al. 2001) and areas and
classification. A classification identify change monitoring develops accurate
binary change mask errors trajectories eelgrass classification
is constructed from (MacLeod and results.
the classification Congalton 1998)

Change detection techniques

results. This change
mask sieves out the
changed themes from
the LULC maps
produced for each date
16. Artificial The input used to ANN is a non- The nature of Mortality 5 The architecture
neural train the neural parametric hidden layers is detection in Lake used such as the
networks network is the spectral supervised poorly known; a Tahoe Basin, number of hidden
(ANN) data of the period of method and has long training California layers, and
change. A back- the ability to time is required. (Gopal and training samples
propagation algorithm estimate the ANN is often Woodcock 1996,
is often used to train properties of sensitive to the 1999), land-cover
the multi-layer data based on amount of change
perceptron neural the training training data (Abuelgasim
network model samples used. ANN et al. 1999, Dai
functions are and Khorram
not common in 1999), forest
image processing change (Woodcock
software et al. 2001) urban
change (Liu and
Lathrop 2002)

2377
 2378
Table 1. (Continued)
Techniques Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages Examples Level Key factors

Category IV. Advanced models

17. Li–Strahler The Li–Strahler This method This method Mapping and 5 Develops the
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reflectance canopy model is used combines the requires a large monitoring stand
model to estimate each techniques of number of field conifer mortality crown cover
conifer stand crown digital image measurement (Macomber and images
cover for two dates processing of data. It is Woodcock 1994) and identifies the
of imageries separately. remotely sensed complex and crown
Comparison of the data with not available in characteristics of
stand crown covers traditional commercial vegetation types
for two dates is sampling and image processing
conducted to produce field observation software. It is
the change detection methods. It provides only suitable for
results statistical results vegetation

D. Lu et al.
and maps change detection
showing the
geometric
distribution of
changed patterns
18. Spectral Uses spectral mixture The fractions This method is Land-cover 5 Identifies suitable
mixture analysis to derive have biophysical regarded as an change in endmembers;
model fraction images. meanings, advanced image Amazonia defines suitable
Endmembers are representing the processing (Adams et al. thresholds for
selected from training areal proportion analysis and is 1995, Roberts each land-cover
areas on the image or of each somewhat et al. 1998), class based on
from spectra of endmember complex seasonal vegetation fractions
materials occurring in within the pixel. patterns using
the study area or from The results are AVIRIS data
a relevant spectral stable, accurate (Ustin et al.
library. Changes are and repeatable 1998) and
detected by comparing vegetation
the ‘before’ and ‘after’
 Table 1. (Continued)
Techniques Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages Examples Level Key factors

fraction images of
each endmember. The change using
quantitative changes TM data
can be measured by (Rogan et al.
classifying images 2002)
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based on the
endmember fractions
19. Biophysical Develops a biophysical This method can Requires great Tropical 5 Develops relevant
parameter parameter estimation accurately detect effort to develop successional models for
method model through vegetation the model and forest detection estimation of
integration of field change based on implement in Amazon biophysical
measurements and vegetation accurate image basin (Lu 2001, parameters and

Change detection techniques

remotely sensed physical calibration to Lu et al. 2002) defines each
data and estimates structures eliminate the vegetation class
the parameter for difference in based on
the study area. The reflectance biophysical
vegetation types are caused by parameters
classified based on different
the biophysical atmospheric and
parameter. The environmental
model is also conditions.
transferred to other Requires a large
image data with number of field
different dates to measurement
estimate the data. The
selected parameters method is only
after reflectance suitable for
calibration or vegetation
normalization. change detection
Change detection
is implemented
through comparing
the biophysical
parameters

2379
 2380
Table 1. (Continued)
Techniques Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages Examples Level Key factors

Category V. GIS
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20. Integrated Incorporates image Allows access of Different data LULC (Price 4 The accuracy of
GIS and data and GIS data, ancillary data to quality from et al. 1992, different data
remote such as the overlay aid interpretation various sources Westmoreland sources and their
sensing of GIS layers and analysis and often degrades and Stow 1992, registration
method directly on image has the ability to the results of Mouat and accuracies
data; moves results directly update LULC change Lancaster 1996, between the
of image processing land-use detection Slater and thematic images
into GIS system for information in Brown 2000,
further analysis GIS Petit and Lambin
2001, Chen 2002,
Weng 2002) and

D. Lu et al.
urban sprawl
(Yeh and Li
2001, Prol-
Ledesma et al.
2002)
21. GIS Integrates past and This method Different GIS Urban change 4 The accuracy of
approach current maps of allows data with (Lo and Shipman different data
land use with incorporation of different 1990) and sources and their
topographic and aerial geometric landscape change registration
geological data. The photographic accuracy and (Taylor et al. accuracies
image overlaying data of current classification 2000) between the
and binary masking and past land-use system degrades thematic images
techniques are useful data with other the quality of
in revealing map data results
quantitatively the
change dynamics in
each category
 Table 1. (Continued)
Techniques Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages Examples Level Key factors

Category VI. Visual analysis

22. Visual One band (or VI) Human Cannot provide Land-use change 1 Analyst’s skill and
interpretation from date1 image experience and detailed change (Sunar 1998, familiarity with
as red, the same knowledge are information. The Ulbricht and the study area
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band (or VI) from useful during results depend Heckendorff

date2 image as visual on the analyst’s 1998), forest
green, and the interpretation. skill in image change (Sader
same band (or VI) Two or three interpretation. and Winne 1992),
from date3 image dates of images Time-consuming monitoring
as blue if available. can be analysed and difficulty in selectively logged
Visually interprets at one time. updating the areas (Stone and

Change detection techniques

the colour The analyst can results Lefebvre 1998,
composite to incorporate Asner et al.
identify the changed texture, shape, 2002) and land-
areas. An alternative size and patterns cover change
is to implement into visual (Slater and
on-screen digitizing interpretation to Brown 2000)
of changed areas make a decision
using visual on the LULC
interpretation based change
on overlaid images
of different dates
Category VII. Other change detection techniques
23. Measures of spatial dependence (Henebry 1993)
24. Knowledge-based vision system (Wang 1993)
25. Area production method (Hussin et al. 1994)
26. Combination of three indicators: vegetation indices, land surface temperature, and spatial structure (Lambin and Strahler 1994b)
27. Change curves (Lawrence and Ripple 1999)
28. Generalized linear models (Morisette et al. 1999)
29. Curve-theorem-based approach (Yue et al. 2002)
30. Structure-based approach (Zhang et al. 2002)
31. Spatial statistics-based method (Read and Lam 2002)

2381
 2382 D. Lu et al.

data. They concluded that band TM 3 differencing and its regression were the best
methods; however, none of the algorithms or band selections used was absolutely
superior to the others.
Nelson (1983) examined the utility of image differencing, image ratioing and
vegetation index differencing in detecting gypsy moth defoliation and found that a
difference of the MSS7/MSS5 ratio was more useful in delineation of defoliated
area than any single band-pair difference or ratio. Stow et al. (1990) found that
ratioing multi-sensor, multi-temporal satellite image data produced higher change
detection accuracy than did principal component analysis (PCA) and was useful as
a land-use change enhancement technique. Ratioing red and near-infrared bands of
a Landsat MSS–SPOT high resolution visible image (HRV) (XS) multi-temporal
pair produced substantially higher change detection accuracy (about 10% better)
than ratioing similar bands of a Landsat MSS–Landsat TM multi-temporal pair.
Prakash and Gupta (1998) used image differencing, image ratioing and NDVI
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differencing to detect land-use changes in a coral mining area of India and found
that no significant difference existed among these methods in detecting land-use
change in this study and each method had its own merit. Lyon et al. (1998)
compared seven vegetation indices from three different dates of MSS data for land-
cover change detection and concluded that NDVI differencing technique
demonstrated the best vegetation change detection. Sohl (1999) reviewed and
evaluated five methods: univariate image differencing, an ‘enhanced’ image
differencing, vegetation index differencing, post-classification differencing and
CVA, and concluded that CVA excelled at providing rich qualitative details about
the nature of a change. Hayes and Sader (2001) compared NDVI differencing,
PCA, and red, green and blue colour composite (RGB)–NDVI for detection of
tropical forest clearing and vegetation regrowth in Guatemala’s Maya Biosphere
Reserve and found that the RGB–NDVI method produced the highest overall
accuracy (85%).
In the algebra-based change detection category, image differencing is the most
often used change detection method in practice. Visible red band image differencing
has shown to be suitable for change detection in semi-arid and arid environments,
but it is not clear that this is true in other environments such as moist tropical
regions. Different authors have arrived at different conclusions about which
method provided the best results among the image ratioing, vegetation index
differencing, image regression, and CVA approaches, since results vary depending
on the characteristics of the study areas and image data used. The background
subtraction method was not often used due to its poor change detection capability.

3.2. Transformation
The transformation category includes PCA, KT, Gramm–Schmidt (GS), and
Chi-square transformations. One advantage of these methods is in reducing data
redundancy between bands and emphasizing different information in derived
components. However, they cannot provide detailed change matrices and require
selection of thresholds to identify changed areas. Another disadvantage is the
difficulty in interpreting and labelling the change information on the transformed
images.
Fung and LeDrew (1987) used PCA and differences in KT transformation
images to detect land-cover changes from multi-temporal MSS and TM images and
concluded that differencing greenness and brightness images from the KT
 Change detection techniques 2383

transformation of MSS and TM data was most appropriate for detecting land-
cover changes from multi-sensor data. In another study, Fung (1990) examined
image differencing, PCA and KT transformation for land-cover change detection
and found that images associated with changes in the near-infrared reflectance or
greenness could detect crop type change and changes between vegetative and non-
vegetative features. Guirguis et al. (1996) compared standardized and unstandardized
PCA, image differencing, and ratioing. They found that standardized PCA was
more capable of identifying changes. Other studies also agreed that standardized
PCA was more reliable in change detection than unstandardized PCA (Singh and
Harrison 1985, Fung and LeDrew 1987, Eklundh and Singh 1993).
Sunar (1998) compared image overlay, image differencing, PCA and post-
classification comparison for land-cover change detection in the Ikitelli area,
Istanbul, Turkey, and found that PCA and post-classification comparison
highlighted differences attributed to changes, but each of the methods used has
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some merit with regard to the information contents or interpretability. Collins and
Woodcock (1996) used linear change detection techniques for mapping forest
mortality using Landsat TM data and found that PCA and multi-temporal KT
transformation were better than the GS orthogonalization process and that changes
in KT wetness were the most reliable single indicators of forest change. Rogan and
Yool (2001) compared vegetation indices (NDVI, Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index
(SAVI), Modified Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (MSAVI) and band ratio TM
7/4), PCA, and KT components and found that the KT approach provided best
detection results of fire-induced vegetation depletion in the Peloncillo Mountains,
Arizona and New Mexico, with an overall kappa of 0.66.
In order to improve change detection accuracy, different change detection
techniques can be combined. For example, Gong (1993) used band-pair image
differencing for each spectral band, then used PCA for the multi-spectral difference
image, and finally applied fuzzy operations to combine change information in
different change component images into a single image. This method was shown to
provide better change detection results than simple image differencing. Coppin and
Bauer (1994) examined forest change detection by a comparison of vegetation
indices for different dates of imageries. The vegetation indices included brightness,
greenness and wetness from the KT transformation, as well as NDVI, green ratios
and mid-infrared ratios. Then Jeffries–Matusita distance (J-M distance) was used
for optimal feature selection. It was found that changes in brightness and greenness
identified the most important forest canopy change features and that these can be
adequately expressed as a normalized difference or a second principal component.
In the transformation category, PCA and KT are most often used approaches
for detecting change/non-change information. The KT method seems useful in
many change detection applications. One advantage of KT transformation over
PCA is that KT transform coefficients are independent of the image scenes, while
PCA is dependent on the image scenes. The GS and Chi-square methods are
relatively less frequently used in practice due to their relative complexity compared
to PCA and KT transforms. Also GS and Chi-square methods are not available in
most of the commercial remote sensing image processing software.

3.3. Classification
The classification category includes post-classification comparison, spectral–
temporal combined analysis, expectation–maximization algorithm (EM) change
 2384 D. Lu et al.

detection, unsupervised change detection, hybrid change detection, and ANN.

These methods are based on the classified images, in which the quality and quantity
of training sample data are crucial to produce good quality classification results.
The major advantage of these methods is the capability of providing a matrix of
change information and reducing external impact from atmospheric and
environmental differences between the multi-temporal images. However, selecting
high-quality and sufficiently numerous training sample sets for image classification
is often difficult, in particular for historical image data classification. The time-
consuming and difficult task of producing highly accurate classifications often leads
to unsatisfactory change detection results, especially when high-quality training
sample data are not available.
Li and Yeh (1998) found that PCA of stacked multi-temporal images combined
with supervised maximum likelihood classification can effectively monitor urban
land-use change in the Pearl River Delta. Silapaswan et al. (2001) used CVA,
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unsupervised classification, and visual interpretation of aerial photographs to detect

land-cover change and found that the combination of CVA and unsupervised
classification provided more powerful interpretation of change than either method
alone. Petit et al. (2001) used the combination of image differencing and post-
classification to detect detailed ‘from–to’ land-cover change in south-eastern
Zambia and such a hybrid change detection method was regarded as better than post-
classification comparison techniques. Foody (2001) found that post-classification
comparison underestimated the areas of land-cover change, but where the change
was detected, it typically overestimated its magnitude. Wilson and Sader (2002)
compared multi-temporal classification of the TM NDVI and Normalized
Difference Moisture Index (NDMI) for detection of forest harvest type and
found that the RGB–NDMI method produced higher accuracies compared to the
RGB–NDVI method. Recently, ANN has been used for land-cover change
(Abuelgasim et al. 1999, Dai and Khorram 1999), forest mortality detection (Gopal
and Woodcock 1996, 1999), forest change (Woodcock et al. 2001) and urban
change (Liu and Lathrop 2002). For example, Liu and Lathrop (2002) applied the
ANN approach to detect urban change using multi-temporal TM data and found
that the ANN-based method improved accuracy about 20–30% compared to post-
classification comparison.
These classification methods often require a large amount of training sample
data for supervised or unsupervised classification of image data. Image
transformation, vegetation indices, advanced classification methods, modelling,
and integration of different data sources are often used to improve classification
results. Post-classification comparison is a common approach used for change
detection in practice, but the difficulty in classifying historical image data often
seriously affects the change detection results. The hybrid change detection method
combines the advantages of the threshold and classification methods. The threshold
methods such as image differencing are often used to detect the changed areas, then
classification methods are used to classify and analyse detected change areas using
the threshold method. The spectral–temporal combined change detection method
and unsupervised change detection method are used less frequently in practice due
to the difficulty in identifying and labelling change trajectories. The EM method is
not commonly used due to the complexity of estimating a priori joint class
probability. The ANN approach can probably provide better change detection
results when the land-cover classes are not normally distributed. In recent years, the
research on ANN methods for change detection has attracted increasing attention
 Change detection techniques 2385

(Abuelgasim et al. 1999, Dai and Khorram 1999, Gopal and Woodcock 1999,
Woodcock et al. 2001, Liu and Lathrop 2002).

3.4. Advanced models

The advanced model-based change detection category includes the Li–Strahler
reflectance model, spectral mixture models, and biophysical parameter estimation
models. In these methods, the image reflectance values are often converted to
physically based parameters or fractions through linear or nonlinear models. The
transformed parameters are more intuitive to interpret and better to extract
vegetation information than are spectral signatures. The disadvantage of these
methods is the time-consuming and difficult process of developing suitable models
for conversion of image reflectance values to biophysical parameters.
In this category, linear spectral mixture analysis (LSMA) is the most often used
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approach for detection of land-cover change (Adams et al. 1995, Roberts et al.
1998), vegetation change (Ustin et al. 1998, Rogan et al. 2002), defoliation
(Radeloff et al. 1999), fire and grazing patterns (Wessman et al. 1997), urban area
change (Kressler and Steinnocher 1996) and environmental change (Piwowar et al.
1998). Adams et al. (1995) and Roberts et al. (1998) applied LSMA associated with
four endmembers (green vegetation, non-photosynthetic vegetation, soil and shade)
to analyse the land-cover change in the Brazilian Amazon and regarded this as a
better approach than traditional classification and change detection methods. Souza
and Barreto (2000) used the LSMA approach to detect the selectively logged forests
in the eastern Amazon and found that the soil fraction images derived from LSMA
can successfully detect the areas affected by the selective logging. Rogan et al.
(2002) compared multi-temporal KT and LSMA methods for vegetation change
detection using TM images in southern California and found that the LSMA
approach provided about 5% higher change detection accuracy than the KT
approach. In the LSMA approach, a critical step is to identify suitable
endmembers. A detailed description of the LSMA approach and endmember
selection can be found in Adams et al. (1995), Bateson and Curtiss (1996),
Tompkins et al. (1997), Roberts et al. (1998) and Mustard and Sunshine (1999).
The Li–Strahler canopy model was used to monitor conifer mortality through
estimation of each conifer stand crown cover from each date of image, then
compared the difference of stand crown cover to produce the change detection
results (Macomber and Woodcock 1994). The advantage of this method is the
capability to combine the digital image processing method with traditional
sampling and field observations-based methods. The difficulty in application of this
model is collection of required sufficient field measurements. Also this model is
relatively complex and not available for common image processing software.
Lu (2001) found that the ratio of tree biomass to total aboveground biomass
(RTB) is a good biophysical parameter for differentiating successional forest stages
based on field vegetation inventory data analysis in eastern Amazonia. The RTB
parameter reflects vegetation stand structure and regrowth stages. It can be
developed through integration of field vegetation inventory data and Landsat TM
images (Lu 2001). Hence, the RTB approach can be used to identify vegetation
classes. In addition, multi-temporal RTB images have the capability to detect
vegetation change after the reflectance differences caused by environmental
conditions are calibrated between multi-temporal TM images. This method has
 2386 D. Lu et al.

been used for successional and mature forest change detection in the Altamira and
Bragantina study areas of the Brazilian Amazon (Lu 2001, Lu et al. 2002).
When sufficient field vegetation measurements are available, the Li–Strahler
canopy model and the biophysical parameter estimation model are valuable for
quantitative detection of vegetation change. However, applications of both models
are often time-consuming and difficult. Also they can provide only vegetation
change detection and are not suitable for non-vegetation change detection. The
LSMA approach has been shown to be powerful for land-cover change detection. A
key step in implementing LSMA for change detection is to select suitable
endmembers for development of high-quality fraction images and to find
proportional compositions of each land-cover class. The big advantage of this
approach is its stable, reliable and repeatable extraction of quantitative subpixel
information that provides the potential to accurately detect land-cover change.
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3.5. GIS
The GIS-based change detection category includes the integrated GIS and
remote sensing method and the pure GIS method. The advantage of using GIS is
the ability to incorporate different source data into change detection applications.
However, different source data associated with different data accuracies and
formats often affect the change detection results.
Lo and Shipman (1990) used a GIS approach to assess the impact of new town
development in Hong Kong, through integration of multi-temporal aerial
photographic data of land use and found that the image overlaying and binary
masking techniques were useful in revealing quantitatively the change dynamics in
each category of land use. In recent years, incorporation of multi-source data (e.g.
aerial photographs, TM, SPOT and previous thematic maps) has become an
important method for land-use and land-cover (LULC) change detection (Mouat
and Lancaster 1996, Salami 1999, Salami et al. 1999, Reid et al. 2000, Petit and
Lambin 2001, Chen 2002, Weng 2002), especially when the change detection
involved long period intervals associated with different data sources, formats and
accuracies or multi-scale land-cover change analysis (Petit and Lambin 2001). Weng
(2002) used the integration of remote sensing, GIS and stochastic modelling to
detect land-use change in the Zhujiang Delta of China and indicated that such
integration was an effective approach for analysing the direction, rate and spatial
pattern of land-use change. Yang and Lo (2002) used an unsupervised classification
approach, GIS-based image spatial reclassification, and post-classification compar-
ison with GIS overlay to map the spatial dynamics of urban land-use/land-cover
change in the Atlanta, Georgia, metropolitan area. GIS approaches have shown
many advantages over traditional change detection methods in multi-source data
analysis.
Most previous applications of GIS approaches in change detection were focused
on urban areas. This is probably because traditional change detection methods
often have poor change detection results due to the complexity of urban landscapes
and these cannot effectively utilize multi-source data analysis. Thus, the powerful
GIS functions provide convenient tools for the multi-source data processing and are
effective in handling the change detection analysis using multi-source data. More
research focusing on integration of GIS and remote sensing techniques is necessary
for better implementation of change detection analyses.
 Change detection techniques 2387

3.6. Visual analysis

The visual analysis category includes visual interpretation of multi-temporal
image composite and on-screen digitizing of changed areas. This method can make
full use of an analyst’s experience and knowledge. Texture, shape, size and patterns
of the images are key elements useful for identification of LULC change through
visual interpretation. These elements are not often used in the digital change
detection analysis because of the difficulty in extraction of these elements. However,
in visual interpretation, a skilled analyst can incorporate all these elements in
helping make decisions about LULC change. The disadvantage of this method is
the time consumed for a large-area change detection application and it is difficult to
timely update the change detection results. It is also difficult to provide detailed
change trajectories.
Visual interpretation was extensively used in different fields such as forest
inventory before the 1970s when digital satellite data were not available and the
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capability of computer techniques and image processing in handling a large amount

of data were poor. With the rapid development of computer technologies and
remote sensing techniques, digital computer processing gradually replaced the
visual interpretation. However, automatic image processing is not always feasible
for all cases. For example, detection of forest selective logging or disturbance is
often very difficult using computer processing; however, visual interpretation has
the potential to identify such changes by skilled analysts. Stone and Lefebvre (1998)
used visual interpretation to evaluate selective logging in Para, Brazil, because of
the difficulty in automatically detecting the location and extent of logging using
computer processing. Loveland et al. (2002) used visual interpretation on fine
resolution data (MSS, TM and Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETMz)),
combined with sampling design, to detect United States land-cover changes and
estimate the change rates. Also visual interpretation of multi-temporal colour
composite images is valuable for qualitatively analysing the land-cover change and
assisting for the selection of suitable digital change detection methods based on the
landscape characteristics of a study area.

3.7. Other change detection techniques

In addition to the six categories of change detection techniques discussed above,
there are also some methods that cannot be attributed to one of the categories
indicated above and that have not yet frequently been used in practice. For
example, Henebry (1993) used measures of spatial dependence with TM data to
detect grassland change. Wang (1993) used a knowledge-based vision system to
detect land-cover change at urban fringes. Lambin and Strahler (1994b) used three
indicators, vegetation indices, land surface temperature and spatial structure,
derived from AVHRR, to detect land-cover change in west Africa. Lawrence and
Ripple (1999) used change curves and Hussin et al. (1994) used an area production
model to detect forest cover changes. Morisette et al. (1999) used generalized linear
models to detect land-cover change. A curve-theorem-based approach was also used
for change detection in the Yellow River Delta (Yue et al. 2002). Zhang et al. (2002)
used road density and TM spectral information to form structure-based methods—
spectral–structural post-classification comparison and spectral–structural image
differencing—to detect urban land change in Beijing, China. Read and Lam (2002)
identified that spatial statistics, such as fractal dimension and Moran’s I index, have
the potential to detect land-cover changes. These techniques are not discussed in
 2388 D. Lu et al.

this paper in detail because they are specific to a selected research aspect, limited by
the data available, or have not yet been used widely.

4. A review of comparative studies of change detection techniques

Section 3 summarized change detection techniques and gave a brief review of
their applications. This section will provide a review based on quantitative
comparison of accuracy associated with different change detection techniques.
In general, change detection techniques can be grouped into two types: (1) those
detecting binary change/non-change information, for example, using image
differencing, image ratioing, vegetation index differencing and PCA; and (2)
those detecting detailed ‘from–to’ change, for example, using post-classification
comparison, CVA and hybrid change detection methods. One critical step in using
the methods for change/non-change detection is to select appropriate threshold
values in the tails of the histogram representing change information. A detailed
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discussion about the determination of a threshold is provided in §6. In detailed

‘from–to’ change detection, the key is to create accurate thematic classification
images. The errors of individual-date thematic images will affect the final change
detection accuracy.
In practice, an analyst often selects several methods to implement change
detection in a study area, then compare and identify the best results through
accuracy assessment. Muchoney and Haack (1994) examined several approaches in
detecting defoliation, including merged PCA, image differencing, spectral/temporal
change classification, and post-classification comparison. They found classification
of principal components and the difference images could yield generally higher
classification accuracies than the other methods. The overall accuracy ranged from
61% (post-classification, spectral–temporal) and 63% (PCA) to 69% (image
differencing) relative to traditional air survey approaches to monitoring defoliation.
Mas (1997, 1999) compared six methods—image differencing, vegetation index
differencing, selective PCA, direct multi-temporal unsupervised classification, post-
classification change differencing, and a combination of image enhancement and
post-classification comparison—at a coastal zone of the state of Campeche, Mexico,
and concluded that post-classification comparison was the most accurate procedure
and had the advantage of indicating the nature of the change. The overall accuracy
for change/non-change level ranged from 73–87%, with post-classification
comparison being the best. MacLeod and Congalton (1998) examined post-
classification comparison, image differencing and PCA for determining the change
in eelgrass meadows using Landsat TM data. The reference data were collected
through aerial photography combined with a boat-based survey. A proposed
change detection error matrix was used to quantitatively assess the accuracy of each
technique. They found that the image differencing technique performed significantly
better than post-classification comparison and PCA, with the overall accuracy for
the change/non-change error matrix being 78% with a Khat of 0.41. Michener and
Houhoulis (1997) evaluated five unsupervised change detection techniques using
multi-spectral and multi-temporal SPOT HRV data for identifying vegetation
response to extensive flooding of a forested ecosystem associated with tropical
storm Alberto. The techniques were spectral–temporal change classification,
temporal change classification based on NDVI, PCA of spectral data, PCA of
NDVI data, and NDVI image differencing. Standard statistical techniques, logistic
multiple regressions and a probability vector model were used to quantitatively and
visually assess classification accuracy. It was found that the classification accuracy
 Change detection techniques 2389

was improved when temporal change classification based on NDVI data was used.
Both PCA methods were more sensitive to flood-affected vegetation than the
temporal change classifications based on spectral and NDVI data. Vegetation
changes were most accurately identified by image differencing of NDVI data
(overall accuracy was 77%). Yuan and Elvidge (1998) compared image differencing,
ratioing, PCA and post-classification comparison associated with different image
normalization methods including dark and bright set, pseudo-invariant feature, and
automated scattergram controlled regression and concluded that the automated
scattergram controlled regression between normalized image differencing and
NDVI differencing provided best change/non-change detection results. Dhakal et al.
(2002) compared image differencing, PCA and CVA for detection of areas
associated with flood and erosion using multi-temporal TM data in the central
region of Nepal. They found that CVA provided high spatial agreement (88%) in
change/non-change categories.
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Although a large number of change detection applications have been

implemented and different change detection techniques have been tested, conclusion
on which method is best suitable for a specific study area remains unanswered. It
shows that no single method is suitable for all cases. Which method is selected
depends on an analyst’s knowledge of the change detection methods and the skill in
handling remote sensing data, the image data used, and characteristics of the study
area. Because of the difficulty in identifying a suitable method, in practice different
change detection techniques are often tested and compared to provide a best result
based on the accuracy assessment or qualitative assessment. Previous research has
shown that a combination of two change detection techniques, such as image
differencing and PCA, NDVI and PCA, or PCA and CVA, could improve the
change detection results. The most common change detection methods are image
differencing, PCA, CVA and post-classification comparison.

5. Change detection at a global scale

Many researchers use high or moderate spatial resolution remotely sensed data
such as TM, SPOT and radar. However, at continental or global scale, such sensors
generate huge amounts of data that make it difficult and expensive to implement
analysis. Coarse resolution data such as MODIS or AVHRR are often useful and
more practicable for many types of change detection. The advantages of daily
availability, low cost and low spatial resolution of National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) AVHRR data have made it the best
source of spectral data for large area change detection. For example, the NOAA
AVHRR data have been used for monitoring temporal changes associated with
vegetation (Turcotte et al. 1989, Batista et al. 1997), tropical deforestation (Di
Maio-Mantovani and Setzer 1996), monitoring and damage evaluation of flood
(Liu et al. 2002), LULC change (Lambin and Ehrlich 1996, 1997) and forest fire
detection (Cuomo et al. 2001). In recent years unmixing analysis of coarse
resolution satellite images has been used for land-cover change detection (Holben
and Shimabukuro 1993, Shimabukuro et al. 1994, Mücher et al. 2000) and GIS
approach for deforestation detection in Amazon forests (Di Maio-Mantovani and
Setzer 1996).
Annual integrated or isolated dates of AVHRR vegetation index data were used
to document the inter-annual variations in primary production in the Sahel (Tucker
et al. 1986, 1991) and to quantify large-scale tropical deforestation (Nelson and
Holben 1986, Malingreau et al. 1989). Justice et al. (1986) used AVHRR data to
 2390 D. Lu et al.

detect vegetation change in east Africa. Lambin and Strahler (1994a) combined
PCA and CVA to detect land-cover change in west Africa using time trajectories
of AVHRR NDVI. The results have proved to be effective in detecting and
categorizing inter-annual change between time trajectories of NDVI data. In
another article, they compared vegetation indices, land surface temperature and
spatial structure to detect and categorize land-cover change and found that the
NDVI detects inter-annual variations such as vegetation growth and senescence.
They also found that land surface temperature detects the variability at short
timescale which responds to short-term variations in energy balance, and that
spatial structure detects long-term processes related to structural changes in
landscape ecology. They recommended the combination of these three indicators
for land-cover change detection (Lambin and Strahler 1994b). Afterwards, Lambin
and Ehrlich (1996, 1997) used surface temperature and vegetation index to detect
LULC change in Africa.
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MODIS data have also shown promising applications in LULC change

detection. Zhan et al. (2000) implemented the generation procedure to produce
land-cover change products using 250 m resolution MODIS data. Five change
detection methods were tested: the red–near-infrared (NIR) space partitioning
method, red–NIR space change vector, modified delta space thresholding, changes
in the coefficient of variation, and changes in linear features. They found that
different methods identified different pixels as change, requiring use of multiple
methods to gain confidence in the change detection results. The 250 m vegetation
cover conversion product and above-mentioned five change detection methods were
also used to monitor Idaho–Montana wildfires, the Cerro Grande prescribed fire in
New Mexico, flood in Cambodia, Thailand–Laos flood retreat, and deforestation in
southern Brazil (Zhan et al. 2002). More detailed information about the MODIS
instrument characteristics, product quality assessment and validation, analyses and
applications can be found in a special issue of Remote Sensing of Environment (83
(1–2), 2002).
A change detection method based on a combination of AVHRR, Landsat TM
and SPOT HRV data was evaluated in a study site in Vietnam. High spatial
resolution imageries were related to AVHRR-derived forest class proportions and
fragmentation patterns to monitor forest area change (Jeanjean and Achard 1997).
Borak et al. (2000) also examined the ability of several temporal change metrics to
detect land-cover change in sub-Saharan Africa through combination of high and
coarse spatial resolution data. They found that coarse spatial resolution temporal
metrics are most effective as land-cover change indicators when various metrics are
combined in multivariate models. Serneels et al. (2001) implemented land-cover
change detection around an east African wildlife reserve using a combination of
time contextual and spatial contextual change detection methods. They found that
coarse spatial resolution data (e.g. AHVRR) detected areas that were sensitive to
inter-annual climate fluctuation and higher spatial resolution data (e.g. TM)
detected land-cover conversions, independent of climate-induced fluctuations.
AVHRR and MODIS data are useful in large area change detection
applications. NDVI and land surface temperature derived from thermal bands of
AVHRR or MODIS appear to be useful for large area change detection. New
change detection techniques are still needed for the analyses of low coarse
resolution data. Multi-scale image analysis and multi-source data application will
be important in improving large area change detection results. MODIS data
associated with different spatial resolutions (250, 500 and 1000 m) and a large
 Change detection techniques 2391

number of multi-spectral bands will become an important scientific bridge between

high spatial resolution satellite data such as TM and coarse spatial resolution data
such as AVHRR.

6. Selection of thresholds
Many change detection algorithms, such as in algebra and transformation
categories, require selection of thresholds to differentiate change from no-change
areas (Fung and Ledrew 1988). Two methods are often used for selection of
thresholds (Singh 1989, Deer 1995, Yool et al. 1997): (1) interactive procedure or
manual trial-and-error procedure—an analyst interactively adjusts the thresholds
and evaluates the resulting image until satisfied; and (2) statistical measures—
selection of a suitable standard deviation from a class mean. The disadvantages of
the threshold technique are that: (1) the resulting differences might include external
influences caused by atmospheric conditions, Sun angles, soil moistures and
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phenological differences in addition to true land-cover change; and (2) the threshold
is highly subjective and scene-dependent, depending on the familiarity with the
study area and the analyst’s skill. In order to improve the change detection results,
Metternicht (1999) used fuzzy set and fuzzy membership functions to replace the
thresholds. Bruzzone and Fernández Prieto (2000a, b) proposed automatic analyses
based on the Bayes rule for minimum error and a minimum-cost thresholding
technique to determine the threshold that minimizes the overall change detection
error probability. An adaptive parcel-based technique was also proposed to reduce
the effects of noise produced in the unsupervised change detections (Bruzzone and
Fernández Prieto 2000c).
Although some advanced approaches have been developed to improve the
change detection results (Metternicht 1999, Bruzzone and Fernández Prieto 2000a,
b), these are still less frequently used in practice due to their complexity. However,
because of the simplicity and intuitiveness in determination of thresholds, the
threshold method is still the most extensively applied in detecting binary change
and no-change information even though the disadvantages of selecting suitable
thresholds exist.

7. Accuracy assessment
Accuracy assessment is very important for understanding the developed results
and employing these results for decision-making. The most common accuracy
assessment elements include overall accuracy, producer’s accuracy, user’s accuracy
and Kappa coefficient. Previous literature has provided the meanings and methods
of calculation for these elements (Congalton et al. 1983, Hudson and Ramm 1987,
Congalton 1991, Janssen and van der Wel 1994, Kalkhan et al. 1997, Biging et al.
1999, Congalton and Green 1999, Smits et al. 1999, Congalton and Plourde 2002,
Foody 2002). For example, Congalton (1991), Janssen and van der Wel (1994),
Smits et al. (1999) and Foody (2002) reviewed accuracy assessment for classification
of single-date remotely sensed data and discussed some specific issues related to the
accuracy assessment. The book Assessing the Accuracy of Remotely Sensed Data:
Principles and Practices by Congalton and Green (1999) systematically discusses the
concepts of basic accuracy assessment besides some advanced topics involved in
fuzzy logic and multi-layer assessment and explained principles and practical
considerations of designing and conducting accuracy assessment of remote sensing
data. In particular, this book discussed sampling design, data collection,
 2392 D. Lu et al.

development and analysis of an error matrix and provided a case study for the
assessment of accuracy of single-date remote sensing data.
The accuracy assessment for change detection is particularly difficult due to
problems in collecting reliable temporal field-based datasets. Therefore, much
previous research on change detection cannot provide quantitative analysis of the
research results. Although standard accuracy assessment techniques were mainly
developed for single-date remotely sensed data, the error matrix-based accuracy
assessment method is still valuable for evaluation of change detection results. Some
new methods have also been developed to analyse the accuracy of change detection
(Morisette and Khorram 2000, Lowell 2001). Morisette and Khorram (2000) used
‘accuracy assessment curves’ to analyse the satellite-based change detection and
Lowell (2001) developed an area-based accuracy assessment method for analysis of
change maps. A monograph, ‘Accuracy assessment of remote sensing–derived
change detection’, edited by Siamak Khorram (Biging et al. 1999) is specifically
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focused on accuracy assessment of land-cover change detection. This monograph

describes the issues affecting accuracy assessment of land-cover change detection,
identifies the factors of a remote sensing processing system that affects accuracy
assessment, presents a sampling design to estimate the elements of the error matrix
efficiently, illustrates possible applications, and gives recommendations for accuracy
assessment of change detection.
The error matrix is the most common method for accuracy assessment. In order
to properly generate an error matrix, one must consider the following factors
(Congalton and Plourde 2002): (1) ground truth data collection, (2) classification
scheme, (3) sampling scheme, (4) spatial autocorrelation, and (5) sample size and
sample unit. Other important accuracy assessment elements, such as overall
accuracy, omission errors, commission errors and KHAT coefficient can be
developed using the error matrix. Sampling design is one of the most important
considerations in the collection of ground truth data. Biging et al. (1999)
recommended a geographically based multi-stage stratified random sample
associated with field plots of approximately 363 pixels in size when implementing
change detection accuracy assessment.
Accuracy assessment is an important part in remote sensing classification and
change detection applications. Interested readers should look at Congalton and
Green (1999) and Biging et al. (1999) which are two books devoted solely to
accuracy assessment of remote sensing data.

8. Summary and recommendations

Precise geometrical registration and atmospheric correction or normalization
between multi-temporal images are prerequisites for a change detection project. The
crucial factors for successfully implementing change detection are selecting suitable
image acquisition dates and sensor data, determining the change categories, and
using appropriate change detection algorithms. Identifying a suitable change
detection technique has considerable significance for a study area to produce good
change detection results.
Those change detection techniques based on determination of thresholds for
identification of changes from unchanged areas have a common problem: it is
difficult to distinguish true changed areas from the detected change areas. For
example, in agricultural lands, the change detection based on thresholds is often
misleading due to the different phenological characteristics of crops. Change
detection based on classification methods can avoid such problems, but requires
 Change detection techniques 2393

considerable effort to implement classification. Recently, LSMA and ANN have

shown promise for change detection applications. The LSMA approach has been
shown to be an effective method for monitoring Earth’s surface changes (Roberts
et al. 1997). GIS also has proved to be a useful tool in many change detection
applications, in particular when multi-source data are used.
Common remotely sensed data used for change detection are MSS, TM, SPOT,
AVHRR, radar and aerial photographs. The types of remote sensing data selected
depend on the objectives and requirements of a specific project and the data
available in the study area. For a local area, middle-level resolution data such as
TM, SPOT and radar are often used, but for a large study area (e.g. regional or
global), coarse resolution data such as MODIS and AVHRR are most suitable.
High spatial resolution satellite sensors can provide reliable land cover classification
and change detection results at a local level. However, for a large area, high
resolution satellite data offer a huge amount of data, presenting a great challenge to
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analyse them due to the processing loads, time and cost. Coarse spatial resolution
satellite sensors have advantages of frequent coverage of large areas and their data
facilitate classification and change detection of land cover in a large area, but it is
difficult to attain results similar to those derived from high resolution sensor data.
The application of multi-sensor data provides the potential to more accurately
detect land-cover changes through integration of different features of sensor data.
The disadvantage of using multi-sensor data for change detection is the difficulty in
image processing and selection of appropriate change detection techniques. In
practice, acquiring the same sensor data in multi-temporal format is sometimes
difficult, especially in moist tropical regions due to effects of clouds. For a change
detection application covering a long time period, data from different sensors have
to be used because single-sensor data may not be available. For example, MSS data
are available after 1972, TM data after 1983, SPOT data after 1986 and ETMz
data after 1999. Application of multi-sensor data will become increasingly
important in future change detection research, and thus more advanced change
detection techniques are needed.
Change detection analysis remains an active research topic and new techniques
continue to be developed. For a new change detection technique, it is important to
be able to implement it easily and for it to provide accurate change detection results
associated with change trajectories. Although a variety of change detection
techniques have been developed, it is still difficult to select a suitable method to
implement accurate change detection for a specific research purpose or study area.
Selection of a suitable change detection method requires careful consideration of
major impact factors. In practice, several change detection techniques are often
used to implement change detection, whose results are then compared to identify
the best product through visual assessment or quantitative accurate assessment.
Despite many factors affecting the selection of suitable change detection
methods, image differencing, PCA and post-classification are, in practice, the most
commonly used. In recent years, LSMA, ANN and GIS have become important
techniques to improve change detection accuracy. The following are some specific
recommendations.
(1) For a rapid qualitative change detection analysis, visual interpretation of
multi-temporal image colour composite is still a common and valuable
method.
 2394 D. Lu et al.

(2) For digital change detection of change/non-change information, single-

band image differencing and PCA are the recommended methods.
(3) For a detailed ‘from–to’ detection, post-classification comparison is a
suitable method to implement when sufficient training sample data are
available.
(4) When multi-source data are used for change detection, GIS techniques are
helpful.
(5) Advanced techniques such as LSMA, ANN or a combination of different
change detection methods can be useful to produce higher quality change
detection results.

Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the National Science Foundation (grants 95-21918
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and 99-06826) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (grant
N005-334) for their support. The authors also would like to thank the anonymous
reviewers for their comments and suggestions to improve this paper.

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