IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science
PAPER • OPEN ACCESS You may also like
- Numerical Simulation Research on Cable
Numerical simulation research on the fire in cable Fire of Urban Underground
Comprehensive Pipe Gallery Using
cabin of utility tunnel with different longitudinal fire Suffocating Fire Extinguishing Method
CongWu Zhang, QuanYang Li, LiJing
Zhang et al.
source locations
- Pedestrian evacuation at the subway
station under fire
To cite this article: Dewang Geng et al 2022 IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 983 012063 Xiao-Xia Yang, , Hai-Rong Dong et al.
- Fiber optic distributed temperature sensing
for fire source localization
Miao Sun, Yuquan Tang, Shuang Yang et
al.
View the article online for updates and enhancements.
This content was downloaded from IP address 41.33.29.80 on 06/09/2022 at 15:34
EEEP 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 983 (2022) 012063 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/983/1/012063
Numerical simulation research on the fire in cable cabin of
utility tunnel with different longitudinal fire source locations
Dewang Geng, Bei Cao, Xiaodong Zhou, Hong Liu, Ziping Lu and
Lizhong Yang1
State Key Laboratory of Fire Science, University of Science and Technology of China,
Hefei, Anhui Province 230023, China
1
E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract. A full-scale model was established by the Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) to study
the fire characteristics in the cable cabin of utility tunnel with different longitudinal fire source
locations. Five fire sources at different locations were placed in a 200-meter-long fire
compartment. Several important parameters were obtained and analyzed, including temperature
distribution, smoke concentration, and fire self-extinguishing. The results present that the fire
source located at 1/2 of the longitudinal direction has the largest range of high-temperature
smoke, which leads to the largest damage range of the concrete structure. The reverse filling of
the smoke in the utility tunnel leads to the longitudinal CO peak concentration first decreasing
and then increasing from the fire source to the end. When the fire source is located at 1/8 of the
longitudinal direction, the fire self-extinguishing time is the longest. These encouraging results
could provide significant references for the fire protection design and fire control of the utility
tunnel.
1. Introduction
Utility tunnel is a special underground tunnel that provides transportation pipelines for urban public
services. It is applied to integrate utility pipelines such as electricity, communication, fuel gas, heat
supply, and water supply for unified planning, design, construction, and management [1]. With the
utility tunnel being constructed rapidly, the fire protection problems in it are becoming increasingly
prominent. These problems make the fire department and the municipal department encounter many
difficulties in the acceptance and operation and maintenance of the utility tunnel’s construction. The
inside of the utility tunnel contains power cables, communication cables, and gas pipelines, which
have a high fire risk [2]. In addition, the underground utility tunnel has a service life of up to one
hundred years. With the aging of pipelines and related equipment, the fire threat will become more
serious [3-5].
Some scholars have carried out research on the fire safety of utility tunnel by experiments or
simulations. Huang et al. analyzed the maximum ceiling temperature and longitudinal decay in a
sealing tunnel fire by numerical simulations [6]. Ye et al. proposed a prediction method for the
longitudinal maximum smoke temperature attenuation of ceiling jet flows generated by strong fire
plumes in utility tunnel [7]. Zheng et al. explored a two-dimensional measurement method of fire
smoke velocity field in utility tunnel based on the principle of Conservation of Optical Flow [8]. Mi et
al. used simulation methods to explore the best smoke control mode for evacuation of people during
the cable fire in utility tunnel by different ventilation methods, fire-proof doors, and sprinklers [9].
Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Any further distribution
of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.
Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd 1
EEEP 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 983 (2022) 012063 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/983/1/012063
Most of the research only considered a single fire source location condition for the fire in the utility
tunnel. It is more common to place the fire source in the middle of a fire compartment. However, the
full-scale cable cabin fire experiment research has been involved rarely. As a typical sealed, narrow,
and long underground structure, a single fire compartment of the utility tunnel can reach more than
200 m in longitudinal length. The fire may occur at different longitudinal locations in the utility tunnel.
Considering the distribution of smoke and the spreading process of cable burning, it is meaningful to
study the fire in the cable cabin of utility tunnel with different longitudinal fire source locations.
Therefore, to understand the fire of the utility tunnel under different locations, a full-scale utility
tunnel model was established using the method of numerical simulation. The effects of different
longitudinal fire source locations on utility tunnel are systematically investigated. Some important
parameters such as the temperature distribution, the spreading process of cable burning, smoke
concentration, as well as fire self-extinguishing are obtained and analyzed in detail. By studying the
fire characteristics at different longitudinal fire sources in the cable cabin of the utility tunnel, the
results can perfect the framework of the fire research of the utility tunnel and provide guidance for its
fire protection design and fire control.
2. Numerical modeling
2.1. Physical model setup and simplify
It is well known that Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is widely used to simulate different fire
scenarios. Among them, the Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) developed by the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST) has been verified by subsequent experiments, which has convincing
simulation effectiveness [10-12]. Based on fluid dynamics theory, FDS can simulate building fires,
tunnel fires, subway station fires, oil pool fires, and other fire scenarios.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the simplified cable model.
Figure 2. Cross-section diagram of the cable cabin.
2
EEEP 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 983 (2022) 012063 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/983/1/012063
In this paper, a 1:1 numerical model is established for analysis with a cable cabin of a utility tunnel
in Baiyin City, Gansu Province, China as the research object. The model space has an internal clear
width of 2.8 m, a clear height of 3.2 m, and a length of 200 m. Referring to the design drawings of the
city's utility tunnel, the model is simplified within a reasonable range. The conductor covered in a
common cable is three copper cores, the insulation material is cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE),
filled with polyethylene (PE) foam, and the outermost layer is a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) sheath. This
kind of power cable is generally used in the utility tunnel of many cities in China. In order to simplify
the calculation of FDS, the main combustible material PVC of the cable is used as a simplified model
of the cable, as shown in Figure 1. A total of 7 layers of cables are designed on the left and right sides
in the cable cabin model of the utility tunnel, and the cross-section diagram is shown in Figure 2.
2.2. Simulation scenarios and settings
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of the slices and measuring points (simulation scenario L5).
This paper defines the model as the X-axis along the length, the Y-axis along the width, and the Z-axis
along with the height. In order to study the influence of different longitudinal fire source locations on
the fire in the cable cabin of the utility tunnel, the five fixed fire sources were set at X=1/25/50/75/100
m, which corresponded to the simulated scenarios L1/L2/L3/L4/L5. Recording previous studies and
simulations on utility tunnel fires [13-15], this article used a stable fire source as a cable ignition
device. The fire source of each simulation scenario was set at the bottom position on the left side of
the cable cabin.
Table 1. The parameter settings of simulation.
Projects Quantity
Initial temperature 20 °C
Initial pressure 101300 Pa
Flooring material Concrete
Ceiling material Concrete
Cable ignition Temperature 380 °C
Cable heat release rate 265.0 kW/m²
Simulation time 1200 s
3
EEEP 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 983 (2022) 012063 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/983/1/012063
Each simulation scenario has slices (temperature, smoke concentration and smoke visibility)
located at Y=1.4 m, Y=0.4 m, X=1/25/50/75/100 m. In the case of Y=0.4 m or Y=1.4 m, the
measuring points (temperature and smoke concentration) are arranged at an interval of 25 m along the
X-axis at the height of 1.6 m and 3.1 m, as shown in Figure 3. The simulation parameters of the utility
tunnel are shown in Table 1.
2.3. Mesh optimization
Since FDS uses the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy (CFL) condition, calculation parameters such as time
steps are controlled by mesh accuracy. According to the sensitivity requirement formula of McGrattan
et al. [16], the accuracy of the mesh depends on the power of the fire source. The calculation formula
is as follows:
2/5
Q̇
D* = ( ) (1)
ρa ca Ta √g
where D* represents the fire characteristic diameter, Q̇ represents the heat release rate of fire source
(kW), ρa represents the air density (1.2 kg/m3), ca represents heat release the specific heat capacity of
air (1.014 kJ/(kg·K)), Ta represents the air temperature (293 K), and g represents the acceleration of
gravity (9.81 m/s2). When the mesh size is set as 1/4-1/16 of the fire characteristic diameter, the
simulation results are relatively accurate [17]. By (1), the characteristic diameter of the fire source is
calculated as 1.26 m. Taking into account the computer's data processing capabilities, it is hard to
make the calculation with small mesh sizes. Meanwhile, the coarse mesh size affects the accuracy of
the simulation results. Considering the performance of the computer and the accuracy of the
simulation results, this study selects mesh sizes of 0.13-0.2 m for comparison and analysis. The
simulations of different mesh sizes use simulation scenario L5, and temperature slice 2 (Y=0.4 m) is
used to extract temperature values at the same height (3.2 m). The temperature at different horizontal
distances from the fire source is selected for comparison. The results are shown in Figure 4. The mesh
size of 0.16 m meets the accuracy requirements of the simulation results better [9, 18]. Therefore, the
following five simulation scenarios in this article are analyzed with a mesh size of 0.16 m.
1200
Mesh size
1000 0.13 m
0.15 m
0.16 m
Temperature (℃)
800 0.18 m
0.20 m
600
400
200
0 20 40 60 80 100
Horizontal distance from fire source (m)
Figure 4. The temperature distribution at different horizontal distances from the fire source
(simulation scenario L5).
3. Results and discussions
3.1. Temperature distribution and attenuation
The outer wall of the model selected in this paper is a concrete structure. The compressive strength of
concrete under a high temperature is the main basis for judging the damage degree of the utility tunnel
structure after a fire, which plays an important role in judging the safety of the structure. Therefore,
4
EEEP 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 983 (2022) 012063 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/983/1/012063
this paper takes the compressive strength of concrete as the basic parameter to determine the degree of
concrete damage. Predecessors have done a lot of researches on the compressive strength of concrete
at high temperatures [19]. When the temperature is lower than 300 °C, the compressive strength of
concrete is close to the normal value. When the temperature reaches 300 °C, the compressive strength
of concrete begins to decrease. As a result, the following uses 300 °C as the critical temperature
condition to evaluate the high-temperature damage of the concrete structure. It is considered that the
concrete structure begins to be damaged after the temperature reaches 300 °C.
Through the simulation results, it can be found that the high-temperature smoke distribution
reaches the maximum range at the moment of the peak heat release rate of the fire. Then the heat
release rate of the cable fire begins to decrease, and the range of high-temperature smoke gradually
shrinks until the fire self-extinguishes due to lack of oxygen. The temperature slice 2 (Y=0.4 m) at the
fire source is selected to draw Figure 5, which shows the longitudinal temperature distribution of the
five simulated scenarios when the fire heat release rate reaches the peak. Due to the layered
arrangement of the cables, it can be seen that the distribution of the smoke temperature also presents
the characteristics of layering. Moreover, there are significant differences in the longitudinal
temperature distribution of the five simulated scenarios. As the location of the fire source changes
from the end to the middle of the cable cabin, the temperature distribution range above 300 °C
gradually becomes larger. In other words, simulated scenario L1 has the smallest damage range of the
concrete structure. Simulated scenario L5 has the largest damage range of the concrete structure,
whose high-temperature smoke range above 300 °C can reach 156.8 m (78.4 %) in the longitudinal
section.
Figure 5. Contours of longitudinal temperature Figure 6. The longitudinal temperature
distribution (Y=0.4 m). attenuation curve of the utility tunnel
ceiling.
It can be known from the simulation results that during the development stage of cable fire, the
temperature at the fire source reaches its peak and remains almost stable. Therefore, the average
temperature longitudinal attenuation curve of the ceiling of the utility tunnel at this stage is drawn as
shown in Figure 6(a). According to the peak temperature at each temperature measurement point, the
5
EEEP 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 983 (2022) 012063 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/983/1/012063
maximum temperature longitudinal attenuation curve of the ceiling in five simulation scenarios is
drawn as shown in Figure 6(b). As the distance from the fire source increases, it shows an exponential
decay trend. When the space on both sides of the fire source is symmetrical, the temperature
longitudinal attenuation curve is axisymmetric. At the same height where the temperature measuring
points are arranged, the maximum temperature appeared at the fire source, especially the peak
temperature of simulated scenario L4 reached 961 °C. In the case of the temperature longitudinal
attenuation conforming to the exponential law, a temperature measurement point value (X=25 m) of
the simulated scenario L1 has obvious fluctuations. This is because the fire source of this simulated
scenario is close to the end, where the oxygen concentration around the fire source is relatively low.
This condition causes a phenomenon of ghosting fire as shown in Figure 6(b) [20-22]. Therefore, the
ghosting fire affects the value of the temperature measurement point near the fire source, resulting in a
deviation that is inconsistent with the exponential law. Actually, in the five simulation scenarios,
flames ghosted in the later stage of the cable fire, especially the simulation scenario L1 was the most
obvious.
3.2. Cable fire spreading process
The results show that the process of cable fire spreading at the cross-section of the fire source is the
same in the five simulation scenarios. The bottom cable on the left starts to catch fire, which causes
the flame to spread upward to other cables on this side. As the flame propagates upward, it spreads
outward under the influence of the upper cable at the same time. The extension of the flame ignites the
cable on the right. However, the burning range of the right cable is significantly smaller than that of
the left cable where the fire source is located. When the uppermost cable on the left is ignited, the
flame spreads along with the ceiling of the cable cabin to the opposite side, thereby intensifying the
burning of the uppermost cable on the right. Eventually, all the cables on the right began to burn
violently. During the whole process, all the cables on the left and right sides were ignited. Especially
the flame of the cable on the left side where the fire source was located had a longer spreading range
in the longitudinal direction.
Figure 7. Contours of cross-section temperature distribution at fire source (X=1/25/50/75/100 m).
6
EEEP 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 983 (2022) 012063 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/983/1/012063
The temperature slice 3 (X=1/25/50/75/100 m) at the fire source is selected to draw Figure 7, which
shows the cross-section temperature distribution of the five simulated scenarios when the fire heat
release rate reaches the peak. It can be seen that the temperature near the fire source can reach 980 ℃
or even above. The area on the left has the highest average temperature, followed by the area on the
right and the ceiling of the cable cabin. On the cross-section of the fire source, the simulation scenario
L2 has the smallest high-temperature distribution range. The simulation scenario L5 has the largest
high-temperature distribution range, which has far exceeded the critical temperature value of concrete
structure damage.
3.3. Distribution of smoke concentration
Fire smoke has three main hazards: (1) High-temperature smoke carries and radiates a large amount of
heat; (2) The oxygen content in the smoke is low, forming an oxygen-deficient environment; (3) The
smoke contains certain toxic components and is harmful ingredients, corrosive ingredients, particulate
matter, etc. It is known that CO is the most decisive hazardous gas in the smoke produced by a fire.
From the simulation results, the CO concentration at the fire source is relatively stable during the
development stage of cable fire. Therefore, the average CO concentration curve of the utility tunnel at
this stage is drawn as shown in Figure 8(a). According to the CO peak concentration at each smoke
measurement point, the maximum CO concentration curve of the utility tunnel in five simulation
scenarios is drawn as shown in Figure 8(b). It can be seen from Figure 8(a) that the average CO
concentration of simulated scenarios L2-L5 near the fire source is relatively low, which means the
farther away from the fire source, the higher the average CO concentration can be. Among them, the
minimum average CO concentration of the simulated scenarios L2 and L3 did not appear at the fire
source. This is because the fire source in these scenarios is close to the end, making the space filled by
the fire smoke on both sides is asymmetrical. In the smaller side space, the smoke is affected by
buoyancy and spreads along with the ceiling to the end. Then the smoke cools and sinks to the bottom
of the utility tunnel, filling to fire source in the opposite direction, which causes an increase in the
average CO concentration at the fire source. The fire source of simulated scenario L1 is located at one
end of the entire fire compartment model, and the fire development space has only one direction.
There is no obvious reverse filling of the smoke spreading, which can also explain that the average CO
concentration distribution curve of the simulated scenario L1 is the most special. Meanwhile, it can be
seen from Figure 8(b) that the maximum CO concentration curves of the five simulation scenarios
show a consistent law. The CO peak concentrations at the fire source can reach the maximum value,
and the CO peak concentrations at the end position can also reach a relatively larger value. In
particular, the CO peak concentrations of the simulated scenarios L1 and L3 can reach 305-309 ppm.
The CO peak concentrations along the longitudinal direction first decrease and then increase from the
fire source to the end. Therefore, the CO concentration curve at different horizontal distances from the
fire source shows a "W" pattern, which is also related to the reverse filling of the smoke after
spreading along with the ceiling to the end.
Similarly, the average oxygen concentration curve of the utility tunnel at the development stage of
cable fire is drawn as shown in Figure 9(a). According to the oxygen valley concentration at each
smoke measurement point, the minimum oxygen concentration curve of the utility tunnel in five
simulation scenarios is drawn as shown in Figure 9(b). It can be seen from Figure 9(a) that the average
oxygen concentration of simulated scenarios L2-L5 near the fire source is relatively high, which is
contrary to the distribution law of average CO concentration. Meanwhile, it can be seen from Figure
9(b) that the minimum oxygen concentration curves of the five simulation scenarios show a consistent
law. And the oxygen valley concentration of the simulated scenarios L1 and L3 can reach 0.038-0.039
mol/mol. The minimum oxygen concentration curve along the longitudinal direction shows an "M"
pattern.
7
EEEP 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 983 (2022) 012063 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/983/1/012063
Figure 8. The CO concentration curve at Figure 9. The oxygen concentration curve at
different horizontal distances from the fire different horizontal distances from the fire
source. source.
3.4. Fire self-extinguishing
In order to compare the fire self-extinguishing laws of the five simulation scenarios, the oxygen
concentration measurement points at the fire source location are selected. The curves diagram of the
fire extinguishing oxygen concentration and time is drawn, as shown in Figure 10. It can be seen that
the fire self-extinguishing oxygen concentration of simulation scenario L1 is the minimum, which can
reach about 0.061 mol/mol. As the location of the fire source changes to the middle of the cable cabin,
the self-extinguishing oxygen concentration of the fire gradually rises. And the fire self-extinguishing
oxygen concentration of simulation scenario L5 is the maximum, which can reach about 0.107
mol/mol. Meanwhile, the fire self-extinguishing time of simulation scenario L2 is the longest. The
oxygen supplement conditions in the simulation scenarios L4 and L5 are better, making the cable
burnt relatively fully, accelerating the fire development process. That is why their self-extinguishing
time is earlier. Moreover, the fire self-extinguishing time of the simulated scenario L1 is relatively
earlier than the simulated scenario L2. This is because the high-pressure smoke close to the end
obstructs the flow of air to the fire source, which leads to the pollution of the combustion environment
around the fire source, accelerating the self-extinguishing of the fire.
8
EEEP 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 983 (2022) 012063 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/983/1/012063
Self-extinguishing oxygen concentration
0.11 500
Self-extinguishing time (s)
0.10 480
(mol/mol)
0.09
460
0.08
440
0.07
420
0.06
400
L1 L2 L3 L4 L5
Simulation scenario
Figure 10. Curves of self-extinguishing oxygen concentration and self-extinguishing time in
different simulation scenarios.
4. Conclusions
This study explored the fire characteristics and differences in cable cabins of the utility tunnel at
different longitudinal fire sources through numerical simulation methods. The fire simulated scenarios
of the utility tunnel were characterized by temperature, smoke concentration, and fire self-
extinguishing. The main conclusions can be summarized as follows:
(1) When the fire source is located at 1/2 of the longitudinal direction, the range of high-
temperature smoke is the largest, which can reach 78.4 % of the longitudinal length of the utility
tunnel. In this case, the damage range of the concrete structure is also the largest. The longitudinal
attenuation of the cable cabin ceiling temperature conforms to the exponential law. However, when the
space on both sides of the fire source is asymmetric, the ghosting fire affects the temperature
distribution near the fire source.
(2) The reverse filling of the smoke in the utility tunnel affects the distribution of CO concentration.
In the case of the fire source being located at different locations, the CO peak concentration along the
longitudinal direction first decreases and then increases from the fire source to the end.
(3) Longitudinal fire source location has a significant effect on fire self-extinguishing. As the
location of the fire source changes to the middle of the cable cabin, the self-extinguishing oxygen
concentration of the fire gradually rises. When the fire source is located at 1/8 of the longitudinal
direction, the fire self-extinguishing time is the longest.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 52076202) and
Anhui Provincial Natural Science Foundation (No. 2008085ME153).
References
[1] Shu Y 2002 Development and utilization of underground space resources Shanghai, China:
Tongji University Press
[2] Zhang H, Jiang X, Wang W, Yang Y, Xu L and Fan W 2004 Numerical simulations of buoyant
reactive jets with sidewall effects Chinese Science Bulletin 49 2105-2109
[3] Carmody J and Sterling R 1993 Underground space design New York: UNB
[4] Canto-Perello J and Curiel-Esparza J 2003 Risks and potential hazards in utility tunnels for
urban areas Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers 156 51-56
[5] Liu K 2019 Study on the influence of the fire-retardant coating on the cable ignition
characteristics and the temperature distribution of overloaded cable University of Science
and Technology of China M.S’s thesis
9
EEEP 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 983 (2022) 012063 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/983/1/012063
[6] Huang Y, Li Y, Dong B, Li J and Liang Q 2018 Numerical investigation on the maximum
ceiling temperature and longitudinal decay in a sealing tunnel fire Tunnelling and
Underground Space Technology 72 120-130
[7] Ye K, Zhou X, Zheng Y, Liu H, Tang X, Cao B, Huang Y, Chen Y and Yang L 2019
Estimating the longitudinal maximum gas temperature attenuation of ceiling jet flows
generated by strong fire plumes in an urban utility tunnel International Journal of Thermal
Sciences 142 434-448
[8] Zheng Y, Zhou X, Ye K, Liu H, Cao B, Huang Y, Ni Y and Yang L 2019 A two-dimension
velocity field measurement method for the thermal smoke basing on the optical flow
technology Flow Measurement and Instrumentation 70 101637
[9] Mi H, Liu Y, Jiao Z, Wang W and Wang Q 2020 A numerical study on the optimization of
ventilation mode during emergency of cable fire in utility tunnel Tunnelling and
Underground Space Technology 100 103403
[10] Wang H 2007 Three dimensional field simulation analysis of the fire disaster in a single room
Harbin Institute of Technology, China M.S’s thesis
[11] Fan M 2016 Numerical study on smoke temperature and back-layering length in tunnel fires
with vehicle blockage University of Science and Technology of China M.S’s thesis
[12] Wu T 2016 A combined experimental and zone modelling study of multi-layer cable tray fires
in a confined space University of Science and Technology of China M.S’s thesis
[13] Ruixue S 2018 Experimental and numerical simulation study on fire extinguishing system of
urban underground utility tunnel University of Science and Technology of China M.S’s thesis
[14] Liang K, Hao X, An W, Tang Y and Cong Y 2019 Study on cable fire spread and smoke
temperature distribution in T-shaped utility tunnel Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 14
100433
[15] An W, Tang Y, Liang K, Cai M, Wang T and Wang Z 2020 Study on temperature distribution
and CO diffusion induced by cable fire in L-shaped utility tunnel Sustainable Cities and
Society 62 102407
[16] McGrattan K B, Baum H R and Rehm R G 1999 Large eddy simulations of smoke movement
Fire Safety Journal 30 161-178
[17] Kim E, Woycheese J P and Dembsey N A 2007 Fire Dynamics Simulator (Version 4.0)
Simulation for Tunnel Fire Scenarios with Forced, Transient, Longitudinal Ventilation Flows
Fire Technology 44 137-166
[18] Yan G F, Wang M N, Yu L, Duan R Y and Xia P X 2020 Effects of ambient pressure on smoke
movement patterns in vertical shafts in tunnel fires with natural ventilation systems Building
Simulation 13 931-941
[19] Guo Z and Shi X 2003 Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete at Elevated Temperature and Its
Calculation Beijing, China: Tsinghua University Press
[20] Foote K L 1987 1986 LLNL Enclosure Fire Tests Data Report UCID-21236 Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory
[21] Sugawa O, Kawagoe K, Oka Y and Ogahara I 1989 Burning Behavior in a Poorly-Ventilated
Compartment Fire-Ghosting Fire Fire Science and Technology 2 5-14
[22] Sugawa O, Kawagoe K and Oka Y 1991 Burning behavior in a poor-ventilation compartment
fire — ghosting fire — Nuclear Engineering and Design 125 347-352
10
