Stainless Steel

The demand for stainless steel is increasing at a whopping 5% each year. In 2019, its global
production reached over 52 million tons. At present, a wide number of industries utilize stainless steel.
Aside from traditional and marine constructions, household appliances are also experiencing a rise in
usage. While stainless steel is more expensive than mild steel, its excellent properties lead to increased
service life and reduced cycle cost. So the larger upfront costs pay off in the longer run.

What is Stainless Steel?

We know that steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with a maximum carbon content of
2.1%. Stainless steels are a group of steels that are resistant to corrosion through the addition of alloying
elements. The term stainless steel is used to describe a family of about 200 alloys of steel with remarkable
heat and corrosion resistance properties. The carbon percentage can range from 0.03% to 1.2%. Its
distinguishing characteristic is the high amount of chromium. Stainless steel contains a minimum of
10.5% of chromium that improves its corrosion resistance and strength. The chromium in the alloy
creates a passive layer on oxidation when exposed to air. This layer acts as a shield against further
corrosion essentially making the alloy rustproof. This mechanism allows for retaining a spotless
appearance for long periods under normal working conditions.

Benefits of Stainless Steel

Stainless steel has been used with phenomenal success in various industries for over 70 years.
More applications are being discovered with every passing year as its advantages become more widely
identified. With an increase in demand, production has increased making it more affordable than ever.
Increased demand results in availability in standard as well as non-standard sizes. Also, a wide range
of stainless steel finishes is available for choosing. Besides polished finishes, a whole range of patterned
and coloured surfaces are available. This makes finding a suitable option for your needs possible.
Stainless steel is also 100 per cent recyclable. In fact, half of all stainless steel production is from scrap
metal. This makes it a relatively eco-friendly material.

Applications of stainless steel

Stainless steel is an exceedingly versatile material. It is preferred where the properties of steel
and corrosion resistance are required in tandem. Its first use was in cutlery but due to its corrosion
resistance properties. Next, it found its way to the chemical industry. Today, we can see stainless steel
pretty much everywhere. The use-cases vary from industry to industry. For example, the uses include
making minuscule parts for wristwatches. At the same time, large panels with a certain surface finish
may cover whole buildings. A few industries that use stainless steel extensively are:
 Food and catering
 Chemicals and pharmaceuticals
 Medical equipment manufacturing
 Architecture and construction
 Home appliances
 Offshore and shipbuilding
 Automotive manufacturing
 Energy and industry
Types of Stainless Steel
There are many grades and surface finishes of stainless steel available depending on the
environment the metal is expected to withstand. Based on the microstructure, they can be classified into
four major categories.

Austenitic stainless steel

Austenitic stainless steel has austenite as the primary microstructure. Austenite is a solid solution
of iron and carbon that comes into existence above the critical temperature of 723°C. This family of
stainless steels displays high toughness and impressive resistance to elevated temperatures. 70 per cent
of all stainless steel is austenitic. It contains at least 16% chromium and 6% nickel. Austenitic stabilizers
are elements that are added to prompt the formation of austenite microstructure. This stainless steel grade
is a non-magnetic metal and unable to be hardened by heat treatment. Corrosion resistance can be
modified depending on the service environment.

Ferritic stainless steel

Ferritic steels will usually only have chromium as an alloying element. The chromium content
ranges from 10.5 to 18%. They have average corrosion resistance and poor fabrication characteristics.
Heat treatment methods do not help with hardening the metal either. They generally have better
engineering abilities than austenitic grades. Unlike austenitic grades, they are magnetic. They also have
good resistance to stress corrosion, resulting in lower corrosive material wear.

Duplex stainless steel

Duplex is a mixture of austenitic and ferritic stainless steel. Thus, it has the properties of both its
constituents. It has high chromium and low nickel concentration. With high tensile strength and good
weldability, duplex stainless steels offer unique advantages. It shows good resistance to stress corrosion
but not as much as ferritic grades. It is tougher than ferritic grades but lower than that of austenitic grades.

Martensitic stainless steel

This type of stainless steel consists of high carbon and lower chromium content. Like ferritic
grades, it is magnetic. It does display poor weldability compared to other grades but it has higher
hardenability and can be heat treated to improve properties. Martensitic stainless steel will have lower
corrosion resistance when compared with austenitic and ferritic grades with the same chromium and alloy
content.

Precipitation hardening stainless steels

This sub-group provides a combination of austenitic and martensitic properties. Hardening is
achieved by adding one or more elements such as aluminium, molybdenum, niobium, titanium, and
copper. It is capable of developing high tensile strength through heat treatment. It contains chromium and
nickel as alloying elements. These grades are used in high-speed applications such as turbine blades.

Grades of Stainless Steel

There are hundreds of grades of stainless steel in the market today. Choosing the right one for
your application is important as their properties can be quite different from each other. The AISI
(American Iron and Steel Institute) system for naming stainless steel is still used by the industry. The
numbering system uses three-digit numbers starting with 2, 3 or 4.
200 series
This series is used for austenitic grades that contain manganese. These chromium manganese
steels have a low nickel content (below 5 per cent). 200 series find use in:
 Washing machines
 Cutlery
 Food & drinks equipment
 Automotive industry
 In-doors equipment, etc.

300 series
This series is used to name austenitic stainless steels with carbon, nickel, and molybdenum as
alloying elements. The addition of molybdenum improves corrosion resistance in acidic environments
while nickel improves ductility. AISI 304 and 316 are the most common grades in this series. AISI 304
is also commonly known as 18/8 steel as it contains 18% chromium and 8% nickel. 300 series stainless
steel applications include:
 Food & beverage industry
 Automotive industry
 Structural for critical environments
 Medical instruments
 Jewellery, etc.

400 series
Ferritic and martensitic alloys form this series of stainless steel. These grades are available for
heat treating. Providing a good combination of strength and high wear resistance. The corrosion-
resistance properties are lower than 300 series, though. Applications for 400 series include:
 Agricultural equipment
 Motor shafts
 Gas turbine parts, etc.

SAE grades (Society of Automotive Engineering)

The SAE system of numbering uses a 1-letter + 5-digit UNS number code to designate stainless
steel. The common AISI grade 304 has S30400 as its SAE designation. While most grades have a
designation, newly developed exclusive grades may be named by their owners and not have any SAE
code.

Stainless Steel Mechanical Properties

Yield strength
Depending on the grade, stainless may exhibit high strength and low elongation or low strength
and high elongation properties. They compare very well to carbon steels when it comes to yield strength.
Strength at high temperatures
Stainless steel performs comparatively better than other carbon steels at higher temperatures. It
shows better fire resistance due to its high strength retention factor at elevated temperatures (above
500°C). It also has better stiffness retention factor than carbon steel above 300°C.
Tensile strength
When it comes to tensile strength, stainless steel is superior to materials like aluminium, brass,
and mild steel. The highest tensile strength is seen in precipitation hardening and martensitic grades.
These grades can have tensile strengths that are twice as much as the ubiquitous 304 and 316 grades.
Duplex steel, in particular, has a high strength/ductility ratio.
Cryogenic resistance
Some stainless steel grades are extremely adept at handling a wider range of temperatures.
Austenitic steels display exceptional toughness and increased tensile strength at sub-zero temperatures.
This widens the scope of their usage considerably opening up new avenues for modern applications.
Ferritic, martensitic, and precipitation hardening grades, on the other hand, are not as good at cryogenic
temperatures as their toughness plunges with falling temperatures.

Higher work hardening rate

This property refers to a metal’s ability to increase its strength through cold working processes.
Stainless steels can be annealed and cold worked to manipulate its strength to the desired level. This
means that the same grade can be used in multiple applications by varying its strength. For example, the
same grade may be used as a spring or a bendable wire by annealing and cold working.

Electric conductivity and magnetism

As all metals, stainless steel conducts electricity. However, this conductivity is extremely low as
in the case of all steels. In industries where hygiene standards are high or the electrical appliance may be
subjected to corrosive or humid environments, stainless steel enclosures are used for protection.
Austenitic stainless steels are non-magnetic, however, cold working can be used to induce magnetic
properties in some grades. All the other types display magnetic properties.

Stainless Steel Chemical Properties

Chemical properties are what make this material special and give it its uniqueness.
High oxidation resistance
This distinguishing property of stainless steel is responsible for its many unique applications in
the industry. High oxidation resistance is a result of chromium in stainless steel. The percentage of
chromium can go up to 26% in some grades. Other metals may be protected with coatings and anti-
corrosion paints but once it wears off, the corrosion begins. In the case of stainless steel, any removal of
the natural coating of chromium oxide due to surface damage is followed by the formation of a new coat
on the exposed surface that prevents corrosion deterioration.
Biologically inert
Stainless steel is biologically inert, making it a logical choice for medical equipment such as
surgical tools, trauma screws and plates. This property also makes it an ideal metal for cutlery products
and kitchen appliances.
Resistance to acids, bases and organic materials
Stainless steel is resistant to a wide range of compounds. It is resistant to acids, bases as well as
organic compounds. The resistance to acids varies for different grades. Some grades can resist highly
concentrated acids while others may only be resistant to low concentrations. Similar non-reactivity is
observed with basic compounds and organic compounds. This makes stainless steel a highly suitable
material for use in chemical industries for storage, handling and other processes. Stainless steel also
resists moisture, salt, sulphur, carbon dioxide and chloride compounds with ease. This helps it survive in
several harsh environments for a longer period than most other metals.

Important Alloying Elements

When it comes to stainless steel, there are a large number of grades available to choose from.
Depending on the alloying element added, the properties can vary significantly. It comes down to the
requirements for the application to select the most suitable cost-effective option. Let’s see what alloying
elements may be added and how they affect the final product.

Chromium
Chromium is the defining alloying element in stainless steel. It gives the steel its property of being
‘stainless’. The passive layer of chromium oxide along with the protection of the surface also blocks
oxygen diffusion into the metal saving the metal’s internal structure from corrosion. Chromium oxide
ions are also similar in size to steel molecules resulting in a strong bond between the two. This enables
the oxide ions to remain strongly attached to the surface under normal working conditions. A minimum
of 10.5 per cent is necessary for a steel to be “stainless”. However, adding even more chromium is
common for an increased corrosion resistance. Chromium also acts as a ferrite stabilizer causing the
formation of the ferrite microstructure in the alloy.
Nickel
Nickel is added to further improve corrosion resistance. It is also an austenite stabilizer,
prompting the formation of austenite. Adding 8-9% of nickel obtains a fully austenitic structure which
provides excellent welding properties. Further increasing the nickel percentage brings about better
properties for workability and corrosion resistance.
Copper
Copper also acts as an austenite stabilizer and improves the property of corrosion resistance and
work-hardening. Adding it produces stainless steel products that are suitable for cold working conditions
necessary with screws and nails.
Silicon
Silicon addition improves stainless steel’s resistance to highly concentrated nitric and sulphuric
acids. It also prompts the formation of ferrite and makes the metal resistant to oxidation.
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is an austenite stabilizer and it improves the strength and localized corrosion resistance.
Localized corrosion refers to phenomena such as pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion, and inter-granular
corrosion.
Molybdenum and Tungsten
Molybdenum and tungsten improve general and localized corrosion resistance properties. The
former is a ferrite stabilizer and hence, when used in austenitic alloys, must be balanced with austenite
stabilizers to maintain austenite composition. Molybdenum also enhances high-temperature strength
when added to martensitic stainless steel. Adding tungsten with molybdenum also improves the above-
mentioned properties.
Manganese
Manganese improves the properties of strength, toughness and hardenability in stainless steel.
The addition of manganese helps the metal perform better in hot working processes. Manganese also
promotes the solution of nitrogen in stainless steel and may, therefore, be added to replace nickel in
stainless steel with nitrogen.