ABEB 111 long QUIZ #2.

Topics for REVIEW

What is Irrigation?
It is the artificial application of water to soil for the purpose of supplying the
moisture essential for plant growth.

What are the three major concerns of irrigation?

1. When to apply? – This refers to the time or schedule of water application. This
is based on the soil moisture level, when soil moisture has depleted 50%-60% of
its moisture holding capacity.

2. How much to apply? – This refers to the volume of irrigation water to be

applied. This is based on the moisture requirement of the soil, as affected by
the soil texture and soil structure and to crop water requirements.

3. How to apply? – This concerns on the methods of irrigation to be used.

Purposes of Irrigation

1. To add water to soil to supply the moisture essential for plant growth.
2. To provide crop insurance against short duration droughts.
3. To cool the soil & atmosphere thereby making it more favorable environment
for plant growth.
4. To soften tillage pans & clods.
5. To wash out or dilute salts in the soil.
6. To delay bud formation by evaporative cooling.
7. To reduce the hazard of frost.
8. To reduce the hazard of soil piping

Overview of Irrigation Development in the Philippines

1. Pre-Spanish Era
2. Spanish Era
3. American Regime (1900-1936)
4. Commonwealth and Japanese Era (1937-1946)
5. Early Independence (1947-1965)
6. Expansion Era (1966-1988)
7. Period of Rationalization (1989 to date)

Pre-Spanish Era
 Estimated 25,000 hectares under irrigation
 Irrigation systems have built-in stability
Spanish Era
 Construction of small run-of-the-river irrigation facilities for 200,000 hectares
 Irrigation systems were built to serve friar lnds and haciendas near Manila,
along the Pampanga river and Ilocos Region (PRINZA).
 Built through irrigation associations and hacienda labor forces (Zanjeras)

American Regime
 Public investment in irrigation development
 1908 – Irrigation Division was established under Bureau of Public Works (Act No.
1854)
 1912 – operational control of irrigation system given to the Irrigation Division
(Act No. 2152)
 Emphasis on small and medium-size systems
 Many small gravity systems were built
 12 medium-size systems for 91,000 hectares.

Commonwealth and Japanese Era

 No significant activity as the nation was pre-occupied with safety and survival

Early Independence
 Initial emphasis on rehabilitation
 Construction of 51 small and medium size systems for 122,000 hectares
 1949 – establishment of Pump Irrigation Administration under DANR
 1952 – Conversion of PIA to ISU
 1963 – establishment of National Irrigation Administration, NIA
 Shift towards multi-purpose systems

Expansion Period
 Construction of new and rehabilitation of irrigation systems for Php1.2M
 Emphasis on medium to large systems
 Abolition of ISU and transfer of pump program to the NIA
 Abolition of NIA pump program and transfer to FSDC
 BSWM started SWIPs

Period of Rationalization
 Transfer of NIA to Department of Agriculture, DA.
 Search for more cost-effective technologies
 Policy reforms
  Institutional reforms
 Launching by the DA of a Shallow Tube Well, STW program
 Shift in focus towards rehabilitation and small scale irrigation development

Status of Irrigation Development as of December 31, 2012 (NIA)

Irrigation Development in the Philippines

Potential Service Area = 3.16 M hectares
Year Irrigated Area (has.) Percentage
1922-1930 80,130
1946 201,481 6.44
1950-1953 266,000
1957 400,000 12.80
1964 541,000
1972 23.75
1985 1.437 M 45.96
1986 1.458 M 46.06
1987 1.487 M 47.07
1988 1.515 M 48.00
1989 1,538 M 49.00
2000 2.300 M

Sources of Water for Plant Use

1. Precipitation (rainfall, snow, hail, sleet)
2. Surface Waters (rivers, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, low lying areas)
 3. Groundwater
4. Irrigation Water
5. Atmospheric Water other than precipitation.

Sources of Irrigation Water

SOURCE Required Energy to Make it Available
for Plant Use
1. RIVERS: Either coming from a
wetter zone or maintained by LOW
aquifers during dry season
2. RESERVOIRS or LAKES: Filled
during rains and drawn down during VER LOW
irrigation season
3. NATURALLY SUSTAINED
AQUIFERS: Water stored in the MEDIUM to HIGH
ground, accessed via wells
4. FOSSIL: Unsustain aquifers, until
HIGH
they deplete
5. ARTIFICIALLY SUSTAINED
AQUIFERS: Replenished by controlled MEDIUM to HIGH
percolation or injection
6. WASTE WATER: Either from
MEDIUM to HIGH
household or a city
7. SEA WATER HIGH
8. PRECIPITATION ZERO

COMPONENTS OF AN IRRIGATION SYSTEM

1. Water source (river, lakes, ponds, reservoir, groundwater)
2. Conveyance Structures (Canal Network which consists of diversion or main
canal, lateral canals, main farm ditches, supplementary farm ditches)
3. Control Structures (Dam, culvert, check, gates, turnout)
4. Protective Structures (drop, chute, baffles, rip-rap, etc.)
5. Diversion or main canal is the biggest sized canal. It is connected to the
upstream portion of a diversion dam, or to the main outlet of a reservoir dam.
It supplies water to the lateral canals.

Layout of an Irrigation System

COMPONENTS OF AN IRRIGATION SYSTEM (CANALS)
 Diversion or main canal is the biggest sized canal. It is connected to the
upstream portion of a diversion dam, or to the main outlet of a reservoir dam.
It supplies water to the lateral canals.
 Lateral canals are connected to the diversion or main canal and supplies water
to the main farm ditches.
 Main farm ditches are connected to the lateral canals and supplies water to the
supplementary farm ditches.
 Supplementary farm ditches are the smallest sized canals found inside a
farmer’s field. They are normally temporary in nature and are constructed
every now and then by the farmers themselves.

DAM TYPES ACCORDING TO FUNCTION

Diversion Dam – also called run-of-the-river type of dam
Reservoir Dam – also called storage type of dam

A diversion dam is used to control the flow of water from its source, like rivers or any
stream channels, by raising the head of water up to a certain height and then
diverting it to a diversion or main canal that is constructed immediately at the
upstream portion of the dam. It is effective during the periods of high stream flows
which normally occurs during the rainy or wet season. Thus, water flow from the
diversion dam is almost continuous, especially during the rainy season. It could not
store the excess amount of water flow for future use.

A reservoir type of dam stores water during the rainy periods so that it can be used
during the dry periods of the year.
Two rice cropping seasons may be done in a year if there is a reservoir dam, like the
Pantabangan and the Magat dams.

It is most likely not possible to have 2 rice cropping seasons if there is only a diversion
dam due to lack of water during the dry months of the year.

THE PANTABANGAN DAM

Cost: P242 M
Inauguration Date: September 7, 1974
Height: 107 m
Length: 1,615 m
Base Width at Max. Section: 480 m
Crest Width: 12 m
Storage Capacity: 3 billion cu. m.
Type: Zoned-earthfill
Irrigable Area: 83,700 has. (wet season)
78,700 has. (dry season)
Assumed Reservoir Efficiency = 50%
Wet Season:
1.5 x 109m3/83,700 ha = 17,921 m3/ha
Rice Crop Water Requirement = 13 mm/day in UPRIIS
Rice Growing Season = 120 days
Rice Crop Water Requirement: (13 mm/day)x(120 days)x(10,000 m2/ha)x(1 m/1000
mm) = 15,600 m3/ha
Dry Season:
1.5 x 109 m3 /78,700 ha = 19,060 m3/ha

THE MAGAT DAM

Inauguration Date: October 27, 1982
Storage Capacity: 1.25 billion cu. m.
Length: 4,160 m
Height: 114 m
Base: 102 m
Crest: 12 m
Irrigable Area: 102,000 has.
Type: Earth-rockfill
Cost: P3.3 billion
Rice Crop Water Requirement = 10 mm/day (Magat)
Rice CWR = 10 x 120 x 10,000/1,000 = 12,000 m x 102,000 = 1.22 billion m3
Reservoir Capacity = 1.25 billion m3

Water Application Methods

1. Based on Energy/ Pressure Required

• Gravity Irrigation
Border Irrigation
 Basin Irrigation
Furrow Irrigation
Drip Irrigation

• Pressurized Irrigation
Drip Irrigation
Sprinkler Irrigation

2) Based on Placement of Irrigation Water (on, above or below the soil surface)
• Surface Irrigation
Border Irrigation
Basin Irrigation
furrow Irrigation and
Drip Irrigation
• Sub-Surface Irrigation

• Overhead Irrigation
Sprinkler
Hand Watering

3) Based on Wetted area of Crop Root Zone by irrigation

Flood Irrigation
 Basin
Border
Furrow
Drip Irrigation
Sprinkler Irrigation

IRRIGATION METHODS

1. SURFACE IRRIGATION – In this system of field water application the water is

applied directly to the soil from a channel located at the upper reach of the field or
pumped directly from groundwater.
Water moves over and across the land by gravity flow.
Methods of application are as follows:
• Uncontrolled or wild flooding
• Border
• Basin
• Check
• Furrow
• Corrugation

2. Uncontrolled or wild flooding – The water is made to enter the fields bordering
rivers during floods.
When the flood water inundates the flood plain areas, the water distribution is quite
uneven; hence method is not efficient,
A lot of water is likely to be wasted soils of excessive slopes are prone to erosion.
Used when water is abundant & inexpensive.
3. Border-Strip flooding – dividing the land into a number of strips, preferably; 3 –
30 m wide and 100-400 m long, separated by levees or borders.
Borders are usually long uniformly graded strips of land separated by earth bunds
(low ridges)
Border slope = 0.2-0.4%; Q = 15-300 lps.

4. Contour Border Flooding - The borders are sometimes laid along the elevation
contours of the topography when the land slope is excessive.

5. Check flooding – consists of running large streams into level plots surrounded by
levees. Used where large discharge, Q is available.

6. Basin Flooding – the field is divided into small units surrounded by levees or dikes.
The size ranges from 1 to 15 hectares; up to 100 to 400meters long.
Most commonly practiced for rice and orchard tree crops.

7. Furrow Method - Furrows are small channels, which carry waterdown the land
slope between the crop rows.
The crop is usually grown on ridges between the furrows.
This method is suitable for all row crops and for crops that cannot stand water for
long periods, like 12 to 24 hours, as is generally encountered in the border or basin
methods of irrigation.

PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEM

Sprinkler Irrigation Systems

a) Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying water which is similar to natural rainfall

but spread uniformly over the land surface just when needed and at a rate less than
the infiltration rate of the soil so as to avoid surface runoff from irrigation.

The system of irrigation is suitable for undulating lands, with poor water availability,
sandy or shallow soils, or where uniform application of water is desired.
No land leveling is required as with the surface irrigation methods.

This is achieved by distributing water through a system of pipes usually by pumping

which is then sprayed into the air through sprinklers so that it breaks up into small
water drops which fall to the ground.
A typical sprinkler irrigation system consists of the following components:
• Pump unit
• Mainline and sometimes sub mainlines
• Laterals
• Sprinklers

Advantages:
a. Sprinkler irrigation is suitable to diverse topographic conditions like uneven lands
and steep slopes that cannot be irrigated by surface irrigation.
b. A vast selection of emitters and nozzles facilitates the matching of the water
application rate to the intake rate of the soil.
c. Uniform distribution of water in the field renders high water use efficiency.
d. Easy and simple operation, only short training of the operators is required.
e. Capability of accurate measurement of the applied water amount.
f. Prospective high mobility of the irrigation equipment from one field to another.
g. The operation of solid-set and mechanized systems, minimizes labor requirement.
h. Feasibility of frequent - small water dosage applications for germination, cooling,
frost protection, etc.
i. The closed water delivery system prevents contamination of the flowing water,
decreasing the occurrence of emitter clogging.
j. Convenient blending of fertilizers with the irrigation water.
k. Handy integration with automation and computerized irrigation control devices.

Disadvantages and Limitations:

a. High initial investment.
b. Extra cost of the energy consumed for creation of water pressure.
c. Sensitivity to wind conditions.
d. Water losses by evaporation from soil surface, the atmosphere and plant canopy.
e. Induction of leaf-diseases in overhead irrigation.
f. Hazard of salt burns on wetted foliage in overhead irrigation.
g. Washout of pesticides from the foliage in overhead irrigation.
h. Interference of irrigation with diverse farm activities like tillage, spraying,
harvesting, etc.
i. Hazard of soil surface encrustation and enhancement of runoff from soil surface.
j. Water losses in plot margins.

Drip Irrigation System

b) Drip Irrigation system is sometimes called trickle irrigation and involves dripping
water onto the soil at or near the root zone of plants at very low rates (2-20 litres
per hour) from a system of small diameter plastic pipes filled with outlets called
emitters or drippers.
Water is applied close to the plants , unlike surface and sprinkler irrigation, which
involves wetting the whole soil profile.
This method is considered as the most water efficient irrigation.
With drip irrigation water, applications are more frequent than with other methods
and this provides a very favorable high moisture level in the soil in which plants can
flourish.

Drip Irrigation System

A typical drip irrigation system consists of the following components:
 Pump unit
 Mainline
 sub mainlines
 Laterals
 Drippers
Advantages
Drip irrigation technology has many advantages over other irrigation technologies.
Drip irrigation significantly increases the efficiency of water utilization and improves
the growing conditions of the irrigated crops.
 Accurate localized water application: Water is applied precisely to a restricted
soil volume, corresponding with the distribution of the root system.
Appropriate water management can minimize water and nutrient losses beneath the
root-zone.
 Minimization of evaporation losses: The reduced wetted upper surface area
decreases water losses by direct evaporation from soil surface.
 Elimination of water losses at the plot's margins: with drip irrigation, water
does not flow beyond the limits of the irrigated plot as happens with sprinkler
irrigation. The drip system can actually fit any plot, regardless of shape, size or
topography.
 Decrease in weed infestation: The limited wetted area decreases the
germination and development of weeds.

 Desirable air-water equilibrium: The soil volume wetted by drip irrigation

usually retains more air than a soil that is irrigated by sprinkler or flood
irrigation.
 Simultaneous application of water and nutrients: Application of nutrients
together with the irrigation water directly to the wetted soil volume, decreases
nutrient losses, improves nutrient availability and saves the labor and/or
machinery required for the application of fertilizers.
Disadvantages/Limitations:
Due to the limited wetted soil volume, the narrow water passageways in the emitters
and the vast amount of equipment needed, drip irrigation has some drawbacks.
 Clogging hazard:
The narrow passageways in the emitters are susceptible to
clogging by solid particles, suspended organic matter and chemical precipitates
formed in the water.
 High initial cost:
Due to the large amount of laterals and emitters,
mobility of drip systems during the cropping season is rarely feasible. Most systems
are solid-set arrays, resulting in high cost of equipment per area unit.
 Salt accumulation on the soil's surface:
Upward capillary movement of water from the wetted soil volume and
evaporation from the soil's surface leave behind a high concentration of salts in the
upper soil layer. Light rains, leach the accumulated salts into the active root zone and
may cause salinity damage to the crop.
 Vulnerability of on-surface laterals and drippers to damage by animals:
The laterals, particularly the thin-walled tapes and the tiny drippers are prone
to damage by rodents, rats, moles, wild pigs and woodpeckers. Subsurface laterals
and drippers may be also damaged by rodents.

The Soil Water

Classification of Soil Water
Gravitational Water – The volume of water that a saturated (with water) soil drains
out due to gravity. The soil water between saturation (0 bar) to field capacity, FC
(1/3 bar).
Held in the macro pores and drains out easily due to gravitational forces.
This water is not available for plant use as it drains of rapidly from the root zone.

Capillary Water – The water content retained in the soil after the gravitational water
has drained-off from the soil. This water is held in the soil by surface tension,
between FC (1/3 bar suction) to hygroscopic water (31 bar suction).
Grouped into 2 groups:
 Water available to plants (1/3 bar to 15 bar suction)
 Water not available to plants (15 bar to 31 bar suction).

Hygroscopic Water - The water that an oven dry sample of soil absorbs when exposed
to moist air. The water above the hygroscopic coefficient (at suction >31 bar adhesion
force). The little amount of moisture is tightly held as a very thin film over the
surface of the soil particles.
This water is not available to plants.
A Chart showing the Relationships Between Gravitational water, Capillary Water and
Hygroscopic Water.

Related Soil Water Terms:

Capillary Movement – The movement of water within the soil. The water may either
move upward, downward or sideward.
Seepage – The sideward movement of water .
Percolation – The downward movement of water in the soil.
Infiltration – The entry of water into the soil.
Surface Run-off – The movement of water on soil surface.
Soil Water Constants
For a particular soil, certain soil water proportions are defined which dictate whether
the water is available or not for plant growth.
These are called soil water constants.
All soil water constants are expressed in percentage by weight.

Saturation Capacity, SC - This is the total water content of the soil when the
pores of the soil are completely filled with water.
 It is also termed maximum water holding capacity of the soil. At saturation capacity,
soil moisture tension is almost equal to zero. Mostly influenced by soil structure.
Harmful to plant growth.

Field Capacity, FC – This is the water retained by initially saturated soil

against the force of gravity. Hence as gravitational water gets drained off from the
soil, it is said to reach the field capacity of the soil.
Mostly influenced by soil texture. Optimal for plant growth.
At field capacity the macro-pores of the soils are drained off but water is retained in
the micro-pores.

Permanent Wilting Point, PWP – plant roots are able to extract water from a
soil matrix which are saturated up to a field capacity. The amount of water the soil
profile will hold against the soil moisture tension of 15 bar.
However as the water extraction precedes the moisture content diminishes and the
negative pressure (gauge pressure) increases. At one point plant cannot extract any
further water and thus wilts. Mostly Influenced by soil texture. Harmful to plant
growth.

Two stages of wilting point:

Temporary Wilting Point – It denotes the soil water content at which the plants wilt
at day time but recover during night time or when added to the soil.
Ultimate Wilting Point – At such a soil water content the plant wilts and fails to
recover life even after the addition of water to the soil.

Hydrologic Cycle/Water Cycle - -Is the continuous movement of water above and
below the surface of the earth.

The Water Cycle

Some Processes of Water Cycle:
• Precipitation - any moisture from the atmosphere that falls on the ground
either as rain, snow, hail, etc.
• Water Vapor – a water in vaporous form due to increase in temperature, below
boiling point, and diffused in the atmosphere.
• Evaporation - the movement or loss of moisture in the form of water vapor
from the ground and bodies of water to the atmosphere.
• Transpiration - the movement of water from vegetation to the atmosphere in
the form of water vapor.
• Evapotranspiration – loss of water from soil thru evaporation and transpiration
of plants growing within.
• Infiltration – the passage of water into the soil surface.

How Water Enter Into Plants?

 Water moves into roots by osmosis.
 The properties of water, cohesion and adhesion, allow water to form an
unbroken column from roots to leaves.
 Evaporation from leaf surface creates suction to pull water upward.
Osmosis:
Water naturally moves (through membrane) from areas of lower salt (or sugar)
concentration to areas of higher concentration.
Water moves into roots because the inside of the root has more dissolved salts
and sugars than the surrounding soil.

Factors Affecting Plant Water Use:

 Weather
- Temperature
- Humidity
- Wind
- Sunshine
 Plants
- Plant Size
- Growth Stage

The water consumption of crops consists mainly of two components

Evaporation from the soil surface.
Transpiration of water through millions of stomata in the leaves.
the combined water consumption of a crop is called:
  “Evapo-transpiration” - the sum of evaporation from the soil surface
and the transpiration of water from the plant to the atmosphere as
vapor.
 Consumptive Use – refers to the total water consumed by the crop plus
Evapotranspiration.

Evapotranspiration Terminologies:

Crop coefficient (Kc): The ratio of evapotranspiration (EVT) to reference

evapotranspiration (EVTo) for a given crop when growing in large fields under
optimum growing conditions.
Crop factor: (Kc): The ratio of evapotranspiration (EVT) to pan evaporation (EVo)
for a crop of a given age, in a certain growth phase, with a certain canopy size, in
a certain climatic zone.
EVTo: the evapotranspiration of a particular crop, derived from instrument reading
or calculated from The Penman-Monteith equation.
EVTc = crop consumption or crop water requirement, mm/day.
Pan coefficient (kp): The ratio of reference evapotranspiration (EVTo) to pan
evaporation (Eo) for the same period.
Pan evaporation (EVo): The depth of water that evaporates from an evaporation
pan during a certain period in mm/day or mm/month

Lesson 4

AB Structures and
Environmental Engineering

Agricultural Building and Infrastructure -It is a major field of study that includes the
design, development, construction, and maintenance of various farm buildings.
This includes buildings for poultry and livestock, storage silos and warehouses,
processing plants and machinery sheds.

Definition of Farm Structure

– A group of generally familiar objects scattered around a farm house.
– A production equipment that, for convenience are group around a farm house
– A house around which scattered an uninteresting collection of out buildings.

Farmstead - It is an area where the farm house and various farm buildings are located
and considered as the center of farm enterprise.
It provides activities related to farming
It provides business related to domestic and social life of the farming family.

Major considerations of farmstead planning;

 Productivity
 Profitability
 Efficiency,
 Stability
 Modernization
 Environmental Compatibility and
 Safety controls.

The Major Factors that Influence in the Design of Farmstead Planning;

 Site selection or location: slope & topography, lay-out & arrangement

distances of buildings and accessibility
 Environmental factors: average annual rainfall, weather condition, average
annual temperatures, prevailing wind directions, RH, etc.
 Availability of resources: Sources of water for human consumption and
irrigation, waterways and drainage;
other factors like
 Farming practices,
 Local tradition,
 Expansion and development,
 Energy source and communication systems and
  Social and economic patterns in the area.

Farm House – Dwellings for operators, retired parents, married relatives, workers
with families.
Three requirements for a good farm house:
 Space
 Sanitary
 Psychological

Barn and Shed - It is a structure that serves as storage facility for farm equipment
and supplies such as feeds, hay, and others.
Greenhouse - A structure that provides a reliable enclosure within which environment
favorable to plant growth can be attained.

Storage Facility - A structure used to keep the products for a prolong period of time
without significant loss in quality.
Food Processing Facility - A facility for processing raw materials into suitable form of
product.

Water Source Facilities - A facility used to control and distribute water efficiently
into the farmstead household and irrigation purposes.

Factors in the Design or Selection of Farm Buildings

1. Location – the structure or building should have an easy access to a public highway
without the expense of maintaining an extensive private roadway and there should be
the availability of water supply.
2. Site Drainage - The soil should be sufficiently well drained to provide suitable
foundation for the construction. Slopes and location of the buildings should be such
that the drainage from barn yards, feed lots or septic tank will not contaminate the
water supply.
3. Distance Between Buildings - as the distance between buildings is increased, the
travel required in the performance of the chores is increased and the amount of
cropland used for the farmstead becomes greater.
Distance between buildings should not be too far yet not near enough to allow some
area between buildings as a means of reducing fire hazard. A distance of 75 ft or 29 m
is usually adequate.
4. Windbreaks -natural features of the topography should be used to shelter the
farmstead from heavier winds. If such protection is not available, trees or shrubs
should be planted.

A swine house – it is pen for pig/s. It is sometimes termed as Pigsty or Sty, a small
scale outdoor enclosure to confine pigs, made of locally available materials. For small
scale or backyard operations.

A swine house - building(s) intended solely for swine production, these buildings are
composed of specialized buildings or pens for different growth stages of swine. This
includes:
 Brooder pens – pens for newly born piglets adjacent to farrowing pen.
 Nursery pens – pens intended for weaners about 40 days old.
 Growing pens for weaners/starters – pens for big weaners going to starter
stage
 Growing pens for growers/finishers –pens for growers to finisher stage
 Finishing Pen – pens for pigs on finishing stage to market
 Breeder Pens – pens for gilts and dry sows
 Active Gilt Pool
 Gestation pens – pens for pregnant sow
 Farrowing pens – pens for sow about to farrow
 Boar pens – pens for boar
 Holding pens – pens for fatteners selected for market, also used as pens for
newly bought gilts and/or junior boars for acclimation purposes.
 Hospital pens – pig pens for pens for injured or pigs with convalescences.
 Feed Storage Building - building for feed stocks and other equipment needed
in the farm.
Definition of Terms:
Boar – a male breeding swine which is at least 8 months old.
Sow – any breeding female pig that has farrowed.
Dry Sow – Unbred sow which have just been weaned; non pregnant sow.
Litter – piglets born in one farrowing.
Weaner – piglet that has been recently separated from its mother.
Gilt – female swine that has not farrowed.
Fattener – swine which are 66 kg and above
Grower – swine from 40 to 65 kg.
Finisher – swine which are 66 kg and above
Farrowing Pen – Area in which a sow is confined during farrowing and lactation
periods, but in which the sow can turn around.
Farrowing Stall – A farrowing crate or a device in which a sow is confined during
farrowing and lactation periods and which prevent the sow from turning around.
Creep Area – a place for piglets inside the farrowing pen.
Farrowing – the act of giving birth of swine.
Culling – the removal of undesirable or unproductive animals within the herd.
Litter Index – farrowing index or the average number of farrowing of one sow per
year.
Occupancy – number of days an animal stays in pen.
Population – the total number of heads in a certain piggery farm. These include the
total number of sows, growers, piglets, boars and gilts.
For rough estimation of population, it is a norm in swine industry that an active sow
has 10 piglets at any given time.

Different Types of Swine Production in the Philippines

1. Farrow to Feeder Operation – the producer starts with a pregnant sow to produce
pig weanlings, which are sold to other raisers who grow them until marketable weight
is achieved. This type of production is sometimes termed as Sow-Litter Operation.
2. Farrow to Finish Operation – this operation involves breeding and farrowing sows,
and feeding the offspring until they reach the market weight of about 100 kilograms
3. Feeder to Finish – the raiser will buy piglets about 12 kilograms and feed them up
to desirable market weight. This has the minimum overhead cost and low labor
requirements.
4. Boar for Hire Operation – this operation starts with a young or junior boar, which
he grows and trains for breeding intended for commercial purposes.
Classification of Swine Operations in the Philippines
This classification was created in areas where there are intensive swine raising
operations to classify them based on:
 Population
 Capitalization,
 Management systems or approach,
 Meat quality and
 Swine stocks.