Republic of the Philippines

UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

LAOANG CAMPUS
Laoang, Northern Samar
Web: uep.edu.ph

Electronic Circuits:
Devices and Analysis
 Module 2: Transistors: bipolar junction transistors, field-effect
transistors

Overview
In this module, we will be dealing with the construction and operation of the bipolar junction
transistor, learn how to apply proper biasing to insure operation in the active region, be able to
recognize and explain the characteristics of an npn or pnp transistor, and become familiar with
the important parameters that define the response of a transistor.

Learning Outcomes

1. Understand the basic construction and operation of the Bipolar Junction Transistor;
2. Apply the proper biasing to insure operation in the active region
3. Recognize and explain the characteristics of a npn or pnp transistor.
4. Become familiar with the important parameters that define the response of a transistor
5. response of a transistor.

Lesson one: Bipolar Junction Transistors

Transistor Construction
The abbreviation BJT, from bipolar junction transistor, is often applied to this three-
terminal device. The term bipolar reflects the fact that holes and electrons participate in the
injection process into the oppositely polarized material. If only one carrier is employed (electron
or hole), it is considered a unipolar device.

The transistor is a three-layer semiconductor device consisting of either:

1. two n - and one p -type layers of material (npn transistor) or
2. two p - and one n -type layers of material (pnp transistor)
Both are shown in Fig. 1 with the proper dc biasing:

Figure 1: Types of transistors: (a) pnp; (b) npn

The dc biasing is necessary to establish the proper region of operation for ac amplification.
- The emitter layer is heavily doped, with the base and collector only lightly doped.
- The outer layers have widths much greater than the sandwiched p - or n -type material.
- The doping of the sandwiched layer is also considerably less than that of the outer
layers (typically, 1:10 or less).
- This lower doping level decreases the conductivity (increases the resistance) of this
material by limiting the number of “free” carriers.
- For the biasing shown in Fig. 1, the terminals have been indicated by the capital letters
E for emitter, C for collector, and B for base.

Transistor Operation
- The basic operation of the transistor will now be described using the pnp transistor of
Fig. 1a.
- The operation of the npn transistor is exactly the same if the roles played by the
electron and hole are interchanged.
In Fig. 2a the pnp transistor has been redrawn without the base-to collector bias.

Note: the similarities

between this situation
and that of the forward- Figure 2: biasing Transistor
biased diode in Module
a) Forward bias
1

The depletion region has been reduced in width due to the applied bias, resulting in a heavy flow
of majority carriers from the p - to the n -type material.
Fig. 2b shows the pnp transistor of figure 1a with no base-to-emitter bias.

Note: Consider the

similarities between this
Figure 2: biasing Transistor situation and that of the
b) Reverse bias reverse-biased diode.

Recall that the flow of

majority carriers is zero,
resulting in only a minority-
carrier flow

In summary, therefore:
One p–n junction of a transistor is reverse-biased, whereas the other is forward-
biased.
In Fig. 3 both biasing potentials have been applied to a pnp transistor, with the resulting majority-
and minority-carrier flows indicated.

Note in Fig. 3.5 the widths of

the depletion regions,
indicating clearly which
junction is forward-biased and
which is reverse-biased.

Figure 3: Majority and minority

carrier flow of a pnp transistor

As indicated in Fig. 3, a large number of majority carriers will diffuse across the forward-biased
p–n junction into the n -type material.

- Since the sandwiched n -type material is very thin and has a low conductivity, a very
small number of these carriers will take this path of high resistance to the base
terminal.
- The magnitude of the base current is typically on the order of microamperes, as
compared to milliamperes for the emitter and collector currents.
- The larger number of these majority carriers will diffuse across the reverse-biased
junction into the p -type material connected to the collector terminal as indicated in Fig.
3.
- There has been an injection of minority carriers into the n -type base region material.
- Combining this with the fact that all the minority carriers in the depletion region will
cross the reverse-biased junction of a diode accounts for the flow indicated in Fig. 3.
- Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to the transistor of Fig. 3 as if it were a single node,
we obtain

- The collector current, however, comprises two components—the majority and the
minority carriers as indicated in Fig. 3.

- The minority-current component is called the leakage current and is given the symbol
𝐼𝐶𝑂 ( 𝐼𝐶 current with emitter terminal Open)
Common Base Configuration
The common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the base is common to both
the input and output sides of the configuration. In addition, the base is usually the terminal closest
to, or at, ground potential.

Recall that the arrow in the diode

symbol defined the direction of
conduction for conventional
current. For the transistor:

The arrow in the graphic

symbol defines the direction of
emitter current (conventional
flow) through the device.

Figure 4: Notation and symbols used with the common-

base configuration: a) pnp transistor; b) npn transistor

To fully describe the behavior of a three-terminal device such as the common-base

amplifiers of Fig. 4 requires two sets of characteristics:
- One for the driving point or input parameters
o The input set for the common-base amplifier as shown in Fig. 5 relates an input
current ( 𝐼𝐸 ) to an input voltage ( 𝑉𝐵𝐸 ) for various levels of output voltage ( 𝑉𝐶𝐵 ).

Figure 5: Input or driving point characteristics

for a common-base silicon transistor amplifier

- The other for the output side.

 o The output set relates an output current ( 𝐼𝐶 ) to an output voltage ( 𝑉𝐶𝐵 ) for
various levels of input current ( 𝐼𝐸 ) as shown in Fig. 6. The output or collector
set of characteristics has three basic regions of interest, as indicated in Fig. 6:
the active, cutoff, and saturation regions.

Figure 6: output or collector characteristics for

a common base transistor amplifier
Active region
- The active region is the region normally employed for linear (undistorted) amplifiers.
- In particular:

In the active region the base–emitter junction is forward-biased, whereas the

collector– base junction is reverse-biased.
The active region is defined by the biasing arrangements of Fig. 4:
- At the lower end of the active region the emitter current ( 𝐼𝐸 ) is zero, and the collector
current is simply that due to the reverse saturation current 𝐼𝐶𝑂 , as indicated in Fig. 7.
- The current 𝐼CO is so small (microamperes) in magnitude compared to the vertical
scale of 𝐼C (milliamperes) that it appears on virtually the same horizontal line as I C =
0.
- The circuit conditions that exist when 𝐼𝐸 = 0 are shown in Fig. 7.

Figure 7: Reverse saturation current

Note:
- In Fig. 6 that as the emitter current increases above zero, the collector current
increases to a magnitude essentially equal to that of the emitter current as determined
by the basic transistor-current relations.
- Note also the almost negligible effect of 𝑉𝐶𝐵 on the collector current for the active
region. The curves clearly indicate that a first approximation to the relationship
between 𝐼𝐸 and 𝐼𝐶 in the active region is given by

Cutoff region
- As inferred by its name, the cutoff region is defined as that region where the collector
current is 0 A.
- In the cutoff region the base–emitter and collector–base junctions of a transistor
are both reverse-biased.

Saturation region
- The saturation region is defined as that region of the characteristics to the left of 𝑉𝐶𝐵 =
0𝑉.
- Note the exponential increase in collector current as the voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐵 increases toward
0V.
- In the saturation region the base–emitter and collector–base junctions are
forward-biased.
- For fixed values of collector voltage (𝑉𝐶𝐵 ), as the base-to-emitter voltage increases,
the emitter current increases in a manner that closely resembles the diode
characteristics. See figure 5
- Increasing levels of 𝑉𝐶𝐵 have such a small effect on the characteristics that as a first
approximation the change due to changes in 𝑉𝐶𝐵 can be ignored and the
characteristics drawn as shown in Fig. 8a
- Ignoring the slope of the curve and therefore the resistance associated with the
forward-biased junction results in the characteristics of Fig. 8. particularly figure 8c
- Once a transistor is in the “on” state, the base-to-emitter voltage will be assumed to
be the following:

Figure 8: Developing the equivalent model to be employed for the base-to-

emitter region of an amplifier in the dc mode.
EXAMPLE 1:
a. Using the characteristics of Fig. 6, determine the resulting collector current if IE = 3 mA
and VCB = 10 V.
b. Using the characteristics of Fig. 6, determine the resulting collector current if IE remains
at 3 mA but VCB is reduced to 2 V.
c. Using the characteristics of Figs. 5 and 6, determine VBE if IC = 4 mA and VCB = 20 V.
d. Repeat part (c) using the characteristics of Figs. 6 and 8c

Solution:
a. The characteristics clearly indicate that 𝐼𝐶 ≅ 𝐼𝐸 = 𝟑 𝒎𝑨.
b. The effect of changing 𝑉𝐶𝐵 is negligible and 𝐼𝐶 continues to be 3 mA.
c. From Fig. 6, 𝐼𝐸 ≅ 𝐼𝐶 = 4𝑚𝐴. On Fig. 5 the resulting level of 𝑉𝐵𝐸 is about 0.74V.
d. Again from Fig. 6, 𝐼𝐸 ≅ 𝐼𝐶 = 4𝑚𝐴. However, on Fig. 8c, 𝑉𝐵𝐸 is 0.7 V for any level of
emitter current.

Alpha (∝)

DC Mode
In the dc mode the levels of IC and IE due to the majority carriers are related by a quantity
called alpha and defined by the following equation:

Where: IC and IE : are the levels of current at the point of operation

- Since alpha is defined solely for the majority carriers, it becomes

AC Mode
For ac situations where the point of operation moves on the characteristic curve, an ac
alpha is defined by

- The ac alpha is formally called the common-base, short-circuit, and amplification

factor.
- This equation specifies that a relatively small change in collector current is divided by
the corresponding change in 𝐼𝐸 with the collector-to-base voltage held constant.
- For most situations the magnitudes of ∝𝑎𝑐 and ∝𝑑𝑐 are quite close, permitting the use
of the magnitude of one for the other.
Biasing
The proper biasing of the common-base configuration in the active region can be
determined quickly:
1. By using the approximation 𝐼𝐶 ≅ 𝐼𝐸 and
2. Assuming for the moment that 𝐼𝐵 ≅ 0𝜇𝐴.
3. The result is the configuration of Fig. 9 for the pnp transistor.

Figure 9: Establishing the proper biasing

management for a common-base pnp
transistor in the active region.
4. The arrow of the symbol defines the direction of conventional flow for 𝐼𝐸 ≅ 𝐼𝐶 .
5. The dc supplies are then inserted with a polarity that will support the resulting current
direction.
6. For the npn transistor the polarities will be reversed.

FYI:

The transistor type can be easily remembered using the appropriate letters of the phrases “pointing
in” or “not pointing in.”

For instance, there is a match between the letters npn and the italic letters of “not pointing in” and
the letters pnp with “pointing in” (Bolystad, 2013)

Common-Emitter Configuration
It is called the common-emitter configuration because the emitter is common to both the
input and output terminals (in this case common to both the base and collector terminals) see
figure 10.

Figure 10: Notation and symbols used with the common-

emitter configuration: a) npn transistor; b) pnp transistor
 Two sets of characteristics are again necessary to describe fully the behavior of the
common-emitter configuration:
- one for the input or base–emitter circuit and
- one for the output or collector–emitter circuit
(Both are shown in Fig. 11)

Figure 11: Characteristics of a silicon transistor in the common-emitter

configuration: a) collector characteristics; b) base characteristics

Even though the transistor configuration has changed, the current relations developed
earlier for the common-base configuration are still applicable. That is,
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵 and 𝐼𝐶 =∝ 𝐼𝐸

For the common-emitter configuration:

- The output characteristics are a plot of the output current ( 𝐼𝐶 ) versus output voltage (
𝑉𝐶𝐸 ) for a range of values of input current ( 𝐼𝐵 )
- The input characteristics are a plot of the input current ( 𝐼𝐵 ) versus the input voltage (
𝑉𝐵𝐸 ) for a range of values of output voltage ( 𝑉𝐶𝐸 )
- The active region for the common-emitter configuration is that portion of the upper-
right quadrant that has the greatest linearity, that is, that region in which the curves for
𝐼𝐵 are nearly straight and equally spaced.
- In Fig. 12 this region exists to the right of the vertical dashed line at 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑠𝑎𝑡 and above
the curve for 𝐼𝐵 equal to zero.
- The region to the left of 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑠𝑎𝑡 is called the saturation region.
- In the active region of a common-emitter amplifier, the base–emitter junction is
forward-biased, whereas the collector–base junction is reverse-biased.
- For linear (least distortion) amplification purposes, cutoff for the common-emitter
configuration will be defined by 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼 𝐶𝐸𝑂 .
 (In other words, the region below 𝐼𝐵 = 0 mA is to be avoided if an undistorted output
signal is required.)
- For future reference, the collector current defined by the condition 𝐼𝐵 = 0 mA will be
assigned the notation indicated by the following equation:

- When employed as a switch in the logic circuitry of a computer, a transistor will have
two points of operation of interest: one in the cutoff and one in the saturation region.
- Since 𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 is typically low in magnitude for silicon materials, cutoff will exist for
switching purposes when 𝐼𝐵 =0 mA or 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 for silicon transistors only
- For germanium transistors, however, cutoff for switching purposes will be defined as
those conditions that exist when 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 . This condition can normally be obtained for
germanium transistors by reverse-biasing the base-to-emitter junction a few tenths of
a volt.
- For a transistor in the “on” or active region the base-to-emitter voltage is 0.7 V. In this
case the voltage is fixed for any level of base current.

Figure 12: Circuit conditions

related to 𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂

EXAMPLE 2:
a) Using the characteristics of Fig. 11, determine 𝐼𝐶 at 𝐼 𝐵 = 30 𝜇𝐴 and 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 10 𝑉.
b) Using the characteristics of Fig. 11, determine 𝐼𝐶 at 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.7𝑉 and 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 15𝑉.
Solution:
a) At the intersection of 𝐼𝐵 = 30 𝜇𝐴 and 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 10𝑉 , 𝐼𝐶 = 3.4 mA.
b) Using Fig. 11b, we obtain 𝐼𝐵 = 20 𝜇𝐴 at the intersection of 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.7𝑉 and 𝑉𝐶𝐸 =
15 𝑉 (between 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 10𝑉 and 20 V).
From Fig. 11a we find that 𝐼𝐶 = 2.5 mA at the intersection of 𝐼𝐵 = 20 𝜇𝐴 and 𝑉𝐶𝐸 =
15𝑉.
Beta (𝜷)
DC Mode
In the dc mode the levels of 𝐼𝐶 and 𝐼𝐵 are related by a quantity called beta and defined
by the following equation:

Where: 𝐼𝐶 and 𝐼𝐵 = are determined at a particular operating point on the characteristics.

For practical devices the level of b typically ranges from about 50
to over 400, with most in the midrange.
AC Mode
For ac situations an ac beta is defined as follows:

The formal name for 𝛽𝑎𝑐 is common-emitter, forward-current, amplification factor. Since
the collector current is usually the output current for a common-emitter configuration and the base
current is the input current, the term amplification is included in the terminology above.
On specification sheets 𝛽𝑎𝑐 is normally referred to as hfe. Note that the only difference
between the notation used for the dc beta, specifically, 𝛽𝑑𝑐 = hFE, is the type of lettering for each
subscript quantity.
Example: Let us determine 𝛽𝑎𝑐 for a region of the characteristics defined by an operating
point of 𝐼𝐵 = 25𝜇𝐴 and 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 7.5𝑉 as indicated on Fig. 13.
Solution: The restriction of 𝑉𝐶𝐸 constant requires that a vertical line be drawn through the
operating point at 𝑉𝐶𝐸 =7.5 V. At any location on this vertical line the voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸
is 7.5 V, a constant. The change in 𝐼𝐵 (∆𝐼𝐵 ) is then defined by choosing two points
on either side of the Q -point along the vertical axis of about equal distances to
either side of the Q -point. For this situation the 𝐼𝐵 = 20𝜇𝐴 and 30 𝜇𝐴 curves meet
the requirement without extending too far from the Q -point.
The resulting bac for the region can then be determined by:

The solution above reveals that for an ac input at the base, the collector current
will be about 100 times the magnitude of the base current.
If we determine the dc beta at the Q -point, we obtain
Figure 13: Determining 𝛽𝑎𝑐 and 𝛽𝑑𝑐 from the collector characteristics
Biasing
The proper biasing of a common-emitter amplifier can be determined in a manner similar
to that introduced for the common-base configuration. Let us assume that we are presented with
a npn transistor such as shown in Fig. 14a and asked to apply the proper biasing to place the
device in the active region.

Figure 14: Determining the proper biasing arrangement for a common-

emitter npn transistor configuration

- The first step is to indicate the direction of 𝐼𝐸 as established by the arrow in the
transistor symbol as shown in Fig. 14b .
- Next, the other currents are introduced as shown, keeping in mind Kirchhoff’s current
law relationship: 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐸 . That is, 𝐼𝐸 is the sum of 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵
- both 𝐼𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝐵 must enter the transistor structure.
- Finally, the supplies are introduced with polarities that will support the resulting
directions of 𝐼𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝐵 as shown in Fig. 14c to complete the picture.
- The same approach can be applied to pnp transistors. If the transistor of Fig. 14 was
a pnp transistor, all the currents and polarities of Fig. 14c would be reversed
Collector Current Configuration
The common-collector configuration is used primarily for impedance-matching purposes
since it has a high input impedance and low output impedance, opposite to that of the common-
base and commonemitter configurations. Please see Fig. 15

Figure 15: Notation and symbols

used with the common-collector
configuration: a) pnp transistor;
b) npn transistor
 A common-collector circuit configuration is provided in Fig. 16 with the load resistor
connected from emitter to ground.

Figure 16: Common-collector

configuration used for
impedance-matching purposes

Note
- that the collector is tied to ground even though the transistor is connected in a manner
similar to the common-emitter configuration.
- From a design viewpoint, there is no need for a set of common-collector characteristics
to choose the parameters of the circuit of Fig. 16. It can be designed using the
common-emitter characteristics
- For all practical purposes, the output characteristics of the common-collector
configuration are the same as for the common-emitter configuration.
- For the common-collector configuration the output characteristics are a plot of 𝐼𝐸
versus 𝑉𝐶𝐸 for a range of values of 𝐼𝐵 .
- The input current, therefore, is the same for both the commonemitter and common-
collector characteristics.
- The horizontal voltage axis for the common collector configuration is obtained by
simply changing the sign of the collector-to-emitter voltage of the common-emitter
characteristics
- Finally, there is an almost unnoticeable change in the vertical scale of 𝐼𝐶 of the
common-emitter characteristics if 𝐼𝐶 is replaced by 𝐼𝐸 for the common-collector
characteristics (since 𝑎 ≅ 1).
- For the input circuit of the common-collector configuration the common-emitter base
characteristics are sufficient for obtaining the required information.
Limits of operation
For each transistor there is a region of operation on the characteristics that will ensure
that the maximum ratings are not being exceeded and the output signal exhibits minimum
distortion. Such a region has been defined for the transistor characteristics of Fig. 17. All of the
limits of operation are defined on a typical transistor specification sheet.
Some of the limits of operation are self-explanatory, such as:
- Maximum collector current (normally referred to on the specification sheet as
continuous collector current) and
- Maximum collector-to-emitter voltage (often abbreviated as 𝐵𝑉 𝐶𝐸𝑂 or 𝑉(𝐵𝑅)𝐶𝐸𝑂 on the
specification sheet).
- For the transistor of Fig. 17, 𝐼𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 was specified as 50 mA and 𝐵𝑉 𝐶𝐸𝑂 as 20 V.
 - The vertical line on the characteristics defined as 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑆𝐴𝑇 specifies the minimum 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑠𝑎𝑡
that can be applied without falling into the nonlinear region labeled the saturation
region.
- The level of 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑠𝑎𝑡 is typically in the neighborhood of the 0.3 V specified for this
transistor.
- The maximum dissipation level is defined by the following equation:

Figure 17: Defining the linear (undistorted) region of operation for a transistor.

For the device of Fig. 17, the collector power dissipation was specified as 300 mW. The
question then arises of how to plot the collector power dissipation curve specified by the fact that
𝑃𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝐼𝐶 = 300 𝑚𝑊
𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝐼𝐶 = 300 𝑚𝑊
At 𝑰𝑪𝒎𝒂𝒙
At any point on the characteristics the product of 𝑉𝐶𝐸 and 𝐼𝐶 must be equal to 300 mW. If
we choose 𝐼𝐶 to be the maximum value of 50 mA and substitute into the relationship above, we
obtain
𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝐼𝐶 = 300 𝑚𝑊
𝑉𝐶𝐸 (50𝑚𝑊) = 300 𝑚𝑊
300 𝑚𝑊
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = = 6𝑉
50𝑚𝑊
At 𝑽𝑪𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙
As a result we find that if 𝐼𝐶 = 50𝑚𝐴, then 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 6𝑉 on the power dissipation curve as
indicated in Fig. 17. If we now choose 𝑉𝐶𝐸 to be its maximum value of 20 V, the level of 𝐼𝐶 is the
following:
(20 V)𝐼𝐶 = 300 mW
300 mW
𝐼𝐶 = = 15𝑚𝐴
(20 𝑉)
defining a second point on the power curve.

𝟏
At 𝑰𝑪 = 𝟐 𝑰𝑪𝒎𝒂𝒙

If we now choose a level of 𝐼𝐶 in the midrange such as 25 mA and solve for the resulting
level of 𝑉𝐶𝐸 , we obtain
𝑉𝐶𝐸 (25 mA) = 300 mW and
300 𝑚𝑊
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = = 12V
25𝑚𝐴
as also indicated in Fig. 17
If the characteristic curves are unavailable or do not appear on the specification sheet (as
is often the case), one must simply be sure that 𝐼𝐶 , 𝑉𝐶𝐸 , and their product 𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝐼𝐶 fall into the
following range:

For the common-base characteristics the maximum power curve is defined by the
following product of output quantities:

Transistor Specification Sheet

Since the specification sheet is the communication link between the manufacturer and
user, it is particularly important that the information provided be recognized and correctly
understood. Although all the parameters have not been introduced, a broad number will now be
familiar.
The information provided as Fig. 18 is provided by the Fairchild Semiconductor
Corporation. The 2N4123 is a general-purpose npn transistor with the casing and terminal
identification appearing in the top-right corner of Fig. 18a. Most specification sheets are broken
down into:
 - Maximum ratings,
- Thermal characteristics, and
- Electrical characteristics.

The electrical characteristics are further broken down into:

- “on” “off” characteristics – refers to dc limits
- Small-signal characteristics - include the parameters of importance to ac operation
Note:
- In the maximum rating list that 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑂 = 30 V with 𝐼𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 200 mA.
- The maximum collector dissipation 𝑃𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃𝐷 = 625 𝑚𝑊.
- The derating factor under the maximum rating specifies that the maximum rating must
be decreased 5 mW for every 1° rise in temperature above 25°C.
- In the “off” characteristics 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 is specified as 50 nA
- In the “on” characteristics 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 0.3𝑉.
- The level of ℎ𝐹𝐸 has a range of 50 to 150 at 𝐼𝐶 = 2𝑚𝐴 and 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 1𝑉and a minimum
value of 25 at a higher current of 50 mA at the same voltage.
- The limits of operation have now been defined for the device and are repeated below
in the format using ℎ𝐹𝐸 = 150 (the upper limit) and 𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 ≅ 𝛽𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 = (150) (50 nA) =
7.5𝜇𝐴. Certainly, for many applications the 7.5 𝜇A = 0.0075 𝑚𝐴 can be considered
to be 0 mA on an approximate basis.
Figure 18: Transistor specification sheet
 You’ve got a problem! 2

Instruction: Answer the questions below. For problem solving, kindly show your solutions in a
short bond paper.

2.1 What names are applied to the two types of BJT transistors? Sketch the basic
construction of each and label the various minority and majority carriers in each. Draw
the graphic symbol next to each. Is any of this information altered by changing from a
silicon to a germanium base?
2.2 How must the two transistor junctions be biased for proper transistor amplifier operation?
2.3 Using the characteristics of Fig. 5, determine 𝑉𝐵𝐸 at 𝐼𝐸 = 5𝑚𝐴 for 𝑉𝐶𝐵 = 1,10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 20𝑉. Is
it reasonable to assume on an approximate basis that 𝑉𝐶𝐵 has only a slight effect on the
relationship between 𝑉𝐵𝐸 and 𝐼𝐸 ?
2.4 a. For the common-emitter characteristics of Fig. 11, find the dc beta at an operating
point of 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 6 V and 𝐼𝐶 = 2𝑚𝐴
b. Find the value of∝ corresponding to this operating point.
c. At 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = +6𝑉, find the corresponding value of 𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 .
d. Calculate the approximate value of𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 using the dc beta value obtained in part (a).
2.5 Determine the region of operation for a transistor having the characteristics of Fig. 11 if
𝐼𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 6 mA, 𝐵𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑂 = 15𝑉, and 𝑃𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 35𝑚𝑊

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At this moment, you’ve already finished module 2 of our subject. Looking back on the
discussion, do you have difficulty understanding the topics? Which part is unclear? Tell me about
it.

Summary:

Important Conclusions and Concepts

- Semiconductor devices have the following advantages over vacuum tubes: They are (1)
of smaller size, (2) more lightweight, (3) more rugged, and (4) more efficient. In addition,
they have (1) no warm-up period, (2) no heater requirement, and (3) lower operating
voltages.
- Transistors are three-terminal devices of three semiconductor layers having a base or
center layer a great deal thinner than the other two layers. The outer two layers are both
of either n - or p -type materials, with the sandwiched layer the opposite type.
- One p – n junction of a transistor is forward-biased, whereas the other is reverse-biased
- The dc emitter current is always the largest current of a transistor, whereas the base
current is always the smallest. The emitter current is always the sum of the other two.
- The collector current is made up of two components: the majority component and the
minority current (also called the leakage current).
- The arrow in the transistor symbol defines the direction of conventional current flow for the
emitter current and thereby defines the direction for the other currents of the device.
 - A three-terminal device needs two sets of characteristics to completely define its
characteristics.
- In the active region of a transistor, the base–emitter junction is forward-biased, whereas
the collector–base junction is reverse-biased.
- In the cutoff region the base–emitter and collector–base junctions of a transistor are both
reverse-biased.
- In the saturation region the base–emitter and collector–base junctions are forward-biased.
- On an average basis, as a first approximation, the base-to-emitter voltage of an operating
transistor can be assumed to be 0.7 V.
- The quantity alpha (a) relates the collector and emitter currents and is always close to
one.
- The impedance between terminals of a forward-biased junction is always relatively small,
whereas the impedance between terminals of a reverse-biased junction is usually quite
large.
- The arrow in the symbol of a npn transistor points out of the device (not pointing in),
whereas the arrow points in to the center of the symbol for a pnp transistor (pointing i n).
- The quantity beta (b) provides an important relationship between the base and collector
currents, and is usually between 50 and 400.
- The dc beta is defined by a simple ratio of dc currents at an operating point, whereas the
ac beta is sensitive to the characteristics in the region of interest. For most applications,
however, the two are considered equivalent as a first approximation.

References:

Robert L. Boylestad, et.al., (2013), Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory 11th Ed., Pearson
Education, Inc., One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
Robert L. Boylestad, et.al., Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory 7th Ed., Pearson Education, Inc., One
Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
Thomas L. Floyd, 1999, Electronic Devices 5th Ed.