The Hundred pages SQL Notes

To be a good Data scientist, you need to

know how to work and play with data and
to do that, you need to be very well
versed in SQL

Learning SQL
Theory and Pratical

Mrunal Wankhede
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INDEX

Part-1

-------------------------------------Theory Part---------------------------------------

DBMS Tutorial:
• Database…………………………………………………….……….6
▪ From Spreadsheets to Databases………………………………………,………….….6

• Data Base Management System (DBMS)………………….…..7

▪ DBMS allows users the following tasks…………………………………….………..7
▪ Advantages of DBMS………………………………………………………….…………..…8
▪ Disadvantages of DBMS……………………………………………………….……………8

• Database platform Options……………………………………...9

• Types of Databases………………………………………………..9
▪ Centralized Database………………………………………………………………………..9
▪ Distributed Database………………………………………………………………………..10
▪ Relational Database………………………………………………………………………….11
▪ NoSQL Database……………………………………………………………………………….11
▪ Cloud Database…………………………………………………………………………………12
▪ Object-oriented Databases……………………………………………………………...13
▪ Hierarchical Databases……………………………………………………………………..13
▪ Network Databases…………………………………………………………………………..13
▪ Personal Database…………………………………………………………………………….13
▪ Operational Database………………………………………………………………………14
▪ Enterprise Database………………………………………………………………………….14

• What is RDBMS……………………………………………………14
▪ What is Table…………………………………………………………………………………….15
▪ What is Field……………………………………………………………………………………..16
▪ What is Row and Record………………………………………………………………….16
▪ What is Column…………………………………………………………………………………16

• Difference Between DBMS and RDBMS……………………..16

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• DBMS Architecture………………………………………………17
▪ 1-Tier Architecture…………………………………………………………………………….18
▪ 2-Tier Architecture……………………………………………………………………………18
▪ 3-Tier Architecture……………………………………………………………………………19

• Data Models in DBMS……………………………………………20

▪ Hierarchical Model…………………………………………………………………………..20
▪ Network Model………………………………………………………………………………..21
▪ Entity-relationship Model……………………………………………………………….22
▪ Relational Model……………………………………………………………………………..22

• Data Model Schema and Instance……………………………23

• Database Language……………………………………………..24
▪ Data Definition Language (DDL)………………………………………………….25
▪ Data Manipulation Language (DML)…………………………………………..25
▪ Data Control Language (DCL)………………………………………………………25
▪ Transaction Control Language (TCL)……………………………………………26

• ACID Properties in DBMS………………………………………26

▪ Atomicity…………………………………………………………………………………………27
▪ Consistency………………………………………………………………………………………28
▪ Isolation……………………………………………………………………………………………29
▪ Durability………………………………………………………………………………………..29

Relational Data Model:

• Relational Model Concept…………………………………..…31

• Join Operations………………………………………………….32
▪ Natural Join…………………………………………………………………………………….33
▪ Outer Join………………………………………………………………………………………..33
- Left Outer join………………………………………………………………………..34
- Right Outer join……………………………………………………………………..35
- Full Outer Join………………………………………………………………………..35
▪ Equi Join………………………………………………………………………………………….36

• Integrity Constraints…………………………………………..37
▪ Domain Constraints………………………………………………………………………37
▪ Entity integrity Constraints………………………………………………………….38
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▪ Referential Integrity Constraints…………………………………………………38

▪ Key Constraints…………………………………………………………………………….39
Normalization

• DBMS Normalization…………………………………………..40
▪ First Normal Form…………………………………………………………………41
▪ Second Normal Form……………………………………………………………42
▪ Third Normal Form……………………………………………………………….44
Transaction
• Transactions in DBMS……………………………………….46

• Transaction Property………………………………………..47
▪ Atomicity……………………………………………………………………………….48
▪ Consistency…………………………………………………………………………….49
▪ Isolation………………………………………………………………………………….49
▪ Durability………………………………………………………………………………49

• States of Transaction…………………………………………50
▪ Active State…………………………………………………………………………….50
▪ Partially Committed………………………………………………………………50
▪ Committed……………………………………………………………………………...50
▪ Failed State……………………………………………………………………………..51
▪ Aborted……………………………………………………………………………………51

• What is a Schedule……………………………………………51
▪ Serial Schedule……………………………………………………………………..52
▪ Non-Serial Schedule…………………………………………………………….53
▪ Serializable Schedule……………………………………………………………54
SQL:

• Why to learn SQL…………………………………………55

• SQL is useful for a lot of things!..............................55
• What can SQL do?..................................................56
• Applications of SQL………………………………………56
• SQL terms………………………………………………….56
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Part-2

-------------------------------------SQL Tutorial-------------------------------------

• SELECT…………………………………………………………….58
• SELECT DISTINCT……………………………………………….59
• OPERATORS………………………………………………………59
• WHERE……………………………………………………………..62
• AND, OR, NOT…………………………………………………….62
• ORDER BY…………………………………………………………63
• RANDOM…………………………………………………………...63
• INSERT INTO……………………………………………………...64
• NULL VALUES…………………………………………………….65
• UPDATE…………………………………………………………….65
• DELETE…………………………………………………………….66
• TOP………………………………………………………………….66
• MIN AND MAX……………………………………………………..67
• COUNT, AVG, SUM……………………………………………….67
• LIKE…………………………………………………………………68
• WILDCARDS……………………………………………………….69
• IN…………………………………………………………………….69
• BETWEEN………………………………………………………….70
• ALIASES……………………………………………………………70
• JOINS……………………………………………………………….71
▪ Inner Join……………………………………………………………………………………….71
▪ Left Join…………………………………………………………………………………………72
▪ Right Join………………………………………………………………………………………72
▪ Full Join…………………………………………………………………………………………73
• SELF JOIN………………………………………………………….74
• UNION……………………………………………………………....74
• GROUP BY………………………………………………………….75
• HAVING……………………………………………………………..76
• EXISTS………………………………………………………………77
• ANY, ALL……………………………………………………………77
• SELECT INTO………………………………………………...……78
• INSERT INTO SELECT…………………………………………...79
• CASE……………………………………………………………...…79
• COMMENTS……………………………………………………….80
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Part-3

-------------------------------------SQL Database----------------------------------

• CREATE DB……………………………………………………….82
• DROP DB…………………………………………………………..82
• BACKUP DB………………………………………………………83
• RENAME DB……………………………………………………...84
• CREATE TABLE………………………………………………….84
• DROP TABLE……………………………………………………..85
• RENAME TABLE…………………………………………………85
• ALTER TABLE……………………………………………………85
• CONSTRAINTS…………………………………………………..86
• NOT NULL…………………………………………………………87
• UNIQUE….………………………………………………………..87
• PRIMARY KEY…………………………………………………….87
• FOREIGN KEY…………………………………………………….90
• CHECK……………………………………………………………..92
• DEFAULT………………………………………………………….93
• CREATE INDEX…………………………………………………..94
• AUTO INCREMENT………………………………………………95
• DATES……………………………………………………………...96
• VIEWS………………………………………………………………97
• SUB-QUERIES…………………………………………………….98
References
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Part - 1
-------------------------Theory------------------------

DBMS Tutorial
Database:
First, we need to understand what is Data? Number, Integers, Decimal, Float,
String, Boolean etc. all this are Data.
When you have these kind of lots of data, you need to store this data
somewhere and specially in 21 Century, because we have social media, every
second there is terabytes data uploaded on internet.
Where to store this much data?
That’s where we need Database. Database is a collection of information
organized for easy access, management and maintenance. A database is an
organized collection of data so that it can be easily accessed.
For Example: The college Database organizes the data about the admin, staff,
students and faculty etc. Using the database, you can easily retrieve, insert and
delete the information.
To manage these databases, Database Management System (DBMS) are
used. Database management system is a software which is used to manage the
database.

From Spreadsheets to Databases:

❖ Spreadsheets:
• One-time analysis
• Quickly need to chart something out
• Reasonable data set size
• Ability for untrained people to work with data.

❖ Databases:
• Data Integrity
• Can handle massive amounts of data.
• Quickly combine different datasets.
• Automate steps for re-use.
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• Can support data for websites and applications (so most websites and
web applications or mobile applications are linked to some sort of
database to store their data and retrieve their data)

Data Base Management System (DBMS):

Database management system is a software which is used to manage the
database. For example: MySQL, Oracle, etc are a very popular commercial
database which is used in different applications.

DBMS provides an interface to perform various operations like database

creation, storing data in it, updating data, creating a table in the database and a
lot more.

Using DBMS, we can overcome many problems such as – Data Redundancy,

Data inconsistency, Easy access, more organized and understandable and so on.

Suppose we have a laptop and we want to perform some operation but in our
laptop there is no operating system, so how can we give a command to perform
operation.

Like operating system DBMS works for database.

▪ Whether adding new files.

▪ Inserting data
▪ Retrieving data
▪ Modifying data
▪ Removing data
▪ Removing files

DBMS allows users the following tasks

• Data Definition: It is used for creation, modification, and removal of
definition that defines the organization of data in the database.
• Data Updation: It is used for the insertion, modification, and deletion of
the actual data in the database.
• Data Retrieval: It is used to retrieve the data from the database which can
be used by applications for various purposes.
• User Administration: It is used for registering and monitoring users,
maintain data integrity, enforcing data security, dealing with concurrency
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control, monitoring performance and recovering information corrupted by

unexpected failure.

Advantages of DBMS
• Controls database redundancy: It can control data redundancy because
it stores all the data in one single database file and that recorded data is
placed in the database.
• Data sharing: In DBMS, the authorized users of an organization can share
the data among multiple users.
• Easily Maintenance: It can be easily maintainable due to the centralized
nature of the database system.
• Reduce time: It reduces development time and maintenance need.
• Backup: It provides backup and recovery subsystems which create
automatic backup of data from hardware and software failures and restores
the data if required.
• Multiple user interface: It provides different types of user interfaces like
graphical user interfaces, application program interfaces.

Disadvantages of DBMS
• Cost of hardware and software: It requires a high speed of data
processor and large memory size to run DBMS software.
• Size: It occupies a large space of disks and large memory to run them
efficiently.
• Complexity: Database system creates additional complexity and
requirements.
• Higher impact of failure: Failure is highly impacted the database because
in most of the organization, all the data stored in a single database and if
the database is damaged due to electric failure or database corruption then
the data may be lost forever.
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Database platform Options:

Types of Databases:
There are various types of databases used for storing different varieties of data:

1) Centralized Database
It is the type of database that stores data at a centralized database system. It
comforts the users to access the stored data from different locations through
several applications. These applications contain the authentication process to let
users access data securely. An example of a Centralized database can be Central
Library that carries a central database of each library in a college/university.
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Advantages:

• It has decreased the risk of data management, i.e, manipulation of data

will not affect the core data.
• Data consistency is maintained as it manages data in a central repository.
• It provides better data quality, which enables organizations to establish
data standards.
• It is less costly because fewer vendors are required to handle the data
sets.

Disadvantages:

• The size of the centralized database is large, which increases the response
time for fetching the data.
• It is not easy to update such an extensive database system.
• If any server failure occurs, entire data will be lost, which could be a huge
loss.

2) Distributed Database
Unlike a centralized database system, in distributed systems, data is distributed
among different database systems of an organization. These database systems
are connected via communication links. Such links help the end-users to access
the data easily. Examples of the Distributed database are Apache Cassandra,
HBase, lgnite, etc.

We can further divide a distributed database system into:

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• Homogeneous DDB: Those database systems which execute on the same

operating system and use the same application process and carry the same
hardware devices.
• Heterogeneous DDB: Those database systems which execute on different
operating systems under different application procedures, and carries
different hardware devices.

Advantages of Distributed Database:

• One server failure will not affect the entire data set.

3) Relational
This database is based on the relational data model, which stores data in the
form of rows(tuple) and columns(attributes), and together forms a table
(relation). A relational database uses SQL for storing, manipulating, as well as
maintaining the data. E.F. Codd invented the database in 1970. Each table in the
database carries a key that makes the data unique from others.

Examples: Relational databases are MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, etc.

Properties of Relational Database:

There are following four commonly known properties of a relational model known
as ACID properties, where:

A means Atomicity: This ensures the data operation will complete either with
success or with failure. It follows the 'all or nothing' strategy. For example, a
transaction will either be committed or will abort.

C means Consistency: If we perform any operation over the data, its value
before and after the operation should be preserved. For example, the account
balance before and after the transaction should be correct. i.e., it should remain
conserved.

I means Isolation: There can be concurrent users for accessing data at the
same time from the database. Thus, isolation between the data should remain
isolated. For example, when multiple transactions occur at the same time, one
transaction effects should not be visible to the other transactions in the
database.

D means Durability: It ensures that once it completes the operation and

commits the data, data changes should remain permanent.

4) NoSQL Database
Non-SQL/Not Only SQL is a type of database that is used for storing a wide
range of data sets. It is not a relational database as it stores data not only in
tabular form but in several different ways. It came into existence when the
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demand for building modern applications increased. Thus, NoSQL presented a

wide variety of database technologies in response to the demands. We can
further divide a NoSQL database into the following four types:

A. Key-value storage: It is the simplest type of database storage where it

stores every single item as a key (or attribute name) holding its value,
together.
B. Document-oriented Database: A type of database used to store data as
JSON-like document. It helps developers in storing data by using the same
document-model format as used in the application code.
C. Graph Databases: It is used for storing vast amounts of data in a graph-
like structure. Most commonly, social networking websites use the graph
database.
D. Wide-column stores: It is similar to the data represented in relational
databases. Here, data is stored in large columns together, instead of
storing in rows.

5) Cloud Database
A type of database where data is stored in a virtual environment and executes
over the cloud computing platform. It provides users with various cloud
computing services (SaaS, PaaS, IaaS, etc.) for accessing the database. There
are numerous cloud platforms, but the best options are:

• Amazon Web Services(AWS)

• Microsoft Azure
• Kamatera
• PhonixNAP
• ScienceSoft
• Google Cloud SQL, etc.
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6) Object-oriented Databases

The type of database that uses the object-based data model approach for storing
data in the database system. The data is represented and stored as objects
which are similar to the objects used in the object-oriented programming
language.

7) Hierarchical Databases
It is the type of database that stores data in the form of parent-children
relationship nodes. Here, it organizes data in a tree-like structure.

Data get stored in the form of records that are connected via links. Each child
record in the tree will contain only one parent. On the other hand, each parent
record can have multiple child records.

8) Network Databases
It is the database that typically follows the network data model. Here, the
representation of data is in the form of nodes connected via links between them.
Unlike the hierarchical database, it allows each record to have multiple children
and parent nodes to form a generalized graph structure.

9) Personal Database
Collecting and storing data on the user's system defines a Personal Database.
This database is basically designed for a single user.

Example: Microsoft Access

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Advantage of Personal Database

• It is simple and easy to handle.

• It occupies less storage space as it is small in size.

10) Operational Database

The type of database which creates and updates the database in real-time. It
is basically designed for executing and handling the daily data operations in
several businesses. For example, An organization uses operational databases
for managing per day transactions.

11) Enterprise Database

Large organizations or enterprises use this database for managing a massive

amount of data. It helps organizations to increase and improve their
efficiency. Such a database allows simultaneous access to users .

Advantages of Enterprise Database:

• Multi processes are supportable over the Enterprise database.

• It allows executing parallel queries on the system.

What is RDBMS
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management Systems.

All modern database management system like SQL, MS SQL Server, IBM DB2,
ORACLE, My-SQL and Microsoft Access are based on RDBMS.

It is called Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) because it is

based on relational model introduced by E.F.Codd.

In RDBMS, data is stored in tabular format. Data is represented in terms of

tuples (rows) in RDBMS.

For example,
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Here, Customers is a table inside the database.

Relational database is most commonly used database. It contains number of

tables and each table has its own primary key.

Due to a collection of organized set of tables, data can be accessed easily in

RDBMS.

What is Table
The RDBMS database uses tables to store data. A table is a collection of related
data entries and contains rows and columns to store data.

A table is the simplest example of data storage in RDBMS.

Let's see the example of student table.

What is field

Every table is broken up into smaller entities called fields. Field is a smaller
entity of the table which contains specific information about every record in the
table. In the above example, the field in the student table consist of id, name,
age, course.

A field is a column in a table that is designed to maintain specific information

about every record in the table.

What is row or record

A row of a table is also called record. It contains the specific information of each
individual entry in the table. It is a horizontal entity in the table. For example:
The above table contains 5 records.
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Let's see one record/row in the table.

What is column

A column is a vertical entity in the table which contains all information

associated with a specific field in a table. For example: "name" is a column in the
above table which contains all information about student's name.

Difference between DBMS and RDBMS

Although DBMS and RDBMS both are used to store information in physical
database but there are some remarkable differences between them.

The main differences between DBMS and RDBMS are given below:

After observing the differences between DBMS and RDBMS, you can say that
RDBMS is an extension of DBMS. There are many software products in the
market today who are compatible for both DBMS and RDBMS. Means today a
RDBMS application is DBMS application and vice-versa.
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DBMS Architecture
• The DBMS design depends upon its architecture. It helps to design, develop,
implement, and maintain the database management system. A DBMS
architecture allows dividing the database system into individual components
that can be independently modified, changed, replaced, and altered. It also
helps to understand the components of a database.
• The basic client/server architecture is used to deal with a large number of
PCs, web servers, database servers and other components that are
connected with networks.
• The client/server architecture consists of many PCs and a workstation which
are connected via the network.
• DBMS architecture depends upon how users are connected to the database to
get their request done.
• A Database stores critical information and helps access data quickly and
securely. Therefore, selecting the correct Architecture of DBMS helps in easy
and efficient data management.

Types of DBMS Architecture:

Database architecture can be seen as a single tier or multi-tier. But logically,

database architecture is of two types like: 2-tier architecture and 3-tier
architecture.

1-Tier Architecture

• In this architecture, the database is directly available to the user. It means

the user can directly sit on the DBMS and uses it.
• Any changes done here will directly be done on the database itself. It doesn't
provide a handy tool for end users.
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• The 1-Tier architecture is used for development of the local application,

where programmers can directly communicate with the database for the
quick response.
• A simple one tier architecture example would be anytime you install a
Database in your system and access it to practice SQL queries. But such
architecture is rarely used in production. MP3 player, MS Office come under
the one-tier application.

2-Tier Architecture

• A 2-Tier Architecture in DBMS is a Database architecture where the

presentation layer runs on a client (PC, Mobile, Tablet, etc.), and data is
stored on a server called the second tier. Two tier architecture provides
added security to the DBMS as it is not exposed to the end-user directly. It
also provides direct and faster communication.
• The user interfaces and application programs are run on the client-side.
• The server side is responsible to provide the functionalities like: query
processing and transaction management.
• To communicate with the DBMS, client-side application establishes a
connection with the server side.
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In the above 2 Tier client-server architecture of database management system,

we can see that one server is connected with clients 1, 2, and 3.

3-Tier Architecture
• The 3-Tier architecture contains another layer between the client and server.
In this architecture, client can't directly communicate with the server.
• Three Tier architecture contains a presentation layer, an application layer,
and a database server. A “tier” in this case can also be referred to as a
“layer”.
• 3-Tier database Architecture design is an extension of the 2-tier client-server
architecture. A 3-tier architecture has the following layers:

1. Presentation layer (your PC, Tablet, Mobile, etc.)

2. Application layer (server)
3. Database Server
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The goal of Three Tier client-server architecture is:

• To separate the user applications and physical database

• To support DBMS characteristics
• Program-data independence
• Supporting multiple views of the data

Three Tier Architecture Example:

Any large website on the internet

Data Models in DBMS

A Database model defines the logical design and structure of a database and
defines how data will be stored, accessed and updated in a database
management system.
While the Relational Model is the most widely used database model, there are
other models too:

• Hierarchical Model
• Network Model
• Entity-relationship Model
• Relational Model

Hierarchical Model

This database model organises data into a tree-like-structure, with a single root,
to which all the other data is linked. The heirarchy starts from the Root data,
and expands like a tree, adding child nodes to the parent nodes.

In this model, a child node will only have a single parent node.

This model efficiently describes many real-world relationships like index of a

book, recipes etc.
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In hierarchical model, data is organised into tree-like structure with one one-to-
many relationship between two different types of data, for example, one
department can have many courses, many professors and of course many
students.

Network Model

This is an extension of the Hierarchical model. In this model data is organised

more like a graph, and are allowed to have more than one parent node.

In this database model data is more related as more relationships are

established in this database model. Also, as the data is more related, hence
accessing the data is also easier and fast. This database model was used to map
many-to-many data relationships.

This was the most widely used database model, before Relational Model was
introduced.
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Entity-relationship Model

In this database model, relationships are created by dividing object of interest

into entity and its characteristics into attributes.

Different entities are related using relationships.

E-R Models are defined to represent the relationships into pictorial form to make
it easier for different stakeholders to understand.

This model is good to design a database, which can then be turned into tables in
relational model (explained below).

Let's take an example, If we have to design a School Database, then Student will
be an entity with attributes name, age, address etc. As Address is generally
complex, it can be another entity with attributes street name, pincode, city etc,
and there will be a relationship between them.

Relational Model

In this model, data is organised in two-dimensional tables and the relationship is

maintained by storing a common field.

This model was introduced by E.F Codd in 1970, and since then it has been the
most widely used database model. Infact, we can say the only database model
used around the world.

The basic structure of data in the relational model is tables. All the information
related to a particular type is stored in rows of that table.

Hence, tables are also known as relations in relational model.

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Data model Schema and Instance

• The data which is stored in the database at a particular moment of time is
called an instance of the database.
• The overall design of a database is called schema.
• A database schema is the skeleton structure of the database. It represents
the logical view of the entire database.
• A schema contains schema objects like table, foreign key, primary key,
views, columns, data types, stored procedure, etc.
• A database schema can be represented by using the visual diagram. That
diagram shows the database objects and relationship with each other.
• A database schema is designed by the database designers to help
programmers whose software will interact with the database. The process of
database creation is called data modelling.

A schema diagram can display only some aspects of a schema like the name of
record type, data type, and constraints. Other aspects can't be specified through
the schema diagram. For example, the given figure neither show the data type
of each data item nor the relationship among various files.

In the database, actual data changes quite frequently. For example, in the given
figure, the database changes whenever we add a new grade or add a student.
The data at a particular moment of time is called the instance of the database.
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Database Language
• A DBMS has appropriate languages and interfaces to express database
queries and updates.
• Database languages can be used to read, store and update the data in the
database.

Types of Database Language

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1. Data Definition Language

• DDL stands for Data Definition Language. It is used to define database

structure or pattern.
• It is used to create schema, tables, indexes, constraints, etc. in the
database.
• Using the DDL statements, you can create the skeleton of the database.
• Data definition language is used to store the information of metadata like
the number of tables and schemas, their names, indexes, columns in each
table, constraints, etc.

Here are some tasks that come under DDL:

• Create: It is used to create objects in the database.

• Alter: It is used to alter the structure of the database.
• Drop: It is used to delete objects from the database.
• Truncate: It is used to remove all records from a table.
• Rename: It is used to rename an object.
• Comment: It is used to comment on the data dictionary.

These commands are used to update the database schema that's why they come
under Data definition language.

2. Data Manipulation Language

DML stands for Data Manipulation Language. It is used for accessing and
manipulating data in a database. It handles user requests.

Here are some tasks that come under DML:

• Select: It is used to retrieve data from a database.

• Insert: It is used to insert data into a table.
• Update: It is used to update existing data within a table.
• Delete: It is used to delete all records from a table.
• Merge: It performs UPSERT operation, i.e., insert or update operations.
• Call: It is used to call a structured query language or a Java subprogram.
• Explain Plan: It has the parameter of explaining data.
• Lock Table: It controls concurrency.

3. Data Control Language

• DCL stands for Data Control Language. It is used to retrieve the stored or
saved data.
• The DCL execution is transactional. It also has rollback parameters. (But
in Oracle database, the execution of data control language does not have
the feature of rolling back.)
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Here are some tasks that come under DCL:

• Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a database.

• Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user.

There are the following operations which have the authorization of Revoke:

CONNECT, INSERT, USAGE, EXECUTE, DELETE, UPDATE and SELECT.

4. Transaction Control Language

TCL is used to run the changes made by the DML statement. TCL can be
grouped into a logical transaction.

Here are some tasks that come under TCL:

• Commit: It is used to save the transaction on the database.

• Rollback: It is used to restore the database to original since the last
Commit.

ACID Properties in DBMS

DBMS is the management of data that should remain integrated when any
changes are done in it. It is because if the integrity of the data is affected, whole
data will get disturbed and corrupted. Therefore, to maintain the integrity of the
data, there are four properties described in the database management system,
which are known as the ACID properties. The ACID properties are meant for the
transaction that goes through a different group of tasks, and there we come to
see the role of the ACID properties.

In this section, we will learn and understand about the ACID properties. We will
learn what these properties stand for and what does each property is used for.
We will also understand the ACID properties with the help of some examples.

ACID Properties:
 P a g e | 27

1) Atomicity:
The term atomicity defines that the data remains atomic. It means if any
operation is performed on the data, either it should be performed or executed
completely or should not be executed at all. It further means that the operation
should not break in between or execute partially. In the case of executing
operations on the transaction, the operation should be completely executed and
not partially.

Example: If Remo has account A having $30 in his account from which he
wishes to send $10 to Sheero's account, which is B. In account B, a sum of $
100 is already present. When $10 will be transferred to account B, the sum will
become $110. Now, there will be two operations that will take place. One is the
amount of $10 that Remo wants to transfer will be debited from his account A,
and the same amount will get credited to account B, i.e., into Sheero's account.
Now, what happens - the first operation of debit executes successfully, but the
credit operation, however, fails. Thus, in Remo's account A, the value becomes
$20, and to that of Sheero's account, it remains $100 as it was previously
present.

In the above diagram, it can be seen that after crediting $10, the amount is still
$100 in account B. So, it is not an atomic transaction.

The below image shows that both debit and credit operations are done
successfully. Thus the transaction is atomic.
 P a g e | 28

Thus, when the amount loses atomicity, then in the bank systems, this becomes
a huge issue, and so the atomicity is the main focus in the bank systems.

2) Consistency:
The word Consistency means that the value should remain preserved always.
In DBMS the integrity of the data should be maintained, which means if a
change in the database is made, it should remain preserved always. In the case
of transactions, the integrity of the data is very essential so that the database
remains consistent before and after the transaction. The data should always be
correct.
Example:

In the above figure, there are three accounts, A, B, and C, where A is making a
transaction T one by one to both B & C. There are two operations that take
place, i.e., Debit and Credit. Account A firstly debits $50 to account B, and the
amount in account A is read $300 by B before the transaction. After the
successful transaction T, the available amount in B becomes $150. Now, A debits
$20 to account C, and that time, the value read by C is $250 (that is correct as a
debit of $50 has been successfully done to B). The debit and credit operation
from account A to C has been done successfully. We can see that the transaction
is done successfully, and the value is also read correctly. Thus, the data is
consistent. In case the value read by B and C is $300, which means that data is
inconsistent because when the debit operation executes, it will not be consistent.
 P a g e | 29

3) Isolation:

The term 'isolation' means separation. In DBMS, Isolation is the property of a

database where no data should affect the other one and may occur concurrently.
In short, the operation on one database should begin when the operation on the
first database gets complete. It means if two operations are being performed on
two different databases, they may not affect the value of one another. In the
case of transactions, when two or more transactions occur simultaneously, the
consistency should remain maintained. Any changes that occur in any particular
transaction will not be seen by other transactions until the change is not
committed in the memory.

Example: If two operations are concurrently running on two different accounts,

then the value of both accounts should not get affected. The value should
remain persistent. As you can see in the below diagram, account A is making T1
and T2 transactions to account B and C, but both are executing independently
without affecting each other. It is known as Isolation.

4) Durability:

Durability ensures the permanency of something. In DBMS, the term

durability ensures that the data after the successful execution of the
operation becomes permanent in the database. The durability of the data
should be so perfect that even if the system fails or leads to a crash, the
database still survives. However, if gets lost, it becomes the responsibility of
the recovery manager for ensuring the durability of the database. For
committing the values, the COMMIT command must be used every time we
make changes.
 P a g e | 30

Therefore, the ACID property of DBMS plays a vital role in maintaining the
consistency and availability of data in the database.

Thus, it was a precise introduction of ACID properties in DBMS. We have

discussed these properties in the transaction section also.
 P a g e | 31

Relational data Model

Relational Model Concept

Relational model can represent as a table with columns and rows. Each row is
known as a tuple. Each table of the column has a name or attribute.

Domain: It contains a set of atomic values that an attribute can take.

Attribute: It contains the name of a column in a particular table. Each attribute

Ai must have a domain, dom(Ai)

Relational Instance: In the relational database system, the relational instance

is represented by a finite set of tuples. Relation instances do not have duplicate
tuples.

Relational schema: A relational schema contains the name of the relation and
name of all columns or attributes.

Relational key: In the relational key, each row has one or more attributes. It
can identify the row in the relation uniquely.

Example: STUDENT Relation

• In the given table, NAME, ROLL_NO, PHONE_NO, ADDRESS, and AGE are
the attributes.
• The instance of schema STUDENT has 5 tuples.
• t3 = <Laxman, 33289, 8583287182, Gurugram, 20>

Properties of Relations

• Name of the relation is distinct from all other relations.

• Each relation cell contains exactly one atomic (single) value
• Each attribute contains a distinct name
 P a g e | 32

• Attribute domain has no significance

• tuple has no duplicate value
• Order of tuple can have a different sequence

Join Operations:
A Join operation combines related tuples from different relations, if and only if a
given join condition is satisfied.

Example:

Employee Table

Salary Table

Result Table
 P a g e | 33

Types of Join Operations:

1) Natural Join:
• A natural join is the set of tuples of all combinations in R and S that are
equal on their common attribute names.

Example: Let's use the above EMPLOYEE table and SALARY table:

Output:

2) Outer Join:

• The outer join operation is an extension of the join operation. It is used to

deal with missing information.

Example:
 P a g e | 34

Employee

Fact_Workers

Output

An outer join is basically of three types:

a. Left outer join

b. Right outer join
c. Full outer join

A. Left outer join:

• Left outer join contains the set of tuples of all combinations in R and S
that are equal on their common attribute names.
• In the left outer join, tuples in R have no matching tuples in S.
 P a g e | 35

Example: Using the above EMPLOYEE table and FACT_WORKERS table

B. Right outer join:

• Right outer join contains the set of tuples of all combinations in R and S
that are equal on their common attribute names.
• In right outer join, tuples in S have no matching tuples in R.

Example: Using the above EMPLOYEE table and FACT_WORKERS Relation

C. Full outer join:

• Full outer join is like a left or right join except that it contains all rows
from both tables.
• In full outer join, tuples in R that have no matching tuples in S and tuples
in S that have no matching tuples in R in their common attribute name.

Example: Using the above EMPLOYEE table and FACT_WORKERS table.

 P a g e | 36

3) Equi Join:

It is also known as an inner join. It is the most common join. It is based on

matched data as per the equality condition. The equi join uses the comparison
operator (=).

Example:

CUSTOMER RELATION

PRODUCT
 P a g e | 37

OUTPUT

Integrity Constraints
• Integrity constraints are a set of rules. It is used to maintain the quality of
information.
• Integrity constraints ensure that the data insertion, updating, and other
processes have to be performed in such a way that data integrity is not
affected.
• Thus, integrity constraint is used to guard against accidental damage to the
database.

Types of Integrity Constraint:

1) Domain Constraints
• Domain constraints can be defined as the definition of a valid set of values
for an attribute.
• The data type of domain includes string, character, integer, time, date,
currency, etc. The value of the attribute must be available in the
corresponding domain.

Example:
 P a g e | 38

2) Entity integrity Constraints

• The entity integrity constraint states that primary key value can't be null.
• This is because the primary key value is used to identify individual rows in
relation and if the primary key has a null value, then we can't identify
those rows.
• A table can contain a null value other than the primary key field.

Example:

EMPLOYEE

3) Referential Integrity Constraints

• A referential integrity constraint is specified between two tables.

• In the Referential integrity constraints, if a foreign key in Table 1 refers to
the Primary Key of Table 2, then every value of the Foreign Key in Table 1
must be null or be available in Table 2.

Example:
 P a g e | 39

4) Key Constraints

• Keys are the entity set that is used to identify an entity within its entity
set uniquely.
• An entity set can have multiple keys, but out of which one key will be the
primary key. A primary key can contain a unique and null value in the
relational table.

Example:
 P a g e | 40

Normalization

DBMS Normalization
• Normalization is the process of organizing the data in the database.
• Normalization is used to minimize the redundancy from a relation or set of
relations. It is also used to eliminate the undesirable characteristics like
Insertion, Update and Deletion Anomalies.
• Normalization divides the larger table into the smaller table and links them
using relationship.
• The normal form is used to reduce redundancy from the database table.

Types of Normal Forms

There are the four types of normal forms:
 P a g e | 41

1. First Normal Form:

• A relation will be 1NF if it contains an atomic value.

• It states that an attribute of a table cannot hold multiple values. It must
hold only single-valued attribute. Means per row must contain only one
value in each column.
• First normal form disallows the multi-valued attribute, composite
attribute, and their combinations.

Example: Relation EMPLOYEE is not in 1NF because of multi-valued attribute

EMP_PHONE.

EMPLOYEE Table:
 P a g e | 42

In the above table in column EMP_PHONE there is multiple values in one row
that’s why it obey the 1NF.

Let’s convert the above table into 1NF forms:

As you see we remove the extra phone numbers in EMP_PHONE column.

2) Second Normal Form

• In the 2NF, relational must be in 1NF.

• In the second normal form, all non-key attributes are fully functional
dependent on the primary key.

Example: Let's assume, a school can store the data of teachers and the
subjects they teach. In a school, a teacher can teach more than one
subject.
 P a g e | 43

TEACHER Table

In the given table, non-prime attribute TEACHER_AGE is dependent on

TEACHER_ID which is a proper subset of a candidate key. That's why it violates
the rule for 2NF.

To convert the given table into 2NF, we decompose it into two tables:

TEACHER_DETAIL table:

TEACHER_SUBJECT table:

3) Third Normal Form (3NF)

 P a g e | 44

• A relation will be in 3NF if it is in 2NF and not contain any transitive partial
dependency.
• 3NF is used to reduce the data duplication. It is also used to achieve the
data integrity.
• If there is no transitive dependency for non-prime attributes, then the
relation must be in third normal form.

A relation is in third normal form if it holds atleast one of the following conditions
for every non-trivial function dependency X → Y.

1. X is a super key.
2. Y is a prime attribute, i.e., each element of Y is part of some candidate
key.

Example:

EMPLOYEE_DETAIL table:

Candidate key: {EMP_ID}

Non-prime attributes: In the given table, all attributes except EMP_ID are
non-prime.

Here, EMP_STATE & EMP_CITY dependent on EMP_ZIP and EMP_ZIP dependent

on EMP_ID. The non-prime attributes (EMP_STATE, EMP_CITY) transitively
dependent on super key(EMP_ID). It violates the rule of third normal form.

That's why we need to move the EMP_CITY and EMP_STATE to the new
<EMPLOYEE_ZIP> table, with EMP_ZIP as a Primary key.

EMPLOYEE table:
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EMPLOYEE_ZIP table:
 P a g e | 46

Transaction
Transactions in DBMS:
• Transactions are a set of operations used to perform a logical set of work.
It contains a group of tasks.
• A transaction is an action or series of actions. It is performed by a single
user to perform operations for accessing the contents of the database.
• All types of databases access operation which are held between the
beginning and end transaction statements are considered as a single
logical transaction in DBMS. During the transaction the database is
inconsistent. Only once the database is committed the state is changed
from one consistent state to another.
• One of the major uses of DBMS is to protect the user’s data from system
failures. It is done by ensuring that all the data is restored to a consistent
state when the computer is restarted after a crash. The transaction is any
one execution of the user program in a DBMS. Executing the same
program multiple times will generate multiple transactions.

Operations of Transaction:

Following are the main operations of transaction:

Read(X): Read operation is used to read the value of X from the database and
stores it in a buffer in main memory.
 P a g e | 47

Write(X): Write operation is used to write the value back to the database from
the buffer.

Let's take an example to debit transaction from an account which consists of

following operations:

Let's assume the value of X before starting of the transaction is 4000.

• The first operation reads X's value from database and stores it in a buffer.
• The second operation will decrease the value of X by 500. So buffer will
contain 3500.
• The third operation will write the buffer's value to the database. So X's
final value will be 3500.

But it may be possible that because of the failure of hardware, software or

power, etc. that transaction may fail before finished all the operations in the set.

For example: If in the above transaction, the debit transaction fails after
executing operation 2 then X's value will remain 4000 in the database which is
not acceptable by the bank.

To solve this problem, we have two important operations:

Commit: It is used to save the work done permanently.

Rollback: It is used to undo the work done.

Transaction Property
The transaction has the four properties. These are used to maintain consistency
in a database, before and after the transaction.

Property of Transaction

1. Atomicity
2. Consistency
3. Isolation
4. Durability
 P a g e | 48

Atomicity

• A transaction is a single unit of operation. You either it entirely or do not

execute it at all. There cannot be partial execution.
• It states that all operations of the transaction take place at once if not, the
transaction is aborted.
• There is no midway, i.e., the transaction cannot occur partially. Each
transaction is treated as one unit and either run to completion or is not
executed at all.

Atomicity involves the following two operations:

Abort: If a transaction aborts then all the changes made are not visible.

Commit: If a transaction commits then all the changes made are visible.

Example: Let's assume that following transaction T consisting of T1 and T2. A

consists of Rs 600 and B consists of Rs 300. Transfer Rs 100 from account A to
account B.
 P a g e | 49

After completion of the transaction, A consists of Rs 500 and B consists of Rs

400.

If the transaction T fails after the completion of transaction T1 but before

completion of transaction T2, then the amount will be deducted from A but not
added to B. This shows the inconsistent database state. In order to ensure
correctness of database state, the transaction must be executed in entirety.

Consistency

• The integrity constraints are maintained so that the database is consistent

before and after the transaction.
• The execution of a transaction will leave a database in either its prior
stable state or a new stable state.
• The consistent property of database states that every transaction sees a
consistent database instance.
• The transaction is used to transform the database from one consistent
state to another consistent state.

For example: The total amount must be maintained before or after the
transaction.

Therefore, the database is consistent. In the case when T1 is completed but T2

fails, then inconsistency will occur.

Isolation

• It shows that the data which is used at the time of execution of a

transaction cannot be used by the second transaction until the first one is
completed.
• In isolation, if the transaction T1 is being executed and using the data
item X, then that data item can't be accessed by any other transaction T2
until the transaction T1 ends.
• The concurrency control subsystem of the DBMS enforced the isolation
property.

Durability

• The durability property is used to indicate the performance of the

database's consistent state. It states that the transaction made the
permanent changes.
 P a g e | 50

• They cannot be lost by the erroneous operation of a faulty transaction or

by the system failure. When a transaction is completed, then the database
reaches a state known as the consistent state. That consistent state
cannot be lost, even in the event of a system's failure.
• The recovery subsystem of the DBMS has the responsibility of Durability
property.

States of Transaction
In a database, the transaction can be in one of the following states –

Active state

• The active state is the first state of every transaction. In this state, the
transaction is being executed.
• For example: Insertion or deletion or updating a record is done here. But
all the records are still not saved to the database.

Partially committed

• In the partially committed state, a transaction executes its final operation,

but the data is still not saved to the database.
• In the total mark calculation example, a final display of the total marks
step is executed in this state.

Committed

• A transaction is said to be in a committed state if it executes all its

operations successfully. In this state, all the effects are now permanently
saved on the database system.

Failed state
 P a g e | 51

• If any of the checks made by the database recovery system fails, then the
transaction is said to be in the failed state.
• In the example of total mark calculation, if the database is not able to fire
a query to fetch the marks, then the transaction will fail to execute.

Aborted

• If any of the checks fail and the transaction has reached a failed state
then the database recovery system will make sure that the database is in
its previous consistent state. If not then it will abort or roll back the
transaction to bring the database into a consistent state.
• If the transaction fails in the middle of the transaction then before
executing the transaction, all the executed transactions are rolled back to
its consistent state.
• After aborting the transaction, the database recovery module will select
one of the two operations:
1. Re-start the transaction
2. Kill the transaction

What is a Schedule?
A Schedule is a process creating a single group of the multiple parallel
transactions and executing them one by one. It should preserve the order in
which the instructions appear in each transaction. If two transactions are
executed at the same time, the result of one transaction may affect the output
of other.
In a nutshell, A series of operation from one transaction to another transaction is
known as schedule

Example

Initial Product Quantity is 10

Transaction 1: Update Product Quantity to 50
Transaction 2: Read Product Quantity

If Transaction 2 is executed before Transaction 1, outdated information about

the product quantity will be read. Hence, schedules are required.

Parallel execution in a database is inevitable. But, Parallel execution is permitted

when there is an equivalence relation amongst the simultaneously executing
transactions.

This equivalence is of 3 Types.

 P a g e | 52

1. Serial Schedule

The serial schedule is a type of schedule where one transaction is executed

completely before starting another transaction. In the serial schedule, when the
first transaction completes its cycle, then the next transaction is executed.

For example: Suppose there are two transactions T1 and T2 which have some
operations. If it has no interleaving of operations, then there are the following
two possible outcomes:

1. Execute all the operations of T1 which was followed by all the operations
of T2.
2. Execute all the operations of T2 which was followed by all the operations
of T1.

• In the given (a) figure, Schedule A shows the serial schedule where T1
followed by T2.
• In the given (b) figure, Schedule B shows the serial schedule where T2
followed by T1.
 P a g e | 53

2. Non-serial Schedule

• If interleaving of operations is allowed, then there will be non-serial

schedule.
• It contains many possible orders in which the system can execute the
individual operations of the transactions.
• In the given figure (c) and (d), Schedule C and Schedule D are the non-
serial schedules. It has interleaving of operations.
 P a g e | 54

3. Serializable schedule

• The serializability of schedules is used to find non-serial schedules that

allow the transaction to execute concurrently without interfering with one
another.
• It identifies which schedules are correct when executions of the
transaction have interleaving of their operations.
• A non-serial schedule will be serializable if its result is equal to the result
of its transactions executed serially.

Here,

Schedule A and Schedule B are serial schedule.

Schedule C and Schedule D are Non-serial schedule.

What is Serializability?
Serializability is the process of search for a concurrent schedule who output is
equal to a serial schedule where transaction are execute one after the other.
Depending on the type of schedules, there are two types of serializability:

• Conflict
• View
 P a g e | 55

Structured Query Language

(SQL)
Suppose we have a database and if we want to work with database. We need
database management system. But it data management system, we want to
create, store, modify, how can we do this? To talk with database we need to
learn language that understand the database. If you want to work with database
you need to learn SQL language. Most of the actions you need to perform on a
database are done with SQL statement.

SQL language specifically designed for working with Database to…

▪ Create
▪ Manipulate
▪ Share/Access

Why to learn SQL:

SQL is Structured Query Language, which is a computer language for storing,
manipulating and retrieving data stored in a relational database.

SQL is the standard language for Relational Database System. All the Relational
Database Management System (RDMS) like MYSQL, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase,
Informix, Postgres and SQL Server use SQL as their standard database
language.

SQL is widely popular because if offers the following advantages:

• Allows users to communicate. i.e access and manipulate the database.
• Allows users to retrieve data from a database.
• Allows users to create, update, modify and delete the database.

SQL is a language for defining the structure of a database.

SQL is useful for a lot of things!

• MySQL
• PostGreSQL
• Oracle Databases
• Microsoft Access
• Amazon’s Redshift
• Looker
• MemSQL
• Periscope Data
 P a g e | 56

What can SQL do?

• SQL can execute queries against a database
• SQL can retrieve data from a database
• SQL can insert records in a database
• SQL can delete records from a database
• SQL can create new databases
• SQL can create new tables in a database
• SQL can create views in a database
• SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

Applications of SQL
Data As mentioned before, SQL is one of the most widely used query language
over the databases. I’m going to list few of them here:

• Allows users to access data in the relational database management

systems.
• Allows users t describe the data.
• Allows users to define the data in a database and manipulate that data.
• Allows to embed within other languages using SQL modules, libraries and
pre-compilers.
• Allows users to create and drop databases and tables.
• Allows users to create view, stored procedure, functions in a database.
• Allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures and views.

SQL Terms:
➢ Data
Data is defined as facts or figures, or information that’s stored in or used by a
computer.

➢ Entity
Something of interest to the database user community. Examples include
customers, parts, geographic, location, etc

➢ Column
An individual piece of data stored in a table.

➢ Row
A set of columns that together completely describe an entity or some action on
an entity. Also called a record.

➢ Table
 P a g e | 57

A set of rows, held either in memory (nonpersistent) or on permanent

storage(persistent).

➢ Result Set
Another name for a nonpersistent table, generally the result of an SQL query.

➢ Database
A database is organized collection of data/information so that it can be easily
accessed, managed and updated.

Data science, business intelligence, or some other facet of data analysis, you will
likely need to know SQL, along with other languages/platforms such as Python
and R. Data is everywhere, in huge quantities, and arriving at a rapid pace, and
people who can extract meaningful information from all this data are in big
demand.
 P a g e | 58

Part - 2
--------------------SQL Tutorial-------------------
SQL is followed by a unique set of rules and guidelines called Syntax. This
tutorial gives you a quick start with SQL by listing all the basic SQL Syntax.

All the SQL statements start with any of the keywords like SELECT, INSERT,
UPDATE, DELETE, ALTER, DROP, CREATE, USE, SHOW.

Keep in mind that…

SQ keywords are NOT case sensitive: select is the same as SELECT.

Semicolon after SQL Statements?

Some database systems require a semicolon at the end of each SQL statement.
Semicolon is the standard way to separate each SQL statement in database
systems that allow more than one SQL statement to be executed in the same
call to the server.

SQL Select
The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database. It returns the
data in the form of a result table. These result tables are called result-sets.

The data returned is stored in a result table, called the result-set.

SELECT Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...columnN
FROM table_name;

Here, column1, column2,… are the field names of the table you want to select
data from. If you want to select all the fields available in the table, use the
following syntax:

SELECT * FROM table_name;

SQL Select Distinct

 P a g e | 59

The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement

The SELECT DISTINCT statement is used to eliminate all the duplicate records
and return only distinct (different) values.

Inside a table, a column often contains many duplicate values; and sometimes
you only want to list the different (distinct) values.

SELECT DISTINCT Syntax

SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2, ...columnN
FROM table_name;

SQL Operators
What is an Operator in SQL?
An operator is a reserved word or a character used primarily in an SQL
statement’s WHERE clause to perform operations, such as comparisons and
arithmetic operations. These Operators are used to specify conditions in an SQL
statement and to serve as conjunctions for multiple conditions in a statement.

❖ Arithmetic operators
❖ Comparison operators
❖ Logical operators
❖ Operators used to negate conditions

SQL Arithmetic Operators

Assume ‘variable a’ holds 10 and ‘variable b’ holds 20, then-

SQL Comparison Operators:

 P a g e | 60

Assume ‘variable a’ holds 10 and ‘variable b’ holds 20, then-

SQL Logical Operators

Here is a list of all the logical operators available in SQL
P a g e | 61
 P a g e | 62

SQL Where Clause

The WHERE clause is used to filter records.

It is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified condition.

WHERE Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

NOTE: The WHERE clause is not only used in SELECT statement, it is also used
in UPDATE, DELETE, etc!

SQL And, Or and Not

The SQL AND, OR and NOT Operators
The WHERE clause can be combined with AND, OR and NOT operators.

The AND and OR operators are used to filter records. They are used to combine
multiple conditions to narrow data in an SQL statement. These two operators are
called as the conjunctive operators.

These operators provide a means to make multiple comparisons with different

operators in the same SQL statement.

• The AND operator displays a record if all the conditions separated by AND
are TRUE.
• The OR operator displays a record if any of the conditions separated by
OR is TRUE.

The NOT operator displays a record if the condition’s is NOT TRUE.

AND Syntax

SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name
WHERE condition1 AND condition2 AND condition3 ...;

OR Syntax

SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name
WHERE condition1 OR condition2 OR condition3 ...;
 P a g e | 63

NOT Syntax

SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name
WHERE NOT condition;

SQL Order By
The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set in ascending or descending
order.

The ORDER BY keyword sorts the records in ascending order by default. To sort
the records in descending order, use the DESC keyword.

ORDER BY Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column1, column2, ... ASC|DESC;

ORDER BY Several Columns

SELECT * FROM Customers
ORDER BY Column_1,Column_2;

This means that it orders by Column_1, but if some rows have the same records,
it orders them by Column_2.

SQL Select Random

The SQL SELECT RANDOM() function returns the random row. It ca be used in
online exam to display the random questions.

There are a lot of ways to select a random record or row from a database table.
Each database server needs different SQL syntax.
MY SQL:

SELECT Column_name FROM table_name

ORDER BY RAND()

LIMIT 1

Microsoft SQL server:

 P a g e | 64

SELECT TOP 1 FROM table_name

ORDER BY NEW ID()

ORACLE:

SELECT Column_name

(SELECT Column_name FROM table_name

ORDER BY dbms_random.value)

WHERE rownum = 1

PostgreSQL:

SELECT Column_name FROM table_name

ORDER BY RAND()

LIMIT 1

SQL Insert Into

The SQL INSERT INTO Statement
The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records to a table in the
database.

INSERT INTO Syntax

It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two ways:

1.Specify both the column names and the values to be inserted:

INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3, ...)

VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);

2. If you are adding values for all the columns of the table, you do not need to
specify the column names in the SQL query, However, make sure the order of
the values is in the same order as the columns in the table. Here, the INSERT
INTO syntax would be as follows:

INSERT INTO table_name

VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);

SQL Null Values

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What is a NULL Value?

A field with a NULL value is a field with no value.

If a field in a table is optional, it is possible to insert a new record or update a

record without adding a value to this field. Then, the field will be saved with a
NULL value.

NOTE: A NULL value is different from a zero value or a field that contains
spaces. A field with a NULL value is one that has been left blank during record
creation!

How to test for NULL Values?

It is not possible to test for NULL values with comparison operators, such as =,
<, or <>.

We will have to use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators instead.

IS NULL Syntax
SELECT column_names
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IS NULL;

IS NOT NULL Syntax

SELECT column_names
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IS NOT NULL;

SQL Update
The SQL UPDATE Statement
The UPDATE statement is used to modify the existing records in a table. You can
use the WHERE clause with the UPDATE query to update the selected rows,
otherwise all the rows would be affected.

UPDATE Syntax
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
WHERE condition;

NOTE: Be careful when updating records in a table! Notice the WHERE clause in
the UPDATE statement. The WHERE clause specifies which records that should
be updated. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records in the table will be
updated!
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SQL Delete
The SQL DELETE Statement
The DELETE statement is used to delete existing records in a table.

You can use the WHERE clause with a DELETE query to delete the selected rows,
otherwise all the records would be deleted.

DELETE Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;

NOTE: Be careful when deleting records in a table! Notice the WHERE clause in
the DELETE statement. The WHERE clause specifies which records should be
deleted. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records in the table will be deleted!

SQL Top
The SQL TOP Clause
The TOP clause is used to fetch a TOP N number or X percent records from a
table.

The TOP clause is useful on large tables with thousands of records. Returning a
large number of records can impact performance.

LIMIT Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
TOP number;

SQL Min() and Max() functions

The SQL MIN() and MAX() Functions
 P a g e | 67

The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.

The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.

MIN() Syntax

SELECT MIN(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

MAX() Syntax

SELECT MAX(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

SQL Count(), Avg() and Sum()

Functions
The SQL COUNT(), AVG() and SUM() Functions
COUNT() Syntax

The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified
criterion.

SELECT COUNT(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

AVG() Syntax

The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.

SELECT AVG(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

SUM() Syntax

The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column.

SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
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SQL Like
The SQL LIKE Operator
The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in
a column.

There are two wildcards often used in conjunction with the LIKE operator:

• The percent sign (%) represents zero, one, or multiple characters.

• The underscore sign(_) represents one, single character

The percent sign and underscore can also be used in comninnations!

LIKE Syntax

SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name
WHERE columnN LIKE pattern;

Tip: You can also combine any number of conditions using AND or OR operators.
Here are some examples showing different LIKE operators with ‘%’ and ‘_’
wildcards:

SQL Wildcards
A wildcard character is used t substitute one or more characters in a string.

Wildcard characters are used with the LIKE operator. The LIKE operator is used
in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a column.
 P a g e | 69

SQL In
The SQL IN operator
The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause.

The IN operator is a shorthand for multiple OR conditions.

IN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1, value2, ...);

OR:

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (SELECT STATEMENT);

SQL Between
The SQL BETWEEN Operator
The BETWEEN operator selects values within a given range. The values can be
numbers, text, or dates.

The BETWEEN operator is inclusive: begin and end values are included.
 P a g e | 70

BETWEEN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2;

NOTE: You can use NOT operator with BETWEEN operator.

SQL Aliases
SQL aliases are used to give a table, or a column in a table, a temporary name.

Aliases are often used to make column names more readable.

An alias only exists for the duration of that query.

An alias is created with the AS keyword.

Alias Column Syntax

SELECT column_name AS alias_name

FROM table_name;

Alias Table Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name AS alias_name;

Aliases can be useful when:

• There are more than one table involved in a query.

• Functions are used in the query.
• Column names are big or not very readable.
• Two or more columns are combined together.

SQL Join
A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a
related column between them.

There are Four types of SQL Joins:

• (INNER) JOIN : Returns records that have matching values in both tables.
 P a g e | 71

• LEFT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the left table, and the
matched records from the right table.
• RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the right table, and the
matched records from the left table.
• FULL (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records when there is a match in either
left or right table.

SQL Inner Join:

SQL INNER JOIN Keyword
The INNER JOIN keyword selects records that have matching values in both
tables.

INNER JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;
 P a g e | 72

SQL Left Join:

SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword
The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the left table (Table_1), and the
matching records from the right table (Table_2). The result is 0 records from the
right side, if there is no match.

LEFT JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

NOTE: In some database LEFT JOIN is called LEFT OUTER JOIN.

SQL Right Join Keyword

SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword
The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all records from the right table (Table_2), and
the matching records from the left table (Table_1). The result is 0 records from
the left side, if there is no match.

RIGHT JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

NOTE: In some databases RIGHT JOIN is called RIGHT OUTER JOIN.

 P a g e | 73

SQL Full Outer Join

SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Keyword
The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all records when there is a match in left
(Table_1) or right (Table_2) table records.

Tip: FULL OUTER JOIN and FULL JOIN are the same.

SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
FULL OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name
WHERE condition;

NOTE: FULL OUTER JOIN can potentially return very large result-sets!

SQL Self Join

SQL SELF JOIN
A self join is a regular join, but the table is joined with itself.

SELF Join Syntax

 P a g e | 74

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1 T1, table1 T2
WHERE condition;

T1 and T2 are different table aliases for the same table.

SQL Union
The SQL UNION Operator
A UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT
statements.

• Every SELECT statement within UNION must have the same number of
columns.
• The columns must also have similar data types.
• The columns in every SELECT statement must also be in the same order.

UNION Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1

UNION
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;

UNION ALL Syntax

The UNION operator selects only distinct values by default. To allow duplicate
values, use UNION ALL:

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1

UNION ALL
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;

NOTE: The column names in the result-set are usually equal to the column
names in the first SELECT statement.

SQL Group By
The SQL GROUP BY Statement
The GROUP BY statement groups rows that have the same values into summary
rows, like “Find the number of customers in each country”.

The GROUP BY statement is often used with aggregate functions (COUNT() ,

MAX() , MIN() , SUM() , AVG() ) to group the result-set by one or more columns.
 P a g e | 75

GROUP BY Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s)
ORDER BY column_name(s);

Example

Consider the CUSTOMERS table is having the following records-

If you want to know the total amount of the salary on each customer, then the
GROUP BY query would be as follows.

SELECT NAME, SUM(SALARY) FROM CUSTOMERS

GROUP BY NAME;

This would produce the following result-

Now, let us look at a table where the CUSTOMERS table has the following
records with duplicate names-
 P a g e | 76

Now again, if you want to know the total amount of salary on each customer,
then the GROUP BY query would be as follows-

SELECT NAME, SUM(SALARY) FROM CUSTOMERS

GROUP BY NAME;

SQL Having
The SQL HAVING Clause
The HAVING clause wad added to SQL because the WHERE keyword cannot be
used with aggregate functions.

HAVING Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s)
HAVING condition
ORDER BY column_name(s);

SQL Exists
 P a g e | 77

The SQL EXISTS Operator

The EXISTS operator is used to test for the existence of any record in a
subquery.

The EXISTS operator returns TRUE if the subquery returns one or more records.

EXISTS Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE condition);

SQL Any and All operators

The SQL ANY and ALL Operators
The ANY and ALL operators allow you to perform a comparison between a single
column value and a range of other values.

The SQL ANY Operator

The ANY operator:

• Returns a Boolean value as a result.

• Returns TRUE IF ANY of the subquery values meet the condition.

ANY means that the condition will be TRUE if the operation is true for any of the
values in the range.

ANY Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator ANY
(SELECT column_name
FROM table_name
WHERE condition);

NOTE: The operator must be a standard comparison operator (=,<>, !=, >,
>=, <, or <=)

The SQL ALL Operator

The ALL operator:

• Returns a Boolean value as a result.

• Returns TRUE if ALL of the subquery values meet the condition.
• Is used with SELECT, WHERE and HAVING statements.
 P a g e | 78

ALL means that the condition will be true only if the operation is true for all
values in the range.

ALL Syntax with SELECT

SELECT ALL column_name(s)

FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

ALL Syntax with WHERE or HAVING

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator ALL
(SELECT column_name
FROM table_name
WHERE condition);

SQL Select Into

The SELECT INTO statement copies data from one table into a new table.
SELECT INTO Syntax

Copy all columns into a new table:

SELECT *
INTO newtable [IN externaldb]
FROM oldtable
WHERE condition;

Copy only some columns into a new table:

SELECT column1, column2, column3, ...

INTO newtable [IN externaldb]
FROM oldtable
WHERE condition;

The new table will be created with the column-names and types as defined in the
old table. You can create new column names using the AS clause.

SQL Insert Into Select

The SQL INSERT INTO SELECT Statement
 P a g e | 79

The INSERT INTO SELECT statement copies data from one table and inserts it
into another table.

The INSERT INTO SELECT statement requires that the data types inn source and
target tables match.
Note: The existing records in the target table are unaffected.

INSERT INTO SELECT Syntax

Copy all columns from one table to another table:

INSERT INTO table2

SELECT * FROM table1
WHERE condition;

Copy only some columns from one table into another table:

INSERT INTO table2 (column1, column2, column3, ...)

SELECT column1, column2, column3, ...
FROM table1
WHERE condition;

SQL Case
The SQL CASE Statement
The CASE statement goes through conditions and returns a value when the first
condition is met (Like an if-then-else statement). So, once a condition is true, it
will stop reading and return the result. If no conditions are true, it returns the
value in the ELSE clause.

If there is no ELSE part and no conditions are true, it returns NULL.

CASE Syntax

CASE
WHEN condition1 THEN result1
WHEN condition2 THEN result2
WHEN conditionN THEN resultN
ELSE result
END;

SQL Comments
SQL Comments
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Comments are used to explain sections of SQL statements, or to prevent

execution of SQL statements.

Single Line Comments

Single line comments start with --.

Any text between –- and the end of the line will be ignored (will not be
executed).

The following example uses a single-line comment as an explanation:

--Select all:
SELECT * FROM Customers;

The Following example uses a single-line comment to ignore the end of a line:

SELECT * FROM Customers -- WHERE City='Berlin';

The Following example uses a single-line comment to ignore a statement:

--SELECT * FROM Customers;

SELECT * FROM Products;

Multi-line Comments
Multi-line comments start with /* and end with */.

Any text between /* and */ will be ignored.

The following example uses a multi-line comment as an explanation:

/*Select all the columns

of all the records
in the Customers table:*/
SELECT * FROM Customers;

The following example uses a multi-line comment to ignore many statements:

/*SELECT * FROM Customers;

SELECT * FROM Products;
SELECT * FROM Orders;
SELECT * FROM Categories;*/
SELECT * FROM Suppliers;

To ignore just a part of a statement, also use the /* */ comment.

The following example uses a comment to ignore part of a line:

SELECT CustomerName, /*City,*/ Country FROM Customers;

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Part - 3
 P a g e | 82

--------------------SQL Database-------------------

SQL Create Database

The SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement
The CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create a new SQL database.

The database developers and the users use this statement in SQL for creating
the new database in the database systems. It creates the database with the
name which has been specified in the CREATE DATABASE statement.

Syntax

CREATE DATABASE database_name;

The Make sure you have the admin privilege before creating any database. Once
a database is created, you can check it in the list of databases.

Following are the most important points which are required to learn while
creating a database.

• The database we want to create should be a simple and unique name,

which can be easily identified.
• Database name should be no more than 128 characters.

SQL Drop Database

The SQL DROP DATABASE Statement
The SQL DROP DATABASE statement deletes the existing database permanently
from the database system.

This statement deletes all the views and tables if stored in the database, so be
careful while using this query in SQL.

Following are the most important points which are required to learn before
removing the database from the database system.

• This statement deletes all the data from the database. If you want to
restore the deleted data in the future, you should keep the backup of data
of that database which you want to delete.
 P a g e | 83

• Another most important point is that you cannot delete that database
from the system which is currently in use by another database user. If
you do so, then drop statement shows the following error on screen.

Cannot drop database "name_of_the_database" because it is currently in use.

Syntax

DROP DATABASE databasename;

NOTE: Be careful before dropping a database. Deleting a database will result in

loss of complete information stored in the database

SQL Backup Database

The SQL BACKUP DATABASE Statement
The BACKUP DATABASE statement is used in SQL server to create a full back up
of an existing SQL Datbase.

Syntax

BACKUP DATABASE databasename

TO DISK = 'filepath';

The SQL BACKUP WITH DIFFERENTAL Statement

A differential back up only backs up the parts of the database that have changed
since the last full database backup.

Syntax

BACKUP DATABASE databasename

TO DISK = 'filepath'
WITH DIFFERENTIAL;

SQL Rename Database

In some situations, database users and administrators want to change the name
of the database for some technical reasons. So, the RENAME DATABASE
statement in SQL is used to change the name of the existing database.

Syntax

ALTER DATABASE old_database_name MODIFY NAME = new_database_name

 P a g e | 84

SQL Create Table

The SQL CREATE TABLE Statement
The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new table in a database. This
involves naming the table and defining its columns and each column’s data type.

Syntax

CREATE TABLE table_name (

column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
....
);

The column parameters specify the names of the columns of the table.

The datatype parameter specifies the type of data the column can hold (e.g.
varchar, integer, date, etc).

Create table using another table

A copy of an existing table can also be created using CREATE TABLE.

The new table gets the name column definitions. All columns or specific columns
can be selected.

If you create a new table using an existing table, the new table will be filled with
the existing values from the old table.

Syntax

CREATE TABLE new_table_name AS

SELECT column1, column2,...
FROM existing_table_name
WHERE ....;

SQL Drop Table

 P a g e | 85

The SQL DROP TABLE Statement

The DROP TABLE statement is used to remove a table definition and all the data,
indexes, triggers, constraints and permission specifications for that table.

Syntax

DROP TABLE table_name;

NOTE: Be careful before dropping a table. Deleting a table will result in loss of
complete information stored in the table!

SQL TRUNCATE TABLE

The TRUNCATE TABLE statement is used to delete the data inside a table, but
not the table itself.

Syntax

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

SQL Rename Table

In some situations, database administrators and users want to change the name
of the table in the in the SQL database because they want to give a more
relevant name to the table.
Any database user can easily change the name by using the RENAME TABLE and
ALTER TABLE statement in Structured Query Language.

The RENAME TABLE and ALTER TABLE syntax help in changing the name of the
table.

Syntax

RENAME old_table_name To new_table_name;

SQL Alter Table

SQL ALTER TABLE STATEMENT
The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an
existing table.

The ALTER TABLE statement is also used to add and drop various constraints on
an existing table.
 P a g e | 86

ALTER TABLE – ADD COLUMN

To add a column in a table, use the following syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD column_name datatype;

ALTER TABLE – DROP COLUMN

To delete a column in a table, use the following syntax (notice that some
database systems don’t allow deleting a column):

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP COLUMN column_name;

ALTER TABLE – ALTER/MODIFY COLUMN

To change the data type of a column in a table, use the following syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name

MODIFY COLUMN column_name datatype;

SQL Constraints
SQL constraints are the rules enforced on the data columns of a table. These are
used to limit the type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the accuracy
and reliability of the data in the database.

Constraints can be column level or table level. Column level constraints apply to
a column, and table level constraints apply to the whole table.

SQL Create Constraints

Constraints can be specified when the table is created with the CREATE TABLE
statement, or after the table is created with the ALTER TABLE statement.

Syntax

CREATE TABLE table_name (

column1 datatype constraint,
column2 datatype constraint,
column3 datatype constraint,
....
);

The following constraints are commonly used in SQL:

• NOT NULL- Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value.

 P a g e | 87

• UNIQUE – Ensures that all values in a column are different.

• PRIMARY KEY – A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Uniquely
identifies each row in a table.
• FOREIGN KEY – Prevents actions that would destroy links between tables.
• CHECK – Ensures that the values in a column satisfies a specific condition.
• DEFAULT – Sets a default value for a column if no value is specified.
• CREATE INDEX – Used to create and retrieve data from the database very
quickly.

SQL Not Null

SQL NOT NULL CONSTRAINT
By default, a column can hold NULL Values.

The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT accept NULL values.
This enforces a field to always contain a value, which means that you cannot
insert a new record, or update a record without adding a value to this field.

SQL Unique Constraint

The UNIQUE constraint ensures that all values in a column are different.

Both the UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints provide a guarantee for
uniqueness for a column or set of columns.
A PRIMARY KEY constraint automatically has a UNIQUE constraint.

However, you can have many UNIQUE constraints per table, but only one
PRIMARY KEY constraint per table.

SQL Primary Key Constraint

The PRRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a table.

Primary key must contain UNIQUE values, and cannot contain NULL values.

If you want to create a primary key, you should define a PRIMARY KEY
constraint when you create or modify a table.
 P a g e | 88

A table can have only One primary key; and in the table, this primary key can
consist of single or multiple columns (Fields).

When multiple columns are used as a primary key, it is known as composite

primary key.

Points to remember for primary key:

• Primary key enforces the entity integrity of the table.
• Primary key always has unique data.
• A primary key length cannot be exceeded than 900 bytes.
• A primary key cannot have null value.
• There can be no duplicate value for a primary key.
• A table can contain only one primary key constraint.

SQL primary key for one column:

The following SQL command creates a PRIMARY KEY on the “S_ID” column when
the “students” table is created.

MySQL:

CREATE TABLE students

(
S_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar (255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar (255),
Address varchar (255),
City varchar (255),
PRIMARY KEY (S_Id)
)

SQL Server, Oracle, MS Access:

CREATE TABLE students

(
S_Id int NOT NULL, PRIMARY KEY ,
LastName varchar (255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar (255),
Address varchar (255),
City varchar (255),
)

SQL primary key for multiple columns:

MySQL, SQL Server, Oracle, MS Access
 P a g e | 89

CREATE TABLE students

(
S_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar (255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar (255),
Address varchar (255),
City varchar (255),
CONSTRAINT pk_StudentID PRIMARY KEY (S_ID, LastName)
)

NOTE: You should note that in the above example there is only one PRIMARY
KEY (pk_StudentsID). However it is made up of two columns (S_Id and
LastName)

SQL primary key on ALTER TABLE

When table is already created and you want to create a PRIMARY KEY constraint
on the “S_Id” column you should use the following SQL:

Primary key on one column:

ALTER TABLE students

ADD PRIMARYKEY (S_Id)

Primary key on multiple column:

ALTER TABLE students

ADD CONSTRAINT pk_StudentID PRIMARYKEY (S_Id,Last_Name)

How to DROP a PRIMARY KEY constraint ?

If you want to DROP (remove) a primary key constraint, you should use
following syntax:

MySQL:

ALTER TABLE students

DROP PRIMARY KEY

SQL Server/ Oracle/ MS Access

ALTER TABLE students

DROP CONSTRAINT pk_StudentID
 P a g e | 90

SQL Foreign Key Constraint

SQL FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINT
In the relational databases, a foreign key is a field or a column that is used to
establish a link between two tables.

The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would destroy links
between tables.

A FOREIGN KEY is a field (or collection of fields) in one table, that refers to the
PRIMARY KEY in another table. In simple words you can say that, a foreign key
in one table used to point primary key in another table.

The table with the foreign key is called the child table, and the table with the
primary key is called the referenced or parent table.

Look at the following two tables:

Person table

Orders table

Notice that the “PersonID” column in the “Orders” table points to the “PersonID”
column in the “Persons” table.

The “PersonID” column in the “Persons” table is the PRIMARY KEY in the
“Persons” table.
 P a g e | 91

The “PersonID” column in the “Orders” table is a FOREIGN KEY in the “Orders”
table.

The FOREIGN KEY constraint prevents invalid data from being inserted into the
foreign key column, because it has to be one of the values contained in the
parent table.

SQL FOREIGN KEY constraint ON CREATE TABLE:

To create a foreign key on the “S_Id” column when the “Orders” table is
created:

MySQL:

CREATE TABLE orders

(
O_Id int NOT NULL,
Order_No int NOT NULL,
S_Id int,
PRIMArY KEY (O_Id),
FOREIGN KEY (S_Id) REFERENCES Persons (S_Id)
)

SQL Server/ Oracle/ MS Access:

CREATE TABLE Orders

(
O_Id int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
Order_No int NOT NULL,
S_Id int,
S_Id int FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES Persons (S_Id)
)

SQL FOREIGN KEY constraint for ALTER TABLE:

If the order table is already created and you want to create a FOREIGN KEY
constraint on the “S_Id” column, you should write the following syntax:

MySQL/ SQL Server/ Oracle/ MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Orders

ADD CONSTRAINT fk_PerOders
FOREIGN KEY (S_Id)
REFERENCES Students (S_Id)

DROP SYNTAX for FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINT:

If you want to drop a FOREIGN KEY constraint, use the following syntax:
 P a g e | 92

MySQL:

ALTER TABLE Orders

ROP FOREIGN KEY fk_PerOrders

SQL Server/ Oracle/ MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Orders

DROP CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders

Difference between primary key and foreign

key in SQL:
These are some important difference between primary key and foreign key in
SQL:

• Primary key cannot be null on the other hand foreign key can be null.
• Primary key is always unique while foreign key can be duplicated.
• Primary key is uniquely identify a record in a table while foreign key is a
field in a table that is primary key in the table.
• There is only one primary key in the table on the other hand we can have
more than one foreign key in the table.
• By default primary key adds a clustered index on the other hand foreign
key does not automatically create an index, clustered or no-clustered. You
must manually create an index for foreign key.

SQL Check
SQL CHECK CONSTRAINT
The CHECK constraint is used to limit the value range that can be placed in a
column.

If you define a CHECK constraint on a column it will allow only certain values for
this column.

If you define a CHECK constraint on a table it can limit the values in certain
columns based on values in other columns in the row.

SQL CHECK on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a CHECK constraint on the ‘Age’ column when the
‘persons’ table is created. The CHECK constraint ensures that the age of a
person must be 18, or older:
 P a g e | 93

CREATE TABLE Persons (

ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
CHECK (Age>=18)
);

SQL CHECK on ALTER TABLE

To create a CHECK constraint on the “Age” column when the table is already
created, use the following SQL:

ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD CHECK (Age>=18);

To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for defining a CHECK constraint on

multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:

ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD CONSTRAINT CHK_PersonAge CHECK (Age>=18 AND City='Sandnes');

DROP a CHECK Constraint

To drop a CHECK constraint, use the following SQL:

ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP CHECK CHK_PersonAge;

SQL Default Constraint

SQL DEFAULT Constraint
The DEFAULT constraint is used to set a default value for a column.

The default value will be added to all new records, if no other value is specified.

SQL DEFAULT on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL sets a DEFAULT value for the “City” column when the “Person”
table is created:

CREATE TABLE Persons (

ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
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City varchar(255) DEFAULT 'Sandnes'

);

The DEFAULT constraint can also be used to insert system values, by using
functions like GETDATE():

CREATE TABLE Orders (

ID int NOT NULL,
OrderNumber int NOT NULL,
OrderDate date DEFAULT GETDATE()
);

SQL DEFAULT on ALTER TABLE

To create a DEFAULT constraint on the “City” column when the table is already
created, use the following SQL:

ALTER TABLE Persons

ALTER City SET DEFAULT 'Sandnes';

DROP a DEFAULT Constraint

To drop a DEFAULT constraint, use the following SQL:

ALTER TABLE Persons

ALTER City DROP DEFAULT;

SQL Create Index

SQL CREATE INDEX Statement
The CREATE INDEX statement is used to create indexes in tables.

Indexes are used to retrieve data from the database more quickly than
otherwise. The users cannot see the indexes, they are just used to speed up
searches/queries.

NOTE: Updating a table with indexes takes more time than updating a table
without (because the indexes also need an update). So, only create indexes on
columns that will be frequently searched against.

CREATE INDEX Syntax

Creates an index on a table. Duplicate values are allowed:

CREATE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);
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CREATE UNIQUE INDEX Syntax

Creates a unique index on a table. Duplicate values are not allowed:

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);

DROP INDEX Statement

ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP INDEX index_name;The

SQL Auto Increment Field

AUTO INCREMENT FIELD
Auto-increment allows a unique number to be generated automatically when a
new record is inserted into a table.

Often this is the primary key field that we would like to be created automatically
every time a new record is inserted.

Syntax for MySQL

The following SQL statement defines the “Personid” column to be an auto-
increment primary key field in the “Person” table:

CREATE TABLE Persons (

Personid int NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
PRIMARY KEY (Personid)
);

MySQL uses the AUTO_INCREMENT keyword to perform an auto-increment

feature.

By default, the starting value for AUTO_INCREMENT is 1, and it will increment by

1 for each new record.

To let the AUTO_INCREMENT sequence start with another value, use the
following SQL statement:

ALTER TABLE Persons AUTO_INCREMENT=100;

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To insert a new record into the “Person” table, we will NOT have to specify a
value for the “Personid” column (a unique value will be added automatically):

INSERT INTO Persons (FirstName,LastName)

VALUES ('Lars','Monsen');

The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the “Persons” table.
The “Personid” column would be assigned a unique value. The “FirstName”
column would be set to “Lars” and the “LastName” column would be set to
“Monsen”.

SQL Dates
SQL DATES
The most difficult part when working with dates is to be sure that the format of
the date you are trying to insert, matches the format of the data column in the
database.

As long as your data contain only the date portion, your queries will work as
expected. However, if a time portion is involved, it gets more complicated.

SQL DATE DATA TYPES

SQL Server comes with the following data types for storing a date or a data/time
value in the database:

• DATE – Format YYYY-MM-DD

• DATETIME – Format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MI:SS
• SMALLDATATIME – Format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MI:SS
• TIMESTAMP – Format: a unique number

SQL Working with Dates

Look at the following table:

Orders Table
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Now we want to select the records with an OrderDate of “2008-11-11” from the
table above.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11'

The result-set will look like this:

NOTE: Two dates can easily be compared if there is no time component

involved!

SQL Views
SQL CREATE VIEW Statement
In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.

A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are
fields from one or more real tables in the database.

You can add SQL statements and functions to a view and present the data as if
the data were coming from one single table.
A view is created with the CREATE VIEW statement.

CREATE VIEW Syntax

CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

NOTE: A view always shows up-to-date data! The database engine recreates the
view, every time a user queries it.

SQL Updating a View

A view can be updated with the CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW statement.

SQL CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Syntax

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CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS

SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

SQL Dropping a View

A view is deleted with the DROP VIEW statement.

SQL DROP VIEW Syntax

DROP VIEW view_name;

SQL Sub Queries

A Subquery or Inner query or a Nested query is a query within another SQL
query and embedded within the WHERE clause.

A subquery is used to return data that will be used in the main query as a
condition to further restrict the data to be retrieved.

Subqueries can be used with the SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE
statements along with the operators like =, <, >, <=, >=, IN, BETWEEN etc.
There are a few rules that subqueries must follow-

• Subqueries must be enclosed within parentheses.

• A subquery can have only one column in the SELECT clause, unless
multiple columns are in the main query for the subquery to compare its
selected columns.
• An ORDER BY command cannot be used in a subquery, although the main
query can use an ORDER BY. The GROUP BY command can be used to
perform the same function as the ORDER BY in a subquery.
• Subqueries that return more than one row can only be used with multiple
value operators such as the IN operator.
• The SELECT list cannot include any references to values that evaluate to a
BLOB, ARRAY, CLOB, or NCLOB.
• A subquery cannot be immediately enclosed in a set function.
• The BETWEEN operator cannot be used with a subquery. However, the
BETWEEN operator can be used within the subquery.
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References:
1. Learning SQL book (By Alan Beaulieu)
2. W3School (Website)
3. Tutorialpoint (website)
4. Javatpoint (website)
5. Guru99 (website)
6. Geeksforgeeks (website)
7. The Complete SQL Bootcamp 2022: Go from Zero to Hero (Udemy)
8. Programming Foundations: Databases (Linkedin)
9. SQL Essential Training (Linkedin)