Calculus

(BMAT101L)

Question Bank

Dr. T. Phaneendra
M. Sc., Ph. D.
Professor of Mathematics
(Higher Academic Grade)
[email protected]
September 22, 2022
 Syllabus and Organization of Contents

Module 1 Single Variable Calculus (Chapters 1 and 2 of the Question Bank)

Differentiation - Extrema on an Interval - Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem - Increas-
ing and Decreasing functions - First derivative test - Second derivative test - Maxima and Minima
- Concavity. Integration - Average function value - Area between curves - Volumes of solids of
revolution

Module 2 Multi-variable Calculus (Chapter 3 of the Question Bank)

Functions of two variables - Limit and continuity - Partial derivatives - Total differential - Jacobian
and its properties

Module 3 Application of Multi-variable Calculus (Chapters 4 and 5 of the Question Bank)

Taylor’s expansion for two variables - maxima and minima – Constrained maxima and minima -
Lagrange’s multiplier method

Module 4 Multiple integrals (Chapters 6, 7, and 8 of the Question Bank)

Evaluation of double integrals - Change of order of integration - Change of variables between Carte-
sian and polar coordinates - Evaluation of triple integrals - change of variables between Cartesian
and cylindrical and spherical coordinates

Module 5 Special Functions (Chapter 9 of the Question Bank)

Beta and Gamma functions–Interrelation between beta and gamma functions-Evaluation of multi-
ple integrals using gamma and beta functions - Dirichlet’s integral -Error function - Complemen-
tary error functions.

Module 6 Vector Differential Calculus (Chapters 10 and 14 of the Question Bank)

Scalar and vector valued functions – Gradient, tangent plane - directional derivative - Divergence
and curl - Scalar and vector potentials - Statements of vector identities - Simple problems

Module 7 Vector Integral Calculus (Chapter2 11, 12 and 13 of the Question Bank)

Line, surface and volume integrals - Statements of Green’s, Stoke’s and Gauss divergence theorems
- Verification and evaluation of vector integrals using them
Contents

1 Differentiation and its Applications 1

1.1 Continuity and Differentiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Absolute Extrema on a Finite Closed Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.3 Mean Value Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.4 Monotonic Functions and the First Derivative Test for Local Extrema . . . . . . . . 7

1.5 Second Derivative Test and Concavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2 Areas and Volumes of solids of Revolution by a Definite Integral 15

2.1 Area of the Region bounded by two Plane Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.2 Average Value of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.3 Volumes of Solids of Revolution - Disk Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.4 Volumes of Solids of Revolution - Washer Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.5 Other Axes of Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3 Continuity and Differentiability of Multi-variable Functions 21

3.1 Geometry of Functions of Two Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3.2 Limit and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3.3 Partial Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3.4 Jacobians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

4 Maxima and Minima for Two-variable Functions 40

4.1 Taylor’s theorem for Functions of Two Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4.2 Approximations using Taylor’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

4.3 Unconstrained Local Extrema for Functions of Two variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5 Constrained Maxima and Minima 49

5.1 Absolute Maxima and Minima on Closed and Bounded Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

5.2 Lagrange Multiplier Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

6 Double Integral In Cartesian Form 60

6.1 Double Integral over a Rectangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

iii
 6.2 Volumes of Regions bounded below by Rectangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

6.3 Double Integral Over General Regions with Non-constant Inner Limits . . . . . . . . 63

6.4 Double Integral Over General Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

6.5 Finding Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

6.6 Reversing the Order of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

7 Change of Variables in a Double Integral 73

7.1 Double Integral in Polar Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

7.2 Change of Variable - Cartesian into Polar: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

7.3 Double Integral over Unbounded Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

7.4 Applications of Double Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

8 Triple Integral and Its Applications 81

8.1 Limits of Integration Specified - Limits all constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

8.2 Limits of Integration Specified: Non-contant Inner Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

8.3 Triple Integrals over General Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

8.4 Triple Integral using Spherical Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

8.5 Triple Integral using Cylindrical Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

8.6 Applications of Triple Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

9 Gamma and Beta Functions 85

9.1 Gamma Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

9.2 Beta Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

9.3 Evaluation of Integrals Using the Gamma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

9.4 Double Integral by Beta and Gamma Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

9.5 Triple Integral by Beta and Gamma Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

9.6 The Error Function and the Complementary Error Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

10 Vector Differential Calculus 95

10.1 Scalar and Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

10.2 Gradient of a Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

10.3 Directional Derivative of a Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

iv
 10.4 Divergence of Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

10.5 Curl of Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

10.6 Vector Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

11 Line Integral and Green’s Theorem 102

11.1 Line Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

11.2 Green’s Theorem in the Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

12 Surface Integral and Stoke’s Theorem 109

12.1 Parametric Form of Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

12.2 Surface Integral of Scalar Point Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

12.3 Surface Integral of Vector Point Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

12.4 Stoke’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

13 Volume Integral and Gauss’ Divergence Theorem 119

13.1 Gauss’ Divergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

14 Conservative Fields 121

14.1 Curl and Irrotational Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

14.2 An Equivalence for Conservative Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

v
vi
Chapter 1

Differentiation and its Applications

Objectives

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to

(a) know about the continuity and differentiability of a real-valued function of a real variable
(b) differentiate between a critical point and a point of absolute extremum of function of a real
variable
(c) find the absolute extrema of a continuous function on a closed interval.
(d) employ Rolle’s and Lagrange’s the mean-value theorems for finding an appropriate constant
of a function of a real variable on a given interval
(e) know about monotonicity and separate the intervals of monotonicity of a function of one
variable
(f) find the local extrema of a function of one variable by employing first and second derivative
tests
(g) decide the concavity of a function of one variable and find its points of inflection

1.1 Continuity and Differentiability

Definition 1.1.1 (Continuity). Let 𝑓 : 𝒟 → R, where 𝒟 ⊂ R, and 𝑐 ∈ 𝒟. Then 𝑓 is said to be

continuous at 𝑐, if

lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑐). (1.1.1)

𝑥→𝑐

If 𝑓 is continuous at every point of [𝑎, 𝑏], then 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏].

Definition 1.1.2 (Differentiability). Let 𝑓 : 𝒟 → R, where 𝒟 ⊂ R, and 𝑐 ∈ 𝒟. Then 𝑓 is said to

be differentiable at 𝑐, if

𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑓 (𝑐)
𝑙 = lim (1.1.2)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐
exists, and the limit value 𝑙 is called the derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) of 𝑓 at 𝑐. If 𝑓 is differentiable at every
point of the domain 𝒟, then 𝑓 is differentiable on 𝒟.

Definition 1.1.3 (Critical Point). Let 𝑓 be defined on an open interval ℐ. An interior point 𝑐 ∈ ℐ
is called a critical point of 𝑓 , if

(a) 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) is undefined or

(b) 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 is zero.

Definition 1.1.4 (Stationary Point). Suppose that 𝑓 is differentiable at a point 𝑐 of its domain ℐ
and 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0. Then 𝑐 is called a stationary point of 𝑓 .

Remark 1.1.1. The tangent to the plane curve 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) at 𝑐 is either the 𝑥-axis or parallel to the
𝑥-axis.

1
2 Chapter 1. Differentiation and its Applications

Example 1.1.1. Find the critical point(s) of 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 /(𝑥 − 2).

Solution. Note that 𝑓 (𝑥) = ∞ when 𝑥 = 2, which does not lie in the domain of definition of 𝑓 .
Now, By the quotient rule of differentiation, we see that
d d
 2
(𝑥 − 2) · d𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 . d𝑥 (𝑥 − 2)
 2 
′ d 𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥) = = 2
d𝑥 𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 − 2)
2
(𝑥 − 2) (2𝑥) − (𝑥 ) (1) 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 𝑥(𝑥 − 4)
= 2
= 2
= · (1.1.3)
(𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 − 2) 2

Therefore, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 for 𝑥 = 0, 4. Thus the critical points of 𝑓 are 𝑥 = 0, 4.

Exercise 1.1.1. Find the critical point(s) of the following functions:

(a) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥(4 − 𝑥) 3

√
(b) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 32 𝑥
(c) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 1
(d) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 3𝑥 5/3 − 15𝑥 2/3
√3
(e) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 25
(f) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 /(𝑥 3 + 8)
(g) 𝑓 (𝑥) = sin |𝑥|
(h) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 1) 2/3

Answers.
(a) 𝑥 = 1, 4
(b) 𝑥 = 0, 4
(c) 𝑥 = ±1
(d) 𝑥 = 0, 2
(e) 𝑥 = 0, ±5
(f) 𝑥 = 0, 24/3
(g) 𝑥 = 0, (𝑛 + 1)π/2, 𝑛 = ±1, ±2, ...
(h) 𝑥 = 0, 1, 3/4

1.2 Absolute Extrema on a Finite Closed Interval

Let 𝑓 : [𝑎, 𝑏] → R and 𝑐 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏].

Definition 1.2.1. We say that 𝑓 (𝑐) is the absolute maximum value on [𝑎, 𝑏], if

𝑓 (𝑥) ≤ 𝑓 (𝑐) for all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], (1.2.1)

𝑐 is called a point of absolute maximum of 𝑓 and 𝑓 (𝑐) absolute maximum value of 𝑓 .

Dr. T. Phaneendra Department of Mathematics, Vellore Institute of Technology

1.2. Absolute Extrema on a Finite Closed Interval 3

Definition 1.2.2. We say that 𝑓 (𝑑) is the absolute minimum value on [𝑎, 𝑏], if

𝑓 (𝑑) ≤ 𝑓 (𝑥) for all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], (1.2.2)

𝑑 is called a point of absolute minimum of 𝑓 and 𝑓 (𝑑) absolute minimum value of 𝑓 .

Theorem 1.2.1 (Extreme Value Theorem). If a function 𝑓 is continuous on a finite closed interval
[𝑎, 𝑏], then 𝑓 has both an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum on [𝑎, 𝑏].
Theorem 1.2.2 (Extreme Value Theorem). If a function 𝑓 has both an absolute extremum on an
open interval (𝑎, 𝑏), then it occurs at a critical point of 𝑓 .

Finding Absolute Extrema on a Finite Closed Interval

To find absolute extrema of a continuous function 𝑓 on a finite closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏]:

(a) Find all critical points of 𝑓 in the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏), and then evaluate 𝑓 there at,
(b) Evaluate 𝑓 at the end points 𝑎 and 𝑏,
(c) The largest of the computed values is the absolute maximum and the smallest is the absolute
minimum for 𝑓 on [𝑎, 𝑏].

√
Example 1.2.1. Find the absolute maxima and absolute minima of 𝑓 (𝑥) = 5 − 𝑥 2 on [−2, 1].

Solution. First, we find the derivative of 𝑓 at any point of (−2, 1). In fact,

d h√ i 2𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 5 − 𝑥2 = − √ · (1.2.3)
d𝑥 5 − 𝑥2

Critical points in (−2, 1). Therefore, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 for 𝑥 = 0, which is a stationary point of 𝑓 . Also,
√
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = ∞ only if 𝑥 = ± 5 ∉ (−2, 1). Thus the critical point lying in (−2, 1) is 𝑥 = 0 only, and
√ √
𝑓 (0) = 5 − 02 = 5.

At the left end point 5 − (−2) 2 = 1 and at the left end point 𝑥 = 1,
√︁
End Points. 𝑥 = −2, 𝑓 (−2) =
𝑓 (1) = 5 − (1) 2 = 2.
√︁

Observation. The largest of the three functional values occurs at 𝑥 = 0 and the smallest at 𝑥 = −2.
√
Conclusion. 𝑓 has the absolute maximum value of 5 at 𝑥 = 0 and the absolute minimum value of
1 at 𝑥 = −2.

Exercise 1.2.1. Find the absolute maxima and absolute minima of the following functions on the
given intervals:

(a) 𝑓 (𝑥) = (2𝑥/3) − 5 for all 𝑥 ∈ [−2, 3]

(b) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑎 (1 − 𝑥) 𝑏 on [0, 1] where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are positive real numbers
(c) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 15𝑥 2 + 36𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ [1, 5]
(d) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 6𝑥 4/3 − 3𝑥 1/3 for all 𝑥 ∈ [−1, 1]

Department of Mathematics, Vellore Institute of Technology Dr. T. Phaneendra

4 Chapter 1. Differentiation and its Applications

(e) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ [−3, 2]

√
(f) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 3𝑥/ 4𝑥 2 + 1 for all 𝑥 ∈ [−1, 1]
(g) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ [−π/4, π/2]
(h) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 1 + 9 − 𝑥 2  for all 𝑥 ∈ [−5, 1]
 

(i) 𝑓 (𝑥) = sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ [0, π]

Answers.
(a) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2/3 ≠ 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ R so that 𝑓 has no critical points. While, 𝑓 (−2) = −19/3 and
𝑓 (3) = −3. Thus 𝑓 has the absolute maximum −3 at 𝑥 = 3 and the absolute minimum −19/3
at 𝑥 = −2.
(b) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑎−1 (1−𝑥) 𝑏−1 [𝑎− (𝑎+𝑏)𝑥] so that 𝑥 = 0, 𝑎/(𝑎+𝑏) are critical points, 𝑓 (0) = 𝑓 (1) =
0, while 𝑓 (𝑎/(𝑎 +𝑏)) = 𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 /(𝑎 +𝑏) 𝑎+𝑏 . Thus 𝑓 has the absolute maximum 𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 /(𝑎 +𝑏) 𝑎+𝑏
at 𝑥 = 𝑎/(𝑎 + 𝑏) and an absolute minimum 0 at the end points 𝑥 = 0, 1.
(c) 𝑥 = 2, 3 are the stationary points of 𝑓 , the absolute maximum 𝑓max = 55 occurs at 𝑥 = 5, the
absolute minimum 𝑓min = 23 occurs at 𝑥 = 1.
(d) 𝑥 = 0, 1/8 are the critical points of 𝑓 , the absolute maximum 𝑓max = 9 occurs at 𝑥 = 1, the
absolute minimum 𝑓min = −9/8 occurs at 𝑥 = 1/8.
(e) 𝑥 = −2, 1 are the critical points of 𝑓 , the absolute maximum 𝑓max = 20 occurs at 𝑥 = 2, the
absolute minimum 𝑓min = −7 occurs at 𝑥 = 1.
√
(f) No critical points of 𝑓 , the absolute maximum 𝑓max = 3/ 5 occurs at 𝑥 = 1, the absolute
√
minimum 𝑓min = −3/ 5 occurs at 𝑥 = −1.
√
(g) 𝑥 = 0 is a stationary point of 𝑓 , the absolute maximum 𝑓max = 2 − π/4 occurs at 𝑥 = −π/4,
√
the absolute minimum 𝑓min = − 3 + π/3 occurs at 𝑥 = π/3.
(h) 𝑥 = 0, −3 are the critical points of 𝑓 , the absolute maximum 𝑓max = 17 occurs at 𝑥 = −5, the
absolute minimum 𝑓min = 1 occurs at 𝑥 = −3.
√
(i) 𝑥 = 3π/4 is a stationary point of 𝑓 , the absolute maximum 𝑓max = 2 occurs at 𝑥 = 3π/4, the
absolute minimum 𝑓min = −1 occurs at 𝑥 = 0.

1.3 Mean Value Theorems

Theorem 1.3.1 (Rolle’s Theorem). Consider 𝑓 : [𝑎, 𝑏] → R. Suppose that

(a) 𝑓 is continuous at every point of the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏],

(b) 𝑓 is differentiable on (𝑎, 𝑏), and
(c) 𝑓 (𝑎) = 𝑓 (𝑏).

Then there is at least one number 𝑐 in (𝑎, 𝑏) such that

𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0. (1.3.1)

Example 1.3.1. Explain why Rolle’s theorem is not applicable to the following functions 𝑓 (𝑥):

Dr. T. Phaneendra Department of Mathematics, Vellore Institute of Technology

1.3. Mean Value Theorems 5

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥
(a) on [0, 4]
𝑥−2
(b) 1 − (𝑥 − 1) 2/3 on [0, 2]
(c) tan 𝑥 on [0, π/4]

Solution.
(a) 𝑓 (𝑥) is not defined, and hence is not continuous at 𝑥 = 2 ∈ [0, 4].
2
(b) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = − 23 (𝑥 − 1) −1+2/3 = − 3( 𝑥−1) 1/3 = ∞ at 𝑥 = 1 ∈ (0, 2). Thus 𝑓 is not differentiable at a

point inside (0, 2).

(c) 𝑓 (0) = 0 and 𝑓 (π/4) = 1 so that 𝑓 (0) ≠ 𝑓 (π/4).

Exercise 1.3.1. Give the reason why Rolle’s theorem is not applicable to each of the following
functions 𝑓 (𝑥):

(a) sec 𝑥 on [0, 2π]

(b) |𝑥| on [−1, 1]

Answers.
(a) 𝑓 (π/2) = ∞, 𝑓 (3π/2) = −∞; 𝑓 is not continuous at 𝑥 = π2 , 3π
2 ∈ [0, 2π].

(b) 𝑓 is not differentiable at 𝑥 = 0 ∈ (−1, 1).

√
Example 1.3.2. Verify whether Rolle’s theorem is applicable to 𝑓 (𝑥) = 1 − 𝑥 2 on [−1, 1]. If it is
so, find an appropriate constant 𝑐 in (−1, 1).

Solution. Note that 𝑓 is a polynomial function of rational degree which is known to be continuous
on R1 and hence on [−1, 1]. Also, 𝑓 (−1) = 𝑓 (1) = 0. Further,

d n√ o 2𝑥 𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 1 − 𝑥2 = − √ = −√ (1.3.2)
d𝑥 2 1−𝑥 2 1 − 𝑥2

which exists on the open interval (−1, 1). Thus Rolle’s theorem is applicable to 𝑓 on [−1, 1]. There-
fore, there exists at least one point 𝑐 ∈ (−1, 1) such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0. To find such a 𝑐, we solve the
equation 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0, that is − √ 𝑥 2 = 0. This gives 𝑥 = 0. Thus taking 𝑐 = 0, we infer that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0,
1− 𝑥
and 𝑐 is the constant of Rolle’s theorem we need.

The differentiability of 𝑓 at the end points is not a necessary condition for the applicability of
Rolle’s theorem on [−1, 1].

𝑥 2 +𝑎𝑏
h i
Example 1.3.3. Verify Rolle’s theorem for 𝑓 (𝑥) = log 𝑥 (𝑎+𝑏) on [𝑎, 𝑏], where 𝑎 > 0, and find
an appropriate constant 𝑐 in (𝑎, 𝑏).

Department of Mathematics, Vellore Institute of Technology Dr. T. Phaneendra

6 Chapter 1. Differentiation and its Applications

Solution. The function 𝑓 (𝑥) is known to be continuous on (0, ∞) and hence on [𝑎, 𝑏]. Also,
𝑓 (𝑎) = 𝑓 (𝑏) = log 1 = 0. Further, 𝑓 is differentiable on (𝑎, 𝑏) with

𝑥(𝑎 + 𝑏) d 𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑏 d
     
𝑥 𝑎𝑏 𝑥 𝑎𝑏
′
𝑓 (𝑥) = 2 = 2 𝑥+ = 2 1− 2 .
𝑥 + 𝑎𝑏 d𝑥 𝑥(𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑏 d𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑏 𝑥

for all 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏). Thus Rolle’s theorem is applicable to 𝑓 on [𝑎, 𝑏]. Therefore, there exists at least
√
one point 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0. But 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 only if 1 − 𝑎𝑏/𝑥 2 = 0, that is when 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑏.
√
Thus taking 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏, we see that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0, and 𝑐 is the constant of Rolle’s theorem.

Exercise 1.3.2. Verify whether Rolle’s theorem and find an appropriate constant 𝑐 of it for each
of the following functions 𝑓 (𝑥):
√
(a) 𝑥 − 𝑥/3 on [0, 9]
(b) (𝑥 − 𝑎) 𝑚 (𝑥 − 𝑏) 𝑛 on [𝑎, 𝑏]
(c) (sin 𝑥)/𝑒 𝑥 on [0, π]
(d) log 4 + 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 on [−1, 3]

√
(e) 𝑥2 − 𝑥 on [0, 4]

Answers.
(a) 𝑐 = 9/4 ∈ (0, 9)
(b) 𝑐 = (𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑚)/(𝑚 + 𝑛) ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏)
(c) 𝑐 = π/4 ∈ (0, π)
(d) 𝑐 = 1
(e) 𝑐 = 1

Theorem 1.3.2 (The Mean Value Theorem). Suppose that

(a) 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏],

(b) 𝑓 is differentiable on (𝑎, 𝑏).

Then there is at least one number 𝑐 in (𝑎, 𝑏) such that

𝑓 (𝑏) − 𝑓 (𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = · (1.3.3)
𝑏−𝑎

Example 1.3.4. Explain why the mean value theorem is not applicable to 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2/3 in [−1, 8].

Solution. Note that 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (2/3)𝑥 −1+2/3 = 2/3𝑥 1/3 = ∞ at 𝑥 = 0. Thus 𝑓 is not differentiable at
𝑥 = 0 ∈ (−1, 8). Hence the mean value theorem is not applicable to 𝑓 in [−1, 8].

Exercise 1.3.3. Explain why the mean value theorem is not applicable to the following functions:
sin 𝑥
(
𝑥 , (−π ≤ 𝑥 < 0)
(a) 𝑓 (𝑥) =
0, (𝑥 = 0)

Dr. T. Phaneendra Department of Mathematics, Vellore Institute of Technology

1.4. Monotonic Functions and the First Derivative Test for Local Extrema 7

𝑥 2 − 𝑥,
(
(−2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ −1)
(b) 𝑓 (𝑥) =
2𝑥 2
− 3𝑥 − 3, (−1 < 𝑥 ≤ 0)
√
(c) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1 in [0, 1]

Answers.
(a) 𝑓 is not continuous at 𝑥 = 0 ∈ [−π, 0]
(b) 𝑓 is not differentiable at 𝑥 = −1 ∈ (−2, 0)
(c) 𝑓 is not differentiable at 𝑥 = 1/2 ∈ (0, 1)

Example 1.3.5. Verify the mean value theorem for 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥+1/𝑥 on [1/2, 1], and find the constant
𝑐 ∈ (1/2, 1).

Solution. Note that 𝑓 is continuous and differentiable on R − {0}. In particular, it is continuous

on [1/2, 1], and differentiable on (1/2, 1).

Hence, by Lagrange’s mean-value theorem, there exist at least one point 𝑐 ∈ (1/2, 1) such that

𝑓 (1) − 𝑓 (1/2) 1 (1 + 1) − [(1/2) + 2]

𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = or 1 − 2 = . (1.3.4)
1 − 1/2 𝑐 1/2
√
This holds good only if 𝑐 = 1/ 2.

Obviously, 𝑐 ∈ (1/2, 1) which is regarded as the constant of the mean value theorem for 𝑓 .

Exercise 1.3.4. Verify the mean value theorem for each of the following functions 𝑓 (𝑥) in the
given interval and find an appropriate constant 𝑐 in each case:

(a) log 𝑥 on 𝑥 ∈ [1, 𝑒]

(b) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑙𝑥 2 + 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑛 on 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]
(c) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 4; on 𝑥 ∈ [−1, 2]
√
(d) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 25 − 𝑥 2 on 𝑥 ∈ [−5, 3]
(e) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥+1
𝑥−1 on 𝑥 ∈ [2, 3]

Answers.
(a) 𝑐 = 𝑒 − 1 ∈ (1, 𝑒)
(b) 𝑐 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)/2 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏)
(c) 𝑐 = 1 ∈ (−1, 2)
√
(d) 𝑐 = − 5 ∈ (−5, 3)
√
(e) 𝑐 = 1 + 2 ∈ (2, 3)

1.4 Monotonic Functions and the First Derivative Test for Local Extrema

Definition 1.4.1 (Monotonic Functions). We say that 𝑓 : [𝑎, 𝑏] → R is

Department of Mathematics, Vellore Institute of Technology Dr. T. Phaneendra

8 Chapter 1. Differentiation and its Applications

▶ increasing on [𝑎, 𝑏], if 𝑓 (𝑥1 ) ≤ 𝑓 (𝑥 2 ) for all 𝑥 1 , 𝑥2 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] such that 𝑥 1 < 𝑥2 ,
▶ decreasing on [𝑎, 𝑏], if 𝑓 (𝑥 1 ) ≥ 𝑓 (𝑥 2 ) for all 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] such that 𝑥 1 < 𝑥2 ,
▶ monotonic on [𝑎, 𝑏], if it is either increasing or decreasing

Theorem 1.4.1 (Test of Monotonicity). Let 𝑓 be continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] and differentiable on (𝑎, 𝑏).

▶ If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 at each point 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏), then 𝑓 is increasing on [𝑎, 𝑏],
▶ If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0 at each point 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏), then 𝑓 is decreasing on [𝑎, 𝑏].
Theorem 1.4.2 (First Derivative Test for Local Maxima). If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) changes its sign from positive to
negative on passing through 𝑐 from left to the right, that is
(
>0 for 𝑥 < 𝑐
𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
<0 for 𝑥 > 𝑐

then 𝑓 has a local maximum at 𝑐.

Theorem 1.4.3 (First Derivative Test for Local Minima). If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) changes its sign from negative to
positive on passing through 𝑐 from left to the right, that is
(
<0 for 𝑥 < 𝑐
𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
>0 for 𝑥 > 𝑐

then 𝑓 has a local minimum at 𝑐.

Theorem 1.4.4 (First Derivative Test for Local Extrema). If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) positive or negative on both sides
of 𝑐, then 𝑓 does not have local extremum at 𝑐.

Dr. T. Phaneendra Department of Mathematics, Vellore Institute of Technology

1.4. Monotonic Functions and the First Derivative Test for Local Extrema 9

Example 1.4.1. Use the first derivative test to identify the local extrema of 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4.

Solution. Note that the first derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 4 is negative for 𝑥 < 2 and positive for 𝑥 > 2.
Thus the graph of 𝑓 descends towards 𝑥 = 2 on the left side and then ascends away from 𝑥 = 2 on
the right side. Therefore, the critical point 𝑥 = 2 is a local minimum of 𝑓 with the local minimum
value 𝑓 (2) = 0.

Example 1.4.2. Let 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 4 −8𝑥 2 +16 = (𝑥 2 −4) 2 . Separate the intervals on which 𝑓 is increasing
and on which 𝑓 is decreasing. Then use the first derivative test to find its local extrema.

Solution. Since 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2(𝑥 2 − 4) (2𝑥) = 4𝑥(𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 + 2), the stationary points are 𝑥 = 0, ±2.

𝑥-values 4𝑥 𝑥−2 𝑥+2 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑓 (𝑥) Interval

𝑥 < −2 − − − − ↘ (−∞, −2)
−2 < 𝑥 < 0 − − + + ↗ (−2, 0)
0<𝑥<2 + − + − ↘ (0, 2)
𝑥>2 + + + + ↗ (2, ∞)

Therefore, 𝑓 is ↗ on (−2, 0) ∪ (2, ∞) and ↘ on (−∞, −2) ∪ (0, 2).

Also from the above table we see that 𝑓 is decreasing for 𝑥 < −2 and increasing for 𝑥 > −2.
Similarly, 𝑓 is decreasing for 𝑥 < 2 and increasing for 𝑥 > 2. Thus 𝑥 = ±2 are the points of local
minimum for 𝑓 . While 𝑓 is increasing for 𝑥 < 0 and decreasing for 𝑥 > 0. Therefore, 𝑥 = 0 is a
point of local maximum for 𝑓 .

Example 1.4.3. Use the first derivative test to identify the points of local extremum of 𝑓 (𝑥) =
𝑥 2 /(4 − 𝑥 2 ), where 𝑥 ≠ ±2.

Solution. By the quotient rule,

 2  2) · d 𝑥2 − 𝑥2 . d 4 − 𝑥2


d 𝑥 (4 − 𝑥 d𝑥 d𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = =
d𝑥 4 − 𝑥 2 (4 − 𝑥 2 ) 2
2 2
(4 − 𝑥 ) (2𝑥) − (𝑥 ) (−2𝑥) 8𝑥
= 2 2
= · (1.4.1)
(4 − 𝑥 ) (4 − 𝑥 2 ) 2

Therefore, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 for 𝑥 = 0. That is 𝑥 = 0 is a stationary point. Since

(
<0 for 𝑥 < 0
𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
>0 for 𝑥 > 0,

the graph of 𝑓 descends towards 𝑥 = 0 on the left side, and then ascends away from 𝑥 = 0 on the
right side. Thus 𝑥 = 0 is a local minimum of 𝑓 with minimum value 𝑓 (0) = 0.

Department of Mathematics, Vellore Institute of Technology Dr. T. Phaneendra

10 Chapter 1. Differentiation and its Applications

Exercise 1.4.1. Find the critical points of each of the following functions 𝑓 (𝑥), and separate the
intervals on which 𝑓 is increasing and on which 𝑓 is decreasing. Then use the first derivative test
to find its local extrema:

(a) 2𝑥 3 − 18𝑥
√ √ √
(b) 𝑥 8 − 𝑥 2 , −2 2 < 𝑥 < 2 2
𝑥 2 −3
(c) 𝑥−2 , 𝑥 ≠ 2
√
(d) 𝑥 2 5 − 𝑥, 𝑥 <5
(e) 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3
(f) 3𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 2
√
(g) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 25 − 𝑥 2 , −5 < 𝑥 < 5
(h) 12𝑥 − 𝑥 3
(i) 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1
(j) (𝑥 − 3)𝑒 𝑥
Answers.
√ √ √ √ √
(a) 𝑓 is ↗ on (−∞, − 3) ∪ ( 3, ∞), ↘ on (− 3, 3); − 3 is a point of local maximum, while
√
3 is a point of local minimum for 𝑓 .
√ √
(b) 𝑓 is ↗ on (−2, 2), ↘ on (−2 2, −2) ∪ (2, 2 2); −2 is a point of local minimum, while 2 is a
point of local maximum for 𝑓 .
(c) 𝑓 is ↗ on (−∞, 1) ∪ (3, ∞), ↘ on (1, 2) ∪ (2, 3); 1 is a point of local maximum, while 3 is a
point of local minimum for 𝑓 .
(d) 𝑓 is ↗ on (0, 4), ↘ on (−∞, 0) ∪ (4, 5); 4 is a point of local maximum, while 0 is a point of
local minimum for 𝑓 .
(e) 𝑓 is ↗ on (2, ∞), ↘ on (−∞, 2); 0 is a point of local maximum for 𝑓 .
(f) 𝑓 is ↗ on (−2, 0) ∪ (1, ∞), ↘ on (−∞, −2) ∪ (0, 1); −2 is a point of local minimum, while
1, 2 are points of local minimum for 𝑓 .
(g) 𝑓 is ↗ on (−5, 0), ↘ on (0, 5). Since 𝑓 ′ changes its sign from positive to negative on passing
through 𝑥 = 0, it is a point of local maximum and the local maximum value is 𝑓 (0) = 5.
(h) Since (
>0 for − 2 < 𝑥 < 2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
< 0 if 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −2) (2, ∞),
Ð

𝑓 is ↗ on (−2, 2), ↘ on (−∞, −2) (2, ∞); −2 is a point of local minimum, while 2 is a point
Ð

of local minimum for 𝑓 .

(i) Since 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3(𝑥 + 1) 2 ≥ 0; for all 𝑥; 𝑓 is ↗ on (−∞, ∞); No local maximum nor local
minimum for 𝑓 .
(j) 𝑓 is ↗ on (2, ∞), ↘ on (−∞, 2); 0 is a point of local maximum for 𝑓 .

Example 1.4.4. Find the intervals on which the function 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 with 𝑎 ≠ 0, is
increasing and decreasing. Describe the reasoning behind your answer.

Dr. T. Phaneendra Department of Mathematics, Vellore Institute of Technology

1.5. Second Derivative Test and Concavity 11

2
𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
  
Solution. We write 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏
2𝑎 − 4𝑎2
, which is a parabola with vertex
at 𝑥 = 𝑏
− 2𝑎 ;
 
(a) For 𝑎 > 0, the parabola is oriented up and hence 𝑓 is increasing on − 2𝑎𝑏
, ∞ and decreasing
 
on ∞, − 2𝑎 𝑏
.
 
(b) If 𝑎 < 0, the parabola is oriented down and 𝑓 is decreasing on − 2𝑎 𝑏
, ∞ and increasing on
 
𝑏
∞, − 2𝑎 .
 
Note that 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏
2𝑎 = 0 so that 𝑥 = − 2𝑎
𝑏
is a critical point of 𝑓 .

Example 1.4.5. Find the constants 𝑎 and 𝑏 so that 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 has an absolute maximum at
the point (1, 2).

Solution. We see that 𝑓 (1) = 2 implies 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 2. while 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏. Since 𝑥 = 1 is a critical
point of 𝑓 , 𝑓 ′ (1) = 0 gives 2𝑎 + 𝑏 = 0. Solving these conditions, we get 𝑎 = −2, 𝑏 = 4. Hence
𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥.

Exercise 1.4.2. Find the constant 𝑘 so that 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑘/𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥/(𝑥 2 + 𝑘) have an relative
extremum at 𝑥 = 3.

Answer. 𝑘 = 54, 9 respectively.

1.5 Second Derivative Test and Concavity

Theorem 1.5.1 (Second Derivative for Local Extrema). Let 𝑓 (𝑥) be a twice differentiable at a point
𝑥 = 𝑐 such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0.

▶ If 𝑓 ′′ (𝑐) > 0, then 𝑐 is a point of local minimum,

▶ If 𝑓 ′′ (𝑐) < 00, then 𝑐 is a point of local maximum for 𝑓 .
Definition 1.5.1 (Concavity). If the graph of a function 𝑓 (𝑥) lies above the tangents at its points
on an interval 𝐼, we say that 𝐶 is concave up in 𝐼. While, If the graph of 𝑓 (𝑥) lies below the tangents
at its points on an interval 𝐼, we say that 𝐶 is concave down in 𝐼.

Theorem 1.5.2 (Test for Concavity). Let 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) be a plane curve 𝐶. Then the graph of 𝑓 (𝑥) is
concave up or down in 𝐼 according as 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) > 0 or 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) < 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼 respectively.
Definition 1.5.2 (Point of Inflection). A point 𝑃 on a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) is called a point of inflection, if
𝑓 is continuous at 𝑃 and the concavity of the curve reverses on passing through 𝑃. Thus 𝑃(𝑐, 𝑓 (𝑐))

Department of Mathematics, Vellore Institute of Technology Dr. T. Phaneendra

12 Chapter 1. Differentiation and its Applications

is a point of inflection on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥), if the sign of 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) is different on either side of the
ordinate 𝑥 = 𝑐.

Example 1.5.1. Use the second derivative test to find the points of local maximum and local min-
3 2
imum for 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 − 2𝑥 + 31 · Then identify the intervals on which 𝑓 is concave up and concave
down. Also, find the points of inflection of 𝑓 .

Solution. We have

▶ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 = (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 2); the critical points are −1, 2; 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1.

▶ Since 𝑓 ”(−1) = 2(−1) − 1 = −3 < 0, 𝑥 = −1 is a point of local maximum with local maximum
value 𝑓 (−1) = 3/2. While, 𝑓 ”(2) = 2(2) − 1 = 3 > 0, 𝑥 = 2 is a point of local minimum with
local minimum value 𝑓 (2) = 3/2.

▶ Since
(
>0 for 𝑥 > 1/2
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥)
<0 if 𝑥 < 2,

𝑓 is concave up for 𝑥 > 1/2, and concave down for 𝑥 < 1/2. Since 𝑓 is continuous and its
concavity reverses on passing through 𝑥 = 1/2, it is point of inflection of 𝑓 .

Example 1.5.2. Use the second derivative test to find the points of local maximum and local min-
imum for 𝑓 (𝑥) = √ 𝑥2 · Then identify the intervals on which 𝑓 is concave up and concave down.
𝑥 +1
Also, find the points of inflection of 𝑓 .

Solution.

▶ The first derivative of 𝑓 is 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 1/(𝑥 2 + 1) 3/2 , which is neither zero nor infinity. Thus 𝑓
has no critical points, and hence no local maxima and no local minima.
3𝑥
▶ Since 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − ( 𝑥 2 +1) 5/2 > 0 on (−∞, 0), and < 0 on (0, ∞), 𝑓 is concave up on (−∞, 0) and

concave down on (0, ∞).

▶ Since 𝑓 is continuous and its concavity reverses on passing through the origin, 𝑥 = 0 is a
point of inflection.

Dr. T. Phaneendra Department of Mathematics, Vellore Institute of Technology

1.5. Second Derivative Test and Concavity 13

Exercise 1.5.1. Use the second derivative test to find the points of local extremum for of each of
the following functions 𝑓 (𝑥). Then identify the intervals on which 𝑓 is concave up and concave
down, and find the points of inflection in each case.
3 2
(a) 4 (𝑥 − 1) 2/3
(b) −2𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 3
√3
(c) 𝑥 3 + 1
(d) 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 1
(e) 𝑥𝑒 − 𝑥
(f) 𝑥 4
(g) 5 + 12𝑥 − 𝑥 3
(h) 𝑥/(𝑥 2 + 2)
2
(i) 𝑥𝑒 𝑥
√
(k) log 𝑥 2 + 4

Answers.
√ √
(a) 𝑥 = 0 is a local maximum, 𝑥 = ±1 are local minima; 𝑓 is concave up on (−∞, − 3) ∪ ( 3, ∞),
√ √ √
concave down on (− 3, 3); 𝑥 = ± 3 are points of inflection.
(𝑏) local maximum at 𝑥 = 2, local minimum at 𝑥 = 0; 𝑓 is concave up on (−∞, 1) and concave
down on (1, ∞); 𝑥 = 1 is a point of inflection.
(𝑐) No local maxima, nor local minima; 𝑓 is concave up on (−∞, −1) ∪ (0, ∞) and concave down
on (−1, 0); 𝑥 = 0, −1 are points of inflection.
(d) 𝑥 = 0 is a local maximum, 𝑥 = 3 is a local minimum; 𝑓 is concave down on (−∞, 1), concave
up on (1, ∞); 𝑥 = 1 is a point of inflection.
(e) 𝑥 = 1 is a local maximum; 𝑓 is concave down on (−∞, 2), concave up on (2, ∞); 𝑥 = 2 is a
point of inflection.
(f) 𝑥 = 0 is a local minimum; 𝑓 is concave up on (−∞, ∞); no point of inflection.
(g) 𝑥 = 2 is a local maximum, 𝑥 = −2 is a local minimum; 𝑓 is concave up on (−∞, 0), concave
down on (0, ∞); 𝑥 = 0 is a point of inflection.
√ √ √ Ð √
(h) 𝑥 = 2 is a local maximum, 𝑥 = − 2 is a local minimum; 𝑓 is concave up on (− 6, 0) ( 6, ∞),
√ Ð √ √
concave down on (−∞, − 6) (0, 6); 𝑥 = 0, ± 6 are points of inflection.
(i) 𝑓 is always increasing on (−∞, ∞); No local extrema; 𝑓 is concave up on (0, ∞), concave
down on (−∞, 0); 𝑥 = 0, is a point of inflection.
(j) local minimum at 𝑥 = 0; 𝑓 is concave up on (−2, 2) and concave down on (−∞, −2) (2, ∞);
Ð

𝑥 = ±2 are points of inflection.

Summary

At the end of the lesson, you have learned

(a) about the continuity and differentiability and the critical point of a function of a real variable

Department of Mathematics, Vellore Institute of Technology Dr. T. Phaneendra

14 Chapter 1. Differentiation and its Applications

(b) to find the absolute extrema of a continuous function on a closed interval

(c) about the applicability of Rolle’s and Lagrange’s mean-value theorems
(d) about separating the intervals of their monotonicity and the application of first derivative test
to find the local extrema of a function of one variable
(e) about the application of second derivative test to find the local extrema, concavity and the
points of inflection of a function of one variable

Text and Reference Books

1. Anton, H., Bivens, I., Davis, S., Calculus - Early Transcendentals, 10th Edition (2013), John Wiley
& Sons.
2. Smith and Minton, Calculus - Early Transcendental Functions, McGraw-Hill (2011), 4th Edition.
3. Thomus, J. B., Calculus, 12th Edition, Copyright © 2010 Pearson Edu.

Dr. T. Phaneendra Department of Mathematics, Vellore Institute of Technology

Chapter 2

Areas and Volumes of solids of Revolution by a Definite Integral

Objectives

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to compute

(a) the area of a plane region bounded by two curves between two ordinates
(b) the average of a function on some interval
(c) the volume of solid of revolution of an arc of a plane curve about an axis by the disk and
washer methods.

2.1 Area of the Region bounded by two Plane Curves

The area 𝐴 of a region 𝒟 enclosed by the plane curves 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) between the ordinates
𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏, where 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are continuous and 𝑓 (𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) for 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], is given by
the definite integral of 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) from 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏. That is

𝐴 =𝑏𝑥=𝑎 [ 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] d𝑥.

Remark 2.1.1. If 𝑓 (𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) for 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑐] and 𝑓 (𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥) for 𝑥 ∈ [𝑐, 𝑏], then
∫ 𝑏 ∫ 𝑐 ∫ 𝑏
𝐴= | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)| d𝑥 = [ 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] d𝑥 + [𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓 (𝑥)] d𝑥.
𝑥=𝑎 𝑥=𝑎 𝑥=𝑐

Example 2.1.1. Find the area of the region enclosed by the parabolas 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 .

Solution. Let 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 . From 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 , we see that 𝑦 − 1 = −(1 − 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )

or 𝑦 − 1 = −(𝑥 − 1) 2 , which is a negatively oriented parabola, with vertex at (1, 1), passing through
the origin (0, 0). This intersects the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 in two points (0, 0) and (1, 1). So the 𝑥-limits
are 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 1. Also, 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 = 2(𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) ≥ 0 for all 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1; 𝐴 = 1/3.

Example 2.1.2. Find the area of the region enclosed by the the curves 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 and 𝑦 = cos 𝑥
between the ordinates 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = π/2.

Solution. The curves 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 and 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 intersect in the point where 𝑥 = π4 . Also, cos 𝑥 ≥ sin 𝑥
√
for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ π4 , while sin 𝑥 ≥ cos 𝑥 for π4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ π2 ; 𝐴 = 2( 2 − 1).

Example 2.1.3. Find the area of the region enclosed by the graphs of 𝑦 = |𝑥| and 𝑦 = 1 − |𝑥|.

Solution. The graphs intersect in the points, given by 1 − |𝑥| = |𝑥|, that is 𝑥 = ±1/2. Also,
1 − |𝑥| ≥ |𝑥| for all − 21 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 12 ; 𝐴 = 1/2.

15
16 Chapter 2. Areas and Volumes of solids of Revolution by a Definite Integral

Exercise 2.1.1. Find the area of the region enclosed by

(a) the cubical parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 and the straight line 𝑦 = 𝑥 in the first quadrant;

(b) the sinusoidal curves 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 and 𝑦 = sin 2𝑥 between the ordinates 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = π;

(c) the parabolas 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 and 𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦 in the first quadrant;

(d) the graphs of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 8.

Answers.

(a) The curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 and the straight line 𝑦 = 𝑥 intersect in the points (0, 0) and (1, 1). So the
𝑥-limits are 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 1. Also, 𝑥 ≥ 𝑥 3 for all 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1; 𝐴 = 1/4.

(b) The curves 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 and 𝑦 = sin 2𝑥 intersect in the point where 𝑥 = π3 . Also, sin 2𝑥 ≥ sin 𝑥
for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ π3 , while sin 𝑥 ≥ sin 2𝑥 for π3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ π; 𝐴 = 5/2.

(c) The parabolas intersect in the points, given by 4𝑎𝑥 = (𝑥 2 /4𝑎) 2 , that is at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 4𝑎.
√
Also, 2 𝑎𝑥 ≥ 𝑥 2 /4 for all 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4𝑎; 𝐴 = 16𝑎 2 /3.

(d) The graphs intersect in the points, given by 2𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 8, that is or 𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥 = 4. Also
2𝑥 ≥ 𝑥 2 − 8 for all −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4; 𝐴 = 56.

Exercise 2.1.2 (Self-check). Find the area of the region enclosed by

(a) the curves 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 and 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 between the ordinates 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = π

(b) the parabola 𝑦 = 8 − 3𝑥 2 and the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 (from 𝑥 = −1 to 𝑥 = 2)

(c) the parabolas 𝑦 = 20 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥

√ √
(d) the astroid 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 and the line 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 in the first quadrant

(e) the graphs of 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 12 and 𝑦 = 4(𝑥 + 1) from 𝑥 = −3 to 𝑥 = 3.

2.2 Average Value of a Function

Let 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) be continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏]. The average value of 𝑓 on the interval is given by

1 𝑏
𝑓ave = 𝑓 (𝑥) d𝑥. (2.2.1)
𝑏 − 𝑎 𝑥=𝑎

Example 2.2.1. Find the average value 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 10 on [0, 2].

Solution. By (2.2.1), we have

1 2 1 2 19
𝑓ave = [𝑥 2 + 10] d𝑥 = 10 + 𝑥 3 /3 𝑥=0 = .
2 − 0 𝑥=0 2 3

Example 2.2.2. Find the average value 𝑓 (𝑥) = |𝑥| − 1 on [−1, 3].

Dr. T. Phaneendra Department of Mathematics, Vellore Institute of Technology

2.3. Volumes of Solids of Revolution - Disk Method 17

Solution. Note that 𝑓 (𝑥) = −(𝑥 + 1) for −1 ≤ 𝑥 < 0, 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3. Therefore, by
(2.2.1),

1 3 1 0
𝑓 (𝑥) d𝑥 = − 𝑥=−1 (𝑥 + 1) d𝑥 +3𝑥=0 (𝑥 − 1) d𝑥

𝑓ave =
3 − (−1) 𝑥=−1 4
0 3 1 9
= −  (𝑥 + 1) 2 /3 𝑥=−1 + 𝑥 2 /2 − 𝑥  𝑥=0 = + − 3 = 11/6.
  
3 2
Exercise 2.2.1 (Self-check). Find the average value 𝑓ave of each of the following functions on the
indicated interval:

(a) 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 1, [−1, 1]
√
(b) 5𝑥 + 1, [0, 3]
(c) 2/(𝑥 + 1) 2 , [3, 5]
(d) cos 2𝑥, [3, π/4]
(e) 𝑥 2/3 − 𝑥 −2/3 , [1, 4]
√
(f) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑥 2 + 16, [0, 3].

2.3 Volumes of Solids of Revolution - Disk Method

Let 𝑓 (𝑥) be a continuous function on [𝑎, 𝑏]. The volume of solid of revolution obtained by revolv-
ing the arc of the plane curve 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) from 𝑥 = 𝑎 to 𝑥 = 𝑏 about the 𝑥-axis, is

𝑉 =𝑏𝑎 π𝑦 2 d𝑥 =𝑏𝑎 π[ 𝑓 (𝑥)] 2 d𝑥. (2.3.1)

Let 𝑔(𝑦) be a continuous function on [𝑐, 𝑑]. The volume of solid of revolution obtained by revolving
the arc of the plane curve 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦) from 𝑦 = 𝑐 to 𝑦 = 𝑑 about the 𝑦-axis, is

𝑉 =𝑐𝑑 π𝑥 2 d𝑦 =𝑐𝑑 π[𝑔(𝑦)] 2 d𝑦. (2.3.2)

√
Example 2.3.1. Find the volume of the solid of revolution of the arc of the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 from
𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 1 about the 𝑥-axis.

Solution. The solid of∫revolution of∫the arc of the parabola is a paraboloid with 𝑥-axis as its axis,
1 1
and its volume is 𝑉 = π𝑦 2 d𝑥 = π𝑥 d𝑥 = π/2.
𝑥=0 𝑥=0

Exercise 2.3.1. Find the volume of the solid of revolution of the region enclosed by the hyperbola
𝑥𝑦 = 2 about the 𝑦-axis, between the limits 𝑦 = 1 to 𝑦 = 8.

Answer. 𝑉 = 7π/2.

Exercise 2.3.2. Find the volume of the solid of revolution of

(a) the semi-circular arc 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎 2 from 𝑥 = −𝑎 to 𝑥 = 𝑎 about the 𝑥-axis;

(b) the arc of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 from 𝑦 = 0 to 𝑦 = 8 about the 𝑦-axis;
(c) the hyperbola 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 = 1 from 𝑥 = −𝑎 to 𝑥 = 𝑎 about the 𝑥-axis;

Department of Mathematics, Vellore Institute of Technology Dr. T. Phaneendra

18 Chapter 2. Areas and Volumes of solids of Revolution by a Definite Integral

Answers.
(a) 𝑉 = 4π𝑎 3 /3.
(b) 𝑉 = 96π/5.

Exercise 2.3.3.
(a) Regarding a cone of height ℎ and radius 𝑎, as a solid of revolution of the straight line segment
joining the vertex (0, 0) to the point (𝑎, ℎ) from 𝑦 = 0 to 𝑦 = ℎ about the 𝑦-axis, find its
volume.
(b) Regarding a cylinder of height ℎ and radius 𝑎, as a solid of revolution of the rectangle with
edges 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑦 = ℎ about the 𝑦-axis, find its volume.

Answers.
(a) 𝑉 = π𝑎 2 ℎ/3
(b) 𝑉 = π𝑎 2 ℎ

Exercise 2.3.4 (Self-check). Find the volume of the solid of revolution of the graph of each of
following functions about the 𝑥-axis, between the given limits

(a) 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5 from 𝑥 = 1 to 𝑥 = 4
(b) 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 3
√
(c) cos 𝑥 + 1 from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = π
√
(d) 𝑥 + 1 from 𝑥 = 1 to 𝑥 = 4
(e) 2/(𝑥 + 1) from 𝑥 = 1 to 𝑥 = 3

2.4 Volumes of Solids of Revolution - Washer Method

The volume of solid of revolution of the region enclosed by the plane curves 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)
with 𝑓 (𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) from 𝑥 = 𝑎 to 𝑥 = 𝑏 about the 𝑥-axis, is

𝑉 =𝑏𝑎 π[ 𝑓 (𝑥) 2 − 𝑔(𝑥) 2 ] d𝑥. (2.4.1)

The volume of solid of revolution of the region enclosed by the plane curves 𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑦) and 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦)
with 𝑓 (𝑦) ≥ 𝑔(𝑦) from 𝑦 = 𝑐 to 𝑦 = 𝑑 about the 𝑦-axis, is

𝑉 =𝑐𝑑 π[ 𝑓 (𝑦) 2 − 𝑔(𝑦) 2 ] d𝑦. (2.4.2)

Example 2.4.1. Find the volume of the solid of revolution of the region enclosed by the parabola
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 about the 𝑥-axis.

Solution. The two curves intersect in the points (0, 0) and (1, 1), and 𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑥 for all 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1.
Therefore, the volume of the solid of revolution is
 3 1
𝑥 𝑥 5 
𝑉 =1𝑥=0 2 2 2
π[𝑥 − (𝑥 ) ] d𝑥 =1𝑥=0 2 4
π(𝑥 − 𝑥 ) d𝑥 = π  − 
 = 2π/5.
3 5 𝑥=0

Dr. T. Phaneendra Department of Mathematics, Vellore Institute of Technology

2.5. Other Axes of Revolution 19

Example 2.4.2. Find the volume of the solid of revolution of the region enclosed by the parabola
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1 and the line 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 3 about the 𝑥-axis.

Solution. The two curves intersect in the points, where 𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥 = 1. Also, 𝑥 2 + 1 ≤ 3 − 𝑥 for
all −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1. Hence

𝑉 =1𝑥=−2 π[(3 − 𝑥) 2 − (𝑥 2 + 1) 2 ] d𝑥 =1𝑥=−2 π(8 − 6𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 4 ) d𝑥 = 117π/5.

Exercise 2.4.1 (Self-check). Find the volume of the solid of revolution of each of the following
regions enclosed by the given curves about the 𝑥-axis (between the given limits):

(a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
(b) 𝑦 2 = 4(𝑥 − 1) and 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1
(c) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2 and 𝑦 = 10 − 𝑥 2
(d) 𝑦 = 1/𝑥 and 2𝑦 = 5 − 2𝑥
Exercise 2.4.2 (Self-check). Find the volume of the solid of revolution of each of the following
regions enclosed by the given curves about the 𝑦-axis:

(a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 1/3 and 𝑥 = 4𝑦, 𝑥, 𝑦 ≥ 0

(b) 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑥
(c) 𝑦 = 16 − 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 2
(d) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 1/3
Exercise 2.4.3 (Self-check). Imagine the region 𝒟, which gives a cylindrical shell with height ℎ,
in-radius 𝑟 and out-radius 𝑅, as a solid of revolution about 𝑥-axis. Then find its volume.

2.5 Other Axes of Revolution

It is possible to use the method of disks and the method of washers to find the volume of a solid of
revolution whose axis of revolution is a line other than one of the coordinate axes. We integrate
an appropriate cross-sectional area to find the volume.

Example 2.5.1. Find the volume of the solid generated when the region under the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
over the interval [0, 2] is revolved about the line 𝑦 = −1.

Solution. At each 𝑥 in the interval 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2, the cross section of the solid perpendicular to the
axis 𝑦 = −1 is a washer with outer radius 𝑥 2 + 1 and inner radius 1. Thus the area of the typical
washer is

𝐴(𝑥) = π[(𝑥 2 + 1) 2 − 12 ] = π(𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 ).

Therefore, the volume of the solid of revolution is

 5 2
𝑥 2𝑥 3 
𝑉 =2𝑥=0 π𝐴(𝑥) d𝑥 =2𝑥=0 4 2
π[𝑥 + 2𝑥 ] d𝑥 = π  +
 = 176π/15.
5 3  𝑥=0

Department of Mathematics, Vellore Institute of Technology Dr. T. Phaneendra

20 Chapter 2. Areas and Volumes of solids of Revolution by a Definite Integral

Exercise 2.5.1 (Self-check). Find the volume of the solid of revolution of each of the following
regions enclosed by the given curves about the given axis:

(a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 1/2 , 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑥 = 9, about 𝑥 = 9

(b) 𝑦 = 𝑥 1/2 , 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑥 = 9, about 𝑦 = 3
(c) 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 and 𝑥 = 𝑦, about 𝑦 = −1
(d) 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 and 𝑥 = 𝑦, about 𝑥 = −1
(e) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 aand 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , about 𝑥 = 1.

Summary

As some nice applications of definite integral, you have learned finding

(a) the area of a plane region bounded by two curves between two ordinates
(b) the average of a function on some interval
(c) the volume of solid of revolution of an arc of a plane curve about an axis by the disk and
washer methods

Text and Reference Books

1. Anton, Bivens & Davis, Calculus - Early Transcendentals, 10th Edition, Copyright © 2013 John
Wiley & Sons.
2. Smith and Minton, Calculus - Early Transcendental Functions, McGraw-Hill (2011), 4th Edition.
3. Thomus, J. B., Calculus, 12th Edition, Copyright © 2010 Pearson Edu.

Dr. T. Phaneendra Department of Mathematics, Vellore Institute of Technology