Irrigation Manual

Module 13

Construction of Irrigation Schemes

Developed by

Andreas P. SAVVA
and
Karen FRENKEN

Water Resources Development and Management Officers

FAO Sub-Regional Office for East and Southern Africa

In collaboration with

Lee TIRIVAMWE, National Irrigation Engineer, Zimbabwe

Victor MTHAMO, Irrigation Engineer Consultant
Simon MADYIWA, Irrigation Engineer Consultant

Harare, 2001
Irrigation manual

ii – Module 13
 Contents
List of figures v
List of tables v
List of abbreviations i
vii
1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. CONTRACT MANAGEMENT 3
2.1. Overall project management 3
2.2. Site management 7
2.2.1. Staff management 7
2.2.2. Materials management 7
2.2.3. Equipment management 7
2.2.4. Maximizing profits 8
2.2.5. Settlement of disputes 8

3. PROGRAMMING CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES 9

3.1. Equipment requirements 10
3.2. Performance of some equipment 13
3.2.1. Bulldozer 13
3.2.2. Scraper 13
3.2.3. Grader 15
3.2.4. Dragline 15
3.2.5. Excavator 15
3.2.6. Front-end loader with backhoe 15
3.2.7. Tipper 15
3.3. Labour requirements 16
3.3.1. Labour for earthworks 16
3.3.2. Labour and equipment for the construction of concrete-lined canals 16
3.3.3. Labour and equipment for the construction of structures 16
3.4. Use of bar chart for programming construction activities 17

4. TYPES AND USE OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 19

4.1. Concrete 19
4.1.1. Important properties of concrete 19
4.1.2. Concrete components 19
4.1.3. Batching 20
4.1.4. Concrete mixtures and mixing 20
4.1.5. Transporting, placing, compacting and curing concrete 23
4.1.6. Steel reinforcement 23
4.1.7. Mass concrete 23
4.2. Gabions and Reno mattresses 24
4.3. Bricks, cement and concrete blocks 24
4.4. Timber 24
4.5. Pipes and fittings 25
4.5.1. Types of pipes and fittings 25
4.5.2. Packing, transporting, storing and handling of pipes and fittings 25

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5. CONSTRUCTION OF CANALS 27
5.1. Setting out canals 27
5.2. Canal formation 30
5.3. Placing and curing concrete 31

6. CONSTRUCTION OF PIPELINES 33
6.1. Trenching and pipe laying 33
6.2. Pipe jointing 33
6.3. Back-filling 33
6.4. Thrust blocks 34
6.5. Pressure testing 34

7. LAND LEVELLING 35
7.1. Initial levelling 35
7.2. Pegging final levels 35

REFERENCES 37

iv – Module
 List of figures
1. Overall employer-contractor roles and responsibilities 4
2. Diagrammatic presentation of employer-contractor lines of communication 6
3. Cumulative programme progress and resource charts or ‘S’ curves 9
4. An example of a bar chart 9
5. Examples of different types of equipment used in construction works 11
6. Wheel-tractor scrapers at work, CAT621G and CAT627G 11
7. D10R Dozer 12
8. A hydraulic excavator 12
9. A motorized grader, CAT120H 12
10. Wheel loader at work, CAT928G 12
11. Articulated truck or tipper, CAT730 13
12. Hourly production versus cycle time performance curves for a wheel tractor-scraper 13
13. Typical performance curves for a wheel tractor-scraper 14
14. An example of a gabion basket structure 24
15. An example of how AC pipes are stacked 25
16. A traveler for setting out canals 27
17. Setting out a canal using a traveler 27
18. Metal template for shaping canals 28
19. Trapezoidal canal former 29
20. Final cross-section and initial embankment of a canal 30
21. The transport programmes for the cut and fill process during canal finalization 31
22. Timber shutter frame for concrete slab casting 32
23. uPVC pipe jointing technique 34
24. Indication of cut and fill in the field 35

Module 13 –
 List of tables
1. Division of responsibilities between contractor and engineer 5
2. Responsibilities of contract manager and their site agent 6
3. Excavation quantities for draglines 15
4. Output of manual labour in earthworks 16
5. Bar chart for the construction of a surface irrigation scheme for smallholders 17
6. Common concrete and mortar mixes by volume 20
7. Concrete mix proportions by volume batching for different concrete grades 21
8. Description of the various concrete grades 22

vi – Module
 List of abbreviations
AC Asbestos Cement
c/w ratio cement/water ratio
HPC Height of Point of Collimation
PE Polyethylene
SABS South African Bureau of Standards
uPVC unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride
ZGCC Zimbabwe General Conditions of Contract

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viii – Module
 Chapter
Introduction

Irrigation projects, like any other project, have a promoter

who is responsible for the provision of funds with which to employer of that contractor. Construction activities then
execute it. This could be a government, a donor, or in some start.
cases the users themselves, such as a group of farmers or Irrigation projects are capital projects that need to follow
even an individual farmer. The promoter appoints an general contract procedures during their implementation.
engineer to assume the overall engineering responsibility At the centre of these procedures is the employer-engineer-
for implementing the project on their behalf. contractor relationship. This relationship defines the
The responsibility of the engineer starts with the design of contract management between the parties involved, one
the project and extends through the supervision of its which is bound by the general conditions of contract (see
construction. The engineer participates in the preparation Module 12). In order to accomplish the job as per the
of the feasibility report of the project, which shows the contract, the contractor needs an effective project
scope of work and estimated project costs. Once the management system at the organizational level as well as at
promoter and farmers or end users accept the project, the the operational level on the site (Chapter 2). Time
engineer can proceed to prepare tender documents for the scheduling or programming of activities for construction
execution of the works (see Module 12). Tenderers submit shows how the works should be organized and what
offers, showing the cost of and time schedule for the resources mobilized in order to meet the targeted
construction. The engineer will then make a comparative objectives in the implementation of the project (Chapter
analysis of the tenders and make recommendations to the 3). Finally, this module will look at the way some of the
promoter. The promoter, also called the client, will then most common construction activities are actually carried
accept one of the tenders and sign a contract with the out (Chapters 4-7). In reading these last four chapters, the
selected tenderer. At this point, the tenderer becomes the reader will need to refer to the modules dealing with the
contractor and the client or promoter becomes the design of surface, sprinkler and localized irrigation systems
(Modules 7, 8 and 9).

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2 – Module 13
 Chapter
Contract management

Contract management comprises the management of the

construction site, its activities and its resources under the and within the budget. It is therefore important at this stage
agreed conditions of contract. to define the relationship between the employer, the
engineer and the contractor so as to understand how the
The construction of an irrigation scheme should be viewed construction project has to be managed (Figure 1). The
as a project in itself. A project is defined as a set of activities roles and responsibilities of these three parties involved
that are linked together over a period of time and are should be well defined and spelt out in the general
carried out to produce specific goals. Project management conditions of contract. They may vary from country to
is the planning and the control of the project activities to country but they largely address the same issues.
ensure that the goals are achieved in time and within the
budget. The following definitions help to clarify the role of the
different actors in managing a contract:
Management includes the following three processes:
Contract: A contract is a legally binding agreement
1. Organization: refers to roles, responsibilities and entered into between the employer and the contractor
reporting structure for the execution of the works desired by the employer.
2. Planning: refers to resource planning and activity It is also an expression of the willingness of the
planning employer to pay the contractor and of the contractor to
do the work as per the agreement.
3. Control: refers to control meetings and control points
Contract documents: Contract documents consist
These three processes are a necessary part of project of the following documents: conditions of the contract,
implementation. They apply to irrigation projects as much specifications, drawings, priced bill of quantities,
as they apply to any other civil engineering project and are schedule of timing of works, schedule of rates and
important to both the employer and the contractor. prices, the tender and the contract agreement. Signing
of the contract agreement is an endorsement that both
There are two levels of project management: parties are happy with the contents of the contract
the organizational level, usually at the head office, documents.
involving the contractor and the engineer, who is
Employer: The employer, also called the promoter or
appointed by the employer
initiator of the project, is responsible for providing the
the operational level on the site, involving the con- funds for the project.
tractor’s site agent, also called site manager, and the
Engineer: The engineer is the person appointed by
engineer’s representative at the site, also called resident
the employer and notified in writing to the contractor
engineer
as having the overall engineering responsibility for the
From the contractor’s point of view, the contract manager design and supervision of the construction of the
and the site agent are responsible for the management of project.
the contract. From the employer’s point of view, the Resident engineer: A resident engineer is the
engineers are responsible for managing the contract. engineer’s representative on the site of the works. The
Therefore, the management of the contract is a joint resident engineer discharges the functions of the
responsibility of the two parties at both project engineer upon delegation of such powers and authority
management levels. by the engineer in writing to the contractor. Otherwise,
the duties of the resident engineer are to watch,
2.1. Overall project management supervise the works, test and examine materials to be
used and the workmanship in connection with the
The contractor has to put in place an effective project
works. As shown in Figure 2, the engineer may appoint
management team in order to execute the project on time
persons to assist the resident engineer. The contractor
should be notified of such persons and their functions.

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They do not have power to issue instructions to the Project or contract manager: The project manager,
contractor. also known/referred to as the contract manager, is
Contractor: The contractor is a company, firm or effectively responsible for contract management from
individual who undertakes the execution of the works. the contractor’s point of view and provides back-up
From the contractor’s point of view, the contract services to the site agent. If the employer so wishes,
manager and the site agent are responsible for the they can also have a project manager.
management of the contract. The site agent is directly Site manager or site agent: The site manager, also
responsible for managing the contract on site. From known as the site agent, is the representative of the
the employer’s point of view, the engineer is contractor on the site of the works. The agent is a legal
responsible for managing the contract. Therefore, the requirement for most contracts. They receive
management of the contract is a joint responsibility of instructions from the engineer, which become binding
the two parties at both management levels. on the contractor. As far as the contractor is concerned

Figure 1
Overall employer-contractor roles and responsibilities

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 Module 13: Construction of irrigation

the agent is primarily responsible for the successful Sub-contractors: The main contractor may decide to
completion of the works with due regard to time, sub-contract part of the work to some other specialist
workmanship, safety and the cost. The site agent is firms. Such firms, not forming part of the contract, are
responsible for a whole host of activities, chief among known as sub-contractors. The engineer should
which are: planning, organizing, administering, approve the choice of the sub-contractor. The main
engineering, personnel and plant management, and contractor controls sub-contractors. The site personnel
financial control. Site management is in fact the of the engineer, main contractor and sub-contractor
management of resources. The resources are known as should be conversant that the aspects of the contract
the 5 M’s, being: Methods, Men, Machines, Materials agreement and conditions, which govern the
and Money. Besides this, the site agent also has to employment of sub-contractors.
manage time. This is the reason why there is a need for
the site engineer to have good resources and activity Figures 1 and 2 present the relationships between the
plans prior to the commencement of construction different parties involved.
work. This has to be backed up by competent site staff
and regular control and progress assessment meetings. Table 1 presents the division of the responsibilities between
The resource and activity plans are obtained by time the contractor and the engineer during the different stages
scheduling for construction, which will be discussed of the project, while Table 2 presents the responsibilities of
later. the contract manager and their site manager.

Table 1
Division of responsibilities between contractor and engineer

CONTRACTOR ENGINEER
Head Office
Arrange insurance, etc. Check and approve
Appoint site representative Ensure employer has advised contractor of the appointment of the
engineer
Site
Execution of work: Supervise:
– Establish site – Establish site
– Set out works – Check and approve
– Site preparation, earthworks, foundations, etc. – Test, check and approve
– Execute specified details – Supervise, check and approve
– Manage sub-contract work – Supervise, check and approve
– Query specifications and drawings – Clarify and issue variation order if necessary
– Differ on instructions – Give opinion
– Claim where necessary – Agree or otherwise and pay if valid1
– Order materials – Approve
– Comply with labour regulations – Ensure
– Manage and operate plant – Check ownership and approve
– Measure work – Check, agree
– Apply for payment – Check and authorize payment by issuing an Interim
Payment Certificate2
– Clear site – Issue Completion of Work Certificate3
Head Office
– Maintain throughout maintenance period – Carry out final inspection
– Apply for Final Certificate – Issue Final Certificate4

1 Head office may have to be involved.

2 The payment by the client should be within the specified time.
3 Completion of Work Certificate is usually accompanied by refund of some retention monies..
4 Refund of all retention monies becomes due and the contractor is relieved of their contractual obligations save for latent defects for which the contractor
becomes liable in perpetuity.

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Figure 2
Diagrammatic presentation of employer-contractor lines of communication

Table 2
Responsibilities of contract manager and their site agent

CONTRACT MANAGER SITE MANAGER

– Implementation of company mission
– Implementation of the contract
– Maintenance of capital base
– Supervision of work
– Financial control, budgeting and reporting
– Compliance with contract specifications and drawings
– Creditor and debtor control
– Setting out of the works
– Insurances and bonds
– Quality control
– Purchases
– Liaison with engineer and their representative
– Selection of sub-contractors
– Programming and scheduling activities
– Liaison with employer and other bodies
– Resource scheduling
– Inter-departmental coordination
– Materials management
– Stores control and stock taking
– Measurement and certification of works
– Variations/claims for additional expenses
– Price variations
– Maintenance of contract correspondence and records
– Control of sub-contractors
– Design of temporary works
– Compliance with statutory regulations
– Maintaining site diary
– Labour and plant control
– Welfare and safety of workers on site
– Returns to head office

6 – Module
 Module 13: Construction of irrigation

2.2. Site management requisitions, places orders through their relevant staff,
The contractor’s site manager has a lot of responsibilities. receives and holds the materials in store. The contractor’s
For small projects they could just have an engineer, general accounts section then pays for the materials and maintains
foreman, transport foreman, cashier, timekeeper and the receipts and records.
storekeeper under their supervision. For large projects,
they can be the chief executive of a site management team, There is a need to ensure that the materials are correctly
comprising a compliment of professional technical and used for the jobs they were purchased for in order to avoid
administrative staff. In general, the larger the project the waste and theft. It is necessary to carry out random checks
larger the number of staff. to ensure that the quantity received is equal to the quantity
in works plus the quantity in stores. Storage facilities for the
equipment and materials should be designed in such a way
2.2.1.Staff management as to minimize thefts or damage due to bad weather and
The composition and responsibilities of the staff under the breakage. Materials should always be checked against their
site manager are generally as follows: invoices.
Engineering staff: Responsible for the design and
general guidance of all engineering works, such as 2.2.3.Equipment management
programmes of construction and setting out. Construction equipment or machinery is mainly selected
General foreman: Responsible for the day-to-day on the basis of technical performance and economic
distribution of plant and labour, supervision of flow of viability of utilizing that particular equipment instead of
materials and upkeep of site communication systems. another equipment or instead of manual labour. The
They are also the link between management and considerations for either hiring or buying equipment for
labour. the contract depends on:

Plant and transport managers: Responsible for the The scale of works in terms of value and volume of
running and maintenance of transport and equipment works
on site. Uninterrupted transport and use of equipment The construction period
will help improve the progression of the construction
activities. The methods of excavation, concreting, erection, etc.,
envisaged in the contract
Office managers: Carry out administrative
responsibilities of the project. These include accounts, The type of equipment required and its market
stocktaking, cash transactions and generally ensuring availability as well as cost of hire
that the standing instructions from head office are The most important factor determining whether one buys
adhered to. or leases equipment is its utilization. Owning equipment
TimeKeepers: Record labour force attendance and means being subject to the following costs: capital and
prepare pay-sheets to submit to the office manager. depreciation, residual value, interest and insurance.
They need to liaise closely with the foremen in order to Operating the machinery involves costs such as
keep track of attendance of the labour force. maintenance and repair, fuel, lubricants and other
consumable costs as well as the operator’s costs.
StoreKeepers: Duties include checking in and out and
safeguarding all materials at the construction site. They The manufacturer provides the basic data on the output of
also receive and issue tools that will be used during machines. However, other factors, such as operator fatigue,
construction. site conditions, climate and others, have an effect on
reducing the output as indicated by manufacturers.
2.2.2. Materials management
When planning the purchase of new equipment or models,
Materials constitute a large proportion of the cost. The it is advisable to beware of the fact that some literature
contractor needs to take care to purchase the right quality provided by suppliers may be misleading. Sometimes
and quantities at the correct place, time and price. demonstrations may be rigged and therefore it may be wise
to first hire the model for some time before actually
The employer’s engineer specifies and approves the purchasing it.
materials. The contractor’s site manager processes the

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2.2.4.Maximizing profits
be handled as a major issue by the contractor and vise versa.
Profit is the difference between the income and the costs. The engineer should copy all letters and communication
From the point of view of the contractor, site management notes to the employer so that they are well informed about
should maximize income and minimize costs. Good the possibility of a growing dispute. The most important
planning in order to avoid crisis management, making the thing is to be as diplomatic as is possible. The following
correct choice of methods, good equipment and material guidelines on settlement of disputes can be followed and in
management, good quality control and good relations with this order:
the workforce all minimize costs. Ensuring correct
1. Conciliation: This is an informal gathering of
measurement and claims and increased production can
interested parties who try to solve the problem by
maximize income.
reciprocally giving some room to each other. If this
The quality of work sets the platform on which the engineer fails, either party could go for mediation.
and the site manager base their relationship and therefore 2. Mediation: Mediation is a formal gathering with an
it determines the ultimate success of the project. This can experienced chairperson as the mediator. The
be a major source of disputes and can lead to high costs. mediator will give an opinion, which is not binding to
Safety can be a high cost due to the cost of accident claims. either party. If mediation fails, the next option is
The project costs are also related to the duration. Good arbitration.
programming and progress control are the tools to be used
to minimize the progress-related costs. 3. Arbitration: The arbitrator has to be acceptable to
both parties. There are rules in every country of how
arbitration should be conducted. Generally, the
2.2.5.Settlement of disputes
recommendations of the arbitrator are binding and
It is important to look at how disputes between the there is no appeal. However, any of the parties could
contractor and the employer could be dealt with, as they still decide to go for litigation.
can be a cost to either party if not addressed carefully.
4. Litigation: In such a case the matter is brought to
It is essential to document communications between the court. This is invariably an expensive and drawn-out
engineer and the site manager at each stage. Sometimes, affair. Therefore, by all means and wherever possible,
what may appear to be a minor issue to the engineer may solutions for the disputes between the employer and
contractor should be found in-house.

8 – Module
 Chapter 3
Programming construction activities

The process of programming construction activities is a

continuous one. It involves organization, planning, control Control is comparing what has been achieved against what
and re-organization. It incorporates all estimated resources was planned and therefore looks backwards and taps on
required and the estimated time of completion of the previous experience. Re-organization is the re-orientation
activities. Planning, involving activity and resource planning, of the requirements according to the findings of the control
is deciding what is to be achieved and how to achieve it. It process. There are several techniques of programming,
is a process of looking forwards and anticipating the future. such as cumulative progress charts which are also known as
‘S’ curves (Figure 3) or bar charts (Figure 4).

Figure 3
Cumulative progress charts or ‘S’ curves

Figure 4
An example of a bar chart

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Before any activities commence, an activity plan and a Loader with bacKhoe: A large tractor-like machine
resource plan have to be produced. The activity (or with buckets in front and behind. It is used for
programme progress) plan shows the activities completed, excavations of canals and trenches for pipes, loading
such as volume of trenching, pipe length laid and canal soil, etc.
length constructed, depending on what detail is required.
The resource plan shows the person-hours, the machine Lorry: Used to carry materials and equipment to the
hours and the money used. The activity and resource plans project site.
cannot be made without knowing the performance of Tipper: Used to carry materials and equipment to the
equipment and labour to be used on the project. project sites. They are suitable for transporting soil,
sand and coarse aggregate as the back of the truck can
3.1. Equipment requirements be hydraulically lifted, thus facilitating easy offloading
of bulky materials.
Below follows a short description of different types of
equipment that could be deployed for the construction of Lowbed with horse: A large, flat trailer usually pulled
an irrigation project and their common uses: by a heavy vehicle, the horse. It is used to transport
large machinery, such as bulldozers, scrapers and
Bulldozer: Used to carry out works such as bush graders over long distances to project sites.
clearing, movement of soil for short distances, cutting
thicker layers of soil during land levelling, levelling of Tractor and trailer : Used for transporting materials
anthills, making drains and flood bunds. and small equipment, usually within the project area.

Scraper: Wheeled or crawled tractors pulling a Dumper: A small vehicle with a container in front.
wheeled bucket of up to 30 m3 volume. The scraper The capacity of the container can vary from 300 to
cuts soil with a sharp blade at the front bottom of the 1 300 litres. It is used to carry materials, such as
bucket. The soil is stored in the bucket and can be concrete, on the project site.
released at the required location. These are ideal for Concrete mixer: Has a pan or drum driven by an
carrying soil over long distances, for example during engine and is used for mixing concrete. The blades
land levelling operations or to make up canal inside the pan or drum facilitate the mixing of the
embankments. concrete. Some mixers have weighing equipment
Grader: A machine with a blade approximately half attached, to mix the concrete by mass rather than by
way its frame. It is used to construct drains, roads, etc., volume. The size of the mixers can vary from as small
and to carry out more accurate land levelling as 35 litres yield to well over 100 litres yield per mix.
operations than a scraper can do. Graders can be PoKer: A mechanically-moved stick used for the
motorized or towed by a tractor. The latter are much compaction of concrete through vibration.
slower in carrying out the jobs and, depending on the
Bowser: A tank for storing water, fuel, etc., on project
job, a powerful tractor is required for towing these
sites. Bowsers have varying capacities and are normally
graders.
mounted on wheels.
Dragline: A machine with a bucket attached to ropes.
Roller or compactor: A heavy cylinder, which is
The bucket can be thrown over a distance of up to
moved mechanically or by hand. It is used for
15 m away. Draglines are used for excavation works in
compacting soil. A compactor is also used for
construction pits, for digging and cleaning canals, etc.
compacting the soil, using a vibrating plate.
Excavator: A machine with a bucket, which is
De-watering pump: This is a small pump used to
hydraulically operated. It is usually crawler mounted
pump water away from the construction site, for
for ease of working in muddy conditions. It can carry
example trenches or construction pits.
out the same jobs as the dragline although its reach is
shorter, usually not exceeding 10 m. It is often used for Figure 5 shows drawings of some of the equipment
canal and pipe trench excavations and to load soil onto expected to be relatively available in most countries in the
tippers. region. More sophisticated equipment than shown here is
Land plane : Consists of a long-wheeled frame with a of course available in richer countries. Figures 6-11 are
blade. The blade is tilted forwards at the top. It is used pictures of some of this equipment.
for final land levelling and can be accurate to 2-3 cm.

10 – Module
 Module 13: Construction of irrigation

Figure 5
Examples of the different types of equipment used in construction works
637D657B

Scraper

D8K D9L D10

Bulldoze

140G 14G 16G

Grade

235 245

Excavato

Figure 6
Wheel-tractor scrapers at work, CAT621G and CAT627G (Source: CAT, 2001)

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 Irrigation

Figure 7 Figure 8
D10R Dozer (Source: CAT, 2001) A hydraulic excavator (Source: CAT, 2001)

Figure 9
A motorized grader, CAT120H (Source: CAT. 2001)

Figure 10
Wheel loader at work, CAT928G (Source: CAT, 2001)

12 – Module 13
 Module 13: Construction of irrigation

Figure 11 the operator, availability of a continuous supply of spare

Articulated truck or tipper, CAT730 (Source: CAT, 2001) parts, lubricants, fuel, maintenance and repair, climatic
factors and site conditions among others.
For the purpose of this module, some data for estimating
earthworks have been provided, which can be used for
estimating machine requirements for different jobs. Since
time is needed for re-fuelling, repairs and other
maintenance work on the machines, it can be assumed that
the net working time per machine is 5 machine hours per
shift of 8 hours.

3.2.1. Bulldozer
For an average dozing distance of 50 m, the performance
would be:
Average soil (loose) : 60 m3/machine
hour Average gravel : 40 m3/machine
hour
3.2. Performance of some equipment
3.2.2. Scraper
The manufacturer will provide the data pertaining to the
performance of a particular make of machinery. A big The capacity of scrapers per load may vary from 6 m 3 for a
difference can occur between the performance quoted by model 613B to 30 m3 for a model 851B, thus the
the supplier and the actual performance. This can be performance will also vary. Figures 12 and 13 show typical
attributed to a number of factors, such as the skillfulness of performance curves from manufacturers for a caterpillar
wheel tractor-scraper.

Figure 12
Hourly production versus cycle time performance curves for a wheel tractor-scraper

613B @ 6.6 Bm3/trip (8.7 BCY)

615 @ 9.7 Bm3/trip (12.8 BCY)
621B, 623B,627B @ 12.2 Bm3/trip(16 BCY)
631D, 633D, 637D, 639D @ 19.1 Bm3/trip (25.0 BCY)
851B, 657B @ 26.5 Bm3/trip (34.6 BCY)

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3.2.3. Grader
3.2.5. Excavator
With a relatively experienced operator, a grader can level An excavator can be slightly more efficient than a dragline,
approximately 0.5-1 ha per working day, assuming a cut but it has a smaller reach. A CAT215 excavator could
and fill of up to 20 cm. The required time depends on perform as follows:
the soil type and the distances of soil movement. It is
estimated that 50 m of 1.5 m wide field drains Excavating and loading on a dump-cart or lorry: 45 m 3/
together with 50 m of 2.5 m wide infield roads can easily machine hour
be done per hour. Excavating and side dumping of soil: 65 m3/machine
hour
3.2.4. Dragline
Table 3 gives estimates of excavation quantities for 3.2.6.Front-end loader with backhoe
draglines. The performance of a front-end loader with a backhoe
depends very much on the power of the machine. The
Table 3 buckets of a tractor-powered machine should be much
Excavation quantities for draglines smaller than the ones of a large caterpillar 992C wheel loader
Excavation per with a bucket of up to 10.3 m3. Typical performance of a
Category Bucket size machine hour caterpillar 931B track-type with a backhoe is as follows:
(litres) (m3)
a 350 20
If using the front-end loader:
a 700 35 Loading stockpiled average soil: 33 m3/machine hour
b 350 30
b 700 50
Loading stockpiled gravel: 28 m3/machine hour
c 350 24 If using the backhoe:
c 700 45
Excavating canal and loading tipper: 13 m3/machine
a Digging or clearing of drainage channels with heavy weed infestation
hour
in wet conditions and dumping soil sideways.
b Digging channel in average soil in dry conditions and dumping soil Excavating canal and dumping soil sideways: 18 m3/
sideways.
machine hour
c As b but loading soil in dump-cart or lorry.

It should be noted that there should be a relationship 3.2.7. Tipper

between channel size and bucket size. As an example, there The performance of tippers to carry materials such as soil
is no need to employ a dragline with a large bucket for the depends very much on the distance between the pit and the
excavation of a small channel. construction site, the road condition, etc. Under field
conditions on dirt roads, the average carrying capacity of a 7-
ton tipper is 3.5 m3 and the average speed is approximately
15 km/hr loaded and 30 km/hr empty.

Example 1
Calculate the number of 7-ton tippers required to transport stockpiled soil, loaded by CAT931B using front-end loader, over a dis
Capacity of 7-ton tipper= 3.5 m3 Performance CAT931B= 33m3/machine hour
Loading time= 3.5/33 hours or (3.5/33) x 60 minutes = 6.5 minutes Traveling time (loaded)= 2 km at 15 km/hour = (2/15) x 60 minutes = 8
Return traveling time (empty) = 2 km at 30 km/hour = (2/30) x 60 = 4 minutes

⇒ Total time = 6.5 + 8 + 2 + 4 = 20.5 minutes

The ratio of the loading time to the cycle time = 6.5 minutes : 20.5 minutes = 1 : 3.15
Thus 4 tippers are required to match the loading time of the loader.

Module 13 –
 Irrigation

3.3. Labour requirements The equipment required would be:

3.3.1.Labour for earthworks 1 concrete mixer
Table 4 presents the output of manual labour in person- 2 tractors and trailers
hours for different conditions. It is important to remember 2 water bowsers
that a person-day may be considered as 60-70% of the
actual hours worked, that is, for an 8 hour working day, the 1 lorry or tipper.
productive hours would be 4.8-5.6 person-hours. The
number of productive hours depends on: 3.3.3. Labour and equipment for the construction
of structures
The physical condition of the labourer
Small-scale schemes often have one or more of the
The climate following types of structures:
The type of tools used Measuring device
The length of the working day Diversion structure
Motivation Saddle bridge
Drop structure
3.3.2. Labour and equipment for the construction
of concrete-lined canals Culvert
The activities to be carried out for the construction of a Tail-end structure
typical small concrete-lined trapezoidal canal (dimensions
Inverted siphon
0.25 to 0.50 m bed width, 60° side slope, 0.30 m water
depth and 0.05 m freeboard) are: The structures could be built with concrete blocks or
Excavating or filling, levelling the bed, forming the bricks, except for the floor, which should be concrete. A
canal embankments gang of 2 bricklayers and 6 unskilled labourers could
construct one structure per day, except for the larger saddle
Casting the concrete lining bridges for which a lot of concrete casting is required.
Curing Saddle bridges could be completed in 2 working days.

A gang of 5 skilled workers (bricklayers, surveyors) and 40 The equipment required would be:
unskilled labourers, including 10 for miscellaneous jobs like 1 tractor and trailer
sand collection and curing, could construct on average
50 m of canal per day. 1 concrete mixer
2 water bowsers
Table 4
Output of manual labour in earthworks

Nature of work Labour required per m3 in person-hours

Soil types*
1 2 3 4 5
1. Excavation thrown in wheelbarrows 1.0 1.6 2.0 3.0 6.0
2. Excavation filled into tippers 1.6 2.2 2.8 3.6 6.6
3. Trench excavation not deeper than 1.5 m 2.0 3.6 4.0 5.0 10.0
4. Throwing out of trench for each 1.5 m height after the first 2.0 2.0 2.6 2.6 2.6
5. Wheeling in wheelbarrows per 20 m 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.4
6. Spreading and ramming** in 15 cm layers 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.0 1.0

* Soil types: 1. Loose soil excavated with a shovel without spading.

2. Firm soil excavated with a shovel and spading.
3. Clay or heavy soil excavated with a shovel with spading.
4. Compact soil or gravel requiring the use of pick and shovel.
5. Soft rock requiring the use of a crow bar, pick and shovel.
** Clay and rock can not be rammed by hand labour; therefore, in the case of clay the person-hours are for breaking up clods and spreading and in the
case of rock the person-hours are for spreading the broken stones in layers.

16 – Module 13
 Module 13: Construction of irrigation

The normal practice is that a gang makes a number of force depend on when the job has to be completed. It is
foundations and slabs a few days in advance, after which important that all the materials and equipment necessary to
they construct the walls and finish structures one by one. start the work and keep it going are on site when required.
Thus the estimates above are working figures for planning
purposes. They can be modified during the control process. Table 5 presents the bar chart for construction activities of
The sequence of construction can also vary. infield works of the Nabusenga smallholder surface
irrigation system (15 ha) that was designed in Module 7.
3.4. Use of bar charts for This was a small job, as can be judged from the resources
required and the construction period. In this case, the
programming construction activities
government implemented the scheme and the irrigation
After having calculated the time required to complete a engineer was at the same time the site manager and did
certain job, one of several methods of programming both the technical and non-technical work with the backup
construction activities can be employed. As an example of head office staff.
here, the bar chart is used. The inputs to programming
activities and resources are obtained from the estimates that The construction works to be done were as follows:
are used in the preparation of bill of quantities for the 1 measuring device
different irrigation systems (see Module 7, 8 and 9). Since
the manner in which programming is done is the same for 980 m of trapezoidal canal with a bottom width of
any construction activity, the surface irrigation system is 350 mm
used as an example for drawing up the time schedules for 725 m of trapezoidal canal with a bottom width of
construction. Where more detail is required, activity and 250 mm
resource plans could be drawn up separately.
1 400 m of drainage channel
In order to be able to plan the activities well, it is necessary 1 600 m of perimeter road
to know which activity leads to what and how the
machinery can be allocated to those activities without 15 ha land levelling
overlaps. The number of machines and size of the labour 3 diversion structures, one-sided

Table 5
Bar chart for the construction of a surface irrigation scheme for smallholder farmers

No Activity Month No. of Resources required

April May June July Aug days Labour Main machines
1 Site establishment --- 5 7-ton lorry
2 Procurement of materials and -------------- 42 7 & 30-ton lorry;
transport to site train; tractor
& trailer
3 Setting out grid and irrigation ------ 10 irrigation engineer;
layout surveyor;
5 unskilled
4 Canal construction -------------- 35 5 skilled; 7-ton lorry;
(980 m + 725 m) 40 unskilled concrete mixer;
2 tractors & trailers,
2 water bowsers
5 Land levelling (15 ha) -------------- 30 2 skilled; grader;
2 unskilled land plane
6 Drains (1 400 m) ----- 5 2 skilled; grader
2 unskilled
7 Roads (1 600 m) ----- 6 2 skilled; grader
2 unskilled
8 Structures (12) -------- 16 2 skilled; concrete mixer;
2 unskilled 2 tractors & trailers,
2 water bowsers
9 Fencing (2 500 m) ------- 10 2 skilled; tractor & trailer
20 unskilled
10 Finishing, clearing ------ 11 2 skilled; tractor & trailer
20 unskilled

Module 13 –
Irrigation

1 canal-road crossing It was assumed that 1 month has an average of 21 working

3 saddle bridges days (if work is executed by a private contractor, 7 days per
week may be worked). The materials to be procured were:
5 tail-end structures
fine and coarse aggregates, cement, steel, fencing materials,
2 500 m of fencing formers and templates, grain bags, concrete pipes, sliding
gates, check plates and siphons.

18 – Module 13
 Chapter 4
Types and use of construction materials

During the design process the engineer already begins

selecting the materials that are most likely to be used during Not too much bleeding: When setting, water rises to the
construction. The selection of materials is not only based on surface since the other mixture materials are heavier
the cost, but also on the availability of those materials, the than water. This process is called bleeding. Too much
availability of skilled labour and the adherence to standards. bleeding gives poor finishing and can reduce the
This chapter briefly discusses some of the most common strength of the concrete
materials used for constructing irrigation schemes, such as: The important properties of hardened concrete are:
Concrete Strength: This depends on the age of the concrete, the
Gabions cement/water ratio, compaction and curing. The
strength development is fast during the first few days,
Bricks
after which it gradually slows down until 28 days when
Cement and concrete blocks there is little further gain achieved
Timber Durability: Concrete should be durable, which depends
Reinforcement rods/wire on the cement/water ratio, compaction and curing

If piped sections are constructed, the following materials 4.1.2.Concrete components

may be used:
Concrete is made up of cement, fine aggregate (sand),
Different types of pipes (uPVC, PE, AC, steel and coarse aggregate (stones) and water.
aluminum)
Cement is made from limestone and shale, which are burnt
Different types of fittings
at a high temperature to form cement clinker, which in
Flow control, measurement, regulating devices turn is ground to the fine powder that is cement.
Automation devices, etc. Sand is referred to as fine aggregates and is used to designate
aggregates in which the nominal maximum size of particle
4.1. Concrete is 4.75 mm. The sand particles should be smooth, rounded
and hard. The sand required for the lining of canals is
Concrete is a mixture of fixed proportions of cement, fine
normally available in nearby rivers.
aggregate (sand), coarse aggregate (crushed stone or natural
pebbles) and water. It is a favourable construction material Stones are referred to as coarse aggregates and have
because it can be formed into almost any shape when it is diameters ranging from 4.75 mm to 40 mm. The stone
still fresh and, when hardened, it has the strength required diameter selected for the preparation of concrete depends
for many types of structures. on the structure under construction. For example, for 5-
cm thick concrete-lined canals the ideal stone size is 19 mm
4.1.1.Important properties of concrete (¾ inch). The stones should be round or chunky, hard and
strong. Poorly-shaped stones, such as those that are flaky
A properly prepared concrete mixture should have the
and long, should be avoided as this would mean that more
following properties:
of the other materials are needed. The stones should be
Good workability: It should be easy to place and compact about the same size.
Cohesiveness: It should be sticky enough to prevent the Water used for making concrete should be clean. As a rule,
coarse aggregate from separating from the rest of the water suitable for drinking is suitable to be used for
mixture when it is being transported, placed and concrete.
compacted

Module 13 –
 Irrigation

4.1.3.Batching
4.1.4.Concrete mixtures and mixing
Batching is defined as the measurement of the quantities of Table 6 shows the approximate material requirement for
the materials (cement, sand, stone and water) that go into some of the most common concrete and mortar mixtures.
each concrete mix. Batching should be done correctly as it This table can be used for calculating the materials required
affects the workability, strength and cost of concrete. for the job intended. Mixing sand, cement and water gives
Quantities can either be measured by volume or by mass. mortar, which fills the spaces between the stones and coats
The most common method used is measuring by volume, them thickly to keep them apart.
as no expensive weighing equipment is required. Measuring Thus 1 m3 of a 1:2:3 mixture requires 7 bags of cement,
by volume, also known as volume batching, is based on
0.56 m3 of sand and 0.84 m3 of stone.
loose volume. It can be assumed that a 50 kg bag of cement
is equivalent to 40 litres of loose volume and that the yield Concrete should be properly mixed to the required
of the mix is 60% of the loose volume of cement, sand and workability. This depends on the amount of water.
stone. This means that about 1.68 m3 of cement, sand and Concrete must have the correct cement/water (c/w) ratio.
stone is required for the preparation of 1 m3 of concrete.

Table 6
Common concrete and mortar mixes by volume

Mixture Cement (bags) Aggregates

(cement : sand : stone) (1 bag of 50 kg = 40 litres) Fine (m3) Coarse (m3)
Concrete
1:2:3 7 0.56 0.84
1:2:4 6 0.48 0.96
1:3:3 6 0.72 0.72
1:3:6 4 0.48 0.96
1:4:8 3 0.48 0.96
Mortar
1:2 14 1.12
1:3 10 1.20
1:4 8 1.28
1:5 7 1.40
1:6 6 1.44

Example 2

What are the material requirements in volume per m3 for a mixture of 1:2:3?
A 50 kg bag of cement is equivalent to 40 litres of loose volume.
The yield of the mix is 60% of the loose volume of cement, sand and stone, which means that 1 m3 of concrete or 1 000 litres requires 1 000/0.60 =

Loose volume (litres) = 40 x 1 (cement) + 40 x 2 (sand) + 40 x 3 (stone) = 240 litres,

Thus the yield (litres) = 0.6 x 240 = 144 litres,
Cement : 1000/144 = 6.94 = 7 bags
Sand : 7 x 40 x 2 = 560 litres = 0.56 m3
Stones : 7 x 40 x 3 = 840 litres = 0.84 m3

It can also be calculated as follows:

1 m3 of concrete or 1 000 litres requires 1 000/0.60 = 1 680 litres of loose volume. A mixture of 1:2:3 is equal to 6 units ⇒ 1 unit is equal to 1 680/6
Cement :280 x 1 = 280 litres = 280/40 = 7 bags
Sand:280 x 2 = 560 litres = 0.56 m3
Stones :280 x 3 = 840 litres = 0.84 m3

20 – Module
 Module 13: Construction of irrigation

Equation 1
If the c/w ratio is too low, the concrete will not reach the
mass of cement (kg) required strength. If it is too high, cement is being wasted.
c/w = Table 7 gives recommended c/w ratios and guidelines for
mass of water (kg)
concrete mixes by volume batching for a range of concrete
grades. Table 8 describes the different concrete grades and
what grade is used for what type of construction.

Table 7
Concrete mix proportions by volume batching for different concrete grades

Grade Nominal Compac c/w Mix proportions Materials per m3 Yield

stone -tion ratio per bag of cement of concrete per bag
size
Sand Stone Water Cement Sand Stone
(m) (m3) (m3) (litres) (bags) (m3) (m3) (litres)
Blinding 40 H 0.92 0.16 0.24 43.0 3.8 0.63 0.87 265
V 0.90 0.17 0.28 41.0 3.4 0.59 0.94 295
20 H 0.92 0.18 0.19 45.5 4.0 0.73 0.75 250
V 0.90 0.19 0.22 41.0 3.7 0.67 0.81 270
7 40 H 1.03 0.13 0.21 37.0 4.2 0.61 0.88 240
V 1.01 0.14 0.25 38.0 3.8 0.58 0.94 265
20 H 1.03 0.15 0.17 36.5 4.4 0.71 0.75 225
V 1.01 0.15 0.20 36.5 4.1 0.68 0.81 240
10 40 H 1.20 0.11 0.18 32.0 4.9 0.59 0.88 205
V 1.18 0.11 0.22 32.0 4.5 0.56 0.94 220
20 H 1.20 0.12 0.15 31.0 5.2 0.69 0.75 190
V 1.18 0.12 0.17 32.0 4.8 0.65 0.81 205
15 40 H 1.45 0.09 0.15 26.5 5.9 0.55 0.88 170
V 1.42 0.09 0.18 27.0 5.4 0.52 0.91 185
20 H 1.45 0.09 0.12 26.5 6.2 0.65 0.75 160
V 1.42 0.10 0.14 27.0 5.8 0.62 0.82 170
20 40 H 1.72 0.07 0.13 23.0 7.0 0.51 0.88 140
V 1.67 0.07 0.15 23.0 6.3 0.49 0.95 160
20 H 1.72 0.08 0.10 22.5 7.4 0.61 0.76 135
V 1.67 0.08 0.12 23.0 6.8 0.58 0.82 145
10 H 1.72 0.08 0.07 22.5 8.2 0.73 0.58 120
V 1.67 0.09 0.08 23.0 7.7 0.74 0.62 130
25 40 H 1.85 0.06 0.12 21.5 7.6 0.50 0.89 130
V 1.80 0.06 0.14 21.5 6.8 0.48 0.95 145
20 H 1.85 0.07 0.10 21.0 8.0 0.59 0.76 125
V 1.80 0.07 0.11 21.5 7.4 0.57 0.82 135
10 H 1.85 0.07 0.07 21.0 8.9 0.71 0.58 110
V 1.80 0.08 0.08 21.0 8.3 0.72 0.62 120
30 40 H 2.00 0.05 0.11 20.0 8.2 0.48 0.90 120
V 1.94 0.05 0.13 20.5 7.4 0.46 0.95 135
20 H 2.00 0.06 0.09 20.0 8.6 0.57 0.76 115
V 1.91 0.06 0.10 20.0 8.0 0.55 0.82 125
10 H 2.00 0.07 0.06 20.0 9.6 0.69 0.58 105
V 1.94 0.07 0.07 20.0 8.9 0.69 0.62 110

H = compaction by hand (rodding and tamping).

V = compaction by vibration (internal pokers).

Module 13 –
 Irrigation

Table 8
Description of the various concrete grades

Grade Description Purpose

5 Blinding Rough stooling
7 Mass concrete of roughest type Large, lightly-loaded footing and foundation pads; making up over excavation
in trenches; stooling; large, mass-gravity retaining walls
10 Mass concrete Footings for one and two storey buildings; basements and foundation walls;
small dams and weirs; piers. Abutments and wing walls for small bridges;
retaining walls
15 Unreinforced concrete Large foundations for non-vibrating machinery; dams and weirs; bridge piers
abutments and wing walls. Floors in domestic buildings to receive light
toppings with surface finishing
20 Standard structural-grade concrete General reinforced concrete construction in buildings; small bridges, culverts
and silos; machine foundations; unrendered walls above ground; single
course domestic and office floors on the ground; base course of light-loaded
floors on ground to receive toppings
25 High-grade structural concrete Precast concrete fence posts and panels; machine foundations subject to
vibration or shock; minimum for water-tight concrete and domestic driveways;
light duty single course floors on ground (no trucking)
30 High Strength concrete High stressed reinforced concrete members; precast structural units;
concrete subject to severe vibration or shock loading; specially water-tight
walls and tanks; concrete roads; all paved areas to carry fork-lift trucks or for
other heavy industrial uses; single course industrial floors or base courses of
floors to receive strong toppings

The material should be loaded in the following order: Filling : 3 minutes

Stone and most of the water Mixing : 2 minutes
Cement Unloading : 3 minutes
Sand Extra : 2
Water to make up to the required volume minutes
Mixing should be long enough to get the proper mixture. Overloading the concrete mixer should be avoided. The
Normally 1.5 to 2 minutes should be sufficient. As a mixer should be cleaned at the end of a shift. This should
guideline, the time required for one mix of concrete in a be done with a small quantity of stones and water, which
small mixer with a capacity of up to 500 litres is should be mixed for a short while.
approximately:
When mixing the components, the cement and the water
react through a chemical process called hydration. Fine gels

Example 3

Concrete with a mix of 1:2:3 is to be mixed in a concrete mixer with a yield of 500 litres. The nominal stone diameter is 19 mm, the concr
For such a mix Table 7 shows: c/w ratio = 1.67, cement = 6.8 bags, sand = 0.58 m3 (580 litres) and stones = 0.82 m3 (820 litres). The loose volume of
The total volume of loose material = 272 (cement) + 580 (sand) + 820 (stones) + 163 (water) = 1 835 litres. Only 60% of this is the yield of concrete,

Thus: 6.8 bags cement x 0.45 = 3.06 bags ≈ 3 bags

0.58 m3 x 0.45 = 0.26 m3 sand
0.82 m3 x 0.45 = 0.37 m3 stone
163 litres x 0.45 = 73 litres of water.

Due to the fact that 7 bags instead of 6.8 bags would have to be used, the mix ratio in the earlier can still be used. The difference is very minor.

22 – Module
 Module 13: Construction of irrigation

(hairs) start to grow around the cement particles and the concrete is exposed to hot weather. It is therefore
eventually the particles interlock and form a dense and rigid recommended to cover the concrete with wet grain bags or
material. This material acts as a paste (glue) to hold the other water-absorbing material as soon as the concrete has
aggregates together, thus giving the concrete mixture its set. The grain bags should always be kept wet. A few days
strength. The gels continue to grow as long as there is water. after placing the concrete, the grain bags can be removed
Thus, the mixture must not dry out too quickly. and the canal stretch be filled with water, which should stay
Example 3 shows the calculations that should be done there for 2-4 weeks. The freeboard of the canal is normally
during the batching process. not covered by water in this case. The latter should be
watered 3-5 times per day, depending on the weather.
4.1.5. Transporting, placing, compacting and
curing concrete 4.1.6.Steel reinforcement

Concrete should be transported as quickly as is possible so Concrete is strong in compression, but weak in tension. It
that the quality of the concrete is not affected, meaning can withstand crushing forces, but breaks easily when a
that: pulling force is applied or when there are one-sided forces
working on the concrete. Steel reinforcement gives
It should not dry up concrete the tensile strength it requires against external
It should not lose workability forces. Steel should be properly stored, ideally off the
ground, especially in muddy areas. It should be kept clean.
It should not be contaminated, for example by soil or
When used in a structure, it should be properly fixed in a
dust
position with plastic spacers or mortar blocks and tied
It should not be diluted with water together with soft wire.
There should be no segregation, for example stones The minimum concrete cover over the steel should be
tend to settle to the bottom of the mix because they are 40 mm. A diameter of 8-10 mm plain steel is normally
the heaviest material in the mix sufficient for the works required in smallholder irrigation
Concrete should be placed on clean surfaces. There should schemes. Steel requirements are normally given in units of
not be a delay in placing concrete, as it would harden before mass. The mass per m3 of steel is 7 850 kg. This can be
it is placed in the formwork. used together with the diameter of the steel to calculate the
length of steel to be ordered.
Concrete should be properly compacted so as to remove all
air that is trapped in the mix. Compaction can be done by 4.1.7. Mass concrete
hand or mechanically by vibration. The thin layer of
concrete for lining canals is usually applied using shovels Mass concrete is concrete mixed with large stones or
and screeding planks (straight edges), while the floats are boulders. It is often used in large, voluminous structures
used to finish the surface of the lining. that do not require a high strength, such as the apron floor
of a weir. Mass concrete is made by placing layers of
Newly placed concrete should not be allowed to dry out concrete in the structure and throwing in the stones or
too soon as this will cause cracking, resulting in low boulders. This mixture should then be properly compacted,
strength and poor durability. Therefore, concrete should be preferably by mechanical vibration, for example a poker, as
kept wet for at least 2-4 weeks. Proper curing of concrete- a lot of strength is required to mix the large stones or
lined canals is very important because the lining is thin and boulders with the concrete.

Example 4

The length of steel, with a diameter of 8 mm, required for Nabusenga irrigation scheme is 4 000 metres. How many tons of steel sh
The volume of 100 m of steel is equivalent to the cross-sectional area of the steel multiplied by the length, thus:
¼ x  x d2 x length = ¼ x 3.14 x (0.0008)2 x 100 = 0.005 m3. The weight of this length is: 0.005 x 7 850 = 39.25 kg.
4 000 metres of steel will therefore weigh: 4 000/100 x 39.25) = 1 570 kg = 1.57 tons.

Module 13 –
 Irrigation

4.2. Gabions and Reno mattresses The cement-stabilized soil block is mainly soil and water,
Gabion baskets and Reno mattresses are cages or baskets with cement acting as the stabilizing agent. Sizes can be
made from double-twisted, metallic-coated wire mesh, 290 x 240 x 90 mm or 240 x 140 x 90 mm. A desirable
which is made like pignetting. Gabions are manufactured soil should consist of gravel, sand, silt and clay. An
with a 8 x 10 mesh type, having a nominal mesh opening of important factor that affects the strength of the finished
83 mm x 114 mm. Gabions come in different sizes. The block is the fines content of the soil, i.e. the silt and clay
most common sizes are 1 x 1 x 1 m, 1.5 x 1 x 1 m, 2 x 1 x content. The desirable range of the fines content is from
0.5 m, 2 x 1 x 1 m, or 4 x 1 x 1 m. Reno mattresses are 20-30%.
manufactured with a 6 x 8 mesh type, having a nominal
mesh opening of 64 mm x 83 mm. Their most common Concrete blocks could also be cast. The use of solid or
size is 4 x 2 x 0.23 m or 6 x 2 x 0.23 m. Sometimes the hollow concrete blocks instead of the traditional bricks can
thickness can also be 0.17, 0.30 or 0.50 m instead of be desirable for meeting the demands of good quality, speed
of construction and overall economy. Blocks may be used in
0.23 m. The cages are filled with stones, well packed. The
the following sizes: 400 x 300 x 200 mm, 400 x 200 x
material used to fill the gabions must be 10-20 mm durable
200 mm, 400 x 100 x 200 mm. Such blocks can be cast at
stone. Structures are quite easy to construct using gabions.
the site using a mix proportion of 1:3:6, with a gravel size
The construction is labour intensive, but little skilled labour
of maximum 20 mm, or in the ratio of 1:4:8 or 1:5:10. A
is required. The structures are permeable and flexible.
minimum water cement ratio should be used. The cement
Permeability is acceptable for weirs as long as the upstream
side is sealed off. To avoid the loss of soil under the content should be about 150 to 200 kg/m3 of concrete.
structure, a terram filter should be laid on the base soil, as The blocks should be compacted and cured properly. The
shown in Figure 14. This filter allows water to infiltrate but curing is normally done for first 14 days by keeping them
does not allow sand and other particles through. continuously moist followed by 14 days of air drying.
Construction usually involves the plastering of bricks/block
4.3. Bricks and cement or concrete blocks in order to protect them and also give a good finish to the
structure. Mortar mixes are given in Table 6.
Bricks and concrete or cement blocks can be used for small
structures, and sometimes for lined canals in small-scale
irrigation schemes. If suitable soils are available in a project 4.4. Timber
area, farmers could mould and burn their own bricks for Timber can be used to make small structures such as canal
construction. Although brick-lining of canals is cheap outlets. It is also often used as shuttering material, because
compared to concrete lining, it takes much more time to it is easy to cut and join. Shutters form a mould which can
accomplish. Brick lining also requires plastering on both shape concrete and support it until it dries. Hardwood
sides of the walls to protect the bricks and to give a clean should be used.
view of the structure.

Figure 14
An example of a gabion basket structure

24 – Module
 Module 13: Construction of irrigation

4.5. Pipes and fittings – Words such as ‘FLAMMABLE’

– Batch identification
4.5.1.Types of pipes and fittings
The most common pipes used in irrigation are asbestos On-site inspection for compliance with specifications has
cement (AC) pipes, unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) to be carried out. The inspection can result in the
pipes and polyethylene (PE) pipes. The types of pipes and acceptance or rejection of a given consignment by the
their fittings are discussed in detail in Modules 7, 8 and 9. engineer. The engineer therefore has to take samples after
All pipes can be subjected to different levels of pressures, checking for compliance of markings. The samples can be
provided they are manufactured to withstand that pressure. used for adjudication in cases of dispute. Some guidelines
As a result, each pipe and fitting must conform to the set for sampling are:
standards. Generally, the materials need to be marked as Pipes or fittings: 4 to 16 pieces from a consignment of
follows in order to show that they are certified by a 100 to 10 000, in this instance checks are made on
standards body where they were manufactured: lengths of pipe or fittings with their rubber rings
Pipes – The manufacturer’s trade name or trade Adhesives: randomly take 1 container of adhesive from
mark of product the consignment
– The class of the pipe
– The nominal size of the pipe 4.5.2.Packing, transporting, storing and handling of
pipes and fittings
– Batch identification
Pipes and fittings should be packed to protect them against
Fittings – The manufacturer’s trade name or trade
damage during transportation. Pipes should not come into
mark of product
contact with sharp objects, nor should they project beyond
– The class of the fittings the body of the vehicle transporting them. Therefore they
– The nominal size of the fitting, when should be well secured along their full length. Rubber joint
relevant, of the branch limb rings should not be contaminated with oil or grease.
– In the case of threaded adapter bushes, the
Before uPVC pipes are transported to the site, they
size, shape and form of the thread
should be stored, not more than 1.5 m high (or about
Adhesives – The manufacturer’s trade name or trade 7 pipe layers under cover in pipe racks) which provide
mark of product support to the full length of the pipe. Different diameter
– Suitable identification of the product pipes should not be stacked together. Once on site, the
– Date of manufacture uPVC pipes should be stored on level ground that is free

Figure 15
An example of how AC pipes are stacked

Module 13 –
 Irrigation

of sharp objects. They should be stacked no more than Ideally for pipes from 450 mm to 600 mm, mechanical
1 m high in a stack, formed by cross formation of pipes. equipment should be used to lift and place them on the
Again, pipes of different sizes should not be stacked ground. In the absence of this, ropes and skids can still be
together. used. When unloading AC pipes along the trench, an
AC pipes should be stacked in layers on top of 100 mm x interval of 0.3 m between the pipes is ideal. Pipes less than
75 mm battens, both during transportation and storage on 200 mm in diameter can be lowered into the trench by
site (Figure 15). On site they can also be stacked using a hand, larger diameter pipes should be lowered by
close packing formation. When unloading AC pipes of mechanical means such as cranes, front-end loaders, etc.
diameter 100 mm to 400 mm, ropes and skids should be Rubber jointing rings fittings and adhesives should be
used to roll the pipe on the skid from the truck to the stored in their original packing in a cool dry place.
ground. The rope is used to hold the pipe as it rolls down.

26 – Module
 Chapter 5
Construction of canals

Whatever the construction method, it should be assured

that the canal embankment is well compacted and stable. one method is to place steel pegs at intervals of 10 m at the
The embankment should be built up in layers, which elevations determined using the longitudinal section. The
should be well compacted, with the soil having the correct elevation of the top of the pegs should be lower than the
moisture content. After completing the construction of the design elevation of the canal by an amount equal to the
embankment, the canal shape should be excavated, either thickness of the concrete floor. In the case of small canals
manually or mechanically. Alternatively, the banks of the this is 50 mm. Another method is to use the traveler, which
canals could be built around the canal section, using canal is a vertical plank or stick with a cross-plank at a certain
templates. If the canal is lined, it has to be assured that the height (Figure 16).
thickness of the lining material is added to the canal section In this method pegs, each with a cross-plank, are set out
to be excavated. along the canal alignment. The height of the cross-planks is
If the canal sides are not too steep and water is available for fixed in such a way that all of them are in line when the
curing, in-situ lining can be considered. Alternatively, pre- design levels have been obtained (Figure 17).
casted slabs can be made at a central place of the scheme,
where there is access to water. The size of the slabs should
Figure 16
be such that they are easy to handle and that they do not A traveler for setting out canals
break when lifted. Shutters can be made of steel, timber
and other materials.

5.1. Setting out canals

The first step in the construction of canals is the setting out
of the canal alignment and elevations. This is done using
survey instruments and pegs. For setting the canal levels,

Figure 17
Setting out a canal using a traveler

Peg A

Example 5

Considering a longitudinal section where the ground level at the chainage of 370 m is 100.61 m. The design bed or bottom level of the can
The cross-plank of peg A (Figure 17) should be nailed at a height of 0.92 m above ground level because: 100.61 + traveler height = 100.93 + 0.60

Module 13 –
28 – Module

Irrigation
Metal template for shaping canals (60°
Figure 18
NOTES: – All welded members shall be evenly welded
– 1 m3 steel weighs 7.850 kg
– Common canal bedwidths (b) are 250, 300, 350, 400 and 500 mm, but could be made to any size.
 Trapezoidal canal former (60°
Figure 19

Module 13: Construction of irrigation

Module 13 –

NOTES: – All dimensions in metres, unless otherwise stated

– All welded members shall be evenly welded
– 1 m3 steel weighs 7.850 kg
– Common canal bedwidths (b) are 250, 300, 350, 400 and 500 mm, but could be made to any size.
 Irrigation

5.2. Canal formation Figures 18 and 19 show some of the equipment used in
After setting out the canal, the second step is to open and canal formation.
level the ground in a strip as wide as the bed or bottom
width. The correct level can be checked with a wire or First of all, an embankment is made up to bank level. It is
string in between two steel pegs. made from the soil excavated to form the canal section or
soil is brought to the sides from elsewhere. The soil is piled
The third step is to form the canal embankments. For this on the embankment in such a way that it gives the final
exercise templates are used (see Module 7). The required canal bank and canal shape. Figure 20 shows the
templates can be made of sheet metal with a length of final cross-section (broken line) and the initial
3 m. The outside dimensions are 50 mm greater than the embankment with bed width b.
inside of the finished, lined canal. Once the template is
aligned the soil is compacted around it in layers of 100 to The fill is either collected from excavated drains, night
150 mm. storage reservoirs or from borrow pits outside the
irrigation area. For large schemes, where machinery such as
Mechanized canal formation is used in the construction of scrapers are used, a transport programme is made on which
larger projects, or if labour costs are prohibitively high. It is is indicated the most economic path for the cut to be used
used for soil transport, compaction and excavation. as fill (Figure 21). Such a transport programme is usually
the basis on which contractors are paid.

Figure 20
Final cross-section and initial embankment of a canal

Example 6

The cut should be sufficient to fill 2 parallelograms, shown in Figure 20, each with base a. What are the cut and fit volumes?
As the canal cross-section is known, the cut cross-section can be calculated as follows:

0.40 0.40
tg60 = x ⇒ x = 1.73 = 0.23 m

½ x (bottom width + top width) x canal depth = ½ x (0.40 + (0.40 + 0.23 + 0.23)) x 0.40 = ½ x 1.26 x 0.40 = 0.25 m2 The fill cross-section is: 2 x a x
The fill should equal the cut, thus: 2 x a x 0.32 = 0.25 m2 ⇒ a = 0.39 m.
This results in an embankment bottom width b = 2.50 - 2 x 0.39 = 1.72 m.
and in an embankment top width c = b - (2 x (100.93 - 100.61)) = 1.72 - 0.64 = 1.08 m The fill of the original embankment is ½ x (b + c) x embankm
Thus, in the example: ½ x (1.72 + 1.08) x 0.32 = 0.45 m3 per metre length.

30 – Module
 Module 13: Construction of irrigation schemes

Figure 21
The transport programmes for the cut and fill process during canal formation

To ease the construction of the canals, several points are straight edge, after which it is finished with a wooden float
indicated with pegs (points A-D in Figure 20). From the and steel trowel or steel float. Expansion joints are made at
example it follows that points B and C have a distance of 2 m interval, related to the screeding edges. After curing,
b/2 or 1.72/2 = 0.86 m to the centre line peg (see these joints should be filled up with bitumen seal.
Example 6 for the calculation of b). The operator knows
that the foot of the embankment should begin at point B Concrete canals should have shrinkage joints to allow for
and C and, when excavating, that the final bank foot the expansion and contraction. The joints should be
commences at points A and D, which have also been protected using bitumen materials to avoid leaking. The soil
indicated with pegs. supporting the concrete lining should be well compacted to
avoid soil settlement and thus cracking of the lining. Typical
Care should be taken not only to construct the correct small canals can have joints at about 2 m intervals.
cross-section, but also the correct canal gradient
(longitudinal profile). One should use a level instrument to The concrete lining could be constructed in-situ or with
check the canal bed elevation at about every 5 to 10 m (see pre-cast slabs. The thickness should be 50-70 mm for
Module 7 for more details). normal conditions. A simple shutter frame that can be used
for construction of pre-cast slabs is shown in Figure 22.
6.3. Placing and curing concrete Curing concrete or sand-cement mixtures is very
After aligning the canal and forming it, the next step is to important. It should be kept wet for 2-3 weeks, initially by
place the concrete. To facilitate this, formers of 4 m length, spreading polyvinyl sheeting or grain bags that are kept wet
also called screeding frames, with screeding edges 2 m apart continuously over the newly placed mixture, and after
are used. A builders line (which has notches in the middle) initial hardening by filling the canal section with water for
should be installed to centre the former and to keep the about 2 weeks. To prevent pre-casted slabs drying out too
correct gradient. Concrete is placed in position with a quickly, they could be covered by grass.

Module 13 –
Irrigation

Figure 22
Timber shutter frame for concrete slab casting

32 – Module
 Chapter
Construction of pipelines

Construction of underground pipelines involves the initial

6.2. Pipe jointing
setting out of the trench, the actual trenching, preparation
of the trench bottom, bedding, pipe laying, pipe jointing, When pipes have to be joined, they have to be clean of dirt.
back-filling, placing thrust blocks and pressure testing. All the solvent cleaners, adhesives and lubricants used in
joining pipes should be those recommended by the
manufacturer of the pipe or fitting. It has to be
6.1. Trenching, bedding and pipe laying
remembered that solvent cleaners and adhesives are highly
Reference points or benchmarks should be used in setting volatile.
out the width and centre line of trenches. The width of the
trench at the depth equivalent to the crown of the pipe For uPVC piping less than 200 mm in diameter, an
should be at least 30 cm greater than the nominal diameter injection-mould adhesive type of fitting or an integral
of the pipe. The part of the trench above the crown should rubber ring should be used. For sizes larger than 250 mm
be of a convenient width. diameter, a rubber ring end socket should be used. For AC
pipes of 200 mm diameter, pipes can be jointed, via the
Trenching can be quite tedious if the ground is hard and coupling, by hand. Larger diameter pipes should be
larger diameter pipes are to be used. Trenches are dug using mechanically jointed. In both cases, a lubricant should be
picks, mattocks and shovels, but if rock outcrops are applied up to the witness groove and the alignment of the
encountered in the process, some blasting may be called pipe up to the coupling should be well done. Both uPVC
for, depending on the severity of the situation. Local and AC pipes can be cut if shorter pipes are needed. If
techniques can also be used to deal with rock outcrops, like jointing is not done immediately, the pipes have to be
heating and fast cooling to weaken the rocks and then temporarily closed in order to avoid the entrance of animals
hitting them with a hammer. or dirt. It also is important to ensure that the temporary
closures are opened on re-commencement of pipe laying.
For AC pipes in areas where there is no road crossing the
Valves and outlets should be closed every day.
pipeline, the minimum recommended cover over the pipe
should be at least 45 cm. For areas under roadways, it Figure 23 shows a pamphlet used by Agritex in Zimbabwe
should be 60 cm for medium load and 90 cm for heavy to explain how uPVC pipe jointing should be done.
load. This is to avoid the anticipated load damaging the
pipe. For uPVC pipes, ASAE EP340.2 standards
6.3. Back-filling
recommends a minimum cover of 75 cm and a maximum
of 120 cm when traffic will be passing above the pipe. After checking that the levels of all joints are correctly set
When no traffic will be passing, the same standard out, side filling can then be done in layers that are 75 mm
recommends at least 45 cm cover for 63 mm uPVC pipes, thick, using fine material for the fill. The layers have to be
and at least 60 cm for larger pipes. tamped by hand, ensuring that the joints are left exposed.
Tamping should be done simultaneously on both sides of
The bottom of the trench should be level or of a uniform the pipe, in order to avoid misalignment. This should
slope, to accommodate the full length of the pipe. Where continue up to a height of two thirds of the pipe diameter,
an uneven trench bottom is encountered, especially in or up to 10 cm above the crown when the material is spread
rocky or hard ground, a 10 cm (or at least one third of over the whole length of the pipeline except the joints.
nominal diameter) fine back-fill or bedding should be Beyond that, the rest of the back-filling can be done in
provided for during setting out, especially in the case of AC layers of 15-30 cm. The trenches should be over-filled to
pipes. This layer has to be back-filled, using suitable allow for settlement. The space between the joints is back-
bedding material such as free-draining coarse sand, gravel, filled after the pipeline has been pressurized and the joints
loam or a soil of friable nature, and be leveled. In the case inspected to ensure that there are no leaks (see below). It is
of fittings, such as the couplings of AC pipes, excavation in necessary to ensure that all pipes are back-filled once they
the back-fill should be made to accommodate the fitting are installed, in order to prevent them from floating due to
such that the pipe remains level. rainwater or groundwater.

Module 13 –
 Irrigation

Figure 23
uPVC pipe jointing technique

1. Clean both ends to be joined of any

loose dirt, earth or grit and remove
oil, grease or paint. Lightly sand
paper inside of socket and outside of
spigot.

2. Apply light priming coat of solvent

cement to inside of socket of spigot
and allow it to dry.

3. Apply second coat, sparingly, to

inside of socket and more liberally to
outside of spigot. With too much
cement in the socket, a pool of this
liquid will form which can result in
failures at this point.

4. While cement is still wet insert

spigot into socket – push right
home in a straight movement.

5. Hold the completed joint for

approximately 30 seconds to allow the
initial grab to occur, then leave as
undisturbed as possible for 24 hours
when pressure can be turned on.

Note: Prodorite Solvent Cement is

highly volatile and to reduce

evaporation to a minimum STORE IN AGRITEX
A COOL PLACE and replace lid MASVINGO
immediately after use. Drawn : RR
Date : 1988

6.4. Thrust blocks thrust blocks are capable of resisting the load. Normally,
Thrust blocks transfer the load from a fitting or branch to at least 7 days should be allowed after constructing the
a wide load-bearing area, thereby minimizing the chances last thrust block before the system is tested. By this time,
of the fitting moving. They are required: the last thrust block should be able to withstand the load.
When pressure testing, the pressure should not exceed
When the pipeline changes direction
one and half times the maximum working pressure. It is
At the end of a pipeline also important that the valves and all other outlets be
When there is a branch such as a tee opened and closed slowly.
The flushing is intended to remove all the dirt that
6.5. Pressure testing and flushing of the inevitably gets into the system during pipe laying and it
system should be done for a couple of hours with the flush valves
at the end of the lateral lines open. The flushing process
The purpose of testing pipelines is to ensure that the pipe
should be stopped once clean water starts coming out of
joints are water-tight and that the permanent concrete
the valves.

34 – Module
 Chapter
Land levelling

Proper land clearance and levelling are important for

efficient irrigation, especially in surface irrigation schemes. total volume of cut should preferably exceed the total volume
It involves bush clearance and moving soil in order to have of fill by 10-50%, depending on the total volume to be
level fields for basin irrigation or uniform sloping fields for moved and the compressibility of the soil.
furrow or border strip irrigation. The three most widely used methods for calculating the
Bush clearance in small schemes can be done manually by amounts of soil cuts and fills are:
using axes, picks and shovels for cutting trees and bushes Profile method
and uprooting trunks. For large areas, or if no manual
labour is available, equipment such as bulldozers and heavy Contour method
tractors are used. Plane or centroid method
These methods are described in detail in Module 7.
7.1. Initial land levelling
Initial land levelling is usually done using bulldozers, 7.2. Pegging final levels
scrapers, graders and land planes. Bulldozers are used to
move soil over short distances, while scrapers are used to The depths of fill or cut required are indicated in the field
carry soil over longer distances. This machinery is not very with pegs. Usually, the pegs of the grid survey are used.
accurate and elevation differences of up to 100 mm might Painted lines on the pegs indicate the depth of cut or fill as
still remain. The final, accurate land levelling is done with shown in Figure 24. These painted lines are placed at the
graders and tractor-towed land planes in particular, which correct elevations with a level instrument. Starting from a
usually achieve accuracy to within 25 mm of the desired benchmark with known elevation, the bottom of the staff
levels. Settlement of fill will always occur and therefore the should be placed at the correct elevations as obtained from
land levelling often has to be repeated after the end of the the land levelling calculations.
first year of cultivation. Fine levelling using a land plane is In Figure 24 the benchmark elevation is 88.500 m and the
recommended after every ploughing. elevation after land levelling for peg 1 should be 88.916 m.
A detailed topographic survey, preferably grid, is needed to The backward reading to the benchmark is 1.950 m. Thus
calculate the most economic land levelling requirements. the height of point of collimation (HPC) is 88.500 m +
Based on the spot heights of the grid points and the required 1.950 m = 90.450 m (see Module 2). As the paint should
gradient of the land, the cut and fill can be calculated. The be at elevation 88.916 m, the staff should be placed such
that the staff reading is 90.450 m - 88.916 m = 1.534 m.

Figure 24
Indication of cut and fill in the field

Peg 1

Module 13 –
 Irrigation

The machine operator cuts or fills the land to the required It is important to make a final check to make sure that the
level, taking into account the most economic route from desired levels have been reached before the pegs are
cut to fill. As already indicated in the beginning of this removed.
chapter, scrapers should preferably be used to move large
volumes of soil over longer distances. Although this could
be achieved with a grader, it would be a time-consuming
and thus very expensive process.

36 – Module
 References

CAT. 2001. Caterpillar Catalogue.

Cement and Concrete Institute. 1986. Concrete construction. A handbook. Harare.
Council of South African Bureau of Standards (SABS). 1976. Standards specifications for components of unplasticized polyvinyl
chloride (uPVC) pressure pipes for potable water. Pretoria. 55 p.
Hardie’s Fibrolite. 1969. Low head irrigation pipe. Sydney. 8 p.
Zimbabwe Institute of Engineers and Construction Industry Federation of Zimbabwe. 1995. Project management course
handbook. Harare.
Zimbabwe Institute of Engineers in association with Construction Industry Federation of Zimbabwe. 1997. Construction site
management course handbook. Harare. 62 p.
Zimbabwe Institute of Engineers, Federation of Civil Engineering Contractors, Zimbabwe Association of Consulting
Engineers. 1984. Zimbabwe general conditions of contract (ZGCC). 4th Fourth edition. Harare. 31 p.

Module 13 –
Irrigation

38 – Module